THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY From the collection of Julius Doerner, Chicago ■ Purchased, 1918. 9ZO.OI n^Ahis- THE BIOGRAPHICAL TREASURY; JBfcttonarij OF UNIVEHSAL BIOGRAPHY. PRINTED BY BALLANTYNE AND COMPANY EDINBURGH AND LONDON . 'i Digitized by?the Internet Archive in 2017 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Alternates U ' ' https://archive.org/details/biographicaltrea00maun_0 .E. Doyle II , AdlHi-a THE BIOGEAPHICAL TEEASUEY; SI ©tcttonarg OF UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. BY SAMUEL MAUNDER, AUTHOR OF "‘the treasury of knowledge,” “the scientific and literary TREASURY,” ETC. ETC. ETC. RECONSTRUCTED, THOROUGHLY REVISED, AND PARTLY REWRITTEN WITH ABOVE 1000 ADDITIONAL MEMOIRS AND NOTICES, BY WILLIAM L E. CATES, JOINT AUTHOR OF WOODWARD AND CATES’S “ ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CHRONOLOGY.” EDITION, WITH SUPPLEMENTS, BRINGING THE WORK DOWN TO THE PRESENT TIME. I LONDON: LONGMANS, GKEEN, & CO. 1876. zzh/.n lAP qZQ.Ol N^^biS PREFACE TO THE THIRTEENTH EDITION. I Twenty-eight years have now elapsed since the first publication of the “Biographical Treasury.” That it met a general want, and established itself and has held its ground as a popular favourite, is suf- ficiently shown by the fact that during that period it has passed through twelve editions, the last appearing in 1862. It has been subjected to several successive revisions, and fresh notices of eminent persons have been added from time to time ; the more recent of which formed in the 12th edition two Supplements extending to 100 pages. Another edition being required, the opportunity has been taken to sub- ject the whole work to a more searching revision than any previous one. This was especially desirable on account of the advance of historical knowledge and criticism. Many new facts have been discovered, many long-standing mistakes have been corrected, and many familiar facts have been set in a new and truer light. More particularly a revolution of thought has taken place with respect to the earliest periods of the his- tory of both ancient and modern nations. For the first time a clear distinction has been critically established between history and legend, I and the value of oral tradition as contrasted with the evidence of con-, temporary written documents ; and this necessitates a new treatment of many names in a biographical dictionary. So numerous and important are the alterations made in this thirteenth edition of the “ Biographical Treasury,” that it is virtually a new work. In justice both to the publishers and to myself, it is incumbent on me to state particularly what these changes are. I And first, many comparatively unimportant names, such as were on careful consideration judged unlikely to be asked for, except perhaps by half-a-dozen persons in half-a-dozen years, have been omitted. The space thus gained is more usefully occupied, partly by re-written and fuller notices of names more generally interesting, and partly by entirely new memoirs. Among those re-written— about 900 in number- will be found the names of many English and foreign sovereigns, and ' some of the highest names of all ages in literature, philosophy, theology, I politics, science, and art ; ex. gr.— Homer, Herodotus, Socrates, Plato, i Pericles, and Sophocles ; Dante, Petrarch, Shakespeare, and Milton ; Giotto, Leonardo da Vinci, Michael Angelo, and Raphael ; Mohammed, St Dunstan, St Bernard, TVlckliffe, Savonarola, Calvin, and Bernard 4675n.'i IBreface. Palissy; Tycho Brahe and Kepler; Montaigne, Leibnitz, Pichte, and Coleridge ; Saladin, Bayard, Marlborough, and Washington, &c., &c. Aii(i among the new notices— more than 1000 — will be found not a few names of historical importance which are not given in some books of higher pre- tension ; and memoirs, as full as space allowed, of the many distinguished men whose deaths have been recorded since the preparation of the last edition. Of these may be particularized — Leopold, king of the Belgians, President Lincoln, Lord Palmerston, Cardinal Wiseman, the Marquis of Lansdowne, Lord Lyndhurst, Lord Canning, Lord Clyde, Lord Seaton, the Earl of Aberdeen, Sir G, C. Lewis, Richard Cobden, Archbishop Whate- ]y. Dr Whewell, Bather Mathew, Bather Lacordaire, Dr Robinson, Isaac Taylor, B. W. Robertson, Horace Vernet, Delacroix, Delaroche, Ary Scheffer, Mulready, Dyce, John Leech, Sir John Branklin, Admiral Bitz- roy. Sir J. Richardson, Dr Lindley, Admiral W. H. Smyth, Sir W. J. Hooker, Sir W. R. Hamilton, Sir B. C. Brodie, “Stonewall” Jackson, W. M. Thackeray, W. S. Landor, Mrs Gaskell, A. A. Procter, Varnhagen von Ense, Uhland, and Robert Schumann. The memoirs contained in ; the two Supplements of the previous edition are of course inserted in their proper places in the course of the work. The dates throughout have been carefully verified, and many additional inserted;^ cross-references, it is hoped, are made fairly complete; and great pains have been taken to secure accuracy in foreign names (many of which were previously given in an English form), in the titles of books, and the works of artists. Mention is made in many cases of those works of great painters which are in the National Gallery, of portraits in the National Portrait Gallery, of statues and monuments, and, occasionally, of recent biographical memoirs. As a general rule, mythical names are excluded. But it is not possi- ble to lay down any rule rigidly applicable to all cases. A few such names therefore still appear, but are carefully noted as mythical or un- historical ; and, as it is impossible to admit discussion, readers who desire | fuller information in such cases are referred, for Greek and Roman j names, to Grote’s “ History of Greece,” and Sir G. C. Lewis’s “Credi- bility of Early Roman History.” In the task of reconstruction I have endeavoured to give equal atten- tion to distinguished men of all classes, to introduce or approximate to a just proportion in the relative length of the notices, and to treat all sub- jects in a catholic and liberal spirit, avoiding all political and ecclesias- tical partisanship. With this view I have expunged many expressions and epithets which belong to a bygone age and mode of thought. The small bulk of this volume is not unlikely to mislead many as to the quantity of matter it contains. It may be a surprise to some to hear ' that the quantity of letter-press on a page very nearly equals that on each page of the one-volume edition of Dr W. Smith’s Classical Diction- ary ; and it contains 297 more pages than that work. The present edition of the “ Biogeaphical Teeasuey” exceeds the last in bulk by 167 pages. The type, though small, is sharp, clear, and readable with ease. It is sur- | prising, too, into how small a space the salient facts of a life may be packed, j if disquisition, controversy, and, above all, fine writing are resolutely ex- \ 1 1 i j ^Preface. eluded. The notiees, while elear and aecurate, are written with all possi- ble brevity. The proeess of revision and reconstruetion has oecupied most of my time during the last three years ; and my eonfident hope is, that having made a new seleetion of names, having earefully drawn the material ) from the best sourees, and solidified statements of fact with a suffieient number of aceurate dates — so far as accuracy is attainable — the “Bio- graphical Treasury” in its new shape will be found far more complete and trustworthy than ever, as a popular hand-book of biographical in- formation. It can scarcely be expected that a work containing so many names, facts, and dates should be exempt from errors. The difficulty of ensuring thorough accuracy in a work such as the present can be appreciated, per- haps, only by those who have undertaken similar tasks. In many in- stances the inquirer who resorts to several original sources of information finds that he has only multiplied the number of inconsistent or contra- dictory statements ; and he is thus not unfrequently compelled at last to speak according to the best of his own judgment, and select or make a compromise between conflicting testimonies. The work is made as nearly as possible complete to the present time, many notices having been added while it has been passing through the press. The new frontispiece was designed by Mr James Doyle. WILLIAM L. R. CATES. j London, June 1866. O, | •' i ! NOTE TO THE FIFTEENTH EDITION. To this edition of the “ Biographical Treasury ” is added a Second Supplement of fifty-eight pages, comprising about one hundred and thirty additional memoirs and notices of eminent persons whose deaths have taken place since the publication of the fourteenth edition. The Second Supplement brings the work down as nearly as possible to the time of going to press. W. L. R. a London, October 1875. NEW DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL BIOGRAPHY. AA , Peter Van der, an eminent book- seller of Leyden, who, early in the 18th century, compiled and published several ex- tensive collections of voyages and travels, among which was his •‘Galerie du Monde,” an illustrated Atlas, in 66 vols. He also published the great collection of Gronovius on Greek, and of Grtevius on Homan, an- tiquities. Hied, 1730, AARSSEN, Frans van. Hutch diploma- tist, was born in 1572. Brought up in the household of the Prince of Orange, he was appointed resident of the United Provinces at the French court in 1598, and subsequently ambassador. After temporary disgrace he was recalled to Holland in 1615, when by his support of Maurice of Nassau and his hostility to the noble Barneveldt, in whose prosecution he took a leading part, he ren- dered himself very unpopular. 'When Mau- rice became supreme Aarssen was employed in various missions, and was twice sent to England, in 1626 and 1610. Hied, 1641. AAHTGEN, a painter, of very considerable merit, but of low and dissolute habits. He was born at Leyden, in 1498; and is said to have met his death by being drowned in a drunken frolic, in 1564. ABASSA, or ABBASSA, sister of the ca- liph Haroun al Raschid, who gave her in marriage to his vizier Giafar, on condition that their marriage should never be con- summated ; but having broken the contract, the caliph put Giafar to death, and banished his wife from the palace, giving orders that no one should afford her relief. The roman- tic incidents arising from this strange mar- riage have furnished themes for many an oriental tale. ABATE, Andrea, a Neapolitan artist, who, as a painter of fruit and objects of still life, acquired great celebrity. He was em- ployed, together with Luca Giordano, in adorning the Escurial for Cnarles 'll. of Spain. Hied, 1732. ABATI, NICOLO, more frequently, but erroneously, called Hell’ Abate, a renowned painter in fresco. Born at Modena, 1512; died at Paris, 1571. Several of his relations also distinguished themselves as painters. ABAUZIT, Firmin, a French author of great merit, and whose modesty was equal to his erudition. His father died in his in- fancy ; and his mother, in order to secure his education in the Protestant faith, sent him, at two years of age, to Geneva. After finishing his studies he went to Holland, and from thence to England, where h® formed an intimacy with Sir Isaac Newton, by whom he was much admired and es- teemed. He was also highly panegyrised by Voltaire and Rousseau. In short, though he published little, he had acquired among literary men a character for profound learn- ing, and his correct judgment was univers- ally acknowledged by them. Eofn at Uzes, 1679 ; died at Geneva, 1767. ABBAHIE, Jacques, an em.inent Protest- ant divine, who accompanied Marshal Schom- berg to England in 1688, and was present when that great commander fell at the battle of the Boyne. On his return to London he was appointed minister of the French church in the Savoy, and was subsequently made dean of Killaloe. He wrote many works, chiefly theological and in the French lan- guage ; the most esteemed of which are “ Art de se connaitre soi-meme,” and“ Traits de la V6rit6 de la Religion Chr^tienne.” Born at Nay, in B6arn, in 1658; died in London, 1727. ABBAS, the uncle of Mahomet, of whom, though opposed to him at first, he became a disciple, and served in his army as a general. He died in the 32nd year of the Hegira — A.D. 653. ABBAS, Shah, the Great, King of Persia, succeeded to the throne in 1586. He made war on the Usbeks, and conquered Khorasan. He put an end to the Avar with the Turks, by ceding to them Armenia and other pro- vinces, first transporting the Armenians into Persia. In 1590 he made Ispahan the seat of government, and greatly improved and adorned it. With the help of the Eng- lish he drove the Portuguese from Bender- Abassi and the Isle of Ormuz, and by other conquests enlarged his dominions. Abbas had some qualities which justified his title “ Great,” but these Avere mixed Avith other and vicious qualities. While he Avas brave, a patron of commerce and the arts, and an efficient ruler, he Avas also cruel, suspicious, jealous of those who served him aa'cII, a merciless tax-gatherer, and unscrupulous in putting to death the objects of his suspicion. Hied, 1628. ABBIATI, Filippo, an historical painter, of considerable eminence. Born at Milan in 1640 . died in 1715. ABBOT, George, archbishop of Canter- bury in the reigns of James I. and Charles I., and one of the most actiA'e political charac- ters of that period. He Avas born, in 1562, B 0 abb] ^niijersal ISiograpi^B. [abe|] at Guildford in Surrey, where his father was a weaver and cloth worker. After receiving his education at the grammar school in that town, he was sent to Baliol college, Oxford; and became successively master of University college, dean of Winchester, vice-chancellor of Oxford, bishop of Lichfield and Coventry, then of London, and lastly, in 1610, primate of all England. Archbishop Abbot was throughout his life the bitter political and ecclesiastical rival and enemy of Laud. Al- though he at first distinguished himself by a rigorous maintenance of the doctrines of divine right and passive obedience, he be- came, after the accession of Charles I., whom he crowned at Westminster, a steady and resolute opponent of the despotic measui-es of the king. In 1622 an event occurred, which for a time caused his suspension from the archiepiscopal office; being at the seat of Lord Zouch in Hampshire, Avhile on a hunting party he accidentally shot one of his lordship’s keepers. He was the author of several theological works ; and was one of the eight divines, who, in 1604, by the order of James I., made the translation of the Bible now in use. He died at Croydon in 1633, and was buried in his native town, where he had founded and liberally endowed a hospital. ABBOT, Robert, bishop of Salisbury, and elder brother of the above. He was an eminent divine, and famous for his skill in conducting polemical discussions and vindi- cating the supremacy of kings. Born, 1560 ; died, 1617. Hr Fuller, speaking of the two brothers, says, “ George was the more plaus^ ible preacher, Robert the greatest scholar ; George the abler statesman, Robert the deeper divine ; gravity did frown in George, and smile in Robert.” ABBOTT, CHARLES. [TENTERHEN, Lord.] ABET, Thomas, a German writer, was born at Ulm, in Suabia, in 1738. After filling the chair of philosophy at ’Frankfort on the Oder, and of mathematics at Rintlen in AVestphalia, he was fortunate enough to at- tract the notice of the prince of Schaumburg- Lippe, by whom he was held in high estima- tion and effectually patronised. His treatises on ” Merit,” and on the “ Duty of Hying for our Country,” are full of talent and promise : but the latter he was not destined to fulfil, as he died at the early age of 28, in 1766. ABHALLA, the father of Mahomet. Though originally only a camel-driver, it appears that he was held in high estimation by his tribe: indeed, so extravagant is the praise bestowed upon him, that, among other absurdities which are related, it is said that on his wedding a hundred girls died of grief and disappointment, for having lost the honour of being his bride. ABHOLLATIPH, a Persian historian, born at Bagdad in 1161. He is said to have been a man of great learning and a volu- minous writer ; but the only one of his works known in Europe is an abridged history of Egypt, entitled “ Al-kital Alsager,” or the little book, which was published from a MS. in the Bodleian Library, by Professor AVhite, in 1800. ABHUL MEHJIH, sultan of Turkey, son of Mahmoud II., was born in 1823. He suc- ceeded his father in 1839, while Mehemet Ali w^as carrying on war against him. A few months after his accession he published an edict, establishing certain civil reforms. By the intervention of the chief European pow- ers, Mehemet Ali was reduced to submission and a permanent arrangement of the quarrel effected in 1840. Much opposition was made to the Sultan’s projects of reform, especially to his concession of privileges to his Chris- tian subjects, and his position was one of very great difficulty. He obtained great popularity in AVestern Europe by his cour- ageous and generous protection of the Hun- garian refugees, in 1849. The great event of his reign was the Crimean war, in which France and England allied themselves with Turkey against the encroachments of Russia, and which Avas tertriinated by the fall of Sebastopol after a long siege, in 1856. Hied, 1861. A BECKETT, GILBERT ABBOT, a distin- guished humourist and satirical Avriter, Avas born in London in 1811, and educated at AA^estminster. AVhile engaged in prosecut- ing his legal studies, he Avrote numerous pieces for the stage which Avere more or less successful, established various journals of a humorous and satirical character, and con- tributed to some of the most distinguished literary and political journals of the day. In 1841, he Avas admitted to the bar; but he still continued his literary pursuits, and besides being one of the chief contributors to Punch, produced in succession his comic “ Black- stone,” and Comic Histories of “England” and “ Rome,” all of Avhich achieved great success. In 1849, he Avas appointed one of the police magistrates of the metropolis, an office for which the knoAvledge of life and law which he possessed, rendered him emi- nently fitted. Hied at Boulogne in 1856. ABEL, Hr CLARKE, was the historian of Lord Amherst’s embassy to China, which he accompanied as chief medical officer and naturalist. He was a deep and philosophic thinker, a close observer of the mysteries of nature, and a man of a benevolent mind. Hied, 1826. ABEL, JOSEPH, a distinguished German painter of the present century, born near Linz on the Hanube, 1780. Many of his historical pictures are to be seen at A'ienna, where he died, 1818. ABEL, Niels Henrik, mathematician, born in Noi’Ava}’^, 1802. He studied at the University of Christiania, and in 1825 visited the principal countries of Europe. He con- tributed to “ Crelle’s Journal” of Mathe- matical Science from its establishment. He was an original thinker, and his discoveries on the theory of elliptic functions Avere eagerly adopted by Legendre. His promising career Avas cut short by consumption, in 1828. The works of Abel Avere published in French, by the government of Sweden, about 10 years after his death. ABELA, JOHN Francis, commander of the order of St John of Jerusalem; author of a valuable and interesting Avork entitled “ Malta Illustrata,” Avhich Avas printed in that island, in 1647. Hied, 1655. ABELARH, or ABAILARH, PIERRE, CCTC- z abe] Slnibcrstil ISiograpl)!}. [abe bratcd for his lonrninp: and his misfortunes, the latter arisiiif? partly from his love of the equally celebrated lleloisc, was born at the village of Palais, near Nantes, in Hrittany, 107!». Having made extraordinary progress at the university of Paris, and surpassed all his masters, he opened a school of theology, philosophy, and rhetoric, which Avas thronged with pupils, among whom were some of the most distinguished characters of the day. While he was in the zenith of his popularity he became so violently enamoured with the beautiful and accomplished niece of Fulbci t, a canon of Paris, as to forget his duty, his lectures, and his fame. Under the pretext of teaching her philosophy, he obtained the uncle’s permission to visit her, and at length to reside in the house. Though Abelard was at that time in his 40th year, and Heloise only in her 18th, a mutual passion, fatal to the happiness of both, was encouraged. Ful- bert suspecting this, separated the lovers ; but the imprudent intercourse had gone too far for concealment ; and Abelard, who had retired to his sister’s house in Brittany, Avas folloAved there by Heloise, Avho gaA'e birth to a son. He then resolved to marry her se- cretly ; but although the uncle’s consent was obtained, Heloise chose rather to be con- sidered Abelard’s mistress than his Avife,and at last very reluctantly complied. Still she Avould not own her marriage, and this so greatly incensed her uncle, that he treated her Avith great severity ; and Abelard in con- sequence determined on releasing her. He accordingly carried her aAvay, and placed her in the conA'ent of Argenteuil, whei*e she put on the religious habit, but did not take the veil. Irritated at Abelard, the canon hired some ruffians, who broke into his chamber, and subjected him to an ignominious mu- tilation. Filled Avith shame and sorrow, Abelard noAV became a monk in the abbey of St Denis, and Heloise took the veil. Just and severe retribution, for the atrocious crime, overtook the canon, his valet, and one of his assistant ruffians. After time had someAvhat moderated his grief, Abelard re- sumed his lectures, but the violence of his enemies increased ; he was charged Avith heresy, and his Avorks condemned by the Council of Soissons, in 1121, no defence being permitted him. He fled from St Denis and erected an oratory in the diocese of Troyes, called the Paraclete, but persecution still folloAved him; the great St Bernard became his accuser, and succeeded in getting him condemned by the Council of Sens, and after- wards by the Pope, Abelard did not long survive his sentence; but, after a life of ex- traordinary vicissitudes, died in the priory of St Marcel, near Chalons-sur-Saone, in 1142. On the corpse being sent to Heloise, she de- posited it in the Paraclete, of Avhich she was at that time the abbess. The remains of the noble-minded Heloise, who surviv’ed him many yeai*s, were laid in his tomb. In 1800 the ashes of both were taken to the museum I of French monuments at Paris; and on the I museum being destroyed, in 1817, they were i removed to the cemetery of Pere la Chaise Abelard obtained, in his own day, the most extraordinary reputation by the splendour of his abilities as philosopher, theologian, logician, orator, and poet. His influence Avas probably second only to that of St Bernard himself. And as the first who ap- plied philosophical criticism to theology, his name is one of the most im])ortant in the history of the development of modei'n thought. It is Avorth Avhile to add that through the kindly offices of I’eter the Vener- able, abbot of Cluny, a reconciliation was effected betAveen Abelard and St Iternard. ABKLLl, Louis, bishop of Ilhodes, and author of “ Medulla,” and other theological AA'orks. Born, 1G04; died, 1691. ABEND ANA, JACOB, a Spanish JeAv ; au- thor of a HebreAv Commentary on some por- tions of the Scripture. Died, 1685. ABERCROMBIE, JOHN, M.D., an emi- nent Scotch physician and author, was born at Aberdeen, Nov. 11, 1781. Having taken his degree at Edinburgh in 1803, he perma- nently fixed his residence in the Scotch me- tropolis, Avhere he soon gained the first rank as a practising and consulting physician. But the Avri tings of Dr Abercrombie con- tributed no less to the maintenance of his fame, than his skill as a physician. His purely professional Avorks procAired for him a high place among the modern cultivators of science ; but the most permanent monu- ment to his memory are his “ Inquiries con- cerning the Intellectual Powers, &c.,” pub- lished 1830, and the “ Philosophy of the Moral Feelings,” published 1833. In these works he has brought all the medical facts accumulated in the course of his extensive experience and research, to bear on the various moral and metaphysical systems in vogue, and constructed out of the Avhole a vieAv of human nature in Avhich he believed that the facts of science and the revelations of religion are blended in harmony. To his wide range of acquirements he added a piety as genuine as it aa as unassuming, and he Avill long be remembered for his large but unob- trusive beneA'olence. Died, Nov. 14, 1844. ABERCROMBIE, JOHN, a horticulturist; author of a “Universal Dictionary of Gar- dening and Botany,” and a “ Gardener’s Calendar,” published under the name of MaAve. Died, 1806, aged 80. ABERCROMBY, Sir RALPH, a distin- guished British general, born in the county of Clackmannan, Scotland, in 1734. He was educated at Rugby, and at the University of Edinburgh, studying afterwards at Leipsic, and he entered the army in 1756. After a short service in Germany, he served in Ire- land for above 20 years, and from 1783 to 1793 lived in retirement. He then took part in the disastrous campaign in Holland, un- der the duke of York, and distinguished him- self by his very skilful conduct of the retreat. After tAvo years service as commander-in- chief, in the West Indies, he Avas appointed to the chief command in Ireland, in 1798, but finding it impossible to carry out the re- forms he saAv to be essential to the eflBciency of the army, he resigned this post in a few months. He rendered important service on occasion of the second expedition to Holland, in 1799. But his most splendid achievement was the successful conduct of the expedition to Egypt, in 1801. The landing Avas effected in the bay of Aboukir, under a terrible fire 3 abe] ^ ^lutjcrsal 33iogrnpf;p. [abn from the enemy’s batteries, and in the severe engagements which followed the French were repulsed at all points. Sir Kalph, how- ever, received a wound of which he died in a few days, thus closing a long career of duty faithfully done, and showing to the last that tender care for the comfort of his men, for which he was always distinguished. Sir Ralph Abercromby had been a Knight of the Bath since 1795. His widow was created a baroness, and a monument was erected to his memory in St Paul’s Cathedral. ABERDEEN, GEORGE HAMIETON-GOR- DON, Earl of, prime minister of England, Avas born at Edinburgh in 1784. He was educated at Harrow and Cambridge, succeeded to the earldom about 1802, travelled in Greece, Turkey, and Russia, and was chosen in 1806 one of the representative peers of Scotland. He Avas sent ambassador to Vienna in 1813, and in the folloAving year signed the Treaty of Paris. Raised to the English peerage as Viscount Gordon in 1815, he took no part in public affairs from that time till 1828, Avhen he became secretary of state for foreign af- fairs under the Duke of Wellington. He Avas in office till 1830, and again held the same post under Sir Robert Peel from 1841 till 1846. On the resignation of the Earl of Derby in 1852, Lord Aberdeen became prime minister, at the head of a coalition ministry. The great event of his administration was the Crimean War, into Avhich avc “ drifted” contrary to his anticipations, perhaps by reason of his horror of Avar, his old friend- ship with the Czar, and his too rigid adher- ence to the doctrine of non-intervention. General dissatisfaction with the conduct of the Avar led to his resignation in January, 1855, and he lived thenceforth in retirement. He was made a Knight of the Garter, and was honoured by a visit of the Queen in 1857. He was a man of high culture, gener- ally reserved and consequently misunder- stood, and though a Tory, liberal enough to vote for the repeal of the Test and Corpora- tion Acts, for Catholic Emancipation, and for the repeal of the Corn Luavs. He Avas long President of the Society of Antiquaries. Died at London, 14 December, 1860. ABERLI, JOHANN LuDWlG, an eminent SAviss landscape painter. Born at AVinter- thur, 1723 ; died at Berne, 1786. ABERNETHY, JOHN,F.R.S., an eminent surgeon, born in 1764. It is uncertain Avhe- ther he was a native of Scotland or Ireland, but he went early to London, was appren- ticed to Sir Charles Blick, attended the lec- tures of John Hunter, and became surgeon to St Bartholomew’s Hospital. He was passionately devoted to the study of physio- logy, and very successful as a lecturer, in- spiring his pupils vvith an interest like his own. He rendered important service to me- dical science by his work entitled, “ The Constitutional Origin and Treatment of Lo- cal Diseases.” In his intercourse Avith his patients there Avas at times an eccentricity and even coarseness of manner, AVhich Avas strangely in contrast with the gentleness that made him beloved in his home. Died, 1831. He Avas author of several tracts on medical subjects besides the Avork above named. ABGARUS, a king of Edessa, in Mesopo- tamia, contemporary Avith Our Saviour, to whom he is said to have Avritten a letter and received an answer to it. Both letter and answer are pronounced by the best critics to be mere forgeries. ABINGER, Lord, JAMES SCARLETT, Avas the second son of Robert Scarlett, of Jamai- ca, where the future lord was born in 1769. He Avas early sent to England for education, entered at Trinity college, Cambridge, in 1786, and took his B. A. degree in 1790. In 1791 he was called to the bar, and may be said to have become eminent from his very first appearance in the courts. A fine figure, a singularly familiar and unpretending style of elocution, and an almost unrivalled tact in managing a jury, caused him to hav'e im- mense business. In 1818, after having tAvice been defeated in contested elections, he ob- tained a seat in parliament through the patronage of Earl FitzAvilliam. For A'ery many years Mr Scarlett was considered a Whig, and voted as Avell as spoke in favour of the various measures proposed by Romilly and Mackintosh for the amelioration of the criminal code. On the formation of a mixed ministry under Canning, in 1827, he became attorney-general and received the honour of knighthood. In 1834, on the formation of the Peel cabinet, he Avas raised to the bench as chief baron, Avith the title of Lord Abin- ger. In his judicial capacity, he gave the highest satisfaction ; nothing could be sound- er than his laAv, or purer than his impartial- ity. Died, April, 1844, aged 75. ABISBAL, Henry O’Donnell, Count of, a celebrated Spanish general, born in Anda- lusia, 1770. Having entered the royal guards at the age of fifteen, he served in the Avar against the French republic ; and on Napo- leon’s invasion of Spain, the part he took in the relief of Gerona in 1809, led to his pro- motion to the command of Catalonia, where he displayed great energy, and reaped much success. Though defeated in the plains of Vich by General Sonham, he a month after- wards forced Augereau to abandon Lower Catalonia ; and, at the village of Abisbal, he compelled the surrender of a Avhole French column under General Schvv'artz. From this action he took his title. Towards the close of the war he commanded with brilliant success at the capture of Pancorvo. In 1819 he suppressed a mutiny of the troops in the isle of Leon ; but he fell into disgrace on suspicion of treachery, and it Avas not till 1823, on the invasion of Spain by the French under the Duke d’Angouleme, that he re- covered his position and his fame. After the restoration of Ferdinand, he retired to France, Avhere he resided, almost entirely forgotten, till his death in 1834. ABNEY, Sir THOMAS, an eminent magis- trate of London, lord mayor in 1700, and M.P. for the city. AVhen the king of France had proclaimed the Pretender king of Great Britain, he proposed an address to King AVilliam, and the measure having been fol- loAved by other corporations, proved of great service to the king, Avho Avas thereby en- couraged to dissolve the parliament, and take the sense of the people, which avu.s almost universally in favour of the I’rotcst- | 4 AiHi] ^ ^clu SliuOersrtl 13(ograpl;i>. [acii aiit siiccossiou. He was one of the first pro- moters of tlie IJaiik of liiif^laiid, and one of its earliest directors. Died, 1722. AlUlARANKL, ISAAC, a Jewish Ilabbi , of Portugal, author of Commentdries on the Old Testament, and various other works, theological and controversial, Horn at Lis- bon, 1437 ; died at Venice, 1508. AHHANTRS, Duke of. [JUNOT.] AHUHMKEll, fatlier-in-law and successor of Mohammed. Ills original name was changed to that of Abubeker, or “ Father of the Virgin,” on the occasion of his daughter Ayesha becoming the bride of Moliammed. On succeeding his son-in-law in 632 he assumed the title of caliph, Avhich signifies both successor and vicar. After suppressing a rebellion in Arabia he con- quered, by his great generals, Khaled and Abu-Obeidah, the whole of Syria and part of Persia, the capture of Damascus taking place on the day of his death. It was under the direction of this caliph that the scattered fragments of Mohammedan doctrine and tra- dition were collected and embodied in the Koran. Died, 634. ABULFAIIAGIUS, GREGORY, originally a physician of Armenia, but subsequently a bishop. Of his various woi’ks the most es- teemed is a Universal History, an edition of which, with a Latin translation, was pub- lished at Oxford, by Dr Pococke, in 1663. He eventually became primate of the East, and died in 1286. ABULFAZEL, vizier to the celebrated Mogul emperor Akbar, and author of “ Ayeen Akberry a statistical and geographical ac- count of the Mogul empire, and a history of the reign of the emperor Akbar : the for- mer work was translated into English by Mr Gladwin in 1785. Died, by the hands of an assassin, in 1604. ABULFEDA, ISMAEL, prince of Hamah in Syria. He was distinguished as a mili- tary commander, taking part in the expedi- tions which extinguished the dominion of the crusaders in Syria : but still more as an excellent histoidan and geographer, being the author of a compendious History of Mankind, chiefly devoted however to the history of Mohammed and his successors; and a work entitled “ The True Disposition of Countries.” The former has been pub- lished with a Latin translation, and portions of his various works have been separately translated into English. Died, 1333. ABULGAZI, Bayatur, khan of the Ta- tars, and author of an esteemed Tatar his- tory. Some Russian exiles in Siberia having discovered the MS. of this work, it was brought to Europe and translated' into Ger- man and French. Born at Urgens, the capital of Karasm,1605; died, 1663. ABU-OBEIDAH, a friend and associate of Mohammed, and the conqueror of great part of Palestine and Syria. Died, by the pesti- lence, 639. ABUZAID, MlRZA,a soldier in the service of Ulug Beg, who, taking advantage of the feud between that personage and his son, proclaimed himself sultan in 1450; but after gaining considerable territory, he perished in an ambuscade, in 1468. ACCIAIOLI, Donato, a noble and learned Florentine of the 15th century; he dis- charged many public offices, commissions,- and embassies, and was distingui.shed for his commentaries on Aristotle. He died in 1478, and the state charged itself with the main- tenance and education of his two daughters. [The name of this family is variously writ- ten, ACCIAOLI, ACCTAIUOLI, and Accia- JUOLT.] ACCIAIOLI, Ren.\to, a noble Florentine, who, in the 14th century, conquered Athens, Corinth, and Bocotia; which he bequeathed respectively to the Venetians, Theodore Palceologus, and his natural son Antonio. ACCOLTI, Benedetto, an Italian lawyer, born at Arezzo in 1415, and succeeded Poggio as secretary to the republic of Florence in 1450. He was the author of many valuable works, among which was a narrative of the wars in Palestine, to which Tasso was much indebted in composing the “ Jerusalem De- livered.” Died, 1466. ACCOLTI, Benedetto, a relation of the preceding, born in 1497, who was so perfect a master of the Latin tongue, that he was called the Cicero of the age. He was highly distinguished by the popes Leo X., Adrian VI., and Clement VII., the last of whom made him a cardinal. Died, 1549. ACCOLTI, Pietro, sou of the first-named Benedetto Accolti, abandoned the profession of the law to enter the church ; and, as car- dinal of Ancona, composed the Papal bull against Luther. Died, 1532. ACCORSO, or ACCURSIUS, FRANCISCO, an eminent Italian lawyer, born at Florence in 1151 or 1182, and died in 1229, rendered himself famous by his “Perpetual Commen- tary,” or “Great Gloss,” in illustration of the code, the institutes, and the digests. He left three sons, all of whom distinguished themselves by their legal attainments. ACH, or ACHEN, Van, JOHANN, an emi- nent historical and portrait painter. Horn at Cologne, 1556; died, 1621. ACHjEUS, a Greek poet and satirist, con- temporary with Aeschylus; but though he is said to have written 40 tragedies, only a few fragments at present exist. ACHARD, F. C., a distinguished Prussian chemist; known as the first fabricator of beet-root sugar, in 1792; and author of se- veral treatises on chemistry and agriculture. Died in 1821. ACHERY, J. Lvc D’, a learned Benedictine of St Maur, was born at St Quentin in 1609. He published “A^eterum aliquot scriptorum spicilegium,” in 13 vols. 4to, editions of the works of Lanfranc and Guibert, and largely assisted in Mabillon’s “ Actes des Saints de I’Ordre de St Benoit.” Died at Paris, 1685. ACHMET I., Ottoman emperor, son and successor of Mohammed III. He came to the throne in 1603, and was a just and hu- mane ruler. Born, 1588; died, 1617. ACHMET II., succeeded his brother Soly- man III. on the throne of Constantinople in 1691. He was made sultan by the influence of the grandvizier Kiuperli. The great battle of Salankemen, in which the Turks were defeated by Prince Louis of Baden and the Austrians, and Kiuperli killed, was the first of a train of disasters which filled his short reign of four years. 6 ach] ©niticrsal IStograp!)!). [ada ACHMET III., son of Mohammed IV., was placed on the throne in 1703 by the Janissa- ries who had deposed his brother, Mustapha II. It was in the reign of this sultan that Charles XII. of Sweden Avas dsl>arcd by the Czar at Pultawa, and took refuire at Eender. Achmet was engaged in wars njih the Rus- sians, the Persians, the Venetians, and the Austrians. He was afterwards deposed, and his nephevv, Mohammed V., raised to the throne. Died in prison, 1736. ACXERMANN, RUDOLPH, an ingenious and enterprising tradesman, was born at Stolberg, Saxony, in 1764, and came to Eng- land previous to the Prench Revolution. After following for a time the occupation of a carriage draughtsman, he settled in the Strand as a printseller, where he established a flourishing and extensive concern, furnish- ing employment to numerous artists, and judiciously catering for the public taste in elegant and ornamental works of art. His “Forget me Not’’ was the first of that class of “Annuals” which appeared in this coun- try; and to him also are Ave indebted for the introduction and much of the success of the lithographic art; Avhile the good taste and spirit he evinced in producing the “Histories” of Westminster, Oxford, &c., and other handsomely embellished wmrks, entitle him to the respect of all Avho know hOAv to appreciate them. Died, 1834. ACKMAN, WILLIAM. [AIRMAN.] ACOSTA, Christopher, a Portuguese surgeon and naturalist of the 16th century; author of “ A Treatise on the Drugs and Medicinal Plants of the East Indies,” and other works. ACOSTA, Jose de, a Spanish Jesuit and historian, was born at Medina del Campo about 1539. He held the chair of theology at Ocana, passed in 1571, as a missionary, to South America, and was made provincial of his order at Peru. Returning to Europe after 17 years’ service, he became rector of the University of Salamanca. His chief work, Avhich is esteemed and has been trans- lated into Latin, French, English, German, and other languages, is the “ Historia na- tural y moral de las Indias.” Died, 1600. ACTON, Joseph, son of a physician, born at Besancjon, in 1737. He entered into the French navy, and afterAvards into that of the Grand Duke of Tuscany. His rescuing 4000 Spaniards from the Rarbary corsairs, made him known at the court of Naples ; and through the patronage of the queen, he became minister of the marine, and after- wards of the finances. He Avas dismissed from the ministry in 1803, and retired into Sicily, where he died in 1808. ACUNA, Christopher, born at Burgos, Spain, 1597, became a Jesuit in 1612, and subsequently a missionary in America. On his return to Spain, he published a “ Descrip- tion of the Great River of the Amazons.” ADAIR, Sir Robert, G.C.B., a distin- guished diplomatist, was born in 1763. He was educated at Westminster and Gottingen Avith a vieAV to the diplomatic service; and atthe breaking out of the French Revolution, he made a lengthened sojourn in Berlin, Vienna, and Petersburg, to observe the re- sults of that great event on the continental powers. In 1802, he sat as M.P. for Appleby, and voted with the Whig party; and Avhen Mr Fox Avas placed virtually, though not nominally, at the head of att'airs in 1806, he appointed Mr Adair minister to the Court of Vienna. While in this position, he Avas fre- quently the butt of Mr Canning’s Avit; but Avhen the latter became minister for foreign affairs in 1808, he selected Mr Adair as the fittest person to unravel the tangled web of our diplomatic relations with the Ottoman court ; and at the termination of his success- ful mission in 1809, he Avas nominated G.C.B. and appointed ambassador at Constantinople, Avhich office he held till 1811. For twenty years the exclusion of Sir Robert Adair’s party^ from poAver left him unemployed ; but in 1831 he Avas sent by Earl Grey on special missions to Brussels and Berlin, Avhich occupied him till 1835, Avhen he returned to England, and for his diplomatic services was rewarded with an annual pension of £2000. Besides being the author of numerous pam ph- lets on international questions, he published late in life “ An Historical Memoir of a Mission to the Court of Vienna in 1806,” and “ A Memoir of the Negotiations for the Peace of the Dardanelles in 1808-9.” Died, 1855. ADALBERON, a celebrated archbishop of Rheims, and chancellor of France; Avho dis- tinguished himself under Lothaire, Louis V., and Hugh Capet. Died, 988. ADALBERT, archbishop of Prague, in the 10th century. He was one of the first found- ers of the Christian religion in Hungary; and also preached the gospel in Prussia, and in Lithuania, Avhere he Avas murdered by Scgo, a pagan priest. Boleslaus, prince of Poland, is said to have ransomed his body with an equal weight of gold. ADALBERT, an ambitious, eloquent, and designing prelate, created archbishop of Bre- men and Hamburg, 1043. During the minor- ity of Henry IV. of Germany, he acted as regent, but his despotic conduct rendered him obnoxious to the people. Died, 1072. ADAM, Alexander, LL.D., Avell knoAvn to the literary and scholastic Avorld by his “ Latin Lexicon,” “ Roman Antiquities,” &c.; raised himself to great eminence by almost unprecedented efforts, and became rector of the High School of Edinburgh, an office which he held till his death. Born, 1741 ; died, 1809. ADAM, Lambert Sioisbert, an eminent French sculptor, many of Avhose Avorks Averc executed for the decoration of Versailles and St Cloud. Born, 1700; died, 1759. ADAM, Nicolas Sebastien, brother of the above, and eminent in the same profes- sion. He executed the admired statue of “Prometheus Chained.” Born, 1705; died, 1778. ADAM of Bremen, canon of the cathedral of Bremen about the close of the 11th cen- tury ; author of an ecclesiastical history, and numerous other AVorks ; and indefatigable as a Christian missionary. ADAM, Melchior, a German divine and biographical author of the 17th century, to Avhose voluminous writings subsequent bio- graphers have been greatly indebted. Died, 1622. ADAM, Robert, F.R.S. and F.S.A. ; a ADA] ^ iHcln ^lubcrsal 1I5{ograpl)r). [ada cticbratcd architect, mutili employed upon the public buildings and noblemen’s man-, sions of London. One of his works, executed in conjunction with his brother, is the range of buildings called the “ Adclphi,” the name being the Greek word for “ brothers.” He at one time represented the county of Kin- ross in I’arliamcnt. Horn at Kirkaldy, Fife- shire, 1728; died, 1792. His brother James, the coadjutor in most of liis labours, died, 1794. ADAMNANUS,St, Abbot of Iona, was born about 625, became a monk, and was chosen abbot about 679. He wrote a Life of St Columba, and a Avork on the Holy Land, from accounts given him by Arculfus, a Gallic bishop. This book was esteemed an authority till the time of the Crusades. Adamnanus died about 704. ADAMS, Dr FRANCIS, Avas born in 1797, of humble parents ; but his friends supported him at King’s College, Aberdeen, Avhere he took the degree of M.A., and adopted medi- cine as his profession. In the midst of a laborious practice he found time for a zealous study of Greek medical Avriters, and, being anxious to bring them before his profession by translations, he fixed on Paulus .S^gineta, a physician of the sixth or seventh century, as giving the best idea of ancient medicine. This Avork Avas published by the Sydenham Society, together Avith a very learned com- mentary by Dr Adams. For the same So- ciety he translated H ippocrates and Aretaeus, the original text being also given Avith the latter. Died February 26, 1861, aged 64. ADAMS, JOHN, second president of the United States of America, and a political writer of considerable reputation. Before the Revolution, Mr Adams attained great eminence as a laAvyer, and published an essay “ On Common and Feudal LaAV.” On the breach Avith the mother country, he es- poused the colonial cause, and employed his pen Avith great activity. He Avas one of the principal promoters of the memorable reso- lution passed July 4, 1776, declaring the American States free, sovereign, and inde- pendent. Mr Adams subsequently proceeded Avith Dr Fi-anklin to the court of France, in order to negotiate a treaty of peace and alli- ance Avith that country. He Avas afterAvards nominated plenipotentiary to Holland, and materially contributed to hasten a rupture betAveen the United ProAunces and Great Britain. Lastly, he Avas employed in nego- tiating a general peace at Paris; and Avas the first ambassador received by this coun- try from America after it Avas effected. This distinguished man also took a great share, in conjunction Avith Washington, Ha- milton, and other federal leadersTin forming the present constitution of the United States, in 1787, Avhen General AVashington Avas elected president, and Mr Adams vice-pre- sident. On the retirement of AVashington, Mr Adams Avas elected his successor; and, at the conclusion of his presidency, retired from public life, Avith the character of an able, active, independent, and upright states- man, even among those Avhose party vicAvs Avere opposed to his opinions. Born, 1735; died, 1826. ADAMS, John Quincy, the sixth 'presid- ent of the United States, son of John Adams, the second president, was born at Boston in 1769. His father having been ai)pointed commissioner to France in 1778, embraced the opportunity of securing for his son all the advantages of an European education. AVhen only fourteen years of age he Avent to Petersburg as private secretary to the Ame- rican minister, and on his return to his native country he entered Harvard Uni- versity, Avhere he graduated Avith honour in 1787, and subsequently commenced the prac- tice of the hiAv at Boston. In 1794 he Avas appointed by AA’^ashington minister of the United States at the Hague; and in 1796 he Avent in the same capacity to Berlin, which office, hoAvever, he resigned on the defeat of his father, and Mr Jefferson’s accession to the presidency, in 1801. Here too he wrote his famous “ Letters from Silesia,” which Avere favourably noticed in the Edinburgh RevieAv. After representing Massachusetts in the United States Senate for six years, he Avent as ambassador to St Petersburg in 1809, and to the influence Avhich his charac- ter and abilities procured for him at that court is mainly to he attributed the inter- vention of Russia which terminated in the treaty of peace betAveen the United States and Great Britain. After the peace he was appointed ambassador to the court of St James’s; and he subsequently acted as secre- tary of state during the administration of Mr Monroe. In 1825 he Avas himself elected president of the United States. His adminis- tration Avas a perfect illustration of the prin- ciples of the constitution, and of a republic purely and faithfully governed. On the ex- piry of his term of office, he retired into private life ; but he was soon elected by his district as representative in Congress, and though he never aftei’Avards held office, he long continued to benefit his country by his speeches and his pen. Manly, straightfor- Avard, and independent, he never SAverved from Avhat he believed to be the path of duty, — no easy matter in the United States, Avhere party feeling runs so high; and he has left behind him a reputation for purity and disinterestedness of motives, second only to that of AA^ashington. Died, 1848. ADAMS, JOHN, “the patriarch of Pit- cairn's Island,” is famous for the share he took in the mutiny of the Bounty, in 1789, and in the subsequent establishment of the colony of the mutineers at Pitcairn’s Island. His real name Avas Alexander Smith. Died, 1829. ADAAIS, Samuel, an active member of the first American congress, and one of the most powerful advocates of the political separation of that country from England. Born, 1722; died, 1803. ADAMS, AUilliam, an English divine’of the 18th century ; author of an answer to Hume on the Miracles. Died, 1789. ADAAISON, Patrick, archbishop of St Andrew’s, in Scotland, and ambassador from James VI. to Queen Elizabeth ; but chiefly remembered for his disputes with the pres- bytery, by Avhich he Avas involved in ruin. Born, 1543 ; died, 1591. AD ANSON, Michel, a celebrated French botanist, was born in Provence in 1727. His 7 ada] ^ ^nibmal ISicigrapf)^. [ade family was of Scottish origin. He was edu- cated at Paris under Reaumur and R. de Jus- sieu, and early showed a passionate fondness for the study of nature. He spent five years in Senegal, where he made large collections of natural objects, and accumulated a vast mass of observations. Dissatisfied with ex- isting classifications in botany he proposed a new one, in which he to some extent antici- pated the system of Jussieu. He projected an immense work on Natural History, for which he made collections, and to which he devoted himself for the rest of his life ; but in the shock of the Revolution he lost his fortune and his places, saw his garden de- stroyed, and had his health ruined by want and calamity. The Directory gave him a pension, which Napoleon doubled. He Avas a member of the Institute and of the Aca- I demy of Sciences, to Avhich he contributed numerous memoirs. He wrote “ Voyage au S6n4gal,” and “ Les Families des Plantes.” Died, 1806. ADDISON, Lancelot, an English divine, was born at Crosby Ravensworth, West- moreland, in 1632. He early distinguished himself by his attachment to the Stuart family, and appears to have supported a consistent and upright character. He held the living of Milston, Wilts, with a prebepd in the cathedral of Salisbury, and Avas event- ually made dean of Lichfield. He died in 1703. ADDISON, Joseph, the celebrated essay- ist and miscellaneous Avriter, was the son of Dr Lancelot Addison. He Avas born May 1, 1672, at Milston, in Wiltshire, and after re- ceiving the rudiments of education at Salis- bury and Lichfield, was sent to the Charter- house, where he contracted his first intimacy with Mr, afterwards Sir Richard, Steele. At the age of 15 he Avas entered at Queen’s col- lege, Oxford, where he soon became distin- guished for his skill in Latin poeti*y. At 22, he addressed some English verses to the veteran poet, Di'yden: and shortly afterv/ards pub- lished a translation of part of Virgil’s fourth Georgic. In 1695 he addressed a compliment- ary poem, on one of the campaigns of King William, to the Lord Keeper Somers, Avho procured him a pension from the Crown of £300 per annum, to enable him to travel. On his return home, in 1702, he found his old friends out of place ; but, in 1704, he was in- troduced by Lord Halifax to Lord Godolphin, as a fit person to celebrate the victory of Blenheim, on which occasion he produced his poem entitled “ The Campaign,” for which he was appointed commissioner of appeals. After this he accompanied the Marquis of Wharton to Ireland, as secretary. While there, Steele commenced the “Tat- ler,” to which Addison liberally contributed. This was folloAved by the” Spectator,” which was also enriched by the contributions of Addison, whose papers are distinguished by one of the letters of the word Clio. This pub- lication was succeeded by the ” Guardian,” a similar work, in Avhich Addison also bore a considerable share. In 1713, his tragedy of Cato was brought upon the stage, and per- formed Avithout interruption for 35 nights. In 1716, Addison married the Countess Dow- ager of War Avick ; but the union is said to have been far from happy. The following year he became secretary of state, which place he soon resigned, on a pension of £1500 a-year. In his retirement he wrote ” A De- fence of the Christian Religion,” and also laid the plan of an English Dictionary, upon the model of the Italian Della Crusca. He closed his life in a manner suitable to his character. When given over by his phy- sicians, Addison sent for his step-son, the young earl of Wai’Avick, AA'hom he was anx- ious to reclaim from irregular habits and erroneous opinions, and grasping his hand, exclaimed impressively, “ See in what peace a Christian can die ! ” but whether this af- fecting intervicAv had any effect upon the young earl is not known, as his own death happened shortly after. Addison died at Holland House, June 17, 1719, leaving an only daughter, who died, unmarried, in 1797. The poetical works of Addison, on which perhaps his fame at first chiefly rested, are now little read. They are Avithout the deep thought and gloAving passion which charm us in the poems of our own age, and are little more than the elegant exercises of an accom- plished moralist. But his prose works have a lasting worth, and charm us by their grace- fulness, delicate fancy, pure morality, and original humour, probably as much as they did the men and women of the generation for which they were Avritten. As the first and best examples of a neAv style they hold a high place in the history of English litera- ture. ADELAIDE, MADAME, aunt to Louis XVI. of France. This princess, in order to avoid the sanguinary fury of the revolution- ists, quitted Paris, accompanied by her sis- ter, Mad. Victoire,on the 19th of February, 1791. After seeking protection in Rome, Naples, and other places, they found a tem- porary asylum in Corfu, from whence they were conveyed to Trieste by the Russian general Outschacoff, and there fixed their residence. Victoire died the 8th of June, 1799 ; and Adelaide survived her sister only nine months. ADELAIDE, EUGENE LOUISE, princess of Orleans, and sister to Louis Philippe, ex- king of the French, Avas born 1777. Educated with the greatest care by Madame deGenlis, the princess passed her childhood in peace- ful retirement, till the outbreak of the French Revolution compelled her with her governess to take refuge successively in the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Spain, AAdiere she resided with her mother till 1808. She then joined her brother Louis Philippe at Portsmouth, and participated in all the subsequent vicissitudes of his career. After the restoration, she contributed in no small degree to rally round her brother all the leading men to Avhose wishes for improve- ment the government of Louis XVHI. made no response ; and during the ” three glorious days ” in 1830, it Avas mainly owing to her influence that her brother was induced to accept the croAvn, then offered — since re- claimed — by the people. She subsequently shared and aided the king’s high fortune, by herjudicious counsels and reflective courage ; and It is not perhaps going too far to say, that had she lived to witness the 23rd of ade] SlniOcrsal lU3iograpI)ij« [aihi rATTisTA, a younger brother of the above, Avasalso a painter, and excelled in landscape. ALBATEGNI, a distinguished Arabian astronomer, was born in Mesopotamia, and flourished in the ninth and tenth centuries. His astronomical observations, continued for nearly 50 years, and the important improve- ments he made in the method and instru- ments of observation, obtained for him the title of the Ptolemy of the Arabs. He lived chiefly at Baghdad, and died in 929. ALBEllONI, GlULlO, cardinal and first minister of Spain, was born in the Duchy of Parma in 1664. He entered the church, and afterwards became secretary to the duke of Yendome, then commanding the French army in Italy. He accompanied Yendome to France and to Spain, was named agent of the duke of Parma at Madrid, ingratiated himself with the king, Philip V., and got himself made cardinal and first minister. He immediately formed, and began to execute, schemes for the extension of the power of Spain, invading Sardinia and Sicily, and carrying on intrigues in France, England, and Turkey : but the alliance of France and England against him defeated his projects, and led to his dismissal and exile. He went to Rome, was subsequently legate to the Romagna, where he indulged his passion for , intrigue, spent his last years in retirement, and died in 1752. ALBERT, Francis Augustus Charles Emmanuel, Prince Consort of England, the second son of H. R. H. Ernest, Duke of Saxe-Coburg Saal-feld, was born at Eren- berg, August 26, 1819. He was educated at the castle under his father’s supervision, by masters selected from the College of Coburg, until in May, 1837, he, with his elder brother, the present Duke Ernest, entered the Uni- versity of Bonn, as a student in law. Here he remained till September, 1838, having acquired a high reputation for his attain- ments in science and art, together with the esteem and love of the whole people of Bonn for his blameless life and hisunbounded cha- rity to the pour. Besides his studies in juris- prudence and history, which were most dili- gently prosecuted, his leisure hours Avere devoted to music and painting, in both of which he had great proficiency. His “ Sa- voyard Minstrel Boy,” painted during his student life, now one of the most prized pictures in the Queen’s collection, may be mentioned as a proof of his great ability in the latter art. At Bonn his greatest friends were Count Bucst and Professor "Weleker ; he was also most highly esteemed by Schle- gel, Avlio, professing to detest “ princelings,” readily extended his friendship to Prince Albert. In 1838 he visited England with his father for the coronation of the Queen, and remained in Windsor and London longer than the guests of higher rank. In 1839 the visit Avas repeated ; and after it the Queen announced lo the Privy Council her intention to ally herself in marriage Avith Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg Gotha. When the marriage Avas notified to Parliament in the Queen’s Speech of January 16, 1840, the Duke of Wellington proposed, as an amendment to the address, the insertion of the Avord “ Pro- testant” before “Prince,” as a guarantee for the religious securities of the English people. Thus, in his twenty -first year. Prince Albert, having been naturalized by Act of Parliament, became the second person in the English realm, and entered on a position of unusual difficulty. Precluded from all open interference in the conduct of government, he Avas yet the nearest adviser of the CroAvn, surrounded by dangers and temptations Avhicli it required the rarest judgment to avoid and surmouiit. From the first it may be said that he saw the path which he ought to follow, with a sagacity Avonderful for one so young ; but his Avhole conduct shoAved that his choice was prompted not so much by Avisdom as by a strict and unsAverving con- scientiousness. He came amongst a people jealous of all foreign interference, and Avhere, from time to time (as on the occasion of the death of the Duke of Wellington, and during the Crimean war), faction Avas ready to impute to him a desire to secure to himself the office of Commander-in-Chief, and inau- gurate a military despotism. The charge that he interfered in advising the CroAvn Avas met in Parliament by the open avoAval of its correctness; and the admission that the Prince really took part in discussions Avith ministers, and that he Avould persevere in Avhat Avas at once his duty and his consti- tutional right, silenced once and for all these unjust insinuations, and Avent far towards Avinning for him the general confidence of the nation. But his true glory lies in the disinterested zeal with Avhich he promoted 'every design which had for its purpose the moral, social, and physical improvement of the people. For the first time it Avas seen that the life of a family might be as simple and unaffected in a palace as in any private home ; for the first time the nation saAv her princes trained by their father to value higher things than selfish and idle pleasures. The example thus set by the first household in the land has produced results Avhich can only be appreciated at their true value by contrasting English society noAV Avith what it Avas thirty years ago. Prince Albert avail- ed himself of every opportunity for improv- ing the condition of the poor, as Avell as for furthering the advancement of art and learn- ing generally. Thus, although in 1847 he accepted from the University of Cambridge c 17 alb] ^ lOjiograpI;]?. [alb — when ratified by an election — the office of Chancellor, which he had at first declined, he was probabl}’^ more pleased when in 1859 he was selected as President of the British Association. His interest in agriculture was shown not merely by his masterly speeches at the Royal Agricultural Society’s meeting in York (1848) and elsewhere, but by the care with which he superintended his model farm at Windsor. The condition of the labouring classes was the subject of his first important speech in public, in the same year (1848) ; and this subject lay unquestionably at the bottom of that wise design which was car- ried out in the Great Exhibition of 1851. The work of 1851 did not fail in its purpose ; and the same good energy promoted a second Great Exhibition for the year 1862, at the opening of which his well-known form was missed, and his voice was not heard. On the 25th of June, 1857, he was styled by Royal warrant “ Prince Consort,” to give him pre- cedence in foreign courts, having received the baton of a Field Marshal, together with / the title of “ Royal Highness,” in 1840. Thus had passed away more than twenty years in a career of uninterrupted usefulness. But just when he had begun to acquire that uni- versal popularity which he had long deserv- ed, he was struck down by a sudden and un- foreseen illness. Early in December, 1861, symptoms of indisposition sho wed themselves in a feverish cold, from which, however, no apprehensions were entertained until the third or fourth day preceding his death ; nor was any really serious anxiety felt by his medical attendants till the day before that on which he died. On Saturday, December 14, after an apparent improvement, the an- nouncement of which was eagerly welcomed by the public, he died without suffering, to the profound grief of his family, and the deep and general sorrow of the whole nation. Seldom has a life of greater usefi^ness been cut short with greater suddenness, and at a time when his sound Judgment and his ex- perienced wisdom seemed more' than ever needed. And never perhaps in the annals of princes has there been seen a career of more genuine and unselfish deyqtion to the true interests of his family, and of the nation to which that family belonged. When the English people mourned at the death of the Princess Charlotte, they moxirned simply for a promise which had never been realised ; at the death of Prince Albert they mourned for the loss of one who fulfilled all the duties of his station with a rare conscientiousness, and whom they justly revere as one of the most I generous and self-devoted of men. He died in the 43rd year of his age, and was buried at Windsor, December 23, 1861. ALBERT, marquis of Brandenburg- Culm- bach, surnamed the German Alcibiades, born in 1522, was a principal actor in the troubles of Germany during the reign of Charles V., against whom he made a league and declared war in 1552. After capturing many towns and fortresses, and devastating various parts of Germany, he was defeated in August, 1553, by Maurice, elector of Saxony, and put under the ban of the empire. He fled to France, but was allowed to return, and died at Pforzheim, 1558. ALBERT, Charles d’, duke of Luynes, born in 1578. Henry IV. of France, who was his godfather, placed him as a page about his son, afterwards Louis XIII., over whom, by his artful manner, he gained such an ascendency, that he obtained the highest honours in the state, and was made con- stable of France ; but his ambition and ty- ranny rendered him odious to the people. Died, 1621. ALBERT, LOUIS JOSEPH O’, son of Louis Charles, duke de Luynes, born in 1672, and died 1758. He distinguished himself in se- veral battles, for which he was appointed field-marshal by the Emperor Charles VII., who sent him ambassador to France, and created him prince of Griinberghen. ALBERT I., duke of Austria and emperor, was the son of Rudolph of Hapsburg, and was born in 1248. He arrogantly claimed the empire on the death of his father in 1292, but the electors chose Adolphus of Nassau. The latter being deposed in 1298, and soon after defeated and slain by Albert, Albert M^as elected and crowned the same year. He first joined with France against the pope, and then with the pope against France. He made war on the Netherlands, on Hungary and Bohemia ; and by his despotic measures in Switzerland provoked the revolution which led to the formation of the Swiss Con- federation. An act of private injustice to his nephew, Don John, occasioned a con- spiracy against him, and he was murdered in Switzerland, 1st May, 1308. ALBERT II., emperor (and V. duke of Austria), W'as the son of Duke Albert IV., and was born at Vienna in 1397. At seven years of age he succeeded to the dukedom, but did not assume the government till 1411. He took part in the w'ar against the Hussites with the Emperor Sigismund, whose daugh- ter he married in 1421. He succeeded to the throne of Bohemia at the close of 1437, again carried on war with the Hussites, was chosen king of Hungary, and finally em- peror. His first measures promised well for the empire ; bnt having set out to repel a Turkish invasion of Hungary he fell ill and died there in October, 1439. He had not been crowned emperor. ALBERT, archduke of Austria, and go- vernor of the Netherlands, was sixth son of the Emperor Maximilian II., and was born in 1559. At a very early age he was made cardinal archbishop of Toledo. In 1583 he was appointed viceroy of Portugal, and in 1596 governor of the Low Countries, where he married the daughter of Philip II., and carried on the war against the revolted Dutch. He was defeated at Nieuport, took Ostend after a siege of three years, and at last was glad to conclude a truce with his brave foes. His government was thencefor- ward just and mild. Died, 1621. ALBERT, king of Sweden, was elected to the throne on the deposition of Magnus II. in 1363. The latter, supported by Denmark and Norway, endeavoured to recover his crown, but was defeated by Albert, and taken prisoner. The nobles, however, became dis- satisfied with his rule, and applied for aid to Margaret, queen of Denmark and Norway, 1 by whom he was defeated in a bloody battle, 1 $ alb] 91 iUcii) S^n^^JC^:sal IBiograp^ij. [alc taken prisoner, and eonflned for seven years, lie was at leiif^th liberated on condition of surronderii]" Stockholm to Margaret ; and ' he passed the remainder of his daysat Meck- lenburg, where he died in 1412. ALBERTI, liKO BATTISTA, an eminent arehitect, painter, sculptor, and scholar, born at Genoa in the beginning of the 15tli I century. He was employed in many archi- tectural works at Rome, Florence, Mantua, and other cities of Italy, among which is especially admired the church of San Fran- cisco at Rimini. Besides tlie important treatise on architecture, entitled, “ De re a'diticaioria,” which was published after his death, he wrote works on painting and sculp- ture. The invention of the camera obscura has been attributed to him. Died, 1485. ALBERTI DI VILLANOVA, FRANCIS, an eminent Italian lexicographer of the 18th century. Born, 1737 ; died, 1803. ALBERTINELLI, MaRiotto, a distin- guished Florentine painter, born about 1475. He studied under Cosimo Roselli, became assistant to Fra Bartolomeo, whose style he acquired, and some of whose works he com- pleted, and after a dissipated life died about 1520. ALBERTUS MAGNUS, one of the great- est of the scholastic philosophers and theolo- gians of the middle ages, was born at Lauin- i gen, in Swabia, in 1193 or 1205. He studied at Pavia, entered the Dominican order, and became teacher of philosophy at Cologne. He acquired great renoM’n, and was called to teach in the university of Paris. In 1260 he w’as named archbishop of Ratisbon, but he soon resigned that dignity. He took part in the council of Lyons in 1274, and died at Cologne in 1280. He was, perhaps, the most I learned man of his age, and was accused as usual of magical arts. The famous Thomas d’Aquinas was a scholar of Albertus. His works fill 21 vols. folio. ALBINUS, Bern-ard Siegfried, one of the ablest anatomists of modern times, wms born at Frankfort in 1696. He was a pupil of the celebrated Boerhaave, and became professor of anatomy, and subsequently pro- fessor of therapeutics, in the university of Leyden, which situations he filled for half a century, during which time he published numerous professional works. Died, 1770. ALBOINjking of the Lombards in the 6th century. He succeeded his father, Audoin, in 561 ; conquered and slew Cunimund^ king of the Gepidse, whose daughter, Rosa- mond, he afterwards married. He invaded Italy in 568, and reaehed Rome without en- countering resistance. He took Pavia after a siege of three years, and made it the seat of government. His valour as a soldier was equalled by his justice and moderation as a sovereign. But at a festival at Verona he incurred the just resentment of his wife, by sending her wine in a cup wrought from the skull of her own father, and forcing her to drink from it, she had him assassinated, A. D. 573. ALBON, JaqIJES, marquis de Fronsac, and marshal de St Andr6, a French general, who acquired great reputation about the middle of the 16tb century. Quesnoy, St Quentin, Renti, &c., were the chief scenes of his exploits. Ho was deputed to carry the collar of the order of St Andrew to Henry VHI. of England, who made him a knight of the Garter. At the death of Henry II. he was chosen member of the regency, and fell at the battle of Dreux, 1562. ALBRECHTSBERGER, JOHANN GEORG, a German musician, and one of the most learned of modern contrapuntists, was born at Kloster Neuburg in 1736 ; became court organist and a member of the academy at Vienna; was the instructor of Beethoven; and died in 1809. ALBRET, JEANNE D’. [D’ALBRET.] ALBUQUERQUE, ALFONSO D’, Portu- guese Viceroy of the Indies, vt'as born in 1452. He made his fii’st expedition to the Indies in 1503, and established a fort at Cochin. Three yeai’s later he took part in another expedition under Da Cunba and unsuccessfully attacked Ormuz. In 1508 he succeeded Almeida as governor of the In- dies, and soon afterwards took Goa, which he held only a few months. A second attack was successful, and made him master of the place. In 1511 he took Malacca, and by his wise and just government did much to establish the power of the Portuguese there. He returned to Goa and defeated the former governor, who in his absence had endea- voured to recover possession. After a fruit- less attempt on Aden, he succeeded in taking Ormuz without fighting. The tidings of his recall to Europe reached him when in ill- health, and he died at Goa shortly after, in 1515. The Indians long remembered his just and humane rule, and used to go to his tomb to pray for help against the injustice of his successors. ALCHiUS, a Greek lyric poet, was born at Mitylene in the isle of Lesbos, and flour- ished about B. C. 600. He took an active part in the civil strife of his townsmen, and as an aristocrat w'as banished. It was for the purpose of preventing the return of AIcibus and other noble exiles that the sage Pittacus W'as made sovereign of Mitylene in B. c. 589. The odes of Alcaeus were greatly praised, but only a few fragments are ex- tant. Alcaeus is said to have been a lover of Sappho. ALCAMENES, a Greek statuary, who was the disciple and rival of Phidias. ALCIBIADES, the celebrated Athenian general and statesman, the son of Clinias, was born B. C. 450. He was handsome, rich, clever, and dissolute. He early beeame the disciple of Socrates, who took great pains to form his mind to the love of virtue, and he aeeompanied that philosopher on several military expeditions. At the siege of Poti- daea Socrates saved the life of his pupil, and at the battle of Delium Alcibiades saved the life of his master. In the Peloponnesian war, he was appointed to command with Nicias, in an expedition against Syracuse ; but before setting out, a charge was pre- ferred against him of impiety. One night all the Hermse, or half statues of Mercury, in Athens, were defaced and mutilated ; and information was given that thi<» sacrilege was the work of Alcibiades and hiw dissolute companions, in one of their frequent mo- ments of revelry and intemperance. For 19 ALc] IBiograpf)^. [ale this he was ordered home ; but, fearful of the consequences, he Avithdrew to Sparta, and stirred up the Lacedaemonians to de- clare war against Athens. He afterwards Avent over to the king of Persia, b)”^ whose interest he obtained his pardon and recall. He then commanded with success against the Lacedaemonians; and having compelled them to sue for peace, Avas received at Athens in triumph. The defeat of the Athenian fleet, by Lysander, Avhich took place in his absence, was unjustly attributed to Alcibiades, and he was deprived of his command. On this he retired into Thrace, and afterwards to a small town in Phrygia, where the house in which he resided was set fire to in the night, and Avhen he at- tempted to escape, he Avas slain by arrows, B. C. 404. ALCMAN, a Greek lyric poet, Avas a native of Sardis, and lived in the 7th cen- tury, B. C. He became a citizen of Sparta, Avrote songs and choruses, especially love- songs of a too licentious character, and died of the same foul disease as Sulla, the fruit of his corrupt life. Some fragments of his poems are preserved. ALCOCK, John, successively bishop of Rochester, Worcester, and Ely, founder of Jesus college, Cambridge, and of the gram- mar school at Kingston-upon-Hull, was a prelate distinguished for his love of learning and of learned men. His temporal honours kept pace with his ecclesiastical dignities ; Edward IV, conferring on him the pre- sidency of Wales, and the chancellorship of England. Died, 1500. ALCUIN, or Flaccus Albinus Alcui- NUS, a very celebrated scholar of the 8th century, and the friend of the Emperor Charlemagne, Avas born, probably at York, about 735. Early distinguished for his piety and learning, he Avas sent on a mission to Rome, and being introduced to Charlemagne Avhile in Italy, settled on his invitation in France. He earnestly supported the plans of his great master for the restoration of learning, and founded schools at several of the principal cities. In 796 he Avas made abbot of Tours, quitted the court, and de- voted himself to theology alone. His Avorks, including a large number of highly interest- ing letters, were published by Froben, in 1777, in 2 vols. folio. Died, 804. ALDEGRACF, a Westphalian, born in 1502, was both a painter and an engraver. His principal Avork is a large picture of the I Nativity. i ALDINI, A., nephew of Galvani ; born at Bologna in 1755 ; author of “ Essai Theorique sur la Galvanisme ; ” and “Account of late Improvements in Galvanism,” published in London. ALDOBRANDINI, CLEMENT. [CLE- MENT VIII.] ALDRED, archbishop of York in the 11th century, Avas bishop of Worcester in the reign of Edward the Confessor, and Avas employed in important negociations. In 1054 he Avas sent on an embassy to the Em- peror Henry III. ; four years later he made the pilgrimage to Jerusalem with great pomp ; Avas made Archbishop of York soon after his return; crowned Harold II. ; made his submission to William the Conqueror at Berkhamstead ; and the same year, 1066, crowned him at Westminster. Died, 1069. ALDRICH, Henry, born at AVestminster, 1647, and educated by Dr Busby. From AVestminster School he went to Christ Church, Oxford, and Avas elected student and afterwards canon and dean. He de- signed, it is said, the elegant chapel to Trinity College, and the beautiful church of All Saints. He had also great skill in music, and composed many services for the Church. Dean Aldrich wrote a System of Logic Avhich Avas used in the university, and died 1710. ALDRICH, Robert, bishop of Carlisle, was a native of Buckinghamshire, and Avas educated at Eton, of Avhich college he sub- sequently became master and provost. In 1537, he Avas made bishop of Carlisle; a station for which his learning and piety, which are extolled by Leland, well fitted him. Died, 1555. ALDROVANDUS, ULYSSES, an Italian naturalist, was born at Bologna in 1522. He became professor of Natural History at the uniA’ersity in 1560, and devoted his life and his fortune to the preparation of an im- mense Avork on his chosen study. He tra- velled, made large collections, and employed able artists to draw and engrave illustra- tions to his work, of Avhich four volumes, folio, Avere published in his lifetime. He was generously aided in his labours by the senate of Bologna, who also provided for the publication of the posthumous volumes. This great work is invaluable as a treasury of facts. Died, 1607. ALD U S MANUTIUS,or ALDO MANUZIO, a celebrated Italian printer and author of the 15th and 16th centuries, Avas born at Bassano, in 1447 ; became tutor to Alberto Pio, prince of Carpi ; and in 1488 established a printing- office at Venice. He printed numerous va- luable editions of Greek and Latin classics ; compiled Greek and Latin dictionaries and grammars ; and claimed to be the inventor of the Italic character, hence called Aldine, for the exclusive use of Avhich, for a term of years, he obtained a patent. The real honour of this invention more probably belongs to the great painter Francia, sometimes called Francisco da Bologna, Avho certainly cut the types for Aldus, and was unjustly prohibited from cutting them for other printers. Died, 1515.— PAOLO MANUZIO, son of the pre- ceding, distinguished as a c’assical scholar, no less than as a printer, .was born atA'enice in 1512, and diecfcD Slnibcrsnl 13iogrnp!)n. [ale Avas Ion" in established use in all the public schools of Europe. ALKSIO, MKITKO PerF-Z T»’, a painter and engraver at Home, wliose ti"urc of St Cliristopber, in fresco, in tlie preat church in Seville, is much admired. Died, 1000. ALESSI, Gai.f.azzo, architect, born at Perugia in 1500, whose Avorks are spread over Germany and the south of Europe ; but his fame principally rests on the monas- tery and church of the Escurial. Died, 1572. ALEXANDER THE GREAT, king of Macedonia, Avas the son of Philip, by Olym- pias, daughter of Ncoptolemus,king of Epi- rus, and Avas born B. C. 356 ; the same year in Avhich the temple of Diana at Ephesus Avas destroyed. Alexander received his education under Lysimachus and Aristotle, and gave several proofs of manly skill and courage Avhile very young; one of Avhich, the break- ing-in of his fiery steed, Eucephalus, is men- tioned by all his historians as an incident Avhich convinced his father of his uncon- querable spirit. Alexander Avas much at- tached to his mother, and sided Avith her in the disputes which led to her divorce from Philip. 'While the latter Avas making pre- parations for his grand expedition into Asia, he Avas assassinated by Pausanias; and Alexander succeeded to the throne in his 20th year. His j’outh at first excited an inclination in several of the states of Greece to throw off the yoke of the Macedonian usurpation ; but the hero soon quelled the design, and AA'as acknoAvledged general of Greece. He then marched into Thrace, and made several conquests. During his absence Thebes revolted ; and Avhen Alexander re- turned, he took that city by storm, made a dreadful carnage of the inhabitants, and destroyed all the buildings except the house of Pindar the poet. This severe example had its effect on the other states ; and even Athens distinguished itself by a servile submission to the conqueror. Alexander next turned his arms against Darius, king of Persia; and, at 22, crossed the Hellespont, at the head of 35,000 men. AVith this force he defeated the Persians at the Granicus, and made himself master of numerous to AA’ns. At Gordium, Avhere he assembled his army, he is said to haA'e cut the famous knot on Avhich the fate of Asia depended. Shortly after this, he again defeated the king of Persia near Issus, and took immense trea- sures and many prisoners; among AA’hoin* Avere the mother, wife, and children of Darius. This xictory Avas folloAved by the conquest of Phoenicia. Alexander next be- sieged Tyre, Avhich resisted him successfully for seven months, and, in revenge, he com- mitted horrible cruelties on the inhabitants. He then went, it is said, to Jerusalem, passed into Egypt, subdued it, and founded the city’ of Alexandria. Darius noAv collect- ed another army, Alexander rapidly march- ed to meet him, and the great contest took place at Gaugamela. Darius Avas defeated and fled, Alexander pursuing him as far as Arbela, distant 50 miles from the field of battle. This great battle Avas followed by the capture of Susa and PersepoliS; the palace of Persepolis Alexander is said to have destroyed at the instigation of his mis- tress. After pursuing Darius into the de- sorts of Parthia, marching into Ractria against Pessus, Avhom he put to death, and comi)leting the conquest of Sogdiana, he prepared for an expedition to India; and after a perilous march reached the Indus, B. C. 327, Avbich he crossed probably at the point Avbore the city of Attock now stands. Alexander received the submission of several of the petty princes of the country, but Avas opposed by Porus, avIio valiantly Avithstood him ; and, although conquered and made prisoner, he Avas restored to his dominions. The conqueror next entered the fertile plains noAv called the Punjab, took the city of Sangala, penetrated as far as the Hypha- sis, and Avas desirous of advancing still fur- ther; from Avhich object, hOAvever, he Avas diverted by the rainy season, and the dis- affection of his OAvn troops. He accordingly erected tAvelve altars of an extraordinary size to mark the limits of his progress, re- mains of Avhlch are said to be still in exist- ence. Alexander, therefore, retraced his steps to the Hydaspes, on the banks of Avhich he had built tAvo cities, Nicaea and Rucephala ; and embarked Avith his light troops on board a fleet he had constructed, leaA'ing the main army to march by land. After a seA'cre contest with the Mallii, in Avhich he Avas Avounded and his Avhole army nearly lost, he proceeded doAvn the river to ! Patala ; and having entered the Indian Ocean, and performed some rites in honour of Neptune, he left his fleet; giving oi’ders to Nearchus, Avho had the command, to sail to the Persian Gulf, and thence up the Tigris to Mesopotamia. Alexander then prepared to march to Pabylon, tOAvards which capital he proceeded in triumphal progress. At Susa he gave his army rest, and carried out one part of his great scheme for the permanent union of the conquerors and the conquered by intermarriage. The nuptial festival lasted five days, and the example set by Alexander in marrying Sta- tira, the daughter of Darius, Avas followed by about 80 of his generals, and 10,000 of his soldiers, Avho also took Asiatic Avives. At Susa too took place the burning of the In- dian philosopheTCalanus on the funeral pile. Having quelled a mutiny in his army, and dismissed 10,000 veterans Avho Avished to re- turn home, Alexander continued his march. At length he reached Babylon, where he began to make preparations for future un- dertakings of great magnitude ; Avhen he Avas seized Avith an illness, the effect of Avhich Avas probably aggraA’ated by depres- sion of spirits, and by intemperance, and died in the 13th year of his CA’cntful reign, and the 33rd of his life, B. C. 323. "When re- quired to name his successor, he is said to have replied, “to the most Avorthy.” Im- mediately before he died he gave his ring to Perdiccas. Pursuant to his OAA'n direction , his body" AA'as embalmed and conveyed to Alexandria. ALEXANDER SETERUS, Roman em- peror, Avas born at Arce, in Phcenicia, in 205. He Avas made Caesar in 221, and suc- ceeded Elagabalus in the follOAving year. The principal public event of his reign Avas the Avar Avith Artaxerxes, king of Persia, 21 ale] ^ ^Snibtrsal ISiograpl^p, [ale over whom he gained a great victory in person, and on his return to Rome was honoured with a triumph. He next march- ed against the Germans, who had invaded Gaul; and, while there, a sedition broke out in his army, headed by Maximin, and the emperor and his mother were murdered, A. I). 23.5. ALEXANDER III., Pope, succeeded Adrian IV. in 1159 ; was a pontiff of great ability, and deservedly popular with his objects. A rival pope was chosen, who took the title of Victor IV., and Alexander retired into France. Three other anti-popes were elected in succession under the sanc- tion of the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa ; but Alexander was at last reconciled with Frederick, and acknowledged sole pope. Becket was supported by this pontiff, and was canonized by him. It was Alexander III. who also canonized St Bernard. Died at Rome, 1181. ALEXANDER VI., BORGIA, Pope, was a Spaniard by birth, was created cardinal in 1455, at the age of 25, and in 1492 obtained by bribery his election to the papal chair, as successor to Innocent VIII. He was then living in adultery with Vanozza, a Roman lady, by whom he had several children, among them the too celebrated Lucretia, and the infamous Cmsar Borgia. He assumed to divide the Indies between the kings of Spain and Portugal; played a selfish and perfidious part in the wars of Italy and France, as well as in the government of his own states ; and after a career marked by all kinds of excesses and crimes, died, not without suspicion of poison, in 1503. ALEXANDER I., king of Scotland, son of Malcolm III., and Margaret, sister of Edgar Atheling, ascended the throne in 1107 ; and merited by the vigour and im- petuosity of his character, the appellation of The Fierce. He vigorously suppressed several insurrections which broke out in his kingdom, and successfully withstood the attempts of the English Archbishops to exercise jurisdiction in Scotland. He mar- ried one of the illegitimate daughters of Henry I. of England. Died, 1124. ALEXANDER II., son and successor of ■William the Lion, was raised to the throne of Scotland, 1214, being then in his 16th year. He aided the English barons against King John, but made peace with Henry III., whose sister Joan he married in 1221. He has the reputation of a singularly just and wise ruler. Died, 1249. ALEXAN^DER III., son of the preceding, succeeded him 1249, when only eight years of age. He married Margaret, daughter of Henry III. of England, and lived upon terms of close friendship with his father- in-law, whom, in his wars with the barons, he assisted with 5000 men. In his reign Scotland was invaded by Haco, king of Norway, but the invaders were defeated, peace was made, and Alexander gave his daughter in marriage to Eric the successor of Haco. The rest of his reign was peace- ful, and he carried on the plans of his father for the good administration of the laws. Alexander was accidentally killed in 1285. ALEXANDER, of Paris, a Norman poet of the 12th century, who wrote a metrical poem called “Alexander the Great,” in verses of twelve syllables, which measure has ever since been called “ Alexandrine.” ALEXANDER I., Newsky, grand duke of Russia, born 1218. The most noted action of his life was the great victory obtained over the Swedes, the Danes, and the Teutonic Knights, on the banks of the Neva. He also freed Russia from the tribute imposed by the Mongol sovereigns. Alexander Newsky is one of the saints of the Russian Church, and an order of knighthood was founded in his name by Peter the Great. Died, 1264. ALEXANDER, SOLOMON, bishop of Je- rusalem, was born of Jewish parents in the grand duchy of Posen, 1799. Very little is known of his youth and education ; but from his Hebraic and Talmudic acquire- ments he exercised the functions of Rabbi at a very early age. He was baptized in 1826, and his ordination by Dr Whately, and induction to a curacy in Ireland, shortly followed. He subsequently became a home missionary of the Society for the Propaga- tion of Christianity among the Jews, and professor of Hebrew in King’s College ; and after the mission of Chevalier Bunsen to London for the establishment of a Pro- testant bishopric at Jerusalem, he was con- secrated the first Protestant bishop of Jeru- salem in 1841. Bishop Alexander was sud- denly cut off during a journey to Cairo, on a mission of sympathy and good-will to the Egyptian Christians. Died, Nov. 23, 1845. ALEXANDER, SIR WILLIAM, earl of Stirling, a Scottish poet of the 17th cen- tury. He was author of four plays, which he named “ Monarchicke Tragedies,” and several poems ; pompous, heavy, and now unreadable productions, which nevertheless brought him much praise, and “ solid pud- ding ” too. For he became a favourite of James I. and Charles I., received a grant of Nova Scotia to colonize : was made secretary of state for Scotland, and extra- ordinary lord of session ; and obtained various other oflices and privileges. Died, 1640. ALEXANDER, WILLIAM, an ingenious artist, born at Maidstone, 1767. He came to London, and studied the fine arts with so much success, that he was selected to accom- pany the embassy of Lord Macartney to China. On his return, he published a splen- did work on the costumes of China; and, on the formation of the Royal Military College at Marlow, he was appointed drawing-mas- ter. At the time of his death, in 1816, he was assistant keeper of the antiquities at the British Museum. ALEXANDER 1., emperor of Russia and king of Poland, eldest son of Paul 1., was born Dec. 22, 1777 ; succeeded. March, 1801 ; and was crowned at Moscow, September following; when a ukase was published for diminishing taxes, liberating debtors, pro- hibiting prosecutions for the recovery of fines, discontinuing the mode of recruiting the army, and granting a free pardon to all deserters. In 1803, Alexander offered his mediation to effect a reconciliation between England and France ; and in 1805, a con- 22 alk] ilcto SJnibcrsal 30iograpf;r). [ale vcntion was entered into between Russia, Knf>:land, Austria, :ind Sweden, for the pur- pose of resisting the encroaeliinents of the Frencli on the territories of independent states. On the 2nd of December tlie battle of Austcrlitz took place, at which Alexander appeared at the head of 50,000 men, but was defeated, and compelled to retreat to his dominions. Ere long, however, he again ap- peared on the theatre of war, but the scene of it was changed to Poland. On December 26, 1806, was fought the battle of Pultusk ; and on the 7th and 8th of February, 1807, that of Eylau, neither of which engagements was decisive; but on the 14th of June the Russians were completely defeated at Fried- land by Napoleon. The result of this victory was an interview between the two emperors, which led to the treaty of Tilsit. The seizure of the Danish fleet by the English occasioned a declaration of war from Russia against this country ; but hostilities only extended to the cessation of trade between the two nations. A second meeting of the French and Russian sovereigns took place at Erfurt, Sept. 27, 1808; Buonaparte being anxious to secure the friendship of Alexander previously to his meditated subjugation of Spain. AVhile the former was engaged in this undertaking, the latter made himself master of the Swedish province of Finland, in 1809. The interruption of commerce with England now began to be severely felt by Russia, and Alexander determined to throw off the French yoke. On the 23rd March, 1812, an imperial ukase was issued, ordering a levy of two men out of every 500 through- out the Russian empire, and all matters of dispute with Great Britain were pacifically arranged. The invasion of Russia which followed, though the most important event in the reign of Alexander, is not one in ' which he was so far personally concerned as I to require a detailed relation here. On join- I ing his army in Poland, February, 1813, ! Alexander published the famous manifesto, ! which served as the basis of the coalition j of the other European powers against the I French emperor. Germany, and then France, j became the scene of hostilities ; and the cap- I ’ ture of Paris, April 30, 1814, was followed by i the abdication of Buonaparte, and the re- i storation of the Bourbons. After the con- clusion of peace, Alexander visited England, in company with the king of Prussia ; iyid, on his return to his own dominions, he em- ployed himself in ameliorating the internal condition of his empire. He obtained the duchy of Warsaw, and was recognized as king of Poland by the congress of Vienna. In November, 1815, he visited Warsaw, and there published a .‘constitution for the new kingdom annexed to his empire. His death took place at Taganrog, in the Crimea, Dec. 1, 1825 ; and he was succeeded by his second brother, Nicholas, the eldest brother, Con- stantine, resigning to him the right of suc- cession. Alexander was a sincere lover of peace; vigilant, brave, and active in war; tolerant in his religious pi inciples ; mild and amiable in private life, yet strict in the ad- ministration of public justice; a patron of literature and the arts ; and though as a monarch, ambitious of power, yet recog- 1 nizing the spirit of the age, and frequently acting in accordance with liberal princi- ples. ALEXIS :MlcnAELOVITSCII, czar of Rus- sia, born in 1630; succeeded his father Mi- chael in 1646; died, 1677. He M as the father of Peter the Great, and the first Russian monarch who acted on the policy of a more intimate connexion Mfith the other European states. ALEXIS Petrovitsch, only son of Peter the Great, born 1695. This unhappy prince opposed the new policy of his father, and expressed an unalterable attachment to the ancient barbarous usages and customs of his country ; for which the czar resolved to disinherit him. Alexis fled to his brother- in-laM", the emperor of Germany, and lay concealed for some time at Vienna, until his retreat was discovered by his father, before whom he M'as eonducted as a criminal, and compelled formally to renounce the succes- sion ; after this he was tried by secret judges, and condemned to death, 1718. He Avas found dead in the prison. ALEXIUS I., COMNENU3, emperor of the East, was the son of John Comnenus, and M’as born in 1048. He early distinguished himself as a soldier, and M hen his services to his predecessor, Botoniates, excited jeal- ousy, he revolted and got himself proclaimed emperor in 1081. He took Constantinople and gave it up to pillage. He carried on war with the Turks, and with the famous Robert Guiscard with various fortune. In 1096 the Crusaders passed through his do- minions, and the disorders W’hich they caused made them enemies as formidable as the Turks, from whom Alexius had hoped they would deliver him. He made a treaty with them and haatened their advance into Asia; but misunderstanding and mutual dissatis- faction prevailed. Alexis died, 1118. His life was Avritten by his daughter, Anna Comnena. ALEXIUS II., COHNENtJS, succeeded his father Michael on the throne of Constanti- nople, in 1180, Avhen only tAvelve years of age ; and, with his mother, Avas murdered tAvo years afterwards by Andronicus, w'ho usurped the crowm. ALEXIUS III., Angeles, emperor of the East, 1195, gained that station by the basest perfidy tow’ards his brother, Isaac Angelus, Avhom he confined in prison, and caused his eyes to be put out. His effeminate reign rendered him despicable, and his capital w'as besieged and taken, 1203, by an army of Venetian and French crusaders, headed by his nephew, Alexius, son of Isaac. The usurper received the same punishment he had inflicted on his brother, and died a feAV years afterwards in a monastery at Nice ; and the conqueror placed his blind father on the throne, with whom he reigned as Alexius IV. ; but his elevation Avas suc- ceeded by a rebellion, and he Avas deposed, imprisoned, and put to death, 1204. ALEXIUS V., DUCAS, surnamed MuR- ZUFFLE, from his black shaggy eyebrows, raised himself to the throne of the East, after the murder of Alexius IV. and his father, Isaac Angelus, but w’as deposed by the crusaders, who attacked and took his 23 alp] % ;0eto ©nitjcrsat [alg capital, and he was put to an Ignominious death. ALFIEUI, Yittopio, the Italian drama- tist, was born at Asti, in Piedmont, in 1749. He was placed in the college of Nobles at Turin, but appears to have made little pro- gress in learning there. Leaving the col- lege at 16 he led for some years a restless and dissipated life, travelling in Italy, France, England, Holland, and then through the countries of Northern Europe. A new epoch opened in his life in 1775, when he publis^ied his first drama, “ Cleopatra,” which was successful. Thenceforth he was a la- borious student and dramatic author, com- posed fourteen tragedies in seven years, studied Latin, and even at the age of 48 made himself master of Greek. At Florence he met the countess of Albany, wife of Prince Charles Edward, on whose death he married her. Alfieri was at Paris when the revolu- tion broke out, but after the 10th August, 1792, i*eturned to Florence. He worked haru to the last, and died in 1803. His remains were interred in the church of Santa Croce, and a monument by Canova was erected to him. Among his tragedies are “ Saul,” “Philip II.,” “Antigone,” “Virginia,” “Agamemnon,” “Mary Stuart,” &c. He wrote also several poems and prose treatises. ALFORD, MiCHaj:l, an English Jesuit, born in London, 1582. He died at St Omer’s, 1652, leaving behind him two celebrated works,” Britannia Illustrata” and“Annales Ecclesiastici et Civiles Britannorum.” ALFRED THE GREAT. This monarch was the youngest son of Ethel wolf, king of the West Saxons, and was born at Wantage, Berks, in 849. He was sent to Rome when, five years old, and three years later went again with his father and stayed a year. On the death of his brother Ethelred, Alfred succeeded to the throne of England, 871, in his 22nd year, at a time when his kingdom was a prey to domestic dissensions^ and to the invasions of the Danes, whom he en- gaged at Wilton and in several other battles during the first year of his reign, but was forced to conclude a treaty on disadvantage- ous terms. The Danes, however, continued to overrun the country, and conquered Mer- cia and Northumbria. Alfred defeated them at sea, in 875, again made peace with them in the following year, and in 877 recovered Exeter from them. Soon afterwards he re- tired to the island of Athelney, and there received information that one of his chiefs had obtained a great victory over the Danes, and taken their magical standard. Alfred is said to have disguised himself as a harper, entered the Danish camp, and gained a know- ledge of the state of the enemy. Quitting his retreat he besieged the Danes at Ethan- dune (Edington) and completely defeated them. Yet the terms of peace included the cession to them of a large part of the king- dom, and prepared the way for the enter- prise of Canute. The king Guthrun and his followers professed themselves Christians, and were baptized. Alfred now put his kingdom into a state of defence, increased his navy, and brought London into a flour- ishing state; but, after a rest of some years, an immense number of Northmen, undev the leadership of Hasting, landed in Kent, and fortified themselves at Appledore and Mil- ton ; they were, however, defeated by Alfred, at Farnham, Bemfleet, and Buttington. Thus he secured the peace of his dominions, and struck terror into his enemies, after 56 battles by sea and land, in all of which he Avas personally engaged. But the warlike exploits of Alfred formed, perhaps, the least of the services he rendered his country. He w’as so exact in his government, that rob- bery was unheard of. His great council, consisting of bishops, earls, aldermen, and thanes, Avas called togctlier twice a year in London, Oxford, or Gloucester, for the bet- ter government of the realm. The state of learning in his time was so Ioav, that, from the Thames to the Humber, scarcely a man could be found who understood the service of the church, or could translate a sentence of Latin into English. To remedy this evil, he invited men of learning from all quarters, and placed them at the head of schools in various parts of his kingdom. The laws published by Alfred Avere chiefly selections from those previously existing, those of Ethelbert, Ina, and Olfa. Alfred himself Avrote several Avorks, and translated others from the Latin, particularly the General History of Orosius and Boethius’s “ Consola- tions of Philosophy.” He divided the tw'enty-four hours into three equal parts, one devoted to the service of God, another to public affairs, and the third to rest and refreshment; his revenue, also, Avas diA'ided into tAvo equal moieties, one dedicated to sacred, the other to civil uses. To Alfred, England is indebted for the foundation of her fleet. To crown his great public charac- ter, Alfred is described as one of the most amiable men in private life; of a temper serene and cheerful, affable, kind, and not averse to society or to innocent recreation ; he was also personally well-favoured, pos- sessing a handsome and vigorous foi’m, and a dignified and engaging aspect. Died, Oc- tober, 901, and Avas buried at Winchester. We conclude our notice of this great man in the Avords of Sir James Mackintosh. “Al- though it be an infirmity of every nation to ascribe their institutions to the contrivance of a man rather than to the slow action of time and circumstances, yet the selection of Alfred by the English people, as the founder of all that Avas dear to them, is surely the strongest proof of the deep impression left on the minds of all of his transcendant wis- dom and virtue.” ALGARDI, Albssandeo, a Bolognese sculptor of the 17th century. He studied painting at first under the Caracci, but aban- doned it for sculpture. The first Avork by Avhich he distinguished himself Avas his mo- nument to San Filippo Neri. The most famous of his Avorks are his Attila and St Leo, the largest alto-relievo existing, his monument of Leo XI., and his group of the beheading of St Paul. The former tAvo are in St Peter’s at Rome, the latter at Bologna. Died, 1654. ALG AROTTI, Francisco, an emiimnt Ita- lian Avriter, born at Yonice, 1712. He Avas in- troduced at an early age to Frederick, croAvn prince of Prussia, aftei’Avards Frederick the 24 alii] iUffio Stiutjcrsal ll5{ogrnpI;r). [all Grout, who dclishtcd in his society, and maintained friendly relations Avith him till his death. Alfjarotti wrote “ Newtonianism for I.adies,” “ Letters on llnssia,” “ Letters on Painting,” and many other works on a great variety of subjects ; but they are now forgotten. Died, 17G4. ALn.\ZEX, an Arabian mathematician, Avho Avas the first that shoAved the import- ance of refraction in astronomy. He died at Cairo, in 1038. ALI, cousin, son-in-laAV, and vizier of Mohammed, and one of the main pillars of the new faith. He obtained the name of the Zion of God, always Victorious ; but Avas opposed in his succession to the caliphate by Omar and Othman, and retired into Arabia, and made a collection of the say- ings of the prophet. There he laid the foundation of a neAV sect, and, after the death of Othman, he Avas declared caliph, 655 ; but Avas murdered four years aftei’Avards in the mosque. ALI, vizier, nabob of Oude, was the adopt- ed son of the former nabob of Oude, Yusuf ab DoAvlah, Avho declared him successor. The English government, hoAvever, deposed him in favour of the brother of Yusuf, but settled on him a pension of £25,000. AVhile engaged Avith the agents of the East India Company, avLo had been sent to meet him at Penares for the purpose of making arrangements for his future residence, he gave a signal, on which his armed folloAvers rushed in and treacherously murdered the Company’s of- ficers. For a time he made his escape, but surrendered on condition that his lifeshould be spared. Died in prison, 1817, aged only 36. ALI BEG, a man of extraordinary learn- ing and attainments, born in Poland, of Christian pai’ents, but Avas kidnapped in his infancy by a horde of Tartars, who sold him to the Turks, in Avhose language and religion he Avas educated. His skill in languages procured him the post of chief interpreter to the gi’and signior ; Avhile his leisure hours AA'ere employed in translating the Bible and the catechism of the Church of England into the Turkish language. The Avork by Avhich he is principally knoAvn to Europeans is an account of the religious, ceremonies, &c., of the Turks. Died, 1675. ALI BEY. [BADIA, Domingo.] ALI BEY’", a Greek, son of a Natolian priest, born, 1728. He fell Avhen a child into the hands of robbers, Avho carried him *to Cairo, and sold him to Ibrahim, lieutenant of the Janissaries, Avho reared and adopted him. Ali soon rose to the rank of sangiak, or member of the council ; and Avhen his patron Avas assassinated by Ibrahim the Cir- cassian, he avenged his death, and sIcav the murderer Avith his oavu hand. This action raised him numcroxis enemies, and he Avas obliged to fly to Jerusalem, and thence to Acre: but in time he Avas recalled by the people, and, being placed at the head of the government, Egypt began to recover its for- mer splendour. In a battle fought against the troops of a rebellious Mameluke Ali Avas cut doAvn, after defending himself Avith des- perate valour, and died of his Avounds eight days afterwards, 1773. ALI PACHA (or, more correctly, Ali, pacha of Jannina), a bold, intelligent, and crafty Albanian, Avas born at Tepelini, in 1741. His father, an Albanian chief, died of grief, in consequence of being stripped of his territories ; but his mother, Avho Avas re- markable for energy of character, spirited up her son to assume the conduct of a pre- datory troop of his countrymen. With this band he committed so many depredations, that the adjacent tribes took up arms in their OAvn defence, and carried off his mother and sister, Avhom they treated Avith great cruelty. This roused the naturally im- placable temper of Ali, and he voAved the extermination of the whole race. He raised a body of 2000 men, assumed great authority, and Avreaked his vengeance upon the Suli- otes, Avhomhe treated Avith the most horrible barbarity. During fifty years of constant Avarfare he brought under his SAvay a Avide extent of territory, which the Porte sanc- tioned his holding, Avith the title of pacha. He received agents from foreign powers, and ultimately intrigued Avith England, France, and llussia. But the jealousy of the Porte Avas at length excited, and Hassan Pacha Avas sent to demand his head. On declaring his errand, Ali replied, “ My head is not to be delivered up so easily accompanying the Avords Avith a pistol-ball, Avhich broke his opponent’s thigh. He shot tAvo more dead upon the spot, but fell the same moment. His head Avas severed from his body, and sent to Constantinople, 1822. ALISON, Archibald, miscellaneous Avritcr, Avas born 1757. Educated at GlasgoAv and Oxford, he entei’cd into holy orders, and obtained successively liA'ings in Durham and at Edinburgh, his native town, Avhere he continued to officiate till 1831, Avhen a severe illness comi)elled him to relinquish all public duties. Mr Alison Avas one of the first mem- bers of the Pwoyal Society of Edinburgh ; and he was intimately associated Avith most of the men of genius and learning of the present century. His “Essay on the Nature and Principles of Taste ” passed through numer- ous editions, but having no solid Avorth its popularity Avas very short-lived Died, 1839. ALKMER, IILNRIK VAN, the reputed author of the first German A’^ersion of the Avorld-renoAvned apologue of “ Ileynard the Fox.” It is Avritten in Low German, and Avas printed at Lubeck in 1498. Its title is “ lleineke de Vos.” For a full account of this Avork, and of the controversy respecting its authorship, see Carlyle’s Essay on Early German Literature, Essays, vol. ii. p. 298, seq. ALLAN, David, a Scottish portrait and historical painter, born at Alloa, 1744. He studied at Home, and painted there several pictures, Avhich gained him some reputation. He dreAv and engraved illustrations to Ham- say’s poem the “ Gentle Shepherd,” Avhich became popular. He has been called, very unreasonably, the Scottish Hogarth. There are several engravings from his pictures. Died, 1796. ALLAN, George, F. A. S., son of the above, M. P. for the city of Durham, and a principal contributor to Nicholls’ Literary Anecdotes. Born, 1768 ; died, 1828. 25 all] ^ ^nitJtrsal 15iograpf)p* [alm ALLAN, Sir Wilmam, an eminent his- torical paniter, was born in Edinburgh in 1782. Of humble parentage, he at an early age showed a decided predilection for art ; and, when still a young man, he pursued his favourite study with equal enterprise and ability, visiting Morocco, Greece, and Spain, and penetrating the remote and semi-bar- barous terri tor i es of Russia an d Turkey ,tb at he might familiarize himself with the rude and picturesque aspects of human life there presented. “The Polish Captives, “The Slave Market at Constantinople,” and va- rious kindred subjects, testify to his skill in th is department of art ; but he did much also to illustrate the historic lore of hisown land, as bis vivid representation of Mary and Riz- zio, the Murder of Archbishop Sharpe, and the Battle of Waterloo, amply testily. He was an old and attached friend of Sir Walter Scott; and his amiable, unassuming man- ners, and his vast fund of anecdote, procured him general love and esteem He was elected RA. in 1835. In 1841 he succeeded Sir B- Wilkie as president of the Royal Scottish Academy.andwassooii afterwards knighted. Hied, 1850. ALLARD, Jean Francois, a French ge- neral officer, much distinguished duringthe Empire. On thefinal downfall of Napoleon, he entered, successively, the Egyptian and the Persian services, and at length became the confidential adviser of Runjeet-Singh, whosetroopshedisciplinedin theEuropean manner. Born, 1785; died, 1839. ALLATIUS, Leo, a Greek physician and man of letters, librarian of the Vatican at Rome, and professor in the Greek college there- Died, 1669, aged 83. ALLEGRAIN, Christopher Gabriel, an eminent French sculptor. Died, 1795. ALLEINE, Joseph, nonconformist minis- ter, known chiefly as tlie autlior of “An Alarm to Unconverted Sinners,” which has gone through numerous editions. Born in 1623, at Devizes ; died at Bath, 1688. ALLEN, John, M. D.. a distinguished writer on historical subjects, was born at Bedford, his father’s estate, near Edin- burgh, in 1771. He studied at Edinburgh, and took his degree in medicine in 1792. But his predilection for politics soon with- drew him from his medical pursuits; and he early connected himself with the move- ments for Parliamentary Reform, which commenced in Scotland at the outbreak of the French Revolution. In 1802, having been recommended to Lord Holland as a medical friend and companion, he accom- panied the noble lord and his family on suc- cessive tours through France, Italy, and Spam ; and thesimilarity of their tastes and opinions led to a lasting friendship between them, which death alone interrupted. On his return from the continent, he devoted himself to literary pursuits. The extent and variety of his attainments are shown in his numerous contributions to the Edinburgh Review, chiefly on subjects connected witli the British constitution, and with Frencli and Spanish history. But the most lasting monument to his literary fame is his valu able work called an “Inquiry into the Rise and Growth of the Royal Prerogative,” of which a second edition was published after his death. In 1811 he became warden, and in 1820 master, of Dulwich College ; but he continued to reside chiefly at Holland House, where the manliness, sincerity, and inde- pendence of his character, his kindly nature and extensive information, gained him the esteem of all who Avere admitted to that “Temple of Wit” and hospitality. Died, April 10, 1843. ALLEN, THOMAS, an eminent scholar in the reign of Elizabeth, considered the first mathematician of his day. Born, 1542 ; died, 1632. ALLEYN, Edward, a celebrated actor in the reigns of Elizabeth and James, and founder of Dulwich College, was born in London, 1566. He was the first master of his own college, and, dying in 1626, was buried in its chapel. ALLIX, Peter, a learned divine, born at Alenijon in France, 1631, Avas minister of the Heformed Church at Kouen and Charenton. On the repeal of the Edict of Nantes, he came to England, was created D.D. at Ox- ford, and made treasurer of the church at Salisbury. Died in London, 1717. ALLOHI, Alessandro, Florentine paint- er, born, 1535. He was the nepheAV and pupil of Angelo Bronzino, and distinguished himself as one of the anatomical imitators of Michael Angelo. He died in 1607. ALLOHI, Cristoforo, called also Bron- zino, the son of the above, Avas also an emi- nent painter, chiefly distinguished for his portraits and landscapes. Died, 1621. ALLSTON, AVashington, an American painter, born in 1779. At the age of 22 he visited England, and studied for several years at the Hoyal Academy. After a short visit to Paris he studied at Home, and did not return to America till 1809. He gained the friendship of many eminent men in England and France, among others, S. T. Coleridge, Leslie the painter. Lord Morpeth, and M. de Tocqueville. He Avas chosen A.H.A. in 1819. He Avas author of “ Hints to Young Practitioners on the Study of Landscape Painting.” Died, 1843. ALMAGRO, Diego D’, a Spaniard of Ioav origin, Avho accompanied Pizarro in the ex- pedition against Peru, in Avhich his valour, profligacy, and cruelty Avere equally dis- played. In 1525, he took Cuzco, the capital of Chili, by storm, and put Atahualpa, the last of the Incas, to a most cruel death ; but quarrelling Avith the brothers of Pizarro about the division of their spoil, a schism ensued, and Almagro Avas eventually taken prisoner and strangled, 1538. ALMAMUN, or ABDALLAH, caliph of Baghdad, son of Haroun al Haschid, born, 786, succeeded his brother Al Amin, 814, and died, 833. The reign of this caliph forms a very brilliant epoch in the history of the Saracens. Its glory Avas less of arms than of letters and arts. Almamun, Avho has been compared to Augustus, Leo X., and Louis XIV., promoted literature and science by founding universities and colleges, collecting learned men at his court, procuring the works of Greek philosophers and poets, and having translations made of them, and di- recting the compilation of valuable Astro- 2(i alm] 'a Slnii3crsal 13iogrt'ipf;p. [alp noniical Tables, He went so far in his pas- sion for Icarninf^ as to go to war with tlu' Kinperor Thcophilus for refusing to allow the learned Leo, archbishop of Thessalouica, to go to Haghdad. ALMANSUll, Anu GlAFAR, second caliph of the dynasty of the Abbasides, succeeded his brother Abul Abbas in a. d. 754. He made war on his uncle Abdallah, who claimed the caliphate, but was defeated by Abu Moslem, general of Almansur. The victorious general, who "was enormously rich and haughty, was soon after murdered hy order of his sovereign. In 762 Almansur, having destroyed the cities of Ctesiphon and Seleucia on the Tigris, founded Haghdad and made it the seat of the caliphate. Two years later he got Abdallah treacherously into his power, and had him murdered. Died near alecca, 775. Abu Giafar was the first caliph who promoted literature, and thus led the Avay to the glorious reigns of Harun Al- raschid and Al-mamun. ALMANSUR, Ahp MOHAMMED, regent of the kingdom of Cordova, and one of the most famous captains of his age, was born in An- dalusia about A. D. 939. He was educated at Cordova, and soon distinguished himself as a brave soldier, acquiring thus his sur- name Almansur, the Victorious. His talents raised him to the dignity of grand chamber- lain to A1 Hakem II., on whose death, 976, he was appointed guardian to the infant caliph and regent of the kingdom of Cor- dova. He was virtually absolute sovereign for 23 years, was continually engaged in war, and though he undertook above 50 expeditions against the Christian princes of Spain, was only once defeated. He defeated Bermuda, king of Leon, and took Simancas ; won a victory over Borel, count of Barce- lona, and burnt his capital; took Sepulveda and Zamora; completed the conquest of Castille by a great victory over Count Garcia, 1 and that of Leon by the storming of the capital after a long siege; invaded Portugal and took Coimbra, Braga, and other cities; entered Galicia, took Compostella, and pil- laged the famous church of Sant-Iago, and appeared on the point of becoming master of all Spain, when the kings of Leon and Na- varre and the count of Castille combined against him, and totally defeated him at the great battle of Calatanazor, A. D. 998. The chagrin which he experienced at thi,s his first personal defeat is said to have caused his death soon after. Almansm* was dis- tinguished as the patron of letters, arts, and sciences. ALMANSUR II., JACOB, caliph of the Almohades, and the greatest prince of that dynasty, succeeded his father Joseph on the throne of North Africa and Mohammedan Spain in 1184. He led back the army from Portugal into Africa, and was for sevex’al years occupied in suppressing revolts among his subjects. In 1194 he led his army back to Spain, and gained in the following year the memorable victory of Alarcos over Al- fonso III., king of Castille. He took several cities, and erected some fine monuments at Seville and other places. On his return to Africa he tarnished his reputation by an act of perfidy towards the governor of Morocco, and soon after retired from the government and died in obscurity in 1199. ALMEIDA, PUANCISCO, appointed, in 1505, the first Portuguese viceroy of India. His government of the colonies was firm and wise, and he successfully opposed the sultan of Egypt and other enemies of the Portuguese power in India. When Albuquerque was sent out to supersede him, Almeida resisted and imprisoned him ; but after a few months released him, resigned his viceroyalty, and embarked for Portugal. He was killed on his return in a quarrel Avith the natives at the Cape, in 1509. ALMEIDA, Lorenzo, son of Francisco, Avas also an enterprising commander and navigator, and distinguished himself by many expeditions in the Indian seas. Ceylon Avas by him made tributary to Portugal. Lorenzo lost his life in an engagement Avith the Egyptian fleet in the bay of Cambaya. ALOMPRA, the founder of the Burman empire, a man of obscure birth, but avIio raised himself to independence andsovereign power, and established a neAv dynasty about the middle of the 18th century. ALOYSIUS GONZAGA, ST, Jesuit, born at Castiglione in 1568, Avas taken by his father to the court of Spain, but quitted it, and entered the Society of Jesus. He died of the pestilence AA'hich desolated Rome in 1591. Thirty years after his death he Avas beatified by Gregory XV., and was canonized by Benedict XIII. in 1726. ALP-ARSLAN, sultan of the Seljukide Tui’ks, Avas born about 1030, became govern- or of Khorassan, and succeeded his uncle, Togrul Beg, in 1063. He had for his grand A'izier Nizam-al-Mulk, Avho by his Avise ad- ministration did so much for the interior improvement of the empire. Alp - Arslan distinguished himself as a conqueror, and after great successes, made Avar on the em- peror of the East. After being several times defeated by Romanus, he at last took him prisoner in 1071. In the folloAving year he invaded Turkestan, but Avas assassinated by the governor of the fort of Berzem, Avhich he had just taken. Died, 1072. ALPHONSO I., HENRIQUEZ, first king of Portugal, succeeded his father, Henry of Bui’gundy, as count of Portugal in 1112, his mother Theresa for some years sharing the sovereignty. He carried on Avar Avith the king of Castille, and next Avith the Moors, and in 1139 he obtained a great victory over five Moorish kings. Soon after this Auctory he Avas proclaimed king by the army, a title Avhich Avas confirmed by the states, Avho at the same time settled the laAv of succession. War being reneAved Avith the Moors, Al- phonso tonk Lisbon from them, Avith the aid of a body of crusaders, about 1148, and made it the capital of his kingdom. He Avas un- successful in his attempts on Leon and Es- tremadura. In 1184 he took part Avith Saucho, his son, in the relief of Santarem, then besieged by the Moors, from whom he had taken it about 40 years before. Died, 1185. ALPHONSO III., the Great, king of Oviedo, succeeded his father Ordogno at the age of 18, in 866. He aa'us engaged in almost constant Avarfare Avith the Moors, and gained 27 alp] iEeJu ^^nibcrsal 36iograpI)p. [alt a great many victories over them. He ac- quired part of Portugal and of Old Castille, suppressed the frequent revolts of his own subjects, especially one headed by Garcia, his eldest son, and in 910 abdicated the crown. He afterwards made war on the Moors, whom he defeated, and died at Za- mora, 912. ALPHOXSO IV., snrnamed the Prave, king of Portugal, w’as the son of King Henis, the Liberal, whom he succeeded, 1325. He was an able sovereign and a brave soldier. He distinguished himself in the wars against the Moors, especially at the great battle of \ Salado, fought in 1340. His memory is stained hy his unjust treatment of his na- tural brother, and his cruel murder of Inez de Castro, Avhom his son Pedro had married against his father’s will. Alphonso reigned 32 years, and died, 1357. ALPHONSO V., surnamed the Magnani- mous, king of Arragon, born, 1384 ; succeed- ed his father, Ferdinand the Just, 1416, as king of Aragon and Sicily, and subsequently, on the death of Joanna, queen of Naples, obtained the crown of Naples. His claim was however resisted for several years by Ilcn6 of Anjou. Alphonso died at Naples, 1458, leaving his Neapolitan dominions to his natural son Ferdinand, and those of Spain, Sardinia, and Sicily to his brother Juan, king of Navarre. This monarch was accounted the most accomplished prince of his time: he gave shelter to the Greek lite- rati expelled from Constantinople, and was in other respects a great patron of learning. ALPHONSO X., surnamed the "Wise and the Astronomer, king of Castille and Leon, was born in 1221, and succeeded his father, Ferdinand III., in 1252. He gained many victories over the Moors, was a competitor in 1257 with Richard, earl of Cornwall, for the imperial dignity, and, though unsuccess- ful, assumed the title of emperor, which he was compelled to renounce in 1274, in favour of Rudolph of Hapsburg ; entertained Ed- Avard, Prince of SVales, and gave him in marriage his half-sister Eleanor in 1254 ; distinguished himself by his love of science, and had the famous Alphonsine Tables pre- pared ; published the collection of LaAvs called “ Las Siete Partidas ; ” ordered the Aise of the A'ulgar tongue in public acts ; and had a translation of the Bible published. These services he rendered to his country, notAvithstanding that so large a part of his reign Avas troubled by Avars Avith the Moors, revolts of his subjects, and civil Avars re- specting the succession. Died, 1284. ALPINI, Prospero, a Venetian physi- cian, born, 1552, and died, 1617. He Avas the greatest botanist of his day, the first Avho explained the generation of plants by the sexual system, and is the author of many valuable Avorks on his favourite pursuit. ALSTON, Charles, an eminent Scotch physician and botanist; author of “Tiroci- j nium Eotanicum Edinburgense,” &c. ; and public lecturer at Edinburgh. Born, 1683 ; died, 1760. ALSTROEMER, JOXAS, a distinguished SAvede, born of poor parents in West Goth- land, in 1685. After struggling Avith poverty for a long time, he visited London, and pay- ing particular attention to the commercial and manufacturing sources of British pros- perity, he returned to SAveden in 1723, re- solving to carry the plans he had formed into execution. IlaAung obtained a license to establish manufactures in the tOAvn in Avhich he Avas born, it soon became the seat of industry and activity, Avhich afforded an example to the Avhole kingdom. He estab- lished a sugar house at Gottenburg, and traded to the Indies and the Levant; im- proved rural economy; cultivated plants proper for dyeing; and improved the avooI trade by importing sheep from Spain and England, and the goat from Angora. For these important benefits Alstroemer received a patent of nobility, Avas made Knight of the Polar Star, and honoured Avith the title of Chancellor of Commerce ; the Academy of Sciences chose him a member, and the na- tional states decreed him a statue, to be erected to his memory on the exchange of Stockholm. Died. 1761. ALTDORFER, or ALTORF, ALBERT, Bavarian painter and engraA'er. He Avas a native of Altdorf, but settled in early life at Ratisbon (Regensburg). One of the most remarkable of his paintings is the Battle of Arbela, noAv in the Picture Gallery at Mu- nich. As an engraver on Avood Altdorfer almost riA'als Albert Diirer. He executed also many engravings on metal. Born, 1488 ; died, 1538. ALTEN, General CHARLES, count, a brave and experienced officer, Avas born at \Vilken- burg, at Hanover, in 1764, and in 1781 re- ceived his commission as ensign in the foot- guards of the electorate. After taking part in the operations of 1793, against the revo- lutionary troops of France, he Avas made colonel of the king’s German legion in 1803, and from that time till the end of the Avar he Avas almost constantly on service. He Avas at the taking of Copenhagen, and after- Avards served under Sir John Moore as a brigadier-general in the fatiguing and ardu- ous duties of the disastrous campaign Avhich ended in the battle of Corunna. At Val- cheren also, and at the siege of Flushing, he distinguished himself; and on his return to England, in 1810, he Avas promoted to the rank of major-general, and placed in com- mand of the south-Avest district. From this station, hOAvever, he Avas speedily remoA'cd, his brigade being destined for the operations of the Peninsula, Avhere he served under Marshal Beresford at the first siege of Bada- joz, and at Albuera. In 1812, Wellington placed him at the head of the light division, Avhich he commanded in the general actions of Salamanca, Vittoria, Pyrenees, Nivelle, Nive, Ortlies, and Toulouse. Like that of many of his brave compeers, his actiA'e duty closed Avith the battle of Waterloo; and his services at the head of the third division, during the memorable 16th, 17th, and 18th of June, Avill ever be classed among the most devoted and glorious on military record. He Avas noAv created a count; and Avhen re- covered from the dangerous Avounds he had received, he took the command of the Hano- A-^crian troops forming part of the army of occupation in France. In 1831, Count Alton Avas nominated one of the ministers of state, ALu] '51 Jlclja Sliuticrsal 3Biogrnpf)U. [alv and placed at the head of the wai dopart- nirnt in Hanover. This appointment lie liold till his death, which took place in April, IS-to. ALUllED, an ancient English historian, Avho flourished in the beginning of the 12th century. His annals comprise the history of tlie Hrilons, Saxons, and Normans, down to his own time, 1129. ALVA,or AI.BA, FERDINAND ALVARF.Z DE Toledo, duke of, the greatest general of his age and the cruel governor of the Netherlands under Philip II. of Spain, was born in 1508. He was present at the battle of Pavia, at the siege of Tunis, and at the atDick on Algiers. He defeated and made prisoner the elector of Saxony at the battle of Miihlberg, in 1547, and assisted at the siege of Metz. In 1555 he was sent, with the tide of vicar-general of the dominions of Austria in Italy, to oppose the Frencli there, and to invade the states of the Church. But he was compelled to make peace and beg the Pope’s pardon. The duke of Alva took part in the conference of Bay- onne between the queen of Spain and Charles IX. of France, and Catherine de Medicis, re- specting the destruction of the Huguenots in France. He is, however, chiefly notorious for the merciless rigour with which he exer- cised his dictatorial power in the Nether- lands, where he Avas sent, in 1567, to carry out the plans of Philip II. Alarm droA’emany thousands out of the country, the prince of Orange became head of the patriots, and civil Avar broke out. Counts Egmont and Horn Avere beheaded, a “ Council of the Tu- mults ” Avas established, cities Avere fortified, and prisons crammed Avith victims. Alva’s enormous pride Avas shoAvn in the erection of a statue of himself in the citadel of AntAverp, Avith nobles and people at his feet, and a lying, insulting inscription to his praise. His fortune changed, and by his own wish he Avas recalled in 1573. Under his rule 18,000 persons had been sent to the scaffold, and a revolt Avas provoked Avhich only ended, after nearly 40 years of Avar, in the independence of the United Provinces. After a temporary disgrace and exile, Alva AA'as called to com- mand in Portugal, and rapidly conquered it. It is said that in 60 years of Avarfare he Avas never beaten nor surprised. Died at Lisbon, 1582. ALVARADO, PEDRO, one of the Spanish conquerors of Mexico. He Avas born at Badajoz ; accompanied Grijalva to Central America in 1518, and in the folloAving year took part in the expedition of Cortez. He was present at all the battles of the cam- paign, and greatly contributed to its success. He enjoyed the confidence of Cortez, and Avas charged with the command of the city of Mexico and the care of Montezuma during the absence of his chief. A severe conflict occurred on that occasion betAveen the Span- iards and the citizens, but it is uncertain Avhich side was at fault. Alvarado Avas rest- less and enterprising, subdued Guatemala and other provinces, Avas made governor of Guatemala, and afterAvards of Honduras, led an expedition across the Andes to Quito, and met Almagro, the general of Pizarro, atRio- bamba, Avhere instead of fighting, they made terms, and Alvarado returned. He explored California, and Avas killed soon after his re- turn in an expedition against the Indians of Xalisco, in 1511. ALVARADO, Alpiionso D’, a Spanish adventurer, avIio accompanied I’izarro in his expedition to Pern; and Avho Avas equally distinguished for his bravery and his cruelty. Died, 1553. ALVAREZ DE I.UNA, a Spanish states- man, the favourite and first minister of John II., king of Castille. He Avasborn about 1388, held the office of chamberlain more than 40 years, Avas named constable in 1423, and ex- ercised a complete ascendancy over the mind of the king. Jealousy of his poAver led to the formation of plots against him, and on tAvo occasions he Avas exiled, but Avas soon recalled. The king at last, instigated by his young queen, consented to the arrest and trial of his minister, Avho Avas convicted and beheaded at Valladolid in 1453. ALVAREZ, Francisco, a Portuguese di- vine, born at Coimbra toAvardsthe end of the 15th century, and died, probably 1540, leaving behind him in Portuguese an account of his embassy to David, king of Abyssinia, and a description of Ethiopian manners and cus- toms, Avhich had the merit of being the first, but not that of being an accurate account of Abyssinia, by a European. ALVAREZ, Mangel, a Spanish sculptor, born in 1727. He studied at Salamanca, his native place, and aftei’Avards at Madrid, exe- cuted many AA'orks in those cities, at Toledo, Saragossa, &c., became director of the Aca- demy and sculptor to the king, and died in 1797. ALVAREZ, Don Jose, one of the most eminent sculptors of the 19th century, Avas born near Cordova, in Spain, 1768. Patronised by Charles IV., he proceeded to Paris in 1799, Avith a vieAv of prosecuting his stuaies ; and he soon gained himself a name in the French metropolis. Napoleon presented him with a gold medal ; but his subsequent conduct tOAvards Spain inspired the artist Avith such aversion for him, that he Avould never model his bust ; and he afterAvards Avas imprisoned for refusing to take the oath of allegiance to Joseph Buonaparte, Avhen pro- claimed king of Spain. Many of his best Avorks are at Madrid. Died, 1827. ALVENSLEBEN, PHILIPP Karl, Count of, son of a counsellor of Avar at Hanover, Avas a distinguished diplomatist, in the service of Frederic the Great and his successor. After being employed for many years as diplomatic agent betAveen the court of Prussia and the electoral court of Bavaria, he Avas sent am- bassador to France, to Holland, and, in 1789, to England. The follOAving year he Avas re- called to Berlin, and Avas placed at the head of the department for foreign aflfairs. The count Avrote an account of the Avar from the Peace of Munster to that of Hubertsbourg. Born, 1745; died, 1802. ALVIANO, BARTOLOMEO, an eminent Venetian general, Avhose exertions against the emperor Maximilian, in 1508, caused the republic to decree him triumphal honours. In the siege of Padua by the emperor, and at the battles of La Motte and Marignano, Alviano displayed the most heroic qualities. His death Avas occasioned by excessive fa- 29 aly] ^nib^rsal ISiograpf)^. [amb ti"ue Avhile laying siege to Brescia. Born, 1455 ; died, 1515. ALYPIUS, bishop of Tagasta, Africa, and the friend of St Augustine, with whom he was baptized at Milan, in 388, He opposed the Donatists and Pelagians with great zeal; and died after 439. AMADEUS Y., count of Savoy, succeeded to the sovereignty of that state, 1285, to the exclusion of his nephew Philip, the lawful heir. He carried on wars with several of the neighbouring states successfully, but when Philip reclaimed the sovereignty he was compelled to treat with him. Through the mediation of Edward I., of England, a division of the duchy was made between the two claimants. Amadeus afterwards took part in most of the v/ars and negotiations of France. He acquired the surname of Great from his wisdom and success, and, after a reign of 38 years, died at Avignon, 1323. AMADEUS VIII., the Peaceful, count and first duke of Savoy, was born in 1383, suc- ceeded his father, Amadeus VII., in 1391, extended his dominions, and received the title of Duke from the emperor Sigismimd in 1417. He lost his duchess In 1428, and six years later he retired to the priory of Ripaille, which he had founded, resigned the sove- reignty, and led an easy, and some say a vo- luptuous, life, in company with several of his friends. On the deposition of Pope Eu- genius IV., Amadeus was chosen to succeed him, and took the name of Felix V. The schism thus caused lasted ten years, and ended with the second retirement of Ama- deus in 1440. Died at Geneva, 1451. AMADEUS IX., the Blessed, duke of Sa- voy, was born in 1435, and succeeded his father Louis in 1465. He was feeble in health and in mind, and the regency was intrusted to his duchess Yolande, daughter of Charles VII. of France. A civil war took place, and the duchess was imprisoned, but she was restored to the government. Amadeus was famed for his benevolence and care for the poor. Died, 1472. AMALASONTHA, regent and queen of Italy, was the daughter of Theodoric the Great, and the niece of Clovis. She was dis- tinguished for her beauty, energy of charac- ter, and accomplishments. On the death of Theodoric she became regent and guardian of her son Athalaric, whose education she carefully conducted. Impatient of restraint, he broke away from her, and indulging in sensual pleasures, died at sixteen. She then shared the crown with her cousin Theodatus, and was murdered by him in 535. AMARA-SINGHA, a Hindoo author of a dictionary or vocabulary, in verse, of the Sanscrit language. An entire manuscript copy is in the royal library at Paris. An edition of this wmrk was published, with notes, by Colebrooke, in 1808. The age in which the author lived is quite unknown. AMATI, Andrea and Niccolo, brothers, were celebrated violin-makers, and lived at Cremona, about 1550. They were employed by Charles IX. of France. Several others oi the same family distinguished themselves in the same way. AMATUS, a Portuguese Jew, born, 1511, at Castel Bianco. He studied medicine with success at the university of Salamanca, and afterwards gave lectures at Ferrara, Ancona, and other places. For many years he con- cealed his religion, but at length falling un- der the suspicion of the Inquisition, he es- caped to Thessalonica, and there avowed himself a Jew. He attended Pope Julius III. on several occasions. He published two me- dical treatises, which were long held in great estimation. AMAURY I., king of .Terusalem, succeeded his brother, Baldwin III., in 1162. He was chiefly engaged in wars with the Saracens, from whom he endeavoured to take Egypt. In 1168, in violation of a treaty with the caliph, he invaded Egypt, took Belbeis, and threatened Cairo ; but the destruction of the fleet, sent to his aid by the emperor of the East, compelled him to return. He soon after renewed the invasion, and unsuccessfully besieged Damietta. Saladin in his turn in- vaded the kingdom of Jerusalem, and took Gaza. Died, 1173. AMBERGER, CHRISTOPH, a painter of Niirnberg in the 16th century, was a disci- ple of Hans Holbein. His principal work is the history of Joseph, in twelve pictures. Amberger was called to Augsburg in 1530 by Charles V., who highly esteemed him, and there it is supposed that he died, between 1560—1570. AMBOISE, George d’, a French cardinal and minister of state, born of a noble family, 1460. He became successively bishop of Montftuban, archbishop of Narbonne, and of Rouen. Louis XII. made him prime minis- ter, and he soon acquired great popularity by taking off the taxes which had been usually levied on the people at the accession of, every new monarch. The king, by his advice, undertook the conquest of the Milan- ese, in which he succeeded. Soon after this, he was appointed the pope’s legate in France, with the dignity of cardinal, and in that ca- pacity effected a great reform among the religious orders. He died in 1510. AMBOISE, Amery D’, a famous French admii’al, and brother of the above, wiio gained a splendid victory over the sultan of Egypt, in 1510. AMBROGIO, Teseo, one of the most cele- brated among the early Italian orientalists, was born at Pavia, in 1469, and died, 1540. Leo X. appointed him professor of Syriac and Chaldee at Bologna. AMBROSE, St, bishop of Milan, was born about 340, in Gallia Narbonensis, of which province his father was pi’aetorian prefect. While yet a youth he pleaded causes with so much eloquence, that Pi’O- bus, prefect of Italy, chose him one of his council, and afterwards nominated him governor of Liguria, which office he held five years. In 374, Auxentius, bishop of Milan, died ; and so fierce was the contest in the election of a successor to the vacant see, that the governor was called upon to quell the tumult. This he attempted by persua- sion in the great church ; and at the con- clusion of his address, a voice in the crowd exclaimed, “Ambrose is bishop.” This cir- cumstance was considered as a divine direc- tion, and Ambrose was declared to be the object not only of the popular choice but of 30 amb] iUcto Slnibcrsal HjiogKnpIjij. [amh divine selection. His first efforts were directed to the cxtcrininntion of Ariiinisni, wliich was then inakiiif' f^rcat profjress. He also snccessfully resisted the l’af?ans, who were attempting to restore their ancient worship. 'When Maxiininus invaded Italy, and actually entered Milan, Ambrose re- mained at his post, to assuage the calamities produced by the invading army. "When, in consequence of a tumult at Thessalonica, Theodosius sent an order for a general mas- sacre, Ambrose w'ent to the emperor, re- monstrated w'ith him on his barbarity, and prevailed on him to promise that the com- mand should be revoked. The mandate was, how'ever, carried into execution, and 7000 persons w'ere slaughtered in cold blood. Shortly afterwards, when Theodosius was about to enter the great church of Milan, Ambrose met him at the porch, and sternly forbade him to appear in the holy place. The emperor pleaded the example of David : — “ You have imitated David in his crime, imitate him in his repentance,” was the re- ply; and Theodosius was excluded from the services of the church for eight months, and then was compelled, not only to perform penance, but to sign an edict, which ordain- ed that an interval of thirty days should pass before any sentence of death or of con- fiscation should be executed. The works of St Ambrose are numerous, and fill 2 vols. folio. He died at Milan, in 397. AMBllOSIUS AURELIANUS, king of the Britons. He came from Armorica to assist in expelling the Saxons, w'ho had been in- vited over by Yortigern ; and on the death of that monarch the sovereignty was vested in him. Died, at "Winchester, in 508. AMEILHOX, Hubert Pascal, a learned Frenchman, born, 1730; author of “ His- toire du Bas Empire,” of a celebrated work on the Commerce of the Egyptians, and of “ Researches into the Meclianical Arts of the Ancients.” Died, 1811. AMELIA, duchess dow'ager of Saxe-Wel- mar. [SAXE-WEIMAR.] AMELOT DE LA HOUSSAYE, XlCOLAS, a French historian of the 17th century. He resided for some time at Venice, as secretary to the French embassy, and wrote a his- tory of its government. He also translated the “Prince” (by Machiavel) and other Italian works into French. Died, 1706 AMERBACH, J OHAKN , a celebrated print- er of Basel, in the 15th century ; the first w^io used the Roman type instead of Gothic and Italian. He was a man of learning, piety, and wealth, and spared no labour or expense in the production of his edition, the first published, of the complete works of St Augustine. He had previously published the works of St Ambrose, and afterw'ards undertook the preparation of those of St Jerome; which appeared after his death under the care of his sons. Died, 1515. AMERBACH, BONIFACE, son of the above, syndic of Basel ; he w’as an intimate friend of Erasmus, and was for 20 years professor of jurisprudence at Basel, and died, 1562. AMERIGO VESPUCCI, an eminent navi- gator, was born at Florence in 1451. After receiving a liberal education he was sent by his father to Spain for the purpose of con- ducting his commercial affairs ; and, being at Seville when Columbus was making pre- parations for his second voyage, he resolved to quit mercantile pursuits, and enter on the career of discovery. His first expedition to the new continent was in 1499, under the command of Ojeda, a year after the dis- covery and examination of that part of the eoast by Columbus. After this he entered the service of King Emanuel of Portugal, and made two voyages in I’ortuguese ships ; the first in 1501, the second in 1503. The object of this last voyage was to find a westerly passage to Malacca. He arrived at Brazil, and discovered the Bay of All Saints. In 1505 he again entered the service of the king of Spain, but made no more voyages, as appears from memoranda, showing that he was at Seville till 1508, at which time he was appointed principal pilot. His dvities were to prepare charts, and prescribe routes for vessels in their voyages to the new world, which soon received his name. This honour eertainly belonged to Columbus rather than to Amerigo, for the prior discovery of the continent by the former is not to be ques- tioned. He died at Seville in 1512. AMES, JOSEPH, the celebrated historian of British typography, was born at Yar- mouth, 1689, and died, 1759. His father ap- prenticed him to a plane-maker in London ; and, after serving out lus time, he became a ship-chandler at AVapping, which business, notwithstanding his antiquarian pursuits, he carried on until his death. He early dis- covered a taste for English history and anti- quities ; and brought out, in 1749, after the labour of many years, “ Typographical An- tiquities ; being an historical account of printing in England, with some memoirs of our ancient printers, and a register of the books printed by them from 1471 to 1600; with an appendix concerning printing in Scotland and Ireland to the same time.” It was a laborious compilation, hut deficient in point of learning. By the labours of subsequent editors the work, at first pub- lished in one vol. 4to, has been improved and extended to 4 vols. 4to. Ames wrote several other works, among which is “ Pa- rentalia ; or Memoirs of the Family of YVren.” He was F. R. S. and F. S. A., and for many years filled the ofiSee of secretary to the Society of Antiquaries. AMHERST, JEFFERY, Lord, a distin- guished Bi’itish officer, was descended from an ancient Kentish family, near Sevenoaks, where he was born, 1717. He entered into the army in 1731, and became aide-de-camp to Lord Ligonier, with whom he served at the battles of Rocoux, Dettingen, and Fon- tenoy. In 1758 he was sent to America, where he captured Louisbourg, and all its dependencies in the Gulf of St Lawrence. This was followed by the reduction of Fort du Quesne, Niagara, and Ticonderoga, which paved the way for the entire conquest of Canada. For these services General Am- herst received the thanks of parliament, and the order of the Bath. In 1763 he was made governor of V irginia ; and, in 1776, created Baron Amherst. In 1795 he resigned the commandership-in-chief to the Duke of York, and the following year received 31 n ~~~ AMii] % JletD ^nibersal IBiograpI)^. the rank of field-marshal. He died in 1797. AMHURST, Nicholas, an Enslish poli- tical and miscellaneous writer, horn at Har- den, Kent, and died 1742. He was author of the “ Terrm Eilius,” a satirical work on the university of Oxford; and published, with the assistance of Pulteney and Lord Eoling- broke, the Avork by which he is most known, entitled “ The Craftsman.” AMIGONI, Giacomo, a Venetian histori- cal and portrait painter, who visited Eng- land in 1729. He afterwards went to Spain, was appointed portrait painter to the king, and died there, 1752. AMIOT, Father, one of the most learned of the French missionaries to China, born at Toulon, 1718, and died at Pekin, 1794, aged 77. This zealous Jesuit, avIio arrived at Macao in 1750, was invited to Pekin in 1751, by the emperor of China, and remained in that capital 43 years. Ey continued appli- cation he became acquainted Avith the Chinese and Tartar languages ; and, fi'om time to time, remitted to France the result of his labours, Avhich afterAvards appeared in sevpral publications. AMMAN. There were three noted phy- sicians of this name. The first, John Con- rad, a native of Schaffhausen, Avas born, 1G(J9, and died, 1724, at Marmund, in the Netherlands. He Avas chiefly distingxiished by his success in teaching persons born deaf and dumb to speak.— His son, JOHN, Avas a felloAv of the Royal Society of London, and a member of the Academy of Sciences of Petersburg, Avhere he lectured on botany, and acquired great reputation ; he died, 1740. — The third, PAUL, Avas a native of Breslau, Avho settled in 1674 at Leipsic, Avhere he gave lectures on physiology, na- tural history, and botany ; he died, 1691, AMMAN, JOST, a famous engraver and painter at Zurich, in the 16th century. He painted Avith great brilliancy on glass, but excelled chiefly in engraving, both on wood and copper. Died, 1591. AMMANATI, BARTOLOMEO, a Florentine architect and sculptor of the 16th century. After studying under Baccio Bandinelli and Sansavino,he became an imitator of Michael Angelo. He built the fine Ponte della Trin- ita at Florence, completed the Pitti Palace, and executed several Avorks at Rome, Venice, and Padua. Born, 1511 ; died, 1592. AMMIANUS MAHCELLTNUS, a Roman historian of the 4th century, born at An- tioch. He Avrote the Roman history from the reign of Nerva to the death of Valens, in 31 books, of Avhich only 18 are extant ; served long in the army, and took part in the Persian Avar under Julian ; then retired to Rome, and died about 390. His history is esteemed impartial and trustAvorthy, but his style is faulty. AMMIRATO, SCIPIONE, an esteemed Nea- politan Avriter, born in 1531; author of a “ History of Florence,” which he AVrote at the instance of the grand-duke Cosmo, and of num'^rous tracts, political and historical. Died, 1601. AMMONIO, Andrea, a Latin poet, born at Lucca, in Italy, of Avhose genius -Erasmus I made frequent mention. He Avas «ent to [amp England in an oflicial character, by Pope I Leo X., and Avas appointed Latin secretary I to Henry VIIT. He subsequently became i prebendary of Salisbury, having previously received some valuable church preferment, and was made papal nuncio in England. Died at London, 1517. AMMONIUS, surnamed SACCAS, or THE Porter, a philosopher of the 3rd century, was born at Alexandria, probably of Christian parents, and became the founder of a ncAv school of philosophy, which sought to effect a reconciliation of the Platonic and Aristo- telian systems. The great critic Longinus, the mystic Plotinus, and the great church teacher Origen, were disciples of Ammonius. He died about 243. AMONTONS, GUILLAUME,French natural philosopher, born at Paris, 1663, and died, 1705. He constructed a ncAV thermometer, hygroscopc, and other philosophical instru- ments, and is said to have been the inventor of telegraphs. AMORETTI, Carlo, mineralogist, born at Oneglia, in the Milanese, 1740, and died, 1816. He became one of the keepers of the Ambrosian library at Milan, and published, in Italian, ‘‘ A Tour from Milan to the 'three Lakes of Como, Lugano, and Maggiore.” He composed also a great number of me- moirs and tracts, for Avhich he AvasreAvarded Avith the decoration of the order of the Iron CroAvn. AMORY, THOMAS, a singular character, Avas son of Counsellor Arnory, appointed by AVilliam III. secretary for the forfeited es- tates in Ireland. He led a very recluse life in his house in Orchard Street, SVestminster, carefully shunning company, and never stirring out by daylight. He Avas a zealous Unitarian, and the author of “ John Buncle,” “ Memoirs,” and other eccentric books. Died, 1789, agpd 97. AMPERE, ANDRj^t Marie, whose name is imperishably connected Avith the great dis- coveries in electro-magnetism, Avas born at Lyons, 1775. In 1804 heAvas nominated pro- fessor in the Polytechnic School of Paris; and here in connection with Oersted, Fara- day, and other distinguished men of science, Avith Avhom he was in constant correspond- ence, he paved the way for those brilliant’ discoveries that have already issued in the electric telegraph, and promise an illimit-* able extension of the boundaries of science. Died, 1§36. AMPERE, Jean Jacques, a distinguished French historian and litterateur, Avas born at Lyons in 1800. He Avas the son of the eminent electrician Andre Marie Ampere, and was educated at Paris, Avhere he Avas a pupil of Cousin. In 1833 he became a pro- fessor at the College of France, Avas received at the Academy of Inscriptions in 1842, and at the French Academy in 1847. He visited Egypt and Nubia in 1844, and contributed some interesting articles on those countries to the “ Revue des deux Mondes.” Among his principal Avorks are, “ De la litt^rature Franqaise dans ses rapports avec les litt^ra- tures etrangeres au moycn age,” “ Histoire litterairc de la France avant le douzieme siecle,” “ Sur la formation de la langue Franijaise,” and “ Histoire Romaine i 32 AMu] % illcto StiuOcrsal 1il3iograpf)t). [ana Koino,” his last work. It is a book of real scholarship, of disoriininatiiiK critieisni, and also of ijrcut liveliness and directness. Am- pere was the friend of 116rani?er and De 'rocQueville. Died in INIarch, 1864. A.MURA'I'II Il.jOneof the most illustrious of the Ottoman emperors, succeeded his fa- ther Mahomet I. in 1421, at the age of 18. The empire was disputed with him unsuc- cessfully by his uncle Mustapha, who was taken and hung ; and by his brother Musta- pha, who also was taken and strangled. In 1429 he took Thessalonica from the Yene- tians, in 1435 subdued the despot of Servia, besieged Belgrade, which was successfully defended by John Huniades : defeated the Hungarians at Yarna in 1444, and slew their king Ladislaus: abdicated in favour of his son the following year, and retired to Mag- nesia, but had soon to resume the govern- ment, in consequence of the disorders which arose. In 1447 he made war on Scanderbeg, in Albania, and was repulsed. Died, 1451. AMUllATH III., Ottoman emperor, suc- ceeded his father Selim II. in 1574. His first act was the murder of his five bi’others, the eldest of whom was eight years old. He carried on war with Persia for eleven years, and acquired several provinces. In 1581 the janissaries revolted, and a great fire broke out in Constantinople. In 1592 Amurath made war on the emperor, and two years after took Raab. He was hated for his ava- rice, and his sensual excesses made him early old. Died, 1595. AMURATH lY., Ottoman emperor, suc- ceeded his uncle Mustapha in 1623. The empire was then in a very troubled state. In 1624 he besieged Bagdad unsuccessfully : again, seven years afterwards, with the same result: in 1636 took Erivan : and at length, in 1638, succeeded in taking Bagdad. He then ordered the massacre of 30,000 pri- soners. He had many good qualities as a ruler and a soldier, but his debaucheries brought him to a premature end. Died, 1640. AMYOT, Jacques, bishop of Auxerre,and grand almoner of France, born at Melun, of obscure parents, 1514, and died, 1593. He left the university of Paris at the age of 23, and was recommended to the duchess of Berri, by whose means he became professor of Greek and Latin at Bourges. He Avas afterwards appointed preceptor to the sobs of Henry II., and Avhile thus engaged he translated the Lives of Plutarch. Charles IX. gave him the abbey of Cornelius de Com- piegne, and conferred on him the high offices above mentioned. ANACHaRSIS, a Scythian philosopher, flourished about 600 years B.C. He travelled to Athens, where he Avas much esteemed by Solon, and Avas the only stranger the Athe- nians ever admitted to the honour of citizen- ship. On his return to Scythia lie attempted to introduce some of the institutions and customs of Greece ; but while in the act of performing a rite to Cybele, he was killed by an arrow. ANACOANA, queen of Xiragua, in the island of St Domingo, at the beginning of the 16th century, and one of the victims of Span- ish treachery and cruelty. Ovando, the go- vernor of St Domingo, invited lierto a feast, Avhere, at an appointed signal, her native attendants Avere shot, and she herself Avas seized, carried off, and executed, about 1.506. ANACREON, the Greek lyric poet, was a native of Teos, in Ionia, Avhich tOAvn he is said to have quitted Avhen it Avas taken by the I’ersians in B.C. 540. He lived many years at Samos, under the patronage of the tyrant Polycrates, and afterwards at Athens. He died at the age of 85. The poems of Anacreon set forth chiefly the praises of love and Avine, to the enjoyment of Avhich his life also appears to have been dedicated. He is said to have been a lover of Sappho, but the story is rejected as too improbable. Many fragments of his songs are preserved, and a number of odes long passed under his name Avhich are now held to be spurious. ANASTASIUS I., emperor of the East, born in Illyricum, 430, and died, 518. He Avas elevated to the throne on the murder of Zeno in 491. Anastasius Avas excommuni- cated by Pope Symmachus for his severities toAvards the Catholics. This Avas the first instance of the excommunication of a sove- reign by the Pope. ANASTASIUS II., raised to the throne of Constantinople on the deposition of Bar- danes, Avhose secretary he had been, 713, Avas a man of learning, and a zealous Catho- lic, yet he did not neglect the defence of the empire, then threatened by the Saracens. On the breaking out of an insurrection in 716 he was compelled to retire to a monas- tery. When he attempted afterwards to re- gain his throne, he was seized and put to death by Leo, Avho had usurped the croAvn. ANAXAGORAS, of Clazomen®, a cele- brated philosopher, born B.C. 500. He inhe- rited a considerable estate in his own coun- try, Avhich he relinquished to indulge his thirst for knoAvledge at Athens, where he applied to the study of poetry and eloquence, and taught philosophy, having among his pupils Euripides, the tragic poet, and Peri- cles, the great statesman. His reputation, hoAvever, created him enemies, and he Avas condemned to death on a charge of atheism, but the sentence was commuted into banish- ment. Anaxagoras then AvithdreAv to Lamp- sacus, Avhere he taught philosophy undis- turbed until his death, Avhich happened in his 72nd year, B.c. 428. Anaxagoras is cele- brated as the first of the Greek philosophers Avho taught the existence of a Superior ^Mind, distinct from, yet pervading and go- verning, the universe. ANAXANDRIDES, a Greek comic poet, of the 4th century B.C., said to have been the first who introduced love adventures on the stage. He Avas a native of Rhodes, and was starved to death at Athens for libelling the government. ANAXARCHUS, a Greek philosopher of the atomic school of Leucippus and Demo- critus. Fie Avas the friend of Alexander the Great, Avhom he accompanied on his Asiatic expedition, and Avho admitted him to great freedom. He Avas pounded to death in a mortar by the tyrant of Cyprus, B.C. 323. ANAXIMANDER, the friend and disciple of Thales, of Miletus, born B.c. 610. He had a considerable knoAvledge of astronomy and Slnibersal [and ana] geography, and was the first who noticed the obliquity of the ecliptic ; he also taught that the moon receives her light from the sun, and that the earth is globular; and to him is as- cribed the invention of the sphere and geo- graphical charts. ANAXIMENES, the pupil and successor of Anaximander. He maintained that air is the first principle of all things ; and Pliny attributes to him the invention of the sun- dial. ANAXIMENES, of Lampsacus, a Greek historian and philosopher, son of Aristocles. He was one of the preceptors of Alexander the Great, whom he accompanied in most of his campaigns, and afterwards wrote the history of his reign, and that of his father Philip. ANCHIETAj Jos., a Portuguese Jesuit, surnamed the Apostle of the New World; born at Teneriffe, 1538, and died, 1597. At the age of 20 he went to Brazil, where he founded the first college for the conversion of the savage natives. ANCILLON, David, a learned French divine, born at Metz, 1617, and died, 1692. On the revocation of the edict of Nantes, he retired from Metz, of which he had been for some time the pastor, to Frankfort, and thence to Hanau, where he attained to great celebrity by his theological writings and dis- coveries ; and he afterwards accepted a situ- ation in the French church at Berlin. His eldest son,Charles Ancillon, obtained through his influence the office of historiographer to the king of Prussia, and was afterwards made inspector of the French courts of justice. He was a man of much general reading, wrote several treatises, &c., and died, 1715. ANCILLON, JOHANN PETER FRIEDRICH, a Prussian statesman and miscellaneous writer, was born at Berlin, in 1766. He early obtained reputation as a preacher and writer, was made councillor of state, minis- ter of education, and finally minister of fo- reign affairs. Among his works are “Me- langes de litt^rature et de philosophic,” “ Essais philosophiques,” and “ Tableau des revolutions du systeme politique de I’Eu- rope,” the last being his best work. Ancillon was a member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, and of the French Institute. Died, 1837. ANCKABSTBOEM, or ANKABSTBOM, John James, a Swedish military officer, who assassinated King Gustavus III. at a masked ball ; for which crime he was scourg- ed on three successive days, had his right hand cut off, and was then decapitated. Born, 1758; executed, 1792. ANCBE, MARSHAL D’. [CONCINO CON- CINI.] ANGUS MABTIUS, fourth (mythical) king of Borne, elected on the death of Tullus Hostilius. During his reign Borne was en- larged by taking in the Aventine Hill, and occupying the hill Janiculum, beyond the Tiber. He also built the bridge called Sub- licius, erected a public prison in the forum, extended the territories of Borne to the sea, and built the town and port of Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber. Ancus died after a prosperous reign of 24 years. ANDEBSON, Adam, a native of Scotland, was for many years a managing clerk in the South-Sea House, a trustee for the settle- ments in Georgia, and a member of the court of the Scotch Corporation of London. He wrote a work on the Historical and Chrono- logical Deduction of Trade and Commerce ; and died, 1765, aged 75. ANDEBSON, Sir EDMUND, lord chief justice of the Common Pleas under Queen Elizabeth, to which office he was promoted in 1582. He sat on the trials of Mary, queen of Scots, and of Davidson, the secretary, for issuing the warrant under which she was executed. Anderson’s Beports, folio 1644, is still a book of authority. He was a native of Lincolnshire, and died, 1605. ANDEBSON, GEORGE, a young man of extraordinary talents, born at Weston, Buckinghamshire, in 1760, and died, 1796. His parents were peasants, and he worked as a day-labourer in the fields ; his genius, however, overcame every difficulty, and he attained so great a knowledge of the mathe- matics, as procured him a clerk’s place at the Board of Control, and afterwards the situ- ation of Accountant-General. Mr Ander- son published a “ General Yiew of the Affairs of the East India Company, since the conclusion of the War in 1784 ;” and translated from the Greek of Archimedes, the treatise entitled “ Arenarius.” ANDEBSON, JAMES, an advocate at the Scottish bar, eminent for his learning and antiquarian research, born at Edinburgh, 1662, and died, 1728, through an apoplectic sti’oke. His first work, “ An Essay, proving the Independence of the Crown of Scotland,” published 1705, procured him the thanks of the Scottish parliament, under whose aus- pices he subsequently produced a series of the Charters and Seals of the Scottish Mon- archs from the earliest Antiquity down to the Union with England, a book which gained him the greatest reputation, and is entitled “ Selectus Diplomatum et Numisma- tura Scotioe Thesaurus.” ANDEBSON, JAMES, a Scottish miscel- laneous writer, born at Hermiston, near Edinburgh, 1739, and died 1808. He pub- lished a series of “ Essays on Planting,” Avhich procured him much reputation as an agriculturist ; and, in 1780, the university of Aberdeen conferred on him the degree of LL.D. In 1783, he removed to Edinburgh, and projected the establishment of theNorth British Fisheries ; for which purpose he was employed by government to survey the coast of Scotland, and received great commenda- tion for his services. Dr Anderson was the author of a number of publications chiefly on agricultural affairs ; he also wrote for the Eneyclopaedia Britanuica, and the Monthly Be view. ANDEBSON, JOHN, F.B. S., professor of natural philosophy in the university of Glasgow, and founder of the useful institu- tion in that city bearing his name, was born in 1726, at Boseneath, in Dumbartonshire. His great characteristic was an ardent desire for the instruction of his fellow-men, and he was indefatigable in studying and exempli- fying the application of science to mechanical practice, for Avhich purpose, in addition to his academical labours, he taught his anti- 34 and] Jlcbj Stiul3crsal IBiograpIji?, [and to(ja-class, ns he called it (formed of artisans ill their week-day dress), twice every week, during the session to the end of his life. Anderson wrote a work entitled “ Institutes of IMiysics,” which passed through several editions. lie was F. 11. S. L. and E. He died in 179G, directing by his will that the whole of his property should be devoted to the establishment of an educational insti- tution in Glasgow, to be denominated An- derson’s University, for the use of the nn- academical classes; which may justly be considered as the parent of the Mechanics’ Institutions which afterwards sprang up throughout the country. ANDERSON, JOHN, son of a merchant at Hamburg, of which city he himself be- came principal magistrate in 1725. He was employed in various negotiations with different European courts ; and during his residence abroad he cultivated an acquaint- ance with all whom he found distinguished for their literary attainments, and kept up a correspondence with them after his re- turn.- He died, 1743, aged 79. His principal work is, “ The Natural History of Greenland, Davis’s Straits, and the Countries situated in the Arctic Circle.” ANDERSON, LAWRENCE, one of the chief promoters of the reformation of reli- gion in Sweden. He was chancellor to Gus- tavus Vasa ; but having engaged in a con- spiracy, he passed the years of life left to him by the king’s clemency, in retirement. Died, 1552. ANDERSON, ROBERT, M. D., a native of Carnwath, in Lanarkshire ; author of numerous works, critical and biographical. Of those most highly valued are the follow- ing : — “Lives of the British Poets,” in 14 vols., published in 1795 ; “Works and Life of Tobias Smollett;” and the “Life of Samuel Johnson.” He was the friend and patron of genius wherever it appeared ; to him Campbell dedicated his “ Pleasures of Hope,” as it -was chiefly owing to him that that poem was brought before the world. Died, 1830. ANDOCIDES, an Athenian orator, was born B. c. 467. He played a pi’ominent part in the political contests of the Greek states, belonged to the oligarchical party at Athens, and was four times exiled: the first time for profaning the Eleusinian mysteries, and for taking part, it was said, with Alcibiades, in the mutilation of the Hermae. He is supposed to have died in exile soon after B. c. 393. , ANDRE, JOHN, a major in the British service in the American war ; -who, being led to offer his services to negotiate between the noted General Arnold and General Sir Henry Clinton, the former proposing to give up the fortress of West Point to the English, was taken prisoner by the Ameri- cans within their lines ; and, owing to his disguise and the nature of his mission, was tried and hung as a spy, Oct. 2, 1780. On going to the place of execution his for- titude excited the admiration and melted the hearts of the spectators. When asked if he had anything to say, he replied, “No- thing, but to request that you will witness to the world that I die like a brave man.” A monument is erected to liim in West- minster Abbey. ANDREA DEL SARTO. [SARTO.] ANDREOSSI, Francois, an eminent French engineer and niathematician, was born at Paris in 1633. He assisted Riquet in forming the canal of Languedoc, the sole merit of Avhich stupendous work has been unjustly claimed for him. Died, 1688. ANDREOSSI. Antoine FRANCOIS, Count, a distinguished Trench military officer and engineer, and eminent also as a diplo- matist, was descended from the subject of the preceding article, and born in Languedoc, 1761. He v/as a lieutenant of artillery at twenty; served with distinction in Italy and Egypt ; and had reached the rank of in- spector-general of the artillery when Napo- leon ascended the throne. He was success- ively ambassador to London, Vienna, and Constantinople ; and received many marks of the imperial favour. On the restoration of Louis XVIII., in 1814, Andreossi Avas recalled from his embassy to the Porte, and pre- sented with the cross of St Louis : but on the return of Napoleon from Elba, he again attached himself to his old master ; and was one of the commissioners chosen to treat with the allies by the provisional government. He wrote a “ Histoire G4n6- rale du Canal du Midi ; ” the “ Campaign of the Gallo-Batavian Army on the Maine and Rednitz,” &c. Died, 1828. ANDREOZZI, GAETANO, a celebrated musical composer, born at Naples, 1763 ; died at Paris, 1826. ANDREWS, Henry, a self-taught ma- thematician, born of poor parents at Fries- ton, near Grantham, 1744, and died, January 26, 1820. Having, while in a menial em- ployment, occupied his leisure moments in the study of astronomical science, he at- tained therein great proficiency, and for more than 40 years was computer of the Nautical Ephemeris, and the calculator of Moore’s Almanack. ANDREWS, Lancelot, bishop of Win- chester, and one of the most learned prelates of the 17th century, Avas born in London in 1565. He was educated at Cambridge, early distinguished himself as a preacher, avus made chaplain to Queen Elizabeth and dean of Westminster. James I. made him in 1605 bishop of Chichester and lord almoner. He also employed him to ansAver the Avork in Avhich Cardinal Bellarmin (Matthew Tortus) had attacked James’s “ Defence of the Rights of Kings.” The ansAver Avas entitled “Xo’r- tura Torti.” Andrews Avas made bishop of Ely and privy-eouncillor in 1609, and Avas translated to AVinchester in 1618. He be- longed to what is noAV ealled the High Church party, but Avas not Avanting in pru- dence and moderation. His learning Avas extolled by some of the greatest European scholars, his oratory Avas irresistibly fasci- nating, and his moral character was AVorthy of his fame and office. Among his works are a “ Manual of Private DeA'Otions,” Ser- mons, Lectures, &c. He took part in the authorized translation of the Bible. Died, 1626. ANDRIEU, Bertranh, a medallic en- graver, born at Bordeaux, 1761, and died at 35 and] ;^tto ^n{i3ersal 13iograpl[)tt. [angI Paris, 1822 ; considered as the restorer of the art of engraving medals, which had declined after the reign of Louis XIV. ANDRIEUX, F. G. J. S., a clever and voluminous French author, dramatist, poet, and politician, born in 1759. He Avas mem- ber of the Council of Five Hundred in 1798 ; was afterwards librarian to Joseph Buona- parte, Professor of Belles Lettres at the Po- lytechnic School, and Professor of I/iterature at the College of France, filling the last chair nearly 20 years. He was also named per- petual Secretary of the French Academy. Opposed to arbitrary poAver, he advocated warmly the liberty of the press and the sys- tem of “Ecoles Primaires.” He was one of the projectors and chief contributors of the “Decade Philosophique,” and was an active member of the Institute. Among his dra- matic pieces are “ Anaximander,” “ Les Etourdis,” “ Le Vieux Fat,” and “ Le Jeune Homme a I’Epreuve,” &c. &c. ANDRISCUS, a man of mean extraction, Avho, pretending to be the son of Perseus, the last king of Macedonia, took the name of Philip, and was called Pseudo-Philippus. Having obtained a signal victory over Ju- ventius, the Roman praetor, he assumed the kingly power ; but in the end was conquered, and served to grace the triumph of Metellus, before whom he walked in chains. ANDRONICUS CYRRHESTES, a Greek architect, Avho built the famous octagonal tower, known as the temple of the winds, at Athens, Avhich has been used as a mosque by the Turks. He is also said to be the invent- or of the Aveathercock. ANDRONICUS, Livius, the oldest dra- matic author in the Latin language, Avho flourished about 240 years B. C. Nearly all liis works are lost. ANDRONICUS, of Rhodes, a follower of Aristotle, to whom we are indebted for i*estoring and publishing the works of that philosopher, about B. c. 60. ANDRONICUS I., COMNENUS, emperor of the East, was the son of Isaac, and grandson of Alexis Comnenus. He was of an active martial mind, and eloquent ; but was profli- gate, passionate, and cruel. On the death of his cousin, the emperor Manuel, in 1183, he was chosen partner in the government Avith Alexis II., who, being a mere youth, soon fell a sacrifice to his coadjutor’s thirst of poAver,and Andronicus became sole emperor. The revolt excited by Isaac Comnenus, and supported by the king of Sicily, led to nu- merous proscriptions on the part of the em- peror; but the people, exasperated at his various cruelties, proclaimed Isaac Angelus emperor, and Andronicus, now 75 yeurs of age, after being subjected for several days to the most horrible outrages and tortures, was at last hung by the feet, and then run through with a SAvord, 1185. ANDRONICUS II., Pala:ologijs, sur- named the Elder, succeeded Michael VIII., in 1283, having been joint emperor Avith him since 1273. His long reign Avas troubled by ecclesiastical discussions, the first act of his reign being the revocation of the act of union of the Greek and Latin chiirches ef- fected by Michael. By the inroads of the Turks, and the revolt of his grandson, Avho having been crowned emperor, took Con- stantinople in 1328, the aged Andronicus, deprived of all but the imperial adornments, and confined to one room in the palace, was glad to find refuge in a cloister, Avhere he died about four years aftei’Avards, 1332. ANDROUET DU CERCEAU, JACQUES, an eminent French architect of the 16th century, who designed the Pont Neuf, and commenced the building of it in 1578. He was also employed, in 1596, to continue the gallery of the Louvre ; but was obliged to quit France during the persecution of the Protestants, and no further account of him is on record. ANEURIN, a British poet and chieftain of the sixth century, supposed by some au- thors to be the same Avith Gildas, the histo- rian. He took part in the battle of Cattraeth, which he made the subject of a poem; this, and a few poetical fragments, form the Avhole of his knoAvn Avorks. The poem en- titled “Odes of the Months,” formerly at- tributed to Aneurin, is noAV considered spu- rious. Aneurin Avas one of the noblest poets of the Ivymry. ANGELICO, Fra GIOVANNI BA FlESOLE, IL Beato, a very celebrated Italian painter, Avas born at Mugello, in 1387. He entered the order of Predicants at Fiesole in 1407, and is supposed by some writers to have early practised the art of illuminating books. He painted at Cortona, Fiesole, Florence, Rome, &c. Among his finest Avorks are the frescoes in the convent of St Mark, Florence, and those in the chapel of Nicholas V. in the Vatican. He Avas a man of earnest piety and profound humility, Avmrked alAvays as by the aid of divine inspiration, Avhich he sought before commencing, and would never, it is said, alter a picture. His subjects are all religious, his execution most delicate and elaborate, frequently resembling illumina- tions, and his own character is impressed on all his Avorks. He spent the last eight years of his life at Rome, Avhere he died in 1455. The National Gallery possesses two examples of this master. ANGELUS, Christopher, a Greek, avIio, being driven from his OAvn country by the Turks, found an asylum in England in 1608; and, under the patronage of the bishop of Noi'Avich, he w'as placed in Trinity College, Cambridge, Avhence he removed to Baliol College, Oxford, Avhere he Avas of great ser- vice to the junior students, and where he died, 1638. He published several works in Greek, English, and Latin. ANGERSTEIN, JOHN JULIUS, a distin- guished patron of the fine arts, born at St Petersburg, 1735 ; died at Blackheath, Jan. 22, 1822. He came over to England under the patronage of Andrew Thompson, Esq., with Avhom he lived in partnership upwards of 50 years. Mr Angerstein exhibited much public spirit on several occasions, and Avas tne first Avho proposed a rcAvard of £2000 from the fund at Lloyd’s to the inventor of the life-boats. His celebrated collection of paintings, esteemed inferior to none of the same extent in Europe, Avas purchased by the Englitsh government for £60,000, and formed the nucleus of the National Gallery. ANGIOLELLO, GIOVANNI MARIO, a Vc- 36 ang] 'a ilebj Stniijcrsnl lQ3iograpf)t). [ang lU'tian historian of tlic 15th century. In his youth ho was taken captive by the Turks, ami made slave to Mustapha. lie was re- leased by Mohammed II., and attended him in an expedition to Persia, 1473 Anj^iolello wrote the history of Mohammed II., in the Turkish and Italian languages; also the history of Ussuii Cassan. He died probably about 1530. ANGLESEY, IlENRY 'WILLIAM PAGET, Iv. G., G. C. 1?., &c. &c., marquis of, the eldest sou of the first earl of Uxbridge, was born in 1768, and Avas educated at AVestminster, and Christchurch, Oxford, which University he quitted in 1790. Three years afterwards he raised, on his father’s estates in Stafford- shire, a body of volunteers, numbering nearly 1000, which were embodied in the line as the 80th regiment of foot, or Staffordshire A'olunteers. Of this regiment Lord Paget Avas at once made Lieutenant-Colonel, and, proceeding to Flanders in 1794, one of the feAv bright spots of that unfortunate cam- paign Avas the gallantry he displayed, parti- cularly in the retreat, in Avhich he held the temporary command of Lord Cathcart’s bri- gade. In 1795 liOrd Paget Avas transferred to that branch of the service upon Avhich his name has shed such lustre, and Avhich his ability raised to a degree of efficiency not knoAvn before. In 1797 he obtained the command of the seventh Light Dragoons, and in 1799 accompanied the Duke of York in the expedition to Holland, Avhere his dashing exploits at the head of the cavalry rendered him the admiration of the service. For some years after Avards, he devoted himself entirely to the discharge of his regimental duties ; and Avas promoted to Major-General in 1802, and to Lieutenant-General in 1808. In that year he proceeded to the Peninsula in com- mand of tAvo brigades of cavalry, and al- though his stay there Avas short, he did not quit till he left behind him the souvenirs of Sahagun, Mayorga, and Benevente. In 1809 he returned to England, Avhere he remained for some time, taking no part in the subse- quent Peninsular campaign; but attending to his duties in the House of Commons, as AI. P. for Alilbourne Port, till, on the death of his father, in 1812, he Avas removed to the House of Lords as Earl of Uxbridge. In 1815 he proceeded to Belgium in command of the cavalry. To narrate Lord Uxbridge’s deeds there were simply to reAUA'e some of the most brilliant reminiscences of that short but glorious and eventful campaign. It is uni- versally admitted that, next to the great leader of the host, the Adetory of AA'aterloo Avas more indebted to the Earl of Uxbridge than to any other of the Avarriors of that memorable day. ToAvards the close of the great encounter of the 18th of June, he re- ceived a severe Avound in the leg, which rendered it necessary to amputate the limb. For his seiwices he Avas created Alarquis of Anglesey, and receiv'ed many other marks of gratitude from his country. In 1827 he Avas appointed Master-General of the Ordnance, and in 1828 proceeded to Ireland as A'iceroy, in Avhich caixvcity he gained the w'arm af- fections of the Irish people. But his advo- cacy of Catholic Emancipation led to his recall Avithin twelve months after his ap- pointment; and in 1830 he Avas again nomi- i nated to the same office, Avhich he retained till 1833, when Lord Grey’s cabinet broke up. In 1846 he Avas advanced to the rank of Field- Marshal, and the same year once more became Master- General of the Ordnance, Avhich office he held till 1852. Seldom Avere bravery, gentleness, and generosity eornbined in such noble proportions as in the Marquis of Anglesey. In his character, says a con- temporary, there Avas not a fold ; it Avas all open as day. His politics Avere thoroughly liberal; he generally Avas in advance of pub- lic opinion ; and all measures of reform, in Church and State, had in him a strenuous and a steady champion. Had his eloquence been equal to his mental poAvers, he Avould have achieved as great a name in Parliament as in the camp; for he had a sound, shrewd understanding, a judgment rarely at fault, and accompanied with a moral courage not inferior to his brilliant physical bravery in the field of battle. The Marquis Avas tAvice married, in 1795 to a daughter of the fourth Earl of Jersey, but this marriage Avas dis- solved in 1810, and her Ladyship married the Duke of Argyll. In 1810 Lord Anglesey married Lady Charlotte Cadogan, Avhose marriage Avith the late Lord CoAvley had been previously dissolved. Died April 29, 1854. ANGOULEME, CHARLES HE 'VALOIS, duke of, natural son of Charles IX.; born, 1575; and died, 1650. Catherine de Medici bequeathed to him her estates, but the Avill was set aside in favour of Margaret de Ya- lois. Charles, hoAvever, retained the title of count d’Auvergne, and in 1619 Avas made duke of Angouleme. He gained great reput- ation as a military commander, taking part on the side of Henry IV. at the battles of Arques and lA'ry; but was tAvice charged with treason, and the second time condemned to death, which sentence Avas changed into perpetual imprisonment. He Avas, however, once more pardoned, and distinguished him- self at the sieges of Soissons and Rochelle, and in the campaigns in Germany, Langue- doc, and Flanders. His memoirs, Avritten by himself, were published soon after his death. ANGUIER, FEAN 9 CIS and Michel, sculp- tors, natives of Eu, Normandy. Francois, the eldest, Avas keeper of the royal cabinet of antiquities, and executed several great Avorks, particularly the mausoleum of the Duke of Montmorency. Michel Avas a mem- ber of the Academy, and among his Avorks are the group of the Nativity at the church of Yal de Grace, and the bas-reliefs of the gate of St Denis. The former died, 1669 ; the latter, 1686. ANGUILLARA, GIOVANNI Andrea, an Italian poet, was born about 1517. At first employed in a printing-office, he gained some reputation by his translations of Ovid’s Metamorphoses and other Avorks, and went to Rome ; but in consequence of his miscon- duct, died in misery, 1565. ANGUISCIOLA, SOFONISBA, an Italian painter, Avas born of a noble family of Cre- mona in 1533. She excelled in portraits; went to Madrid on the invitation of Philip II.; Avas tAvice married; became blind, and died at Genoa, about 1620. A comparison of 37 anh] % ^nibersal ISiograpi^T). [anq dates throws doubt on the story of 'Vandyck’s visit to this artist at Genoa; his Journey to Italy not eommeneing till 1623. ANHALT-DESSAU, LEOPOLD, prince of, Prussian field-marshal, was born in 1676. He entered the army at an early age, and served in the war of the Spanish Succession. He commanded the Prussian forces sent into Italy, where he greatly distinguished him- self, and was wounded at the battle of Cas- sano. He next served in the Netherlands, and in 1715 took part in the war with Charles XII., whom he defeated at the isle of Hugen. The re-organization of the army occupied his attention during a long re- sidence at Berlin. In 1745 he won a great victory over the Saxons and Austrians at Kesseldorf, and assisted at the capture of Dresden. Died, 1747. A marble statue by Schadow was erected to him at Berlin. ANICHINI, LODOVICO, a celebrated Ita- lian medallist of the 16th century. He exe- cuted a medal representing the interview of Alexander the Great and the High Priest at Jerusalem, which Michael Angelo pro- nounced to be the perfection of the art. ANJOU, Francis, duke of, who bore at first the title of duke of Alen^on, was the son of Henry II. of France and Catherine de Medicis, and was born in 1554. A strong dislike existed between his mother and him ; he associated himself with the leading Hu- guenots, and openly condemned the massacre of St Bartholomew. In 1573 he took part in the siege of La Bochelle. A plot to raise him to the throne on the death of Charles IX. failed, and he was imprisoned with the king of Navarre, lletiring afterwards from the court, he joined the Protestants, but soon forsook them, and received from the king Berri, Touraine, and Anjou, the latter being then made a duchy for him. In 1576 he was head of the Catholic party, and in the next year he assisted the Flemings against the Spaniards. In 1581 he was chosen sovereign of the Netherlands. The same year he visited England with a view to negotiate a marriage with Queen Elizabeth, but after a stay of some months he returned unsuccessful to the Netherlands. His despotic interference with the rights of the people produced a re- volt, and he was expelled the country. He retired to France, and died in 1584. ANNA COMNENA was the daughter of the emperor Alexius Comnenus I., at whose death she conspired to place the crown on the head of her liusband, Nicephorus Bri- ennius, but without success. ♦ She then turned her attention to literary pursuits, and wrote the “Alexiad,” a history of her father’s reign. Died, 1148. ANNA IVANOWNA, empress of all the Russias, daughter of the Czar Ivan Alexio- witch; born, 1693; married to the duke of Courland in 1710 ; succeeded to the crown on the death of Peter II., 1730; and died, 1740. Her favourite Biren soon attained supreme power, and governed the empire with intol- erable tyranny. It is said that ten thousand lives w'ere sacrificed to his violence, and that twice that number of persons were driven into exile. During this reign, Russia was on a peaceable footing with her neigh- bours, the only hostilities in which she was engaged being a war to establish Augustus III. on the throne of Poland, and a war with the Ottoman Porte in 1736, which was term- inated by the peace of Belgrade, in 1739. ANNE, of Austria, queen of France, eldest daughter of Philip II. of Spain; born, 1604; married to Louis XIII. of France, 1615, at whose death, 1643, she was declared sole re- gent during the minority of her son, Louis XIV. ; she chose for her chief minister Car- dinal Mazarin. Attempts to treat despotic- ally the magistrates, who opposed the mea- sures of the court, gave rise to the famous wars of the Fronde, in which the queen ultimately triumphed over the nobles and the people. Her son Louis assumed the reins of government, 1661. Anne then re- tired, passing the remainder of her life in pious exercises, and died in 1666. ANNE, of Cleves, daughter of John, third duke of Cleves, became in 1540, at the age of 25, the W'ife of Henry VIII. of England, who fell in love with Holbein’s portrait of her, but was disenchanted at first sight, and in a few months divorced her. She was of a dull apathetic nature, contented herself with a pension, and died in England, 1557. ANNE, queen of Great Britain, second daughter of James II., by his first wife, Anne Hyde, was born in 1664 ; married to Prince George of Denmark, 1683 ; succeeded to the crown on the death of William III., 1702 ; anddied,1714,aged50. Her reign is marked by the great war of the Spanish Succession and the achievements of Marlborough, the accom- plishment of the legislative union of Scot- land with England, and the dashing exploits of Lord Peterborough in Spain. Anne was of a kind and yielding disposition, and was long entirely controlled, first, by the imperi- ous duchess of Marlborough, to whom she became warmly attached in childhood, and afterwards by her attendant, Mrs Masham. Prince George died in 1708, and their six children died young. The contention of par- ties during the reign'of Anne was extremely violent, in consequence of the hopes enter- tained by the Jacobites that she would be induced by natural feelings to favour the succession of her brother, the Pretender. Her reign was also distinguished for the number of eminent writers who then flour- ished, several of whom rose to high stations. ANNESLEY, ARTHUR, earl Of Anglesea, and lord privy seal in the reign of Charles II. ; born at Dublin, 1614 ; and died, 1686. At the commencement of the civil wars he joined the royal party, and sat in the par- liament at Oxford, 1643; but having made peace with the republicans, he Avas sent commissioner to Ulster, 1645. He, however, took an active part in the restoration of the king, for Avhich he Avas created carl of An- glesea, made treasurer of the navy, and, shortly afterwards, lord privy seal. ANQUETIL, LOUIS PIERRE, a celebrated historian, born at Paris, 1723; died, 1808. Having distinguished himself as an able teacher of theology and gcner.al literature, he was appointed prior of the abbey de la Roe, in Anjou, director of the college of Senlis, and prior of Chateau Renard. During the height of the revolution he Avas throAvn into prison, Avhere he began his “ Precis de anq] % ilcb) Stiubcrsal ISiograpf;!?. [ans rilistoiro Univorscllc,” Avhich 'vvns after- wards publislicd in nine volumes. At tlie formation of the rrcnch Institute, Anquctil became one of tlio members. Among his works are “L’Esprit de la Ligne,” “ Louis XIV. sa eour ct le riJgeut,” and “ L’llistoire de Prance.” ANUUETIL DU PEllRON, AbrAHAM IIYACINTIIK, brother of the preceding, was born at Paris, 1731 ; and died, 1805. In order to gratify his taste for oriental literature, he joined the expedition fitting out for India, in 1754, as a private soldier; and employed every moaicnt of his leisure in the study of the Sanscrit. On the taking of Pondicherry by the English, he returned to Europe, visited London and Oxford, and conveyed the vari- ous MSS. he had obtained to Paris. He Avas then appointed oriental interpreter in the king’s library, Avith a pension, and devoted himself to the publication of his researches. The principal fruit of his labours Avas the translation of the Zend-Avesta, Avhicli ap- peared in 1771. ANSCHAR, ST, or ANSCARIUS, bishop of Hamburg and Eremen, born in France, 801 ; died, 864. He preached the gospel to the Danes and Swedes, founded several hos- pitals, and a library in the abbey of Corvey, and Avas canonized by Pope Nicholas I. ANSELM, St, archbishop of Canterbury in the reigns of AYilliam Rufus and Henry I.; born at Aosta, Piedmont, 1033. He was originally a monk, and after Avards superior of the abbey of Bee, Normandy. Visiting England several times during his abbacy, he AA-as called, in 1093, to attend AVilliam Rufus in a fit of sickness at Gloucester, and re- ceived his appointment to the primacy the same year. But differences arising between the king and the prelate, respecting the temporalities of his see, Avhich the king Avithheld from him, Anselm left the king- dom. On the accession of Henry I. he 'rras recalled to England, and was Avell receded ; but a new rupture arising, in 1103, in con- sequence of the archbishop’s refusing to be re-invested by the king, the dispute Avas re- ferred to the pope, who decided in favour of Anselm. This was resisted ; and at length the pope made a concession, by alloAving the English bishops and abbots to do homage to the king for their temporalities. The king visited Anselm, then living at Bee, and their quarrel being terminated Anselm once more returned to England. He died at Canterbury in 1109, and Avas canonized in the reign of Henry VII. He was a man of great piety and powerful understanding, and is distin- guished as the first of the long series of scholastic metaphysicians. In his Avorks, many of which are extant and have been frequently reprinted, we see that he felt the Avant of a religious philosophy, and en- deavoured, though unsuccessfully, to lay the bases of such a system. ANSON, George, Lord, a celebrated naval commander, Avas born at his father’s seat in the parish of Cohvich, Staffordshire, 1697, and died at Moor Park, Hertfordshire, 1762. He entered early into the navy, and was made post-captain in 1724. Being ordered to the South Carolina station, he purchased land, and built a tOAvu there, called after his name. In 1739 he Avas appointed commodore of an expedition against the Spanish settle- ments in the Pacific Ocean ; and sailed from Portsmouth the folloAViiig year with five men-of-Avar, a sloop, and two victuallers ; doubled Cape Horn in March, 1741, after losing tAvo of his ships; and in June folloAv- ing arrived off Juan Fernandez, Avith only two ships and tAvo tenders. This place he left in September, took some prizes, burnt Paita, and continued on the American coast, in expectation of falling in Avith the annual Acapulco ship, till May, 1742 ; Avhen, having only his ship, the Centurion, left,'he crossed the southern ocean for China, Avhere he stayed several months, and returned in quest of the galleon, which he fell in Avith, and captured after a smart action. Having sold his prize in China, he sailed for England, and arrived at Spithcad, June 15, 1744, pass- ing in a fog through the midst of a French fleet, then cruising in the Channel. In 1747 he commanded the Channel fleet, and cap- tured six French men-of-war, which Avere convoying a large fleet bound to the East and West Indies. Two of these prizes Avere the Invincible and the Glory, which induced the captain of the former to say to the ad- miral, on giving up his sword, “ Sir, you have conquered the Invincible, and Glory follows you.” For these and other services, ho was created a peer, and afterwards made vice-admiral of England. In 1751 he was appointed first lord of the Admiralty, Avhich post he held, except for a short interval, until his death. In 1758, he again com- manded the Channel fleet, and Avas appointed admiral, and commander-in-chief of his Ma- jesty’s fleets, for the purpose of conveying her Majesty, Queen Charlotte, from Cux- haven to England. ANSPACH, Elizabeth, margravine of, was the youngest daughter of Augustus, earl of Berkeley, To a good and highly culti- vated understanding, this lady joined the most prepossessing manners, and a large portion of feminine beauty. When little more than sixteen, lady Elizabeth married Mr (afterwards earl of) Craven, by whom she had seven children ; but after liAung together thirteen years, they separated from mutual feelings of dissatisfaction. Lady Craven made a tour, and took up her residence in the court of Anspach, where she established a theatre, wrote plays, directed the perform- ance, and became a principal personage with the margrave : the margravine Avas generally confined to her chamber by ill health, and shortly after died. Lady Craven remained a Ausitor at Anspach, and accompanied the margrave in his excursion to other courts. Six Aveeks after the death of Lord Craven, his widow married the margrave, and both came to England. The margraA^e disposed of his principality to the king of Prussia, and having purchased Brandenburg House, Hammersmith,it became the scene of fashion- able dissipation ; the queen, hoAvever, refused to receive the margravine at her drawing- room, and no other influence could obtain her admission to the British court. In 1806 the margrave died, and after that event the margravine resided generally abroad. At Naples the king gave her two acres of ground. j ANs] ^ ^nibersal IBiograpi^y. [ant on which slie erected a handsome villa, and thei-e continued to reside until her death, which took place in 1828. ANSTEY, Christopher, poet, was born in 1724 ; studied at Eton and Cambridge ; and on succeeding to his father’s property, resided principally at Bath. He wrote the satirical poem, “ The New Bath Guide,” which obtained a rapid popularity. It is a clever and amusing sketch of an odd phase of English social life, largely mixed with ridicule of the “ Methodists,” as all earnestly religious people were then called, and of physicians. It abounds in passages grossly indecent and unfit to be republished. Strange to say, the author of this trivial and impure book has a monument in Westminster Ab- bey. Hied, 1805. ANSTIS, John, antiquary, and the author of various works on heraldry, Avas born at St Neots, Cornwall, in 1669, and educated at Oxford. He w^as member for St Germains, and in 1718 appointed garter king at arms. Hied, 1744. ANTAll, an Arabian chief and distin- guished poet, who lived in the 6th century. His Avorks, Avhich form a portion of the fa- mous Moallakat, are devoted to the descrip- tion of his warlike deeds, and his love for the fairAbla. The celebrated Arabian romance, entitled “ An tar,” by Asmai, affords a perfect idea of the manners, opinions, and supersti- tions of the early Ai’abians ; and of this there is an English version, entitled “ Antar, a Bedoueen Romance, translated from the Arabic by Terrick Hamilton,” in 4 vols. 12mo. ANTHEMIUS, eminent as an architect, sculptor, and mathematician. He was a native of Tralles in Lydia, and was employ- ed by the emperor Justinian. He is re- membered chiefly as the architect of the famous church of Saint Sophia, at Constan- tinople. It was completed according to his design by Isidorus of Miletus. Anthemius died in 534. ANTHONY, St, THE GREAT, the founder of monastic institutions, was born A. D. 251, at Coma, near Heraclea, a town of Upper Egypt. In 305, having sold all his property and given the proceeds to the poor, he with- drew into the desert, whither a number of disciples were attracted by his reputation for sanctity ; and thus was formed the first community of monks. He afterwards went to Alexandria, to seek the honour of mar- tyrdom amid the persecutions then raging against the Christians; but as his life was spared he again returned to the desert, and died at the great age of 105. ANTHONY, St, of Padua, a learned Fran- ciscan monk, was born at Lisbon, 1195 : en- tered the order when thirty years of age, and AA'ent to preach to the Moors of Africa ; he Avas after Avards sent by St Francis, whom he met in Sicily, to teach theology at Bologna, Montpellier, Padua, &c. He offended the general of his order by his severity, and his fearless denunciation of all abuses, and to save him from threatened confinement Gre- gory IX. called him to Rome. He died at Padua, 1231 ; and was canonized the folloAv- ing year. His Avorks, consisting chiefly of his sermons and a Moral Concordance of the Bible, have been frequently repub- lished. ANTIGONUS, surnamed the One-eyed, was one of the greatest generals of Alex- ander the Great, on whose death, B. c. 323, he became governor of Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia. After the death of Antipater he made war on Eumenes, and having de- feated and put him to death, he carried on war with the other generals who shared the empire, and obtained the sovereignty of Asia in B. c. 311. Five years later he took the title of king ; invaded Egypt, and failed , excited the jealousy of his rivals, Avho com- bined against him, and was defeated and slain at the battle of Ipsus, in 301. ANTIGONUS, Gonatas, king of Mace- donia, was the son of Hemetrius Poliorcetes, and obtained the croAvn in B. C. 277, six years after his father’s death. He was twice deprived of his kingdom, first by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, and afterwards by Alex- ander, son of Pyrrhus. His ambitious attempts in the Peloponnesus brought him into conflict Avith the Achaean League. Hied, B. C. 239. ANTINES, MAUR FRANCOIS, D’, a very learned French Benedictine of the congre- gation of St Maur. He Avas born in 1688, and after distinguishing himself by the pub- lication of several important Avorks, pro- jected the great work on chronology, L’Art de Yerifier les Hates,” the first part of which appeared in 1750. Hied, 1746, [See CLEMENCET.] ANTIOCHUS III., the Great, king of Syria, Avas the son of Seleucus Callinicus, and Avasborn about B. c. 238. He succeeded his brother in 223, and after suppressing several revolts, made Avar on the king of Egypt, but Avas defeated at Raphia in Pales- tine, in 217. After a long Avar in the East, in Avhich he made extensive conquests, he again made war on Egypt, and gained the provinces he coveted, Coele-Syfiaand Pales- tine. He was afterwards involv*ed in war Avith the Romans, gave shelter to Hannibal, unsuccessfully invaded Greece, and Avas compelled at last to give up to the Romans all his provinces east of the Taurus, and pay an enormous sum of money. He Avas killed by the citizens of Elymais while pillaging their temple of Jupiter, B. c. 187. ANTIOCHUS IV., EpiphaneS, king of Syria, was the son of the preceding, and after being many years in captivity at Rome, succeeded his brother Seleucus Phi- lopator in B. C. 175. The chief events of his reign were the war with Egypt for the pos- session of Palestine and Ctele-syria, Avhich occupied him several years ; and his cruel persecution of the Jcavs, Avhich pi’ovoked the insurrection in Avhich the Maccabees distinguished themselves. His cruelty and vices gained him the title of Epimanes,” or “ the Madman.” Hied, B. C. 165. ANTIPATER, the Macedonian, was the friend and minister of Philip, and his son Alexander the Great. 'When the latter set out to the conquest of Asia he appointed Antipater I’egent of Macedonia and Greece. Hissension between the regent and tbe queen-mother Olympias led to the ap- pointment of Craterus in his place ; but he 40 ant] '?l Jlcto Stnibersnl 13iograpI;t). [ato was soon roinstated. A war with the allied Greeks followed, and in H. C. 1122 they were defeated at Crannon. Antipater next made war on Perdiecas, who was soon after slain in Earypt. IMcd, B. C. 319. ANTIPHON, the llhamnusian, an Athe- nian orator, born, B. C. 480. He opened a school of rhetoric at Athens, and is said to have had Thucydides among his pupils, and he was the first who laid down rules of oratory. Having assisted in establishing the tyranny of the four hundred, he was put to death on the restoration of the popular government, B. c. 411. ANTISTHENES, a Greek, philosopher, founder of the Cynic school. He was a native of Athens, and after following the sophist Gorgias for a time, became a disciple of Socrates, to whom he faithfully adhered. Antisthenes opposed speculative inquiries, and limited his teaching to practical morals. He held that goodness was the one thing needful, and that mere human comforts and luxuries were to be despised. He wrote many dialogues with great vigour and elegance of style Died at Athens. ANTONELLO PA MESSINA, born, 1414 ; died about 1495. He is said to have been the first artist who introduced oil painting into Italy. Seeing one of the works of John van Eyck at Naples, he went to Flan- ders to learn the new method, and spent several years there. He then returned to Italy, and taught it at first privately, and afterwards publicly. ANTONINUS, a geographical author, the writer of a valuable Itinerarium, -whose age is unknown. Burton, published an ex- cellent commentary on it, as far as relates to Britain. ANTONIUS, Marcus, a brave and elo- quent Roman consul, who had been governor of Cilicia, and subsequently became censor. He was one of the greatest orators among the Romans ; and, according to Cicero, it was owing to him that Rome became a rival in eloquence to Greece. He Avas slain during the civil war between Marius and Sulla, B. C. 87. ANTONIUS, Marcus, the triumvir, was the grandson of the preceding, and was boi'ii about B. C. 85. He was early a pi’ofligate. After gaining distinction as a soldier in Syria and Egypt, he joined Julius Ctesar in Gaul, and remained his Avarm partisan. He Avas made quaestor, augur, and tribune ; contributed to the victory of Pharsalia ; be- came consul with Caesar in B. c. 44, and of- fered him the kingly title. After the murder of Caesar, Antony^ Avas opposed by Octa\'ius (Augustus), who defeated him at Mutina. Soon after the two rivals came to terms, and, Avith Lepidus, formed the first triumvirate. In the proscription wdiich folloAved Cicero was sacrificed to the long-standing hatred of Antony. The republican army led by Brutus and Cassius was defeated at Philippi, and its leaders fell. Passing into Greece, and thence into Asia, Antony met the famous Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, whose charms detained him long from Italy. On the death of his wife Fulvia in 40, he married Octavia, the sister of Augustus, Avhom in afeAv years 1 he shamefully divorced for the sake of deo- [ patra. The triumvirate Avas renewed in 37. After invading I’arthia and Armenia Antony assumed the airs of a despot, and provoked the Avar Avhich ended Avith his total defeat at Actium and the triumph of Augustus, B. C. 31. Killed himself in Egypt, B. c. 30. ANVARI, a Persian poet, born in Cho- rasan. He Avas Avell versed in astrology, and composed several books on that science ; but having failed in his predictions, he retired from the court of the sultan Sanjar, and died at Balkh, in 1200. APEL, or APELLES, JOHN, a German laAvyer, and one of the earliest preachers of the Reformation ; born at Nuremberg, 148G, and died there, 1536. APELLES, one of the greatest of the Greek painters. His birthplace is unknown, as are also the dates of his birth and death. He flourished B. C. 340—323, and was the friend of Alexander the Great, who, it is said, would let no one else paint his portrait. He Avas especially distinguished for his repre- sentations of female grace and beauty. His masterpiece was the “ Venus rising from the sea,” Avhich Avas taken to Rome by Augustus. His pictures of Alexander and Antigonus Avere very celebrated. He wrote a Avork on his art, but it is lost. APELLICON, a peripatetic philosopher, to Avhom the Avorld is indebted for the pre- servation of the Avorks of Aristotle, which he collected and bought at a vast expense, about 90 yeai's B. c. They were afterwards seized by the dictator Sylla, and carried by him to Rome. APIAN, PETER, German mathematician and astronomer, born in Misnia, 1495; died, 1589. Apian Avas the first who discovered that the tails of comets areaDvays projected in a direction from the sun, and records his observations upon five, AA^hich appeared in the years 1531, 1532, 1533, 1538, and 1539. APICIUS, a noted glutton in the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. It is recorded of him that he spent £2,500,000 sterling in pro- viding the luxuries of his table ; and finding his finances reduced to £250,000 he poisoned himself for fear of starving. There Avere tAvo other epicures of the same name ; one who lived in the time of Sulla ; and the other, Avhose extravagance and gluttonous pro- pensities were less enormous, contemporary Avith Trajan. APION, a learned grammarian and histo- rian, born at Oasis, Egypt, in the first cen- tury. He studied at Alexandria, and Avas a professor of rhetoric at Rome in the reign of Tiberius. Apion Avas head of the embassy sent by the Greek citizens of Alexandria to Rome to plead against the privileges enjoyed by their JcAvish fellow-citizens, on Avhich occasion he was opposed by Philo. In his “Antiquities of Egypt,” he attacked the JeAvs, and Avas ansAvered by Josephus. APOLLINARIS, CaiUS SOLLIUS SidO- Nius, an early Christian poet, Avas born at Lyons about 430. He Avas carefully educated, and haA'ing married the daughter of Avitus, Avho became emperor in 456, folloAved him to Rome, Avhere he rose to honour and some of the highest otfices of state, under Avitus, j Majoriau, and Anthemius- He wrote pane- ] gyrics in verse on each of these sovereigns. 41 Aro] % Jteto ISiograpIjp. [aka In 472, although a layman, he was appointed bishop of Clermont in Auvergne, and re- nounced all liis civil dignities and estates to devote himself to his spiritual duties. His extant works consist of poems and letters, which are valued for the historical facts re- corded in them, and have been frequently reprinted. Died between 480 and 490. APOLLINAllIUS, Claudius, bishop of Hierapolis, Phrygia, about 177, who wrote an apology for the Christian religion, ad- dressed to Marcus Aurelius. APOLLINARIUS, a presbyter of Alexan- dria in the 4th century, who wrote a history of the Hebrews in Greek heroic verse. He died about 382. He had a son who became bishop of Laodicea, and wrote a treatise against paganism, which he sent to Julian. APOLLODORUS, a famous painter at Athens, B. C. 408. Pliny mentions two pic- tures by him, one of a priest of Apollo at the altar, and the other of the shipwreck of Ajax. APOLLODORUS, a celebrated architect, was born at Damascus, and lived under Tra- jan and Adrian. He was employed by the former in building the great stone bridge over the Danube, and other structures; but, falling into disgrace with Adrian, he lost his life through that emperor’s caprice. APOLLONIUS, of Perga, a mathematician of Alexandria, about 240 years B. c. He composed several curious geometrical works, of which, his book on conic sections alone exists. APOLLONIUS, Rhodius, Greek poet, born in Egypt, but long resident at Rhodes, where he presided over a school of rhetoric. He afterwards became keeper of the cele- brated library of Alexandria, B. c. 149, in which situation he remained until his death. The only one of his works now extant is the poem entitled “ Argonautica,” which is a narrative founded on the legends relating to the Argonautic expedition. APOLLONIUS, of Tyana, a Pythagorean philosopher, was born about the commence- ment of the Christian era. He applied him- j self to the study of philosophy, and adopted j the system of Pythagoras : travelled in the I East beyond the limits of the empire : pro- f fessed himself to be endowed with miracu- lous powers, and was by some set up as a rival to the founder of the Christian religion. His ascetic life, his reputed miracles and prophecies, and his wise disc^'^H’ses, attract- ed great numbers, and statues and temples were built to him. Died probably at Ephe- sus about A. D. 97. The life of this sage was written by Philostratus. APPIANUS, an ancient historian, born at Alexandria, whence he went to Rome, in the reign of Trajan, and became an eminent pleader. He wrote the history of Rome in Greek. APPIANI, Andrea, a celebrated Milanese painter, born about 1750. He early showed enthusiasm for art, and attained great ex- cellence as a fresco-painter. "VVlien the French conquered Lombardy, Appiani was much courted and flattered by them, and M'^as sent to Paris to assist at the coronation of Napoleon. He became correspondent of ' the Institute, first painter to Napoleon, and member of most of the academies of Europe. His chief work is the series of frescoes painted by order of Napoleon in the royal palace of Milan. Died, 1818. APULIUS, Lucius, a Platonic philoso- pher who lived in the 2nd century, born at Madaura, Africa. After being educated at Carthage and Athens, he undertook exten- sive travels, and then settled in Africa and married a rich widow. The most celebrated of his works is the romance, entitled “ Me- tamorphoses; or. The Golden Ass,” which has been translated into almost all the mo- dern European languages. It appears to be a satire on the crimes, frauds, and follies of priests and magicians, and on the prevalent immorality of the age. Some, however, have found or fancied a moral in the tale ; and have believed it was designed to uphold pa- ganism against Christianity. The beautiful story of Psyche forms one of the most fas- cinating portions of this singular work. AQUINAS, St Thomas, one of the great- est of the scholastic philosophers, surnamed the “ Angelic Doctor,” and the “ Angel of the Schools,” was born in 1227, either at Aquino, or the Chateau of Rocca Secca,near Monte-Cassino. After studying at the Uni- versity of Naples, he entered the Dominican order in 1243, notwithstanding the most bitter opposition of his parents. He then studied under Albert the Great at Cologne, and went with him to Paris. In 1253 he pleaded successfully the cause of the monks before Pope Alexander IV., and was soon after made doctor in theology at Paris. He tefused all dignities, and gave himself to preaching and teaching with all modesty. In 1272 he was called to teach at Naples, and two years later was invited to assist at the council of Lyons, but he fell sick on the way, and died in a monastery, 1274, He was ca- nonized by John XXII. in 1323, and declared a doctor of the church by Pius V. in 1567. St Thomas Aquinas was a man of philoso- phical genius, of great learning, of fervent piety, and just and moderate in controversy. The great aim of his teaching >yas to show the accord between reason and the doctrines of Christianity. His chief work is the“ Sum- ma Theologiae,” one of the gi’andest monu- ments of human thought in the middle ages. One of the leading doctrines of Aquinas, and of his followers, the Thomists, is that of grace and predestination, and this was contro- verted by Duns Scotus, and his followers, the Scotists. The completest edition of the works of Aquinas is that of Rome, 1570, in 17 vols. folio. ARABELLA STUART, commonly called the Lady Arabella, was the only child of Charles Stuart, earl of Lennox, the brother of Henry lord Darnley, father to James VI., of Scotland, by Elizabeth, daughter of Sir William Cavendish. This innocent victim of jealousy and state policy, while an infant, lost her father, and thus became heiress to a large estate. Several matches were projected for her at home and abroad ; and her cousin, king James, was inclined to marry her to Lord Esme Stuart, whom he had created duke of Lennox, and whom, before his mar- riage, he considered as his heir; Jmt this union was prevented by Queen Elizabeth, 42 ara] ^ iRcto Stinljcrsal l^iograplji). [ara wlu) held the Lady Arabella under restraint, and rej,Mrded her with a jealous eye. On the death of that queen, an abortive eonspiracy was formed for setting up Arabella Stuart in opposition to her eousiii James. In IGIO she was privately married to Mr AVilliam Seymour, grandson of the earl of Hertford ; by which union she fell under the royal dis- pleasure, was placed in confinement at Lam- beth, and her husband sent to the Tower, Shortly afterwards they separately made their escape; Mr Seymour got safe to the Continent, but the Lady Arabella was over- taken, shut up in the Tower, and passed the remainder of her life in close and melan- choly confinement, which finally deprived her of her reason ; and she died September 27, 1615, aged 38. AllAGO, PllANgOIS JEAN DOMINIQUE, one of the greatest scientific geniuses of the age, was born at Estagel, in the south of Prance, in 1786. At an early age he w^as placed at a public school at Toulouse, from which he removed to the Polytechnic School of Paris. Having passed the required ex- amination with honour, he entered upon his studies in 1804, and rapidly rose to distinc- tion. He left the Polytechnic to join the staff of the Oliservatory at Paris, and shortly after this appointment fie proceeded w'itfi M. Biot to Spain, tfiere to measure an arc of tfie meridian. AVfiile engaged in this diffi- cult undertaking, w'ar broke out betw'een Prance and Spain, and, under pretence that the fires which he made on tfie mountain- tops as signals to his associates, were in- tended to enlighten the march of the Preneh troops, he Avas seized and put into prison ; but escaping after a brief confinement, he reached the port of Algiers, and after en- during many hardships, and encountering many dangers both by sea and land, he was safely landed in Prance, in 1809. On reach- ing Paris, as a reward for his zeal he was elected, at the early age of 23, a member of theAcademy of Sciences, in the place of the ' illustrious Lalande. He was appointed about the same time a Professor of the Ecole Poly- technique ; and noAV commenced that emin- ent scientific career which he pursued with undiininished vigour to Avithin a few days of his death. We cannot here enumerate the bi’illiant achievements by which Arago sub- sequently built up his Avorld-Avide reputation. His determination of the diameters of the planets, afterwards adopted by Laplace, the discovery of coloured polarization, and that of magnetism by rotation, AA'hich gained him the Copley medal of the Boyal Society, are only specimens of his contributions to sci- entific literature ; but the subjects in Avhich he gained the highest distinction are Mag- netic and Rotatory Polarization, Magnetism by the action of Currents, and Magnetism by Rotation : and to him w'e owe the in- vention of the Polariscope. In 1830 he Avas nominated Director of the Observatory of the Bureau des Longitudes ; and he succeed- ed Pourier, Avhose iloge he pronounced as Perpetual Secretary of the Academy of Sci- ences. The “ Annuaire des Longitudes ” was under his direction : and he founded, in conjunction Avith Gay-Lussac, the “Recueil des Annales de Physique et de Chimie.” As a politician, often occupying a conspicuous position, Arago w’as earnest, simple-minded, and consistent. When a youth, he avoAved his republican principles by refusing to sub- scribe to the constitution of the empire. After the revolution of 1830, Avhich placed Louis Philippe on the throne, he occupied a distinguished place in tlie Chamber of Depu- ties. In 1818, on the downfall of the mon- archy, he Avas named a member of the Pro- visional Government, and as Minister of War and Marine he succeeded in obtaining the adhesion of the whole of that important service to the republic ; but after the social outbreak of June, 1848, Avhich ended in the temporary dictatorship of General Cavaig- nac, he finished his political career. To his honour it must be stated that he Avas ready to renounce his hardly earned position at the Observatory rather than take the neAv oath to Lotxis Napoleon Buonaparte, after the coup d'Hat of December, 1851 ; and to the credit of the Government, Ave must add that it consented to forego the exaction. “ In the History of Philosophy,” says a contem- porary writer, ‘‘ the name of M. Arago Avill have enduring fame, not from the discoveries which he made, but from the aid which he gave to science in all its departments by his prompt and unfailing penetration. A mem- ber of nearly all the scientific Societies of Europe, he was the point uniting them in a common bond. In every part of the civilized world his name was regarded Avith rever- ence, and all scientific communities felt that they had lost a friend when they heard of the death of the Astronomer of Erance.” Died,1853. ARAM, Eugene, was the son of a gar- dener, and a native of Yorkshire, 1704. Though destitute of the advantages of early education, he made considerable progress in the mathematics ; then applied to the Latin tongue; and afterwards studied Greek. In 1734 he became usher in a school at Knaresbo- rough, Avhere he married. In 1744 he taught Latin and writing in London; and in 1757, he assisted in the free-school at Lynn. During this period he studied history, antiquity, heraldry, and botany, Avrote poetry, and be- came proficient in the Hebrew, Arabic, and Chaldee languages. In the following year he Avas apprehended at Lynn for the murder of Daniel Clarke, a shoemaker, of Knares- borough, which took place thirteen years before, and for which he was tried at York, Aug. 3, 1759. 'He made a most skilful de- fence, but was found guilty. The next morning he confessed his crime, attributing it to his suspicion of Clarke’s having a crim- inal intercourse with his Avife. HaA'ing in- effectually endeavoured to commit suicide in the night, he AA'as conveyed in a state of stupor to the gallows, and afterwards hung in chains in Knaresborough Forest. The singular discovery of Clarke’s mysterious murder, and its commission by a man of Aram’s otherwise irreproachable character, learned acquirements, and scholastic habits, together Avith his remarkable defence ex- cited a high degree of interest, and the me- lancholy tale has served as a basis for the enchanting fictions of a novelist and the exquisite pathos of a poet. 43 aka] 'll Stnibtrsal 13iograpf)p. [akc ARATUS, Greek poet and astronomer, born in Cilicia, about 300 B.C. He is known as the author of two elegant poems on as- tronomical subjects, entitled Phsenomena ” and “ Diosemeia,” which became very popu- lar, and were the subjects of many com- mentaries and translations. The former was translated by Cicero into Latin ; and St Paul is supposed to guote a passage from it in his preaching at Athens. ARATUS, of Sicyon, general of the Achsean League, was born B.C. 271. He was brought up at Argos, and first distinguished himself by the surprise of his native city in 251, and its deliverance from the tyranny of Nicocles. The union of Sicyon with the Achaean League followed. The return of numerous exiles occasioned some serious difficulties, in the settlement of which Aratus acted a wise and useful part. In 245 he first became General of the League, and soon after he made him- self master of Corinth and expelled the Mace- donians. Several other cities then joined the League. AVar with the A^tolians and with the Spartans, under Cleomenes, occu- pied him next, and Aratus sought the aid of Antigonus,king of Macedonia, who defeated Cleomenes at Sellasia, in 222. Disputes arose between Aratus and Philip, the successor of Antigonus, and Aratus was poisoned by order of Philip, B.C. 213. He was buried at Sicyon, and a religious festival was annually cele- brated in his honour. ARAUJO D’AZEVEDO, ANTONIO, Count of Barca, a Portuguese statesman, was born in 1752. After receiving a good education at Oporto and Coimbra, he was introduced at court, and was sent ambassador to the Hague, in 1789. On his Avay he visited Lon- don and Paris, and became acquainted with many eminent men in both capitals. In 1797 he negotiated a treaty of peace between France and Portugal, wliich, however, was cancelled by the Directory, and Araujo was for a short time imprisoned in the Temple. He afterwards visited Germany, and became minister of Portugal at St Petersburg. In 1803 he was recalled, and became secretary of state, and soon after minister of foreign affairs and of war. His incapacity for such offices soon appeared ; for although he adopt- ed many wise measures for the internal im- provement of his country, he appeared totally blind to the projects of Napoleon with re- spect to the Peninsula. Great indignation was excited against him, and he accom- panied the royal family to Brazil, where he retained the favour of the prince, and ren- dered important services to commerce and manufactures. Died, 1817. ARBOGAST, LOUIS Fr. Ant., a French geometrician, professor of mathematics at Strasburg, associate of the Institute, deputy to the National Convention, and member of many learned societies. Died, 1803. ARBOGASTES, a Gaul by birth, and a soldier of fortune, who raised himself by his merit to the title of count, under the empe- ror Gratian, after whose death he entered into the service of Valentinian the Younger and Theodosius: by the latter of whom he was sent into Gaul to oppose Victor, son of Maximus, whom he defeated and killed. Arbogastes then ingratiated himself with the army, who raised him to the post of general, without consulting the court; but, after the departure of Theodosius for Con- stantinople, he filled every post with his creatures, and reduced Valentinian to de- pendence upon his will. The young emperor was shortly afterwards found dead ; and Arbogastes, not choosing to assume the pur- ple himself, set up the rhetorician Eugenius, whom he had raised to the rank of master of the offices. Theodosius immediately pre- pared for war against the usurper, whom he totally defeated. Arbogastes escaped to the mountains, where he wandered for some time, and at length put an end to his life, about 395. ARBORIO DE GATTINARA. [GATTI- NARA.] ARBUTHNOT, Alexander, Scottish jur- ist, was born in 1538, and died in 1583. He became Principal of King’s College, Aber- deen, edited Buchanan’s History of Scotland, and Avas a strenuous champion of the Re- formation. ARBUTHNOT, JOHN, physician and mis- cellaneous writer, Avas born in Scotland, in 1675. After obtaining his degree at Aber- deen he settled in London, and in 1709 was named physician to Queen Anne, an office which he held till her death. He Avas noted as a Avit, and Avas the associate of Pope and Swift. He contributed to the “ Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus,” Avrote a witty political pamphlet, entitled “The History of John Bull,” several medical Avorks, and a useful account of Ancient Measures, Weights, and Coins, and died in 1735. ARC, JOAN OF. [JOAN OF ARC.] ARCESILAUS, a Greek philosopher, the founder of the second or middle academy, Avas born at Pitane, in Aiolia. He became head of the academy at Athens, about B.C. 241. He maintained that truth is unattain- able by man, and rejected as false and de- lusive the testimony of the senses. ARCHELAUS, king of Macedonia, na- tural son of Perdiccas II., Avhom he suc- ceeded, after murdering his brother Alcetas. He liberally encouraged literature and the arts, and entertained and patronized Euri- pides and Zeuxis. He died about B.C. 398. ARCHELAUS, a Greek philosopher, was the disciple and successor of Anaxagoras at Lampsacus, but removed afterwards to Athens, where he is said by some to have had Socrates for a pupil. ARCHENHOLZ, JOHANNWILHELM VON, a very voluminous German author; born, 1743; died, 1812. His tAVO most important works are “Annals of British History,” 20 vols., and a “ History of the Seven Years’ War.” ARCHILOCHUS, 'a celebrated lyric poet of Greece, Avas born in the island of Paros, and though the son of a slave, Avas descended from a noble family. He chiefly distin- guished himself by the Vehemence of his satire, and is said to have been the inventor of lambic verse. He settled Avith a colony in Thasos, where he disgraced himself by running away in a battle Avith the Thracians, and justified it. He flourished about B.C. 710—670. Fragments only of his poems re- main. 44 A lie] iUcto Sluilicrsal 3l3iograpI;L). [arg AROliniKDES, tho most celebrated ma- thcMiiatician among the ancients, was a na- tive of Syracuse, and related to kins Ilieron. lie was equally skilled in the sciences of as- tronomy, geometry, mechanics, hydrostatics, and optics; his aptness in solving problems had become proverbial in Cicero’s days, and his singular ingenuity in the invention and construction of warlike engines, is much dAvclt upon by Livy. The combination of pulleys for raising immense M'cights, the endless screw, a sphere to represent the mo- tions of the heavenly bodies, &c., were in- vented by him ; but his genius for invention was never more .signally displayed than in the defence of Syracuse, when it was be- sieged by Marcellus ; although the w’onder- ful and well-known story that among other astonishing novelties, he produced a burning glass, composed of reflecting mirrors, by which he tired the enemy’s fleet, is most likely a fiction of later times : no mention of such a circumstance occurring earlier than the twelfth century. At length, however, the city was taken by storm, and Archim- edes, then in his 74th year, was among the slain, B.c. 212. The neglected burial-place of this great mathematician was discovered by Cicero. Of the numerous works of Ar- chimedes nine have come down to us. They have been translated into French and Eng- lish. ARCRYTAS, a Pythagorean philosopher and mathematician of Tarentum, flourished about 400 B.C. He was one of the first who applied the theory of mathematics to prac- tical purposes. ARCO, Nicholas, Count, a Latin poet, born at Arco, in the Tyrol, 1479 ; died, 1546. ARCON, IRAN Claude eleonore le- MICEAUD D’, a French oflfleer, born at Pont- arlier, 1733; died, 1800. He distinguished himself at the siege of Cassel, became general of division, inspector of fortifications, mem- ber of the Institute, and senator; and was the inventor of the famous floating batteries used at the siege of Gibraltar in 1782. ARENDT, Martin Frederic, a cele- brated traveller, wfliose object was the cul- tivation of science, was born at Altona, in 1769. He commenced his travels in 1798, visiting the northern parts of Europe, and making researches into the antiquities of the countries through which he passed. He afterwards travelled through Spain, Italy, and Hungary ; and it was his practice to carry all his papers with him, live on the charity of others, and sleep in the open air Died, 1824. ARETjEUS, a Greek physician in the time of Vespasian; his works are held in great esteem. ARETIN, JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRIED- RICH, Baron von, born in 1773; a laborious German bibliographer, curator of the Royal Library at Munich, and member of the most famous German academies. Among his works are, a “ History of the Jews of Bava- ria ;” “ On the most ancient monuments of Printing in Bavaria; ” and treatises on mne- monics, a universal language, the divining rod, &c. He edited the “Aurora” in 1806, and published the “ Nouvel Indicateur Lit- ti raire,” at Tubingen, in 1808. Died, 1824. ARETINO, GUIDO, or GUIDO D’Arezzo, was born about 995. He was brought up in a monastery of the Benedictine order, where he applied himself to the study of music, and being dissatisfied with the system of notation then in use devised a new one. He had the honour of explaining his invention to the Pope, John XIX. He introduced the use of the lines and spaces, and of the syllables ut, re, mi, sol, &c., and left several works on his art. ARETINO, Leonardo, or Leonardo Bruni, an Italian historian, born at Arezzo, 1370 ; died, 1443. He was secretary to several popes, w'as present at the Council of Con- stance, and afterwards became chancellor to the republic of Florence. He Avas a prolific writer, but many of his Avorks Avere mere compilations and are forgotten. He made translations from many Greek authors, Avrote Lives of the poets Dante and Petrarch, and a History of Florence. The last is his most important work. ARETINO, an Italian satirical writer of great celebrity, was born at Arezzo, in Tus- cany, in 1492 ; and Avho, though occasionally as just as he Avas severe, was a thoroughly profligate and selfish man, an unprincipled and obscene writer, and one of the most reckless libellers that ever lived. He ob- tained a high reputation, Avas patronized by sovereigns, and enjoyed the friendship of artists and poets, Michael Angelo, Titian, and Tasso. He even wrote several religious treatises, and a Paraphrase of seven Psalms. His bitter satire on the scandalous lives of the nuns, married women, and mistresses of the cardinals, &c., was every Avhere read with disgusting avidity. A multitude of satires on all the European sovereigns, earned him the title of “ Scourge of Princes.” By some he Avas bribed to silence ; by others, punished. At Venice, where he lived from 1527 till the time of his death, he once received a sound beating at the hands of the English ambas- sador, whom he had offended by a false charge. He died in 1557. ARGAND, Aim^:, the inventor of the Ar- gand lamp, Avas born at Geneva. His first lamp Avas however made in England, in 1782. He was involved in several irritating con- tests to maintain his claim as inventor, against two Frenchmen, each of whom made some modification of form in the lamp. Died in England, 1803. ARGELLATI, FILIPPO, a very learned Italian printer, born at Bologna in 1685. From Bologna he removed to Milan, to su- perintend the printing of Muratori’s great collection entitled “ Scriptores Italicarum Rerum,” in the preparation and editing of Avhich he took a large and important part. The work was published under the auspices of the Emperor Charles VI., who granted Argellati a pension, and made him one of his secretaries. __Many other valuable Avorks is- sued from his press. Died at Milan, 1755. ARGELLATI, FRANCISCO, son of the above, a distinguished litterateur and author of a Avork entitled “ Decamerone,” written in imitation of Boccacio. Died in 1764. ARGENS, JEAN BAPTISTE DE BOYER, Marquis of, French miscellaneous writer, born, at Aix, in 1704. He at first chose the 45 akg] ^ iHtti) ^nitJtrsal 13tograpI)g. [ari profession of arms, and was wounded at the sieges of Kehl and Philipsburg, but after- wards turned his attention to literary pur- suits; went to Holland, and while there wrote his voluminous “ Lettres Juives,” “ Lettres Chinoises,” and “Lettres Cabalis- tiques.” He was invited by Frederic II. the Great, king of Prussia-, to his court, and made one of his chamberlains, and director of the Academy. Died, 1771. ARGYROPYLUS, JOHN, one of the learn- ed men who, in the 15th century, under the patronage of the Medici, contributed to the revival of Greek learning. In addition to his exertions as a teacher and lecturer, he published translations from Aristotle, and a commentary on the Ethics of that philo- sopher. ARIALDUS, St, deacon of Milan, who, in 1056, took a leading part in the agitations which arose there respecting the licentious lives of the clergy and the obligation of celibacy. He was excommunicated with his associate Landulfus by a provincial synod, but the pope annulled the sentence and en- couraged them to persevere. Embassies and letters Avere sent by Stephen X., Nicholas II., and Alexander II. to Milan, and serious tumults occurred on several occasions. At length Arialdus procnred a bull of excom- munication against the archbishop of Milan, who roused the popular indignation by an- nouncing it in the cathedral, and laid an interdict on the diocese. Arialdus fled, but was aiTested and murdered on a lonely island of the Lago Maggiore, in June, 1066. ARIAS MONTANUS. [MONTANUS.] ARION, an early Greek poetand musician, who flourished in the 7th century B. c. He was a native of Lesbos, lived long at the court of Periander at Corinth, and invented, it is said, the dithyrambic verse. It is of Arion that the graceful story is told of an escape from murder by sailors, by charming the dolphins with his music and riding over the waves on the back of one which bore him safe home. ARIOSTI, Attilio, an Italian musical composer, was born at Bologna about 1660. In 1698 he went to Berlin, where he met Handel, whose friend and rival he became. He visited England in 1716, and again four years later, when he Avas employed with Handel and Bononcini, at the Italian Opera. He left England in 1728, and nothing further is known of him. ARIOSTO, Ludovico, one of the greatest poets of Italy, was born in 1474. at Reggio, near Modena, of which town his father was governor. He was set to study law, but abandoned it in disgust and gave himself up to literature. After a short residence at Rome, where he composed some comedies, he settled at Ferrara, and entered the ser- vice of Cardinal Ippolito of Este, Avho em- ployed him in political negotiations. It Avas amidst the constant pressure of official duties that he wrote his great epic, the “Orlando Furioso,” which occupied his leisure for eleven years, and was published in 1516. The poet Avas charged, in 1522, with the sup- pression of brigandage in some mountain districts, and succeeded well. His next task was the direction of a theatre at Ferrara. Died, 1533. The “Orlando,” which cele- brates the semi-mythical achievements of the Paladins of Charlemagne, in the AA'ars between the Christians and the Moors, be- came immediately popular, and has since been translated into all European languages, and passed through innumerable editions. There are several English versions, of which Mr Rose’s is most esteemed for fidel- ity and elegance. Ariosto AA'rote also some vigorous satires, several comedies, and other poems. ARISTARCHUS, Greek critic and gram- marian, was a native of Samothrace, and flourished about a century and a half B. c. Having settled at Alexandria, he was made tutor to the son of Ptolemy Philometor. He succeeded his master, Aristophanes of By- zantium, as head of the grammatical school of Alexandria. The chief labour of his life was his revision of the text of the Iliad and the Odyssey. He divided these poems into separate books, and wrote commentaries on them. ‘His critical judgments were very severe, and his principles of criticism Avere stoutly opposed by many eminent men. He died at Cyprus in his 72nd year; and, as some assert, by voluntary starvation. ARISTARCHUS, the Samian, a Greek astronomer, who flourished about 280 B. c. He is said to be the first who knew of the earth’s motion on its own axis; and a work of his, of which an edition in Greek and Latin Avas published by Dr Wallis, in 1688, treats of the magnitudes and distances of the sun and moon. ARISTEAS, a Jew, in the employment of Ptolemy Philadelphus. He is said to have assisted in the Septuagint translation of the Bible ; and a history of it is attributed to him, but on no satisfactory grounds. ARISTIDES, an Athenian patriot, whose unbending integrity procured him the name of “The Just.” He was a great admirer of the laws of Lycurgus, and opposed to the democratic party headed by Themistocles. At the battle of Marathon he Avas next in command to Miltiades,and bore himself with great intrepidity. This caused him to be made archon in the folloAving year; but his rigid integrity in this office led to so strong an opposition by the popular party, that he was ostracised. He was recalled from banish- ment to oppose the Persians under Xerxes, and, both at Salamis and Plataea, exerted himself to the utmost to serve and save his country. A still higher proof Avas given of his love of justice by his efforts, though ineffectual, to save his rival, Themistocles, from banishment ; and by the fact, that though he had borne all the highest offices of the state, he Avas very poor at his death, Avhich took place in 467 B. C. .ARISTIDES, JElius, a native of Adriani, in Mysia; an orator of great ability during the reigns of Antoninus, Aurelius, and Corn- modus. An edition of his works was pub- lished in two 4to volumes, Oxford, 1722. ARISTIDES, a Christian philosopher, of Athens, in the 2nd century. Jerome praises his “ Apology for the Christian Faith,” Avhich Avas presented to the Emperor Hadrian in the year 125; but none of his writings are knoAvn to be extant. 46 Alu] ^ illicljo 2tnil)crsfil 13{ogrnpf)tj- [ari ARISTIDES, a painter of Thebes in the 4tli centnry u. C., famous for his power of rcpresentiiii; the passions. ARlSTirrUS, founder of the Cyrenaic scliool of philosophers, was born at Gyrene about four centuries B. c. He became a pupil of Socrates, but his mode of life was luxurious and effeminate, and opposing both the theory and example of his master, he made pleasure the chief good. At Corinth he Avas the companion of the courtesan Lais : and, at Syracuse, he Avas faAmured by the tyrant, Dionysius, to Avhom,in common with many other philosophers, he paid his court. It does notjhoAvevcr, appear that he became a mere slave to his passions. He established a school of philosophy at Gyrene, Avhich con- tinued for about a century, Avhen it Avas merged in or superseded by the school of Epicurus. AllISTOGITON, an Athenian, the friend of Harmodius, witliAvhoin he conspired, B.C. 314, agaiiist the tyrants Hippias and Hip- parchus. This conspiracy, prompted by the passion of revenge for a personal offence and insult, was only partly successful, Hipparchus being slain, and Harmodius being immediately killed by the soldiers. Aristogiton AA'as afterAvards captured, tor- tured, and put to death by Hippias. After tlie expulsion of the latter the people, by a strange confusion and perversion of feeling, turned the murderers into martyrs of liberty, made songs and set up statues to their honour, and conferred political privileges on their descendants. ARISTOMENES, the Messenian legendary hero, a descendant of the royal family of Messenia, who roused his countrymen, in conjunction with the Arcadians and Argives, to commence the second Messenian war, B.C. 635, in order to shake off the yoke of Sparta. Defeated after several years’ brave fighting he retired to Ira, and there held his ground for 11 years. At last he Avas taken 'by the Spartans, but miraculously escaped, and died in the island of Rhodes. ARISTOX, of Ghios, a stoic philosopher, B. c. 260, Avho held logic to be useless, the science of nature unattainable, and morals the only study worthy the pursuit of the wise man. ARISTOX, an Aristotelian philosopher, of Geos, B. c. 230. ARISTOPHANES, the Greek comic poet, was born at Athens about B.c. 450. Nothing is knoAvn of his life except that he went Avith a colony to iEgina, and had estates there. He Avas the contemporary of So- crates, Demosthenes, and Euripides. He is said to have Avritten 54 plays, but of these only eleven have come down to us. With the utmost boldness and licence he directed his terrible satire not only against the chief political and social evils of the time — espe- cially the Avarlike propensities of the people, the fondness for laAvsuits, and the teaching of the sophists — but against the leading men of the day, especially Gleon the popular fa- A'onrite, and the philosopher Socrates, Avhom he chooses to ridicule as one of the sophists. His Avorks, therefore, present a vivid, if exaggerated, picture of Athenian life and manners. For purity and elegance of style he is unsurpassed. The titles of his AVorks are “The Acharnians “The Knights” (against Glcon, and the most angry and bitter of his works); “The Glouds” (against So- crates) ; “ The Wasps “The Rirds “The Frogs ” (literary criticism) ; “ Plutus,” &c. ARISTOTLE, the great founder of tlie peripatetic school of philosophers, was born at Stagira, in Macedonia, B. c. 381. At the age of 17, he became a pupil of Plato, who called him the “ inmd ” of his school. The fame of his abilities having reached Philip of Macedonia, that prince made him tutor to his son, Alexander the Great ; and he so carefully attended the young prince, that Philip rebuilt the town of Stagira, Avhich he had razed, and restored the expelled inhabit- ants to their tOAvn and privileges. When Alexander set out on his expedition to Asia, Aristotle returned to Athens, and obtained leave to occupy the Lyceum as a school of philosophy, over Avhich he presided for 13 years,' and which Avas called, probably from his habit of walking as he lectured, the peripatetic. Suspected of political sympathy Avith Macedonia, he Avas accused of impiety, and I’etired to Chalcis, remarking, in allu- sion to the death of Socrates, that he did not wish to see the Athenians a second time guilty of crime against philosophy. He re- mained at Ghalcis till his death, in the 63rd year of his age, B.C. 322. Small and slender in person, and latterly of feeble health, Aris- totle accomplished in his day the task of a giant. His genius embraced all the sciences of his time, and invented new ones. His extant works include treatises on physics, metaphysics, logic (of Avhich he justly claims to be the inventor), rhetoi’ic, politics, ethics, and the natural history of animals. The last-named is one of his most valuable works. His great pupil, Alexander, aided him in his researches by supplying him with funds, and by having collections of foreign animals made and sent to him for study. The philo- sophy of Aristotle attained immense influ- ence, and Avas supreme in Europe during the middle ages. His word was another Bible, and to question his authority was heresy. After the revival of literature, and the Reformation, the magic of his name Avas lost. And noAv, after that natural reaction and a period of neglect, he is again studied and praised as one of the greatest intellects that has appeared in the world. ARISTOXENXJS, philosopher and mu- sician, pupil of Aristotle. His works are said to have beeU very numerous, but none have come down to us except his Harmonic Elements, Avhichis considered to be the old- est musical treatise existing. ARIUS, the celebrated theologian, was a presbyter of Alexandria in the 4 th century. Having maintained that the Son and the Father were essentially distinct, and that the Son Avas created out of nothing by the will of the Father, Alexander, the bishop, in opposition to whose preaching he taught this doctrine, assembled a synod in 321, in which the doctrine Avas condemned, and Arius,|and those who sided .with him, ex- communic.ited. Arius then travelled in Asia, and Avent on preaching. Eusebius, bishop of Nicomedia, Avas friendly to him. 47 akk] ^nitjcrsal 13tograpl)p. [arn and convoked a synod in liis favour. But in 325 the great council of Nice Avas held, at which the Emperor Constantine was present, and the great Athanasius took a prominent part. Arius and his doctrine was again condemned, and it was made a capital crime to possess his works. He was, after three years’ recalled from banishment by Constan- tine, presented several confessions of faith, apparently in accordance with the Nicene creed, but Athanasius, now bishop of Alex- andria, persisted in refusing him readmission to thechurch. In 336, however, he Avasjust about to be received again into the pale of the church, when he died suddenly. His friends said that he was poisoned ; his ene- mies, that it Avas the judgment of God. The controversies growing out of the teaching of Arius, though touching a matter lying wholly beyond the limits of human reason, agitated the church for a century. Arius wrote a book entitled “ Thalia,” and a col- lection of songs, by which he hoped to spread his views among the common people, but only a few fragments of his writings now remain. ARKWRIGHT, SIR RICHARD, the in- ventor of machinery by which our cotton manufactures have been increased to an al- most incredible extent, was born at Preston, Lancashire, in 1732 ; and his first employment Avas that of a barber. Notwithstanding the obstacles thrown in his way at first by pover- ty, and want of mechanical skill to reduce his inventions to practice, and afterwards by the unprincipled invasion of his rights by rival manufacturers, he realized a very large fortune ; and his machines, but little im- proved upon, have been the means of al- most innumerable fortunes made by others. Mr Arkwright was not knighted, as many suppose, on account of his inventions, but on the occasion of presenting an address as high sheriff of the county of Derby, congratulat- ing George III. on the failure of the attempt made on his life by Margaret Nicholson. Died, 1792. ARLAUD, JACQUES ANTOINE, miniature painter, a natiA-^e of Geneva. After distin- guishing himself at Paris, Avhere he taught tbe duke of Orleans, he came to London, made a fortune by his art, gained the friend- ship of Sir Isaac Newton, and returned in 1729 to Geneva, where he died. His last work was the “ Leda,” Avhich he copied from a sculpture of Michael Angelo, and afterwards destroyed by cutting it to pieces. A copy of it was sold in the artist’s lifetime for 600 guineas. Born, 1668 ; died, 1743. ARMFELDT, GUSTAVUS MAURICE, Count, a SAvedish statesman of some note. He held several important ofldces in Russia. Died, 1814. ARMTNIHS, or HERMANN, who by his intrepidity and success acquired the title of “ the Deliverer of Germany,” was the son of Sigimer, a chief of the Cherusci. Having been sent to Rome as a hostage, he was there educated, served in the Roman army, and for his valour Avas raised to citizenship, and ad- mitted to the class of equiies. But his attach- ment to his native country induced him to re- volt, and he became one of the most poAverful leaders of the discontented German tribes. He dreAV Varus, the Roman commander on the Rhine, into that ambuscade in whichhe and nearly all his troops AA'ere slain, and for some time baffled Germanicus ; but he was twice defeated, and his wife aauis captured by the Romans. After having for years Avith stood the vast poAver of Rome, Arminius was assassinated by one of his own country- men, in the 37th year of his age, A.D. 19. ARMINIUS, or HARMENSEN, JACOB, theologian, from whom the sect of the Ar- minians took its name, was born in Holland in 1560. He was sent at the age of 15 to Leyden, and studied at the university six years, after which he Avent to Geneva, Avhere Beza then taught theology. After visiting Basel and Rome he became pastor at Am- sterdam in 1588. A change soon began to take place in his theological opinions, sus- picions of his unsoundness arose, and at length, after being named Professor of The- ology at Leyden, he propounded the doctrines distinctive of his sect, and was involved in harassing controversies, especially Avith his fellow-professor Gomar. He was supported by several eminent men, but his health failed, and he died in 1609. The system of Arminius was a protest against the rigid Calvinistic doctrine of grace and predes- tination. ARMSTRONG, JOHN, poet and physician, was born at Castleton, in Roxburghshire, in 1709. In 1760 he was appointed physician to the army in Germany ; in 1771 he made the tour of Italy, with Fuseli the painter ; and died in 1779. His chief AA^ork is the poem on “The Art of Preserving Health,” Avhich was once very popular. His medical Avorks and short poems had but limited success even in his own time. He lived on terms of intimacy Avith the wits and poets of the day, and con- tributed to Thomson’s Castle of Indolence the stanzas descriptive of the diseases result- ing from indolence. ARMSTRONG, JOHN, physician and me- dical writer, celebrated for his researches concerning the causes and phenomena of febrile diseases, was born at Bishopswear- mouth, Durham,, in 1784. He took his degree of M.D. at Edinburgh, in 1807, and was chosen physician to the Sutherland Dispensary in 1811 ; but finding that his professional Avorks had made him a name in the metropolis, he resigned his situation in 1818, and com- menced practice in London. In 1821 he engaged with Mr E. Grainger in the forma- tion of a medical school in Webb Street, Borough; Avhere he delivered lectures on the practice of physic. In 1826 he joined Dr Boott and Mr E. Bennett jn establishing a neAv school of medicine in Dean Street, Soho, but shortly after relinquished his connection with it. He died in 1829, of phthisis pulmo- nalis. Few men were ever more anxiously devoted to the duties of their profession than Dr Armstrong, and few have been so suc- cessful in their elucidation of medical sci- ence. His works are numerous, and highly valuable. ARNALDO. [ARNOLD of Brescia.] ARNAUD, Marshal St. [ST ARNAUD.] ARNAUD, Henri, pastor of the Vaudois, was born in Pieomont in 1641. He formed the project of restoring to their nativecoun- 49 aiin] 'a StniOcrsal i3iograpf;i). [arn try the scattered survivors of the Yaudois, who had been driven away by the persecu- tions of tlie duke of Savoy. The enterprise was undertaken in 1G89, and notwithstanding tlie co-operation of a large French force with the army of the duke, was conducted to a successful termination, after neaily a year’s struggle. At the last momenta breach oc- curred between France and Savoy. Eighteen battles were fought, yet with incredibly small loss to the Yaudois. Arnaud distin- guished himself in this daring enterprise no less by his earnest piety than by heroic cour- age and great practical sagacity. He after- wards did good service under Marlborough in the war of the Succession. AVlien the Yaudois were again exiled he accompanied them, and discharged the duties of pastor at Schonberg till his death. He wrote a narra- tive of his great enterprise. Died, 1721. ARXAULD, Antoine, a French theolo- gian, Avas born at Paris in 1612. Doctor of the Sorbonne in 1641, he early distinguished himself as an opponent of the Jesuits and a supporter of Jansenius. He was expelled from the Sorbonne and retired to Port-Koyal, his sister Ang^lique being then abbess. He left his retreat in 1668 and Avas presented to Louis XIY. ; but his renewed attacks on the Jesuits brought fresh persecution on him, and he aa'us exiled. He settled at Brussels and kept up his controversial warfare to the end. He Avas distinguished for his piety, his learning, and the purity and simplicity of his life, and enjoyed the friendship of Pascal, Nicole, Malebranche, &c. Among his nu- merous works, filling at first 100 volumes, are “ De la Perpetuite de la Foi,” “ Morale Pratique des J^suites,” “Trait6 des vraies et des fausses Idees,” and seA’eral of the Port-Royal educational treatises. Died at Brussels, 1694. ARNAULD, Angeliqtje, or Angeltque DE St Jean, abbess of Port-Royal, Avas born in 1624. She was educated at Port-Royal, and became one of the nuns at the age of tAventy. She was one of the chosen victims of the long persecution carried on under the influence of the Jesuits against the Port- Royalists. In 1669 she was appointed prior- ess, and nine years later abbess, an office which she held till her death. She was author of “ Memoires pour sei’A'ir A. I’histoire de Port-Royal,” and other works. Died, 1684. ARNDT, Ernst Moritz, a distinguished German patriot, poet, and miscellaneous writer, was born in 1769. He Avas a nath'e of the Isle of Rugen, was educated at Greifs- Avald and Jena, and was one of the first to rouse his countrymen to shake off the ty- ranny of Napoleon. His patriotic songs and eloquent pamphlets appeared in rapid suc- cession, and contributed powerfully to the liberation of Germany. In 1818 he became Professor of Modern History at Bonn, but was soon prohibited from lecturing, and Avas only restored to his post in 1840. He assisted at the meeting of the National Assembly at Frankfort, in 1848. Among his numerous Avorks are thG“Geist der Zeit,” which ap- peared in 1807, a History of Scotland, His- tory of SAveden under Gustavus III. and lY., “ Mahrchen und Jugenderinnerungen,” and “ Erinnerungon aus dem auszern Leben.” One of his best-knoAvn songs is, “ "Was ist des Dcutschen Yatcrland? ” Died, 1860. ARNDT, or ARND, JOHANN, a German theologian, born in the duchy of Anhalt, 1555. He Avas pastor at Quedlinburg, Bruns- Avick, and finally at Zell, and superintend- ent of the churches of the duchy of Lu- nenburg. He made himself known by a Avork “ On True Christianity,” a protest against prevailing laxity in morals, Avhich Avas translated into Latin, French, and most modern languages. Died, 1621. ARNE, Dr TIIOMA3 AUGUSTINE, a cele- brated musical composer. At the early age of 18, ho produced an opera entitled “ Rosa- mond,” and shortly afterwards composed the music for a masque, entitled “ Alfred,” writ- ten by Thompson and Mallet. On the masque of Comus being adapted to the stage, Arne’s music for it obtained him a high reputation. The most celebrated of his compositions is the opera of “ Artaxerxes.” He Avrote some exquisite songs and glees, and the Avorld- faraous chorus “ Rule Britannia.” His sister Avas the celebrated Mrs Cibber. Born, 1710; died, 1778. ARNIM, Ludwig Achin von, German poet and novelist, was born at Berlin, stu- died at Gottingen, and passed his life in literary leisure and independence, at Heidel- berg, Berlin, and his country seat. His chief Avorks are “Ariel’s Offenbarungen,” “Der ICnabe Wunderhorn,” “ Der Wintergarten,” “ Griifin Dolores,” “ Die Kronen-AYachter,” “ Die Gleichen.” Died, 1831. His wife, Bet- tina Brentano, still more celebrated than himself, is the subject of the following notice. ARNIM, BETTINA (ELIZABETH) VON, a celebrated German litterateur, was born at Frankfort on the Main, in 1785. She was the sister of the poet Clemens Brentano, and from her earliest years displayed a singular fervour of poetic feeling and eccentricity of imagination. The suicide of her earliest friend, in consequence of a loA'^e-cross, af- fected her very painfully. She read the works of Goethe with infinite delight, and fell in love with the poet, then sixty years of age. She told her love to his mother, and began a correspondence Avith him in 1807. Part of this appeared subsequently under the title of “ Goethe’s Briefwechsel mit einem Kinde,” and was translated into Eng- lish by Bettina. She married the poet and noA'elist LudAvig von Aimim, and Avas left a AvidoAv in 1831. Her correspondence with her early friend, Madame von Gunderode, appeared in 1840. Her other works are, “ Dies Buch gehort dem Konige,” and “ Ilius Pamphilius und die Ambrosia.” Bettina died in January, 1859. ARNOBIUS, an African rhetorician at Sicca, in the 3rd century. He embraced the Christian religion, and published a defence of it, under the title of “ Disputations against the Heathen,” which has been frequently reprinted. ARNOLD D’AMAURI, Abbot of Citeaux, was appointed, in 1203, one of the legates of Pope Innocent III., AA'ith Peter of Castelnau and Raoul, for the conversion of the Wal- denses and other “heretics” of Languedoc. He distinguished himself in his mission by E 49 arn] ^anitjersal [arn his pride, bigotry, and implacable cruelty: travelled at first in the utmost pomp, till admonished by (St) Dominic: and after the murder of Peter of Castelnau had the high- est confidence of the pope. When the cru- sade was begun, Arnold was captain-general of the army, and his cry was “ Slay all, God will know his own.” He was the main in- strument of carrying out the pope’s policy of deceiving the count of Toulouse by feigned reconciliation, and so leading him on more surely to ruin. In 1211 he was rewarded with the archbishopric of Narbonne, and four years later took a leading part in the Fourth Lateran Council, which deposed Count Raymond and awarded his dominions to Simon de Montfort. ARNOLD of Brescia, an Italian monk of the twelfth century, who attracted the con- fidence of the people and the bitter hatred of the priesthood by his earnest preaching against the temporal power and possessions and the corruptions of the church. After an exile from Italy, during which he preached in France and Switzerland, he took the lead in a revolt of the Roman people, and for ten years held his ground as m-aster of the city. At last, terrified by the interdict laid on Rome by Adrian IV., the people banished their chosen chief, and shortly after, 1155, they saw him burnt and his ashes thrown into the Tiber. Arnold had been a disciple of the famous Abelard, looked, however, at the practical rather than the intellectual side of things, and w'as fiercely opposed, as Abelard had been, by St Bernard, to whose poAver he fell a victim. He was one of the most distinguished early martyrs of political and religious freedom. ARNOLD, Benedict, an American gen- eral, who during the early part of his career devoted his best energies to promote the cause he had espoused, and who afterwards disgraced himself by treacherously betraying it, Avas bred a surgeon ; but on the com- mencement of hostilities between Great Britain and the colonies, he entered into the service of the latter, and was chosen captain of a company of volunteers at Newhaven. He soon rose to the rank of colonel, and commanded an expedition to Canada. He afterwards distinguished himself by his bravery, when commanding a flotilla on Lake Champlain, and on other occasions, and was promoted to the rank of general. He subsequently entered into negotiations Avith General Clinton, to whom he proposed to surrender a post of great consequence, Avith Avhich Washington had entrusted hlrjj. But the capture of the officer [see Andre] sent by General Clinton, caused the plot to be discovered, and Arnold hastily escaped to the royalist quarters. He Avas employed under General Clinton against his former comrades, and had the rank of brigadier- general, when he retired to England, where he died, in 1801. ARNOLD, Christopher, a German pea- sant, whose energy and natural genius en- abled him to become one of the most ac- complished astronomers of his age. Born, 1646; died, 1697 ARNOLD, JOHN, Watchmaker, was born at Bodmin, in 1744. He made great im- provements in the construction of chrono- meters, and was assisted in his labours by grants from the Board of Longitude. The detached escapement and the compensation- balance are among the improvements he introduced. Died, 1799. ARNOLD, Samuel, musical composer, was born in 1740. He studied under Dr Nares, became doctor in music, Oxford, or- ganist to the king, and in 1793 organist of Westminster Abbey. He wrote several ora- torios, operas, songs, &c., edited the wmrks of Handel, and published a collection of sa- cred music. Among his works are “ The Prodigal Son,” an oratorio, and “ The Maid of the Mill,” an opera. Died, 1802. ARNOLD, Thomas, head-master of Rugby School, and Professor of Modern History in the university of Oxford, Avas born in 1795. He was a native of CoAves, in the Isle of Wight, and was educated at Winchester and Oxford. He Avas early distinguished by that earnestness of conviction and intellectual courage which characterized him through life. He became felloAv of Oriel in 1815, Was ordained priest in 1828, and the same year settled at Rugby. For some years previous- ly he had lived at Laleham, in Middlesex, where his time Avas devoted to the training of pupils for the universities and to literary labours. By his force of moral character and his singular faculty of governing, he effected an immense reform in Rugby School. The political and religious movements of his day engaged his warmest interest. He sought zealously to promote the social im- provement of the working classes, opposed the Tractarian movement, and took a lead- ing part in the discussions to which the foundation of London University gave rise. In 1841 he was named Regius Professor of Modern History, Oxford, but only lived to deliver one course of lectures. He left a “ History of Rome,” a noble work, but un- finished, an edition of Thucydides with notes and dissertations, seyeral volumes of ser- mons, and a collection of Miscellaneous Works. Died, 1842. ARNOLFO DI CAMBIO, a celebrated Italian sculptor and architect, formerly call- ed Arnolfo di LAPO,and erroneously sup- posed to be the son of the architect Lapo, was born in 1232. He became a pupil Of Nicola Pisano, and Avorked under him at Sienna in 1267. Ten years later he was architect to Charles of Anjou, at Naples. But his greatest works are at Florence, Avhere, about 1295, he commenced building the church of Santa Croce and the Duomo, or cathedral, called Santa Maria del Fiore. During the progress of those churches he undertook also the erection of the Palazzo Vecchio. The church of Or San Mkhele was built by Arnolfo for a loggia or open grain- market, and was converted into a church by Andrea Orcagna. The tomb of Cardinal de Braye, at Orvieto, is one of Arnolfo’s most beautiful sculptural works. Died, 1310, with- out seeing any of his great buildings com- pleted. ARNULPH, or ERNULPHUS, bishop of Rochester in the reign of Henry I. ; to Avhom some have assigned the authorship of the j manuscript, entitled “ Textus Roffensis,” an ■ ■ ■ ■ - rrr -A 60 arr] ^ illclii Sluiljcrsal 13(ograpI)T). [art account of the charters, &c., of his cathedral. Rut it is attributed by others to Rishop Ascclin, and also to Humphrey, a precentor of the cathedral, in the twelfth century. Died, IIH. AllRIA, a Roman lady, who, Avhen her husband, Ca?cina Ihctus, was ordered to put liimself to death, for rebellion against the Emperor Claudius, perceiving him hesitate, plunged a dagger into her bosom, exclaim- ing, “ My ra*tus ! it is not painful.” ARRIAN US, Greek historian, a native of Nicomedia, who took up his residence at Rome in the 2nd century. He studied phi- losophy under Epictetus, became a citizen of Athens and of Rome, and was made go- vei-nor of Cappadocia by the Emperor Ha- drian. He was subsequently made consul, and died in old age. The younger Pliny ad- dressed to him seven of liis epistles. The historical writings of Arrian were numerous, but two of them only remain entire, viz. seven books on the expedition of Alexander, a work highly esteemed for its accuracy, impartial- ity, and elegant style ; and a book on the affairs of India; the latter being a sequel to the former. He published the discourses of his master Epictetus, and also a sketch of his philosophy, entitled a “ ISIanual of Epic- tetus,” which became celebrated and is still extant; a “Periplus of the Euxine,” and several other works. There are some his- torical fragments of Arrian in Photius. ARROWSMITH, Aaron, an eminent geo- grapher and hydrographer. His maps and charts are very numerous, and held in high estimation ; and his tract, entitled “ A Com- panion to the Map of the World,” contains much valuable information. Born, 1750 ; died, 1823. ARSACES I., the founder of the Parthian monarchy, and of the dynasty of the Arsa- cides, flourished in the 3rd century B. In revenge for an insult offered to his brother by tbe governor of a province, he raised the standard of revolt in Parthla against Seleu- cus; and, having succeeded in emancipating his countrymen, they elected him their king. He reigned prosperously for 38 years. ARTAXERXES I. surnamed Longimanus, was the son of Xerxes, king of Persia. He slew his elder brother Darius on suspicion of his being guilty of the murder of his father. Artaxerxes then ascended the throne B.c. 465, and in his time peace was restored between Persia and Athens, after a war of 51 years. He died B. C. 424. ARTAXERXES II., MNE.MON, king of Persia, succeeded his father Darius II., B.C. 405. His reign is marked by tbe revolt of Cyrus, his younger brother, who was as- sisted by the Ten Thousand Greeks, and was defeated at Cunaxa in 401. AYars with the Greeks, terminated by the Peace of Antalci- das; wars with Evagoras of Cyprus, w'ith revolted satraps, and with Egypt, filled up his reign. The misconduct of his son Ochus troubled his last days. Died, B.C. 359. ARTAXERXES ill. or OCHUS, succeed- ed his father, Artaxerxes II., B. c. 359. He murdered two of his brothers, and afterwards put to death all the remaining branches of the family. In Egypt he slew the sacred bull Apis, and gave the flesh to his soldiers ; for which his eunuch, Bagoas, an Egyptian, caused him to be poisoned, and after giving the carcase to the cats, made knife liandles of his bones. This happened B. C. 338. ARTAXERXES BEREGAN (in Persian Ardshir), king of Persia, founder of the dynasty of the Sassanidae, was the son of Rabek and grandson of Sassan. He defeated his predecessor, Artahan, last of the Arsa- cidae, and had himself proclaimed King of Kings, A.D. 223. He restored the old religion of the Magi, made new laws, provided for their good administration, and for the edu- cation of the people, and then undertook to extend his dominions. A war with the Ro- mans followed, A.D. 232, Alexander Severus leading an expedition into Persia. But after a contest of five years peace was made with- out gain to either side. Died, A.D. 238. ARTEAGA, STEPHEN, a Spanish Jesuit of the 18th century ; author of a treatise on the Beau Ideal; a history of Italian thea- trical music, &c. Died, 1799. ARTEDI, PETER, a Swedish naturalist, was born in 1705. He was sent to study theology at the University of Upsal, but gave himself up to Medicine and Natural History. He was the fellow-student of Lin- nseus, whom he assisted in his “ Systema Naturse,” and who named a genus of plants after him, “ Artedia.” Artedi visited Eng- land in 1734, and in the following year at- tended, with Linnaeus, the lectures of Boer- haave, at Leyden. He undertook to assist Albert Seba, an old naturalist and collector of Amsterdam, to prepare a description of fishes, but he was accidentally drowned in September, 1735. Ai’tedl’s great work, the “ Ichthyoiogia,” was edited by Linnaeus, and published in 1738. ARTEMISIA, queen of Halicarnassus, in Caria, and one of the allies of Xerxes at the famous battle of Salamis, B. C. 480. ARTEMISIA, another queen of Halicar- nassus, wife and successor of Mausolus, B.c. 352. She is noted for her love to him, the extraordinary grief with which she mourned his loss, and the magnificent monument which she built to his memory. This monu- ment, called the Mausoleum, was adorned with fine Greek sculptures, portions of which were discovered in 1857, and are now in the British Museum. The monument is described in a splendid work by Mr T. C. Newton. Died, 350 B. c. ARTEYELDE, JACOB VAN, the celebrated brewer of Ghent, who became governor of Flanders, was bom about 1300. On occasion of a revolt against Count Louis, in 1338, he was chosen chief of the insurgents. He afterwards joined with Edward III. against the king of France, and assisted at the siege of Tournai, in 1340. In the truce which fol- lowed he stipulated the independence of Flanders, and became its governor. He ap- plied himself to his diflacult task with great energy and sagacity, but after several years he thought it best to erect Flanders into a kingdom, and offered the crown to the Prince of Wales. But he was massacred is a popxilar tumult at Ghent, in 1345. ARTEYELDE, PHILIP VAN, son of the preceding, was chosen captain by the Ghent- ese, on occasion of a revolt against Count 51 art] :0.m ^ni&trsal 33itigrapf)0. [ash Louis II., in 1382, He defeated Louis, near Bruges, took that city, and assumed the state of a sovereign. But Louis having obtained the assistance of France, a French army en- tered Flanders, led by the brave Constable de Clisson, and in the decisive battle of lloosebeck the Flemings were defeated and their leader slain, 1382. AIITIGAS, Fernando Jose, born at Monte Yideo, in 1760 ; first entered the Span- ish service ; quitted it, and was foremost among those who fought for independence. He subsequently, however, became an object of suspicion to the government of Buenos Ayres ; and, being declared a traitor, took up arms, and possessed himself for some years of the territory called the Banda Oriental ; but having sustained a defeat he was com- pelled to seek refuge in Paraguay, where he died in 1826. ARUNDEL, Thomas, archbishop of Can- terbury, was born in 1353. He was son of the carl of Arundel, was made bishop of Ely at tlie age of twenty-two, lord chancellor about ten years later, archbishop of York in 1386, and in 1396 archbishop of Canterbury. In the following year he was impeached of high treason on various grounds, and was banished. He promoted the elevation of Henry IV., and on his accession was restored to his see. He distinguished himself by his persecution of the followers of Wickliffe, prohibited the translation and reading of the Bible, and had a chief hand in procuring the statute “De heretico comburendo.” He employed his wealth munificently in the service of tlie Church. Died, 1414. ARUNDEL. See HOWARD, THOMAS. ASCHAM, ROGER, who had the honour of directing the studies of Queen Elizabeth, was born in 1515 near North Allerton, in Yorkshire. At an early age he was adopted by Sir Ajithony Wingfield, who educated him with his own sons, and in 1530 sent him to St John’s College, Cambridge, to complete his studies. Though brought up in the doc- trines of the Church of Rome, he became a Protestant ; was nominated Professor of Greek and public orator at Cambridge, and after fulfilling vai'ious other olfices both in the University and the Church, became at- tached to the coiirt of Queen Elizabeth as Latin secretary, and tutor to her Majesty in the learned languages. He was a man of rare accomplishments. Of his writings, the most valuable is his treatise, entitled “The Schoolmaster.” It is a discourse upon edu- cation, abounding in good sense and learn- ing, full of interest, and written in a pithy and vigorous style. A new edition of this work, carefully edited and annotated by Mr Mayor of St John’s College, Cambridge, was published in 1863. Ascham wrote also a treatise on Archery, entitled “ Toxophilus,” for which Henry YIII. gave him a pension. Died, 1568. ASCHAM, Anthony, a member of the Long Parliament, who was sent by Crom- well, in 1650, as envoy to Spain, where he and his interpreter were assassinated by some royalist exiles. He was author of a “ Discourse on the Revolutions and Confu- sions of Governments.” ASCLEPIADES, a Greek physician ; one of many bearing the same name. He was born at Prusa, in Bithynia, and settled at Rome, probably in the early part of the first century B. c. He had a great reputation and was very successful, preferring to cure by regulation of the diet and mode of life, rather than by the administration of drugs. ASELLI, CASPARE, an Italian anatomist of the 17th century. He was Professor of Anatomy at Pavia, and first discovered the system of vessels called lacteals. Died at Milan, 1626. ASGILL, JOHN, miscellaneous writer, was brought up to the law, was called to the bar, and went to Ireland, where he obtained a lucrative practice, and was chosen member i of the Irish parliament, in 1703. He was almost immediately expelled, on account of a pamphlet, in which he maintained that man may pass into eternal life without dy- ing. The book was burnt by the hangman. Asgill afterwards became member of the English parliament, but was on the same ground expelled, and his book was again ordered to be burnt. He spent the last 30 years of his life in prison for debt, published numerous political and other pieces, and died in 1738. ASH, JOHN, LL.D., a dissenting divine at Pershore,in 'Worcestershire, remembered as the author of a Dictionary of the English Language, on a more extensive plan than any previous one, and which is still of con- siderable value for the large number of pro- vincial and obsolete words contained in it. Dr Ash was author of several other useful works. Born, 1724 ; died, 1779. ASHBURNHAM, JOHN, the attendant of Charles I., was born about 1603, was early introduced at court and made groom of the bedchamber. He was a member of the Long Parliament, assisted at the treaty of Ux- bridge and in other negotiations, distin- guishing himself by his craft and insolence, accompanied the king from Oxford to the Scots army, and assisted his escape from Hampton Court to the Isle of Wight. During the Commonwealth he was several times banished and imprisoned, and at the Restor- ation entered the service of Charles II. Died, 1671. ASHBURTON, ALEXANDER BARING, Lord, the second son of Sir Francis Baring, Bart., and for many years the head of the i great mercantile house. Baring Brothers and { Co., was born in 1774. After due initiation into business in London, he proceeded to the United States to conduct the Transatlantic j business of the house. His political life i commenced in 1812, when he entered parlia- ' ment, as member for Taunton, which he j continued to represent till 1820 ; after which he sat for Callington in successive parlia- ment till 1831, and in 1832 he was returned for North Essex. Lord Ashburton com- menced life as a Whig. In the House of Commons he spoke frequently on all sub- jects connected with commerce. On the formation of the Peel ministry in 1834, he became president of the Board of Trade ; and in 1835 he was raised to the peerage. In 1842 he was appointed by Sir Robert Pool as a special commissioner to settle the dis- putes, with the United States, about the 52 ash] % Sluibtrsnl 13iograpf)t). [ast 1 Maine territory, wliich then threatened to involve this country in a war with America ; and the success of his mission was eminently owing: to his personal influence. Lord Ash- burton continued to support the policy of Sir llohert Peel, until the final measure of free trade in corn was proposed in 1816. To this he was strenuously opposed. During? a long: and busy life he found leisure to eulti- vate the fine arts, of Avhich he was a most liberal patron ; and his collection of ancient pictures was unsurpassed by any private one in the empire. Lord Ashburton married, in 1798, the daughter of William Eingham, Esq., of Philadelphia, and by that lady, who sur- vived him, he left a numerous family. Died, May 13, 1848. ASHMOLE, Elias, a celebrated English antiquary of the 17th century. He dabbled for a time in alchemy ; but fortunately for both his fame and fortune he abandoned that delusive pursuit, and applied himself to the study of Antiquities, and began to collect materials for the “History of the Order of the Garter,” which he afterw'ards published. Having obtained, by deed of gift, the valu- able collections of Tradescant, the famous gardener, he presented them, and subse- quently his books and MSS., to the univers- ity of Oxford ; and thus laid the foundation of the valuable Ashmolean Museum. Ash- mole’s claim to the Tradescant Museum was opposed by Mrs Tradescant, but the Court of Chancery established it. After his death there Avere published his “Antiquities of Berkshire,” and his “ Memoirs.” Born, 1617 ; died, 1692. ASHWELL, George, an English divine of the 17th century; author of several re- ligious Avorks. Born, 1612; died, 1693. ASKEW, Anne, one of the victims of the horrible persecutions in the time of Henry YIII. She Avas arrested for denying the doctrine of transubstantlation, and Avas burnt at the stake in Smithfield, having previously undergone the torture of the rack, in July, 1546. ASKEW, Anthony, a physician and classical scholar of the 18th century ; he studied at Cambridge, and became a FelloAV of the Boyal Society. He was the friend of many of the eminent men of his time, and a great lover of rare and curious books, of which he formed a large collection. Born at Kendal, 1722 ; died, 1774. ASPASIA, one of the most celebrated women of the ancient Avorld. She Avas a native of Miletus, and settled at Athens, AA'here she resided in the time of Pericles. She Avas one of the so-called “ hetaer®,” but was a woman of so remarkable a character and so richly cultivated mind, that she not only attracted but retained the love of the great statesman till his death. The laAV of Athens prohibited marriage of the citizens Avith foreign women, but Pericles, after separation from his Avife by mutual consent, entered into as close a relation Avith Aspasia as he might. He was, in fact, married to her, though Avithout the usual legal formal- ities. The best and highest society of Athens Avas found at her house, and among her guests, attracted less by her beauty than by her genius, her accomplishments, and the charm of her conversation, Avas sometimes seen the Aviso and good Socrates himself. Pericles liad a son by her, Avho was named after his father, and Avas declared legitimate by a decree of the people. Tlie dates of the birth and death of Aspasia are not knoAvn. Pericles died B. c. 429. ASSAROTTI, Ottavio Giovanni Bat- tista, an Italian philanthropist, born at Genoa, in 1753. At an early age he joined a society whose special object vv'as the educa- tion of children. The case of deaf-mutes ex- cited his sympathy, and the example of the abb6 de I’Ep^e encouraged him to undertake the task of their instruction. He was the first to open a school for their benefit in Italy. After labouring for some years he obtained from Napoleon an endowment for the school. He devoted his fortune as Avell as his time to his chosen task, and died at Genoa, in 1829. ASSCHE, HENRY VAN, a Dutch painter, born at Brussels, in 1775. He distinguished himself greatly in landscape, and became a member of the Society of Fine Arts of Brus- sels in 1818, and a member of the Academy of Amsterdam seven years later. In 1836 he was made a knight of the order of Leopold. Died, 1841. ASSELYN, JOHN, a Dutch painter, who excelled in battle-pieces and historical paint- ings. Born, 1610; died, 1650. ASSEMANI, GIUSEPPE SIMONE, a very learned Syrian Maronite, born about 1687. He went at an early age to Rome, and be- came archbishop of Tyre, and librarian of the Vatican. After visiting the East and obtaining many precious manuscripts, he published an account of the Syrian AA^riters, entitled “ Bibliotheca Orientalis Clemen tino Vaticana,” in 4 vols. folio. He wrote several othei voluminous works, and edited the works of Ephraem Syrus. Died at Rome, 1768. ' • ASSEMANI, Simone, a celebrated Orient- alist, born in Syria, in 1752. He AA^as edu- cated at Rome, and in 1807 became Professor of Oriental Languages at the university of Padua, a post which he filled till his death. He was author of several works on Oriental Literature. Died, 1821. ASSEMANI, Stefano, nephew of Giu- seppe Assemani, Avas born, 1707; became keeper of the Vatican library, and compiled the “Acta Sanctorum Martyrum.” ASSER, a rabbi of the 5th century ; one of the compilers of the Babylonian Talmud. Died, 427. ASSER, or ASSERIUS MENEVENSIS, a learned ecclesiastic of tlie ninth century, a monk of St David’s, and, probably, after- Avards abbot or bishop, Avas the tutor, friend, and Diographer of Alfred the Great. It is not knoAA'n wdiether he Avas the same person as the Asser, bishop of Sherburne, mention- ed in the Saxon Chronicle. His “ Annals,” notAvithstanding the critical doubts Avhich have been raised respecting them, are still believed to contain an authentic account of the life of his sovereign and friend. Died, 910. A STELL, 'Mary, the daughter of a mer- chant at Newcastle, and a AA'oman of very considerable talent as a polemical disputant. 53 AST] S^nibcrsal ISiograpi^i). [atk She obtained great popularity among the high church party as one of the most strenu- ous impugners of tlie principles of Locke. Born, 1068; died, 1731. ASTLE, Thomas, an English antiquary, was born in 1734. He settled in London, obtained employment in government offices, and became Keeper of the Public Records in the Tower. His principal work is the “Origin and Progress of Writing,” which appeared in 1784. He was F.R.S. and F.S.A., and a Trustee of the British. Museum. Died, 1803. ASTON, Sir ARTHUR, a brave commander of the royalist troops in the reign of Charles I., who greatly distinguished himself at the battle of Edge hill, &c. He was governor of Drogheda in 1649, when it was taken by Cromwell, and is said to have had his brains beaten out with his own wooden leg. ASTRUC, Jean, an eminent French phy- sician of the 18th century. He was professor at Montpellier for thirteen years, and in 1728 went to Paris, visited Poland, and finally settled at Paris as physician to the king and professor at the Royal College. He acquired great reputation by his W'ork “ De morbis Venereis,” which was immediately translat- ed into English. He wrote also “ Memoirs on the Natural History of Languedoc,” and “ Memoirs of the Faculty of Medi- cine of Montpellier,” &c. Born, 1684 ; died, 1766. ATAHUALPA, or ATABALIPA, twelfth and last Inca of Peru, was made sovereign of Quito by his father, on whose death, in 1523, he contended with his brother Huascar for the throne of Peru. He defeated Huascar and imprisoned him. He is also said to have put to death more than 200 of the royal family. When Pizarro landed in Peru both the brothers sought his friendship. Ata- hualpa agreed to meet the Spaniards on a friendly visit near Caxamarca, and Pizarro with the foulest perfidy attacked the de- fenceless multitude, made a horrible mas- sacre, and captured the Inca and imprisoned him. He was soon after tried before Pizarro and Almagro on a false accusation and sen- tenced to be burnt. As he consented to re- ceive baptism his sentence was softened to strangling. Died, 1533. ATHANASIUS, ST, bishop of Alexandria, and one of the most celebrated doctors of the church, Avas born at Alexandria about 296. He was educated by his predecessor Alexan- der, spent some time with St Anthony in the desert, took a leading part at the council of Nice, defending the orthodox dogma (the Homoonsioii) , and combating Arius with great zeal and acuteness, and was chosen bishop in the following year, 326. For nearly half a century he sustained, with unshaken fidelity through all changes of outward for- tune, the part he had chosen of champion of the catholic doctrine. Condemned by coun- cils, thrice exiled, alternately supported and persecuted by the emperors, a Avanderer at Rome, at Milan, in Gaul, and in the Egyptian desert, he remained true to himself, exer- cised an almost unparalleled influence, spent the last ten years of his life at Alexandria, and there died, 373. His woi’ks fill three vols. folio. There is no ground for attribut- ing the Athanasian Creed to this eminent bishop. ATHELSTAN, king of England, was the eldest son of Edward the Elder, on whose death in 925 he succeeded to the throne. In the following year, on the death of Sihtric, king of Northumbria, he seized his kingdom, and the other kings in the island made peace Avith him. The great event of his reign was the battle of Brunanburg, at which he won a complete victory over Anlaf, son of Sihtric, and the Anglo-Danes with their allies the Northmen, the Scots, and the Welsh. This battle Avas fought in 937. Athelstan acquired great influence abroad, and his alliance was sought by several European sovereigns. He ruled Avisely, added to the laAvs left by his grandfather Alfred, and favoured trade, edu- cation, and religion. Died, unmarried, 940. ATHEN^US, a learned grammarian, born at Naucratis, in Egypt, in the third century. The only Avork of his now extant is entitled “The Deipnosophists,” and is a kind of commonplace-book, containing a huge col- lection of facts, anecdotes, and extracts on all sorts of subjects, and from a great variety of sources. Nothing is knoAvn of the life of Athenffius, except that he lived at Alexandria and then at Rome. ATHENAGORAS, an Athenian philoso- pher of the second century. He became a convert to Christianity, and Clement of Alexandria was among his pupils- He Avrote an “Apology for the Christians,” and a treatise “ On the Pccsurrection of the Dead.” ATHENAIS. See EUDOCIA. ATHIAS, JOSEPH, a JeAvish printer of Amstei'dam in the 17th century ; editor of the Bible in Hebrew, English, Spanish, and German. ATHLONE, GODART DE REEDE DE Gtnkeld, earl of, an able and brave Dutch officer, who accompanied the Prince of Orange in his expedition to England, was born at Utrecht in 1640. Some time after William’s accession, he Avas sent to suppress the revolt of some Scotch regiments at Ips- wich. He subsequently took a leading part in William’s campaigns in Ireland; was at the battle of the Boyne, and after taking Athlone, gaining the battle of Axighrim, and forcing Limerick to capitulate, AvasrcAvardod with the title of Earl of Athlone. He after- wards served under William and under Marlborough in the great campaigns on the continent. Died, 1703. ATHOL, John Murray, duke of, is chiefly remarkable for the events Avhich ai-ose out of his hereditary connection Avith the Isle of Man. In 1781 he petitioned par- liament, complaining of his father’s transfer of the sovereignty of that island to the Eng- lish crown in 1765, for the sum of £70,000 and an annuity of £2000, and praying for a bill to amend it. The question was lost in consequence of a counter-petition from the island; but the duke was named captain- general and governor-in-chief of the Isle of Man, from Feb. 4, 1793 ; and subsequently a grant of one-fourth of the customs Avas made to him, in hereditary succession, Avith an increase of the annuity. He died in 1830, aged 75. ATKYNS, Sir ROBERT, a distinguished 54 atk] '21 ileto Slniijcrsal ISiograpf)!). [atw lawyer and patriot, who aid<;d in the defence of Lord William llussoll, and condneted tliat of Sir W. AVilliams, speaker of the House of Commons, when prosecuted for sifrning the orders to print Daiif^erlield’s narrative of the Popish Plot, lie also distiiif^uished himself by his opposition to the arbitrary measures of James II., and at the Ilevolution was made chief baron of the Exchequer. He subsequently was made speaker of the House of Lords, which office he held till 1693. Horn, 1621 ; died, 1709. ATKYNS, Sir HOBERT, son of the above, author of “ The ancient and present State of Gloucester.” Horn, 1646; died, 1711. ATTALUS I., king of Pergamus, succeeded his cousin Eumenes I. in B. C. 241. He greatly extended the limits of his kingdom, assisted the /Etolians against Philip of Ma- cedonia, and afterwards joined the Romans in their war with the same sovereign. He distinguished himself also by his patronage of literature, and founded a library at Per- gamus. Hied, B. c. 197. ATTERBURY, FRANCIS, an English pre- late, and a preacher of consummate abilities, was born in 1662, at Milton Keynes, near Newport Pagnell, and -was educated at Westminster School, whence he was sent to Christ Church, Oxford. In 1691 he took holy orders, and in 1693 Avas made chaplain in ordinary to the king, and lecturer at St Bride’s. In these situations, and as preacher at Bridewell, he attracted much notice by the eloquence of his discourses; but his constant advocacy of high church principles exposed him to the attacks of Hoadley, and often of others of less repute. In 1700 he be- gan a controversy on the powers and rights of convocations, in which he acquitted him- self so much to the satisfaction of the party with Avhich he sided, that he received the degree of D. H., and the thanks of the lower house of convocation. On the accession of Q,ueen.Anne, he was made her chaplain in ordinary, and shortly afterwards he received the deanery of Carlisle. His rise hence- forth Avas rapid : he Avas successively made preacher at the Rolls Chapel, a canon of Exeter, dean of Christ Church, bishop of Rochester, and dean of Westminster, which last preferment he owed to the recommend- 1 ation of Lord Oxford. Hitherto his course had been invariably prosperous; but the death of Queen Anne altered the whole com- plexion of his circumstances. His high church principles were sufficiently Avell known ; and it is asserted that he Avas im- prudent enough to boast, that if a sufficient guard could be obtained, he Avould proclaim the Pretender, and that too in full canoni- cals. Be this true or false, it is certain that he took several occasions to render himself obnoxious to George I., and was sufficiently active in correspondence with the friends of the Pretender to involve himself in a “ Bill of Pains and Penalties.” He died an exile, at Paris, in 1731. ATTICUS, HERODES, son of J'ulius Atticus, acquired so much reputation as a teacher of eloquence at Athens, that he Avas invited by Antoninus Pius to superintend the education of his adopted sons Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Yerus. He subsequently became consul, prefect of the free cities of Asia, &c. ' He employed his great Avcalth in public | Avorks; but at the close of his life be retired j to Marathon, his native place, Avhere he 1 died, A. 1). 180. j ATTICUS, Titus Pomponius, anillustri- 1 ous Roman of the equestrian order, especially remembered as the friend of Cicero, Avas born at Rome, B. C. 109. He was a man of great Avealth and also of high intellectual culti- vation, and was on terms of friendsliip with the most eminent men of his time. An Epi- curean in philosophy, he maintained a strict neutrality throughout the civil wars of Sulla and Marius, Caisar and Pompey, Antony and Augustus, and generously gaA'e his aid to the victims of proscription. He spent about 20 years at Athens, returning to Rome, B. c. 65. About nine years later he married and had one daughter, Pomponia, who became the Avife of M. Yipsanius Agrippa. None of the AAu-itings of Atticus are noAV extant, but the correspondence of Cicero Avith him, which Avas carried on for many years, forms a very valuable record of the time.. Died, B. C. 32. ATTILA, king of the Huns, and one of the most celebrated leaders of the barbarian hosts Avhich overran the Roman empire in its decline. His name and the enormous army at his command inspired such terror that he was named the “ Scourge of God.” After invading the Eastern empire and ex- torting a humiliating treaty from Theodosius II., he led his forces into Germany and Gaul, and Avas defeated in a great battle near Chalons-sur-Marne, in 451, by the combined armies of the Romans under Aetius, and the Goths under their King Theodoric who fell there. He soon after passed the Alps and made himself master of northern Italy, de- stroying many of the principal cities. Attila died in his own country in 453. He Avas acknowledged sovereign of all 'the tribes be- tween Gaul and the borders of China. ATTIRET, Jean Denis, a Irencli Jesuit and painter. Being appointed missionary to Pekin, he acquired great favour Avith the emperor Kien Long, of Avhose gardens he Avrote a very amusing account. Born, 1702; died, 1768. ATWOOD, George, F. R. S., an eminent mathematician; author of a “Dissertation on the Construction and Properties of Arches,” and many other valuable works on mechanical and mathematical science. Born, 1745 ; died, 1807. ATWOOD, Thomas, an eminent Musician and composer, born in London, in 1767; commenced his musical education under Dr Nares, in the choir of the Chapel Royal, where he early attracted the notice and gained the patronage of the royal family. In 1783 he set out for Naples, and after studying there for a time, he proeeeded to Yienna, Avhere he reaped great advantages from the instructions of Mozart. In 1796 he was appointed organist of St Paul’s cathe- dral, and composer to the Chapel Royal ; he also held the situation of organist at the chapel of the Pavilion, Brighton. His com- positions consist of dramatic pieces, numer- ous services and anthems, songs, glees, so natas, and other pieces for the pianoforte. 55 aub] ^ ^nitjersal 13iograp]^2 [aud He died March 24, 1838, and was buried in St Paul’s. AUBIGNE, Theodore Agrippa D’. [D’AUBIGNE.] AUBREY, John, an eminent English to- pographer and antiquai’y of the 17th century. He was a native of Easton Piers in Wilt- shire, was educated at Oxford, and became a fellow of the Royal Society. He left a vast number of MSS., but only published one work, entitled “ Miscellanies,” a collection of popular superstitions. Some years after his death his “ Perambulation of the County of Sm-rey ” appeared, edited by Dr R, Raw- linson. Many of his MSS. are in the Ash- molean Museum at Oxford. Died, about 1700. AUBRIET, Claude, a French painter of natural history subjects. Died, 1740. AUBRIOT, Hughes, an eminent French- man, born at Dijon, who was raised to the office of director of the finances under Charles V. He was provost of the merchants of Paris in 1367, when he projected and exe- cuted many important public works for the improvement and defence of the city. In 1369 he built the famous Bastille as a fortress against the English. Subsequently he was charged with heresy and imprisoned in the Bastille, but being rescued at the time of the insurrection of the “ Maillotins,” he retired to Dijon and died there, 1382. AUBRY, F., one of the French Committee of Public Safety in 1794, who aimed at coun- ter-revolution. He deprived Buonaparte, after the siege of Toulon, of military employ- ments, and reduced him to great distress ; the latter revenged himself afterwards, by preventing his return into France, after his. deportation to Cayenne. AUBRY DE GOUGES, MARIE-OLYMPIE, a French republican, celebrated for her beauty and talents, born in 1755. She found- ed the popular female societies, called Tri- coteuses, and was a perfect enthusiast in her political opinions. At length she was put to death by the revolutionary tribunal, in con- sequence of having denounced them in a pamphlet called “ Les Trois Urnes.” She died with heroic spirit. She is the author of the “M4moiros of Madame de Yalmont;” and of several di'amatic pieces. AUBUSSON, PIERRE D’. [D’AUBUS- SON.] AUCHMUTY, Sir SAMUEL, a distinguish- ed English general. He served with great zeal and ability in North and South America, and when commanding in India, reduced to the dominion of Great Britain the rich set- tlements of Java and Batavia. On his re- turn to Europe, he was appointed to the command in Ireland, where he died in 1822. AUCKLAND, WILLIAM EDEN, Lord, an able diplomatist, was the third son of Sir Robert Eden, Bart., of West Auckland, Dur- ham. He was appointed under-secretary of state in 1772; went to Ireland in 1780 with Lord Carlisle, as chief secretary; in 1788 was ambassador to Spain ; and in the year fol- lowing was ambassador to Holland. He wrote “ The Principles of Penal Law,” “ The History of New Holland,” and other works. Born, 1744; died, 1814. AUDEBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE, a cele- bratcd French painter, engraver, and na- turalist, born in 1759. He studied at Paris, travelled in England and Holland, and after- wards devoted himself wholly to the de- lineation of objects of natural history. His “Histoire naturelle des singes,” and “His- toire naturelle generate des colibris, &c.” are among the most magnificent works on Natural History ever published. The plates Avere coloured after a method invented by the author, and in a few copies the text was printed in gold. After his death another work entitled “Oiseaux dor^s,” was pub- lished from materials Avhich he had col- lected. Died, 1800. AUDIFREDI, Giovanni Battista, a learned Italian bibliographer, born, 1714. He relinquished the pursuit of astronomy on being appointed keeper of the Casanata Library, at Rome, and published several valuable catalogues. Died, 1794. AUDLEY, Sir Thomas, Lord Audley, Lord Chancellor of England, Avas probably a native of Essex. He became Speaker of the House of Commons about 1529, and after holding several other offices, succeeded Sir Thomas More as lord-keeper in 1532, and Avas soon after named Lord Chancellor. He was a selfish and unscrupulous man, Avhose highest ambition seems to have been, to do the Avill of his master, Henry YIII., and get what he could by it. And in this he suc- ceeded. After the dissolution of the monas- teries he received many a rich gift, especially the abbey of Walden, on the site of which his grandson built the mansion of Audley- End. He Avas raised to the peerage, made a Knight of the Garter, and died in 1544. Lord Audley augmented the endowments of Magdalen College, Cambridge. AUDOIN, Jean Yictor, a French en- tomologist, was born at Paris in 1797. He early obtained the friendship of Cuvier and other men of science, and in 1826 he was named Professor of Entomology at the Mu- seum of the Jardin des Plantes. His Avritings consist chiefly of papers contributed to learn- ed societies. Died, 1841. AUDRAN, the name of a family of French artists, of whom the following are the most eminent — C harles Audran, the elder, en- graver, was born at Paris, in 1594 ; and died in 1673. — CLAUDE, a nepheAV of the pre- ceding, was born at Lyons, in 1639, and studied under his uncle. He was assistant to Le Brun in painting the celebrated series of the Battles of Alexander at Versailles, - and became professor of painting in the royal academy of Paris, where he died in 1684. — Girard, brother of the last-mention- ed, and the most celebrated of the family, Avas born at Lyons, in 1640; studied under Le Brun at Paris, and afterwards at Rome. He was admitted to the Academy of Paint- ing, and named one of its councillors in 1681. He engraved his master’s Battles of Alexan- der, and a multitude of other Avorks, Avith great skill, preserving in his engraving the peculiar style of each painter. Girard Au- dran was one of the greatest of historical engravers, and one of the most amiable and kindly of men. He died in 1703 . — Claude, nepheAV of Girard, Avas born at Lyons, in 1685. He was celebrated for ornamental do- 56 aud] ^21 i^cto Bniijersnl 13iograpf)0* [aug signs; nppointeil king’s” painter ; and died in 1731. — JE.VN, brother of Claude, Avas born in 1G67; studied engraving under liis uncle; and died, at Paris, in 175G. AUDUllON, JOHN JAMES, a distinguished naturalist, was born of French parents, on a plantation in Louisiana, near New Orleans, and from his earliest years he was taught by them to study nature. After spending his boyhood in Louisiana, young Audubon was taken to France, where he received his edu- cation, and attained considerable proficiency as a painter under the mastership of the celebrated David. At the age of 17 he re- turned from France (then in the midst of its revolution) to the woods of the New World, with fresh ardour, and began a collection of drawings under the title of the “ Birds of America.” This collection having multi- plied upon his hands, after many years of devoted toil, he was persuaded to undertake the publication of his great work, and with the view of obtaining subscribers he visited Europe in 1824. Everywhere Avas he well received. On the Continent, Herschel, Cu- vier, and Humboldt, Avhom he had encount- ered in America, gave him a hearty reception. In the “ Cosmos,” distinguished mention is made of his talents. The publication of his great work was commenced, and completed at the end of 14 years. Sir David Brewster, Sir Walter Scott, Lord Jeffrey, and Wilson were warm supporters of this magnificent undertaking, Avhich even exceeded all ex- pectations. The leading scientific societies of Europe honoured the author by enrolling him as a member. In 1839 Audubon re- turned to America, and established himself on the banks of the Hudson in peaceful re- tirement. There he laboured Avith Dr Bach- man in preparing “ The Q,uadrupeds of America,” a Avork published in 1850. He Avas assisted in some of his labours by his two sons. Most of his birds, hoAveTer, were painted by himself in the forest while their plumage Avas fresh, and he seems never to imve been satisfied Avith the brilliancy of his colouring, since it did not represent life it- self. Died, 1851. AUENBRUGGER, or AVENBRUGGER, Leopold, physician, was born at Gratz, in Styria, in 1722, and became ordinary phy- sician to the hospitals of Vienna. He is celebrated as the inventor of the method of percussion in investigating diseases of the chest. He published his method in 17G1, but nearly half a century elapsed before it Avas generally adopted. Died, 1809. AUGER, Athanase, a learned abb6, and professor of rhetoric at the college of Rouen, was born at Paris, in 1734. He pub- lished several political Avorks, but chiefiy distinguished himself by his translations of the Avorks of Demosthenes, JEschines, and other Greek orators, and of Cicero, the last appearing after his death. One of his prin- cipal Avorks is the “Constitution de Rome.” Died, 1792. AUGEREAU, PIERRE PrANQOIS CHAS., duke of Castiglione, and marshal of France, was born at Paris, in 1757. Having entex*ed the army early in life, he distinguished him- self, and rose to the rank of brigadier- general in 1794. At the battles of Castiglione and Areola, in 179G, his personal bravery Avas eminently conspicuous ; and, in short, through all the campaigns of Napoleon from that time till the meinorable retreat from Russia in 1813, he displayed great skill, and filled the most important stations; receiving as a reAvard for his services the baton of marshal and a dukedom. On the abdi- cation of the emperor, he was among the first to offer his allegiance to the Bourbons, for Avhich he Avas amply reAvarded ; yet, it is said, he was equally ready on Napoleon’s re- turn from Elba to serve his old master, avIio, hoAvever, rejected his services, and declared him a traitor. He died in 181G. AUGUSTI, Christian Johann Wil- helm, a German theologian, was born near Gotha, in 1771. He studied at the university of Jena, Avhere, in 1803, he was named Pro- fessor of Oriental Literatui’e, and subse- quently of Theology. In 1811 he removed to Breslau, and eight years later to Bonn. His Avorks are very numerous, and are mostly historical or antiquarian. The best is, per- haps, his “ Denkwurdigkeiten aus der Christ- lichen Archaeologie.” Died at Bonn, in 1841. AUGUSTIN, St, bishop of Hippo, the greatest of the Latin Fathers of the Church, was born in 354. He Avas a native of Ta- gaste, in North Africa. At the age of 16 he was sent to study at Carthage, where he fell into immoral habits, notwithstanding the Christian instruction which he had received from his mother, the pious Monica. He be- came a Manichaean, and soon distinguished himself as a rhetorician. In 384 he was at Rome, Avhence he Avas called to Milan, and there, by the influence of St Ambrose, he was led to embrace Christianity. He was baptized in 387, spent some time in retire- ment at Tagaste, and in 395 was made coad- jutor to Valerius, bishop of Hippo, Avho died in the following year. He laboured inces- . santly as a pastor and a Avriter till his death, which took place during the siege of Hippo by the Vandals, in 430. His remains, re- spected by the barbarians, Avere removed to Sardinia, and afterwards to Pavia. In 1842 some relics of the saint, alleged to have been discovered in 1695, were reconveyed to Hip- po. Augustin took an active part in the church controversies of his age, especially opposing the Manichaeans, the Donatists, and the Pelagians. His influence over the Avestern church Avas immense and lasting ; he completed, it has been said, Avdiat Athana- sius began, and by his earnestness and lo- gical clearness determined the form of the catholic doctrine. His Avorks are very nu- merous, but the best knoAvn are his “ Con- fessions,” and the “ City of God.” The Avritings of this father Avere the special study both of John Wickliffe and Martin Luther. AUGUSTIN, or AUSTIN, St, styled the Apostle of the English, was sent by Pops Gregory I. with a few monks to preach the gospel in England. He landed in 597; and so rapid Avas his success, that the pope made him archbishop of Canterbury, Kent being the first scene of his labours. Elated by the success of his mission, he endeavoured to bring the Welsh bishops, AA'ho Avere descend- ants of the British converts of the second 67 aug] 91 ;i^efco ^am&ersal ISiograp!)!). [aur century, under the jurisdiction of the Church of Home, to which they had never submit- ted; but they asserted their independence, and 1200 (or 200, accoz’ding to the Saxon Glironicle) monks of Eangor were soon after put to the sword by Ethelfrid, king of North- umberland, at the instigation, it was said, of the offended prelate. He died, however, in 605, two years before this massacre took place. AUGUSTULTJS,E,OMULTJS,the last Roman emperor of the W est, was raised to the throne by his father, the patrician Orestes, who deposed Julius Nepos, in 476; but his reign was little more than nominal, and of very shoi't duration ; being soon after conquered and dethroned by Odoacer, king of the He- ruli, M'ho spared his life, and allowed him a pension. AUGUSTUS, the first Roman emperor, at first named Caius Octavius, was born b.c. 63. He was grand-nephew to C. Julius Cae- sar, who named him his heir, and on whose murder he went to Rome to claim his pro- perty and avenge his death : aiming secretly at the chief power. He first joined the re- publican party, assisted in the defeat of Antony, at Mutina, and got himself chosen consul in 43. Soon after, the first tz’ium- virate was formed between Octavius, An tony, and Lepidus, and a frightful proscription followed. Next year Octavius and Antony overthrew the republican army under Brutus and Cassius in the two battles of Philippi. He was next occupied with the wars excited by Fulvia, the wife of Antony, and Sextus Pompeius. Hepidus was deprived of power in 36, and five years later Antony and Cleo- patra were defeated at Actium,and Octavius was master of the Roman world. Gradually all the highest offices of state were united in his hands, and the senate gave him the title “ Augustus,’' E. C. 27. He studiously veiled his supremacy under the old republican forms, kept the people amused, carried on wars only to defend the existing frontiers, promoted agriculture, literature, and the arts, and made immense improvements in the city of Rome. Augustus was thrice mar- ried, and as his nephew Marcellus and the two sons of his friend Agrippa were dead, he named as his successoi*, Tiberius, the son of his third wife, Livia. Died at Nola, in August, A. D. 14. AUGUSTUS II. of Saxony. [FRED- ERICK AUGUSTUS I.] AULUS GELLIUS. [GELLIUS.; AUNGERVILLE, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE Bury, bishop of Durham, and chancellor of England, was born in 1287. He studied at Oxford, and was appointed tutor to Ed- ward III., who afterwards conferred on him many offices, both of church and state. He was twice sent ambassador to the pope, be- came bishop of Dui’ham in 1333, and chan- cellor in the following year, and was several times sent to the court of Fi’ance. He was a very great lover of learning and books, made a large collection of them, and was the correspondent of many eminent men. He left a curious and interesting work, en- titled “Philobiblon.” Died, 1345. AUNOY, MARIE CATHERINE, COUntesS of, French novelist, born about 1650. She is remembered as authoress of several volumes of “ Fairy Tales,” many of which have been frequently reprinted and translated into many languages. There is an English trans- lation by Mr J. R. Planch^; Died, 1705. AURELIANUS, LUCIUS DOMITIUS, Ro- man emperor, was the son of a peasant, and was born in Pannonia, about the year 212. Having throughout an active life greatly distinguished himself as a skilful, valiant, and successful general, he was chosen emperor on the death of Claudius II. in 270. He drove the barbarians from Italy, vanquished the celebrated Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, and carried her prisoner to Rome, conquered Tetricus, who had assumed the purple in Gaul ; but while on his march towards Per- sia, in 275, he was assassinated by his mutin- ous troops. Besides the brilliant military achievements by which Aurelianus restored for a time the prestige of the Roman name, he undertook many great public works, the principal of which was the building of new walls for the defence of the city. AURELIUS ANTONINUS, MARCUS, Ro- man emperor, was born at Rome, in 121. He succeeded Antoninus Pius in 161, having been early adopted by him and married to his daughter Faustina. Lucius Yerus was at once associated with him in the empire. Great part of his reign was occupied with wars^ the sad necessity of the times. Verus conducted successfully a war w'ith the Par- thian s ; both empex*ors encountered the bar- barians on the Danube, until the death of Verus in 169, and then Aurelius carried on the war, and by his success obtained the sui’name of Germanicus. It was in the course of this war that the remarkable defeat of the Q,uadi took place, 174, which was at- tributed to miracle, and respecting which so much debate has been held. After an expe- dition to the East to suppress the I'evolt of his lieutenant there, he had to renew* the war in Germany ; but worn out with inces- sant exertions he died in Pannonia, 180. Marcus Aurelius was not only one of the wisest and best of the Roman emperors, but one of the noblest and most complete cha- racters of the ancient world. In boyhood he was called “Verissimus” (most true), and this chief of virtues distinguished him through life. He was educated by teachers of the Stoic School, and became himself one of the most eminent members of that school. He acquired the title of “ the Philosopher,” and has left us in his “ Meditations ” a most precious z’ecoi*d of his moral and religious sentiments and opinions, the rules by which he wished to regulate his conduct, &c., set down in detached notes from time to time, as affairs of state gave him leisure. A new English translation of this book was lately published by Mr George Long. The perse- cution of Christians in this reign has been urged as a reproach against Aurelius ; but it is not known that he ordei’ed it. And it is noteworthy that no persecution took place in Rome or Italy. AURUNGZEBE, the Mogul emperor of Hindostan, was the thii'd son of Shah Johan. His early life was mai'ked by gravity and seeming devotion, but these were merely tlic disguise of an ambitious and crafty spirit. 68 Aus] ^ iRcto Stnibcrsal ISiograpi^i). [avi He deposed his lather, put to death two of his brothers, and the son of the elder of them, and assumed the sovereign autliority in 1G59. Ill, however, as he obtained his power, he used it with skill and courage. He subdued Golconda, the Carnatic, Hijapur, and Hengal, and routed the pirates who had infested the mouth of the Ganges. His achievements obtained him the respect of European as well as Asiatic powers. But the close of his life was embittered by the rebellious conduct of his sons, who aimed at deposing him, as he had deposed his father. Born, 1618; died, 1707. After the death of Aurungzebe, the might and splendour of the Mogul empire rapidly declined. AUSONIUS, Dkcimus Magnus, a Roman poet of the 4th century ; son of Julius Auso- nius, a physician of Bordeaux. He early gave proof of genius, and was appointed tu- tor to Gratian, son of the emperor Valenti- nian ; and when his pupil came to the throne, he made him pra?torian prefect of Gaul, and subsequently raised him to the consulship. His poems are various both as to subject and merit; but though they contain much that is beautiful, they are but too frequently de- formed by licentiousness. AUSTEN, Jane, an English novelist, was born in 1775. She was the daughter of a clergyman in Hampshire, and received a good education. Her first novel, “ Sense and Sensibility,” was published in 1811, and became at once popular. Among her other works are “ Pride and Prejudice,” “ Persua- sion,” &c. They are all carefully finished delineations of familiar life in England, charming for their healthful simplicity , truth to nature, and freedom from exaggeration. They hold their ground in the face of all “sensation” competitors, and are likely to do so. Hied at Winchester, 1817. AUSTEN, William, a distinguished metal-founder, a citizen of London, wdio flourished in the 15th century. The work by which he is known is the very fine brass tomb of Richard de Beauchamp, earl of AVarwick, in St Mary’s church, AVarwick. H? was assisted by other artists whose names aie also preserved. The design and work- manship are said to be not inferior to con- temporary sculptures of great Italian artists. AUSTIN, JOHN, a distinguished English jurist, was born about 1790. In his youth ho served five years in the army, which he quitted for the study of law, and was called to the bar in 1818. Physically and mentally disqualified for the rough dashing work of the profession, he gave up practice after seven years’ struggle. On the foundation of London University in 1826 he was chosen to fill the chair of Jurisprudence, and to fit himself for it went to study in Germany. He enjoyed at Bonn the society of Niebuhr, Brandis, Schlegel, and other eminent men, mastered the German language, and read the most important works on Law. The first success of his career as Professor was soon followed by a mournful failure ; such pro- found exposition of the science of law as he gave not being attractive to those who only wanted to make money by their profession. In 1832 he resigned his chair. It was a heavy blow and a bitter disappointment to him. He was afterwards a member of the Commission on Criminal I.aw, and for a short time lecturer at the Inner Temple. In 1837 he was sent with Sir George Lewis as royal commissioner to Malta, and by his love of justice, sagacity, and humanity rendered great service to the island. His health, al- ways frail, grew worse after his return from Malta, and he spent the succeeding years in Germany and France, and finally settled at AA'^eybridge in 1848, and there passed quietly and happily the last years of his life. Hied, 1859. His able Avork, “The Province of Jurisprudence determined,” Avas first pub- lished in 1832. A second edition, with tAvo additional volumes of his Lectures and a toucliing memoir by his Avife, was published in 1861. AA^ALOS, Ferdinand Francesco d’, marquis of Pescara, a distinguished Neapo- litan captain, was born about 1493. He early married the celebrated A'ittoria Co- lonna; entered the army in 1512; defeated Alviano near Vicenza in the folloAving year; took Milan and many other towns; distin- guished himself at the battle of PaAua, and was wounded there ; and died at Milan, hated for his arrogance, 1525. AVALOS, Alphonso d’, marquis del Vasto, nephcAv of the preceding, Avas born at Naples, in 1502, and obtained the command of the imperial army at his uncle’s death, for the brilliant A'alour he displayed at the siege of Pavia. He folloAved Charles V. in all his expeditions, and Avas made governor of the Milanese. His arrogance, cruelty, and oppressive government made him de- tested by the people. Died, 1546. AVENZOAR, or EBN ZOAR, an Arabian physician of the 12th century, born at Se- ville; author of a medical compendium, en- titled “ A1 Theiser.” AA'ERROES, or IBN ROSHD, an Arabian philosopher and physician of the 12th cen- tury. He diligently studied philosophy, ju- risprudence, and medicine, under the greatest teachers of his time, and Avas the first Avho translated the Avorks of Aristotle. He also wrote commentaries on them and on the “Republic” of Plato. Of his medical trea- tises the most celebrated is that entitled “Collyget,” or “Kulligat,” i. e. the Total. Averroes was made chief judge of Morocco by the caliph, Jacob Almanzor, but being accused of heresy by the Mahometan priests, he was imprisoned. Again, hoAvever, he acquired both the royal favour and the po- pular confidence, and died at Morocco, in 1198, in possession of the highest honours. AAHCENNA, the celebrated Arabian phy- sician and philosopher, was born near Bok- hara in 980. He applied himself earnestly to the study of mathematical science, logic, medicine, and theology, held the office of physician to A'arious princes, and died at Hamadan, 1037. He wrote a great number of treatises on philosophy and medicine, tho most important of which Avere his commen- tary on the “ Metaphysics ” of Aristotle, and his famous “ Canon,” the sovereign authority in medical science for centuries. AAHLA, Juan D’, a Spanish priest, who for the space of 40 years journeyed through the Andalusian mountains and forests, en- 59 AVi] forcing by bis precepts and example the doctrines of the gospel; on Miiich account he acquired the appellation of the Apostle of Andalusia. Died, 1569. AVILA Y ZUNIGA, LUIS D’, a distin- guished diplomatist, warrior, and historian, under Charles V. He was envoy from the emperor to Popes Paul IV. and Pius IV., and attended Charles in his war with the Pro- testant Princes. He wrote “ Commentaries ” on this war, which gave him high rank as a historian, and have been translated into va- rious languages. Born, about 1500. AVISON, Charles, a composer and mu- sician ; author of “ Essays on Musical Ex.- pression,” &c. Died, 1770 AYALA, Pedro Lopez d’, a learned, brave, and eloquent Spanish statesman, was born in Murcia, in 1332. He was captured by the English at the battle of Nakura (or Najera) when Henry of Trastamere was de- feated by Pedro the Cruel, assisted by the Black Prince. He was afterwards released on payment of a heavy ransom, and Henry having triumphed was made his councillor. Ayala was again taken prisoner at the battle of Aljubarota. He became under John I. chancellor of Castille. After serving under four Castilian monarchs, both in the council and the field, and distinguishing himself also as a man of erudition, he died in 1407. Be- sides translations of Livy and Boethius, he wrote a valuable “ Chronicle of the kings of Castille,” first published in 1495, and several other works. AYES HA, daughter of Abubeker, and se- cond wife of Mohammed, to whom she was married soon after the death of his first wife, Khadijah, and his flight to Medina. Ayesha, only nine years old at her marriage, was ex- ceedingly beautiful, and the favourite of her husband. On his death she resorted to arms to oppose the succession of Ali ; but though conquered by him she was dismissed in safe- ty, and died in retirement at Mecca, in 677. The Mussulmans venerate her memory, and designate her the prophetess. AYLIPFE, JOHN, a learned English jurist of the 18th century. He appears to have been a member of the university of Oxford. His most important work is the “Pandect of the Homan Civil Law,” one of the best English works on that subject. AYLOFFE, Sir JOSEPH, an able antiquary of the 18th century. He was educated at Oxford, became keeper of the state papers, and compiled a work entitled “ Calendar of the Ancient Charters, &e.” He was F. H.S. and F. S. A. Born, 1708 ; died, 1781. AYMAH, Jacques, a peasant of Dauphiny, who in the 17th century excited a great sensation in France by his pretensions to di- [azu I vination. By his divining-rod he professed, himself able to discover mines, springs, lost treasures, and criminals escaping from jus- tice. At last the Prince of Cond6, by various simple tests, compelled Aymar to acknow- ledge himself an impostor. AYHTON, Edmund, a composer of cathe- dral music, and one of the directors of the Commemoration of Handel. Born, 1734; died, 1808. AYSCOUGH, Samuel, an industrious literai’y character of the last century. He contributed largely to the British Critic and other periodicals; and compiled a variety of laborious indexes, of which his index to Shakspeare is the principal. He obtained the appointment of assistant-librarian at the British Museum, and afterwards took orders and became curate of St Giles’s, and lecturer at Shoreditch. Born, 1745; died, 1804. AYSCUE, Sir GEORGE, a distinguished admiral in the time of Cromwell, and one of the coadjutors of Blake in his famous action with the Dutch admiral. Van Tromp. At the restoration he was made rear-admiral of the Blue ; and being captured in Albemarle’s action off Dunkirk, remained many years a prisoner. AYTON, Sir Hobert, a native of Fife- shire, in Scotland, a poet of considerable merit, was born in 1570. He wrote in Greek, Latin, and French, as well as English. Died, 1638. AZARA, DON JOSE NICOLAS D’, a Spanish grandee, born in Arragon, 1731 ; ambassador, first to Rome, where he remained 20 years, and was associated with the most eminent artists and scholars of the time, and next to France; a good writer in Spanish, Italian, and French ; a ripe antiquarian, and a great patron of the fine arts. He wrote the Life of the painter Mengs. and translated into Spanish Middleton’s “Life of CiCero,” “ Se- neca,” and “ Horace.” He died suddenly, by his fireside, in 1804- AZARA, Felix d’, a Spanish naturalist and traveller of the 18th century ; author of a valuable “Natural History of Paraguay,” and other works. Born, 1746 ; died in Ari'a- gon, 1811. AZUNI, Domenico Alberto, an Italian jurist, was born in 1749. He was a native of Sardinia, was made a senator, and after the annexation of Nice to France went to Paris, and was employed by the government. In 1807 he was named president of the Court of Appeal at Genoa, an office which he held till the fall of Napoleon. He was chiefly known as author of the “Droit Maritime de I’Eu- rope,” which he first published in Italian in 1795, and ten years later in French. Died at Cagliari, 1827. ^ i^efco Siiubcrsal 60 bab] iRcfco ^nifcjcrsal [bag B. BABER, ZAHIR - EDDIN - MOHAMMED, founder of the Mogul empire in Hindustan, Avas a descendant of Tamerlane, and was born in 1483. The greater part of his life was spent in war. He took Cabul in 1504, Candahar two years later, several times in- vaded Hindustan, and in 1525 finally defeated the Sultan of the Afghans, and became sub- stantially master of Hindustan. He shoAved himself no less able as a sovereign than as a soldier, made many improvements, social and political, in his empire, and died, 1530. Baber Avas also a good Avriter, and left a va- luable autobiography. BABINGTON, ANTHONY, a gentleman of good family and fortune in Derbyshire, Avho Avas detected in a conspiracy to assassinate Queen Elizabeth, for which he was executed in 1586. BABINGTON, GervaSE, bishop of "Wor- cester, at the end of the 16th and beginning oC the 17th centuries. He was a learned and pious man, and a considerable benefactor to the library of "Worcester cathedral. He suc- cessively held the bishoprics of Llandaff, Exeter, and Worcester. BABINGTON, Dr WILLIAM, an eminent physician, and lecturer on medicine and chemistry at Guy’s Hospital, was born in 1757. He commenced practice in London in 1797, and distinguished himself by his zeal in the promotion of science, especially the science of geology. He took a chief part in founding the Geological Society, and was elected president in 1822. He was also F.R.S. After a long life of usefulness in his profession, of Avhich he was a distinguished ornament, he died in April, 1833, aged 76. He was the author of “A Ncav System of Mineralogy,” besides some other scientific treatises. BABCEUF, FRANCOIS NOEL, a violent partisan of the French Revolution. He con- ducted a journal called “The Tribune of the People,” in which he styled himself Gains Gracchus, and the object of which was to overthrow society as at present constituted, and to establish a social equality. He orga- nized a conspiracy against the government of the Directory, and was condemned to be guillotined, 1797. BABRIUS, a Greek poet, who lived pro- bably about the commencement of the Chris- tian era. He is known by a collection of fables, Avhich he turned into verse, and which were no doubt the basis of all the collections that passed under the name of A^sop. A manuscript containing 123 of these fables Avas discovered in 1842 in a convent of Mount Athos, mere fragments being previously known. Sir G. C. Lewis published a A’aluable edition of them in 1847. BACCALAR Y SANNA, VINCENT, mar- quis of St Philip, an able commander and statesman under Charles II. and Philip V. of Spain ; author of “ Memoirs of Philip Y.,” &c. Died, 1726. BACCHYLIDES, a Greek lyric poet, who flourished about 450 years B. c. He Avas the I nephew of the celebrated poet Simonides, and the contemporary and rival of Pindar. His poetry, like that of Horace, is chiefly devoted to the pleasures of social life, love, and wine. BACCIO DELLA PORTA, or FRA BAR- TOLOMEO DI SAN MARCO, one of the most distinguished Italian painters, was born at Savignano in 1469. He Avas a pupil of Cosimo Roselli, but Avas greatly influenced by the works of Leonardo da Vinci and Ra- phael. He Avas a friend of Savonarola, who prevailed on him to cease painting nude figures, and to destroy many of his sketches at the carnival bonfire. The seizure of his revered friend in the convent and his mar- tyrdom Avas so heavy a bloAv to him, that he became a monk and for several years did not paint. He subsequently visited Rome, and again worked at his art with Albertinelli. He Avas distinguished for excellence in com- position, colouring, and delicacy of execution, rivalling Raphael in some of his u^orks. His “Last Judgment,” in fresco, “ Presentation in the Temple,” “ Madonna della Misericor- dia,” “ St Mark,” and “ St Sebastian,” were among his greatest Avorks. Died, 1517. BACELLAR, ANTONIO BARBOSA, a Por- tuguese poet, historian, and civilian ; but Avho is chiefly remembered for a Avork in de- fence of the house of Braganza, Avhich paved his way to fortune, and established him as a favourite at the court. Born at Lisbon, 1610; died, 1663, BACH, Johann Sebastian, one of the greatest musical composers, Avas born at Eisenach in Saxony in 1685. His family had been noted for musical genius for more than a century, and in him it reached its highest development. Early left fatherless, he earned his living for some time as a chorister at Luneburg, became court organist at Weimar, and in 1717 director of concerts ; was chapel- master to Prince Leopold of Anhalt-Coethen, and finally director of music at the school of St Thomas, Leipsic. The works of Sebastian Bach are thoroughly original, profoundly scientific, and most difficult of execution. There is a grandeur and power in them not to be appreciated, or even relished perhaps, except by the highly cultivated ear. The “ Passionsmusik ” is one of his sublimest pi’oductions. Bach was almost unrivalled as an organist. He was twice married and left a large family. Died, 1750. BACHELIER, NICOLAS, a French sculp- tor, pupil of Michael Angelo. Several of his productions are in the cathedral of Toulouse, his native city. Died, after 1565. BACHELIER, JEAN JACQUES, French painter, born in 1724, was director of the royal porcelain manufactory of Sevres, and the discoverer of an encaustic composition for the preservation of marble statues. He established a school for gratuitously teaching the art of drawing. Died, 1805. EACIOCCHI, MARIE ANNE ELISA BUO- NAPARTE, Madame, eldest sister of Napoleon I., was born at Ajaccio in 1777. She married 61 bag] ^nibersal 33iograpl)p. [bag M. Baciocchi in 1797, and the next year settled at Paris, where she became the centre of a distinguished circle of literary men, artists, &c. In 1805 Napoleon gave her and t her husband the principality of Piomhino, and soon after that of Lucca. Three years afterwards she was charged with the govern- ment of Tuscany, as grand-duchess. After the fall of Napoleon she led a changeful life, and died at Bologna, in 1820. BACKER, JACOB, a Dutch historical painter of great ability. Born at Antwerp, in 1530; died, 1560. BACKER, JACOB, a portrait and historical painter. Born at Harlingen, 1609 ; died at Amsterdam, 1651. BACKHUYSEN, RUDOLPH, or LUDOLPH, an eminent painter, wiiose sea-pieces are worthy of the highest praise. He studied nature attentively in all her forms, and gave to every subject such transparency and lus- ti'e, as placed him above all the artists of his time, except the younger Vandervelde. In- deed, it is said to have been his frequent custom, whenever he could procure resolute mariners, to go to sea in a storm, in order to store his mind with images of the angry ele- ments, and to work incessantly on his return, while they were vividly impressed on his memory. Born at Embden, 1631 ; died, 1709. BACLER D’ALBE, Baron AUBERT LOUIS, an eminent French military geographer and engineer ; author of a “ Chart of the Theatre of War in the first Campaigns of Buonaparte in Italy,” &c. Born at St Pol, 1761 ; died at Paris, 1824. BACON, Robert, an English friar; di- vinity lecturer at Oxford ; author of “ The Life of St Edmund, Archbishop of Canter- bury,” &c. Died, 1248. BACON, Roger, a celebrated English philosopher, was born near Ilchester, about 1214. After studying at Oxford he went to the university of Paris, where he graduated in divinity. On his return to England he entered the Franciscan order, applied himself to the study of languages, and taught in the university. He enjoyed the friendship of Robert Grostete, bishop of Lincoln, and soon acquired very great reputation for his scien- tific acquirements. He was bent on the discovery of truth, and was fearless in his inquiries and his teachings. Suspicion soon became persecution; the charge of magic was brought against him, and the superiors of his order prohibited his lectures and the publication of his opinions. About 1267 Ba- con sent his “ Opus Majus ” with the “ Opus Minus” and “Opus Tertium” to Pope Cle- ment IV., who had desired to see his writ- ings. The Pope died soon after. In 1278 Bacon was cited, it is said, to Paris by the general of his order, and being condemned was imprisoned. He did not regain his freedom till after the death of Pope Nicholas IV. in 1292, when he is said to have returned to Oxford and died the same year. But there is no contemporary evidence of this impri- sonment, nor is it known how long he lived after 1292. Roger Bacon suggested the re- formation of the calendar, imagined, though he does not appear to have constructed, a telescope ; knew the composition of gun- powder, and gives an account of spectacles. His principal work is the “ Opus Majus,” of which he Avrote an abridgement, entitled “Opus Minus.” The “ Opus Tertium” Avas intended as a preamble to those tAvo works. The three were completed within fifteen months. The “Opus Majus,” for its wide vieAvs of the reform of philosophy, and the mass of solid knoAvledge it contains, may be considered, says Dr Whewell, “ the Encyclo- paedia and the Novum Organum of the 13th century.” The “ Opus Minus,” “ Opus Ter- tium,” and “Compendium Philosophiae ” of Roger Bacon were first printed in 1859, edited by Professor Brewer under the direction of the Master of the Rolls Among his other printed works are “ De Mirabili Potestate Artis et Naturae,” “Perspectiva,” “ Specula Mathematica,” “Speculum Alchemicum,” &c. BACON, Sir Nicolas, lord keeper of the great seal, was born in Kent in 1510. He studied at Cambridge and Paris, and was called to the bar. Henry VIII. gaA^e him several lucrative offices, and after living in retirement duidng the reign of Queen Mary, he was appointed lord keeper for life by Queen Elizabeth in 1558. He was in disgrace at court for a short time, but regained the queen’s favour, and was visited by her at Gorhambury. Bacon Avas the intimate friend of Cecil, Lord Burleigh, and took a leading part in the settlement of the difiicult eccle- siastical affairs of the time. Died, 1579. BACON, Francis, Baron VERULAM,the great English philosopher, was born at Lon- don in 1561. He was the youngest son of Sir Nicolas Bacon, was educated at Cam- bridge, travelled in France, and was called to the bar at the age of 21. Though success- ful in his profession, his advancement was hindered by the enmity of the Cecil family. The earl of Essex was his w^arm friend and gave him a beautiful estate ; but estrange- ment took place soon after. Bacon condemn- ing his friend’s course and appearing against him on his trial. Bacon entered parliament in 1593, Avas knighted in 1603, and two years later Avas named Solicitor-General. He had a formidable rival in Sir EdAvard Coke, but he continued to advance in reputation, and in 1613 became attorney-general and privy- councillor. The office of lord-keeper was given him in 1617, and .soon afterwards l;ie AA^as made lord chancellor, Baron Verulam, and Viscount St Albans. But from this time dates the beginning of his miserable fall. Complaints were made of his venality as a judge, Avhich on inquiry by a parliamentary committee were verified ; he made full con- f^ession, was depiuved, fined, and imprisoned during the king’s pleasure. He was par- doned, but continued to live in retirement, devoting himself to his favourite studies. The great aim of this extraordinary man Avas to reform the method of philosophy ; he recalls men from blindly folloAving authority to the observation and examination of na- ture. His great Avorks are the “Novum Organum” and the “ De Augmentis Scienti- arum.” The former was projected in his youth, was prepared by a series of sketches, revised and rewritten again and again, and finally published in 1620. The latter ap- peared in 1603, and the English edition 62 bag] ^ i^eto ^nibcrsal 'JBiograpI)^* [bai (“ Advancement of Learning ”) in 1605. The celebrated “Essays” were first published in 1597, but large additions were subsequently made. Among his other works are the “Wisdom of the Ancients,” “History of Henry VII.,” “Felicities of Queen Eliza- beth,” “ Of the State of Europe,” &c. Died, at Highgate, 1626. The last and best edition of Bacon’s Works is by Messrs Ellis, Sped- ding, and Heath, in 7 vols. 8vo. Some ad- ditional volumes will contain his letters and life, with all his occasional works, edited by Mr Spedding. BACON, ANTHONY, elder brother of the chancellor, a skilful politician, and a friend of the earl of Essex. As he spent the greater portion of his time abroad, and was much devoted to learned pursuits, he became per- sonally acquainted with most of the foreign literati, and was also honoured with the friendship of Henry IV. of France. BACON, Sir NATHANIEL, half brother of the chancellor. He possessed great ability as a landscape painter. Died, 1615. BACON, JOHN, an eminent English sculp- tor, and the inventor of an improved method of copying the clay models in stone. His chief works are a bust of George III., in the hall of Christchurch, Oxford, Lord Chatham’s monuments in Guildhall and Westminster Abbey, and those of Dr Johnson and John Howard in St Paul’s. Born, 1740; died, 1799. BACON, or BACONTHOHPE, JOHN, called the resolute doctor, an English monk ; author I of a “Compendium of the Law of Christ,” ' &c. Died, 1346. BADALOCCHIO, SiSTO, or SISTO HOSA, Italian painter and engraver, born at Parma, 1581. He was the pupil and friend of Anni- bale Caracci, and assisted Lanfranco in exe- cuting the etchings from the Bible of Ra- phael. He painted some fine frescoes in the Verospi Palace at Rome. Died, 1647. BADENS, Frans, portrait and historical painter, born at Antwerp, 1571 ; died, 1603. BADIA, DOMINGO, a Spanish traveller, was born in 1766. Being well skilled in Arabic, he determined on travelling in the East ; and having submitted to a well-known Mussulman rite, he was personally qualified for the task, and assumed the name of Ali Bey. Under this disguise he visited Tripoli, Egypt, Mecca, and Syria, undiscovered, and was everywhere received with fayour, as a true beUever, It is now known that he was employed as a political agent by the Prince of Peace, at the instigation of Buonaparte ; and on his return to his native country he espoused the French cause there. After the battle of Vittoria, he took refuge in France, and died in Syria, in 1818. BAFFIN, William, an English navigator of the 17th century, famous for his disco- veries in the Arctic regions, was born in 1584. He visited West Greenland in 1612, again in 1615, and made a voyage to Spitz- bergen in 1614. In 1616 he ascertained the limits of that vast inlet of the sea, since dis- tinguished by the appellation of Baffin’s Bay. He was killed at the siege of Ormuz, in 1622. BAGGESEN, EMANUEL (JENS), Danish pcjst. He usually wrote in the German lan- guage ; and his chief productions are a pas- toral epic, entitled “ Parthenais, Oder die Alpenreise,” and a mock epic, called “ Adam and Eve,” but his songs and short poems are very numerous and popular. Born, 1764 ; died, 1826. BAGLIONE, Giovanni, an Italian paint- er of the 17th century, distinguished for his works in fresco ; many of which adorn the walls and ceilings of the churches at Rome. He was head of the Academy of St Luke, at Rome, in 1618, and wrote the “ Lives of the Painters, Sculptors, Architects,” &c. of his own time. Born, 1573; died, after 1641. BAGLIONI, Giovanni Paolo, an Italian soldier of fortune in the 16th century, who made himself master of Perugia. He was put to death by Leo X., in 1520. BAGLIVI, Giorgio, an illustrious Italian physician, born at Ragusa, and elected pro- fessor of anatomy at Rome ; was author of a valuable treatise, “De Fibra Motrice,” and other medical works. Baglivi was an acute and careful observer, and an independent thinker, bold enough to differ even with Hippocrates himself. He became a fellow of the Royal Society of London. Born, 1667 ; died, 1706. BAGOAS, a eunuch, at first the favourite, and afterwards the murderer of Artaxerxes Ochus, king of Persia. He was put to death by Darius Codomanus, B.C. 356. BAGRATION, PRINCE PETER, Russian general and councillor, who especially dis- tinguished himself in the campaigns in Italy under Suwarrow, was at the battles of Aus- terlitz, Eylau, and Friedland, and tvas mor- tally wounded at the battle of Moscow in 1812. BAHRAM, or VARANES, a celebrated Persian general of the 6th century. He was descended from an ancient and princely family,distinguished himself under Chosroes the Great at the siege of Dara, and was made governor of Media. When the Turks invaded Persia, in the reign of Hormisdas, or Hormouz III., Bahram won a decisive victory over them with inferior forces. But his success and popularity excited jealousy among the courtiers, the tyrant insulted him before his troops, and in 590 he revolted, de- posed and imprisoned Hormouz, and seized the chief power. Chosroes, the son of Hor- mouz, escaped to the Romans, and by their aid Bahram was defeated, and Chosroes raised to the throne. Bahram fled to the Turks, and is said to have died by poison, BAIER, JOHANN JACOB, German phy- sician, and director of the botanical garden at Altdorf ; author of several works on medi- cine, natural history of fossils, &c. Born, 1677; died, 1735. BAILEY, Nathan, an English lexico- grapher, was a schoolmaster at Stepney. Besides several school books, he was the author of “ Dictionarium Domestlcum ; ” but his principal work was his Etymological English Dictionary, of which the second edition appeared in 1724, and which may be regarded as the basis of Dr Johnson’s un- rivalled work. Died, 1742. BAILLIE, Joanna, dramatist, the sister of Dr Matthew Baillie, and the niece of the celebrated anatomists, John and AVilliam 63 BAi] ^ Jlcto ^nibcrstil 36iograp][)0, [bai Hunter, was born at the Manse of Bothwell in 1762. Even in her earliest years her in- ventive faculties were strongly displayed ; and as she grew up, she manifested a strong predilection for literary pursuits. In 1783 she came to London to reside with her bro- ther, and prepared herself by hard study of the best writers for the career in which she was destined to reach such eminence. Her first dramatic efforts, entitled “ Plays on the Passions,” each passion being the subject of a tragedy and a comedy, were published in 1798. A second series was published in 1802, and a third in 1812. But during the interval, she gave to the world a volume of miscellaneous dramas, one of which, the “Family Legend,” was brought out in 1809, at the Theatre Boyal, Edinburgh, nnder the auspices of Sir 'Walter (then Mr) Scott, and played with great success. “De Montfort,” one of her “Plays on the Passions,” was brought out by John Kemble, in London, and had a run of eleven nights, but has not kept permanent possession of the stage. In 1836 she published three more volumes of plays, which, like her previous productions, are full of the true spii’it of poetry, but are essentially undramatic. During the greater part of her life she lived at Hampstead with her sister Agnes — also a poetess, and though she seldom mingled in society , she was visit- ed by men of genius from all parts of the world ; and the readers of Lockhart’s Life of Sir Walter Scott will remember that many of the great novelist’s letters are addressed to Miss Baillie. Her works have been pub- lished in one large volume, with a memoir of her life. Died, 1851. BAILLIE, ILOBEK,T,a Scotch divine, born at Glasgow in 1599. He was one of the de- putation sent to London to exhibit charges against Archbishop Laud ; and also one of the commissioners sent from the General Assembly of Scotland to Charles II., at the Hague. His letters, and a journal of his transactions in England, were published in 1775. Died, 1662. BAILLIE, MATTHEW, M.D., a celebrated anatomist and physician. He succeeded Dr Hunter as lecturer on anatomy, in conjunc- tion with Mr Cruickshank, at St George’s Hospital ; he was also one of the physicians in ordinary to their Majesties George III. and IV., and was held in high esteem among his professional brethren. He was the author of several highly esteemed works, as well as of many important papers in the Philoso- phical Transactions, &c. ; and he presented to the College of Physicians a valuable mu- seum of anatomical specimens. Died, 1823. BAILLY, JEAN Sylvain, a French as- tronomer, mayor of Paris at the commence- ment of the revolution, was born at Paris in 1736. He early applied himself to science, distinguished himself by his astronomical calculations and observations, and was ad- mitted to the Academy of Sciences, the French Academy, and the Academy of In- scriptions. His peaceful and honoured ca- reer was rudely changed by the revolution. In 1789 he was chosen deputy for Paris to the States-General, was first president of the Assembly, administered the oath at the famous Session of the Tennis-Court, in June, and was made soon after mayor of Paris. He lost his popularity from the day (17th July) that he ordered a turbulent assemblage in the Champ-de-Mars to disperse, and fired on them. In November he retired from his office and from Paris, devoting himself again to his studies. On the triumph of the Ja- cobins, in 1793, he was arrested at Melun and taken to Paris. He was examined as a witness on the trial of Marie Antoinette, and soon after, under circumstances of aggra- vated cruelty, was executed, 10th November, 1793. Bailly was author of a History of Astronomy, which had for a time a great re- putation ; and several other scientific works. He wrote also “Memoires d’un temoin de la Revolution.” BAILY, Francis, famous in the annals of astronomical science, was the son of a banker at Newbury, and for many years well known on the Stock Exchange, in which busy arena he realized an ample fortune. The Astrono- mical Society was organized by him, and throughout life he was the most considerable contributor to its memoirs. Systematic order and steady perseverance were the secrets of his success. Died, Aug. 30, 1844, aged 70. BAINBRIDGE, CHRISTOPHER. [RAM- BRIDGE.] BAINBRIDGE, Dr JOHN, an eminent physician and astronomer, born in 1582. He gained considerable reputation by his work entitled a “ Description of the late Comet in 1628,” .and was appointed professor of as- tronomy at Oxford. Died, 1643. BAINES, Edward, who has secured for himself an honourable place among the friends of civil and religious liberty in the 19th century, was born at Walton-le-Dale, in Lancashire, 1774. At the age of fourteen he was apprenticed to a printer at Preston ; but before his term of apprenticeship expired he removed to Leeds, where he found em- ployment on the Leeds Mercury, of which he subsequently became the proprietor. The zeal and ability wuth which for many years he conducted this paper marked him out as a fit representative of Leeds ; and in 1833, on Mr Macaulay’s resignation of his seat for the borough, he was elected, and held that position till the close of Lord Melbourne’s administration in 1840, when his impaired health induced him to retire. Both in par- liament and the press, Mr Baines never ceased to advocate the cause of freedom, good government, charity, and religion. Though decided in his opinions, he was most catholic in his disposition ; and he was most ready to co-operate with men of all parties and sects for the objects of which he approved. Besides fulfilling the duties of a journalist, he found time to devote himself to literature ; and his “ History of the Reign of George III.” and “The County Palatine of Lancaster” are monuments of his patience and research. Died, 1848. BAIRD, Sir DAVID, a distinguished Eng- lish general, was of Scottish descent, and entered the army as an ensign in the 2nd foot in 1742. He served in the East Indies for many years; and among other brilliant achievements in which he was engaged, was the taking of Seringapatam, and the siege of Pondicherry. In 18C1 he was sent, with a 64 BAj] ^ iHeiB ^ani&ersal 13iograpf)e. [bal large body of troops, from India, to assist tlie British army in Egypt, and joined General Hutchinson a few days before the surrender of Alexandria. In 1802 he returned with his troops across the desert to India ; and obtain- ing permission to return to England, arrived in 1804, after having been captured on his passage by a French privateer, and retaken. In 1805 he commanded the expedition which took the Cape of Good Hope from the Dutch ; and he was subsequently at the siege of Copenhagen, where he was wounded. On the death of Sir John Moore, at Corunna, the command devolved upon General Baird, who lost his arm thei’e. For his gallantry on this occasion he was made a baronet. He subsequently was governor of Kinsale and of Fort St George ; and died in 1829. BAJAZET or BAYAZID I., surnamed ILDRIM, Sultan of the Ottomans, was born in 1347, and succeeded his father, Amurath I., in 1389. His fiery energy, and the swiftness of his movements from point to point of his immense empire, acquired for him the sur- name of “ Ildrim ” or “ lightning.” He was continually occupied with war, and was especially ambitious of taking Constan- tinople. A league of Christian powers was formed against him, and the decisive battle was fought at Nicopolis on the Danube, when Bajazet won a great victory. Sigis- mund, king of Hungary, who commanded the Christian army, escaped, and a great number of the French nobles were slain or captured, the richest only being allowed to ransom themselves. An attack of the gout prevented the conqueror’s further progress in Europe, and soon after Tamerlane, having conquered great part of Asia, turned his arms against Bajazet. The memorable battle of these giants was fought on the plains of Angora, in Galatia, in July, 1402. Bajazet was defeated and made prisoner : and after being treated for a time with ostentatious respect, was shut up, according to several credible witnesses, in an iron cage, and so carried in the train of his con- queror. Broken down in mind and body, Bajazet died in the Tatar camp in Pisidia, in 1403. BAJAZET II., sultan of the Turks. His reign was turbulent ; he was much engaged against the Venetians and other Christian powers, and his latter years were embittered by the enmity of his son Selim, by whom, after he hail resigned the crown to him, he was poisoned in 1612. BAKER, SIR Richard, author of a “Chronicle of the Kings of England,” &c. He was educated at Oxford, knighted by James I., and afterwards, being involved in pecuniary difficulties, was imprisoned in the Fleet, and there spent the last twenty years of his life. Born, 1568 ; died, 1645. BAKER, Henry, a diligent and ingeni- ous naturalist. He was originally brought up as a bookseller, and married one of the daughters of Daniel De Foe. He became j F.R.S. and F.S.A., and in 1744 obtained the Copley medal of the Royal Society, for his microscopical experiments on saline parti- cles ; and wrote “ The Microscope made Easy,” &c. Born, 1698; died, 1774. BALASSI, Mario, a Florentine painter. His copy of Raphael’s “Transfiguration” was astonishingly exact. Born, 1604 ; died, 1667. BALBI, Adriano, one of the most distin- guished geographers of modern times, was born at Venice, 1784. Devoted from his earliest years to geographical and statistical researches, he first gained a prominent place in the literary world by his “ Essai Statis- tique sur le Royaume de Portugal,” &c. (1822). This was followed, in 1826, by his “Atlas Ethnographique du Globe,” Ac., in which he embodied aU the researches of the most celebrated German philologists and geographers; and continuing to prosecute his studies with unabated ardour in Vienna and Paris consecutively, he at last gave to the world, in 1832, the “ Abrdge de Geogra- phic,” a work which comprises the whole compass of geographic science, and has made his name famous throughout Europe and America. His latest years were passed at Padua, in the pursuit of his favourite science. Died at Venice, 1848. BALBINUS, DECIMUS CiELius, a Roman senator, a man of fortune, education, and refinement, chosen emperor in conjunction with Maximus, in 237 ; and murdered by the soldiery in the following year. BALBOA, VASCO Nunez de, a Castilian, one of the first who visited the West Indies. Having accompanied Bastidas and Ojeda in their expeditions of discovery to America, he set out in 1513 on another expedition of the same character. He established a colony on the isthmus of Panama, where he built the first tOAvn on the continent of South America, penetrated into the interior, dis- covered the Pacific Ocean from “ a peak in Darien,” and took formal possession of the new lands and seas in the name of Ferdi- nand and Isabella. He also obtained in- formation respecting the empire of Peru. Jealous of his talents and success, rival ad- venturers accused him of disloyalty, and he was put to death in 1517, by Pedrarias Da- vila, the Spanish governor of Darien. BAldI, Bernardino, an Italian mathe- matician and poet ; author of Italian poems, lives of mathematicians, &c. Born at Ur- bino, 1553; died, 1617. BALDINUCCI, FILIPPO, a Florentine artist and connoisseur ; author of a volu- minous “ History of Painters,” &c. Born, 1634 ; died, 1696. BALDOCK, RALPH DE, bishop of London, and lord high chancellor in the reign of Edward I. ; author of a “ History of British Affairs,” which was extant in Leland’s time, but is now lost. Died, 1307. BALDUCCIO, GIOVANNI, Italian sculp- tor, was born at Pisa about 1300. He was a scholar of Andrea Pisano, and after work- ing some time in Tuscany, he entered the service of Azzo Visconti, lord of Milan, and executed many important works in that city. The best of these is the monument to St Peter Martyr, Fra Pietro of Verona, as- sassinated in 1252. Balduccio also erected the monument to his master, who died in 1339. Died about 1347. BALDUNG,HANS,or HANS BALDUNG- GRUN, an early German painter and en- graver on wood, was born in Suabia, about F 65 I bal] 2lniticrsal ISiograpJip^ [bal 1476. He was the friend of Albert Diirer, whom in some points he almost equalled. “ The Crucifixion,” at Freiburg, is one of his greatest works. He was living in 1534. BALDWIN, archbishop of Canterbury in the 12th century, was a native of Exeter, and became abbot of the Cistercian house at Ford in Devonshire. He held the see of Worcester four years, and in 1184 was ap- pointed archbishop of Canterbury. He crowned Hichard I., and accompanied him on the crusade, but died at Acre, in Novem- ber, 1191. He left numerous writings, some of which were published in a collection of writers of his order in 1662. BALDWIN I., first Latin emperor of the East, was born about 1170. He was son of Baldwin, Count of Hainault, and Margaret, Countess of Flanders, and succeeded the latter in 1194, the former in the following year. In 1200 he joined the crusade, went to Venice, took part in the siege of Zara, led the van in the attack on Constantinople for the restoration of the young Alexius, led the assault on the second siege, and was chosen and crowned emperor in May, 1204. But he was defeated and captured by Joan- nices, king of the Bulgarians, in 1205. Nothing is certainly known of his fate. BALDWIN II., succeeded his brother Ro- bert as emperor of the East in 1228. He was only 11 years old, and the government was in the hands of John of Brienne till his death in 1237, when Baldwin succeeded alone. He spent years in visiting Italy and France in hope of getting aid in his endea- vour to save and strengthen the falling em- pire. On the taking of Constantinople in 1261, by Michael Palaeologus, Baldwin escaped to Italy, where he died, 1273. He was the last of the Latin empei'ors of the East. BALDWIN I., king of Jerusalem, was the younger brother of Godfrey of Bouillon, and having distinguished himself in the first crusade, was made Count of Edessa. Bald- win succeeded his brother as king of Jeru- salem in 1100, reigned 18 years, and was constantly engaged in war, and obtained many victories over the Turks, Persians, and Saracens. He made himself master of the principal towns on the coast of Syria. Died, 1118. BALDWIN II., king of Jerusalem, suc- ceeded the above in 1118; Eustace, brother of Baldwin I., having renounced his claim to the throne. Baldwin II. was taken pri- soner by the Saracens in 1124, and gave them the city of Tyre as his ransom. Died, 1131. BALDWIN III., son of Fulk of Anjou, to whom Baldwin II. had resigned the king- dom of Jerusalem, succeeded to the throne, on his father’s death, in 1142. He took part in the disastrous second crusade led by Louis VII. and the emperor Conrad. Died, 1163. BALDWIN IV., the son of Amaury, suc- ceeded his father on the throne of Jerusalem in 1174. He subsequently resigned in favour of his nephew. Died, 1185. BALE, JOHN', a Carmelite of Norwich, who embraced the Protestant faith, and be- came a zealous writer against Popery. In the reign of Edward VI., he was made bishop of Ossory , in Ireland, and fmdangerod his life by his zealous otforts to reform his diocese. During the reign of Mary, he found safety in S witzerland ; and on his return to England, at the accession of Elizabeth, he obtained a prebend of Canterbury. Of his numerous works, the most important is a Latin account of eminent British writers. Born, 1495 ; died, 1563. BALECHOU, Nicolas, French engraver, whose works are held in high estimation. The principal are the portrait of Augustus III. of Poland, after Rigaud, and three sub- jects after Joseph Vernet. Born at Arles, 1715; died, 1765. BALEN, Hendrik van, Dutch painter, was a native of Antwerp, and a pupil of Adam van Oort. He studied in Italy, and had Vandyck and Snyders among his pupils. Among the best of his works are the “ Judg- ment of Paris” and “St John in the De- sert.” — JOHN VAN BALEN, his son, was a dis- tinguished historical and landscape painter. Born, 1560 ; died, 1632. BALESTRA, ANTONIO, Veronese painter. He was a pupil of Carlo Maratti, and attain- ed great eminence in his art. He was known also as an engraver. Born, 1666 ; died, 1740. BALFOUR, Sir ANDREW, an eminent botanist and physician, and one to whom medical science in Scotland owes a lasting debt of gratitude for the botanic garden and museum at Edinburgh, which he took part in establishing. He was born in 1630, at Denmilne, Fife, and died in 1694. BALFOUR, Sir JAMES, Lord President of the Court of Session in Scotland in the 16th century, was brought up to the church, advocated the reformation, and was exiled with Knox in 1547. On his return he be- came a Catholic and a persecutor of the re- formers ; shifted from side to side through the civil war, always contriving to be with the strongest ; held the offices of judge of the commissaries court, privy councillor, and lord of session ; was implicated in the murder of Darnley ; became lord president of the court of session ; assisted in the pacification of Perth ; and continued his treacherous, intriguing, and infamous prac- tices to the end of his life. Died, 1583. BALGUY, JOHN, an eminent divine of the Church of England, was born at Sheffield in 1686, and in 1727 became a prebendary of Salisbury. He engaged deeply in the Ban- gorian controversy; and among Iris works may be noticed “An Essay on Redemp- tion,” a “ Letter to a Deist on the Beauty and Excellence of Moral Virtue,” &c. Died, 1748. BALGUY, Thomas, son of the above, prebendary and archdeacon of AVinchester ; author of “ Divine Benevolence, asserted and vindicated,” a sermon on church govern- ment, &c. Born, 1716; died, 1795. BALIOL, Sir JOHN DE, a native of Dur- ham, who, on the marriage of the daughter of Henry III. to Alexander III. of Scotland, in 1251, was made one of the guardians of the royal pair. He founded Baliol College, Oxford ; and having sided with Henry III. against his revolted barons, the latter seized upon his lands. Died, 1269. bal] ^ IStograpI))). [bal BALIOL, JOHN DE, son of the preceding, laid claim to the crown of Scotland on the death of queen Margaret in 1290. His claim was disputed by several competitors, one of whom was the famous Robert Bruce. But Edward I., to whom the matter was referred, decided in favour of Baliol, who immediately did homage for his kingdom to Edward. Baliol, however, irritated by the proofs of mastei'y assumed over him, made an alliance with the French king, and renounced homage to Edward. War followed, and the Scots being defeated in a battle near Dun- bar, Baliol was sent, with his son, to the Tower of London. The intercession of the pope having procured his release, he retired to France, where he died in 1314. BALIOL, Edward, son of the preceding, was imprisoned with his father in the Tower of London in 1296, and was permitted to retire to France with him. In 1332 he joined with some English confederates, and invaded Scotland ; defeated the Scots, and got himself crowned king of Scotland at Scone in September. Before the end of the year he was defeated, and driven from his kingdom. By the intervention of Edward 111., and the victory of Halidon-Hill, he was restored, but in 1334 he hopelessly offended his countrymen by giving up the south of Scotland to the English. He was only maintained on his throne by the fre- quent interference of Edward. In 1356 he renounced his title and throne for an an- nuity, and retired to England. Died, 1363. BALLANTYNE, JAMES, a printer of con- siderable note in Edinburgh, and at whose, press the whole of the works of Sir Walter Scott were Sprinted, was a native of Kelso, where he first opened an office for the “ Kelso Mail,” of which he was the editor. On removing to Edinburgh, he engaged in various important works, the principal of which were those of the great novelist ; and for many years he also conducted the “ Edin- burgh, Weekly Journal.” He survived his friend and patron but a few months, dying in January, 1833. BALLANTYNE, JOHN, brother of the preceding, acted during the early career of the mysterious “ author of Waverley ” as his confidant, and managed all the business of the communication of his works to the pub- lic. He is also remembered by his contem- poraries as “a fellow of infinite humour,” whose anecdotes were as inexhaustible as his mode of telling them was unrivalled. Died, 1821 ; aged 45. BALLIN, CLAUDE, a skilful French gold- smith. He executed some very fine works after antique vases, &c., for Louis XIV. and Cardinal Richelieu, and was made director of the mint for casts and medals. Born, 1615 ; died, 1678. BALMEZ, JAMES LUCIAN, a Spanish ee- clesiastic, whose political, theological, and philosophic writings have acquired for him a high reputation both at home and abroad, was born at Vich, in Catalonia, in 1810. From his earliest years he was destined for the priesthood, and having in his 16th year entered the university of Cervera, he soon attracted notice by his amiable demeanour, the fertility of his mind, and the universality of his acquirements. Quitting the university in 1833, laden with honours and matured in learning, he retired to his native town, and in 1837 was there nominated to the chair of mathematics, which he filled with equal zeal and ability. In 1840 he published a brochure on the property of the clergy, which made a great sensation at Madrid; and from this time forward his labours in behalf of the cause to which he had devoted himself were indefatigable. He published papers on the condition of Spain, wrote in periodicals, conducted a review at Barcelona, and finally edited at Madrid the ablest journal in Spain, entitled ‘^El Pensiamento de la Nacion,” wherein his object was to restore the Roman Catholic Church to her former dignity and infiuence; to reconcile and unite all the friends of monarchy, -whether belonging to the Carlist or Christina parties; and to found the institutions of the country on an enlarged and permanent basis. But valuable to his country as were all these and other emanations from his pen, they are far eclipsed by his “ Protestantism and Catholic- ism compared in their Effects on the Civiliz- ation of Europe,” which has been translated into French, German, and English, and may be safely pronounced to be one of the most elaborate works of modern theological litera- ture. Died at Vich, 1848. BALNAVIS, Henry, secretary of state under Mary, queen of Scotland, was a native of Fifeshire. He became a lord of session in 1538, and a member of the Scottish parlia- ment. Five years later he was made secre- tary of state, but was soon deprived. He was a zealous promoter of the reformation, and took part in several important negotia- tions with the English government. He was one of the prisoners taken in the Castle of St Andrews and exiled to France, in 1547, whence he was recalled in 1554. He was afterwards engaged in obtaining the estab- lishment of the reformed faith, in revising the Book of Discipline, and other affairs of church and state. Died probably before 1580. BALSHAM, or BELESALE, Hugh de, bishop of Ely, and founder of Peterhouse College at Cambridge. Died, 1286. BALTIMORE, LORD. [CALVERT.] BALUE, Jean, a native of France, made a cardinal by Pope Paul II., and imprisoned for 11 years in an iron cage by Louis XI. for having engaged in treasonable correspond- ence with the Duke of Burgundy. Died, 1491. , BALTJZE, Etienne, French historian and miscellaneous writer; born 1630. He was librarian to M. de Colbert for more than 30 years, and was appointed Professor of Canon Law at the College Royal in 1670. Having offended Louis XIV. by a passage in his History of the House of Auvergne? he was deprived of his post and exiled. His chief works are “Regum Francorum Capi- j tularia,” “ Conciliorum nova Collectio,” and “ Vies des Papes d’Avignon.” He died 1718. BALZAC, JEAN LOUIS GuEZ DE, a French miscellaneous writer of great reputation, which he chiefly owed to the elegance of his style ; he was esteemed the reformer of the French language in his own day, and wrote 67 bal] % ^nibcrsal [ban a great number of works, most of Avhich are now neglected. The most esteemed are his “Familiar Letters,” “Le Prince,” “Le So- crate Chretien,” and “Aristippe.” Born, 1594 ; died, 1G55. ^ BALZAC, IIONORE DE, one of the most distinguished as well as prolific novel writ- ers of modern times, was born at Tours, 1799. Having completed his studies at Yendome, he published, between 1821 anJ 1829, twenty or thirty volumes under various pseudo- nymes, with very equivocal success ; but after this trying apprenticeship, he put forth all his powers under his own name, Avith what result those who haA^e read “ La Peau de Chagrin,” “ Les Chouans,” “La Physio- logie de Mariage,”“Le Pi^re Goriot,” “La Femme de Trente Ans,” &c., can best testify. After that period his productions succeeded one another with wonderful rapidity; and his literary strength greAV with his years, for his “ Medecin de Campagne,” and his “Parens Pauvres,” his last work, bear the impress of genius in every page. In addition to his romances, Balzac wrote some plays, and for some time edited and contributed to ihe Revue Parisienne ; but it is only his ro- mances that exhibit unquestionable evidence of his great genius. His design was to make all his productions form one grand work, under the title of the “ Com^die Humaine,” the whole being a minute dissection of the different classes of society ; and for this task he Avas eminently qualified, possessing, as he did, the secret of probing the human heart to its profoundest depths, and of laying bare Avith a masterly hand all its mysteries and all its passions. After the reyolution of 1848, Balzac was engaged in visiting the battle-fields of Germany and Russia, and in collecting materials for a series of volumes, to be entitled “ Scenes de la Yic Militaire.” Next to his celebrity as an author, the most remarkable feature in his career Avas tlie deep passion Avhich he formed for a Russian princess, who finally compensated him for long years of untiring devotion by the gift of her hand in 1848. Died, Aug. 19, 1850. BAMBATA, IL. [BUSTI, AGOSTINO.] BAMBRIDGE, CHRISTOPHER, made arch- bishop of York in 1508 ; was sent ambassador from Henry YlII. to Pope Julius II., who made him a cardinal. Died of poison ad- ministered by his sei'A'ant, 1514. BANCROFT, Riciiarh, archbishop of Cainterbury, was a native of Lancashire. He Avas born in 1544, educated at Cambridge, and after holding various preferments in the church, was named bishop of London in 1597. He had early shoAvn himself a determined enemy of the Puritans, and this he remained throughout his life. He took part, with much arrogance and passion, in the cele- brated conference at Hampton Court, and in the following year was raised to the primacy of England. He was charged with the su- pervision of the ncAv translation of the Bible. Died in IGIO. BANCROFT, JOHN, nephew of the above, bishop of Oxford, and builder of the palace of Cuddesden for the bishops of that see. Died, 1640. BANDELLO, Matteo, a Dominican monk of Milan. He wrote tales in the manner of Boccaccio, and proceeding to France, ob- tained the bishopric of A gen. Died, 1561. BANDINELLI, Baccio, a Florentine sculptor. He was a pupil of Rustic!, and the rival and enemy of Michael Angelo and Cellini. Among his numerous works at Florence, Rome, and other Italian cities, were the colossal group of “ Hercules and Cacus,” some fine bas-reliefs in the cathedral of Florence, and statues of Leo X. and Cle- ment YII. His copy of the Laocoon is highly esteemed. Born, 1487; died, 1559. BANKS, Sir JOSEPH, naturalist and tra- veller, was born at London, in 1743. His pas- sion for botany and natural history showed itself very early, and after leaving Oxford university he went, in 1766, to Newfoundland. He accompanied Captain Cook on his first voyage, as naturalist, in conjunction with his friend Dr Solander. In 1772, with the same friend, he visited Iceland. He W'as chqsen President of the Royal Society in 1777, of Avhich he had been a fellow above ten years. Honours fell thick upon him; he Avas made a baronet, Knight of the Bath, and priA'^y councilloi*. He was a trustee of the British Museum, and a member of the French Institute, and Avas an active pro- moter of the interests of science. He formed a very large and valuable library of Avoi-ks on Natural History, of which a catalogue was published in 5 vols. 8vo. Died at Lon- don, 1820. BANKS, Thomas, one of the most eminent English sculptors, Avas born at London in 1735. He studied at the Royal Academy, obtained the gold prize, and in 1772 was sent to study at Rome. He afterwards went to St Petersburg, and was employed by the Empress Catherine, but he soon returned to England. Among his finest works are the bas-relief of “ Caractacus before Claudius,” executed at Rome, the “ Mourning Achilles,” “Psyche,” the monument to Miss Boothby at Ashbourne, and “ Thetis with the Nymphs consoling Achilles.” Died, 1805. BANNIER, John, a Swedish general, He served under Gustavus Adolphus ; and at the death of that prince became com- mander-in-chief. Born, 1601; died, 1641. BANNISTER, JOHN, an admirable comic actor, the son of Charles Bannister, well known as a singer and a wit, was born in London, in 1760. Having been favourably noticed by Garrick, he made his' debdt at Drury Lane Theatre, when tAvelve years of age; he then quitted the boards for a time, but obtained a permanent engagement in 1779. At first he aspired to tragedy, and gave it a decided preference ; but his talents so clearly lay in the opposite direction, that on the death of Edwin he at once supplied his place, giving proofs of first-rate powers, and establishing himself as a public favour- ite. To name all the parts in Avhich he ex- celled his contemporaries, would occupy too much of our space; but wo have a vivid recollection of him in Sylvester Daggerwood, Lingo, Trudge, the Three Singles, Bobadil, Dr Panglos, Job Thorn- berry, Colonel Feignwell, Walter in “The Children in the Wood,” and many others. Being afflicted with the gout, he retired from the stage in 1815, having had the good G3 bap] ilcto IBtograpIj?}, [bar fortune to earn a competence by his profes- sion, ami the prudence to keep it. He died Nov. 8, 1836, aged 76, respected and beloved by all who knew him. Nature had done much for Bannister, physically as well as mentally: his face, figure, and voice were excellent; his spirits exuberant; and an open manly countenance was a faithful index to the heart of “ Gentleman Jack,” BAPTISTE, JEAN. [MONNOYER.] BAPTISTE, JOHN CASPAR, born at Ant- werp, was the pupil of Boschaert ; he assisted Sir Peter Lely and Kneller in painting the draperies of their portraits. Died, 1691. BARATIER, JEAN PHILIPPE, celebrated for his precocity, was born at Sclnvabach in 1721. He spoke Latin, French, and Ger- man at four years of age ; could translate Greek into Latin at six ; then studied He- brew, and at nine compiled a Dictionary of the most difficult words in that language ; made a French translation of the work of Benjamin of Tudela at eleven ; applied him- self to theology and ecclesiastical history ; was presented to the king of Prussia and admitted to the Academy of Sciences, Ber- lin, at fourteen. He afterwards studied laAV, undertook several literary works, and died in 1740, in his 20th year. BARBAROSSA. [FREDERICK I., Em- peror,] BARBAROSSA, HORUSH, corsair and sovereign of Algiers, was a native of Mity- lene. He was born about 1175, became a Mohammedan, distinguished himself first in the Turkish naval service, and then as a corsair. His success attracted many adven- turers to his service, and he acquired im- mense riches. After numerous exploits and a few failures he Avas invited, in 1516, to assist Selim, sheik of Algiers, against the Spaniards ; but he usurped the chief author- ity, and put Selim to death. He made con- quests and extended his dominion over neigh- bouring principalities, till the Spaniards took alarm, and an expedition was sent by Charles V., under the marquis de Gomarez, governor of Oran, who twice defeated Barbarossa. In the second battle the great corsair fell, 1518. BARBAROSSA, HADHER, surnamed Khair-Eddin, sovereign of Algiers, Avas the brother of the preceding, and succeeded him in 1518. To secure himself against a threatened revolt he ceded the sovereignty to the Porte, and accepted the title of vice- roy. He captured the fort built by the Spaniards near Algiers, and had a mole con- structed by Christian slaves to form a port. Solyman II. named him admiral of all his fleets, and opposed him to the Genoese ad- miral Doria. Barbarossa then ravaged the coasts of Italy, and returning took Biserta and Tunis. In Tunis he was besieged by Charles V., and had to abandon the city. Again he attacked the coast towns of Italy, and took Fondi and Castel-Nuovo. He con- quered Yemen, again appeared in the Medi- terranean, aided the French against Charles V., and died in 1546. BARBAULD, ANNA L^TITIA, was the daughter of the Rev. John Aik in, and one of the best and most popular female writers of the age ; authoress of Hymns, and Early Lessons for Children. She also edited some standard novels, &c. ; and appended to them some clever notices, biograplxical and critical. Born, 1743 ; died, 1825. BARBAZAN, Arnauld GUILHEM, was a brave and noble French general, Avhosc valour, probity, and disinterestedness dur- ing a long and successful career under the reigns of Charles VI. and VII. gained for him the glorious appellation of the Irre- proachable Knight.” Died, 1432. BARBEYRAC, CHARLES, a distinguished French physician, Avhom Locke compared to our OAvn Sydenham ; author of “ Quaestiones Medicae Duodecim,” &c. Born, 1629 ; died, 1699. BARBEYRAC, JEAN, nephew of the above; professor of law at Borne, and sub- sequently at Lausanne and Groningen. To the performance of his duty as professor, he added most laborious exertions as an author. He ti’anslated the most valuable works of Grotius, Puffendorf, and other able civilians into French, and Avrote the “ Histoire des Anciens Traites,” and the “ Traits du Jen,” the latter a curious defence of gaming, and one of his earliest works. Born, 1674; died, 1744 .. BARBIERI, Giovanni Francesco. [See GUERCINO.] BARBOTJ, the name of a family of French printers in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. Jean Joseph was the first Avho settled at Paris : died, 1752. — J OSEPH, his brother, was printer there in 1723: died, 1737.— Joseph Gerard Avas nepheAv of these two brothers, and bought the business of the AvidoAV of Joseph in 1750. He distinguished himself by the publication of an elegant series of the classics, Avhich are named after him. BARBOUR, John, Scotch poet and divine, chaplain to David Bruce, and archdeacon of Aberdeen in 1356. His only known work is the poem on the Life and Achievements of Robert Bruce, which is of much historical value, and has been frequently republished. Died, probably about 1395. BARCLAY, Alexander, a writer of the 16th century. It is not known Avhether he was a native of England or Scotland. He wrote “ The Mirror of Good Manners,” “ The Ship of Fools,” the latter partly a translation of Sebastian Brandt’s “ Navis Stultifera,” and other works, chiefly translations. Died, 1552. BARCLAY, Robert, the apologist of Quakerism, was born in Morayshire in 1648. Sent to study at Paris, he embraced the Roman Catholic faith, but after his return to Scotland joined the Society of Friends. Continuing his studies, he soon found occa- sion to apply his faculties and acquirements to the defence of his sect and the vindica- tion of their doctrines. His works are, “ A Catechism and Confession of Faith ;” “ Theses Theologicce,” the basis and oAitline of his most important work, the well-knoAvn “Apology for the true Christian Divinity ;” and a “ Treatise on Christian Discipline.” The “ Apology ” was written in Latin; and by its intellectual character, logical form, and lucid style, attracted great attention. Its propositions excited much controversy, and most of all its assertion of the necessity 69 bar] ;i^efcD ^niijcrsal ^logrnpl;^. [bar of immediate revelation. Barelay was re- eeived as a friend both by Charles II. and James II. He was named governor of East Jersey, but sent a substitute. Died, 1690. BARCLAY, William, a native of Scot- land, who emigrated to France, and became professor of law at Angers, where he was considered one of the most eminent civilians of his time. He was the author of various treatises on the rights of popes and kings. Died, 1605. BARCLAY, JOHN, son of the preceding and an eminent writer, was born in France in 1582 ; but came to England at the age of nineteen. He was educated by the Jesuits, and remained a Roman Catholic through life. In 1615 he went to Rome, and there spent the rest of his days. His principal work is the “ Argenis,” a Latin romance of great liveli- ness and elegance. It attained widespread popularity, and was translated into the prin- cipal languages of Europe. Several English translations have appeared. Among his other writings are a satire entitled “ Euphormio,” a narrative of Gunpowder Plot, and an edi- tion of his father’s book “ De Potestate Papm.” Died at Rome, 1621. BARCLAY, JOHN, an eccentric divine of the Church of Scotland, was born at Turriff, in the county of Aberdeen, in 1615. He completed his education at King’s College, Aberdeen, and was appointed minister of the parish of Cruden, in Aberdeenshire, in 1675. He was the authorof a rare and curious work in verse, now very scarce, called “A De- scription of the Roman Catholic Church.” Died at Cruden, in 1710. BARCLAY, John, leader of the sect of Bereans, was a native of Perthshire, was born in 1734, became a popular preacher, but being suspected of unsoundness in doctrine, had to leave the Church of Scotland, and take an independent course. He preached for a time in London, and wrote several books. Died, 1798. BARCLAY DE TOLLY, a Russian general, who, in the German and Polish campaigns of 1806 and 1807, bore a distinguished share, and was made a field-marshal. He succeeded Kutusof as commander-in-chief, headed the Russians at the battle of Leipsic, and led them into France in 1815. He was at one time minister of war, and ultimately was honoured with the title of prince. Died, 1818. BARCOCHAB, or BARCHOCHEBAS, a Jewish impostor, who, under the pretence of being the Messiah, obtained many fol- lowers, overrunning Judma, and -putting many Romans to the sword ; but he was at length defeated and slain by Julius Severus in 134. BARERE, Berthand, one of the most notorious actors in the first French revolu- tion, was born in 1755 at 'Tarbes in Gascony, where his father possessed the small estate of Yieuzac. He was educated for the bar at Toulouse, practised as an advocate with con- siderable success, and besides occupying him- self with literary pursuits of a trivial cha- racter, wrote a dissertation which procured him a seat in the Toulouse Academy of Sciences. In 1785 he married a young lady of good fortune. Three years later he paid his first visit to Paris ; and thestates-general having just then been summoned, he went back to his own province, and was there elected one of the representatives of the third estate. Among the crowd of legislators which at this conjuncture poured from all the provinces of France into Paris, Bar^re made no contemptible figure. His opinions, though popular, were not extreme ; and his learning, his manners, his conversation, and his powers of eloquence were aU calculated to gain him favour and esteem. But as the monarchical party became weaker and weak- er, he gradually estranged himself more and more from it, and drew closer and closer to the Republicans. On the termination of the labours of the national assembly, he be- came a member of the high court of appeal ; and when, in 1792, the legislative assembly invited the nation to elect an extraordinary convention, Barere was chosen one of its members by his own department. He voted for the death of the king, “ sans appel et sans sursis,” in words that have been oft repeated, “L’arbre de la liberty ne croit qu’ arros6 par le sang des tyrans.” After the fall of the monarchy, he acted with the Girondists, to whom he made himself useful by the ease and fluency with which he could draw up reports. But ready to side with the strongest on all occasions, he soon made common cause wdth the Mountain, whose bloodthirsty designs he remorselessly carried out ; and he bore a large share in the infamous schemes subsequently planned dur- ing the “ Reign of Terror,” earning for the, levity with which he discharged his dis- gusting ofSce the nicknames of the Witling of Terror and the Anacreon of the Guil- lotine. He fawned on Robespierre up to the 8th of Thermidor, and on the 9th he moved that Robespierre should be beheaded without a trial. On the fall of the conven- tion he was sent a prisoner to the Isle of Oleron ; but he made ihis escape to Bor- deaux, where he remained four years in obscurity : and on the establishment of Napoleon’s government he enlinted in its service, and for some years officiated in the double capacity of a hireling writer and a spy. On the fall of Napoleon, in 1814, he again became a royalist. During the hun- dred days he was chosen by his native district a member of the chamber .of repre- sentatives ; but on the final return of the Bourbons, in 1815, he was compelled to retire into Belgium, where he resided till 1830. The revolution which then called Louis Philippe to the throne enabled him to return to France; but he was reduced to extreme in- digence, and a small pension from the king and the government alone saved him from the necessity of begging his bread. Died, 1841. [Those who wish to see an instance of the literary tomahawk skilfully applied will find it in an article devoted to Bar^re’s life and character in the Edinburgh Review, vol. Ixxix.l BARRETTI, JOSEPH, lexicographer and miscellaneous Avriter, was a native of Turin. He resided many years in this country, and wrote the English language with ease and purity. Dr. Johnson procured him the situa- tion of Italian teacher in Mr Thrale’s family. 70 bar] % SEnib^rsal [bar He became secretary to the Royal Academy, and retained that office till his death. His ■\vorlcs are very numerous, but the most valu- able is his Italian and English Dictionary. His other publications were “Lettere famig- liari,” an account of his travels in the south of Europe ; an “ Account of the Manners and Customs of Italy,” &c. Born, 1716; died, 1789. BARHAM, RICHARD HARRIS (better known by his literary name of Thomas In- goldsby), was a native of Canterbury, in Avhich city he received his early education, and completed it at Brazenose College, Oxford. Although he adopted the clerical profession, and performed the duties of his sacred calling with strict propriety, he was by nature a humourist, and attempted not to restrain the flow of wit and fancy with which his mind was surcharged. He was a minor canon of St Paul’s, and occupied the house attached to the canonry of the Rev. Sydney Smith, with whom he was on terms of the most cordial friendship, and whom in many respects he much resembled. His other church preferment was the rectory of St Augustine and St Faith, London. “ As an author he contributed much, and during many years, to several popular periodicals, the Edinburgh Review, Blackwood’s Maga- zine, and the Literary Gazette among the number, but his most popular series of papers were given to Bentley’s Miscellany, under the title of ‘ The Ingoldsby Legends,’ since collected and published in 2 vols. 8vo. His popular novel, ‘ My Cousin Nicholas,’ was also published in 3 vols. Of his poetical pieces it is not too much to say, that for originality of design and diction, for quaint illustration and musical verse, they are not surpassed in the English language.” Died, aged 56, June 17, 1845. BARKER, Edmund Henry, an eminent classical scholar, and one of the most in- dustrious of modern writers. He was a leading suppoi’ter of the Classical Journal, the British Critic, and Monthly Magazine; and his articles, chiefly on recondite points of philology and antiquities, were his mere migce delicice, with which he amused the in- tervals of his more serious labour of editing Stephens’s “Thesaurus Linguae Graecae,” a gigantic performance. Besides his greater work, he wrote Prolegomena to Homer, and edited Lempri^re, and other school books. Born, 1788 ; died, 1839. BARKER, George, F. R. S., of Spring- field, Birmingham, a gentleman of the legal profession, whose memory is entitled to re- spect and gratitude, for the success of many 1 of the excellent institutions which do honour to his native town, and from his zeal in the promotion of the arts, manufactures, and sciences. “He was mainly instrumental in obtaining acts for making what was then called ‘ that gigantic absurdity, the Bir- mingham Railroad,’ and its confederate line, the Liverpool, Manchester, and Birming- ham. He was the bosom friend of Watt . and Boulton, and their confidential adviser in the vast projects which have been so pro- ductive of honour and wealth to themselves and to this country.” He died Dec. 6, 1845, aged 69. BARKER, Matthew Henry (better known to the public under his assumed name of The Old Sailor), was the author of several naval novels and sketches ; among which are “Tough Yarns,” “Jem Bunt,” “ The Vic- tory,” “Land and Sea Tales,” &c., besides “ The Life of Nelson,” and numberless com- munications in prose and verse, to various periodieals. He went to sea at the age of 16, but never arrived at higher promotion than the command of a hired armed schooner ; and finding himself unemployed at the end of the war, he tried his hand at authorship. His delineation of nautical scenes is allowed' to be replete with humour and characteristic truth. Died, June, 1846, aged 56. BARKER, Robert, known as inventor of the panorama, was born at Kells, in Ireland, 1740. While viewing the scenery round Edinburgh, whither he had removed as a portrait painter, he was struck with the idea of representing similar views in a circular painting, in which he ultimately succeeded, and thereby realized a considerable for- tune. Died, 1806. BARLOW, Francis, an English artist ; an excellent painter of animals. Died, 1702. BARLOW, Joel, American diplomatist, political and miscellaneous writer, was a native of Connecticut, and was bi’ought up to the law. He gained some reputation by a poem entitled, “ The Vision of Columbus,” and came to England in 1788 as agent of the Ohio Company. In the following year he was one of the deputies sent by the Consti- tutional Society to addi’ess the French Con- vention. He was also, in 1811, appointed ambassador to Napoleon ; and being invited to a conference with the emperor at Wilna, he proceeded thither, but the privations he was eompelled to endure on his journey, and the fatigue of travelling night and day, caused his death. Barlow published several political treatises and pamphlets, which had much temporary popularity, and won him the eulogy of Fox in the House of Commons. Born, 1755 ; died, 1812. BARLOW, Peter, Professor of Mathe- matics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, for 40 years, was born at Nor- wich in 1776. He was a fellow of the Royal and Astronomical Societies, and a member of several government commissions. Among his works are “ New Mathematical Tables,” “ New Mathematical and Philosophical Dic- tionary,” “Essay on Magnetic Attractions,” &c. He retired from his professorship in 1847. Died, 1862. BARLOW, THOMAS, bishop of Lincoln in the reign of Charles II., James II., and William III. He was a man of the most versatile and accommodating principles. Under the first-named king he wrote against popery ; under the second he wrote in favour of the royal power to dispense with the penal laws against it ; and under the third he was among the most active in punishing non-juring clergymen. He wrote “ Cases of Conscience,” &c. Born, 1607 ; died, 1691. BARLOWE, WILLIAM, son of William Barlowe, bishop of Bath and AVells in the reign of Queen Mary, and of Chichester in the reign of Elizabeth, was himself areh- deacon of Salisbury ; he was well-skilled in 71 bar] ^ ISiograpi^p. [bar natural philosophy, and was the first English writer on the properties of the loadstone. Died, 1G25. BARNARD, Sir JOHN, lord mayor of London, and one of its representatives in parliament for 40 years. He was an able speaker, and a remarkably conscientious and religious man ; and so greatly was he re- spected by his fellow-citizens, that they erected a statue to his memory in the Royal Exchange. Born at Reading, 1685; died, 1764. BARNAVE, Antoine Pierre Joseph, an eloquent and popular member of the French national assembly. He was born at Grenoble in 1761, was trained for the bar, and was deputy to the States General in 1789. He distinguished himself as the op- ponent of the privileged classes, and some- times rivalled Mirabeau in eloquence. He was elected president of the Constituent As- sembly in 1780, and when the royal family, after their flight from Paris, were arrested at Varennes, Barnave was one of the three sent to accompany them back to Paris. His manly delicacy on this occasion won him the liking and the confidence of the queen, and led to a correspondence between them. Bar- nave from that time was a defender of the monarchy, and lost his popularity. Though he retired to private life, he was arrested by the Robespierre party in 1792, and guillo- tined in 1794. BARNES, JOSHUA, a learned divine, edu- cated at Christ’s Hospital, London, and Emanuel College, Cambridge ; author of the “ Life of Edward III.,” and a poem “ On the History of Esther,” and editor of the works of Euripides, Anacreon, and Homer. Born, 1654 ; died, 1712. BARNES, THOM AS, editor of “ The Times,” which owed much of its celebrity and influ- ence to the political leaders that came from his pen, as well as to his rare skill and dis- crimination in its general management. Notwithstanding the share he took in the strife of politics, he retained the friendship of all who had once intimately known him, how much soever they might differ on ques- tions of public interest. Mr Barnes was edu- cated at Christ’s Hospital and Pembroke College, Cambridge, where he took his B. A. and M. A. degrees. Died, 1841, aged 55. BARNEVELDT, JOHAN VAN OLDEN, grand pensionary of Holland, was born in 1549. He was of an ancient and illustrious family, studied law at the Hague, and at several foreign universities, and commenced practice as an advocate at the Hague in 1570. He served as a volunteer at the siege of Haarlem, but did not continue in the army. He was chosen pensionary of Rotterdam in 1576. The Spanish arms being everywhere victorious in , the United Provinces, an em- bassy was sent, with Barneveldt at its head, to offer the sovereignty of the Netherlands to Queen Elizabeth. She declined it, but agreed to send auxiliary forces, and gave the command to the Earl of Leicester. Barne- veldt was again ambassador to England in 1590, and to France in 1598. He presided at the congress at the Hague in 1607, obtained from the Spaniards the recognition of the independence of Holland, and after a severe contest with the Stadtholdcr Maurice and his party, concluded a truce with Spain. Barneveldt courageously opposed the ambi- tion of Maurice, who aimed at the supreme power : he also supported Arminius against Gomar and the Calvinists, the party to which Maurice belonged; and in February, 1618, he was arrested, with his friends Grotius and Hoogerbeets. He was triedby a special commission, and condemned to death. The sentence, both illegal and unjust, was sanc- tioned by the synod of Dort, and the venera- ble statesman and patriot, 71 years of age, was executed in May, 1619. The noble and pathetic letter of farewell to his wife is still preserved. BARNEY, JOSHUA, a distinguished naval commander, was born at Baltimore, in 1759. When a boy he made several voyages to Europe ; and in 1776, when not 17, he was presented with a lieutenant’s commission on account of his bravery. During the struggle for American independence Barney took several vessels, and performed numer- ous acts of gallantry ; and after various adventures arrived at Philadelphia in 1782, when he again entered on active duty, and continued a successful cai’eer till the end of the war. In 1795 he reeeived the commission of captain in the French service, and com- manded a French squadron, but resigned his command in 1800, and returned to America. Iij. 1813 he was appointed to command the flotilla for defence of the Chesapeake. Dur- ing the summer of 1814 he kept up an active warfare with the British ; but he was made prisoner. Died, at Pittsburg, 1818. BAROCCIO, Federigo, an Italian painter, and an imitator of the style of Correggio. Born atUrbino, 1528 ; died, 1612. BARONIUS, CjESAR, Cardinal and Libra- rian of the Vatican, was born at Sora, in Naples, in 1538. He joined the congregation of the Oratory, and succeeded St Philip de Neri as superior. He was made cardinal in 1596, and soon after librarian of the Vatican. His great work is the “Annales Ecclesi- astici,” in 12 vols. folio : a work of immense research, which occupied him for thirty years, and has passed through many editions. Died at Rome, 1607. BAROZZI, JACOPO. [VIGNOLA.] BARRAS, PAUL FRANCOIS JEAN NICO- LAS, Count of, one of the first members of the French Directory, was born in Provence, in 1755. He entered the army, and served for a time in India; was at Paris in 1789 ; witnessed the fall of the Bastille; joined the Jacobin club, and in 1792 was chosen deputy to the National Convention, of which he afterwards became president. He took part in the siege of Toulon, and in the subsequent proscription and massacre there. He had a leading part in the revolution of the 9th Thermidor (fall of Robespierre, July, 1794) ; displayed great energy when the Convention was attacked by the people of the faubourgs ; was named general-in-chief to oppose the sections on the 13th Vend^miaire (5 October, 1795), and employed Napoleon to command the artillery ; and was named one of the five directors. His influence was very great, and he retained his post till the fall of the Di- I rectory, and the assumption of supreme j 72 bar] ^ igtfco ^anib^rsal l^iograpl;!?. [bar power by Napoleon as First Consul in No- vember, 1799. He then retired from public life, lived at Brussels till 1813, when, on a charge of conspiracy, he was exiled to Rome. In 1815 he settled at Paris, and died, 1829. BARRET, George, landscape painter, was born in Dublin, but passed most of his life in England, and was one of the founders of the Royal Academy, Born, 1730 ; died, 1784. BARRETT, WILLIAM, an English topo- grapher ; author of a “ History of Bristol.” Died, 1789. BARRINGTON, DAINES, an eminent jur- ist, naturalist, and antiquary, was the fourth son of the first Viscount Barrington, and was born at London in 1727. After being called to the bar he was appointed Secretary to Greenwich Hospital. He became a fellow of the Soeiety of Antiquaries, and was made President of the Royal Society. In his im- portant “Observations on the Statutes” he projected the reform of the statute law by repeal and codification, which is still only in process of execution. His “Miscellanies” consist of essays on Natural History and an- tiquarian subjects contributed to periodical publications. He was a correspondent of Gilbert White of Selborne. Died, 1800. BARRINGTON, SllTJTE, bishop of Dur- ham, w^as the sixth son of the first Viscount Barrington, and born in 1734. He engaged in some controversial disputes both with the Calvinists and Romanists ; but though hos- tile to the doctrines of the latter, he was a liberal benefactor of the French clergy who took refuge in England during the Revolu- tion. Died, 1826. BARROS, JOAS DE, One of the best Por- tuguese historians, was born about 1495. He was made page to the king, governor of a settlement on the coast of Guinea, and agent-general for the colonies. His great work is entitled “Asia Portugueza,” and narrates the discoveries and conquests of the Portuguese in the Indies. It has been fre- quently republished, and is highly esteemed, both for its matter and its style. Died, 1570. BARROW, ISAAC, theologian and ma- thematician, was born at London in 1630. He was educated at Cambridge, and became fellow of Trinity College. After several years spent in foreign travel, he was ap- pointed Professor of Greek at Cambridge, in 1660, and soon after Gresham Professor of Geometry. He was subsequently Lucasian Professor and Master of Trinity. He was a man of great courage, energy, industry, and disinterestedness ; the latter quality shown by his repeated relinquishment of lucrative offices for conscience’ sake. His works con- sist of an edition of Euclid, “ Lectiones Op- ticae,” “Lectiones Geometricae,” “Lectiones Mathematicae,” and a collection of his Ser- mons, Addresses, &c. His sermons are full of original thought, were carefully written and rewritten, and are still esteemed arid studied. Died, 1677. BARROW, Sir JOHN, Bart., F.R.S., for many years secretary to the Admiralty, a great traveller, and a voluminous writer of travels, biographies, &c. ; was born near Ulverston, in Lancashire, June 19th, 1764. At an early age he displayed a decided in- clination for mathematical pursuits, and after passing some years as superintending clerk of an iron foundry in Liverpool, he became mathematical teacher at an academy in Greenwich, whence he was appointed, through the interest of Sir George Staunton, secretary to the embassy to China, under Lord Macartney, in 1792. In this capacity his talents and acquirements were duly ap- preciated ; and when Lord Macartney was, in 1797, appointed to the government of the Cape of Good Hope, he sec\ired Mr Barrow’s services as private secretary, and subse- quently appointed him auditor-general of public accounts, an oflSce which he held till the Cape was evacuated by the English in 1803. In 1804 he was appointed, by Lord Melville, secretary to the Admiralty; and with the exception of a few months, during the Whig administration, in 1806-7, he con- tinued to fill this ofiSce down to his retire- ment, in 1845. He was created a baronet during the short administration of Sir Robert Peel, in 1835. Besides contributing numer- ous articles on miscellaneous subjects to the Quarterly Review and the Encyclopaedia Britannica, he published the Lives of Lord Macartney, Lord Anson, Lord Howe, and Peter the Great ; Travels in China, Voyage to Cochin China, the Mutiny of the Bounty, his own Autobiography, &c. The general aim of his writings was to convey informa- tion, to promote the arts and sciences, and to stimulate research and inquiry ; and he had the great privilege to live to see the most beneficial effects produced by his hon- est and faithful labours. We should not omit to state that Sir John was the constant and successful advocate at the Admiralty of those voyages of discovery which have enlarged the bounds of science, and con- ferred so much honour on the British name and nation. Died, Nov. 23, 1848. BARRY, GirALDUS, see GIRALDUS CAMBRENSIS. BARRY, James, painter, was born at Cork, in 1741. He obtained the patronage of Edmund Burke, and was sent to study at Rome. He became Professor of Painting at the Royal Academy, but in consequence of disputes with the members he was expelled, after holding the professorship 15 years. His principal work is the series of pictures painted for the Society of Arts, to illustrate the progress of civilization. They represent Orpheus subduing the Thracians ; a Greek harvest-home ; Victors at Olympia ; Triumph of the Thames ; the Society distributing their prizes ; and Final Retribution. Died, in poverty and distress, 1806. BARRY, Marie Jeanne, Countess Du, mistress of Louis XV. of France, was born in 1746. She was a native of Vaucouleurs, and went young to Paris. She entei’ed on a dissipated course, and was presented to the king in 1769, who had her married for form’s sake to Count Du Barry. She became the centre of opposing political intrigues, and her favour was courted by all. The duke de Choiseul was dismissed from office because he dared reproach the king for his choice. She used the public treasury as her own. After the death of Louis she was placed in a convent, and being allowed to leave it, she 73 bar] 2Sn(t)trs£iI 1I5{ograpI;p. [bar lived a decent life. She was condemned on ridiculous charges hy the revolutionary tri- bunal and executed, in 1793. BARRY, Martin, an English physiolo- gist, was born in 1802. He graduated in medicine at the University of Edinburgh, but did not practise as a physician. He par- ticularly distinguished himself by his inves- tigations into animal development, and the fruits of his researches appeared in the “Philosophical Transactions.” He was a fellow of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh, and received the royal medal of the former for his important discoveries. Died, 1855. BARRY, Sir CHARLES, R.A., was born in May, 1795, and at an early age was articled to an architectural firm at Lambeth. He afterwards travelled in Italy, Greece, and other countries, studying carefully the archi- tecture of each, and returned to England with an evident bias in favour of Italian, in which style he built St Peter’s Church at Brighton, the first work which made him generally known. In his subsequent works he employed sometimes Grecian and Italian forms, but gradually acquired a preference for Gothic, which led him to express his strong dissatisfaction with his early work at Brighton. Among the numerous buildings of which he was the architect, the new Palace of Westminster is that by which his name will be most widely known. When the old Houses of Parliament were burned down in 1834, Mr Bai'ry’s design Avas select- ed, and the result is that magnificent pile which forms the chief adornment of the banks of the Thames. This building has excited much controversy and much host- ile criticism. But whatever differences of opinion may exist as to its want of origin- ality, or monotony of design, the great beauty of the Avork is unquestionable; and in any judgment formed of it careful account should be taken of the many difficulties Avith Avhich the architect had to contend. When it is remembered that the design was made almost at the commencement of the revival of our national Gothic architecture, the im- pression will be one of admiration for the architectural genius which conceived such a Avork, and the conviction will remain that by it Sir Charles Barry has done incalculable service to the progress of English art and the maintenance of its true principles. BARRY, Spranger, a celebrated actor ; and, for a time, the rival of Garrick, who, however, in the higher Avalks of the drama, greatly excelled him. Born, 1719 ; died, 1777. BART, JEAN, a distinguished French sea- man, born at Dunkirk, in 1651. He served in the Dutch navy under De Ruyter, and at 20 years of age entered the French service. His daring, his intelligence, and his numer- ous successes obtained him great reputation. He was presented to Louis XIV. in 1691. His most brilliant achievement was the de- feat of the Dutch Admiral Vries, and capture of a large fleet of vessels laden with corn, in 1694, for which letters of nobility Avere granted to him. Died at Dunkirk, in 1702. BARTHELEMY, JEAN JACQUES, French historian and antiquary, was born in Pro- vence, 1716. He was educated by the Je- suits, became keeper of the king’s cabinet I of medals, which he enriched by collections made in Italy ; obtained at Rome the friend- ship of many learned and distinguished men, among others the duke of Choiseul, who, when first minister, gave him several lucra- tive offices ; and was admitted to the French Academy, and the Academy of Inscriptions. At the Revolution he lost his offices and was imprisoned, but was released through Dan- ton’s influence. He Avrote several learned archaeological works, but Avon his greatest reputation by his “Voyage du Jeune Ana- charsis en Grece,” which was long used as an authority on the history, mannei-s, and customs of the Greeks. Died at Paris, 1795. BARTHEZ, PAUL JOSEPH, an eminent French physician, was born at Montpellier, in 1734, Avhere he founded a medical school, Avhich acquired great reputation throughout Europe. For many years he practised in Paris, and was consulted upon the most im- portant cases : he also wrote in the Journal dcs Savans, the Encyclop6die, &c. ; and Avas a member of almost every learned society. During the Revolution he suffered greatly in his fortune; but Napoleon, who kneAV his great merits, restored him, in his old age, to Avealth and honours. Died, 1806. BARTHOLDY, JACOB SOLOMON, a Prus- sian diplomatist, born a Jew, but after tra- velling in Greece he abjured Judaism, and became a Protestant. In 1807 he served against the French as an officer in the land- wehr of Vienna, and Avrote a tract called “The War of the Tyrol,” which produced a great sensation. Died, 1826. BARTHOLINE, THOMAS, a Danish ana- tomist, was born at Copenhagen, in 1619. He studied at the principal universities in Eu- rope, and was appointed Professor of Ana- tomy at Copenhagen, in 1648. He made many discoveries,-- among them that of the lym- phatic vessels ; his claim to Avhich, hoAvever, is disputed. His works are very numerous. Among them are his “ Anatomia,” “ His- .toriarum anatomicarum et mcdicarum cen- turiae VI.,” &c. Died, 1680. BARTOLI, D/.NIELE, a learned Italian Jesuit, was born at Ferrara in 1608. He dis- tinguished himself as a preacher in the chief cities of Italy, and was author, of numerous works, the most important of which is the “ Istoria della Compagnia di Gesh.” Among the others are “ Vitadi S. Ignazio,”“L’Uomo di Lettere difeso ed emendato,” and Avorks on natural philosophy and grammar. Died, rector of the Roman College, 1685, BARTOLI, Pietro Santo, an Italian painter and engraver, was born in 1635. He Avas a native of Perugia, studied under Nico- las Poussin, and engraved a great number of ancient works of art, chiefly those remain- ing in Rome. His Avorks are mostly etch- ings. Died, 1700. BARTOLOMEO, FRA. [BACCIO DELLA PORTA.] BARTOLOZZI, FRANCISCO, an engraA'cr of first-rate merit, Avas born at Florence in 1725 or 1730; came to England in 1764; Avas admitted a member of the Royal Academy in 1769 ; went to Lisbon, at the invitation of the prince-regent of Portugal, in 1802 ; and 74 bar] % [bas there died in 1815. Among the most esteemed productions of his graver are the “Clytie” after Annibale Caracci, the “Prometheus” after Michael Angelo, the “ Virgin and Child” after Carlo Dolci, the “Death of Chatham” after Copley, &c. BARTON, Bernard, the “ Quaker poet,” was born near London, 1784. In 1810 he be- came a clerk in Alexanders’ bank, at Wood- bridge, where he served almost to the day of his death. His first volume of poetry was published in 1811, and this w^as succeeded by numerous others, most of them devoted to homely subjects, but all of them animated by the purest feeling and the most glowing fancy. But it was not only for his merits as a poet that Bernard Barton deserves to be held in remembrance. His genial good hu- mour and vast stores of information made him a welcome guest wherever he appeared ; and the native sincerity of his character, which was apparent in every act of his life, was enhanced by a benignity, liberality, and charity, in entire accordance with the pre- cepts of his faith. Died, Feb. 19, 1849. BARTON, ELIZABETH, “the Maid (or Nun) of Kent,” was a poor country servant- girl, who first attracted public attention in the year 1525. She lived at Aldington, in Kent. Reduced by long illness to a state of great nervous debility, she became subject to trances, in which she uttered things that seemed beyond the reach of her own know- ledge, and which old Archbishop Warham, to whom the puzzled parish priest referred for guidance, pronounced to be “come of God.” The tale spread and Avonder grew rapidly, and the poor girl, though the trances ceased, kept up her communications, and soon became a tool in the hands of knavish monks. They made her acquainted with the legends of the saints, and the elements of the controversy then going on between the church and the reformers, and the stories of miracles wrought at sacred shrines. She took part in a performance got up in the Lady Chapel of the parish, which Avas at once published as a neAV miracle, and soon after entered a convent at Canterbury. Her reputation still grew, and people of the highest rank had recourse to her, and paid her for her counsels and prayers. She was led by the monks to pronounce an audacious sentence against the divorce of Catharine of Aragon, then under discussion ; perplexing thereby Cranmer and Wolsey, and threaten- ing even the pope. Step by step she Avent on, till she became involved in the guilt of treason. The king was threatened Avith death, a large and powerful party existed, who rejoiced at the message and were ready to take part in an insurrection for the queen. Among these were Fisher, bishop of Roches- ter, and Sir Thomas More. At last the poor Nun and her monkish pi’ompters Avere tried and convicted in the Star Chamber. They made public confessions of their guilt at Paul’s Cross, and a bill of attainder having been passed, Elizabeth, the parish priest, and five monks were executed at Tyburn, 21st of April, 1534. In a feAV pathetic sen- tences, spoken to the people before her death, she confessed the justice of her sentence, showed how the “learned” priests had im- posed upon her ignorance, and prayed God for mercy on herself and them. BARTRAM, JOHN, an eminent American botanist, was born in Chester county, Penn- sylvania, in 1701. He formed a botanic gar- den near Philadelphia, said to have been the first establishment of the kind in America ; and so intimate an acquaintance had he Avith the vegetable kingdom, that Linnaeus pronounced him “ the greatest natural bot- anist in the Avorld.” Died, 1777. BARTRAM, WILLIAM, a son of the pre- ceding, was also a distinguished naturalist. At the request of Dr Fothergill, he travelled thi*ough the Floridas, Carolina, and Georgia, for the purposes of making researches in natural history, and transmitted to his em- ployer in London the valuable collections and drawings which he had made. His “American Ornithology ” may be considered the precursor of Wilson’s invaluable work. Died, 1823. BASAITI, MARCO, an early Venetian painter, who flourished in the 15th and 16th centuries. He was a good colourist, and in some respects Avas the rival of Giovanni Bellini. His “ Christ in the Garden,” and “ Calling of St Peter and St Andrew,” are his finest pictures ; both of them now in the Academy of Fine Arts, Venice. There are tAvo small works of Basaiti in the National Gallery. BASEVI, George, a distinguished archi- tect, was born, 1795. Among the edifices built or restored by him are the churches in the early English style at TAvickenham and Brompton,the Norman church at Hove, near Brighton, and St Mary’s Hall, at Brighton, in the Elizabethan style. BelgraA-^e Square, in the metropolis, was erected from his de- signs; and he was joint architect with Mr Smirke of the Conservative Club, in St James’s Street. His best Avork, however, is the FitzAvilliam Museum at Cambridge. Having gone to inspect the West Bell Tower of Ely Cathedral, then under repair, he acci- dentally fell through an aperture, and was killed on the spot, Oct. 16, 1845. BASIL, St, surnamed the Great, bishop of Caesarea, in Cappadocia, where he Avas born, about 326. He was studying at Athens in 355, and there became the friend of Gregory, afterwards bishop of Nazianzus. After ex- tensive travels Basil retired to the desert of Pontus, and there founded an order of monks. He succeeded Eusebius in the see of Caesarea, in 370, and by his opposition to Arian doctrines greatly offended the Empe- ror Valens. The attempts Avhich Basil made to reunite the two hostile churches of the East and West were unsuccessful. Died, 380. BASILIUS I., the Macedonian, emperor of the East, was of low origin, but got em- ployment at the court of the Emperor Mi- chael III., became his chamberlain, murder- ed his rival, Bardas, was associated in the empire, then murdered Michael, and suc- ceeded him in 867. Though he had risen by a series of crimes he governed wisely, made many reforms in the administration and in the army, and compiled a body of laAvs, called the Rasih'ca, Avhich, augmented by his son and successor, Leo the Philosopher, were in force till the fall of the empire. Basilius 75 BAs] ^nibtrsal ^iograp!)B. [bas deprived Pliotius of the see of Constantino- ple, and restored Ignatius ; but on the death of the latter he recalled Photius. He car- ried on Avar successfully with the Saracens. Died, 886, BASILIUS II., emperor of the East; was son of Romauus II., and Avith his brother, Constantine, was first associated in the em- pire by John Zimisces, and succeeded him in 976. His long reign was a series of wars with his rivals, Bardas Sclerus and Phocas, with the Saracens, and Avith the Bulgarians. In 1014, after a great victory over the latter, having 15,000 prisoners, he had ninety-nine out of every hundred deprived of their eyes, and thus sent home. This horrible cruelty caused the death of Samuel, king of the Bulgarians. The war ended in 1019, by the complete conquest of Bulgaria. Died, 1025. BASKERVILLE, JOHN, a celebrated let- ter-founder and printer; and one to whom the typographical art is much indebted. By his improvement in the form of the types, and in the various processes of printing, he raised the art to a higher state than it had before reached, but his labours appear to have been but faintly appreciated. It has been remarked, too, that his books are more elegantly than correctly printed. Basker- ville’s portrait was painted by Gainsbo- rough. He was buried by his own desire in a tomb in his own garden. Born at AVol- verley, in Worcestershire, in 1706; died, 1775. BASNAGE, Benjamin, a French Pro- testant divine ; pastor of the reformed church at Carentan more than 50 years. He was a zealous supporter of Protestant-, ism, and took part in several important synods. He wrote a “Traite de I’Eglise.” Born, 1580; died, 1652. BASNAGE, ANTOINE, son of the above ; imprisoned at Havre de Grace on account of his religion. Born, 1610; died, 1691. BASNAGE, DE BEAUVAL, JACQUES, grandson of Benjamin, was a distinguished theologian and historian. He Avas born at Rouen in 1653, studied first at Saumur under Tannegui Le Fevre, then at Geneva and Sedan, and became pastor at Rouen in 1676. On the revocation of the Edict of Nantes he took refuge in Holland, became pastor at Rotterdam, and afterwards at the Hague, enjoyed the friendship of the grand pension- ary Heinsius, and was employed in several political negotiations. The most esteemed of his numerous Avorks are, “ La Commu- nion Saintc,” “Histoire de la Religion des Eglises reform^es,” “ Histoire de I’Eglise depuis J^sus Christ jusqu’ a present,” “His- toii-e des Juifs depuis J6sus Christ jusqu’ a present,” and “ Antiquit^s Judaiques.” Died, 1723. BASSANO, JACOPO, or JACOPO DA Ponte, an Italian painter, was born at Bassano in 1510. He was first taught by his father, and then went to Venice and studied the great woi'ks of Parmigiano,, Titian, and Bonifazio. He spent the rest of his life at his native place. His first productions had much grandeur of conception and excellence of colour, but he afterwards painted in a coarser and loAver style. Ho treated even sacred subjects with a vulgar familiarity. He Avorked rapidly, and his pictures are very numerous. There are three of them in the National Gallery. Bassano had four sons, who were also painters. Died, 1592. BASSANO, HUGUES BERNARD MARET, Duke of, a celebrated French political writer and statesman, was the son of a physician at Dijon. On the first outburst of the French Revolution he enthusiastically embraced its principles, published the BidlHin de VAssem- bUe, and soon after was appointed editor of the Monitcur. He became acqttainted Avith Buonaparte, and was made by him chef de division in the foreign office. In 1792 he was sent to England, ostensibly to secure the neutrality of the British government, but in reality to hoodAvink that government until the moment should arrive at which it could be securely, as well as efficiently, assailed. But the English minister of that day was too clear-sighted even for French diplomacy. Both Maret and the French ambassador, Chauvelln, were peremptorily ordered out of England; and the former, soon after his return home, Avas sent as am- bassador to Naples, but was captured on his w'ay thither by tlie Austrians, and detained as a prisoner until 1795. Maret took a bold and active part in the intrigues Avhich Avere set on foot for the overthrow of the direc- tory and the introduction of the consulate ; and Avhen the establishment of the latter croAvned the success of those intrigues, he was made secretary to the council of state. Subsequently he was for some time private secretary to Buonaparte, to Avhose dictation, it is said, not a few of his articles in the Moniteur Avere actually Avritten. In 1811 he Avas made Due de Bassano and minis- ter of foreign affairs ; and in 1812 he conducted and signed the treaties betAveen France, Austria, and Prussia, preparatory to the fatal expedition to Russia. When the emperor Avas sent to Elba, in 1814, the Due de Bassano retired from public life; but immediately after the return of the em- pei’or, he joined him, and Avas very near being taken prisoner at Waterloo. On the utter ruin of Napoleon, the duke Avas ban- ished from France, but at the revolution of July, 1830, he was recalled, and restored to all his honours. In 1838 he Avas made minister of the Interior, and president of the council, but the ministry, of Avhich he formed a part, survived only three days. Born, 1763 ; died, 1839. BASSI, Laura maria Catarina, a learned Italian lady, Avhose singular accom- plishments procured her the professor’s chair at Bologna, and the title of doctor of philosophy. Born, 1711; died, 1778. BASSOMPIERRE, FRANCOIS DE, mar- shal of France, distinguished both as a sol- dier and a statesman, and remarkable for his personal attractions and his numerous gallantries, who, after being patronized by Henry IV. and Louis XIII., became an object of suspicion to Cardinal Richelieu, then first minister and master of France, and on account of his connection Avith the house of Lorraine, and various intrigues against the government, Avas imprisoned in the Bastille, 1631. He Avas not liberated till the death of Richelieu in 1643. He Avrote 76 BAs] i^eto ianiiiersal liSiograpI;^, [bat his own memoirs and an account of his embassies. Born, 1579 ; died, 1646, BASTIAT, M. PREUKRIC, who has gained a European reputation by his writings on political economy, was born at Paris in 1803. Without being a discoverer of new truths, he possessed the rare faculty of ex- pounding with clearness and vigour the grounds and the eifects of complex natural laAvs already developed by the processes of philosophy. The work by which he is best known in England is the “ Sophismes Economiques,” which was translated into English by Mr Porter of the Board of Trade. M. Bastiat was a member of the national assembly. He bore the highest character as an able, upright, and zealous servant of his constituents and his country ; and did his utmost to spread among his countrymen that new and more liberal philosophy of trade of which he saw the effects in this country. His chief work is the “ Harmonies Economiques,” a posthu- mous publication. Died at Rome, 1850. BASTWICK, JOHN, physician and poli- tical writer, was born in Essex about 1593. He studied at Cambridge, travelled over Europe, and settled as a physician at Col- chester. In 1637 he was condemned by the Star Chamber for his books against pre- lacy, “ Elenchus Papismi,” and “ A New Litany;” and was, like Prynne and Burton his fellow-prisoners, sentenced to a heavy fine, to be set in the pillory, have his ears cut off, his cheeks and forehead branded, and be imprisoned for life. He was sent to Sicily, and kept there till released by the Long Parliament. He was living in 1648, but the time of his death is not known. BATE, George, physician to Charles I., Oliver Cromwell, and Charles II., and one of the first members of the Royal Society. He was the author of a Latin history of the civil wars, and some medical works. Born, 1593; died, 1669. BATES, William, a nonconformist di- vine ; author of “ Lives of Learned and Pious Men,” «&:c. Born, 1625 ; died, 1699. BATH, WILLIAM PULTENEY, Earl of. [PULTENEY]. BATHORI. [STEPHEN BATHORI]. BATHURST, Allen, Earl, a zealous op- poser of the measures of Sir Robert Walpole, and the intimate friend of Bolingbroke, Pope, Addison, and the other eminent writers of his time. Born, 1684 ; died, 1775. BATHURST, HENRY, Earl, son of the above, and made lord chancellor of England 1771; author of the “Theory of Evidence,” &c. Born, 1714; died, 1794. BATHURST, HENRY, bishop of Norwich, was born at Brackley, in Northamptonshire, in 1744 ; and educated at Winchester, and New College, Oxford. He was presented to the rectory of Witchingham, in Norfolk, in 1770; subsequently became dean of Durham ; and, in 1805, was consecrated bishop of Nor- wich. In the House of Lords, Dr Bathurst was a strenuous supporter of the Catholic claims : in his diocese, an exemplary pre- late. He died, April 5, 1837. The bishop’s eldest son. Dr Henry Bathurst, arch- deacon of Norwich, and rector of North Creake, Norfolk, and of Hollesley, Suffolk, was the author of “ Memoirs ” of his right reverend father ; a work overflowing with spleen and expressions of disappointment, that one so faithful to his old friends, the Whigs, should have never been preferred to a richer diocese ! Died, Sept. 1844. BATHURST, RALPH, dean of Wells ; au- thor of some elegant Latin poems, and one of the founders of the Royal Society. Born, 1620; died, 1704. BATONI, Pompeo Girolamo, an emi- nent Italian painter, esteemed as the re- storer of the Roman school. One of his most admired works is the “ Fall of Simon Magus,” at Rome. Born at Lucca, 1708; died at Rome, 1787. BATOU KHAN, grandson of Zenghis Khan, and his successor in the northern part of his vast empire. He died, after a long reign and numerous conquests, in 1255. BATTHYANI, Count Louis, a scion of one of the noblest and most ancient Hun- garian families, was born in 1809. For many years he was the leader of the Liberal Oppo- sition in the upper house of the Hungarian parliament; and had long been distinguished for his devotion to the cause of Hungary, which he longed to see reinstated in its ancient administrative independence. Sum- moned in March, 1848, by the emperor-king Ferdinand, to form the first independent and responsible eabinet of Hungary, he ttrictly adhered, while in office, to the constitution of the country ; repeatedly repairing to the emperor-king’s court at Innspruck, to nego- tiate between the sovereign and the people, and labouring to heal the ruptures that daily threatened to plunge the nation into civil war. Animated by the same views, he left Pesth for Vienna, in September of the same year ; but when he saw that all his efforts were likely to be fruitless, he resigned his office, and retired to his estates in Eisenberg. On the invasion of Hungai’y by Jellachich, the ban of Croatia, Batthyani entered the ranks of the National Guard; but a fall from his horse compelled him to give up all thought of aiding the cause of Hungary in the field. In December he returned to Pesth, and took part in the proceedings of the par- liament, labouring as before, despite of ca- lumny and intrigue, to negotiate between the king and the country, and to impress all par- ties with his own moderate and practicable views. Meanwhile the revolutionary party in the Hungarian parliament having pro- posed to transfer the seat of government from Pesth to Debreezin, Batthyani strenuously opposed this measure on the ground of its ille- gality ; and all that he could effect was, that a deputation, of which he formed one, should bo sent to Prince Windischgratz, once more to attempt a compromise between the king and the people. But the deputation failed in its object. This was Batthyani ’s last public act. On the 8th of January, he was arrested in the drawing-room of his sister-in-law, at Pesth, transferred successively to Oedenburg, Laybach, and Pesth, and, after nine months’ imprisonment, was tried by court-martial, de- clared guilty of high-treason, and sentenced to die on the gallows, Oct. 6, 1849. He heard the sentence with tranquillity and com- posure. Having taken leave of his wife, he J 7 ! bau] ^ 2Sn{i)^rsaI 13iograp][)0, [bat i. - — — endeavoured, in the course of the night, to open the veins of his neck by means of a blunt paper-knife, and thus to escape the last indignity of what the Austrians called the “ law.” But his attempt was discovered, and though he lost much blood, the surgeons succeeded in saving his life. The sentence, as pronounced by the court-martial, could not be executed, and it was commuted to a soldier’s death. He died as he lived, calm, majestic, acd conscious of innocence. His possessions were confiscated ; and his wife (a member of the noble family of Zichy) and children left the country of their fathers for a foreign land, there to weep, and if possible to forgive. The news of the execution of Batthyani caused astonishment and horror throughout the civilized world. Batthyani had never aimed at the complete separation of Hungary from Austria ; he was decidedly opposed to the establishment of a Hun- garian republic ; and he had, through good and evil report, supported the union between the two countries, on the basis of the con- stitution of March, 1848. But his devotion to the cause of constitutional government had procured him much ill-will at the court of Vienna, then bent on the restoration of the despotic system, overthrown in 1848; and it is not improbable that, buoyed up by the success that had followed the Rus- sian invasion in 1849, they took occa- sion to strike, in the person of Batthyani, at all who might be inclined to tread in his footsteps ; for despotic governments hold in especial abhorrence the moderate re- former. BAUER, Ferdinand, a Gei-man artist, highly distinguished as a botanical painter. He came to England, and made drawings of the exotic plants in the royal gardens of Kew ; and was engaged as draughtsman to accompany Robert Brown, in Captain Flin- ders’ expedition to the coast of New Holland, between 1802 and 1805, for the purpose of making drawings there from the living plants, which drawings were afterwards pub- lished. Died, at Vienna, 1826. BAUHTN, Jean, a French physician and celebrated botanist ; author of “ Historia Plantarum,” &c. Born at Basle, 1541 ; died, 1613. BAUHIN, GASPAiiD,brotherof theabove ; an excellent botanist, author of “ Instituti- ones Anatomicae,” “ Phytopinax,” “Pinax,” and numerous other works. Born, 1560 ; died, 1624. BAUME, '"Antoine, a French chemist, born at Senlis, 1728. He was chosen professor of chemistry at the College of Pharmacy, Paris, and made his laboratories great manu- factories. He invented and improved many processes in the useful arts, and was admit- ted to the Academy of Sciences. He lost at the Revolution the fortune on which he had retired, and bravely began w^ork afresh. He was received at the Institute in 1796, and died, 1804. He left several useful works on chemical subjects. BA UMGARTEN, ALEXANDER G OTTLIEB, professor of philosophy at Frankfort-on-the- Oder ; author of “ Mctaphysica,” “ Ethica Philosophica,” &c. He is chiefly remem- bered as the first writer who used the term ” Aesthetics ” to designate the science of the beautiful. Born, 1714 ; died, 1762. BAUR, Ferdinand Christian, a dis- tinguished German theologian and biblical critic, head of the so-called Tubingen School of Rationalist divines, was born in 1792. While holding a professorship at a seminary inBlaubeuren he published, in 1824, his work entitled “ Symbolik und Mythologie.” In 1826 he accepted a call to the chair of theology at Tubingen, and thenceforward he distin- guished himself by his labours and learned productions in the field of biblical criticism, and the history of doctrines. A disciple of Hegel, he applied the principles of his philo- sophy to the study of theology and the criti- cism of the earliest Christian literature ; with results startling enough, and which are still the subjects of grave controversy. His prin- cipal works on the history of Dogmas are — “The Christian Gnosis,” “The Christian Doctrine of the Atonement,” and “ The Christian Doctrine of the Trinity and In- carnation.” Of his works of New Testament criticism the most important are— “ The Christ-party in the Corinthian Church,” an essay in the Tubingen Journal for 1831; “ The so-called Pastoral Letters of the Apo- stle Paul;” “Paul, the Apostle of Jesus Christ ;” “ Critieal Researches respecting the Canonical Gospels,” in which he especially attempts to disprove the historical character of the Fourth Gospel ; and a work on the Origin and Character of the Gospel of Mark. Died, 1861. BAXTER, Richard, the eminent Noncon- formist preacher and writer, was born in Shropshire in 1615. He was ordained in 1638, and after short engagements at Dudley and Bridgnorth, became parish minister of Kidderminster in 1640. He was very labori- ous and very popular as a preacher, but held an uncertain and fluctuating position be- tween the conflicting parties in the civil war. At one time he was chaplain to a regiment of the parliamentary army, and was present at several sieges. He returned to Kidder- minster, took part in the Savoy conferenee, and drew up a reformed liturgy, and had to quit his living on the passing of the Act of Uniformity. For ten years he was chiefly occupied in writing, but in 1672 he went again to London and preached, though with many interruptions. He was several times the victim of the persecuting enactments of the time, and was tried before Judge Jef- feries on a charge of sedition. Jefferies played his usual coarse part, and fined and imprisoned the venerable preaeher, then 70 years old. Baxter was a prolific writer, a large portion of his works being polemical and now little read. His most popular books are the “ Saints’ Everlasting Rest,” “ Dying Thoughts,” and “Cali to the Unconverted.” His theological views are set forth in the “Methodus Theologisc,” and “ Catholic The- ology;” and he has left an account of the principal passages of his life in the “ Reli- quijE Baxterianae.” Died, 1691. BAXTER, Andrew, an eminent meta- physician, and author of an “ Enquiry into the nature of the Human Soul,” &c. Born at Aberdeen, 1687 ; died, 1750. BAYARD, PIERRE DU TERR AIL, Ricgneur 78 bay] SJnibcrsal 13 icigrnpl) 0 , [bea de, named, the “ Chevalier sans pour et sans reproclie," was born at the Chateau of Bayard, near Grenoble, 1476. He was the descend- ant of a line of distinguished soldiers, and was early devoted to arms. At first page to the duke of Savoy, he passed into the service of Charles VIII. of France, and fol- lowed him in his invasion of Naples in 1494, taking a brilliant part in the battle of For- nova. He followed Louis XII. in his con- quest of the Milanese, was captured by Sforza,and given up by him without ransom. One of Bayard’s most celebrated actions was his defence, single-handed, of the bridge over the Garigliano against a large body of Spaniards. In the war following the un- righteous League of Cambray, Bayard served again, and by a daring rapid movement de- cided the victory of Agnadello. He was severely wounded at the attack of Brescia, and being carefully nursed by a lady and her two daughters, he in return protected them from harm to life or honour. Bayard dis- tinguished himself at the “Battle of the Spurs,” and finding defeat inevitable, he took prisoner an English knight, and then surren- dered himself prisoner to him. The emperor and Henry VIII. received him with the high- est honour, and liberated both knights. On the accession of Francis I. the war in Italy was reneAved, and at the great battle of Ma- rignano Bayard surpassed himself, decided the victory, and had the honour of knighting his sovereign on the field. The successful defence of Mezi^res against Charles V. was his next achievement. Two years later, 1524, he served under Admiral Bonnivet in Italy, against the Imperialists under the Constable de Bourbon, and at the passage of the Sesia received his mortal wound. He refused to be carried off the field, saying he would not then for the first time turn his back on the enemy. Set at the foot of a tree, he still urges on his comrades, kisses the cross of his sword, and confesses himself to his squire. The Constable coming up was affected at the sight, and the noble Bayard with almost his latest breath is said to have uttered the rebuke, “ It is not me you should mourn for, but yourself, fighting against your king and your country.” So he died. In Bayard, more perhaps than in any other man, we may see the “realized ideal” of chivalry ; the combination of perfect cour- age with entire unselfishness, the utmost generosity, and a purity of life wonderful in that age, perhaps in any age. Although he never rose to be general, nor held any independent command, by the power of his character and the lustre of his actions he won a place in the world’s esteem far higher and more glorious than titles could ever se- cure. His life was written by his “ loyal serviteur ” or secretary, and has passed through many editions. BAYER, JOHAN, a Gorman astronomer of the 17th century ; author of “ Uranometria,” a celestial atlas. BAYER, Gottlieb Siegfried, German philologist, who became Professor of Greek and Roman Antiquities at St Petersburg, and was author of a very curious and able work, entitled “ Musaeum Sinicum.” Born, 1694; died, 1738. BAY'LE, Pierre, a French critic and mis- cellaneous writer, was born at Carlat in 1647. He was educated at the universities of Puylaurens and Toulouse, and for a short time professed the Catholic faith. In 1674 he settled at Paris, and Avas soon after chosen professor of philosophy at Sedan, and six years later removed to Rotterdam, where he Mled the same chair. Deprived of his post in 1693, he devoted himself to the prepara- tion of his great work, the “ Dictionnaire Critique et Historique,” which at first ap- peared in 2 vols. folio in 1695-6. Fresh con- troversies were excited by this work, which engaged him till his death. Bayle Avas an indefatigable student, and is said to have worked 14 hours a day for 40 years. He wrote a powerful treatise against the perse- cution of the Protestants, and founded a pe- riodical work, entitled “ Nouvelles de la r^ publique des Lettres.” His “ Dictionary,” much enlarged, has passed through many editions. Died, 1706. BAYLEY’’, Sir JOHN, a learned'and up- right judge, was called to the bar in 1792, and appointed a serjeant-at-law in 1799. In 1808 he was made one of the justices of the King’s Bench, and received the honour of knighthood. He was a man of liberal edu- cation and enlarged notions ; to a most be- nevolent heart he added the dignified man- ners of the gentleman, and a degree of pro- fessional erudition that placed him in the first rank among his judicial compeers. His work “ on the Luav of Bills of Exchange ” has long been a standard book in the pro- fession, and its value in the commercial world is universally acknowledged. On his retirement from the bench, in 1834, he was sworn a member of the privy council, and created a baronet. Died, 1841, aged 78. BAYLEY, Richard, an eminent Ameri- can physician, was born in Connecticut, in 1745. After studying at home, he completed his professional education in London, and settled at New York. In 1792 he was ap- pointed professor of anatomy in the college of Columbia, where he acquired great cele- brity. In ‘.1739 he published his ...work on yellow fever, wherein he proved it to be a local malady. Died, 1801. BAYLY, Thomas Haynes, a lyrical poet of some merit, and the author of several dramatic pieces, and one or two novels. Though very popular in his own day, he was far too light and merely amusing a writer to have a hold upon posterity ; and the major- ity of his writings are already rapidly pass- ing into oblivion. Born, 1797 ; died, 1839. BEATON, DAVID, Cardinal, archbishop of St Andrews, was born in 1494. He became abbot of Arbroath in, 1525, lord privy seal three years later, was sent on several embas- sies to France, made a cardinal in 1538, and in the folloAving year became primate. On the death of James V. he by craft and de- termination secured to himself the chief power in church and state, being named lord high chancellor and papal legate. He op- posed an alliance with England, and espe- cially distinguished himself as a persecutor of the reformers. The trial and burning of George 'VVishart for heresy took place under his direction, and a short time after he was 79 bea] ^Snibersal ISiograpi^i). [bea assassinated at St Andrews, May, ‘ 1546. With his death church tyranny came to an end in Scotland. BEATTIE, JAMES, a Scottish poet and miscellaneous writer, was born at Laurence- kirk in 1735. He was educated at the Marischal College, Aberdeen, where in 1760 he was called to the chair of moral philoso- phy and logic. With considerable reputa- tion as poet and metaphysician, he yisited London in 1771, and in several subsequent years; received a pension, and gained the friendship of Johnson, Sir Joshua Reynolds, and other eminent men. His most admired poem is “ The Minstrel,” and his principal prose works are, the “ Essay on Truth,” an attempt to refute the doctrines of Hume ; “Elements of Moral Science,” and “Dis- sertations Moral and Critical.” His last years were embittered by the loss of his only two sons, and after successive attacks of paralysis, he died in 1803. BEAUCHAMP, RICHARD, an English prelate, admirably skilled in architecture. He was made bishop of Salisbury in 1450, was employed in various important nego- tiations, and became chancellor of the order of the Garter. He was subsequently ap- pointed surveyor of the works at Windsor, and superintended the building of St George’s Chapel. The great hall in the episcopal palace of Salisbury, and the sepul- chral chapel in the cathedral, are also monu- ments of his taste and science. Died, 1481. BEAUFORT, HENRY, Cardinal, bishop of Winchester, was the third son of John of Gaunt, by Catherine Swynford, and thus 1 half-brother to Henry IV. He entered the church, was made bishop of Lincoln in 1397, and bishop of Winchester in 1404. He was learned in the canon law, and held the office of chancellor several times. The quarrel between him and his nephew Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, began in 1422, when both were members of the Council of Regency, and only ended with the suspicious death of Gloucester in 1447. Beaufort was created cardinal and papal legate in 1425, and died soon after Gloucester, in 1447. He had ac- quired immense wealth, lent large sums to Henry V. and Henry VI., founded the Hos- pital of St Cross at Winchester, and left his riches to various charitable uses. BEAUFORT, MARGARET, countess of Richmond and Derby, mother of Henry VII. She founded St John’s College and Christ’s College, Cambridge, and distinguished her- self likewise as an author. Born, 1441 ; died, 1509. BEAUFORT, FRANQOIS DE VENDOME, Duke of, son of CJEsar,duke of Vendome,was imprisoned by Cardinal Mazarin. On his escape, he took a leading part in the war of the Fronde, and after the conclusion of peace, was appointed admiral of France. He dis- tinguished himself in 1665 by two victories over the Algerine pirates, and passing after- wards into the service of Venice, was killed at the siege of Candia, 1669. BEAUHARNAIS, ALEXANDRE DE, a French nobleman, born in 1760. He took part in the Revolution, and after having been atone time president of the national assem- bly, and served in the armies of France with distinction, was put to death by the revolu- tionary tribunal just previous to the fall of Robespierre, in 1794. His widow, Josephine, was afterwards wife of Buonaparte. BEAUHARNAIS, Franqois, Marquis de, elder brother of Alexander, was born in 1756. He was appointed major-general in the army of the Prince of Conde, in 1792 ; protested against the unlawful treatment of the king, in a letter to the president of the national assembly ; and when Buonaparte became first consul, he exhorted him to re- store the sceptre to the house of Bourbon. He was afterwards appointed ambassador to the court of Spain, but fell into disgrace with Napoleon, and was banished. He re- turned to Paris after the restoration, and died in 1819. ^ BEAUHARNAIS, Eugene de, viceroy of Italy and prince of the French Empire, was the son of Alexandre de Beauharnais and Josephine, afterwards wife of Napoleon. He was born at Paris in 1781, and became aide-de-camp to Napoleon in 1796. He ac- companied him to Egypt, was wounded at Acre, contributed to the victory of Marengo, was made prince of the Empire in 1804, and afterwards grand officer of the Legion of Honour, and viceroy of Italy. In 1806 he was named governor of the Venetian states, and was adopted by Napoleon. He served in the campaign of 1809, defeated the Aus- trians at Raab, and distinguished himself at Wagram. He took part also in the expedi- tion to Russia, and in the campaigns of 1813 and 1814. After the fall of Napoleon he re- tired to Munich. He had married in 1806 Augusta Amelia, daughter of the king of Bavaria, and left two sons and three daugh- ters. Died, 1824. BEAUHARNAIS, HORTENSE EUGENIE, ex-queen of Holland, and duchess of St Leu, was born at Paris, in 1783, being the daughter of Viscount Beauharnais (who perished by the guillotine in 1794) by his wife Josephine, afterwards the consort of Napoleon. Hor- tense was married to Louis Buonaparte in 1802, but it was an ill-starred union, and they separated in 1807, after she had given birth to three sons; the eldest of whom died in childhood ; the second was killed in an insurrection at Romagna, in 1832 ; the youngest (Louis Napoleon) became the first president of the French republic, established in 1848 ; and in 1852 emperor of the French, with the title of Napoleon HI. Died, 1837. BEAULIEU, SEBASTIEN DE PONTAULT DE, a celebrated French engineer and field- marshal under Louis XIV. ; author of “ Views and Plans of the Battles and Sieges of Louis XIV.” Died, 1674. BEAUMARCHAIS, PIERRE AUGUSTIN CARON DE, a man of singular versatility of talent, politician, artist, merchant, and dra- matist. He was author of the comedies of “ The Barber of Seville,” “ The Marriage of Figaro,” &c.; but it was to a lawsuit that he was first indebted for his popularity as an author ; the memorials and pleadings which he drew up being so full of wit, satire, and sound reasoning, as to attract public atten- tion in an extraordinary degree. Born, 1732 ; died, 1799. BEAUMONT, FRANCIS, the celebrated 80 bea] % i^etn ^niijersal BBiograpto* [bec English dramatic poet, was a younger bro- ther of Sir John Beaumont, judge of the Common Pleas in the 17th century ; and, in conjunction with his friend Fletcher, the author of a number of excellent plays. They were both admirable delineators of human nature, and their contemporaries preferred their dramas even to those of Shakspeare, whom they made their model. The works of these twin poets contain much of the fine gold of poetry, but also very much of the alloy of indecency and obscurity; so that they are not easily presentable to modern readers. Born, 1585; died, 1615. BEAUMONT, Sir GEORGE, bart., a distin- guished amateur painter, and a great patron of art and artists, was born at Dunmow, Essex, in 1753 ; died, 1827. Sir George took an active part in the establishment of the National Gallery, and contributed to it his own collection of pictures. BEAUMONT, JOHN THOMAS BARBER, well known as the founder, and many years managing director, of the County Fire Office, &c., was born in London, in 1774, his pa- ternal name being Barber. In his youth he manifested a strong desire to obtain emi- nence as a painter. He afterwards became an author, and published a “ Tour inAVales,” besides several tracts upon the best mode of arming the population, so as most effectually to repel the threatened French invasion ; and he at length put in practice what he had so strenuously recommended to others, by organizing a matchless rifie corps, known by the name of the “ Duke of Cumberland’s Sharp-shooters,” of which corps he was ap- pointed, in 1804, captain commandant. In 1806 he established the Provident Institu- tion, which gave rise to the various similar establishments, now better known as “ sav- ings’ banks,” throughout the kingdom. He died in May, 1841, having bequeathed the bulk of his property to his children, except the sum of £10,000 to establish a philoso- phical institution in Beaumont Square, -Mile- end. BEAUSOBBE, ISAAC, a French theolo- gian, was born at Niort in 1659. He was of a Protestant family, was educated at Sanmur, and became pastor at Chatillon-sur-Indr© iR 1683. On the revocation of the Edict of Nantes his church was closed, but he made bold to break the royal seals on the gates and preach. He took refuge in Holland, and in 1694 settled at Berlin, where he became pastor and chaplain to the king, and was highly esteemed for his learning and piety. He projected a voluminous History of the Reformation, which he left incomplete. His most celebrated work is the “ Histoire Cri- tique dn Manichei'sme.” He assisted in a new version of the New Testament, and pub- lished “ Remarques, critiques, et philolo- giques sur le Nouveau Testament.” Died, 1738. BEAUVILLIER, FrANQOIS HE, duke of St Aignan, soldier, courtier, and poet, in the reign of Louis XIV. Born, 1607; died, 1687. BEAUVILLIER, PAUL HE, duke of St Aignan, an eminent French statesman, and governor to the sons of Louis XIV., was born in 1648. He entered the service of the king at the age of 18, and in 1685 was named pre- sident of the council of finance. He accom- panied the Dauphin on his first campaign, and in 1689 was appointed governor to the duke of Burgundy. The dukes of Anjou and Berri were also placed under his charge. It was by his infiuence that Fenelon w'as chosen to be tutor to the duke of Burgundy, and he remained the firm friend of the noble and proscribed prelate to the end. In 1691 he was named minister of state, and by his wise foresight, sound judgment, and regard for the interests of the people, rendered valuable services on several critical occasions. On the accession of the duke of Anjou to the throne of Spain, as Philip V., Beauvillier was made a grandee of Spain. He reached his highest position when the duke of Bur- gundy became Dauphin, and was associated with his father in the government. He was the constant adviser and friend of the Dau- phin, and shared with him all the toils of state. And when in 1712 the Dauphin died, the blow was terrible to Beauvillier, as it was to Fenelon. In failing health he lingered on, and died in 1714. BEAUVOIS. LFALISSOT DE BEAU- VOIS.] BECCADELLI, ANTONIO, also named PANORMITA, an Italian litterateur, was born at Palermo in 1394. He entered the service of the duhe of Milan, was named Professor of Belles Lettres at Pavia, and re- ceived the poetic crown from the Emperor Sigismund in 1432. He then entered the service of Alfonso, king of Arragon, who sent him on various embassies. He was em- ployed also by Ferdinand, son and successor of Alfonso. He left a History of Alfonso, and other works. Died, 1471. BECCAFUMI, Domenico, whose real name was MECHERIN O, was one of the best painters of the Sienese school. His style was formed on that of Perugino, but was modified subsequently by the study of other artists. He executed some statues and bas- reliefs in bronze, and completed the mosaic of the pavement in the cathedral of Sienna. Born, 1484 ; died, about 1550. BECCARIA, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, an in- genious practical philosopher, whose whole life was devoted to the study of physics. He was professor of philosophy at Palermo and Rome, and published several works of great merit, particularly on the nature of the elec- tric fluid. Born, 1716 ; died, 1781. BECCARIA, CesARE BONES.ANA, Marquis of, an Italian political philosopher, born at Milan in l735. He is chiefly known as au- thor of the ceiebrated “ Treatise on Crimes and Punishments,” which first appeared in 1764, and advocated great reforms in criminal legislation. It passed through six editions in Italy in the first two years, and was soon read all over Europe. It brought, however, a storm of persecution on the author, who was protected by the Austrian governor of Lombardy, an,d made Professor of Political Philosophy. Beccaria was one of the prin- cipal writers in the journal called “II Caff6,” published at Milan, ih imitation of the Eng- lish “ Spectator.” Died, 1793. BECERRA, Gasparo, a Spanish painter and sculptor, pupil of Michael Angelo. Died, at Madrid, 1570. G 81 BEc] % ^nibtrsal 13iogrnpf)p. [bed BECHSTEIN, JOHANN MATTHIAS, a Ger- man naturalist, was born in 1757. He stu- died theology at Jena, but abandoned the church for his favourite study. He entered the service of the Duke of Saxe Meiningen in 1800, as director of a “ Forest Academy.” Bechstein’s “ Natural History of Cage Birds” has been translated into English. Among his other works are “ True Delineations of Natural History,” “Handbook of Forest Science,” “ Forest Insectology,” &c. Died, 1822. BECK, Anthony. [BEK.] BECKET, St Thomas a, archbishop of Canterbury, was the son of a London mer- chant, his mother being a convert from Mo- hammedanism. He was born in 1119, and was sent by Theobald, archbishop of Canter- bury, to study at Oxford and Bologna. He entered the church, and was much forwarded by Theobald. In 1158 the king madeBecket chancellor. In the following year he accom- panied the king to France, with a large and splendid retinue. He was elected archbishop of Canterbury, by command of Henry II., in 1162 ; and soon after he resigned the office of chancellor, thereby giving great offence to the king. Becket now laid aside all pomp and luxury, and led a life of monastic aus- terity. In the controversy which immedi- ately arose respecting the limits of civil and ecclesiastical authority, Becket asserted against the king the independence of the church, and refused to sign the “ Constitu- tions of Clarendon.” By a council .or par-, liament at Northampton Becket was con- demned, and suspended from his office. He escaped in disguise to France, and had the protection of the king. In response to his excommunication of the clergy who signed the “ Constitutions,” and some of the king’s officers, the king banished all the relations of Becket, and forbade all communication with him. War with France followed. In 1170 a meeting took place between the king and the archbishop, at Fretville, where they were professedly reconciled, and Becket re- turned to Canterbury. He at once published the pope’s sentence of suspension against the archbishop of York, and other prelates, who had crowned Prince Henry. The king’s angry expression on hearing this induced four of his barons to go immediately to Can- terbury, and after unsuccessfully remon- strating with Becket, they followed him into the cathedral and murdered him on the steps of the altar, 31 December, 1170. The king denied all share in the murder, and was ab- solved ; butin 1174 he did penance at Becket’s tomb. Becket was canonized by Alexander III. in 1173. His remains were translated in 1220 to a splendid shrine, which attracted crowds of pilgrims, andAvas loaded Avith rich offerings. 'The immense treasure Avas seized by Henry VIII., and the shrine destroyed in 1538. BECKFORD, WILLIAM, one of the most remarkable men of modern times, Avas the son of Alderman Beckford, of London, who bequeathed him property, said to amount to upwards of £100,000 per annum. He had a strong passion for building, and in erecting the much-talkcd-of Fonthill Abbey, spent I i3i a very few years the enormous sum of £273,000 ! An excellent scholar, and pos- sessed of a fine taste in almost CA'cry branch of art, he collected in the fantastic but costly “ Abbey” one of tbe finest and most exten- sive libraries in England, and his pictures and curiosities were almost unequalled. His vast expenses, and the loss of a large portion of his West Indian property, rendered it necessary for him to sell the abbey, and, with a few exceptions, all its rich and rare con- tents, in 1822. When thesale was announced, public curiosity was so generally excited, that 7200 catalogues were sold at one guinea each ! But his claim to remembrance rests chiefly upon his wild and singular tale of “Vathek,” which is so splendid in descrip- tion, so true to eastern costume, that Lord Byron said, “ Even Rasselas must bow be- fore it; the Happy Valley will not bear a comparison with the Hall of Eblis.” In ad- dition to “ Vathek,” Beckford wrote a satiri- cal work, entitled “Memoirs of Extraor- dinary Painters “ Italy, Avith Sketches of Portugal and Spain and “ Recollections of an excursion to the Monasteries of Alcobaca and Batalha.” Died, May, 1844, aged 84. BECKMANN, JOHANN Anton, a native of Hanover, and a professor at Gottingen, where he lectured for many years on sub- jects connected with rural and political economy, &c. He was the author of several Avorks, of which his “ History of Discoveries and Inventions ” is the best known. Born, 1739; died, 1811. BEDDOES, Thomas Lovell, dramatic poet, was born at Clifton in 1803. His father was a physician, and the early patron of Sir Humphrey DaATj and his mother was a younger sister of Maria Edgeworth. Early left an orphan, he was educated at the Char- terhouse and at Oxford, where his impetuous, sarcastic, and rebellious disposition involved him in frequent conflicts Avith the authori- ties. He left the university, after taking his degrees, wearied and dissatisfied, in 1824. He then went to study medicine at Gottin- gen, became an enthusiastic student of sci- ence, graduated M. D. at Wurzburg, lived afterwards at Strasburg and Zurich, and was scA’^eral times banished by Prussian, Hano- verian, and Bavarian governments as a de- mocrat, and died at Basel early in 1849. His principal poem, the only completed work of his mature years, is that entitled “Death’s J est-Book, or The Fool’s Tragedy.” He first made himself known by the “ Bride’s Tra- gedy,” published in his second college year, and Avhich won him the warm friendship of “ Barry Cornwall ” and George Darley. Af- ter his death a volume of his “ Poems,” chiefly early ones and mere fragments, with some striking letters, was published, with a memoir by his friend Mr Kclsall. Beddoes was a passionate admirer of the great dra- matists of the IGth century, and he shoAved himself a genius of the same order. “ The feAV poems he has left,” says a friendly critic, “ are magnificent in diction, terse and close in expression, various and beautiful in mo- dulation, displaying imaginative thoughts of the highest reach, and SAveeping the chords of passion with a strong and fearless hand. Plenty of defects may be noted, but never a want of sincerity, never a borrowed trick. 82 bed] ^ ^Siubcrsal 13tograpf)i). [bee never a gaudy irrelevance, never a superflu- ous common -place.” BEDE, or BEDA, surnamed “ the Venera- ble,” an English monk and ecclesiastical his- I torian, was born in the bishopric of Durham, about 673. He was for twelve years a stu- 1 dent in the monastery of Wcarmouth, while ! Benedict Biscop was abbot. He also received instruction from John of Beverley. He was ordained priest about 703, and had already obtained a wide reputation for learning and piety. His whole life was spent quietly in his monastery, devoted to study and writing. His most important work is the “ Ecclesiast- ical History of England,” published about 734, and highly esteemed as one of the most trustworthy sources of early English history. It was written in Latin, and was translated into Saxon by Alfred the Great. The earliest printed edition appeared in 1474. Bede wrote many works, among others a “ Chronicle ” from the Creation to a. d. 725. And he com- pleted a Saxon translation of St John’s Gos- pel the day he died. His end was peaceful and Christian, as his life had been. He died May 26, 735. His remains, at first deposited in the monastery, were afterwards removed to Durham cathedral. BEDELL, AVilli AM, "bishop of Kilmore, was born in Essex in 1570. He studied at Cambridge and entered the church. He spent eight years at A^enice as chaplain to Sir Henry AVotton, and there enjoyed the friendship of Paul Sarpi, the great historian of the Council of Ti'ent. After discharging the duties of parish priest first at Bury St Edmunds, and next at Horuingsheath, he was chosen provost of Trinity college, Dub- lin, in 1627, and two years later was made bishop of Kilmore and Ardagh. He did good service both at the college and in his see, by the reforms he introduced. At 70 years of age he was seized Avith his family by the rebels and imprisoned. Died soon after, in 1642. Bishop Bedell caused the Old Testa- ment to be translated into Irish. BEDFOKD, JOHN, Duke of, regent of France, Avas third son of Henry IV. and his first wife Mary de Bohun, and was born in 1390. He was knighted on his father’s coron- ation, named constable of England in 1403, created duke of Bedford in 1415, and Avas sent to succour Harfleur the following year. Henry A^ desired that Bedford should be re- gent of France, and the duke of Gloucester regent of England, during the minority of his son; but by act of parliament Bedford Avas appointed protector of the kingdom, and Gloucester his substitute in case of ab- sence. In 1422 Charles A'l. of France died, and long years of war folloAved between the rival claimants of the kingdom, Charles VII. and Henry AH. Bedford secured the alliance of the dukes of Burgundy and Britanny, and had a long series of military successes. The tide turned at the siege of Orleans, which was raised by Joan of Arc. The duke of Britanny had previously abandoned the English : the duke of Burgundy did the same in 1435 ; and the death of Bedford, hastened by disappointment, followed immediately. Died at Rouen, September, 1435. BEDFORD, John Russell, 6th Duke of, K.G., distinguished for his princely patron- age of the fine arts, and every branch of so- cial industry. A member of several learned societies, versed in science and fond of litera- ture, he Avas no less attached to agriculture, to the improvement of which he devoted many years and large sums of money. He expended upwards of £40,000 in rebuilding Covent Garden Market, in SAich a style as to render it one of the ornaments of that part of the metropolis. In politics his Grace was a AVhig ; but his Avhole course and character were such as to procure him the esteem of men of all parties, and to obtain for him em- phatically the title of “ a good old English gentleman.” Born, 1766 ; died, 1839. BEDLOE, AA^ ILLIAM, Captain, an infamous informer, noted for his perjuries, and re- warded Avith £500 for pretended information respecting a popish plot, and the death of Sir Edmundbury Godfrey. Died, 1680. BEDMAR, Alfonso he la Cuea^a, Mar- quis of, cardinal, bishop of Oviedo, Spanish diplomatist, was born in 1572. He was sent ambassador to the republic of A’^enice by Philip III. in 1607, and in 1618 he took part with Don Pedro of Toledo, governor of Milan, and the duke of Ossuna, then viceroy of Na- ples, in a conspiracy to overthroAv the re- public of A'enice, by firing the arsenal, pil- laging the mint and the treasury of St Mark, and massacring the doge and the senators. The plot failed, and many Frenchmen and Spaniards were arrested and hung or droAvn- ed as accomplices. Bedmar was aiiowed to retire. He was created cardinal in 1622, Avas afterwards governor of the Netherlands, made himself detested by the Flemings, and retired to Rome. Died, 1655. BEECHEY, Rear-Admiral FREDERICK AA’^illiam, the son of the distinguished painter, Sir AAHlliam Beechey, Avas born in London in 1796, entered the navy in his tenth year, and after a great variety of services in all parts of the globe, became a lieutenant in 1815. In 1818 and 1819 he took part in tlie great arctic expeditions under Sir John Franklin and Sir Edward Parry ; in 1821 he Avas engaged in the suiwey of the coast of Northern Africa under Captain (afterwards Admiral) Smyth; and in 1825, having attained the rank of commander, he was appointed to the Blossom to take part in another polar expedition, and the results of this voyage, Avhich lasted three years, were published under the title of a “Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacifie and Behring Straits to co- operate with the Polar Expedition in 1825- 1828,” and contributed largely to the progress of geographical enterprise and physical sci- ence. From 1837 to 1847 Captain Beechey was engaged in the survey of the Bristol and Irish Channels ; and he was afterwards appointed to constitute and superintend the Marine Department of the Board of Trade, — a service in which he was employed till the day of his death. In 1854 he was promoted to the rank of rear-admiral, and the folloAv- ing year was elected President of the Royal Geographical Society. Died, 1856. BEECHEY, Sir AVILLIAM, R.A., an emi- nent English portrait-painter, born in Ox- fordshire in 1753. He became a student at the Royal Academy at the age of 19, and in 1797 was elected R.A. and knighted. Ho « 83 . bee] % ^Eniti^rsal ^iagrapf)^* [bel painted a few historical compositions of some merit. His chief excellence, however, lay in portrait-painting, to which, indeed, he chiefly confined himself, and in which he surpassed most of his contemporary artists. Died, aged 8G years, in 1839. BEETHOVEN, LUDWIG VON, one of the greatest musical composers, was born at Bonn in 1770. His genius very early showed itself, and his musical education was begun by his father at the age of five, and continued by the court organist, who introduced him to the works of Sebastian Bach and Handel. He soon attempted composition, and showed wonderful facility in improvisation. About 1774 he was sent to Vienna to study under Haydn, but as Haydn left Vienna soon after, he studied under Albrechtsberger. About 1790 he finally quitted his native town and settled at Vienna, where Mozart quickly re- cognized his marvellous power. "When about 40 years of age, he was attacked with deaf- ness, which became total, and lasted through life. He became more and more the victim of morbid irritability, causeless suspicions, and hopeless melancholy, ending in con- firmed hypochondria, and at last dropsy and delirium. He continued to compose, how- ever, long after he ceased to hear himself play, and received homage and all kinds of honours from all parts of Europe. His works are very numerous and in every variety of style : orchestral, chamber-music, pianoforte, and vocal music. Among the most celebrat- ed are the opera of “Fidelio,” at first named. “Leonora,” the oratorio of the “Mount of Olives,” the cantata “Adelaide,” “ Siufonia Heroica,” “ Sinfonia Pastorale,” “ Concerto in C Minor,” “ Sonata Pathetique,” and “ Sonata with Funeral March.” Vast power, intense passion, and infinite tenderness, are manifest in all his compositions, which abound no less in sweetest melodies than in grand and complicated harmonies. Beetho- ven was never married. He died in March, 1827. BEGA, Cornelius, Dutch painter, chiefly of cattle and landscapes. He was one of the most eminent pupils of Adrian van Ostade. Born, 1620; died, 1664. BEGEYN, AbrahAiVI, Dutch landscape painter ; some fine pictures by him are at tlie Hague. Born, 1650. BEHAIM, or BEHEM, MARTIN, a cele- brated geographer, was born at Niirnberg about 1430. He made several trading voy- ages, studied mathematics and navigation, and in 1480 went to Portugal. He accom- panied Diego Can on an expedition of dis- covery along the coast of Africa, and ren- dered valuable services. In 1492 he revisited his native city, and there constructed his famous terrestrial globe. He then returned to Portugal, and soon after to the isle of Fayal, where he died, 1506. Attempts have been made to prove that Behem was the dis- coverer of America, but without success. BEHN, Aphra, a miscellaneous writer in the reign of Charles II., whose works were remarkable for their disregard of decency and morals: they consist chiefly of poems, novels, and plays. She was employed by the government in a secret mission to Hol- land in 1666, and discovered the intention of 1 the Dutch admirals to burn the shipping in the Thames. Died, 1689. BEHNES, William, a distinguished sculptor, was of German origin, but was born in England about 1790. The bank- ruptcy of his father and the death of his mother involved him in difficult and trying circumstances, against which he for a time bravely struggled. Working at his father’s trade by day, he studied in the evening at the Boyal Academy, in 1816 and several sub- sequent years. He attained great skill as a portrait sculptor, and executed a large number of busts of eminent men, statues of Gresham at the Royal Exchange, Sir Wil- liam Follett in St Paul’s, Dr Babington, &c. ; and also several admired ideal statues, “Lady Godiva,” “The Startled Nymph,” and “ Europa.” Pecuniary embarrassments, dissipated habits, comparative neglect on the part of the public, and death in the Middlesex Hospital, whither poverty drove him at last,— such are the sad elements of Behnes’s story. Died, January, 1864. BEHRING, VITUS, a captain in the Rus- sian navy, and a celebrated navigator of the northern seas, who, being cast on a desolate island, perished there, in 1741. This is now called Behring’s Island, and the straits be- tween Asia and America have also received his name. BEK, or BECK, Anthony de, bishop of Durham, a bold and spirited prelate, who united the skill and courage of a soldier to the austerity of a divine. He led the van of the English army under Edward I. in an expedition against the Scots in 1296; com- manded one division of the cavalry at the battle of Falkirk, two years later ; built Barnard Castle and other fortresses, besides the manor-house of Eltham ; received from the Pope the title of Patriarch of Jerusalem ; was excommunicated by the Archbishop of York, and died in 131L Beck Avas at the time of his death the richest subject in Eu- rope, and he Avas the first bishop of Durham buried in the cathedral. BELIDOR, BERNARD FOREST DE, an eminent French engineer and mathemati- cian; author of “ Dictionnaire portatif de ring^nieur,” &c. Born, 1695; died, 1761. BELISARIUS, the great general of Justi- nian, was a native of Illyria. He com- manded an expedition against the king of Persia about 530 ; suppressed an insurrection at Constantinople ; conquered Gelimer, king of the Vandals, and put an end to their do- minion in Africa ; was recalled and honoured Avith a triumph. In 535 he was sent to Italy to carry on Avar with the Goths, and took Rome in 537. He was there unsuccessfully besieged by Vitiges, Avhom he soon after bo- sieged and captured at Ravenna. He was recalled through jealousy before he had completed the conquest of Italy. In 541 he commanded in Persia, and returned to Italy Avith inadequate forces in 544. He recovered Rome from Totilas in 547, and Avas recalled the next year. He was afterwards sent against the Huns. He was charged in 563 Avith conspiracy against Justinian, but was acquitted. That he Avas deprived of sight, and reduced to beggary, appears to be a fable of late invention. Died, 665. BEL] ^ SJnib^rsal ^lograpljp. [bel BELL, ANDREW, D.D. and L.L.D., an English divine, the projector and founder of National Schools; author of “An Experi- ment in Education at the Male Asylum, Ma- dras,” “ Instructions for conducting Schools on the Madras System,” &c. &c. Dr Bell had acquired considerable property in the East Indies, and had some lucrative prefer- ments in this country ; and he bequeathed nearly all that he possessed to institutions for the advancement of education and litera- ture. Part of his bequests was applied to the foundation and endowment of the Madras College at St Andrew’s. Born, at St An- drew’s, Scotland, 1753 ; died, 1832. BELL, Sir CHARLES, an eminent anato- mist and professor of surgery in the uni- versity of Edinburgh, where he was born in 1774. In 1806 he came to London, and was soon distinguished as a popular lecturer on anatomy and surgery, at the academy found- ed by the celebrated Hunters in "VVindmill Street, where, as subsequently, when ap- pointed a professor at the Boyal College of Surgeons, the benches were crowded with attentive auditors. He was the author of many professional works of high repute, on anatomy and surgical operations ; but he is chiefly esteemed for his discoveries in con- nection with the nervous system, which have gained for him an European name. On the accession of 'William IV. he received the honour of knighthood. As in his pro- fessional career Sir Charles was respected for his great talents, so in private life was he admired for the simplicity of his manners. He died, 1842. BELL, HENRY, the first who successfully applied steam to the purposes of navigation in Europe, was born in Linlithgowshire, in 1767. After serving an apprenticeship to his uncle, who was a millwright, he went to London, and was in the employ of Mr Rennie, the celebrated engineer ; biit it was not till the year 1812 that he produced a vessel calculated to establish the practica- bility of steam navigation. Mr Eulton, an American engineer, had launched a boat upon the same principle five years before, which had performed long voyages upon the Hudson river, but Bell must be at least allowed the praise of having done, in his ow'n country, Avhat all other men had failed in doing. He died, at Helensburgh, in 1830. BELL, JAMES, an eminent geographical writer, was born at Jedburgh, in 1769. He was brought up as a weaver, and became a manufacturer of cotton goods at Glasgow; but left that business, and, being an inde- fatigable student, became a teacher of the classics to young men preparing for the uni- versity. He was the author of “A System of Popular and Scientific Geography,” in 6 vols. ; “ A Gazetteer of England and Wales,” &e. Died, 1833. BELL, JOHN, of Antermony, was born in Scotland about 1690. He was a physician, but spent a large part of his life in travelling. In 1714 he went to St Petersburg, accom- panied the Russian embassy to Persia, re- turning in 1718; accompanied an embassy to China in the following year, and arrived again at Moscow in 1722. He next accom- panied Peter the Great on an expedition to Derbent, and in 1737 he was sent on an em- bassy to Constantinople. Ten years later, he returned to his native land, where, after many years of peaceful and prosperous life, he died in 1780. His “Travels in Asia” abounds in interesting and curious inform- ation. BELL, John, an eminent Scotch surgeon, born at Edinburgh in 1763. He established a school there in which he taught surgery and anatomy, and was at one time assisted by his brother Charles (Sir Charles Bell). After an unsuccessful endeavour to introduce some reforms in the College of Surgeons and the Infirmary, he discontinued teaching. His works are a treatise on “Anatomy,” “Discourses on the Nature and Cure of Wounds,” and “Principles of Surgery.” Died at Rome, 1820. BELLA, Stephano della, a Florentine engraver, whose works are highly esteemed. Born, 1610; died, 1664. BELLAMY, JACOB, a Dutch poet, whose patriotic songs and other lyrics are highly and deservedly esteemed. Born, 1752; died, 1621. BELLARMIN, ROBERT, Cardinal, a learned Jesuit, born in Tuscany in 1542. At the age of 18 he entered the order of Jesuits, was ordained priest by Jansenius at Ghent, and held for seven years the chair of Theo- logy at Louvain. In 1576 he returned to Italy and professed theology at Rome : was created cardinal by Clement A’lII. in 1599 ; archbishop of Capua in 1601 ; and in 1605 librarian of the Vatican. He was an able and upright man, and is especially celebrated f^r his controversial writings, whieh form a complete arsenal for Catholic theologians. He maintains the extreme opinions known as Ultramontane. His works fill several folio volumes. Died, 1621. BELLAY, JOACHIM DU, often called the French Ovid and Catullus ; author of Latin and French poems. Born, 1524 ; died, 1560. BELLAY, Jean DU, Cardinal, archbishop of Bordeaux, was born in 1492. By his great abilities ho attracted the notice of Francis I., who made him his adviser and employed him on important aifairs of slate. Du Bellay was twice sent ambassador to Henry VIII., and took part at Rome in the negotiations respecting Henry’s divorce. He was ap- pointed bishop of Paris in 1532, and created cardinal in 1535. In the following year he Avas left at Paris with the title of lieutenant- general during the absence of Francis I., and for the services he rendered Avas made successively bishop of Limoges, archbishop of Bordeaux, and bishop of Mans. Through the influence of the cardinal of Lorraine, Du Bellay loiit his rank after the death of Francis, and spent the rest of his life at Rome. He was a promoter of learning, contributed to the foundation of the College Royal, and left some Latin poems and a defence of Francis I. Died, 1560. BELLE-ISLE, CHARLES LOUIS AUGUSTE Fouquet, Count of, marshal of France, was born in 1684. He distinguished himself in the Avar of the Spanish Succession, became lieutenant-general in 1732, took part in the siege of Philipsburg, procured the cession of 85 bel] % SJnitjmal 13iograpf;t). [bel Lorraine to France, and was made governor of Metz. Created marshal of France about 1740, he commanded in Germany against the Imperialists, took Prague, was sent as am- bassador extraordinary to the Diet at Frank- fort, and procured the election of Charles VII. Abandoned by the allies, Prussia and Saxony, he was besieged in Prague by the Austrians, but effected a very skilful retreat with his army from Prague to Egra. Soon after he was taken prisoner by the English and brought to England, where he was con- fined some months. He was afterwards created duke and peer, admitted to the French Academy, and made minister of war in 1767. Died, 1761. BELLENDEN, WILLIAM, a Scottish writer of the 17th century, distinguished for the purity of his Latin compositions. In 1602 he was a professor at the University of Paris. His work “ De Statu consists of treatises on monarchical government, and on the consulate and senate of Home ; founded on the writings of Cicero. BELLIAllD, Augustin Daniel, Count de, a distinguished French general and diplomatist, was born in 1773, in La Yend4e. He entered the military service early, and was soon made an officer of Dumourier’s staff : he afterwards served with Buonaparte in Italy and Egypt; and, returning from the latter country, he participated in the vic- tories of Ulm and Austcrlitz, and fought in all the great battles in the war with Prus- sia. He next went to Spain; but in 1812 joined the army destined for the invasion of Russia, and particularly distinguished him- self in the battle of Moskwa. At Leipsic, a cannon-ball carried away his arm. After Napoleon’s abdication, he was made a peer of France, and major-general of the army under the Duke de Berri. When the Em- peror returned from Elba, he despatched Belliard to King Joachim at Naples, but the vessel was intercepted by a British ship, and driven back to France. On the return of the Bourbons, he was for a short time imprisoned, but soon taken into favour again. When Louis Philippe ascended the throne, he sent Belliard to Berlin, to treat respecting the acknowledgment of the new dynasty ; and during his embassy to Brus- sels, he contributed more than any other diplomatist to the formation of the new Bel- gian government. He died in 1832. BELLIEVRE, POMPONNE DE, French statesman, chancellor to Henry IV. He was employed in various embassies during the reigns of Charles IX., Henry III., and Henry IV., took a leading part at tlie con- gress of Vervins,and held the office of chan- cellor of France from 1599 to 1605. Born, 1529 ; died, 1607. BELLINI, JACOPO, an early Italian painter, was a native of Venice, and excelled in portrait-painting. He was the father of Gentile and Giovanni Bellini. Died, 1470. BELLINI, Gentile, an Italian painter, son of the preceding, was born at Venice in 1421. He assisted his brother Giovanni in the decoration of the council-chamber of the ducal palace, and was sent to paint the portrait of the Sultan Mahomet II. One of his finest pictures is the preaching of St Mark at Alexandria. Died, 1508. BELLINI, Giovanni, the greatest Italian painter of his time, brother of the preceding, was born at Venice in 1426. He was em- ployed with Gentile to paint in the council- hall of the palace, but the works executed there have perished. He adopted the method of oil-painting, executed an immense num- ber of works, had Titian and Giorgione for his pupils, and died in 1516. The National Gallery contains three pictures by this master. BELLINI, Lorenzo, an Italian physi- cian ; author of several anatomical and me- dical works in Latin. Born, 1643 ; died, 1702. BELLINI, Vincenzo, a celebrated mu- sical composer, was born at Catania in Sicily , in 1806. He was educated at Naples under Zingarelli, and before he had completed his 20th year he had produced “ Bianco e Fer- nando ” at the theatre San Carlo. This was succeeded by various other operas, of which " II Pirati,” “ La Sonnambula,” “ Norma,” and “ I Puritani,” are the best, and have gained for him an undying celebrity. His moral character stood high, and his man- ners and compositions were in harmonious accordance ; agreeable, tender, and elegant. Died near Paris, September 23, 1835. BELLMAN, CHARLES MICHAEL, a Swed- ish poet, patronized by Gustavus Adol- phus ; and the most original, while strictly national, poet, of Sweden. His principal poem is the “ Bachi Tempel.” Most of his subjects are taken from scenes of low life. Born, 1741 ; died, 1795. BELLOT, Joseph Reni5, a distinguished French naval officer, was born at Paris in 1826. He was trained in the naval school at Brest, took a prominent part in the expedi- tion to Madagascar in 1845, and was made a member of the Legion of Honour. After serving in South America he joined the ex- pedition under Captain Kennedy sent to search after Sir John Franklin ; and in 1853 he accompanied that under Captain Ingle- field. He was drowned while crossing the ice in August of the same year. His intelli- gence, accomplishments, and devotion to duty, had won him great esteem and ad- miration both in France and England. An obelisk was set up to his memory in front of Greenwich Hospital. BELON, Pierre, French physician and traveller; author of some able works on natural history, and of a “ Description of Palestine, Greece, and Arabia.” Assassin- ated in France, 1564. BELSHAM, Thomas, an eminent Unita- rian divine, at one time head of the theo- logical academy at Daventry, and for the last 20 years of his life minister of Essex Street Chapel, London. He wrote many polemical treatises and published a new translation of the Epistles of St Paul. His Avork on Christian Evidences obtained much popularity. Died, in his 80th year, 1829. BELSHAM, William, brotherof the pre- ceding, an eminent Avriter; author of “ Es- says, Political and Literary,” “ History of Great Britain, from the Revolution to the Treaty of Amiens,” in 12 vols. 8vo, »&c. Died, aged 75, in 1827. 86 bel] % Slnibcrsal 13iograpf)y* [ben BELZONI, Giovanni Battista, an en- terprising traveller, whose researches in Egypt have been of great service to those engaged in the study of its antiquities, was born at Padua. He came to England in 1803; and becoming involved in pecuniary difficulties while residing in London, he obtained a livelihood by the display of feats of strength and activity at Astley’s Am- phitheatre; for which his colossal stature and extraordinary muscular powers emi- nently qualified him. At length he left this country, and entered on his travels through Egypt, in 1815. In 1816 he sent the busts of Jupiter, Memnon, &c., to the British Museum ; published a narrative of his operations in 1820 ; and in the following year exhibited a model of a splendid tomb which he had discovered near Thebes. But, while making preparations for passing from Benin, to Houssa and Timbuctoo, he was attacked with dysentery, and died at Gato, in 1823. BEM, JOSEPH, a Polish general, was born in 1795. His first service was in the French expedition against Russia in 1812. He was afterwards professor in the school of artil- lery at Warsaw, took part in the insurrec- tion of 1830, and in 1848 joined the Hun- garian army. He obtained several successes against the Austrians and Russians in the following year, but after the defeat at Temeswar, retired into Turkey, and was made a pasha. Died, 1850. BEMBO, Pietro, a noble Venetian poet, and miscellaneous writer ; secretary to Leo X., and promoted to be bishop of Bergamo and cardinal by Paul III. ; author of a his- tory of Venice, an important and esteemed work on the Italian language, &c. Born, 1470; died, 1547. BENBOW, John, a brave English admi- ral, born at Shrewsbury, in 1650. His skill and valour in an action with a Barbary pirate of superior force, gained him the con- fidence of the nation, and he was soon en- trusted Avith a fleet. In 1702, during an en- gagement with the French admiral, Du Casse, in the West Indies, he had his leg carried away by a chain shot ; and at this critical instant several of his captains having signed a paper declaring that “nothing was to be done,” the enemy effected his escape. Benbow brought the delinquents to a court- martial, and two were shot; but the effects of his wound, and the vexation he suffered, caused his death. BENEDICT, ST, the founder of the first religious order in the West, was born in Spoleto, in 480 ; and, retiring to a cavern when only 14 years of age, his fame for pious austerities brought him numerous fol- lowers : the monastery of Monte Cassino, near Naples, was founded by him ; and the order of St Benedict thenceforward estab- lished. Died, about 543 or 547. BENEDICT XIII., Pope (PIETRO FRAN- CESCO ORSINI), was born in 1649. He entered the Dominican order, was created cardinal in 1671, and archbishop of Bene- yento in 1685. He succeeded Innocent XIII. in 1724, and displayed throughout his pon- tificate the same excellencies of character, simplicity, modesty, benevolence, which had distinguished him in a private station. He had for his chief minister Cardinal Cos- cia, a selfish and unworthy man, who was ultimately imprisoned. Benedict endeavour- ed, by the aid of his friend Cardinal de Noailles, to quiet the agitation in France respecting the bull Tlnigenitus. He held a council on discipline at Rome in 1725. Died, 1730. BENEDICT XIV., Pope (Prospero Lam- BERTiNi), the successor of Pope Clement XII., 1740, was a great patron of the arts and sciences, an enactor of good laws, and one Avho strove to maintain purity of doctrine and of manners by setting a worthy example in his own person. Born, at Bologna, in 1675 ; died, 1758. BENEDICT BISCOP, abbot of Wear- mouth, who flourished in the 7th century, was born of a noble family of Northumbria. He was the founder of the monasteries of Wearmouth and Jarrow, for the building of Which he procured foreign workmen. He long presided over these houses, and in- troduced in them the Roman method of chanting. Bede was educated at Wear- mouth during the abbacy of Benedict Biscop. Died, 699. BENGEL, Johann Albrecht, a Ger- man theologian and philologist, Avas born in 1687. He studied at Stuttgard and Tubin- gen, and became pastor and head of a school at Denkendorf. He especially applied him- self to the critical study of the Greek Testa- ment, of which he published an edition in 1723. Among his other works are, “Appa- ratus Criticus Novi Testamenti,” “ Gnomon Novi Testamenti,” which has been several times reprinted, &c. Died, 1752. BENGER, Elizabeth Ogilvy, miscel- laneous writer, born at Wells, 1778. She Avrote memoirs of Anne Boleyn, Mary, Queen of Scots, and Elizabeth, Queen of Bohemia. Died, 1827. BENJAMIN OF TUDELA, one of the ear- liest travellers of the middle ages who visited the central regions of Asia ; author of a Hebrew work of travels, Avhich, though in- teresting and romantic, is remarkable chiefly for its misrepresentations. Died, 1173. BENNINGSEN, Levin AUGUSTUS, Baron, an eminent Russian general, was boi’n in Hanover, in ,1745 ; entered the service of Catherine II., and distinguished himself by great gallantry in the war against Poland. He was commander-in-chief at the mur- derous battle of Eylau. In 1813, he led a Russian army into Saxony, took part in the battle of Leipsic, and blockaded Hamburg. Died in 1826. BENSERADE, ISAAC DE, an ingenious French versifier, born in 1612, and patron- ized by Richelieu, Mazarin, and the king, Louis XIV. His madrigals, sonnets, and songs, as well as his AVit and general con- versational powers, rendered him a great favourite ; and he was called, by way of eminence, “le po6te de la cour.” Died, 1691. BENTHAM, JAMES, an English divine and antiquary, author of the “ History and Antiquities of the Church of Ely.” Died, 1794. BENTHAM, Jeremy, an eminent jurist 87 ben] % [ben and political philosopher, was horn at Lon- don in 1748. He was educated at West- minster School and Oxford University, where he graduated M.A. at the age of 20, and was called to the bar. He visited France several times, and between 1784 — 1788 tra- velled to Constantinople, and over great part of Eiu'ope. Visiting Paris in 1802 he was received at the Institute, and remark- able honour was shown him there on occa- sion of his visit in 1825. Bentham lived very much in retirement, and the events of his studious life are his numerous works. In philosophy he is the great teacher of “ Utilitarianism ; ” as a jurist he set himself in earnest to discover and disclose the de- fects and faults of the then existing system and language of jurisprudence; and to establish something truer and better in their place. Some of his writings were first pub- lished in French, under the care of his friend Dumont, then librarian to the mar- quis of Lansdowne. Some of the most im- portant are the “Fragment on Govern- ment,” his first work ; “ Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation,” “ Treatise on Civil and Penal Legislation,” “Theory of Rewards and Punishments,” “ Panopticon,” which treats of prison dis- cipline, “ Rationale of Judicial Evidence,” and “Plan of a Judicial Establishment.” Died at London, 1832. BENTINCK, WILLIAM, first earl of Port- land, a distinguished statesman, and the favourite of William III., was born in Hol- land, 1648. At an early age he became page to the prince of Orange, served him with the utmost devotion throughout his life, and attended him affectionately on his death-bed. He negotiated with Charles II. the marriage of the Princess Mary to the prince of Orange ; was twice sent with offers of aid to the duke of Monmouth; took the leading part in the preparations for the descent of his master on England in 1688, and accompanied him thither ; and was made privy-councillor and member of the house of peers as earl of Portland. Bentinck was soldier as well as statesman, and contributed by his good generalship to the victory of the Boyne- He also served in the wars preceding the peace of Ryswick, and negotiated that peace. Much popular ill-will was excited against him by the king’s grant to him of large part of a Welsh county, and the grant had to be revoked. He was made K.G., and sent at the begin- ning of 1698 ambassador to France, He then took a prominent part in the secret treaties for the partition of the Spanish monarchy, and was in consequence impeach- ed of high treason by the House of Com- mons, but was acquitted. AVilliam III. died in the arms of his faithful minister, who then retired to his native country. He returned to England, however, and died there in 1709. BENTINCK, William Henry caven- dish, third duke of Portland, was born in 1738. During the American war he acted with the Opposition, and was appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1782, but con- tinued in that office only three months, owing to the breaking up of the administra- tion by the death of the marquis of Rock- i ingham. In 1792 he was appointed chancel- s' lor of the university of Oxford, and soon | after joined Mr Pitt’s party. He held the ' office of home secretary from 1794 to 1801, and succeeded Lord Grenville as first lord of the Treasury in 1807, but shortly after re- signed office, and died in 1808. ' BENTINCK, Lord George, a statesman of great ability and still greater promise, was the second son of the fourth duke of Portland, and was born on the 27th of Feb., 1802. He was for some time at Eton, and completed his education at Christchurch, Oxford. After leaving the University, he obtained a commission in the Guards, and in this corps he rose to the rank of captain, re- tiring from the army with the rank of major. In 1828 he was elected for King’s Lynn ; and continued to represent that constituency for 20 years. He had previously acted as pri- vate secretary to his uncle by marriage, George Canning, when prime minister. Lord George took great interest in field sports, and for a long time was one of the principal patrons of the turf in the kingdom. On first entering parliament he was one of the mo- derate Whig school ; but after the passing of the Reform Bill, he joined the Conserva- tive party, voting with them on important questions, but seldom addressing the House. In 1846, when Sir Robert Peel gave in his adhesion to free trade, and the Protectionist I party was deprived of its head, the earnest- ness, perseverance, and unflinching courage, which Lord George suddenly displayed, ob- tained for him the leadership of his party, which under his guidance once more started into life. From that period he abandoned his sporting pursuits, and sold off his stud, devoting himself entirely to politics. His dislike of Sir Robert Peel was decided and undisguised ; but his hostility was princi- pally shown in his opposition to the free- trade policy. On other questions Lord George pursued an independent course. He sup- ported the Jewish Relief Bill, his vote on which was followed by his withdrawal from the nominal leadership of the Protectionist party; and he was favourable to the pay- ment of the Roman Catholic clergy by the landowners in Ireland. Few public events occasioned more general surprise than the short period of time in which Lord George Bentinck built up his parliamentary charac- ter. The industry, straight-forwardness, and intelligence which he displayed during the brief period of his leadership, warrant the belief that, had his life been spared, he would have gained a distinguished place amohg the highest of England’s statesmen. Died suddenly of disease of the heart. Sept. 21, 1848. BENTIVOGLIO, GUIDO, a celebrated car- dinal, and legate at the court of France. He was an able politician and historian. Among other works he wrote “ A History of the Civil Wars of Flanders,” “Memoirs,” &c. Guido Bentivoglio was one of the seven car- dinals who, as Inquisitors-General, signed the condemnation of Galileo. He had been a disciple of the groat philosopher. Born, 1579; died, 1641. BENTIVOGLIO, ERCOLE, poet and diplo- 88 -■ 1 ben] ^nibersal ^tograpf)p. [ber matist, was born at Bologna, in 1506, and died in 1573. He was patronized by the princes of Este, who intrusted him with va- rious embassies. BENTLEY, RICHARD, an eminent phi- lologist, was born in Yorkshire in 1662. He studied at Cambridge, entered the church, and was appointed first Boyle lecturer. He early distinguished himself by his classical learning, and in 1693 was named librarian to the king. Soon after broke out his quarrel with Boyle, the main result of which was Bentley’s famous “ Dissertations on the Epis- tles of Phalaris.” In 1700 he was named Master of Trinity College, Cambridge, and soon after archdeacon of Ely. Working hard as a scholar, and effecting improvements in his college, he nevertheless, by his arrogance, selfishness and offensive measures, involved himself in miserable quarrels and litigation with the college seniors ; and after obtain- ing the Regius Professorship of Divinity, he was degraded and deprived by the senate. This sentence, after years of litigation, was annulled. His writings are very numerous, but we can only name his editions of Horace, Homer, and Terence, his “ Remarks on the Discourse of Freethinking,” and his extra- ordinary edition of “ Paradise Lost,” Died, 1742. BENYOWSKY, MAURICE AUGUSTUS, Count, a native of Hungary, who, after serving in the imperial armies, joined the Polish nobility, and fought against Russia for the independence of Poland, but was taken prisoner and exiled to Kamtschatka. From that remote region, however, he escaped ; and after various fortunes, he was sent out by the French to Madagascar, the sovereignty of which island he afterwards attempted to assume. He was slain in an action with the French, 1786. BERANGER, JEAN PlERRE DE, the greatest lyric poet that France has produced, was born at Paris in 1780. To his grand- father, who was a tailor living in the Rue Montorgueil, and an aunt by the father’s side, he was indebted for his early nurture and education. Whto he was ten j^ears of age he went to reside at Peronne in Picardy with his aunt, and here he led for some time an indolent and unsettled life, trying several occupations, including that of a pot-boy, and settling in none, till he was at last ap- prenticed to a printer in the town, and from this period gave himself up to literary pur- suits. In 1795 his father took him to Paris, where he wanted his assistance in certain banking operations in which he was en- gaged ; but in 1798 the bank failed, and Beranger bade adieu to financial operations for ever. During the period that followed he produced his best songs, but embittered by disappointment and hopeless of success, he collected all the poems he had written and sent them to Lucien Bonaparte, the brother of the First Consul, who was known to be a liberal pati-on of literature, and in this instance did not belie his reputation. With the assistance thus rendered Beranger soon found employment for his pen. In 1805-6 he assisted in editing Landon’s “ An- nales de Mus6e,” and in 1809 he was at- tached to the University with a small salary of 1200 francs, which, however, sufficed for all his wants. Meanwhile he went on cul- tivating the Muses, and delighting all who knew him with the songs, chiefly amatory, which he then composed. In 1815 he first came before the world as an author, though many of the poems then printed had been circulated in manuscript, and the sensation produced by this first publication Avas im- mense. France hailed in Beranger a poet who was not only able to sing of love and Avine, but who gave the noblest and most heart-stirring expression to that sense of blighted glory and humbled pride Avhich then smouldered in the breast of the Avhole people. His second series of songs, published in 1821, cost him his place and three months’ imprisonment in St Pelagie ; and for his third series, published in 1828, he was con- demned to nine months’ imprisonment in La Force, and a fine of 10,000 francs. But the fine was paid by the poet’s admirers ; while from behind his prison-bars Beranger kept up so deadly a fire on the government that he contributed more effectually to destroy it than all the blows of the heroes of the “ Three Glorious Days.” After the election of Louis Philippe to the throne, he declined to accept of any reward for his services, and retired first to Passy, next to Fontainebleau, and finally to Tours, where he completed what he called his “ M^moires Chantants,” by the publication of his fourth scries of songs. Speaking of these masterpieces of poetic skill, Goethe says, “Beranger Avas never at school, and never studied at a University. But his songs are, neverthe- less, so full of mature cultivation, of grace, wit, and subtlest irony, they are so artistic- ally finished, and their language is so mas- terly, that he is admired not only by France but by the whole of civilized Europe. His songs have shed joy into millions of hearts ; — they are familiar even to the Avorking classes, and at the same time they are so high above the level of common-place, that the intercourse Avith these graceful spirits accustoms and compels the people to have better and more generous thoughts.” At the revolution of February, 1848, Beranger Avas elected to the Constituent Assembly ; but after one or tAvo sittings, he sent in his resignation, and finally retired from the storm and turbulence of political life. His last years were solaced by the kindness of numerous friends who admired in him the straightforward honourable man as well as the national poet. Though a republican at heart, Beranger looked upon Napoleon, in his rise from a simple artillery officer to be the Emperor of the French, as an incarnation of the national spirit; and he did so much to perpetuate the superstitious reverence of the people for his name as to pave the Avay for the advent of his nephew and successor to the imperial throne. Died, 1857. In his “Autobiography,” — a posthumous publica- tion, — Beranger has given a most interesting account of his struggles with fortune, his private adventures, the development of his mind, the origin of his Avorks, the manner of their success, the friendships and the per- secutions they brought him, and the reasons of his retirement from public life. 89 ber] ^nibersal ^lograpl^p, [ber BERCHEM. [BERGHEM.] BERCHTOLD, LEOPOLD, Count, a distin- guished philanthropist, was born in 1758. He spent 13 years of his life in travelling through Europe, and four in travelling through Asia and Africa, for the express purpose of assuaging human misery in its direst forms, and leaving no method unattempted that humanity or patriotism could suggest. He at length fell a victim to a contagious fever, at his palace of Buchlowitz, in Moravia, which he had fitted up as an hospital for the reception of the sick and wounded Austrian soldiers. Died, 1809. BERENGER, or BERENGARIUS, of Tours, a distinguished theologian of the 11th century. He was born at Tours, long held an ecclesiastical ofiice there, and was after- wards archdeacon of Angers. He was tho- roughly versed in the philosophy of the age, and did not hesitate to apply reason to the interpretation of the Bible. He denied the dogma of transubstantiation, and no less than seven councils were held respecting him, at three of which he was condemned, and at four he was prevailed on to make retracta- tion more or less fully. Though failing thus in courage in the presence of his persecutors, he continued to teach what he believed. Died near Tours, 1088. BERENGER, JACOPO, a celebrated anato- mist and physician of the 16th century, born j at Carpi, in Italy, and died at Ferrara, 1550. He made several important anatomical dis- coveries, and is said to be the first who used mercury in syphilitic diseases. BERENICE, daughter of Herod Agrippa, king of Judaea, and wife of her father’s bro- ther, Herod, who was made king of Chalcis by the Emperor Claudius. Becoming a widow, A. D. 49, she gave her hand to Ptole- mon, king of Cilicia, but she soon deserted him, and became the mistress of Titus, after- wards Roman emperor, who would probably have made her his wife but for the mur- murs of his subjects. BERESFORD, General Viscount, G. C.B., &c., a distinguished British officer, was the eldest of two natural sons of the first mar- quis of "Waterford, and was born in 1770. After receiving the rudiments of his military education at Strasburg, he was appointed an ensign in the 6th Foot in 1785. His first sei-- vices gave early promise of his future fame. From the time when, as captain of the 69th, he took possession of Toulon, in 1793, to the battle of Toulouse, in 1814, in which he added fresh laurels to his wreath, his military life was an almost unbroken series of successes. In 1799, when lieutenant-colonel of the 88th, he sailed for the East Indies, and from thence by the Red Sea to Egypt, across the desert, in command of a brigade of Sir David Baird’s army. He remained in Egypt till its evacu- ation, as commandant of Alexandria. After some energetic services against the Irish rebels. Colonel Beresford, in 1805, proceeded to the Cape, and shared in the conquest of that colony. From thence he was sent in command of a small force, to seize Buenos Ayres. In 1807, as brigadier-general, he, in conjunction with Admiral Hood, seized upon Madeira, which was thenceforward held by the British in trust for the royal house of Braganza. In 1808 he joined the British army in Portugal with the rank of major- general. He fought at Corunna, and was most active and efficient in assisting the em- barkation of our troops. In 1809 he again proceeded to Portugal, to take the chief command of the Portuguese troops with the rank of marshal. From that time Marshal Beresford’s achievements are part of the history of the period, the greatest of them being his victory over Soult at Albuera, one of the most bloody and most glorious of the names inscribed on the list of Peninsular successes. The thanks of Parliament were voted on the 7th of June to “ Sir William Beresford and to the army under his com- mand, who fought at Albuera on the 16th of May, 1811 ; ” and in 1814 he was raised to the peerage, with a grant of £2000 per annum to himself and the two next inheritors of his title. In Spain he became duke of Elvas and marquese of Campo-Major, and in Portugal Conde di Francesco. At home the prince regent conferred upon him a cross with seven clasps, and intrusted him with the governorship of Jersey. He sat for the county of Waterford in 1811, and for the borough in 1812, but as he was absent with our armies in the Peninsula, he never either spoke or voted in the House. In 1822 he was raised to the rank of viscount, and received the appoint- ment of lieutenant-general of the Ordnance, and in 1828 became master-general of the Ordnance under the duke of Wellington as premier. Died, 1854. BERESFORD, LORD JOHN GEORGE, archbishop of Armagh, primate of all Ire- land, was born in 1773. He was educated at Eton and Oxford, became bishop of Cork in 1805, archbishop of Dublin in 1820, and arch- bishop of Ai-magh in 1822. In 1851, he was chosen chancellor of the university of Dublin, of which he had been vice-chancellor 22 years. He did not distinguish himself in literature or science, but in munificence he had few equals. The chief monument of his liberality is the cathedral of Armagh, which he restored at the cost of nearly thirty thousand pounds. He did much also for the Observatory, the Public Library, and the Royal School. Died at Auburn, Down, in 1862. BERGHEM, NICHOLAS, an excellent and indefatigable Dutch landscape painter. Born, 1624; died, 1683. BERGMAN, TORBERN OLOF, an eminent Swedish chemist, was born in 1735. He studied at Upsal University, applied himself to the study of various branches of physical science, became assistant professor of ma- thematics and physics, and in 1767 professor of chemistry. His discoveries and services to science Avere very numerous. He pi’oved the acid properties of carbonic acid, dis- covered oxalic acid, and was one of the first to make chemical analysis of mineral bodies. He made experiments in electricity, and published an “ Essay on Elective Attrac- tions.” It was Bergman who recognized first the talent of Sclieele, then a boy, and did m\ich to forward him. His works form six vols. 8vo. Died, 1784. BERINGTON, JOSEPH, historian, was a native of Shropshire, was educated at the 90 ber] Stnibcrsal [ber college of St Omer, in France, and after discharging the duties of a Romish priest in that country for 20 years, returned to Eng- land, where he died in 1827. He made him- self known by his “ Literary History of the Middle Ages,” a useful work, hut superseded by Hallam’s on the same subject. Berington was also author of the “ Lives of Abelard and Heloise,” and'a “ History of the Eeign of Henry II.” BERKELEY, GEORGE, bishop of Cloyne, an illustrious philosopher, was born in Ire- land in 1684. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin ; visited London in 1713, and spent several years in travelling on the continent. He became chaplain to the duke of Grafton, and soon after dean of Derry. In 1728 he went, accompanied by two or three friends, to Rhode Island, in the hope of founding there a missionary institution for the benefit of the Red Indians. His scheme failing, he returned, and in 1734 was made bishop of Cloyne. In philosophy Berkeley is an Idealist, and his doctrines are the natural reaction against the prevailing materialism of his age. His most important works are the “ Principles of Human Know- ledge,” the “ Dialogues of Hylas and Philo- nous,” “ Minute Philosopher,” “Analyst,” and “ Theory of Vision.” His two works on the properties of Tar- water, “ Siris ” and “ Further Thoughts,” attracted much atten- tion. Died at Oxford, 1753. BERKENHOUT, JOHN, an English phy- sician and miscellaneous writer ; author of “ Biographia Literaria,” “ Outlines of the Natural History of Great Britain and Ire- land,” &c. Born, 1731 ; died, 1791. BERKHEY, JOHN LE FRANCO VAN, Dutch physician, naturalist, and poet ; named professor at the university of Leyden, in 1773 ; author of the “Natural History of Holland,” “ Poems,” &c. Born, 1729 ; died, 1812. BERKLEY, Sir "WILLIAM, governor of Virginia ; author of “ The Description and LaAvs of Virginia,” &c. Died, 1677. BERLICHINGEN, GOEXZ VON, surnamed “ Iron-Hand,” a brave and turbulent Ger- man noble, lived in the 15th and 16th cen- turies. He was almost constantly at war, was put under the ban of the empire by Maximilian, and was killed during the siege of a fortress in which he had taken refuge. His story was dramatized by Goethe. BERNADOTTE— CHARLES JOHN XIV., king of SAveden and NorAvay, Avhose original name was JEAN BAPTISTE JuLE Berna- DOTTE, Avas the son of a lawyer at Pau in Bearne, and Avas born in 1764. He re- ceived a good education, and Avas designed for the bar ; but he suddenly abandoned his studies, and enlisted as a private in the mai’ines. For nine years from his enlistment, that is, up to the year 1789, the utmost rank that Bernadottehad attained was that of ser- geant ; but the French revolution, by sweep- ing away the arbitrary barrier which till then had rendered plebeian merit of little avail in the French service, gave Bernadotte an advantage which he improved so Avell, that in 1792 he was a colonel in the army of Custine. In 1793 he so distinguished him- self under the command of Kleber, as to be raised to the rank of general of brigade, and, shortly afterAvards, of division. On the Rhine and in Italy he more and more dis- tinguished himself ; and he shoAved that his talents were not those of a mere soldier, by his conduct in a someAvhat difficult embassy to Austria. Between him and Napoleon there seems to have been a constant dis- trust, if not actual hatred ; nevertheless, Bernadotte had a marshal’s staff on the estab - lishment of the consulate, and was created prince of Ponte Corvo in 1806. In all his campaigns Bernadotte was distinguished from the great majority of the French com- manders, by the clemency and generosity of his conduct from the moment that the battle was at an end ; and it was this conduct, even more than his brilliant reputation as a soldier, that caused him to be put in nomi- nation as a successor of Charles XIII. of Sweden. Napoleon, then emperor, could but with difficulty be induced to consent to Ber- nadotte becoming croAvn-prince and heir to the throne. “ What '. ” said Bernadotte, “ will you make me greater than yourself by making me refuse a croAvn ? ” The sarcasm told, and Napoleon merely replied, “ Go ! our fates must be accomplished ! ” From the instant that he became crown-prince of SAveden, the fortunate soldier shoAved a de- termination to give all his energies to his adopted counti’y : he formed a secret alliance Avith Russia in 1812, and in 1813 he took command of the combined armies of North- ern Germany against France. Never during half a century before his accession had Sweden known the peace or the prosperity in which he left her in the hands of his son Oscar. Died, 1844, aged 79. BERNARD, St, abbot of Clairvanx, Avas born of a noble family in Burgundy in 1091. He was carefully trained by pious parents, and sent to study at the university of Paris. At the age of 23 he entered the then recently founded monastery of Citeaux, accompanied by his brothers and above tAventy of his com- panions. He observed the strictest rules of the order, and so distinguished himself by his ability and acquirements that he was chosen to lead the colony to Clairvaux, and was made abbot of the new house ; an office which he filled till his death. His fame at- tracted a great number of novices, many of whom became eminent men. Among them were Pope Eugenius III., six cardinals, and- many bishops. In 1128 he prepared the sta- tutes for the order of Knights Templars. Popes and princes desired his support, and submitted their differences to his arbitration. By his influence Innocent II. was recognized as lawful pope : he had a public debate with Abelard on some doctrines of his philosophy, and procxired his condemnation; courage- ously opposed the doctrine of the Immacu- late Conception of the Virgin and the festival instituted in its honour : was founder of 160 monasteries ; and was the chief promoter of the second crusade. At the council of Veze- lai, in 1146, he spoke as if inspired before the king and the nobles of France, and with his OAvn hand gave them their crosses. He then preached the crusade in Germany, per- suaded the Emperor Conrad to join it, and refused the command Avhich was offered 91 ber] % ^nifciersal 30iograpl^i)» [ber him. His prediction of success was falsified. St Bernard was the vehement adversary of Arnold of Brescia., and procured his banish- ment from B,ome, and from Zurich. He successfully attacked the doctrines of several so-called heretics. He steadily refused the offers of several archbishoprics and other dignities, preferring to remain abbot only. His character and his Writings have earned him the title of Last of the Fathers. The power and tenderness and simplicity that characterize his sermons and other works have secured the admiration of Protestants and Catholics alike. Dante introduces him in the last cantos of the “Paradise” with profound reverence and admiring love ; and Luther studied his writings with the same feelings. St Bernard died at Claiiwaux in 1153, and was canonized in 1174. BERNARD, EDWARD, an English philo- logist and critic ; educated at Oxford, where he became Savilian professor of astronomy, and assisted in the republication of the works of the ancient mathematicians. He was author of a learned and valuable “ Trea- tise on Ancient Weights and Measures,” &c. Born, 1638; died, 1697. BERNARD, of MENTHON, an ecclesiastic of the 10th century ; founder of the well- known monasteries of the Great and Little St Bernard, in the passage of the Alps. Died, 1008. BERNARD, PIERRE JOSEPH, a French amatory poet, styled by Voltaire, le gentil Bernard, an epithet by which he is still dis- tinguished. Born at Grenoble, 1710 ; died, 1775. BERNARD, of THURINGIA, an enthusiast of the 10th century, who predicted that the end of the world was at hand, and caused much terror to his ignorant and supersti- tious believers. BERNHARD, duke of Saxe-Weimar, one of the greatest generals of his age, Avas born in 1600. He entered the army, and early dis- tinguished himself. After being engaged in several affairs of minor importance, he joined the army of Gustavus Adolphus in 1631, in the war against the house of Austria. He took part in the siege of Wurzburg, assisted at the passage of Oppenheim, took Manheim, and drove the enemy from the Palatinate. He commenced the conquest of Bavaria, completed the victory of Liitzen after the fall of Gustavus, and drove the Austrians from Saxony. He afterwards had a command subordinate to Marshal Horn, and was harassed by intrigues. He took Ratisbon, which was soon lost, and with Horn was defeated at Nordlingen, in Sep- tember, 1634. Soon after he accepted a subsidy from the king of France and con- certed operations with Richelieu. In 1638, he won the battle of Rheinfeld and took Alt Breisach. Died, 1639. BERNARD, SIMON, general of engineers of France, Avas born at D61e in 1779. The kindness of the parish priest supplied him Avith sufficient learning to allow his enter- ing the Polytechnic School at fifteen years of age. La Place, Haiiy, and other great men were then at the head of the Polytech- nic School, and so well did Bernard avail himself of their lessons, that he not only became one of the most distinguished engi- neer officers and aides-de-camp of Napoleon, but, subsequently to the emperor’s fall, ex- ecuted Avorks in the United States, Avhich are undoubtedly unequalled elsewhere ; the most distant places being united by canals, actual navigable rivers, and upwards of four thousand five hundred miles of frontier rendered secure against invasion by forts and works. After July, 1830, he returned to France, and Avas for some time minister of war. Died, 1839. BERNARDEZ, DiEGO, called by his countrymen the Portuguese Theocritus, was not more eminent as a pastoral poet than as a brave Avarrior. After numerous deeds of heroism, he was taken prisoner by the Moors at the battle of Alcazarquiver. Died, 1596. BERNARDIN DE ST PIERRE. [ST PIERRE.] BERNARDINE, ST, of Siena ; born at Massa-Carrara, in Italy, 1380. He retired in 1404, joined the order of Observantines, of which he became vicar-general, refused offers of several bishoprics, and established above 300 monasteries. Died, 1444 ; and Avas canonized six years after his death by Nicholas V. The Avorks of St Bernardine fill five folio volumes. BERNERS, Lord. [BOURCHIER.] BERNI, Francesco, an eminent Italian poet of the 16th century. He remodelled Bojardo’s Orlando Innamorato, and was the author of “ Rime Burlesche,” and various Latin poems. The gracefulness and purity of his diction have been seldom equalled ; his humour, though broad, is not low ; and though his themes or allusions are often licentious, his works display many traits of moral feeling, which would do no discredit to a better age. Died, 1536. BERNIER, Franqois ,a celebrated French traveller, who, after taking his degree as doctor of medicine at the university of Montpellier, Avent to Palestine and Egypt, thence to India, and resided at the court of Aurungzebe for tAvelve years as his physi- cian. -He accompanied the great Mogul em- peror on his expedition to Cashmere, and afterwards returned to his own country. In 168^, Bernier visited England. His “ Travels,” which first appeared in 1670, became Immediately popular, and have been frequently republished and translated into various languages. Died, 1688. BERNINI, Giovanni Lorenzo, called II cavaliere Bernini, was born in Naples, 1598, and obtained among his contemporaries the reputation of being the modern Michael Angelo, on account of his success as painter, statuary, and architect. At the age of 18 he produced the Apollo and Daphne, in marble, a masterpiece of grace and execu- tion. He was a prot6g6 of Cardinal Maffeo Barberini, who, as soon as he became pope (Urban YlII.), appointed him his architect. Bernini executed many works in St Peter’s, built the Palace Barberini, and the Cam- panile of St Peter’s, executed a statue of Charles I. of England from portraits painted by Vandyck, visited Paris in 1665, his jour- ney being a triumphal procession, at 70 erected the monument to Alexander VII., and ten years later sculptured the figure of bee] ^nibersal ^lograpf)!). [bee Christ in bas-relief for Queen Christina, continuing in the indefatigable pursuit of his art, as sculptor and architect, till the period of his death, in 1680. EEENIS, FRANQOIS JOACHIM HE PIER- RES, Cardinal, DE, a French poet, patronized by Madame de Pompadour, who obtained for him a pension; he subsequently filled important offices in the state, was sent as ambassador to Rome, and at length arrived at the dignity of cardinal. The French re- volution deprived him of his fortune, and reduced him to poverty in his old age, from which he was relieved by a pension from the Spanish court. Born, 1715 ; died, 1794. BERNOUILLI, JAMES, a distinguished mathematician, one of a family of great mathematicians, was born at Basel in 1654. He indulged his passion for geometry against the will of his father, who wished him to enter the church. He seized quickly on the first suggestions of Leibnitz respect- ing the Differential Calculus, and zealously pursued the study of it. In 1687 he was chosen professor of mathematics at Easel, and was one of the first foreign associates of the French Academy of Sciences. A pain- ful altercation was carried on between him and his brother John respecting some scien- tific problems : John displaying much ill- temper, unfairness, and jealousy of his brother’s evident superiority. Died, 1705. BERNOUILLI, JOHN, brother of the above, and like him an eminent mathema- tician. He succeeded his brother as profess- or of mathematics at Basel in 1705, having previously held the same office at Gron- ingen for ten years. He was fellow of the Royal Society of London, member of the Academies of Paris and Berlin, and was in science the Avorthy rival of Newton and Leibnitz. Born, 1667 ; died, 1748. BERNOUILLI, DANIEL, son of the last named ; professor of natural philosophy at Basel ; and, like his father and uncle, highly skilled in the mathematics. He published several mathematical works, among which is to be noted the “ Traite de Hydrody- namique,” the first treatise on that subject. He was member of the Academies of Paris, Berlin, and St Petersburg, and F.R.S., Lon- don. Born, 1700; died, 1782. [Several other members of this family were also dis- tinguished for their mathematical attain- ments, and it is stated that the list of foreign associates of the French Academy of Sciences constantly included the name of BernouilU from 1699 to 1790.] BERNSTORFF, JOHANN HARTWIG Ernst, Count, a celebrated statesman in the service of the king of Denmark. He was employed on various embassies, and afterwards held the office of foreign minister to Frederick V. for about 20 years, resigning in 1770. He negotiated the treaty with Russia respecting Holstein. Count Berns- torff was the founder of the Danish Society of Language and the Fine Arts, and the Economical and Agricultural Society. Born at Hanover, 1712 ; died, 1772. BERNSTORFF, ANDREAS PETER, Count, nephew of the above, and also Danish minis- ter of state. During the American war he effected the armed neutrality of Russia, Prussia, Denmark, and Sweden, for the pro- tection of the trade of those powers against the belligerents ; and it was chiefly owing to his skilful policy that Denmark was prevented from being drawn into collision Avith either SAveden or Russia, Avhen the war broke out between those pOAvers in 1788. Born, 1735 ; died, 1797. EEROALDO, FILIPPO, an Italian litt4ra- teur, who long held the chair of Belles Let- tres at the University of Bologna, and was for some years seoretary of the republic. He published editions of Pliny the younger ! and other classical authors. Born, 1453; died, 1505. EEROALDO, FILIPPO, nephew of the above, Italian poet ; librarian of the Vati- can under Pope Leo X. He published a valuable edition of Tacitus. Died, 1518. BEROSUS, priest of the temple of Belus, at Babylon, about B.C. 260. He Avrote a history of Chaldaea, some fragments of Avhich are preserved by Josephus and Euse- bius. BERQUIN, Arnauld, an elegant French writer ; chiefly knoAvn as the author of “ L’Ami des Enfans,” and other interesting works for children. He imitated the works of the German Christian Felix Weisse, giving them however fresh attractions by the charm of his style, and the sincerity of his love for children. Born, 1749 ; died, 1791. BERRETTINI, PlETRO. [CORTONA.] BERRI, CHARLES FERDINAND DE BOUR- BON, Duke de, second son of the Count d’ Artois, afterAvards Charles X. of France; assassinated by one Louvel, who attacked him just as he had left the opera-house, and was on the point of stepping into his car- riage, Feb. 13, 1820. He shared in common with the Bourbons all the reverses they were doomed to suffer; but he deserved a better fate, if it were only for the benevo- lence of his character. His son Henri, born posthumously, commonly called the Due de Bordeaux, or the Comte de Chambord, is the legitimate heir to the throne of France. BERTHELIER, PHILIBERT, statesman, born at Geneva, about 1470. He distin- guished himself by his bold opposition to the ambitious attempts of the duke of Savoy to make himself master of the republic, and to the cruel tyranny of the bastard of Savoy, whom the pope had made prince-bishop of Geneva. Berthelier was at the time mem- ber of the Supreme Council. Compelled to fly to Friburg, he negotiated an alliance by AAffiich the Genevese and Friburgers became fellow-citizens. The duke in A'ain attempted to corrupt this noble patriot. "When the prince-bishop returned with an army to Geneva, Berthelier refused to fly, and he was arrested, imprisoned, and beheaded, in the autumn of 1519. BERTHIER, ALEXANDER, prince Of Neufchatel and Wagram, marshal and vice- constable of France, was born at Versailles, in 1753, and served with Lafayette in the American war of independence. At the commencement of the French revolution he was made a general officer, fought gallantly in La Vend4e,and was at the head of Buona- parte’s staff in Italy, Egypt, and German v. He was, in fact, the companion of Napoleon 93 ber] ilcto Slnibtrsal 13iograpf)i). [ber in all his expeditions, dining with him and 1 travelling in the same carriage ; and his skill in drawing np despatches, joined to his un- wearied application and methodical habits, proved of incalcuiable value to the emperor in the vast pressure of his affairs. On the restoration of Louis XVIII., however, in 1814, he recognized his authority, and was created a peer ; but w'hen his former master returned from Elba, he retired to his family at Bamberg, where, as soon as the music of the Russian troops, on their march to the French borders, was heard at the gates of the city, lie put an end to his life in a fit of frenzy or remorse, by throwing himself from a window of his palace, June 1, 1815. BERTHOLLET, CLAUDE LOUIS, Count, one of the most eminent chemists of his age, was born at Talloire, Savoy, in 1748, and studied medicine at Turin. He afterwards settled in Paris, where he became intimate with Lavoisier, was admitted a member of the Academy of Sciences, and made professor of the normal school. He accompanied Buonaparte to Egypt ; and, during the em- peror’s reign, was made a senator and an officer of the Legion of Honour ; but he was one of the first to desert his patron when his fortunes were on the decline ; for which he received the title of count from Louis XVIII. His principal work is “ Essai de Statique Chimique ; ” but he wrote many other valu- able essays, and had also a large share in the reformation of chemical nomenclature. Died, 1822. BERTHOUD, FERDINAND, a skilful Swiss clock and chronometer maker ; author of “ Traits des Horologes Marines,” &c. Born, at Neufchatel, 1727 ; died, 1807. His nephew, LOUIS, inherited his talents, and was not less celebrated than his uncle. The accuracy of their chronometers is proverbial. BERTIN, Antoine, a French military officer and an elegant poet ; author of “ Elegies ” and other poems, which were greatly esteemed. Born in the Isle of Bour- bon, 1752 ; died at St Domingo, 1790. BERTRAND DU GUESCLIN, [DUGUES- CLIN.] BERTRAND, Henri, Count, a distin- guished French general, and the companion in exile of Napoleon Buonaparte, wouldhave earned a bright name on the page of history merely by his military achievements during the wars of the empire, were not those achievements cast, comparatively, into the shade by the steadfast fidelity with which he clung to Napoleon. Aiding that great soldier to gain some of his most splendid victories ; covering him when in retreat and peril, as after the murderous affair of Hanau ; fol- lowing him to his free exile to Elba ; return- ing with him to share all the perils of “blood-stained ‘Waterloo;” he, the brave and steadfast Bertrand, feared not the im- prisonment of St Helena, but voluntarily abode there until he had seen the first obse- quies of his sincerely worshipped human idol. Honour to fidelity ! Born, 1770 ; died, 1844. BERTRANDI, GIOVANNI AMBROGIO MARIA, an eminent surgeon and anatomist of Turin ; anthor of a treatise on surgical : operations, and other professional works. : Born, 1723 ; died, 1765. BERULLE, Pierre de. Cardinal, founder of the French congregation of the Oratory. He was employed in many affairs of state in Fi’ance ; and accompanied Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles 1., to England as her confessor. Died, 1629. BERVIC, JEAN GUILLAUME BALVAY, a French engraver, w'as born at Paris, in 1756. He was received at the Academy of Painting in 1784, was afterwards a member of the In- stitute and of the Legion of Honour, and died, 1822. BERAVICK, JAMES FiTZJAMES, Duke of, was a natural son of James II. and Arabella Churchill, sister of the duke of Marlborough, and Avas born in 1670. His first military service was under Charles, duke of Lorraine, in Hungary, and he Avas present at the siege of Buda, and the battle of Mohaez. He was created duke of Berwick in 1687. He accom- panied James II. to France at the revolu- tion, served under him in Ireland, and was at the battle of the Boyne. He became lieutenant-general in the French army, and was naturalized in France. He afterAvards commanded in Spain, and by the victory of Almanza, secured Valencia to Philip V. He especially distinguished himself by the de- fence of Provence and Dauphiny in 1709. He was killed at the siege of Philipsburg in 1734. He left memoirs of his own life. BERZELIUS, Baron, one of the greatest chemists of modern times, was born in 1779, in Ostgothland, a province of SAveden, Avhere his father kept a village school. After graduating at Upsala in 1804, he repaired to Stockholm, where he became an assistant to Sparrmann, who had accompanied Captain Cook in one of his voyages round the world ; and at his death, in 1806, he succeeded him in the chair of chemistry, Avhich he con- tinued to fill for forty-two years. It would be impossible within our limits to give even a summary of his labours during this period ; suffice it to say, that in a century which has produced a greater number of distinguished chemists than perhaps of any other class of men of science, Berzelius stood out as a star of the first magnitude. His patient labours, and ingenious investigations, have done more to lay the foundations of organic che- mistry, than those of any other chemist. To him pre-eminently belongs the honour of applying the great principles which had been established by Dalton, Davy, Gay-Lussac, and himself, in inorganic chemistry, tevthe study of the laws Avhich regulate the combin- ations forming the structures of the animal and vegetable kingdoms ; and of thus open- ing the Avay for the discoveries of Mulder, Liebig, Dumas, and others. To him chemis- try is indebted for the discovery of several new elementary bodies, more especially sele- nium, morium, and cerium; and to his slull as a manipulator may be traced many of the analytical processes at present in use Under these circumstances it is not surpris- ing that all the scientific societies of the Arorld contended for the honour of enrolling his name among their members ; and the various minor honours Avbich he received from his own sovereign from time to time, Avere finally croAvned by his being made a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Vasa I BEs] H ^niijcrsal IStograpI;^. [bev in 1829, and his elevation to the rank of a baron in 1835. Died, 1848. BESSAKION, JOHN, Cardinal, one of the most eminent restorers of learning in the loth century, and founder of the noble library of St Mark, at Venice. He was a native of Trebizond, and a monk of the order of St Basil. He was drawn from his monas- tery in the Peloponnesus, where he had passed twenty years, to accompany the em- peror John Palaeologus to the great council of Perrara, at which the union of the Greek and Latin churches was formally accom- plished. For the zealous service which Bessarion rendered on this occasion he was made a cardinal by Pope Eugenius, and had afterwards the title of patriarch of Con- stantinople given him by Pius II. He spent the last thirty years of his life at Home, de- voting himself to the promotion of litera- ture, and discharging several important em- bassies. Disciple of Gemistus Pletho, he became early an admirer of Plato, and he wrote a work in defence of the Platonic philosophy in answer to George of Trebi- zond. He also translated parts of the works of Aristotle and Xenophon, Born, 1395 ; died, 1472. BESSEL, FRIEDRICH WILHELM, one of the most eminent German astronomers, was born at Minden in 1784. His taste for ma- thematics and extraordinary expertness in astronomical calculations were shown while he was still clerk in a merchant’s office at Bremen. In 1806 he was chosen assistant to the astronomer Schroeter at Lilienthal ; and four years later he was called to the chair of astronomy and mathematics at Konigs- berg, and was named at the same ti me direct- or of the new observatory. By his un- wearied and fruitful labours he obtained the highest reputation, and was chosen member of the principal scientific bodies of Europe ; among others, of the Royal and Astrono- mical Societies of London. One of his most memorable achievements was his discovery of the parallax* of a fixed star (61 Cygni). He attained a singular mastery of practical astronomy, improving methods of observa- tion, detecting and avoiding sources of error in calculation. His great work is the “ Fun- damenta Astronomiae,” on which he spent much of his time for ten years. It is founded on Bradley’s observations, the reduction of which is a marvel of patient toil and accu- racy. His other works are “ Tabulae He- giomontanae,” “ Astronomische Untersu- chungen,” and numerous memoirs. The loss of his son in 1841 weighed heavily on his mind, and he died in 1846. BESSIEHES, JEAN BAPTISTE, marshal of France, and duke of Istria, was born in Languedoc in 1768. He first served in the constitutional guard of Louis XYI. ; dis- tinguished himself in the Italian campaign of 1796, especially at Roveredo and Rivoli, and became from that time the intimate friend of Napoleon. He accompanied him to Egypt, contributed to the victory of Marengo, was created marshal in 1804, and soon after grand eagle of the Legion of Honour, and duke of Istria. He overthrew the Russian Imperial guards at Austerlitz, and took part in the battles of Jena and Eylau. He served in Spain, in the cam- paign of Wagram, and in the expedition to Russia. He was killed by a shot while making a reconnaissance of the field of Lut- zen, the day before the battle, May, 1813. BETHAM, SIR WILLIAM, an English an- tiquary, was a native of Suffolk. He vras born in 1779, went to Dublin in 1805, where he became Deputy Keeper of Records, and member and foreign secretary of the Irish Academy. He was also F.S. A., London. He Avas author of “ The Gael and Cimbri,” “Etruria Celtica,” “Origin and History of the Constitution of England,” &c. Died, 1853. BETHENCOURT, JEAN DE, a Norman baron, and a military adventurer, who con- quered the Canary Islands, and afterwards held them as a fief of the crown of Castile. Died, 1425. BETHLEM-GABOR, prince of Transyl- vania, was bornof anoble Hungarian family, and by the aid of the Turks got himself pro- claimed Prince in 1613. He afterwards made conquests in Austria, and was elected king of Hungary, but had soon after to make terms Avith the emperor and renounce that title. He aa^s a zealous Protestant, did good service on the Protestant side in the Thirty Years’ War, and raised his coun- try to a new importance. Died, 1629. BETHUNE, Maximilian de. [SULLY, Duke of.] BETTERTON, THOMAS, a very celebrated actor, was born at London in 1635. He Avas first a bookseller’s apprentice, but became a member of Sir W. Davenant’s company soon after the Restoration, and earned so high a reputation that the king sent him to Franco to gather suggestions for the improvement of theatrical representations. He opened a theatre of his own in 1695, but retired in a few years. He acted on several occasions subsequently, the last time in April, 1710, when suffering from gout ; and he died a few days after. He Avas loved and honoured as a man no less than he Avas admired as an actor. BETTINELLI, Saverio, a Jesuit of Man- tua, and a celebrated litterateur. He was an elegant and accomplished writer, epis- tolary, dramatic, and poetical ; his princi- pal work is the “ Risorgimento d’ltalia,” a sketch of the progress of literature, science, and art in Italy. His “ Lettere dieci di Virgilio agli Arcadi ” attracted much atten- tion, but did him little honour. Born, 1718 ; died, 1808. BEURNONYILLE, PIERRE Riel, Count of, French marshal ; minister of war in 1793 ; ambassador at Berlin and Madrid during the consulate, and under the empire grand officer of the Legion of Honour. He voted for the deposition of Napoleon, and attached himself to Louis XVIII., by Avhom he was reAvarded with the title of marshal. Died, 1821. BEVERIDGE, WILLIAM, bishop of St Asaph, was a nath’^e of Leicestershire, and was born in 1638. He was educated at Cam- bridge, and after holding several parochial charges, in which he distinguished himself by his simple piety and earnest labours, he was made prebendary of St Paul’s, arch- 95 BEv] ^ ^eto ^lubtrsal BBiograpl^w. [bia deacon of Colchester, canon of Canterbury, and in 1689 chaplain to the king. In 1704 he -was raised to the see of St Asaph. His principal works are a treatise “De lingua - rum orientalium prjBstantia’ et usu, cum grammatica Syriaca,” published at the age of 20; “ Synodicon,” a collection of ancient canons of the church ; “ Institutionum Chro- nologicarum libri II.;” “Private Thoughts on Heligion,” frequently republished; &c. Died, 1708. BEVERLEY, JOHN OF, tu^w to the vener- able Bede, and subsequently archbishop of York. He held that see thirty-four years, and was the founder of a college for secular priests at Beverley. He wms one of the most learned men of his time, and sevei-al of his devotional treatises are still extant. Died, 721. BEWICK, Thomas, the distinguished wood engraver, Avas born at Cherry-burn in Northumberland, in 1753. He is said to have worked Avhen a boy in his father’s coal-pit, and he received what small school- learning he could at Ovingham. His fond- ness for draAving led to his being appren- ticed to Ralph Beilby, an engraver at New- castle, in 1767. He served for seven years, working at the most prosaic tasks for his master, paying ninepence a week for his lodging, and receiA’ing a broAVn loaf weekly from Cherry-burn. During this period he made his first attempts at wood-engraving on the diagrams for Hutton’s “ Treatise on Mensuration,” which appeared in 1770. Soon after the expiration of his apprenticeship he began to devote himself entirely to wood- engraving, and in 1775 he obtained the pre- mium of the Society of Arts for his cut of the Huntsman and Old Hound, one of a set of illustrations to Gay’s “ Fables.” After a tour on foot in the Lake district in 1776, Bewick spent a year in London, but he pined for green fields and the songs of larks, and went back to Newcastle, where he became Beilby’s partner. He continued to practise his favourite art, and rapidly improved both as designer and engraver. He has the merit of introducing a truer method of represent- ing the foliage of trees, and of drawing ani- mals more naturally and characteristically. Many of his cuts display genuine humour and tender feeling. The principal works illustrated by this lover of nature and genu- ine artist are — Gay’s “ Fables,” 1779 ; “ Se- lect Fables,” 1784; “General History of Quadrupeds,” the first edition of which ap- peared in 1790, a second in 1791, and a third in 1792 ; “ History of British Birds,” in two vols. 1797 and 1804 ; and “ Fables of JEsop and others.” A print of a bull is mentioned as one of Bewick’s most capital works. The partnership with Beilby ended in 1797. Bewick Avas much engaged in teaching en- graving during the latter part of his life. He died at Gateshead in 1828, and was buried at Ovingham. — JOHN BEWICK, younger bro- ther of the above, Avas apprenticed to Beilby at the time of the formation of the partner- ship Avith Thomas, and assisted his brother in many of his works. Born, 1760; died, 1795. BEXLEY, Lord. Nicholas Vansittart, whose career, though not distinguished by striking ability, was highly successful, was the son of Mr Henry Vansittart, Governor of Bengal, who perished at sea when Nicholas Avas only four years old. The latter in due time Avent to school at Clieam, in Surrey, to Christchurch, Oxford, where he took the degree of A.M., and ultimately was called to the bar on the 26th of April, 1791. His success was not brilliant. He attended ses- sions, went circuit, and duly presented him- self in the courts at Westminster, with in- different success. In 1796 he was returned to Parliament for Hastings, which he re- presented till 1802. By the influence of Lord Addington he then became member for Harwich, a mere Treasury borough, and in 1812 he exchanged it for Old Sarum, so renowned in Parliamentary history, Avhich he represented till 1823. He Avas made a Lord of the Treasury in 1804, and, after the death of Mr Perceval, was elevated to the post of Chancellor of the Exchequer, which he retained till 1822. He Avas then created Baron Bexley, and appointed Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, Avhich post he held till 1828. From that time till his death he mingled little in public life. William Cob- bett, who addressed many of his pungent letters to “Statesman Vansittart,” as he called him, was very fond of describing the marvellous rise and progress of the man Avho began life as a “ Commissioner of Scotch Herrings ” and ended in “ a peerage and half a million of money.” Died, 1850. BEZA, or Bi:ZE, 'Tkeodoee de, the emi- nent French Protestant theologian and re- former, was born at Vezelai in 1519. After studying at Orleans and Bourges, he Avent in 1539 to Paris, where he spent nine years, and then went to Geneva and married a woman to whom he had long been secretly engaged. Soon after he was appointed pro- 1 fessor of Greek at Lausanne, a post which he held for ten years. In 1558 he was sent to ask the intercession of several German princes in behalf of the persecuted Hugue- nots in France. The next year he settled at Geneva, and Avas thenceforth the associate of Calvin till his death, and his successor as professor of theology and head of the Pro- testant party. Beza undertook a mission to the king of Navarre, and succeeded in Avin- ning him to the side of the reformers. He took a leading part at the celebrated colloquy of Poissy, and Avas alloAved to preach in Paris. He attended the prince of Cond^ during the civil Avar, and Avas at the battle of Dreux. Beza took part in several other synods and conferences betAveen the oppos- ing religious parties. His Avife died in 1588, and he married again in a short time. His energy and activity of mind, like his bodily health, continued unabated till he was nearly 80 years of age, and he only ceased preaching in 1600. Among his Avorks are a treatise “De Hacreticis a civili magistratu puniendis,” an apology for the death of Ser- vetus; a Latin translation of the Ncav Tes- tament, first published in 1557; “Histoire des 6glises r^form^eS en France;” and a treatise “De Jure Magistratuum.” His “Poemata Juvenilia” were severely cen- sured for their impurity. Died, 1605. BIANCHINI, FRANCISCO, an Italian »6 Siniiicvsal ISiogrcapIiij. [bil I biaI archfeolofrist and astronomer, born at Yerona | in 1G62. He settled at Home at the age of 22, Avhere his acquirements soon made him the friend of the most eminent men. He made laborious explorations and drawings of many ancient monuments and remains; made astronomical observations, and under- took to draw a meridian line through Italy, which however after years of toil he had to leave incomplete. He was patronized by Pope Alexander YIII. and his two success- ors, Avas admitted to the French Academy of Sciences, visited Paris and Oxford, and died at Home in 1729. He edited the “Lives of the Homan Pontiffs” by Anastasius, and Avrote the first part of a “ Universal History founded on the Monuments of Antiquity;” an account of the Palace of the Caesars, &c. BIAS, one of the seven sages of Oreece, and a native of Priene, in Ionia ; celebrated for his practical knoAvledge and strict regard to justice. He flourished about 550 B.C., and died at a very advanced age. BICHAT, MARIE FRANQOIS XAVIER, an eminent French physiologist, was born in 1771. He Avent to Paris in 1793, and studied under Desault, Avho soon made him his friend and associate. He Avas an indefatigable student and observer, made very numerous experiments and discoveries in anatomy, worked hard bpth as teacher in his school of medicine and as author, and died in 1802. His great Avork is the“Anatomie generate appliqu6e a la physiologie et lamedecine.” He also wrote “ ilecherches physiologiques sur la vie et la mort,” “Traits des mem- branes,” and “Anatomie descriptive.” BICKEHSTAFF, ISAAC, a dramatic writer of the 18th century; author of “Love in a Village,” “Lionel and Clarissa,” &c. BICKEHSTETH, EDWARD, a church of England divine, and a prolific Avriter on religious topics, was born in 1786. His original destination Avas the law; but after practising for some years as an attorney at Norwich, he desired to enter the ministry, and obtained ordination from Bishop Bath- urst in 1815. Soon after Avards he Avas ap- pointed secretary to the Church Missionary Society in London, and at the same time became assistant minister to an episcopal chapel in Spitalfields. In 1830 he Avas pre- sented to the living of AVotton, in Hertford- shire, Avhere he laboured Avith great zeal and efficiency dOAvn to the period of his death, 28th February, 1850. Mr Bickersteth’s first AVork was his “ Help to the Study of the Scriptures ; ” and this Avas follOAved by many other useful works on divinity ; and on all occasions he exhibited himself as a most uncompromising opponent to Popery and Tractarianism. BIDDLE, John, a Socinian Avriter of con- siderable note in the time of Charles I. and during the CommoiiAvealth, and noAv regard- ed as the founder of English Unitarianism ; author of a “ Confession ot Faith concerning the Holy Trinity,” and other Avorks in de- fence of his principles. He Avas frequently prosecuted and imprisoned, and died of a feAmr caught in gaol in 1622. BIDLOO, GODFREY, a Dutch anatomist ; who after holding a professorship at the Hague, Avas appointed physician to William I III. of England, and became a few years later professor of anatomy at Leyden uni- versity. He published a fine collection of anatomical plates under the title of “Ana- tomia Corporis Humani,” &c. Born, 1619 ; died, 1713. BIGLAND, JOHN, a voluminous miscel- laneous writer, Avhose first publication did not appear till he Avas fifty years of age ; author of “A System of Geography and History,” Histories of Spain and England, Letters on English and French History, &c. Died, 1832, aged 82. BIGNON, JEROME, a learned French writer, born at Paris, 1589. The fame of his attainments led to his appointment as com- panion to the Dauphin, afterwards Louis XIII. In 1614 he Ausited Italy, and spent some time Avith Father Paul at Venice. He was afterAvards keeper of the king’s library, and was sometimes employed in political affairs. He published a “Discours de la ville de Rome,” a “ Trait6 de PClection du Pope,” “ Traite de Pexcellence des rois et du royaume de France,” &c. Died, 1656. BIGNON, L. P. EDOUARD, was born at Meillcraye, of a respectable family, and early entered on the diplomatic career as secretary of legation in SAvitzerland, and subsequently in Savoy and Prussia, and Avas made intendant of Berlin after the battle of Jena. Ambassador in Poland, both before and after the retreat from Moscoav, he ren- dered the most important services to the French army. He subsequently held many important offices, was a member of the chamber of deputies under the restoration, and was made peer of France in 1839. He Avrote, at the express desire of Napoleon, a “Hist07*y of French Diplomacy.” Born, 1771; died, 1810. BILDEHDYK, AViLLEM, a modern Dutch poet, born at Amsterdam in 1756 ; he was educated at Leyden and practised as an ad- vocate, but was driven from his country by the civil war, and lived abroad for tAventy years. Pai*t of the time he spent in England. He returned in 1806, and was made president of the Dutch Institute. Biklerdyk, though ranking among the chief poets of Holland, has little originality or imagination. Many of his Avorks are translations or imitations. Among these are two of the plays of So- phocles, and the “ Fingal ” of Ossian. Of his own Avorks the principal are the “ Love of Fatherland,” “Rural Life,” and his last Avork, the “ Destruction of the First AVorld.” Died, 1831. Bilderdyk’s second wife, CATHA- RINA AViLHELMiNA, was an intellectual and accomplished Avoman, author of two trage- dies, some poems, and a translation of Sou- thev’s “Roderic.” She died, 183P. BILLAUD-AWHENNES, JACQUES NICO- LAS, the son of a French advocate at Ro- chelle, AA'as educated at the same college as Fouch6, f^.nd proved himself one of the most violent tnd sanguinary characters of the French revolution. He bore a principal part in the murders and massacres Avliich folio Aved the destimction of the Bastille; voted immediate death to Louis XVI. ; and officiated as president of the ConA'ention on the 18th of Ocf., 1793. He was afterAvards deported to Cayenne, and subsisted on a H 97 bil] % Sinibersal ^lograpi^p. small pension allowed him by Pethion. Died at St Domingo, in 1819. BILLINGSLEY, Sir HENRY, was a native I of Canterbury, who, as a London tradesman, Required great wealth, and became lord mayor in 1597. He was educated at Oxford, and was assisted in mathematics by an ex- fri’ar of the Augustine order, to whom he had generously given shelter and support, and he was the first who published Euclid’s Elements in English. Sir H. Billingsley was one of the first members of the Society of Antiquaries. Died, 1616. BILLINGTON, ELIZABETH, the most ce- lebrated English female singer of her time. She was of German extraction, though born in England. Her popularity was equally great in England and on the continent, and remained undiminished to the close of her public career in 1809. Died, 1817. BILSON, Thomas, bishop of Winchester, in the reigns of Queen Elizabeth and James I. ; author of several theological treatises, and one of the translators of the Bible. He was made bishop of Worcester in 1596, and transferred the next year to the see of Win- chester. Bilson tooli a prominent part in the celebi’ated conference at Hampton Court in January, 1604. Born, 1536; died, 1616. IHNGHAM, JOSEPH, a learned divine of the church of England, was born at Wake- field in 1668. He was educated at Oxford, became fellow of University College, and graduated M.A. in 1691. Pour years later he became rector of Headbourne-Worthy near Winchester, and in 1712 rector of Ha- vant near Poi’tsmouth. His great work is entitled “ Origines Ecclesiastics, or the An- tiquities of the Christian Church.” It ap- peared in 10 vols. 8vo, between 1708—1722. He wrote several minor works, and died in 1723. BINGHAM, Sir George Ridout, major- general in the British army, was born in 1777. He entered the service in 1793, as an ensign in the 69th foot ; and progressively advanced in different regiments, till he be- came lieutenant-colonel of the 53rd, being present at the most important transactions in the Peninsula, for which services he was rewai'ded by knighthood. He afterwards had the charge of Buonaparte from England to St Helena, where he remained several years, and was promoted to the rank of major-general and colonel-commandant of the second rifle brigade. Died, January, 1833. BINGLEY, WILLIAM, miscellaneous writ- er, was born in Y^orkshire and educated at Cambridge. He was chiefly known as the author of “Animal Biography,” “Memoirs of British Quadrupeds,” &c. Died, at Lon- don, 1823. BION, a Greek pastoral poet: his poems, published with those of his friend and dis- ciple, jMoschus, are remarkable for simplicity and sweetness. He lived about 280 B.C. BIOT, JEAN Baptiste, a very eminent French mathematician, born at Paris in 1774. After a brilliant course of study lie was called to the chair of mathematics at the Central School at Beauvais, whence he removed in 1800 to the College of Prance, to hold the professorship of natural philosophy. [bib He was chosen by the Board of Longitudes to make observations along the English arc of the meridian, and for that purpose visited Great Britain in 1817. It was during that visit that Humboldt, Arago, and Biot met at Greenwich Observatory. Biot had previous- ly assisted in measuring the arc of the mei’i- dian extended through Spain. He was a member of the Prench Academy of Sciences, of the Institute, of the Legion of Honour, a foreign member of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh, and of many other scientiflc societies. He is especially cele- brated as the discoverer of the circular po- larization of light. Besides numerous me- moirs contributed to the Academy and to scientiflc journals, Biot wrote, “ Traits 616- men taire d’Astronomie Physique,” “ Trait 6 de Physique exp6rimentale et math6mati- que,” “ Recueil d.’Observations g^odesiques,” &c., &c. Died, 1862. BIRAGUE, Clement, an engraver on gems, said to have been the first discoverer of the art of engraving on diamonds. He was born at Milan, and flourished about the middle of the 16th century. BIRAGUE, RENE DE, a Milanese of noble family, who sought shelter in Prance from the vengeance of Lodovico Sforza, and be- came a cardinal and chancellor of Prance. He is infamously memorable as one of the authors of the massacre of St Bartholomew. Born, 1509; died, 1583. BIRCH, Thomas, originally a Quaker, but subsequently a divine of the Church of Eng- land. He was an industrious historian and biographer; took part in the English trans- lation of Bayle‘s great Critical and Historical Dictionary, and wrote, among many other works, a “ History of the Royal Society,” to which he was admitted in 1734, and of which he subsequently became secretary: “ Memoirs of the Reign of Queen Elizabeth,” &c. Born, 1705; died, 1766. BIRD, Edward (R. A.), an English painter, chiefly of familiar and domestic subjects, was a native of Wolverhampton, and settled early at Bristol. He was made, in 1813, historical painter to the Princess Charlotte. Among his works are “ Good News,” “ the Black- smith’s Shop,” “tliePield of Chevy Chase,” and the “ Surrender of Calais.” In later life he attempted subjects of a higher class, but not successfully. Born, 1772; died, 1819. BIRD, JOHN, an eminent mathematical instrument maker ; author of “ The Method of constructing Mural Quadrants,” &c. Died, 1766. BIRDE,W’'ILLIAM, an eminent musician in the reign of Elizabeth. He composed much sacred music ; and to him the fine composition “ Non nobis Domine ” is attributed. Birde was made organist to Queen Elizabeth in 1575. Born, 1543 ; died, 1623. BIREN, JOHN Ernest de, duke of Cour- land, who, though the son of a peasant, by his handsome person and address, obtained such influence over Anne, daughter of Peter I. and duchess of Courland, that when she ascended the throne of Russia, she committed the reigns of government to Biren,made him duke of Courland, and at Ihu' death, in 1740, left him regent of the empire. His adminis- tration was marked by extreme tyranny and btr] ^nib^rsal ISiograpIjt). [bis cruelty. He is said to have put to death 11,000 persons, and to have sentenced twice as many to exile. He was subsequently ban- ished to Siberia, was recalled by Peter III., and had his duchy restored to him by Catha- rine, in 1763, but six years afterwards he relinquished it in favour of his eldest son. Born, 1687 ; died, 1772. BIIIKBECK, GEORGE, M.T)., president of the London Mechanics’ Institute, was the son of a merchant and banker at Settle, in Yorkshire, where he was born in 1776. In his boyhood he displayed a strong inclination for those mechanical pursuits to which he afterwards became so devoted ; but his friends having determined that he should embrace the medical profession, he first studied for this object at Leeds, then re- moved to London to become a pupil of Dr Baillie, and subsequently went to Edinburgh to complete his education. At the age of twenty-one he was appointed professor of natural history in the Andersonian Institu- tion of Glasgow ; and having while there successfully established a mechanics’ class, he was induced, in 1822, to found the London Mechanics’ Institution in Chancery Lane ; to which society he generously lent £3000 for erecting a museum, lecture-room, &c. Of this institution Dr Birkbeck was elected president ; and from it nearly all the various mechanics’ institutes throughout Great Bri- tain have been established. As a physician, he enjoyed a considerable share of reputation, and as the promoter of mechanic arts, and the warm friend of the industrious artisan, no man could possibly be more generally or more justly esteemed. He also numbered among his circle of friends the most eminent scien- tific and literary men of the day. Died, Dec. 1st, 1841. BIRKENHEAD, Sir JOHN, a political writer of the 17th ceirtury ; several times imprisoned during the Commonwealth for writing in favour of the exiled king. Born, 1615 ; died, 1679. BIRON, Armand he Gontaut, Baron de, marshal of Franco, was born about 1524. He served as page to the queen of Navarre, and was early admitted to the service of the king of France. He took a prominent part in the civil wars of Huguenot and Catholic, and served at the battles of Dreux, St Denis, and Moncontour. He negotiated the peace of St Germains, and narrowly escaped at the massacre of St Bartholomew. He recovered Guienne and Languedoc from the Protest- ants, served in the Netherlands against the duke of Parma, and was one of the first to recognize Henry lY. as king. He distin- guished himself at the battle of Arques, the first siege of Paris, and the battle of Ivry, and was killed at the siege of Epernay in 1592. BIRON, Charles de Gontaut, Duke de, marshal of France, was son of the preceding, and was born about 1562. He entered the army and served at Arques, Ivry, and the sieges of Paris ; was made admiral of France in 1592, and marshal in 1594. He cared nei- ther for Catholic nor Protestant, and in- trigued with the Spanish court and the duke of Savoy against Henry lY. The king forgave him, but he continued to intrigiie against him, and at last was arrested and sent to the Bastille, and was there tried and beheaded, in 1602. BIRON, Aemaud Louts Gontaut, Duke de, at first known as the duke de Lauzun, was born about 1760; one of the most cele- brated men of the French revolution, re- markable at once for his amours, his attach- ment to liberty, and his military exploits. He served with La Fayette in America, and attached himself to the party of the duke of Orleans, on his return. In 1792 he was joined with Talleyrand in a mission to this country ; on his return, served under Rochambeau, in Flanders ; and perished by the gxxillotine at the end of 1793, on a charge of counter-revo- lution. He died stoically, ordering oysters, and drinking wine with the executioner. BISHOP, Sir Henry Rowley, an emin- ent modern English composer, was born in London in 1786, and pursued his musical studies under the direction of Bianchi. In 1806 some pieces which he wrote for the bal- let of “Tamerlane and Bajazet,” brought him into favourable notice ; but his first ori- ginal composition of note was the “ Circas- sian Bride,’’ which was received with great enthusiasm on its first appearance at Drury- lane in 1809, though the whole of the music perished in the great conflagration that de- stroyed that theatre the very day after its performance. His reputation obtained for him the ofldee of composer and director of the music of Covent Garden Theatre in 1810 ; and, during the fourteen years that he held it, he produced nearly sixty pieces of greateror less importance; many of which, such as “The Yintagers,” “ Guy Mannering,” “The Miller and his Men,’’ still keep possession of the stage. In 1826, after the success of Weber’s “ Oberon’’ at Covent Garden, he wrote “Alad- din ’’ for the rival house, but this composi- tion was received with such coldness by the public that he thenceforward withdrew from the theatre ; but, during the next thirty years, he gave to the world numerous songs, glees, and other vocal pieces, many of which enjoy even greater popularity than his larger and more ambitious performances. He also contributed to several valuable publications, especially the “Melodies of Various Na- tions,” the later volumes of Moore’s “ Irish Songs,” and the “ ScottKh Melodics,” pub lished by Mr George Thomson, the friend of Burns. He long held the office of director of the Concerts of Ancient Music, and for a short period was professor of music in the university of Edinburgh. Soon after Queen Yictoria’s accession he received the honour of knighthood, and at the time of his death he held the chair of music in the university of Oxford. His last days were clouded with disease, both mental and bodily, as well as by pecuniary difficulties, which, how'ever, were alleviated, if not removed, by the kindness of private friends and the generosity of the public. Died, 1855. BISSET, James, an ingenious artist and amusing writer, was born at Perth, in 1762, but settled early in life at Birmingham, where he established a museum and shop for curiosities, which he afterwards removed to Leamington. He had a remarkable facil- ity in writing rhymes ; and being ever ready to make his muse subserve the cause of 99 Biv] % SJiniicrsttl 30iograpl)p. [bla loyalty, or aid the progress of art, his works present a motley appearance, and are often droll and epigrammatic. His “ Guides,” “ Poetic Surveys,” “ Patriotic Clarions,” and “ Critical Essays,” Avere indebted for their notoriety to the j ingle of rhyme. Died, 1832. PIVAB, RODRIGO DIAS DE. [CID-l BLACK, JOSEPH, a celebrated chemist, AA^as born in France, in 1728. He was edu- cated at the universities of Glasgow and Edinburgh, attending at the former the chemical lectures of Dr Cullen. He gradu- ated in medicine, and in 175G, Avas named professor of anatomy, and lecturer on chem- istry at GlasgoAV. Here he acquired the friendship of Adam Smith. It Avas during his residence at Glasgow that he made and established his discovery of latent heat. In 1766 he became professor of chemistry at Edinburgh, a post Avhich he filled with great ability and success till his death. Black Avrote but little. Tlie most important of his papers is “ Experiments upon Magnesia, Alba, Quicklime, and other Alkaline Sub- stances.” Died, unmarried, in 1799. BLACKLQCK, THOMAS, a Scotch divine, poet, and miscellaneous writer ; author of “ The Graham,” an heroic poem ; “ Remarks on Civil Liberty,” &c. Born, 1721 ; died, 1791. BLACKMORE, Sir RICHARD, physician and poet, and the author of many works both in prose and verse, the principal of Avhich is his poem entitled “ Ci’eation.” He made the legends of Prince Arthur the subject of his first poem, and it became sufficiently popular, to pass quickly through three editions. Liv- ing in the time of Dryden, Pope, and other wits and satirists, to Avhom he Avas opposed in politics, he met with unmerciful ridicule ; yet he Avas by no means destitute of talent, and he sustained the reputation of a pious and conscientious man. The willing neglect of posterity, hoAvever, goes far to justify the ridicule of his contemporaries- Died, 1729. BLACKSTONE, Sir WILLIAM, author of the well-known “ Commentaries on the LaAvs of England,” was born in London, 1723 ; edu- cated at the Charterhouse, and at Oxford, where he instituted a course of lectures on the English constitution and laws, and in 1758 Avas named first Vinerian professor ; and after gaining great distinction as a lecturer on laAV, Avas made Solicitor-General, and was subsequently raised to the bench. He sat as judge in the Court of Common Pleas from 1770 till his death. Died, 1780. BLACKWELL, ALEXANDER and Eliza- beth, husband and Avife : the latter, in order to procure subsistence for her husband Avhile in prison for debt, published a “ Herbal” in two volumes, folio, with 500 plates, draAvn, engraved, and coloured by herself, all in the space of foxir years. The Avork succeeded, and her husband Avas liberated ; but he seemed doomed to be the sport of fortune ; for after having been invited to Stockholm, and pensioned by the king of SAveden, in con- sequence of his being the author of a Avork on agriculture Avhich attracted the notice of that monarch, he was charged Avith being concerned in a plot Avith Count Tessin for overturning the monarchy, tried, and be- headed, in 1747. BLACKWOOD, Sir HENRY, British ad- miral, Avas the sixth son of Sir John Black- Avood, hart., and was born in 1770. Having entered the naval service at the age of 11 years, he Avas present at the action off the Dogger Bank ; and on the commencement of hostilities Avith the French, in 1793, he became first lieutenant of the Invincible man-of-w^ar, in Avhich capacity he acted on the “glorious 1st of June,” 1794, Avith dis- tinguished bravery, and Avas in conseciuence promoted to the rank of commander. -In 1798, AAffien captain of the Brilliant, of 28 guns, he gallantly maintained a most un- equal combat, off the island of Teneriffe, Avith tAvo large French frigates, each of Avhich Avas nearly double his OAvn force, and beat them off. After ihis he Avas engaged in various services, as captain of the Penelope, of 36 guns, under Lords Keith and Nelson, Sir Sydney Smith, and other eminent men ; and it Avas OAving chiefly to liis skill and bi-avery that the Guillaume Tell, of SO guns, Avhich escaped from Lord Nelson at Aboukh’, was captured. The next scene of liis naval glory AVdS the ever-memorable battle of Trafalgar, Avhere he performed the most essential service, as captain of the Euryalus, and witnessed the death of his friend and heroic commander, Avhose last Avords to him Avere, “ God bless you, BlackAvood — I shall never see you more.” In 1806 he Avas ap- pointed to the command of the Ajax, of 80 guns, and joined Lord Collingwood’s fleet on the anniversary of the battle of Trafalgar. This, however, Avas a melancholy event, as the sequel proved ; for, during the night of the 14th of February, 1807, the Ajax Avas found to be on fire, and in a short time Avent dOAvn with half her crcAv; Sir Henry, like many others, being saved with the greatest difficulty. After this he commanded the Warspite, and Avas present at the blockades of Brest and Rochfort, and engaged in va- rious enterprises. In 1814, his Royal High- ness the duke of Clarence made him captain of the fleet, and he was appointed to bring over the crowned heads from France to this country; on Avhich occasion he was created a baronet, and promoted to the rank of rear- admiral. In 1819, Sir Henry Avas appointed commander-in-chief of the naval forces in the East Indies, from Avbich station he speedily returned ; and in 1827 the lord high admiral raised him to the command at Chat- ham. He died in December, 1832; leaving behind him the character of a brave, skilful officer, and an amiable man. BLAINVILLE, HENRI MaRIE DUCROTAY DE, a very distinguished French anatomist and zoologist, was born at Arques in 1778. After leading a desultory life till 1805, liis career was then decided by his interest in Cuvier’s lectures, and he applied himself to the study of medicine. He assisted Cuvier both in his experiments and lectures, Avas chosen professor of zoology and physiology in 1812, and in 1832 succeeded his master as professor of comparative anatomy at the Jardin dcs Plantes. He visited England in 1816, Avas a member of the Academy of Sci- ences of Paris, of the Royal and Geological Societies of London, and of many other sci- entific bodies. He contributed largely to scientific journals, and Avrotca large number 100 bla] ^ 10togrnpl)in [bla of separate works: among which are his “ Osteographie,” “ Manuel de Malacologie,” “ Principes d’Auatomie Comparee,” “ Cours de Physiologic,” &c. Died, 1850. BLAIll, Hugh, an eminent Scotch divine ; author of a “ Dissertation on the Poems of Ossian,” “ Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres,” and “ Sermons,” in five volumes, which were long greatly esteemed. Born at Edinburgh, 1718 ; died, 1800. BLAIll, JOHN, L.L.D., author of the well- known Chronological Tables and of “ Lec- tures on the Canon of the Old Testament; ” was a prebendai’y of Westminster, fellow of the Royal Society and of the Society of An- tiquaries, and teacher of mathematics to the duke of York. His chronology first appear- ed in 1754. Died, 1782. BLAIR, Robert, a Scotch divine; au- thor of the well-known and admired poem “ The Grave.” He was parish minister of Athelstaneford during the last 15 years of his life. Born, 1700 ; died, 1746. BLAKE, Robert, the great English ad- miral, was born at Bridgewater in 1598. He was educated at Oxford, and lived in retire- ment till 1640, when he became a member of parliament. He raised and commanded a troop in the civil war, took Taunton for the parliament, and was made governor of the town. His naval service began in 1649 with the pursuit of Prince Rupert and the royalist fleet, which he ultimately destroyed. After recovering Guernsey and Jersey, he was made councillor of state. His greatest achievements were, however, in the w'ar with the Dutch, which broke out in 1652, and lasted till 1654. He several times de- feated Y"an Tromp, was once defeated by him, paralyzed the commerce of the Dutch, and dispersed their herring fleet in the North Sea. He afterwards commanded with distinguished success in the Mediterranean. In 1656 he captured a Spanish plate-fleet at the island of Teueriife. The thanks of par- liament were voted to him on this as on several former occasions. He Avas a man of singular uprightness, honesty, and courage, totally free from selfishness and worldly am- bition, and served his country with a pure heart. Died, on his voyage to England in August, 1657. He had a public funeral at Westminster Abbey, but his body Avas re- moved at the Restoration. BLAKE, William, poet, painter, and en- graver, was born at London in 1757. Dreamy and visionary even in childhood, he Avas ap- prenticed to an engraver, and Avas employed in making drawings from old monuments in Westminster Abbey and other churches. He aftei'Avards studied at the Royal Acade- my. In 1789 he published his “ Songs of In- nocence,” written, printed, and illustrated by himself Avith the assistance of his wife. He became the associate of Priestley, God- win, Mary Wollstonecraft, and other cele- brated freethinkers of the day, and Avent further than they did in practical defiance of the usages of society. He Avent on pub- lishing many strange poems, not Avithout flashes of truth and beauty, but mostly Avild, obscure, and perplexing. Aboiit 1800 he settled at Felpham in Sussex, Avhere he had the society of Hayley. After a few years he returned to London, continued to see visions and produce poems and designs, began to study Dante at the age of 68, and died in August, 1827. Among his works are “ Songs of Experience,” considered, w'iththe “ Songs of Innocence,” some of his best productions ; “The Gates of Paradise,” “Jerusalem,” “ Inventions to the Book of Job,” and de- signs to Dante’s Vision. '1 he “ Life of W. Blake, Avith Selections from his Poems and other Writings,” by Gilchrist, Avith Illus- trations from his Works and a Catalogue of his Drawings, by Mr Rossetti, was published in 1863. BLANCHARD, Eranqois, a celebrated French aeronaut, born in 1738, Avas distin- guished from his youth by his mechanical inventions. After making his first aerostatic voyage in 1784, he crossed the Channel from Dover to Calais, 1785 ; for Avhich exploit he was reAvarded by the king of France Avith 12,000 francs, and a pension of 1200 fr. He first made use of a parachute in London, in 1785; went through various countries on the Continent, exhibiting his aeronautic skill ; visited America with the same object ; and, returning in 1798, ascended at Rouen with 16 persons in a large balloon, and de- scended at a place 15 n.iles distant. He died in 1809. His Avife, Madame Bl.4n- CHARD, continued to make aerial voyages ; but in June, 1819, having ascended from Tivoli, in Paris, her balloon took fire, at a considerable height, OAving to some fire- Avorks which she carried Avith her, the car fell, and the hapless aeronaut Avas dashed to pieces. BLANCHARD, JACQUES, an eminent and indefatigable French painter. He spent several yeai’s at Rome and Venice, studying particularly the Avorks of Titian. Born, 1600; died, 1638. BLANCHARD, Laman, a graceful pe- riodical Avriter, was born at Great Yarmouth in 1803. His father having removed to London when he Avas five years of age, he received his education at St Olave’s School, Lambeth ; and here Avas laid the ground- work of those literary tastes and habits Avhich distinguished him through life. His first occupation Avas that of reader at Cox and Baylis’ printing office in Great Queen Street ; in 1827 he became secretary to the Zoological Society ; and in 1831 editor of the Monthly Magazine. He subsequently became con- nected Avith the True Sun, the Constitutional, the Courier, the Court Journal, and the Ex- amine;!’ ; and aa^s a constant contributor to the lighter periodicals of the day. Never Avas there a Avriter Avith a readier pen ; but though radiant Avith wit, it was never dipped in gall: and though his political opinions Avere strongly marked and maintained through good and evil report, his entire freedom from party bigotry and prejudice gained him the respect even of his most decided opponents. But a series of domestic calamities crushed his buoyant spirit to the earth, and in a fit of temporary insanity he committed suicide, Feb. 15, 1845. A collected edition of his Avritings, Avith a memoir of the autlior by Sir Bulwer Lytton, AA^as published in 1846. BLANCHE, of CASTILLE, queen of Louis j 101 bla] fyij) ^nit)^rsal [blo VIII. of France, was daughter of Alfonso IX. , king of Castille, and was born about 1186. She was married to Louis in 1200, was crowned with him in 1223, and on his death three years later became regent during the minority of her son Louis IX., displaying great energy and addi’ess as a ruler. She opposed the departure of Louis for the cru- sade, but accompanied him to Cluni, and carried on the government in his stead. His long absence and the rumour of his intention to settle in the Holy Land caused her great sorrow, and she died in 1252. BLANE, Sir GILBERT, hart., M.D., was born in Ayrshire in 1749, and, after render- ing important services while attending Lord Rodney on the West India station, became successively physician to the fleet, to the Prince of Wales, and to St Thomas’s Hos- pital, and president of the Navy Medical Board. He was a fellow of the Royal So- ciety, member of the French Institute, and was, in 1812, ci’eated a baronet. His princi- pal work is his “ Elements of Medical Logic.” He died in June, 1834. BLANTYRE, Lord, was born in Edin- burgh in 1775, and entered the army in his 19th year. He served in the Peninsular war, at the conclusion of which he received public thanks for his services, and after- wards became lord-lieutenant of Renfrew- shire. He was residing with his family at Brussels during the struggle of the Belgians for a separate government; when looking out from a window, to see the Dutch troops who were advancing into the park, he was struck in the neck by a musket-ball, and the effusion of blood was so great that he died a few moments after. Sept. 1830. BLAYNEY, Dr BENJAMIN, an English divine and biblical critic ; royal professor of Hebrew, at Oxford, and author of a ‘‘ Dis- sertation on the Seventy Weeks of Daniel,” &c. Died, 1801. BLESSINGTON, MARGARET POWER, Countess of, celebrated for her beauty, ac- complishments, and iiterary productions, was born in the county of Waterford in 1789. At the early age of 15 she contracted an ill- fated marriage with Captain Farmer, and soon after his death the earl of Blessington ; sought and obtained her hand in 1818. After her marriage she passed several years abroad, and formed an acquaintance with Lord By- ron, Avhich ripened into intimacy, and en- abled her to publish one of her most inter- esting works, her “ Conversations with Lord Byron.” Soon after her liusband’s death in 1829, she fixed her residence in London. Her house became the centre-point of every variety of talent; and there were few liter- ary celebrities, native or foreign, who did not share in the “ feast of reason and the flow of soul,” for which Gore House will be long remembered. Lady Blessington’s con- tributions to literature were at once nu- merous and diversified. Besides the “ Con- versations ” above mentioned, she published many novels, besides several works full of personal anecdote, epigram, sentiment, and description, such as ‘‘The Idler in Italy,” “ The Idler in France,” &c. For many years she edited the far-famed annuals, “The Book of Beauty,” and the “Keepsake.” Died at Paris, Aug. 1849. BLIGH, William, commander of the ship “ Bounty,” was born in Kent in 1753. He accompanied Captain Cook in his third voy- age, and in 1787 was appointed to the com- mand of the “ Bounty ” and sent to convey bread-fruit and other plants from the South Seas to the West Indies. Having taken the cargo on board at Tahiti, he sailed again in April, 1789. In a few days the mutiny broke out, caused probably by Bligh’s harshness and tyranny, and he with 18 companions were cast adrift in an open boat. After an extraordinary voyage they reached England. Bligh was afterwards made governor of New South Wales, but in less than two years his rigorous and arbitrary conduct made it ne- cessary to deprive him. Died at London, 1817. BLIZARD, Sir WILLIAM, a surgeon and anatomist of considerable eminence, "was born in 1742. During a long life of profes- sional activity and experience he main- tained a high reputation ; and was for many years professor of anatomy to the Royal College of Surgeons, and a fellow of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies. He Avas also the author of several Avorks, viz., “ Sug- gestions for the Improvements of Hospitals,” “ Reflections on Police,” &c. Died, at the great age of 92, in Sept., 1835. BLOCH, Marcus Eliezer, an ingenious naturalist and physician, and a Jew by birth, Avas born at Anspach, of mean parentage ; but entering into the service of a physician, he studied medicine, anatomy, and natural history with great success, and became par- ticularly eminent in the last-named science. His “ Ichthyology,” produced at Berlin in 1 785, at the expense of the Avealthiest princes of Germany, is a magnificent national Avork. Born, 1723; died, 1799. BLOCK, Joanna, a Dutch-woman whose singular talents in cutting landscapes, flow- ers, portraits, &c., out of paper, entitle her to rank as an artist of no mean skill, so true Avere her Avorks to nature. Born, 1650; died, 1715. BLOEMART, ABRAHAM, a Dutch histo- rical and landscape painter, whose brilliant colouring and inventive poAvers hardly com- pensate for his mannerism. Born, 1565; died, 1647. BLOEMART, CORNELIUS, SOU of the pre- ceding, Avho became eminent as an engraver, and may be regarded as the founder of a new school, remarkable for the purity and softness of the burin. Born, 1603 ; died, 1680. BLOMEFIELD, FRANCIS, topographical historian, Avas a native of Norfolk. He Avas born in 1705, educated at Cambridge, entered the church, and became in 1729 rector of Fresfield, his native place. His great Avork is the “ Topographical History of the County of Norfolk,” in tiAe vols. folio; the last tAvo being by another hand. The author Avas also printer and publisher of his oavu book, and the first part appeared in 1739. Died, 1751. BLOMFIELD, CHARLES JAMES, Bishop of London, Avas born, in 1786, at Bury St Edmunds, AA'here his hither AA’as a teacher. % Jzcto Sliuijcrsal IBiograpl^s* [blu BLO] After atteudinj}; tlie grammar-school of his native town for eight years, he removed to Cambridge, and earned great distinction in the field of classical literature. After being admitted to priest’s orders he was presented to the rectory of Quarrington in 1810, and the same year he published his edition of the “Prometheus” of JBschylus, which at once marked him as a scholar of the first rank. This was followed by various editions of the classic authors, and led to his being appointed in succession rector of Chesterford, rector of St Botolph’s, Bishopsgate, the richest living in the diocese of London, bishop of Chester in 1824, and bishop of London in 1828, From that period till his retirement, in 1856, he was the most conspicuous member of the English prelacy. In all the questions affect- ing the status of the clergy and the doctrines of the church he took a most active part; but, perhaps, he will be best remembered for the zeal with which he devoted himself to provide church accommodation for the thou- sands of neglected persons who swarmed in all the large parishes of his diocese. Under his auspices more than two hundred addi- tional churches were built, to most of which schools and savings-banks are attached. In 1856 the bishop’s health had become so infirm that he could no longer attend to his duties, and in compliance with his own requisition an Act of Parliament was passed enabling him to resign his see, and to have an allow- ance of £5000 a-year, together with the use of Fulham Palace for life. Died, 1857. BLOMFIELD, EDWARD VALENTINE, a distinguished classical scholar, was the bro- ther of Dr Blomfield, bishop of London, and was born in 1788. He received his education at Caius College, Cambridge, where, besides other prizes, he gained, in 1809, a medal for his beautiful ode, “ In Desiderium Porsoni.” In 1812 a fellowship in Emanuel College was conferred on him. In the following year he visited Germany, and acquired an intimate knowledge of the German language. On his return to England he published in the “ Musmum Criticum, or Cambridge Classical Researches,” remarks on German literature. He translated Matthiae’s Greek Grammar, and began a translation of Schneider’s Greek and German Lexicon. Didd, 1816. BLOND, JACaUES CHRISTOPHE LE, a French miniature painter, and author of a treatise entitled “ 11 Colorito,” on a method of engraving in colours. Born, 1670; died, 1741. BLONDEL, the minstrel and favourite of Richard Cocur de Lion ; whom he is said to have discovered in his German dungeon, by singing beneath its walls the first part of a song of their joint composition. BLONDUS, FLAVIUS, or FLAVIO BlONDO, an Italian archaeologist, was born at Forli in 1388. He was secretary to Pope Eugenius IV. and three of his successors, and applied himself chiefiy to the study of the topography and monuments of ancient Rome, and the government of the republic. His principal works are “Roma instaurata,” “ Roma tri- umphans,” and “ Itali® illustratae libri tres.” Died at Rome, 1463. BLOOD, Thomas, Colonel, a bold and desperate Irishman, originally an officer in Cromwell’s army, and notorious in English history for his daring attempt on the life of the duke of Ormond, and for his theft of the crown and regalia from the Tower. For some reason, never yet explained, this des- perado was not only pardoned by Charles II., but received from him a pension of £500 per annum. Died, 1680. BLOOMFIELD, ROBERT, an English poet, was the son of a poor tailor at Honington, Suffolk, and was himself a shoemaker. His principal work is a poem, entitled “ The Farmer’s Boy,” which pleasingly depicts the scenes the author had witnessed while in that humble station, and displays consider- able genius; his subsequent publications, mostly short descriptive poems or lyrics, not rising above the level of rural and familiar life, still charm by their sincerity and sim- plicity. The “ Farmer’s Boy ” obtained very great popularity, and was translated into French and Italian, and even, by an English scholar, into Latin. Although brought for- ward and patronized by Capel Lofft and the duke of Grafton, the modest poet had a large share of the ills which flesh is heir to, and his latter years were embittered by Avant, ill-health, and consequent dejection. Born, 1766; died, 1823. BLOUNT, Sir HENRY, a traveller through Turkey, Syria, and Egypt; author of a “ Voyage to the Levant.” He was knighted by Charles I., whose cause he supported through the civil war, and w'as afterwards employed by Cromwell on some important affairs, and was rewarded Avith a commis- sionership of trade. Born, 1602; died, 1682. BLOUNT, Sir THOMAS POPE, bart., eldest son of the above ; member of several parliar ments, and appointed commissioner of ac- counts at the revolution ; author of “ Censura celebriorum Auctorum,” &c. Born, 1649; died, 1697. BLOUNT, Charles, youngest brother of the preceding, Avas born in 1654. He at- tained great notoriety by a series of attacks on revealed religion and popular beliefs. His most celebrated Avork Avas “The tvvo first books of Philostratus concerning the Life of Apollonius of Tyana,” Avhich ap- peared in 1680. He wrote an excellent treatise on the Liberty of the Press, “ Anima Mundi,” “ Great is Diana of the Ephesians,” &c. Maddened by the refusal of his deceased wife’s sister to marry him, he shot himself, 1693. BLOW, JOHN (Mus. D.), an English mu- sician and composer of great ability ; author of anthems, services, &c., and of some secular compositions, Avhich are published collective- ly under the title of “Amphion Anglicus.” Died, 1708. BLUCHER, Field - marshal Lebrecht VON, a distinguished Prussian general, whose impetuous intrepidity and eagerness to attack the enemy gained him the familiar appellation of “Marshal Forward.” He entered the Swedish service Avhen quite a youth, and in the first campaign Avas made prisoner by the Prussians, whom he after- Avards joined, and rose to the rank of cap- tain ; but being discontented with the pro- motion of other officers over his head, he obtained his discharge from the Great Fre- 103 BLu] 'U igeb) ^nitiersal 13icigrapl)n» [boc derick who dismissed him. with the pithy remark, that “he might go to the devil if he pleased,” and he afterwards lived many years in retirement. Being recalled by his successor. King Frederick William, he was made majoi*-general after the battle of Ley- stadt, in 1794 ; and commanded the cavalry at the battle of Jena, which decided for a time the fate of the Prussian monarchy. AVhen Prussia entered into the coalition against Napoleon, in 1813, our hero, then 70 years old, was made general of the centre of the allied army; distinguished himself at Liitzen and Leipsic, pursued the flying French across the Rhine, and, after a year of obstinate conflict in France, headed the right wing of the allied army under the walls of Paris, at the time of Napoleon’s abdication in 1814. In England, which he visited with the allied sovereigns, he was received with enthusiasm. Being re-invested Avith the command of the Prussian army during the Hundred Days, he was defeated by Napoleon at Ligny, on June 16, 1815; on which occa- sion he was unhorsed, and charged over by both the French and Prussian cavalry. Marshal Grouchy Avas commissioned by Na- poleon to push Blucher’s retreat, and check his junction Avith the British army, which Wellington required. But having deceived Grouchy, by leaving a body of his troops to mask the operation, he retrograded unmo- lested, by a skilful and dangerous flank movement ; and his advanced division, under BuIoav, arrived at Waterloo at five o’clock, just as the Avhole reserved eliie of the French army Avas advancing in dense column to make their last desperate effort to break through the British squares. This fresh flank attack on the advancing column con- tributed greatly to decide the victory, and Blucher arrived in time to participate in the pursuit. Blucher’s conduct afterwards Avas generally pronounced by the liberals at Paris, especially as regarded the bridge of •Tena and the spoliation of the Museum, vin- dictive and illiberal ; but it could not be ex- pected that he should have had any regard for the glories of the French capital. He Avas a rough and fearless soldier; brave, honest, and free ; beloved by his comrades, and a sworn foe to the enemies of his coun- try. Born at Rostock, 1742; died, at his estate in Silesia, 1819, aged 77. BLUM, Robert, German politician, mem- ber of the parliament of Frankfort, was born at Cologne in 1807. His thirst for knoAvledge showed itself from his earliest years, and notwithstanding the pressure of difficulties and hardships, he made considerable attain- ments, and in 1832 became conductor of several journals at Leipsic. He distinguished himself as an earnest opponent of the super- stition displayed in connection with the Holy Coat of Treves, in 1844. But it was not till 1848 that he became known as a politician. In March of that year he Avas elected member of the parliament of Frank- fort, in which he was leader of the party of the Left. On the bi’eaking out of the insur- rection at Vienna in October he hastened thither to support the movement by his elo- quence. He Avas, however, soon after ar- rested by the Austrian government, tried by court martial, and shot. His death caused a profound sensation not only in Germany, but throughout Europe. BLUMAUER, ALOYS, a German satirical poet ; author of a “ Travesty of the jEneid,” &c. Born, 1755; died, 1798. BLUMENBACH, JOIIANN FBIEBEICH, a distinguished German physiologist and com- parative anatomist, Avas born at Gotha in 1752. He became professor of medicine, librarian and keeper of the museum, at the university of Gottingen, in 1778. He made two visits to England, and Avas admitted to the French Academy of Sciences. His principal Avorks are “ Institutiones Physio- logies,” which was translated into English by Dr Elliotson ; “ Handbuch der verglei- chenden Anatomic;” an essay on the A^a- rieties of the Human Race; and works on Embryology and the Bones of the Human Body. He also published a description of the large collection he had formed of skulls of different races. Died, 1840. BOABDIL, or ABOUABOULA, the last Moorish king of Granada ; he Avas expelled for the last time from Granada by Ferdi- nand of Castile and Aragon, in 1491 ; and afterwards lived in Africa, Avhere he Avas killed in battle in the service of the king of Fez. BOADEN, JAMES, dramatic author and critic. His plays are numerous, but Ave believe there is not one of them that now keeps possession of the stage. Far more important are his dramatic memoirs. In them he has left, probably, the best record that the Avorld can noAv hope to have of John Kemble, Mrs Siddons, Mrs Jordan, and Mrs Inchbald. His “ Inquiry into the Au- thenticity of the various Pictures and Prints of Shakespeare,” and a tract on “ the Son- nets of Shakspeare,” are also valuable works. Born, 1762 ; died, 1839. BOADICEA, or BOUDICEA, a British heroine, the widOAV of Prasutagus, and queen of the Iceni. Having been igiiomi- niously treated by the Romans, she headed an insurrection against them, attacked their settlementSj and reduced London to ashes ; but being at length utterly defeated by Suetonius Paulinus, she is said by Tacitus to have put an end to her life by poison, A.D. 61. BOCCACIO, Gioa'ANNi, the celebrated Italian novelist, Avas the son of a Florentine merchant, but Avas born at Paris, in 1313. His passion for literature led him to aban- don first commerce and next the study of laAv. He spent some years at Naples, and while there, in 1341, fell in love with a beautiful girl, a natural daughter of* the king of Naples, for Avhom he Avrote several of his works, and whom he named “ Fiam- metta.” He was afterwards patronized by Queen Joanna, and for her as much as for his “ Fiammetta ” is said to have Avritten his chief work, the “ Decamerone.” On his father’s death he returned to Florence, Avhere he aa^s greatly honoured, and sent on several public embassies. Amongst others, he Avas sent to Padua to eommunicate to Petrarch the tidings of his recall to Florence. He gained the friendship of the illustrious poet, and enjoyed it through life. Boccacio, J 104 Boc] ^ i^ctD Silufaersal IBiograpi^T?. [boe like Petrarch, contributed greatly to tlie revival of the study of classical literature, spent much time and money in collecting manuscripts, and vras the first to bring into Italy from Greece copies of the Iliad and the Odyssey. A solemn message from a dying monk, about 1361, deeply impressed Boccacio, and led to a remarkable reformation in his manner of life. He was chosen by the Plorentines to occupy the chair which was established in 1373, for the exposition of the “ Divina Commedia.” In the following year he had to mourn the loss of his master and friend Petrarch ; and after some months of broken health, he died at Certaldo, in De- cember, 1375. The “ Decamerone,” on which his fame rests, is a collection of a hundred tales, full of liveliness and humour, but often licentious and indecent. The book was published about 1352, and after two cen- turies was condemned by two popes and by the Council of Trent, and attempts Avere made to improve and purify it, but unsuc- cessfully. Boccacio wrote “La Teseide,” imitated by Chaucer, and several other poems and romances, besides many works in Latin. BOCCAGE, MARIA ANNE DU PERDU, a French poetess ; author of “ Paradis,” &c. She was much praised by her contemporaries, yet she Avas little more than a clever versi- fier, and her works are imitations or trans- lations. Born, 1710; died, 1802 BOCCALINI, TraJANO, an Italian satirist ; author of the “ Political Touchstone,” a Satire on the Spanish government, &c. His Avritings gave much offence to the Spanish court, but there is no ground for the story that it caused him to be murdered. He died at Venice, 1613. BOCCHERINI, LUIGI, a celebrated Italian musical composer, pensioned for his merit by the king of Prussia, and patronized by the king of Spain. Born, 1740 ; died, 1805. BOCCOLD, JOHN.' [LEYDEN, JOHN of.] BOCHART, SAMUEL, a French Protestant theologian, Avas born at Rouen in 1559, studied at Sedan and Leyden, and became pastor at Caen. He obtained much reputa- tion by his public conference witli the Jesuit Veron in 1629. He visited Stockholm with Huet in 1652, on the invitation of Queen Christina, and died at Caen in 1661. He wrote several learned works, among Avhich are, — “ De Paradiso Terrestri,” “ Geographia Sacra,” and Hierozoicon.” BODE, CHRISTOPH AUGUST, a learned German linguist and critic ; who edited the New Testament in Ethiopic, all the Evangelists in Persian, St MattheAV in Arabic, &c. Born, 1723 ; died, 1798. BODE, JOHANN Elert, a German astro- nomer, Avas born at Hamburg in 1747. At an early age he became assistant to Busch, and in 1772 was called to Berlin by Frederick II. One of his best works is the “ Anleitung zur 5 Kenntniss des gestirnten Himmels,” which appeared in 1768, and has passed through more than tAventy editions. He published also a Celestial Atlas, Astronomi- cal Annals, &c., and was a member of the principal scientific societies of Europe. The *o-called “ law of the planetary distances,” usually called “ Bode’s law,” was first sug- gested by Professor Titius, of "Wittenberg. Died, 1826. BODE, JOHANN Joachim Christoph, a German miscellaneous Avriter and translator, born at Brunswick, 1730. He Avas origin- ally a rriusician in a Hanoverian regiment ; he then became a bookseller, and finally rose to be privy councillor to the Landgrave of Hesse Darmstadt. He translated into Ger- man, Sterne’s “Tristram Shandy” and “ Sentimental Journey,” Fielding’s “ Tom Jones,” Goldsmith’s “ Vicar of Wakefield,” Montaigne’s “ Essays,” &c., Avith consider- able taste and judgment. Died, 1793. BODLEY, Sir THOMAS, a native of Exe- ter, and educated partly at Geneva and partly at Oxford. He Avas on several occa- sions employed on embassies by Queen Eli- zabeth, and Avas ambassador at the Hague about nine years ; but he is chiefly remem- bered for having rebuilt the University Li- brary of Oxford, and bequeathed his fortune to its support and augmentation ; whence it is called the Bodleian Library. He Avas knighted by James I. Born, 1544; died, 1612. BODMER, JOHANN JACOB, critic and historian, Avas born at Zurich in 1698. He is distinguished for the part he took in con- junction Avith his friend Breitinger, in ex- posing the artificial and lifeless state of German literature in his time. The contra- versy Avhich he thus gave rise to, in Avhich Gottsched, then held as the patriarch of German literature, obstinately opposed him, led the way to a thorough reformation, and the rise of a real living, national literature. He Avas appointed professor of history at Zurich in 1725, and held the chair for 50 years. He published two collections of the “ Minnesinger,” translated Homer and Mil- ton into German, and Avrote a poem entitled the “ Noachide.” Died, 1783. BODONI, GIGAANNI BATTISTA, the cele- brated Italian printer, was born at Saluzzo in 1740. At the age of 18 he Avent to Rome, and got employment in the printing-office of the Px'opaganda. He mastered several oriental languages, and acquitted himself well of the tasks entrusted to him. Sorrow for the loss of his friend Ruggieri, the head of the office, who committed suicide, drove him from Rome. In 1768 he settled at Parma, and gained Avide reputation by the beautiful Avorks that issued from his press. In 1789 he was invited to Rome, but the duke of Parma, to detain him, allowed him to set up his press in the palace. From that ducal printing-office were sent forth the magnificent editions of Hoi'aCe, Virgil, Tacitus, Tasso, and last of all, Homer, on Avhich his fame chiefly rests. He presented, in 1810, a copy of the Homer, printed on vellum, to Napoleon at St Cloud. He re- fused all invitations to quit Parma, and died there in 1813. BOECE, HECTOR, or BOETHIUS, a Scot- tish historian, born at Dundee about 1465. He A\ms educated at Aberdeen and the university of Paris, held the chair of philo- sophy at the latter, and Avas afterwards principal of King’s College, Aberdeen. He Avas a correspondent of Erasmus. He Avrote a “ History of Scotland ” in Latin, which appeared in 1526, and obtained him a pension from the king : and “ Lives of the Bishops of Aberdeen.” The History is praised more for its style than for its matter, the author sharing in the credulity of his age. Died, about 1536. BOEHM, or BOEHMEN, JACOB, the cele- brated German theosophist, w^as born in 1575. He was apprenticed to a shoemaker, and settled to practise his trade at Gorlitz. He was of a serious and truthful disposition, studied the Scriptures diligently, acquired some notions of chemistry and natural science, saw visions, as he believed, and in his numerous writings gave utterance to many profound spiritual truths mixed with much that was eccentric and extravagant. He gained many disciples, and was the object of persecution by the clergy. His first work, “ Aurora,” appeared in 1612. Among his other works are ‘‘ De tribus Principiis,” “Threefold Life of Man,” “ De signatura Rerum,” “Mysterium Magnum,” &c. In England his views were adopted by John Pordage, and to some extent by Henry More. His works have been frequently republished. Died, 1624. BOERHAAVE, HERMANN, the great physician, was born near Leyden in 1668. He was educated at the university of Ley- den, and was destined by his father for the church ; but at the age of 22 he applied himself to the study of medicine under Drelincourt. He began lecturing in 1701, and was eight years later appointed profess- or of medicine and botany. The chairs of practical medicine and chemistry were afterwards assigned to him, and he filled them with the greatest distinction. He became rector of the university, and was admitted to the French Academy of Sciences, and in 1730 to the Royal Society of London. He enjoyed a reputation almost unp^aral- lelled, his system was generally adopted, and patients went or wrote to him from all parts of Europe. His character was Avith- out a stain, and the esteem of his felloAv- townsmen was strikingly shoAvn on his re- covery from a serious illness in 1723, by a general illumination. His fame rests prin- cipally on his “ Institutiones Medic®,” published in 1708, translated into all Eu- ropean languages and into Arabic, and commented on by Haller ; and his “ Aphor- ism! de eognoscendis et curandis morbis,” also translated as widely and commented on by Van Swieten. Among his other works are “ Index Plantarum qu® in horto acade- mico Lugduno-Batavo reperiuntur,” and several fine orations and discourses. Died, 23rd September, 1738. BOETHIUS, ANICniS MANLIUS TOR- auATUS Severinus, a Roman philosopher, whose virtues, services, honours, and tragical end, all combine to render his name memor- able, was born A.D. 470 ; studied at Rome and Athens ; Avas profoundly learned ; and filled the highest offices under the govern- ment of Theodoric the Goth. He was three times consul, and was long the oracle of his sovereign and the idol of the people ; but his strict integrity and inflexible justice raised up enemies in those Avho loA®d ex- tortion and oppression, and he at last fell a victim to their machinations. He Avas falsely accused of a treasonable correspond- ence with the court of Constantinople, and after a long and rigorous confinement at Pavia, was executed in 524. His “ Consola- tions of Philosophy,” written in prison, abounds in the loftiest sentiments clothed in the most fascinating language. This treatise was one of the most widely read books in the middle ages, and has been translated into many languages. Alfred the Great translated it into Saxon. BOETTCHER, JOHANN FRIEDRICH, an alchemist, who, in making vain alchemical attempts, Avas fortunate enough to discover, about 1702, the mode of making the famed and valued Dresden poi’celain. Died at JN^0iss0ii 1719 BOGDANOVICH, Hippolytus Theo- DOROVICH, a Russian poet ; editor of the St Petersburg Courier, and author of “ Dus- henka,” a romantic poeih ; “ Historical Picture of Russia,” &c. He filled various official situations under the government of Catharine, and was also employed as a diplomatist. Born, 1743; died, 1803. BOGUE, David, a dissenting minister of considerable acquirements ; pastor of a congregation at Gosport, Hants, Avhere he also directed the education of young men destined for the Christian ministry, in con- nection with the Independents. He is con- sidered as the father of the London Mis- sionary Soeiety, and he also contributed greatly to the formation of the British and Foreign Bible Society. He wrote an “ Essay on the Divine Authority of the New Testa- ment,” a “ History of the Dissenters,” &c. Born, 1749; died, 1825. BOHEMOND, first prince of Antioch, was son of Robert Guiscard, and distinguished himself in the first crusade in 1096. He be- sieged and took Antioch, and Avas made prince. Besieged by the Saracens, he com- pletely defeated them : but soon after was captured, and remained their prisoner tAvo years. He subsequently visited Europe, married a daughter of the king of France, and got the emperor to acknowledge his title. Died in Italy, 1111. BOHLEN, Peter von, a German Orient- alist, Avas born in 1796. He Avas born of poor parents, and grcAV up without educa- tion, but after passing through a series of strange vicissitudes, he became a student at the Johanneum at Hamburg, and after- Avards at Halle, Bonn, and Berlin. He Avas then appointed to teach the oriental lan- guages at the university of Konigsberg,where he was named professor in 1828. He visited England twice, and after his second visit did not return to his post on account of failing health. He was author of “ Das alte Indien mit besonderer Rilcksicht auf Aegyp- ten,” of a commentary on the Arabian poet Motenabbi, &c. He also Avrote sever- al articles on oriental subjects for the “ Penny Cyclop®dia.” Died, at Halle, 1840. BOHUN, Edmund, a political Avriter of note in the reigns of James II. and AVilliam III. ; author of a “ Defence of King Charles II. ’s Declaration,” a “ Geographical Dic- tionary,” “Life of Bishop JeAvell,” &c. Ho was living at the accession of Queen Anno ; 1 ' Boi] ^ SJiulj^rsal lBiogrnpf;B. [bol but the exact date of his death is uncer- tain. BOIARDO, Matteo Maria, count of Scaiidiano and f^overnor of Keggio ; author of “ Orlando Innaniorato," one of the most celebrated poems in Italian literature, the first of a new class, the romantic epic, and the model of Ariosto’s greater sequel, “ Or- lando Furioso.” The poem was recast by Berni. Boiardo was author of several other poems in Italian and Latin, and made some translations from the Greek and Latin class- ics. Born, 1434 ; died, 1494. BOICHOT, Guillaume, a distinguished French sculptor ; born in 1738, died in 1814. The Colossal Group of Saint Michael and the “ Seated Hercules ” are among his best works. The bas-reliefs on the Triumphal Arch of the Carrousel are his. BOIELDIEU, Adrien, a celebrated French musical composer, born in 1775 ; au- thor of numerous well-known operas ; “ Le Calife de Bagdad,” “ Jean de Baris,” &c. “ Tel^maque ” is thought his chef-d'oeuvre. His style is characterized by a sweet and natural melody, much imaginative gaiety, and simple but pleasing accompaniments. Boieldieu was a member of the Institute. Died, 1834. BOIGNE, Count de, a French soldier of fortune, ivas born at Chambery, in 1751. When 17 years old, he entered the French army, which he quitted for the Russian serv- ice in about five years, and was taken prisoner at the siege of Tenedos. After being released he left Russia, and in 1778 passed into the service of the East India Company ; but fancying himself neglected, he offered him- self to the notice of Mahajee Scindiah, the celebrated prince of the Mahrattas, to whom he was of the greatest service during his cam- paigns, and who loaded him with honours and riches. Having remitted his vast fortune to England, and wishing to return to Europe for the sake of his health, he left India in 1795, and settled at Chambery, where he did much good, applying his money to bene- volent and patriotic purposes. Died in 1830. BOILEAU, Nicolas, sieur Despr6aux,the celebrated French poet and critic, was born in 1636. He was brought up to the law, but quitted it for literature. He vigorously attacked the bad taste of the age, and his satires had immense success. A pension was given him, and he was associated with Ra- cine as historiographer to Louis XIV. He spent the last few years of his life in retire- ment, displaying great fortitude under ill health and the infirmities of age, and died in 1711, His poems consist of “ Satii’es,” “ Epistles,” the “ Art of Poetry,” &c. Pope Avas much indebted to Boileau in some of his poems. B0ISR0BERT,FRANQ0IS LE METEL DE, a French abbot, celebrated for his wit, and patronized by Richelieu. His poems, plays, tales, &c., are numerous. Died, 1662. BOISSY D’ANGLAS, FRANgoiS AN- TOINE, Count de, a distinguished French senator and literary character, and a man who throughout the revolutionary frenzy constantly displayed great firmness and a disinterested love of liberty. He was deputy to the States-General in 1789, member of the National Convention, of the Committee of Public Safety, and the Council of Five Hundred. His courage and presence of mind were particularly displayed on occasion of the irruption of the mob into the hall of the Convention in May, 1795. He took his place in the president’s chair after it had been twice vacated, and calmly kept it, undis- mayed by the sight of muskets levelled at him, and of the bleeding head of his mur- dered colleague F^raud. Boissy d’Anglas was chosen president of the tribunate in 1803. By Napoleon he was made a senator and commander of the Legion of Honour; and in 1814 Louis XYIII. created him a peer; but he was, for a time only, deprived of his title, in consequence of his recog- nition of the emperor on his return from Elba. His Avritings are on various subjects : among them are “ The Literary and Poli- tical Studies of an Old Man,” an “ Essay on the Life of Malesherbes,” &c. Born, 1756 ; died, 1826. BOISTE, P. C.V., a French lexicographer, born in 1763 ; author of several valuable dic- tionaries. The name Buonaparte following the article “ Spoliateur,” in his “ Diction- naire Universel de la langue fran(jaise,” he was compelled by the police to substitute for it the name of Frederick the Great. BOIZOT, LOUIS Simon, born in 1743 ; a French painter and sculptor, but more dis- tinguished as the latter. The “Victory of the Fountain of the Place du Chatelef’is his chef-d’oeuvre. BOL, FERDINAND, a Dutch historical and portrait painter, pupil of Rembrandt. Born, 1611 ; died, 1681. BOLESLAUS I., became duke of Poland in 992 or 999 ; had his dukedom raised to a kingdom by the emperor Otho III., and made Moravia tributary to his kingdom. Died, 1025. BOLESLAUS II., king of Poland, son and successor of Casimir I. In consequence of the severity with which he treated his sub- jects during a revolt, chiefly caused by his long absence in Russia, and the consequent infidelity of the wives of his soldiers, he Avas driven aivay by his subjects, and died in Hungary, 1083. BOLEYN, or BULLEN, ANNE, queen of Henry VIII., Avas daughter of Sir Thomas Bullen (afterAvards earl of Wiltshire), and Avas born in 1507. After a residence of some years at the French court, she became maid of honour to Katherine, queen of Henry yill., and soon attracted the admiration of the king. In 1532 she Avas made marchioness of Pembroke, and in the follOAving year married to Henry and crowned queen. In 1536 charges of conjugal infidelity were brought against her, on which she Avas tried and beheaded. May 19, 1536. Anne Boleyn Avas a promoter of the reformation, and the king’s determination to marry her was the occasion of the final separation of England from the Catholic church. She was the mother of Q,ueen Elizabeth. BOLINGBROKE, HENRY St JOHN, Vis- count, a distinguished statesman and poli- tical Avriter, was born at Battersea, in 1672, and completed his studies at Oxford. He entered parliament in 1700, became secre- 107 bol] ^ ^nitiersal IBiograp^g. [bol tary at war in 1704 ; resigned his office in 1708 ; again formed part of the ministry in 1710, and concluded the peace of Utrecht. In 1712 he was created Yiscount Eoling- broke ; hut, dissatisfied that he had not been raised to an earldom, he quarrelled with his colleagues, effected the dismissal of Har- ley, and got himself appointed prime minis- ter. The death of Queen Anne, however, took place a few days afterwards. The Whigs having gained the ascendancy on the accession of George I., preparations were made for the impeachment of Bolingbroke, who had fled to France, and being invited to Lorraine by James Edward, the Pretender, he became his secretary of state. For this he was impeached and attainted ; and it was not till 1723 that he was allowed to return to England. His estates were restored to him in 1725, but his seat in the House of Lords was still denied him : this raised his indignation ; and he exerted all his talents against the ministry, till at length the over- throw of Sir Hobert Walpole was effected. In 1735 he again withdrew to France, where he remained till the death of his father ; after which event he settled at Battersea, and died, in 1751, after a long and painful disease, in his 80th year. He was the inti- mate friend of Pope, Swift, and other emi- nent authors of the time, and his own writings rank among the most eloquent and polished in style in the English language. A collected edition of them was published by David Mallet three years after the death of the author. As a man Bolingbroke was selfish, proud, and profligate ; as a politician, merely ambitious and unprincipled ; and as a writer, showy, superficial, and untrust- worthy. The shallow and impotent attacks on Christianity made by such a man have little interest or importance in the presence of the earnest controversies on matters per- taining to religion, in the midst of which we are living. A new Life of Bolingbroke has been recently published by Mr Mac- knight. BOLIVAH, Simon, the celebrated Liber- ator of South America, was born of noble parents at Caraccas, in 1783. Having ac- quired the elements of a liberal education at home, he was sent to Madrid to complete his studies ; and afterwards Yisited Paris, where he formed an acquaintance with se- veral distinguished men. He made the tour of Southern Europe, again visited the Span- ish capital, and married the daughter of the Marquis de Ustariz del Cro ; but soon after his return to his native land his youthful bride fell a victim to the yellow fever ; and, as a relief to his sorrow, he once more visit- ed Etirope. On returning to South America, in 1810, he pledged himself to the cause of independence, and commenced his military career at Venezuela, as a colonel in the serv- ice of the newly founded republic. In 1811 he served under Miranda, and had the com- mand of Puerto Cabello ; but the Spanish prisoners having risen and seized the fort, he was obliged to quit the town. At length Miranda was compelled to submit to Monte- verde, the Iloyalist general ; and Bolivar, entering the service of the patriots of New Grenada, soon had another opportunity of assisting his old friends the Venezuelans. For a while he was successful, but reverses followed; and Avhen, in 1815, the Spanish forces under Morillo arrived, he threw him- self into Carthagena, and subsequently re- treated to St Domingo. The spirit of re- sistance was, however, not extinguished : and after many desperate conflicts the in- dependence of Columbia was sealed, and Bolivar v/as chosen president of the republic, in 1821. Every act of his government show- ed how zealously alive he was to the im- provement of the national institutions and the moral elevation of the people. In 1823 he went to the assistance of the Peruvians, succeeded in establishing their indepciid- ence, and was proclaimed Liberator of Peru, and invested with supreme authority. In 1825 he visited Upper Peru, which detached itself from the government of Buenos Ayres, and was formed into a new republic, named Polivia, in honour of the Liberator ; but domestic factious sprung up, the purity of his motives was called in question, and he was charged with aiming at a perpetual dictatorship; he accordingly declared his determination to resign his power, and to retire to his patrimonial estate. The vice- president, Santander, urged him to resume his station as constitutional president ; and though he was beset by rival factions, he continued to exercise the chief authority in Columbia till May, 1830. The people ere long became sensible of their injustice, and were soliciting him to resume the government, when his death took place, in December, 1830. In person he was thin, and somewhat below the middle size, but capable of great endurance ; his complexion sallow, and his eyes dark and penetrating. His intellect was of the highest order, and his general character of that ardent, lofty cast, which is so well calculated to take the lead among a people escaping from the yoke of tyranny, BOLLANDUS, JOHN, Jesuit, was born in Belgium in 1596. He is celebrated as the first in the long series of compilers of the voluminous “ Acta Sanctorum.” The work was projected by Father llosweida, on whose death, in 1629, it was undertaken by Bollan- dus. He was afterwards assisted by Hens- chen and Papebroch. The first five volumes appeared in the life-time of Bollandus, and include the lives of the saints of the months of January and February. The work was continued with some interruptions till 1794, and consists of 52 vols. folio. The con- tinuatoi’s are named the Bollandists. A new edition of this immense work is now (1865) in course of publication in France. BOLOGNA, JOHN OF, one of the most celebrated sculptors of his age, Avas born at Douai, probably in 1530, or a little later. He went young to Home, became acquainted Avith Michael Angelo, and Avas employed by the Cardinal de Meclicis. He afterw.ards lived chiefly at Florence. Among his mas- terpieces are reckoned the “ Neptune ” of the fountain at Bologna, “Mercury,” and the “ Rape of the Sabines.” He Avas the in- timate friend of Vasari, and one of the first members of the Academy of Florence. Died there, 1608. A group of “ Samson killing a 108 Philistine,” executed hy this master, is still extant at Ilovingham Hall, York. BOLOGNESE, IL, [GllIMALDI, FRAN- CESCO,] BOLSWERT, Scheldt, an engraver of the 17th century, a native of Friesland, biit who passed most of his life in Antwerp; distinguished for the excellence of his en- gravings after Rubens and Vandyck, BOMBELLI, RAPHAEL, a celebrated al- gebraist of the 16th century, and the first Avho invented a uniform method of working equations. BOMBELLI, Sebastiano, an eminent Bolognese historical and portrait painter. Born, 1635 ; diedy about 1716. BOMBERG, Daniel, a celebrated printer of the 16th century, ivas a native of Antwerp, but settled early at Venice. He there pub- lished a Hebrew Bible in four volumes folio, a Hebrew Concordance, and the Babylonian Talmud, all greatly esteemed for their ac- curacy and the beauty of the typography. Died, 1549. BONASONI, GiULiO, a Bolognese painter and engraver of the 16th century. In the latter capacity he especially excelled ; and he engraved many of the chef-d’oeuvres of Michael Angelo, Raifaelle, &c., in a style of great beauty. BONAVENTURA, St, or GIOVANNI Fl- DENZA, surnamed “DOCTOR Seraphic- us,” was born in Tuscany in 1221, He en- tered the Franciscan order, studied at Paris, and after some disputes with the university, in which Aquinas also took part, was made doctor in theology, and lecturer in philosophy and theology. In 1256 he was chosen general of his order, and both by word and example re-established discipline in it. He was cre- ated cardinal by Gregory X., who had been raised to the papal see by his influence. He wrote commentaries on Lombard, master of the Sentences, and many devotional works. Dissatisfied with speculation and philosophy, he became at last a mystic. His writings were highly esteemed by Luther. Died, while attending the Council of Lyons, 1274. BONCERF, PIERRE Franqois, bom in 1745 ; author of the famous pamphlet, “ I/Cs Inconv^niens des Droits Feodaux,” written while he ivas secretary to Turgot. Con- demned to be burnt, it became the basis of the fundamental decrees of the constituent as- sembly of 1789, Having been in the service of Egalite , he narrowly escaped the guillotine by one vote, and died from the shock he then sustained. BONCHAMP, Arthur de, a celebrated general of the Vendean royalists, who had served with distinction as an officer in tlie American Avar. In him humanity was not less conspicuous than valour, as the last act of bis life amply testified; for it was by his interference that 5000 prisoners, whom the exasperated royalists had taken, were saved from instant death. He was mortally wound- ed in the battle of Chollet, 1793. BONE, Henry, an eminent artist, cele- brated for his skill in enamel painting, was born at Truro, in 1755. On coming to Lon- don, he was for many years engaged in paint- ing devices in enamel for jewellery ; but he subsequently attained the highest excellence as a miniature portrait painter on ivory and in enamel. Continuing to rise in public esti- mation, Bone carried his art to the utmost perfection, increasing the size of his plates beyond anything which had before been at- tempted, and executing in enamel several copies of pictures by the first masters ; one of Avhich, Titian’s “ Bacchus and Ariadne,” he painted on a plate 18 inches by 16, and sold it for 2200 guineas. Among his most munificent patrons was the duke of Bedford, for whom he executed a series of portraits of the Russell family from the reign of Henry YIII. to the present time. He closed a long life of persevering industry and integrity in December, 1834. BONER, Ulrich, the most ancient Ger- man fabulist, Avas a Dominican friar of Berne, in the 14th century. He published his fables under the title of “ Der Edelstein ” (The Gem). BONET, or BONNET, Theophile, a French physician, was born at Geneva in 1620. He shares with Morgagni the honour of founding the science of pathological ana- tomy. His best Avorks are the “ Pharos Me- dicorum,” several times reprinted with a changed title, and “ Sepulchre turn, seu Ana- tomica Practica,” in tAVO vols, folio. Died, 1689. BONIFACE, St, the Apostle of Germany, was born in England about 680. He became a monk, but under the sanction of Pope Gre- gory II. he Avent about 716 to Germany, and there devoted himself for the rest of his life to the task of Christianizing the uncivilized tribes ; not without great success. He founded churches, sehools, and monasteries, and reclaimed vast tracts of waste, and brought them into cultivation. He was massacred with a band of his converts by the barbarians in 755. BONIFACE VIII., Pope, BENEDETTO Gaetano, was born at Anagni, was made cardinal in 1281, and became pope on the abdication of Celestine V. in 1294. His pon- tificate Avas a very troubled one, owing to his determined assertion of papal supremacy over all princes and his interference in poli- tical affairs. By his famous bull “ Clericis laicos,” against taxation of the clergy with- out consent of the pope, he excited great agitation in France. He quarrelled with the noble family of Colonna, excommunicated and proclaimed a crusade against them and their partisans. He mediated successfully betAveen Philip the Fair of France and Ed- ward I. of England ; but soon after, by a bull of excessive pretensions, provoked the fam- ous quarrel with Philip, vffio burnt the bull. The French demanded a Council, and the pope published other bulls : till at last Philip had him arrested at Anagni by 'William of Nogaret at the head of a body of troops. [NOGARET, AVilliam OF.] The citizens of Anagni rescued him a few days after, and he set out for Rome, but died on tlie Avay, 1303. It was Boniface VIII. who, in 13\'0, established the Jubilee. BONIVARD, Franqois de, was born in France in 1496. He became prior of St Vic- tor near Geneva, and acted a prominent part in the support of the republic of Geneva against the tyranny of the Prince-bishop, 109 bon] ^ Sinibcrsal 3i3iograpI)n. [boo and the aggression of the duke of Savoy. He was the friend of Berthelier and other noble supporters of freedom, and negotiated the treaty of fellow-citizenship between Fri- burg and Geneva. He was twice imprisoned by the duke of Savoy, the second time in the castle of Chillon. His misfortunes are cele- brated in Byron’s well-known poem. Boni- vard was a scholar as well as a politician, and formed a valuable library. This he gave to Geneva, and it was the basis of the public library of the city. Died, probably in 1570. BONNER, Edmund, bishop of London, was born in Worcester, about 1495. He studied at Oxford, and became chaplain to Cardinal Wolsey, whom he attended till his fall. He then entered the service of Henry VIII., aided Cromwell in the work of reform- ation, took an active part in the matter of the king’s divorce, and was sent on embassies to the pope, the emperor Charles V., and the king of France. In 1538 he was named bishop of Hereford, but before consecration was translated to London. In the reign of Edward VI. Bonner became the opponent of Cranmer and the reformation, and was im- prisoned and deprived. Restored by Queen Mary, he distinguished himself by his zeal in persecuting and burning “ heretics,” and earned the odium and abhorrence of the peo- ple. He refused to take the oath of suprem- acy on the accession of Queen Elizabeth, and was again deprived and imprisoned. Died, in the Marshalsea, 1569. BONNET, Charles, a Genevese naturalist and philosopher, was born in 1720. He was trained for the law, but was attracted by the works of Reaumur to the study of natural history. He became a member of the coun- cil of state in 1752. His sight failing, he was unable to continue his microscopic studies, and applied himself to more general subjects of philosophy and religion. His chief works are “ Traite d’insectologie,” “ De I’usage des feuilles dans les Plantes,” “ Contemplation de lanature,” “Paling^nesie philosophique,” and “Recherches philosophiques sur les preuves du Christianisme.” Died at Geneva, 1793. BONNINGTON, RICHARD PARKES, a British artist of great merit and of singular precocity. At three years old he could sketch most of the objects he saw, and at 15 was ad- mitted to draw in the Louvre at Paris. After visiting Italy he brought back many able specimens of his works, and finished a suc- cessful, though brief, career at the age of 27, in 1828. BONNYCASTLE, JOHN, professor of ma- thematics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich; author of “The Scholar’s Guide to Arithmetic,’’ “ The Elements of Algebra,” “ A Treatise upon Astronomy,” &c. Died, 1821. BONOMI, JOSEPH, an Italian architect, who settled in London about 1767. He en- joyed the friendship of Sir Joshua Reynolds, and was an associate of the Royal Academy. He built the duke of Argyle’s palace atRose- neath, in Scotland, the Roman Catholic chapel near Manchester Square, &c. Died, 1808. BONONCINI. [BUONONCINI.l BONPLAND, Aime, an eminent French botanist and the personal friend of Alexan- der von Humboldt, was born at La Rochelle in 1773. He studied medicine at Paris, but gave up the profession and accompanied Humboldt to America. During the five years they spent together there Bonpland made a very lai'ge and valuable collection of plants, several thousands of which were new to Europe. On his return to France he was appointed by the empress Josephine director of her gardens of Malmaison, a post which he held till her death, in 1814. He went again to America and became professor of natural history at Buenos Ayres. In 1821, as he was proceeding on a scientific expedi- tion on the Parana, he and his party were seized by order of Francia, then dictator of Paraguay, and he was kept prisoner nearly ten years. He afterwards lived in the south of Brazil. Bonpland was author of “ Plantes Equinoxiales recueillies au Mexique,” &c. “ Description des Plantes Rares de Navarre et de Malmaison,” and “ Monographie des Melastom4es.’’ He was also joint author with Humboldt of several voluminous works on the botany, natural history, and monu- ments of the New World. Died at Monte Video, 1858. BONTEMPI, Giovanni Andrea Ange- LINI, an Italian musician of the 17th cen- tury ; was director of music to the elector of Saxony for 40 years; author of “ Nova qua- tuor Vocibus componendi Methodus,” &c. Born, at Perugia, 1630 ; still living in 1697. BOOLE, George, a distinguished mathe- matician, was born at Lincoln in 1815. He early applied himself to the study of science, and after assisting in a school at Doncaster, established himself as schoolmaster in his native town. He took an active part in founding the Library and Museum of the Mechanics’ Institute, and gave lectures and instruction in classics and mathematics to the members. During the same period his contributions to the “ Cambridge and Dub- lin Mathematical Journal” attracted great attention, and his great abilities were shown more conspicuously in his “ Mathematical Analysis of Logic.” About 1853 he was ap- pointed professor of mathematics at Queen’s College, Cork, and soon after received the honorary degree of L.L.D. from the univers- ity of Dublin. In 1855 he married a lady of great scientific attainments, who became his efficient collaborateur. Dr Boole was a man of wide culture, an earnest lover of truth, de- lighting in poetry and metaphysics no less than in his chosen science. His modesty especially distinguished liim. His most im- portant works are — “ An Investigation of the Laws of Thought,” and “ Differential Equations.” The latter is a class-book at Cambridge. Dr Boole was a fellow of the Royal Society. Died near Cork, in Decem- ber, 1864. BOONE, Daniel, one of the first adven- turers who penetrated into the wilds of Ken- tucky , was born in Virginia, and from his ear- liest infancy was addicted to hunting in the woods. In 1769 he first set out, in company with a few friends ; and after numerous perils and adventures, he founded Boones- borough.theearliest settlement in Kentucky, now a flourishing town, though at that time 110 boo] ^ Slniti^rsal ^iograpf)U« [bob a wilderness. He was su'bsequently taken prisoner by the Indians, but escaped. ; and, bein" joined by other adyenturers, was en- abled to repulse them on several occasions, though neither art nor treachery were left unemployed to take him. At length, in 1798, he removed to Upper Louisiana, where he received a grant from the Spanish authorities of 2000 acres of land for himself, and 800 acres for each of his children, friends, and followers. He then settled with them on the I Missouri river, at Charette, some distance I beyond the inhabited parts of the country, I where he followed his usual course of life — hunting and trapping for bears — until Sept. 1822, when he died, aged 84. BOOTH, BARTON, an eminent actor, was born in 1681. He was educated at West- minster school and the university of Cam- bridge, but ran away from the latter to join a company of players. After winning a name at Dublin he was engaged by Better- ton at Drury Lane Theatre, where he was very successful. Died, 1733, having lost his reason several years before. BOOTH, Sir Felix, bart., an eminent London merchant, who, for his munificent donation of £20,000 for promoting the arctic expedition under Sir John Ross, was raised to a baronetcy, and had his name aifixed to the country called Boothia Felix. Died, 1850. BOOTH, Henry, earl of Warrington, son of George Booth, Baron Delamere, a zealous royalist during the civil war. Having been among those who voted for the exclusion of the duke of York, he was committed to the Tower when the duke became king, and was tried for high treason, but acquitted, in spite of the efforts of the infamous Jeffreys. On the accession of William III., he was made a privy councillor and chancellor of the exchequer. His efforts to limit the pre- rogative, however, caused him to fall into disgrace; but he was allowed to retire from office with a pension, arid the title of earl of Warrington. Died, 1694. BORDA, JEAN Charles, a French ma- thematician, born at Dax, in 1733. He served in the army as engineer, and after- wards in the navy, and was captured by the English in 1782, but soon set free. He was the inventor of the “ circle of reflexion ” and of the “principle of repetition,” by which errors of graduation and observation in astronomy are reduced to a minimum. He was engaged some years in the measurement of an arc of the meridian, in conjunction with M^chain and Delambre. Among his works are, “ Description et usage du cercle de reflexion,” and “ Tables trigonomt^triques d^cimales.” Died, 1799. BORDE, Andrew, an English physician ; author of “ The Merrie Tales of the Madman of Gotham,” and several other quaint works. He was at first a Carthusian, but after studying medicine at Montpellier and Ox- ford, went to London and became first phy- sician to Henry VIII. Died, 1549. BORDE, J EAN BENJAMIN DE LA, a French miscellaneous writer, born at Paris in 1734. He entered the service of Louis XV., and became a favourite ; devoted much of his time to music, which he had studied under Rameau, and on the death of his master became one of the “ farmers-general.” He was discovered in his retreat in Normandy by revolutionary agents, and guillotined at Paris in July, 1794. Among his numerous writings are, “ Essai sur la musique ancienne et moderne,” in four vols. 4to ; “ Description g4n^rale et particuli^re de la France;” “Tableaux topographiques, &c., de la Suisse,” (fee. BORDONE, PARIS, a celebrated Italian painter, was a native of Treviso. He was born in 1500, became a pupil of Titian, and then an imitator of Giorgione, spent some time at the court of Francis I., and painted the king and many of the ladies of the court, and died at Venice, 1571. His chef-d’oeuvre is the picture of “ The Fisherman presenting the Ring of St Mark to the Doge.” Bordone excelled in portraits. There are two of his works in the National Gallery. BORELLI, GIOVANNI ALFONSO, an Ita- lian physician and mathematician, was born at Naples, in 1608. He taught mathematics at Messina, and afterwards at Pisa, and enjoyed the patronage of the Grand Duke Ferdinand. Suspected of taking part in the insurrection against the Spaniards at Mes- sina, to which city he had returned, he fled to Rome and lived there under the patronage of Queen Christina of Sweden. He is con- sidered head of the school of “ latro-mathe- madcians,” or those who endeavoured to apply mathematics to the phaenomena of living bodies. His principal work, which appeared soon after his death, is the treatise “ De Motu Animalium.” Died, 1679. BORGHESE, MARIA PAULINE, Princess, the beautiful sister of Napoleon Buonaparte, was born at Ajaccio, in 1780. Her first husband was General I>eclerc, with whom she went to St Domingo, but who died in 1802 ; she became, in the following year, the wife of the Prince Camillo Borghese. Na- poleon was much attached to her ; and that her love for him was equally sincere, was manifest on many striking occasions, though she frequently disputed with him, and re- fused to follow the caprices of his policy. When Napoleon resigned his crown in 1814, and retired to Elba, Pauline left her palace in Rome, and followed him to his place of exile. She lived afterwards, separated from her husband, at Rome, and her house was the centre of a most brilliant circle. When she heard of her brother’s illness at St Helena, she repeatedly requested permis- sion to go to him ; at length her request was granted, and she was just about to depart, when the news of his death reached her. Died, 1825. BORGIA, Cesare, son of Pope Alexander VI., was made a cardinal immediately after the election of his father to the papal chair. When Charles VIII. invaded Italy, Cesare was given to him as a hostage by his father, but he escaped, and took part against the French. In 1498 he resigned his dignity of cardinal to become a soldier, and the same year was sent to France with the bull of di- vorce for Louis XII., who gave him the title of Duke of A*alentinois, and promised to aid him in his projected conquests in Italy. He then, at the head of a body of mercenaries. 111 bor] ^ ^nibersal 13iograp][)p. [bor carried on a series of petty wars, made him- self master of the Romagna, attempted un- successfully Bologna and Florence, seized Urbino and Camerino, and was flattering himself with the prospect of success, when the death of Alexander and his own illness put an end to his hopes. Revolt in the Ro- magna was followed by the arrest of Cesare by Julius II. On his liberation he was ar- rested again and sent prisoner to Spain. He afterwards served in the army of the king of Navarre, whose sister he had married, and was killed at a siege in 1507. Cesare Borgia was one of the most crafty, cruel, and corrupt men of that corrupt age. No crime was too foul for him to perpetrate or be suspected of. He was charged with the murder of his elder brother, Giovanni, duke of Gandia, and of Alfonso, the husband of Lucrezia ; with plotting with his father the murder of Cardinal Corneto by poison, and with incest Avith his sister. In his wars he had garrisons massacred, and carried oflf bands of women to gratify his passion. BORGIA, Lucrezia, daughter of Pope Alexander VI., and sister to Cesare Borgia, was betrothed early to an Aragonese noble- man, but was given in 1493 to Giovanni Sforza, lord of Pesaro. Alexander annulled the marriage, and married her to a son of the king of Naples, in 1498. Her husband was assassinated two years afterwards, probably by order of her brother Cesare ; and in 1501 she was married to Alfonso of Este, son of the duke of Ferrara. She led a decorous life at the court, attracted men of letters thithei’, and was highly praised by a band of poets. Bembo Avas her special friend and corre- spondent. Died, 1523. BORGIA, St Francesco de, third general of the order of Jesuits, was son of Juan de Borgia, duke of Gandia, and was born in 1510. He was page to the Infanta Catherine, sister of Charles V., and was afterwards sent to the court of Charles, who greatly esteemed him, made him marquis of Lombay, and grand equerry to the empress. His naturally serious mind Avas deeply impressed by the death of the empress, in 1539, and his early desire for the monastic life revived. On the death of his wife, in 1546, he entered the Society of Jesus, having corresponded with Loyola for some time previously. He was ordained priest, and preached in the prin- cipal cities of Spain and Portugal, visited Charles V. in the monastery of St Just, and was named one of his executors. In 1565 he succeeded Lainez as general of his order, and by his prudent and zealous administra- tion promoted Its groAVth and prosperity. He died at Rome in 1572; was beatified by Urban YIII., and canonized by Clement IX., in 1671. He left numerous ascetic works. BORGIA, Cardinal Stepiiano, was a na- tive of Velletri. He had an enthusiastic love for art. It Avas usual with him to change a valuable piece of plate for some rare article to adorn his museum; and on one occasion, to purchase an Egyptian mummy, he part- ed with the plate from his table, and the buckles from his shoes. Pius VI. created him cardinal in 1789; and the succeeding pope named him president of the council Avhen the French garrison evacuated Rome. He was author of a work in support of the papal temporalities. Died, at Lyons, 1804. BORGOGNONE, Ambrogio, Italian painter, was a native of Fossano in Pied- mont, and was also called Ambrogio da Fossano. Very little is known of his life, except that he painted at Pavia and Milan. He flourished betAveen 1490-1522. There is one fine work of his in the National Gallery. BORGOGNONE, painter, whose original name was JACOPO CORTESI, or JACQUES COURTOIS, was born in 1621. He was a native of Burgundy, studied painting under his father, and then in Italy, where he stayed with Guido for a time, became a monk, and died at Rome, in 1676. His works are chiefly battle-pieces. BORIS-GUDENOW, Czar of Russia, suc- cessor of Theodore Ivanovich in 1598. Hav- ing risen to the head of affairs about twelve years before the death of Theodore, he spared no pains and shrank from no crime to secure his own elevation to the throne. He had professed himself the friend, and had become the favourite of the people, and during the first five years of his reign contributed much to the advance of his empire in civilization. But his philanthropy was the mask of his selfishness, and his government became in- tolerably cruel. In the midst of the con- sternation excited by his tyrannies, Russia was invaded by a Polish army, headed by a young monk, who pretended to be Deme- trius, the deceased brother of Theodore, and Boris, dreading to fall into the hands of a rival, died suddenly, of poison, it is said, in 1605. BORLASE, 'William, an English anti- quary and naturalist, Avas a native of Corn- wall. He was born in 1696, studied at Ox- ford, entered the church, and became rector of Ludgvan and vicar of St Just, his native parish. He sent various memoirs to the Royal Society, and was admitted fellow in 1750. He wrote “ Observations on the An- tiquities, Historical and Monumental, of the County of CornAvall,” and the “ Natural History of Cornwall.” The former was published in 1754, the latter in 1758. Died, 1772. BORO'WLASKI, Count, the celebrated Polish dAvarf, Avho, although less than three feet in height, was of perfect symmetry, and attained the great age of 98. He had been prevailed upon by some of the clergy of Durham, who had casually seen him when on Lis “travels,” 40 years before his death, to take up his abode near that city. He spoke several languages, was generally well informed and Avitty, and his company was accordingly much courted by the gentry of Durham and its vicinity. Died, Sept. 1837. BORRI (BURRUS), GIUSEPPE FRAN- CISCO, an adventurer of the 17th century, born at Milan, 1627, Avho attracted much notice by his fanatical heresies in religion, and by his pretensions as an alchemist and physician. After a long course of impudent imposture, he Avas imprisoned, at first in the prison of the Inquisition at Rome, and after- wards in the castle of St Angelo, where he died, 1695. BORROMEO, San CARLO, cardinal, arch- 112 bor] % ^nitiersal [bos bishop of Milan, was born of a noble family- in the Milanese in 1538. He was nephew to Pope Pius IV., and was made cardinal by him in 1561. After the close of the Council of Trent he was charged, Avith several pre- lates, to draw up the epitome of catholic doctrine entitled “ Catechismus Tridenti- nus.” On settling in his diocese he applied himself to reform the gross abuses, super- stitions, and scandalous practices which had established themselves. A monk of the order of “ Umiliati ” attempted to assassinate him, and the pope suppressed that order. The beneficence and intrepidity of the archbishop were especially shoAvn on occasion of the terrible plague of Milan, in 1576. Died, 1584. He was canonized by Paul V. in 1610. BOmiOMEO, Federico, cardinal, arch- bishop of Milan, Avas cousin of the preced- ing, and Avas born in 1564. He AA^as created cardinal at the age of 23, and was appointed archbishop of Milan, in 1596. He was dis- tinguiohed for his learning, and founded the celebrated Ambrosian Library, besides va- rious schools and charities. He was no less distinguished for the energy and fidelity with which he laboured in his ecclesiastical sphere, and especially for his noble services during the famine, and the subsequent plague at Milan. He left several works, and died in 1631. BORROMINI, FRANCESCO, an Italian architect; the pupil of Maderno, whom he assisted as architect of St Peter’s at Rome. His best work is the college of the Propa- ganda. Died, by his own hand, 1667. BORY DE SAINT-VINCENT, JEAN BAP- TISTE George Marie, French naturalist, was born in 1780. At the age of 19 he went to the Mauritius, and made a survey of several neighbouring islands. On his return to France he served for a time in the army, and Avas on the staff SAiccessively of Marshals Davoust, Ney, and Soult. He subsequently conducted scientific expeditions to Greece and some of the adjacent islands, during Avhich he devoted himself to botanical re- searches; and in 1839 to Algiers. Among his works are “ Voyage dans les quatre prin- cipals lies des mers d’Afrique,” “ Expedi- tion scientifique de Moree,” &c. Died, 1846. BOS, Lambert, professor of Greek at Franeker; author of the well-known and valuable work on the Greek ellipses, an ex- cellent edition of the Septuagint, with pro- legomena and various readings, &c. Born, 1670; died, 1717. BOSC, LOUIS Auguste Guillaume, French naturalist, born at Paris in 1759. He held a government situation for some years, and was a friend of the minister Ro- land, In 1793 he lost his place and his friend, but had the courage to accompany Madame Roland to the scaffold. She in- trusted to his care her own memoirs He was a member of various scientific bodies, and wrote numerons memoirs on natural history. He also co-operated in the pre- paration of several dictionaries, and in the “ Histoii’e Naturelle des coquilles.” Died at Paris, in 1828. BOSCAN-ALMOGAVER, JuAN, a Spanish poet, who first introduced into Spanish the forms of Italian poetry. He liA'ed some time at the court of Charles V,, and was the friend of Garcilaso de la Vega. His works are published with those of Garcilaso. Died, 1544. BOSCAWEN, Edward, British admiral, was born in 1711. He early distinguished himself in the navy, and especially at the siege of Carthagena, and at the battle with the French fleet off Cape Finisterre, in 1747. He Avas sent to India as commander-in-chief the same year; received the thanks of par- liament for his capture of tAvo French ships of Avar, in 1755; commanded the expedition to North America, in 1758, and took Louis- burg ; and the next year won a great victory over the French fleet in the bay of Lagos, for which he again received the thanks of parliament and a pension, and was made a privy councillor. Died, 1761. BOSCH, Jerome, a famous Dutch bib- liomaniac; born in 1740, died in 1811. His library catalogue Avas remarkable for the number of princeps editions it contained. BOSCOVICH, Roger Joseph, mathema- tician, w^as born at Ragusa in 1701 or 1711, entered the order of Jesuits, and taught at the Roman College, He aftemvards became professor at Pavia, and in 1773 Avent to Pa- ris, where he held a post under the goA'ern- ment. He wrote various mathematical and scientific AA'orks; among others “Philoso- phise naturalis theoria,” “ Opera pertinentia ad opticam et astronomiam,” and a poem “ De solis ac lunae defectibus,”^ without much poetry in it. He assisted in the measure- ment of a meridian in Lombardy, and died in 1787. BOSIO, FRA^■<;OIS JOSEPH, sculptor, was an Italian by birth, but was brought up and constantly lived in France. He was born in 1769, Avas a favourite with Napoleon I., Louis XVIII., and the succeeding kings of France, who employed him in many public works. He was admitted to the Institute, and made a Baron. Died, 1845. BOSSI, Giuseppe Carlo aurelio, Baron de, an eminent Italian poet, born at Pied- mont in 1758. He favoured the French in- terest on the invasion of Italy, and was re- warded by offices and honours in France by Napoleon. He is chiefly known by his ex- ertions in this country in favour of the Vaudois. Died, 1823. BOSSU, Rene le, an eminent French critic of the 17th century; author of a “Treatise on Epic Poetry,” “Parallel of the Philosophy of Descartes and of Aristotle,” &c. Born, 1631 ; died, 1680, BOSSUET, Jacques Benigne, bishop of Meaux, and one of the ablest defenders of the doctrines of the church of Rome, was born at Dijon in 1627. After studying in the Jesuits’ College there he was sent to Paris, and entered the college of Navarre, He soon gained extraordinary reputation for piety, acquirements, and eloquence; num- bered among his friends the great Cond6, St Vincent de Paul, and Marshal Schomberg, but continued modest, and faithfully devoted himself to the study of the Bible and the Avorks of St Augustin. Ordained priest in 1652, he retired to Metz, where he held a canonry. The great occupation of his life was controversy Avith tho Protestants, and 4 113 f7= ^ bos] % Jteto ^nibmal IBiograpl)^. [bot he was often successful in his attempts to convert them. The great Turenne was among his converts. In 1669 he was ap- pointed bishop of Condam, but resigned the see on being appointed in the following year preceptor to the Dauphin. He was soon after received at the French Academy, and in 1681 he was raised to the see of Meaux. He took the leading part in the assembly of the clergy, in 1682, respecting the limits of the papal and kingly authority in France, and drew up the famous propositions which thenceforth became a law of the state. The pope had them burnt. Bossuet was engaged for some years in discussing with Leibnitz the possible union of the Lutheran with the Homan church, but without result. In his old age he opposed Quietism,” and prose- cuted Madame Guyon; and when F6n41on, his old friend, defended her, he grew angry, exiled F6n6lon, and after muck controversy got the pope to condemn his book entitled “ Maximes des Saints.” The writings of Bossuet are very numerous. The most cele- brated are his “Exposition de la doctrine catholique,” which excited the greatest in- terest, and was soon translated into the principal languages of Europe; “Histoire des variations des Eglises Protestantes ; ” “Trait6 de la connaissance de Dieu et de soi-meme;” “Discours sur I’histoire uni- verselle,” the first gi’eat attempt to view history as a whole, and to trace one divine purpose pervading it; and “La Politique tir6e de FEcriture Sainte,” a vindication of the purest absolutism. The three last- named works were written for the in- struction of the Dauphin, and present in a very impressive manner a complete the- ory of life in antagonism to all modern thought and science. Bossuet was a great master of style, and one of the most power- ful of modern writers. Died at Paris, April 12, 1704. BOS SET, a celebrated French mathema- tician, the friend and associate of Condorcet, D’Alembert, Bailly, and Lavoisier. He was admitted to the Academy in 1752, and to the Institute at the time of its foundation. His principal works are the “Cours complet de math^matiques,” in seven vols., “Histoire g6n6rale des math^matiques,” and a volume of “M^moires de math^matiques.” Born, 1730; died, 1814. BOSWELL, JAMES, the biographer of Dr Johnson, was born at Edinburgh in 1740. After studying law at the Scottish univers- ities he travelled on the continent, indulging as frequently as possible his hankering after personal introduction to eminent men. He accompanied Dr Johnson, to whom he had been introduced on his visit to London in 1763, on a tour to the Hebrides in 1773. About ten years later he settled in London, and was called to the English bar. His ce- lebrated “Life of Johnson” appeared in 1790, five years after his friend’s death. It had immense success, has been republished again and again, and still remains for its excellence as a biography incomparable. Boswell had previously published a “Jour- nal of the Tour to the Hebrides.” He Avas also author of various political and profes- sional pamphlets, and “An Account of Cor- Sica, with Memoirs of General Paoli.” Died, 1795. BOSWELL, Sir ALEXANDER, eldest son of the preceding, was born in 1775, and suc- ceeded his father in the possession of the family estate. Fie was a literary antiquary of no inconsiderable erudition, and the au- thor of many popular songs and poetical jetix d’esprit. He inherited all the Tory spirit of his father ; and some attacks on the character of James Stuart, Esq., having appeared in the Beacon and Sentinel ncAvs- papers, which were traced to Sir Alex- ander, a duel took place between these gentlemen, Avhen the latter fell, mortally wounded in the neck, March 26, 1822. Mr Stuart was tried for this offence, but honour- ably acquitted. BOTH, JOHN and Andrew, brothers, Flemish painters, born at Utrecht about 1610. John chose landscape painting, and took for his model Claude Lorraine, Avhile AndreAV studied and painted the human figure ; they frequently Avorked on the same canvas, and their labours harmonized so well, that their pictures could not be sus- pected of being joint productions. Andrew was drowned at Yenice in J650 ; John died at Utrecht, 1656. BOTHWELL, JAMES HEPBURN, Earl of, was born about 1525, and succeeded his father in his title and estates in 1556. He took an active part under the queen-regent against the party of Knox, but changed sides on her death, and Avas one of the envoys sent to France to escort Queen Mary home. In 1562 he fled from Scotland to escape pro- secution for conspiracy against the queen, but returned in 1565, and was restored to his place in the privy council. His intercession obtained pardon for the murderers of Rizzio, and he was in great favotir Avith the queen. He Avas generally believed to be the mur- derer of Darnley, and was tried for it ; he appeared with his friends in arms and was acquitted. He soon after seized the queen and carried her oft’ to Dunbar castle, not Avithout her consent, it Avas said. She par- doned him, made him duke of Orkney, and married him at Holyrood. The people took up arms, the queen was defeated at Car- berry Hill, and Bothwell fled, escaping first to the Orkneys, and thence to Denmark, where he was seized as a pirate and im- prisoned. After ten years of Avrctched life, deprived of all things but the memory of his crimes, he died mad, 1577. BOTTA, Carlo Giuseppe, one of the most celebrated Italian historians, was born in Piedmont in 1766. He graduated in medicine at Turin, and after suffering im- prisonment as a partisan of the French, he emigrated and served as physician in the army of the Alps and in the army of Italy through the campaign of 1796. Named, in 1800, a member of the “ Consulta ” of Pied- mont, elected four years later deputy to the French Legislative Body, he settled at Paris, and after the restoration of the Bourbons he applied himself to the composi- tion of his historical Avorks. These are, “ Storia della Guerra doll’Indipcndenza d’America ; ” “ Storia d’ltalia dal 1789 al 1814,” and “ Storia d’ltalia in continuazione zu rot] Slnitcrsal ISiograpl^p. [bou al Guicciardini, siiio al 1789.” Eotta’s History of Italy made him a great reputa- tion, and has taken its place as a standard work. Died at Paris, 1837. BOTTAllI, Giovanni, a distinguished Italian philologist and archaeologist, was born at Florence in 1689, and was educated at the university. He was engaged several years in recasting the celebrated Dictionary of the Academy Della Crusca, was made by the grand duke of Tuscany director of his printing-office, and in 1730 settled at Home. After holding various offices under Clement XII. he beccime librarian of the Vatican. He was author of a learned work on the paintings and sculptures discovered in the catacombs of Home ; also of “ Musseum Capitolinum,” an account of illustrious men, in four vols. folio ; and published a new edition of Vasari’s Lives of the Painters. Died, 1775. ■ BOTTICELLI. [FILIPEPI, SANDEO.] BOTZAHIS, Maecos, a brave Souliote, who distinguished himself in the Greek revolution. Driven with his countrjmien from Epirus by Ali, pasha of Jannina, he subsequently joined the Turks against Ali ; but soon took part with him against the Turks. He especially distinguished himself in the defence of Missolonghi, and fell in a combat with a body of Albanians sent to take it in August, 1823. BOUCHAHDON, Edme, French sculptor, born in 1698. He obtained the grand prize of the Academy, studied at Home, and was admitted to the Academy. He executed busts of Pope Clement XII. and of Cardinals Polignae and Hohan. Died, 1762. BOUCHEH, JONATHAN, an English di- vine and philologist, was born in Cumber- land in 1737. When about twenty years of age he went to America, and there became a tutor and a parish minister. After the Declaration of Independence he was com- pelled, for his loyalty to the English crown, to quit the country. He subsequently be- came vicar of Epsom, and there spent the last twenty years of his life. He projected and made large collections for a dictionary of English provincial and antiquated terms, but did not live to complete it. A small portion of the work only has been printed. He was also author of a “ View of the Causes and Consequences of the American Hevolution.” Died, 1801. BOUCICAUT, JEAN EE Maingee, Mar- shal de, one of the bravest and noblest of French soldiers, was born at Tours in 1364. He served his fii‘st campaign at twelve years of age, and soon distinguished himself by his great strength, agility, and hardihood. In 1382 he served against the Flemings at the battle of Hosbach ; then in Prussia, in support of the Teutonic knights ; in Guienne against the English ; and in 1396 he com- manded, under the count of Nevers, the French force sent to aid Sigismund, king of Hungary, against the Turks under Bajazet. He was captured at the battle of Nicopolis, but was ransomed, and returned to France. In 1401 he was appointed governor of Genoa, a post which he held nearly ten years. He was taken prisoner by the English at the battle of Agincourt in 1415, and brought to England, where he died in 1421. BOUFLEHS, LOUIS Feanqois, Duke de, marshal of France, was born in 1644. He entered the army in 1662, served under Turenne and Luxembourg, in Flanders, was wounded in several battles, and contributed in 1690 to the victory of Fleurus. Created marshal three years later, he defended Na- mur against William III. of England, but capitulated after several months and was kept prisoner for a very short time. He again served in Flanders in the war of the Spanish Succession, and distinguished him- self by his obstinate defence of Lille against Prince Eugene. He capitulated by express order of Louis XIV., who then made him duke and peer of France. His last service was at the bloody battle of Malplaquet, Avhen he conducted the retreat of the right wing. Died at Fontainebleau, 1711. BOUFFLEHS, STANISLAUS, Chevalier de, son of the marchioness of Boufflers, mistress of Stanislaus, king of Poland, was born in 1737, and was distinguished for the elegance of his manners and conversation. He was destined for the church, but declared that his love of pleasure would interfere wTth the duties of this profession, and therefore entered the military service. He emigrated from France in 1792, to Prussia. His works consist of poems, discourses, Eloges,” tales, &c., and have been several times re- published. His character has been thus summed up ; “A libertine abbe ; a military philosopher ; a song-making diplomatist ; an emigrant republican.” Died, 1815. BOUGAINVILLE, JEAN PlEREE DE, a French miscellaneous -writer ; author of several -w'orks no longer possessing any im- portance ; and editor of Freret’s great work on Chronology. He was secretary to the Academy of Inscriptions, and member of the French Academy. Born, 1722 ; died, 1763. BOUGAINVILLE, LOUIS ANTOINE DE, a French officer, distinguished both in the military and naval service. When serving in Canada, under Montcalm, he displayed so much bravery that he obtained the rank of colonel, and subsequently became a general. Under the empire he was made a senator, and a member of the Institute. Bougainville circumnavigated the world, and enriched the science of geography by a number of new discoveries. His voyage round the world was undertaken in 1766, and the account of it by himself appeai’ed in 1771. Born, 1729 ; died, 1811. BOUGUEH, PiEEEE, French mathema- tician, was born in Brittany in 1698. He carried off several prizes of the Academy for scientific memoirs, and having won a great reputation, was sent with Lacondamine to Peru, to measure a degree of the meridian ; a very difficult task, made more difficult by the ignorance and absurd suspicions of the natives. He afterwards took part with other mathematicians in verifying a similar measurement in France. Bouguer was a member of the Academy of Sciences of Paris and of the Hoyal Society of London. His chief works are “ Traitd de la grada- tion de la lumiere,” “ Traite du navire,” “ La figure de la terre determinee par les 115 I Bou] ^nitj^rsal IBiograpl^p. [bou observations,” &c. Bouguer was also the inventor of the double object-glass mi- crometer. Died, 1758. BOUHOUBS, DOMlNiaUE, a French Jesuit and critic ; author of “ Les Entretiens d’Ariste et d’Eugfene,” “ Maniere de bien Penser dans les Ouvrages de I’Esprit,” &c. Born, 1628; died, 1702. BOUILLABD, JACQUES, a celebrated French engraver, born in 1744, died in 1806. BOUILLAND. [BULLIALDUS.] BOUILLE, FRANCOIS CLAUDE AMOUR, Marquis de, born in 1759 ; a distinguished French general, celebrated for his exploits up to the era of the French revolution. He sat on liberal principles in the first Assembly of Notables, and after making excellent, though abortive, preparations to assist the unfortu- nate Louis XVI. in pursuing his journey from Varennes after his flight from Paris, he quitted France and served under the allies. He died in London in 1800. His “ Memoirs of the French Bevolution ” rank deservedly high. BOUILLON. [GODFREY OF BOUIL- LON.] BOULAINVILLIERS, Henri de. Count de St Saire ; author of a “ History of Ma- homet,” a “ History of the Arabians,” a “ Histoi'y of the Peerage of France,” &c. Born, 1658 ; died, 1722. BOULAY DE LA MEURTHE, A. J. C., born in 1761 ; one of the most distinguished orators of the French revolution, and author of several works on political science. He was president of the civil tribunal at Nancy, • in 1793, and had great share in confirming the expatriation of the emigrants in 1793, when a member of the council of the Five Hundred. He was subsequently faithful to Buonaparte through all his changes of for- tune ; and on that account was proscribed, and banished to Frankfort, by the Bourbons, on their second restoration in 1815. BOULTER, II UGH, archbishop of Armagh, eminent for his benevolent exertions to al- leviate the distress of the Irish during the scarcity of 1740, and for the part he took in establishing schools for the instruction of the Irish children. Died, 1742. BOULTON, MATTHEW, an eminent en- gineer, whose spirit and talent improved in- numerable mechanical processes, and whose name, with that of his partner, ^\"att, is in- separably connected with that of the won- derful power of Avhich they made such skilful use, the steam engine, was born at Birming- ham, in 1728. Among the many great under- takings in which Boulton and Watt were engaged, one of the most useful and import- ant was the improvement of the coinage, the coins struck at the “ Soho ” manufactory being rarely surpassed in beauty or accuracy. From some interesting discoveries made at Soho in 1863, it appears probable that Boulton succeeded in taking photographs upon metal plates, and perhaps also on paper. But his discovery excited alarm among interested parties, and the secret of it was lost. Boul- ton was a fellow of the Royal Society. After a long life uninterruptedly devoted to the advancement of the useful arts, and the pro- motion of the commercial interests of his country, he died in 1809. BOURBON, Charles de, the celebrated Constable de Bourbon, was born in 1489. By his marriage with Suzanne de Bourbon he acquired immense wealth, and he dis- played it in the maintenance of almost royal state. He accompanied Louis XII. in his invasion of Italy, and diligently studied military aifairs. At the age of 26 he was named constable of France by Francis I., whom he accompanied in the campaign of Italy, contributing to the victory of Marig- nano. He was soon after appointed governor of the Milanese. An act of flagrant injustice, sanctioned by Francis, led to a breach be- tween him and the constable ; a claim being set up by the queen-mother to the estates of Bourbon, and decided in hei\favour. He then entered the service of the emperor Charles V., who gave him the chief com- mand in Italy. At the great battle of Pavia he completely defeated the French army and took Francis I. prisoner. Finding that he was distrusted by the emperor, and being left with means of paying the troops in Italy, he resolved on independent action, and in 1527 led his army to the siege of Rome. Rome was taken and suffered the horrors of a sack, but the constable had fallen early in the assault. BOURBON, LOUIS Henri JOSEPH, Duke de, and Prince de Cond6, is supposed to have put an end to his existence, Aug. 27, 1830. He fought nobly in the royalist army in the first years of the revolutionary war, and after the campaign in 1800 accompanied his father to England, and was residing with him at AVanstead House in 1804, when his son, the Duke d’Enghien, was murdered. The duke’s death is attributed to the excite- ment of his mind respecting the revolution of July, 1830. His property he left by will to the Duke d’Aumale, third son of Louis Philippe, with the exception of a large be- quest to Sophia Dawes, baroness de Feu- cheres, an Englishwoman, with whom he lived. BOURBOTTE, PIERRE, a French Jacobin, remarkable for his ferocity and military courage ; born about 1765. Being a member of the convention in 1794, and aiming at the dictatorship, on the 1st Prairial he and his colleagues were crushed by Legendre; and after pomarding himself before the revolu- tionary tribunal, but ineffectually, he was guillotined. BOURCHIER, John, Lord Berners, a military commander of great repute in the reigns of Henry VII and AHII.,by the latter of whom he was made governor of Calais. He assisted in the suppression of the insur- rection under Lord Audley in Cornwall, be- came chancellor of the exchequer, and ac- companied the Princess Mary to France. Lord Berners was author of the first English translation of “ Froissart.” Died, 1532. BOURCHIER, Thomas, cardinal, and archbishop of Canterbury. He studied at Oxford, and, after holding the sees of Wor- cester and Ely, was made archbishop of Can- terbury in 1454. He was also for a short time lord chancellor. He crowned three of our kings, viz. Edward IV., Richard III., and Henry VII. Archbishop Bourchier took Bou] % i^eto ^nibtrsal 13iograpI)B, [bow a leading? part in the introduction of printing into this country. Died, 1486. BOURDALOUE, LOUIS, a French Jesuit, and one of the most eloquent preachers in France. His sermons even in the perusal, deprived as they are of the eloquent eye, the graceful action, and the melodious voice, bear sufficient evidence of his genius to j ustify the praises that have been bestowed upon him. Born, 1632 ; died, 1704. BOURDON, See ASTIEN, a French painter and engraver ; his chef d'ceiivre is “ The Cru- cifixion of St Peter,” which he executed for the church of Notre Dame. Born, 1616; died, 1671. BOURGEOIS, Sir FRANCIS, a native of England, but of Swiss family ; painter to the king of Poland, and subsequently to George III. of England. His landscapes and sea pieces were once highly esteemed. He left his fine collection to Dulwich College, with £10,000 for building a gallery, and keeping the pictures in preservation. He became R.A. in 1792. Born, 1756 ; died, 1811. BOURGOING, JEAN FRAN<;ois, Baron de, born in 1748 ; ambassador to Spain on the part of the French republic, and afterwards of Napoleon, who subsequently sent him to Stockholm, and in 1807 to Saxony. He died in 1811. He has left several approved works, among which are his “Tableau de I’Espagne Moderne,” “ M6 moires de Pie VI.,” &c. Died, 1811. BOURIGNON, Antoinette de la Porte, a Flemish fanatic. Holding reli- gion to consist in direct impulses from and communion with the Deity, she made many disciples, and wrote numerous books, re- markable chiefly for their absurdity. She was excessively avaricious and penurious. Born, 1616; died, 1680. BOURMONT, LOUIS Auguste VICTOR de Chaisne, Marshal de, a distinguished French soldier, was born in 1773. In the early periods of the revolution, Avhile second lieutenant of infantry, he emigrated from France, joined the Bourbon princes on the frontiers, and afterAvards served the royal cause in La Vendee, Bretagne, and Maine with great energy and talent. During the consulate of Napoleon he Avas arrested on a charge of being concerned in the plot of the infernal machine, but after suffering imprisonment successively in the Temple, and at Dijon and Besamjon, he made his escape to Lisbon, whence however he returned to France, and Avas appointed to various high commands in the imperial service, and served with great distinction in the Italian and Russian cam- paigns. On Napoleon’s return from Elba, he commanded a division of the corps of Ney. At the commencement of the campaign of 1815, he Avas appointed to the command of a brigade of the grand army ; but on the eve of the battle of Waterloo he abandoned his colours and repaired to Louis XVIII., Avho Avas then at Ghent. This extraordinary coup-de-main — famous or infamous as it is designated by different parties — Avon for him the signal favour of the restored Bourbons. Ten days after the battle of Waterloo he en- tered France with the title of commander of the northern frontier, and shortly after the execution of the gallant Ney, to Avhose con- demnation his evidence mainly contributed Avas appointed to the command of one of the divisions of the royal guards. In 1823 he took part in the Spanish campaign under the Duke d’Angouleme, on whose return to France he obtained the chief command of the army of occupation. In 1829 Charles X. having nominated him minister of war, he organized the expedition Avhich finally re- sulted in the capture of Algiers, for which he was honoured with the baton of a mar- shal of France. After the revolution of 1830, Avhich placed Louis Philippe on the throne, he was proscribed. He then devoted his services to the cause of absolutism in differ- ent countries, especially in Portugal; but he was subsequently permitted to re-enter France, where he continued to live in ob- scurity till his death, Avhich took place Nov. 9, 1846. BOURNE, Vincent, sub-master of West- minster School ; he Avas a man of original genius, and Avas educated at Cambridge. He made himself known by some Latin poems of singular elegance and purity. Died, 1747. BOURRIENNE, LOUIS AntoINE FAUVE- LET DE, private secretary and biographer of Napoleon I., was born at Sens in 1769. He was a fellow-student Avith Napoleon at the military school of Brienne, and there their friendship began. Bourrienne studied at Leipsic, and held several diplomatic posts ; was present Avith Napoleon at the attack on the Tuileries in June, 1792 ; and after vari- ous changes of fortune Avas chosen, in 1797, by his old friend to be his private secretary. This post he held five years, and Avas dis- missed on account of his connection Avith some disgraceful money transactions. Charges of a like kind led to his dismissal from a di- plomatic post at Hamburg. He folloAved Louis XVIII. to Ghent ; Avas made councillor of state and deputy to the Chamber of Re- presentatives ; fled to Belgium to escape his creditors, and died in a lunatic asylum at Caen, in 1834. His “ M6moires sur Napo- leon” appeared in 8 vols. in 1829-30. BOUTERWEK, FRIEDRICH, professor of philosophy at Gottingen, Avas born in 1766, and died in 1828. He Avas the author of many valuable Avorks, of which his “ History of Modern Poetry and Eloquence ” is the most important. BOWDICH, THOMAS EDWARD, agent of the English African Company, Avas a native of Bristol, born in 1793. He was selected to conduct a mission to the king of Ashantee, of which mission he published a very in- teresting account. He again set out to ex- ploi’e the interior of Africa, and had already reached the river Gambia, when a fever, produced chiefly by anxiety, terminated his life in 1824. He Avas an excellent linguist and a pleasing writer ; and besides the Avork already mentioned, the public are indebted to him for a translation of Mollien’s Travels to the Sources of the Senegal and Gambia ; and other works. BOWDITCH, Dr NATHANIEL, F.R.S., president of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, was a native of Boston, and, though self-educated, attained great distinc- tion as a natural philosopher and mathema- tician. W^hen 23 years of age he published 117 bow] ^ ^nitosal IBiograpl^e. [boy his “ Practical Navigator,” a work of great merit ; but his admirable translation of the “ Mdcanique Celeste ” of La Place, with an elaborate commentary, is the production that is most likely to perpetuate his name. Died, 1838. BOWDLEE,, Thomas, an English phy- sician ; author of “Letters from Holland,” and editor of the “ Eamily Shakspeare,’’ &c. Born, 1754 ; died, 1825. BOWDOIN, JAMES, an American states- man and man of letters, born at Boston, 1727. He was one of the most determined opponents of the right of colonial taxation, insisted on by England, and was one of the first deputies to Congress. He became governor of Massachusetts, and president of the Philadelphian Academy of Sciences ; and died in 1790. His “ Discourse on the New Constitution of the United States” is deservedly admired. BOWLES, William Lisle, poet, was born at King’s Sutton, in Northamptonshire, a parish of which his father was vicar, in 1762. He Avas educated at Winchester and at Trinity College, Oxford, where he took his degree in 1792. On leaving the university he was appointed to a curacy in Wiltshire ; from which he was preferred to a living in Gloucestershire, and in 1803 to a canonry in Salisbury cathedral. His next step was to the rectory of Bremhill in AViltshire, to which he Avas presented by Archbishop Moore. Here he remained till his death, unremitting in his professional duties, zeal- ous in the education of the poor, and an exemplary instance of the union of Christian graces Avith the polish of taste and the amenities of literature. His sonnets Avere published in 1789, and may be reckoned among the fii'St fruits of a new era in poetry. In these sonnets Avere observed a grace of expression, a musical versification, and especially an air of melancholy tenderness, so congenial to the poetical temperament, Avhich still preserve for their author a highly respectable position among our poets. The chief of his subsequent poems Avere “ Hope, an allegorical Sketch,” “ St Michael’s Mount,” “ Coombe Ellen,” and “Grave of HoAvard.” His “ Spirit of Discovery by Sea,” the longest of his productions, Avas published in 1804. Mr BoAvles published also an edition of Pope, which involved him in controversy Avith Lord Byron, as well as a great variety of tracts, literary, antiquarian, and theo- logical. He Avas very playful in his habits and conversation, and many anecdotes are told of his Parson-Adams-like forgetfulness. Died, 1850. BOAVLES, CAROLINE. [SOUTHEY, CAROLINE.! BOAVYER, AVILLIAM, one of the most learned English printers, Avas born at Lon- don in 1699. He was the son of an eminent printer, and after studying at Cambridge, became partner in his father’s business about 1721. He soon attained a very high reputation, both for accuracy as corrector of the press, and for classical and antiquarian scholarship ; and an immense number of learned and sumptuous works issued from his press. To many of them he added notes, prefaces, and commentaries, which were afterwards published in a separate form as “ Miscellaneous Tracts.” He obtained va- rious lucrative appointments ; among them those of printer of the votes of the House of Commons, printer to the Society of Anti- quaries, and to the Iloyal Society, &c. He numbered among his friends many of the most distinguished literary men of the day, and Avas as much esteemed for his integrity, simplicity, and kind-heartedness, as he was honoured for his learning and skill. His “Critical Conjectures and Observations on the New Testament” were highly com- mended, and passed through several editions. Died, 1777. BOYCE, AVilliam, an eminent musical composer, born at London in 1710. At the age of 26 he became composer to the Chapels Iloyal, and about tAventy years later, organ- ist. He received the degi’ee of Mus. D. from the university of Cambridge: His Avorks consist chiefiy of Anthems, which entitle him to a high rank as composer of church music. He also published a magni- ficent collection of “ Cathedral Music of the English Masters,” in 3 a^oIs. folio. Died, 1779. He was buried in St Paul’s cathedral. BOYD, ZACHARY, an eminent Scottish divine of the 17th century. After studying at the college of Glasgow he went in 1607 to Saumur, where he became regent of the university. Persecution drove him home in 1621, and he Avas soon after chosen minis- ter of the Barony parish, Glasgow, an office which he held till his death. He made a Latin speech before Charles I. at Holyrood Palace in 1633, and preached before Crom- Avell after the battle of Dunbar in 1650. His principal Avork is entitled “ The Last Battell of the Soule in Death.” He also Avrote “ Zion’s PloAvers,” tAvo volumes of curious poems on Scripture subjects, knoAvn as “Zachary Boyd’s Bible.” He left an immense number of volumes in manu- script. This remarkable man Avas very wealthy, and left a splendid legacy to Glas- goAv College; not dependent, as is commonly said, on the publication of any of his works. Died, 1653. BOYDELL, JOHN, an English engraver and liberal patron of art, was born in 1719. He established himself in London as a print- seller, and by his enterprising spirit and the liberal engagements Avhich he offered to artists, contributed poAverfully to the form- ation of a school of English engravers. His famous “ Shakespeare Gallery ” was a col- lection of paintings executed at his expense by the best artists of the day in illustration of the works of Shakespeare. The pictures Avere also engraved, and the “ Gallery Avas” reproduced by photography in 1864. Boy- dell’s name is also associated with the sump- tuous edition of Shakespeare in 9 vols. folio, and Avith several valuable collections of en- gravings. Died, 1804. BOATER, Abel, a French lexicographer. He quitted his natiA'^e country after the re- vocation of the Edict of Nantes, and settled in England, Avhere he remained till his death. He Avas author of a French and En- glish Dictionary and Grammar, Avhich have had a very extensive circulation ; and of 118 boy] % Stiui}£rsal iSiograpljt). [bba several literary and political publications of merit. Born, 1664 ; died, 1729, BOYLE, Richard, earl of Cork, an emi- nent statesman in the reign of James I., and founder of a family greatly distinguished in the arts, sciences, and literature. He was educated at Cambridge, filled several govern- ment offices in Ireland, and was made in 1629 one of the lords justices of Ireland. He was soon after promoted to the office of lord high treasurer. Born at Canterbury, 1566 ; died, 1643. BOYLE, Roger, earl of Orrery, fifth son of the above. "When only seven years old he was created Baron Broghill ; and, from an early age, was conspicuous for his zeal in the king’s service. But after the king was put to deatli, the baron transferred his services to Cromwell, by whom he was greatly trusted. At the death of Cromwell he aided in bringing back Charles II., and was created earl of Orrery for his services on that occasion. Born in Ireland, 1621 ; died, 1679. He was the author of several poems and plays. BOYLE, ROBERT, the distinguished natu- ral philosopher, Avas a younger brother of the preceding, and Avas born at Lismore in 1626. He was educated at Eton, travelled on the continent, and studied several j^ears at Geneva. He afterAvards visited Italy, and returned to England in 1644. His life was thenceforth devoted to science and theology. He was one of the first mem- bers of the association Avhich Avas incorpor- ated as the “ Royal Society,” and Avas chosen president; an honour which on conscien- tious grounds he declined. He contributed greatly by his numerous experiments and valuable discoveries to the progress of phy- sical science. He was no less zealous in the defence and propagation of the Christian faith; bore the expense of translating the historical books of the NeAV Testament into Malay, and of the work of Grotius on the truth of the Christian Religion into Arabic ; and founded by his Avill the endoAvment for the “Boyle Lectures.” He enjoyed the friendship of Charles II., James II., and ^yilliam III., but free from ambition refused the honour of a peerage. His collected Avorks were published in 5 a’oIs. folio in 1744. Hied at London, December, 1691. BOYLE, CHARLES, Lord Boyle, second son of Roger, earl of Orrery, is chiefly re- membered in connection Avith the great con- troversy betAveen Bentley and the Oxford scholars respecting an edition of the “ Epis- tles of Phalaris,” published by Boyle, or in his name, Avhile a student at Christchurch. Although his name Avas used it does not appear that he took any part in the con- troversy. He entered parliament in 1700, Avas afterwards made privy councillor, and employed on a mission to the states of Hol- land. He Avas author of some slight literary papers and poems. Born, 1676 ; died, 1731. BOYLE, JOHN, earl of Cork and Orrery, only son of the last named ; author of a translation, with notes, of the “ Epistles of Pliny the Younger,” “ Remarks on the Life and Writings of Swift,” papers in the Con- noisseur and the "VVorld, &c. Born, 1707 ; died, 1762. BOYLE, RlCH.\RD, third carl of Burling- ton, and fourth earl of Cork, another mem- ber of the same distinguished family. He Avas an enthusiastic admirer of architecture, and a very generous friend to men of letters. In him Bishop Berkeley found his earliest and most efficient patron ; and Pope did him the honour to address to him his fourth epistle. Born, 1695 ; died, 1753. BOZE, Claude Geos de, a French numis- matist and archaeologist ; he became secre- tary to the Academy of Inscriptions, mem- ber of the French Academy, and keeper of the king’s cabinet of medals; and Avas author of the Medallic History of Louis XIV., &c. Born, 1680 ; died, 1754. ERACCTNI, NICCOLO. [TRIBOLO.] BRACCIO FORTEBRACCI,or BRACCIO DA MONTONE, a celebrated Italian Condot- tiere, avIio played a prominent part in the civil Avars of Italy in the 14th century, was born at Perugia in 1368. He belonged to the party of the nobles, and with his family was exiled in 1393. After distinguishing himself as a commander in the service of various sovereigns, he assisted Ladislaus, king of Naples, in his Avar Avith the pope and the Florentines. Forbidden to enter Perugia when it submitted to Ladislaus, he aided the Florentines and the pope. In 1416 he successfully attacked Perugia, and Avas declared lord. His government was wise and temperate, he introduced a reform of manners, erected noble buildings, and im- proved the irrigation of the country. In 1417 he took Rome, but did not hold it long ; the Avar Avhich follOAved Avas ended by a peace in 1420. He was soon after created, by the queen of Naples, prince of Capua and constable of the kingdom. He under- took the siege of Aquila, and Avas Avounded in a battle with the papal army sent to raise the siege. He refused all food and remedies, and died, June, 1424. BKACCIOLINI. [POGGIO.] BRACTON, Henry DE, an English laAv writer of the 13th century; author of the well-known and esteemed treatise “ De Legibus et Consuetudinibus Anglim.” BRADDOCK, Edavard, Major-general. He Avas commander-in-chief of the British forces in America, during the Avar Avith France in the 18th century ; and Avas slain Avhen on the point of investing Fort Du- quesne, in 1755. liRADLEY, James, a distinguished as- tronomer, born about 1693, at Sherboui’n, in Gloucestershire. He studied at the univer- sity of Oxford, and entered the church. He Avas early knoAvn as an astronomical ob- server, and Avas admitted fellow of the Royal Society in 1718. Three years later he Avas named Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford. In 1742 he Avas appointed astron- omer royal. He died in 1762, having enjoyed during the last ten years of his laborious life a pension of £250. The fame of Bradley as one of the most eminent of astronomers rests upon his discoveries of the phenomena called aberration of light, and nutation, and upon the immense mass of accurate observ- ations made by him at the Observatory at GreenAvich. The first of these discoveries is assigned to the year 1728, the latter to the 119 bra] H ^niij^rsal 13{ograp]^|). [bra year 1747. The Observations of Bradley form the basis of the great work of the German astronomer Bessel, entitled Fundamenta Astronomies. BRADSHAW, JOHN, president of the high court of justice for the trial of Charles I., was born in Cheshire in 1586. He was called to the bar, and was employed by the pai’liament in several important prosecu- tions. He was made chief justice of Chester, and in 1648 attained the rank of serjeant-at- law. He Avas a thorough republican ; con- ducted himself with great firmness as pre- sident on the great trial ; received a large pension, and several lucrative appointments for his services ; took part in some of the plots against the protector; was subse- quently president of the council of state, and a commissioner of the great seal, and died in 1659. His body Avas interred in Westminster Abbey, and Avas one of those brutally exhumed and hung in chains at the restoration. Bradshaw was a cousin of Milton, who has written his eulogy in an eloquent passage of the “ Second Defence of the People of England.” BRADWARDIN, THOMAS, archbishop of Canterbury ; author of a treatise “ De Causa Dei,” directed against Pelagianism ; some mathematical tracts, &c. Died, 1349. BRADY, Nicholas, an English divine ; translator, in conjunction with Tate, of the Psalms. He studied at Oxford and Dublin, took an active part on the side of the pi’ince of Orange, and became afterwards chaplain to the king. He had influence enough to save, on three occasions, his native town from the destruction ordered by James II. Born at Bandon, Ireland, 1659 ; died, 1726. BRAHAM, JOHN, one of the most cele- brated singers of the age, was born in Lon- don in 1774. His parents, Avho were Jews, died Avhen he was still a child, but he Avas confided to the care of Leoni, an Italian singer of celebrity, and made his d^hut as a public singer before he had attained his eleventh year, when, from the quality and compass of his voice, he Avas enabled to sing several bravnra songs that had been written for Madame Mara. In 1794 he appeared at Bath at some concerts that took place under the direction of M. Rauzzini, Avho, appre- ciating his talent, gave him musical in- struction for three years. In 1796 he was engaged for Drury Lane theatre, and his d^bnt (Avhich was in an opera called “ Mah- moud ”) was so successful that in the year following he Avas engaged for the Italian Opera House. Hoping, however, to achieve a reputation more permanent than could be obtained by any other course, he resolved to visit Italy and there to complete his mu- sical education. On his return to England he appeared at Covent Garden in 1801. This is the point from Avhich may be dated that triumphant career during which he created a constant furore. Mr Bi'aham Avas also renoAvned as a composer. Not only did he write several of the most popular songs, but he composed a tolerably long list of entire operas, as they were called in their time, though, according to present notions, they were merely dramas interspei*sed with occasional songs. The only vocation which Mr Braham tried Avithout succcess Avas that of manager of the St James’s Tlieatre, Avhich he built as an opei’a house, and Avhich Avas first opened in 1836. In priAvate life Mr Bra- ham was generally respected, and among his acquaintance his fame as a man of extensive information and as a humorous retailer of anecdote was scarcely inferior to his reputa- tion as a vocalist among the general public. Died, 1856. BRAHE, Tycho, the great astronomer, Avas a native of Denmark. He was born in 1546, of a noble family of SAvedish origin. The passion for astronomy shoAved itself in him very early, and after studying at the universities of Copenhagen and Leipzig, he visited the principal observatories of Ger- many, returning home in 1571. His observ- ations on the new star in Cassiopeia, in 1572, attracted gr^'at attention, and after travel- ling again for a short time, he settled in the small island of Hven, which the king gave him, and there had a splendid observatory built, which he named Uranienhorg. Here he laboured for about 20 years, but Avhen the king died the jealousy of the nobles had him deprived of his appointments and his observatory. He soon after left Denmark, and on the invitation of the emperor, settled in Bohemia. Kepler joined him there, and they worked together till Tj^cho’s death. Tycho is especially celebrated as an observer in astronomy. He made very great im- provements in the instruments of observ- ation, and devised additional safeguards against error. He opposed the Copernican system as then understood, discovered the variation of the moon’s longitude, showed that comets could not be mere atmospheric bodies, and in short prepared by his accurate and numerous observations the grand dis- covery of Kepler’s laAvs. Among his Avorks, not numerous, are, Astronomise instaurata mechanica,” “ Progymnasmata,” “ Episto- larum astronomicarum libri,” and “ Histo- riae Ccelestis libri XX.” Died in October, 1601. BRAIDWOOD, JAMES, director of the London Eire Brigade, was born in Edinburgh in 1799, and educated in the high school of that city under the well-knoAvn Dr Adam. He was appointed, in 1823, inspector of the Edinburgh Fire Brigade ; and he at once ex- hibited, in this office, those high qualities of courage, judgment, and energy Avhich Avill cause his name to be honourably and grate- fully remembered. Soon after his appoint- ment occurred in Edinburgh the ^reat fire of 1824, at which time only the insurance offices possessed fire-engines in that city. The difficulties thus caused in the extinction of fires led him to organize the present fire brigade of Edinburgh. On occasion of a fire in a shop in Hunter’s Square, where tAvo kegs of gunpowder w'ere stored in the cellar, Braidwood forced an entrance, Avith some wet blankets, into the vaults, and returned with the kegs under his arms. As director of the Fire Brigade of London, his services Avon for him the esteem and gratitude of all ; and a life of eminent usefulness and vigour Avas cut short on the 22nd of Juno, 1861, by an accident which occurred during the greatest fire that has been knoAvn in Lon- 120 bra] ^lograpl^o. [bre don during the present century, and which raged on the waterside portion of Tooley Street nearest to London Bridge. He had posted his men where they could have the best command of the fire, when a terrible explosion took place ; and befoi-e he could make his escape, he was buried under the ruins of a warehouse wall which fell out- wards into the road. His body was found the day following, crushed, but showing no effects of fire. At no funeral, perhaps, since that of the Duke of Wellington, has so great a sense of public loss been shown as at that of Mr Braid wood. BRAINERD, DAVID, a celebrated Ameri- can missionary, who signalized himself by his successful endeavours to convert the Indians on the Susquehannah, Delaware, &c. Died, aged 30, 1747. BRAITH WAITE, JOHN, an ingenious mechanic, constructor of a diving machine, with which he explored the Royal George, sunk off Spithead; the Hartwell, East In- diaman, off one of the Cape de Verd Islands ; and the Abergavenny, East Indiaman, off the Isle of Portland. From the fii’st he only succeeded in raising some guns and an anchor; but from the second and third he brought up property to a very large amount. Died, 1818. BRAMAH, JOSEPH, an English engineer, distinguished for the number, value, and ingenuity of his mechanical inventions. Among these were his invaluable hydraulic press, his safety lock, various improvements in the steam-engine, in the process of making paper, in the construction of main-pipes, wheel-carriages, the beer-machine, &c. Born, 1749 ; died, 1814. BRAMANTE D’URBINO, FRANCESCO LAZZARi, a celebrated Italian architect, was born in 1444. He first studied painting, but abandoned it for architecture. He was em- ployed at Rome by Pope Alexander VI., but especially by Julius II., for whom he plan- ned, and partly executed, the buildings con- necting the Belvedere and the Vatican, and subsequently designed the great church of St Peter. This however he merely com- menced, and the completion was intrusted to Michael Angelo, who entirely changed the plan. Bramante first introduced Ra- phael at the court of Rome. Died, 1514. BRAMHALL, JOHN, archbishop of Ar- magh, was born in Yorkshire at the close of the 16th century, was educated at Cam- bridge, and after obtaining the degree of D.D., went to Ireland, and was sbon appoint- ed bishop of Londonderry. He was the friend of Strafford, then lord deputy, and exerted himself for the advancement of the church in wealth and power. At the com- mencement of the civil war he was impeach- ed and imprisoned, went abroad a few years later, and after the restoration returned, and was raised to the Irish primacy. His name is remembered as the antagonist of Hobbes in a discussion on fate and free-will. Died, 1663. BRANCALEONE DANDOLO, a noble of Bologna, who was chosen “senator” of Rome in 1253. By his courage and energy he delivered the city from the distractions caused by the constant confiicts of the rival nobles, many of whom he summarily exe- cuted, and destroyed their fortified houses. He compelled Pope Innocent IV. to return from Assisi to Rome ; was deprived for a time of his office, but soon recalled ; and died, both hated and beloved, in 1258. BRANCAS LAURAGUAIS, Duke de, a French nobleman, distinguished for his scientific attainments ; discoverer of the composition of the diamond, and a great improver of the manufacture of porcelain. Born, 1735 ; died, 1824. BRAND, John, an English divine and antiquary; author of the “History and Antiquities of the Town of Newcastle,” “ Observations on Popular Antiquities,” &c. Born, 1743; died, 1806. BRANDT, a German chemist of the 17th century ; who is said to have discovered phosphorus while attempting to find a sol- venc by which to convert silver into gold. BRANTOME, or PIERRE DE BOUR- DEILLES, a celebrated French chronicler. He was a favoured attendant upon Charles IX., Henry III., and the duke of Alenqon ; and his memoirs, though somewhat too free in their details, are highly valuable as gra- phic and faithful illustrations of an interest- ing period of French history. Died, 1614. BRASIDAS, a Spartan general, who dis- tinguished himself by his skill and courage in the Peloponnesian war. He was wounded and lost his shield at the attack on Pylos ; led an army very skilfully and rapidly through Thessaly to Macedonia ; took seve- ral cities from the Athenians, and especially, in B. c. 422, Amphipolis on the Strymon. He defended the city when besieged by Cleon, and defeated Cleon in a battle out- side the walls, but was himself mortally wounded. Sacrifices and games were in- stituted in his honour. BHrAY, Sir Reginald, an English states- man, and favourite of Henry VII. He is chiefly memorable for having superintended the erection of the chapel of Henry VII. at Westminster, and for having finished that of St George at Windsor. Died, 1503. BRAY, William, F.S.A., an industrious antiquary ; editor of Evelyn’s “ Diary ” and “ Memoirs,” and a contributor to the Archae- ologia, &c. Died, 1832, aged 97. BRAYBROOKE, RICHARD CORNWALLIS Neville, Lord, F.S.A., born March 17, 1820, is well known for his contributions to archaeological literature. In 1850 he became one of the vice-presidents of the Archaeolo- gical Institute, and contributed many valu- able papers on the antiquities of England. Died February 22, 1861, aged 41. BREAUTB, Fulk de, a leader of mer- cenaries in the service of King John. He was bailiff of Glamorgan in 1208, and took a prominent part in the barons’ war, which followed the king’s revocation of Magna Charta, in 1215. He accompanied John on his expedition to the northern counties, ravaging, burning, and oppressing. In the following year he was in the Isle of Ely, and desecrated the minster. Under Henry III. he was in possession of the castle of Bedford, and took part in many plundering expedi- tions. He imprisoned one of the king’s jus- ticiaries, but was at last besieged by the bke] ^ ^nibersal 3©tograp!)p. [bri king, and after holding out several months, surrendered, was stripped of his estates and banished. He died by poison soon after in Prance, 1225. BREDA, JOHN VAN, a Dutch painter; a very close imitator of the style of Breughel and Wouvermans. Died, 1750. BREDOW, GABRIEL Gottfried, a Ger- man historical writer, born at Berlin, in 1773. He held the chair of rhetoric at Eutin, and that of history at Helmstadt, and afterwards at Prankfort on the Oder. He was author of a “ Handbuch der alten Geschichte,” which passed through several editions and was translated into English ; “Historische Tabellen,” frequently reprint- ed, translated into English, and extended ; and several other works. Died, 1814. BREENBERG, BARTHOLOMEW, a Cele- brated painter, particularly skilful in small landscapes. Born at Utrecht, 1614; died, 1660. BREGUET, Abraham Louis, an eminent watch and chronometer maker at Paris, by birth a Swiss. Born, 1747 ; died, 1823. BREISLAK, SciFiONE, a celebrated Ita- lian geologist, born at Rome in 1768, who under Buonaparte was appointed inspector of the saltpetre works and powder mills in Italy. He wrote several scientific works, and was intimate with Cuvier, Chaptal, &c. Died, 1826. BREITKOPP, JOHANN GOTTLIEB EM- MANUEL, a printer and type founder of Leipsic ; he discovered an improved com- position of type metal, and wrote a treatise on Bibliography, &c. Born, 1719 ; died, 1794. BREMER, Sir JAMES JOHN GORDON, rear-admiral of the Blue, whose name is so well-known for his distinguished services in the war with China, was born ip 1786. En- tering the navy in 1794, he rose through the intermediate grades with much personal dis- tinction, and in June, 1814, he became a post-captain. When captain of the Tamar, 26 guns, he was despatched to form a settle- ment on Melville Island, Australia, and joined in the closing scenes of the Burmese war. In 1836, he was created a knight com- mander of the order of the Guelph (K.C.H.) ; and in 1837, in the Alligator, of 26 guns, he founded the settlement of Port Essington. He afterwards returned to India, and as- sumed the command in chief of that station, on the death of Sir P. L. Maitland, at the commencement of the Chinese war. To place on record his various achievements, from the organization of the expedition that left Singapore in 1840, until the final capture of Canton in 1841, M’ould be to compile a history of the Avar. His services were reAvarded with the dignity of K.C.B., and the voice of the country Avas echoed in a vote of thanks to him from both Houses of Parliament. His last employment Avas as commodore superintendent of Woolwich dockyard, from which office he retired in consequence of ill health, in 1848. Died, 1850. BRENNUS, a Gallic chieftain, who figures in the legendary history of Rome. Having obtained, it is said, a victory over the Ro- mans at the Allia, he marched on Rome, which he took and pillaged. After block- ading the Capitol for some months he Avas offered a thousand pounds Aveight of gold to spare the city. While the gold aa'us being weighed, he threw his sword and helmet into the opposite scale, exclaiming, “ Vee victis ! ” — ^Woe to the vanquished ! Enraged at this insolence, Camillas, according to the legend, put an end to the negotiation, gave battle to the Gauls, and totally defeated and destroyed the whole host. This occurred about 382 B.c. BRENNUS, a leader of the Gauls, who after ravaging Thessaly and Greece, at- tenipted to plunder the temple of Delphi. Being repulsed, he sleAv himself, 278 B. c. BRENTON, Captain EDWARD PELHAM, R.N., an officer whose services at sea during the war Avith France Avere scarcely greater than those which he performed on shore and during peace. Gifted Avith great ingenuity , he made several mechanical improvements con- nected with his profession, of which naval men spoke in the highest terms. He was the liberal supporter of seA'eral of the most use- ful charities in the metropolis. Of one of these, “the Children’s Friend Society,” he was, in fact, the founder; and it is not too much to say, that to it hundreds of poor children OAve their removal from the horrors of vice and want, to a life of Aurtuous exer- tion, and happiness. Captain Brenton was also very favourably known as an author, by his “Naval History of Great Britain, from 1783 to 1822,” and a “ Biography of Earl St Yincent.” Died, 1839. BRETSCHNEIDER, HENRY GODFREY , YON, a German litterateur, born at Gera, in 1739. He led a very wandering and restless life, served in the Prussian army, held vari- ous political offices in Germany and France, Avas librarian to the university of Buda, and died near Pilsen in 1810. He wrote several satirical pieces on the prominent follies of the age, and contributed numerous papers of a similar character to periodicals. BREUGHEL, PETER, commonly knoAvn as “ Old Breughel,” an eminent painter ; chiefly of common-life subjects, such as rus- tic merry-makings. Born near Breda, 1510 ; died, 1570. BREUGHEL, JOHN, son of the foregoing, called, from his dress, “Velvet Breughel,” was an excellent landscape painter. Rubens painted the figures in some of his pieces. Born at Brussels, 1560 ; died, 1625. BREUGHEL, PETER, a brother of the above, and also a painter. His fondness for painting horrible subjects procured him the sobi’iquet of “ Hellish.” Died, 1642. An- other brother, Abraham, excelled in fruit and floAvers. BRIDAINE, James, an eminent Frencli ecclesiastic, whose indefatigable zeal, or itinerant propensities, induced him to un- dertake 256 missionary journeys, so that his powers Avere displayed in almost every vil- lage throughout France. He Avas the author of “ Spiritual Songs,” Avhich were extremely popular. Born, 1701; died, 1767. BRIDGEWATER, FRANCIS EGERTON, Duke of, a nobleman Avho devoted much at- tention to, and expended large sums in the improvement and extension of, canal navi- gation, seconded by the skill of Brindley. Born, 1736 ; died, 1803. 122 BRi] % Sanibersal ^iograpi^ii. [bri BRIDGEWATER, FRANCIS HENRY Egerton, eighth Earl of, is remembered for liis bequest of £8000 to provide for the pub- lication of a work on natural theology. Eight distinct works Avere Avritten to carry out his Avishes, and these are the Avell-knoAvn BridgeAvater Treatises.” The earl was born in 1758; Avas educated at Oxford; entered the church ; and died at Paris in 1829. BRIDPORT, Alexander Hood, Admiral Lord, a gallant naval officer, and the young- est brother of Admiral Hood. He bore a part in Lord HoAve’s celebrated victory, June 1, 1794; in the folloAving year he defeated a French squadron, capturing three sail of the line ; and nobly distinguished himself on many other occasions during the Avar. Died, 1814. BRTENNE, JOHN of, king of Jerusalem, was son of Erard II., count of Brienne, and was chosen, by Philip Augustus, king of France, to marry Mary, daughter of Conrad and Isabella, and heiress of the kingdom of Jerusalem. The marriage w^as celebrated, and John of Brienne was crowned at Acre, in 1210. He was at once engaged in war with the Saracens, and in 1219 he joined the fifth crusade, invaded Egypt, and took Da- mietta ; which, however, was soon lost. His daughter, Yolande, was married to the Em- peror Frederick II., who then took the title of king of Jerusalem. John of Brienne after- wards joined Avith the pope in his Avar against the emperor. In 1229 he Avas made emperor of the East during the minority of BaldAvin II. Incredible accounts are pre- served of his double victory over the Greeks and the Bulgarians, Avho besieged Constan- tinople. Died, in the dress of a Franciscan, 1237. BRIGGS, Henry, an eminent English mathematician and first Savilian professor of geometry, at Oxford ; author of “ Arith- metica Logarithmica,” “ Tables for the Im- provement of Navigation,” “ Animadver- siones Geometricae,” &c. Born, 1536 ; died, 1630. BRIGGS, William, an eminent physician and oculist ; author of “ Ophthalmographia,” an anatomical description of the eye and a neAv theory of vision. Died, 1704. BRILL, MATTHEW, an eminent landscape painter, employed by Pope Gregory XIII. in decorating the Vatican. Died, 1584. BRILL, PAUL, brother of the last-named, and also eminent as a landscape painter. Pope Clement VIII. employed him to paint a landscape sixty-eight feet Avide for the Scala Clementina; it Avas a representation of the martyrdom of St Clement. Died, 1626. BRILLAT-SAVARIN, Anthelme, a French Avriter, known chiefly from his Avork entitled “ The Physiology of Taste.” Born 1755; died, 1826. BRINDLEY, JAMES, an eminent English mechanician and engineer, to Avhose great zeal and abilities Ave owe some of the most important of our navigable canals. So highly, indeed, did he estimate their importance to a commercial nation, that, being jocularly asked, Avhile under examination before a committee of the House, for Avhat purpose he supposed rivers to have been created, he is said to have quite seriously replied, “ To feed navigable canals.” His first great work Avas the canal from Worsley to Manchester, which he executed for the duke of Bridge- water. He afterwards completed the Grand Trunk, Birmingham, Chesterfield, and others. Born, 1716; died, 1772. BRINKLEY, Dr JOHN, bishop of Cloyne, an able divine, but still more eminent for his scientific acquirements, Avas born in 1760. While a graduate of Oxford he Avas elected to the professorship of astronomy in Dublin University, an honour to Avhich his previous writings and discoveries in science fully en- titled him. Died, September, 1835. BRINVILLIERS, MARGUERITE D’Au- BRAI, Marchioness of, horribly notorious for having poisoned her father, brother, and two sisters. She had formed a criminal attach- ment for a Gascon officer, named Gaudin St Croix, and her family caused him to be sent to the Bastile. There he learned from a fel- lOAA'-prisoner the art of compounding subtile poisons, of Avhich he and his mistress made use to avenge themselves on her family. His mask slipping from his face Avhile he Avas distilling poison, he died suddenly ; and her anxiety to obtain a casket that had belonged to him, led to inquiries Avhich terminated in her detection. She Avas beheaded, and her body burnt, 1676. BRISBANE, Admiral Sir Charles. He entered the navy, on board the Alcide, in 1779 ; receiA^ed a severe Avound in Rodney’s fleet on the 12th of April, 1782 ; and was promoted to the rank of lieutenant in 1790. He shared the active services of Lord Hood off Toulon, and of Lord Nelson during the siege of Bastia, Avhere he nearly lost an eye ; Avas made captain in 1795 ; and the fol- lowing year received the thanks of the Ad- miralty for his conduct at the capture of some Dutch ships in Saldanha Bay. The firmness Avith Avhich Sir Charles acted quelled the disposition to mutiny Avhich then appeared through the fleet at the Cape. In 1805 he Avas appointed commander of the Arethusa ; and in 1807 achieved the capture of the is- land of Cura 9 oa, when he received the hon- our of knighthood. The folloAving year he Avas made governor of St Vincent’s, in Avhich station he remained till his death ; being raised to the rank of rear-admiral in 1805, and to that of vice-admiral in 1820. Died, 1829. BRISSON, or BRISSONIUS, BARNABAS, an eminent French lawyer and philologist ; author of a treatise “De Regio Persarum Principatu,” &c. During the siege of Paris by Henry III., in 1589, he remained in the city, and was compelled by the partisans of the League to act as first president of the parliament; and his conduct as a magistrate Avas made the pretext for putting him to death, in 1591. BRISSON, Mathurin JACQUES, aFrench chemist and naturalist; he was in his youth assistant to R4aumur and aftei’Avards pro- fessor of physics at the college of Navarre. He was also a member of the Institute. His principal works are the “ Ornithologie,” a treatise in 6 vols. 4to ; “ Pesanteur sp^ci- fique des corps ; ” and a “ Dictionnaire raison- ne de physique.” He also translated into French Priestley’s History of Electricity. Born, 1723; died, 1806. i 128 BRi] ^ ^nitersal 1S(ograpf)p. [bro BRISSOT DE WARVILLE, JEAI? PlERIlE, French miscellaneous writer, was born in 1754. Some of his early writings were obnox- ious to the government, and he was a short time imprisoned in the Bastile. To avoid a second imprisonment he fled to England, and then visited America. He returned to Paris just before the outbreak of the revolution and became one of its devoted adherents. Elected to the constituent assembly, he joined the Girondist party : was also deputy to the legislative assembly, and the Convention : procured the appointment of Roland to the ministry of the interior, and was guillotined with the other Girondist leaders, October 31st, 1793. Brissot was a voluminous writer ; honest, unselfish, simple in manner and dressed as a Quaker; was a warm admirer of the English Constitution ; advocated the abolition of slavery, freedom of the press, and the right of insurrection. Among his works are “ Th^orie des lois criminelles,” “ Biblio- theque philosophique du legislateur, &c.” “Nouveau voyage dans les Etats-Unis,” &c. BRITTON, JOHN, an eminent writer on to- pography and architecture, was born at the village of ICington, in Wiltshire, in 1771, where he passed the first sixteen years of his life. In his seventeenth year lie came to London, and was apprenticed to a wine mer- chant ; became clerk to an attorney in Gray’s Inn ; and was next engaged at three guineas a week to write, recite, and sing at a theatre in Panton Street, Haymarket. The passion for theatricals continued with Mr Britton through his long life ; but he was soon wuthdraw'n to more congenial pursuits, to which the remainder of his days was de- voted. The work which first gained him distinction was the “ Beauties of Wiltshire,” tvvo volumes of which appeared in 1801, a third being published after an interval of twenty-four years. Of the multitude of works which he Avrote, either alone or in conjunction with other authors during the next fifty years, it would be impossible to give even the titles Avithin our limits. They Avere devoted chiefly to topography, archi- tectural antiquities, biography, and the fine arts; but the most important of his pub- lications are the “Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain,” and the “ Cathedral Anti- quities of England,” works of national value, and Avhich Avill secure for their author lasting fame. A writer in the “ Gentleman’s Maga- zine,” to which he was a frequent coi\tribut- or, thus speaks of him ; — “ To his labours the architecture, and particularly the ecclesias- tical and domestic architecture, of the coun- try, is deeply indebted for the restoration of what was decayed, and the improvement of Avhat Avas defective ; and in his beautiful sketches and masterly engravings, extending thi’ough many volumes, he has given us a treasure-house of antiquarian art, and made the pencil and the graver not only perpetu- ate and preserve much that has long been mouldering into shapeless ruin, hut has also supplied many a ncAV model of improved beauty, suggested by his own genius, and carried into effect by his OAvn zeal and per- severance.” Some years before his death Mr Britton published a portion of his “ Au- tobiogi’aphy,” AA’hich is a storehouse of literary anecdote, and full of interest to bibliographers, antiquaries, and artists. Died, 1857. BRITTON, Thomas, a dealer in small coal, noted, on account of his attachment to music, a*s the “musical small-coal man.” His harmless life Avas put an end to by a silly trick of a ventriloquist, which fright- ened him so much that he never recovered. Born, 1654 ; died, 1714. BROCCHI, Giovanni Battista, an Italian geologist and mineralogist, born at Bassano in 1772. He became professor of natural history at Brescia, settled at Milan in 1808, travelled in the Tyrol and in Italy, and in 1822 entered the service of the viceroy of Egypt. The most important of Brocchi’s works is the “ Conchiologia fossile subapen- nina,” which appeared in 1814. Died in Sennaar, 1826. BROCKLESBY, RICHARD, an eminent physician, fellow of the Royal Society, and author of some medical tracts, &c. Born, 1722 ; died, 1797. BRODIE, Sir BENJAMIN COLLINS, a dis- tinguished English surgeon, w^as born at Winterslow, near Salisbury, in 1783. He studied at the Hunterian School, in Great Windmill Street, where Abernethy was then a lecturer, and at St George’s Hospital. In 1809, he became lecturer at the school and assistant-surgeon at St George’s. In the following year he Avas chosen Croonian lecturer to the Royal Society, and for some elaborate papers which he laid before the society was chosen fellow, and soon after received the Copley medal. In 1819 he be- came professor of anatomy and surgery to the Royal College of Surgeons, and three years later, full surgeon to St George’s Hos- pital. He continued his lectures till 1830. The appointment of serjeant-surgeon to the king Avas given him in 1834, and a similar appointment was continued to him by her Majesty, Queen Victoria. In 1844 he became president of the college, and in 1858 pre- sident of the Royal Society, being the first surgeon Avho had that dignity conferred on him. His practice grew steadily and his reputation with it ; and amidst all his public and private duties, he found leisure for Avider studies than those merely professional, and for the production of several import- ant works. These are — “ Pathological and Surgical Observations on Diseases of the Joints ; ” “ Lectures on Pathology and Sur- gery;” and “Psychological Inquiries.” Died at BetchAVorth, Surrey, October, 1862. Since his death his “Autobiography” has been published. BROGLIE, Franqois MARIE, marshal of France, was born in 1671. He entered the army, and as lieutenant-general served under Marshal Villars, in Flanders, in 1710, and distinguished himself on several occa- sions. In 1725 he Avas sent ambassador to London, and negotiated a treaty betAveen England, France, and Prussia. He Avas created marshal in 1734, displayed great in- trepidity at the battle of Parma, and took Guastalla. He afterwards served in Bo- hemia. Died, 1745. BROGLIE, VICTOR Franqois, Duke of, marshal of France, Avas son of the preceding 124 BRo] 'll Sluibcrsal ISiograpf)!?. and 'Nvas born in 1718. He served in Italj^, in Boliemia, in Bavaria, and in 1716 passed into Planders, and took part in the battles of Raucoux and Lawfeldt and the siege of Maestricht. In 1758 be contributed to the victory of Lutzelberg, and in the following year he was created prince of the empire, commander-in-chief of the army of Ger- many, and marshal of France. He was afterwards exiled, but soon recalled. He was minister of war a short time in 1789, and took part in the invasion of Champagne in 1792. Hied, 1804. BROKE, Rear-admiral Sir PHILIP BOWES Verb, a gallant English officer, the eldest son of Philip B. Broke, Esq., of Nacton, Suffolk, was born in 1776, and commenced his naval career as a midshipman in 1792. After the usual initiation, during which he was present in several general engagements, he obtained the rank of commander in 1799, and post-captain in 1801. The various ser- vices he subsequently performed in different parts of the globe, though they were neither few nor unimportant, we shall not enter upon ; but he is chiefly celebi’ated for the far-famed action between his ship, the Shan- non, of 38 guns, and the American frigate, Chesapeake, mounting 49, in June, 1813. The news of a victory so nobly gained against such fearful odds — at a time when an opin- ion was gaining ground that our frigates were not a match for the large vessels (misnamed frigates) of the Americans— was hailed in England with every demonstration of na- tional pride, and besides the complimentary congratulations that attended the gallant author of it, he was, for his “ distinguished zeal, courage, and intrepidity,” raised to the dignity of a baronet of Great Britain. Died, Jan. 2, 1841, athis seat. Broke Hall, Suffolk. BROME, Alexander, an attorney and satirical poet, whose writings consist of lively songs and satirical compositions di- rected against the Puritans. In addition to writing satirical songs, he translated from Lucretius and Horace, and wrote a comedy, called “ The Cunning Lovers.” Born, 1620 j died, 1666. BROME, Richard, an English dramatist, contemporary with Ben Jonson, to whom he was originally servant. His comedies were formerly very popular, but they are not now performed. Died, 1632. BROMLEY, AVILLIAM, an English en- graver, was born at Carisbrook in 1769. He settled in London, and was the friend of several eminent artists. He became an as- sociate engraver of the Royal Academy, and was employed to engrave the Elgin marbles for the trustees of the British Museum. Died, 1842. His son, John BROMLEY, was also an engraver ; he died in 1839. BRONDSTED, PETER OLAF a distin- guished Danish philologist, and antiquary, was born in 1780, entered the university of Copenhagen in 1796, and took the degree of doctor in philosophy in 1806. In company with his friend Dr Koes he made a scientific expedition to Greece, and in excavating the temples in iEgina, &c., many fine monuments of ancient Greek art were discovered. On his return to Denmark he was assisted with pecuniary means by the government, and appointed diplomatic agent to the Papal court in 1818. He afterwards travelled through the Ionian Isles, Malta, and Sicily, for the purpose of making additional investi- gations ; he subsequently made Paris his principal residence, coming occasionally to England’; and in 1827 he visited his native country, where he received the title of privy counciilor of legation, and other marks of distinction. The first part of his principal work, entitled “ Travels and Researches in Greece,” appeared in 1826, at Paris, simul- taneously in the French and German lan- guages ; the second part in 1830. Died at Copenhagen, in consequence of a fall from his horse, June 26, 1842, aged 61. EROKGNIART, ALEXANDRE, the dis- tinguished French mineralogist, chemist, and zoologist, was born at Paris in 1770. His father, an eminent architect, had him well educated and sent him to the school of mines and the school of medicine. At the age of 20 he visited the mining works of Derbyshire. After various other employ- ments he obtained the post of director of the porcelain w^orks of Sevres, which he occupied till his death, discovering and carrying out many improvements in the processes of manufacture. He wrote a memoir on enamelling, and did much to revive the art of painting on glass. He made scientific journeys in Auvergne, Swit- zerland, Italy, and Sweden, assisted Cuvier in his studies of fossils, and introduced a new classification of reptiles. Brongniart was author of a “ Traite 414mentaire de Mineralogie,” “ Essai sur la Geographie mineralogique des Environs de Paris,” “Trait6 des Arts ceramiques” (jointly with Cuvier) ; “ Memoire sur les corps organises fossiles nommes Trilobitcs,” &c. He also contributed numerous papers to scientific journals and to the Academy of Sciences, to which he was admitted in 1815. He was a foreign member of the Royal and Geological Societies of London. Died, 1847. BRONTE, Charlotte, the eldest of three sisters, whose noms de plume “ Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell,” have become familiar as household words in every English mouth, was born at Thornton, in Yorkshire, of which village her father, the Rev. Patrick Bronte, was rector, in 1816. When she was about four years of age her father removed to HaAvorth, in the same county, and here, Avith the exception of a few short intervals, she spent the remainder of her life. At school she Avas an indefatigable student ; constantly reading and learning, picking up every scrap of information concerning paint- ing, sculpture, poetry, and music, as if it were gold. In 1835, when she was little more than nineteen years old, she Avent as teacher to a Miss W ’s,her younger sister, Emily, accompanying her as a pupil ; but she became literally ill from home-sickness, and could not settle to anything; and, after the lapse of three months, she returned home. But she again entered i;pon this career, though with no greater success. After two years spent in a pensionnat, in Brussels, as half-teacher and half-pupil, she returned to HaAvorth in 1844, and soon afterwards, in conj unction av ith her sisters Emily, J ane, and BRo] ^niij^rsal UBiograp^p. [bro Anne, prepared for the press a volume of poems, whieh was published in 1846, under the pseudonyms of Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell, but met with little success ; though it was remarkable as being the first efforts of undoubted genius to find some congenial form of expression. At this period the throe sisters were harassed by great domestic anxieties, in additipn to the ill-success of their poems ; but all of them were engaged in another literary venture, which boded no greater success than the former. Each of them had written a prose tale, hoping that the three might be published together : — ‘‘ Wuthering Heights,” by Anne, “ Agnes Grey,” by Emily Jane ; and the “ Professor,” by Charlotte. The two former found a publisher, though under disheartening conditions, while the “Professor” found no sufficient apprecia- tion among the London publishers to induce them to take it up. Eut, meanwhile, Char- lotte, undiscouraged, was engaged upon another story, to which she gave the title of “Jane Eyre; an Autobiography ;” and when this appeared, in 1847, it was wel- comed with greater popularity than is ac- corded to most novels. “ This was doubtless due in part to the freshness, raciness, and vigour of mind it evinced, but still more, perhaps, to the moral paradox which per- vaded it, and to the hardihood of its assaults upon the prejudices of so-called proper peo- ple.” In 1848 she lost her sister Anne ; and in 1849 her sister Emily, too, was laid in the grave. But, notwithstanding these severe domestic losses, she was still busy with her pen, and in the autumn of 1849 the fame which had accrued to her from “ Jane Eyre,” was sustained, if not increased, by the pub- lication of “ Shirley.” Meanwhile, the real name and circumstances of the author of these powerful novels became known in literary circles ; and when, in 1853, “ Vil- lette,” which turned upon her residence in Brussels, appeared, there was no longer an effort at concealment. In 1854 Miss Bronte was married to the Rev. Mr Nicholls, who had long been her father’s curate, and a long career of happiness and usefulness seemed before her ; but her constitution, naturally feeble, soon showed symptoms of decay, and she died MarchSl, 1855. The “ Life of Char- lotte Bronte ” has been written by Mrs Gaskell, the well-known author of “ Mary Barton,” &c., &c. BRONZINO, Angelo, Italian painter, was born near Florence in 1502. He was a pupil of Jacopo da Pontormo, painted both in oil and in fresco, was the friend of Vasari, and an ardent admirer of Michael Angelo. His most famous picture is the “ Descent of Christ into Hell.” He excelled in portrait- painting. Died at Florence, 1572. In the National Gallery are four works of Bronzino, one of them a remarkable allegorical picture of “ Venus, Cupid, Folly, and Time,” which was painted for Francis I. of France. BROOKE, Frances, a clever novelist and dramatic writer ; authoress of “Lady Juliet Mandeville” and other novels, &c. Died, 1789. BROOKE, Henry, dramatist and miscel- laneous writer ; author of several tragedies, “ Letters addressed to the People of Ireland,” the celebrated novel of “ The Fool of Quali- ty,” &c. Born in Ireland, 1706 ; died, 1783. BROOKES, JOSHUA, an eminent anatom- ist and surgeon, Avas born in 1761 ; and after studying under the most celebrated men of his day, commenced his career as a professor of anatomy, pathology, and surgery, when about 26 years of age. His museum was en- riched with the choicest anatomical speci- mens and osteological preparations ; and the lectures on anatomy and its kindred sciences, which, during a long life, he was in the habit of delivering to his pupils (of whom he could reckon 7000), laid the foundation of their scientific fame to some of the most distin- guished members of the profession. His last appearance as a lecturer was in 1827 ; and in January, 1833, he died, aged 72. BROOME, Dr WILLIAM, an English divine and poet. In addition to his OAvn poems, and a translation of Anacreon’s Odes, he contributed eight books to Pope’s trans- lation of the Odyssey ; but having complained of his scanty remuneration, his brother bard rewarded him Avith a niche in the Dunciad. He was vicar of Eye, Suffolk, and died at Bath, in 1745. BROSCHl, CARLO. [FARINELLI.] BROSSES, Charles he, an eminent French lawyer, was born at Dijon in 1709. He was the schoolfellow and friend of Buf- fon, Avho has left a flattering record of his great attainments. He was a member of the academy of Dijon, and rose to be presi- dent of the pai’liament of Burgundy. He left among other works “ Lettres sur la D6- couverte de la Ville d’Herculaneum,” and a “ Traitd de la Formation mecanique des Langues.” Died, 1777. BROTHERS, RICHARD, a fanatic, who, in 1793, commenced his career as the apostle of anew religion, and announced himself as “ nephew of the Almighty and pi’ince of the HebreAvs, appointed to lead them to the land of Canaan.” He predicted various absurd- ities, and it is a melancholy fact that his disciples Avere not confined to the poor and ignorant. The great orientalist, Halhed, and other men of unquestionable ability, became adherents of this maniac, whose career at length attracted the notice of government, and he was committed to Bedlam for life as a confirmed lunatic. He published several Avorks, redolent alike of blasphemy and ab- surdity. BROTIER, Gabriel, a learned French Jesuit, and librarian to the college of Louis le Grand ; known for his excellent editions of Tacitus, and other classics, &c. Born, 1723; died, 1789. BROUGHTON, TllOMAS, prebendary of Salisbury, and a literary character of con- siderable merit ; author of “ Christianity distinct from the Religion of Nature,” a Dictionary of all Religions, &c. He was also one of the principal contributors to the Bio- graphia Britannica. Died, 1774. BROUNCKER, WILLIAM, Lord, mathe- matician, first president of the Royal Society, and author of some papers in the Philosophi- cal Transactions, &c. Died, 1684. BROUSSAIS,Frane able advocate of his OAvn religious community, that he is principally to be regarded. Neither the fire of youth, the interruption of business, the variety of his employments, nor the bustle of the world, could ever moderate his ardour for study. He was the author of an “ Historical Ac- count of the Laws against the Roman Catho- lics,” a book which greatly served the cause j of Catholic. Emancipation, “Book of the 146 but] ^nti3ersal 30(ograpl)i). [bux Catholic Church,” “ Ilora; Biblicae,” which passed through several editions, numerous biographies, chiefly of eminent Roman Ca- tholic divines, &c. Born, 1750 ; died, 1832. BUTLER, JAMES. [ORMOND, Earl of.] BUTLER, Joseph, bishop of Durham, was born at Wantage in 1692. His father was a Presbyterian, and sent him to the Dissenting Academy at Gloucester. But he soon conformed to the Church of England, studied at Oxford, and, in 1718, became preacher at the Rolls. In 1724 he Avas ap- pointed rector of Stanhope, and two years afterwards settled there, renouncing his Rolls preachership. Through the influence of Bishop Seeker, his fellow-student and friend, he became chaplain to Lord Chan- cellor Talbot, and clerk of the closet to Queen Caroline. In 1738 he was raised to the see of Bristol, soon after made dean of St Paul’s, and in 1750 was translated to Durham. His health soon failed him, and he only held his see two years. Butler’s great work is the “ Analogy of Religion, Natural and Reveal- ed, to the Constitution and Course of Na- ture.” It was published in 1736. Its ad- mirable argument had been foreshadowed in his volume of “ Sermons,” published ten years earlier. Died at Bath, 1752. BUTLER, Samuel, author of “ Hudi- bras,” was a native of Worcestershire, and was born about 1612. He had only a scanty education in his youth, but afterwards cul- tivated his mind by study and reading. He held the office of secretary to several emi- nent persons in succession, and was ac- quainted with the wits and writers of the age. His witty poem was intended to throw ridicule on the Presbyterian and Independ- ent parties. It appeared in three parts, the first in 1663, the second soon after, and the. third in 1678. A eubsequent edition, pub- lished in 1726-7, was rendered additionally attractive by 18 illustrations contributed by Hogarth. Though sparkling with wit. the poem is hard to read, and is probably seldom read through. It is also defaced by many indecent and filthy passages. Butler died at London, very poor it is said, in 1680. BUTLER, Dr SAMUEL, bishop of Lich- field, a learned and most exemplary English divine. He was born at Kenilworth, in Warwickshire, and received his education at Rugby School, to which he was admitted in 1783. In 1792 he removed thence to St John’s College, Cambridge, where his course was rapid and brilliant, nearly, if not quite, without parallel, his prizes and distinctions far exceeding in number those obtained by any of his contemporaries. In 1798 he was appointed to the mastership of Shrewsbury School, and, about the same time, he Avas selected for the arduous task of preparing a new edition of iEschylus for the university press. His learning and his indefatigable exertions soon produced for ShreAvsbury a very high rank and reputation among our public schools. After receiving several minor preferments, he was, in 1836, promoted to the bishopric of Lichfield. Though a perfect martyr to ill health, he was a very volu- minous author. His “ Sketch of Ancient and Modern Geography ” and his “ Ancient and Modern Atlases ” long held their ground as the best works of their kind. Born, 1774 ; died, 18-10. BUTTMANN, Philipp Carl, an eminent German philologist, Avas born at Frankfort- on-the-Maine, in 1764. He was educated at the university of Gottingen, became assist- ant librarian to the king of Prussia, in 1788, afterwards professor of philology and mem- ber of the Academy of Sciences, Berlin, and finally chief librarian to the king. His health failed after the loss of a favourite daughter in 1820, and he died in 1829. Butt- mann edited several classical authors, but he is chiefly known for his Greek Gram- mars ; the “ Schulgrammatik,” “ Griechische Grammatik,” and “ Ausfiihrliche Griech- ische Sprachlehre.” He published a collec- tion of his essays on history and mythology. BUTTNER, Christian Wilhelm, a Ger- man naturalist and philologist, whose zeal in pursuit of his favourite studies was such, that, in order to buy books, he restricted himself to Avhat Avas barely necessary to sus- tain life, never making more than one frugal meal a day. He Avas born at Wolfcnbiittel, studied at Oxford, and under Boerhaave at Leyden, Avhere he gained the friendship of Linnaeus. He was especially devoted to the study of comparative grammar, and although he wrote little, his labours opened and smoothed the way for those who came after him. He Avas long professor at the uni- versity of Gottingen, and titular professor at Jena. Born, 1716; died, 1801. BUXHOWDEN, FREDERIC AViLLIAM, Count of, a.general in the Russian army. He entered on a military life at an early age, and was engaged in the Avar against the Turks in 1769 ; till, rising by degrees, he, in 1794, obtained the command of WarsaAv and i the administration of Poland. In 18o5 he ; commanded the left Aving of the army at the ! battle of Austerlitz, which advanced Avhile : the centre and right Aving Avere beaten ; but, after the battle of Pultusk, he Avas unjustly superseded by Benningsen. He Avas, hoAv- ever, again made commander-in-chief, and, in 1808, conquered Finland. Died, 1811. BUXTON, Jedediah, a singularly gifted 1 man, whose powers of calculation have pro- bably never been equalled. It is said that he was asked this question — “In a body whose three sides are, respectively, 23,145,789 yards, 5,642,732 yards, and 54,965 yards, how many cubical eighths of an inch are there ? ” and that, amid all the distractions of the labours of a hundred men, he gave the exact answer in little more than five hours ! But it was only in calculating that he had any intellectual superiority ; in other respects, his mind was rather below than above the average. He had energy enough to accom- plish a journey to London on foot, to gratify his wish to see the king. He Avas himself an object of curiosity to some of the distin- guished men of the time. At the theatre he amused himself with counting the words and steps of the actors and actresses. Lon- don excited no ambition in his dull soul, and he went back to vegetate and count and die at Elmton, his native village. Born, about 1705; died, before 1780. BUXTON, Sir THOMAS FOWELL, bart. This distinguished philanthropist was born U7 Bux] 91 ^nitjersal 1BiogrnpI)p. [byr at Earl’s Colne, Essex, in 178(5 ; and received his academical education at Trinity College, Dublin. Having, in 1811, joined the firm of Truman, Hanbury, and Co., the eminent London brewers, his connection wfith the locality of Spitalfields made him personally acquainted with the sufferings of his poor neighbours ; and the powerful appeals he made in their favour in 1816 led to an ex- tensive and well-organized system for their relief. His success in this charitable under- taking induced him (in conjunction with his sister-in-law, Mrs Fry, and his brother-in- law, Mr Hoare) to examine into the state of our prisons, and to publish the result of his labours. This not only led to the formation of the Prison Discipline Society, but was the basis upon which many of the modern im- provements in our gaols are founded. In 1818 he was returned M.P. for 'Weymouth, which borough he continued to represent till 1837, when he was defeated by Mr Vil- liers. During the time he held a seat in the House, his energies were almost unceasingly directed to ameliorate the condition of the oppressed. He became the recognized suc- cessor of Mr 'Wilberforce, and he had the supreme satisfaction of seeing his efforts for the abolition of slavery crowned with com- plete success. To other subjects of para- mount interest, viz. the reform of our crim- inal code — the civilization of Africa, by commercial, agricultural, and missionary en- terprise — the support of benevolent insti- tutions, particularly such as had for their objects the education and improvement of the poor — to these, and such as these. Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton applied himself with a persevering assiduity that did honour to his name. In 1840 he was created a baronet. Died, Feb. 19, 1845. BUXTOHF, JOHANN, the celebrated Ori- entalist, and head of a family distinguished for two centuries in Oriental literature, was a native of "Westphalia, and became, about 1591, pi’ofessor of Hebrew at Basel. Besides fulfilling the duties of his chair, he carried on correspondence with' many learned He- braists, and lodged in his own house several Jewish scholars, for the purpose of gaining more perfect acquaintance with Hebrew. His principal works are, “ Manuale Hebrai- cum et Chaldaicum,” “ Lexicon Hebraicum et Chaldaicum,” and“Biblia Hebraica rab- binica.” Born, 1564; died, 1629. BUXTOHF, J OH ANN, son of the preceding, and his successor in the professorship at Basel; author of a “ Lexicon Chaldaicum et Syriacum,” &c., besides other classical and theological works. It is recorded of him, that, at the age of four years, he Avas able to read Hebrew and Latin. — Two others of the same name, his son and nephew, were also noted for their skill in the Hebrew tongue. BYNG, JOHN, fourth son of Viscount Tor- rington, was, like his father, an admiral. After having frequently and highly distin- guished himself, he was tried by court- martial for alleged cowardice. He was des- patched to the relief of Minorca, at that time blockaded by a French fleet; and his hesitation to engage an enemy of superior strength excited the clamour of the nation against him. "When the neAvs arrived in England, the dastard ministry, Avishing to a vert the public odium from their unsuccess- ful measures, took advantage of the admiral’s unpopularity ; and though the court by Avhich the ill-fated commander was tried, recom- mended him to mercy, they suffered the un- just sentence to be carried into execution. He Avas shot at Portsmouth, March 14, 1757 ; meeting his death with the firmness of a hero and the resignation of a Christian. BYNKERSHOEK, CORNELISZ VAN, an eminent Dutch jurist, Avas born in 1673, Avas educated at the university of Franeker, and settled at the Hague, Avhere he practised as an advocate, became a member, and in 1724 president of the Supreme Court. He was an indefatigable student, and Avrote many learned Avorks ; among Avhich are “ Observa- tiones Juris Romani,” “ Qumstiones Juris Publici,” “ Quaestiones Juris Privati,” and two collections of miscellaneous Avritings entitled “ Opuscula ” and “ Opera Minora.” Died, 1743. BYRNE, William, an eminent English engraver. His works are very numerous, and remarkable for the excellence of their aerial perspective. Died, 1805. BA'ROM, John, an ingenious prose writer and poet, and the inventor of a system of stenography. He was also a, contributor to the Spectator, under the sigriatiu-e of “ John ShadoAV.” Born, 1691 ; died, 1763. BYRON, the Hon. JOHN, an eminent na- val commander and circumnavigator, Avhose sufferings, Avhen wrecked in the AVagcr, are graphically described in his “Narrative.” He rose to the rank of admiral, and com- manded in the West Indies during the Ame- rican war. Born, 1723 ; died, 1786. BYRON, GEORGE GORDON BYRON, Lord, grandson of the preceding, born Jan. 224id. 1788, was the sixth in descent from his an- cestor, Sir John Byron, AA'ho received the estate of -Newstead as a grant from King Henry Till. The notoriously licentious conduct of his father, Capt. Byron, who had deserted his wife and squandered her for- tune, made him an exile from England ; and he died in 1791, leaving his widoAV and son almost destitute. Mrs Byron having previ- ous to this event retired to her native city of Aberdeen, in order to live within the limits of her scanty income, she placed her son early in the grammar school of that city ; but Avhen, in 1798, by the death of his great uncle, without issue, he became pos- sessed of the family title and estates, he Avas placed under the guardianship of Lord Carlisle, who sent him to Harrow. His love of liberty and independence AA'ere pro- minent traits in his disposition, and they grew into a fixed aversion to conti’ol. In 1805 he Avent to Cambridge, and there be- came chiefly remarkable for his eccentric habits, and his defiance of discipline. On quitting Cambridge he took up liis residence atNewstead Abbey, and soon after published his “ Hours of Idleness.” Although marked by some features of juvenility, this volume gave undoubted indications of poetic genius ; but it met Avith most severe censure from the Edinburgh Revie av. Theridiculc thus east by the critic on the poet was not suffered to rest there ; he amply revenged himself in thecele- 148 byr] brated satire of “ English Bards and Scotch Reviewers.” About that period lie expe- rienced a great disappointment in seeing Miss Chaworth, who had been the early object of his love, married to another. His course of life was now marked by extrava- gance and dissipation, impairing both his health and fortune; and it was probably to extricate himself from the Circean snares by which he was surrounded, that he resolved on an excursion to the Continent. He was accompanied by his friend and fellow-col- legian, John Cam Hobhouse, Esq. ; and after a stay of two years he returned, and gave to the world the first two cantos of “ Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage.” Tliis was quickly succeeded by “The Giaour,” “The Bride of Abydos,” “Lara,” “The Corsair,” &c. ; and the noble bard became the poetical idol of the day. In January, 1815, he married Anna Isabella, only daughter of Sir Ralph PJil- 'banke Noel ; but the union was not pro- ductive of happiness, and they separated soon after the birth of a daughter. This rupture gave rise to many rumours re- dounding little to Lord Byron’s credit, and he again went to the Continent, with a de- termination not to return to his native country. He often changed his residence ; and during his various travels in the south of Europe, his admirers in Imgland were indulged with the productions of his pow- erful and versatile muse : sometimes soaring into the pure regions of taste, breathing no- ble sentiments and chivalric feelings ; at other times descending to voluptuousness, [cab or grovelling in vulgarity. Among the poems written during his last stay in Italy are — “ Manfred,” “ Beppo,” “ Mazeppa, ’ “ Cain, a Mystery,” the third and fourth cantos of “ Childe Harold,” several trage- dies, and “Don Juan,” admitted to be his greatest work, though from its subject, treatment, and tendency unfit for idle read- ers. In 1823 the state of the Greeks awoke his sympathy ; and, with disinterested gener- osity, he resolved to devote his fortune, his penj and his sword to their cause. His ener- gies, however, were no sooner called into action, than he was assailed by disease; and he expired, of a fever, at Missolonghi, on the 19th of April, 1824, in the 37th year of his age, to the inexpressible sorrow of the Greeks, by whom he was venerated for his personal exertions and liberal pecuniary aid. Pew instances have occurred in which in- consistency appeared so glaring as in the various charaoteristics of this highly gifted man. With powers of reasoning beyond those of most men, he was capricious and unfixed ; and Avith his fine poetic taste \v'as sometimes mixed a reckless profligacy and sensuality. In proportion as Ave admire the commanding talents and poetic eloquence of Byron, so are Ave compelled to deprecate the unholy purposes to Avhich they Avere too often made subservient. “ Prostituted ge- nius is but splendid guilt.” His only daughter, Ada, a lady of great accomplish- mpnts and rare scientific attainments, Avas married to Lord King (afterwards Earl Loveiacel/ and died in 1854. c. CAAB. [KAAB.] CABANIS, PIERRE JEAN GEORGE, a French physician of considerable eminence. He was born at Conac, showed himself in- tractable at school, and Avas sent to Paris at the age of 14, to make his Avay in the Avorld alone. He at once began a course of earnest study, first of classical literature, and then of medicine. He became the friend of Mira- beau, attended him in his last illness, and published an account of it. He was inti- mate with Turgot, Condorcet, Diderot, and other distinguished men, and Avas elected member of the Institute and of the Council of Five Hundred ; and under the government of Napoleon he Avas named senator. His writings are chiefly medical ; but in addition to these he published an interesting and re- markable work entitled “Rapports du phy- sique et du moral de I’homme,” to which he chiefly OAves his fame. Born, 1757 ; died, 1807. CABARRUS, Francois, Count, a French- man, who having settled in Spain in a com- mercial character, rendered that country considerable service in establishing a paper currency, when cut off from her resources in America. He Avas afterAvards the Spanish minister of finance ; to which office he Avas appointed by Joseph Buonaparte. Born, 1772; died, 1810. CABESTAN, or CABESTAING, GUIL- LAUME DE, a Proven qal poet of the 13th century, celebrated alike for his talents and misfortunes. Having excited the jealousy of Raymond de Seillans by verses in praise of the Lady Margaret, Raymond’s wife, to whose service he Avas attached, the story is that Raymond had him put to death ; and his heart was dressed and served up to the lady, who, on learning the horrible nature of her repast, died of grief. CABOT, Sebastian, an English navigator of great eminence, was the son of a skilful Venetian pilot, avIio resided at Bristol, where Sebastian Avas born, in 1477. He made seve- ral voyages Avith his father (Avho had ob tained from Henry VII. letters patent, em- powering him and his three sons to discover unknown lands and conquer them), and ^ ganlijcrgal 3Biograp]^t). [c^s they, in 1497, saw the mainland of America, being the first Europeans who had done so. He was among the first to notice tlie varia- tions of the needle. Not receiving in Eng- land such consideration as he felt due, Cabot went, in 1512, to Spain on the invitation of Ferdinand, but after a few years came back to England. After conducting another voy- age of discovery he returned to Spain, and in 1526 conducted an expedition to the river La riata. About 1548 he was in England again, and received a pension from Edward YI. ; and he was consulted on all questions relating to trade and navigation. Cabot then took an important part in establishing the trade with llussia. We know neither the year of the death nor the place of burial of this great discoverer, nor is anything known of what became of his valuable maps and manuscripts. He was living in 1557. CAERAL, PEDRO ALVAREZ, a Portuguese maritime discoverer, Avho commanded a fleet sent by Emmanuel, king of Portugal, to the Indies, in 1500, and discovered the coast of Brazil in April of that year. He then con- tinued his course to India, and after making some conquests and treaties returned to Portugal in 1501. CACCIA, Gugltetaio, surnamed, from his place of residence, IL MONCALVO,a very ex- cellent fresco painter. He executed some fine altar-pieces, and many of his wox’ks ex- ist still in the cities of North Italy. One of his finest productions is the “ Deposition from the Cross,” at Novara. Caccia had three daughters, who were skilled in paint- ing, and assisted him. Died, 1625. CADAMOSTO, Lyigi, a Venetian navi- gator, patronized and employed by the king of Portugal. He discovered Cape Yerd Islands. An account of his voyages and discoveries was publfehed after his death, which took place in 1464. The narrative of Cadamoslo appeared in 1507, and was the earliest account of modern voyages. CADE, JOHN, better known as JACK CADE, was an Irish adventurer, who headed the insurrection in Kent in the reign of Henry YI. He took the name of Mortimer, and encamped with a large body of his fol- lowers on Elackheath, 1st of June, 1450. Memorials of the hardships complained of, and the remedies desired, were sent to the king. He defeated Sir Humphrey Stafford and the royal troops at Sevenoaks, and on the 1st of July entered London. He kept his followers from plunder for a day or two; had Lord Say and Sele beheaded ; was driven out of London and his followers dispersed; and he was taken and killed soon after in Sussex. CADET DE GASSTCOURT, CHARLES Louis. [GASSICOURT.] CADOGAN, AVillia.w, first earl of Cado- gan, a distinguished English general and diplomatist, was born in the latter part of the 17th century, and entered the army at an early age. As brigadier-general he dis- tinguished himself, in 1704, at the battle of Hoehstedt. lu the following year he enter- ed parliament ; took part the same year in the forcing of the French lines, near Tirle- mont; served at the battle of Ramilies, and, in 1707, was appointed minister plenipoten- ] tiary in the government of the Spanish Netherlands. In 1709 he served as lieu- tenant-general at the siege of Mons, but re- signed his employment wlicn Marlborough was disgraced. Various offices were con- ferred on him. After the accession of George I., he was raised to the peerage, and several times sent ambassador to Holland. In 1722 he succeeded Maidborough as commander- in-chief and master-general of the ordnance. Died, 1726, and was buried in AVestminster Abbey. CADOUDAL, Georges, a famous Chouan chief, born in 1769. After the ill success of his efforts for the restoration of the Bour- bons, he came to terms with General Brune, in 1800, dispersed his troops, and proceeded to London. While there, he was accused by the French government of planning the in- fernal machine, Georges having avowed a personal hostility to the First Consul. He afterwards, on receiving the cordon rouge' from Monsieur (Charles X.), and a lieu- tenant-general’s commission, embarked with Pichegru in a secret expedition, and landed at Falaise. It has been said that the object was to assassinate Buonaparte, as well as to excite a counter-revolution; and Pitt was accused of sanctioning the enterprise, by a letter to Lord Hutchinson. That these charges were fabricated by the emissaries of Buona- parte there is every reason to believe. Ca- doudal was, however, traced by the Parisian police, and put under arrest; and, after a summary judicial process, was executed on the 6th of June, 1804. He died with great courage. The two brothers Polignac were also involved in the same procc-ss, and con- demned to death, but escaped through the humane exertions of Murat. CA:^lDMON, the most ancient English poet. He flourished in the 7th century, and lived at the monastery of AA'hitby, though we are ignorant in what relation he stood to the monks. A fragment of a hymn, by Caed- mon, is preserved in King Alfred’s trans- lation of Bede ; and is the oldest specimen extant of English poetry. A Scripture para- phrase in verse is extant, which is also supposed to be substantially the production of Caedmon, though altered by subsequent hands. C.(ESALPINUS, Andrea, an Italian phy- sician and natural philosopher. This en- lightened man in some degree anticipated the grand discoveries of Harvey and Lin- naeus; his “ Quaestiones Peripateticae,” con- taining some hints on the circulation of the blood ; and his treatise “ De Plantis,” giving the first example of a system of botanical arrangement, based on similarity of struc- ture. Died, 1603, C7ESAR, Caius Julius, dictator of Rome, was born B.c. 100. At the early age of 16 he lost his father, who was praetor; and very shortly after that event he married Cornelia, the daughter of Lucius Cinna, the friend of Marius. This connection gave great offence to Sulla, who, having vainly endeavoured to bring about a divorce, caused Caesar to be proscribed. Cicsar, however, escaped, and Sulla was at length induced to exempt liim from prosecution, though unwillingly, tell- ing those who interceded with him that he 150 ciEs] toibersal ISiograp^t). [cag could see in Ccesar the germ of many 3Iariuses. Having distinguished himself as an orator in the impeachment of Cornelius Dolabella, he speedily grew a public favourite, and be- came successively military tribune, qumstor, and aedile. Tlie profusion with Mhich he lavished his liberality while in these offices, involved him very deeply in debt; but hav- ing obtained the government of Spain, he contrived to amass money sufficient for their discharge, though they are said to have ex- ceeded a million and a half sterling ; a fact which, as he held the government only a year, says but little for his scrupulousness as to the means he used for self- aggrandise- ment. Having united with Pompey and Crassus in the memorable coalition, called “the first triumvirate,” he became consul, and then obtained the government of Gaul, with the command of four legions. And now it was that his genius had ample scope. His military career was rapid and brilliant. Belgians, Helvetians, and Nervians suc- cumbed to him; the German tribes were repulsed, and Gaul was wholly subjected to the Roman power. These transactions and his invasions of Britain, are graphically re- lated in his Commentaries. His successes had the effect of exciting the jealousy of Pompey, who had influence enough in the senate to cause Caesar to be recalled from the government of Gaul. He refused to obey this order, and marched with his army into Italy, Pompey retiring into Greece. Having seized the public treasury, and com- missioned Mark Antony to watch over his interests in Rome, he proceeded to Spain, where a large army rernained in Pompey ’s interest, which he defeated, and on his return to Rome was declared dictator. He then followed Pompey into Greece, and de- feated him in the memorable battle of Phar- salia, from which Pompey escaped only to be assassinated in Egypt. Having crushed every attempt at resistance on the part of the sons and friends of Pompey, and having been honoured with four several triumphs, he was declared perpetual dictator, a title which some of his friends wished to alter to that of king. And as the great body of the Roman people, dazzled by his military ge- nius, and gratified by the liberality of his largesses, were insensible of, or indifferent to, his insatiable thirst for domination, it is more than probable that he would have be- come an absolute king, but that Brutus and other republicans penetrated his designs, and sternly resolved to make his life the sacrifice to the freedom of his country. Not- withstanding dark hints had been given to him of his danger, he attended a meeting of the senate without taking any measures for the safety of his person, and fell beneath the daggers of the conspirators on the ides of March, in the year 43 B.C., and in the 56th of his ago. One of the best English accounts of the life of Caesar is to be found in Merivale’s “ History of the Romans under the Empire,” vols. i. and ii. A “ Vie de Cesar,” by the emperor of the French, Louis Napoleon, has recently (1865) appeared. It is in reality an apology for Napoleonic absolutism. CJESAR, Sir JULIUS, an eminent English civilian, who filled various important offices in the reigns of Queen Elizabeth and Kings James I. and Charles I. His last office was that of master of the rolls, which he held above 20 years. Born, 1557; died, 1636. CAFFA, Mklchiorri:, an able sculptor, many of whose works adorned the churches of Rome. Died, 1687. CAFFARELLI, GAETANO MAJORANO, a celebrated Italian singer. He studied under Porpora, who made him practise the elements of singing from a single sheet of music paper for five years. He was so w'ell rewarded for his talent, that he purchased the dukedom of Santo Dorato. Died, 1783. CAGLIARI, or CALIARI, PAOLO, better known as PAUL VERONESE, a celebrated Italian painter, was born at Verona in 1528 or 1532. After acquiring some reputation in his native district he went to Venice, where his style was much influenced by the study of Titian’s works, whom he in some respects rivalled. He visited Rome, and was iiu^Qed to Madrid, but declined to go. “The Mar- riage at Cana,” now in the Louvre, is one of his most magnificent works. The National Gallery possesses four of his pictures ; among them the “Adoration of the Magi,” and “The Family of Darius at the feet of Alex- ander,” both very celebrated, and of large size. Died, 1588. CAGLIOSTRO, ALESSANDRO, Count of, the assumed title of the great impostor, whose real name was Joseph Balsamo. He was born at Palermo, and having lost his father at an early age, he was placed under the protection of the friars of Mercy, whose order he entered as a novice. Here he ac- quired the elements of chemistry and physic ; but he speedily made his escape, and com- mitted so many frauds in Palermo, that he was obliged to abscond. After visiting va- rious parts, he at length reached Naples, where he married a woman of abandoned character, Avith Avhom he travelled to Spain, Portugal, and England, pretending to super- natural powers, and wringing considerable sums from those who became his dupes. In England this exemplary couple established an order of what they called Egyptian Ma- sonry, and as their dupes were of the higher order, they easily obtained from them the loan of valuable jewels, on pretext of some intended ceremonials. "With these they went off to Paris, and lived there in the ut- most extravagance. The count, however, was thrown into the Bastile, on a charge of being concerned in the fraud of the celebrat- ed diamond necklace of Marie Antoinette ; and when he obtained his liberty, he was compelled to quit France. He then went to England again, and soon after to Italy, where his Avife divulged some of his erimes to the Inquisition, and he Avas confined in the dun- geons of the Castle of St Angelo, and died there in 1795. CAGNOLA, Luigi, Marquis of, Italian architect, was born of an illustrious family, at Milan, in 1762. He Avas educated at Rome and the university of PaAua, and renounced the profession of the law for Avhich he was intended to follow the strong bent of his genius for architecture. He was a member of the state council, and was much engaged in political affairs. His most celebrated 151 cat] ^ ^nibersal ISiograpl^p. [cal works as architect are the Arco della Pace, commenced in 1807, and the Porta Ticinente at Milan, the campanile at Urgnano, com- pleted in 1829, the church of Ghisalba, and a mausoleum for the Mettcrnich family. Cagnola was president of the Institution of Sciences and Arts at Milan, and a knight of the Iron Crown. Died, 1833. CAILLE, NICOLAS LOUIS DE LA, an eminent French mathematician and astro- nomer, was born at Rumigny, and became assistant to Cassini at the Observatory of Paris, and afterwards professor of mathe- matics at the College Mazarin. In 1750 he visited the Cape of Good Hope for the pur- pose of studying the stars of the southern hemisphere, and he determined the position of 9000 previously unknown. The table of eclipses for 1800 years, inserted in the “ Art de Verifier les Dates,” was calculated by La Caille. Ilis principal works are, “ Astrono- miae Fundamenta,” {‘‘Cours de Math^ma- tiques pures,” “ Coelum Australe stelli- ferum,” &c. Born, 1713; died, 1762. CAIUS, or GAIUS, an eminent Roman lawyer; author of a valuable body of legal institutes, which formed the basis of the more celebrated Institutes of Justinian. The Avork of Caius was long lost, but a mu- tilated manuscript copy was discovered in 1816 by Niebuhr, and by the patient labour of several German scholars the difiicult task of deciphering it was accomplished, and the work was published in 1820. Caius is sup- posed to have lived in the latter half of the second century. CALAME, ALEXAiDiTiE, an eminent Swiss landscape-painter, was born at Neufchatel, but settled early at Geneva, Avhere he was a pupil of Francjois Diday. Though of weak constitution, he Avas an indefatigable worker, and applied himself to the study of the mag- nificent scenery amidst which he lived, and the various and striking aspects of Avhich he has so successfully represented in his paint- ings. Montblanc, the Jungfrau, Monte Rosa, Morning and Evening, Solitude, Paestum, and a series of four pictures representing the four seasons of the year, are among his most admired works. Died in the prime of life at Mentone, 1864. CALAMY, Edmund, a presbyterian divine. He was educated at Cambridge, and obtained a living; but he resigned it and joined the Nonconformists, rather than comply with the order for reading the Book of Sports. He entered Avarmly into the religious dis- putes of the time, and was one of the Avriters of the treatise against episcopacy, entitled, from the initials of its authors, “ Smectym- nuus.” This Avas replied to Dy Bishop Hall in his Defence of the Remonstrance,” and the latter brought Milton into the field with “Animadversions upon the Remonstrant’s Defence.” A “ Modest Confutation ” by an anonymous Avriter gave occasion to Mil- ton’s vigorous “Apology for Smectymnuus.” Though Calamy preached before the House of Commons, and Avas one of the assem- bly of divines at W cstrainster, he opposed both the execution of Charles I. and the sub- sequent rule of Cromwell- At the death of the latter he actively aided in the restora- tion, and became chaplain to Charles II. The Act of Uniformity caused him again to secede, and he died in retirement in 1666. CALAMY, Edmdnd, grandson of the above, and a dissenting minister of great note. He was a very voluminous writer. Besides numerous sermons and controversial tracts against Echard, Hoadley, and others, he published an abridgment of “Baxter’s History of his Life and Times,” with numer- ous supplementary articles. Died, 1732. CALANUS, an Indian philosopher, much esteemed by Alexander the Great. At the age of 73, being afilicted Avith a painful ill- ness at Pasardaga, he caused a funeral pile to be erected, which he ascended with a composed countenance, and expired in the flames, saying, that having lost his health and seen Alexander, life had no more charms for him, B. C. 323. CALAS, JEAN, a merchant of Toulouse, memorable as the victim of judicial murder. His eldest son committed suicide ; and as he Avas knoAvn to be attached to the Roman Catholic faith, a rabble cry arose that he had on that account been murdered by his father. It Avas in vain that the unhappy parent pointed out the fact that he had a Roman Catholic servant who was uninjured. He was condemned literally without the shadOAv of a proof of his guilt, and put to death by being broken on the Avheel. Toltaire gener- ously pleaded the cause of the unhappy family, the process was revised, and the widoAV procured a pension. The unjust and ignominious death of Calas took place in 1762. CALDARA, POLIDORO, or, as he is some- times called, POLIDORO DA CARAVAG- GIO, Italian painter, of the Lombard school, Avas born at Caravaggio in the Milanese, about 1495. Employed as a labourer in the Vatican, while Raphael Avas engaged there, his genius for painting showed itself, and attracted the attention of the great master. He worked afterAvards at Naples and Mes- sina, and was on the point of returning to Rome, when he was murdered by his serv- ant, in 1543. One of his best Avorks was a “ Christ bearing his cross.” CALDAS, FRANCISCO JOSE, a distin- guished Spanish naturalist. He was em- ployed by the Congress of Ncav Granada to complete the Flora of Bogota, Avhen the dis- turbed state of public affairs interrupted the work ; and this unfortunate gentleman, and his colleague, Don Lozano, having sided AAith the patriot party, were put to death by the Spanish general Murillo, in 1816. CALDERON DE LA BARCA, PEDRO, a very distinguished Spanish dramatist, was born in 1600. He studied at the university of Salamanca, and after a residence at the court, he entered the army and served in Italy and Flanders. In 1640 he settled at Madrid, Avas made a knight of St James, and director of the court theatre. About 1652 he took holy orders, and Avas made a canon of Toledo. Calderon Avas a most prolific Avriter, beginning at the age of 14, and writing his last auto at 80. After he entered the church he wrote only sacred pieces, and became indifferent to his comedies and other earlier Avorks. He had a marvellously fertile | imagination, croAvds his plays Avith incident 152 cal] ^ ^niiiersal ISiograpi^g, [cal and action, clothes his thought and senti- ment in the richest and most exuberant lan- guage, glorifies the chivalric sense of honour, and, above all, is animated and inspired by religion. But it is the religion of his age, of his country, of the Romish church. He was, as Sismondi pithily says, “the true poet of the Inquisition.” Among the most admired of his dramas are, “Love after Death,” “The Secretin Woi’ds,” “The Con- stant Prince,” “The Dawn in Copacavana,” “Purgatory of St Patrick,” &c. One of the most celebrated of his “Autos” or sacred pieces is the “ Devotion of the Cross.” Died between 1680 — 1690. CALDERWOOD, DAVID, a Scotch presby- terian divine, born, 1575. His opposition to episcopacy caused him to be banished, and he went to reside in Holland, where he pub- lished his celebrated “ Altare Damascenum,” a detailed critical examination of the system of the church of England. He subsequently returned to Scotland, and by his writings and pei’sonal exertions greatly aided in the establishment of presbyterianism. He pub- lished a “History of the Church of Scot- land,” for which he collected an immense mass of materials, still kept in the Advocates, Library, Edinburgh. Died, 1651. CALEPINO, AmbPcOGIO, an Italian gram- marian and philologist ; author of a very valuable polyglot dictionary, and other learned and useful works. Died, 1510. CALETTI, Giuseppe, surnamed IL Cre- MONESE, an admirable Italian painter. Ilis principal picture is “ St Mark with the Doctors of the Church,” in the church of San Benedetto at Ferrara. In some of his works he so closely imitated Titian, that connoisseurs can scarcely distinguish them. Died, 1660. CALHOUN, JOHN CALDWELL, an eminent American statesman, was born in South Carolina, in 1782. After pursuing his studies at Yale College and Litchfield, he was ad- mitted to the bar of his native State in 1807, elected to the legislatui’e the next year, and in 1811 was sent to Congress, where he soon attained great eminence as a speaker. In 1817 he was made secretary of war under President Monroe ; in 1825 he was elected vice-president of the United; States, in 1881 a senator, in 1843 secretary of state, and in 1845 again a senator. In all the political questions that arose during this time he took an active part, “ generally on the side of ex- treme state rights ; ” and the character of his speeches attained for him a high reputation both as a thinker and an orator. Died, 1850. CALIDASA, one of the greatest poets of India, of whose life we know almost nothing. It is uncertain whether he lived about 55 B. c. or 190 A. D. His principal poem is “ Sacuntala,” a drama, first made known in Europe by the translation published by Sir William Jones in 1789. It at once excited general admiration, and was translated into the principal European languages. An im- portant manuscript of the original text in its genuine form was discovered by Brock- haus in 1835, of which several editions and translations have since appeared. An Eng- lish translation by Prof. Monier Williams was published in 1855. Among the other works of this poet are the “ Meghaduta,” or “ Messenger of Clouds,” ancl^ the “ Yikra- murvasi.” The poems of Calidasa contain charming descriptions of nature, and his “ tenderness of feeling and richness of crea- tive fancy entitle him,” says Alexander von Humboldt, “ to a high place in the r'nks of the poets of all nations.” CALIGULA, CaiUS C^SAR AUGUSTUS Germanicus, Roman emperor, began his reign, A. D. 37, with every promising ap- pearance of becoming the real father and friend of his people ; but at the end of eight months he was seized with a fever, which appears to have permanently deranged his intellect, for his disposition totally changed, and he committed the paost atrocious acts of impiety, cruelty, and folly. He caused sa- crifices to be offered to himself, his wife, and his favourite horse ; indulged in the most frightful immoralities ; murdered many of his subjects with his own hands ; had others put to the rack while he was enjoying his meals, or beheaded in his presence. One of his hugest follies was the erection of a bridge of boats across the sea between Baiae and Puteoli. Its completion was celebrated by a great banquet, at the close of which he had a number of the guests, friends, and ene- mies, flung into the sea. He projected ex- peditions to Gaul, Germany, and Britain, and having reached the sea he bid his sol- diers gather shells for spoils, and then led them back to Rome. But in the midst of his enormities he was assassinated by a tri- bune of the people, as he came out of the theatre, A. D. 41, in the 29th year of his age. CALIPPUS, a Greek mathematician of the 4th century B. c., famous for having cor- rected the cycle of 19 years, invented by Meton, to show the correspondence of time in the revolutioiis of the sun and moon. CALLCOTT, JOHN Wall, an eminent English composer. He was born at Ken- sington, and was intended for the medical profession, but soon abandoned it for music. The Nobleman’s Catch-club having proposed a prize, he sent in a hundred compositions ! It was then ruled that no one should send more than three compositions of a sort ; and Callcott accordingly, in 1789, sent twelve, four of which gained the four medals ! For many years he carried off at least one annual prize, until 1793, when the prizes ceased to be given. In 1790 he was made Mus. D., Oxford, and the same year became a pupil of Haydn, who was then in England. The last fifteen years of his life, Avith a brief interval, were clouded by insanity. He wrote, be- sides glees, catches, and other compositions, a “ Musical Grammar,” and made some pro- gress Avith a “ Musical Dictionary.” Born, 1766 ; died, 1821. CALLCOTT, Sir AUGUSTUS WALL, R. A., an eminent English landscape painter, Avas born at Kensington in 1779, his eldest bro- ther being Dr Callcott, the celebrated musi- cal composer. Originally a chorister in Westminster Abbey, he was induced to try his hand at portrait painting; and such was his success that he immediately followed the new pursuit to which his inclination pointed. Year after year his reputation increased ; and from 1799, when he first submitted a 153 cal] 91 ^niijersal 13iograp!)T). [cal specimen of his abilities for exhibition at the Iloyal Academy, till 1810, M hen he was elected a Koyal Academician, he had ad- vanced almost to the summit of his profes- sion in his own particular branch of art, viz. landscape painting. For many years his pictures of sea-coast views and English in- land scenery were in considerable reciuest ; nor were they ever deficient in number, his industry being on a par with his ability. On his marriage with the widow of Captain Graham, they made a continental tour, and it Avas evident soon after his return that his study of Italian scenery and the Italian masters had wrought an entire change in his style of composition. No longer did we see rural scenes of England— mills, market- carts, or ferry-boats ; but “ Morning ” and “Evening,” Italian compositions; “ Sunset near Canneglia,” “ Italian Girls at their first Communion,” and others of that class. Though for a time, hOAvever, he had aban- doned, he had not forgotten, the studies of his earlier years; and in 1837 the public were both surprised and delighted with his large picture of “ Raffaelle and the Forna- rina,” with figures the size of life. In that year he received the honour of knighthood. Died, Nov. 25, 1844 ; aged 65. CALLCOTT, MARIA, Lady, daughter of Rear-adnAiral George Dundas, was born 1779. Married at a very early age to Captain Graham, R. N., she accompanied him to India, returned to England, and published her travels in the three presidencies before she was twenty-four years of age ! Some years later she accompanied her husband to South America, where he died, and she was in Chili during the terrible earthquakes of 1822-3. Besides the “ TraA^els ” above named, she published a “History of Spain,” a “ Scripture Herbal,” and several minor works. Her second husband was Sir Au- gustus Callcott, R. A., the eminent artist. Died, Nov. 1842, aged 63. CALLET, JEAN FRANgoiS, a Celebrated French mathematician, hydrographer, and engineer ; author of “ A Memoir on the Dis- covery of the Longitude,” a “ Supplement to Bezout’s Trigonometry,” and a “ Table of Logarithms, from 1 to 108,000.” Died, 1798. CALLICRATIDAS, a Spartan naval com- mander, Avho in B. C. 406, during the Pelo- ponnesian war, succeeded Lysander in the command of the fleet. He took Methymne, but refused to sell the citizens into slavery ; defeated Conon, and blockaded him at Mity- lene ; but was soon after defeated and killed in a battle near the Arginusae. CALLIMACHUS, a Greek sculptor and architect. He is said to have invented the Corinthian order of architecture, and to have taken the hint of its capital from a plant of the acanthus which surrounded a basket covered Avith a tile on a tomb. He flourished probably in the 4th century B. C. CALLIMACHUS, a Greek poet and gram- marian. He Avas keeper of the famous Alex- andrian Library for about 20 years, and founded a school there, in which several men afterwards distinguished Avere trained. The remains of his AA'ritings, consisting of elegies, hymns, and epigrams, have been I published by several eminent editors, and translated into English by Dodd and Tytler. Died, about 240. CALLINUS, a Greek orator and poet, supposed to have lived in the 8th century B. c. Some of his poetry is in the collection of Stobaeus; and he is said to have been the inventor of elegiac verse. CALLISTHENES, a Greek philosopher and poet, a relative and pupil of Aristotle, by whom he was recommended to Alexander the Great. He accompanied that prince in the expedition against Persia, and Avas at first much esteemed by him. It seems, how- ever, that the philosopher had no small portion of arrogance, a quality not likely to serve him Avith a despotic and irritable prince. He croAvned the offences of his free speaking by boldly reprobating Alexander’s assumption of divine honours. For this he was put to death, B.C. 328. CALLOT, JAcauES, an eminent French engraver, born at Nanci in 1593. He twice ran away from home that he might study art in Italy, and at last was alloAved to study at Rome. He lived some time at Florence, patronized by the grand duke Cosmo II., after Avhose death he returned to Nanci, and there died, in 1633. His scenes from the sieges of Breda and Rochelle, en- graved by direction of Louis XIII., are among the most admired of his Avorks. CALMET, Augustin, a learned French Benedictine, was born in Lorraine in 1672. He early entered the order of St Benedict, and applied himself diligently to the study of theology, and the Hebrew and Greek lan- guages. He was head of several abbeys in succession, in all distinguishing himself by his profound acquaintance with the Scrip- tures, and his laborious life. The last thirty years of his life Avere spent in the abbey of Senones. His Avritings are numerous. He is best known in England by his great “ Dictionnaire historique, critique, et chro- nologique de la Bible,” first published in 1722, and afterAvards greatly extended by a supplement. The first English translation appeared ten years later, and formed the basis of all the lesser Biblical dictionaries for about a century. Among his other Avorks are a voluminous commentary on the Avhole Bible; “ Histoire eccRsiastique et civile de la Lorraine,” “ Histoire Universelle sacr^e et profane,” &c. Calmet’s vast learning was not coupled Avith much discretion, and his Avorks are in great part superseded by the advance of philology and sacred criticism. Died in 1757. CALOMARDE, FRANCISCO TABEO, Span- ish statesman, born in LoAver Aragon, 1773. He studied law and settled atMadi-id, Avhere he married the daughter of the physician to Godoy, prince of the peace, and obtained a government situation. After many changes of fortune, Avhen the constitution Avas abol- ished, and Ferdinand VII. restored to the throne, in 1823, Calomarde became minister of grace and justice. The ten years during Avhich his ministry lasted was marked by measures of tyranny and cruelty, the guilt and disgrace of Avhich he fully shares Avith the king. His ruling passion appears to have been mere selfish ambition and greed of power, and thereby at last he fell. Expect- cal] i^ctu SJnibersal 13iograp!)p. [cam ing Don Carlos to succeed his brother, he hastened, while Ferdinand lay on his death- bed, to court his favour. But his scheme railing, through the energetic conduct of the Frincess Louisa of Naples, he was arrested on his flight to France. By bribing the soldiers he escaped, and spent the rest of his life in France. Died at Toulouse, 1842. CALONNE, CHARLES ALEXANDRE DE, an eminent French statesman, who succeed- ed Necker as comptroller-general of the finances in 1783 ; but after four years of in- cessant endeavours at financial reform, he could do nothing but advise an assembly of the notables, which accordingly met in February, 1787. The alarming financial statement which he then made led to his dismissal, and he was obliged to retire to England. He wrote “Observations sur les Finances,’’ “ Tableau de I’Europe enNovem- bre,” &c. Born, 1734 ; died, 1802. CALPURNIUS, or CALPHUBNIILS, Titus, a Sicilian Latin poet of tlie 3rd cen- tury. Seven of his eclogues are to be found in the “Poet® Latini IMinores,” published at Leyden inl731, and are clever imitations of the eclogues of Virgil. CALVABT, Denis, an eminent Dutch painter, who had the honour of giving the earliest instructions to Guido, Albano, and Domenichino. His chef-d'oeuvre is the pic- ture of St Michael, in the church of St Peter at Bologna. Died, 1619. CALVERT, George, first Lord Baltimore, an English statesman, founder of the State of Maryland. He was for some time secre- tary of state to James I., but was obliged to resign this office on becoming a Roman Catholic. He did not lose the favour of the king, however ; but obtained a grant of a valuable tract of country in North America. He died before the charter was completed, and it was granted to his son Cecil. Died, 1632. CALVERT, CECIL, second Lord Baltimore, son of the preceding, was invested, by royal charter, on the death of his father, with full power over the colony of Maryland. The settlement took place two years later, in 1634, and though Lord Baltimore did not himself join the colonists, he carried out his father’s plans and wishes ; established free- dom of worship and representative govern- ment ; and died in 1676. CALVI, Lazzaro, an able Italian painter, who studied under Perino del Vaga. He AVdS of so jealous a disposition, that he poi- soned an artist who rivalled him; and, on finding Luca Cambiaso’s portion of the decoration of a church preferred to his own, abandoned his profession, and did not re- sume it for 20 years. He is said to have lived to be 105 years old. Died, 1606. CALAMN (CAUATN), JEAN, the great re- former, founder and head of the Genevese the- ocracy Avas born at Noyon, in 1509. He Avas destined for the church and sent to study at Paris, and there he became first acquainted with the doctrines of the reformation. He then studied laAv at the universities of Orleans and Bourges, and in 1532 returned to Paris, a decided convert to the reformed faith. Compelled to fly from Paris in 1533, after various Avanderings he found a pro- tector in Margaret, queen of Navarre. In the following year he Avent to Basel, and there completed and published his great Avork, the “ Institutes of the Christian Reli- gion.” After a short stay at Ferrara he went in 1536 to Geneva, Avhere reform had just been established, and there, on the pressing entreaties of Farel and his friends, he remained. In 1538 Calvin and Farel were expelled from Geneva, in consequence of some changes introduced by them, and Cal- vin Avent first to Berne and then to Stras- burg. He was hoAvever recalled three years later, and soon proposed and got established his system of church government. He sought to regulate manners, as Avell as faith, and rigorously censured and punished all Avho resisted his authoi’ity. He applied himself also to reform the civil government ; established an academy; fostered literature and science, and made Geneva “ the metro- polis of the reformed faith.” His personal character was spotless, but austere ; his labours as pastor, lecturer on theology, councillor, author, and correspondent were immense and incessant. The terrible rigour of his ecclesiastical rule Avas most strikingly shoAA'n in his treatment of Servetus, Avho for his theological opinions was burnt at Ge- neva in 1553. Calvin Avas not present at the famous conference of Poissy, but instructed Beza and other reformers Avho took part in it. It Avas after that conference that the differences betAveen the vieAvs of Imther and Calvin became manifest, and that the term Calvinist began to be used. The great distinguishing features of Calvinism are the doctrines of absolute predestination, of the spiritual presence only in the eucharist, and the independence of the church. John Knox Avas the friend of Calvin, and intro- duced his system in Scotland. Besides the “ Institutes ” Calvin published comment- aries on the Bible, sermons, and various tracts. There is also a valuable collection of his letters. The “ Institutes,” Avritten in Latin, were translated into French and almost all European languages, and have left such wide and deep impress on society as feAv books beside have done. Calvin died at Geneva, May 27, 1564. Among recent works illustrating the life of this great theologian are Dyer’s “Life of Calvin,” Bungener’s“ Life, Labours, and Writings of Calvin,” a new edition of his “Letters’’ with notes by Bonnet, translated by Con- stable, and Merle D’Aubigne’s “ History of the Reformation in Europe in the time of Calvin,” in 3 vols. 8vo. CALVISIDS, Sethus, a German chro- nologist and Avriter on music, born 1556. He became professor of mathematics at AVittenberg, and was author of “ Opus Chro- nologicum,” a work much praised by Scali- ger and other learned men ; a treatise on music ; a Avork against the Gregorian calendar, &c. He also composed several psalms and other pieces of church music. Died, 1615. , CAMBACERES, JEAN JACQUES REGIS DE, duke of Parma, &c., raised to distinction by the French revolution, was born at Mont- pelier in 1753, brought up to the legal pro- fession, and by his talents soon attracted the 155 cam] ^ ^nibersal 3Biograpfjp. notice of the Convention, and was appointed to various judicial offices. In the discussion relative to the fate of Louis XVI., although he was one who declared him guilty, yet he disputed the right of the Convention to judge him, and voted for his provisory arrest, or, in case of hostile invasion, his death. For a time he had the management of foreign affairs ; and when Buonaparte was first consul, Cambac4res was chosen second consul. After Napoleon became em- peror, he was an especial favourite, and was created archchancellor, grand officer of the Legion of Honour, and ultimately duke of Parma, and president of the Chamber of Peers. In fine, he always showed a sincere attachment to Napoleon, and devoted his best energies to his cause ; and though he was banished on the second restoration of Louis XVIII., yet he was afterwards allow- ed to return to Paris, where he died in 1824. CAMBIASO, LUCA, also called LUCHET- TO DA GENOVA, Italian painter, born at Moneglia, near Genoa, 1527. He painted long at Genoa, and in 1583, on the invitation of Philip II., he went with his son Orazio to Spain, and executed several works in the Escurial, especially a huge fresco of Para- dise in the church of San Lorenzo, for which he was paid 12,000 ducats; and (in oil) John the Baptist preaching in the Wilderness. His best works are at Genoa, and among them are the “ Martyrdom of St George,” and the “ Rape of the Sabines.” Cambiaso died at the Escurial, 1585. CAMBIO, Arnolfo ui. [Arv,NOLFO.] CAMBRIDGE, H.R.H., ADOLPHUS FRE- DERICK, the seventh and youngest son of George III., was born Feb. 24th, 1774. He received his earliest education at Kcav, and having completed his studies at Gottingen, he served as a volunteer under the duke of York, during the campaign of 1793, in Flanders, where he received two wounds; and 'he bore an active share in the arduous campaign in 1794 and 1795. In 1803 he was pi’omoted to the rank of general, and ap- pointed colonel-in-chicf of the King’s Ger- man Legion; in 1813 he received the field- marshal’s baton ; and at the close of the war in 1815 he was nominated viceroy of Han- over ; an office which he held till 1837, when the death of his brother William IV. opened the succession to the throne of Planover to the duke of Cumberland. His administra- tion of the affairs of that country was cha- racterized by great discretion; and in 1831, his mild yet firm conduct went far to ex- tinguish the strong party animosities which had nearly kindled the flames of civil war. Since the close of 1837 the duke chiehy re- sided in this country, where he endeared himself to all classes of the community by his affability and bonhommie. He was a zeal- ous supporter of all charitable institutions, and few anniversary meetings or festivals were thought to be complete if the directors had not secured him for the chairman. In politics, the duke was a liberal conserva- tive; but he made a point of never voting, though he might speak, against the minis- ters of the crown. Besides being patron of the Art Union, he was exceedingly fond of the fine arts, especially of music, and at one [cam period of his life distinguished himself as an amateur performer on the piano and the violin. On the 7th of May, 1818, the duke of Cambridge married the Princess Wilhcl- mina Louisa, daugliter of Frederick, land- grave of Hesse Cassel, who, with a son and two daughters, the issue of their marriage, survived him. Died, July 8, 1850. CAMBRONNE, PIERRE JACQUES, Baron de, a distinguished French general, was born at Nantes, 1770. Entering the army in 1790, he served with distinction in the campaigns of the republic and the empire. He accom- panied Napoleon to Elba in 1814, returned with him in 1815, commanded a division of the Old Guard at the battle of Waterloo, refused to surrender, though his men were nearly destroyed, and fell into the hands of the English, after being severely wounded. In 1816 he was brought before a council of war ; but though unanimously acquitted, he was placed in I’etirement, and did not re- enter his country’s service till 1830. The celebrated words, “ La Garde meurt, etne se rend pas,” are attributed to him. Died, 1842. CAMBYSES, king of Persia, succeeded his father, the great Cyrus, in 529 B.C. He was of a violent and vindictive disposition, which he manifested equally by his invasions of Egypt and Ethiopia, and by his cruel treat- ment of his own subjects. Died, B.C. 521. CAMDEN, Charles Pratt, Earl, a dis- tinguished British lawyer and statesman, was the third son of Sir John Pratt, chief justice of the court of King’s Bench, and was born in 1713. On the advancement of Henley to the House of Lords in 1757, Mr Pratt was appointed attorney-general ; and in 1762 made chief justice of the Common Pleas. In 1765 he was created a peer, and the year following advanced to the dignity of lord chancellor. In 1782 he was appoint- ed president of the council, which office he resigned the following year ; but he was afterwards re-appointed, and held it till his death in 1794. CAMDEN, JOHN JEFFREYS PRATT, Mar- quis, K.G., &c., was born in 1759, being the only son of Charles, first Earl Camden, sometime lord high chancellor of England. He was educated at Trinity College, Cam- bridge ; and in 1780 was returned to parlia- ment as one of the members for Bath ; shortly after whicli he received the appointment of one of the tellers of the exchequer. In 1794 he succeeded his father in the peerage, and the year following he was made lord-lieu- tenant of Ireland. Besides various other important situations, he held the lucrative office of teller of the exchequer for sixty years; and during almost half that term he had resigned the large income arising there- from, amounting in the whole to upwards of a quarter of a million of money. This patri- otic act alone throws a lustre over the name and character of the noble marquis, which Avill be remembered long after the splendour attached to his rank and honours shall have faded fi’om the memory. For his eminent services to the state, he was created marquis Camden and earl of Brecknock in 1812. Died, 1840. CAMDEN, William, the father of Eng- lish antiquaries. He was born at London, 156 cam] ^lubtrsal [cam received his early education at Christ’s Hospital, and subsequently studied at Ox- ford, where he took his B.A. degree. After Ailing the situations of second and chief master of 'Westminster School, his proAci- ency in antiquarian lore procured him the honourable and lucrative office of Claren- cieux king-at-arms. In addition to his great and well-known work, the “Britannia,” he published “ Annals of Queen Elizabeth,” a Greek grammar, &c. Camden’s “ Britannia ” was written in Latin, and at Arst appeared in one volume of moderate size. By the labours of translators and editors it was subsequently enlarged to four volumes folio. Camden M'as buried in Westminster Abbey, where a monument was erected to him Born, 1551 ; died, 1623. CAMERARIUS, JOACHIM, friend andbio- I grapher of Melancthon, and one of the great- j est scholars of his age, was born at Bamberg in 1500. He took an active part in the great affairs of the reformation, and long held the office of rector of the university of Eeipsic. His most important work is the “ Vita Phi- lippi Melanchthonis.” Died at Leipsic, in 1574. CAMERON, PviCHARD, a Scottish preach- er and martyr of the seventeenth century, Avas born in Fife, and after being school- master in his native parish, became a very zealous preacher among the persecuted Presbyterians. He retired about 1677 to Holland, but returned in 1680, and resumed Aeld-preaching in deAance of the laAv and the persecutors. In June of that year he put himself at the head of a little band, brave and armed, and declared Avar on the king. A price was set on his head and on the heads of his folloAvers, and in a month they were defeated and captured at Airds- moss. Cameron was slain, but his head aiid hands were taken and Axed up on a public place at Edinburgh. A monument marks the spot where he fell at Airdsmoss. CAMILLUS, MARCUS FURIUS, an early Roman hero, Avhose story is semi-mythical, Aourished in the 4th century B. C. He was six times appointed military tribune, and Ave times dictator. Among the exploits attributed to him are the capture of Veii after a long siege, victories over the Falis- cans, the Fidenates, and the Volscians, and the deliverance of Rome from the Gauls under Brennus. After the capture of Veii, he was charged with peculation, and ban- ished, but Avas soon recalled. He was the supporter of the patrician order, and opposed the measures of Licinius Stolo. Died by the pestilence, B. c. 365. I CAMOENS, Luis ue, the celebrated Portuguese poet, aa’us born at Lisbon in 1517 or 1524. He Avas educated at the university of Coimbra, and after an exile to Santarem, occasioned by his falling in love Avith a lady of higher rank than his own, he joined the army and fought against the Moors. Indig- nant at receiving no recompense on his return, he went to India, and there took part in several military expeditions, enjoy- ing also the opportunities thus afforded of larger acquaintance with nature. He got into trouble several times, and was banished and imprisoned; and in 1569 he returned to Portugal. After ten years of neglect and Avant, he died in a hospital at Lisbon, in 1579. His great poem is the “Lusiad,” in Avhich he celebrates the principal persons and events of Portuguese History. His other Avorks are very numerous and in vari- ous styles; sonnets, elegies, odes, &c. The Lusiad has been translated into English by Mickle and others. CAMP AN, Madame DE, distinguished no less for her amiability than her acquire- ments, was born at Paris, 1752. Attached to the court in the capacity of companion to the French princesses, she was particularly dis- tinguished by Marie Antoinette, Avhose good and evil fortune she shared Avith affecting Adelity and devotion. After the revolution she established a school at St Germains ; she was subsequently appointed by Napoleon head of the school for the daughters of offi- cers whom he had enrolled in the Legion of Honour: but after the restoration of the Bourbons, this establishment was dissolved, and Madame de Campan’s relationship to Marshal Ney involAmd her in various ixn- pleasant investigations which embittered her life. She died in 1822, leaving behind her many educational Avmrks (of Avhich her “Education des Filles” deserves particular notice), and memoirs, rich in sketches of the private life of her former mistress and friend. CAMPANELLA, Tomaso, an Italian phi- losopher, Avas born at Stilo in Calabria, in 1568. He entered the Dominican order, studied philosophy, and became an oppo- nent of the scholastic system. Persecution drove him from place to place, and in 1599, on a charge of conspiracy against the Span- ish government of Naples, he was imprison- ed, and was kept in conAnement, more or less rigid, till 1626. After a short residence at Rome, he Avent to Paris, Avas protected by Cardinal Bichelicu, and died there in 1639. Campanella Avas the contemporary of Lord Bacon, and aimed like him at a reform of philosophy ; asserting the necessity of fresh study of nature. His chief works are “ Pro- dromus Philosophiae Instaurandae,” “ De Sensu Rerum et Magia,” “ Atheismus triumphatus,” “Monarchia Messiae Jesi,” and “ Civitas Soli,” the last being a sketch of an ideal society in the kingdom of God ; “De Monarchia Hispanica Discursus,” &c. CAMPBELL, Archibald, marquis of Ar- gyle, a zealous partisan of the Covenanters, and the opponent of Montrose. He was born in 1598, Avas made a lord of session in 1634, and succeeded to his father’s title four years later. Called to London Avith other Scotch nobles the same year, 1638, he had plainly counselled the abolition of episco- pacy in Scotland. Charles I. gave him the title of marquis in 1641. Argyle was un- successful in his military measures in the civil war, and gave up his command. He acquiesced in the Protectorate of Cromwell, and for this, at the restoration of Charles II., he was committed to the Tower. After remaining a prisoner about Ave months, he was sent to Scotland, tried for high trea- son, and beheaded in 1661. CAMPBELL, Archibald, earl of Argyle, son of the above, and a most zealous and gallant adherent of the royal cause ; so much 157 cam] Jleto ^nitiersal ISiograpIjp. [cam so, indeed, that he was excepted from the general pardon issued by Cromwell, in 1654. After the restoration he became one of the lords of council, and unsuccessfully opposed the passing of the Test Act. Condemned to death for treason, he escaped to Holland, but on his return at the head of a body of troops he was captured, conveyed to Edin- burgh, and beheaded in 1685. CAMPBELL, John, duke of Argyle and of Greenwich, was the grandson of the pre- ceding, and was distinguished equally as a soldier and a statesman. He succeeded his father Archibald in the dukedom of Ar- gyle in 1703, and the same year was appoint- ed a lord of session. He distinguished him- self in the campaigns of Marlborough, was brigadier-general at the battle of Ramilies, and commanded with brilliant effect at Oudenarde and Malplaquet. In 1711 he was sent to command the English forces in Spain, filling at the same time the office of ambassa- dor. To these services he added that of beating the Earl of Mar at Sherriffmuir in 1715, and compelling the Pretender to quit the kingdom. These actions, and his exer- tions in bringing about the union, were re- warded with the Garter and the English dukedom of Greenwich. He also held sever- al offices, of which Sir H. Walpole deprived him, but which he regained on that minis- ter’s removal. Born, 1678 ; died, 1743. CAMPBELL, George, H.H., a Scotch divine, principal of Marischal College, Aber- deen, and professor of divinity there; au- thor of the “ Philosophy of Tlhetoric,” once a standard work,— a “ Dissertation on Mira- cles,” in reply to Hume, “ Lectures on Eccle- siastical History,” &c. Born, 1709 ; died, 1796. CAMPBELL, JOHN, a clever and indus- trious Scotch writer ; author of the “ Mili- tary History of Prince Eugene and the Duke of Marlborough,” a “Political Survey of Britain,” the “ Lives of the Admirals,” which had a great run and Avas translated into German; he had a large share also in the preparation of the “ Biographia Britannica.” Died, 1775. CAMPBELL, Thomas, LL.D., the eminent poet, was the son of a Scotch merchant, who gave him an excellent education at Glasgow, where he gi'eatly distinguished himself. A translation of his from Aristophanes was pronounced to be the finest college exercise his judges had ever seen: and, when little more than thirteen, he Avon a bursary in his college from a competitor nearly double his age! Leaving GlasgOAv at an early age, he settled in Edinburgh as a private tutor ; and here, when only in his twenty-second year, he published “ The Pleasures of Hope ” — one of the most elegant poems in our language. The success of this Avork was such as to allow of his making a tour on the Continent, whence he gave the world those splendid lyrics, “Ye Mariners of England,” “The Exile of Erin,” and “ Hohenlinden.” At the battle of Hohenlinden he was so near, that he could see the returning conquerors wiping their blood-stained sabres upon their ( horses’ manes; a circumstance to which, in after years, he Avas often heard to allude. His poem, however, is by no means a true picture of the battle it celebrates. Soon after his return from the Continent, Campbell married and settled in London, employing himself not only in occasional composition of poetry, but also in the hard literary drudg- ery of mere compilation. To such works he could not judiciously put his name, but from 1803 to 1809 his labours in this way were as intense and extensive as they were credit- able to his love of independence. He now published “Gertrude of Wyoming,” “The Battle of the Baltic,” “ Loi’d Ullin’s Daugh- ter,” and “ O’Connor’s Child;” and he Avas engaged by Mr Murray to write the well- knoAvn “ Critical Essays and Specimens.” Subsequently he edited the New Monthly and the Metropolitan Magazines : and pub- lished “ Theodoric,” a poem, besides editing some reprints and compilations. Early in his career he Avas relieved from absolute Avant by the kindness of Charles James Fox, who put him on the pension list for £200 per annum. His health had for some, years been but feeble, and in 1843 he retired to Bou- logne, Avhere he died: but his lemains Avere conveyed to England and interred in West- minster Abbey. Died, June 15, 1844, aged 67. CAMPBELL, JOHN, Lord, lord chief jus- tice and lord chancellor of England, was born near Cupar, in 1779. He studied at the university of St AndrcAvs, and in 1800 came to London to study law at Lincoln’s Inn. He also obtained employment as reporter and theatrical critic for the Morning Chroni- cle. He Avas called to the bar in 1806, and Avith little scrupulousness from delicacy pushed his way into a good practice, both on the Oxford circuit and in London. In 1830 he entered parliament, Avas made solicitor- general in 1832, and attorney-general tAvo years later. At the same time he Avas re- turned to parliament for Edinburgh. He introduced several measures of law-reform, and was engaged in the important cases of Rex V. Lord Cardigan, Hansard v. Stockdale, and Norton v. Lord Melbourne. In 1841 he Avas raised to the peerage and to the chan- cellorship of Ireland, but only remained in office a few months. He held the chancellor- ship of the duchy of Lancaster from 1816 to 1850, Avhen he was made lord chief justice of the Queen’s Bench. Three yeais after- wards he was appointed lord chancellor. Lord Campbell was admitted to be a sound laAvyer, an effective advocate, and an able judge. He Avas ambitious of literary dis- tinction, but his Avorks in that field have received a less favourable verdict. His “Lives of the Chancellors” and “Lives of the Chief Justices” gained the popularity at Avhich their author aimed, but by quali- ties which drew doAvn on him severe criti- cism : superticial knowledge, inaccuracies, plagiarisms, bad taste, unmanly levity — these are the characteristics Avhich haA'e been charged on Lord Campbell as a bio- grapher. Died suddenly at Kensington, 23rd June, 1861. CAMl’EGGIO, Lorenzo, born 1474, was originally a professor of civil laAv at Bologna, but on the death of his wife he entered the church, became a bishop, and at length a cardinal. In 1519 he was sent as legate to 158 cam] 91 il^cto 2Jnii3crsaI 13iograpI)P. [can Knuland, and -while here -was nominated bishop of Salisbury. After being for some time in Germany as legate, and employed in opposing Lutheranism, he again came to England t,o decide on the great affair of the divorce between Henry YU I. and Catherine of Aragon, on w'hich occasion he offended Henry without being of any real service to the queen. He appears to have been a man of considerable learning and natural ability ; and he reckoned Erasmus and other eminent scholars among his friends. Died, 1539. CAMPEU, Peter, a Dutch physician and naturalist, born at Leyden in 1722. He studied at the university, travelled through the principal countries of Europe, visiting London in 1748, attained great reputation, and became professor of philosophy , anatomy, and medicine at the universities of Fianeker, Amsterdam, and Groningen. He made several important discoveries in anatomy ; was a foreign associate of the French Aca- demy of Sciences, and a member of the Royal Society of London. He also took part in affairs of state as member of the council of state, and of the assembly of the states of Friesland. A collected edition of his works appeared in 1803. Died, 1789. CAMPHUYSEN, Dyrk, a Dutch land- scape painter of the 17th century ; distin- guished for the excellence of his moonlight pieces. CAMPT,Rernardixo, an Italian painter, born at Cremona, 1522. He was a pupil of Giulio Campi, studied the works of Raphael, and wrote a treatise on the principles of his art. Died, 1592. — GIULIO CAMPI, another Italian painter, also a native of Cremona, -was born about 1500. Taught at first by his father and afterwards by Giulio Romano, he became a distinguished master. — Several other painters of this name are distinguished in the annals of Italian art, CAMPIAN, EDMUND, an English Jesuit. He was educated at Christ’s Hospital, and graduated at Oxford ; but on a visit to Ire- land was induced to turn Papist, and enter as a Jesuit at Douay. He wrote “ Chrono- logia Universalis,” and a drama, called “ Nectar and Ambrosia.” Being chosen by Gregory XIII. to come to England as a missionary, he was discovered, tried for high treason, and executed in 1581, CAMPOMANES, PEDRO RODRIGUEZ, Count de, a celebrated Spanish statesman, whose profound views in political economy obtained him, in 1765, the appointment of fiscal advocate to the council of Castile. He Avas afterwards made minister of state ; Avrote many useful Avorks, and died in 1802. CAMUCCINI, YlCENZO, an eminent Italian painter, was born at Rome about 1775. At first he made himself known as a clever copyist, but afterAvards obtained great reputation and many honours as a historical painter in the classical style. He was long head of the Academy of St Luke, and keeper of the art-collections of the Vatican. Died, 1844. CANALETTT, or CANAL, ANTONIO, a Venetian painter, Avhose excellence Avas chiefly in architectural vieAvs. His aucavs of Venice gained him a great reputation. 1 Canaletti is said to have been the first to make the camera obscura useful in painting. Born, 1697 ; died, 1768. CANCELLIERI, FRANCESCO, an Italian archmologist, Avas born at Rome in 1751, and educated by the Jesuits. After publishing several learned Avorks he became secretary to the Cardinal Leo Antonelli, and in 1802 director of the printing-press of the Propa- ganda. He Avas present Avith Cardinal Antonelli at the coronation of Napoleon in 1804, and became acquainted with many eminent literary men of Paris. His Avorks are very numerous, and treat entirely of antiquarian subjects. Died at Rome, 1826. CANDOLLE, AUGUSTIN P. DE, Avhose knowledge of botany has placed him in the same rank Avith Linnaeus, Avas born at Ge- neva, 1778. Having finished his studies at Paris, he soon attracted the notice o^f Cuvier and Lamarck, whom he aided in various scientific researches ; and in 1808 he Avas appointed to the chair of botany in Mont- pelier, Obliged to quit France for having taken office under Napoleon during the Hundred Days, he found refuge in his native city, where a chair of natural history Avas expressly instituted for him, and Avhere he continued, for many years, to extend the boundaries of his favourite science by his lectures and publications. His chief Avorks are a “ Th^orie E14mentaire de Botanique,’’ “ Regni Vegetabilis Systema Naturale,” “ L’Organographie et la Physiologie V6g6- tales,” &c. ; in all of Avhich he adopts Avhat is called the natural arrangement. Died, 1841. CANGE, CHARLES DU FRESNE DU. [DU- CANGE.] CANNING, George, a highly gifted orator and distinguished politician, Avas born in London, April 11, 1770. His father, Avho was an Irishman, Avas a man of con- siderable literary abilities ; but he died, broken-hearted, on the very day that his infant son was one year old. His widow married an actor; he also died, and she then became the Avife of a linen-draper of Exeter. But she had the happiness to live to see the success of her son, and to receive from him at all times the tenderest marks of filial af- fection. George Avas first placed at Hyde Abbey School, Winchester, and afterAvards at Eton, AAdiere he greatly distinguished himself as a scholar, and formed many connections Avhich Avere of great service to him in his after-life. While at Eton, he contributed to the” Microcosm,” a periodical Avork conducted by the senior scholars. At Oxford he also distinguished himself, and pro- ceeded thence to Lincoln’s Inn. Being in- troduced to the House of Commons by Mr Pitt, he abandoned the bar, and devoted himself wholly to politics. His strenuous and able support of the minister Avas re- Avarded in 1796 Avith an under-secretaryship of state; and in the year 1800 he Avas placed in affluence by his marriage with Miss Joanna Scott, the daughter of General Scott, with a fortune of £100,000. He made an expert use of his talents as a poet and poli- tical writer in the articles he contributed to the ” Antijacobin,” in which the Whigs were Avittily, unmercifully, and in some cases unjustifiably, held up to popular 159 can] ^ fyio ^nibtrsal 3i3iograp!)i). [can contempt. After the death of Pitt, and the dissolution of the coalition ministry of Fox and Grenville, Canning became foreign secretary in Perceval’s administra- tion ; and to him may justly be ascribed the line of British policy in Spain, -which 1 destroyed the hopes of Napoleon, and led to his final overthrow ; for, as he once empha- tically declared, “ his had been the hand which committed England to an alliance with Spain.” Having, as it was alleged, unfairly endeavoured to procure the removal of Lord Castlereagh from ofBce, a duel took place, and both parties had to quit office. In 1812 he was elected a member for Liver- pool ; and in 1816 he again became minister, being appointed president of the board of control. In this situation he made himself ex- tremely unpopular by his defence of the Six Acts, and Other obnoxious measures. On the return of Queen Caroline to England in 1820, Mr Canning retired from office, that he might not have occasion to vote against her. This did not prevent his being ap- pointed governor-general of India in 1822 ; and he had already made preparations for his departure, when the melancholy death of the Marquis of Londonderry caused the seals of the foreign office to be delivered to ?\Ir Canning. In conjunction with Mr Huskisson, he now advocated a course of both home and foreign polity, strikingly at variance with that of which he had for years been the wittiest and readiest, if not the most profound, defender. His new policy was as popular as his old had been obnoxious ; and the earl of Liverpool being seized with paralysis from which there was no hope of his recovery, Mr Canning reached the grand object of his ambition — that of being the acknowledged head of the administration. But though the new premier was popular with the country, the party with whom he had in a great measure ceased to act rendered his task a difficult one. The opposition to him was fierce, almost rancorous ; and it was soon obvious that he was suffering both in mind and body from over-exertion and constant excitement. These, aggravating the effects of a severe cold, caught while attending the funeral of the duke of York, brought on a most painful inflammatory disease, which terminated his life at the age of 57, in 1827. As an orator, he has rarely been excelled for finished elegance and class^ ical taste ; pouring forth his eloquence in a persuasive, impassioned, and fearless tone ; or in a happy vein of caustic irony demolish- ing the arguments of his opponents. That he was ambitious of place and power, and that during his political career he made some sacrifices of principle to expediency, no one will deny ; but, as a statesman, his great aim was to uphold the honour of his country, and to pursue a liberal line of po- licy at home and abroad ; while he was a decided enemy to all intermeddling with those institutions which the wisdom and ex- perience of ages had built up and cemented. CANNING, Charles JOHN, Earl and Vis- count, viceroy of India, was third son of George Canning, and was born at Brompton in 1812. He Avas educated at Eton and Oxford, and entered parliament in 1836 as member for Warwick, but soon after succeeded to the peerage on the death of his mother, the Vis- countess Canning. In 1841 he was appointed under-secretary of state for foreign affairs, an office which he held five years, and was then named chief commissioner of woods and forests, with a seat in the cabinet. He retired from office with Sir Bobert Peel, was postmaster-general in 1853, and succeeded Lord Dalhousie as governor-general of In- dia in 1856. Soon after the great mutiny broke out, and the enormous difficulties of the position, besides serious political differ- ences, tasked his firmness, patience, and moderation to the utmost. The transfer of the government of India to the CroAvn took place in 1858, and on the change of ministry at home Lord Derby continued the viceroy in his office. He accomplished several im- portant reforms, social and administrative, and returned to England in April 1862. The Countess Canning died at Calcutta in the preceding November, and the death of the earl took place at Loudon in June, two months after his return. CANO, Alonzo, a Spanish painter, sculp- tor, and architect, surnamed the Michael Angelo of Spain. He was born at Granada in 1600, and learnt the rudiments of archi- tecture from his father. His masters in painting were Francesco Pacheco and Juan del Castillo. Having made himself a great name, and enjoying the patronage of the duke of Olivarez, he went to Madrid, and was appointed master of the royal Avorks and chamber painter to the king. Cano was a man of violent temper, and in the midst of his triumph and celebrity he became the victim of a horrible suspicion. During his absence from home his wife Avas murdered, and his house robbed by an Italian servant ; and Cano, being suspected, was put to the rack. The torture itself could not shake his firmness, and as there Avas no evidence against him he Avas released. This story, hoAvever, as well as others respecting Cano, rests on very doubtful evidence. He then entered the church ; yet his love of the arts was unabated, and the “ruling passion ”Avas still so strong, that on his death-bed he averted his face from the crucifix of his con- fessor, because it was ill-carved. Died, 1676. CANOVA, Antonio, one of the greatest of modern sculptors, was born at Possagno in the Venetian territory in 1747. His father was a sculptor and architect, and the genius of An- tonio began to reveal itself when he was only five years old. He Avas placed Avlth the sculp- tor Torretto, and in 1779 was called to Home. He had already executed the groups of Or- pheus and Eurydice and Daedalus and Icarus. In 1783 appeared the group of Theseus and the Minotaur, the foundation of his renoAvn. Tavo years later Canova was charged Avith the execution of the monument to Clement XIV. (Ganganelli) for the church of the Apostles at Rome. The Cupid and Psyche, executed immediately aftei’Avards, exhibits the tenderness and grace Avhich Avere thence- forth the distinguishing characteristics of his style. The colossal monument to Clement XITI. (Rezzonico) in St Peter’s church Avas undertaken at this period, and occupied tlie artist eight years. With the exception of 160 can] % illeto ^niticrsal ISiograpIjg. [cap visits to Germany in 1798, to France in 1802 and 1809, and again as papal ambassador in 1815 for the restoration to Italy of the an- cient works of art which had been carried off by the French, on wliich last occasion lie also visited England to see the Elgin Marbles, his life is marked by no external vicissitudes. He Avas admitted to the French Institute, but refused the invitations of Napoleon to settle at Paris. The title of marquis of Ischia Avas conferred on him, but he did not assume it. Canova acquired an immense fortune by his works, and made the niost generous use of it. He died at Venice in 1822. A Penitent Magdalene, Hebe, the Graces, Endymion, statues of Napoleon and his mother Letizia, and the great monument to Maria Christina, archduchess of Austria, at Vienna, are among his most highly admired Avorks. CANSTEIN, CARL HILDEBRAND A^ON, Baron, a German nobleman, distinguished for an improvement in printing, analogous to stereotyping. He caused Bibles and Testa- ments to be pi’inted from entire pages, the Testaments being sold as Ioav as fourpence each. How the baron’s pages Avere formed does not clearly appear. Died, 1719. CANTACUZENE, Prince, a Greek pa- triot, descended from the famous Eastern emperor, John, and one of the first to join Ypsilanti in 1821, wfiien declaiing for the liberty of Greece, afterwards re-established. CANTACUZENE, JOANNES, emperor of the East. He Avasan able and vigilant states- man, and having rendered important services as “ grand domestic ” to Andronicus III., he assumed in 1341, on the death of Andronicus, the title of emperor, acting as the colleague of the young Pal3eologus,or as regent during his minority. Five years later he had him- self croAvned and made Avar on the young emperor. He became master of Constanti- nople, peace Avas made, and he endeavoured to heal the wounds Avhich five years of civil war had inflicted on the state ; but the jeal- ousy of Palfeologus, the rebellion of his own son, and other disasters, induced him to re- sign the croAvn and retire to a monastery on Mount Athos, where he employed himself in literary labours. He died in 1411, being more than 100 years old. CANTABINI, Simone, surnamed II Pe- SARESE, an Italian painter, born, 1612. His favourite master Avas Guido, to whom he be- came a fox’midable rival. He lived at Rome, Bologna, and Mantua in succession, and died at Verona, probably by poison. Cantarini Avas a good colourist, and especially ex- celled in his portraits. He Avas also a good etcher. But he Avas enormously vain and arrogant, and quarrelled with everybody. Died, 1648. CANTEMIR, Demetrius, a Moldavian prince ; author of “ The System of the Ma- hometan Religion,” a “History of the Rise and Fall of the Ottoman Empire,” &c. Died, 1723. CANTERBURY, CHARLES MANNERS Sutton, viscount, — eldest son of the arch- bishop of Canterbury,— Avas born in 1780; received his education at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge ; and, being destined for the legal profession, was called to the bar in 1805. He entered parliament in 1807 as member for Knaresborough, which borough he represented till 1832, when he Avas elected for the university of Cambridge. In 1809 he was appointed to the office of judge advocate general ; and on Mr Abbot (aftei’Avards Lord Colchester) retiring from the speakership of the House of Commons in 1817, Mr Manners Sutton Avas chosen to succeed him. To a commanding presence he added urbanity of manners, particularly Avhen addressing his political opponents ; and he conscientiously discharged the important duties of his office. Having taken part in the formation of the Peel ministry in 1834, the adherents of Lord Melbourne put Mr Abercrombie in nomina- tion for the speakership, and he Avas chosen (Feb. 19th, 1835) by a majority of 10. Mr Manners Sutton was shortly after called to the upper house by the titles of Viscoxint Canterbury and Baron Bottesford. He died July 21, 1845, aged 65. CANTON, John, M.A., an ingenious Eng- lish mechanician and experimentalist. The chief of his discoveries Avas that of the means of making artificial magnets, for which the Royal Society gave him its gold medal, and elected him a member. He contributed some valuable papers to the Transactions of the Royal Society, but published no separate Avork. Born, 1718 ; died, 1772. CANUTE, the Dane, king of England, was the son and successor of SAveyn, king of Denmark, with Avhom he invaded England in 1013. The next year, on the death of Sweyn, he Avas chosen king by the fleet. He contested the kingdom with Edmund Iron- side, and on his death became sole king, and to strengthen his title, married Emma, widow of Ethelred II, His rule, at first severe, Avas after Avards mild and just. He seA'eral tAnes visited Denmark ; made a pilgrimage to Rome in 1027 , founded or restored religious houses; and established just laws. Died, 1035. CAPEL, Arthur, Loi’d, a distinguished royalist, who, in 1648, in conjunction Avith the earl of Norwich, Sir Charles Lucas, and others, gallantly defended Colchester against the parliamentary troops. They at length surrendered, Avhen two of the leaders, Lucas and Lisle, were shot by sentence of court- martial, and Lord Capel Was reserved with the earl of Norwich for trial. The trial took place early in the following year, and Lord Capel Avas beheaded at London in March 1649. He was author of a moral work, enti- tled “ Daily Meditations.” CAPEL, Arthur, earl of Essex, son of the above. His own merit and the memory of his father procured him the honourable em- ployments of ambassador to Denmark and lord-lieutenant of Ireland. He subsequently, for a short time, held the office of first lord of the ti’easury ; but lost his faA'our at court by voting for the exclusion of the duke of York. Being accused of participation in the Rye-house plot, he Avas committed to th« Tower, where he cut his throat, or, as was suspected, was murdered, in 1683. CAPELL, Edward, a dramatic critic ; editor of a volume of ancient poetry, entitled “ Prolusions,” &c. ; but chiefly known for his edition of Shakespeare, a task which is said M 161 cap] jScto ^nitjcrsal IStograpI;]?. [cae to have occupied him more thau 20 years. Eorn, 1713; died, 1781. CAPELLEN, GODERD ALEXANDER Philip, Baron van der, a Dutch statesman, born in 1778 , minister of the interior to Louis Buonaparte. On the union of Bel- gium -with Holland, in 1815, he was ap- i pointed secretary of state at Brussels by the new king, and in 1815 governor of the Dutch East Indies. Although some of his measures exposed him to censure, he effected a great improvement in the condition of Java. Baron Capellen was sent ambassador to England to attend the coronation of Queen Victoria. His death, which took place in April, 1848, was caused by a blow received in the streets of Paris during the revolution in Eebruary preceding. CAPELLO, BIANCA, at first the mistress, and afterwards the wife of Francisco, son of the grand duke Cosmo de Medici. She was possessed of great ability, but was both art- ful and cruel, and her memory is detested by the Florentines. The fact that her hus- band and herself died within a few days of each other, caused it to be surmised that they were poisoned, and rumour charged the dark deed upon the brother of her husband, the Cardinal Ferdinand. Died, 1587. CAPISTRAN, JOHN, a friar, who distin- guished himself in the 14th century by the zeal with which he fought against Turks and heretics. He headed a crusade against the Hussites, of whom he is said to have made many converts. He also took part with Huniades in the successful defence of Belgrade against the Turks. He died in 1456 ; and nearly three centuries afterwards was canonized. CAPO DTSTRIA, JOHN, Count of, a Greek diplomatist in the service of Russia, was born at Corfu in 1780. He was the son of a physician, who became provisional governor of the Ionian Islands during the Russian oc- cupation, and when that was terminated by the treaty of Tilsit entered into the service of Russia. His son accompanied him, and gradually rose in the diplomatic service. After a mission to Vienna he was employed in connection with the army in Moldavia, and accompanied the emperor Alexander in the campaign of 1812. He was subsequently ambassador to Switzerland, took part in the congress of Vienna, and negotiated the treaty of Paris. About 1816 he was joint secretary of state in the foreign department with Nesselrode, and thenceforth took a leading part in the diplomatic transactions with the Porte. In 1828 he became president of the Greek government, in which office he was very unpopular, and he was assassinated in the autumn of 1831, CAPRARA, GIOVANNI BATTISTE, Cardin- al, born in 1733. He was sent as nuneio to Cologne in 1767, and afterwards in the same capacity to Lucerne and Vienna. In 1792 he was made cardinal. Nine years later he negotiated the Concordat with Napoleon, and celebrated at Notre Dame the re-establish- ment of I’eligious worship in France. He accompanied Buonaparte, In 1803, to Brus- sels, and was by him made archbishop of IMi- lan. It wasby Caprara that Buonaparte was crowned king of Italy in 1805. He died in 1810. CARacalla, Marchs Aurelius Anto- ninus, Roman emperor. He was born in 188, and, in conjunction with his brother, Geta, succeeded his father, Severus, in 211, His first wish was to get rid of his brother, and he succeeded in getting him murdered in the following year, as well as many lead- ing men supposed to be friends of Geta. One of these was the great jurist Papinianus. Caracalla indulged in extravagance, extor- tion, and cruelty without restraint, and went in succession into the various provinces of tlue empire, laying on all burdens of injustice and cruelty. In 215 he was at Alexandria, and there avenged himself on the people for their free speech of his character and deeds by a massacre lasting several days. After six years’ reign he was murdered by one of his guards, in 217. CARACCI, LUDOVICO, a celebrated Bo- lognese painter. He studied under Prospero Fontana, Passignano, and Tintoretto, and carried on with his brothers the famous school founded by him at Bologna till 1600, when they were called to Rome, and left him sole head. The principle of this school was eclecticism. The works of Ludovico are chiefly to be found in the churches and palaces of Bologna, though other Italian towns possess a few of them. The National Gallery has one, “ Susannah and the Elders.” Eorn, 1555 ; died, 1619. CARACCI, Annibale, cousin of the above, and still more eminent as a painter. He was born in 1560, and was taught his art solely by his cousin Ludovico. He assisted in conducting the school of painting at Bo- logna till he was called to Rome, where he was engaged in painting the palace of the Cardinal Farnese, a work Avhich occupied him eight years, and for which he is said to have received but five hundred gold crowns. It is probable, however, that this sum was a gift in addition to the pay agreed upon. There are seven paintings by this master in the National Gallery. Died, 1609. CARACCI, Agostino, brother of the last named, and born at Bologna, 1558. He, like his distinguished relatives, was an eminent painter, and in conjunction with them taught 1 in the celebrated school. He also assisted Annibale in designing and executing the frescoes in the Farnese palace. Tlie “ Com- munion of St Jerome ” is his greatest work. But he was still more distinguished as an engraver. His prints after Correggio, Paul Veronese, and Tintoretto, are greatly ad- mired. Two of his cartoons are in the Na- tional Gallery. Died, 1602. CARACCIOLI, Francisco, an Italian ad- miral, born about 1748 ; one of the victims who perished by the sanguinary reaction at Naples in 1799, when the French abandoned the town, and the royal family were re- stored. Notwithstanding the capitulation with Cardinal Ruffo, which guaranteed his life, he was hanged at the masthead of his vessel, and his body thrown into the sea. Much has been said of the evil influence used by Lady Hamilton over Nelson, then stationed off Naples, to get him to sanction this outrage ; but Lady Hamilton vehement- ly denied it. CARACTACUS, whose rcai name was 162 car] ^ 30ioQ:rnp!ji)» [car CARADOC, was king of the ancient British tribe inhabiting South Wales, called the Si- lures, He gallantly resisted the Romans for a considerable time, but was at length de- feated by Ostorius, A. D. 50. When taken prisoner and carried before the Emperor Claudius, his dignified behaviour and noble speech procured him his liberty ; but what afterwards became of him is not recorded. CARADOC, a British historian; reputed author of “Brut y Tywysogion, or Chroni- cle of the Princes of Wales.’’ Several MS. copies of it remain; and one of them has been continued as far as 1230. This Chroni- cle is included in the “Monumenta Historica Britannica,” vol. i. Died about 1156. CARAGLIO, Giangiacomo, a celebrated early Italian engraver, was born at Verona about 1500, and studied under Marcantonio at Rome. He distinguished himself as an engraver of medals and gems, as well as on copper-plate, and was called to the court of Sigismund, king of Poland. His prints are after the works of Michael Angelo, Ra- phael, Titian, and other great masters. Died at Parma, 1570. CARAUSIUS, a native of Gaul, who had the command of a Roman fleet against the Franks and Saxons in 286, and who the same year, suspected of treachery, crossed over to Britain, and assumed the title of emperor. He defeated JIaximian, and was acknow- ledged associate in the empire. He held his ground in Britain till 294, when he was murdered by Allectus. CAPvAVAGGIO, MICHELANGELO DA, an Italian painter, was born in 1569. He fol- lowed through great difficulties his natural bent for art, and attained distinction as a colourist and a close copyist of nature. In character and habits he was coarse and violent, and was continually getting into trouble through his quarrelsome propensi- ties. He was head of the school of so-called Naturalists. Among his best works are the “ Deposition of Christ,” at Rome, the “ Card- players,” and “ Christ and the two Disciples at Emmaus.” The last is in the National Gallery. Died in want and misery, 1609. CARAVAGGIO, POLIDORO DA. [CAL- DARA.] CARDAN, Jerome, Italian physician and mathematician, was born and educated at Pavia. He held successively the chairs of mathematics or medicine at Pavia, Milan, and Bologna, and in 1571 settled at Rome, and received a pension from the pope. He acquired extraordinary reputation as a phy- sician, and was called to Scotland to attend the archbishop of St Andrews. He made some important discoveries in algebra; stu- died astrology, and pretended to a gift of prophecy, and wrote an immense number of books. Among them are an account of him- self, “ De Vita propria ;’ “ Ars Magna,” his treatise on algebra ; “ De Rerum Varietate ; ” “ De Rerum Subtilitate,” &c. An interesting account of this slngiilar man was published by Mr Morley a few years ago. Died about 1576. CARDI DA CIGOLI, LODOVICO, an emi- nent Tuscan painter, and a reformer who opposed the imitators of Michael Angelo. His own style was to a great extent formed after the style of Correggio and that of the Caracci. The masterpiece of his pencil, St Peter Healing the Cripple, painted for St Peter’s at Rome, was unfortunately de- stroyed by the damp. Cigoli painted many fine altar-pieces. He W'rote a treatise on Perspective. Died, 1613. CARDON, Antoine, an eminent Belgian engraver, born in 1739 ; died, 1822. CARDON, Antoine, son of the preced- ing, was also an engraver of very consider- able talent, many of whose works are well known and esteemed. Born at Brussels, in 1772; died in London, 1813. CARDUCCIO, or CARDUCHO, BARTOLO- MEO, a celebrated painter, was born at Flo- rence in 1560. He was a pupil of Zucchero, with whom he W'ent in 1585 to Spain, and was employed in the Escurial under Philip II. and Philip III. He painted in fresco and in oil. His chef-d’oemvre is the “ Descent from the Cross,” in the church of St Philip, Madrid. Died in Spain, 1610. CARDUCCIO, or CARDUCHO, VlNCEN- zio, painter, brother of the preceding, was born at Florence in 1568. He accompanied his brother to Madrid, became painter to Philip III. and Philip IV., executed numer- ous works at Madrid, Toledo, and other cities of Spain, and completed the series begun by his brother at the chateau of Pardo, and died in 1636. He was author of “Dialogos sobre la Pintura.” CARDWELL, EDWARD, D.D., a learned divine and ecclesiastical historian, was born at Blackburn in Lancashire in 1787. He studied at Oxford university, became a fel- low of Brasenose College in 1809, and five years later one of the university examiners. He was appointed Camden professor of his- tory in 1826, and succeeded Dr Whately as principal of St Alban’s Hall in 1831. His good business habits acquired for him great influence in the government of the univers- ity, in w'hich he filled several responsible offices. He was also private secretary to three successive chancellors. Among his numerous and important works are, an edi- tion of Aristotle’s Ethics with notes ; lectures on the “ Coinage of the Greeks and Romans ; ” a students edition of the Greek Testament; a critical edition of the “History of the Jewish War,” by Josephus; and a series of learned works on the history of the church of England, forming parts of a great project- ed work based on "Wilkins’ “ Concilia Magnae Britannim.” The works published include the “ History of Conferences and other Pro- ceedings conneeted with the Revision of the Book of Common Prayer from 1558 to 1690;” the “ Documentary Annals of the Reformed Church of England, from 1546 to 1716;” “Synodalia,” and the “Reformatio Legum Ecclesiasticarum,” &c. Dr Cardwell was the personal friend of Sir Robert Peel and Mr Gladstone and amember of the Society of Antiquaries. Died at Oxford, in May, 1863. CAREW, Thomas, an English poet. His masque, “Coelum Britannicum,” was per- formed before the court at Whitehall in 1633, and greatly admired. Died, 1639. CAREW, Richard, an English writer, chiefly on topography ; author of “ A Survey of Cornwall,” &c. Died, 1620.p 163 car] 91 ^iui}trsal 13iograpI)i). [car CAREW, Sir George, brother of the above. He was much employed by Queen Elizabeth, who knighted him. He wrote an account of France and the court of Henry IV., which was not published till above a century after his death. Hied, 1614. CAREY, Henry, earl of Monmouth, an English nobleman, distinguished for his scholarship, and especially for his acquaint- ance with modern languages. He translated numerous works from the French and the Italian, of which the most important are Biondi’s “ History of the Civil 'Wars of England,” and Paul Paruta’s “History of Venice.” Hied, 1661. CAREY, HENRY, an English musician and poet. He chiefly excelled in ballads, one of which, “Sally in our Alley,” was praised by Addison for its words, and by the celebrated Geminiani for its music. He was the author of several burlesque and other dramatic pieces highly popular in their day. Hied, by his own hand, 1743. CAREY, GEORGE SAVILLE, son of the above. He inherited much of his father’s peculiar talent; and, though intended for the business of a printer, he speedily aban- doned it for the stage. His songs, chiefly patriotic ones, were inferior to his father’s both in poetry and music. Besides these and some farces, he wrote “A Rural Ramble,” “ Balnea,” oeing sketches of the English watering-places, &c. Hied, 1807. CAREY, 'William, a celebrated Baptist missionary, was born at Paulerspury, North- amptonshire, in 1761. His father kept a small school in the village, and apprenticed his son to a shoemaker at Hackleton, where his earnest inquiries upon religious subjects attracted the notice, and soon obtained him the friendship, of the Rev. Thomas Scott, of Ravenstone. He joined a congregation of Baptists, and in his 20th year began to preach, v.^hich he continued for two years, when Ije was publicly baijtized in the river Nen. In 1787 he was intrusted with the charge of a congregation at Leicester, where, persevering in his benevolent object of con- verting the heathen (respecting which he had before published his opinions), he in- duced other ministers to join him; and, in 1792, they formed themselves into a Baptist Missionary Society at Kettering. 'William Carey was nominated to go upon their first mission, and India was selected as the most desirable field for the commencement of the work. He arrived in Bengal in 1794, but had the ill fortune to lose all his money and effects by the sinking of a boat in the river Hooghly. After patiently enduring severe toils and privations for three years (during which period he acquired the Bengalee), Mr Carey preached publicly; but as the East India Company were opposed to his object of forming an establishment inland, in 1799 he proceeded to the Hanish settlement of Serampore. This little missionary settle- ment, consisting of seven preachers only, with their wives and families, rapialy in- creased ; a school was opened, and type being sent from England, a translation of the Scriptures was printed in the Bengalee lan- guage. Mr Carey, having made himself a complete master of the native languages, was, in 1801, appointed by the governor professor of Sanscrit and other Oriental languages at the college of Fort 'William, Calcutta. He had many difficulties to con- tend with, both from the prejudices of the natives, and the political views of influential men at home. But he persevered, and, in 1805,-a diploma of H.H. was transmitted to him from one of the American universities. He never relaxed in the work he had begun, but translated the Scriptures into several of the Indian languages, and lived to witness the success of his ardent exertions for their dissemination among the native tribes. Hied, 1834. CAREZ, Joseph, a French printer, w'ho made some important improvements in the art of stereotyping. Hied, 1801. CARLETON, Sir HUDLEY, Lord Hor- chester, an English statesman during the reigns of James I. and Charles I. He was a man of great ability ; but, like Laud and other statesmen of that time, he had a bi- goted fondness for arbitrary government. As an author he is chiefly known by the Avork entitled, “ Letters to and from Sir Hudley Carleton during his embassy to Hol- land, from January, 1616, to Hecember, 1620.” These letters, which were edited by Lord Hardwicke, contain much Amluable informa- tion, though they also display much preju- dice. Hied, 1632. CARLETON, Sir GuY, Lord Horchester, a military officer of great courage and skill. Having passed through the subaltern ranks, he, in 1762, became a colonel, and distinguished himself very greatly at the siege of the Havannah. In 1772 he was raised to the rank of major-general, and intrusted with the important office of go- vernor of Quebec ; in which situation he defended Canada against Generals Arnold and Montgomery, whose army he routed, the last-named general being slain. For this General Carleton was knighted, and promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general. He next succeeded General Clinton as com- mander-in-chief in America ; and, at the conclusion of the war there, w'as raised to the peerage, and made governor of Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. Hied, 1808. CARLI, Gian RiNALHO.an Italian archae- ologist, numismatist, and economist, was born at Capo d’lstria in 1720. He held for several years a professorship of astronomy and navigation at Padua, and afterwards became president of the council of com- merce at Milan. In 1771 he was placed at the head of the council of finance. He rendered important services to his country in commerce, navigation, and finance; and induced the Emperor Joseph to abolish the Inquisition at Milan. His principal Avorks are “ Helle Monete e della Instituzione delle Zecche d’ltalia,” in 7 vols. 4to, and“Anti- chita Italiche,” 5 vols. 4to. He wrote many other works, and died in 1795. CARLISLE, GEORGE William Freder- ick Howard, Earl of, lord-lieutenant of Ireland, was born at London in 1802. He Avas educated at Eton and Oxford, was re- turned to parliament for the family scat of Morpeth, Avas afterwards member for York- 164 car] % ^nilj^rsal ^{ogvapfjn* [car sliire, and supported Earl Grey in the con- test ending with the Reform Act. Lord Morpeth (the courtesy title by which the earl was first known) represented the West Riding from 1833 to 1841, and again in 1846 till he succeeded to the peerage two years later. lie was chief secretary for Ireland from 1835 to 1841; afterwards for several years chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and in 1855 lord lieutenant of Ireland. He filled that ofiice for three years, and was recalled to it on the fall of Lord Derby’s ministry. His fascinating manners and his interest in all philanthropic projects made him very popular. Ill health compelled liim to retire in August, 1864, and he died at Castle Howard in the following December. CARLISLE, Sir ANTHONY, a distin- guished anatomist and physiologist, was born at Stillington, Durham, in 1768, and commenced his professional studies at York, under the care of an uncle, at whose death he was transferred to Mr Green, founder of the hospital in the city of Durham. He thence proceeded to London, and became a resident pupil of Mr H. Watson, a surgeon of Westminster Hospital, and one of the court of examiners of Surgeons’ Hiill, a man of the first rank in his profession. In 1793, that gentleman dying, Mr Carlisle succeeded him in the hospital, and speedily distinguished himself, as much by his invariable humanity to the suffering poor as by his surgical skill. As a man he was upright in his principles, and undaunted in the avowal of his opinions. He was senior surgeon to the Westminster Hospital, one of the council and court of examiners of the Royal College of Surgeons, F.R.S., &c. Sir Anthony contributed many papers to the Transactions of various learned Societies, and also published several inde- pendent works on professional subjects. Died, Nov. 2, 1840. CARLISLE, Nicholas, an eminent anti- quary, brother of the preceding, was bom at York, 1771. After receiving what he him- self calls a “ humble education,” he entered the naval service of the East India Company, and gradually amassed a considerable sum, which enabled him to be of great assistance to his brother, the eminent surgeon, at the beginning of his career. In 1807 he was elected secretary to the Society of Antiqua- ries, his competitor being the late Dr Dibdin ; and in this capacity he found leisure to compile many laborious and useful works. In 1812 he was appointed assistant librarian at Buckenham House ; in 1828 he "was nom- inated one of the gentlemen of the privy chamber ; and in testimony of the estima- tion in which he was held, he received orders of knighthood from Austria, Den- mark, and Hanover, and from Oxford the honorary degree of D.C.L., in 1835. Died, 1847. CARLOMAN,' son of Pepin the Short, king of the Franks, and younger brother of Charles the Great (Charlemagne), was born in 751, crowned with his brother at St Denis by Pope Stephen II. in 754, and made patri- cian of Rome, and succeeded his father in 768, as king of Austrasia, Suabia, and Thuringia. He was crowned a second time at Soissons the same year. Suspicion and discord prevailed between him and Charles throughout his short reign. Died, 771. His widow took refuge, with her sons, at the court of Desiderius, king of the Lombards. CaRLOMAN, king of France, W’as son of Louis the Stammerer, and with his brother Louis III. succeeded his father in 879. Early in the following year a partition of the mon- archy was agreed to, and Carloman had for his share Burgundy, Aquitaine, and the mar- quisate of Toulouse. The brothers however remained united in action, fought together against Boson, who had usurped Provence, took part in the siege of Vienna held by Ermengarde, wife of Boson, and afterwards encountered the Northmen. Died, 884. CARLOS, Don, son of Philip II. of Spain, was born at Valladolid in 1545. He was heir- presumptive to the throne, but early showed a very haughty and violent temper, and Avas an object of aversion to his father, and of reasonable fear to the people. Weary of the rigorous treatment to which he was subject, impatient perhaps of exclusion from a share in the government, he was suspected of heretical leanings and of an intention to join the revolted Flemings. Philip, Avith Count Lerma and other courtiers, seized the prince in his bed, took possession of his papers, and had him imprisoned. He died, Avhether a natural death, or by violence, or by poison, is not knoAvn, about six months after, in July, 1568. Two months later died the Queen Elizabeth, married to his father after being betrothed to Don Carlos. There appears to be no basis of fact for the ro- mances that have been Avritten on the fate of this prince. CARLOS, Don, Pretender to the crown of Spain, Avas the second son of Charles IV. and brother of Ferdinand VII. He Avas compelled to join with Ferdinand in re- nouncing all claims to the throne in favour of Napoleon, and Avas held prisoner in France from 1808 till 1813. An insurrection in favour of Don Carlos broke out in 1825, but Avas soon tuppressed. On the death of Ferdinand VII.-, in 1833, a ciA'il \^ ar began betAveen the Carlists and the supporters of the Queen Isabella; Avhose legal title de- pended on the question Avhether the Salic laAv was in force in Spain or not. The Avar was carried on Avith great cruelty, and only ended in 1839, with the defeat of the Carlists, to Avhich a British auxiliary force contri- buted, and the flight of Don Carlos to France. He kept up the pretence of kingship for a time, then I’enounced his claim in favour of his son, the Count of Montemolin, and died at Trieste, in 1855. CARLYLE, Alexander, an eminent Scotch Presbyterian minister of the 18th century, was born in 1722, was educated at GlasgOAv, Edinburgh, and Leyden, and be- came minister of Inveresk in 1747. He had witnessed the Porteous riots, served as a volunteer in the rebellion of 1745, and was pi’esent at the battle of Prestonpans; of which parish his father Avas minister. He led an active social life, enjoying intercourse Avith the most eminent Scotchmen of his day, and with some eminent Englishmen. He AA^as the friend of David Hume, Adam Smith, Home, author of “ Douglas,” Blair, 165 car] ^ ^niticrsal author of the Lectures on Rhetoric, and other literary men. He got into trouble with the Presbytery for assisting at the first private rehearsal of “ Douglas,” and publish- ed two sarcastic pamphlets on the matter. From his noble head and countenance he acquix'cd the name of Jupiter Carlyle, and sat as model for Jupiter, to Gavin Hamilton. In his old ago he wrote an “ Autobiography,” which remained unpublished till 1860. It is a racy volume, full of most vivid pictures of Scottish life, character, and manners, with notices of many remarkable persons, Eng- lish as well as Scotch. Died, 1805. CARLYLE, Joseph Dacre, an English divine and linguist. He accompanied Lord Elgin on his embassy to Constantinople, and took that opportunity to explore various parts of Asia Minor, Egypt, &c. His spe- cimens of Arabic poetry, and a learned summary of the affairs of Egypt, from the year 971 to the 3 'ear 1453, were published during his lifetime, and procured him con- siderable celebrity. After his death a Amlume appeared of his “ Poems suggested by Scenes in Asia Minor, Syria, and Greece.” Died, 1804. CARNARVOX, HENRY JOHN GEORGE Herbert, third Earl of, eminent as an au- thor, a traveller, and a politician, was born in 1800. After finishing his school education at Eton, he repaired to Christchurch, Oxford, and when his university career terminated, he entered upon a m’ ell-devised plan of travel, extending over Italy, the Peninsula, parts of Africa, ail'd Greece; and the results of which he from time to time gave to the world in works abounding in animated and picturesque descriptions. His most popular Avork was his “ Portugal and Gallicia;” but his “ Moor,” a poem, and “ Don Pedro,” a tragedy, evince poetic potvers of no mean order. In 1830 Lord Caniarvon, tvho down to this period had borne the title of Lord Porchester, was returned to the House of Commons, Avhere he made a distinguished debut-, but his father’s death, tvhich took place in 1833, led to his removal to the House of Lords. He took an active part in all the proceedings of the upper house, making occasional trips to the Continent in pursuit of health. Died, Nov. 10, 1849. CARNE, John, miscellaneous writer, Avas bom in CornAvall, 1789. On the completion of his studies he travelled in the East, and Are have the fruits of his travels in the vol- ume, entitled “ Letters from the East,” Avhich originally appeared in the Neiv Monthly Magazine. Subsequently he pub- lished Recollections of the East,” “ Letters from Switzerland and Italy,” “ Lives of the most Eminent IMissionaries,” «&c. Died, April, 1844, aged 55. CARNEADES, an eminent -Greek philo- sopher. He Avas a pupil of Diogenes the Stoic, and, subsequently, of Egesinus. He Avas the founder of the New Academy or School of Philosophy at Athens, and opposed the doctrine of the Stoics. The Romans hav- ing imposed a fine on Athens, Carneades, with Diogenes and Critolaus, Avas sent to plead against it. He did so successfully, and so great a sensation did his eloquence make, that Cato feared its effect on the Roman [car youth, and urged the senate to expel him from the city. Died, 129, B. C. CARNOT, Lazare Nicolas Margue- rite, a French mathematician, and Avar minister under Napoleon, was born in Rur- gundy,in 1753, entered the corps of engineers, and received promotion from the prince of Cond6; yet at the commencement of the revolution he became a decided partisan of the republic, and, as a member of the Con- vention, voted for the death of the king. During the Reign of Terror he took an active part in public affairs ; and on the establish- ment of the Executive Directory he became one of its five members. In this ofiice he remained till 1797, when, with Rarthelemy and others, he was accused as a royalist, and exiled. Buonaparte, on becoming first consul, recalled Carnot, and made him minister of war. He so steadily opposed the establish- ment of the consulate for life, that he AA-as at length compelled to resign. He subse- quently Avas a member of the tribunate, and on its suppression retired to private life. In 1807 he received a pension of 10,000 francs. Once more, in 1814, he accepted service, and Avas appointed governor of Antwerp. In the following year, during the Hundred Days, he Avas minister of the interior, and after the fall of Napoleon, he retired, first to Warsaw, then to Berlin, and finally set- tled at Magdeburg. There, in the pursuit of science, he passed his last years. As a Avriter, Carnot is very favourably knoAvn by his “ Reflexions sur la Metaphysique du Calcul Infinitesimal,” “ La Geometrie de Position,” and other scientific treatises. Died, 1823. CARO, Annibale, an Italian poet. His parents were very poor, but in early life he had the good fortune to be patronized by Pietro Ludovico Farnese. Subsequently he became secretary to the cardinal Alessandro Farnese, Avho literally heaped preferments upon him. His original Avorks, both prose and verse, are of a high order ; but his chief merit is in his translations from the Greek and Latin. Among these, he obtained the highest reputation by his translation of the Ailneid. Born, 1507 ; died, 1566. CAROLINE, Amelia Elizabeth, wife of George IV., king of Great Britain and Hano- ver, second daughter of Duke Charles Wil- liam Ferdinand of BrunsAvick (avIio was mor- tally Avounded in the battle of Auerstadt) and of the Princess Augusta of England, sister of George III. She Avas born May 17th, 1768 ; married the Prince of AVales in 1795, and gaA-e birth to the Princess Charlotte in the year folloAA’ing; but Avas scarcely recovered from her confinement, Avhen her husband abandoned her without assigning any valid reason. The princess retired to a mansion at Blackheath, Avhere she devoted herself to the arts and sciences, and dispensed no in- considerable part of her income in acts of benevolence. IVIeanAvhile, the friends of the prince accused her of illicit connections, and CA-en asserted that she was the mother of a boy whom she had adopted, and that the father was Sir Sidney Smith. This led to a “delicate investigation,” and on the Avholo evidence being submitted to George HI., he declared himself satisfied of her innocence. IGG cAii] ^ ^Rniijcrsal ISiograpI^p. [car and received her with marks of his especial favour. In 1813 the quarrel was renewed, and in July, 1814, the princess obtained per- mission to go to Brunswick, and, afterwards, to make the tour of Italy and Greece. On quitting England, she assumed the title of Countess of AVolfenbnttel ; and, while at Milan, took into her service an Italian, named Bartolomeo Bergami, and appointed his sister one of her maids of honour. For a time she resided at Como; but afterwards visited Tunis, Malta, Athens, Constantinople, Ephesus, and lastly Jerusalem. AYhile there she exhibited extraordinary munificence in gifts to the conventual fathers as well as to the poor ; and took upon herself to found a new order of knighthood, entitled the order of St Caroline, of which she constituted Bergami grand master. Her indiscretion in thus elevating Bergami became a theme of general conversation ; and commissioners were secretly sent out to make inquiries and to furnish evidence on which to obtain a divorce. "While absent from England, death had deprived her of her friends, George III. and the duke of Kent ; of her daughter, the Princess Charlotte ; and her brother, the duke of Brunswick, who fell at Ligny, two days previous to the battle of "Waterloo. Yet, on the prince of "\;S"ales ascending the throne, January 29, 1820, the ministry offer- ed her an income of £50,000 sterling, the title of queen of England, and all the ^gni- ties appertaining thereto, on condition that she should continue to reside abroad. This proposal she rejected, accused her enemies of conspiracy against her, and returned to England, cheered by the enthusiastic wel- come of nine-tenths of the people. She was then publicly accused by the minister. Lord Liverpool, of adultery; and, after a pi’otract- ed trial, on which the queen was defended by Mr (afterwards Lord) Brougham, the bill of pains and penalties was passed to a third reading by a trifling majority; but government thought it prudent to withdraw it. After this outrage on pub- lic decency, preparations were made for the king’s coronation. The queen demanded to be crowned with him ; and this being re- fused, she requested to be present at the ceremony, but was repeatedly turned from the doors of "W estminster Abbey and refused admission. The spirit of Caroline sunk un- der this last effort ; and scarcely had a fort- night elapsed when she Avas taken suddenly ill, and died on the 7th of August, 1821. HaA’ing expressed a wish that she should not be buried in England, her remains were removed to Brunswick. On the funeral pro- cession passing through London, a A’iolent conflict took place between the life-guards, who were conducting it, and the populace. To what extent the queen Avas guilty no one can say, the evidence being most conflicting and unsatisfactory ; but seldom has a woman had so many pleas to urge in extenuation of her crime, if really guilty. CARPENTER, Dr Laxt, an eminent the- ological Avriter, Avas born at ICidderminster, 1780. After finishing his education under the care of Mr Pearsall, a relation of his mother, whose zeal in behalf of the Dissent- ers is Avell knoAvn, he was sent in 1797 to the academy of Northampton, Avith a aTcav to the ministry, and on finishing his studies at Glasgow university, he became assistant in a school at Birmingham, subsequently one of the librarians of the Athenaeum at Liverpool, where he formed an intimacy wuth Roscoe, Dr Currie, and other eminent men, and in 1805 one of the ministers of the Unitarian congregation at Exeter. In 1817 he under- took the care of the Unitarian church at Bristol ; and here he laboured till 1826, Avhen his health began to decline, and he en- deavoured to regain it by travelling in Eng- land and on the Continent. He returned to Bristol in 1829, and continued assiduously to promote every good and useful work ; but in 1839 his health once more gave Avay, and Avhile sailing from Naples to Leghorn, whi- ther he had gone for recreation, he fell OA'er- board and was drowned, 5th April, 1840. His body was found near the site of the an- cient Antium, and Avas interred there. Dr Carpenter Avas a most industi’ious AA'riter. Besides publishing numerous sermons and polemical pamphlets, he contributed largely to Rees’s Cyclopaedia and many periodicals ; and his substantial works, published both during his life and since his death, are mas- terpieces of style and argument. His “ Apo- stolical Harmony of the Gospels ” is referred to as an authority even by his theological opponents. CARPENTER, RiCHAED, an English di- vine of the 17th century. He was originally educated for the established church, but seceded from it, and became a Romish priest. He recanted, and obtained a vicarage in Sussex ; but at the outbreak of the civil war he quitted England, and again professed himself a Catholic. The restoration caused him to return to England, and turn Pro- testant. He changed once more, and died a Catholic. The writings of this unprincipled man are, “Experience, History, and DiA'in- ity,” and “The Pragmatical Jesuit,” &c. CARPI, Uoo DA, an Italian painter and wood engraver of the 16th century, to Avhom is generally attributed the invention of the kind of engraA'ing called by the Italians “chiaroscuro.” The facts and dates of his ilfe are unknown, and his engraA'ings, chiefly after Raphael and Parmegiano, are few in number and difficult to identify. CARPI, Girolamo da, an Italian painter of the 16th century, and a very successful imitator of Correggio. Died at Ferrara, 1556. CARPINI, JOHANNES DE PLANO, a Do- minican friar of the 13th century, and one of the embassy from Pope Innocent lY. to the descendants of Zenghis Khan, sent to prevent them from invading Europe, and to induce them rather to ttirn their arms against the Saracens and Turks. CARPOCRATES, a Gnostic teacher of the 2nd century, who denied the divine nature of Christ, and made light of morality. His followers Avere accused of leAvd and immoral practices, but Dr Lardner thinks the accus- ation to have arisen rather from enmity than fact. CARPZOY, the name of a German family, many of whose members distinguished them- selA'es as jurists, theologians, >S;c., in tho 17th and 18th centuries. Among them were. 167 car] 'U ^Euitiersal IDiograpf)!}. [cal- JOHANN Benedict, Lorn at Leipsic in 1639, Avho became professor of theology and He- brew at the university of his native town, and died in 1G99. He left various treatises on sacred philology. — JOHANN Gottlieb, nephew of the preceding, born at Dresden in 1679. He was author of “ Critica Sacra,” introductions to the historical books of the Old Testament, and to the New Testament, &c. Died, 1767.— JOHANN BENEDICT, phi- lologist, born at Leipsic in 1720. He was professor of philosophy at Leipsic, and after- wards of ancient literature at Helmstadt. He wrote many works and published several translations of Greek authors. Died, 1803. CARR, WILLIAM HOLWELL, an English clergyman, and a distinguished patron of the tine arts. He spent large sums in pic- tures, which he bequeathed to the National Gallery. Died, 1830. CARRANZA, BARTOLOMEO DE, a Spanish Dominican. He distinguished himself at the council of Trent, and had the honour to accompany Philip II. of Spain to England, where he laboured so zealously to establish Popery, that the king made him archbishop of Toledo. Here, however, his success end- ed ; for being accused of heresy, he was im- prisoned at Rome for ten years, and subse- quently sent to a monastery for the remainder of his life. His chief works are, “ Summa Conciliorum” and a “Treatise on the Resi- dence of Bishops.” Died, 1576. CARREL, Armand, chief editor of the “National,” and a distinguished political writer. He was born at Rouen, in 1801, and served for some years in the army. At the age of 24 he settled at Paris, and applied himself to literature, at first in the service of the historian Thierry, and afterwards as miscellaneous writer and journalist. He be- came one of the founders and joint editor of the “National” in 1830. Died, of a wound he received in a duel with M. Girardin a few davs previous, July 24, 1836. CARRENNO DE MIRANDA, DON JUAN, an eminent Spanish painter, patronized by Philip IV. In colouring and tenderness of feeling he surpasses all his countrymen, with the exception of Murillo. Died, 1685. CARRERAS, JOSE MIOUEL, JUAN, and Ldis ; three brothers, distinguished in the revolution of Chili; pre-eminent for patriot- ism, talents, and purity of character; yet, by adverse fortune, they all perished at Men- doza, under the merciless rule of O’Higgins and San Martin. The latter sent their aged father an account of the expenses of the execution of Juan and Luis, who suffered in 1818 ; with an order for its immediate pay- ment. He paid it, and, two days afterwards, expired of a broken heart. Don Jose Miguel met his unhappy fate in 1822, when en- deavouring to take advantage of a popular movement in his favour, he Avas surrounded, made prisoner, and executed. CARRIER, JEAN BAPTISTE, One of the most bloodthirsty actors in the French revo- lution, was born near Aurillac in 1756. He Avas sent on a mission to La yend(ie, where he caused thousands of victims, men, women, and children, to be droAvned, beheaded, or shot, the ordinary mode of execution being too tardy for him. Fifteen thousand per- sons perished in this way; the banks of the Loire were strewed Avith the dead bodies, and the water Avas so polluted, that it was prohibited to drink it. On the fall of the party called the Mountain, he was tried be- fore the revolutionary tribunal, and con- demned to the guillotine, in 1794. CARSTARES, William, a Scotch divine, but of more influence as a politician, Avas born at Catheart, in 1649. In order to re- move him from the danger of being led into politics, his friends sent him from Edinburgh, Avhere he had commenced his studies, to Utrecht. Becoming knoAvn to the prince of Orange he soon obtained his confidence, and Avas much employed by him in forwarding his intentions upon England. Being privy to the Rye-house plot he was apprehended, and put to the torture, which he bore Avith much fortitude, but at length Avas induced to make a statement, which AA'as aftei’Avards used against his friend, Mr Baillie. On his liberation he returned to Holland, AA'here the prince received him very cordially, and made him his chaplain. He accompanied William to England, and though nominally only his chaplain, Avas in fact one of the most influential and able ‘of his state ad- visers. Under Queen Anne he had no po- litical power, but she caused him to be made principal of the university of Edinburgh, in Avhich important post he gave satisfaction equally to her Majesty and to the Scottish public. By the house of HanoA^er he was equally patronized, and he continued a fa- vourite till his death, AA’hich to^k place, in his 66th year, in 1715. CARSTENS, Asmus JACOB, a Danish painter of very considerable merit. His subjects, nearly all taken from the classic authors, exhibit gracefulness of attitude with vigorous expression. One of his largest Avorks is the “Fall of the Angels,” AVhich contains above 200 figures. Born, 1754 ; died, 1798. CARTE, Samuel, an English divine and antiquary ; author of a A'aluable and elabor- ate Avork, entitled “Tabula Chronologica archiepiscopatum et episcopatum in Anglia et Wallia,” «&c. Died, 1740. CARTE, Thomas, son of the above, and like him an antiquary, historian, and divine. On the accession of George I., feeling that he could not conscientiously take the re- quired oaths, he abandoned his profession of a clergyman ; and during the rebellion of 1715 he Avas so strongly suspected, that a Avarrant was issued against him, but he A\ms safely concealed in the house of a clergyman in WarAvickshire. He Avas subsequently in- A'olved in political sti’ife, but he escaped by timely flight. As an author he is chiefly knoAvn by his “ History of England.” Born, 1686 ; died, 1754. CARTER, Elizabeth, an eminent class- ical scholar, translator, and miscellaneous Avriter, the daughter of a clergyman residing at Deal, in Kent. Under the instructions of her father she became an admirable Greek and Latin scholar, and was avoII skilled in German, French, Spanish, Italian, Portu- guese, IlebreAV, and Arabic. She translated Crousaz’s critique on Pope’s Essay on Man, Algarotti’s Explanation of Newton’s Philo- 168 1 car] % SJiub^rsal 13iograpI)p. [car Sophy, and Epictetus. These works appear- ed durii\^ her life ; and, after her decease, six volumes of her correspondence were pub- lished, which are calculated to give even a higher opinion of her intellect than her more learned and masculine performances. This accomplished woman was the friend of Dr Johnson, P.ishop Butler the author of the “Analogy,” Sir Joshua Reynolds, and other distinguished meu. Born, 1717 ; died, 1806 ; aged 89. CARTER, THOMAS, an eminent Irish mu- sician and composer of vocal music. Among his compositions are the songs, “ Oh, Nannie, wilt thou gang wi’ me ! ” and “ Stand to your guns, my hearts of oak.” Died, 1804. CARTERET, JOHN, earl of Granville, an eminent English statesman, was born in 1690. Immediately on attaining his ma- jority, he took his seat in the House of Lords. AYarmly supporting the Hanoverian succession, he Avas noticed by George I., and employed by him in various posts until 1721, Avhen he succeeded Craggs as secretary of' state. In 1724 he was appointed lord-lieu- tenant of Ireland ; and though he gave the irritable natives some offence by prosecuting the printer of the Drapier’s (Swift’s) letters, he was on the whole a popular Auceroy. In the reign of George TI. he again held that distinguished post, and with even more success than before. On his return to Eng- land he became a strong opponent of AA^al- pole ; and Avhen he had succeeded in remov- ing that statesman, and procuring office for himself, he supported measures similar to those he had formerly condemned. But though as secretary of state, and as president of the council, in which office he died, his conduct was marked by much vacillation, he retained court favour to the last. Died, 1763. CARTERET, PHILIP, a distinguished na- val officer of the 18th century. In conjunc- tion with Captain Wallis he commanded an expedition to the South Seas, in 1766. Of the discoveries they made, some account is gi\ei\ by Hawkesworth, in the introduction to his narrative of Cook’s voyage. CARTIER, ,.T ACQUES, a Erench navigator of the 16th century, who made several voy- ages of discovery on the coasts of North America. He was the first Frenchman Avho set foot on the soil of Canada, and planted the French flag there. The accounts of his three voyages, in 1534-35-36, have just been rc-published at Paris (1865). CARTAVRIGHT, JOHN, an English gen- tleman, distinguished for his zealous attach- ment to political reform. Early in life he served in the navy, but subsequently became a major in the Nottingham militia ; from which circumstance he was generally known as Major Cartwright, though he had been superseded for many years previous to his death. As an amateur politician he was before the public for many years, both by his writings in favour of American independ- ence, and by his public addresses in further- ance of a radical reform of the government. He also displayed great firmness and disin- terestedness on all occasions when multi- tudes assembled to advocate and petition for popular rights. He died in 1824, aged 84. CARTWRIGHT, Dr EDMUND, brother of the preceding, and a clergyman of the established church. In 1770 he published a pleasing poem, called ‘ Armina and Elvira ; ” but he is chiefly known by his valuable invention of the power-loom, first intro- duced in 1785, and Avhich, though for some time Auolently opposed by ignorant and pre- judiced men, was at length universally adopted. He received in 1809 a grant of £10,000 from parliament as the rcAvard of his services. Died, 1823. CARTAVRIGHT, THOMAS, an eminent Puritan divine of the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. ; professor of divinity at Cambridge university, but expelled for his opinions, and driven to take refuge in Holland. After 12 years absence he returned, and held the post of master of a hospital at Warwick. He Avas imprisoned by the High Commission Court in 1590 for three years. Cartwright was author of some Commentaries on the New Testament, of Avhich a beautiful edition Avas published by the Elzevirs after his death. He was also author of “ Comment- aria- Practica in totam Historiam Evangeli- cam,” a “ Body of Divinity,” “ Commentaria Succincta et Dilucida in Proverbia Solo- monis,” &c. Died, 1602, aged 68. CARTWRIGHT, AA^ILLIAM, an English divine and poet. Both as a preacher and as a member of the council of Avar at Oxford, he zealously and ably served the cause of the unfortunate Charles I. ; and his exertions caused him to be for a short time imprisoned by the parliament. His literary talents must have been great, for Bishop Fell said that he Avas “ all that man could arrive at ; ” and Ben Jonson, in his familiar Av^ay, said, “ my son, CartAvright, Avrites all like a man.” But the remains of CartAvright are very dis- proportionate to these high praises, coji- sisting only of four plays and a feAV poems. He died, at the early age of 33, in 1643, having been shortly before appointed pro- fessor of metaphysics at Oxford. CARY, LUCIUS. [FALKLAND.] CARY, Henry Francis, the well-known translator of Dante, was born at Gibraltar in | 1772. His father was a captain in the army ; but soon after the birth of his son he settled in Staffordshire, and sent him Avhen eight years old to Uxbridge School, and afterwards successively to Pi.ugby and Birmingham. In 1790 he Avas admitted as a commoner of Christchurch, Oxford, and after finishing his college studies he was presented suc- cessively with the liAungs of Abbot’s Brom- ley in Staffordshire and Kingsbury in AYar- Avickshire. The delicacy of his health obliging him to have recourse to the best medical advice, he came to London in 1808, and after holding various cures in the me- tropolis and the vicinity, in 1825 he became assistant keeper of printed books in the British Museum, an office, hoAvever, which he resigned in 1837, when his application for the chief librarianship Avas rejected. Mr Cary contributed largely to the Gentleman’s and the London Magazines, produced transla- tions of the “Birds” of Aristophanes and the Odes of Pindar, and wrote a series of Lives of the English Poets, in continuation of Dr Johnson’s; besides editing the works 169 car] ^ ifleto 2lnii)^rsal IBiograpf)^. [cas of Pope, Cowper, Milton, Thomson, and Young ; but his chief reputation rests on his admirable translation of Dante, which, though somewhat neglected on its first ap- pearance, has since received the meed of acknowledgment from all competent critics. Died, 1844. CARY, ROBERT, LL.D., an English divine and writer. During the civil war he left the established church and joined the presby- terian party ; and, at the restoration, he re- entered the church. His tergiversation was rewarded by an archdeaconry, from which, however, he was ejected in 1664. He wrote a learned and useful work, entitled “ Palajo- logia Chronica.” Died, 1688. CARYL, JOHN, secretary to Mary, queen of James II. He remained faithful to that prince, and was rewarded for his fidelity with the titles of Earl Caryl and Baron Dart^ ford. In the reign of Q,ueen Anne he was living in England, and was intimate with Pope. He was the author of some poems, translations of psalms from the Vulgate, and two plays — “The English Princess,” a tra- gedy ; and “ Sir Solomon, or the Cautious Coxcomb,” a comedy. Died, 1717. CARYL, JOSEPH, an eminent Noncon- formist divine; author of a voluminous “.Commentary on Job.” Died, 1673. CASA, Giovanni de la, secretary of state under Pope Paul IV. He was distinguished as a statesman, and as an ecclesiastic ; but his fame rests upon his writings, which are considered among the purest specimens of Tuscan composition. His poems, both light and serious, are of a very high order, but his chief work*is a prose dialogue, “ Galateo, or the Art of Living in the World.” Born, 1503; died, 1556. CASAN ATI,' Girolamo, Cardinal, libra- rian of the Vatican, M'as born at Naples in 1620. He was chamberlain to Pope Inno- cent X., Avas created cardinal by Clement X., and became librarian of the Vatican under Innocent XII. in 1693. He was founder of the library Avhich bears his name. Died, 1700. CASANOVA, MARCO ANTONIO, a modern Latin poet. He imitated Martial in his style, and made Giulio de Medici, aftei’Avards Pope Clement VII., a favourite object of his attack. He at length offended so greatly that he was compelled to quit Rome. Cle- ment, however, Avas induced to pardon him. But the unlucky satirist escaped execution only to perish still more miserably ; for, on the taking of Rome by the Imperialists, he was reduced to the necessity of begging his bread, and at length died of the plague, which followed the sack of Rome, in 1527. CASANOVA DE SEINGALT, JEAN JACQUES, whose career of adventure and in- trigue in almost all the countries of Europe has gained for him the name of the Gil Bias of the 18th century, was born at Venice, 1725. It would be impossible Avithin our limits to give even an outline of his remarkable career; suffice it to say, that he figured as priest, soldier, and statesman, successively ; found means to gain the favour of some of the greatest potentates of Europe, among others of Frederick the Great and Catharine II. ; and after roaming from place to place (for his intriguing spirit frequently led to a forced change of quarters) he ended his long life of mingled charlatanry, profligacy, and ability at Vienna, 1803. His love of litera- ture and science, and his proficiency in them, brought him acquainted with Voltaire and other literati of the day ; and besides other Avorks, he left copious memoirs of his life and times. CASANOVA, Francis, brother of the preceding, an eminent painter, chiefly of landscapes and battle-pieces. He Avas em- ployed by Catharine II., of Russia, to paint the victories of her armies over the Turks. Born in London, 1727 ; died, 1805. CASANOVA, JEAN Baptiste, another brother of the adventurer, Avas born in Lon- don, 1730. He was a pupil of Mengs, and closely connected with Winckelmann in his antiquarian researches. It is well known that, by way of testing the sagacity of the German antiquary, he sent him tAvo pictures, Avhich he had .himself painted in the style of those a short time previously found at Herculaneum, declaring them to be ancient discoveries ; and that Winckelmann was so taken in as to insert engravings of them in the first edition of his “ History of Ancient Art,” with an elaborate commentary upon their merits. Casanova Avas professor of painting in the Dresden Academy ; and his Avorks on ancient art are still cited by the Germans as authorities. Died, 1798. CASAS, BARTOLOMEO DE LAS, a Spanish prelate, distinguished for his generous and constant, though unavailing, exertions in favour of the natives of South America. He Avas bom in 1474, and in his 19th year ac- companied his father, who sailed with Co- lumbus, to the West Indies. On his return to Spain he embraced the ecclesiastical pro- fession, in order that he might act as a mis- sionary in the western hemisphere, “ there to spend his days in preaching the gospel to the Indians, and humanity to their oppress- ors.” Never did man more zealously en- deavotir to effect a great and good object. Twelve times he crossed the ocean, to plead at the foot of the Spanish throne the cause of the wretched Indians, and passed fifty years of his life in attempting, though with little effect, their amelioration. He Avas made bishop of Chiapa in 1544, but he re- signed his see in 1551, returned to his native country, and died at Madrid, 1566, in the 92nd year of his age. Of the writings of Las Casas, the most valuable is his “ General History of the Indies.” CASAUBON, ISAAC, theologian and phi- lologist, a native of Geneva, distinguish- ed by his great erudition and critical abili- ty. For several years he held the Greek professorship at Lausanne, and afterwards at Montpellier ; but on the invitation of Henry IV., he removed to Paris. There he was made professor of the belles lettres, and afterwards royal librarian, and had a pen- sion, not very punctually paid, assigned him by Henry IV. ; at whose death Casaubon came to England, and James I. gave him tAVO prebends. In return, hoAvever, the pedantic king required the aid of the great critic in writing against the Roman Catho- lics. Casaubon’s editions of classic authors 170 cAs] % Stniljcrsal 13iogrnp!)t). [cas are very numerous, and display immense in- dustry and erudition, liorn, 1551); died, 1614. CASATJEON', Meuic, D.D., son of the above. He was born at Geneva, came with his father to England, and was educated at Oxford, where he obtained the degree of M.A. His “ Pietas contra Maledicos,” writ- ten against the Catholics and in vindication of his father, introduced him to the notice of icing Charles I., by whom he was present- ed to some valuable church preferments. During the commonwealth he "was perse- cuted and imprisoned, but remained un- shaken in fidelity. At the restoration he recovered his livings. Among his writings is a treatise concerning Credulity and In- credulity. Died, 1671. CASIMIE III., the Great, king of Poland, born in 1309, was son of Vladislas Loketek, and distinguished himself early in the w ars carried on, especially with the Teutonic knights, by his father. He was elected to the throne in 1333. His chief military ex- ploits were the conquest of Silesia, made after he had ceded it to the king of Eohemia ; two victories over the latter ; a great vic- tory over the Tatars on the Vistula ; and the conquest of part of Lithuania. He gave a code of laws to Poland, w'hich limited the royal authority, and also secured the pea- sants against the oppression of the nobles. He promoted learning and founded the uni- versity of Cracow. Casimir had many noble qualities, and was beloved by his sub- jects. His great failing wms excessive sen- suality. He was thrice married, and had many mistresses, a beautiful Jew'ess being among the latter ; for w'hose sake he gave many privileges to the Jew's. Died, 1370. He Avas the last king of the Piast dynasty. CASLON, William, an English letter- founder, to whom Ave are indebted for much of the superiority of our printing type. Born, 1692 ; died, 1766. CASSANDER, king of Macedonia, Avas the son of Antipater, on Avhose death, in B. c. 319, he Avas excluded from the success- ion by the appointment of Polysperchon. Assisted by Antigonus,he made himself mas- ter of Athens, and soon after most of the Greek cities submitted to him. He invaded Macedonia, and besieged the queen-mother Olympias in Pydna, and had her put to death. His ambition was unchecked by any I scruples ; and by marriage-alliance, by wars, i and by murders of rival claimants, he se- cured himself on the throne of Macedonia. He took the title of king at the same time AA'ith the other generals and successors of Alexander, B. C. 306. Died, 296. CASSIANUS, JOANNES, a monk of the 4th and 5th centuries, distinguished as the founder or one of the chief promoters of Semi-Pelagianism in Gaul. His youth Avas spent in monasteries of the East, Avhence he passed to Constantinople, and became the pupil of Chrysostom, for Avhom he CA'er re- tained the profoundest love. He w'as sent on a mission to Rome about A. D. 404, and aftei’Avards settled at Marseilles, Avhere he founded tAvo monasteries, one for each sex, and introduced the most austere discipline. He wrote the Monastic Institutes, and showed himself in that work th, opponent of the extreme views of Augustine. He is said to have lived to a great age, and died A. D. 448. CASSINI, J'EAN Dominique, an eminent astronomer, Avas born at Perinaldo, near Nice, and studied at Genoa w'ith the Jesuits. His fame reaching France, he w^as invited to pay a visit to that country, where the kind- ness shown to him by Louis XIV., and his great minister, Colbert, caused him to re- main for the rest of his life. He Avas the first director of the royal observatory at Paris, and he continued to fill that office for upwards of 40 years. During that time his services to seience Avere such as to do high honour to himself, as Avell as to the monarch by Avhom he was patronized. He demon- strated the diurnal motion of Jupiter on his axis, ascertained the periods of rotation of Jupiter, Mars, and Venus, and discovered four satellites of Saturn, in addition to that Avhich Huygens had discovered. Cassini Avas the first to investigate the zodiacal light, and determine its relations in space. He died in 1712, having previously been for some years deprived of sight. CASSINI, JACQUES, son of the preceding, and, like him, an eminent astronomer ; au- thor of “A Treatise on the Figure and Magnitude of the Earth,” “ The Elements of Astronomy,” &c. Born at Paris, 1677 ; died, 1756. CASSINI DE THURY, CESAR FRANCOIS, son of the last named, and his successor in the royal observatory. Like his father and grandfather, he did much to advance science ; and, having better instruments than theirs, he Avas enabled to improve upon their labours. Born, 1714 ; died, 1784. The last member of this illustrious family, JEAN DOMINIQUE, Avhose name is also associated Avith theirs in the pursuit of science, died in 1845. CASSIODORUS, Magnus Aurelius, a Roman statesman and historian. He w\as born in south Italy, about 468, of a noble family, and held some of the highest offices of state, including that of consul. He Avas in fact first minister to Theodoric the Great and his successors in the Ostrogothie king- dom. He founded a monastery at Viviers, and when 70 years of age he retired to it, and there lived thirty years. His writings are valuable, especially his twelve books of epistles, or rather state papers, on account of the light they throw upon the manners of his time; but his style .is condemned by Gibbon as being quaint and declamatory. Died about 570. CASSI US LONGINUS, CAIUS, a Roman of the last age of the republic, and the asso- ciate of Brutus in the assassination of J ulius Caesar. He first distinguished himself in the expedition of Crassus against the Par- thians, in the year B. C. 53. In the civil Avar he first joined the party of Porapey, but after the battle of Pharsalia he went over to Caesar, without hoAvevor ceasing to dread his ambition and supremacy. It Avas Cassius Avho devised the plot against the dictator, and induced Brutus to join in it. That his patriotism Avas sincere may be in- ferred from his reply to Antony, W'ho, on the 171 day after the assassination of Caesar, taunt- ingly asked him if he had anotlier dagger, “Yes,” was the reply, “if you become a tyrant.” Cassius tried to get possession of Syria, but failed, and then joined Krutus in Greece. At the battle of Philippi he com- manded the left wing, and on its repulse he retired to a tent with his freedman, whom he ordered to kill him. Brutus, in lament- ing him, called him “ ultimus liomanorum.” Died, B. C. 42. CASSIUS, SpuriuS, a celebrated Roman, who was thrice chosen consul, in B. c. 502, 493, and 486. He rendered great services to the republic both as general and statesman. In his first consulship he conquered the Sa- bines, and took Pometia ; in his second he concluded a league with the Latins on very advantageous terms, which lasted for a hundred years, and was only broken by the irruption of the Gauls; and in his third made a league with the Hernici. His most memorable achievement, however, was the carrying of the first agrarian law at Rome, for the division of part of the public lands among the plebeians. The hatred of the patricians expressed itself in his impeach- ment the following year, and he was put to death on the charge of aiming at sovereign power. CASSIVELLAUNUS, a British prince, who, in B. C. 54, was appointed commander- in-chief of the Britons, and unsuccessfully disputed with Julius Caesar the passage of the Thames. His capital, now St Albans,, was taken by Caesar, and he was soon after defeated”, and surrendered to the con- queror. CASTAGNO, Andrea del, a celebrated Italian painter, Avas born in Tuscany in 1390. He Avas early left an orphan, and was employed as shepherd-boy by a cousin, but his talent for draAving procured him the pa- tronage of Bernardetto de’ Medici, who had him apprenticed. It is not knoAvn Avho Avas his master. He distinguished himself by a daring realism and energy which often be- comes coarseness. Among his works Avere two Crucifixions ; a series of frescos of heroes and sibyls at Legnaia ; frescos in the hospital and church of Santa Maria Nuova at Plorence ; and a fine equestrian portrait of Niccolo di Tolentino He Avas a man of violent temper, and has for centuries lain under the charge of having murdered a rival, Domenico Veneziano. Of this crime he is noAV cleared, and is shoAvn to have died in 1457, four years before the death of Domenico. CASTALION, Sebastian, one of the earliest friends and fellow-labourers of Cal- vin, born 1515. He became teacher of Latin at Geneva. Unfortunately for Castalion’s Avorldly condition, he differed from the great reformer on some theological ques- tions. He Avas in consequence deprived of his office of teacher, and repaired to Basel, Avhere he was named professor of Greek, and also occupied himself Avith preparing liatin and French versions of the Bible. Calvin, unmoved by the indigence to Avhich he had reduced his conscientious and candid opponent, used all his influence to degrade him and thwart his exertions. He had even the meanness to bring against him a ridi- culous accusation of theft. Died, 1563. CASTANOS, Francisco Saverio, a Spanish general, Avas born about 1756. He entered the army at an early age, and spent some time at Bexdin, to study the art of Avar under one of its greatest masters, Fi’ederick the Great. General Castanos is chitfly cele- brated for the victory he obtained OA’^er the French under Dupont at Baylen in 1808 ; Avhich was folloAved by the expulsion of Joseph Buonaparte, and the temporary re- storation of Ferdinand V'll. The brave Swiss leader, Aloys Reding, contributed to this victory. Castanos took part in many of the great battles of the peninsular Avar, but did not greatly distinguish himself. He was created duke of Baylen, and died at the age of 96, in 1852. CASTELL, Edmund, an English divine and lexicographer, was a native of Hatley, Cambridgeshire. He spent a handsome for- tune and occupied 17 years in the composi- tion of his “Lexicon Heptaglotton,” a dic- tionary in seven languages ; but nearly all the copies remained unsold, and but for some preferment in the church, and the Arabic professorship at Cambridge, his zeal, learn- ing, and diligence would have been unre- Avarded. Born, 1606 ; died, 1685. CASTELLANUS. [DUCHATEL.] CASTELNAU, JACQUES DE, Marquis of Castelnau, marshal of France, was son of Michel de Casteluna, and was born about 1620. He entered the army, and early dis- tinguished himself in Holland. He con- tributed to the defeat of the Imperialists at Nordlingen in 1645, had tAvo horses killed under him, and received several Avounds. He served at many sieges, and Avas fre- quently wounded ; commanded in Flanders, in the absence of Turenne, in 1656, and took part in the sieges of Valenciennes and Dun- kirk; contributed to the victory over the Spaniards at the battle of the Dunes ; AA^as created marshal of France in June, 1658; and Avas killed by a musket-shot at Dunkirk about a month later. CASTELNAU, MICHEL DE, Lord of Man- vissi^re, an eminent French statesman and soldier in the reigns of Charles IX. and Henry III. He Avas five times in England in the character of ambassador. AVhile thus resident here he acted with great kindness towards Mary, queen of Scots. He left memoirs of his negotiations, of Avhich there is an English translation by his daughter. Died, 1592. CASTI, Giambattista, an Italian poet and miscellaneous writer, Avas born in 1721. He travelled much, and lived successively at Vienna, St Petersburg, Florence, and Paris. He succeeded Metastasio as court- poet at Vienna. His most admired poem is entitled “ GliAnimali parlante,” an allegory and ingenious satire on courts and society. Some of his other works are noted for their indecenev. Died at Paris, 1804. CASTIGLIONE, Baldassare, an Italian statesman and Avriter, a native of the duchy of Mantua. Having attached himself to the court of Urbino, he Avas sent by the duke ambassador to Henry VIII., Avho made him a knight of the Garter. He was afterAvards cAs] ^ i^efio ^nibersal'^^iograp]^^, [cat .'xmbassador to Leo X., Avho offered him a cardinal’s hat, and to Clement YII., who charged him Avith an embassy to the em- peror, Charles V., oiiAvhich occasion he dis- played great talent and dexterity. After the sack of Rome by the Constable Bourbon in 1527, Castiglione lived in Spain till his death. His poems, both Latin and Italian, are much admired, as are his letters, which throw much light on the affairs of his time. But his chief work is “ II Cortegiano,” the Courtier. This work is a elassic in Italy, has been frequently republished, and is so much admired by the Italians, that they call it “ The Golden Book.” Born, 1478 ; died, 1529. CASTIGLIONE, GIOVANNI BENEDETTO, a Genoese painter, born, 1616. He is sur- named IL Grechetto. He excelled in landscapes and animals, but his picture of “The Nativity” shows that he had power in the highest walk of art. He was also an i admirable engraver. Died, 1670. CASTILLO, Bernal diaz del, a Spanish officer of the 16th century, one of the com- panions of Eernando Cortez in his expedi- tion to South America. He wrote a work, rough in style, hut full of vahiable inform- ation, entitled “ Historia Verdadera de la Conquista de Nueva Espagna.” Died in Mexico, about 1560. CASTLEREAGH, Lord. [LONDON- DERRY, Marquis of.] CASTRACANI, CASTRUCCIO, an Italian general of great skill and courage- He came to England about 1303, and served in the army of Edward I. He next served in France, and after ten years’ absence returned to Italy. He belonged to the Ghibelline party, and in 1316 was chosen head of the republic of Lucca. He rendered great service to the emperor, Louis V. of Bavaria, who rewarded him with the title of duke of Lucca. He was excommunicated by the pope, and died soon after the siege of Pis- toia, Avhich he took from the Florentines. His name is among the minor Italian poets. Born, 1283 ; died, 1328. CASTREN, Matthias Alexander, an eminent Finnish philologist, was born in 1813. He was educated at the university of Helsingfors, and became an enthusiastic student of the language of his native coun- try. In 1838 he visited Lapland ; travelled afterwards in Russian Curelia; and in 1845 was sent to Russian Lapland, and the coun- try of the Samoyedes. All these journeys were made for the purpose of acquainting himself with the native languages and legends. He was named professor of the Finnish and ancient northern languages at Helsingfors in 1851. Castren published a Swedish translation of the old Finnish poem “Kalevala,” an account of his travels, and several philological works. His lectures appeared after his death. Died, 1852. CATALANI, Angelica, one of the most celebrated singers of modern times, was born at Sinigaglia, in the papal states, 1782, Her early years Avere spent in the convent of Gubio ; and so perfect were her vocal organs even in her infancy, that the sanctity of the church itself Avas violated by the applause Avhich her choral performances called forth. Soon after quitting the convent, she made her d^but in the theatre Argentum at Rome, in 1802 ; and the immense success Avhich she achieved on this stage, procured her imme- diate engagements in all the theatres of Italy. At Lisbon, Madrid, and Paris neAv triumphs awaited her; but even these were far outshone, in 1806, by the enthusiasm of her reception in England, Avhere she remained eight years, delighting the metropolis at the Italian Opera and reaping large harvests both of fame and Avealth in her provincial tours. After the restoration of the Bourbons, she returned to Paris, where she undertook the management of the Opera BufFa ; but this speculation Avas unfortunate, and Madame Catalani, to repair her shattered fortunes, made a professional tour through all the capitals of Continental Europe, and at length returned to England in 1822, Avhen the en- thusiasm of her reception suffered no abate- ment. Here she remained three years. In 1825 she again A'isited Paris, and after once more going the round of Europe, she retired to Italy in 1830, Avhen she purchased a villa near Florence, and spent the remainder of her life in the bosom of her family. She had been long married to a French captain, named Valabregue. To an agreeable person and a lively style of acting, Madame Cata- lani added a voice of extraordinary bril- liancy and power ; and in this lay its chief merit, for we do not find that she possessed the faculty of calling forth the tenderest and deepest emotions of our nature. Died of cholera, at Paris, 1849. CATESBY, MARK, an eminent English naturalist, patronized by Sir Hans Sloane and other wealthy lovers of science. He spent many years in America, for the pur- pose of collecting and describing the most curious natural productions of that country. He fixed his residence in Carolina, AA’hence he made excursions into Florida, Georgia, and the Bahama Islands. The result of his labours was “The Natural History of Caro- lina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands;” a A’’ery splendid work in tAvo folio A'olumes, illustrated by upwards of 200 plates. Born, 1680; died, 1749. CATHARINE, ST, of Sienna, was born at Sienna in 1347, and when she Avas twenty years of age became a sister of the order of St Dominic. Having considerable ability and a very lively imagination, she became celebrated as a seer of visions. So great an infiuence did her pretended visions and revelations obtain her, that she was able to prevail on Gregory XI. to be recon- ciled to the Florentines, and to remove the papal seat to Rome from Avignon, after it had for 70 years been fixed at the latter place. She Avrote various ascetic treatises, and some devotional letters and poems. She died in 1380, ahd was canonized by Pope Pius II. in 1461. CATHARINE OF FRANCE, daughter of Charles VI. of France, and the wife of Henry V. of England, who, on his marriage to her, was declared successor to the French crown. Their son, after AVards Henry VI., was croAvn- ed in both countries while still an infant. Being loft a widoAv, she privately espoused Owen Tudor, a AVelsh gentleman, by Avhom 173 cat] ^ IDiograpf)!). [cat she had two sons, the elder of whom, Ed- mund, earl of Ilichmond, was father of Henry VII. Born, 1401; died, 1438. CATHARINE OF ARAGON, daughter t of Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile, was born in 1483. In [her 18th year she was married to Arthur, prince of Wales, eldest son of Henry VII. The young prince dying in a few months after his marriage, Henry’s mercenary dread of losing the rich dowry of Catharine, induced him to marry her to her brother-in-law, afterwards Henry VIII. The vast religious changes to which this mar- riage gave occasion belong rather to history than to biography. Suffice it, therefore, to say, that after years of anxiety and spirited resistance, she was divorced. But though she was no longer called queen at court, her attendants at Kimbollon Castle, where she took up her residence, were never allowed to address her otherwise than as a queen, as she protested to the last that the divorce was unjust and illegal. Just before her death she wrote so pathetic a letter to Henry in favour of Mary, their daughter, that, stern as the tyrant was, he is said to have shed tears as he perused it. She possessed con- siderable literary ability, but some devo- tional pieces, which are sometimes attri- buted to her pen, were in fact the production of Q,ueen Catharine Parr. Died, 1536. CATHARINE PARR, eldest daughter of Sir Thomas Parr, of Kendal, in Westmore- land. She was married early in life to Ed- ward ..Burghe ; and, surviving him, she was next married to John Neville, Lord Latimer. Her second husband, too, she survived ; and, in 1543, was raised to the throne by King Henry VIII., being his sixth and last wife. If we feel surprise at her venturing to share a throne which had been so fatal to most of those pre- viously raised to it, we cannot deny that she conducted herself with admirable tact and judgment. One pi’oof of this will suffice. Her attachment to the reformed religion gave deep offence to the still powerful popish faction. Gardiner, Wriothesley, and others, determined to remove her if possible from court. Taking advantage of the state of irritability to which continual pain had brought the king, they accused her to him of heresy and treason, and so far wrought upon him, that he signed a warrant for her committal to the Tower. Being informed of this fact, she repaired at once to the king’s presence. Henry turned the conversation upon theological topics, and endeavoured to draw her into argument. But she replied with so much tact and good sense that she did away at once with the king’s suspicions and anger; and when Wriothesley, attended by some guards, called to convey her to the Tower, he found her in high favour, and in- stead of making her a prisoner, was sent from the presence of the king with knave, fool, beast, and the like gentle terms. Catharine retained her ascendancy over the king, and at his death he left her £4000 in addition to her jointure, “for her great love, obedience, chasteness of life, and wisdom.” She after- wards married Sir Thomas Seymour, tincle of Edward VI., but they lived by no means happily together ; and when she died, though in childbed, it was currently reported that she was poisoned. She was attached to the cause of the reformation; and her letters, some of which have been printed, as well as some devotional treatises, show that she had considerable literary talent. Died, 1548. CATHARINE DE MEDICI, the wife of Henry II., king of France, was the daughter of Lorenzo de Medici, duke of Drbino, and was born in 1519. In 1.533, being then only in her 14th year, she was married to Henry, duke of Orleans, son and successor to Francis I. of France. Her beauty and accomplish- ments made her the ornament of the French court ; and, young as she was, she had de- ceit and cunning enough to make herself acceptable to all parties. For ten years she brought her husband no children, but she subsequently had seven, of whom three suc- cessively were kings of France. With pro- found policy she secured the affection and confidence of her children, and she design- edly trained her sons in effeminacy and li- centious living, reserving thus to herself that influence which she desired to exercise over their maturer age. On the death of her husband, and the accession of Francis II. , the Guises had the chief political power • ‘ and it is probable that it was in order to avoid collision with them that she joined in their persecution of the Huguenots. But the reign of Francis was very brief; and when Charles IX., then only in his 11th year, succeeded him, Catharine had all the authority of regent, though not the title. The death of the duke of Guise still further increased her power, and she joined heart and soul with the Catholics in persecuting the Huguenots. To characterize her political conduct at this time, we need only name the horrible massacre of St Bartholomew, an atrocity which just and humane men of every creed, country, and age join in reprobating. That Charles IX. Avas urged to it by the persuasions of Catharine most historians admit ; and in less than two years after the massacre he died, worn out in mind and body by the stings of re- morse. At the death of Charles, Catharine was declared regent until the arrival of her son Henry from Poland. During her re- gency she governed rigorously but saga- ciously, and delivered up the kingdom to Henry III. on his arrival, in such order as with only common prudence and firmness would have insured him a peaceable reign. But the new king’s weakness soon relaxed the bands which his mother had so firmly drawn around faction, and civil disturb- ances ensued, by which Catharine’s later years Avere much embittei’ed. Admitted by all to be a sagacious, crafty, and courageous woman, but detested by every party in the state, she died, aged 70, in 1589. CATHARINE OF BRAGANZA, daughter of John IV. of Portugal, and queen of Charles II. of England, whom she married in 1661. The dissolute conduct of her hus- band, and the shameful openness of his illicit amours, gave her much pain. But though neglected by him, she steadily preserved her own honour, and his so far as it depended on her. After his death she returned to Por- tugal, and when, in 1704, her brother, Don 174 cat] % ^nttjfrsal IBiograpI;^. [cat Pedro, was compelled by his increasing in- firmities to retire, she was made regent. She held this office but for a brief space ; but her conduct, both as regards her internal measures and the war with Spain, showed considerable political ability. She died, in the 67th year of her age, 1705. CATHARINE I., empress of Russia, was the illegitimate daughter of a Livonian pea- sant. After some years spent in the service of a clergyman, she married a Swedish dra- goon, who shortly afterwards went on an expedition and never returned. She then lived as servant, or paramour, with the Rus- sian general, Bauer, when Prince Menzikoff became enamoured of her charms, and made her his mistress. Peter 1. now distinguished her by his notice, and she became at first his mistress and afterwards his wife. During his lifetime she showed great , devotion to him, and at his death she was proclaimed his successor. But her reign was short ; for her indulgence in intoxicating liquors pro- duced a disease of which she died in 1727, at the age of 38. CATHARINE II., empress of Russia, was the daughter of the prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, she was born in 1729, and in 1745 became the wife of the duke of Holstein- Go ttorp, after- wards the Emperor Peter III. This prince was addicted to low society and to the most scandalous excesses ; and Catharine, even in her youth, was by no means remarkable for chastity. AVith the usual inconsistency, each reproached the other ; Catharine, stung by her husband’s brutality, became still more openly indecorous in her conduct, and Peter indulged in low pleasures without restraint. He at length became so infatuated by his dis- gust for Catharine and his passion for one of his mistresses, the Countess AVoronzoff, that he determined to divorce and imprison the former, and make the latter his empress. Informed of his designs, Catharine promptly exerted herself, caused her husband to be seized, and sent him as a prisoner to a small palace about 20 miles from St Petersburg, where Prince Alexis Orlotf put him to death, with the connivance, if not at the positive command, of the empress. This occurred in July, 1762, and in the next month Ca- tharine was solemnly crowned empress of all the Russias. Ill as her power was ob- tained, she used it, with some very grave ex- ceptions, wisely and well. She trod firmly in the footsteps of Peter the Great, aiming at once to enrich and civilize her dominions. Schools and towns were founded, public works of equal magnificence and utility were commenced and finished, and the horrible tortures which had been inflicted on Rus- sian criminals were almost totally abolished. But her disgusting amours in the mean time disgraced her as a woman, and her tyrannous conduct towards Poland, the three partitions of which took place in her reign, is a foul blot upon her escutcheon as a sovereign. Amid all the distractions of business and dis- sipation she found time to encourage litera- ture. Indeed, she was herself the author of instructions for a code of laws, which she also translated into German ; and she wrote some dramatic pieces, and some moral tales for the use of children ! Died, aged 67, 1796. CATHCART, Lieutenant-general the Hon- ourable Sir George, K.C.B.,a distinguished soldier, a younger son of Earl Cathcart, was born in London in 1794, and was educated at Eton and Edinburgh University. In ISlOhe commenced his military career in the 2nd Life Guards; in 1812 he accompanied his father as aide-de-camp to St Petersburg, and the following year, having exchanged into the 6th Dragoons, he joined the Imperial head-quarters in Germany, and was present at the battles of Lutzen, Bautzen, Dres- den, Culm, and Leipzic, and subsequently Brienne and numerous other engagements, and finally at the taking of Paris. Having accompanied his father to the congress of Vienna in 1814, he was appointed extra aide-de-camp to the duke of AVellington, was present at Quatre Bras and AVaterloo, and subsequently accompanied the duke to the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle and Verona in the same capacity, meanwhile doing re- gimental duty with the 7th Hussars, which he had entered in 1819. In 1828 he was appointed lieutenant-colonel of the 57th Foot, and served in Nova Scotia, Bermuda, and Jamaica till 1834, when he retired on half-pay. In 1837, an outbreak having taken place in Canada, he emerged from his retire- ment, and being placed in command of the ti’oops called out on that occasion, was greatly instrumental in restoring tranquil- iity to the country, both as a soldier and a civilian. In 1844 he returned to England, and again retired on half- pay ; but in 1852, at a crisis of great difficulty, he was ap- pointed governor of the Cape of Good Hope, whither he at once proceeded, and where he brought the protracted Kaffir war to a speedy and honourable conclusion. On his return to England in 1854, he again sought the tented field, being appointed to the command of the 4th Division of the British army, serv- ing in the Crimea, and fell in the memorable battle of Inkermann, November 5, personally animating by his example the soldiers whom he led in their career of noble daring. His “ Commentaries” on the campaign of 1813-14 (published in 1850), showed that he was en- dowed with a practical knowledge of his pro- fession as rare as it valuable: — and among the various heavy losses which the British army has sustained in the war with Russia, none was more severely felt by the nation than the loss of General Cathcart. CATILINE. LUCIUS SERGIUS CATILINA, a Roman, of a noble family and great ta- lents, but of most depraved habits and evil ambition. He was high in favour with Sulla, and succeeded, notwithstanding the foul crimes of which he was commonly ac- cused, in attaining to the quaestorship and other offices of honour and profit. After be- ing tried for oppression in his province of Africa, and being disappointed in his hope of the consulship, Catiline conspired, with other dissolute nobles and their followers, to murder the consuls, but the plot failed. He then formed a more audacious scheme, in which he obtained the co-operation of impoverished and ambitious nobles, greedy restless soldiers, and the whole vulgar mob. It was to upset the government and possess himself of supreme power. Fortunately for : -— _ cat] ;®eiD ^nitjcrsal 3i3togvapT)p. [cav Rome, Cicero AA-as one of the consuls ; and he, on being made aware of Catiline’s de- signs, assailed him in the first of those fam- ous orations which alone would suflSce to give him the first rank among orators, an- cient or modern. Catiline quailed before the indignant eloquence of the consul. He left Rome and went to the camp of Manlius, his confederates in the mean time endea- vouring to corrupt the ambassadors of the Allobroges. In this they were defeated by the vigilance and promptitude of Cicero ; and Catiline being stopped in his march by the proconsul, Q. Metellus Celer, and at the same time attacked by Antonius, who was sent after him, an engagement ensued, in which Catiline, at the head of his associates, fighting with the most desperate courage, was slain, B. C. 62. CAT I NAT, Nicolas, 'an illustrious French general, as eminent for his virtues as for his military talents. He was educated for the law, but abandoned the bar for the army, and rose to the highest military hon- ours by his skill and courage. He defeated the duke of Savoy very signally in 1688, and in 1697 he took the fortress of Ath, in Flan- ders, after experiencing a desperate resist- ance. In 1701 he was appointed to the chief command of the army in Italy ; but either his skill was inferior to that of Prince Eu- gene, to whom he was opposed, or age had somewhat weakened his high qualities, for he was decidedly worsted and compelled to retreat. Died, 1712. CATO, Marcus Porcius, surnamed the Censor, an illustidous Roman. He was born at Tusculum, and at the early age of 17 he commenced his career as a soldier, and dis- tinguished himself equally by his courage and by his temperance. After some years passed in rural retirement, he was made military tribune in Sicily, and then quaestor in Africa, ixnder Scipio. In 195 he served as praetor in Sardinia. In these situations his conduct was marked by a I'igid and honour- able economy of the public money ; and, in his 40th year, he arrived at the high dignity of the consulship. He obtained important military successes in Spain and Greece, and in 184 had the office of censor. He strongly opposed the luxury of the Romans, and in- cessantly endeavoured to animate their hatred of the Carthaginians, by speeches in the senate, usually concluding with “ De- lenda est Carthago “ Carthage must fall.” He composed many works ; but the treatise “ De Re Rustica,” and some fragments of Roman history, are all that we know of his writings. He was twice married, and had a son by each of his wives. Born, B. C. 234 ; died, 149. CATO, MARCUS PORCIUS, surnamed, from his bii'thplace, “ Uticensis,”. was great- grandson of the last named. Being early left an orphan, he was taken into the family of his uncle, Livius Drusus. He served for some time in the ai’iny, and obtained the commission of tribune of the soldiers in the army sent against Macedonia. He then be- came qusestor, and exerted himself for the reformation of abuses. His conduct in this respect, and the unvarying gravity of his demeanour, rendered him almost proverbial for integrity ; and Cicero, to whose consular exertions he gave his support, called him “ the father of his country.” Perceiving the designs of Caesar, he had the honesty and courage to oppose him ; and considering Caesar more dangerous than Pompey, he ranged himself under the banners of the latter. The fatal battle of Pharsalia com- pelled him to fly to. his native Utica; and when Caesar arrived before that place, Cato calmly retired to his chamber, read Plato’s Pheedo, the Dialogue on the Immortality of the Soul, and ended his life by falling upon his sword, B. C. 46. CATS, Jacob, an eminent Dutch poet and statesman, was born in Zealand in 1577. He studied law at Leyden and Orleans, and after some years of retirement, settled at the Hague. He was twice sent ambassador to England, and in 1636 was appointed grand pensionary of Holland, an office which he filled about fifteen years. He spent the rest of his life in retirement and literary labours. His “ Emblems,” “ Country Life,” and other poems, are chiefly didactic, and are charac- terized by singular simplicity, facility, and good-humour. They had a very great popu- larity, and the general admiration of the author is shown in the term “ Father Cats,” still applied to him. Died, 1660. CATULLUS, Caius VALERIUS, a Roman poet, was born at or near Verona, B. c. 87. He was a man of wealth and pleasure, and the friend of Cicero, Cinna, and other emin- ent men. His poems are in various styles, lyric, ode, elegy, and epic ; some imitated from the Greek ; most of them characterized by ease and simplicity of style, genuine play- fulness, and as genuine pathos. Some of them are spoiled by indecency. Died pro- bably B. c. 47. There are several English translations of Catullus. CAULAINCOURT, ARMAND AuGUSTIN Louis de, duke of Vicenza, a descendant of a noble and ancient family of Picai’dy. In the early days of the French revolution he was imprisoned as a suspected royalist, but was liberated on entering the republican army. There he rose from rank to rank unfil he be- came aide-de-camp to Buonaparte, Avhom he attended in the campaigns of 1805-6-7. Sub- sequently he was employed in confidential missions, and in the post of foreign minister. After the restoration he lived in retirement. Born, 1773; died, 1827. CAVAIGNAC, LOUIS-EUGENE, a distin- guished French general, was born at Paris in 1802. His father was a member of the Con- vention, and his brother G defroy was one of the most popular members of the republican party in the reign of Louis Philippe. Des- tined for the army at an early age, he made his preliminary studies at the college of St ( Basile, entered the Polytechnic School in 1820, and in due time was made lieutenant of engineer's. He went through the cam- paign of the Morea in 1828, as captain ; and on the breaking out of the French revolution of 1830, he was the first officer of his regi- ment to declare for the irew r6gime ; but the year following he was placed on half-pay for signing the project of the national associa- tion, and soon afterwards, on being restored to the army, was sent, as to an honourable cAv] iScto ^nibersal ^lograplji?. [cav banishment, "with his regiment to Algeria. Here, under Marshal Clausel, he gave in- numerable proofs of great courage and boundless resources on occasions of peril ; and his name became associated with those of Lamoriciere, Changarnier, Eugeaud, and other distinguished soldiers of the French array in Algiers. For his gallant conduct during the siege of Cherchell, in 1840, he was made lieut.-colonel ; in 1844 he gained great distinction at Isly under Marshal Eu- geaud, and for his large share in the battles and perils that ensued on the enterprises of Abd-el-Kader, was rewarded by being pro- moted to the rank of general and governor of the province of Oran. AVhen the revolu- tion of Feb. 1848 broke out. General Cavaig- nac Avas appointed governor-general of Al- geria ; but on being elected a member of the Constituent Assembly he returned to Paris, and was appointed minister at war by the members of the executive commission. Eut from time to time misunderstandings sprang up between the executive and the minister at Avar, which increased in intensity on the approach of the fatal days of June. On the outbi’eak of the 22nd, General Cavaignac did not regard it as a mere insurrection, but as the commencement of a civil war, and took decisive measures to suppress it. In the general terror which prevailed, the executive commission resigned their functions, Paris was declared in a state of siege ; the National Assembly appointed Cavaignac dictator with unlimited poAvers ; and after a terrific strug- gle, during which he displayed all the high- est qualities both of a soldier and a patriot, society Avas saved, to use a familiar expres- sion, though at a cost of life and bloodshed Avhich Paris had never witnessed even dur- ing the first revolution. As soon as he had pacified the capital, true to his republican principles, he laid down his dictatorship ; but the National Assembly, in acknowledgment of his services, nominated him president of the council, with power to select his OAvn ministry. In this office he displayed equal tact and moderation both as regards home and foreign politics. ToAvards the close of the year he became a candidate for the pre- sidency of the republic ; but he only mus- tered about one million and a half of votes, while his opponent, Louis Napoleon Euona- parte, received nearly six millions, and on the 20th of December he resigned his high functions and took his place in the National Assembly among the moderate republicans. During the three years that followed, both by his votes and speeches, he maintained a firm adhesion to the republic ; hence when Louis Napoleon perpetrated his coup d’etat on Dec. 2,18.51, one of his precautions was to arrest General Cavaignac, together with the most distinguished members of the assembly, and transfer him to the fortress of Ham. On his liberation he was elected to the “ Corps Legislatif,” but he refused to take the oath to the neAV government. From that period he lived in retirement, till June, 1857, Avhen he was chosen one of the deputies for the Seine, in opposition to the Imperial can- didate ; but a fcAV weeks afterwards he died suddenly, regretted by all classes of the com- munity, and leaving behind him a name I second only to that of 'Washington for mo- deration and true patriotism, llied, 1857. CAVALCANTI, GuiBO, a Florentine phi- losopher and poet of the 13th century, Ava.« a friend of Dante, and, like him, an active Ghibelline. His poems, Avhich are chiefly amorous, are among the most elegant in style of that early age, and were thought Avorthy of illustration by voluminous com- mentaries. Died, 1300. CAVALIER, JEAN, leader of the Camis- ards in the time of Louis XIV., Avas the son of a French peasant, and Avas born in 1679. He became leader of the Camisards, or Pro- testants of Languedoc, Avhen they revolted against the tyranny of the king ; and, led by him, they forced Marshal Villars to make treaty with them. Cavalier then became a colonel .in the king’s service, but fearing some treachery, he transferred his skill and courage to England, and died governor of Jersey, in 1740. CAVALIERI, Eonaa^entuea, an Italian friar, Avho became a disciple of Galileo. He was professor of mathematics at Eologna,. and Avi'ote some treatises on geometry, conic sections, &c. Died, 1647. CAVALLINI, PIETRO, one of the earliest of the modern Roman painters. He Avas the contemporary of Giotto, Avhom he assisted in the famous mosaic in St Peter’s. His masterpiece is the fresco of the crucifixion at Assisi. Cavallini was also an architect, and it has been conjectured that he erected the shrine of Edward the Confessor in 'West- minster Abbey, Avhich bears the inscription “ Petrus Romanus Civis.” Died, 1344. CAVALLO,TiBERio,an ingenious natural philosopher, born at Naples in 1749, Avho, on coming to England for commercial objects, Avas .so struck with the recent discoveries in physical science, that he abandoned his pursuits, settled in London, and devoted his future life to the advancement of science. He was elected a felloAv of the Royal Society, and Avas author of many treatises on elec- tricity, aerostation, magnetism, &c., and contributed largely to the Philosophical Transactions. Died, 1809. CAVANILLES, AntoNIO JOSE, a Span- ish divine and botanist. After accompany- ing the duke of Infantado’s children into France as their preceptor, and remaining there 12 years, engaged in the study of vari- ous sciences, he was appointed director of the royal garden at Madrid, Avhere he died, in 1804. His principal work in botany is an account of the plants of Spain, both wild and cultivated, and is in 6 vols. folio, with 600 plates, designed and engraved by himself. CAVE, Edavard, an enterprising book- seller, Avas born at NeAvton, 'VVarwickshire, in 1691, and educated at Rugby School. Having been deprived of a clerkship in the post-office, he took a shop by St John’s Gate, Clerkenwell, and commenced, in 1731, the “ Gentleman’s Magazine.” The work was highly successful; and among the contribut- ors to it was the subsequently famous Dr Johnson, of Avhom Cave Avas one of the ear- liest friends and employers. Died, 1754. CAVE, Dr William, a learned English divine ; he was a native of Leicestershire, and Avas educated at Cambridge. He be- j N 177 oAv] ^ i^efco SJnibmal ^iograp!)^. ‘ [cav came chaplain to the king:, obtained the de- gree of D.D. both at Cambridge and Oxford, and in 1684 was made canon of AVindso'r. He was author of “ Primitive Christianity,” “.Antiquitates Apostolicae,” or Lives of the Apostles; “ Apostolici,” “ Ecclesiastic!,” — these two works containing the Lives of the Apostolic and later fathers of the Church, and several other works. Born, 1637 ; died, 1713. CAVEDONE, Giacomo, an eminent Ita- lian painter. He M^as a disciple of the Ca- racci ; and some of his works are said to be equal to those of his masters. He died in absolute destitution, in 1660. CAVENDISH, Thomas, an English navi- gator in the reign of Elizabeth, Avas a native of Suffolk, where he inherited a good estate ; but having injured his fortune by early ex- travagances, he fitted out three vessels to cruise against the Spaniards ; and sailing for the coast of South America, succeeded in taking several valuable prizes. After cir- cumnavigating the globe, he returned to England with a large fortune. This he soon dissipated, and again went to sea ; but meet- ing with no success, died of chagrin while off the coast of Brazil, in 1592. CAVENDISH, Sir WILLIAM, a native of Suffolk, was born in 1505. He obtained the office of usher to Cardinal Wolsey; and the fidelity he displayed on the fall of his patron endeared him to Henry VIII., who took him into his service, and knighted him. In the succeeding reigns he was equally favoured, and his son became earl of Devonshire. He wrote the Life of his early friend and patron. Cardinal Wolsey. Died, 1557. CAVENDISH, William, duke of New- castle, son of Sir Charles Cavendish, the youngest son of the last named. By James I. he was made a knight of the Bath, Baron Ogle, and ATscount Mansfield. Charles I. appointed him governor to the Prince of Wales, and made him earl of Newcastle. The earl proved himself worthy of the fa- vour shown to him ; for, when Charles I. i resolved on an expedition against the Scots, he contributed £10,000— a very large sum at that time — besides raising a troop of horse. During the civil war he behaved with great gallantry ; and when the royal cause became hopeless, he joined Charles II. in his exile. At the restoration, he was created duke of Newcastle. He was the author of several poems and plays, but is now chiefly re- membered as an author for his treatise on horsemanship. Born, 1592 ; died, 1676. CAVENDISH, William, first duke of Devonshire, was the son of William, third earl of Devonshire. He was born in 1640, and attended James, duke of York, as a volun- teer against the Dutch ; but he soon made himself obnoxious at court by his opposition in parliament. He gave evidence in favour of Lord William Bussell, and even offered to exchange clothes Avith that unfortunate nobleman to enable him to escape. In 1684 he succeeded to the title of earl of Devonshire, and was shortly afterAvards impidsoned, and fined £30,000 for striking Colonel Culpepper in the presence chamber. For the payment of this large sum he gave bond, but before it became due, the arrival of the prince of Orange had put an end for ever to the ty- ranny of James. The earl now became a faA^ourite at court, and in 1694 his earldom was raised to a dukedom. Died, 1707. CAVENDISH, Hemry, a member of the Devonshire family, and one of the most emi- nent natural philosophers of modern times, was son of Lord Charles Cavendish, and was born at Nice. He studied at Cambridge, and aftevAvards devoted himself [exclusively to scientific pursuits, acquiring a distinguished rank among those who have most contri- buted to the progress of chemistry. By his discoveries relating to hydrogen, carbonic acid, and the formation of water, he laid the foundations of pneumatic chemistry. He wi'ote but little, but the finished character and accuracy of Avhat he did write is marvel- lous, and perhaps unparalleled. By the death of an uncle, in 1773, he received a large addition to his fortune; and, being extremely regular and simple in his manner of living, he left at his death the enormous sum of £1,200,000 to his relations. Cavendish was never married, and avoided with singu- lar shyness the society of women. It has been truly said of him, that he was the richest among the learned, and the most learned among the rich men of his time.” Born, 1731 ; died, 1810. CAVOUB, Count CAMILLO BENSO DI, born at Turin, August 10, 1810, was the younger son of a noble house long settled in the neighbouring town of Chiavi. His mo- ther was a native of Geneva; and from her he inherited that industry and solid good sense which have always characterized the citizens of that republic. He aa^s born to the enjoy- ment of wealth and of the highest rank in one of the most exclusive societies of Europe, AA^hose conventional restraints he had to throw off before he could enter with any hope of success on his great task of reforming the Italian nation. Begarded by Ms kins- men and fellow-nobles as a renegade to his order, he devoted himself to adA'ancing the real interests of the whole body of his coun- trymen. Owing to the suspicions thus caused, he was arrested, and for some time confined in the fort of Bal’d. In consequence of this he threw up his military commission, and spent several years abroad, chiefly in France and in England. With the English constitution, especially, he made himself most intimately acquainted, and aUvays re- tained the highest sense of the principles on which it is founded. His sojourn in England occurred while the influence of Daniel O’Connell, in Ireland, was at its height ; but the keen penetration of Count Cavour en- abled himself at once to discern the facti- tious nature of the cry for Bepeal, and he embodied his opinions in a pamphlet which was the most remarkable of the many pub- lications of foreign politicians on the subject. Beturning to Turin in 1842, he established a political daily neAvspaper, called “ II Bisor- gimento,” which became the most influential organ of the middle classes. After the battle of Novara had for the time destroyed the hope of Italian union, Cavour adopted a policy of compromise ; and entering the Chairibers, in 1849, as member for the first electoral college in Turin, he threw all his 178 1 cAv] ^nilicrsal ISiograpIjp. [cea influence on the side of the constitutional party. In 1850 he became a member of the 1 cabinet. At that time Piedmont was 'un- doubtedly the most backward of all the Italian states in its laws and its organization. With incredible labour, sustained without intermission, he reduced the internal ma- nagement of the country into order, and called forth its resources both civil and mili- tary. Fatigue, he said, he never felt, except when at lersure. Rising at five in the morn- ing, he gave audiences from six to eight; after breakfast he went to his offices, where he transacted business without interruption until the evening, except when the Chambers sat. After dinner and, generally, a visit to the theatre, he returned to his office, where he frequently remained until midnight. In 1852 he again visited England, where he opened up his views to English statesmen. On his return a ministerial crisis occurred, and the king intrusted him with the direc- tion of the government. Thus far Piedmont existed almost by itself ; it was the object of Cavour to secure to it an entrance into the number of the great European powers. The war of France and England with Russia fur- nished the opportunity. Strong in the con- viction that his country might thus recover all the prestige lost at Novara, he concluded an alliance with France and England ; a Sardinian contingent served with success and distinction in the Crimea, and he thus ob- 1 tained admittance into the Congress at Paris, [ where he secured the recognition of the ! 1 existence of an Italian question. After the ! conclusion of the war he accompanied King Victor Emmanuel to Paris and London, where his power and genius were cordially acknowledged. In 1858 the alliance of Pied- mont with France was further cemented by the marriage of Prince Napoleon with a Sardinian princess ; and the expenditure of more than 800,000 francs being decreed for fortifying Alessandria, was regarded by the Austrian government as a menace. An ul- timatum was presented at Turin, and re- jected by Cavour. This was followed by the campaign of 70 days, during which were fought the battles of Magenta and Solferino. j ^3^he peace of Villafranca Avas a terrible blow to Count Cavour ; and even after the treaty of Zurich, which enabled him to put a differ- ent; interpretation on the terms of the peace, he could never look back to that time Avith- out the deepest emotion. But his work Avas being carried on by a soldier in another quar- ter. The landing of Garibaldi in Sicily was folloAved by the deliverance of that island from the Bourbon rule, and by the expulsion of that dynasty from Naples. The Sardinian army then marched southwards ; and the defeat of the Papal troops under General Lamoriciere, and the reduction of Gaeta, were followed by the proclamation of Victor Emmanuel as king of Italy. Much yet re- mained to be done ; but his work was prac- tically accomplished, when, in the height of his Augour and his glory, Count Cavour died, after a short illness, at Turin, June 6,1861, aged 50. Though deficient in the arts of elo- quence, his oratory has perhaps never been surpassed in the force of simple language and the inA'incible strength of logic, which en- abled him to SAvay an assembly abounding more than all others in Europe, in rhetorical talent. The publication of papers relative to some passages in his political life, for Avhich he has been censured, will vindicate his name from unjust aspersions, and shOAV the uuAvearied devotion of his whole life to the cause of his country. CAXTON, William, the earliest English printer, was a native of Kent, and Avas ap- prenticed, in 1438, to a mercer in London. Having serA^ed his time as a mercer, he went abroad in 1441, and settled in the Low Countries, probably at Bruges. He became governor of the Society of Merchant Ad- venturers, and afterAA^ards AA^as taken into the suite of Margaret of York, Avife of the duke of Burgundy. While residing in Flanders, he acquired a knowledge of the art of printing, probably from Colard Mansion, the first printer of Bruges, and translated and printed in that country the Recuyell of the Historyes of Troyes. Returning to Eng- land, in 1476, he set up a press in Westminster Abbey ; and in 1477 issued the “Dictes and Sayings,” the first book printed in England. In the practice of the new art Caxton enjoyed the patronage of the kings Edward IV., Richard III., and Henry VII., and other royal and noble persons. Of the rest of his life we know little more than the titles of the books he wrote and printed, which are too numerous to name here. Died, 1491. A very learned and valuable work on “ The Life and Typography of William Caxton,” in 2 vols. 4to, by’ VV. Blades, appeared in 1861-63. CAYLUS, Anne Claude Philippe de. Count of, a French writer of great accom- plishments and enthusiasm for art; author of the “ Description of the Gems in the Royal Cabinet,” a truly splendid Avork; “ Dissert ations on the Arts,” &c. ; and founder of a prize for draAving in the Academy of Paint- ing. Born, 1692 ; died, 1765. CAZES, Pierre Jacques, a French painter, pupil of Bon Boullongne. His prin- cipal works are in the cathedral of Notre Dame and other churches of Paris. B-orn, 1676 ; died, 1754. CAZOTTE,.Tacqtjes, a French litterateur, born at Dijon. He held a situation in the naval service, from which he retired and settled at Paris, in 1768. At the revolution, which he opposed Avith all his poAver, he was throAvn into the prisons of the Abbaye, with his daughter Elizabeth; and when the massacre of the prisoners took place, his daughter threAV herself between him and the murderers, thereby preventing the exe- cution of their purpose ; but he was again condemned to death, and perished by the guillotine. Sept. 25, 1792, at the age of 72. From the scaffold he cried with a firm voice to the multitude, “ I die, as I have lived, faithful to God and to my king.” Cazotte 1 Avas author of “ Le Diable Amoureux,” 1 “ Olivier,” and other poems, chiefly of the humorous kind. ' CEAN-BERMUDEZ, JUAN AUGUSTIN, Spanish writer on art, Avas born in 1749. He began to apply himself to the study of art when about thirty years of age, and through the influence of his friend Jovellanos ob- 179 CEO] IBiograpI)]). [cel taiucd an oflQce, and afterwards a pension. His principal work is a Hiographical Dic- tionary of the principal artists of Spain, in G vols. He wrote also a history of the Seville school of painting, a Description of the Cathedral of Seville, a Life of Jovel- lanos, &c. He also edited and extended Llaguno’s Notices of the Architects and Architecture of Spain. Died, 1834. OECCO DE ASCOLl, whose proper name was Francisco degli Stabili, an Italian physician, mechanician, and poet ; author of “ L’Acerva,”apoem,&c. In 1322,lie obtained the appointment of professor of philosophy and astrology at Bologna, and subsequently that of physician and astrologer to the duke of Calabria ; but being accused of magic, he was condemned by the Inquisition, and burnt to death in 1327. CECIL, WILLIAM. [EUHLEIGH.] CECIL, HOBERT, earl of Salisbury, was the second son of Lord Burleigh, the great minister of Q,ueen Elizabeth. Hervas educat- ed at St John’s College, Cambi’idge, and Avas early knighted. Trained to business under his father, he became first the assistant and then the successor of Secretary Walsingham. On the death of his father, in 1598, he be- came first minister. ToAvards the close of Elizabeth’s reign he sedulously cultivated the friendship of James YI. of Scotland. The event justified his foresight, for he Avas continued in his office, and created earl of Salisbury soon after James’s accession to the English croAvn. He held the office of lord high treasurer during the last four years of his life. He Avas an extremely able, and, generally speaking, upright minister ; but he shrank from nothing Avhich was likely to promote his personal success, and the share he had in causing the deaths of Essex and Raleigh disgrace him in the estimation of posterity. Born, about 1565 ; died, 1612. CELAKOAVSKY, FRANTISEK LADJSLAUS, poet and philologist, was born in Bohemia in 1799. He studied Avith great enthusiasm the Sclavonic languages, and obtained a professorship at the university of Prague. Of that post he Avas deprived in 1831, for riting a severe ncAvspaper article on Russian tyranny in Poland. He Avas sub- sequently professor of SclaA'onic literature at Breslau, and again at Prague in 1859, Besides his original poems he published collections of Sclavonic and of Paissian National Songs, the latter translated into Bohemian, and of Sclavonic proverbs. He Avas engaged in ineparing a Supplement to Jungmann’s Bohemian Dictionary at the time of his death in 1852. CELESTI, Andrea, a Venetian painter. He executed some beautiful landscapes and some fine altar-pieces. Died, 1706. . CELESTINE I., pope; successor of Boni- face I. He became pope in 422, condemned the doctrine of Nestorius in 430, and died in 432, with a high reputation for piety and wisdom. CELESTINE III., pope, succeeded Cle- ment III. in 1191. He claimed the king- doms of Naples and Sicily, and conferred the latter on Frederick, son of the emperor Henry A’l., on condition that he should bo tributary to the holy see. Died, 1198. CELESTINE Y., pope. He Avas a Bene- dictine monk, and founder of the order of the Celestines, Avhich Avas suppressed in France. He led a life of great seclusion, and the fame of his austerity caused him to be elected pope in 1294. Cardinal Cajetan persuaded him to resign, and then, having caused himself to be elected by the title of Boniface YIII., imprisoned Celestine, Avho died in confinement in 1296. In 1313 he Avas canonized by Clement V. CELLARIUS, CHRISTOPHER, a learned German Avriter, professor of history at Halle; author of “ Notitia Orbis Antiquse,” “ Atlas Coclestis,” &c., and editor of several Greek and Latin authors. Died. 1707. CELLIER, Remi, a learned French Bene- dictine ; author of an “ Apology for the Morality ’of the Fathers,” Avritten against Barbeyrac, and coinpiler of a “ General History of Sacred and Ecclesiastical Au- thors.” Died, 1761. CELLINI, BENyENiJTO, a celebrated Italian sculptor and goldsmith, Avas born at Florence in 1500. His father Avished to make him a musician, but he hated music, and apprenticed himself to a goldsmith. The vicious propensities and quarrelsome temper which made his Avhole life troublous and drove him frequently from place to place, early shoAved themselves. About 1518 he went to Rome, and lived there chiefiy for more than 20 years, finding full employ- ment in making costly and exquisite articles of goldsmith’s Avork for Pope Clement YII., the cardinals and nobles of Rome. At the sack of Rome by the Constable de Bourbon, in 1527, Cellini commanded the castle of San Angelo and boasted that he killed the Constable. His service on that occasion was reAvarded by the pope Avith his pardon for all homicides he had committed or might commit for the good of the church. In 1538 he was imprisoned at Rome on a charge of theft, and made professions of penitence, which came to nothing. Two years later he went to France, visiting his friend the Cardinal Ippolito d’Este, at Fer- rara, on his Avay. Francis I. greatly admired him as an artist, and kept him in his service five years, rcAvarding him with rich gifts, a large salary, an ancient “ Hotel,” and the title of seigneur. Of the house he had to make himself master by violence, and there- by incurred the enmity of the royal mistress, Madame d’Etampes. Among the works executed for Francis I. were a bronze Nymph for Fontainebleau, a silver statuette of Ju- piter, and a gold salt-cellar. Cellini returned to Florence in 1545, and there executed for Duke Cosimo his celebrated figure of Per- seus, which occupied him four years. He then visited Rome for a short time, and there made the bronze bust of his host Bindo AltOA'iti, Avhich Avas w'armly praised by Michael Angelo. Cellini Avrote treatises on the goldsmith’s art, and on sculpture, and an Autobiography full of vivid and varied interest, not only personal but his- torical, and Avcll knoAvn through an English translation. One of his finest later Avorks Avas a marble crucifix, aftci’Avards given by the grand duke to Philip II. of Spain, and noAV in the Escurial, Died at Florence in — 1 cel] 'a 303{ograpl;p, [ces 1 1571, and was buried in the cliurck of the Annunciata. CELSIUS, Olaus, a learned Swede; the early patron of Linnaeus, and the first pro- moter of the science of natural history in Sweden. He published various theological and other works, particularly one entitled “ Hierobotanicon,” an account of the plants mentioned in the Bible. Born, 1670 ; died, 1756. CELSUS, Aurelius Cornelius, a Homan physician, probably of the time of Tiberius ; author of treatises on agriculture, rhetoric, and military affairs, and of eight books on medicine. All except the last work are lost, but that is used in the ^medical schools of every nation in Europe. CELSUS, an Epicurean philosopher of the 2nd century. He Avrote a book against the Christian religion. It is not extant, but if we may judge from Origen’s reply to it, Celsus Avas a keen disputant, even Avith the disadvantage of assailing truth and defend- ing error. CEHINI, Giovanni Domenico, an Ita- lian painter, chiefly of historical subjects. Born, 1609; died, 1681. CERINI, Giuseppe, an Italian poet and dramatist. Boi’n, 1738; died, 1779. CEE,INTHUS,a heresiarch of the 1st cen- tury. He was by birth a J e w, and his doc- trine Avas a compound of Judaism, Christian- ity, and the speculations of the Gnostics. CERVANTES SAAVEDRA, MIGUEL DE, the celebrated Spanish novelist, Avas born in 1547. He gave early promise of literary talent, and received a careful education, studying at the universities of Alcala, his native place, and Salamanca, and after Avards, perhaps, at Madrid. He soon became cham- berlain to the Cardinal Giulio Aquaviva, at Rome. He then entered the army, and con- tinued to serve in it during the four years betAveen 1571 and 1575. He took a distin- guished part in the famous battle of Lepanto, where he Avas thrice A\munded, and lost the use of his left arm. After this, he joined the troops at Naples, in the service of the Spanish king; but in 1575 he W'as taken prisoner by a corsair, and remained in slavery at Algiers five years. 'VVIk n lie Avas at length ransomed, he again served as a soldier for several years, and then settled at Madrid, married, removed to Seville in 1588, and published in the course of ten years about thirty dramas ; but, though he showed great genius, he Avas not so successful as his rival Lope de Vega, and he was driven to various hard shifts to earn a livelihood. Ul- timately he abandoned dramatic composition I for prose romance, and in 1605 appeared the first part of that extraordinary Avork, which has immortalized hisname — “ Don Quixote.” The second part appeared in 1615. Cervantes liad in vieAV, by this work, to reform the taste and opinions of his countrymen. He wished to ridicule the silly romances then so popular in Spain, poor, unnatural, exag- gerated imitations of the earlier romances of chivalry, and Avhich were exerting a very mischievous influence. The work Avas, at first, coldly received, but it soon met Avith applause, sev'^eral editions were called for within the first year after its appearance. and it may noAv safely be said to be one of the most popular Avorks that Avas ever Avrit- ten. In its moral purpose “Don Quixote” achieved a complete success, for it formed an insuperable barrier against the further advance of the deluge of romance. It Avas speedily translated, and became a classic in most European languages. Eight English translations appeared betAveen 1620, the date of the first, and 1755. Still its extraordinary good fortune did not extend to the author, who struggled on for many years with nothing to console him in his poverty btit his genius, and the just consciousness of it. Nearly all the plays of Cervantes are lost. Of his other Avorks the most note Avor thy are his “Novelas Exemplares,” and his “ Viage al Parnaso,” the latter a satire on the infe- rior poets of the age. It is usually remarked that Cervantes and Shakespeare died on the same day, the 23rd April, 1616 ; but Carlyle has pointed out that as Spain had previously adopted the neAV style while the old was retained in England much later, there Avould be a difference of ten days between the reckoning in the tAVO countries. A magnifi- cent French edition of Don Quixote, with illustrations by Gustave Dore, appeared in 1863, in 2 vols. folio. These illustrations have been since reproduced in an English edition. CESARI, Giuseppe, Italian painter, was born at Rome about 1568. He obtained em- ployment in the Vatican, and became a great popular favourite. He had the patronage of several popes, and for many years held his ground against all rivals, including Annibale Caracciand Caravaggio. His principal Avork is the series of frescoes in the Conservatorio in the Capitol, illustrative of events in Ro- man history. His draAving Avas spirited, rapid, and inaccurate ; executed Avith great facility and without any regard to the truth of nature. He had many imitators, Avho Averenamed“ Idealists,” in contradistinction to the partisans of Caravaggio, the “ Natural- ists.” Died, 1610. CESARINI, GILIANO, Cardinal. He Avas born about 1398, and having been raised to the cardinalate in 1426, Avas sent to preach in Germany against the innovators in religion. He distinguished himself as president of the council of Basel against the Hussites. Being sent by the pope to Hungary, he persuaded Ladislaus to break truce Avith the Turks. The battle of Varna ensued, Nov., 1444, and the cardinal disappeared, but it is not known Avhat became of him. CESAROTTI, MeiuiiiORRE, an Italian poet, and professor of Greek and Hebrew in the university of Padua ; author of “ Essays on the Italian Language,” and translator into Italian of “ Ossian’s Poems.” His trans- lation of the “ Iliad ” is a ridiculous carica- ture. Cesarotti Avas sent on a political mission to Napoleon, Avho knighted and pensioned him, in return for which the poet became a servile flatterer of the despot. Born, 1730 ; died, 1808. CESPEDES, PAOLO DE, an eminent Span- ish painter. He Avas a native of Cordova, and studied the fine arts at Rome, whence he returned to Cordova in 1577. He acquired the name of the Spanish Raphael. His prin- 181 cha] % SJni&ersal 33iog:rap]&i?. [cha cipal work is “The Last Supper,” an ad- mirable picture in the cathedral of Cordova. He was author of a learned treatise on an- cient and modern painting, and of several other worKS. He was a learned orientalist, and the friend of the great scholars and art- ists of his age. Died, 1608. CHAEERT, JOSEPH BERNARD, Marquis of, a distinguished navigator, astronomer, and geographer, born at Toulon, in 1724. He entered the navy at an early age, per- formed several distant voyages, and formed the project of a chart of the Mediterranean. But the American war interrupted the work, and called Chabert to his post, where he dis- tinguished himself so highly, that, in 1781, he was made commander of a squadron. The revolution drove him to England, and he was received by Dr Maskelyne with great kindness. In 1800 he lost his sight, in con- sequence of his intense application to study ; and, in 1802, he returned to Paris, where Buonaparte assigned him a pension. Died, 180.5. CHABRTAS, an Athenian general, who distinguished himself in various expeditions between B. C. 392 — 357. He assisted Evago- ras of Cyprus against the Persians, and the Thebans against the Spartans, defeated the latter at Naxos, and while commanding the fleet at the siege of Chios, was killed, B. C. 357. A statue was erected to him at Athens. CHAISE, FRANgoiS DE LA, a French Je- suit, confessor to Louis XIV., over whom he aequired a vast influence. Died, 1709. The site of his house and grounds at Paris is now occupied by the beautiful cemetei’y which bears his name. CHALCONDYLES, DEMETRIUS, a learn- ed Greek, who, on the taking of Constanti- nople in 1453, established himself as a teacher of Greek in Italy. He wrote a Greek gram- mar, and edited the lexicon of Suidas. Died, 1513. CHALCONDYLAS, NICHOLAS, or LAONI- CUS, one of the Byzantine historians, flour- ished in the latter part of the 15th eentury. He was a native of Athens, and wrote a History of the Turks, and of the Fall of the Greek Empire, from 1298 to 1462. CHALMERS, ALEXANDER, M.A., F.S.A., was born in 1759, at Aberdeen, w'here his father carried on business as a printer. AVhen he was eighteen years of age, an ap- pointment of assistant surgeon in the AVest Indies was procured for him ; but instead of sailing for Jamaica he proceeded to London, where he connected himself with the press. He became editor of the Public Ledger and London Packet newspapers, during the pe- riod of the American war. Party politics were then running high, and Mr Chalmers obtained much credit as a political writer to other journals under the signature of Senex. He was for a long time a contributor to the Morning Chronicle, and afterwards editor of the Morning Herald: he also entered into engagements with several publishers, to edit their books, and published many works in his own name. In 1812 the first portion of the work appeared, which, of all his pro- ductions. has the most largely contributed to his fame, namely, “ The General Biographi- cal Dictionary,” which was completed in 1817 ; and he continued to occupy himself in literary pursuits till ill-healtli compelled him to abandon them. Died, 1834 CHALMERS, GEORGE, a Scotch writer of considerable ability and industry ; author of “ Caledonia,” “ An Estimate of the compara- tive Strength of Great Britain,” &c. His statistical ability procured him the situation of chief clerk of the Board of Trade, which he enjoyed for many years. Born, 1742 ; died, 1825. CHALMERS, Rev. Dr THOMAS, was born at Anstruther, in Fife, on the 17th of March, 1780, and was early sent to study at St An- drew’s University. His college career was distinguished by some of his subsequent pecu- liarities — energy, good humour, companion- ableness, and ascendency over others ; and it was then that his passion for the physieal sciences was first developed. Besides theo- logy, he studied mathematics, chemistry, and some branches of natural history, with more than youthful enthusiasm, and with such suc- cess that, besides assisting his own professor, he made a narrow escape from the mathe- matical chair in Edinburgh. On the comple- tion of his theological studies he ofliciated for about two years as assistant in the parish of Cavers, and in 1803 he obtained a presenta- tion to the parish of Kilmany in Fifeshire. Here he remained for some years, in the quiet discharge of his clerical duties, when he w'as suddenly awakened to a knowledge of “ vital Christianity,” while engaged in writing the , article “ Chi’istianity ” for Brewster’s Edin- burgh Encyclopaedia; and from this moment his quickened and concentrated faculties were intent on reviving the old “ evangelism of the Puritans and the Reformers.” In 1815 the town council of Glasgow invited him to be the minister of the Tron church. Thither he repaired, and in that city he laboured for eight years. In 1817 he visited London. Here his popularity was not less overwhelming. The churches in which he j Avas to preach Avere crowded long before the < service commenced; and amongst his au- ditors were a number of the distinguished clergy, peers, members of parliament, and literary characters of all classes and denomi- nations. “All the world,” writes AVilber- force in his diary, “ Avild about Dr Chalmers. Canning, Huskisson, Lords Elgin, IlarroAv- by, &c., present. I Avas surprised to see how greatly Canning was affected; at times he Avas quite melted into tears.” After con- tinuing about four years minister of the Tron church, he Avas removed to the new church of St John’s. In this new sphere he tried to give practical direction to the theo- ries he had propounded relative to the sup- port and the suppression of pauperism. But the Avork he had undertaken deprived him of that solitude required for pulpit prepara- tions, especially for such pulpit exhibitions as he Avas wont to give; and he Avas fain to \ seek relief in an academic retreat. Irv 1824 he accepted the chair of moral philofrjphy at St Andrew’s; in 1828, he was removed to the chair of theology in the university of Edinburgh ; and here he prosecuted his multifarious labours, lecturing, preaching, publishing, organizing schemes fer the Avel- fare of the church, and taking an active 182 cha] ^ ^amijcrsal ^iograpI)i). [cha management in her courts, till the disruption of the Church of Scotland in 1843, when he joined the Free Church, which he had mainly contributed to found, and became principal and professor of theology to the seceding body. In the spring of 1847 he re- paired to London to give his evidence before the sites’ committee of the House of Com- mons. “ He preached all the sabbaths of his sojourn in England, willingly and power- fully, and on the last sabbath of May he was again at home. That evening he is said to have remarked to a friend, that he thought his public work completed. Next morning all that met the gaze of love was the lifeless form— in stately repose on the pillow, as one who beheld it said, ‘ a brow not cast in the mould of the sons of men.’ ” In this meagre outline of the life of Dr Chalmers, we have not alluded to the many valuable works which from time to time he gave to the world. His works published during his life- time, in 25 vols., embrace a variety of sub- jects, chiefly relating to theology and political economy ; among these are his “Astronomic- al Discourses," first published in 1817, when they formed a new era in the history of pul- pit 'oratory. Besides these, 9 vols. of post- humous works, consisting of “ Daily Scrip- ture Readings,’’ “Institutes of Theology,’’ &c., have been published by his son-in-law. Dr Hanna, to whose interesting memoirs of Dr Chalmers we must refer the reader for the fullest information concerning the life and works of this illustrious man. In an analysis of his mind, the first power that meets us is his brilliant imagination. It mattered not what the subject might be, each and all he invested Avith such a splen- dour of imagination and magnificence of diction, as at once captivated and entranced. But these very powers sometimes led him into seeming inconsistencies. Alive only to the discussion of his present theme, he was apt to forget those which had previously engaged his mind, and how the arguments previously advanced bore upon his present illustration. Hence a casuist might arraign Dr Chalmers at the bar of strict political consistency, and object to the part he took in some public movements during his career; but an acquittal would be given, on the ground, that he never pleaded any cause, unless convinced at the time that it was for the spiritual and temporal welfare of his fellow-men. But such defects in such a character are like motes in a sunbeam. Considered in every view, — the preacher, the philosopher, the philanthropist, — we see one great by intellectual power, great by holiness of life, one on Avhose like Scotland will not soon look again. Died, May 31, 1847. CHALONER, Sir THOMAS, an English statesman. He obtained his knighthood by his gallantry at the battle of Musselburgh, and was afterAvards sent by Queen Elizabeth ambassador to Spain and Germany. He translated Erasmus’s “ Encomium Moriae,’’ or Praise of Folly, and Avrote “ De Republica Anglorum instauranda,’’ &c. Died, 1565. CHALONER, Sir THOMAS, son of the above, was distinguished as a chemist and natural philosopher. He discovered or first worked the alum mines of Yorkshire, and Avas author of a tract on the virtues of nitre. Died, 1615. CH ALONER, Edwahd, an English divine, son of the above, chaplain to James I., and one of the most celebrated preachers of his time. He died of the plague, in 1625. CHALONER, JAMES, brother of the pre- ceding, a member of parliament, and one of the judges of Charles I. His zeal in the par- liamentary cause obtained him the govern- orship of Peel Castle, in the Isle of Man. At the restoration in 1660, messengers Avere sent to apprehend him, when he committed suicide. CHAMBERLAYNE, EDWAHD, LL.D., publicist, Avas bom in Gloucestershire in 1616. He was author of several works, the most important of which is one on the an- cient and modern state of England, entitled “Angli® Notitia." It ran through nearly 40 editions. This author is a remarkable example of vanity, and the follies to Avhich it leads men. It is related of him that he directed that some of his Avorks, wrapped in cere-cloth, should be buried Avith him, as Cso the monument records) they might be of use to a future age ! Died at London, 1703. CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM, originator and editor of the Cyclopmdia Avhich bears his name, Avas a native of Kendal, but Avas apprenticed in London. The first edition of his Cyclopedia appeared in 1728, and pro- cured him admission to the Royal Society. It passed through six editions in little more than twenty years, and formed the basis of the greater work of Dr Rees, and tlie model of many others. Died at London, and was buried in 'Westminster Abbey, 1740. CHAMBERS, George, an English marine painter, Avas a native of Whitby in York- shire, and spent his boyhood in a seafaring- life. After acquiring some skill as a painter of sea-pieces he Avent to London, had em- ployment as a scene-painter, and Avas ap- pointed marine painter to the king and queen. Among his Avorks are the “Bom- bardment of Algiers,’’ the “ Capture of Por- tobello,’’ and the “ Victory over the French Fleet at La Hogue,’’ all in GreeuAvich Hos- pital. Died, 1840. CHAMBERS, Sir WILLIAM, an English architect, born at Stockholm in 1726. He was educated in England, and settled early at London. He was employed by George III. to plan the gardens at KeAv, and was after- Avards appointed architect of SomersetHouse, which is his principal Avork. In his youth he visited China, and acquired a singular taste for the Chinese style of building, which he adopted at Kevv, and recommended in his work on “ Oriental Gardening.’’ He wrote a “Treatise on Civil Architecture,’’ Avas made knight of t'ne Polar Star, and died in 1796. CHAMISSO, Adelbert von, son of Louis, Viscount d’Ormont, Avas born at Roncourt in Champagne in 1781. Di’iven with his parents from their home by the French revolution, he was educated at Berlin, Avhere he became one of the royal pages, served in the Prus- sian army till the peace of Tilsit, and then returned to France, where he remained till 1812, as professor at Napoleonville. But his strong inclination for his favourite study. 183 cha] ^ IBiograpI)!)* [cha natural history, and the attachment he had imbibed for the land of his education, once more drew him to Berlin, where he seized the opportunity of accompanying Kotzebue in his voyage round the Avorld in 1815; and on his return, in 1818, he was appointed su- perintendent of the botanic garden of Berlin, an office which he held till his death. Cha- misso’s works range over various depart- ments of literature. “His Views and Ob- , serrations during a Voyage of Discovery ” is a very interesting and trustworthy narra- tive ; his poems take rank among his coun- trymen with those of Uhland; and, as the author of “ Peter Schlemil,” he has obtained a European fame. Died, 1838. CHAMPAGNE, PHILIP, an eminent Plem- ish painter, was born at Brussels in 1602; went to Paris, where he studied under Pous- sin, and became painter to the Q-ueen Maria de Medici, Avho gave him the direction of the paintings in the Luxembourg, and he was also made director of the Academy of Fine Arts. His paintings, which are very fine, adorn the dome of the Sorbonne, the Museum of Paris, &e. Died, 1674. CHAMPEAXJX, Guillaume de, French philosopher and theologian of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. He was long a dis- tinguished teacher of rhetoric, dialectics, and theology in the school of Paris. The cele- brated Abelard was his disciple, and he be- came his rival and formidable opponent. After years of stormy controversy Chara- peaux was made bishop of Chalons-sur- Marne, devoted himself to the duties of his office, entered the Cistercian order, and died, 1121. CHAMPIEB, Symphoeien, a French physician. He wrote several learned works, and founded the Boyal College at Lyons. He also served in Italy under the duke of Lorraine, by whom he was knighted for his courage. He compiled several works, of which the most valuable is “Les Grans Chroniqueurs des Princes de Savoie.” Died, 1540. CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE, a French naval ofllcer. He was governor-genei'al of Canada, and founded the city of Quebec ; and there is a lake in Canada which bears his name. His “ Travels in Canada ” contain much curious information. Died, 1634. CHAMPOLLION, JEAN FRANCOIS, the younger, a French Egyptologist, was born at Figeac in 1791. His ruling passion was awakened by the sight of some Egyptian figures w'hen he was only twelve years old, and in 1867 he went to Paris to study Arabic and Coptic. Ho was soon after named pro- fessor of history at Grenoble, but his thought constantly turned to Egypt, and he worked at his “ Egypt under the Pha- raohs.” In 1824 he went to Italy, and four years later conducted the scientific expe- dition to Egypt, returning in 1830 laden with precious fruits of his researches. Champollion devised a phonetic alphabet for the decipherment of the hieroglyphic in- scriptions, in which however he had been to some extent anticipated by Dr Young. The “ Precis du Systeme hi4roglyphique ” appeared in 1824. His theory was sliarply criticised by Klaproth. Champollion also published “Panthdon Egyptien,” 2 vols. 4to. ; and in conjunction with his fellow- traveller, Ilosellini, the “Monumens de I’Egypte et de Nubie.” Died, 1832. CHANCELLOB, HlCHAED, an English navigator, and founder of the English Bussia Company. By this company he was sent to Bussia a second time, and, while on his re- turn with the Bussian ambassador and suite, he perished off the coast of Norway, in 1556. CHANDLEB, BiCHARD, divine and an- tiquary. He was born in Hampshire In 1738, and was educated at Oxford university. He travelled, in 1764, through Asia Minor and Greece, at the expense of the Dilettanti Society ; and wrote, in conjunction with his fellow-travellers, Bevett and Pars, the “ Ionian Antiquities.” He afterwards pub- 1ft hod his “ Travels in Asia Minor,” and “ Travels in Greece.” Before setting out on his travels Dr Chandler had published a new and magnificent edition of the “ Mar- mora Oxoniensia.” .Died, rector of Tile- hurst, 1810. CHANDLEB, SAMUEL, an eminent dis- senting divine ; he was born in Berkshii’e, and was minister of a congregation in the Old Jewry, London, for forty years. He was author of a “ Yindication of the Chris- tion Beligion,” a “Vindication of the His- tory of the Old Testament,” “ History of the Life of David,” «&c. The latter was his most important work, and was occasioned by the publication of a vulgar pamphlet on the same subject, in which the character of David ■was ridiculously misrepresented. Born, 1693; died, 1766. CHANDOS, JOHN, an English general of great celebrity, in the 14th century ; distin- guished not more for his bravery than for his generosity and moderation. He was present at the battle of Crecy, became governor of the provinces of France ceded to England by the treaty of Bretigny ; de- feated and took prisoner Duguesclin at Au- ray ; served under the Black Prince in Cas- tile ; was made constable of Aquitaine (Guienne) ; and was killed at the bridge of Leusac, near Poitiers, in 1369. CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY, D.D., Unitarian divine and miscellaneous writer, was born at Newport, Bhode Island, U. S., in 1780. His maternal grandfather, William Ellery, was one of those who signed the De- claration of Independence, and his father was a partner in the mercantile firm of Gibbs and Channing, at Newport. Educated at Harvard College, he was early induced to abandon the profession of medicine, for which his father intended him, and to pre- pare himself for the Unitarian ministry ; and in 1803 he commenced his career by taking charge of the congregation in Federal Street, Boston. His eloquence rendered him from that time forth one of the most conspicuous men in America. To assert that his discourses display great genius would be absurd ; they are, indeed, striking speci- mens of pulpit eloquence ; but they aro the discourses of a mere oratorical moralist rather than those of a Christian preacher. To the honour of Dr Channing it must be said, that he w^as ever the advocate of peace, and that though he could not but be 184 cha] ^ ^Sniberscil 3Biograpf)t). [cha aware that his opposition to the slave system must needs diminish his popularity, he Avas instant in season and out of season in de- nouncing it. A volume of his “lievieAvs, Discourses, &c.,” was published in 1830. Died, Oct. 2, 1842, aged 62. CHANTREY, Sir FRANCIS, R.A., F.R.S., F.S.A., &c., sculptor, was horn at Norton, near Sheffield, in 1781. When a mere child he discovered considerable talent in di’awing and modelling ; and during his apprentice- I ship Avith Mr Ramsay, a carver and gilder at Sheffield, the Avhole of his leisure hours Avere devoted to the study and practice of his favourite pursuits. After a short visit to London, where he attended the school of the Royal Academy, he returned to Sheffield ; but his career of fame and fortune Avas not begun until 1809, when he received an order from Mr Alexander, the architect, for four colossal busts of HoAve, St Vincent, Duncan, and Nelson, for the Trinity House, and for the Greenwich Naval Asylum. From this period he Avas unrelaxing in his efforts, and continually successful; and, among the pro- ductions of his chisel, there appeared, in 1817, that exquisite group of “The Sleeping Children” (the daughters of the Rev. W. Robinson) in Lichfield cathedral; univers- ally acknoAvledged as “ images of artless beauty and innocent and unaffected grace.” Orders croAvded in upon him in number be- yond his ability to execute. Among them we notice his busts of Lord Castlereagh, Sir Walter Scott, the poets AVordsworth and Southey, Mr Canning, John Rennie, George IV., AVilliam IV., Q,ueen Victoria, Lord Melbourne, Sir Robert Peel, and the Duke of Wellington; and his statues of James AVatt, Dr Cyril Jackson, Grattan, AVashing- ton. Sir Joseph Banks, Spencer Perceval, Canning, Sir John Malcolm, Dr Dalton, Roscoe, General Gillespie, Lady Louisa Russel (when a child). Bishops Bathurst and Ryder, &c. To this list Ave ought perhaps to add his principal statues in bronze, viz. George IV. at Brighton and in Edinburgh, Pitt in Hanover Square and Edinburgh, and the equestrian statues of Sir Thomas Munro, at Madras, and the duke of AVel- lington for the city of London. Died, Nov. 25, 1841. CHAPAIAN, George, dramatic poet and translator of Homer, Avas born in 1557. He is said to have studied at Oxford, settled at London, enjoyed the friendship of his great contemporaries Spenser and Shakespeare, and the patronage of several eminent states- men, and died, honoured and beloved, in 1634. His dramas and other Avorks are numerous, but his reputation noAv rests chiefly on his “ Iliads of Homer, Prince of Poets, never before truly translated,” which appeared, complete, in 1603. It is written in the oldHnglish ballad metre, and is still admired for its vigoiw, facility, and hap- piness of expression, although frequently disfigured by carelessness and unfaithfulness. He also translated the Odyssey, and portions of the Avorks of Hesiod and Ovid. C H A P O N E, HESTER, miscellaneous writer, was born in Northamptonshire in 1726. She is principally known by her “ Letters on the Improvement of the Mind,” addressed to a young lady, and published in 1773. Died, 1801, aged 74. CHAPPE. Claude, nephew of the as- tronomer, Jean CHappe D’Auteroche, Avas born in 1763. He introduced the use of telegraphs into France ; and the first public event communicated by the neAV method Avas the capture of Condd, recovered from the Austrians in 1793. The honour of the discovery being claimed by others, his mind Avas so much affected that he committed suicide, in 1805. CHAPTAL, JEAN Antoine Claude, count of Chanteloupe, a French chemist and statesman, born at Nogaret in 1756. He Avas destined for the profession of medicine, and had completed his studies Avhen he Avas induced to accept the professorship of che- mistry at Montpelier. His lectures procured him great reputation, and on the breaking out of the revolution he took an active part in it, and Avas selected by the new govern- ment to superintend the manufacture of gun- poAvder at Grenelle. He became member of the Institute, and professor of chemistry at the Polytechnic School. In 1799 the first con- sul made him counsellor of state; and, in the folloAving year, minister of the interior. He held this post four years, and by his zeal and energy rendered very great services to the arts and manufactures of his country. Chaptal lost for some reason the favour of Napoleon, and retired into private life. Yet still honours Avere accumulated upon him, and he was made grand officer of the Legion of Honour, senator, peer of France, member of the Academy-of Sciences, &c. He took a distinguished part in the discussions of the Chamber of Peers, and died in 1832. Among his numerous Avorks are, “Elements de Chimie,” “ Traitd theorique et pratique de la Culture delaVigne,” &c. ; “ La Chimie appliqu6e aux Arts,” &c. CHARDIN, Sir JOHN, a celebrated French traveller, born at Paris in 1643. He Avent to the East in 1664, spent several years at Ispahan, Avas well received by the court of Persia, visited India, saAV Persepolis, and returned in 1670. He made a second jour- ney to the same countries in the following year, and was absent ten years. In 1681 he came to London, Avas knighted, married, ad- mitted to the Royal Society, and employed on some diplomatic missions. His “Tra- vels” appeared in 1686 — 1711, and have been frequently republished. Died, near London, in 1713. CHARES, an Athenian general, who lived B. C. 370 — 333. He Avas joint commander of the Athenian fleet in 356, and soon after assisted the satrap Artabazus in his revolt against Artaxerxes, king of Persia. He served in the Olynthian war, and Avas one of the commanders at the battle of Chcero- nea, B. c. 338. CHARLEMAGNE, or CHARLES THE GREAT, king of the Franks, and emperor of the West, was the eldest son of Pepin the Short, and grandson of Charles Martel, and Avas born at Salzburg in 742. He succeeded his father, with his brother Carloman, in 768, and on the death of Carloman throe years later became solo monarch. He had previously married and repudiated the 185 ^ i^eb) ^nibersal 3S{ograp!)i). [cav daughter of Desiclerius, king of the Lom- bards. In 772 Charles began his wars with the Saxons, which occupied him year by year till 803. They were pagans, and he sought to convert as well as conquer them. He treated them alternately with great mildness and savage cruelty, beheading on one occasion above 4000 of them. Their most famous leaders were Witilund and Alboin, who embraced the Christian re- ligion. During these thirty years of war Charles had also to fight the Lombards, Huns, Saracens, &c. In 774 he went at the request of the pope to make war on Desi- derius ; defeated and captured him, and thus put an end to the Lombard kingdom, and assumed the crown himself. At the same time he captured the widow and children of his brother Carloman. The title of patri- cian was conferred on Charles by the senate and people of Home. In 778 he went to Spain to assist one of the Saracen chieftains ; took Pampeluna and Barcelona, but return- ing was attacked, and his rear-guard de- feated, by the Gascons at Honcesvalles. Here fell the famous Roland, and other celebrated captains. In 800 Charles was crowned at Rome, emperor of the West, by Pope Leo III., and received the title of Augustus. His em- pire extended from the Rorth Sea to the Mediterranean, and from the Atlantic and the Ebro, in Spain, to the Raab and the mouth of the Oder. Charlemagne was great not only as a conqueror, but as a legislator, and a promoter of science and literature. He entertained scholars at his court, found- ed monasteries, churches, and schools, and obtained the praise of statesmen, church- men, and men of letters. His eldest son died in 810 ; his second the year following ; and he appointed his third son, Pepin, to succeed him. Charles the Great died, and was buried at Aix-la-Chapelle, in 814. We have a trustworthy account of this great man in Eginhardt’s “ Vita Caroli Magni.” CHARLES IV., emperor of the West, son of John of Luxemburg, king of Bohemia, and grandson of the emperor, Henry VII., ascended the throne in 1346. His reign was distinguished by the publication of the Golden Bull at the diet of Niirnberg, by which the Germanic constitution was estab- lished. Died, 1378. CHARLES V. (I. of Spain), emperor of the West, was born at Ghent in 1500. He was son of the Archduke Philip of Austria, and Joanna, only child of Eerdinand and Isabella, and was brought up in the Nether- lands. He succeeded his grandfather, Fer- dinand, as king of Spain in 1516, his mother being also recognized as queen, although in- capable of governing. Cardinal Ximenes held tlie regency, but died in 1517, just as Charles arrived in Spain. On the deatli of Maximilian I. he was chosen to succeed him, and was crowned emperor at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1520. He had just before visited Eng- land, and had a conference with Henry VIII. and Wolsey. The period of his reign is one of the mo. t momentous in modern history, and full of great affairs, in which Charles had a large personal share. His rivalry Muth Francis I. of France, and the wars resulting from it ; insurrections in Spain and in Flanders; the conflict pro- ceeding in Germany and all Europe be- tween the Reformers and the Catholics; the conquest of Mexico and Peru; expeditions against the IMoors both in Spain and Africa; these are the main elements of the story, which it is not possible even to epitomize here. In 1525 the generals of Charles de- feated and captured Francis I. at the battle of Pavia. Two years later Rome Avas sack- ed by the Constable de Bourbon, whom Charles had taken into his service. Charles had several conferences with the pope, and pressed him to call a general council. He afterwards made a league with the pope, and made war on the Protestants, whom he defeated at the battle of Miihlberg, in 1517. In the following year, at the Diet of Augs- burg, he proposed the famous “ Interim,” which was unsatisfactory to both sides, and was soon after annulled. In 1552 he signed the treaty of Passau, which was soon follow- ed by the “Peace of Religion.” Wearied with incessant cares and activity, Charles, in 1555, resigned his hereditary states of the Netherlands to his son Philip, in an assem- bly at Brussels. In the following year he gave up Spain, and a few months after the imperial dignity. He then returned to Spain, and early in 1557 retired to a monas- tery in Estremadura. In August 1558 he hud his own obsequies celebrated, and died a feAV weeks later. Charles V. was a man of great intelligence and superior culture, had considerable acquaintance with litera- ture and art, and patronized those eminent in either. He was ambitious, but humane, and pursued a temporizing policy in the great religious struggle of his age. His orthodoxy is said to have been called in question by the Inquisition after his death. The well-known “ History of Charles V.,” by Robertson, which first appeared in 1769, was re-published in 1856, with valuable notes and a supplement by the American historian CHARLES VI., emperor of the West, son of the emperor Leopold, Avas declared king of Spain by his father in 1703, and crowned emperor in 1711. The taking of Belgrade by his general. Prince Eugene, compelled the Turks to make peace with him ; and his alliance Avith Holland, France, and England enabled him to obtain considerable advant- ages oyer Spain. Subsequently, however, he Avas at war with his allies, and thus lost Naples and Sicily ; and was also engaged in an injurious contest with Turkey. The succession to his Austrian dominions was regulated by the Pragmatic Sanction pub- lished in 1724. Died, 1740. CHARLES MARTEL, duke of Austrasia, was a natural son of Pepin dTI6ristal or Pepin the Fat, and Avas born probably about 685. On the death of his father in 715, he was imprisoned by the Queen Plectrude, but escaped, and aauas proclaimed duke of Aus- trasia, and was virtually sovereign of France. He is one of the greatest heroes in early French (or Frankish) history, and carried on wars with Chilperic II., king of Neustria, with the Saxons, the Bavarians, and the Saracens. He Avon a great and memorable victory over the latter in 732, near Tours or 18G cha] 1Siograp!)w. [cha Poitiers ; destroyinj? their army and slayin* [cha taste for dissolute living, and thus poisoning the moral health of society; and though he preserved a degree of popularity with the multitude, from the agreeableness of his manners, yet he was totally destitute of no- ble sentiments. CHARLES EDWARD STUART, called the Young Pretender, the grandson of James II., was born at Rome, in 1721. In 1745 he landed in Scotland, and published a mani- festo exhibiting the claims of his father to the English throne. He was joined by some of the Highlanders, and on entering Edinburgh, he caused his father to be pro- claimed; on which General Cope hastened towards the capital, but was attacked by tlie Pretender at Preston Pans, and defeated. Instead of making a proper use of this vic- tory, by advancing into England, Charles returned to Edinburgh, wasting his time in an idle parade of royalty. AfterM’ards, on being joined by LordsKilmarnock, Cromarty, Balmerino, and other discontented chiefs, he marched as far as Derby; but hearing that the king was about to take the field, he returned to Scotland, where he defeated the English forces, under Hawley, at Falkirk. In the mean time the duke of Cumberland advanced to Edinburgh, and from thence to Aberdeen, the Pretender retreating before him. At last the two armies met at Cullo- den, April 27. 1746, when, after an obstinate conflict, in which the Highlanders dis- played prodigious courage, the rebel army Avas signally defeated, and entirely dispersed. Charles, after wandering about in different disguises, chiefly among the Hebrides, effect- ed his escape to France^ He died at Flo- I’ence in 1788. CHARLETON, WALTER, an Englisli phy- sician, born in Somersetshire, 1619. He was appointed physician to Charles I., resided abroad with Charles II., and returned with him at the restoration. He was admitted F.R.S., and elected president of the College of Physicians. His writings, in natural his- tory, medicine, theology, and natural phi- losophy, are very numerous and learned, especially his “ Onomasticon Zoicon ” and “ Chorea Gigantum ; ” the former a classified arrangement of animals, the latter an essay on Stonehenge. Died, 1707. CHARLEVOIX, PlERRE FRANCOIS XA- VIER, a- French Jesuit, and for some time a missionary in America. On his return, he became conductor of the Journal de Tre- voux. In addition to his numerous con- tributions to that work, he wrote “ Histoire Generate de Paraguay,” “ Histoire G^nerale de la Nouvelle France,” &c. Died, 1761 CHARLOTTE AUGUSTA, daughter of George, prince of Wales, and the unfortunate Princess Caroline (afterwards George IV. and Queen Caroline), was born Jan. 7, 1796, and married to Prince Leopold of Coburg (after- wards king of Belgium), May 2, 1816. From her earliest years she gave strong indications of nobleness of mind and' great capacity ; and as she grew up, a feeling of sincere and ardent attachment for her on the part of the people was universally displayed. She was not merely accomplished according to the common acceptation of the term, but was well acquainted Avith history, statistics, and other more abstruse branches of knoAvlcdgc ; spoke several modern languages, and ex- celled in music, painting, &c. ; while her active benevolence and solicitude for the poor rendered her an object of their especial regard. Her marriage Avith Prince Leopold was the result of mutual esteem. But the hopes of the nation, and the anxious wishes of the husband, were suddenly blighted : on the 5th of Nov. 1817, the princess was de- livered of a still-born child ; and, in a few hours after, she was seized with convulsions and expired. Never before, perhaps, Avas national and individual sorrow so stiukingly or so sincerely expressed, and never, perhaps, was it more deservedly bestoAved. The un- happy dissensions of her royal parents, and the vicious blandishments of courtly para- sites, were strikingly contrasted at Claremont with conjugal affection and the pure plea- sures of a A'irtuous life. No wonder, then, that the people should have looked forAvard to her reign Avith delight ; nor can it be a matter of surprise that their grief should have been intense Avhen thus bereft of “ Eng- land’s hope.” CHARNOCK, John, an English naval officer and miscellaneous writer ; ;iuthor of a “ History of Marine Architecture,” Bio- graphia Navalis,” a “ Supplement to Camp- bell’s Lives of the Admirals,” &c. Died, 1807, CHARNOCK, Stephen, a Nonconformist divine. He was a amry eloquent and popu- lar preacher, and advocated Calvinistical doctrines Avith great force and originality. His “ Discourse on Providence ” is consi- dered the best of his Avritings. Died, 1680. CHARONDAS, an early Greek legislator, Avho probably flourished in the 6th century B. c. He was a native of Catana, and gave laws to his fellow-countrymen there and in other cities of Sicily and south Italy. It is supposed that his laAvs Avere in verse. Charondas is related to have killed himself for having broken one of his own laws, which forbad any one to enter the popular assembly in arms. CHARRON, Pierre, a French divine, and a friend of Montaigne, who, by will, left him the privilege of bearing his arms ; a strong proof, considering the pride of a Gas- con, of his personal consideration. His chief works are ” Traits des trois Verites,” an argument in behalf of religion, Christian- ity, and the Catholic Church; and “Trait4 de la Sagesse,” which has been frequently reprinted. Born, 1541; died, 1603. CHASSE, David Henry, Baron, a brave Dutch general, was born in 1765. After serving a fCAv years in the army he entered the service of France, distinguished himself in the Prussian campaign of 1806, and in many campaigns of the Peninsular war. His most celebrated achievement however was his defence of Antwerp against the French in 1832. He had been governor of the city from 1815. Died, 1849. CHASSENEUX, Barthelemi “ DE, an eminent French lawyer; author of “Cata- logus Glorias Mundi,” “ Consilia, or Consult- ations on Points of Law,” &c. It is greatly to his honour that he used all his power as president of the parliament of Provence to l&l cita] Stni&trsal [cha delay the decree issued by that body against the Vaudois of M^rindol and Cabrieres. In- deed, it was suspected that his humanity caused the Catholics to hasten his end by poison. Died, 1541. CHASTELER, JOHANN GABHIEL, Mar- quis du, a distinguished Austrian general, born at Mens in 1763. He entered the army early, and served under the prince of Coburg, and soon after in the Russian army against the Turks. He was employed as engineer at Namur and Lille in 1792, assisted at several other sieges, and especially distin- guished himself at Wattignies, where he re- ceived eight bayonet wounds. He took part ; in the battles of Charlei’oi and Fleurus, at 1 the defence of Liege, and at the taking of the French lines before Mentz in 1795. He assisted in the partition of Poland, and in the settlement of the boundaries of Austria and the Cisalpine Republic ; served in the Italian campaign of 1799, and was wounded at the siege of Alessandria. He took after- wards a leading part in organizing and con- ducting the insurrection of the Tyrol. In 1814 he was made governor of Venice, and died, 1815. CHASTELET, GABUTELLE EMILIE DE Breteuil, Marquise du, was born at Paris, and early became distinguished by her scientific attainments. She published in 1740 “ Institutions de Physique,” with an analysis of the Philosophy of Leibnitz, and subsequently she translated the Principia of Newton. The name of Madame du Chastelet has been chiefly celebrated on account of her liaison with Voltaire. [See VOLTAIRE 1 Born, 1706 ; died, 1749. i CHATEAUBRIAND, FrANQOIS Au- GTJSTE, Viscount de, whose chequered career and numerous productions gained him a prominent place in the history of his time, was born at St Malo, in 1769, the year that witnessed the birth of Napoleon, Mehemet Ali, and Arthur AVellesley. After pursuing his studies at Dol and Rennes, in his 17th year he joined the regiment of Navarre as sub-lieutenant, and repaired to Paris. On the eve of the meeting of the states-general in 1789, animated by a love of adventure, he went to America Here he spent two years amid the wild grandeur of savage life, “ the world forgetting, by the world forgot,” when accident threw into his hands a journal which revealed to him the great events Avhich three years had sufficed to bring about in his native country. He at once returned to take part in the.great conflict. Wounded at the siege of Thionville in 1792, he was con- veyed in a feeble state to Jersey ; and after a partial recovery he sailed for England, where he suffered great privations, which a few translations, and, as he subsequently made known, the timely aid of the Literary Fund Society, mitigated rather than relieved. Here he published his first work, entitled “ Essai Historique et Politique sur les Revo- lutions Anciennes et Modernes,” 1797. After the i8bh Brmnaire he returned to France, and contributed to the Mcrcure. His “Atala” appeared in 1801; and was fol- lowed in 1802 by his most celebrated work, the ‘‘ Gdnie du Christianisme,” which be- came a household word through the Christian world. Soon afterwards he was appointed by Napoleon secretary to the French embassy at Rome. In March, 1804, he was nomin- ated minister plenipotentiary to Switzer- land ; but he resigned on learning the melancholy fate of the Duke d’Enghien.and resisted ali the overtures which Napoleon subsequently made to him. For a long time he had meditated a grand poetic work founded on the great events of Christianity ; and to qualify himself for this undertaking, he visited in 1806 the great scenes of Bible history, and on his return in 1807 he pub- lished “ Les Martyrs,” and four years later his ‘‘ Itineraire de Paris a Jerusalem.” In 1814, Chateaubriand hailed the restoration in a brochure, entitled “ Buonaparte et les Bourbons.” At Ghent he was considered one of the ministers of Louis XVHI. ; in 1815 he was created a peer ‘of France, and the following year he became a member of the Institute. “ La Monarchie selon la Charte,” which he published the same year, threw him for some years into discredit with the court ; but in 1820 the highest state appointments once more lay open to him, and he became successively ambassador at Berlin in 1820, and at London in 1822, and the same year minister of foreign affairs in the Villele ministry, when he organized the invasion of Spain under the duke d’Angou- leme, and took part in the Congress of Ve- rona, the history of which he afterwards wrote. In 1824, being summarily dismis- sed from office, he took refuge in the columns of the Journal des Debats, where he vigor- ously attacked his former colleagues ; and on their fall in 1828, he was sent as am- bassador to Rome, but resigned liis office in 1829, on the formation of the Polignac administration. On the news of the out- break of the revolution of 1830, he hastened to Paris, where he Avas hailed with acclama- tion by the people, but after delivering a glowing oration in favour of the duke of Bordeaux, he retired from the Chamber of Peers, never to enter it again. From this period he personally took leave of politics ; but he continued to send forth from time to time pamphlets on the government of Louis Philippe, conceived in so bitter and violent a spirit, that he became an object of sus- picion to the ministry, and was summarily arrested, but soon discharged. His last years were spent in domestic privacy, cheered by the sympathy of “ troops of friends,” who looked up to him with respect bordering on veneration ; and he expired almost at the moment when some of the most terrible scenes of his early life were renewed in the streets of Paris. Besides the works above mentioned, Chateaubriand wrote “ Etudes Historiques,” “ Essai sur la Litt^ra- ture Anglaise ” (a poor production), and many others, including numerous pamphlets upon historical subjects and the politics of the day. A splendid edition of his collected Avorks was published at Paris in 1826, for which he received £25,000. His “ M^moires,” to which great importance Avas attached dur- ing his lifetime, have been published since his death ; but even the events of his che- quered career, set forth Avith all the grace- fulness of his fluent pen and the fervour of 192 cha] ^ iieto 1I3iograp!)p* [ciia his t?lowin{? imagination, lose much of their interest from the overweening vanity which peers through every page, and which has converted that which might have been a grand “ pi^ce justificatif ” of a life, as re- markable for political changes as the era in which it was passed, into a theme for the regret of the thoughtful, and the satire of the scornful. Died, July 4, 1848. CHATEL, Francis du, a Flemish painter of the 17th centiuy. His chief work, Avhich is in the tOAvn-hall of Ghent, represents the king of Spain receiving the oath of fidelity from the states of Flanders and Brabant. CHATEL, PIERRE DU. [DUCHATEL.] CHATEL, Tanneguy DU, an able French general. He was in the famous battle of Agincourt; and when the Bui’gundians sur- prised Paris, he was foi’tunate enough to save the dauphin, between whom and the duke of Burgundy he afterwards brought about a reconciliation. Died, 1449. CHATHAM, WILLIAM PITT, Earl of, one of the most illustrious British statesmen, Avas the son of Robert Pitt, Esq., of Boconnock, in Corn Avail, where he aaus born in 1708. After studying at Eton and Oxford, he en- tered the army, but Avas returned to par- liament in 1734 as member for Old Sarum. His talents as an orator were soon displayed in opposition to Sir Robert Walpole, and had so great an effect, that the duchess of Marlborough, who had a deadly hatred to that minister, bequeathed to Mr Pitt a legacy of £10,000. On the change, of administration in 1746, he was made joint vice-treasurer of Ireland, and soon afterwards paymaster- general of the army, Avhich place he resign- ed in 1755; but the year following he Avas appointed secretary of state. In a fcAv months he Avas again dismissed from office ; but an efficient administration- being es- sential, and the nation being enthusiastic- ally attached to him, he returned, in June, 1757, to his former situation as secretary of state and virtual prime minister. His great mind now revealed its full force, and his ascendency Avas complete over par- liament no less than in the ministry. He aroused the English nation to ncAV activity, and, in the space of a fcAV years, we recovered our superiority over France, annihilating her navy, and stripping her of her colonies. France was beaten in the four quarters of the Avorld. In 1760, he advised the declara- tion of war against Spain, Avhile she was unprepared for resistance, as he foresaw that she Avould assist France. The elevation of England on the ruins of the house of Bour- bon Avas the great object of his policy. But his plans were suddenly interrupted by the death of George II., whose successor Avas prejudiced against Pitt by his adversary, the earl of Bute, a statesman of limited vieAvs. Pitt, therefore, resigned his post in 1761, only retaining his seat in the House of Commons. Foreseeing the separation of the American colonies from the mother coun- try, if the arbitrary measures then adopted should be continued, he advocated, especially in 1766, a conciliatory policy, and the repeal of the stamp act. In the same year he Avas invited to assist in forming a neAv ministry, j in which he took the office of privy seal. and Avas created Yiscount Burton, Baron Pynsent, and earl of Chatham ; but in 1768 he resigned, partly because of a serious ill- ness, and partly because he found himself inadequately seconded by his colleagues. In the House of Lords he continued to re commend the abandonment of the coercive measures employed against America, parti- cularly in 1774 ; but his Avarning Avas re- jected, and, in 1776, the colonies declared themselves independent. He still, however, laboured in the cause, and used all his efforts to induce the government to effect a recon- ciliation Avith the American states; and, as he was speaking Avith his accustomed energy on the subject in the House of Lords, April 7. 1778. he fell down in a convulsive fit. He died on the 11th of the following month, and his body, after lying in state, Avas solemnly interred in Westminster Abbey, Avhere a superb monument Avas erected to his memory at the national expense. The fine picture of the “ Death of Chatham,” painted by Copley in 1779-80, Avas presented to the National Gallery in 1828. CHATHAM, JOHN, Earl of, &c., eldest son of the celebrated statesman Avhose life Ave have just giA’en, and brother of William Pitt. He was born in 1756, and succeeded to the peerage on the death of his father, in 1778. In the folloAving year he A\'as appoint- ed captain of the 86th regiment of foot, and served in the American Avar. He was after- wards appointed by his brother (then prime • minister) first lord of the admiralty ; Avas SAvorn a privy-councillor, and elected a knight of the Garter. His promotions, both civil and military, Avere rapid and numerous under his brother’s administration, and he continued to hold office for many years after, under his successors. As lieutenant- general, he commanded the unfortunate ex- pedition to Walcheren, in 1809, and Avas, three years afterAvards, raised to the full I’ank of general. On the death of the duke of Kent he Avas appointed governor of Gib- raltar, Avhich he held, Avith other offices, to the time of his death, in 1835. He Avas the last peer of the Pitt family, Avhose title has now become extinct, and with it the annual pension of £4000, besides another pension of £3000 per annum, granted to his father for three lives, in 1761. The last earl Avas mar- ried, in 1783, to a daughter of Yiscount Syd- ney, but they had no children. CHATTERTON, THOMAS, an English poet, whose precocious genius and melan- choly fate have gained him much celebrity, Avas born at Bristol, in 1752. He was edu- cated at Colston’s charity school, and then articled to a laAvyer ; but his taste for litera- ture and distaste for laAv rapidly greAv, and he was set free after serving about half liis time. His father Avas sexton of Redcliff church, Bristol ; and young Chatterton pro- fessed to have received from him several an- cient manuscripts. These he palmed upon the world as the poems of Rowley, a priest of Bristol in the 15th century ; and so admirably was his forgery executed, that it is even now rather assumed than proved, though there can be little moral doubt of it, tliat he did forge and not find the MSS. In 1769. he Avent to London, trusting to literatuj’e for a live- o 193 cha] 151 ;0eto Sinibtrsal ISiograp^n. [che lihood. Having vainly endeavoured to per- suade Horace Walpole and other scholai’s of the genuineness of the MSS., Chatterton, though still a mere boy, became a party writer ; hut this resource failed him, and in a state of deep despondency, produced by absolute want, he destroyed himself by poi- son, in 1770, at the age of 18. CHAUCEH, GEOFFREY, the great early English poet, was born at London, in 1328. He was educated at the universities of Ox- ford and Cambridge, studied law for a short time, and became one of the pages of Ed- Vv'ard III. He gained the favour of the king, and of his son, John of Gaunt, duke of Lan- caster, was employed on various affairs of state, and sent ambassador to Genoa, Milan, and France. He served in the expedition to France, in 1359, and was made prisoner. He afterwards fell into disgrace, probably as a fi’iend of John of Gaunt and of Wickliflfe, and for some time he was in great poverty. He had a pension from the crown, which was doubled by Henry IV., and he spent the last years of his life in rural retirement. Chaucer is called the “Father of English poetry,” and not undeservedly so. But his rare charms and excellencies as a poet are obscured to modern readers who will not be at the pains to master the difficulty of an antiquated form of our language. His prin- cipal poem is the “ Canterbury Tales,” sup- posed to be told by a party of Canterbury pilgrims on their way. .^jnong his other works are “ Troilus and Cre.sseide,” “ Legend of Good Women,” “The Flower and the Leaf,” “The Court of Love,” &c. Died, at London, 1400. Chaucer’s only daughter, Alice, married William de la Pole, duke of Suffolk, and his eldest son, Thomas, was knighted, and held important offices in the state under Henry IV. and Henry V. CHAUDET, Antoine Denis, an eminent French sculptor and painter. He was born at Paris, 176^, and having obtained the grand prize, studied at Home. He became professor at the Academies of Painting and Sculpture, and a member of the Institute. Among his works are a colossal “ Minerva pointing to the Crown of Immortality,” statues of CEdipus, Cincinnatus, Napoleon, &c., and a painting of “Aineas and Anchises amid the conflagration of Troy.” Died, 1810. CHAULIEU, GUILLAUME AMFRYE DE, French lyric poet. His poems, which, with those of the Marquis de la Fare, have been frequently reprinted, are a mixture of Ana- creontic sensualism, and the good-humoured philosophy of Horace. Born, 1639 ; died, 1720. CHAULNES, Albert, Duke de, a French nobleman and man of science. He was well skilled in chemistry, and contributed many valuable papers to the Memoirs of the Boyal Academy of Sciences. Died, 1769. CHAUMETTE, PIERRE GASPARD, one of the most violent and vulgar of the French revolutionists. He was of low origin, and after serving some time on board ship, became clerk to an attorney. At the break- ing out of the revolution he became one of the street orators, and was so conspicuous by his violence, that, in 1792, he was made first a member of the municipality of Paris, and then procureur, or attorney. AVhen the Mountain party, in 1793, wished to over- throw the' more moderate Girondists, Chau- mette was one of the chief instruments of doing so, and was in consequence extremely popular. During the confinement of the unfortunate Louis XVI. in the Temple, Chaumette and Hubert heaped every in- dignity upon him ; and with them, it is said, originated the most horrible of all the charges made against the queen. He at length met his reward. Bobespierre, him- self already on the very verge of ruin, threw him into the prison of the Luxembourg, and he was guillotined in 1794. CHAUNCEY, Sir HENRY, an English lawyer and antiquary. He was knighted by Charles II. in 1681, and in 1688 was made a Welsh judge. Just before his death he published the “ Historical Antiquities of Hertfordshire,” one of the most valuable of our county histories. Died, 1700. CHAUSSE, Michel Marie de la, a French archteological writer ; author of a learned work entitled, “ Museum Roma- num,” “ Pitture antiche delle grotte di Roma,” &c. Died, 1710. CHEKE, Sir JOHN, an eminent English statesman and scholar. Becoming regius professor of Greek at Cambridge, he strenu- ously laboured to improve the prevailing pronunciation of that language ; and the opposition he met with from Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, produced a literary correspondence between them, which was afterwards published at Basle. Having taken part in the education of Edward VI., that king, on his accession, granted him some landed estates. He also made him a privy councillor and secretary of state, and conferred the honour of knighthood upon him. Unfortunately for him he engaged, on the death of Edward VI., in the cause of Lady Jane Grey, and was consequently sent to the Tower on the accession of Mary. His life was spared, and he was allowed to leave England ; but while he was abroad he gave some new offence to the queen, and his estates were confiscated. Visiting Brussels he was seized by order of Philip II. and sent to England, where, under fear of being put to death, he renounced Protestantism. Having done this, the queen, though she did not restore his estates, gave him some equi- valent for them ; but she embittered them by compelling him to sit on the bench at the trial of Protestants whose attachment to their faith was stronger than their fears of death. Besides his correspondence with Gardiner, he wwote and translated several treatises. He also left in MS. an English translation of St Matthew, in which no word was admitted of other than Saxon origin. Born, 1514 ; died, 1557. CHEMNITZ, MARTIN, a distinguished German theologian, was born in Branden- burg, in 1522. He became a disciple of Me- lancthon, at Wittenberg, and was for a few years librarian to Duke Albert of Prussia. He settled as pastor at Brunswick, in 1554, and was afterwards made superintendent of the churches of that diocese. He took a leading part in procuring the adoption of the “ Formula of Concord ” in Saxony and 194 che] ^ Sanibersal 13iograpI)t>^ [che Suabia. Chemnitz was in great hononr among the princes of Germany for his abili- ties, learning, and character. His principal works are the “ Examen Concilii Tridenti- ni,” in 4 vols. folio, esteemed as a solid and dispassionate refutation of the Catholic doctrines, “ Loci Theologici,” Harmonia Evangelica,” and “ Theologiae Jesuitarnm prmcipua capita,” &c. Died, 1586. CHEMNIZER, IVAN IVANOVICH, a Rus- sian soldier and poet. He served several campaigns in the imperial guards, and afterwards entered the corps of engineers. When he at length retired he published various tales and fables, which the Russian critics compare to those of La Eontaine. Born, 1744; died, 1784. CHENEVIX, Richard, an Irish gentle- man of great and versatile ability as a writer ; author of Remarks on Chemical Nomenclature according to the System of the French Neologists,” “ Observations on Mineralogical Systems,” &c. Died, 1830. CHENIER, MARIE JOSEPH, a French poet and miscellaneous writer; author of “ Charles ; IX.,” “ The Death of Calas,” “ Timoleon,” and some other dramas ; of several patriotic songs, which were very popular during the revolution, and of “An Historical Sketch of the State and Progress of French Literature.” He was member of the Convention, Legislative Assembly, and Council of Five Hundred, and survived all the horrors of the “ Reign of Terror,” retain- ing his popularity under the directorial, the consular, and the imperial governments. He died in 1811. His elder brother, An- dre Marie, born 1762, perished by the guillotine, July 25, 1794, for his staunch ad- herence to Louis XVI. Twenty-five years after his death a volume of odes, idyls, and elegiacs from his pen was published, which place him high in the list of French poets. CHERUBINI, MARIA LUIGI CARLO ZE- NOBi Salvador, a distinguished musical composer, was born at Florence in 1760. His precocious skill in music attracted the attention of the grand duke of Tuscany, who gave him a pension, and this enabled him to complete his studies under Sarti, whom he afterwards assisted in his compo- sitions. In 1784 he repaired to London, where he produced the “ Finta Principessa ” and “ Giulio Sabino.” In 1786 he settled in Paris, which thenceforward became his adopted country and the scene of his greatest triumphs. His operas of “ Iphigenia,” “ Lo- doiska,” “ Ali Baba” would alone have testified to the extent and variety of his powers ; but his fame chiefly rests upon his sacred music, of which his “ Requiem,” com- posed for his own obsequies, deserves par- ticular notice. He was director of the Con- servatoire at Paris, where he died, full of years and honours, 1842. CHESELDEN, WILLIAM, an eminent English surgeon and anatomist ; author of a treatise on “ The Anatomy of the Human Body,” which passed through many editions, a treatise ” On the High Operation for the Stone,” “ Osteography, or Anatomy of the Bones,” &c. He was an admirable oculist ; and though his system of lithotomy involved him in much controversy, it is undoubted that he very greatly improved the means of relieving one of the most terrible complaints to which we are subject. Cheselden was elected F.R.8. in 1712. He was born in 1688, and died, 1752. CHESTERFIELD, PHILIP DORMER Stanhope, Earl of, w’as born in 1694, and educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. He went the grand tour, and acquired the taste and habits of a gambler ; first sat in parliament as a member for Lostwithiel ; and in 1726, on his father’s death, succeeded to the earldom of Chesterfield. He was a par- ticular favourite of George II., on w'hose accession he was sworn a privy councillor ; was appointed, in 1728, ambassador extraor- dinary to Holland; made a knight of the Garter in 1730, and was appointed steward of the household. The latter office he soon after resigned, and he continued for several years the strenuous opponent of Sir R. Wal- pole, distinguishing himself by his writ- ings in the “ Craftsman,” as well as by his powerful eloquence in the House. In 1745 the government once more availed itself of his talents, but to remove him from court, where he had lost favour, he was sent to Ire- land as lord-lieutenant, where he continued a year, exercising his power in a manner calculated to gain the approbation of the people. He was afterwards secretary of state, but deafness and declining health induced him to relinquish oflHcein 1748. Lord Ches- terfield was a man of brilliant accomplish- ments, but thoroughly vain, ambitious, and intriguing. He wrote some papers in the World, and several poetical pieces, but he is principally known as the author of “ Lettei’s to his Son,” which are more to be com- mended for their good sense, knowledge of the world, and pleasant style, than for their morality. Chesterfield’s haughty assump- tion of the part of great patron towards Dr Johnson provoked the famous letter prefixed to the first edition of the Dictionary, “ The Blast of Doom, proclaiming that Patronage should be no more.” Died, 1773. CHETHAM, Humphrey, a w'ealthy mer- chant of Manchester, born 1580, to whose munificence that town owes a college and library. He left funds to purchase the col- legiate church, which, being suppressed at the Reformation, had become the property of the Derby family. Mr Chetham’s trus- tees having purchased the college buildings in 1654, the year after his death, removed the scholars into them in 1656, and nine years afterwards they obtained from Charles II. a charter of incorporation. The college was originally founded for the maintenance and education of 40 poor boys : their num- ber however has from time to time been in- creased, and is now 100. A separate bequest was made for the founding of the library, and provision for its yearly increase. It contains now above 20,000 volumes. Any one resident in Manchester, or merely a visitor, has free access, by merely writing his name and address in a book for that pur- pose. Another bequest by Chetham’s will was for the purchase of “ Godly English Books ” to be chained tpon reading desks in the churches of Manchester, Bolton, and three other townships. Died, 1653. 195 che] ^ ^ntbmal ISiograpI^i). [chi CHEVALIER, ANTOINE RODOLPHE DE, French orientalist and tutor to Princess, aftei’Avards Q,ueen, Elizabeth of England. At the death of Edward VI. he went to Ger- many, and subsequently to his native country, France ; was professor of Hebrew at Strasburg and Geneva ; but on the breaking out of the civil war in France, again sought England, where he was well received by his former pupil, the queen. 'When the war seemed to be terminated, he again went to France; but on the occasion of the mas- sacre of St Bartholomew, he left France, intending again to seek shelter in Eng- land, but died at Guernsey. He was a good scholar, and published an excellent Hebrew grammar, an improved edition of the “Thesaurus Linguae Sanctae” of Pagnini, &c. He had commenced a Bible in four languages, but did not live to finish it. Died, 1572. CHEYNE, George, an eminent physician and medical writer. He was born in Scot- land, and Avas intended for the church, but preferring the profession of medicine, he pursued the necessary studies under Dr Pitcairn, and having taken his doctor’s degree, settled in London. His first work was the “ Theory of Fevers ; ” his next publication was a mathematical treatise, entitled “ Fluxionum Methodus inversa,” which procured him considerable reputa- tion, and admission to the Royal Society. Too free ap indulgence in the pleasures of the table having rendered him enormously corpulent as well as asthmatic, he resolved on strictly adhering to a milk and vegetable diet ; and he experienced so much benefit from this course, that all his principal trea- tises urge it upon others. His chief works are “ The English Malady, a Treatise on Nervous Disorders,” “ A Treatise on Gout,” and an “ Essay on Health and long Life.” Died, 1743, aged 72. CHIABRERA, Gabriello, a celebrated lyric poet, sometimes called the Italian Pindar, was born at Savona, in 1552. His life was passed chiefly in studious retire- ment, and the composition of his voluminous Avorks, among which are mentioned five epic poems, innumerable musical dramas, — the earliest specimens of the opera, — and three volumes of lyrical poems. On the latter his fame rests. He aimed at, and to a great extent succeeded in, catching the spirit of the odes of Pindar and Anacreon. Died, 1637. CHIARI, Pietro, an Italian ecclesiastic and poet of the 18th century. He was a rival of Goldoni, and his C07nedies attained considerable popularity. Those of Chiari wei*e, hoAvever, much inferior to those of his rival. Died, 1788. CHICHELEY, HENRY, archbishop of Canterbury, an able and accomplished scho- lar and statesman, was born at Higham Ferrers, about 1362. He was educated at Winchester and Oxford, devoting his atten- tion especially to the civil and canon law. He rapidly rose to high place both in church and state. He was sent ambassador to the pope and to the court of France ; Avas bishop of St David’s in 1408 ; took a promi- nent part in the discussions at the famous council of Pisa in 1410; was again ambas- sador to France the same year, and a third time on the accession of Henry V. in 1414. On his return he was made archbishop of Canterbury. The parliament having ad- vised the king to appropriate some of the revenues of the church, the archbishop lent his influence to engage the young king in a war with France, and accompanied him through the memorable campaign of Agin- court. On the accession of the infant king, Henry VI., Chicheley became first privy councillor, and he Avisely directed all hi*s attention to church affairs, striving at once to check the progress of Wickliffism, and to moderate the claims of the papal court. In the expenditure of his revenue he Avas very liberal; he founded and endowed All Souls College, Oxford, made many important im- provements in Lambeth Palace, and built the south-western tower of Canterbury Cathedral at his own expense. Died, 1443. CHICHESTER, Earl of. [PELHAM, THOMAS.] CHILD, Sir JOSIAH, hart., an eminent London merchant of the 17th century, and author of several works on subjects con- nected with political economy, among which may be noticed his “ Discourse on Trade,” &c. Born, 1630 ; died, 1699. CHILD, William, an English musical composer. He was for many years organist of St George’s Chapel, Windsor, and of the Chapel Royal at Whitehall. The simple , style of his compositions caused them to be neglected in his own time, but they are noAV much admired. Died, 1697. CHILLINGWORTH, WILLIAM, an Eng- lish divine and controversial Avriter, born at Oxford, 1602. He studied at the univer- sity, and early showed the propensity to disputation which characterized him through life. Lord Clarendon says of him, ‘*he had contracted such irresolution, and such a habit of doubting, that at length he was confident of nothing.” In this state of mind a Jesuit convinced him of the truth of the tenets of Romanism, and he went to the Jesuits’ college at Douay. While there he meditated the publication of a vindica- tion of his conversion to the Church of Rome, but Laud, then bishop of London, dissuaded him from his purpose. He subse- quently returned to England, and not only be- came a Protestant again, but also wrote and published the celebrated treatise, entitled “The Religion of Protestants, a safe Way to Salvation.” Some hesitation about signing the 39 Articles prevented him from obtaining preferment in the church ; but he at length consented to sign, and became chancellor of Salisbury, &c. At the break- ing out of the civil war, he warmly espoused the royal cause, and published a treatise on the “ Unlawfulness of Resisting the Lawful Prince, although most Tyrannous, Impious, and Idolatrous.” He accompanied Charles I. to the siege of Gloucester, and invented a machine, or rather imitated one described by ancient authors, for the attack of for- tified places. He Avas taken prisoner at Arundel Castle, which surrendered to the parliamentarians under Sir William Waller, and at his own request was sent to Chiches- 196 chl] % i^el33 ^aniiiersal 13iogrnpf;t). [chr ter, where he died, at the episcopal palace, in 1641. CHLADNT, EKNST FLORENT FRIEDRICH, ' German natural philosopher, was born at ■\Vittenberft in 1756. He applied himself to the investigation of the laws of sound, made important experiments on the vibration of metallic and glass plates of various forms, and invented two musical instruments, which he named Huphonia and Clavicy- linder. He exhibited these in the principal cities of Europe, and gave lectures on his discoveries, in 1802 appeared his “ Treatise on Acoustics,” which was translated into French by order of Napoleon, to whom Chladni was presented in 1608. Chladni also occupied himself long with the study of aerolites, on which he published a treatise in 1794. He was the first to recognize the cosmical character of these bodies, and the connection between them and fire-balls. Died at Breslau, 1827. CHOISEUL, Etienne Franqois de, Duke of, first minister to Louis XV. of France, was born in 1719. He entered the army early, and having attained a high rank, was ap- pointed ambassador to Home and Vienna, and honoured with a peerage. He then be- came minister of foreign affairs, to which station he was raised through the influence of Madame de Pompadour. Four years later, 1761, he became also minister of war, and soon after exchanged the portfolio of foreign affairs for that of the marine. He made many judicious reforms and alterations in the French army, increased the navy, and brought about the celebrated family com- pact. On the death of Madame de Pompa- dour, the duke of Choiseul gradually lost the royal favour, finding a determined enemy in the new mistress, Madame Du Barry. In 1770 he was dismissed from oflace,and exiled to one of his estates. Though recalled by Louis XVI., he did not again hold office. Died, 1785. CHOPIN, Frederic, a great modern com- poser and pianoforte player, was born near Warsaw, 1810. Compelled to leave Poland in consequence of j)olitical convulsions, he played in public at Vienna and Munich in 1831, and soon afterwards repaired to Paris, where he continued to exercise his art till the revolution of 1848 drove him to England. He returned to Paris in 1849 ; but his con- stitution, which had never been robust, sunk under the rude changes of the preceding year, and he died in the autumn of 1849, leaving behind him a reputation, both as a player and a composer, which will not soon pass away. Every note of his music, whether in his concertos or sonatas, or his scherzi, ballades, polonoises, preludes, breathes an unmistakable nationality ; and is marked by distinctness, expression, and elegance. CHRISTIE, JAMES, the son of an eminent auctioneer in London, was distinguished for his critical taste in the fine arts, and his antiquarian knowledge. Though he followed his father’s profession, he found time to give to the world some ingenious and valuable works, viz., an “ Essay on the Ancient Greek Game invented by Palamedes,” showing the oi’igin of the game of chess; a “Disquisition upon Etruscan Vases;” an “Essay on the Earliest Species of Idolatry,” «S:c. Diedj 1831. CHRISTINA, queen of Sweden. She was the only child of the famous Gustavus Adol- phus, whom she succeeded in 1632, being then only six years old. During her minority the kingdom was wisely governed by the chancellor Oxenstiern ; and when • she was crowned, in 1650, she formally declared her cousin, the count palatine Charles Gustavus, her successor. For four years she governed the kingdom with an evident desire to en- courage learning and science; and at the end of that time, weary either of the task of governing, or of the personal restraint which royalty imposed on her, she abdicated in favour of her cousin, and proceeded to Rome, where she surrounded herself with learned men, and busied herself with learned pur- suits. She also embraced Romanism, though it would seem that her moral conduct was such as to evince no great respect for re- ligion of any kind. On this point it will suffice to say, that while at Paris, on one of the various occasions of her visiting that city, she had her equerry, an Italian, named Monaldeschi, murdered in her own residence, and almost in her own presence ; a crime which seems to have had no other cause than the unfortunate equerry’s indifference to the blandishments of his mistress. In 1660, the death of the king, her cousin, caused her to go once more to Sweden ; but her change of religion, and the reports which had reached that country of her conduct elsewhere, had so disgusted her former sub- jects, that t hey resolutely refused to reinstate her in the sovereignty. Being threatened with the loss of her revenues as w'ell as her crown, she consented to preserve the former by finally renouncing the latter ; and she retired to Rome, where she died in 1689. Her Life was written by Archenholz and by Lacombe ; and a new Memoir, by Henry Woodhead, has lately appeared (1864). CHRISTOPHE,. HENRY, a negro, one of the leaders of the insurgent slaves of St Domingo. He possessed considerable ability, but his courage was carried to ferocity. He successfully opposed the French, whose per- fidious seizure of the negro chief, Toussaint Louverture,he amply revenged, and assumed the title of Henry 1., king of Hayti ; but he acted so despotically, that a conspiracy was formed against him; and Boyer, the suc- cessor of Petion, who had established a re- public in the south of Domingo, was invited to take part with the discontented subjects of Christophe, and demanded his deposition. At length, finding that even his body-guard was no longer to be depended on, he shot himself through the heart, October 8th, 1820. CHRYSIPPUS, a Stoic philosopher, was a native of Cilicia, and became a disciple of Cleanthes at Athens. He was an acute thinker and a voluminous writer, but was fond of paradoxes, with which his writing and discourse abounded. His aim, like that of Zeno, was to check the prevalent scepti- cism, and to show, in opposition to the doc- trines of the Academy, that it is possible to know. Born, about 280, and died, 207, B.C. CHRYSOLORAS, MANUEL, a learned Greek of Constantinople, who in the last 197 chr] % ^ni&ersal Biograpf;!?. years of the 14th century was sent by the emperor John Palaeologus to Europe, to seek aid against the Turks. He afterwards settled in Italy, and taught Greek at Florence, Venice, Pavia, and Rome ; thus satisfying the new eager craving for acquaintance with classical literature, and contributing power- fully to its revival. He had a crowd of scholars, and many of them became men of note. He attended the famous council of Constance (that had John Huss burnt), and died there in 1415. He wrote a Greek Gram- mar, entitled “ Erotemata,” whith passed through several editions. CHRYSOSTOM, JOHN, St, patriarch of Constantinople, was [called Chrysostom, which signifies “golden mouth,” on account of his eloquence. He was born at Antioch about the middle of the 4th century, and was intended for the bar ; but being deeply impressed with religious feelings, he spent several years in solitary retirement, study- ing and meditating with a view to the church. Having completed his voluntary probation, he returned to Antioch, was or- dained, and became so celebrated for the eloquence of his preaching, that on the death of Nectarius, patriarch of Constanti- nople, he was raised to that high and im- portant post. He exerted himself so zeal- ously in repressing heresy, paganism, and immorality, and in enforcing the obligations of monachism, that Theophilus, bishop of Alexandria, aided and encouraged by the empress Eudoxia, caused him to be deposed at a synod held at Chalcedon in 403. His de- position gave so much offence to the people, by whom he was greatly beloved, that the empress was obliged to interfere for his re- instatement. He soon, however, provoked her anger by opposing the erection of her statue near the great church ; and, in 404, another synod deposed him, and exiled him to Armenia. He sustained his troubles with admirable courage ; but being ordered to a still greater distance from the capital, where his enemies still feared his influence, he died while on his journey. His voluminous works, consisting of sermons, commentaries, trea- tises, &c., abound with information as to the manners and characteristics of his age. Thirty years after his death his remains were removed to Constantinople with great pomp, and he was honoured with the title of saint. Died, 407. CHUBB, Thomas, one of the English Deists of the 18th century, was born near Salisbury, in 1679, and was apprenticed first to a glove-maker and afterwards to a tallow- chandler. After he had made himself knoAv^n by some theological writings, he became steward to Sir Joseph Jekyl, but in a short time returned to his candles. He Avas of small stature and fat, fond of debate, indus- trious in writing, but scarcely got a living by his works. Among them are, “ The Su- premacy of God the Father asserted,” “ Dis- course on Reason as a sufficient Guide in matters of Religion,” “ Inquiry about the Inspiration of the New Testament,” and “True Gospel of Jesus asserted.’’ He pub- lished many tracts on similar high subjects. Died, 1746. CHURCHILL, Chahles, an English poet. [CIB born, 1731. He was educated at Westmin- ster, but made so little progress in learning, and indulged in such habits of levity, that he was refused admission at Oxford, A mar- riage, as early as it was imprudent, rendered a profession doubly desirable ; and after study- ing for some time in private, he was ad- mitted to holy orders, and obtained a Welch curacy of about £30 a year. The death of his father, who AA'as curate of St John’s, Westminster, brought him once more to London, and he obtained the vacant curacy. Still his income was small, while his love of gaiety was unbounded, and he was on the verge of imprisonment, when Dr Lloyd, of Westminster School, interfered, and effected a composition with the creditors. He now determined to exert the talents he had so long allowed to lie idle ; and his first pro- duction was “The Rosciad,” an energetic satire on the principal actors of that time. Public attention was fixed on this poem by the vehemence with which the players re- plied to it, and Churchill found it worth his while to give the toAvn a new satire, under the title of an “ Apology ” for his former one. “ Night,” “ The Ghost ” — in which he assailed Dr Johnson, at that time all but omnipotent in the literary Avorld — and the “Prophecy of Famine,” folloAved ; and he at length threw aside all regard for his pro- fession, separated from his wife, and became a complete “man of wit about town,” and a professional political satirist. He now rapidly produced an “ Epistle to Hogarth,” “The Conference,” “The Duellist,” “The Author,” “ Gotham,” “ The Candidate,” “The Times,” “Independence,” and “The Journey.” The vigour displayed in these poems makes it probable that he would in time have devoted himself to higher subjects than party politics, and have produced works calculated to give him higher and more last- ing fame ; but a fever hurried him to the gi’ave, at the early age of 34, in 1764. CHURCHYARD, THOMAS, an English poet ; author of “ The Worthiness of Wales,” “Legende of Jane Shore,” &c. He flour- ished in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and died in 1604. CIACONIUS, Peter, an eminent Spanish scholar. Pope Gregory XIII. employed him to superintend an edition of the Bible, the “ Decretal ” of Gratian, and other works printed at the Vatican press. He wrote some very learned notes on Tertullian, Pliny, Seneca, and other Latin writers ; tracts on Italian antiquities; a treatise on the old Roman calendar, &c. ; and he aided Clavius in reforming the calendar. Died, 1581. CIAMPINI, Giovanni Gitjstino, a learn- ed Italian ; author of “ Vetera Monumenta,” “ Lives of the Popes,” &c. He was one of the literary associates of Christina, queen of Sweden, during her residence at Rome, and was aided by her in forming an academy for the study of mathematics, and another for the study of ecclesiastical history. Died, 1698. CIBBER, CAIUS GABRiETi, sculptor, was born at Flensburg in Holstein about 1630, and settled at London about or before the Restoration. He executed the statues in 198 ciB Slinlj^rsal ISiograpIjo, [cic the old Royal Exchange, the sculptures on the Monument, and the two figures of Mad- ness, Raging and Melancholy, at the Beth- lehem Hospital. He was also employed in decorating the mansion at Chatsworth. He Avas father of Colley Cibber, the celebrated actor. Died, 1700. CIBBER, Colley, the actor and drama- tist, was the son of Gabriel Cibber, the sculptor, and was born in London, in 1671. He was educated at Grantham Free-school, and being disappointed of a scholarship at Cambridge, he entered the army. The mili- tary profession did not suit his taste ; and when only about 18 years old he quitted it for the stage. For some time he had but little success ; but his performance of Fon- dlewife, in the “Old Bachelor,” made him very popular, and obtained him the mono- poly of parts of that kind at Drury-lane. His first dramatic effort, “ Love’s Last Shift,” appeared in 1695 ; and it was followed by “Woman’s Wit” and “the Careless Hus- band.” His next production as a dramatist was an adaptation of Moli^re’s TartufFe, under the title of the “ Nonjuror,” of which the “ Hypocrite ” of the more modern stage is a new version. The piece was Avonder- fully popular, and, in addition to the large profits Cibber derived from its performance, it procured him the situation of poet laure- ate. This appointment drew upon him the rancour of contemporary wits and poets, and of Pope among the number ; but Cibber had the good sense to think solid profit more im- portant than the censure of the envious was injurious; and he wore the bays, and per- formed in his own pieces till he was nearly 74 years of age. Besides tragedies and come- dies, to the number of twenty- five, some of which still continue to be played as stock pieces, Cibber wrote an “ Apology ” for his own life, an “Essay on the Character and Conduct of Cicero,” and two expostu- latory epistles to his assailant Pope. Died, 1757. CIBBER, Theophilps, SOU of the above, an actor and dramatist, but very inferior in both capacities to his father. He was of very extravagant habits, and his life was conse- quently spent in much distress. He was drowned in his passage to Ireland, 1757. CIBBER, SUSANNA MARIA, Wife of the last named, was sister to Dr Arne, the cele- brated musical composer, and was an actress of the highest class. Her union with Theo- philus Cibber was productive of both discom- fort and disgrace, and she was separated from him for many years. She was as much re- spected in private life as she was admired on the stage. Her style of acting was well adapted to that of Garrick, with whom she frequently performed. Died, 1766. CICERO, Marcus Tullius, the prince of Roman orators, was born at Arpinum, B. c. 106. He was the son of noble pa- rents, and at an . early age gave such de- cided indications of his ability, that after having served in a single campaign under Pompeius Strabo, he devoted himself, by the advice of his friends, to the bar. For this purpose he studied under Molo of Rhodes, an eminent lawyer, and Philo the Athenian, then resident at Rome ; and, at the age of 26, he commenced practice as a pleader; his first important cause being the defence of Sextus Roscius Amerinus, Avho Avas accused of parricide by one Chrysogonus, a freedraan of the dictator Sulla. He saved his client, but was obliged to withdraw to Athens from fear of resentment of the dictator. As long as Sulla lived Cicero remained in exile, turning even his exile into a benefit by diligently studying .under Antiochus and other philosophers. When he returned to Rome he rapidly rose in his profession, and the qusestorsbip in Sicily Avas bestowed upon him. In this office he made himself very popular; and henceforth his course was all prosperous, until he attained the great object of his ambition — the consulship. The conspiracies of Catiline made Cicero’s con- sular duty as difficult and dangerous as his performance of it was able and honourable ; and he scarcely, if at all, exaggerated his services to Rome when he said that to his conduct “ alone was owing the salvation of both the city and the commonwealth.” But his popularity declined very soon after the expiration of his consulship, and it AV'as chiefly as an advocate and author that he for some time afterAvards exerted his splen- did talents. At length the task of averting ruin (from his own head tasked even his powers to the utmost. Publius Clodius, Avho had now become tribune of the people, raised such a storm against him, that he Avas a second time obliged to go into exile. This time he sought shelter with his friend Plan- cus, in Thessalonica, until the repentant Romans recalled him, making him magnifi- cent recompense for the depredation and devastation by which he had been impover- ished. In the struggle betAveen Cajsar and Pompey, Cicero espoused the cause of the latter ; but after the fatal battle of Pharsalia, he made his peace with the former, Avith whom he continued to all appearance friend- ly, until Caesar fell under the daggers of Bru- tus and his friends. Cicero now took part with Octavius, and pronounced the philip- pics against Antony, which at once shortened his life, and added to his fame. Antony, stung to the quick, insisted upon the death of Cicero, and Octavius basely consented to the sacrifice. In endeavouring to escape from Tusculum, Avhere he Avas living Avhen the news of his proscription arrived, he Avas overtaken and murdered by a party of sol- diers, headed by Popilius Laenas, whose life he had formerly saved by his eloquence ; and his head and hands were publicly exhibited on the rostrum at Rome. Cicero perished in his 64th year, B.c. 43. He was a perfect model of eloquence ; and, as Augustus truly said, “he loved his country sincerely.” Of his Avorks, consisting of orations, philoso- phical, rhetorical, and moral treatises and familiar letters, all written in the purest and most perfect Latin , all well knoAvn and far too numerous to be even named here, there have been almost innumerable editions. Middle- ton’s celebrated “ History of the Life of M. Tullius Cicero,” appeared in 1741. A new English Life of Cicero, by William Forsyth, published in 1864, has received high praise for scholarship and fairness. More recent is the French work, entitled “ Ciceron et sea 199 CIO] Amis,” an interesting study on Roman so- ciety, by Gaston Bcissier, CICOGNARA, LEOPOLD, Count of, Italian writer on art, was born at -Ferrara in 1767. He was educated at the university of Pavia, and after studying the works of art at Rome and other great cities of Italy, he settled at Modena. After the French invasion he took part, for some time, in public affairs, but in 1808 he settled at Venice as president of the Academy of Fine Arts. He travelled through Europe, and formed a valuable col- lection of works of art, which afterwards became the property of the pope. His chief work is the “ History of Sculpture from the revival of the Fine Arts in Italy,” in 3 vols. folio. He also published a description of the principal buildings of Venice, a Catalogue of his Library, and an account of the chefs- d’oeuvre of his friend Canova. Cicognara was a correspondent of the French Institute, and a member of the principal academies of Europe. Died at Venice, 1834. CID, The, whose real name was Don Rodrigo DIAZ de BIVAR, the national hero of Spain, was born at Burgos about 1040. The facts of his career have been wrapped by his adirfiring countrymen in such a haze of glorifying myths that it is scarcely possible to detect them. His life, however, appears to have been entirely spent in fierce warfare with the Moors, then mas- ters of a great part of Spain. His exploits are set forth in a special chronicle, and in a poem of considerable interest, written not long after his death. The story of his love for Ximena is the subject of Corneille’s masterpiece, “Le Cid.” His last achieve- ment was the capture of Valencia, where he died in 1099. CIGNANI, Carlo, an eminent Italian painter, born at Bologna, 1628. He was the pupil of Albani, and pei’fected himself by the study of the works of Correggio, the Caracci, and Raphael. His works, in fresco and in oil, were very numerous, and the subjects of them very various. His princi- pal work is the “ Assumption of the Virgin,” in the cathedral of Forli. Died, 1719. CIGNAROLI, Giambettino, Italian painter, was born near Verona, in 1706. He worked chiefly at Verona, had many schol- ars, and obtained a very high reputation. In 1769 he was visited by the emperor Joseph II., who spoke of him afterwards as the first painter of Europe. Cignaroli’s style was like that of Carlo Maratti, but in- ferior in colouring. Died, 1770. CIGOLI, Lodovico Cardi DA, Italian painter, born 1559. He was trained by Santo di Titi, studied the works of Correggio, Barocci, and the Caracci, and became a dis- tinguished reformer of the art, especially as an opponent of the imitators of Michael Angelo. One of his greatest works was “ St Peter healing the Lame Man,” which has, unfortunately, perished. He painted sevei’al altar-pieces, and wrote a treatise on Per- spective. Died, 1613. CIMABUE, Giovanni, or Giovanni Gualtieri, a very distinguished Florentine painter, born in 1240. Very little is certainly known of his life, but he is said to have been a disciple of Giunta of Pisa, and he was one [CIN of the earliest painters who left oif copying the hard unnatural drawing of the Byzan- tine school, studied nature for himself, and eontributed powerfully to the revival of art. The colossal Madonna, which he painted for the Rucellai chapel, in the church of Santa Maria Novella, Florence, is said to have excited extraordinary enthusiasm, and to have been carried in procession to the church, where it still remains. A Madonna of this master, formerly in the church of Santa Croce, Florence, is nowin the National Gallery. It was Cimabue who first discovered the genius of Giotto. Died, probably, in 1302. CIMAROSA, Domenico, a Neapolitan musical composer. "When the army of revo- lutionized France took possession of Italy , i Cimarosa so openly sympathized with revo- lutionary principles, that, when the French withdrew, he was thrown into prison, and treated with a rigour which is supposed to have materially shortened his life. Of twenty-six operas which he composed, and most of which are comic, “II Matrimonio Segreto ” is the most admired. Born, 1754 ; died, 1801. CIMON, a celebrated Athenian general. He was the son of Miltiades, and first distin- guished himself at the battle of Salamis, B. c. 480. Aristides the Just thought so highly of him, that he initiated him into public busi- ness. After having repeatedly beaten the Persians, especially in 466, when he \ron two victories over them the same day, one by sea, the other on the banks of the Eury- medon, and having enriched his country by the spoils he w'rested from the enemy, the party of Pericles caused him to be ostracized. At the end of five years, which was only half the term for which he had been ban- ished, he was recalled, and again led the Athenians to victory over their Persian foe. While besieging Citium in Cyprus, he died, B. C. 449, having served Athens, not only by his gallantry and prowess in the field, but also by his wisdom and liberality in pro- moting public improvements. CINCINNATUS, LL’CIUS QUINTUS, one of the most illustrious characters of ancient Rome. He was made consul B. C. 460, when the senate and the people were striving for the ascendancy ; and, being much incensed against the latter for having banished his son, he sternly resisted their demands. He was named consul a second time, but refused the oifice and retired to his farm, whence he did not again emerge until he was saluted dictator, 458, and entreated to lend his aid against the iEqui, who had closely invested the army of the consul Minucius. Stepping at once from the petty details of a farm to the momentous duties of a general and a statesman, Cincinnatus defeated the JEqui and made them pass under the yoke. Hav- ing caiised his son to be recalled from exile, after the chief witness against him had been convicted of perjury, he laid downhisauthor- ity and returned to his farm. He was again, though 80 years of age, made dictator, when Mselius was accused of conspiring against the republic. CINNA, Lucius CORNELIUS, the friend, partisan, and fellow-consul of Marius. He 200 cin] ^ i^eirs toi&ersal ISiograpf)^. [cla it was who drove Sulla from Rome, and re called Marius from his African exile. He participated in the numerous murders which followed the return of Marius ; and when in his third consulship, and while preparing for hostilities with Sulla, was assassinated, CINO DA PTSTOIA, an Italian juriscon- sult and poet, born at Pistoia, in 1270, whose proper name was Guittone. He was very eminent as a lawyer, and became a senator of Rome, and professor successively at various universities. In addition to some elegant poetry, by which he is chiefly known , he wrote a “Commentary on the Digest.” Died, 1336. CINQ- MARS, HENRY COIFFIER, Marquis of, was son of the Marquis d’EASat, marshal of France. He was introduced by Cardinal Richelieu to the notice of Louis XIII., and was for some time a most distinguished fa- vourite of that monarch. Ungrateful equally to the cardinal and to the king, he instigated Gaston, duke of Orleans, the king’s brother, to rebellion. They had proceeded so far in their treasonable designs as to set on foot a treaty with Spain, engaging that power to assist them. But the vigilance of the cardi- nal discovered their plans, and the marquis was apprehended, and beheaded in 1642. Cinq-Mars is the hero of a splendid histo- rical novel by Alfred deYigny. CIPRIANI, Giovanni Eattist- 4., an eminent painter, born at Pistoia, in Tuscany. In 1755 he accompanied Sir W. Chambers to London, and was one of the original mem- bers of the Royal Academy. His drawings were greatly admired, and many engravings were made from them by Eartolozzi. Died, 1785. CIRILLO, Domenico, an Italian botanist, born in the kingdom of Naples, 1734. He accompanied Lady Walpole to Prance and England, studied under William Hunter, and was elected P.R.S. He afterwards became president of the academy at Naples, and pro- fessor of medicine in the university of that city. When the French entered Naples, Ci- rillo took an active part against his sove- reign ; and when the legitimate government was restored, he was executed as a traitor in 1799. Among the works of Cirillo are, “ Fundamenta Botanica,” “ Plantarum rari- orum regni Neapolitan! fasciculus,” &c. CISNEROS, FRANCISCO XlMENES DE. [XIMENES.] CL AIRAUT, Alexis Claude, an eminent French mathematician and astronomer, was born at Paris in 1713. He studied the higher mathematics at ten years of age, at thirteen presented a memoir on curves to the Acade- my of Sciences, and at sixteen Avrote one of his most remarkable works, the “ Recherches sur les courbes a double courbure.” This was published in 1729, and the same year he was received at the Academy, although un- der age. He took part in the measurement of a degree of the meridian in Lapland, made laborious investigations on the movemei\t of Halley’s comet, and predicted the time of its reappearance, made important discoveries respecting the lunar motion and the motions of comets, and died at Paris in 1765. Among his principal Avorks are “ Traite de la figure de la Terre,” “Elements d’Algebre,” “Thd- orie de la Lune,” “ Thdorie du mouvement des Cometes,” &c. CLAIRE, MARTIN, a French Jesuit, was born at St Valery in 1612. He gained great distinction as a preacher ; but he is noAV chiefly remembered for his Latin hymns, Avritten in a pure, clear, and elegant style. Died, 1693. CLAIRFAIT, Count de. [CLERFAYT.] CLAPPERTON, Captain Hugh, the cele- brated African traveller, was born in Annan, Dumfriesshire, in 1788, and at the age of 13 Avas apprenticed to the sea-service. Hav- ing during his apprenticeship inadvertently violated the excise laws, he consented (ra- ther than undergo a trial) to go on board the Clorinda frigate, commanded by Capt. Briggs. Through the interest of friends he was soon promoted to be a midshipman, and in 1814 Avas raised to the rank of lieutenant, and appointed to the command of a schooner, on Lake Erie. In 1822 he Avas chosen to ac- company Dr Oudney and Major Denham on an expedition to Central Africa, and on his return to England he received the rank of commander. In six months aftei’Avards he was despatched on a second mission for ex- ploring the country from Tripoli to Bornou, but was not allowed to enter the place. It was during the period of his detention that he Avas attacked with dysentery, Avhich proved fatal, at Sackatoo, on the 13th of April, 1827. His journals, Avhich were all saved, give an interesting account of the central part of Northern Africa, and the manners and customs of its inhabitants. CLARE, Earl of. LFITZGIBBON, JOHN.] CLARE, JOHN, the peasant-poet of North- amptonshire, was born near Peterborough in 1793. He published in 1820 a volume of “ Poems descriptive of Rural Life and Scenery,” which attracted much attention. A friendly attempt was made to place him in a better position in life, but it ended in failure, and the pressure of care and want at last deranged his intellect. Additional poems appeared from his pen entitled the “ Shep- herds’ Calendar and other Poems,” and the “ Rural Muse.” The unhappy poet died in a lunatic asylum in 1864. The story of his life is touchingly told in a Memoir by Frederick Martin, published in the following year. CLARENDON, EDWARD HYDE, Earl of, lord high chancellor of England, a\ as born at Dinton, in Wiltshire, in 1608. He Avas educated at Oxford, and studied law under his tincle, Nicholas Hyde, chief justice of the King’s Bench. During the civil Avars he zealously attached himself to the royal cause, being first returned to parliament in 1640. He Avas made Chancellor of the Exchequer and privy councillor three years later, and Avas the chief adviser of the king. After the failure of the royalist arms he took refuge in Jersey, and then joined Prince Charles in Holland. Clarendon contributed to the restoration, accompanied Charles to London, and Avas made lord chancellor. In his judi- cial capacity his conduct Avas irreproachable ; and as long as he held office, no one could be more decidedly the supporter of the privi- leges of royalty, or the defender of his coun- try’s freedom against the abuses of the royal 201 cla] ^ Slniljmal IBiograpf)^. [cla power. Hut he at length became unpopular, was removed from his high employments, and was banished by act of parliament. He died at Rouen, in 1764. His “ History of the Rebellion,” long regarded as a first-rate historical authority, has been proved to be not only a partial, but a very inaccurate and untrustworthy narrative. His daughter Anne was married to the duke of York, after- wards James II.; and two daughters, Anne and Mary, the fruit of this marriage, both ascended the English throne. CLARENDON, HENRY HYDE, Earl of, son of the foregoing, was born in 1638. He was for a short time lord-lieutenant of Ire- land, in the reign of James II., and wrote a “ History of the Irish Rebellion,” &c. Died, 1709. CLARKE, Adam, LL.D., theologian and orientalist. He was born in Ireland, and re- ceived the rudiments of learning from his father, who was a schoolmaster ; but subse- quently studied at the school foimded by John Wesley, at Kingswood, near Bristol. At the early age of 18, he became a travelling preacher in the Wesleyan Methodist connec- tion, and for 20 years continued to be so. But though he was very popular as a preacher, it is chiefly as a writer that he demands notice here. He published a very useful Bibliogra- phical Dictionary ; a supplement to that work ; a most laborious Commentary on the Bible ; a Narrative of the last Illness and Death of Richard Porson ; and Memoirs of the Wesley, Family ; and edited Baxter’s Christian Directory, and several other reli- gious works. His Commentary on the Bible occupied him above fifteen years. But such were his energy and perseverance, that be- sides the above works and numerous ser- mons, he wrote four elaborate reports on the State of the Public Records, and edited the first volume of a new edition of Rymer’s Fcedera. Born, 1762; died, of cholera, 1832. CLARKE, EDTVARD DANIEL, LL.D., a celebrated modern traveller, and professor of mineralogy at Cambridge, was born in 1769. He accompanied Lord Berwick to Italy in 1794; and in 1799 he commenced a tour through Denmark, Sweden, Lapland, Finland, Russia, Tartary, Circassia, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Greece, and Turkey, returning, in 1802, through Ger- many and France. By his exertions the library of Cambridge was enriched with nearly a hundred volumes of manuscripts, and the colossal statue of the Eleusinian Ceres. He also brought to this country the sarcophagus commonly known as that of Alexander, and a splendid collection of mineralogical specimens, which he turned to the best advantage in his subsequent popular lectures on mineralogy, when he was appointed to the professor’s chair in 1808. He died in 1821, and a complete edi- tion of his works, in 11 vols.,was afterwards published. CLARKE, Jeremiah, Mus. D., organist to St Paul’s cathedral, and joint organist, with Blow, to the king. His compositions are not numerous, but they are remarkable for pathetic melody. An imprudent and hope- less passion for a lady of high rank so much disordered the mind of this amiable and gifted man, that he committed suicide, in 1707. CLARKE, Samuel, D.D., a celebrated English theologian and natural philosopher, was born in 1675. He was a native of Nor- wich, of which city his father was an aider- man ; and was educated at Caius College, Cambridge. While at college, he made an improved Latin translation of Rohault’s treatise on Physics, adding valuable notes in order to familiarize students with the rea- sonings of the Newtonian philosophy. When he took orders, he became chaplain to the bishop of Norwich, and in 1699 published “ Three practical Essays on Baptism, Con- firmation, and Repentance.” By this work he established his reputation as a pious and able writer ; and he now entered the lists as a controversialist, by publishing “ Reflec- tions” on a book by Toland, entitled “ Amyn- tor.” In 1701-5 he was appointed Boyle Lecturer, and took for the subjects of his sixteen sermons, “The Being and Attributes of God ” and “ The Evidences of Natural and Revealed Religion.” In 1712 he published a valuable edition of “ Caesar’s Commentaries,” and a work entitled “ The Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity.” This work involved him in a controversy, in which his principal oppo- nent was Dr Waterland ; and the heterodoxy of Dr Clarke was made the subject of a com- plaint in the lower house of convocation. Subsequently he had a controversy with Leibnitz on the principles of religion and natural philosophy; and gave considerable offence by altering the psalms at St James’s while chaplain to Q,ueen Anne. Although his alleged heterodoxy had deprived him of all chance of rising in the church, he had so just a sense of what was due to his profes- sion, that when offered the mastership of the Mint, on the death of Sir Isaac Newton, he declined it as incompatible with the clerical office and character. The latter part of his life was distinguished by his letter to Hoad- ley, “ On the Proportion of Velocity and Force in Bodies in Motion,” and his edition of “Homer’s Iliad” with a Latin version. After his death, his sermons, in 10 vols., were published by his son. Died, 1729. . CLARKE. [FELTRE, Duke of.] CLARKSON, Thomas, a man whose whole life may almost be said to have passed in labouring to effect the extinction of the slave trade, was born at Wisbeach in Cam- bridgeshire, in 1760. He was first brought into notice as the friend and ehampion of the negro, by a Latin prize essay upon slavery, which was afterwards published in English, and became immensely popular. Associations were formed, and the question was agitated and discussed throughout the country ; at length Mr Clarkson having be- come acquainted with Mr ‘NVilber force, whose connections and influence were justly regarded as of the highest value, it was agreed that the latter should bring the subject under the notice of parliament. This was in 1787, and it there met with various success until 1807, when the memorable law abolishing the slave-trade obtained the sanc- tion of the legislature. But though Mr Wil- berforce, by virtue of his position, was en- abled to take a lead in this great measure. 202 cla] 5Snii)trsal ISiograpijp. [cla the original promoter of it was still inde- fatigable; and, outside the walls of parlia- ment, he continued to labour with undimin- ished zeal. Clarkson’s active benevolence, though principally exerted in favour of the enslaved African, was by no means confined even to that wide sphere. He died Sept. 26, 1846, aged 85. CLAUDE, JEAN, an eminent French Pro- testant divine. He composed a reply to a work of the Port-Royalists on the eucharist, and was involved, in consequence, in a con- troversy with the Catholic writers, in which he displayed immense controversial power. No better proof, indeed, can be desired of the formidable light in which he appeared to his opponents, than is afforded by the fact, that at the revocation of the edict of Nantes he was peremptorily ordered to quit France in 24 hours, though the other Pro- testant ministers were allowed 15 days. His learning, eloquence, and strict morality made him a powerful advocate of truth, and his polemical writings show how well qualified he was to be its defender. Died, 1687. CLAUDE LORRAINE, the great land- scape painter, born in Lorraine, 1600. His real name was Claude Gelee, and he was the son of poor parents, who put him ap- prentice to a pastry-cook. The love of art, however, prevailed over the circumstances in which he was placed; and having re- ceived some instruction in drawing from his brother, who was a wood-engraver, he went to Rome, and was employed as cook and colour-grinder by the painter Tassi, from whom he received instructions in the funda- mental principles of his art. He gradually won his way upward to independence and fame, and by 1630 was known as a good landscape-painter. Sandrart was his inti- mate companion, and first led him to paint from nature. In the study of nature he was unwearied, passing entire days in the fields, noting every change in the aspect of nature from sunrise to sunset. The fruits of this patient observation are seen, espe- cially in his admirable treatment of aerial perspective. Claude also executed a number of etchings. His “ Liber Veritatis,” or in Italian, “ Libro di Verita,” is a collection of his sketches and designs for his pictures, and is now in the collection of the duke of Devonshire. It was engraved and published at London in 1777. Died, 1682. The prin- cipal galleries in Europe are adorned with his masterly productions, and some of the finest are in the National Gallery. Among these are a “ Seaport at Sunset,” “ Seaport, with the Embarkation of the Queen of Sheba,” another with the Embarkation of St Ursula, and several landscapes with figures. CLAUDIANUS, CLAUDIUS, a Latin poet, whose birthplace is supposed to have been Alexandria. He flourished about A. D. 400, under the reigns of Theodosius, Arcadius, and Honorius ; was patronized by Stilicho, and a statue was erected to his honour in the forum of Trajan. His larger poems lose some of their value from the subjects of them being court panegyric ; but in all his poems he displayed a brilliant fancy, and much polished elegance. CLAUDIUS, Tiberius Drusus, Roman emperor, was born B.c. 9, at Lyons, and was oi’iginally called Germanicus. After spend- ing 50 years of his life in a private station, unhonoured, and but little known, he was on the murder of Caligula, his nephew, A.D. 41, proclaimed emperor by the soldiers, and confirmed in the sovereignty by the senate. At first he performed some praiseworthy acts, but he soon became contemptible for his debauchery and voluptuousness; and he died of poison administered by his second wife, Agrippina, A. D. 54. Claudius came to Britain two years after his accession, and made it a Roman province. He built the port of Ostia, the Claudian aqueduct, and executed other great works. CLAUDIUS II., MARCUS AURELIUS FLA- VIUS, surnamed Gothicus, Roman emperor, born A.D. 214, was raised to the throne on the death of Gallienus, in 268; and by his virtues, as well as by his splendid victories over the Goths, he proved himself worthy of his exalted station. Died, 270. CLAUSED, Bertrand, a distinguished French soldier, was born at Mirepoix, 1772. He had already gained distinction in the army of the Pyrenees, at St Domingo, in Italy, and Dalmatia, when he was sent to Spain in 1810, under Junot and Massena. He besieged Ciudad Rodrigo, was wounded at Salamanca, and having saved during a retreat, memorable in military annals, the army of Portugal, and led it into Spain, was appointed commander-in-chief in the north of Spain in 1813. He was one of the last to lay down arms in 1814; and among the first to declare himself in favour of Buonaparte during the Hundred Days, when he took the command of Bordeaux, and established the imperial government without striking a blow. Banished on the return of the Bour- bons in 1815, he retired to the United States, where he remained some years. Imme- diately after the revolution of 1830 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the forces in Algeria ; but in consequence of some mis- understanding with the home goveniment, he returned to France in 1831, received the marshal’s baton, and in 1835 returned to Al- geria as governor-general of the colony ; but the check he sustained at Constantine, in 1836, led to his resignation, and the rest of his days were passed in retirement. Died, 1842. CLAVIGERO, FRANCESCO SAVERIO, a native of Vera Cruz, in Mexico. Having been employed nearly forty years as a Jesuit missionary in Mexico, and made himself acquainted with the traditions and antiqui- ties of the people, he wrote a very valuable work, entitled “ Storia antica del Messico,” being a very full account of the geography, natural history, manners and customs, arts, literature, and religion of Mexico, and of its conquest by the Spaniards. It was trans- lated into the German and Spanish lan- guages, and an English translation was published in 1787. Born, about 1718; died, at Cesena, 1793. CLAVIJO Y FAXARDO, JOSE, a Spanish litterateur, born in one of the Canary Is- lands, about 1726. At the age of 23 he went to Madrid, where he got an appointment in 203 cla] 91 ^niijersal ^iograpI;p. [cle a government office. The publication of a periodical paper, entitled “ El Pensador,” after the manner of the English “ Spectator,” was the beginning of his literary reputation. His name has been most widely known in connection with his dishonourable conduct towards Madlle Curon, sister of Beaumar- chais, and the spirited intervention of the latter in behalf of his sister. Ten years afterwards, in 1774, Beaumarchais, in self- defence, published the full story, which ex- cited intense interest, and furnished Goethe with the subject for a tragedy. Clavijo was disgraced and deprived of his oflBce, but was soon restored. He continued his literary labours, translated Buffon’s Natural History and was named secretary to the Museum of Natural History. Died, 1806. CLAVIUS, Christopher, a German Je- suit and mathematician. By order of Pope Gregory XIII. he corrected the calendar; and he ably defended himself against the animadversions on his labour of the elder Scaliger and others. He also published many mathematical works, among which was an edition of Euclid, with annotations ; a treatise on dialling, and an explanation of the method of reformation of the calendar. Died, 1612. CLAY, Henry, a distinguished American statesman, was the son of a clergyman of Hanover county, Virginia, where he was born on the 12th April, 1777. In 1793 he commenced the study of the law, was li- censed as an attorney in 1797, and removed to Lexington, Kentucky, where he soon took a high position at the bar, and was at once recognized as one of the most promising men of his country and time. Mr Clay was elected to fill an unexpired term in the United States Senate in December, 1806. In 1808 he was elected to the Kentucky legis- lature, and in 1810 he was again chosen to fill a vacancy in the United States Senate. In 1811 he was sent to the House of Repre- sentatives, and was chosen speaker. He was a warm advocate of the war with Great Britain, and throughout that crisis sustained Mr Madison’s war measures with great zeal. In 1814 he was sent to Ghent as one of the commissioners to negotiate-, the treaty of peace with Great Britain. Returning home, he was again sent to congress in 1815, and was elected speaker during two consecutive congresses. He remained in the House of Representatives till 1821. During the year 1818 he achieved great distinction by his advocacy of the claims of the South American republics to the recognition of their inde- pendence by the United States. In 1823, Mr Clay was again elected at congress, and again chosen speaker by a large majority. He distinguished himself in this congress as the advocate of protection to American in- dustry, as, well as several other measures. In 1824, Mr Clay was a candidate for the presidency, and, Mr Adams being chosen president, tendered the olfice of secretary of state, which he accepted, and retained to the close of Mr Adams’s administration. In 1831he was sent to the United States Senate, and in 1832 was a candidate for the presid- ency, but defeated by General Jackson. During the session of 1833, when the tariff question was agitating the whole nation to an alarming extent, he brought forward his celebrated compromise bill, which passed 1 1 both Houses, and restored quiet to the coun- try. Mr Clay remained in the United States Senate until 1842, when, on the 3Ist of March, he resigned his seat. In 1844 he was the 'Whig nominee for the presidency, being defeated by Mr Polk. In December 1849, he again took his seat in the Senate, where he remained until 1851, when the encroach- ments of disease obliged him to tender his resignation. His last service in the Senate was in 1850, when he originated the series of measures known as the Compromise, which rescued the Union from one of its greatest dangers. A long career of 46 years identified him with much of the history of the American nation, and though he was never president, few presidents could hope for greater dignity, or a more enduring fame. Died, 1852. CLAYTON, Robert, bishop of Clogher; author of an “ Introduction to the History of the Jews,” “The Chronology of the Hebrew Bible Vindicated,” “ A Vindication of the Histories of the Old and New Testament,” written against Bolingbroke and other scep- tics. The heterodoxy of some portions of his writings gave so much offence, that measures were contemplated for depriving him of his preferment ; but he died before his condemn- ation could be pronounced. Born, 1695; died, 1758. CLEANTHES, a Stoic philosopher of the 3rd century B.C. He was a native of Assus, in Lydia; but, visiting Athens, he became a zealous disciple of Zeno ; and to enable him to attend on that master in the day, he was accustomed to labour by night. His mental and bodily strength was immense, and de- spite all obstacles, he studied so successfully as to become, B. C. 263, Zeno’s successor. Of his writings only some fragments remain, among which is his noble Hymn to Zeus; but his reputation was so great, that, after his death, the senate of Rome decreed him a statue in his native place. CLEMENCET, CHARLES, a learned French Benedictine, born 1703. He was cliarged with the completion of the first edition of the great chronological work, “ Art de veri- fier les Dates,” projected and left unfinished by Maur d’Antine. He took part also in several other important historical works, among which were the “Decretales des Papes,” and the “ Histoire litteraire de France.” He was warmly attached to the Port-Royalists, and wrote the “Histoire Gen^rale de Port-Royal.” He also Avrote some controversial works against the Je- suits, in whichj notwithstanding his natural tenderness and kind-heartedness, he perhaps showed the influence of the odium theologi- cum. He was a man of fervent piety, and cared for the truth above all things. Died, 1778. CLEMENCIN, DIEGO, a Spanish states- man and litterateur, was born at Murcia in 1765. He became tutor to the sons of the duke of Osuna, and went with him to I’aris. At the outbreak of the Peninsular War he sympathized with the insurgents, and nar- rowly escaped death at the hands of the 204 cle] ^nibtrsal [cle French. The successive revolutions and counter-revolutions of his country made him a very changeful life, alternately active in affairs of state, and driven into rural retire- ment. In 1833 he -was made a peer and li- brarian to the queen. His most important literary work is his voluminous Commentary on Don Quixote, published in 1833-39. He wrote an Eloge on the great Queen Isabella, with valuable dissertations ; a discourse on the Cid, and other works. Died, at Madrid 1834. CLEMENS HOMANUS, bishop of Home in the first century. It is conjectured that he may be the Clement named by St Paul. His Epistle to the Church of Corinth, one of the most precious relics of the primitive church, is to be found in the Patres Aposto- lici of Le Clerc. Clemens is said to have died at Rome, at the end of the 1st century. CLEMENS, Titus Flavius, known as Clement of Alexandria, one of the fathers of the church. Of his early career so little is known that it is doubtful whether he was born at Alexandria or at Athens ; but about the year 189 he succeeded Pantaenus in the catechetical school of the former city, and taught there until 202, when the edict of Severus compelled him to seek a new abode. In 210 he was in Cappadocia, and he was afterwards in Antioch, but where he died is unknown. His chief works are an “ Exhort- ation to the Pagans,” “ Paedagogus,’’ or the Instructor, and “ Stromata ; ” the last-named of which is a very valuable miscellaneous work, containing facts and quotations to be met with in no other writer. Died, about 220. CLEMENT TUT., Pope, whose name was IPPOLITO ALDOBRANDINI, was made cardinal by Sixtus V. in 1585, and succeeded Innocent IX. in 1592. He received the ab- juration of Henry IT. of France, and gave him absolution ; honoured Tasso by propos- ing to crown him at the capitol ; had a new edition of the Tulgate published ; and seized the duchy of Ferrara for the States of the Church. It w'as under this pope that the famous congregations De Auxiliis were held, for the settlement of the controversy then raging between the Dominicans and the Je- suits respecting grace and free-will. These conferences began in 1598, and were con- tinued at intervals for nine years. Died, 1605. CLEMENT XI. , Pope (GIAN FRANCESCO ALBANI), born in 1649, was created cardinal in 1690, and succe^ed Innocent XII. in 1700. His pontificate or 20 years was a troubled one, his measures involving him in grave disputes with the emperor, with the kings of France and Spain, and with the house of Savoy. He published two famous bulls, both against the doctrines of the Jansenists ; the first, “ Tineam Domini,” and the second, “ Unigenitus,” which caused extraordinary excitement in France. The proceedings of the Jesuits in China were condemned by the bull “ Ex ilia die,” against certain supersti- tious practices sanctioned by them. Clement protected and assisted the English Pretend- er in 1715, and after the failure of his pro- jects gave him Urbino for his residence. This pope was a warm friend of literature and art, and his private character was ex- cellent. Died, 1721. CLEMENT XIV., Pope, whose real name was GANGANELLT, was a native of St Arc- angelo, near Rimini. In 1759 he Mms raised to the cardinalate by Pope Clement XIII., and on the death of that pontiff, in 1769, he was elected his successor. He was at first apparently disinclined to the suppression of the powerful but mischievous order of the Jesuits, but he at length became convinced of the neeessity of sueh suppression, and he signed the brief for it in 1773. Shortly after he had signed this important doeument he was seized with a disorder, supposed to have been the effect of poison; and, after lan- guishing in agonies, which reduced him to a mere skeleton, he died in 1775. Clement was one of the most enlightened and bene- volent characters that ever wore the tiara. His manners were lowly and unassuming, his appearance plain and simple ; and when he was told that the papal dignity required a more sumptuous table, he answered that ‘‘neither St Peter nor St Francis had taught him to dine splendidly.” This pontiff was the founder of the Clementine Museum in the Vatican. His monument at Rome is one of the finest works of Canova. CLEMENT, Feanqois, a learned French Benedictine of Saint-Maur, was born at B^ze near Dijon in 1714. He was educated at the Jesuits’ College at Dijon, and entered^ the congregation of Benedictines in 1731. His incessant application to study injured his health, and he was compelled to relinquish intellectual labour for about 20 years. He then settled at Paris, and was employed first to continue the “ Histoire Litt^raire de la France ; ” then, the “ Recueil des Historiens de France;” and finally to prepare a second edition of the “Art de Verifier les Dates.” It appeared in 1770. He then devoted him- self to the preparation of a third edition, enlarged and extended, making it, as it has been called, “le plus beau monument d’4ru- dition du dix-huitieme si^cle.” It was pub- lished between 1783 and 1792. Dom CRment was admitted to the Academy of Inscriptions in 1785. At the revolution he was driven from his cloister, but continued his peaceful toils in the house of a relative, and had nearly completed “ L’Art de Verifier les Dates avant J4sus-Christ,” when he died of apoplexy, March 1793, not long after the execution of Louis XVI., who had taken much interest in his labours. CLEMENTI,MuziO,an eminent composer and pianist ; the father of pianoforte music, and a genius whose fancy was as unbounded as his science ; was born at Rome, in 1752. He early evinced a taste for music, and made such progress in the science, that in his ninth year he passed his examination as an organist, and in his 12th he wrote a mass for four voices. Under the patronage of the highly-gifted Mr Beckford he came to Eng- land, lived with him at his seat in Dorset- shire, where he learnt the English language, studied, composed, and gradually arrived at the head of his profession. In the year 1800 he was induced to engage, as the head of a firm, in the music trade ; in which he continued, but without any interruption of 205 cle] ^ ^nibcrsal [cli his duties as a composer, till his death, in 1832. He was huried in Westminster Abbey. CLEOBULUS, one of the seven wise men of Greece, was a native of the Isle of llhodes, and lived in the 6th century B. C. CLEON, the celebrated Athenian popular leader, was the son of Clemnetus, and was by trade a tanner. He was the opponent of the measures of Pericles, on whose death he became the popular favourite. His character and designs have been represented in the most contradictory colours ; and the controversy whether he is to be regarded as an earnest defender of popular rights, or a vulgar, factious mob-leader, is still un- settled. He is severely treated hy Thucy- dides, and is the object of the most merciless satire of Aristophanes. The massacre of the Mitylenaean prisoners at Athens, in B.c. 427, was chiefly owing to his influence. Two years afterwards he gained great distinction by his capture of the Spartans in the island of Sphacteria, opposite to the fort of Pylos. In 422 he commanded an expedition against Brasidas in Thrace, and was defeated and killed in the battle before Amphipolis. CLEOPATRA, queen of Egypt. She was the daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, who, at his death, left his crown to her and her younger brother, Ptolemy ; but being mi- nors, they were placed under the guardian- ship of Pothinus and Achilles, who deprived Cleopatra of her share of the government. Caesar, however, who had met her at Alex- andria, being' struck with her youthful charms, — she was then about 17, — took up her cause and proclaimed her queen of Egypt ; and for some time Cleopatra made the conqueror the bond-slave of her beauty. She followed him to Rome, and was there at the time of his murder. After Caesar’s death she captivated the triumvir, Mark Antony ; who, after marrying Octavia, left her for the sake of Cleopatra. The latter was with Antony at the fatal battle of Actium, and failing to fascinate Augustus, and deter- mined not to be his prisoner, she put an end to her existence by applying an asp to her arm, the bite of which caused her im- mediate death, B. C. 30, aged 39. Cleopatra had a son by Caesar and several children by Antony. CLEOSTRATUS, an eminent Greek as- tronomer and mathematician, a native of Tenedos. He first arranged the signs of the zodiac, and corrected the error in the length of the Grecian year, by introducing the period termed Octaeteris. He flourished in the 6th century B. C. CLERC. [LECLERC.] CLERFAYT, FliANgOIS SEBASTIEN Charles Joseph he Croix, Count de, an Austrian general, who served with great distinction in the seven years’ war, par- ticularly at the battles of Prague, Lissa, &c. From the conclusion of that war till 1788, when he took the field against the Turks, he lived in retirement ; but in the war which arose out of the French revolution, he commanded the Austrian army with great credit to himself, in 1793 and 1794, though overborne by numbers, and often defeated in consequence. In 1795 he was made field-marshal, and general-in-chief on the Rhine, and closed his military career by totally foiling the plans of the French. He then resigned his command to the Arch- duke Charles, became a member of the aulic council of war, and died in 1798, at Vienna, where a splendid monument is erected to his memory. CLERMONT-TONNERE, ANTOINE Jules de, cardinal, and dean of the French bishops, was bishop of Chalons in 1782, and was an active member of the states-gcneral. He is chiefly remembered, however, as author of the interesting “ Journal of what occurred at the Temple during the Captivity of Louis XVI.” Born, 1749 ; died, 1830. C L E R M 0 N T-T 0 N N R E, STANISLAS, Count de, was one of the first among the nobility to side with the popular party in the opening scenes of the French revolution. Having at length given umbrage to his party, he was put to death in 1792. CLEVELAND, JOHN, a political writer of the time of Charles I. He strenuously supported the cause of that monarch, and when the civil war broke out he joined | the royal army, and was made judge advo- cate to the troops which garrisoned New- ark. When that town was surrendered to the parliamentarians, Cleveland made his escape, but was apprehended, in 1655, at Norwich. After a detention of some months he gained his liberty by a temperate but manly letter addressed to Cromwell, in which he justified his opposition to him, on the ground that it was the result, not of any factious or personal motive, but of sincere principle. Of his satires several editions were printed, but they have shared the fate of most works of their class, and are now known to but few. Died, 1659. CLIFFORD, George, earl of Ciimber- land, an eminent naval commander and scholar of the time of Queen Elizabeth. He was present at the trial of Mary, queen of Scots, and in the same year sailed for the coast of South America, where he made himself very formidable to the Portu- guese. He was captain of one of the ships engaged against the memorable “ Armada” of Spain, and subsequently commanded several expeditions to the Spanish main and the Western Islands ; in one of which ex- peditions he had the good fortune to capture a galleon, valued at £150,000. He Avas a great favourite with Queen Elizabeth, who conferred on him the insignia of the order of the Garter. It seems, however, that fame and court favour were the chief rewards of his great talent and industry, as he is said to have died poor. Born, 1558 ; died, 1605. CLIFFORD, Anne, daughter of the pre- ceding, Avas born in 1589. She was married first to Richard, Lord Buckhurst, afterwards earl of Dorset, and second son to Philip, earl of Pembroke. She possessed consider- able literary ability, and wrote memoirs of herself and of some of her ancestors. But she was chiefly distinguished by her generosity and high spirit. She built tAvo hospitals, repaired several churches, and erected monuments to the memory of Spenser and Daniel, the latter of Avhom had been her tutor. She displayed her spirit when Wil- 200 clt] ^nifacrsal 33iograpf)i}. [clo liamson, secretary of state to Charles II., wished to nominate a member of parlia- ment for her borough of Appleby. “ I have been bullied by a usurper,” was her reply, “ and I have been neglected by a court; but I will not be dictated to by a subject. Your man shall not stand.” Died, 1676. CLINTON, George, an American general and statesman. He first served under Gene- ral Amherst against the French, and, after the conquest of Canada, devoted himself to the study of the law. In 1773 he was a member of the colonial assembly ; and, be- ing made brigadier-general, he succeeded, though he had a very inferor force, in pre- venting Sir Henry Clinton from aiding General Eurgoyne. Clinton was governor of New York State from 1777 till 1810, and was also made vice-president of the United States. Born, 1739 ; died, 1812. CLINTON, Sir HENRY, an English ge- neral. He succeeded Sir WiUiam Howe as commander-in-chief in America ; and his ill success in 1781 and 1782 was so severely animadverted upon, that he thought it ne- cessary to exculpate himself through the medium of the press. After his return from America, he was for some time governor of Limerick, and had just been appoint- ed governor of Gibraltar when he died, 1795. CLINTON, Henry Fynes, the distin- guished chronologist, author of the “ Fasti Hellenici,” and the “ Fasti Homani,” was born in Nottinghamshire, the 14th Jan. 1781 ; was educated at Westminster School, and passed thence to Christ Church, Oxford, where he was admitted commoner in 1799. Here his diligence and ability attracted the notice of Cyril Jackson, who nominated him to a studentship. He graduated B.A. 1803, M.A. 1805. His family then used the name of Fynes ; for it was not till the 26th April, 1821, that the royal licence was ob- tained to assume the ancient family name of Clinton. In 1806 he entered parliament, and for 20 years represented the borough of Aldborough. He did not, however, take part in the debates. His mind was originally directed to historical and chronological researches by the appearance of Mitford’s “ History of Greece.” Exempted from the lowest cares by the possession of a large fortune, Clinton devoted himself with in- tense earnestness and perseverance to his chosen task. The extent and quantity of his classical readings were prodigious, and the fruits of his faithful labour appear in the works above mentioned, which have become authorities throughout Europe. The “Fasti Hellenici” (Chronology of Greece) was published between 1824-34, and the “ Fasti Romani ” (Chronology of Rome) between 1845-50. Useful “Epitomes ” of these works were afterwards published. Clinton was twice married, and left, by his second wife, a son and eight daughters. Died, 24th Oct. 1852. A volume of his “ Lite- rary Remains ” appeared in 1854. CLITUS, a distinguished Macedonian ge- neral, who saved the life of Alexander the Great at the battle of the Granicus, but who, having expostulated with his imperial master when the latter was in' a fit of intoxication, was slain by him, B. C. 328. CLIVE, Robert, Lord Clive and Baron Flassey, was born in 1725, and in his 19th year went to India as a writer, but soon quitted that employment for the army. Being intrusted with the attack of Devi- cottah, a fort of the rajah of Tanjore, he performed this important duty so well, that he was shortly afterwards made commissary. The French having artfully obtained con- siderable territory in the Carnatic, Clive advised that an attack should be made on the city of Arcot, which being intrusted to him, a complete victory was obtained. This unexpected victory drew off the French from Trichinopoly, which they were then besieging, to retake Arcot, which Clive defended in such a manner that they were compelled to raise the siege. This was followed by a series of victories ; and in 1753 he embarked for England, where he received a valuable present from the East India Company, and was raised to the rank of lieutenant-colonel in the king’s service. After a short stay in England for the benefit of his health, he returned to India, and was shortly called upon to march to Calcutta, of which the nabob Sura j ah Dow- lah had taken possession. He was again successful, and perceiving that there could be no permanent peace obtained until the nabob was dethi*oned, he made the ne- cessary arrangements, and in the famous battle of Plassey, put the nabob completely to the rout, and established the power of the English more firmly than it had ever before been. As governor of Calcutta, Lord Clive performed great services, both civil and military; and when he returned to England he was raised to the peerage by the titles which stand at the head of this ajrticle. He once more visited India, but was called upon only for civil measures, which he took with his usual sagacity. In 1767 he returned to England, having done more to extend the English territory and consolidate the English power in India, than any other commander. But the large wealth he had acquired during his long and arduous services exposed him to an accus- ation in the House of Commons of having abused his power. The charge fell to the ground, but it hurt his mind so deeply that he committed suicide in 1774. CLODIUS, whose full name is PUBLIUS CLODIUS (or CLAUDIUS) PULCHER, a profligate Roman patrician, especially known as the enemy of Cicero. He served as a soldier in Asia for some years, and being at Rome in B.C. 65, prosecuted Catiline and took a bribe to drop the pi’oceedings. He became most notorious by his daring entrance, dressed as a woman, into the house of Caesar during the celebration of the mysteries of the Bona Dea, in B. C. 62. On his trial the evidence of Cicero was decisive against him, and thenceforth his aim was revenge on Cicero. He got him- self made plebeian and tribune, and pro- cured the banishment of his great enemy, who was however soon recalled. He after- wards went about the city with a band of gladiators, and had frequent combats with *>.07 oi-o] ^ ^nibrrsal lSiograpf)p. [cly Milo and his hand. He was at last killed in one of these combats, early in 52. CLOOTZ, Jean Baptiste de, a Prus- sian baron, better known as Anacharsis CLOOTZ, one of thew'ildest and most violent 1 actors in the tarly scenes of the French re- volution. He was born at Cleves in 1755, and very early dissipated the greater portion of his foi-tune. In 1790, being at Paris, he presented himself at the bar of the National Assembly, attended by a number of men dressed to represent various foreign nations ; and, describing himself as the “ orator of the human race,” he demanded the right of confederation. After making himself con- spicuous by a variety of foolish projects set forth in no less foolish speeches, he was in 1792 sent to the National Convention as deputy from the department of the Oise. As might be expected from his previous conduct, he was among those who voted for the death of the unfortunate Louis XVI. His course, however, wms now well nigh run, for, becoming an object of suspicion to Robespierre, he was arrested, and guillotin- ed in 1794. CLOSTERMAN, JOHANN, "a German por- trait painter. He was employed in Spain, Italy, and England ; and in this country there are many of his works ; among them the great picture of Queen Anne, in Guild- hall, London. It is said that when paint- ing the duke and duchess of Marlborough and their children, the disputes between her Grace and the painter were so frequent and so obstinate, that the duke protested he had as much trouble in mediating between them as in winning a battle. Died, 1713. CLOVIS, king of the Franks, usually called the founder of the French monarchy, was born in 467. He was the son of Childeric I., and succeeded him in 481. During his reign he recovered from the Romans all their possessions in Gaul. He defeated Siagrius, near Soissons, in 486, compelled Alaric, king of the Visigoths, to surrender him, and had him put to death. Clovis mar- ried Clotilda, niece of Gundebald, king of the Burgundians, and through her influence was gradually led to renounce paganism, and profess Christianity. His final decision was made after his great victory over the Alamanni, at Tolbiac, in 496 ; and he was baptized by St Remi, with three thousand of his subjects. In the following year the Armoricans united themselves with the Franks. Clovis pursued a crafty policy with the king of the Burgundians and his bro- ther, on the principle “ divide and con- quer.” In 507 he made war on Alaric II., king of the Visigoths, and totally defeated him at the battle of VougR, killing him with his own hand. Clovis thus added the whole south-west part of Gaul to his domin- ions. At Tours he soon after received am- bassadors from Anastasius, emperor of the East, who gave him the titles of patrician and consul. Clovis, about that time, settled at Paris, and made it the capital city. He disgraced himself by the unjust and cruel measures he took to get rid of several of his kindred, possible competitors for the crown. Died, at Paris, in 511, after dividing his kingdom between his four sons. CLOWES, John, an English divine, rec- tor of the church of St John at Manchester. Embracing the doctrines of Swedenborg, he published translations of a large portion of his theological writings, and wrote several works in exposition and defence of them. Born, 1743 ; died, 1831. CLTJSIUS (CHARLES DE L’ECLTJSE), a celebrated physician and botanist, born at Antwerp, in 1526. He first studied law, but abandoned it for medicine and botany. He went to many of the principal universities of Europe, among them that of Wittenberg, where he attended the lectures of Melanc- thon. He then travelled extensively in Europe in pursuit of his favourite science, and by over-exertion and numerous grave accidents, he ruined his health and became a cripple. He visited England several times. He became keeper of the Botanical Gardens at Vienna, and in 1593 accepted the chair of Botany at Leyden. His principal works are “ RariorumPlantarumHistoria,” “ Exo- ticorum libri X.,” and “ Histoire des Plantes,” a translation from Dodoens. Died, at Leyden, 1609. CLUTTERBUCK, ROBERT, an English antiquary and topographer. He was ,a native of Hertfordshire, and having an in- dependent fortune, he devoted his time to scientific and literary pursuits. Having collected materials for a new edition of Chauncey’s History of Hertfordshire, he changed his plan, and produced a new work instead of re-editing the old one. His work consists of three folio volumes, and is well illustrated. Died, 1831. CLUVIER, PHILIP (CLHVERIUS), a learned geographer, born at Dantzic, 1580. He travelled through the principal coun- tries of Europe, visiting England also, and published the fruits of his researches in his “ Germania Antiqua,” “ Siciliie Antiqiue libri II.,” “ Itaiia Antiqua,” &c. He is said to have spoken with fluency nine languages. Died, at Levden, 1623. CLYDE, Colin CAMPBELL, Lord, field- marshal, commander-in-chief in India, was born at Glasgow, in 1792. He entered the army in 1808, and first served in the penin- sula at the battles of Vimiera and Corunna. In the following year he took part in the Walcheren expedition, and from the fever which struck him there he suffered for thirty years. In 1810 he returned to the peninsula, and served at the battle of Ba- rossa, the defence of Tarifa, and the great battle of Vittoria. He greatly distinguished himself at the first and unsuccessful assault on St Sebastian, in July, 1813, where he re- ceived two wounds, and narrowly escaped with his life. He was again wounded (at the passage of the Bidassoa. He became a captain by brevet soon after, and obtained no further promotion for twelve years. In 1814 he served in the American war in the West Indies, and was subsequently employ- ed in Ireland on the unwelcome service of enforcing the collection of tithes. Lieutcn- ant-coloiiel in 1832, he was sent to China in 1842, whence on the outbreak of the second Sikh war he passed to India. He served with great distinction at the battles of Chillianwallah and Goojerat, and in 1851-2 20S cob] % i^eb) ^aiub^rsal 13iograpf)b. [cob he commanded against the hill-tribes beyond the Indus, showing himself not only brave in the field, but merciful after victory. In 1854, on the declaration of war with Russia, Sir Colin Campbell was appointed to the command of the Highland brigade sent to the Crimea, rendered distinguished service at the battle of the Alma, where he had his horse killed under him, and received the thanks of Lord Raglan, commander-in-chief. He was intrusted with the defence of Balak- lava, and with his regiment, the “thin red streak topped with a line of steel,” gallantly repulsed a body of Russian cavalry at the battle of the 25th October. Sir Colin was made lieutenant-general in June, 1856, and Avas soon after created D.C.L., Oxford. On the outbreak of the Indian mutiny in the following year, he was sent to India as com- mander-in-chief, where he heroically and skilfully applied his vast experience, energy, and decisiveness in quelling, in co-operation with Havelock, Outram, the Lawrences, and other noble men, the formidable rebel- lion. He directed the relief of LucknoAV, and its subsequent siege and capture. And then, after fifty years of service, waiting for the honours and rewards he had so well earned, he was raised to the peerage as Baron Clyde of Clydesdale, made full general, and in 1862 field-marshal. He was also a knight of the Star of India, and a grand oflacer of the Legion of Honour. Like Wel- lington, duty was with him the first thing. He loved his profession, loved his soldiers, and was loved by them. He was a strict disciplinarian, but cared little about out- ward pomp. Though too long neglected and kept in the background, his great ability, knowledge, good sense, modesty, and faithfulness, reaped at last full acknow- ledgment and reward. Died, in August, 1863, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. COBBETT, WILLIAM, political and mis- cellaneous writer, was born in the parish of Farnham, Surrey, in 1762, and brought up from his earliest years on his father’s farm. An accident— the mere sight of the stage- coach on its journey to London while he was going to Guildford fair — led him, in 1783, suddenly to quit his home and rustic pursuits, in order to seek his fortune in a wider sphere. His first employment was that of a copying-clerk in Gray’s Inn, the miseries of which he eloquently and wittily depicts. After nine months’ toilsome drud- gery he enlisted as a soldier, and was sent to the dep6t at Chatham, where he remained about a year, attending closely to his duty, but applying every leisure moment to the improvement of his mind, and particularly to the study of grammar. The regiment at length sailed for Nova Scotia, and was then ordered to St John’s, New Brunswick, Avhere he soon attracted the notice of his superiors by his industry, regularity, and habitual temperance; and was appointed serjeant- major of the regiment. After seven years’ service the regiment returned to England ; and Serjeant-major Cobbett solicited and received his discharge. He next went to France, in order, chiefly, to perfect himself in the language ; but seeing that a war with England was inevitable, he embarked for America ; where under the sobriquet of Peter Porcupine, he began to publish his “ Observations,” and other political pamph- lets, all calculated to uphold the dignity of his native country, and oppose the preva- lence of French principles. But he found it necessary to quit America ; and, on his re- turn to this country, he commenced a daily paper called the Porcupine, and afterwards the Weekly Register, in Avhich at first he strenuously supported the government. But various articles appeared Avhich Avere de- nominated libels, and he Avas arrested, fined, and imprisoned. From this period a gradual change may be discovered in the tone of Cobbett’s political disquisitions, and ere long he was looked upon as the leader of the radical reformers. In 1809 he published a libel relating to the flogging of some men in the local militia, at Ely, in Cambridge- shire ; he was found guilty, sentenced to two years’ imprisonment in Newgate, to pay a fine of £1000 to the king, and at the expiration of the two years to give security for his good behaviour for seven years, him- self in £300, and tAvo securities in £100 each. This severe sentence Cobbett never forgot or forgave. No sooner was he liberated than he reduced the price of his “ Register” to 2d., whereby its sale was immensely increased. At length the arbitrary “Six Acts” Avere passed ; and as he firmly believed they were passed for the express purpose of silencing him (particularly the Power of Imprison- ment Act), he Avent to America, and settled in Long Island ; from which spot his future “ Registers ” Avere dated, till his return to England, in 1819, after that act Avas re- pealed. Cobbett brought with him the bones of the celebrated republican, Tom Paine — the man whom above all others he had formerly decried as a regicide and an infidel ! and called upon his counti’ymen to honour them by a magnificent public fune- ral, and the erection of a splendid monu- ment ! In 1820 Mr Cobbett Avas induced to become a candidate for the representation of Coventry, but met with a signal defeat ; and in 1826 he made a similar unsuccessful attempt at Preston. In 1829 and the tAA'o following years, the events in Europe gave a more impassioned tone to his writings than they had for some time exhibited. He had the revolutions abroad— the reform bill at home — and the fearful spirit of incen- diarism through the agricultural districts, to write about all at once. In consequence of an article which appeared in the“ 'Weekly Political Register” on the 11th of Decem- ber, 1830, he was, on the 7th of Jxily follow- ing, tried before Lord Tenterden and a special jury for the publication of “a libel, with intent to raise discontent in the minds of the labourers in husbandry, and to incite them to acts of violence, and to destroy corn stacks, machinery, and other property.” Sir Thomas Denman, then attorney-general, was the leading counsel for the croAvn ; while Mr Cobbett conducted his defence in person ; and a more lucid, vigorous, or poAverful answer to charges brought by a public prosecution has rarely, if ever, been delivered. The jury deliberated from six o’clock at night till nine the next morning. p 209 cob] 'M i^ctD ^nib^rsal ^iograpl)p, [cob and then, stating to the judge that there were six of them of one opinion, and six of another, solicited tlie court to grant their discharge, and they were dischai'ged accord- ingly. Thus ended this memorable trial. From that hour till the day of his death he never ceased to hold up those to scorn Avho had made this last desperate, but impotent, effort to crush him. From the time of his trial, in 1831, up to the pass- ing of the reform bill, in 1832, Cobbett’s time was almost equally divided between the three several occupations of writing, travelling, and lecturing ; and as his fame was evidently again on the increase, he looked forward to a seat in parliament at the approaching elections. When the proper period arrived (Dec. 1832) he was put in nomination both for Manchester and Old- ham ; and though defeated at the former place, he gained his election at the latter by an immense majority. In 1833 William Cobbett was a British senator — the long- sought object of his ambition. But it was an element unsuited to his habits ; late hours and confinement in a heated atmosphere were never intended for him, who ‘‘usually went to bed at nine o’clock and rose at four.” During a debate on the malt tax, on the 25th of May, he was suddenly attacked with a disease of the throat, from which he never recovered, and on the 17th of June, 1835, he expired. As an author, independent of his long-continued political pamphlets and pe- riodical woVks before referred to, he was ex- ceedingly industrious; and in those which relate to rural life he was decidedly the most useful writer of the age, as his “ Cottage Eco- nomy,” “Advice to Young Men,” “Bural Rides,” &c., abundantly prove. He also wrote Grammars of the English and French languages, which had an extensive circula- tion ; also, “ A Year’s Residence in America,” 20 volumes of “ Parliamentary Debates,” &c. ; but his last work, “The History of the Reformation,” is distorted by party views, and does Cobbett more discredit than the coarse invectives and political tergiversa- tions that are to be met with elsewhere in his voluminous writings. COBDEN, Richard, the distinguished advocate and promoter of Free Trade, was born at Dunford, near Midhurst, in Sussex, in 1804. After serving an apprenticeship in a London Avarehouse, and acting a short time as commercial traveller, he became, in 1830, partner in a firm in the cotton trade at Man- chester. Taking a deep interest in the po- litical activity of the time — the discussions on and the passing of the Reform Bill, — he set out in 1834 on a tour through Egypt, Greece, Turkey, and the United States. On his return he commenced his career as political economist by the publication of pamphlets, entitled “England, Ireland, and America,” and “Russia.” About the same time he took an active part in founding the Manchester “Athenaeum,” and in procuring the incorporation of the borough. In 1838 the Anti-Corn Law League Avas formed, and to the furtherance of its object Cobden de- voted hims»elf with intense earnestness and unintermitting labour. In 1841 he entered parliament as member for Stockport, for which he had unsuccessfully stood four years earlier. His mastery of his chosen theme, his full knoAvledge, logical x>recision, good sense, and entire sincerity made him at once a man of weight in parliament, and in 1846 he saw the grand struggle ended by the con- version of Sir Robert Peel, and the repeal of the corn laws. He then made a Continental tour, and was received in the chief cities Avith high honours. His countrymen made acknoAvledgment of his services by a national subscription, and during his absence he was elected M.P. for the West Riding of York- shire, 1847. As a member of the Peace So- ciety he attended congresses at Paris, Frank- fort, and London, and steadily advocated the doctrine of non-intervention. His course in reference to the Crimean war, and the war with China, was opposed to the sentiments of the majority of his countrymen, and on the dissolution of parliament in 1857 he was not re-elected. He again visited America, and Avhile absent was elected for Rochdale. In 1859 he was offered by Lord Palmerston the presidentship of the Board of Trade, which he courteously and con.scientiously declined. The latest and not the least serv- ice he rendered his country Avas the suc- cessful negotiation of the Treaty of Com- merce with France. The offer of a baronetcy and a seat in the privy council was made to him, and declined; as was also the offer, made a few months before Lis death, of the chairmanship of the Board of Audit. His health had been broken for several years, and he died in London, the 2nd Aprilj 1865. The intelligence of his death was received with sincere regret, not only in his own country, but on the Continent. COBENTZEL, CARL, Count von, an emi- nent Austrian statesman. He Avas a native of Laybach, and at an early age commenced his public career. During the troubles in the reign of the empress Maria Theresa, his services gave so much satisfaction, that in 1753 he was placed at the head of affairs in the Austrian Netherlands. In this important situation he showed great respect for liter- ature and the arts, and several useful re- formations were carried into effect by him. Among his other services was that of found- ing the Academy of Sciences at Brussels. Died, 1770. COBENTZEL, LUDWIG, Count von, son of the above, and, like him, a diplomatist. At the early age of 27 he was intrusted Avith a mission to Catharine II. of Russia, and his gallantry and compliance with her taste for theatricals made him a great favourite with her. From 1795 he was concerned in many of the important negotiations between Aus- tria and other powers, until the treaty of Luneville, in 1801. That treaty restoring peace between Austria and France, he was shortly afterwards made minister of state for foreign affairs at Vienna. In 1805 he Avas dismissed from tliis ofiice, and he died in 1808. COBHAM, Lord. [OLDCASTLE, Sir JOHN.] COBURG," FRIEDRICH JOSIAS, duke of Saxe-Coburg, an Austrian field-marshal, was born in 1737. In 1789 he commanded the imperial array on the Danube, and, in 210 coc] IX 5an(i)mal ISiograpfjp. [cod connection with the Russian general , Su- warroff, defeated the Turks, and conquered Bucharest. In 1793 he defeated the French at Neerwinden, expelled them from the Netherlands, and invaded France, taking Valenciennes, Cambray, and other places; but when the English army, under the duke of York, separated from him, he sus- tained several defeats, retreated across the Rhine, and resigned his command. Died, 181.5. COCCETUS, John, a Dutch scholar of the 17 th century, professor of theology at Leyden. He taught that the Old Testament was merely a type of the Ne^v ; and the book of Revelation being a principal object of his attention, he warmly asserted the doctrine of the Millennium. His followers formed a rather numerous sect, called Cocccians. Besides 10 folio volumes on divinity, which he published during his life, he left a work, not printed till many years after his death, entitled “ Opera, A.necdotica Theologica et Philologica.” Born, 1603 ; died, 1669. COCCEIUS, S AML EL, son of Henry Coc- ceius, bai’on of the empire, who died in 1719, and successor to his title. He became grand chancellor of Prussia under Frederick the Great, and was a chief author of the Freder- ician code. He also published a valuable edition of Grotius’ “De Jure Belli etPacis.” Died, 1755. COCHIN, Charles Nicholas, an eminent French engraver and writer of the 18th cen- tury ; member and afterwards secretary of the Academy of Painting, and keeper of the drawings of the royal cabinet. Besides his engravings, which are very numerous, he published “ Lettres sur les Peintures d’Her- culaneum,” “ Voyage d’ltalie,” &c. Born at Paris, 1715 ; died, 1790. COCHLA^US, JOHANN, an able but bitter opponent of Luther, Calvin, and other re- formers, but more especially of the first- named, whom he censured with great as- perity in his work, “De Actis et Scriptis Lutheri.” He published, besides this work, a very curious “History of the Hussites,” and he maintained a fierce controversy with Dr Morrison, an English clergyman, on the subject of the marriage of Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn. Died, 1552. COCHRAN, William, a Scotch artist of considerable reputation. After studying at Rome, he settled at Glasgow, where he real- ized a fortune. Of his historical pieces, “ Endymion” and “ Daedalus” were held in high estimation. Born, 1738; died, 1785. COCHRANE, Archibald. [DUNDO- NALD,Earl of.j COCHRANE, Lord. [DUNDONALD,Earl of.] COCHRANE, JOHN Dundas, nephew of Archibald Cochrane, earl of Dundonald, was an English naval officer. On retiring from the naval service, he travelled on foot through France, Spain, and Portugal ; and then through the Russian empire to Kams- chatka. Of this latter journey he published an account in two volumes, which contain much curious information. He was about to travel on foot across South America, when he died at Valentia, in Colombia, in 1825. COCKBURN, Admiral Sir GEORGE, G.C.B., a distinguished naval officer, was born in London in 1771, entered the navy in 1783, received his commission as lieutenant in 1793, and as captain of a frigate in 1794. Appointed to the “ Meleager,” then cruising on the Italian coast, he distinguished himself on several occasions ; shared as commander of the Minerva in the great engagement off Cape St Vincent, and in 1809, being then commo- dore, received the thanks of parliament for the reduction of Martinique, and was ap- pointed governor of St Pierre. He subse- quently took an active part in the expedition to the Scheldt, co-operated in the defence of Cadiz against the French, and, after cruising on the Spanish coast for ten years, he was associated with Sir John Warren as second in command in the expedition against the United States, where his operations in Chesapeake Bay and against AVashington were no less gallant than successful. On his return to Europe in May, 1815, he hoisted his flag on the Northumberland; and on the surrender of Napoleon Buonaparte, he was selected ^ to convey the ex-emperor to St Helena, whence he returned the following year. He now turned his attention to po- litics; in 1818 he was returned M.P. for Portsmouth, and appointed a lord of the Admiralty, in 1820 he sat for AA''eobly, and in 1826 for Portsmouth. In 1828 he became a second time a iord of the Admiralty. From 1832 to 1836 he held the command of the West Indian and North American naval stations. In 1841 he was returned M.P. for Ripon ; and Avas appointed senior lord of the Admiralty, an office which he held till the resignation of Sir R. Peel’s administration, in 1846. Died, 1853, leaving behind him a high reputation for gallantry as a sailor, and efficiency as an administrator. COCKBURN, Henry Thomas, Lord, an eminent Scotch judge, was born in 1779. He was called to the bar in 1800, and soon at- tained distinction as an advocate. He was the friend of Jcft’rey, and one of the first Avriters for the Edinburgh Review. In 1830 he Avas appointed solicitor-general for Scot- land, and four years later was made a lord of session. He published the Life of Lord Jeffrey, and died in 1854. After his death appeared an interesting volume, entitled “ Memorials of his Time, by Lord Cockburn.” COCKER, Edward, arithmetician, Avas born about 1632. He was knoAvn as a clever “ practitioner in the arts of writing, arith- metic, and engraving,” and published several books of writing exercises and other school books. His most popular work, “ Cocker’s Arithmetic,” was published by Hawkins in 1677, after the author’s death. It became not only the universal text-book in its time, but long served as the model for others. So that “ according to Cocker ” became a pro- verb. Died, about 1674. CODRINGTON, Sir EDWARD, British ad- miral, born in 1770. He entered the navy at the age of 13, and was present at the victory of Howe over the French fleet near Brest in 1794. He took part in the battle of Trafalgar, in the AValcheren expedition, and in the Peninsular war. In 1814 he served in North America, and assisted in the un- successful attack on Ncav Orleans. The 211 cod] ^ ilieto ^nibmal ISiograpf)^, [col victory of Navarino and the destruction of the Turkish fleet there in 1827 was his last naval achievement. He was made G.C.B., entered parliament in 1832, and sat there till 1839, when he was appointed commander-in- chief at Portsmouth. Died, 1851. CODRUS, the 17th and last mythical kin^ of Athens. When the Heraclid® invaded Attica, Codrus devoted his life to save his country. He went, unknown, into the midst of the army of the Heraclidae, and was slain ; a sacrifice he was led to make by the oracle, which pronounced that the leader of the conquering army must fall. At his death , it is said that the Athenians, deeming no one worthy to be the successor of their patriotic monarch, established the government by archons. COEHORN, Louis, Erench general and baron of the empire, was born at Strasburg in 1771. He entered the army early, and served with distinction in the wars of the Erench revolution. He was at the battle of Austerlitz, was wounded at Auerstadt and at Eriedland, distinguished himself at the affair of Ebersberg, took part in the battles of Aspern, Essling, and Wagram, and was made commander of the Legion of Honour and baron of the empire. He died of a wound received at the battle of Leipsic, in October, 1813. COELLO, Alonzo Sanchez, an eminent painter, a native of Portugal, was the pupil of Raphael. and of Antonio Moro, whom he succeeded as first painter to Philip II. Some of his works adorn the Escurial. Born, 1615 ; died, 1590. COELLO, CLAUDIO, a Spanish painter, born at Madrid in 1621. He was a pupil of Rizi, and was named painter to the king, Charles II., in 1684. His chef-d’oeuvre is the altar-piece in the sacristy of the Escurial, which contains, besides a grand priestly procession, the portraits of the king and his principal nobility. Another fine work is the “ Martyrdom of St Stephen,” at Salamanca. Died, 1693. It is alleged that Coello died of chagrin at the king’s choice of Luca. Giorda- no to paint some parts of the Escurial. COGAN, Thomas, physician, born at Kib- worth, Leicestershire, in 1736 ; who, in con- junction with Dr Hawes, founded the Royal Humane Society. He translated the works of Camper, and was the author of several Treatises on the Passions, “ Theological Dis- quisitions,” (fee. Died in 1818. COGGESHALLE, RALPH, an English * Cistercian monk of the 12th century. He was at Jerusalem when that city was be- ■ sieged by Saladin ; and wrote a “ Chronicle of the Holy Land,” which was printed in a collection published at Paris in 1725. 1 1 COHORN, Menno, Baron, a celebrated 1 Dutch engineer, who distinguished himself I j as a military officer at many important sieges j 1 and battles, and fortified Namur, Bergen-op- I I Zoom, and other towns. He was the author ! of a Treatise on Eortification. Died, 1704. I COKAYNE, Sir ASTON, a poet and dra- 1 j matist of the 17th century. He was educated 1 at Cambridge ; and, after having made the j grand tour, fixed his residence at a family j estate in Warwickshire. Espousing the cause i of Charles I., he was despoiled of his property by the parliamentarians, to whom he was doubly obnoxious as a royalist and a papist. The collection of his plays and poems is now not often to be met with. Died, 1684. COKE, Sir EDWARD, lord chief justice of England, was born at Mileham, in Norfolk, in 1552. He studied at Cambridge, and then at the Inner Temple, and was called to the bar in 1578. He rapidly gained a great pro- fessional reputation and an immense prac- tice, and was engaged in many cases of great importance. Honours and offices were con- ferred on him, and in 1592 he became soli- citor-general and reader of the Inner Tem- ple. Two years later, notwithstanding the rival claim of Bacon, he obtained the post of attorney-general. He was already a mem- ber of parliament and a speaker of the House of Commons. In the numerous pro- secutions for treason or sedition in which he was employed, he displayed not only his vast legal knowledge, but his zealous Pro- testantism, and, too often, excessive bitter- ness of temper. The last trial in which he took part at the bar was that of the Gun- powder Plot conspirators. He was then made chief justice of the Common Pleas, and seven years afterwards chief justice of the King’s Bench. He was the unflinching supporter of the popular liberties, and op- ponent of arbitrary measures on the part of the king, and thereby fell into disfavour at court. On frivolous pretexts he was de- prived of his judgeship in 1616, regained, to some extent, the favour of the court, and was member of various commissions, and restored to the privy council. He was again dis- graced for his popular sympathies, and im- prisoned in the Tower. He sat in the first and third parliaments of Charles I., and took a leading part in procuring the Bill of Rights. He spent the last three years of his long and busy life in peaceful retirement at Stoke Pogis, where he died in 1632. His works consist of the Eirst, Second, Third, and Eourth “ Institutes,” the first being well known as “Coke upon Littleton,” trea- tises on Copyholds and Eines, and his valu- able “ Reports.” COLBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE, a Celebrated Erench statesman, to whose talents, activity, and enlarged views, Erance owes much of its financial and commercial prosperity, was descended from a Scottish family, but born at Rheims, in 1619, where his father was a wine merchant. In 1648 he became clerk to the secretary of state, Le Tellier, whose daughter he married, and through whom he was introduced to Cardinal Mazarin, then first minister. Mazarin took him into his service, and his conduct recommended him to the king as intendant of finances. He was made soon after controller-general of the finances. Subsequently he became superin- tendent of buildings, secretary of state, and in 1669 minister of the marine ; and in every capacity he acted so as to obtain the approba- tion of the king. To literature and the arts he constantly gave encouragement ; he insti- tuted the Academy of Sciences, and that of Sculpture and Painting ; and it Avas at his recommendation that the Royal Observatory was erected. To him, too, Paris owed the , erection of many elegant buildings ; and, if a j 212 col] % ^nibcrsal ISiograpl^p. [col less brilliant minister than some of his pre- decessors. he certainly conferred more sub- stantial benefits upon his country than most of them. Colbert was a man of resolute Avill and of manners not likely to win men’s liking. The rise of his rival Louvois into the king’s favour was an occasion of bitter vexation to him in his latter years, and so strong was the popular feeling against him, that his remains narrowly escaped violence by a night funeral. He died immensely rich, in 1683. COLBY, Thomas, superintendent of the Ordnance Survey, was born in 1784. He was a native of llochester, was educated at the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, and entered the army. But early in 1802 he was appointed assistant in the Ordnance Survey, and to the discharge of his duties in that field he faithfully devotedhimself for the rest of his life- He rose through the success- ive grades of captain, major, &c. to be major- general, in 1846. He was remarkable for energy, perseverance, patient and cheerful endurance of hardship and privation, and great kind-heartedness. He succeeded Gene- ral Mudge as director of the Survey in 1820 ; was a fellow of the Royal Society, and of many other scientific bodies, and assisted in founding the Astronomical Society. Hied at Liverpool, 1852. COLCHESTER, CHARLES ABBOT, Lord, was born at Abingdon, Berks, in 1757 ; and having received the rudiments of his educa- tion at Westminster School, was entered of Christchurch, Oxford, in 1775. While there he was greatly distinguished for his attain- ments ; and a Latin poem on the Czar Peter gained him not only the prize, but also a gold medal from the empress of Russia. After spending some time abroad, he was called to the bar, and practised with every prospect of becoming a popular advocate. His forensic pursuits, however, were but of short continuance, for on entering parlia- ment for Helston he was speedily noticed for his talent and business-like habits, and on the formation of the Addington ministry he was appointed secretary for Ireland, and keeper of the privy seal. He now com- menced some useful reforms in Ireland, but before he could complete them he was elected speaker of the House of Commons. In this situation he displayed not only the talent but the tact and address necessary for the duties of his office ; and so far was he from being bigoted to his party, that on the division, in 1805, concerning Lord Melville, the numbers for and against that nobleman being equal, he gave the casting vote against him. In 1817 an attack of erysipelas obliged him to resign the office of speaker ; on Avhich occa- sion he was called to the Upper House by the title of Baron Colchester, Avith a pension of £4000 per annum. Much of the remainder of his life was .passed abroad and in Scot- land ; and he died in May, 1829, leaving two sons. He Avas chiefly remarkable for his knowledge of the forms of the House, though he Avas also a fluent and elegant speaker. COLDEN, Cahwalladeb,, a Scotch phy- sician and miscellaneous writer. He emi- grated to America, and having become a prosperous landowner in New York, he Avas in 1761 made lieutenant-governor of that province. In this office, AAiiich he held for fourteen years, he displayed great talent. Colden Avas a voluminous Avritei*, and on a variety of subjects. Among his Avorks are “ An Account of the Diseases prevalent in America,” a “ History of the five Indian Nations,” a “ Treatise on Gravitation,” &c. LinnjEUs, to whom he sent many American plants, gave the name of Coldenia to a neAV genus. Died, 1776. COLE, Henry, dean of St Paul’s, and judge of the arches’ court. In the reign of Henry VIII. he held numerous valuable ap- pointments, all of which he resigned on the accession of Edward VI. The reign of Mary restored his prosperity; and it Avas he Avho preached the sermon when the venerable Cranmer was burnt. On the accession of Elizabeth, this fact Avas doubtless remem- bered to his prejudice ; for he AA'as not only stripped of all his preferments, but kept in prison till his death, in 1579. He Avas the author of some controversial tracts and ser- mons ; and a disputation betAveen him and Cranmer and Ridley is also in print. COLEBROOKE, HENRY THOMAS, P.R.S., an eminent Orientalist, and director of the Royal Asiatic Society, Avas the third son of Sir George Colebrooke, hart., a director of the East India Company. He AA^as born in 1765, and in 1782 Avas appointed to a Avriter- ship in India. Being sent as one of a deput- ation to investigate the resources of a part of the country, it led to his publishing “ Re- marks on the Husbandry and Commerce of Bengal ; ” in AAffiich treatise he adA'oeated a free trade between Great Britain and her eastern possessions. Soon after this he be- gan the study of the Sanscrit language, in Avhich he subsequently became so eminent. The translation of the great “ Digest of Hindu LaAV,” Avhich had been compiled under the direction of Sir W. Jones, but left unfinished at his death, Avas confided to Mr Colebrooke ; and Avhile engaged in this work, he was ap- pointed to a judicial situation at Mirzapore, AA'here he completed it in 1796. His other works consist of a “ Dictionary of the San- scrit Language,” the “Algebra of the Hin- doos,” and various treatises on their laws, philosophy, and arithmetic ; besides numer- ous communications to the society of Avhich he was director. He died in March, 1837. COLERIDGE, SAMUEL TAYLOR, poet, philosopher and theologian, was the youngest child of John Coleridge, Aucar of Ottery St Mary, in Devonshire, where he was born in 1772. He Avas educated at Christ’s Hospital and at Jesus College, Cambridge, early distinguishing himself by his classical acquirements, and an extraor- dinary passion for metaphysical studies. Quitting Cambridge in 1792, he settled soon after at Bristol, projected Avith Southey and other friends a model colony, “ Pantiso- cracy,” on the banks of the Susquehanna, but stayed in England and devoted himself to a literary life. In 1795 he married and removed to Nether Stowey, where he lived three years, and enjoyed the society of Wordsworth. He visited Germany to ac- quaint himself more fully AA'ith the German language and literature, and then settled in 213 col] 91 SJiubtrsal,10t£igrapf)p. [col the Lahe District. He visited Malta in 1804, and was for more than a year secretary to the governor. Sir Alexander Hall, of whom he gave an interesting account in “The Friend.’’ In 1810 he left his family at Kes- wick and went to London, and soon after entered the house of his friend Gillman, at Highgate, where he spent the rest of his life. The literary life of Coleridge began with the publication of his poems, in 1794. His first volume was soon followed by others. “Remorse,’’ a tragedy, “ The An- cient Mariner,” and “ Christabel,” are among the best known of his poems. He published also a very admirable translation of Schiller’s “ Piccolomini,” and“Deathof'Wallenstein.” He projected a periodical entitled “ The Watchman,” which did not succeed ; preach- ed occasionally, gave popular lectures, and contributed political and literary articles to some of the newspapers. The “ Friend ” began to appear as a periodical in 1809, and after his settlement in London appeared the completed work, the “ Biographia Literaria,” “ Lay Sermons,” “ Aids to Reflection,” &c. Other works remained unpublished till after his death : these are the “ Confessions of an Inquiring Spirit,” “ Literary Remains,” and “Table Talk,” edited by his nephew and son-in-law, Henry Nelson Coleridge; and “ Essays on his own Times,” and “ Notes on Shakespeare and the Dramatists,” edited by his daughter, Sara Coleridge. As philosopher and theologian the influence of Coleridge has been very gi’eat, and probably is so still, notwithstanding the apparent predom- inance of a less spiritual philosophy than his. Although he did not live to complete the grand system of religious philosophy which he appears to have projected, the “ massive fragments ” he has left us sufiice to show more than the outlines of the vast whole. His writings are pervaded by a spirit not of this world, and for every earnest student they are rich in treasures of truth, wisdom, and faith. Not a few have found in them the special help, guidance, and defence which the critical doubts and discussions of the age make so needful. Churchman and conservative, he -was yet a bold speculator on the highest themes, and a genuine liberal in sentiment towards the good and great of all parties. For long years his life was sad- dened by ill health and pecuniary difficul- ties. He suffered much, too, from the habit of taking opium, which grew up from an innocent beginning, and became unconquer- able. Pure love of truth, rare simplicity of nature, warm affections, love of social inter- course, and a most extraordinary power of eloquent talking without premeditation, were some of his most striking character- istics. He died at Highgate, 25th July, 1834, and was buried in the old churchyard there. COLERIDGE, HARTLEY, poet and miscel- laneous writer, was the eldest son of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and was born at Clevedon, in *1796. His father soon after settled in the Lake District, and Hartley’s mind and heart were cultivated in the constant society of Wordsworth, Southey, Wilson, and other eminent men, and in the midst of the fairest scones of nature. Imagination was predom- inant in him, and he displayed it Ayhen a boy in the composition of long and extraor- dinary romances. He entered Oxford Uni- versity in 1815, and became felloAV of Oriel. Unhappily, he soon lost his fellowship, chiefly through a habit of intemperance, and his fortunes were blighted. After a brief stay in London he went back to the north, tried his hand at the task of schoolmaster, and failed, and spent his remaining years in literary labours. His poems, many of which are of rare excellence, and his “ Worthies of Yorkshire and Lancashire,” with two vo- lumes of “ Essays and Marginalia,” are the only written remains of his sad life. Died at Rydal, 1849. COLERIDGE, SARA, sister of Hartley, and only daughter of Samuel Taylor Cole- ridge, was born at Keswick in 1803. She was brought up in the family of her father’s friend, the poet Southey ; married her cousin, Henry Nelson Coleridge, in 1829 ; became a Avidow in 1843, and died in 1852. At the age of 19 she published a translation of Dobriz- hoffer’s “ Account of the Abipones, an Eques- trian People of Paraguay.” She wrote an exquisite fairy tale, entitled “Phantasmion,” assisted her husband in editing the works of her father, and, on her husband’s death, con- tinued the task unaided. Her admirable dis- sertations and commentaries on those works display a singular mastery of some of the most difficult themes of philosophy and the- ology, considerable learning, and great lo- gical power. The works edited by her alone are the “Aids to Reflection,” “Notes on Shakespeare,” and “ Essays on his own Times.” COLERIDGE, HENRY NELSON, nephew of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and editor of several of his works, was born about 1800. He studied at Cambridge and became felloAV of King’s College. After a visit to the West Indies for the benefit of his health, he was called to the bar and practised in the court of Chancery. In 1829 he married his cousin, Sara Coleridge. He had the profoundest admiration and love for his uncle, S. T. Coleridge, Avas very much in his society, made notes of his opinions and sentiments, and after his death published Specimens of his Table-Talk. Fle also edited “ The Friend,” “ Confessions of an Inquiring Spirit,” and the “ Literary Remains ” of his uncle ; and was author of an “ Introduction to the Study of the Greek Classic Poet’s.” Died, 1843. COLET, John, dean of St Paul’s, and founder of St Paul’s School, Avas born at London in 1466. He Avas educated at Oxford, and then spent several years in completing his studies in France and Italy. He Avas ordained priest in 1498, and after various preferments in the church, became pre- bendary and dean of St Paul’s in 1505. He had just previously obtained his degree of Doctor of Divinity. Dean Colet Avas a friend of Erasmus and of many other eminent men of his day; and by his freedom of thought and speech, and his promotion of a spirit of inquiry, he exposed himself to the persecu- tion of the clergy. He founded and en- dOAvedSt Paul’s School in 1512 ; died in 1519, and Avas buried in St Paul’s Cathedral. He 214 col] % ^Snifcicrsal ^iograpl[)p* [col left several works, theological and gram- matical. COLIGNI, GaspaRT) de, admiral of France and leader of the Huguenots in the civil Avar, was horn in 1517. His father, also named Gaspard, was marshal of France, and took part in the invasion of Italy by Charles VIII. , and in the conquest of the Milanese by Louis XII. and Francis I. His mother was a Montmorenci. He entered the army at an early age, distinguished himself at the battle of Cerisoles, at the taking of Carignan, and at the battle of Henti. He was made admiral of France in 1552 by Henry II. At the siege of St Quentin he was taken prisoner by the Spaniards. On the death of Henry II. he retired to his estates, became a con- vert to the reformed faith, and when the war broke out put himself at the head of the Pi'otestants, with the prince of Condd. They were defeated by the duke of Guise at the battle of Dreux ; the Indecisive battle of St Denis followed ; and the Protestants were defeated at Jarnac and Moncontour. In 1570, after the treaty of St Germain, Coligni was flatteringly received by Cathe- rine de Medici, and a few days later his assassination was attempted by an emissary of the duke of Guise. The king, Charles IX. , visited him and professed his regret. On the signal being given for the massacre of St Bartholomew, 24 August, 1572, the duke of Guise with a party of murderers went to the house of the admiral ; by these he was stabbed, and thrown out of a window at the feet of the duke of Guise, who had the baseness to kick the still living body. The corpse was exposed for three days to the mob, and then hung, head downwards. It was buried by night in the family tomb, was in 1786 transferred to the estate of the marquis of Montesquiou-Fezensac, and the monument which he erected was subse- quently placed in the museum of French monuments, COLIN, Alexander, a sculptor of Mech- lin, born in 1526, is chiefly known by the beautiful alti-relievi on the sides of the magnificent monument of Maximilian I. at Innsprvick, executed in 1563-66 by order of the Emperor Ferdinand I. He Avas after- Avards appointed sculptor to the emperor and to" his son, the Archduke Ferdinand. Died, 1612. COLLIER, Jeremy, an English nonjur- ing divine and learned writer, Avas born in 1650. He received his education at Cam- bridge, and Avas presented with the rectory of Ampton, in Suffolk; which he resigned on being chosen lecturer at Gray’s Inn. At the revolution he refused to take the oaths, and was imprisoned in Newgate for writing in favour of James II. He attended Sir John Friend and Sir 'William Perkins when they were executed for the “assas- sination plot.” Two nonjuring clergymen who accompanied him on this occasion Avere taken up, but Collier escaped, and lay hidden until the affair had blown over, Avhen he again made his appearance, and published “ Essays on Miscellaneous Subjects.” This work, in 3 volumes, obtained him consider- able reputation ; and his next publication was a spirited attack upon the licentiousness of the stage. He was, as a matter of course, replied to by many of the dramatic writers of the time ; but he had truth on his side, and his Avorks had good effect. He next translated and continued Moreri’s Diction- ary ; and his reputation had noAV so much increased, that Queen Anne’s government offered him valuable church preferment, which, with a rare consistency, he steadily declined. His remaining Avorks Avere, an “ Ecclesiastical History,” brought down to the death of Charles II., some sermons, pamphlets, and a translation of the “ Medi- tations ” of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Died. 1726. COLLINGWOOD, CUTHBERT, Lord, a celebrated English admiral, was born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, in 1748. He entered the navy when only 13 years of age, and his services were long, arduous, and valuable. In the action of June 1, 1794, he was flag- captain to Admiral Bowyer on board the Prince ; and at the battle of Cape St Vincent, in 1797, he commanded the Excellent. Hav- ing attained the rank of vice-admiral of the blue, and being second in command at the battle of Trafalgar, w'here the hero of Eng- land’s navy fell, the command of the fleet devolved upon Admiral Collingwood, whose gallant conduct at the onset had called forth an exclamation of delight from Nelson, and to whose admirable skill and judgment, after the battle, the preservation of the captured A'essels was chiefly attributable. For this and his other important services he was pro- moted to the rank of vice-admiral of the red, and elevated to the peerage. He Avas brave, indefatigable, just, and kind ; strictly pre- serving discipline, Avhile he gained the love of his compatriots, and merited all that a grateful country could bestow on him. His letters, published after his death, AVhich took place while cruising off Minorca, in 1810, shoAV him to have possessed considerable literary ability. COLLINGWOOD, FRANCIS EDWARD, a captain In the English navy, Avas a midship- man on board the Victory, at the battle of Trafalgar ; and to him is ascribed the hon- our of being the avenger of Nelson’s death, having shot the Frenchman in the maintop of the Redoubtable, who was seen to take deliberate aim at the English hero the mo- ment before he fell. Died, 1835. COLLINS, Anthony, the noted free- thinker, was born at Heston in Middlesex, in 1676. He studied at Cambridge and after- Avards at the Temple, became a justice of the peace and treasurer of the county of Essex. He was however chiefly occupied in controversial writing on matters of phi- losophy and theology. He was the intimate friend of Locke, who very highly esteemed him ; he had a long controversy with Dr Samuel Clarke; and provoked by some of his writings innumerable replies. His prin- cipal works are “ Priestcraft in Perfection ; ” “ Essay on the Thirty -nine Articles ; ” “ Dis- course on Freethinking,” which was savagely attacked by Bentley ; “ Philosophical In- quiry concerning Liberty and Necessity %nd “ Grounds and Reasons of the Christian 1 Religion.” Died at London, 1729. 1 COLLINS, Arthur, a celebrated English 215 col] IBtograpfip* [coi; genealogist ; author of the English “ Peer- age” and “ Earonetage ; ” and Lives of Cecil, Lord Burleigh, and Edward the Black Prince, &c. He was rescued from poverty by a pen- sion of £400 per annum, granted to him by George II. Born, 1682 ; died, 1760. COLLINS, JOHN, an able English mathe- matician and accountant. He was for some time in the naval service of Venice against the Turks ; hut at the restoration he was appointed to the office of accountant to the Excise Office, the court of Chancery, &c. He found time to contribute largely to the Transactions of the Royal Society; corre- sponded with Barrow, Newton, and other eminefat mathematicians ; and wrote vai’i- ous mathematical works. Born, 1624 ; died, 1683. COLLINS, William, a highly-gifted but ill-fated English poet; author of odes, eclogues, &c. He was horn, in 1720, at Chi- chester, and received his education at Win- chester and Oxford. In 1744, he settled in London, but leading a dissipated life, suffered from poverty even beyond the common lot of poets. The death of his uncle. Colonel Martin, who bequeathed him a legacy of £2000, raised him from this abject condition ; but his health and spirits were broken, and after lingering for some time in a state of mental imbecility, soothed at last by a sis- ter’s love, he died at Chichester, in 1756. His odes, which when published were utterly disregarded, are unquestionably among the finest of English lyrical poems. One of the most celebrated is the “ Ode to the Passions.” A monument, executed by Flaxman, was erected to his memory by public subscrip- tion, and his Life was Avritten by Dr John- son, who loved him, and speaks of him with great tenderness. COLLINS, William, an English painter of distinguished merit, was born in London, 1787. He inherited an enthusiastic admir- ation for the beauties of nature from both his parents, His father, one of the first picture- dealers of his time, was a man of consider- able literary attainments ; and his friend- ship with Morland the painter early led to his son’s initiation into the mysteries of the pencil. In 1807 he became a student of,the Royal Academy, and having prosecuted his studies with great zeal and success, he was chosen an associate in 1814, and elected an academician in 1820. Prom this period he continued to pi’oduce those coast and cot- tage scenes which gained for him his early reputation, and marked him out as one of the most thorough English artists of his time. With a view of studying the works of the old masters and of observing nature in new forms, he visited Italy in 1836, and spent two years there. Down to the year 1846 he contributed regularly to every ex- hibition, attempting occasionally historical painting, but winning fresh laurels chiefly by frequent revivals of those more domestic subjects by which he had won his early fame. True to his “first love,” his last production, “ Early Morning,” was an English sea-piece. Among his favourite works are the “ Shrimp- ers,” “ Erost Scene,” “ Cromer Sands,” and “ Pi-awn Catchers,” the last of Avhich is in the National Gallery. Mr Collins was im- bued with earnest but unaffected piety ; and his death, though not unexpected, caused deep regret to a large circle of attached friends and admirers. Died, 1847. COLLIN SON, Peter, an English botanist, to whom we are indebted for the introduc- tion of many ornamental shrubs and plants into our gardens, was born in 1694. He was intimate with Franklin and Linnaeus, the latter of whom gave the name Collinsonia to a genus of plants. Died, 1768. COLLOREDO, RUDOLPH, count of Wald- see,i imperial field-marshal, was born in 1585. He distinguished himself greatly, and was seven times wounded at the battle of Liitzen in 1632. His greatest achievement perhaps was the successful defence of Prague against the Swedes in 1648. He was named governor of the city, and died there in 1657. COLLOREDO-WENZEL, JOHANN NEPO- MUCENE Franz, Count of, imperial field- marshal, was born in 1738. He served in the Seven Years’ War, became chamberlain to the emperor Joseph II., and was made a knight of the Teutonic order. He served Avith Marshal Laudon against the Turks in 1789, and distinguished himself at the siege of Belgrade. In 1793 he joined the prince of Coburg in the Netherlands, and took a distinguished part in the battle of Neer- winden. He became afterwards president of the Aulic Council and field-marshal. Died, 1822. COLLOREDO - MANSFIELD, JEROME, Count of, Austrian general, was born in 1775. He entered the army in 1792, and served in the expedition under the duke of Brunswick against France. Two years later he was taken prisoner by the French, but made his escape. He was severely wounded in the attack on Bregentz in 1796: at Verona in 1809, when he gallantly held his ground against the French, and secured the retreat of the Austrian army : at the battle of Leip- sic in 1813, when he had succeeded to the command after the fall of the prince of Hesse-Homburg and the capture of General Meiweldt ; and at the combat near the bridge of Barce in the campaign of 1814. Died. 1822. COLLOT D’HERBOIS, JEAN MARIE, one of the most sanguinary leaders in the French revolution, was born at Paris in 1750. Be- fore the revolution he was a clever strolling player. He joined the club of the Jacobins, and soon gained a great ascendancy ; won the prize for his “Almanack du Pere Ge- rard ; ” and became a member of the Con- vention, and of the Committee of Public Safety. He Avas charged Avith several pro- vincial missions, ‘and made himself a name of infamy by his execution of them. In 1793 he went to Lyons, where he had more than 16,000 persons put to death, and made it a capital crime to look sad or pitiful. An attempt was made to assassinate him, Avhich only made him more popular, and he contri- buted powerfully to the fall of Robespierre. He was soon after denounced, arrested, and in March, 1795, transported, to Cayenne, where he died, January, 1796. COLLYER, JOSEPH, senior associate en- graver of the Royal Academy, Avas born at London, 1748, of parents who Avere known 216 col] ©nibersal Ifiiograp^^. [col in the literary world by tlieir translations from Gesner and Bodmer. He was a pupil of Antony and William Walker, and showed superior talent in the stippled style of en- gravinf? ; his portraits in that line stand unrivalled. Among them are those of George IV. and the Princess Charlotte. Died, 1827. COLMAN, GEORGE, a dramatic writer and accomplished scholar of the 18th cen- tury. He was born at Plorence, in 1733, where his father at that time resided as the British envoy, and his mother was sister to the countess of Bath. Having received his education at Westminster School and at Christchurch, Oxford, he turned his atten- tion to the law as a profession ; but his writings in The Connoisseur having met with success, gave him a bias towards polite liter- ature, and he accordingly abandoned the graver pursuits of legal science. His first dramatic attempt was “ Polly Honeycombe,” which was performed at Drury Lane with great, though only temporary, success. In the following year, 1761, he produced his comedy of the “ Jealous Wife,” which at once became popxilar and has ever since kept the stage. “The Clandestine Mar- riage,” “The English Merchant,” &c., added to his fame ; and he wrote a number of other pieces, which, though inferior to these, were by no means deficient in merit. Lord Bath and General Pulteney, at their deaths, left him oonsiderable legacies, which enabled him to purchase a share in Covent Garden Theatre. Disputes arising between himself and the other proprietors, he very soon dis- j posed of this property, and purchased the 1 little theatre in the Haymarket, which he conducted until an attack of paralysis re- 1 duced him to a state of mental imbecility. In addition to his writings mentioned above, he translated the comedies of Terence, and Horace De Arte Poetica. Died, 1794. His portrait, painted by Gainsborough, is in the National Portrait Gallery, COLMAN, GEORGE, THE YOUNGER, an eminent dramatist and wit, son of the above, was born in 1762, and received his educa- tion at AVestminster School, Christchurch College, Oxford, and King’s College, Aber- deen. On his return from college he was entered a student of Lincoln’s Inn. Cir- cumstances, however, as well as inclination, led him to abandon the profession of the law. In 1784 his first acknowledged play, called “ Two to One,” was acted. The suc- cess of this exceeded his most 'sanguine expectations. In 1787 his celebrated opera of “ Inkle and Yarico ” appeared, and at once stamped his fame. Shortly after this the elder Colman was attacked with para- lysis, which terminating in mental imbe- cility, his son presided over the Haymarket Theatre, and subsequently became its pro- prietor. The prolific pen of “ George Col- man the younger ” seemed never idle ; and yet, perhaps, there was scarcely a man in London who spent more hours in convivial pleasures, or whose brilliant flashes of wit so often “ set the table in a roar.” His principal works, chronologically arranged, were “The Mountaineers,” “The Iron Chest,” “ The Heir at Law,” “ Blue Beard,” “ The Review, or AVags of AVindsor,” “ The Poor Gentleman,” “Love laughs at Lock- smiths,” “ John Bull,” &c. Among his other compositions are “Random Records,” “ My Nightgown and Slippers,” “ Broad Grins,” &c. George IV. appointed him to the situation of licenser and examiner of plays, an ofiice for which he was admirably qualified. Died, 1836. COLOCOTRONIS, Theod., one of the heroes of modern Greece, was born in Messenia, 1770 ; distinguished himself in numerous engagements with the Turkish oppressors of his country, and contributed, by his heroic conduct during the insurrec- tion, to the final triumph of the Greek cause in 1828. After the death of Capo d’Istria, he became a member of the provisional govern- ment ; but having conspired against the regency established till the majority of King Otho in 1834, he was condemned to death, and owed his escape to the clemency of the king. Died, 1843. COLONNA, FRANCESCO, a Dominican monk, born at Venice about 1430 ; known only as author of a strange book with the strange title of “ Poliphili Hypnerotoma- chia,” which appeared in 1499, and respect- ing which the greatest diversity of opinion has existed. A lady is celebrated in it with whom the author was in love, and whose death led him to become a monk. It con- tains some passages of architectural de- scriptions, for which some have commended it to students of architecture. It has been several times translated into French. Fra Francesco died in 1527. COLONNA, Fabio, or in Latin, FABIUS COLUMNA, Italian botanist, born at Naples in 1567, wrote many botanical and scientific works, was the correspondent of the most eminent naturalists of his time, and died in 1650. COLONNA, Francisco Maria pompeo, born in Italy about 1649, was a student of the sciences and a follower of the alchemists. He wrote “ Secrets of the Philosophy of the Ancients,” “ Abridgment of the Doctrine of Paracelsus,” &c. He was burnt to death in his house, at Paris, in 1726. COLONNA, Prospero, son of Antonio Colonna, prince of Salerno, was a distin- guished military oflScer. He assisted Charles VIII. of France to conquer Naples, but subsequently aided in retaking it for the house of Arragon. He served under the great Gonsalvo, and was charged by him to conduct Csesar Borgia prisoner to Spain. In 1513 Prospero defeated the Venetians near Vicenza, was captured by the French two years later, but won several victories over them in 1521 and the following years. Died, 1523. COLONNA, Pompeo, nephew of the above, a restless and intriguing Roman cardinal, who quarrelled in succession with the popes Julius II., Leo X., and Clement VII., and had part in all the troubles of the court of Rome. AVhen Clement VII. was the prisoner of Constable de Bourbon, Pompeo exerted his influence for his liberation. He at length became viceroy of Naples. Died, 1532. COLONNA, VITTORIA, marchioness of Pescara, a celebrated Italian poetess. She married at the age of 19, and was a widow 217 ool] 'U i^eto ^anibtrsal [col at 35, when, inconsolable for her loss, she retired and passed the remaining years of her life in solitude. Her poems, “ Hime Spirituale,” are tender and elegant expres- sions of sorrow and of religious consolation, and have been frequently reprinted. Lorn, 1490; died, 1547. COLOTHES, or COLOTES, a Greek sculp- tor, contemporary with Phidias, whom he is said to have assisted in the statue of the Olympian Zeus. Several of his works are spoken of in very high terms, especially an ivory figure of .^sculapius. Lived, about 440 B. C. COLQUHOUN, PATRICK, LL.D., a writer on statistics and criminal jurisprudence. He was a native of Dumbarton, in Scotland, born in 1745, and early in life went to Ame- rica. On his return from that country he settled at Glasgow as a merchant, and be- came lord provost of the city, and president of its chamber of commerce. Subsequently he removed to London, and in 1792 he was made a police magistrate, in which situation he was distinguished by great ability and untiring assiduity. He published several valuable 'works, including a “ Treatise on the Police of the Metropolis,” a tract on the “ Education of the Labouring Classes,” “ A Treatise on the Population, AVealth, Power,’ and Resources of the British Em- pire,” &c. Died, 1820, aged 75. COLSTON, Edward, an English mer- chant, memorable for his munificence and philanthropy. During his lifetime he ex- pended upwards of £70,000 in aiding various public charities, and he is supposed to have privately given away an equal amount. Not- withstanding his public and private benevo- lence, however, be left £100,000 among his relatives and dependants. In addition to his other good works, he founded and endowed St Augustine’s School, Bristol, for the edu- cation of 100 boys, besides almshouses in other places. His statue, executed by Rysbrack, stands in the church of All Saints, Bristol. Born, 1636; died, 1721. COLT, Samuel, inventor of the revolver, was born at Hartford, Connecticut, in 1814. He obtained the patent for his invention in 1835, a model of the pistol having been made, it is said, in 1829. His first attempt to establish a factory was not successful, but he ultimately formed a company and car- ried on a prosperous business at Hartford. Died there, 1862. COLTON, Caleb C., a writer of consider- able talent, but of eccentric and discreditable habits, was educated at Eton and King’s College, Cambridge, where he graduated and obtained a fellowship. He first attracted notice by the publication of a pamphlet, entitled “ A plain and authentic Narrative of the Sampford Ghost,” in which he at- tempted to prove that certain occurrences which took place in a house at Sampford Peverell, near Tiverton, originated in super- natural agency. He also wrote a satirical poem, entitled “Hypocrisy,'’ and another on “ Napoleon ; ” but he obtained his chief reputation from “ Lacon, or Many Things in Few AVords,” which he published in 1820. Though a bcneficed clergyman, holding the vicarage of Kew with Petersham, in Surrey, he was a well-known frequenter of the gaming-table ; and having absconded, to avoid his creditors, in 1828, a successor was appointed to his living. He then went to America; but subsequently lived in Paris, a professed gamester; and it is said that he gained by this vicious course of life, in two years only, the sum of £25,000. He blew out his brains while on a visit to a friend at Fontainebleau, in 1832. AVe copy from his own “ Lacon ” the following apophthegm : — “ The gamester, if he die a martyr to his profession, is doubly ruined. He adds his soul to every other loss, and, by the act of suicide, renounces earth to forfeit heaven ! ” COLUMBA, St, an early preacher of Christianity in Scotland, usually called the Apostle of the Highlanders. He was born in Ireland, and is known as the founder of the Culdees, and of the famous monastery of Iona. He lived in the sixth century, and is said to have died about its close. A’ery little can be certainly ascertained of his history. COLUMBUS, Christopher, the dis- coverer of America, Avas born at Genoa, of an illustrious family originally of Piacenza, about 1445. He was sent to study at the university of Pavia, where he showed a strong passion for geographical knowledge, together with an irresistible inclination for the sea. He went to sea about 1460, and passed about thirty years of his life in visiting the various parts of the then known world. His voyages extended northward to Iceland and indeed considerably beyond it, and southward to the coast of Guinea. His imagination was kindled by the geographi- cal discoveries of the Portuguese. He read the Geography of Ptolemy, and the Travels of Marco Polo, pored over the globe of Martin Behaim and the charts of Andrea Bianco, and firmly believed he could reach the half-mythical Cipangu and Cathay by sailing Avestward from Europe. The use of the astrolabe was proposed by Behaim, and contributed very greatly to the success of such an enterprise as Columbus Avas begin- ning to meditate. After many years spent in the active duties of a maritime life, with his mind bent on the acquisition of geogra- phical and nautical science, he went to Lis- bon, where an elder brother of his was settled ; married the orphan daughter of Palestrello, an Italian navigator ; and studied all the maps and charts he could procure, making occasional voyages; in which alternation of theoretical and practical improvement he spent several years. His OAvn reflections, corroborated by facts of which he Avas in- formed by various seamen, led him at length to the conclusion, that there were unknown lands separated from Europe by the Atlantic. After vainly seeking aid from Genoa, Por- tugal, and England, he at length obtained an introduction first to King Ferdinand, and afterwards to his Queen Isabella, and, not without several disappointments, in- duced them to equip and man three vessels for a voyage of discovery ; it being stipu- lated that Columbus should have a tenth of all profits, and be viceroy of the land he expected to discover. He set sail from Palos, on his grand adventure, on the 2nd of August, 1492; and, after sailing for two 218 col] ^ ^nibersal 33iograpI)i)* [com months, was in imminent danger of losing the reward of all his studj' and toil, the variation of the needle having so much alarmed his crews, that they Avere on the point of hrealdng into open mutiny, and he was obliged to promise that if three days produced no discovery, he would commence his homeward voyage. On the third day they hove in sight of one of the Bahamas, Guanahani or San Salvador; and the noble discoverer had the sweetest reward of his faith and enthusiasm, the best compensation for his disappointments and trials, when he bent his knees in worship, not without tears, on the promised new land. It was the 12th October, 1492. He then sailed in search of other lands, and discovered Cuba, St Do- mingo or Hispaniola, and some other of the West India Islands. Having thus far suc- ceeded, he built a fort at Hispaniola, left some of his men there, and then set out on his return to Europe, Avhere he was received with almost royal honours. The gold and other valuables which he presented to the king and queen in token of his success, ex- cited the spirit of adventure in both the sovereigns and their subjects, and in his second voyage he had no difficulty in obtain- ing followers. It was not until his third voyage, made in 1498, that he saw the main- land of America, which Sebastian Cabot reached before him, and Amerigo Vespucci in 1499 ; and though there has been much dispute as to the actual priority, the hon- our of giving a name to the new w'orld re- mains with the latter. Having assumed the command of the settlement at Hispaniola, various complaints were made against him by his enemies, and Columbus was not merely displaced, but Eobadilla, a new governor, who had been despatched thither by the court of Spain, even sent him to that country in chains. Columbus endured this outrage Avith noble equanimity ; and on his return, having obtained an audience of his sovereigns, was partially restored to his dignities ; but full justice was never awarded him. Yet, notAvithstanding this shameful treatment, he made another voyage, in which he encountered every imaginable dis- aster from storms and shipAvreck ; and tAvo years after his return, his noble mind sunk under the load of injustice, oppression, and poverty. He died at Valladolid, in 1506. COLUMBUS, Bartholomew, brother of Christopher, was a skilful cosmographer, and celebrated for his globes and maps. He was sent by his brother to lay his vast project of discovery before Henry VII. of England. Meanwhile the court of Spain had under- taken the enterprise. Bartholomew shared the honours done to his brother, was en- nobled in 1493, and in the follOAving year accompanied Christopher to St Domingo, where he remained as governor. He made, hoAvever, several expeditions of discovery, and died, in St Domingo, in 1514. COLUMELLA, LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERA- TUS, a native of Gades,in Spain. He resided at Rome in the reign of the Emperor Clau- dius ; and, besides other Avorks, Avrote a voluminous and interesting treatise entitled “ De Re Rustica,” which embraces not only farming, but many connected subjects, gar- dening being treated in one book which is Avritten in verse. The AA'orks of Columella have been frequently republished. COMBE, Dr Anhreav, one of the most eminent medical practitioners and writers of our time, was born at Edinburgh, 1797. After studying at the High School, and at the college, he was apprenticed in 1812 to a general medical practitioner. Attracted and interested by the lectures of Dr Spurzheim in Edinburgh, in 1815, he sought his ac- quaintance, and having in 1817 obtained his diploma from the College of Surgeons, he proceeded to Paris to prosecute his studies in the hospitals of that capital under the advice of Dr Spurzheim. Here he remained for two years ; and after a short tour in Switzerland and Italy he returned to Edin- burgh in 1819. Soon after he reached home he was seized Avith symptoms of pulmonary consumption ; and from this time, 1820, to the day of his death, he was, though Avith many intervals of comparative health, a confirmed invalid. Immediately upon his seizure he determined to go to the south of France, but had not got farther than Lon- don Avhen he found himself too unAvell to travel, and returned home ; there he tem- porarily recovered, helped to found the Phrenological Society, and in the ensuing August set off again to the Mediterranean, on whose shores he spent tAvo years. He then determined to begin practice in Edin- burgh, Avhere his high standing among his professional brethren, and general character for good sense, talent, and strict conscien- tiousness, did not leave him long unem- ployed. During the next few years he attained great repute from his able papers in reply to the opponents of phrenology, and also rose high in his profession. In 1825 he took the degree of M.D.,and tAvo years later Avas elected president of the Phrenological Society. During these and several folloAv- ing years, he contiibuted many interesting papers to the Phrenological Journal, and published a work on mental derangement ; and in the course of an extensive practice addressed those invaluable letters to his patients, which, combining so happily the earnest and benevolent friend with the able physician and philosopher, must have strengthened his influence as Avell as greatly added to his usefulness. In 1831 his health again gave way, and he was obliged to pass the Avinter in Italy, and for some years alto- gether to abandon the practice of his pro- fession. In 1836 he Avas appointed physician to the king of the Belgians, but after a short trial he was obliged to resign the resident appointment, finding his strength inade- quate to the due performance of his duties. Between the years 1834-39 he published the three great works for which he had been long and carefully collecting and arranging the materials, “ The Principles of Physiology applied to the Preservation of Health and to Education,” “ The Physiology of Digestion,” and “ The Moral and Physical Management of Infancy.” In 1838 he Avas appointed one of the physicians extraordinary to the queen in Scotland. In the autumn of 1844 his health at last gave Avay so threateningly, as to oblige him to give up all work, and 219 ^ iEcto ^nlbergal 13tograp!)g, [com to try the climate of Madeira. There he passed two successive winters. After this he only left home once again, and that was to make a voyage to America, in the sum- mer preceding his death. Surrounded by attached friends, and tended with faithful and most loving care, his life of usefulness was peacefully closed in the autumn of 1847. COMEE, George, the eminent phrenolo- gist, was born at Edinburgh, in 1788. He was the brother of Dr Andrew Combe, with whom he was associated through life in various schemes of moral and social amelior- ation. After pxirsuing his studies at the High School and university of his native city, he was articled to a lawyer, and passed as writer to the Signet in 1812. In 1816 he became a convert to the views of Dr Spurz- heim, who was then on a visit to Edinburgh, and in the course of three years had so fami- liarized himself with the subject that he published “ Essays on Phrenology,” which he afterwards expanded into his “ System of Phrenology,” and in 1824 founded the “ Phrenological Journal,” as the means of promulgating his views. In 1828 he gave to the world his ablest work, the “ Constitu- tion of Man ;” this work excited the liveliest controversy at the time of its appearance, but the validity of the main principles on which it was based has now been generally recognized. During all this period, and for some time afterwards, Mr Combe had follow- ed his professional pursuits: but in 1837 he addicted himself exclusively to literature ; visited the United States and Germany, and though himself in delicate health, devoted his whole time to the promulgation of his moral, social, and philosophical views by rheans of lectures and the press. Besides publishing his “ Notes on America,” in 1841, his “ Notes on the Reformation of Germany,” in 1846, “ the Life ” of his brother. Dr An- drew Combe, and various other works, Mr Combe was one of the clearest expositors of monetary science, and his contributions to the “ Scotsman ” on this and kindred sub- jects gave him as high rank as a political economist, as he had 'before enjoyed as a phrenologist and philosopher. Died, 1858. COMBER, Dr THOMAS, dean of Carlisle. On the breaking out of the civil war he was deprived of his pi-eferments and thrown into prison ; but he lived to witness the restor- ation of Charles II. Died, 1663. COMBER, Dr THOMAS, dean of Durham ; author of “A Companion to the Temple,” “ A Companion to the Altar,” “ An Account of the Roman Forgeries in the Councils during the first Four Centuries,” &c. Died, 1699. COMBERMERE, STAPLETON COTTON, Viscount and Baron, field-marshal, was born at Llewenny Hall, in Denbighshire, in 1769. He was educated at Westminster School, entered the army in 1790, and three years later served under the duke of York in Flanders, in the first campaigns of the long wars of the French revolution. In 1795 he took part in the conquest of the Cape of Good Hope, and went thence to India, where he shared in the final conflict with Tippoo Saib, taking part in the battle of Mallavelly, and the siege of Seringapatam. In 1808 he was sent to Spain in command of a brigade of cavalry ; distinguished himself at Talavera ; obtained the local rank of lieutenant-general, and in 1810 was appoint- ed commander of the allied cavalry under Wellington. In that capacity he served with distinction through the remaining campaigns of the war, rendering important services at Busaco, Fuentes d’Onor, Sala- manca, where he was severely wounded, El Bodon, Orthez,and Toulouse. He twice re- ceived the thanks of both Houses of Par- liament, and was raised to the peerage as Baron Combermere, in 1814. Three years later he was named governor of Barbadoes, and in 1822 commander- in-chief in India, where he won fresh honour by the capture of Bhurtpore, in 1825. In the following year he was created viscount. He held for nearly 40 years the colonelcy of the 1st Life Guards, and was made field-marshal in 1855. Lord Combermere was also G.C.B., G.C.H., knight of the Star of India, and constable of the Tower of London. “ For -more than 40 years,” says the Times, “ his brilliant sword was sheathed, but the nation did not prove careless of the old soldier’s presence.” His manly figure was one of the sights of Rotten Row, and to the last was seen and welcomed in all state pageants and court ceremonies. Viscount Combermere married, in 1801, the eldest daughter of the third duke of New- castle;, who dying in 1807, he married a second time in 1814 ; and a third time in 1838. He died, at Clifton, February 21, 1865. The Memoirs and Correspondence of Lord Combermere are announced as in the press (November, 1865). COMENIUS, JOHN Amos, a Moravian minister. He for some time officiated as pastor to a congregation at Fulnec, in Mo- ravia, but was driven thence by the invasion of the Spaniards, and settled in Poland, where he published a work, entitled “ Janua Linguarum,” which obtained him so great a celebrity that he was invited to England ; but the breaking out of the civil war ren- dered his stay both brief and unprofitable, and after visiting Sweden, Prussia, and Po- land, where he was engaged in explaining his proposed reform in teaching languages, he settled for the remainder of his life at Amsterdam. Among the other Avorks of Comenius are ” Orbis sensualium pictus,” “ Novissima Linguarum Methodus,” »S:c. Born, 1592 ; died. 1671. COMES, Natalis, the Latinized name of Natale Conti, an Italian poet and miscel- laneous writer, Avas a native of Milan, but settled early at Venice. Besides his poems he wrote a work on mythology, comment- aries on the Turkish Avar in Malta, and a history of his OAvn time. Born, about 1520. COMINES, Philippe he. Lord of Argen- ton, a great French historian, Avas born in Flanders in 1447. He entered the service of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, and was present at the battle of Montlh^ry. In 1472 he was sent by Charles to the French court, entered the service of Louis XI., and remained in it till the king’s death in 1483. Litigation then arose respecting some estates given him by Louis, and he Avas imprisoned. On his release he Avas made a councillor by 220 com] ^niij^rsal ISiogrnpIjy. [com Charles YIII., and followed him in his in- vasion of Italy. He retired in 1498, and died, 1511. His “ Memoires ” present a very vivid and authentic portraiture of the court of Louis XI., and of the principal events and general character of the age in which he lived. COMMANDING, PedericO, an Italian mathematician, born at Urbino, 1509. He made himself a great reputation by his learned and careful translations and editions of Archimedes, Apollonius, and other ancient mathematicians. Died, 1575. COMMELIN, Jerome, a learned French printer. He established his press first at Geneva, and subsequently at Heidelberg ; and published several of the Greek and Latin authors, with notes from his own pen. Died, 1598. COMMELIN, ISAAC, Dutch historian, was born at Amsterdam, in 1598. He was long engaged in preparing a History of Amster- dam, which he did not live to complete, but which was published by his younger son, Caspar, in 1694. The principal works of Isaac Commelin are, “ Lives of the Stadt- holders William I. and Maurice,” “ Life of Frederick Henry,” and a collection of Acts of the Government of Holland. Died, 1676. COMMELIN, JOHN, Dutch botanist, was eldest son of the preceding, and was born at Amsterdam, in 1629. He founded, and was first director of, the fine Botanical Garden of that city. Among his works, the most esteemed is, “Horti Medici Amstelodami 1 rariorum Plantarum Descriptio et leones.” Died, 1692. COMMELIN, CASPAR, Dutch physician and botanist, was nephew of the preceding, and was born at Amsterdam, in 1667. He became professor of botany there ; publish- ed “ Horti Medici Amstelodami Plantae rari- ores exotic®,” as a continuation of his uncle’s work ; “ Flora Malabarica,” &c. Died, 1751. COMMERSON, PHILIBERT, a French physician and botanist. In the latter cha- racter he evinced great zeal and industry, and his collection was immense. He was the friend and correspondent of Linn®us, Haller, and Lalande, and was sent as na- turalist with the expedition of discovery under Bougainville. He remained in the Isle of France, and died there. He wrote a work on Icthyology, two quarto volumes ; and the “ Martyrology of Botany,” an ac- count of those who had lost their lives in botanical pursuits. Born, 1721 ; died, 1773. COMMODUS, Lucius Aurelius, Roman emperor, was the son of the wise and vir- tuous Marcus Aurelius, and was born A. D. 161. He was most carefully educated, and accompanied his father on several military expeditions. He succeeded him in 180, and after a short period of orderly government he dismissed his wisest counsellors, and gave himself up to the lowest society, and the most shameless habits. The administration Avas in the hands of a series of his favourites, and confiscations and murders were the ordinary occurrences of the day. He went so far in defiance of decency as to fight in the circus like a gladiator, and then gave himself out for a god, and would be worship- ped as Hercules. He was at last poisoned by a concubine, whom he intended to put to death ; and then strangled by an athlete, A. D. 192. The vices and misgovernment of Commodus contributed powerfully to hasten the fall of the empire. COMNENA. [ANNA COMNENA.] COMNENUS. [ALEXIUS COMNENUS, ANDRONICUS I., and MANUEL.] COMNENUS, Demetrius Stephano- POLi Constantine, the supposed descend- ant of the celebrated family of the Comneni, which long sat upon the throne of the east- ern empire, was born in 1749, in the island of Corsica. Having been driven from their possessions in the East by the Turks, they at length emigrated in the 17th century, and, with a colony of Greeks, settled in Corsica, where their leader inherited the title and dignity of capitano, until Corsica became united to France. After studying at Rome, with the intention of becoming an ecclesiastic, Demetrius entered into the serA-- ice of France, and obtained a captaincy in a regiment of dragoons in 1778. At the beginning of the revolution he fought under the banners of Conde, and Avent into exile with other royalists ; but he returned to France in 1802, and lived on a pension of 4000 francs, assigned to him by Napoleon. Louis XYIII. confirmed this stipend, and made him marechal de camp, and knight of St Louis. He died in 1821. COMPTON, Henry, son of Spencer Comp- ton, earl of Northampton, one of the bravest adherents of Charles I. At the restoration he obtained a cornetcy of dragoons. He soon, however, quitted the army for the church; and, after various preferments, Avas, in 1675, promoted to the bishopric of London. He opposed the spirit] of Popery during the reign of James II., and was one of the most zealous friends of the prince of Orange. When Archbishop Sancroft refused to crown William and Mary, Compton per- formed that ceremony. Besides many ser- mons and letters, he wrote a treatise on the Communion, and translated from the Italian the Life of Donna Olympia Maldachini. Died, 1713. COMTE, Auguste, the founder of the system of philosophy called the “ Positive,” was born at Montpelier in 1795, and educated at Paris in the Polytechnic School, Avhere he distinguished himself by his love of specu- lation, and his profound dissatisfaction with the existing philosophic schools and actual social condition of his country. On leaving college he became acquainted with the cele- brated Saint-Simon, and being attracted by his personal character, and chai’med by the originality of his views, he joined the band of brilliant disciples which the genius and ambition of that distinguished social re- former gathered around him. On the death of its founder in 1825, Comte deserted the Saint-Simonian school, to found one of his own, and during the next twenty years de- voted himself to the elaboration of an origin- al system of scientific thought — since known as the “Positive Philosophy.” The great text-book of his system, entitled “Cours de Philosophie Positive,” extending to six thick volumes, gradually appeared at intervals 221 con] SJnibersal ^Siograpl)!). [con between the years 1830 and 1842. During this time he led a quiet, scientific life, as professor of mathematics in the Ecole Poly- technique ; and almost immediately after the conclusion of his great work published tM’-o popular treatises connected with the subject of his chair, one on Analytical Geometry, the other on Astronomy, both of which w'ere very successful. In 1844 he issued an outline and defence of his system in a single volume, entitled “ Discours sur I’Ensemble du Posi- tivisme.” Whatever may be thought of the Positive Philosophy, either as to the per- fection of the parts or as to its completeness as a whole — and it is undoubtedly open to criticism in both respects — it cannot be de- nied that to Comte belongs the honour of being the first who grasped the true principle for the co-ordination of the sciences; that in an age of vast speculative and scientific activity he first rose from the empirical classification of facts to a genuine science of principles. Even his enemies allow that he possessed great general force of intellect, rare speculative power, and that he reaches the happiest generalizations in every branch of science he undertakes to expound. The serious defect of his system on the moral side, its omission to recognize and provide for the religious element in man, was felt at last by Comte himself. In his last years he made a desperate effort to remedy it by pro- jecting a new worship. His “ Culte Syste- matique de I’Humanite” is an elaborate attempt to actualize the vag\ie idea of hero- worship. He expounded his views on this worship of man by man still further in the “Cat6chisme Positiviste” and the “ Traite de Sociologie,” and gave himself out to be chief priest of the new religion. This strange attempt, though of course a miserable failure, is significant enough as a confession of a so- lemn truth, denied, or at least unrecognized, by Positivism. The “Positive Philosophy” was first introduced to English students in a series of papers by Mr Lewes, which ap- peared in the “ Leader,” and have since been collected and published as a separate volume in “Bohn’s Scientific Library.” A con- densed translation of M. Comte’s great vvork has also been published by Miss Martineau. An important work entitled “ Auguste Comte and Positivism,” by John Stuart Mill, has recently appeared (1865). Died, 1857. CONCINO CONCINI (more celebrated and better known by his title of Marshal d’Ancre) was by birth a Florentine, and accompanied Mary de Medici, the wife of Henry IV., to France. He rapidly obtained pi’efcrment, and after the death of Henry IV. so much abused the influence he had over the queen regent, that Avhen her son, Louis XIII., be- came old enough to act for himself, he con- sented to the assassination of the marquis, which accordingly took place in 1617 ; and in the same year his wife was burned to death as a sorceress. The judges, who tried her on this absurd charge, demanded of her by what arts she had gained her ascendancy over the queen ; when she made the memorable re- ply, “ My only sorcery has been the influence of a strong mind over a weak one.” CONDAMINE, CHARLES MARIE HE LA, French mathematician, was born at Paris in 1701. He served for a short time in the army, and then entered the Academy Sciences as assistant-chemist. After a visit to the coasts of the Mediterranean, and a stay of several months at Constantinople, he went in 1735 to Peru, where he took part with Bouguer and Godin in the measurement of an arc of the meridian. Painful jealousies and discussions arose between the leaders of this expedition, which only returned to Europe in 1743. La Condamine afterwards visited Italy and England, and was admitted to the Iloyal Society. He was remarkable for his gaiety, courage, and kindheartedness. His principal works are a Narrative of his Travels in South America, “ La Figure de la Terre,” “ Histoire des Pyramides de Quito,” &c. He was a member of the French Aca- demy, and of the Academies of Science of Paris, Berlin, and St Petersburg. Died, 1774. CONDE, LOUIS I. DE BOURBON, Prince of, son of Charles, duke of Vendome, was born in 1530. He married the grand-niece of the Constable Montmorenci. He served his first campaigns in Piedmont, but first distin- guished himself at the defence of Metz, be- sieged by Charles V. in 1552. Affronted at court, and hated by the Guises, he joined his brother, king of Navarre, at N6rac, and became a Protestant. In 1560 he was ar- rested and sentenced to death, but was dis- charged after the death of Francis 1. He soon after appeared as head of the Protest- ants, and was defeated and captured at the battle of Dreux. He was again wronged and insulted by the refusal of the office of lieutenant-general of the kingdom, to which he was entitled. In 1567 he fought the battle of St Denis without decisive result. Two years later the Protestants were defeated, and Condji was slain at Jarnac. CONDE, Henri, Prince of, who at the request of Henry IV. became a Catholic, was born in 1588. In 1616 he was sent to the Bastile, where he remained for three years. After the death of Louis XIII., the prince was liberated, and was made minister of state to the regent. Died, 1646. CONDE, LOUIS II. DE Bourbon, Prince of, called THE Great, was son of the preceding, and was born at Paris in 1621. He married a niece of Cardinal Richelieu, and was at first known as the Duke d’Enghien. His first great achievement was the victory over the Spanish army at Rocroi, in 1643. The capture of Thionville soon followed. The following year is marked by the battle of Freiburg, which lasted three days, and the great victory over the Imperialists at Nord- iingen. • After taking Dunkirk in 1646 Cond6 was, through envy, sent into Catalonia, where with inferior troops success forsook him. It was necessary soon to recall him to Flanders, where he won the victory of Lens over the Archduke Leopold in 1648. Having offended the first minister. Cardinal Mazarin, he was imprisoned for more than a year, and after his liberation he led the army of the Fronde, began the siege of Paris, and en- countered Tui’enne and the royalists in the Faubourg St Antoine. Soon after he entered the service of Spain, and contended with varying success against his countrymen in 222 con] ^ iEcto ^nitjersal ISiograpIji). [con Flanders. After the Peace of the Pyrenees he returned to Paris, and was employed in the conquest of Franche-Cointe. In the war with Holland, in 1672, he Avas wounded at the passage of the Rhine, the only time he received a wound. His last great exploit w'us the victory over 'VVilliain, prince of Orange (William III.), at Senef, in 1674. Martyr to the gout, he retired in the follow- ing year to his charming seat at Chantilly, enjoying there the society of some of the most eminent men of letters, among them llacine, Hoileau, and Moliere. He died at Fontainebleau in 1686. Funeral orations, high-liowm panegyrics, were delivered by Bourdaloue and Bossuet. There is a “ Life of the Great Conde ” by Lord Mahon. CONDE, Louis JOSEPH, Prince of, horn at Paris in 1736, was brought up by his uncle, the count of Charolais, and was early made master of the king’s house, and governor of Burgundy. He served in the Seven Years’ War, and distinguished himself at the battles of Hastembeck, Minden, and Johannisberg. He became the associate of the Dauphin, occupied himself Avith literary and scientific pursuits, and in the perplexities Avhich pre- ceded the revolution advocated the necessity of moderate reforms. After the fall of the Bastille he emigrated, watching every op- portunity for assisting the partisans of the monarchy. Having published a manifesto, announcing his intention of rescuing Louis XVI., he was declared a traitor, and his estates were sequestrated by the Assembly. The Prince organized a body of troops which was incorporated with the Austrian army, and was afterAvards subsidized by England. In 1801 the prince of Cond6 settled in Eng- land. The murder of his young grandson, the Duke d’Enghien, by Napoleon, affected him profoundly. At the restoration he re- turned Avith Louis XVIII. to France, lived again at Chantilly, and died at Paris, 1818. He was author of an “Essai sur la Vie du grand Conde.” CONDE, JOSE Antoxio, Spanish orient- alist, was born about 1765. He studied at the university of Alcala, and became assist- ant in the Iloyal Library at Madrid, where he zealously pursued the study of Arabic literature. During the French occupation he held the post of librarian to Joseph Buo- naparte, and in 1813 retired into France, w'hence he was alloAved to return five years afterwards. He was librarian to the Aca- demy of History, and a member of the Spanish Academy. His principal work is the “ History of the Dominion of the Arabs in Spain,” which has been translated into English. Died, 1821. CONDEB,, JosiAH, a distinguished man of letters, was born in London in 1789. He Avas the son of Mr Thomas Conder, bookseller, and grandson of Dr John Conder, president of the Old College, Homerton. At an early age he manifested the literary taste which distinguished him through life. His juvenile poetical contributions to the “Athenaeum” (Dr Aikin’s) and other publications having attracted favourable notice, he published, in 1810, a small volume entitled “ The Associate Minstrels,” the joint production of several friends. Having succeeded to his father’s business, as a bookseller and publisher, in 1814 he became proprietor of the “Eclectic lleview.” In 1819 he disposed of his busi- ness, and from this period till 1837, devoted himself to the management of the “Eclectic BevicAv,” besides publishing several original AA orks, both prose and poetical, and editing the “Modern Traveller,” Avhich consisted of 25 vols., and had a large circulation. In 1832 he became the editor of the “Patriot,” an office Avhich he held for three-and-tAventy years. For many years he took an active part in the public movements of the Protest- ant Dissenters of the metroiAOlis, without, hoAA’ever, renouncing his attachment to li- terature. Died, 1855. Memoirs of Josiah Conder, by Eustace Conder, have since ap- peared. CONDILLAC, Etienne Bonnot de, French philosopher, Avas born at Grenoble in 1715. He Avas early attracted to meta- physical studies, and adopted the system of Locke, carrying hoAA'ever the doctrines of the SensatiomT School further than his master did. He Avas of very grave manners, and lived mostly in studious retirement. Rousseau and Diderot Avere among his friends. He was named tutor to the young duke of Parma, grandson of Louis XV., and was admitted to the French Academy. His principal Avorks are, “ Essai sur I’Originedes Connaissances Humaines,” “ Traite des Sen- sations,” and “Cours d’Etude du Prince de Parme.” Died, 1780. A French work, en- titled ‘ Condillac : ou I’Empirisme et le Ra- tionalisme,” by F. R4thor6,” has been pub- lished this year (1865). CONDORCET, MARIE JEAN ANTOINE NICOLAS Caritat, Marquis of, a French mathematician and philosopher, was born at Ribem.ont, in Picardy, in 1743, and educated at the college of Navarre. When only 22 years of age he distinguished himself among mathematicians by the publication of his Avork “Du Calcul Integral.” Two years af- terwards he published the treatise “ Du Pro- bleme des Trois Corps,” and in the folio Aving year his “ Essai d’Analyse.” In 1769 he Avas chosen member of the Academy, and in 1773 became its secretary, in which situation he distinguished himself by the elegance of his eloges. In 1791 he became a member of the National Assembly and of the Jacobin Club; and he soon became as noted for his political violence as he had already been eminent for his scientific genius. When proscribed by Robespierre, he voluntarily left the house of the friend Avho had received him, and wan- dered about for some time in the country. He was at last recognized, arrested, and thrown into prison, where, on the third morning, 28th Mai’ch, 1794, he was found dead in his bed, having taken poison which he carried about him. As a philosopher and social refoi'iner Coadorcet was a devoted follower of Voltaire. He expounded his OAvn views in the brilliant “ Esquisse historique de I’Esprit Humain.” CONFUCIUS, the Latin form of the name of KONG-FU-TZ.ee, the celebrated Chinese sage, who flourished probably about B.c. 550. He was the son of a mandarin of the state of Loo, one of the petty kingdoms into AVhich China was then divided. He travelled for 223 con] ^ 3i3tograpf)p* [con some time through these states, promoting as far as he could the instruction of the people and the improvement of the govern- ments. When past middle age he was ap- pointed chief minister in Loo, but fell into disfavour and went into exile. He died in an ad-vanced age; his fame grew, and his doctrines were recognized and handed down as the highest wisdom. They are of a purely practical character, and do not include any doctrine of religion. His descendants were ennobled, and are still found in his native district. Temples and ceremonies to his honour abound throughout the empire. CONGLETON, HENRY BROOKE PAR- NELL, Lord, was the second son of Sir John Parnell, hart., chancellor of the Irish Ex- chequer, and was born July 3rd, 1776. His elder brother was born dumb, and a cripple, and, by a somewhat unusual stretch of au- thority, parliament set aside the entail upon the family estates, so that the younger son succeeded to the estates on the death of his father in 1801, and to the title on the death of his brother in 1812. He entered parlia- ment in 1802, but ceased to be a member at the close of the same year. He was again returned in 1806, and retained his seat, in spite of all opposition, until 1832, when he voluntarily retired. Prom 1833 to 1837 he sat for Dundee ; and in 1841 he was raised to the peerage. During his whole parliament- ary career he was an extremely useful, though by no means brilliant, member. Finance in all its various branches he was very familiar with, and upon such subjects he very early became a sort of authority to both sides of the House. Died June 8, 1842, aged 65. CONGBEVE, William, an eminent Eng- lish dramatist, was born near Leeds, in 1670, and educated at Trinity College, Dublin. He entered himself as a student at the Middle Temple, but, like many more before and since, abandoned the law for literature. His first piece, written at the age of 17, was a romance, entitled “Incognita, or Love and Duty Reconciled.” In 1693, being then only 21 years old, he wrote his first comedy, “ The Old Bachelor.” This produced him not only great reputation, but also the substantial benefit of a commissionership in the hack- ney-coach ofiice, which was given to him by the earl of Halifax, who afterwards still further patronized and favoured him. He wrote also “Love for Love,” “The Double Dealer,” “The Mourning Bride,” “The Way of the World,” an opera; and some poems. Died, 1729. Witty and spirited as Congreve’s plays are, they are too licentious to keep possession of the stage at the present day ; and in his own time they received severe castigation from the celebrated Jeremy Collier. A portrait of Congreve, by Sir God- frey Kneller, is in the National Portrait Gallery. CONGREVE, Sir WILLIAM, the son of a lieutenant-general, and the inventor of the Congreve rockets, was born in 1772, and en- tered the military service early, in which he obtained the rank of lieutenant-colonel. He possessed much inventive talent, which he applied to the mechanic arts ; and for several years the rocket which bears his name, and which was first used in the attack of Bou- logne in 1806, was considered a grand auxi- liary in warlike operations, although it has now fallen into comparative disrepute. Sir William was a fellow of the Royal Society, and represented Plymouth in parliament. Died, 1828. CONON, an Athenian general, was the son of Timotheus. Having been defeated in a naval engagement at JEgospotamos by Ly- sander, he for a time went into exile; but being aided by Artaxerxes, king of Persia, he returned and defeated the Spartans near Cnidos. He then began to rebuild the forti- fications of Athens, and restored it to liberty and security; but being sent on a political mission to Tiribazus, a Persian satrap, he was imprisoned, and it is not known what became of him. CONRAD I., count of Franconia. In 911 he was elected king of Germany, but Arnulf, duke of Bavaria, and Henry, duke of Saxony, disputed his title, and engaged the Huns to overrun Germany. Conrad is said to have received a mortal wound in combat with these revolted chiefs. Died, 918. CONRAD II., son of Henry, duke of Fran- conia, was elected king of Germany in 1024. Attempts were made to displace him, but without success, and in 1027 he was crowned emperor at Rome, in the presence of Canute, king of England, and Rudolph, king of Bur- gundy. As heir to Rudolph, who died in 1033, Conrad became king of Burgundy. Died, 1039. CONRAD III., duke of Franconia, of the house of Hohenstaufi’en, and elected emperor, 1138. His title was disputed by Henry the Proud, duke of Saxony, and the rivalry of these two princes was the germ of the fac- tions afterwards so famous under the names of Guelfs and Ghibellines. In 1146, at the diet held at Spire, Conrad was persuaded by the eloquence of St Bernard to undertake a crusade, on which he set out the following year. It was fruitless and disastrous, and Conrad returned with the wreck of his army in 1149. He died, in his own dominions, 1152. CONRAD IV., duke of Suabia, chosen king of the Romans in 1238, was son of the great Emperor Frederick II., and like him was excommunicated by the pope. Innocent IV., who set up a rival emperor in William, count of Holland. On the death of his father, in 1250, Conrad marched into Italy to recover the towns which had declared against him. He took Naples, but could not get the in- vestiture of the kingdom of Sicily from the pope. Died suddenly in Italy, 1254. CONRADINO, son of the last named, who left him the kingdom of Naples. Pope Ur- ban IV. gave that kingdom to Charles of Anjou, who defeated Conradino, then only 16 years old, at the battle of Tagliacozzo, and caused him to be beheaded in 1268. CONSALVI, Ercole, cardinal and chief minister of Pope Pius VII., was born at Rome, in 1757. As he had opposed the French party in Rome to the utmost of his power, he was banished when the French took possession of the city. When, how- ever, the papal affairs were in a better con- dition he returned; and, as secretary of 224 con] ^aniijcrsal ISiograpI)!?. state, he concluded the famous concordat M'ith Napoleon, continuing, in fact, at the head of the political and ecclesiastical affairs of the Homan state till the death of the pope, his friend and master. The administration of Consalvi was marked by many important improvements in the law, such as the aboli- tion of torture, monopolies, and the right of asylum, and the promulgation of several new codes. Died, 1824. CONSTABLE, ARCHIBALD, the most en- terprising bookseller that Scotland has pro- duced, was born at Kellie in Fifeshire, 1775. After serving his apprenticeship to Peter Hill of Edinburgh, the friend and corre- spondent of Burns, he commeneed business for himself in 1795 ; and his obliging man- ners, general intelligence, and indefatigable activity gained him the esteem of all who came in contact with him. His reputation as a publisher dates from 1802, when he pub- lished the first number of the Edinburgh Review; and in 1805 he published, in con- junction with Messrs Longman and Co., The Lay of the Last Minstrel,” the first of that long series of original and romantic publications in poetry and prose which has immortalized the name of Walter Scott. His tact in appreciating literary merit, his liberality in rewarding it, and the sagacity he displayed in placing it in the most favour- able manner before the public, were amply rewarded by the unparalleled success of his literary projects; but in 1826 he was over- whelmed by the disasters consequent on the rage for speculation that marked the pre- ceding year, and the fruits of a life of ac- tivity, industry, and exertion were all sacri- ficed in the prevailing wreck of commercial credit. The well-known “ Miscellany ” that bears his name was his last project ; soon after its commencement he was attacked with dropsy, and died in 1827. CONSTABLE, JOHN, R.A., one of the most eminent landscape painters of our time, was born at East Bergholt, in Suffolk, 1776. Having early displayed a love of art, he visited London in 1795, for the purpose of ascertaining what might be his chance of success as a painter. Encouraged by the flattering commendations of Farrington, himself a landscape painter of some note, and of “ Antiquity ” Smith, he laboured hard at the mechanical part of his profes- sion, and in 1802 sent his first picture to the exhibition of the Royal Academy. From this period he was a regular contributor down to the year of his death. Few pencils, indeed, have been more prolific ; and the works he has left behind him, both in num- ber and excellence, have earned for him a distinguished place among the landscape painters not only of England but of the world. In 1829 he was elected an academi- cian, Died, 1837. “Memoirs of the Life” of Mr Constable were published by his friend and brother artist, Mr Leslie, full of interest, and showing that both artists could wield the pen no less ably than the pencil. CONSTANS I., FLAVIUS JULIUS, one of the sons of Constantine the Great, and his successor in the sovereignty of Africa, Italy, and Western Illyricum. His brother Con- stantine endeavoured to dispossess him of [con it; but being defeated and slain in the at- tempt, Constans became master of the whole empire. His conduct was, however, so of- fensive to the people, that the standard of revolt was hoisted, and Constans was put to death. A.D. 350. CONSTANT DE REBECQUE, BENJA- MIN DE, a distinguished orator and author, attached to the liberal or constitutional party in France. He was born at Lausanne in 1767, and, after studying at Edinburgh and Erlangen, at the commencement of the French revolution went to reside at Paris, where he soon distinguished himself, both by his political writings and his eloquent speeches in the senate; and when, under the government of the Directory, he was elected to the office of tribune, he zealously endeavoured to maintain the equality of citizens, the freedom of the press, and the regular administration of justice. His con- duct, however, rendered him obnoxious to the first consul, and he was dismissed from his office in 1802, After retiring to Ger- many, where in 1813 he published his cele- brated brochure “ De I’esprit de Conquete et de rUsurpation,” he again appeared at Paris in 1814, and publicly advocated the cause of the Bourbons ; yet we soon after find him assisting in forming the constitution of the Champ de Mai, embodied in the famous “Additional Act.” Though, like many others, he had sufficient cau-e to retire from France on the second restoration of Louis XAHII., he was allowed to return, and in 1819 wa elected a member of the Chamber of Deputies, where he long remained as a dis- tinguished leader of the opposition, particu- larly in all the discussions relating to the censorship of the press and the rights of the people. He wrote “Dc la Religion con- sid6r6e dans sa Source, ses Formes et ses D6veloppements,” Du Polyth6isme Re- main,” and various political brochures, was one of the editors of La Minerve, and a contributor to the Biographie XJniverselle. As an orator he was eloquent and profound ; and as a writer lively, imaginative, and acute. Died, 1830. CONSTANTINE, FLAVIUS VALERIUS, surnamed the Great, Roman emperor, was the son of Constantius Chlorus, by Helena, and was born A. D. 272. On the death of his father, at Y.ork, in 306, Constantine, who had accompanied him to Britain, was pro- claimed emperor by the troops. After de- feating the Franks, he married Fausta, the daughter of Maximian, but he was soon in- volved in a war with his father-in-law, who assumed the title of emperor. The usurper’s reign was brief ; and on his being taken prisoner, Constantine caused him to be strangled. This involved him in a war with Maxentius, son of Maximian, in which the latter was defeated and drowned in the Tiber. It was during this war that the em- peror, as alleged by Eusebius, saw a luminous cross in the heavens with the inscription, “ l7i hoc signo vinces.” (Under this sign thou Shalt conquer.) He accordingly caused a new standard to be made, surmounted by the monogram of the name of Christ ; marched to Rome in triumph ; and was declared by the senate Augustus and ponti/ex maximus. Q 225 j ccn] ^ SJiubmal 13iog:rapf;n. [con In the following year the edict to stay the persecution of the Christians Avas published at Nicomedia. Constantine had married his sister to Licinius ; but the latter, jealous of . his fame, took up arms against him, and j they met in Pannonia, A. D. 314. Constan- tine was victorius, and a peace was granted to Licinius ; but in 323 he renewed hostili- ties, was again defeated, and finally, con- trary to the engagement of Constantine, was put to death. Tims Constantine became, in 325, sole head of the Eastern and 'Western empires ; and his first care was the establish- ment of peace and order. He displayed great courage and love of justice, and professed an ardent zeal for the Christian religion. He made Byzantium the seat of empire, naming it anew after himself, Constantinople. But though his actions on the whole entitled him to the surname of “ The Great,” many acts of cruelty, and, above all, the murder of his son Crispus, have left a stain upon his character alike as a man, a Christian, and a sovereign. Constantine died at Nicomedia, in May, 337, having been baptized only a few days be- fore. His empire was divided between his three sons, Constantine, Constantius, and OoTistd.ris» CONSTANTINE, FLAVIUS JULIUS, a pri- vate soldier, who was raised by the army in Britain to the imperial dignity in 407, on which he crossed over to Gaul, and con- quered that country and Spain. He fixed his court at Arles, where he was besieged by Constantius, the general of the emperor Honorius, to whom he surrendered on the promise that his life should be spared ; but it was basely violated, and both Constantine and his son were put to death, A. D. 411. CONSTANTINE III., emperor of the East, surnamed Pogonatus, or the Bearded, Avas son of Constans 11., whom he succeeded in 668. His two brothers, Tiberius and Hera- clius, shared the title of Augustus, but had little or no share in the government, and towards the close of his reign Constantine, under the influence of suspicion, had them mutilated and put to death. Constantinople was unsuccessfully attacked by the Mussul- mans in 672 and the six following years ; and it was during these wars that the famous “ Greek fire ” was invented. Constantine convoked and took part in the sixth general council held at Constantinople, at which the doctrine of the Monothelites was con- demned. Died, 685. CONSTANTINE V., emperor of the East, was son of Leo IV., whom he succeeded in 780. Being only 10 years old when his father died, his mother Irene was his guard- ian and regent of the empire. On arriving at a mature age he Avished to assume the government himself ; but Irene, made cruel by ambition, had him imprisoned. He es- caped in 790, exiled his mother, recalled her, and finally, ruined by his licentious living, and despised by his subjects, a conspiracy was formed against him, Irene taking the lead in it, and being imprisoned, his eyes were put' out by her orders. The blind prince languished some time in obscurity, and died in 797. CONSTANTINE, surnamed PORPITYRO- GENITUS, emperor of the East, succeeded Leo the Wise in 911. He was destitute of energy, and devoted himself chiefly to study. He admitted colleagues to the throne, so that at last five emperors were reigningtogether. Constantine left a treatise on state affairs, a geography of the empire, and the “ Life of the Emperor Basilius ,the Macedonian.” Died, 959. CONSTANTINE, DrACOSES or Palje- OLOGUS, the last of the Greek emperors, succeeded to the throne in 1449. Ho Avas killed in bravely defending Constantinople against Mahomet II., Avho, in 1453, besieged the city Avith 300,000 men. The heroic va- lour displayed by Constantine in this un- equal contest demands our admiration ; but valour Avas of no avail, the city Avas taken by storm, and thus ended the Greek empire. CONSTANTINE, CiESAROVICH PAULO- VICH, grand-prince of Russia, second son of the emperor Paul, and brother of Alexander, was born in 1779. He attended his brother in all his campaigns, and distinguished him- self greatly at the battle of AusteiTitz. In 1815 he Avas made generalissimo or Airtual governor of Poland, where he shOAved that he possessed only the characteristics of a half-civilized ruler, being cruel and tyran- nical in his goA^ernment. He formally re- nounced his right of succession to the em- pire in taAmur of his younger brother, the emperor Nicholas, and Avas present at his coronation. Constantine married in 1796 a princess of the house of Saxe-Coburg, aunt of Queen Victoria, but soon separated from her, and was aftei’Avards divorced. Died, 1831. CONSTANTIUS I., surnamed CllLORUS, or THE Pale, Roman emperor, Avas the son of Eutropius and Claudia, niece of Claudius II. He distinguished himself as a soldier under the emperors Aurelian and Probus. In 292 he Avas made Caesar and governor of the Gauls, Spain, and Britain. He recon- quered Britain, long in revolt under Carau- sius and Allectus; Avon a great victory over the Alamanni in 300; became Augustus in 305 ; and died at York in the folloAving year. By Helena, his first wife, Constantius Avas father of Constantine the Great. Constan- tius ruled his provinces with great justice and prudence, and aa'Ou the esteem of all classes of his subiects. CONSTANTIUS, FLAVIUS JULlUS,Roman emperor, son of Constantine the Great, Avas born in 317, made Cmsar in 323, and elected emperor in 337. The soldiers, to secure the throne to the three sons of Constantine, massacred the uncles and cousins of those princes, with the exception of Julian, “ the Apostate,” and his brother Gallus. After this the sons of Constantine divided the em- pire, Constantius taking the cast for his share. Magnentius, governor of Rhoetia, murdered Constans, Avho had reigned over Italy 13 years ; on which Constantius march- ed against the murderer, Avhom he defeated, and his elder brother being also dead, he became sole emperor. He died on his march against Julian, Avho had assumed the purple in 361. CONTE, Nicolas Jacques, a French painter, but more distinguished for the in- genuity of his mechanical contrivances. He 226 conJ iScto Sinii3trsal ISiograpIjtj. [coo accompanied the expedition to Egypt, M^hcre his services -were of the greatest value ; for, the machines and instruments of tlie army ; having fallen into the hands of the Arabs, ' he constructed corn and gunpowder mills, 1 manufactured swords, engineering instru- ments, telescopes, and, in short, everything necessary for a military and scientific ex- pedition. Eorn, 1755 ; died, 1805. I COXTUCCI, Andrea, named Sansavino, : a celebrated Italian sculptor, was born at i l Monte San Savino in 1460. He was em- ■ ployed as a shepherd boy, but in consequence 1 of his skill in drawing was sent to Florence, j where he became a pupil of Pollajuolo, and studied in the famous gardens of St Mark. 1 About 1490 he went to Portugal, became sculptor and architect to the king, and after ten years returned to Florence. He went to I Home about 1509, and was employed by 1 Popes Julius 11. and Leo X. His best works ■ are the monuments of two cardinals in the 1 church of Santa Maria del Popolo, some bas- 1 reliefs at Loretto, and the altar in the Cor- 1 binelli chapel in San Spirito, Florence. Died j at Home, 1529, COXYBEAHE, JOHN JOSIAS, a learned 1 English divine, critic, and antiquary ; born, 1779. He was educated at Oxford University, where, in 1807, he was appointed professor of Anglo-Saxon, and some years later pro- fessor of poetry. He was author of a volume of admirable sermons, preached at the Bampton Lecture ; and of various articles on Saxon literature, contributed to the Censura Literaria, and the British Biblio- grapher. He also contributed some valuable ! papers, on chemistry and mineralogy, to the Annals of Philosophy and the Transactions of the Geological Society. Died, 1824. COOK, HENRY, an English painter. He studied in Italy under Salvator Hosa ; but for many years after his return to England he lived in obscurity and distress. He was at length employed by AVilliam III. to re- pair the cartoons of Haphael at Hampton Court, from which time he seems to have been comparatively prosperous, as Horace AValpole mentions several public works which were either wholly or in part per- formed by him. Died, 1700. 1 COOK, Captain James, the celebrated English navigator. He was born at Marton, in Yorkshire, in 1728 ; and his parents being poor, his early education included only read- ing, writing, and common arithmetic. He commenced his naval career in the merchant service, then entered on board the Eagle manrof-war, and after four years’ meritori- ous service was made master of the Mercury. This vessel formed part of the squadron sent against Quebec ; and Cook performed the difticult task of taking soundings in the St Lawrence, in the very face of the French encampment, and of making a chart of the St Lawrence below Quebec. After various and arduous services he was at length raised to the rank of lieutenant; and then com- menced that series of voyages round the world, the details of which form one of the most popular and delightful books in our language. Captain Cook embarked on his first voyage as commander of the “ En- deavour,” in August, 1768, reached New Holland (Australia) in 1770, and arrived in England in June, 1771. His second voyage, in which he commanded the “ Hesolution,” and was accompanied by the “Adventure,” commenced in July, 1772. He visited X"ew Zealand, passed Cape Horn, and returned home in July, 1774. He set out on the third voyage, commander of the “ Hesolution ” again, and accompanied by the “ Discovery,” in July 1776, discovered the Sandwich Is- lands, explored the Avestern coast of X'orth America, and then made further discoA'eries in the Pacific. Unhappily, Avhile touching at Owhyhee, Captain Cook, in spite of the utmost prudence and humanity, Avas in- volA'ed in a dispute with the natiA'es, and Avhile endeavouring to reach his boat Avas savagely murdered, on St Talen tine’s Day, 1779. Captain Cook Avas fitted for the post he filled by a rare combination of intel- lectual and moral qualities. Naturally quick- sighted, energetic, decided, yet kindly and considerate, he could rule men well and gain their confidence and love. He Avas also highly accomplished in the science of navigation ; and to his persevering en- deaA-ours and watchful care it was due that the health of his creAvs Avas always so re- markably good. During the interval betAveen his second and third A’oyages Captain Cook Avas elected F.H.S. — His Avife, Elizabeth Cook, survived him 56 years ! haAung died at her residence at Clapham, in 1835, aged 93. But she had to mourn the loss of her three sons in a few years after the unhappy fate of her husband. Nathaniel, their second son, AA-as lost in the Thunderer, Avhich foundered at sea, in 1780 ; Hlgh, a student at Cam- bridge, died in 1793; and James, the eldest son, was lost, with his boat’s crew, Avhile commander of the Spitfire sloop-of-Avar, off the Isle of AVight, in 1794. COOKE, Sir Anthony, an eminent Eng- lish scholar. He Avas one of the tutors of EdAvard YI., who highly esteemed him. On the accession of Queen Mary he was exiled, and only returned after her death. Of his four daughters, all remarkable for their character and acquirements, one became the Avife of Lord Burleigh, and another the Avife of Sir Nicholas Bacon. Born, 1508 ; died, 1576. COOKE, Benjamin, Mus. D., Cambridge, an able musician and composer ; horn, 1739. He became organist of 'Westminster Abbey, and was author of “ Hoav sleep the Brave,” “ Hark, the Lark,” and many other beauti- ful and popular glees. Died, 1793. COOKE, George Frederick, an eminent English actor, Avas born in 1756. In early life he was apprenticed to a printer, but his attention to theatricals so completely ab- sorbed his mind, that his master soon had his indentures cancelled. He then tried the navy Avith no better success, his inclination for the stage being unconquerable. After the usual probation among itinerant com- panies, he became a star at the larger pro- vincial theatres, as York, Manchester, and Liverpool, and was at length engaged at Dublin for three years. Thence his fame tra- velled to London ; and in October, 1800, he made his appearance at Covent Garden in the character of Hichard III. His perform- 227 coo] ^ ;;0cixt ^nitjersal 3SiograpIjp. ance of this character Sfive him at once a place among the very first actors of the day, and he soon became popular in Macbeth, lago. Sir Pertinax,Mac Sycophant, Shylock, &c. He afterwards accepted an engagement in America, where he performed with si- milar success, but his indulgence in riot- ous and debauched habits completely broke up. his vigorous constitution, aud he died in 1812. COOKE, Thomas, whose versatility of musical talent has had few equals in our time, was born at Dublin, 1781. He evinced even in his infancy a genius for music ; and so assiduously did he cultivate his talents, that at the age of 15 he became leader of the band at the Theatre Hoyal of his native city. His first appearance as a singer was in the character of Seraskier, in the “ Siege of Helgrade ; ” and so well did he fill the part, that he at once took rank as a first-class vocalist. In 181.3 he appeared on the boards of the English Opera House, now the Ly- ceum, in London, where he at once became a public favourite ; aud having soon after- wards joined Drury Lane, he filled to the entire satisfaction of all parties, private, dra- matic, and public, the various situations of vocalist, directorof the musical department, composer, and leader of the orchestra. On his retirement from the stage, he became successively connected with the Philhar- monic Society, the Catch Club, and other musical associations, reaping^ fresh laurels every year by his glees, duets, and ballads, and gaining golden opinions by his agree- able manners, ready wit, and kindly dis- position. Besides being the leader of the Philharmonic Concerts for many years, and a conductor on many occasions, he was appointed, in 1846, leader of the Concerts of Ancient Music, and was repeatedly en- gaged in the same capacity for the great musical festivals throughout the country. Died, 1848. COOMBE, "William, an industrious and clever writer; author of “ The Diaboliad,”a satire; “The Devil upon Two Sticks in England,” “ Tour of Dr Syntax in search of the Picturesque,” “History of Johnny Quae Genus,” “ English Dance of Death,” &c. Died, 1823. COOPER, Anthony Ashley, first earl of Shaftesbury, an eminent statesman, born in 1621. He kudied for a short time in Lin- coln’s Inn, but at the early age of 19 he was elected member of parliament for Tewkes- bury. From this time his whole life was spent in business or political intrigue. At the breaking out of the civil war he at first sided with the king, but afterwards went over to the parliament, raised troops, and stormed Wareham, in Dorsetshire. After serving in the Convention, which succeeded the long parliament, and being also one of Cromwell’s privy councillors, he became one of Monk’s colleagues in bringing about the restoration of Charles II. For this import- ant service he was raised to the peerage by the title of Baron Ashley, and made a lord of the treasury and chancellor of the ex- chequer. As a member of the notorious Cabal ministry, great odium has been thrown upon him by some writers, while others [coo affirm that he opposed some of its -worst measures. At all events, his conduct was satisfactory to the king, who, in 1672, created him earl of Shaftesbury, and raised him to the post of lord high chancellor. This office, however, he held only a year ; and on the seals being taken from him he became one of the opposition. In this capacity he was so violent, that he was at length sent to the Tower, where he remained more than a year, and only obtained his release at last by making a full submission. "When he again got into power, he had the merit of bringing forward, and causing to be passed, the in- valuable law called the Habeas Corpus act. His unremitting efforts to exclude the duke of York from the succession, roused that prince to such strenuous exertions, that in four months the ministry was turned out, and shortly afterwards the earl was sent to the Tower on a charge of high treason. On this perilous charge he was acquitted, to the great joy of the people at large; but his triumph was somewhat damped by the withering satire with which his character was depicted in Dryden’s Absalom and Achitophel. "Wearied with incessant toils, much worn in health, and, probably, appre- hensive of a time arriving when corruption might render his acquittal on charges, how- ever false, by no means certain, he retired to Holland, where he died in 1683. COOPER, Anthony Ashley, third earl of Shaftesbury, and grandson of the last named, was a very eminent English writer, born in 1671. In 1693, after the usual course of education and foreign travels, he was elected member of parliament for Poole, in Doi-setshire .; and his parliamentary conduct was marked by an honourable and earnest support of every measure tending to increase the prosperity and maintain the freedom of his fellow-subjects. But his public career was stopped by the delicacy of his health; and from the year 1698 he chiefly resided abroad, devoting himself to study, and cor- responding with Bayle, Le Clerc, and other eminent literati. He was the author of various works, the principal of which is entitled “ Characteristics of Men, Manners, Opinions, and Times ; ” but though lively and elegant, they are all tinged with indecor- ous levity. As a man, however, both in his public and private life, he was beloved and respected by all parties. Died, 1713. COOPER, Sir AsTLEY PASTON, bart., a distinguished surgeon, was born at Brooke, in Norfolk, in 1768. He >vas placed with a medical gentleman at Yarmouth, in 1782, but was soon removed to London, in order to attend the hospitals, and was articled to his uncle, "W. Cooper, then surgeon to Guy’s Hospital. With him, however, he remained but a few months, being transferred to Mr Cline, in which situation his extraordinary aptitude for his profession quickly developed itself. In his twentieth year he visited Edinburgh, and soon after became assistant to Mr Cline in his anatomical lectures at St Thomas’s Hospital. In this prominent po- sition he outshone all who had preceded him as a popular teacher. His class of students increased from 60 to 400, which was the largest ever known in London. “He was,” 228 n t::: ^ coo] ^ iScto SlniOtrsal 13{£igrapf;p. [cop says Mr Pettigrew, “ the idol of the Borough school; the pupils followed him in troops, listening with almost breathless anxiety to catch the observations which fell from his lips upon the several cases presented to his view. But on the days of operation, this feeling was wound up to the highest pitch —the sight was altogether deeply interest- ing ; the large theatre of Guy’s crowded to the ceiling — the profound silence obtained upon his entry — that person so manly and truly imposing, and the awful feeling con- nected with the occasion, can never be for- gotten by any of his pupils.” In 1792 he visited Paris, and attended the lectures of Desault and Chopart ; and on his return he took up his residence in the city, first in Jeffrey Square, and afterwards in Broad Street. His practice had now become im- mense ; and, long before he removed to New Street, Spring Gardens, he Avas de- cidedly affluent : while there he for many years realized from £18,000 to £20,000 per annum. Sir Astley Cooper some years be- fore his death retired to the country ; but he found that a life of quiescence and re- tirement would not suit his active mind, and he returned to London, once more to resume his professional avocations. Notwithstand- ing the immense number of his surgical operations, and the time he dev'oted to anatomical and physiological inquiries, he found time to publish several works of great utility ; but his fame rests mainly upon his accurate anatomical knowledge, and his skill as an operator. The honour of a baronetcy was conferred on him at the coro- nation of George IV., to whom he had been appointed surgeon. Died Feb. 12, 1811, aged 72. COOPER, JAMES Fenimore, the dis- tinguished American novelist, was born at Burlington, New Jersey, on the 15th of September, 1789. His father. Judge Cooper, was a large landholder in Ostego county, in that State, residing alternately at Bur- lington and CooperstoAvn, and giving his name to the latter toAvnship, Avhich has since been the residence of the world-re- nowned author. He received the rudiments of a classical education under a private in- structor at Burlington, and entered Yale College in 1802. A native passion for the sea, and an unconquerable love of adventure, led him, among other causes, to enter the navy in 1805, as a midshipman. He re- mained in it for six years ; and the influence of this period of his life is indelibly stamped upon his Avorks. In 1810, Cooper resigned his post in the navy, and after a short residence at Westchester, in the vicinity of New York, he removed to CooperstoAvn, and pursued in earnest his career as a Avriter of fiction. He had previously published his maiden novel entitled “Precaution,” a work of little promise. Within 15 years, he successively produced “ The Spy,” “ The Pio- neers,” “ The Pilot,” “ Lionel Lincoln,” and “ The Last of the Mohicans,” triumphantly asserting his claim to the character of an original and poAverful novelist. Soon after the appearance of “ The Last of the Mohi- cans,” in 1826, Mr Cooper sailed for Europe, where he remained for several years. Dur ing this time he AA’rote several of his most successful AV'orks, including “ The Bravo,” “ The Red Rover,” and “ The Prairie,” and soon established a reputation Avhich, Avilh the robust qualities of his personal character and the dignified frankness of his manner, made him a welcome Ausitant in the most distinguished European circles. His most valuable productions after his return to the United States are, “ The Pathfinder,” “ The Destroyer,” “ The Two Admirals,” and “ Wing and Wing,” all of W'hich display his admirable power of invention, his bold con- ceptions of character, and his rare mastery of graphic and impressive portraiture. His more recent performances, in AA'hich he en- deavours to use the novel as a vehicle for political declamation, are unAvorthy of his fame, and will only leave a blot on the memory of h^ genius. Died, 1851. COOPER, Samuel, an eminent English painter, whose excellence in miniature painting gained him the name of the Mini- ature Vandyke. One of his best works is his portrait of Oliver CromAvell. Died, 1672. COOTE, Sir EYRE, a distinguished mili- tary officer. Ho Avas born in Ireland, in 1726, and as early as the rebellion of 1745 bore arms in the king’s service. His regi- ment being ordered to the East Indies in 1754, he greatly distinguished himself at the sieges of Haughley, Chandernagore, and Pondicherry, and at the battle of Plassey, &c. In 1780, Hyder Ally having invaded the Carnatic, Sir Eyre Coote, Avith a A’astly in- ferior force, arrested his progress, and in various encounters signally defeated him. He died at Madras, in 1783. COPERNICUS, Nicholas, the celebrated mathematician and founder of the modern system of astronomy. He AA'as a native of Thorn, in Prussia, and received his educa- tion at the university of CracoAv. He then travelled into Italy, for the purpose of be- coming acquainted with the great astrono- mer Regiomontanus, and became a professor of mathematics at Rome. On his return, after several years, to his native country, his uncle, the bishop of Warmia, gave him a canonry ; and being thus at ease as to for- tune, he diligently laboured to improve the science of astronomy. He studied the various systems of the ancient astronomers, compared them with each other, and aston- ished and dissatisfied with the complexity ; and improbability wfflich he found in them, applied himself to the construction of a system at once more simple and more sym- metrical. The fruits of his researches ap- peared in his Latin treatise “ On the Revo- lutions of the Celestial Orbs,” in Avhich he represented the sun as occupying a centre round which the earth and the other planets revolve. Atvare that bigotry Avould assail him, he says, in his prefatory address to the pope — “ If there be any viho, though ignorant of mathematics, shall presume to judge concerning them, and dare to condemn this treatise because they fancy it is incon- sistent with some passages of Scripture, the sense of Avhich they have miserably per- verted, I regard them not, but despise their rash censure.” In fact his great work rc- 229 1 cop] ^Snibersal BSiograpI-t). [cor mainod in MS. foi* 13 years after he had completed it, so diffident was he as to the reception it might meet with ; and it was only a few hours before his death that a printed copy was presented to him, giving him assurance that his opinions would see the light, though he would be beyond the reach of censure and persecution. Born, 1473 ; died, 1543. COPLESTON, Edward, bishop of Llan- daff and dean of St Paul’s, was born at Off- well in Devonshire, of which parish his father was at once the patron and incum- bent, 1776. His early education was con- ducted under the paternal roof. When he was 15 years old, he was elected to a scholar- ship at Corpus Christ! College, Oxford. In 1793 he gained the chancellor’s prize for a Latin poem; and in 1795 he Avas elected felloAV of Oriel under the most honourable cir- cumstances, became college tutor two years later, and after filling various high offices connected with the university, he exchanged his professional career for the honours of the church, being in 1826 appointed dean of Chester, and in 1827 bishop of Llandaff and dean of St Paul’s. At an early period of his life. Dr Copleston gained great distinction by his polemical pamphlets in favour of the university ; and besides contributing various articles to the Quarterly Review, gave to the world numerous sermons and charges, all of them distinguished by vigour, clear- ness, and precision of thought. Died, 1849. Memoirs and Remains of Bishop Copleston have appeared since his death. COPLEY, JOHN SINGLRTON, an eminent painter, was born at Boston, in the United States, in 1738 ; visited Italy in 1774 ; and in 1776 came to England, and was chosen a member of the Royal Academy. As an artist he Avas self-educated, and had exe- cuted many Avorks of merit before l;e left America ; but his “ Death of Lord Chat- ham,” now in the National Gallery, estab- lished his fame in this country. Many other fine historical subjecls^were subsequently produced by him, among which were “ The Siege of Gibraltar,” “ Death of Major Pier- son,” recently purchased for the National Gallery, “ Charles I. in the House of Com- mons,” &c. He died in 1815. , Mr Copley was the father of I.ord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor of England. CORAM, THOMAS, philanthropist, born about 1668, a man Avho deserves the grati- tude of his country for devoting a long life to the relief of human suffering. After great sacrifices, and persevering exertions for years, he established and obtained a charter for the Foundling Hospital, Avhich, added to other benevolent undertakings, so impaired his fortune, that in his old age it became necessary to relieve his necessities by a public subscription. Coram was the friend of Hogarth, who painted an admir- able portrait of him, now in the Foundling Hospital. Died, 1751. CORBET, Richard, D.D,, an English divine and poet; author of a spirited “ Nar- rative of a Journey to France,” and of vari- ous other poems, published under the title of “Poetica Stromata.” He Avas remarkable for Avit, and no less so for an eccentricity and mirthful jocularitj% Avhich did not very well accord Avith the character of his profession. It did not, however, prevent him from being raised, s iCcessiA^ely, to the bishoprics of Ox- ford and Norwich. Born, 1582 ; died, 1635. CORDAY D’ARMANS, MARIE ANNE CiiARi.OTTE, a young FrenchAvoman of great beauty and courage, Avho became the murderer of the revolutionist Marat. She Avas born at St Saturnin, near Seez, in Normandy, 1768, Avas the grand-daughter of the poet Corneille, and Avas gifted Avith superior understanding and a Avarm heart, glowing Avith the passion for liberty. The books she read and the conversa- tion of the persecuted and exiled leaders of the Girondists, roused in her the irre- sistible desire to save, if possible, her coun- try, at Avhatever cost to herself. Marat appeared to her the master-spirit of the atro- cities perpetrated or threatened, and she determined to rid the country of him. That she was actuated by a sense of duty, and felt that she Avas about to perform an act of patriotic heroism, there is not the slightest doubt ; and as the circumstances attend- ing it possess more than ordinary interest, Ave give the following detailed account. Charlotte Corday left her home, and on arriving at Paris (July 12, 1793), she Avent to Marat’s house, but Avas not admitted. On the same evening she Avrote to him as fol- lows : — “ Citizen, I have just noAv come from Caen. Y"our love for your country no doubt makes you desirous of being informed of the unhappy transactions in that part of the republic. Grant me an interview for a moment. I have important discoveries to make to you.” The folloAving day came, and, with a dagger in her bosom, she proceeded to the house’ of Marat, Avho, just on the point of coming out of his bath, immedi- ately gave orders that she should be ad- mitted. The assemblies at Calvados Avere the first subjects of conversation, and Marat heard with eagerness the names of those Avho were present at them. “ All these,” he exclaimed, “ shall be guillotined.” At these Avords Charlotte plunged her dagger into his bosom, and he instantly expired, uttering the Avords, “ To me, my friend ! ” MeanAvhile the maid remained calm and tranquil as the priestess before the altar, in the midst of the tumult and confusion. She Avas aftei’Avards ’conducted as a prisoner to the Abbaye. A young man, who begged to die in her place, Avas also condemned to death. Her first care Avas to implore the forgiveness of her father for disposing of her life Avithout his knoAvledge. She then Avrote to Barbaroux as folloAvs ; “ To-morrow, at five o’clock, my trial begins, and on the same day I hope to meet Avith Brutus and the other patriots in elysium.” She appeared before the revolutionary tribunal Avith a dignified air, and her replies Avere firm and noble. She spoke of her deed as a duty Avhich she owed her country. “ To stop the anarchy of France,” she said she did it. “ I have slain one man to save a hundred thou- sand — a Avretch to preserve the innocent. I was a republican before the revolution, and I have never failed in energy.” She was condemned, and led to the scaffold ; 230 cor] ^ ^n(i)frsal 13iograpi^p, retaining her calmness and presence of mind to the last, though pursued by the crowd with yells and shouts of execration. She sulfered by the guillotine, July 17, 1793. A young man from Mentz, Adam Lux, saw Charlotte on her way to the scatfold, and was so enthusiastically excited by her beau- ty, bravery, and fate, that he published an Apology for her deed, and joyfully died for her sake. CORDIXER, Charles, an antiquarian and topographical writer, was born at Peter- head in 1746. He completed his education at King’s College, Aberdeen, and was soon after admitted to the order of priesthood by Dr Traill, bishop of Down and Connor. He was afterwards appointed to the charge of St Andrew’s Episcopal Chapel, Banff. Mr Cor- diner was the first of the clergy of English ordination who united with the Scottish Episcopal Church after the abrogation of the severe penal laws passed in the reign of George II., and abolished under the govern- ment of George III. He early displayed a taste for drawing and painting, which he cultivated afterwards as an amusement for his leisure hours ; and, during his residence at Banff, he designed the paintings of the windows of the mausoleum of Duff House for the Earl of Eife. He was also attached to the study of antiquities, more especially those of the northern parts of Scotland. He was introduced to Mr Pennant, when on his tour through Scotland, and at his suggestion he was induced to write “ The Picturesque Scenery and Antiquities of the North of Scotland,” 1780, 1 vol. 4to, in a series of letters to Mr Pennant, being a notice of such places as had not been visited by that gentleman in the course of his tour. The engravings which accompany this work are from designs by Mr Cordiner. He died at Banff, 19th November, 1794, aged 48. CORELLI, Arcangelo, Italian musical composer, was born in 1653. He was very celebrated for his skill as a violinist, and when he visited Germany, in 1680, was re- ceived with the greatest honours, both from sovereigns and people. He had latterly the patronage of Cardinal Ottoboni. His works, especially the Twelve Concertos, are very highly esteemed for the highest qualities of musical composition. Died at Rome, 1713. CORENZIO, Belisario, a celebrated painter of Greek origin, born about 1558. He studied at Venice, xxnder Tintoretto, for five years, and about 1590 established him- self at Naples. He chiefly painted in fresco, worked with extraordinary rapidity, and gained great reputation. He allied himself with Caracciolo and Spagnoletto, and at- tempted by all means to secure to this tri- umvirate a monopoly of painting; expelling or persecuting all dangerous rivals. One of his largest Avorks is the “ Feeding of the Five Thousand,” which he executed in less than six weeks. Died at Naples, 1643. CORIATE, or CORYAT, THOMAS, an English traveller and Avriter. For a con- siderable time he held a situation in the household of Prince Henry, son of James I., and Avas so remarkable for oddity and ec- centricity, that, as Anthony "Wood remarks, “ he Avas the whetstone for all the w'its of [cor the age.” In 1608 he commenced a pedes- trian tour of Europe ; and having walked 900 miles with one pair of shoes, he hung them up, on his return, in the parish church of his native place, Odcombe, in Somerset- shire. This eccentric traveller, Avho is said to have introduced into England the use of table forks, published “ Crudities hastily gobbled up in Five Months’ Travel in France, Savoy, Italy, Rhetia, Helvetia, Germany, and the Netherlands ; ” “ Coriate’s Crambe, or his ColeAvort twice Sodden,” “TraA'eller for the English Wits,” and “ A Letter from the Court of the Great Mogul.” He died Avhile travelling in the East Indies, in 1617. CORINNA, a celebrated poetess, to whom the Greeks gave the appellation of the Lyric Muse. She composed a great number of poems, of which only a fexv fragments have come doAvn to us ; and five times obtained the poetic wreath from her great competitor, Pindar. She flourished in the 5th century B.C., and a tomb Avas erected to her memory in her native city, Tanagra, in Boeotia. CORIOLANO, Bartolomeo, an Italian engraver, born at Bologna, probably about 1590, is supposed to have been the son of Cristoforo Coriolano, also an engraver, Avho died about 1600. He engraved on Avood and executed many prints after Guido, the Caracci, and other painters. The pope made him CaAmliere di Loretto. His prints date from 1627 to 1647. Died, 1654. CORIOLANUS, CAIUS Marcius, a cele- brated legendary hero of Rome. The story respecting him is that in a Avar Avith the Volscians, the Romans besieging Corioli, the capital of the Volscians, Avere driven back to their lines, Marcius rallied his countrymen, pursued the enemy, and pos- sessed himself of Corioli; for Avhich he was rewarded with a large share of the spoil, and with the surname of Coriolanus. Sub- sequently, in disputes Avhich took place be- tAveen the patricians and plebeians, Corio- lanus made himself so obnoxious to the latter, that he Avas banished. Stung by the ingratitude of his countrymen, he joined the Volscians, and, jointly Avith Tullus Aufidius, led a numerous array against Rome. He had encamped Avithin five miles of the city, and its ruin seemed incAU table, Avhen, at the urgent entreaties of his mother, Volumnia, he Avithdrew his army. The traditions dif- fer as to his end ; according to some he was assassinated, according to others he Avent into exile and lived long among the Vol- scians. CORNARO, Ludovico, a Venetian noble, whose precepts derive great force from the good result of his OAvn practice of them. llaA'ing greatly injured his health by too free indulgence in the pleasures of the table, he had the resolution entirely to abandon that indulgence, and to restrict himself to 12 ounces of food and 14 ounces of Avine in the 24 hours. Having by this regimen re- stored himself to health, he Avrote various treatises recommendatory of the system from which he had derived so much benefit. Be- sides these, which are collected under the title of “Discorsi della Vita Sobria,” he Avrote “ Trattato delle Acque.” He com- menced his dietary rule Avhen he Avas 40, 231 cor] H ^nibersal IBiograp^p. [cor and died, it is said, at the great age of 104, in 1566. CORNEILLE, PIERRE, the greatest of French dramatic poets. He 'vas born at Rouen in 1606, and for some time practised in that city as an advocate. His first dra- matic piece was “ M61ite,” a comedy, which met with such distinguished success, that he was encouraged to devote his rare powers to the drama. The tragedies of “ Medea,” “The Cid,” “The Horatii,” and “ Cinna,” followed, and established for their author a pre-eminent station among French drama- tists. Besides the foregoing, he wrote many other tragedies ; and translated in verse Thomas a Kempis, “ On the Imitation of Je- sus Christ.” He again turned to the drama, but his last works were unworthy of his name. Corneille was admitted to the French Academy in 1617, and was dean at the time of his death. It is melancholy to reflect that the great Corneille, who had achieved fame equally for himself and his country’s literature, ended his days in poverty and distress. Died, 1684. Charlotte Corday was the granddaughter of Corneille. CORNEILLE, THOMAS, brother of the preceding, and also a fertile dramatist, was born in 1625. Several of his tragedies were very popular; in fact, there seems to be a good deal of truth in Voltaire’s assertion, that Thomas Corneille would have had a great reputation, if he had not had a great brother. Besides dramatic works, he wrote a “ Dictionary of Arts and Sciences,” a “ Geographical and Historical Dictionary,” and a translation of the Metamorphoses of Ovid. Died, 1708. CORNELIA, an illustrious Roman lady. She was a daughter of Scipio Africanus, wife of Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, and mo- ther of the two famous tribunes. She was of a grave and dignified deportment, and possessed so great a control over her feelings, that when a friend condoled with her on the death of her sons, she replied, “ The woman who had the Gracchi for sons cannot be con- sidered unfortunate.” Her literary talents must have been considerable, as Cicero very highly commends some of her epistles. She lived in the second century B. c., and after her death the Romans erected a statue to her memory, bearing the inscription, “ To Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi.” CORNELISZ, or CORNELIUS, LUCAS, a Dutch painter, who came to England, and was appointed portrait-painter to Henry VIII. Died, 1552. CORNWALL, RICHARD. Earl of. [RICHARD.] CORNWALLIS, CHARLES, Marquis of, son of the first Earl Cornwallis, was born in 1738, and entered the ai’my as soon as he had completed his education at Cambridge. In the American war he acted a conspicuous part, and greatly distinguished himself at the battle of the Brandywine, and at the siege of Charlestown. After gaining the important battles of Camden and Guildford, he determined to invade Wii'ginia ; but his plans failing, owing, as he affirmed, to the inefficient conduct of Sir Henry Clinton, upon whom he had relied for support, he and his army were made pri- soners at York-town. In 1786 he was made governor-general and commander-in-chief in India. The government of Bengal found it necessary to uphold the rajah of Travan- core against the sultan of the Mysore, and the first campaign being unsuccessful, in 1791 he invaded the Mysore, besieged Se- ringapatam, and compelled Tippoo Sahib to submit on humiliating terms. Hav- ing performed this important service. Lord Cornwallis returned to England, was raised to the rank of marquis, and made master- general of the Ordnance. In 1798 he was sent to Ireland as lord-lieutenant ; and in the trying and terrible scenes of the re- bellion so conducted himself as to gain the good opinion of the public, while vigorously upholding and vindicating the laws. In 1801 his lord-lieutenancy expired, and he was sent on a mission to France, where, in 1802, he signed the peace of Amiens. In 1804, he was a second time appointed governor- general of India; but his arduous services had now completely Mmrn out his frame, and he died, soon after his arrival in India, at Ghazepore, in the province of Benares, in 1805. CORR, Erin, an eminent Belgian en- graver, was born at 'Brussels in 1803. He was the son of an Irishman who took part in the rebellion of 1798, and was expatriated. He attained a very high reputation, and be- came a member of the Royal Academy of Belgium and director of , the School of En- graving of the Royal Academy of Fine Arts of AntAverp. His last Avork Avas an engrav- ing on copper-plate of the “ Descent from the Cross,” by Rubens, on which he spent ten years of labour. Among his other prin- cipal works are the “ Saviour,” after Leo- nardo da Vinci ; “ Christ on the Cross,” after Vandyck; the “Queen of Holland,” after Scheffer, &c. Died at Paris, 1862. CORREGGIO, Antonio Allegri da, an Italian painter of transcendant ability, Avas born about 1494, at Correggio, in the duchy of Modena. He is the founder of the Lom- bard School, and unrivalled by all competi- tors for the grace and loveliness of his figures, and the exquisite harmony of his colouring. An absurd story, since disproved, was long current illustrative of his poverty, and the ill usage he met with from the ec- clesiastics of Parma, for the cathedral of Avhich city he painted in fresco the “As- sumption of the Virgin.” For the church of San Giovanni in the same city he painted the “ Ascension.” Correggio painted many oil pictures, among which are the“ Notte,” the “ Magdalen Reading,” “ St Gecrge,” and “ St Sebastian,” in the Dresden Gallery, and the “ Ecce Homo,” “ Mercury instruct- ing Cupid,” and several others in the Na- tional Gallery. Died, 1534. CORT, Co'knelius, a Dutch engraver, born at Hoorn in 1536. He Avent to Venice, and lived with Titian for a time, engraving some of his works. He afterAvards settled at Rome, and practised and taught there. His prints are numerous, and arc after the works of Raphael, Michael Angelo, Correg- gio, Titian, and other eminent masters. Cort was the first to engrave Raphael’s “ Trans- figuration.” His Avorks Avere much studied 232 — -■ - ' ■ ■■ — , . .. - cob] ^ ^nibmal ISiograp^^. [cos by Agostino Caracci, who is sometimes said to have been his pupil. Died at Borne, 1578. CORTESI, JACOPO. [BORGOGNONE.] CORTEZ, or CORTES, FERNANDO, the conqueror of Mexico, was born, in 1485, at Medelin, in Estremadura, and, after study- ing the law, quitted it for the military pro- fession. In 1511 he went with Velasquez to Cuba; and the conquest of Mexico be- ing determined upon, Cortez obtained the command of the expedition. In 1518 he set sail with 700 men in 10 vessels ; and on land- ing at Tabasco he caused his vessels to be burned, in order that his soldiers might have no other resource than their own valour. Having conquered the Tlascalans, and in- duced them to become his allies, he marched towards Mexico, where he was amicably re- ceived ; but having seized upon their mon- arch, Montezuma, and treated the people with the utmost insolence, the Mexicans first murmured, and then resisted. Cortez besieged the city of Mexico ; and in the desperate struggle which ensued, it 'is said that upwards of 100,000 of the faithful and unfortunate Mexicans were killed or perished by famine. Having reduced the devoted city, Cortez completely overran the Mexican territories ; in doing which he committed atrocities which would be incredible if not related on irrefragable testimonies. In re- ward for the addition he had made to the wealth of Spain, he had a grant of land and the title of marquis ; but on returning he found that the court of Madrid were become jealous of his power, and treated him with neglect. Died, 1554. CORTONA, PIETRO DA, properly Pietro Berrettini, an Italian painter. He was a native of Cortona, in Tuscany, and at an early age was placed under the tuition of Baccio Ciarpi at Rome. The Barberini palace, the new works at the Vatican, and many of the churches of Rome, were deco- rated by him ; and at Florence he adorned the Pitti palace for the Grand-duke Ferdi- nand II. In addition to being an eminent painter, he was almost equally eminent as an architect. Died, 1669. CORVISART, Jean Nicolas, an emi- nent French physician, was born in 1755. He was intended for the law, but his pre- dilection for medical science induced his friends to change his destination. He was chief physician to Napoleon, who made him a baron , and an officer of the Legion of Hon- our. Nor was his great merit overlooked by the Bourbons, the place of honorary mpmber of the Royal Academy of Medicine being conferred on him a short time previous to his death, which happened in 1821. He was the author of some valuable medical books, and translated others. COSIMO, Piero de, Italian painter, was born at Florence in 1460. He was a pupil of Cosimo Rosselli and the master of Andrea del Sarto. He had very eccentric tastes, and indulged them both in life and in art. Died, 1521. COSIN, John, a learned, pious, and cha- ritable prelate, was born at Norwich, in 1594, and educated at Cambridge. In 1640 he was made dean of Peterborough ; but the Puri- tans deprived him of his preferments, and even Aveut the length of impeaching him on a charge of being inclined to Popery. On this he retired to France, where he remained until the restoration of Charles II., avIio raised him to the see of Durham. Among his Avritings are “ A History of Transub- stantiation,” and “ A Scholastical History of the Canon of the Holy Scriptures.” Died, 1672. COSMAS, surnamed INDICOPLEUSTES, a celebrated merchant of Alexandria, living in the 6th century ; who, after making a voyage to India, and Avriting seA-eral books on cosmography, quitted commerce and be- came a monk. COSMO I., grand-duke of Tuscany, born in 1519, Avas the son of Giovanni de Medici ; and on the assassination of Alessandro, chief of the house of Medici, Avas elected head of the republic of Florence, though strenuously opposed by a party Avho favoured the Floren- tine exiles. Cosmo made himself absolute master of Florence, liberty was wholly lost, and terror Avas inspired by a system of espionage, by torture, and even by secret assassination. AVhile he kept his subjects slaves, he made the state free from foreign interference, and enlarged it by fresh acqui- sitions, till 'I'uscany Avas for the first time united under one ruler. Several attempts were made to shake the poAver of Cosmo, but he succeeded in defeating them ; and it was probably in order to secure himself able and zealous defenders in case of open revolt, that he instituted the military order of the Knights of St Stephen. He restored the university of Pisa, and held out the most liberal encouragement to men of scientific and literary eminence to settle there as pro- fessors. He also founded the Academy of Florence, established its gallery of paintings, and performed many other Avise and honour- able actions; thus procuring himself a ce- lebrity and influence Avhich probably he Avould in vain have sought by the more dazzling achievements of the Avarrior. After a prosperous reign of 34 years, he died in 1574. COSTA, HIPPOLYTO JOSE, FURTADO DE MENDOCA, DA, a Portuguese gentle- man of scientific and literary attainments, who, being charged Avith freemasonry, Avas thrown into the prison of the Inquisition at Lisbon. Here he was repeatedly examined, and his answers not being satisfactory to his persecutors, he Avas remanded to his dun- geon, with little prospect that his sufferings Avould terminate othei’Avise than in death. By one of those fortunate accidents Avhich sometimes make truth stranger than fiction,” his cell Avas left open, and he Avas enabled to possess himself of a bunch of keys Avhich opened every lock that was be- tAveen him and liberty. Having taken these keys, and a book Avhich lay beside them, he made his escape ; and after lying hidden several Aveeks in the immediate neighbourhood of his late dungeon, he found means to embark for England. The book Avhich he brought from his prison contained, mter alia, notes of his examinations before the inquisitors ; and soon after his arrival he published a narrative of the persecutions he had undergone, the account of his ex- 233 cos] ^ ^nib^rsal iBiograpiit), [cou I animations being taken from the official document of which he had thus oddly become possessed. His talents, and the interest ex- cited by his adventures, obtained him con- siderable notice, and he became foreign se- cretary to the duke of Sussex, and charg6 d’affaires in this country for the llrazilian government. Died, 1824. COSTANZA, Angelo di, a Neapolitan poet and historian of noble birth; author of “ Istoria del Regno di Napoli,” containing the history of Naples from 1250 to 1489. The preparation of this work occupied him 40 years. Died, 1591. COSTER, or ROSTER, LAtlRENCE JAN- SEN, a native of Haerlem, in Holland, to Avhom his countrymen ascribed the invention of the art of printing, in the year 1430. His claim rests on the unsupported testimony of Hadrian Junius, and is now generally con- sidered groundless. The fame of Gutenberg, therefore, who, according to Junius, had de- rived the knowledge of printing from Cos- ter, remains undiminished, as the inventor of the art. Born, 1370 ; died, 1439. COSAVAY, Richard, an eminent English artist. He painted miniatures admirably, and w'as almost equally great as an oil painter. He was much admired and em- ployed as an artist, and highly esteemed as a man. He was one of the oldest members of the Royal Academy, and died at the age of 80, in 1821. His wife, Maria, was a good painter and musical performer; and her parties were attended by the prince of AVales and all the leaders of London society. COTES, Francis, an English artist of great eminence as a portrait painter, as well in oil as in crayons. He was one of the first members of the Royal Academy. Died, 1770. COTES, Roger, mathematician, was born in Leicestershire in 1682. He studied at Cambridge, became fellow of Trinity College, and in 1706 Plumian professor of astronomy. His early death disappointed the high hopes which his great acquirements had excited, and the only written fruits of his studies are the papprs collected in the volume entitled “ Harmonia Mensurarum.” These, however, exercised great influence on the progress of mathematical science. Died, 1716. COTMAN, John Sell, architectural en- graver, was a native of Norwich, and was born about 1780. His most admired work is the “ Architectural Antiquities of Norman- dy,” in 2 vols. folio, published in 1820. He had previously published similar works in illustration of the Architectural Antiquities of Yorkshire and Norfolk, and a volume on the Sepulchral Brasses of the latter county. He spent the latter part of his life in Lon- don, and died in 1843. COTTA, J. G., Baron, an eminent Gorman bookseller, and the proprietor of the Allge- meine Zeitung, a political daily paper, as M'ell as of several others devoted to litera- ture and the arts, was born at Stuttgard, in 1764 ; for many years carried on an exten- sive and flourishing concern ; became vice- president of the second chamber of the States of Wurtemberg in 1824, and died in 1832. Cotta was the personal friend of the most distinguished German authors of his day; Goethe, Schiller, Jean Paul, ■VYilhclm I and Alexander von Humboldt, &c. COTTIN, Sophie, an accomplished } French novelist; authoress of ” Mathilde,” “ Claire d’Albe,” the n ell known “ Elisabeth, i ou les Exiles de Sibdrie,” &c. Born, 1773; died, 1807. COTTLE, Joseph, publisher and miscel - laneous writer, was born in 1770, carried on business at Bristol, where he became the friend of Coleridge, M'ordsworth, and South- ey, and published the first poems of Cole- ridge in 1796. He was author of several poetical and other works, now forgotten, and of “ Recollections of Coleridge.” Died, 1853. — His brother, AMOS COTTLE, who was also a poet, and published a translation of the Edda, died in 1800. They Avere both laughed at by Byron in his “ English Bards and Scotch Reviewers.” COTTON, Charles, an English poet of the 17th century ; author of “ Scarronides, or Virgil Travestie ; ” a supplement to his friend Izaak 'Walton’s “ Complete Angler,” and a volume of original poems, &c. He also translated Corneille’s tragedy of the Horatii and Montaigne’s Essays. Born, 1630; died, 1687. COTTON, Nathaniel, an English phy- sician and poet ; author of “ Visions in Verse for the Instruction of Younger Minds.” He for some years kept a lunatic asylum at St Alban’s, and the poet Cowper was for a time one of its inmates. Born, 1707 ; died, 1788. COTTON, Sir Robert Bruce, baronet, a distinguished antiquary, founder of the Cot- tonian Library, was born at Denton, in Huntingdonshire, in 1570. After graduating B. A. at Cambridge, he settled at London, employed himself in forming a collection of ancient charters, and obtained so high a re- putation for antiquarian learning that he Avas frequently consulted on difficult ques- tions of state. He Avas a friend of Camden, and gave him some aid in the preparation of his great Avork. He was knighted, and after- wards created a baronet, by James I. He suffered on several occasions from unjust imputations, and at length, in 1629, on a false charge of having A\'ritten or circulated a pamphlet hostile to popular liberties, his library Avas taken fron\ him. The loss occa- sioned an illness, which terminated in his death, in 1631. His valuable library Avas kept together in the possession of his family, Avas afterAvards bought for the crown, and was transferred to the British Museum at the time of its foundation. COUDRETTE, CHRiSTOriiE, a French priest, and a very able opponent of the Jesuits; author of A General History of the Jesuits,” “ Memoirs relative to the Formulary,” &c. His bold and liberal tone of thought caused him to be twice imi)ri- soned; at Vincennes, in 1735, and at Baris, in the Bastille, in 1738. Died, 1774. COULOMB, CHARLES AUGUSTIN DE, a French natural philosopher and ollicer of engineers, to Avhose scientific labours many discoveries in electricity and magnetism are owing. He was born at Angottleme in 1736, and died in 1806. COURAYER. PIERRE FRANQOIS LE, a 234 cou] i^cto ^niO^rsal ISioarapIjn. [cou Norman ecclesiastic, M'as born in 1681. Although of the Catholic Church, he wrote zealously and ably in defence of the ordin- ations of the Church of England, ■which work Avas formally censured by an assembly of French cardinals and archbishops ; and Courayer consequently left France for Eng- land. Here he Avas well received, and the university of Oxford conferred the degree of L.L.D. upon him. Courayer made French translations of Fra Paolo’s History of the Council of Trent, and of Sleidan’s History of the Heformation. Died, 1776. COUHIEH, PAUL Louis, a witty and able French Avriter, was born in 1774. He served for some time as an officer in the army ; but his republican principles prevented his ad- vancement under Buonaparte ; and, after the battle of Wagram.he threAV up his eom- mission, and resided for some time in Italy. On his return to France his name became notorious as the author of several admirable political pamphlets, but his career Avas cut short by assassination, in 1825. COURT DE GEBELIN, ANTOINE, a learn- ed Frenchman, born at Nismes in 1725. His father was minister of the reformed church at Lausanne, and he himself held a similar post for a short time. He afterAvards settled at Paris, and there published the work en- titled “ le Monde Primitif analyst et com- part avec le Monde Moderne.” It is in 9 vols. quarto, and its vast plan embraces dis- sertations on mythology, grammar, origin of language, history profane and sacred, &c. The author Avas appointed eensor royal, and tAvice receiA'ed the prize of 1200 livres an- nually given by the French Academy. Died, 1784. COURTENAY, PETER OF, third of the Latin emperors of the East, Avas cousin to Philip Augustus, king of France ; married, in 1184, Agnes, heiress of the countess of N'^vers and Auxerre, and, after her death, in 1192, the princess Yoland, sister of the em- perors BaldAvin and Henry. On the death of the latter emperor, in 1216, and the re- fusal of the erown by AndreAv, king of Hun- gary, who had married a daughter of Yoland, Peter of Courtenay Avas elected by the barons to succeed. He set out at the head of a small army ; with some difldculty got himself croAvued by Pope Honorius III., outside the walls of Rome ; embarked on Venetian ves- sels, unsuccessfully besieged Durazzo, and on his difficult land journey thence towards Constantinople, Avas treacherously delayed and made prisoner by Theodore, one of the Coraneni, and after tAvo years’ confinement, Avas put to death. Yoland, Avho Avith her children liad reached Constantinople, carried on the government till her death, in 1219. COURTNEY, William, archbishop of Canterbury, born 1341. He w’as the fourth son of Hugh Courtney, earl of Devonshire, and Margaret, granddaughter of EdAvard I. In 1376, then being bishop of London, he dis- tinguished himself by a violent opposition to the king’s demand for a subsidy. It was Bishop Courtney who cited Wycliffe to appear before the convocation at St Paul’s, in February, 1377 ; Avhen a Avar of Avords took place between the noble supporters of the reformer and the bishop, and the meet- ing became a tumult and did nothing. In 1381 he became archbi.shop of Canterbury and lord high chancellor, in Avhich office he shoAved a rancorous spirit of persecution against the Wickliflfites. His character was resolute and arrogant; and though he pro- fessed a desire to support the king and the people against the encroachments of the pope, his actions invariably showed that he was in heart a domineering prelate, thorough- ly devoted to Rome, and caring little for the dignity of the crown, or the Aveal of the people. Died, 1396. COURTOIS, JACQUES. [BORGOGNONE.J COURTOIS, Guillaume, brother of Jacques Courtois, and also an eminent painter. He excelled in historical pieces, and assisted his brother in some of his Avorks. Died, 1679. COUSIN, Jean, generally regarded as the earliest French historical painter, was born in Champagne, 1530. He chiefly painted on glass, but his “Last Judgment,” painted on canvas for the convent of the Minims at Vincennes, is esteemed an excellent work. He Avas also an excellent sculptor, and author of “ Livre de Perspective,” and some other treatises connected with the art. Died, 1590. COUSTOU, Nicolas, French sculptor, born at Lyons, in 1658. He studied at Paris under Antoine Coysevox, his uncle ; Avon the grand prize, and went to Rome, Avhere he chiefly studied the Avorks of Michael Angelo and Algardi. On his return he Avas received at the Academy, and Avas charged with many important works at Paris and Lyons. Among the principal are,“ Le Voeu de Louis XIII.,” in the cathedral of Notre-Dame ; the group of “ The Seine and the Marne ; ” and a group of “ Tritons,” at Versailles. Died, 1733. COUSTOU, Guillaume, French sculptor, younger brother of the preceding, Avas born in 1678. He also studied under Coysevox, Avent to Rome, and Avas admitted to the Academy on his return. He assisted Nicolas in some of his Avorlcs ; executed various de- corative Avorks for the gardens of Versailles and Marly; a bronze figure of the Rhone; the statues for the pediment of the Chateau d’Eau, &c. ; and Avas made director of the Academy. Died, 1746. COUTHON, GEORGE,'a French advocate and president of the court of justice at Cler- mont. Becoming a member of the Legislative Assembly and of the National Convention , he voted for the trial and death of Louis XVI. ; and after hesitating awhile as to the party with which he should act, gave in his adhe- sion to that of Robespierre. When troops Avere sent against Lyons, he was commis- sioner from the Convention, and gave with his OAvn hand the signal for the destruction of the noble buildings of that deA’oted city. Sharing the power and participating in the atrocities of Robespierre, he was also in- volved in his ruin. Guillotined, 1794. COUTO, Diego de, a Portuguese his- torian, born about 1542. He spent much time in the Indies, and became historiogra- pher of India to Philip II. and Philip III. He Avas author of a continuation of Barros’ “ Asia Portugueza.” Dieo at Goa, 1616. COUTTS, Thomas, a London banker, emi- nent for his wealth and connections. He 235 cov] ^ i%etx3 ^niiiersal liBiogrnpl)!}. [cow came from Scotland at an early age ; and from being a junior partner in a mercantile house in the city, rose to be one of the most considerable bankers in England. He was twice married; first to Susan Starkie, by whom he had three daughters ; Susan, mar- ried, in 1796, to the earl of Guildford ; Eran- ces, married, in 1800, to the marquis of Bute ; and Sophia, married, in 1793, to Sir Francis Burdett. In 1815 his first wife died; and, three months afterwards, he married Harriet Mellon , an actress of some celebrity, to whom he bequeathed the whole of his immense pro- perty, consisting of £600,000 in personalty, besides real estates in lands and houses, to a great amount. He died in 1821, aged 86 ; and his widow in due time bestowed her hand and fortune on the youthful duke of St Alban’s. COVENTRY, JOHN, a skilful, self-taught, English mechanician. He invented an hy- grometer, which met with the approbation of the Royal Society, and was presented to the king. Subsequently he employed him- self in drawing micrometers on ivory and glass; and to such a pei’fection did he bring them, that his squares were only the mil- lionth part of an inch superficial. He also made tw'o chamber organs, telescopes of ex- traordinary power, and balances for the as- saying of gold, of such nicety that they w'ould weigh to the thousandth part of a grain. Died, 1812. COVENTRY, Thomas, lord keeper of the great seal in the reign of Charles I., was the son of Thomas Coventry, a justice of the court of Common Pleas. He was born in 1578 ; educated at Baliol College, Oxford ; studied the law in the Inner Temple ; and having successively become solicitor-general , attorney-general, and lord keeper, in 1628 he was raised to the peerage ; and, according to the character given of him by Clarendon, he was well worthy of his great and uninter- rupted success. Died at London, 1640. COVENTRY, "William, son of the above. He was knighted in 1665, and made a com- missioner of the treasury in 1667 ; but having offended the duke of Buckingham, he was forbidden to appear at court. On this he ! retired to his seat in Oxfordshire, and passed the remainder of his life in privacy. He w'as author of several w'orks of a political cha- racter, but not now worth enumerating. Died, 1689. COVERDALE, MILES, bishop of Exeter, reformer and translator of the Bible, was born in Yorkshire in 1487. He studied at Cambridge, entered the Augustinian order, and was ordained priest in 1514. He after- wards zealously embraced the reformed faith, associated with other eminent men for conference on the Scriptures, aided Tyndale in his translation of the Bible, and by per- mission of Henry VIII., published his own translation in 1535. It was the first printed English Bible. Three years later, while as- sisting at Paris in the publication of another edition, he was cited before the Inquisition and the copies printed were condemned to be burnt. He returned to England, was made almoner to Queen Catherine Parr, and, in 1551, bishop of Exeter. He Avas deprived and imprisoned by Queen Mary, Avent abroad. and after many wanderings, reached Geneva, still devoting himself to his chosen task, and contributing his aid to the “ Geneva Bible.” He returned after Mary’s death, and held for a short time a rectory in London. Died there, 1568. The publication of his Bible was commemorated in England in October, 1835, its third centenary. CO"W'^ARD, William, an English physi- cian, and author of “ Thoughts on the Hu- man Soul ; demonstrating the Notion of the Human Soul united to the Human Body to be an Invention of the Heathens, and not consonant to the Principles of Philosophy or Reason.” This Avork excited considerable indignation among the more zealous diA'ines, who procured an order to have it burned by the common hangman. He died about the year 1722. COWELL, John, an English lawyer and antiquary; author of “ 'Die Interpreter,” a laAv dictionary, Avhich Avas burned by the common hangman on account of some un- constitutional doctrines on the king’s prero- gative, and “ The Institutes of the LaAVS of England.” Died, 1611. COWLEY, ABRAHA.Al,an eminent English poet, born in London, 1618. Educated as a king’s scholar at Westminster, he very early evinced a taste and aptitude for poetry ; and, Avhile only in his 15th year, published a volume entitled “ Poetical Blossoms,” Avhich procured him considerable reputation. In 1636 he Avas elected a scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge ; Avhere he produced a pastoral comedy, entitled “ Love’s Riddle,” and “ Naufragium Joculare,” a Latin co- medy, Avhich Avas performed by the members of his college. He resided at the university until 1643, Avhen he Avas ejected by the Pu- ritan visitors, and became an active pai’- tisan of the royal cause. He Avas much esteemed by Lord Falkland, and accompanied the king in several journeys. When the queen left the country he accompanied her Majesty , and remained abroad for some y ears ; during Avhich time he was a chief agent in managing the correspondence betAveen the king and queen. In 1656 he returned to England, and soon after published a volume containing most of the poems printed in the final collection of his Avorks. Being sus- pected by the party in poAver, he Avas thrown into prison, but released on the bail of Dr Scarborough. He again went abroad, and Avas again employed in aiding the royal cause. On the restoration taking place he Avas for some time neglected; but at length, by the interest of the duke of Buckingham, he obtained the lease of a farm at Chertsey, Avhich produced him about £300 a year. Died, 1667. COWLEY, Hannah, an accomplished English dramatic Avriter ; authoress of “The IlunaAvay,” “The Belle’s Stratagem,” “More Ways than One,” &c., besides some poems and farces. The sprightliness of dia- logue, and the variety of characters and in- cidents, Avhich this lady introduced in her dramatic Avorks, evince much versatility of genius. Garrick, it is said, could hardly be persuaded that her first piece Avas the pro- duction of a mere boarding-schoolgirl. Died, 1809. 23P COAV] ^ ^iograpl)!). [cox COWLEY, HKNRY WELLESLEY, Lord, a distinguished diplomatist, the youngest son of the first earl of Mornington, and brother of the marquis of Wellesley and the duke of Wellington, was horn 1773. His public d^hut was made as a precis writer in the Foreign Oflice ; he then joined the embassy of Lord Malmesbury to Lille, where he be came initiated in diplomatic affairs, and in 1797 he accompanied his brother Lord Wel- lesly to India, in the capacity of private secretary. Here he was employed in various offices of great delicacy and responsibility ; but Europe had more attractions for him than the East, and he returned to England in 1804. In 1807 he was remrned to parlia- ment for Eye, and became one of the secre- taries of the Treasury ; but he did not make any great figure in parliament, and in 1809 he exchanged his parliamentary duties for the embassy at Madrid ; a mission which, amid difficulties of all kinds, he fulfilled for thirteen years, to his own increasing reput- ation, and the welfare of his country. In 1823 he went as ambassador to Vienna ; here he remained till 1831 ; and for the ability he displayed there, coupled with his length of service, he Avas raised to the peerage Avith the title of Baron Cowley— the original pa- tronymic of the Wellesley family. In 1841 he was appointed ambassador to the Tuil- eries. This office he held till the fall of Sir Robert Peel’s ministry in 1846 ; but, long be- fore this event, his declining health had made his retirement advisable, and he did not survive it above a twelvemonth. Died, 1847. COWPER, William, Earl, an eminent English lawyer, who, after passing through various gradations of office, Avas raised to the peerage in the reign of Queen Anne, by the title of Viscount Fordwick, and made lord high chancellor. This office he resigned in 1710, but accepted it again in 1714. In 1717 he Avas created Earl Cowper, and in 1718 Avholly retired from office. During the latter years of his public life, he very ably exerted himself in favour of religious liberty ; and particularly in causing a bill to be throAvn out, by which Unitarians Avould hav'e been subject to severe penalties. Died, 1723. COAVPER, William, the distinguished English poet, was born at Berkhampstead, Hertfordshire, in 1731. He was the son of a clergyman of good family, and was at an early age removed from a country school to that of Westminster. Being naturally of a timid temper and sensitive frame, the rough usage he met with from stronger and less sensitive boys rendered school a place of complete torture to him, as may be seen from the tone of his “Tirocinium.” On quitting school, he was articled to an attor- ney, with Avhom he remained for three years, and then entered himself of the Middle Temple. He seems, however, to have been by nature unfit for the rough paths of life ; for though the interest of his family had procured him the valuable and honourable place of clerk to the House of Lords, his nerA'ousness and mativaise hunte were such, that he was obliged to resign it. He now fell into so terrible a state of nervous debility, that he was for some time placed in the lunatic asylum of Dr Cotton. The skill and humanity of that gentleman restored him, and he retired to Huntingdon. Here he became acquainted Avith the family of the UuAvins; and after Mr Unwin’s death he removed, Avith Mrs UnAvin, to Olney, Bucks, where he contracted a close friend- ship with the curate of Olney, John New- ton, and subsequently Avith Lady Austen. His natural melancholy coloured his reli- gious views and feelings, and he fell often into the most painful despondency. While this Avas the case, the influence of Lady Austen, more than that of his other friends, tended to rouse and cheer him. But although his mind Avas so frequently bent down by despondency, he Avas a very voluminous Avriter. In addition to translating Homer, Avhich he did Avith more accuracy than Pope, if with less polish, he wrote “ The Task,” — the best of all his poems, — “ Tirocinium,” and a host of smaller poems ; translated some of Madame Guyon’s spiritual songs ; and his correspondence, Avhich exhibits him as one of the most elegant of English letter- writers, was extremely voluminous. To- wards the close of his life his gloom deep- ened into absolute despair, from Avhich he never wholly emerged, and he died, at East Dereham, in Norfolk, 25 April, 1800. His beloved friend, Mary UnAvin, had died in December, 1796. Among the numerous edi- tions of Cowper’s works we may mention two, — the one by Dr Southey, the other by the Rev. T. Grimshawe, both published in 1836. Portraits of Cowper were painted by Abbott, Romney, and Lawrence. COX, Richard, bishop of Ely, was born at Whaddon, Bucks, in 1500. While at New College, he embraced the opinions of the Reformers, and was consequently thrown into gaol, but obtained his release through the influence of Cranmcr. He was then made master of Eton School, and subse- quently became tutor to Edward VI., in whose reign he Avas made a privy councillor, almoner to the king, dean of Westminster, and chancellor of Oxford. During the reign of Mary he resided abroad ; but returned to England on the accession of Elizabeth, and was made bishop of Ely. He contributed the Gospels, the Acts, and the Epistle to the Romans to the “ Bishops’ Bible,” besides Avriting various controversial tracts. Died, 1581. COXCIE, Michael, a celebrated Flemish painter, born at Mechlin in 1497. He was a pupil of Bernard van Orley, and had with him the direction of the manufacture of the tapestries of the Sistine Chapel after the cartoons of Raphael. He studied the works of Raphael, and returned to Flanders, where he acquired both fame and fortune. He ex- ecuted for Philip II. of Spain an admirable copy ,of the grand altarpiece by the Van Eycks at Ghent, which occupied him two years. His pictures are now rare. A set of illustrations to the story of Cupid and Psyche have been attributed to this master, but on unsatisfactory eyidsnee. Died at Antwerp, 1592. COXE, AVilliam, historian and traveller, was born in 1747. After receiving an uni- 23 *^ ^ ilcii) ^lub^rsal 13tograpf)g versity education, he successively accom- panied several young noblemen to the Con- tinent in the capacity of tutor; and on his return obtained various preferments in the church till he became a canon residentiary of Salisbury and archdeacon of Wilts. He was the author of “ Travels in Switzerland ; ” “Travels in Poland, Russia, Sweden, and Denmark ; ” a “ History of the House of Austria,” his best work, painstaking, and not very lively reading, but well supported by references to his authorities ; “ Historical Memoirs of the Kings of Spain ; ” “ Memoirs of Sir Robert Walpole ; ” and other works equally interesting, and valuable for their research and adherence to truth. Died, 1828. COYPEL, the name of several eminent French painters. NOEL Coypel was born in 1628, and died in 1707. He adorned the old Louvre and the Tuileries, painted some fine pictures for the council-hall of Versailles, and executed several scriptural pieces of great merit. His son, Antoine, born at Paris, 1661, was the most distinguished of his family as painter and engraver. He studied under his father and at Rome, and became director of the Academy at Paris, and first painter to the king. He painted in the Palais Royal a series of 15 scenes from the AEneid. His style was not free from the mannerism of the French school. Died, 1721. Noel Nicholas, usually called Coypel the uncle, despised the false glitter of this school, and aimed only at truth and nature. He died in 1735. CHARLES An- toine, the son of Antoine, was a decided copyist of his father’s manner, and accom- modated himself to the prevailing taste of the times for gaudy colouring. Born, 1694 ; died, 1752. COYSEVOX, Antoine, a celebrated French sculptor, was born at Lyons, in 1640, and died at Paris, in 1720. Among his best works are the monument of Cardinal Mazarin ; an equestrian statue of Louis XIV. ; the monument of Colbert ; Fame and Mercury on winged horses, &c. Coysevox was received at the Academy in 1680, and became professor and chancellor. On ac- count of the beauty and animation of his portrait busts, he was called the Vandyke of sculpture. CRABBE, George, an English poet, was born at Aldborough in Suffolk in 1754. He was brought up to the medical profession, but from his strong propensity to verse- making he abandoned it, and in 1780 began to try his fortune as litterateur in London. He obtained the friendship and assistance of Burke, published one of his poems, and soon after entered the church. He was for se- veral years chaplain to the duke of Rutland, had the curacy of Strathern and other liv- ings, and in 1813, that of Trowbridge, where he spent the rest of his life. His principal poems are “The Library,” “The Village,” “The Parish Register,” “The Borough,” and “Tales of the Hall;” all characterized by homely truthfulness, simplicity, and pathos. His poems are like Dutch paintings in their minute and accurate delineation of persons and scenes of the homeliest, and even of a repulsive, sort. And, like Dutch paint- ings, they are likely to keep their power to charm. Died, 1832. An elegant edition of his works, with a Life and Notes, by his son, was published in 1834. CRAIG, JOHN, a Scotch mathematician of the 17th century; famous for a work entitled “ Theologiae Christianae Principia Mathematica.” Tlie object of this curious tract is to apply mathematical calculation to the credibility of the gospel history ; upon which principle he maintains that the Christian religion must end, according to the doctrine of chances, in the year 3150, when our Saviour will make his second appearance ! CRAIG, Sir THOMAS, an eminent Scotch lawyer ; author of a treatise on feudal law, which has often been reprinted. Died, 1608. CRAKANTHORPE, RICHARD, a learned English divine, and the author of some able works in support of Protestantism. Died, 1624. CRAMER, Francis, an eminent musician , was born at Mannheim, 1772. Under the di- rection of his father, formerly leader of the opera band in London, he prosecuted the study of music, for which he had shown an early predilection. In 1799 he succeeded his father as leader of the Aneient Coneerts ; for many years he was alternate leader of the Philharmonic Concerts with Loder, T. Cooke, Weichsels, &c. ; and for upwards of 40 years held the chief place at the great provincial festivals. Died, 1848. CRAMER, Gabriel, an eminent geome- trician ; editor of the works of Wolf and the Bernouillis, and author of several mathe- matical and algebraic works. Born, 1704 ; -died, 1752. CRAMER, JOHN ANTHONY, D.D., dean of Carlisle, a well-known writer on subjects of classical antiquity, was born in Switzer- land, 1793. He received his education in England, and in 1811 was admitted a student of Christchurch, Oxford, where he greatly distinguished himself, and gradually rose through all the university honours, till, in 1831, he was appointed principal of New Hall Inn. During this period he was actively engaged in literary pursuits ; and his de- scriptions of Ancient Italy, Asia Minor, and Ancient Greece are enduring monuments of his accuracy and research. In 1842 he suc- ceeded Dr Arnold as regius professor of modern history ; and in 1844 he was nomin- ated to the deanery of Carlisle. Died, 1848. CRANACH, LUCAS. [KRANACH.] CRANMER, Thomas, archbishop of Can- terbury, memorable for the part he took in the Reformation, was born at Aslacton, Nottinghamshire, in 1489, and educated at Jesus College, Cambridge. The opihion which he gave on the question of Henry Vlllth’s divorce from his first wife, Catha- rine of Arragon, recommended him to that monarch, who employed him to vindicate the measure, and sent him, in 1530, with other envoys, to maintain his view before the pope. He took with him the opinions which had been obtained from the foreign universities in favour of the same view. His mission was fruitless. On his way home Cranmer visited Germany, and at Nurnberg married a niece of Osiander. After his re- turn he was raised by papal bull to the arch- cra] 91 ^nitjcrsal lBtograp]^i). [cre bishopric of Canterbury, in 'which office he zealously promoted the cause of the Re- formation. Through his means the Bible 'vvas translated and read in churches ; and he greatly aided in suppressing the monastic institutions. A few weeks after his appoint- ment he pronounced, in a court held at Dun- stable, the sentence of divorce of Catharine, and confirmed the king’s marriage with Anne Boleyn. In 1536, when Anne Boleyn was destined to lose her reputation and her life, Cranmer meanly stooped to promote the sentence of divorce. This and other com- pliances with the monarch’s will insured him the gratitude of Henry, Avho upheld him in all his contests Avith Bishop Gardiner and others Avho accused him of heresy and faction. By Henry’s Avill he Avas appointed one of the council of regency to Edward VI. ; and as the young king Avas brought up chiefly under the archbishop’s care, it en- abled him to further the objects of the Re- formation in a regular and consistent man- ner, by framing the liturgy, the homilies, articles of religion, &c. V^’hen Edward Avas prevailed on to alter the succession in favour of Lady Jane Grey, the archbishop opposed it for a considerable time, but at length con- sented. On the accession of Mary he A\'as tried on charges of blasphemy, perjury, in- continence, and heresy, and sentenced to be deprived of office. Tempted, however, by the promise of pardon, he signed a recanta- tion of his principles. This Avas the great object of his enemies. But when Cranmer, Avho had been sent to Oxford, was brought into St Mary’s church to read his recanta- tion in public, he besought the forgiveness of God for his apostasy, and exhorted the people against the errors of the church of Rome, declaring that nothing could afford him consolation but the prospect of extenu- ating his guilt by encountering the flery torments which aAvaited him. This greatly earaged his adversaries, Avho, after vilifying him as a hypocrite and heretic, dragged him to the stake opposite Baliol College, which he approached with a cheerful countenance, and met his death with the utmost fortitude, exclaiming, as he held out his right hand for the flames to consume it, “This unAvorthy hand ! this unworthy hand ! ’’ AVhatever may be said Avith regard to his submission to the Avill of a despotic sovereign, or his occasional unsteadiness of principles, it is certain that no man contributed so much as Cranmer to the establishment and independ- ence of the English ehurch. Died, March 21, 1556. CRANZ, or KRANZ, DAVID, a Moravian preacher, born 1723, and resided several years as a missionary in Greenland, of which country he Avrote a valuable history ; also “A History of the Moravians.’’ Died, 1777. CRASHAW, Richard, poet, born in Lon- don, and educated at Cambridge. He was a friend of the poet Cowley; and having embraced the Roman Catholic faith, Avas appointed to a canonry at Loretto. His poems haA’e considerable merit, and are supposed to have furnished hints afterwards turned to good account both by Milton and Pope. Died, 1650. CRASSUS, Marcus Licinius. the cele- brated Roman consul and triumvir, enorm- ously rich and passionately fond of money, took part with Sulla in the civil Avar. As praetor, in E.c. 71, he was sent against the insurgent gladiators under Spartacus, and totally defeated them near Rhegium. The next year he Avas consul with Pompey, and made an extraordinary display of his wealth and hospitality. Pompey and Crassus Avere, hoAvever, personal enemies, and it needed the poAverful influence of Caesar to effect a formal reconciliation between them, AAffiich took place in B. C. 60, the first triumvirate being then formed. Consul again five years later, Crassus had Syria for his province, and made war on the Parthians. He Avas defeated by them Avith immense slaughter, and Avas put to death, B.c. 53. It is said that Orodes, king of Parthia, had melted gold poured into the dead mouth, Avith the taunt “ Have your fill uoav of Avhat you loved best.” CRATINTJS, an Athenian poet, to whom the invention of satirical comedy is attri- buted. His poAvers of sarcasm are said to have been unrivalled. He Avas a very in- temperate man, and an exception to the rule that intemperance leads to an early grave, having attained the age of 97. Died, B. C. 422. CRAYER, CASPAR DE, Dutch painter, was born at AntAverp about 1582. He Avas a pupil of Raphael Coxcie, and soon obtained a great reputation. He painted a large number of altar-pieces for Ghent, Brussels, and other cities of the Netherlands, and received high encomiums from Rubens. He lived simply and temperately, preserved his health and faculty to a great age, and painted the “ Martyrdom of St Blaise,” Avhen 86 years old. Died at Ghent, 1669. CREBILLON, PROSPER JOLYOT DE, French dramatic poet, Avas born at Dijon, in 1674. He Avas intended for the legal pro- fession, but devoted himself to the tragic muse, and produced “ Idomeneus,” Avhich met with success. This Avas follOAved by “ Atreus,” “ Electra,” and “ Rhadamistus,” which Avere still more successful. He then led a secluded life for many years, but again resumed his dramatic labours, and produced the tragedies of “ Catiline ” and “ The Tri- umvirate.” Died, 1762. CREBILLON, CLAUDE PROSPER JOLYOT DE, son of the preceding, Avas born at Paris, in 1707. He was for a time in high repute for his wit and gaiety, which made him a pleasant companion, and for his clever but licentious novels, Avhich are best forgotten. Died, 1777. CREDI, LORENZO Di, Italian painter, was born at Florence about 1453. He leaimt the art of the goldsmith and then studied paint- ing under Verrocchio, and had Leonardo da Vinci for his felloAV-pupil and friend. His Avorks resemble in style those of Leonardo. Holy Families, Madonnas, and similar sacred subjects chiefly engaged his pencil. He Avas liAung in 1536. CREECH, Thomas, an English poet, was born at Blandford, Dorsetshire, in 1659; and after receiving the rudiments of a classical 1 education at Sherborne free-school, finished j j 239 cre] Stniticrsal 13 iograpI)| 2 . [cei his studies at Wadham College, Oxford. He translated into English verse Lucretius, Horace. Theocritus, «S;c. Died by his own hand, 1700. CEELLIUS, JOHANN, a German Unita- lian divine, was born in 1590, and was one of the ablest advocates of that sect, which he defended against Grotius. Died, 1633. CllEMONESE, IL. LCALETTI, GIU- SEPPE.] CEESCENTIUS, patrician of Home, who in the year 987 placed himself at the head of the citizens and attempted to shake off the yoke of the emperor and establish a republic. He expelled the pope John XVI. and assumed the government of Home. An- ticipating the intervention of Otho III., he recalled the pope the same year. He re- newed his attempt in 997, expelling Pope Gregory V., and setting up a rival, John XVII., who was soon after arrested, impri- soned, and disgracefully treated. Crescentius was besieged in the castle of St Angelo by the emperor, induced to capitulate by a promise of safety, and then hung and be- headed. It is said that his widow, Stephania, avenged this treachery by first accepting Otho as her lover and then administering poison to him. CRESCENZI, PIETRO, the restorer of the scientific study of agriculture in Europe, was born at Bologna in 1230. He spent a long life in acquiring and disseminating agricultural knowledge ; and his “ Opus Ruralium Commodorum ” is a masterly pro- duction, founded on simple principles, and free from many errors that continued to prevail even for centuries after. The earliest printed edition is of 1471. The work Was at once translated into Italian, and in 1486 into French. It has been often republished. CRESCIMBENI, GIOVANNI MARIA, Italian poet and miscellaneous writer, was born in 1663. He was educated by the Jesuits, and settled at Rome, where he took part in founding the Arcadian Academy, of Avhich he held the office of Gustos for nearly 40 years. He was patronized by Popes Cle- ment XI. and Benedict XIII. His “ Rime ” appeared in 1695. His other works are “ Istoria della volgar Poesia,” ‘‘ leVitedegli Arcadi illustri,” &c. Died, 1728. CRESPl, GIUSEPPE MARIA (LO SPAG- NUOLO), Italian painter, was born at Bolog- na in 1665. He was a pupil of Canuti and Carlo Cignani, and afterwards studied and copied the works of Correggio, the Caracci, and other masters. He painted rapidly, with much caprice and carelessness. Among his works are the “ Seven Sacraments,” an “ Eoce Flomo,” a “ Supper,” &c. Crespi was also an engraver. Died, 1747. CRESWELL, Sir CRESWELL, first judge of the Divorce Court, was born in 1794. After studying at the Charter-house and at Cambridge, he was called to the bar in 1819. He entered parliament as member for Liver- pool in 1837. Five years later he was ap* pointed a justice of the Common Pleas, and filled that office sixteen years, distinguishing himself by his acuteness, and the ease with which he unravelled difficult and compli- cated cases. On the establishment of the Divorce Court in 1858, he was named first judge. The practice was new, the cases very numerous, and the labour immense ; but Sir Creswell achieved a great success. He ad- judicated upon more than a thousand cases, and only in one instance was any decision of his reversed. In private as in public life he was very highly esteemed. Died sud- denly in July, 1863. CREWE, Nathaniel, bishop of Durham. He arrived at his episcopal dignity partly through the influence of James II., then duke of York, and partly through his con- senting to be guilty of simony, paying a large sum to one of the king’s mistresses. During the reign of James this prelate aided and counselled him in all his most obnoxious measures, and was among the earliest of those who abandoned him, and voted that the throne was abdicated. But his base and time-serving conduct would not have prevented him from losing his bishop- ric, on the accession of King William and Queen Mary, but that he was spared from degradation at the intercession of Tillotson. Died, 1721. CRICHTON, James, named The Admir- able, was born in Scotland in 1560. His father Avas a lord of session, and through his mother he Avas of royal descent. He Avas educated at the university of St An- drews, and graduated M.A. in 1575. He Avas one of the young men selected to be fellow- students of the young King James VI. under the direction of George Buchanan. He then went to France, where he con- tinued his studies, and also, as he held fast to the Romish church, took part in the war carried on by Henry III. against the Hu- guenots. Q'he beauty of his person, the strength and agility he displayed, joined to his multifainous accomplishments and sur- prising capacity of eloquent talk, made him the admiration of all. About 1580 he Avent ] to Italy, visiting probably Genoa and Rome, and then Venice, where he was Avarmly received by the great printer Aldus. He was introduced to the Doge and Senate, created astonishment at Venice and Padua, by his brilliant off-hand discourses on philo- sophy, theology, and other high themes, and his challenge to disputation in any of several languages, and on either side of any contro- versy. He next Avent to Mantua, and Avas appointed tutor to the son of the duke. He Avas attacked in the streets one night by a party of men armed and masked ; overcame them by superior skill, and recognized his pupil, to Avhom he at once presented his sword. The young prince immediately ran him through with it, 3rd July, 1582. He has left no literary remains of importance. CRILLON, LOUIS DE BALBE DE BERTON DE, a distinguished French general, Avas born in Provence in 1541. He distinguish- ed himself during five reigns, Henry II., Francis II., Charles IX., Henry III., and Henry IV., and received from Henry IV. the title of “ lo brave des braves.” In 1557 he became aide-de-camp to the duke of Guise, and distinguished himself greatly at the siege of Calais, where he Avas the first to mount the breach, as he Avas at many sub- sequent sieges. He Avas Avounded at the battles of St Denis and Jarnac, at the siege !40 cRi] ^ ^niticrsal ISiograpIji)* [cro of Poitiers, at Moncoutour, and at St Jean d’Anfif^ly. Tliroughout the civil war he was faithful to the monarchy: but was not made privy to the massacre of St Bartholomew. He took a prominent part at the siege of Rochelle in 1573, and accompanied the duke of Anjou to Poland, on his election to the throne. He distinguished himself in the war of the League, and in 1586 commanded under Epernon in Provence. When soli- cited by Henry III. to assassinate the duke of Guise he firmly refused to stain his name by such an act of infamy He was at the battle of Ivry and the siege of Paris ; fol- lowed Henry IV. to Rouen ; in 1600 com- manded in Savoy ; and soon after retired to his estates. The assassination of his belov- ed master threw him into a melancholy, from which he did not recover. Died, 1615. CRILLOX-MAHON, LOUIS DE BertON DES BALBES DE QUIERS, Duke de, French general, was born in 1718. He served in the Italian campaign of 1733, in the .Ger- man campaign of 1742, in which he was taken prisoner, and at the battle of Fon- tenoi. He was at the taking of Namur, at the battles of Rocoux, Rosbach, and Liitzelburg, soon after Avhich he entered the service of Spain. In 1782 he took Minorca, and received the title of duke of Mahon. Died at Madrid, 1796. CRITIAS, one of the Thirty Tyrants of Athens. He was a pupil of Socrates, but his political conduct was such as to render him by no means a credit to his great mas- ter. He is said to have distinguished him- self even among the Thirty for cruelty and avarice. When Thrasybulus and his patri- otic friends took arms against the Thirty, Critias was slain in an attack made on the Piraeus, in the year 404 B. C. CRCESUS, the fifth and last king of Ly- dia. He succeeded his father Alyattes in the year 557 B.c., and was so successful in all his enterprises, that he soon became one of the richest monarchs of that time. The common story respecting him, which is for the most part merely legendary, is as fol- lows. Vain of his Avealth, he asked the philosopher Solon what he thought of his good fortune : “ I pronounce no man for- tunate until his death,” Avas the sage’s reply. Subsequently the wealthy and powerful monarch was made prisoner by Cyrus, king of Persia. When bound to the stake and about to be burnt to death, he recalled the words of Solon, and thrice repeated his name. Cyrus demanded an explanation. Croesus gave it ; and Cyrus not only spared his life, but also took him into his favour and protection. At the death of Cyrus he recommended Croesus to the favour of Cam- byses, who treated him Avith great cruelty, and ordered him to be put to death ; but of the time and place of the death of Croesus nothing is known. CROFT, William, Mus. D., an excellent English musician and composer. He was a native of Warwickshire, and AA'as. made organist of the Chapel Royal in 1707, and in the folloAving year organist of Westminster Abbey. His best anthems, and a sublime burial service, Averc publiched in 1724 in two folio Yoluines, tinder the title of “ Musica Sacra.” Born, 1677 ; died, 1727. He was buried in Westminster Abbey. ] i! :CROKER,John Wilson, the Right Hon., who earned great distinction in the fields of literature and party politics, was born in Galway in 1780. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, called to the bar in 1807, and sat in the House of Commons from 1808 to 1832, having during that period represented in succession Downpatrick, Athlone, Yar- mouth, Bodmin, and the University of Dub- lin, and gained the reputation of being one of the most eloquent and accomplished de- baters in the House. During all this period he held the office of secretary to the Ad- miralty. But it was more as a political writer than a debater that Mr Croker owed his Avide-spread fame. He Avas one of the founders of, and most frequent contributors to, the Quarterly RevieAv; and the poAvers of sarcasm Avhich he wielded at a time when party feeling ran high, coupled Avith the high position which he held among the chiefs of the Tory party, procured for his Avritings a degree of interest out of all proportion to their intrinsic merits. It would far exceed our limits to mention the various papers and pamphlets that emanated from his fertile brain. The Avorks which are most likely to perpetuate his name are his editions of “ Boswell’s Life of Johnson,” and Lord Her- vey’s “Memoirs of the Reign of George II., and his “ Stories from the History of Eng- land,” which Sir Walter Scott took as his model for his “ Tales of a Grandfather.” At the time of his death he was engaged in pre- paring an edition of the Avorks of Alexander Pope. Mr Croker’s long and faithful services to his party were rewarded by his being made a privy-councillor in 1828, and by a pension of £1500 a year, and apartments in Kensington Palace. Died, 1857. CROKER, THOMAS Crofton, F.S.A., a distinguished Avriter and antiquary, was born at Cork, in 1798. When fifteen years of age, he Avas apprenticed to a mercantile firm ; and during his leisure hours he devoted him- self to making sketches in pen and ink, in Avhich he afterwards excelled, and in eulti- vating that taste for antiquities Avhieh never left him while he lived. In 1819, through the influence of his namesake, Mr Wilson j Croker, the secretary of the Admiralty, he obtained a clerkship in that department; and soon rose to the most confidential employ- ments in the office to Avhich he was attached. But his official duties in no way damped his literary aspirations. Shortly after settling in London he contributed several papers to the “ Talisman ” on the local antiquities of Ireland In 1824 he published his “Re- searches in the South of Ireland,” with mag- nificent illustrations. This was followed next year by “The Fairy Legends and Tra- ditions of the South of Ireland,” a work which has frequently been reprinted and translated, and Avhich, among other marks of favour, brought him the personal ac- quaintance of Sir W. Scott, who was delight- ed with its style and spirit. Besides con- tributing largely to the “ Annuals,” once so fashionable, in 1827 he became the editor of the “ Christmas Box,” which, however, only 14 241 cRo] ileto Siinbasal IBiograpIji). [cro lived two years; and in 1829 he published the Legends of the Lakes,” with illustrations by Maclise, which afterwards appeared under the title of a “ Guide to the Lakes.” It would occupy more space than we can spare to enumerate the various other works, and papers in journals, literary and antiquarian, which Mr Croker contributed. The reader who is interested in the matter may refer to the “Gentleman’s Magazine” for October 1854. SufiSce it here to say that they were very voluminous; and that, as a collector of antiquai’ian and literary curiosities, particu- larly with reference to Ireland, his reput- ation is not likely soon to be surpassed. Died, 1854. CROIiY, George, L.L.D., was born in Dublin, August, 1780, and Avas educated at Trinity College. He Avas ordained to an Irish curacy, but, not obtaining any higher preferment, he turned his mind Avholly to literature, and contributed very largely to the periodical press, especially “ Black Avood’s Magazine,” and the “Literary Gazette,” the “ Standard,” and the “ Universal Re- view.” He was presented, in 1835, to the rectory of St Stephen’s, Walbrook, where he discharged the duties of his ofl&ce with zeal, and attained high reputation as a preacher, while with unabated diligence he continued his literary labours. Among his many works may be mentioned “ The Three Cycles of Revelatidn,” “ Life of George IV.,” “ Life of Burke,” essays on “ The Character of William Pitt and Napoleon I.,” the “An- gel of the World,” and other poems, “ Sa!la- thiel,” “ Tales of St Bernard,” &c. He died, November 24, 1860, aged 80. “ Recollections of Dr Croly,” by Richard Herring, have since appeared. CROMWELL, THOMAS, Earl of Essex, chief minister to Henry Vill., was born near London, about 1490. He Avas the son of a blacksmith, had but a middling educa- tion, and got a clerkship in an English fac- tory at Antwerp, whence he was sent to Italy. He appears to have served in the Avars there for a time, and on his return to England entered the service of Cardinal Wolsey, Avon his esteem, and was faithful to him in his disgrace; He then entered the king’s service, and obtained, with his favour, many of the highest offices of state. He was privy-councillor, principal 'secretary of state, and, about 1536, vicar-general, and vicegerent, in all matters of religion. Cromwell was the friend of Cranmer, and contributed by various measures to the establishment of the reformed doctrines and worship. In 1539 he was created earl of Essex, but he soon lost the favour of the king, and then all was lost. For his eleva- tion, honours, and administration had made him a host of enemies. In 1540 he was im- prisoned, attainted on charges of treason, heresy, and extortion, Avas not allOAved to make any defence, and was executed on Tower Hill, July 28, 1540. He did not fall like a brave man, but made the most abject entreaties to the king for his mercy. His character and measures are painted in most unlike colours by writers of diffei’ent parties. CROMWELL, OLIVER, Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, and one of the most extraordinary characters in history, Avas the grandson of Sir Henry CromAvell. and the son of Robert CromAvell, a man of good property, and abreAver at Huntingdon, Avhere Oliver Avas born, April 25, 1599. Hav- ing been educated at the free-school of that city, and at Sidney Sussex College, Cam- bridge, he became a law student at Lincoln’s Inn. Here, hoAvever, he did not remain long; as in his 21st year he married Elizabeth, the daughter of Sir James Bourchier, and settled at Huntingdon. In his youth he is said, by royalist writers, to have indulged in pro- fligate habits, which he soon hoAvever laid aside ; and that his character and manner of life was such as to obtain the esteem and confidence of his neighbours, is evident from the fact that he was elected member of par- liament for Huntingdon in 1628. His first appearance in parliament was in February, 1629. In 1640 he represented Cambridge. In his parliamentary career he was remark- able rather for his business-like habits and energy of character, than for elegance of language or gracefulness of delivery. His appearance and dress, too, were plain and unprepossessing. He notAvithstanding ac- quired considerable influence even in par- liament ; and in 1642, when it was resolved to levy forces to oppose the king, CromAvell received a commission from the earl of Essex, and raised a troop of horse at Cam- bridge, of which he, of course, had the com- mand. He soon distinguished himself by his courage and military skill, especially at the battle of Marston Moor, in 1644 ; he was excepted from the self-denying ordinance, and ’soon after won the decisive victory of Naseby. In 1648 he defeated the Scots at Preston, and soon after invaded Scotland and took Berwick. He was a member of the High Court of Justice for the trial of Charles I., and signed the warrant for his execution. In August, 1649, he Avas named lord-lieu- tenant and commander-in-chief in Ireland, stormed Drogheda, and put to death the whole garrison ; and soon after Wexford. Other great tOAvns submitted Avithout re- sistance, and Ireland was subdued. In con- sequence of the expected return of Prince Charles to Scotland, CromAvell Avas recalled, leaving Ireton as deputy. He was appoint- ed lord-general, and set out for Scotland. On the 3rd September, 1650, the great battle of Dunbar was fought, and the Scots Avere totally defeated. Edinburgh surrendered, and Perth was taken some months later. Charles having marched into England, Cromwell followed him, and on the 3rd Sep- tember, 1651, won the decisive battle of AVorcester. CromAvell took up his residence at Hampton Court in the follOAving month. In 1653, while the Dutch Avar Avas going on, he dissolved the Long Parliament, formed a council of state, and had a ncAv parliament called, which soon resigned its poAver to CromAvell, and by the “ Instrument of Go- vernment ” he was created “ Lord Pro- tector.” He showed himself equal to the hard task he had undertaken, by sharp de- cisive means keeping down plotting royal- ista, jealous presby terians, and intractable levellers ; and by a magnanimous foreign policy making England greater and more 242 Clio] ^nibersal 3ii3iograpI)i). [oso honoured than ever. He interfered for the protection of the Yaudois Protestants, cru- elly persecuted by the duke of Savoy, and had a large sum raised for their relief. He did not succeed with his parliaments, and had to rule mostly without them. At last care, anxiety, and growing perplexities, wore him out ; he became gloomy and sus- picious ; was overwhelmed by sorrow at the death of his favourite daughter, Elizabeth, Lady Claypole ; fell sick, and died about a month after her, September 3, 1658, anni- versary of his two victories of Dunbar and Worcester. He was interred in the chapel of Henry YII. at Westminster; but the body wiis torn from its resting-place at the restoration, exposed at Tyburn, with those of Bradshaw ana Ireton, the head cut off, and the remains buried under the gallows. Cromwell had appointed his eldest son, Bichard, to succeed him; but the reins of government were not to be held by one so virtuous and incompetent ; and having been compelled by the officers to dissolve the par- liament, he abdicated, April 22, 1659, and ended his days in tranquil seclusion atChes- hunt, in Hertfordshire, in 1712. His bro- ther Henry, whose upright administration, as viceroy of Ireland, had gained him many friends, also retired to private life, and died in 1674. The most important contribution to the history of this great man yet made is the “ Letters and Speeches of Oliver Crom- Avell,” by Thomas Carlyle : a work Avhich has brought about a revolution in the general way of thinking about its hero. It appear- ed in 1845, and has passed thi'ough several editions. Other valuable works are Guizot’s Lives of Oliver and llichard Cromwell, and the Life of Oliver, by John Forster. There are portraits of Cromwell by Walker, Samuel Cooper, and Bernard Lens. Walker’s is in the British Museum, and duplicates in some private collections ; Cooper’s is in the pos- session of the duke of Devonshire ; and Lens’ in the collection of the duke of Port- land. The National Portrait Gallery pos- sesses a terra-cotta bust, modelled from life by Pierce. CROMWELL, OLIVER, great grandson of Henry, second son of the Protector. He was for several years a solicitor in London, and held the appointment of clerk to St Thomas’s Hospital. He is noticed here chiefly on account of his valuable publica- tion, entitled “ Memoirs of the Protector Cromwell, and his sons Richard and Henry ; illustrated by Original Letters and other Family Papers.” He succeeded to the family estate of Theobalds, which descended to him through the children of Richard Cromwell, above named, and died at Cheshunt Park, Herts, in 1821, aged 79. CROTCH, William, musical composer and writer on music, was born at Norwich in 1775. His musical genius appeared at a very early age, and he became dqptor and professor of music at Oxford, in l/’97. His compositions, both vocal and instrumental, are numerous, and he was author of “ Ele- ments of musical Composition and Thorough- Bass,” and “ Specimens of Music of all Ages.” He became head of the Royal Aca- demy of Music, and died at Taunton in 1847. CROWNE, JOHN, a poet and dramatist of the 17th century, and the contemporary of Dryden. He was a native of Nova Scotia, but passed the greater part of his life in England. At the command of Charles II. he wrote the “ Masque of Calisto ; ” and sub- sequently he ridiculed the Whig party, in his comedy of ” The City Politics.” He lived in comparative retirement for some time ; but having written his comedy, “ Sir Courtly Nice,” the king had promised to give him a place; but his Majesty died on the very day on which the piece had its final rehearsal. Died, about 1704. CROZE, MATHURIN VEYSSIERE DE LA, French oriental scholar ; born at Nantes, 1661. Author of ‘‘ Histoire du Christian- isme des Indes,” “ Lexicon Higyptiaco-lati- num,” and other works. He Avas for some time an ecclesiastic of the Benedictine con- gregation of St Maur ; but in 1696 he quitted the cloister and embraced Protestantism at Basel. He Avent afterwards to Berlin, and became royal librarian and professor of philosophy at the French College. Died, 1739. CRUDEN, Alexander, knoAvn during his life by his assumed title of “Alexander the Corrector,” Avas a native of Aberdeen, born in 1701, and educated with a vieAV to becoming a minister of the kirk of Scotland. But he exhibited such an unsteadiness of intellect, that he was not considered fit for the ministry ; and, proceeding to London, he for some time maintained himself by giving private lessons in the classics ; but in 1732 he commenced business as a book- seller. While thus employed, he devoted his leisure to compiling liis useful “ Con- cordance of the Old andNcAv Testaments,” Avhich he dedicated to Queen Caroline. Soon afterAvards he became lunatic, and Avas placed in a mad-house. He contrived to make his escape, and brought an action for false imprisonment, but was nonsuited. He subsequently resumed his old employment of correcting the press, but again exhibited marks of a deranged intellect. As a literary man, however, he was extremely industri- ous ; and his “ Concordance ” holds a high place in the estimation of biblical students. Died, 1770, aged 69. CRUIKSHANK, WILLIAM, an eminent English surgeon, anatomist, and medical Avriter; author of “The Anatomy of the Ab- sorbent Vessels of the Human Body,” “ Ex- periments on the Insensible Perspiration of the Human Body,” «&c. Died, 1800. CSOMA -DE KOROS, ALEXANDER, a ; Transylvanian traveller and philologist, born about 1790. He was in eaidy life seized by the desire to investigate the origin of the Magyar race, and after a course of study at Gottingen, he Avent, in 1820, to the East. He visited Egypt and Persia, and spent several years in a Buddhist monastery in Tibet, diligently studying the Tibetan lan- guage and literature; imagining he recog- nized resemblances between the Tibetan and Magyar. He next lived some years at Calcutta, where he compiled his “ Diction- ary of Tibetan and English,” and a grammar of Tibetan; catalogued the Tibetan works in the library of the Asiatic Society ; and 24.1 cte] ^ ^nifacrsal ^Siograpljn. [cum enjoyed the friendship of the English orien- talists, Prinsep and Wilson. Died at Dar- jeeling, as he was setting out on another journey into Tibet, 1342. CTESIAS, a Greek physician and histo- rian, was a native of Cnidus in Caria. He was present with Artaxerxcs Mnemon at the battle of Cunaxa. in which Cyrus the younger was defeated and slain, B. c. 401, and afterwards lived at the court of Persia. Ctesias was author of several works, the most valuable of which was probably his History of Persia. We possess only frag- ments of it. CUDWOHTH, Halph, philosopher and theologian, one of the most eminent of the Latitudinarian divines, was born in Somer- setshire, in 1617. He was educated at Cam- bridge, became fellow of Emmanuel College, and llegius pi’ofessor of Hebrew. In 1654 he was appointed master of Christ’s College, and in 1678 prebendary of Gloucester. He was a man of great learning, and in philoso- phy a Platonist. His principal work is the “ True Intellectual System of the Universe,” a defence, substantially, of revealed religion against materialists and atheists. It was translated into Latin by Mosheim, and has been several times republished. Cudworth was also author of a “ Treatise on Eternal and Immutable Morality,” a continuation of the “ Intellectual System;” and several theological works. Died, 165.8. Lady INIa- sham, the friend of Locke, was the only daxighter of Cudworth. A new edition of Cudvvorth’s great work was published in 1830, with a Life by Eirch. CU JAS, J AcauES, or in Latin, CUJACIUS, a very celebrated French jurist, was born at Toulouse in 1520. He was the son of a tan- ner, but successfully pursued knowledge under diflBculties, and made himself a great name. He began lecturing on the Homan Law in 1547, was chosen professor at Cahors in 1554, and in the following year removed to Bourges, where with occasional intervals he taught for the rest of his life. He was much persecuted by rival professors, and in the last years of his life suffered greatly from the distracted condition of his country. He enjoyed the patronage of Margaret of Valois, and his fame drew pupils from all parts of Europe; among them were the critic Joseph Scaliger and the historian Thuanus. His works fill 10 vols. folio, and consist of editions of the original works on the Roman law, Avith commentaries and expositions, &c. CULLEN, William, a celebrated phy- sician and medical writer, was a native of Scotland, being born at Lanark, in 1712. After serving his apprenticeship to a surgeon and apothecary at Glasgow, he went some voyages as a surgeon. He subsequently settled at Glasgow, and was appointed lec- turer on chemistry in the university of that city ; in Avhich capacity he obtained so high a renutation, that he at length became me- dical professor in the university of Edin- burgh. As an author he made himself known by his “ Lectures on the Materia Me- dica,” “ Synopsis Nosologiae Practicae,” and his “ First Lines on Medical Practice.” Died, 1790. CULPEPPER, Nicholas, an English herbalist of the 17th century. He was edu- cated at Cambridge, and, after serving his apprenticeship to an apothecary, settled at Spitalfields, in London. He wrote a “ Her- bal,’ and translated the Dispensary of the College of Physicians ; but the science and industry which he indisputably possessed Avere in a great degree marred by his absurd pretensions as astrologer. Died, 1654. CUMBERLAND, RICHARD, bishop of Peterborough. He was born at Lond&n in 1632, educated at Cambridge, and made bi- shop of Peterborough about 1689. He Avas author of a treatise “De Legibus Naturae,” Avritten in opposition to the philosophy of Hobbes, and translated into French by Barbeyrac ; a translation of Sanchunialhon’s Phoenician History, Avith critical notes and disquisitions; an “Essay on the Jewish Weights and Measures,” “ Origines Gentium Antiquissimae,” &c. He was an extremely learned man, but not more remarkable for learning than for modest and unaspiring virtues. Died, 1718. CUMBERLAND, RICHARD, dramatic and miscellaneous writer, Avas great-grandson of the preceding, and born in 1732. From Westminster School he Avent to Trinity College, Cambridge ; and was introduced to public life as the secretary of Lord Halifax, AA'hen viceroy of Ireland. His first literary efforts obtained for him but little fame; but on the appearance of his comedy of “The West Indian,” in 1771, his reputation as a dramatist Avas at once established. From this period till the time of his decease he continued to be one of the most prolific Avriters for the stage, though none of his subsequent pieces Avere so successful as the comedy before mentioned. In 1780 he Avas employed by the government to conduct a secret negotiation Avith the courts of Madrid and Lisbon, Avhich involved him in great distress, as the ministry refused to reimburse his expenses, amounting to £5000, which compelled him to part Avith his hereditary property. To add to his distress, the Board of Trade was broken up, and he retired, Avith a trifling pension, to Tunbridge Wells, where he devoted himself to literary pursuits. Re- sides his numerous plays, he published a collection of essays, under the title of “The Observer;” also several novels and various other Avorks, the last of Avhich Avas his OAvn “ Memoirs.” The comic drama Avas certainly his forte; but throughout the Avhole of his Avritings there is much merit, and some of them possess the elements of a lasting vital- ity. Died, 1811. His portrait, painted by Romney, is in theNational Portrait Gallery. CUMBERLAND, WILLIAM AUGUSTUS, Duke of, second son of George II., was born in 1721, and at an early age entered on the duties of a military life. At the battle of Dettingen, in 1743, he was Avounded, Avhile fighting by the side of his father; and in 1745 he signalized himself, Avhen command- er-in-chief of the British army in Flanders, at the battle of Fontenoy, Avhere, hoAvever, he Avas obliged to yield the palm of victory to Marshal Saxe. On his return to England he took the field against the Scottish rebel troops, whom he defeated at the battle of . Culloden; but he stained his laurels by un- I 244 cuNj H ^nibersal 13io$rap’^t). [cus necessary cruelty. He afterwards served again on the continent, but only to be de- feated. His service ended wtli the capitu- lation of Closter-Seven, which was disavow- ed by the government. Died, 1765. CUNNINGHAM, ALEXANDER, a Scotch historical writer of the 18th century ; author of a “History of Great Britain, from the Revolution to the Accession of George I.” This was elegantly written in Latin, but a translation of it Avas published by Dr Thomp- son in 1787. Cunningham also held some go- vernment employments, among which, was that of resident at Venice. Died, 1737. CUNNINGHAM, Allan, an eminent poet, novelist, and miscellaneous Avriter, Avas born at BlackAvood, in Dumfriesshire, in 1785. His parents Avere in very humble circum- stances, and he was taken from school when only 11 years of age, and apprenticed to a stone-mason. These disadvantageous cir- cumstances did not prevent him from acqxtir- ing, by great though desultory reading, much information ; and in 1810 he Avent to London, Avhere he at first earned a maintenance by contributing to periodicals, and reporting for the press. At a later period he obtained employment in the studio of the sculptor Chantrey, as principal assistant, Avhich en- abled him to prosecute his literary ta-stes Avithout hazard, and he so Avell improved his advantages, that he not merely distin- guished, himself as a critic and historian, poet and novelist, but also as a man of bu- siness, and made a fortune. Among his numerous Avorks are “ Sir Marmaduke Max- well,” a drama; “Paul Jones,” and “Sir Michael Scott,” novels; the Lives of Burns and Sir David AVilkie, besides many poems, ballads, and lyrics ; but his most important Avork, and that by which he is best known south of the Tweed, is “ The Lives of British Painters, Sculptors, and Architects.” Died, 1812. CURETON,'Williatvi, an eminent orient- alist, was born at Westbury in Shropshire in 1808. He studied at Oxford and entered the church. Having applied himself specially to the study of Arabic and other Oriental languages, he Avas appointed sub-librarian of the Bodleian in 1834, and three years later assistant-keeper of the manuscripts in the British Museum, a post which he held till 1850. He prepared a classed catalogue of the Arabic manuscripts, and in 1841 applied himself to the study and collation of the important collection of Syriac manuscripts, discovered in a monastery in the desert of Nitria, among AA’hich Avere the Epistles of Ignatius, the publication of Avhich in 1845 gave rise to a Avarm controversy, in Avhich English and German scholars took part. In 1847 Dr Cureton Avas appointed chaplain to the queen, and two years later canon of Westminster. He edited many other learned works, and in 1858 published, from a manu- script of the 5th century, the remains of an ancient recension of the Syriac Gospels. He was, a corresponding member, and afterwards a foreign associate of the Institute of France, a fellOAV of the Royal Society, and croAvn trustee of the British Museum. Died in June, 1864, from the effects of a railAvay ac- cident in the preceding year. CURL, Edmund, a bookseller, Avhose name is handed 'doAvn, like many others, by the satirical wit of Pope, kept a shop in the purlieus of Covent Garden, and had his ears cut off in the pillory as a just reward for publishing obscene books. Died, 1748. CURRAN, JOHN Philpot, a celebrated Irish barrister, of humble origin, was born near Cork in 1750; received his education at Trinity College, Dublin ; and, coming to London, studied the law in .the Temple. In course of time he was called to the bar ; and though at first he had to struggle with great difficulties, his brilliant talents, exerted in defence of various persons charged with po- litical offences, overcame all obstacles, and he quickly rose to forensic eminence. He became a member of the Irish House of Commons in 1784, and Avas a powerful mem- ber of the opposition until the "Whigs came into office, in 1806, Avhen he Avas made master of the rolls in Ireland. This office he held till 1814, and received a pension of £3000 on retiring, after Avhich period he generally resided in London. His oratorical powers were of the most splendid kind, his Avit, pathos, and Avithering sarcasm being alike irresistible ; and though mean in personal appearance, and not ahvays using his intel- lectual weapons Avith good taste, they en- abled him to support the character of a popular advocate and an effective debater. Died, 1817. CURRIE, JAMES, physician and littera- teur, born, 1756. He was a native of Scot- land, but settled as a medical man at Liver- pool, where he enjoyed an extensive practice. This did not, however, prevent him from devoting considerable time to literature; and he is favourably knoAvn as a professional writer by a paper “ On Tetanus and Con- vulsive Disorders,” and “Medical Reports,” &c. But his literary celebrity rests less upon his professional treatises than upon his ex- cellent edition of the AVorks of Robert Burns, published in 1800, to Avhich he prefixed a short biography, and which obtained him great and Avell-rnciited applause. Dr Currie Avas a felloAv of the Royal Society. Died, 1805. CURTIS, William, an eminent English botanist. He Avas a native of Alton, in Hampshire, and waS apprenticed to an apothecary in that place. But his love of botanical pursuits induced him to relinquish his profession to establish a botanical garden, and exhibit as a botanical lecturer. Besides his lectures, which were published Avith ex- pensive and handsome illustrative plates, he Avrote “ Practical Observations on the British Grasses,” “ Flora Londinensis,” an accurate and beautiful Avork ; a Botanical Magazine, &c. Died, 1790. CURTIUS RUFUS, QUINTUS, a Roman historian, who wrote the History of Alex- ander the Great in ten books, the first two of Avhich are lost. The exact period in which he flourished is not known ; for though his style Avould indicate that he lived in one of the best periods of the Latin language, no Avriter of any earlier date than the 12th cen- tury has made any mention of his work. CUSA, Nicolas de, an eminent cardinal, who took his name from the village of Cusa, 245 cus] ^ ^nibnsal ISiograpfjt). cyr in the diocese of Treves, where he was born. After some minor preferments in the church, he -was sent by Pope Eugenius IV. as legate to Constantinople, to endeavour to bring about a union between the Greek and liatin churches. He was made a cardinal by Pope Nicholas Y., who also gave him the see of Brixen, in the Tyrol. Besides metaphysical, theological, mathematical, and other trea- tises, wliich form three volumes folio, he wrote a very learned and powerful refutation of the Koran. Died, 1464. CUSSAY, M., the governor of Angers at the time Charles IX. ordered the massacre of St Bartholomew in 1572. He deserves a niche in every biogi’aphical work, for having refused to obey the king’s inhuman orders, in these memorable words: — “I will not stain 50 years of a spotless life by the most cowardly of assassinations.” CUSTINE, Adam Philippe, Count de, was born at Metz, in 1740 ; and having entered the army early in life, attracted the notice of Frederic of Prussia, under whom he served in the Seven Years’ War. He after- wards accepted a commission in one of the French regiments serving in the American war against the English ; and on returning to France was made governor of Toulon. In 1792 he had the command of the army of the Rhine ; but being suddenly summoned to Paris, the tyrants of the hour sent him to the guillotine, August, 1793, there to expiate the crime of non-success. CUTHBERT, St, bishop of Lindisfarne,, was born in Scotland. After becoming a monk and spending many years in a solitary island, hewas appointed bishop of Lindisfarne in the year 685. But he very soon retired, and died in his island on the coast of Nor- thumbria, 687. His remains lie in Durham cathedral, where he is commemorated by a sculptured figure of himself, holding the head of St Oswald in his right hand. Mira- cles were ascribed to him, and it Avas long customary to fight under his banner. CUVIER, George Leopold Chretien Frederic Dagobkrt, Baron, the gi-eat zoologist and comparative anatomist, was born at Montb^liard in 1769. He was care- fully educated by his mother ; studied a short time at Tubingen and then at the Military School of Stuttgard ; diligently pursued meanAvhile his favourite study of natural history ; and, in 1795, settled at Paris, where he enjoyed the friendship of Geoffroy St Hilaire, and was named professor at the cen- tral schools. His lectures, by their novelty of ideas and their brilliancy of expression, excited great interest and enthusiasm. He became assistant director of the Jardin des Plantes, and there began his lectures on comparative anatomy. In 1800 he succeeded Daubenton in the chair of natural history at the college of France ; was afterwards made perpetual secretary to the Academy of Sciences, and one of the inspectors-general of public schools. Napoleon chai'ged him with the neAV organization of the universi- ties in Italy, and made him councillor of state. Cuvier visited England in 1818 and 1830, and travelled also in Germany, Italy, and Holland. He Avas a member of the French Academy, and an officer of the Legion of Honour. Louis Philippe made him a peer of .France. The loss of his daughter, his only surviving child, on the eve of her marriage, in 1827, Avas a blow from Avhich he did not wholly recover. He opened his last course of lectures on the 8th May, 1832 ; spoke in a singularly impressive manner to a very numerous audience ; and in five days Avas dead. Among his principal Avorks are : “Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles des Q,uadrup6des,” the introduction to which was separately published as, “ Discours sur les Revolutions de la Surface du Globe;” “ Leejons d’Anatomie Comparde ; ” “ Le Regne Animal;” “ Histoire Naturelle des Poissons ; ” “ Eloges historiques des Mem- bres de I’Acaddmie des Sciences,” &c. He was a contributor to the “Biographie Uui- A'erselle,” “ Dictionnairedes Sciences Natur- elles,” and various scientific journals. CYPRIAN, St, Thascids Cecilies, bishop of Carthage and one of the fathers of the church. He was probably a native of Carthage, taught rhetoric there, and about 246, when nearly fifty years of age, Avas converted to the Christian faith. He Avas soon after chosen presbyter, adopted a rigidly ascetic manner of life, and Avas ap- pointed bishop of Carthage in 248. When the persecution under Decius fell upon the churches, Cyprian ran away and concealed himself nearly two years. He was then re- ceived as bishop again, but during the next persecution, under Valerianus, he W'as ar- rested and banished. After a year he Avas recalled, but as he refused to make the re- quired sacrifice to the gods, he Avas put to death, 258. Cyprian is distinguished for his exaggerated notion of the rights of bishops, and for his severe treatment of the “ lapsed.” His appointment was the occasion of a schism in the church of Carthage, in which his rival was Felicissimus, and Avhich Avas terminated by the aid of Cornelius, bishop of Rome. Cyprian also opposed the extrava- gant honours paid to martyrs and confessors. His works, consisting of letters and ser- mons, are of great importance for the insight they give into the beliefs, modes of thought, and practices of the early churches. They are written in a rhetorical style, resembling that of Tertullian, Avhom Cyprian studied and revered, and was accustomed to speak of as “ the master.” CYRIL, St, Patriarch of Alexandria, succeeded Theophilus in 412. He Avas a man of boundless ambition, arrogant, and head- strong, and displayed these qualities in the persecution of the Novatians ; in the expul- sion of the Jews from Alexandria; in his quarrel with Orestes, governor of the city ; his persecution of the accomplished Hypatia, head of the Platonist school of Alexandria, foIloAved by her brutal seizure and murder ; and in his long controversy Avith Nestorius. He got Nestorius condemned by Pope Ccles- tine and at the Council of Ephesus, in 431, was himself condemned at the Council of Antioch, and Avith his rival Avas imprisoned by the emperor Theodosius. His Avritings, mostly controversial, occupy 7 A'ols. folio. Died, 444. CYRIL, Rt, “Apostle of the Slaves,” was born of a family of senatorial rank at Thes- 246 cyk] % ^Kiubcrsal ^lograpi)^. [cze salonica. His first name was Constantine, and he acquired the designation of the Phi- losopher, He was sent to preach to the Chazavs, and converted the khan and the whole tribe. He afterwards preached to 1 the Bulgarians, founded a school at Euda, 1 and invented the Slavonic alphabet. Several works are attributed to him. Died at Home, 832. OYHUS, surnamed THE Elder, founder of the Persian monarchy, was son of Cam- byses, a Persian noble, and of Mandane, daughter of Astyagcs, king of Media, ilis story is more than half mythical, and it is impossible to separate fact from legend. The principal exploits attributed to him are the excitement of a revolt of the Persians and consequent defeat of Astyages and the Medes, when he became king, B. C. 559; the conquest of Lydia and capture of Croesus; the siege and capture of Babylon, in 538 ; and the invasion of Scythia, when he was defeated and slain by Tomyris, queen of the Massagetae, 529. He was interred at Pasar- gardae, and his tomb was visited by Alex- ander the Great. Xenophon’s “ Cyropaedia ” is an ideal picture of a good and wise ruler, not an actual history of Cyrus. CYRUS, surnamed the YOUNGER, was son of Darius II., king of Persia, and Pary- satis. In B. c. 407 he was made goveimor of the western provinces of Asia Minor. He was of ambitious temper, and was sentenced to death for plotting against his brother Artaxerxes on his accession to the throne, but was pardoned. Still determined to be king himself, he raised an army, including a large body of Greek mercenaries, crossed the Taurus, marched down the Euphrates, and at Cunaxa encountered the army of his bro- ther, when he was defeated and slain, B. c. 401. Xenophon, who had served as a volun- teer among the Greeks, conducted their re- treat, and wrote an account of the expedi- tion. CZACE.I, Thaddeus, Polish statesman and writer, was born in 17(15. He became one of the ministers of King Stani.slaus Augustus in 1783, and by his vast knowledge and practical sagacity rendered great and various services to his country. He took a prominent part in the Constitutional Diet, and on the partition of Poland his estates were confiscated. They were restored to him by the emperor Paul. In 1805 he be- came head of a new school at Krzemieniec, which rapidly grew in importance and popu- larity. His most important work is a trea- tise on the laws of Poland and Lithuania. Died, 1313. CZAHTORY'SKI, Prince AdA.m, Polish 1 i 1 i 1 1 statesman and member of one of the most distinguished families of Poland, was born at Dantzic in 1734. He was cousin of Stanis- laus Poniatowski, and contributed to his election to the throne. He took part in the Constitutional Diet, which met in 1788 ; was employed in several missions ; suffered much from the insurrection of 1794; was twice visited by the emperor Alexander ; and was marshal of the Diet convoked to establish the confederation of 1812. Died, 1823. CZARTORYSKI, Prince Adam, a very prominent actor in the Polish revolution of 1830, was born at Warsaw ih 1770. He pass- ed several of his early years in England, and studied at the university of Edinburgh. Returning to Poland, in 1793, he joined the forces of Kosciusko against the Russians, and after his failure was sent as a hostage into Russia. In 1805 he subscribed, in the name of Russia, the treaty with Great Britain, in his capacity of minister for foreign affairs. When the revolution of 1830 broke out, he devoted all his energies to the service of his country. As president of the provisional government, he summoned the Diet to meet in December, 1830, and in the folloAving month was placed at the head of the national government. He resigned his post after the terrible days of August 15 and 16, and served- as a common soldier during the last fruitless struggle. He was excluded from the amnesty of 1831, and his estates in Poland confiscated. His latter years Avere spent in Paris, Avhere he died, July 15, 1861, aged 90. CZERNI-GEORGE, Avhose real name was HENRI-GEORGE, was long supposed to be a native of Servia, but is noAv known to have been a Frenchman. He was born at Nanci, served in the army, passed over to the Austrian army during the revolutionary Avars, then became a leader of banditti in Servia, and at last raised himself to the rank of hospodar by the force of his natural talents, and a courage rarely equalled. With an ardent desire to liberate Servia from the Turks, he first raised a small troop, Avas suc- cessful in various encounters, and in 1800 made himself master of Belgrade. A long and arduous struggle folloAved ; and though for a time Czerni-George Avas the acknoAv- ledged prince of Servia, his despotism be- came intolerable, the nobles hated him as much as the Turks, and he was eventually compelled to retire to Russia, where he Avas received with distinction, and created a Russian prince. But he was still bent on repossessing Servia ; and having entered that territory, in 1817, he was taken prisoner and beheaded. _ j i 1 217 DAC] ISiograpl^i?. [dal D. DACIEE,, Andre, a French critic and class- ical commentator of some eminence, born, in 1651, at Castres, in Upper Languedoc. He was made perpetual secretary of the French Academy, and had the care of the cabinet of the liOuvre intrusted to him. He trans- lated Horace, Plato, Plutarch, Epictetus, &c., into French. Died, 1722. DACIEE,, ANNE LEFEVRE, wife of the preceding, was born, in 1651, at Saumur, at the university of which place Tannegui Le- fevre, her father, was a professor. Her love of classical literature was displayed at an early age ; and her proficiency was so great, that at the age of 22 she published an ad- mirable edition of “ Callimachus,” which was followed by various other editions of the classics. She subsequently translated Homer, Anacreon, Sappho, Terence, with some of the plays of Aristophanes, Plautus, &c. In 1683 she married M. Dacier, and soon after they both renounced the Protestant religion. Though her life was spent in constant literary labour, she was far from being os- tentatious of her eminent abilities. Died, 1720. DAGUEERE, M., w'hose name is asso- ciated with one of the most refined appli- cations of Science to the Arts, was born in 1790. From an early period he had been en- gaged in making chemical researches ; but the Daguerreotype process, with which his name is identified, was first made known in the autumn of 1839. The whole of Europe was astonished at the beauty and novelty of the pictures produced by his process; and the French Government granted him a pen- sion of 6000 francs for his discovery. Da- guerre was celebrated as a dioramic painter, and by ingenious contrivances he had suc- ceeded in producing many very extraor- dinary effects in his pictures. His system of opaque and transparent painting was pub- lished by the French Government along with the processes of the Daguerreotype. Died, 1852. D’AGUESSEAU, Henri FRANCOIS, chan- cellor of France, illustrious for his talent, scholarship, and integrity, was born at Limoges in 1668. He was received advocate in 1690; held the ofiice of advocate-general to the parliament of Paris, for six years ; rendered great services to his country dur- ing the embarrassments caused by war and famine in 1709 ; risked disgrace with Louis XIV. by his steady opposition to the famous bull TJnigenitus ; and was named chancellor in 1717. He opposed the foolish schemes of Law, for which the regent deprived and exiled him; but he was reinstated in 1720. Through the infiuence of Cardinal Dubois he was again exiled, and though recalled after five years, the seals were not restored to him till 1737. At the age of 82 he retired from oflSce with a pension of 100,000 francs. Died, 1751. His works, consisting of his speeches and pleadings, fill 13 vols. 4to. DAILLE, JEAN, a distinguished French Protestant divine, bom in 1594. He was tutor to the sons of Duplessis-Mornay, and with them visited Italy, where he made the acquaintance of Paul Sarpi. After his return to France, he held the office of pastor of the church of Charenton above 40 years. He wrote several important works,among which are the “Traite de I’Emploi des SS. Peres,” “Apologie des Eglises r^formees,” both which were translated into Latin and Eng- lish; “La Foi fondee sur les Saintes Ecri- tures,” &c. As a controversialist he was singularly impartial, and is esteemed even by Roman Catholics. Born, 1594; died, 1670. DALBERG, CARL THEODOR ANTON Maria, baron of the German empire, prince- primate of the confederation of the Rhine, grand-duke of Frankfort, and, finally, arch- bishop of Ratisbon, Avas born near \Vorms, in 1744. He ahvays espoused the new ideas to which the French revolution gave im- pulse; and though he opposed the invasion of Germany by the French in 1797, he assist- ed at the coronation of the emperor Napo- leon in 1804. Throughout life he was distin- guished for industry in the discharge of his official duties, and for an incorruptible love of justice; he was also the encourager of learning and science, and himself the author of several ingenious treatises, legal, scien- tific, and philosophical. In 1813 he resigned all his possessions as a sovereign prince, and retired to priA'^ate life, retaining only his ecclesiastical dignity. Died, 1817. D’ALBRET, CHARLOTTE, sister of Jean d’Albret, king of Navarre, and wife of Caesar Borgia. She was a poetess of no mean powers, and as remarkable for virtue as her husband was for vice. Died, 1514. D’ALBRET, Charles, constable of France in the reign of Charles VI., to whom he was related by blood. He commanded in the French army at the famous battle of Agincourt, in which he lost his life, 1415. D’ALBRET, Jeanne, queen of Navarre, was born in 1528. She was the daughter of Henri d'Albfet, married Antoine de Bour- bon, duke of Vendome, and became, in 1553, mother of Henry IV. She succeeded her father in 1555, and soon after became a Pro- testant. Being invited to Paris to treat of the marriage of her son with Margaret, sis- ter of Charles IX., she went there, and the treaty was signed, but she died suddenly, June, 1572, two months before the massacre of St BartholomcAV. DALE, Richard, an American naA'al officer, was born, in Virginia, in 1756; Avas sent to sea at 12 years of age, and at 19 had the command of a merchant-vessel, While serving as a midshipman on board of tlie American brig of war Lexington, he was taken by a British cutter; but, after being confined a twelvemonth in Mill prison, he effected his escape into France, Avhere he joined the celebrated Paul Joneo, then com- manding the American ship Bon Homme 248 dal] ^lubersal ISiocjrapf)^. dal] Richard, and was the first man that hoarded the English frigate Serapis, which was ca^D- tured. In 1801 he had the command of an American squadron, and hoisted his pendant t on hoard the President. He was a brave, honourable, and intelligent seaman. The adventures of his early days Avere of the most romantic and perilous kind ; hut his latter years Avere passed in the peaceful en- joyment of a competent estate at Philadel- phia, where he died, in 182G. DALE, David, a skilful mechanic, and the originator of the Avell-known Lanark Mills, Avas born, in 1739, at SteAvarton, in Ayrshire. Prom being a journeyman weaver he be- came a cotton manufacturer on a most ex- tensive seale, first in conjunction Avith Sir R. Arkwright, and afterwards on his own account. By his means employment was given to thousands, old and young ; nor did he leave the latter without the means of instruction, but provided teachers and estab- lished schools at all his works. Died, 1806. D’ALEMBERT, JEAN LE ROND, a cele- brated French mathematician and littera- teur, Avas born, at Paris, in 1717. He was found exposed on the steps of the church of St Jean le Rond, Avas brought up by the Avife of a glazier, and was discovered to be the son of Madame de Tencin, a noted wit and beauty, and of an oflicer of artillery. He studied at the College Mazarin, devoted him- self Avith enthusiasm to mathematics, and was admitted to the Academy of Sciences in 1741. With Diderot he established the famous “ Encyclop^die,” wrote the Prelim- inary Discourse, and edited the mathemati- cal portion of the Avork. He Avas the friend of Frederick II. of Prussia, who unsuccess- fully endeavoured to fix him at Berlin. Catherine of Russia pressed him to under- take the education of her son, but in vain. He loved privacy and independence, rather shunned society, and Avas indifferent to money and honours. Among his principal Avorks are ; “ Traits de Dynamique ; ” “ Traits des Fluides;” “ Recherches sur diff^rents Points iinportants du Systeme du Monde;” Recherches sur la Precession des Equinoxes;” “Memoire sur la Suppression des Jdsuites;” “ Memoires de Christine, Reine de Su6de,” &c. Died, 1783. DALHOUSIE, JAMES ANDREW BRODN Ramsay, tenth Earl and first Marquis of, born April 22, 1812, was elected M.P. for East Lothian in 1837, but in the following year, on the death of his father, took his place in the House of Lords. In 1843 he was appointed vice-president of the Board of Trade, and president in February, 1845, Having accepted the office of governor- general of India, he arrived at Calcutta in January, 1848. His policy during the first six years of his rule is minutely explained in the well-knoAvn minute which he drew up in 1856. His health gave way under his unceasing exertions, and the close of his so- journ in India was occupied with the mo- mentous questions involved in the deposi- tion of the king of Oude and the occupation and settlement of his kingdom. Lord ;Dal- housie’s policy in this matter has been severely criticised by some whose judgment Avas founded on long personal experience. and he returned to England not long before his successor had to encounter the great In- dian mutiny, Avhich has by some been attri- buted to the system of his predecessor. Lord Dalhousie never entirely recovered his strength, and died at the age of 48, Decem- ber 19, 1860. DALIN, Olaijs von, ealled the father of modern Swedish poetry, was the author of many spirited satires, songs, epigrams, and fables. He also Avrote “ The Argus,” a Avork on the plan of the Spectator ; “ A General History of SAveden ;” “ Brunhilda,” a tragedy, &c. He Avas born in 1708, and died, chancellor of the court of SAveden, in 1763. Queen Louisa Ulrica erected a mauso- leum to his memory. DALLAS, Sir GEORGE, lord chief justice of the Common Pleas, Avas born in London, 1758, educated principally at Geneva, and at the age of 18 he went to India as Avriter, where his talents soon raised him to high civil offices. He Avarmly espoused the cause of Warren Hastings when impeached, and in 1789 he Avrote a pamphlet, in which he at- tributed to him the British supremacy in India. In 1793 he published his “Thoughts upon our present Situation, with Remarks upon the Policy of a War with France,” Avhich created considerable sensation, and especially excited the admiration of Mr Pitt. He Avas also the author of various other po- litical works, relating more particularly to the state of Ireland ; besides some elaborate treatises on the subject of the East India trade and policy ; and, lastly, a “ Biographi- cal Memoir of his son-in-laAV, Captain Sir Peter Parker.” The Avorks of Sir George Dallas display a thorough knowledge of the subjects on which he treated. Died, Jan. 1833. DALLAWAY, JAMES, writer on art and antiquary, was a native of Bristol. He was born in 1763, studied at Oxford, and entered the church. In 1795 he visited Constanti- nople as chaplain to the embassy, and on his retum became secretary to the earl mar- shal, the duke of Norfolk. Among his works are a “History of AVestern Sussex,” “ Con- stantinople, Ancient and Modern,” “ Anec- dotes of the Arts in England,” &c. He also edited the Letters of Lady Mary AYortley Montague, Walpole’s “ Anecdotes of Paint- ings,” and other Avorks. He was a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, Died, 1834. DALRYMPLE, ALEXANDER, hydrogra- pher to the Admiralty and the East India Company, was born at New Hailes, near Edinburgh, in 1737, and spent the early part of his life in India, as a writer to the Com- pany. He made a voyage in the Eastern Archipelago for the purpose of studying I its geography and opening the way for ex- tended trade. On his return to England he prepared some charts and wrote numerous works, among which are “The Oriental Repertory,” Collections of A^’oyages, &c. He was named hydrographer to the East India Company in 1779, and to the Admiralty in 1795. He was also a fellow of the Royal Society. Died, 1808. DALRYMPLE, Sir DAVID, a Scotch judge and antiquary, Avas born at Edinburgh in 1726, and educated at Eton and Utrecht. On i 249 dal] n ^nibersal BSiograp!)^. [dam | his becoming a judge of the court of session, in 1766, he took the title of Lord Hailes. His principal works are “Annals of Scotland,” which Dr Johnson assisted in revising, “ Memorials relating to the History of Great Britain,” “llemainsof Christian Antiquity,” &c. Died, 1792. D A L R Y M P L E, JAMES and JOHN. [STAIR, Viscounts and Earls.] DALRYMPLE, Sir JOHN, for many years a baron of exchequer in Scotland, and the author of “ Memoirs of Great Britain and Ireland,” in 3 vols. Died, aged 84, in 1810. DALTON, JOHN, D.C.L.,‘'P.R.S., mathe- matician and natural philosopher, was born at Eaglesfield, near Cockermouth, in 1766, and gave early indications of his future scientific celebrity. We find him teaching a school as a boy in his native village, and at a subsequent period similarly engaged at Kendal ; and in 1793, when in his 23rd year, he became professor of mathematics and natural philosophy in the new college in Moseley Street, Manchester, with which he remained connected until the removal of that establishment to Y'ork. He made his first appearance as an author in a volume of “Meteorological Observations and Essays,” in 1793. In 1808 he published “ A New Sys- tem of Chemical Philosophy,” and a second and third part in 1810. He also frequently contributed to Nicholson’s Journal, the An- nals of Philosophy, and the Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Man- chester, of which for half a century he was an active member, and latterly the president. In 1826 he was presented with a gold medal by the Royal Society for his scientific dis- coveries ; and in 1833 the sum of £2000 was raised by his friends and tOAvnsmen for the erection of a statue (by Chantrey) to per- petuate his remembrance. His “ atomic theory ” must ever render his name memor- able. Contemporaneously with Gay-Lussac, with whose researches many of his own run parallel, he discovered the general law of the expansion of gases ; and his contributions to 1 meteorology were also of the most import- ant kind. A severe attack of paralysis in 1837 considerably impaired his powers, and he died in August, 1844. Dalton was a man of thorough independence of mind, thorough truthfulness, and almost childlike simplicity of life. He Avas a member of the Society of Friends, and a constant attendant at their meetings. His fellow-tOAvnsmcn shoAved their sense of his Avorth by giving him a magnificent funeral attended by an immense number of persons. ■ v'" DAMASUS I., Pope, succeeded Liberius in 366. A rival was also elected, and disgraceful disorders folloAved, the hostile parties going the length of fighting and killing each other in the city, and even in the churches of Rome. Damasus Avas a man of considerable learn- ing, and his judgment was sought on many important matters then in dispute. On one occasion the eastern churches referred a question to him. St Jerome Avas at ri,ome during the last years of the pontificate of Damasus. Died. 384 DAMIANl, Pietro, Cardinal, bishop of Ostia, born at Ravenna about 988. I.eft an orphan, he was brought up by one of his bro- thers and sent to study at Faenza and Parma. He made rapid progress,and became a teacher himself, but his strong religious feeling led him to retire to a monastic life, and in 1041 he became abbot of Font-Avellana. He ren- dered important service to several popes, and was created cardinal, against his will, in 1057. His influence Avas very poAverful,and he induced Benedict X., who Avas irregularly elected pope, to resign in favour of Nicholas II. He was sent as legate to Milan to con- demn the simoniacal practices then causing much agitation; supported Alexander II. against the emperor ; and then retired, re- signing his dignities. He Avas, however, several times drawn from his cell and sent on important missions to France, to Ger- many, and finally to Ravenna, to re-estab- lish order after the excommunication of the archbishop. The fatigue of this mission was too much for his diminished strength, and he died at Faenza soon after his return, in 1072. His Works consist of Biographies of Saints, Sermons, and Letters. DAMIENS, Robert FRAN 901 S, who, ow- ing to his vicious inclinations, obtained the appellation of Hobert-le-diable, Avas born in 1715, at Tieulloy, a village of Artois. While at Paris, in a menial employment, he was accused of having poisoned one of his mas- ters and robbed another ; and having evaded the laAV by flight, he in course of time re- turned, to practise ncAv enormities. His mind was impressed and irritated by the dis- putes then going on between the church and the parliament of Paris. "With some vague notion that a change for the better might be effected by attacking the king, in Janu- ary, 1757, he stabbed Louis XY. in the midst of his guards, as he Avas getting into his car- riage. The wound Avas not mortal, and Damiens Avas instantly seized ; but the most cruel tortures which he Avas doomed to suffer could not induce him to confess that he had any accomplices ; and the horrid sentence, Avhich condemned him, like Ravaillac, to be torn in pieces by horses, was executed, March 28, 1757. DAMOCLES, a sycophant at the court of Dionysius of Syracuse in the 4th century B. c. When he Avas one day extolling the happy condition of princes, the tyrant in- vited him to a sumptuous entertainment, but caused a naked sword to be suspended over his head by a single hair ; a suflBcientlj’^ significant symbol of the fear in Avhich ty- rants may live. DAMON, a Pythagorean philosopher, memorable for his friendship with Pythias. Dionysius of Syracuse having condemned the latter to death, he obtained leave of absence to go borne and settle his affairs, Damon pledging himself to endure the punishment in his stead if he did not return at the ap- pointed time. Damon Avas punctual ; and this instance of friendship so pleased the king, that he pardoned Damon, and begged, but in vain, to be admitted to their friend- ship. DAMPTER, "William, an English navi- gator, was born at East Coker, Somerset- shire, in 1652, and became a mariner at an early age. During many years of active ser- vice in privateers and trading vessels, he 250 dan] ^ ^anibtrsal IBiograpl)!). [d’an several times visited the South Seas; and the results of his observations were given to the public in a work entitled “Voyage round the World,” which for accuracy and interest, as well as for professional know- ledge, possesses considerable merit. He died, as is supposed, in 1712, but the exact time is not known. DANBY, Francis, a distinguished paint- er, was a native of Wexford. He was born in 1793, and after attaining some reputation at Dublin, he settled in England about 1820. He was elected A.R.A. five years later. His works are mostly landscapes, imaginatively treated, and often invested with the hues of sunset. Their general character may be gathered from their titles : “ Sunset at Sea, after a Storm,” “Last Moment of Sunset,” “ Ship on Fire — calm moonlight — far at Sea,” “The Minute-Gun at Sea,” &c. Among his best works are “ Morning at Rhodes,” “ De- livery of Israel out of Egypt,” and “ Embark- ation of Cleopatra on the Cydnus.” Died, in Devonshire, 1861. DANBY, THOMAS OSBORNE, Earl of, and duke of Leeds, lord-treasurer under Charles II., was born about 1631. His father was a zealous royalist, and introduced him at court at an early age. He was knighted by Charles II., created Viscount Latimer in 1673, and in the following year was appointed lord-trea- surer, and created earl of Danby. It was by his advice that Charles persecuted the Non- conformists. He was suspected of bribery, and an impeachment was proposed by Lord AVilliam Russell, but was not carried out. In 1678 he was impeached by the Commons, and though pardoned by the king, w'as com- mitted to the Tower, and was only released in 1684. He joined in the invitation to the prince of Orange, in 1688, was named pre- sident of the Council in the following year, and was created marquis of Carmarthen, and ir. 1693 duke of Leeds. Died, 1712. DANCE, George, the elder, an English architect of the 18th century, who held the post of architect to the city of London. His chief work is the Mansion House, which was built about 1740. Died, 1768. DANCE, George, the younger, architect, was the son of the preceding, and was born in 1740. In 1768 he succeeded to the office of city architect, and two years later com- menced his first and probably his most meritorious work, the famous Newgate pri- son. He was professor of architecture at the Royal Academy, but did not lecture. Dance built St Luke’s Hospital, and the British Institution in Pall Mall. Died, 182.5. DAiSTCER, DANIEL, a noted miser, was born in 1716, near Harrow, in Middlesex. In 1736 he succeeded to his family estate, and led the life of a hermit for above half a century. His only dealings Avith mankind arose from the sale of his hay ; and he was seldom seen, except Avhen he was out gather- ing logs of Avood from the common, &c. As he was frequently robbed, he nailed up his (door, and by means of a ladder, Avhich he drcAv up after him, got into his house through the upper window. This miserable specimen of humanity continued to exist till 1794, when he died, bequeathing his estates to Lady Tempest, for the charitable attentions she had bestOAved upon him. DANCKERTS, the name of a family of Dutch artists, of Avhom CORNELlirs, born in 1561, appears to liaA’e been the first of any note. He excelled as a portrait and historical engraver. — P eter, son of Corne- lius, was born at Amsterdam, in 1600. He Avas also a good engraver, and his prints after Berghem and AA^ouvermans are es- teemed. His sons, Henry and John, prac- tised the same art, and the latter came to England and worked with Hollar. DANCOURT, Florent CARTON , a French actor and dramatic poet, Avas born in 1661, at Fontainebleau, and was originally a bar- rister, but quitted the laAv for the stage. He produced an immense number of plays, and was particularly successful in introducing actual occurrences, which gave to his comic pieces great piquancy. Died, 1726. DANDOLO, HENRICO, a celebrated doge of A^enice, to Avhich high office he Avas chosen in 1192, when in his 84th year. He carried on the Avar Avith the Pisans, and closed it by an advantageous peace. In 1201 the crusaders applied to him for assistance, and on their promise to reduce the town of Zara which had revolted, he agreed to help them. He accordingly undertook Avith them, in 1203, the siege of Constantinople, at Avhich he greatly distinguished himself, and Avas the first Avho leaped on shore. It is said that Dandolo had the offer of the imperial croAvn and refused it. He Avas created despot of Romania, and died in 1205, aged 97. DANDOLO, ATNCENZO, aA’enetian chem- ist, descended from the famous doge and captor of Constantinople, Avas born in 1758. At all times zealous for the independence of Italy, he became a member of the council of the Cisalpine republic, after the treaty of Cair.po Formio. He died in 1819. Among his Avorks are “Fondamenti della Scienza Fisico-Chemica,” &c. D’AN GH I ERA, PIETRO MARTIRE. [MARTYR, PETER.] D’ANGOULEME, MARIE THERESE Charlotte, Duchess, the unfortunate daughter of Louis XAH. and Marie Antoi- nette, was born at A'ersailles, in 1778. She shared the Imprisonment of her kindred in the Temple ; but three years after the murder of her pai*ents, and after she had heard of the cruel death of her brother, she was released from prison, in exchange for some members of the Convention Avho had been prisoners in Austria. Immedi- ately upon her release, she proceeded to Vienna; but there, where the name of Frenchman was hated, she encountered persecution again ; and she quitted the em- peror’s court to take shelter Avith the exiled Count de Provence, who had found a tern-* porary home at Mittau. Here she married her cousin, the duke of Angouleme, to Avhom she had been betrothed early in life, and for whose sake she had refused a promising alliance at the Austrian court. Mittau, however, proved no resting-place. The emperor of Russia, ftifluenced by Na- poleon, ordered the Avanderers forth. At Konigsberg they received permission from the king of Prussia to take up their abode 251 dan] ^ 33{o9rapi)|). [dan in Warsaw under painful conditions. But Warsaw soon repented of its meagre hospi tality, and the outcasts were soon travelling again towards Mittau, Meanwhile Alex ander, by the peace of Tilsit, having become an ally of Napoleon, the word was once more given to go forth. In August, 1808, the travellers touched the English shore, and re- mained lender protection until the banish ment of Buonaparte to Elba opened the road to France and to the throne. The first care of the duchess on her*return was to recover the remains of her parents thrown into a dishonoured grave ; but the burial Avas scarcely over before Buonaparte escaped from Elba. The duchess, being at Bordeaux at the time, rallied the troops there, and heroically undertook to lead them against Napoleon, who, remembering her heroism Avhen she defied the artillery of Clauzel, was wont to call her “ the only man of the family.” Eleven months the devoted woman had been in France when she quitted it sorrowfully again; but the Hundred Days over and Waterloo accomplished, the second restoration took place, and she at once re- turned. But even in prosperity, calamity qualified her lot. ' Her brother-in-law, the Due de Berri, was murdered at the Opera, on the 13th of February, 1820, and in 1824 she lost her fellow-exile, Louis XVIII. Six years afterwards the folly of Charles X. transferred the throne to his cousin Louis Philippe ; and during the storm that pre- ceded the change the duchess w^as forced to travel disguised through the streets in a public vehicle, whose merciful and generous owner contrived to save her from discovery and its too probable consequences. Quitting France with Charles X., she set sail for England, visited Scotland, and for a time sojourned in the palace of Holyrood. Soon afterwards she accompanied her uncle to Prague. In 1836 they established themselves at Goritz, where Charles X. found his tran- quil resting-place, and where, shortly after- wards, the remains of her faithful husband were deposited. When residing with her nephew at Frohsdorf she heard of the new French revolution of 1848, which deprived Louis Philippe of his crown. On the 13th of October, 1851, whilst present at the ce- lebration of mass, between nine and ten o’clock in the morning, the duchess fainted away. On the following day she became worse ; on the 16th, the anniversary of her mother’s execution, she uttered a feeble farewell to the duke of Bordeaux, and never again spoke. Her Avill had been previously made. She prayed to God, in that docu- ment, to shower down his blessings upon France; she pardoned with her entire soul, and without exception, all who had injured and offended her ; and she desired to be laid in the grave between her husband and his father, without ceremony or so- lemn service. Died, 1851. Her Memoirs have been published by Mi’s Homer, un- der the expressive title of “ Filia Doloro- sa.” DANICIAN, Andre. [PHILIDOR.] DANIEL, GABRIEL, a Fiench Jesuit; author of a “ History of France,” and a “ Voyage to the World of Descartes,” a ! severe satire on the system of that philoso- pher, Born, 1649; died, 1728. DANIEL, Samuel, an English poet and historian, born in Somersetshire, in 1562. He appears to have studied at Oxford, be- came tutor to Lady Anne Clifford, and was afterwards in the service of Anne, queen of James I. It is uncertain Avhether he suc- ceeded Spenser as poet-laureate. He wrote a poem on the Wars of the Roses ; “ Cleopa- tra,” a tragedy; “Musophilus ; ” “ The Com- plaint of Rosamond,” and other shorter poems, and also a History of England, doAvn to the death of Edward III. His works are little read, but deserve to be well knoivn. Coleridge calls him “the admirable Daniel,” and commends the purity and manliness of his style and language. Many passages of great sweetness and tenderness occur in his poems. Died in his native county in 1619. DANIELI, Francisco, an Italian sa- vant and antiquary, born in 1741. In the Neapolitan revolution of 1799, he joined the French republican party ; and on the restoration of the king of Naples suffered the loss of his post in the Academy, and the confiscation of his property. Joseph Buonaparte made him perpetual secretary of the Academy of Antiquities at Naples, and in this post he was continued by Murat. He died in 1812. Among his Avorks are “ Le Forche Caudine Illustrate,” “Monete An- tiche di Capua,” “I Regali Sepolcri del Duomo di Palermo,” &c. DANIELL, JOHN FREDERICK, D.C.L,, professor of chemistry in King’s College, London, and foreign secretary to the Royal Society ; author of “ Meteorological Essays,” an “ Introduction to Chemical Philosophy,” &c., besides numerous papers in the Quar- terly Jouxmal of Science and Art, and the Philosophical Transactions, was born in London, in 1790. As a proof of the estima- tion in Avhich his scientific attainments Avere held, it is only necessary to state that he obtained all the three medals in the gift of the Royal Society, an honour never be- fore conferred on any one. While attending a meeting of the council of the R. S., March 14, 1845, he Avas seized Avith apoplexy, and immediately expired. In his official capacity he Avas zealous and indefatigable ; in his private character, irreproachable. DANIELL, Samuel, an artist, Avho tra- velled into the interior of Africa, made nu- merous drawings there, and on his return published a Avork entitled “ African Scenery and Animals.” He also spent six years in the island of Ceylon, Avhere he died in 1811. He left an extensive collection of draAvings, chiefly illustrative of the natural history of the island ; and a volume Avas published, entitled “ The Scenery, Animals, and Native Inhabitants of Ceylon.” DANIELL, AVilliam, R.A., an emi- nent draughtsman, born i769, accompanied his uncle to India, Avhen he Avas only 14, for the purpose of assisting in depicting the scenery, costume, &c., of that country. Immediately on their return, the large work, entitled “ Oriental Scenery,” in si.x folio volumes, was commenced, and con- tinued with the most persevering ardour, until its completion in 1808. lie also pub- 252 dan] 91 ^niljnsal 1Siograpf;n. [dan lished “A Picturesque Yoyage to India,” a work entitled “ Zoography,” and a great variety of separate views, &c. In 1814, he commenced the “ Voyage round Great Britain.” Two or three months in each summer were devoted to collecting draw- ings and notes, and the work was finished in 1825. In 1832 Mr Daniell, and his friend Mr Parris, executed the “ Panorama of Madras ; ” and he subsequently painted two others, without assistance, namely, the “City of LucknoAV,” and the “Mode of Hunting w'ild Elephants in Ceylon.” He was particularly successful in depicting the ocean ; and his glowing representations of Eastern scenery are well known by his splendid “ Oriental Annual.” Died, 1837. DANNECKER, JOHANN HEINRICH, one of the gi’eatest of modern sculptors, was born at Stuttgard, in 1758. He early gave indications of a talent for art ; and after passing some years in the school of design at Ludwigsburg, he set out for Paris in 1783, where he studied under Pajou, and sub- sequently spent five years at Rome, in the study of the masterpieces of art that adorn that city. The rest of his life was spent chiefly at Stuttgard. Among his finest works are the “ Christ,” “ Faith,” “Ariadne on the Leopard,” «S:c. His female figures have rarely been surpassed ; and his busts of Schiller, Lavater, Gluck, and many of the members of the royal family of AVurtem- berg, are models of artistic skill. Died, professor of sculpture at Stuttgard, 1841. DANTE ALIGHIERI, the great poet of Italy, was born at Florence in May, 1265. He was of a noble family then attached to the party of the Guelphs, showed at an early age a strong passion for learning, and is said to have studied at the universities of Bologna and Padua. It is conjectured also that he visited Paris, and possibly Oxford. AVhen about ten years of age he first saw, in the house of her father, Foleo Portinari, the Beatrice whose beauty and goodness inspired him with a passion of admiring love which became one of the most potent elements of his inner life, and the source of some of the sub- limest and sweetest conceptions of his great poem. Beatrice died in 1290; and she then became to him a glorified ideal of wisdom and purity. A year after her death he mar- ried Gemma de’ Donati, whose family was of the party of the Ghibellines, and who made his life a burden by her savage temper. Dante served in the Florentine army at the battle of Campaldino, and soon after in the war vfith the Pisans, in 1300 he was chosen first prior, or chief magistrate of Florence, and from that period began his misfortunes and wanderings. The Guelphs w^ere then split into two factions, known as the Bianchi and the Neri ; and Dante, on suspicion of favouring the Bianchi, was sentenced to exile, and his estates were confiscated. He was then at Rome, and thenceforth had to take refuge at various courts that favoured the Ghibelline party, which he joined. In 1304 he made, with other exiles, an un- successful attempt to enter Florence by force of arms. After many w^anderings he found an asylum at Ravenna, with Guido Novello da Polenta, and there he died, in 1321. Florence and all Italy then knew and mourned their loss. A splendid monument was erected to him at Ravenna, copies of his works were multiplied, professorships insti- tuted for expounding them, and voluminous commentaries wu’ittcn. The Florentines tried to get the remains of their banished poet restored to them, but in vain. His bones were removed by Father Antonio Santi, chancellor of the Franciscans, in 1677, on the repair of his monument by Cardinal Corsi. The cotfin was rediscovered in 1865. Dante’s great poem is entitled the “ Divine Comedy,” and in the form of a vision sets forth the mysteries of the invisible world, of Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise. It is the first great work of modern European literature, and stands alone as a creation of genius ; “a mystic unfathomable Song;” greatest always to the greatest. It has passed through innumerable editions, and been translated over and over again into all European lan- guages. Of English translations Cary’s, in blank verse, and Dr Carlyle’s, in prose, are much esteemed. But several new transla- tions in various metresliave appeared in the last few years. Among them are Wright’s, ^lossetti’s, and Mrs Ramsay's. In 1861 ap- peared at Paris a magnificent edition of the “Inferno,” Italian text and French transla- tion, with illustrations by Gustave Dor4, 2 vols. folio. The illustrations have been since reproduced in an English edition, 1 vol. folio. Dante’s other works are the “ A’ita Nuova,” lately translated by Theo- dore Martin ; the “ Convito,” or Banquet ; treatises in Latin, “de Monarchia,” and “de Yulgari Eloquio,” and many smaller poems, or “ Rime.” Dante Avas the friend of most of the eminent men his contemporaries; among them, Giotto, whose portrait of him Avas discovered in 1840. Aquinas, Roger Bacon, Marco Polo, Cimabue, and Duns Scotus died, and Petrarch and Boccacio "^ere born, in Dante’s lifetime. The Sex- centenary of Dante’s birth was celebrated at Florence and other Italian cities with much ceremony. DANTON, GEORGE JACQUES, born in 1759, was an advocate by profession, but became one of the mo^t active among the demagogues of the French revolution. After the imprisonment of Louis XYI. at Varennes, he took the lead in the meeting of the Champ de Mars, which paved the Avay to the de- thronement of the king, and ended in those scenes of blood and cruelty that have for ever rendered execrable the name of Jacobin. Well qualified for the position he assumed, by his colossal figure, stentorian voice, and fierce demeanour, he' became one of the executive council, and prepared measures for the defence of the capital Avhen it was threatened by the Prussian inyaders under the duke of Brunswick. He was afterwards a member of the Convention and of the Com- mittee of Public Safety, and was a chief promoter of all the sanguinary acts of that terrible period. At length a struggle for su- premacy took place betAveen him and Robes- pierre, in which the latter succeeded, and i Danton was sent to the guillotine, in 1794. D’ANVILLE, Jean Baptiste Bour- ouiGNON, first geographer to the king of 253 d’ak] 91 ^nibtrsal 13iograpI;t). [dar France, member of the Academy of Inscrip- tions and Belles Lettres, of the Antiquarian Society of London, and adjoint-geographer to the Parisian Academy of Sciences; born at Paris, 1697; died, 1782. D’Anville devoted his whole life to geographical studies, and the numerous valuable maps and works he published left him without a rival. Among the best of his works are the “ Analyse G6ographique de I’ltalie,” “Notice de I’An- cienne Gaul,” “ Memoire sur I’Egypte An- cienne et Moderne,” “ Traite des Mesures Itineraires Anciennes et Modernes,” “ Orbis Veteribus Notus,” and “ Orbis Komanus.” He published 78 treatises and 211 maps, all of which are distinguished for their accuracy and perspicuity. D’AllBLAY, Madame (FRANCES Burnby), was the daughter of l)r Burney, the cele- brated historian of music, and may be reckoned among the most distinguished novelists of the last century; her first work, “Evelina,” having created a great sensa- tion among the literati of her time. Her other chief works were “Cecilia, or the Memoirs of an Fleircss,” “Camilla, or a Picture of Youth,” “ The Wanderer, or Female DiflSculties,” and “Memoirs of Hr Burney.” In 1793 she was married to M. d’Arblay, a French emigrant artillery officer ; and having quitted England for a short re- sidence at Paris during the peace of 1802, their detention by Napoleon was the con- sequence. Her husband afterwards resumed his rank in the army of his native country ; and they continued to remain in France till the peace of 1814, when they came to Eng- land, and took up their residence at Bath. In that city M. d’Arblay (then a general) ■ died, in 1818. There also died Madame d’Arblay, Jan. 6, 1840. Her “ Diary and Letters,” published shortly after her death, attained considerable popularity, and is still interesting for its detailed and curious pic- tures of such phases of English life as the authoress was familar with. HAllCET, Jean, a French chemist and physician, who contributed much to the pro- gress of chemical science, was born, in 1725, at Douazit, in Guienne. He made several improvements in the manufacture of porce- lain, tried the effect of fire on various mine- rals, and demonstrated the combustibility of the diamond. During the Beign of Terror his name was in Robespierre’s list ; but the in- terest of his friend Fourcroy saved him ; and he died in 1801, a member of the Institute and of the Convei’sative Senate. — His son, Jean Pierre Joseph, also an ingenious practical chemist, greatly contributed to the improvement of science by a number of valuable discoveries. DARCY, Patrick, Count, an eminent en- gineer, Avas born at Galway, in Ireland, in 1725, and educated at Paris. He entered the French army, and rose to the rank of major- general. He distinguished himself by his mathematical works, viz., “ An Essay on Artillery,” “ A Memoir on the Duration of the Sensation of Sight,” &c. Died, 1779. D’ARGENSOLA, LUPERCIO LEONARDO, a Spanish poet, born at Balbastro, Arragon, jin 1565, was secretary of war at Naples, j under the viceroy there. He tvas the author of three ti'agedies and various poems. Died) 1613. D’APi,GENSOLA, BARTOLOMEO, brother of the preceding, was chaplain to the empress Maria of Austria, and the Avriter of some historical works of merit, viz., a “ History of the Conquest of the Molucca Islands,” “ Annals of the Kingdom of Arragon,” &c. Died, 1631. D’ARGENSON, MARC RENE LE YOYER, Marquis, a distinguished statesman in the reign of Louis XIV. born at Venice, 1652 ; died, 1721. He Avas lieutenant-general of the police in Paris, and the first who intro- duced lettres -de- cachet : he Avas subse- quently chancellor ; but finally retired under some disgrace to a monastery, in which he died. D’ARGENVILLE, ANTOINE JOSEPH DE- ZALI.IER, French naturalist and litterateur, Avas born in 1680, at Paris, in Avhich city his father was a bookseller. He was one of the members of the French Academy, en- gaged in the compilation of the Encyclo- pedie, and Avas a corresponding associate of most of the European literary societies. He Avas author of treatises on “ Oryctology ” and “ Conchology,” and of an “ Abreg6 de la Vie des plus Fameux Peintres.” He died, 1766. DARIUS I., king of Persia, was the son of Hystaspes. He entered into a conspiracy, with six others, against the usurper Smerdis, and having slain him, they agreed that he should have the croAvn Avhose horse should neigh first in the morning. By a well-con- certed plan of his groom, the horse of Darius neighed immediately he came to the spot where they were to meet, in consequence of Avhich he was saluted king. He took Babylon after a siege of tAA'enty months, gave pex*- mission for t’^ rebuilding of the temple of Jerusalem, a»J sent the captive Jcavs to their own country. The revolt of the Greek cities in Ionia Avas the occasion of the famous Persian Avar. The army of Darius, under the command of Mardonius, invaded Greece, but accomplished nothing. A second invasion was undertaken, and the Persians were defeated by the Greeks at Marathon ; on Avhich he resolved to carry on the Avar in person, but died in the midst of his prepara- tion, B. C. 485. DARIUS III., CODOMANNUS, last king of Persia, was raised to the throne by the eu- nuch Bagoas after the murder of Arses, B. c. 336. Two years later his dominions were in- vaded by Alexander the Great, who defeated the Persian army at the Granicus ; in the fol- lowing year won a great victory over Darius himself at Issus, and took his family prison- ers ; and finally defeated him at the battle of Arbela (Gaugamela) in 331. Darius fled through Media into the Parthian Avilds, Avhere he was seized and murdered by Bes- sus, satrap of Bactria. His remains Avere treated with all honour by Alexander, and buried with his predecessors at Persepolis. DARNLEY, HENRY, Earl of, the husband of Mary, queen of Scots, Avhose hand he ob- tained in 1565, and perished about two years afterwards, OAving to the house in Avhich he resided being blown up with gunpoAvder. Whether Mary Avas privy to this horrid DAPv] 91 ^nibursal 13iograp!jp. [dau crime, or not, has not been clearly proved ; but there is little reason to doubt that her illicit passion for Both well, or resentment for the death of her favourite, Rizzio, might impel her if not to instigate, at least to be an accomplice in the crime. DARU, PIERRE Antoine Noel Bruno, peer of France, eminent as a statesman, poet, and historian, was born at Montpellier, in 1767. At the age of sixteen he entered the army, and at the breaking out of the revolu- tion adopted its principles; but though en- gaged in active service, he devoted much of his time to literary pursuits. He first pub- lished a translation of the works of Horace, which, with his “ Cl^opedie,” or Theory of Literary Reputations, established his reputa- tion as a poet. It was not long before Napole- on discovered his abilities, and rewarded him by various official appointments of trust, in which Daru conducted himself with zeal and ability ; and at the time of the first restora- tion of the Bourbons he held the portfolio of the war department. Though his estate at Meulan was sequestrated by Bliicher, the allied monarchs soon restored it, and he was called to the Chamber of Peers by Louis XVIII. He afterwards wrote the “Vie de Sully ” and the “ Histoire de la R^publique de Venise,” the latter being one of the most important of modern historical works. Count Daru was a member of the Institute, of the French Academy, the Academy of Sciences, and the Berlin Academy. Died, 1829. DARWIN, Erasmus, a poet and phy- sician, was born at Elton, near Newark, in 1731. He was educated at Cambridge, took his doctor’s degree at Edinburgh, and settled at Lichfield as a physician till 1781, when he removed to Derby, where he died in 1802. He was a man of great talent, but of remark- ably eccentric opinions, as his works abun- dantly prove. His poetic fame rests upon his “ Botanic Garden,” the versification of which is highly polished but mechanical, and his work entitled “ Zoonomia, or the Laws of Organic Life,” which, though in- genious, is built upon the most absurd hypothesis. He also wrote “Phytologia, or the Philosophy of Agriculture and Garden- ing,” several papers in the Philosophical Transactions, &c. DASHKO W, Ekaterina Romanowa, a Russian princess, lady of honour to Catherine II., was born in 1744. She took a leading part in the revolution of 1762, by which Peter III. was deposed and Catherine placed on the throne. Some years later, on the death of her husband, to whom she had been married about 1759, she travelled through the principal countries of Europe, and gained the friendship of many dis- tinguished men. On her return to Russia, in 1782, she was appointed president of the Academy of Arts and Sciences at St Peters- burg. She suggested the founding of the Russian Academy, projected and assisted in compiling a Russian Dictionary, and em- ployed herself in other literary pursuits in conjunction with the empress. She was deprived of her offices by the Emperor Paul, and spent the rest of her life in retirement. Died, 1810. DASSIER. Jean, a French medallist, Avho engraved a great number of medals of emi- nent men of the age of Louis XIV. Died, 1763. DASSIER, JACOB Antoine, son of the preceding, w as also a medallist, and engraved numerous medals of illustrious men, in a very superior style of workmanship, preserv- ing'the likenesses with Avonderful correct- ness. He was for some time actively em- ployed in the mint of England, but w ent to St Petersburg, and died at Copenhagen, while on his return to London, in 1759. DAUBENTON, LOUIS JEAN MARIE, a French naturalist and anatomist, was born at Montbar, Burgundy, in 1716. He Avas the friend and coadjutor of Buffon in his Natur- al History of Quadrupeds, the anatomical articles of Avhich Avere prepared by him Avith great clearness and accuracy. He held for 50 years the office of keeper of the Cabinet of Natural History at Paris, and Avas for some time professor of mineralogy at the Museum of Natural History. He Avas author of “ Instructions to Shepherds,” “ A Method- ical VicAV of Minerals,” and other Avorks ; and at the time of his death, in 1800, Avas a member of the Senate and the Institute. His wife Avas the author of a popular novel called “ Zelie dans le Desert.” She died in 1824. D’AUBIGNE, THEOEORE AgRIPEA, French historian, Avas born at St Maury in Saintonge, in 1550. He was Avell educated, and displayed extraordinary capacity of learning at an early age. His father Avas a zealous Huguenot, and the son remained incorruptibly faithful to the Huguenot cause. He took part in the ciA'il Avar, and entered the service of the king of Navarre (Henry IV.), but his independence and free- dom of speech led to his expulsion from court; and though recalled, he Avas a second time exiled. In retirement at Maillezais, of which he was made governor, in 1588, he wrote his “ Histoire de son Temps,” a valu- able, vivid, and truthful record, w’hich “ had the honour to” be burnt by the par- liament of Paris. He spent the last 10 years of his life at Geneva, and Avrote many other works, both in verse and prose. Died, 1630. D’Aubign6 was grandfather to Madame de Maintenon. D’ALfBUSSON, Pierre, grand-master of the order of St John of Jerusalem, Avas born in 1423. He Avas of French origin, served in the armies of the Emperor Sigismund against the Turks, Avent to Rhodes, and be- came a knight of St John, and in 1476 was chosen grand-master. He is celebrated for his heroic and successful defence of Rhodes against the Turks, in 1480. He afterwards protected Zizim,oneof the sons of Mahomet ll., but Avas compelledto give him up to the Pope Innocent VHI. The grand-master Avas then made a cardinal. Gidef at the failure of his projected crusade against the Turks hastened his end. Died, 1503. D’Au- busson was surnamed “ buckler of the church.” DAUDIN, FranijoiS MARIE, French naturalist, was born at Paris, in 1774. Lameness from natural infirmity and narrow means made his life a painful struggle. He 255 DAu] % Stnib^rsal 13iograpf)T). [dav found solace in his chosen studies and labours, in which he had the sympathy and aid of his wife. His best work is tlie “ His- toire Naturelle des Keptilcs,” at the time of its appearance the most complete work on that subject. He contributed memoirs to various scientific journals. Died, in 1804, having lost his wife a few days before. DAUN, LEOPOLD JOSEPH MARIA, Count von, Austrian field-marshal, was born at Vienna, in 1705. He first served against the Turks under Seckendorf, became cham- berlain to the Emperor Charles VI., took part under Archduke Charles in the invasion of Alsace, and at the peace was made field- marshal and privy councillor. In 1757 he gained the victory of Kolin over Erederick the Great, soon after took Breslau, and in October, 1758, defeated Frederick again at Hochkirch, for which rich gifts and flatter- ing words were sent him from the Empress Maria Theresa, the pope, the empress of Russia, and the states of Austria. But he was out-generalled at last, and thoroughly defeated by Frederick, and wounded, at the battle of Torgau, in November, 1759. Daun was afterwards president of the Aulic Council, and died in 1766. His excessive caution in military movements procured him the designation of the new Fabius Cunc- tator. DAUNOXJ, Pierre Claude Franqois, French statesman and litterateur, was born at Boulogne, in 1761. In 1789 he was pro- fessor of theology at Montmorency. He was a deputy to the National Convention, a member of the Committee of Public Safety, and of the Council of Five Hundred. He op- posed the measures of the first consul, and removed from the tribunate. In 1804 he was made keeper-general of the archives, a post which he filled till 1816. He sub- sequently held the chair of history at the College of France, and was a member of the Chamber of Deputies. In 1839 he was raised to the peerage. Among his numerous works are : “ Eloge de Boileau,” “ Essai Historique sur la Puissance Temporelle des Papes,” “ Cours d’Histoire fait au College de France,” &c. Died, 1840. DAVENANT, Sir WILLIAM, an English poet, was born at Oxford, in 1605, and there educated. After having been in the service of the duchess of Richmond and Lord Brooke, he began to write for the stage ; and upon the death of Ben Jonson,he was created poet- laureate. Dui’ing the civil wars he fought for the king, was made a lieutenant-general, and received the honour of knighthood. On the decline of the royal cause he went to France, and formed a design for carrying over a number of artificers to Virginia ; but his ship was taken by a vessel belonging to the parliament, and brought to England, where an ignominious death would have awaited him, had it not been for the inter- cession of Milton ; an act of kindness which he afterwards returned. On the restoration of Charles II., he obtained a patent for a theatre in Lincoln’s Inn Fields. He died in 1668, and was interred in Westminster Abbey. His works consist of plays and poems, which are now forgotten. It was Sir William Davenant who took part with Dryden in making an improved (!) version of Shakspeare’s “ Tempest ” for the stage, which version was adopted and held its ground till our own time. It is worth while to add that John Davenant, the father of Sir William, was host of the Crown Inn, Oxford, and that Shakspeare used to lodge there on his journeys between Stratford and London. DAVID I., king of Scotland, succeeded his brother, Alexander the Fierce, in 1124. He married Maud, grand-niece of William the Conqueror ; and was earl of Northumberland and Huntingdon when called to the Scottish throne. On the death of Henry I., king of England, he maintained the claim of his daughter Maud against King Stephen, and seized Carlisle, but was defeated at the battle of Northallerton in 1138. A negotiation was entered into the following year, by which Carlisle was suffered to remain in the pos- session of David. He died there in 1153. DAVID II. (Bruce), king of Scotland, was the son and successor of Robert Bruce, at whose death, in 1328, he was only five years old. On the invasion of Scotland by Baliol, David was sent to France ; but his party prevailed, after a bloody contest, and he returned home in 1342. He made several inroads on England, but was taken prisoner at the battle of NoaTI’s Cross, 1346, conveyed to the Tower, and did not recover his liberty till 1357, on paying a heavy ransom. Died, 1371. DAVID, FranEM] ^ ^nii)^rsal 13iograpf)i). [den vigour of expression, and language at once strong and melodious, he surpassed all his T^T*Prl DEMOSTHENES, an Athenian general, 1 vv^ho commanded several expeditions during the Peloponnesian war. His most famous exploit was the fortification and defence of Pylos, B. C. 425. He assisted Cleon in the attack on the Spartans in Sphacteria. In 413 he commanded the reinforcements sent to Nicias in Sicily ; planned the night at- tack on EpipolJB ; but was defeated and afterwards put to death by the Syracusans. DEMOUSTIER, CHARLES ALBERT, a French dramatist, descended by the father’s side from Racine, and by the mother’s from La Fontaine. He was born in 1760, and died in 1801. Among his M^orks are “ Le Siege de Cyth^re,” a poem, and many successful comedies. DEMPSTER, Thomas, a learned Scotch writer, was born in 1579, and studied at Cam- bridge, from whence he removed to Paris. He led a very restless life, teaching in suc- cession at Paris, Toulouse, Nismes, and Pisa, and died at Bologna in 1625. He Avrote several works, the most important of which are his “ Etruria Regalis,” not published till 1723 ; and his “ Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Scotorum.” The latter was republished in 1828. DENHAM, Lieut-col. DixoN, an enter- prising traveller and intrepid soldier, was born in 1786, and entered the army as a volunteer in 1811, serving with honour in the Peninsular war, where he obtained a lieu- tenancy. In 1821 he was chosen to proceed to Central Africa, in company with Captain Clapperton and Dr Oudney, for the purpose of exploring those regions ; his courage, per- severance, address, and conciliatory manners peculiarly fitting him for such an under- taking. On his return to England, in 1824, he published a “ Narrative ” of his travels. In 1826 he was sent to Sierra Leone as super- intendent of the liberated Africans, and in 1828 was appointed lieutenant-governor of the colony ; soon after which he was seized with a fever, which quickly proved fatal. DENHAM, Sir JOHN, an English poet, was born in 1615, at Dublin, where his father was chief baron of the exchequer, but after- wards became a judge in England. In 1641 appeared his tragedy of “ The Sophy,” and soon after he was made governor of Fareham Castle for the king. In 1643 he published his “ Cooper’s Hill.” He attended Charles II. in his exile, and was sent by him ambas- sador to Poland. At the restoration he Avas knighted and appointed surveyor-general of the royal buildings. Died, 1668. DENINA, CARLO GIOVANNI MARTA, an Italian historian, was born in 1731, at Re- vello, in Piedmont. For many years he was professor of rhetoric atTurin, and ultimately became librarian to Napoleon. His principal works are “ History of the Revolutions of Italy,” “ The Revolutions of Germany,” “ The Progress of Literature,” &c. He died at Paris, in 1813. DENMAN, Thomas, Right Hon. Lord, the son of Dr Thomas Denman, a physician of some eminence in the metropolis, Avas born in London in 1779. At an early age he was 1 sent to Palgrave School,nearDis8,in Norfolk, which was then under the management of Mr and Mrs Barbauld. He completed his educa- tion at St John’s College, Cambridge, where he obtained the degree of M.A. In 1806 he was called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn, and engaged in the active pursuit of the laAv. He entered parliament for the borough of Ware- ham at the general election of 1818, and at once took his seat Avith the Whig opposition. In the follOAving year he Avas elected for Not- tingham, for which place he continued to sit, until his promotion to the bench in 1832. His first speech in parliament was in favour of certain reforms in the laAV, but it A\'as not until 1820 that the extraordinary occasion of the queen’s trial called forth all his en- ergy, and placed him in a more conspicuous position before the country. When Queen Caroline formed the determination of com- ing to this country upon the accession of her husband to the tlirone, Mr Brougham at once accepted the office of her Majesty’s attorney-general, while that of solicitor- general was filled by Mr Denman. The part taken by Mr Denman in that memorable trial gave the public a high idea of his courage and uprightness, and contributed in no slight degree to its successful result. Mr Denman was appointed to the office of com- mon sergeant by the corporation of London in 1822, probably as a mark of their sym- pathy for the legal defenders of the queen, in Avhose affairs Alderman Wood had taken so active a part. It was not until 1828, Avhen Lord Lyndhurst first held the great seal, that the kingAvas induced to grant the patent of precedence to which Mr Denham had long been entitled. In 1830, upon the formation of Lord Grey’s government. Sir Thomas Denman Avas raised to the post of attorney-general, Avhich he held during the debates on the Reform Bill. In 1832, how- ever, upon the death of Lord Tenterden, he was appointed to the chief-justiceship of the court of Queen’s Bench, Avhich lie held till 1850, having been raised to the peerage in 1834. While not reckoned very eminent in the technical scholarship of his profes- sion, and possessed perhaps of too much fervour of temperament for strictly judicial functions, his abilities, industry, and con- scientiousness made him respected, Avhile the dignity and grace Avhich so remarkably adorned both mind and demeanour made him beloved. As a politician, his life from his youth upAvards was beyond impeach- ment, and almost beyond parallel, for purity, courage, and consistency. Died, 1854. DENMAN, Dr Thomas, an eminent phy- sician and medical Avriter, Avas born at Bake- Avell, Derbyshire, in 1733. He first served in the navy as a surgeon, and having obtained much experience, on quitting it he com- menced practice in London, Avliere he at- tained great professional celebrity. In 1770 he commenced giving lectures on the obste- tric art, and was appointed licentiate in midAvifery of the College of Physicians in 1783. He wrote an “ Essay on Puerperal Fever,” an “ Introduction to the Practice of Midwifery,” and “ Aphorisms ” for the tiso of junior practitioners. His son was the 264 den] il^cfco ^niij^rsal ISiograpfjt)* [deq distinguished chief justice of the court of Queen’s Eench. Died, 1815. DENNIS, JOHN, dramatist and critic, was born in London, in 1657, studied at Cam- hi’idge, and devoted himself to literature. Throughout life he was almost perpetually in broils with one or other of the wits of the age; and Pope, in return for his animadver- sions, gave him a conspicuous place in the Dunciad. He originally had a considerable fortune ; but having dissipated it, the duke of Marlborough obtained for him the place of land- waiter at the Custom House ; this he mortgaged, and his latter days were spent in poverty, aggravated by blindness. Died, 1734. DENON, DOMiNiauE ViVANT, Baron, was born, in 1747, at Chalons-sur-Saone, in Burgundy. Though originally destined for the law, he was appointed to the office of “ gentilhomme ordinaire ” about the person of Louis XV. He afterwards resided several years in Italy, as secretary of embassy, during which period he applied himself sedulously to the study of the arts. He was so fortunate as to pass through the Reign of Terror with- out incurring the displeasure of the ephe- meral rulers; and having attracted the no- tice of Buonaparte, he accompanied him to Egypt in 1798, alternately wielding the pen, the pencil, and the sword. On returning to Paris he was appointed director-general of the museums, and had the superintendence of the medallic mint, and all works of art executed in honour of the French victories. After the abdication of the emperor he re- tained his ofldce, but was deprived of it in 1815, in consequence of having joined him on his return from Elba. He was a man of great and varied talents ; and his able work, entitled “ Travels in Upper and Lower Egypt during the Campaign of General Buona- parte,” has gained him an imperishable fame. His “ Monuments of the Arts of De- sign,” left unfinished at his death, was pub- lished in 1829. Died at Paris, 1825. D’EON, the Chevalier. Eon he Beau- mont, Charles Genevieve Louise au- GHSTE H’, was born at Tonnerre, in 1728, and known until 1777 as the Chevalier B'Eori. He was equerry to Louis XV., chevalier, doc- tor of law, parliamentary advocate, military officer, ambassador, royal censor, &c. ; oc- cupying, in short, during his eventful life, the most varied stations with consummate skill, and involving his sex and real charac- ter in unparalleled mystery. Sent as envoy on a difficult mission to the Russian court, his insinuating manners gained him the fa- vour of the Empress Elizabeth, and for five years he was the medium of a secret cor- respondence between her and the king of France. In consequenee of these services, he was made captain of dragoons, and received a pension of 2400 livres. He returned to France in 1758, and subsequently distin- guished himself in the military service. After the conclusion of peace, he went to London as secretary of legation, under the duke of Nivernois, and obtained possession of some important papers. On the return of the duke, he remained as resident, and afterwards as minister plenipotentiary, but was finally dismissed from his employment. and lived 14 years at London in a kind of exile. During this period, suspicions arose as to his sex. which led to several extraor- dinary Wagers. In July, 1777, a curious trial took place before Lord Chief-justice Mansfield, on an action bi’ought against Mr Jaques, a broker, who had received several premiums of 15 guineas, to return 100, when- ever it should be proved that the chevalier was a M'oman. By the evidence of Louis Legoux and M. de Morande this fact was sup- posed to be so well established, that Hayes, the plaintiff, obtained a verdict, but it Avas afterwards set aside on the ground of the illegality of the Avager. D’Eon after this put on female attire, and returned to France ; but on the commencement of the revolution, Avhich deprived him of his pension, he re- turned to England. Being redueed to poverty, he supported himself for some time by giving lessons in fencing, and by publicly exhibit- ing his skill in that art in the principal towns in the kingdom. When age had en- feebled him, and the notoriety of his charac- ter had abated, he depended in a great mea- sure for sustenance on the aid of his friends. Among these was Elisee, first surgeon of Louis XVIII., who kindly assisted him till hi.3 death, in London, in 1810, and attended the dissection of his body. The account of this Avitness, with other undeniable evi- dence, leaves it beyond doubt that D’Eoii was of the male sex. What the reasons were that could induce the chevalier, who Avas undoubtedly a brave soldier and an able diplomatist, to assume female attire, and to join in the deception Avhen there Avas no ap- parent reason for it, remain undiscovered; but they were probably of a political nature, and might have been suggested by the policy of the French court to attain some particular object. That D’Eon Avas a man of talent is sufficiently evident by his Avorks, Avhich appeared under the title of “ Loisirs du Che- valier D’Eon,” in 13 vols. 8vo. DEPPING, George Bernard, historical and miscellaneous Avriter, AA^as born at Mun- ster, in 1784. About the age of 20, he settled at Paris, and spent his life in the pursuits of literature. Among his Avorks are “ Histoire de la Normandie,” “Histoire du Commerce entre le Levant et I’Europe,” “ Les Juifs dans le Moyen Age,” &c. Died, 1853. DE QUINCEY, THOMAS, born in 1785, was educated at the Manchester Grammar School and the University of Oxford. In early youth he became an opium-eater, and by this habit ruined his fortune and impaired an intellect Avhich Avould, in all probability, have secured for him a more solid and envi- able reputation than that which he has achieved by desultory contributions to pe- riodical literature. He became the friend of Coleridge, Wordsworth, and Southey, and after leaving Oxford lived for many years at the Lakes. From straitened circum- stances he began, Avhen about forty years of age, to contribute to the “London Maga- zine ” his “ Confessions of an Opium-eater,” a Avork remarkable for exuberant although ill-regulated imagination, and still more so for an excessive self-contemplation and mi- nute analysis of his own mental condition and feelings, — characteristics clearly trace- 265 der] ^ SJniiJcrsal ISiograpijp. [des able to the habit in ■which he indulged. He continued thenceforth to work at a great variety of subjects ; and although his pecu- liar habits of thought may deprive them of any wide and general interest, to those who can relish his original thought, his genuine wit, and his musically wild discourse, his remains will seem a real addition to the per- manent treasures of our literature In 1832 he went to Scotland, and there lived, not only admired but esteemed by the few who were admitted to his society, till his death, which took place at Edinburgh, December 8, 1859; There is a new complete edition of his works in 15 vols. 8vo, DERBY, JAMES STANLEY, Earl of, a gal- lant English nobleman, Avho in the action at "VVigan, in Lancashire, with 600 horse bravely withstood a body of 3000 horse and foot, commanded by Colonel Lilburne. He was taken prisoner at the battle of 'Worces- ter, and beheaded, in violation of a promise of quarter which had been given him, in 1651. DERHAM, 'William, divine and natural philosopher, was born in Worcestershire, in 1657. He studied at Oxford, and became rector of Upminster, in Essex. He was ap- pointed Boyle lecturer in 1711 and 1712, was subsequently canon of Windsor, and E.R.S. His principal works are entitled “ Physico- Theology ” and “Astro-Theology,” and are attempts to prove the existence, power, and wisdom of God from his works. Derham also wrote “ The Artificial Clockmaker,” and a great number of memoirs contributed to the “ Philosophical Transactions.” Died, 1735. DERMODY", Thomas, poet, was the son of a schoolmaster, and born at Ennis, Ire- land, in 1775. He obtained through Eai’l Moira a commission in the army ; but so con- firmed were his habits of intemperance, that he died, a victim to disease, in 1802. His poems, which were written under the pres- sure of necessity, and often in great haste, possess considerable merit. DERRICK, Samuel, a native of Ireland, who, on the death of Beau Nash, was ap- pointed master of the ceremonies at Bath and Tunbridge “Wells. On coming to Lon- don he attempted the stage ; but being un- successful as an actor, he had recourse to his pen. He wrote several books of little value. Born, 1724 ; died, 1769. DERSCHAWIN, or DERZHAVINE, Gabriel Romanovich, a Russian poet and statesman, was born at Casan, in 1743. In 1760 he entered the army as a common soldier, but soon distinguished himself; and, after a military service of 24 years, entered the civil service, in which he arrived at the important situations of treasurer of the em- pire and minister of justice. He holds a high place among the poets of his country. Died, 1819. DERYCK, or DERICK, PETER CORNE- LIUS, a painter of Delft, born in 1568, and died in 1630. He excelled in landscape and portrait painting. DESAGULIERS, JEAN THEOPHILE, an ingenious natural philosopher, was born in 1683 at Rochelle, and educated at Oxford, where he succeeded Dr Keil as a lecturer in experimental philosophy. He published a “Course of Experimental Philosophy,” &c. He was a useful member of the Royal So- ciety, and contributed several papers to their Transactions. Died, 1719. DESAIX DE VOYGOUX, LOUIS CHARLES Antoine, a French general, was burn in 1768. In the early part of the revolution he became aide-de-camp to General Yictor de Broglie ; and aided greatly, by his talents, the famous retreat of Moreau. In the battle of Rastadt he commanded the left wing, and forced the Archduke Charles to retire. He afterwards defended the fort of Kehl for 6 months with great bravery, and was wound- ed. He accompanied Buonaparte to Egypt in 1798, Avas appointed governor of the upper part of the country, and signed the treaty of El-Arish, with the Turks and English. He was killed at the battle of Marengo, to which victory he greatly contributed, June 14,1800. DESCARTES, Rene, a celebrated French philosopher. Avas born at La Haye, in Tou- raine, in 1596, and received his education at the Jesuits College at La FRche. On leav- ing that seminary he removed to Paris, and applied to the study of mathematics. In 1616 he entered into the army of the prince of Orange ; and, Avhile serving in the garri- son at Breda, solved a difiicult mathematical problem which had been posted in the public streets. This introduced him to the ac- quaintance of the learned Beckmann, the principal of the college of Dort. While at Breda, he wrote, in Latin, a treatise on music, and projected some other Avorks. He next served in the army of the duke of Bavaria, but soon after quitted the military life that he might give himself AA’^holly up to science and philosophy. He visited the principal countries of Europe, and in 1629 settled at Amsterdam ; removing, hoAvever, to other towns of Holland in succession, the better to insure privacy. During the twenty years thus spent he published his various works, obtaining immense reputation as a philosopher, and at the same time encounter- ing violent opposition, especially from the side of theology. Rome and Geneva Avere at one in persecuting the new thinker. His AVorks were condemned, he Avas prohibited from public teaching, and his life Avas scarce- ly safe. At the invitation of Christina, queen of Sweden, he went to Stockholm, Avhere he died in 1650. His principal works are “ Principia Philosophire,” “ Discours de la Mdthode pour bieii conduire la Raison et chercher la Y6rit6 dans les Sciences,” &c. The philosophy of Descartes forms one of the great landmarks in the history of free thought. It gave the death-blow to schol- asticism, raised a stout opposition to the merely experimental method, and infused a new life and vigour into the sphere of thought and specxilative research. Descartes, starting from doubt, finds the first certainty in self-consciousness: Coijito. On this he attempts to found and build up a system ca- pable of demonstration. His system, as ve- hemently opposed by some as it has been eagerly embraced by others, has formed tlic starting-point for most of the systems that have subsequently appeared. DESCHAMPS, DOM, a French philosopher 266 ijoEs] ^ Biul^crsal ISiograpI)),). [des of the 18th century, was horn at Rennes, 1.0 January, 1716. He entered the Benedic- tine order’, became purveyor of the convent of Montreuil-Bellay, near Sauinur, and died there, 19th April, 1774. He was the corre- spondent of Voltaire, Rousseau, D’Alembert, and other philosophers of his time, and wrote an Essay against the “ Systeme de la Nature ” of Baron d’Holbach, and some Let- ters on the Spirit of the Age, published at London, in 1769. But his name soon fell into oblivion, and only after three-quarters of a century has been brought to light, in con- nection with a startling literary discovery. It is now ascertained (1865) that Dom Des- champs was the axithor of a treatise entitled “La Y4rit4, ou le Yrai Systeme,” which has remained in manuscript in the public library of Poitiers since the year 1817, when it was acquired from the heirs of Dom Mazet, first keeper of the library after the revolution. In tliis treatise is contained a system of phi- losophy in almost all respects identical with the system of Hegel, anticipating all the leading ideas and principles and deductions and distinctions supposed to have been first developed by Hegel. A short analysis of this remarkable work has just been published under the title of “ Antecedents de I’liegeii- anisrae dans la Philosophie Prau^aise,” by Professor Beaussire of Poitiers. DESEZE, RAYMOND, or ROMAIN, a native of Bourdeaux, and an able counsellor of the parliament of that city, was born in 1750. He afterwards practised at Paris, and his acknowledged talents caused him to be named one of the counsel for the unfor- tunate Louis XYI., whose cause he most ably defended, after Target had declined the dangerous task. He was imprisoned for a time, but escaped the scaffold; and on reco- vering his liberty, he was never induced to serve the Directory, the Consulate, or the Imperial Government. On the return of the Bourbons he received, as the only survivor of the three selected by Louis for his coun- sel, the grateful notice of Louis XVIII. for his devotedness to his royal and unfortunate predecessor. He held several distinguished offices ; was a peer of Fi’ance, a knight of the order of Malta, a member of the French Academy, and president of the Court of Ap- peal. Died, 1828. DESGODETS, ANTOINE, a French archi- tect, was born in Paris, in 1653. On his pas- sage to Rom.e, in 1674, he was taken by the Algerines, and kept in slavery 16 months. On being exchanged he repaired to Rome, where he composed a work, entitled “The Ancient Edifices of Rome ; ” and, on his return to Paris, he was made comptroller of the royal buildings, and architect to the king. Died, 1728. DESHOULIERES, ANTOINETTE DU Ll- GIER, a handsome, witty, and accomplished Frenchwoman, and a writer of much versa- tility, Avas born at Paris, in 1634 ; married a gentleman of family, and Avas introduced at the court of Louis XIY. in 1657, Avhere she attracted much attention, and lived on terms of friendship Avith the principal literati of the age. She produced numerous plays and operas, few of vA’liich Avere successful ; but her “ Idyls ” are still admired. She died, I after 12 years of suffering, of a cancer in her breast, in 1694, DESIDERIUS, or DIDIER, the last king of Lombardy, Avas duke of Istria, and suc- ceeded Astolphus in 756. His daughters Avere married to the two sons of Pepin, king of France, Carloman and Charlemagne. The latter soon repudiated his Avife, and, at the request of Pope Adrian, invaded Italy in 773, dethroned Desiderius, and sent him to end his days in the monastery of Corbie. DESMOULINS, CAMILLE, one of the leaders in the French revolution, was born at Guise, in Picardy, in 1762. He was a fel- low-student with Robespierre at the college of Louis le Grand, became an advocate at Paris, and distinguished himself as an en- thusiastic political reformer. He had a stutter in his speech, Avhich, however, some- times disappeared in his passionate addresses to the people. On the 12th July, 1789, he made a very exciting harangue on the dis- missal of Necker, and bade the people arm. This Avas the beginning of the revolt, AA’hich in two days became “ Siege of the Bastille.” Camille assumed the grotesque title of “attorney-general of the lamp-iron,” and published, among other things, “Les Revo- lutions de France et de Brabant.” He took part in the attack on the Tuileries, on the 10th August, 1792. As deputy to the Con- vention, he co-operated Avith his school- friend, Robespierre, and promoted the fall of the Girondists. He Avould fain have checked the excesses of the revolution, and made the attempt Avith Danton and others. For the same purpose he published his “ Yieux Cor- delier ; ” but Robespierre gave him up to the revolutionary tribunal, and they sent him to the Conciergerie, and thence to the guil- lotine, 5th April, 1794. His young and noble Avife, Lucile, hovered about the prison, made vain attempts to save him, and in a feAV days followed him to the scaffold. DESPAR D, EDWARD MARCUS, an officer in the British army, was a native of Queen’s County, in Ireland. At the close of the American Avar he served in the 'VVest Indies, where he distinguished himself by an expe- dition on the Spanish main. For his services there he Avas made lieutenant-colonel, and in 1784 appointed superintendent of the Eng- lish affairs at Honduras ; but his conduct giving offence to the settlers, complaints Avere sent home against him, and he was suspended. He applied to government for an investigation of his conduct, Avhich AA^as rejected, as Avere also his claims. Tliis na- turally irritated him ; and conceiving that he was at least entitled to a fair hearing, he became a violent democrat, and for his in- flammatory conduct Avas imprisoned. No- thing being proved against him, he was liber- ated. In 1802 he headed a conspiracy to murder the king ; and it Avas determined to make the attack when his Majesty went to the parliament house. The plot being dis- covered, the colonel and seA'eral others Avere taken up, and brought to trial by a special commission, Feb. 5, 1803; Avhen the charge being proved, Despard and seven others Avere found guilty, and executed. DESSALiNES, JACQUES, origimally a slave in St Domingo, but having an oppor- 2C7 DEs] SJniiDersal ^iograpf;i}. [dib tunity of showing great courage and talents during the disturbances in that colony, be- came second in command to Tovissaint Lou- verture ; on whose imprisonment he was chosen emperor of Hayti, under the title of ./acques I. This was in 1804; but he re- tained his imperial dignity only two years, having perished the victim of a conspiracy, provoked by his intolerable cruelties, in 1806. DESTOUCHES, PHILIPPE NeRICAULT, an eminent French dramatic writer, was born at Tours in 1680, Being sent to Lon- don, in 1717, to assist in the political nego- tiations then carrying on, he continued there seven years, and married. On his return to France he retired into the country, where he devoted himself to agriculture and the belles lettres. His principal pieces are “ Le Phi- losophe Mari6 ” and “ Le Glorieux.” Died, 1754. D’ESTRfiES, GABRIELLE. [GABHI- ELLE D’ESTHEES.] DEVEREUX, ROBERT. [ESSEX, Earl of.] DEVONSHIRE, Duke of. [CAVENDISH, William.] DEVONSHIRE, GEORGIANA CAVEN- DISH, Duchess of, remarkable for personal graces and mental accomplishments, was the eldest daughter of Earl Spencer ; born in 1757, and married to the duke of Devon- shire in her 17th year. Her “Passage of Mount St Gothard ” bears the impress of a highly cultivated mind. She also had some skill in musical composition, and a taste for the fine arts. Died, 1806. D’EWES, Sir SIMONDS, antiquary, was born in 1602, and educated at Cambridge, entered parliament in 1640, and was created a baronet in 1641 ; but on the breaking out of the civil war he espoused the Puritan cause, and died in 1650. He was the author of “ The Journals of all the Parliaments dur- ing the Reign of Queen Elizabeth ” His “Autobiography and Correspondence,” first published in 1845, is a curious and interest- ing record. DE WINT, PETER, a distinguished artist, whose numerous drawings formed for forty years an attractive feature in the exhibitions of the Old Society of Painters in Water Colours, was born at Stone, in Staffordshire, where his father practised as a physician, 1783. English landscape scenery formed the chief theme for his fertile pencil ; and his free and masterly handling of his subjects was only equalled by their truthfulness to nature. Died, 1849. DE WITT, JOHN, a distinguished Dutch statesman, was born in 1625, at Dort, in Holland. At the age of 23 he published a mathematical work, entitled “ The Elements of Curved Lines.” In 1650 he was chosen pensionary of his native city ; and, after distinguishing himself in public affairs, Avas elected pensionary of Holland, In that capacity he concluded a peace with Crom- well, one article of which excluded the House of Orange from the stadtholdership. In 1665 war broke out between the Dutch and English, in w'hich the French after- Avards joined the former, and in 1667 De Witt sent the fleet under De Ruyter Avhich sailed up the Thames. The peace of Breda was concluded the same year. De Witt about the same time procured the passing of the perpetual edict for abolishing the office of stadtholder, for Avhich he received public thanks. However, in 1672, Avhen Holland was invaded by the French, and civil dis- sension overspread the country, both John de Witt and his brother Cornelius w'ere bar- barously murdered by the populace, and the stadtholdership was re-established. Wil- liam, Prince of Orange (aftei’Avards Willkun III. of England), was then called to that post. DIANA of POITIERS was born in 1499, and married Louis de Breze, Count of Mau- levrier, at the age of 13. She lost her husband in 1531, and subsequently became mistress to Henry, duke of Orleans, after- wards Henry II. At court she Avas.the rival of the duchess of Etampes, and the hatred of the two for each other gave rise to disgrace- ful scenes. On the accession of Henry to the throne her influence became paramount, and the great changes then made in the court and in the ministry, the cruel persecutions of the Huguenots, and the train of ills that marked the Avhole reign, are by some attri- buted to her influence. In 1548 the king gave her the duchy of Valentinois, and she took the title of duchess. She retained her beauty and her poAver over the king till his death, retired then to the chateau of Anet, and died there in 1566. DIAZ, Bartolomeo, a Portuguese naAu- gator, who, in 1486, Avith tAvo small vessels, discovered the Cape of Good Hope, Avhich he named the Cape of Tempests. The king, however, changed it to its present name. In 1497 Diaz accompanied Vasco de Gama on his expedition of discovery, and subse- quently set out Avith Cabral for the Indies. He perished by shipAvreck in May, 1500. DIAZ, Juan, was a native of Cuenza, in Spain. He studied at Paris, Avhere he read the works of Luther, and became a Protest- ant. He then quitted France, and visited Calvin at Geneva ; aftei’Avards he Avent to Strasburg, and lastly to Neuberg, Avhither he Avas folloAAmd by his brother Alfonso, a zealous Catholic. Alfonso finding his ex- hortations could not reclaim him, pretended to close his visit and take his departure, but secretly returned at break of day, Avith a companion, and murdered him with an axe. The assassins were pursued and taken ; but as they Avere about to be brought to trial, Charles V. took the affair into his OAvn hands, and left the murderer unpunished. This horrid deed Avas perpetrated in 1546. The miserable fratricide aftei’Avards hanged him- self. DIBDIN, Charles, dramatist, poet, and actor, but mostly celebi'ated as a Avritcr of songs and a musical composer, was born at Soutbampton, in 1745. He Avas intended for the church, and received his early education at Winchester; but, seduced by his love of music, and relinquishing all thoughts of the. clerical profession, he first became a candi- date for the situation of organist at a village church in Hampshire, and then took up his abode in London. He made his first appear- ance as a pel former, in 1762, at the Rich- mond theatre, and tAvo years afterAvards appeared on the London boards, ns lialph, 268 i i>ib] ^ iUctu SJnib^rsal 1Bicigrapl)t)» [dig 1 in the Maid of the Mill; but he nevei’ shone as an actor. He invented a new kind of monodramatic entertainment, consisting of music, songs, and recitations, of which he was the sole author and performer. His sea songs are still popular ; some, indeed, are of a very superior character. For a while Dibdiii enjoyed a pension of £200 a-year from government, but lost it by a change of the ministry ; and so improvident had he been, that in the closing years of his life he would have sutfered extreme indigence, had not an annuity been purchased for him by public subscription. Altogether he produced about 1400 songs and 30 dramatic pieces; be- sides which he wrote “ A History of the Stage,” his “ Professional Life,” “A Musical Tour,” three novels, &c. He died in 1814. DIBDIN, Thomas, dramatic author and song writer, Avas the eldest son of the above, whose “naval songs” he was engaged in editing at the time of his death. He had Garrick for his godfather; and in 1775, when only four years of age, he appeared on the stage as Cupid, in Shakespeare’s “ Jubilee,” to the Venus of Mrs Siddons. At 16 he was apprenticed to an upholsterer ; but born and bred to “ the profession,” after a few years he quitted the shop, and sought his fortune on the boards of provincial theatres. From that time until 1795 he is said to have per- formed in every department of the drama, and written more than 1000 songs. He after- wards obtained an engagement at Covent Garden Theatre ; and numerous were the operas, farces, and entertainments Avhich were produced by his ijiventive genius, dur- ing half a century. From among them Ave may select “The Cabinet,” “The English Fleet,” “Mother Goose” (which yielded more than £20,000 profit to the managers of Covent Garden Theatre), “ The High-mettled llacer ” (a clear gain to the proprietors of Astley’s of £13,000), “ The Jcav and Doctor,” “ Past Ten o’Clock,” «S:c. But the latter days of his long and active life Avere un- cheered by the result of his previous labours. Died, Sept. 1841. DIBDIN, THOMAS FROGNALL, D.D., nephew of the celebrated Charles Dibdin, and himself the most zealous bibliographer, and one of the most voluminous writers of his time, Avas born at Calcutta, 1775, and after receiving his education under the care of an uncle at Reading, matriculated at Oxford, as a commoner of St John’s College, where his taste for literature and history com- menced. The laAv being his destination, he became a pupil of Mr Basil Montagu ; but he subsequently changed his views, and after waiting some time for a degree, he Avas ordained a clergyman in 1804. His early pi-eferments consisting chiefly of preacherships or lectureships in the metro- polis, he was enabled to prosecute his fa- vourite studies with equal zeal and satisfac- tion ; and for nearly thirty years the press may be said to have teemed Avith the Avorks that emanated from his fertile and versatile pern. A bare list of these would inconveni- ently croAvd our columns ; but Ave must make room for the “Bibliomania,” which Avas published in 1809, and at once estab- lished the author’s fame in this peculiar de- partment; the “Bibliographical Decamer- on,” published in 1817 ; a “ Bibliographical, Antiquarian, and Picturesque Tour,” the result of a continental sojourn, in 1818 ; “ Reminiscences of a Literary Idfe,” in 1836 ; a “ Northern Tour,” in 1838, besides Auxrious sermons and innumerable other works on literary, bibliographical, and kindred topics. Dr Dibdin was one of the founders of the Roxburghe Club, founded in 1812. In 1823 he obtained, through Earl Spencer, whose friendship he enjoyed through life, and in Avhose magnificent library he could at ease pursue his favourite studies, the vicarage of Exning, near NeAvmarket ; and in 1824 he Avas presented to the rectory of St Mary’s, Bryanstoue Square, which he held till his death, Nov. 18, 1847. DICK, Major-general Sir Robert Henry, was the son of Dr Dick, of Tullimet in Perthshire. He entered the army as an ensign in the 75th foot, in 1800 ; and in 1804 obtained a company in the 78th. He ac- companied the expedition to Sicily, and Avas Avounded at the battle of Maida ; joined Abercromby , and Avas present at the battle of Alexandria, and was severely Avounded at Rosetta. In 1808 he Avas appointed to the 42nd Highlanders ; accompanied the 2nd bat- talion to the Peninsula, and commanded a light battalion at Busaco and Ciudad Rodri- go, and the 1st battalion of the 42nd at the storming of Fort St Michael, and during the siege of Burgos, &c. He served in the campaign of 1815, and Avas severely Avounded at Quatre Bras while commanding the 42nd. On the restoration of peace he retired to his paternal estate at Tullimet ; but his Avife dying in 1830, retirement had no longer any charms for him, and he again sought the tented field. He obtained an honour- able cdmmand in India, and fell in the me- morable victory over the Sikhs at Sobraon, Feb. 10, 1846, Avhiie (as the commander-in- chief expressed it) “ personally animating, by his dauntless example, the soldiers of her Majesty’s 80th regiment in their career of noble daring.” DICK, THOMAS, a Scottish theologian and miscellaneous writer, Avas born in 1772. He was at one time a minister in the Seces- sion church, but is chiefly known as the Avriter of several pleasing and popular Avorks on astronomy, Avith large theological ad- mixture. They are, “ Celestial Scenery,” “ The Sidereal Heavens,” “ The Practical Astronomer,” and a “ Treatise on the Solar System.” His other works bear the high- sounding titles of “ The Christian Philoso- pher,” “The Philosophy of Religion,” &c. Dr Dick received /a small pension from the government a short time before his death. Died, 1857. DICKONS, Mrs (whose maiden name was Poole), Avas t. celebrated singer, who, though not equal to Mrs Billington, many years sus- tained the same cast of characters at the opera, and was regularly engaged as a princi- pal A'ocalist at the oratorios. She Avas the pupil of Rauzzini, who also taught Braham ; commenced her professional career at Co vent Garden, in 1793; and retired from public life, in consequence of long-continued ill- ness, in 1818. Died, 1833. 269 I Die] ^ :0cto ^niOcrsat IBiograpI)^, [die DICKSON, JAMES, a Scotch divine, but known chiefly as a writer on agriculture, was a native of East Lothian; and died, by a fall from his horse, in 1776. His “ Treatise on the Agriculture of the Ancients” was much esteemed, and was translated into French. DIDEROT, De-nis, principal editor of the French “ Encyclop^die,” was born at Lan- gres in 1712. With a passion for books and study, he refused to enter the church, and quitted the law, settled at Paris, and devoted himself to literature. After struggling for some years in obscure laborious ways, he attracted public attention by his “ Pens^es Philosophiques,” which appeared in 1746. It was lifted into greater notoriety by the parliament of Paris, which condemned it to be burnt. Three years later he published his “ Lettre sur les aveugles, k I’usage de ceux qui voient,” for which he was im- prisoned at Yincennes. Put Diderot is chiefly remembered as the projector of the famous “Encyclopedic.” D’Alembert M-as joint editor with him for a time. The work was in 17 folio volumes, the first of which appeared in 1751, and the rest during the next 14 years. It made a groat noise in the world, but did not enrich the projector, who for want of money proposed to sell his library. The Empress Catherine of Russia paid him a high price for it, left it in his own hands, and gave him a salary as libra- rian. In 1773 he visited St Petersburg, where he had a very flattering reception. On his return he visited Berlin, where Frederick II. received him but coldly. Diderot was a friend of Rousseau, and one of the band of daring doubters who met at the suppers of Baron d’Holbach. He was author of several works besides those mentioned. Died at Paris, 1784. DIDOT, Feanqois Ambeoise, a cele- brated printer, Avas born at Paris in 1730. He greatly raised the typographic art ; improved the construction of paper-mills ; and in- vented many curious and useful machines, useful in the arts of type-founding, stereo- typing, and printing. At the age of 73, he read over five times, and carefully corrected, every sheet of the stereotype edition of Mon- taigne, printed by his sons. Died, 1804. — His brother, PlERBE Fe,AN(;OIS (avAo died in 1795), as well as his sons and nepheAV, have each eminently contributed to the improve- ment of the arts of type-founding and print- ing. Nor were their abilities entirely con- fined to the mechanical part. They paid the greatest attention to correctness as Avell as beauty ; and the elder son, Pierre Didot, is known as an excellent classical scholar, and the author of several works, both prose and verse. DIDOT, FiRMiN, the most celebrated and skilful of modern^printers, and son of Fran- cois Didot (Avhose editions, especially of classic Avorks, are in request all over Europe), was born in 1764, and Avas carefully in- structed in both the ancient and the modern languages Avith a A'iew to succeeding his father. Not only, hoAveA'er, did he prove to be in the highest sense of the Avord “ a learn- ed printer,” but he also made some most im- portant improvements in the details of the art, and invented stereotyping. His editions of Sallust, the Lusiad, and the Henriade, are much sought after. He Avas an excellent translator, and no mean original writer. Died, 1836. DIEBITSCH, Count Sabalkansky, a distinguished Russian general, Avas the son of a brave officer who had served under Frederick the Great, but Avho afterAvards quitted the Prussian service for the Russian, where he obtained an important command. Through his father’s influence and his OAvn talents, young Diebitsch rose rapidly in the army. In the campaigns of 1812, 1813, and 1814, he signalized himself by his skill and bravery, and was advanced to the rank of quarter-master-general tp the Emperor Alexander. He displayed great courage in the battles of Austerlitz, Eylau, Friedland, and Dresden. He at length became head of the staff ; and in 1829 was intrusted by the Emperor Nicholas Avith the chief command of the Russian army in the expedition against Turkey. For his brilliant services in that campaign he Avas promoted to the rank of field-marshal, and rcAvarded with the title of Count Sabalkansky (or crosser of the Balkan), the orders of St Andre av and St George, a million of roubles, &c. Pos- sessing the entire confidence of his sove- reign, it AA'as natural that, on the breaking out of the Polish insurrection, he should be selected to command the forces sent thither for its suppression ; but a variety of unfore- seen obstacles presented themselves, and his plans were in a great measure baffled, Avhen the cholera, which had carried off great numbers of his troops, attacked him, and he died in a very few hours after the first symp- toms had appeared, June 10, 1831. DIEFFENBACH, JOHANN FRIEDRICH, one of the most distinguished surgical operators, Avas born at Kbnigsberg, in 1795. After studying for the church at GreifSAvald, he took part in the Avar of liberation of Ger- many ; and it was not till a year or tAvo after the fall of Napoleon in 1815, that he began the study of medicine and surgery, in Aviiich he has secured undying fame. His surgical studies being finished at Yienna and 'NViirtz- burg, he took up his residence at Berlin, where his operative talents soon raised him to distinction, and in 1832 he Avas appointed to the chair of surgery. In this capacity he published several valuable Avorks ; but his chief fame rests on the skill with which he performed the most difficult surgical opera- tions, such as supplying artificial noses, lips, cheeks, and eyelids; and to him also the world is indebted for a new method of curing or removing the most inveterate cases of strabismus or squinting. Died, 1848. DIEMEN, Anthony van, governor of the Dutch East India possessions, Avas born at Kuilenberg,of w hich place his father Avas a burgomaster. He Avent to India, Avhere he Avas employed as accountant to the govern- ment. In 1625 he became a member of the supreme council. In 1631 he returned to Holland as commander of the India fleet, btit the year folloAving Avent out again as director-general ; and not long after he be- came governor-general, greatly extending the Dutch interest in the East. In 1642 he 270 die] i^eto ^niljcrsal IStograpI)!?. [dim sent Abel Tasman on a voyage to the South, the consequence of which was the discovery of tluit part of New Holland called Van Dieuu'n’s Land. He died in 1G45. DIEPEXhECK, Abraham van", Dutch painter, was born at Pois-le-Duc about 1607. He studied under Hubens at Antwerp, and was one of his most eminent pupils. He visited Italy and England, was made director of the Academy of Antwerp in 1641, ex- celled as a painter on glass, and designed numerous illustrations for books. Died, 1675. DIETRICH, JOHAXN AViLTIELM ERNST, an excellent German painter, was born in 1712 at AVeimar, Avhere his father was painter to the court, and celebrated for his portraits and battle pieces. After studying under his father, he went to Dresden, and was instructed in landscape painting by Alexander Thiele. He visited Italy in 1743, and in 1763 became professor in the Academy of Dresden, and director of the School of Painting at Meissen. He died in 1774. For versatility and general excellence few have surpassed him. DIEZ, JUAN MARTIN, better known as the Empecinado of modern Spanish guerilla warfare, was the sou of a peasant of A'alla- dolid, and born in 1775. He first served in the regular army as a dragoon , but in 1808, with a chosen band of about 50 brave fel- lows, he commenced that harassing guerilla system, which so much contributed to the disasters of the enemy in the Peninsula; and the value of his services being properly appreciated, he was at length made a briga- dier-general of cavalry. AVhen the duke of AVellington entered Madrid in triumph, Diez attended him, and received his com- mands to join the army at Tortosa, at the head of 5000 men. On the re-establishment of Ferdinand’s government, the Empecinado became obnoxious to the ruling powers, who, regardless of his former great services, had him seized on a charge of conspiracy, tried, and executed, in 1825. DIGPY, Sir Everard, an English gentle- man, who was born of a Roman Catholic family, 1581 ; was knighted at the accession of James I., and became a party to the Gun- powder Plot, for which he was executed in 1606. DIGRY, Sir Kenelm, son of the preced- ing, was born at Goathurst, in Buckingham- shire, in 1603, and educated at Gloucester Hall, Oxford. He was knighted by James I., and by Charles I. he was appointed to se- veral offices. On one occasion, when some difference existed between England and the A'enetians, he was sent with a fteet into the Mediterranean, where he attacked the fleet of the republic in the bay of Scandcroon. About 1636 he quitted the church of England for that of Rome. At the commencement of the civil war he was imprisoned by the par- liament ill AVinchester House, but in 1643 he regained his liberty, and went to France. AVhen Cromwell assumed the government, he ventured to visit his native country, and paid great court to the Protector. He 'wrote a “ Treatise on the Nature of Bodies,” “ On the Operations and Nature of Alan’s Soul,” and “ Peripatetic Institutions.” His“Pri-l vate Memoirs,” edited by Sir Harris Nicolas, first appeared in 1827. Died, 1665. DIGBY, JOHN, earl of Bristol, born in 1580, Avas gentleman of the bedchamber to James I., ivho sent him to Spain to negotiate a marriage betiveen Prince Charles and the Infanta, and the same year he was created earl of Bristol. AYhen the civil wars broke out he emigrated, and died at Paris in 1653. DIGBY, George, earl of Bristol, son of the aboAm, Aims born at Aladrid in 1612. He received his education at Oxford, and became a member of the long parliament, Avherein he at first opposed the court, but afterwards joined the royal party, and exerted himself in the service of Charles I. He went after- Avards to France, Avhence he was banished for the part he took in the Fronde. He ap- peared again in England after the restora- tion, making himself remarkable by eccentric courses. Died, 1676. DIGGES, THOAIAS, an astronomer and mathematician ; author of “Aloe sive Scalae Alathematicm,” “ Perfect Descriptions of the Celestial Orbs,” “ An Arithmetical AA'arlike Treatise, named Stratioticos,” &c. Died, 1595. DIGGES, SIR Dudley, son of the pre- ceding, was born in 1583, and educated at Oxford. He was knighted by James I., Avho sent him ambassador to Russia ; in the par- liament of 1621 he sided Avith the popular party, and so continued to do till 1636, Avhen he Avas brought over by the grant of the mastership of the rolls. Sir Dudley was one of the members appointed to support the impeachment of Buckingham, for Avhich he, with Sir John ;Eliot, was committed to the tOAver. He died in 1639. He wrote “A De- fence of Trade,” “ A Discourse concerning the Rights and Privileges of the Subject,” &c. The “ Complete Ambassador,” contain- ing documents respecting the proposed mar- riage of Queen Elizabeth to the duke of Anjou, appeared after his death. His son Dudley, who died in 1643, was a loyal and learned man, and Avrote some tracts against rebellion. DILLENIUS, JOHN JAAIES, an eminent botanist, Avas born at Darmstadt, in 1687, and educated at the university of Giessen. In 1721, he accompanied Dr Sherard to England, Avhere he spent the remainder of his days. Soon after his arriA'al he under- took a new edition of Ray’s Synopsis ; and Avas appointed the first botanical professor at Oxford on Sherard’s foundation. He Avi'ote “ Hortus Elthamensis ” and a ‘‘ His- ! tory of Alosses.” Died, 1747. DILLON, AVentavorth, earl of Roscom- mon, Avas born in Ireland about 1633, and educated at Caen in Normandy, by the fa- mous Bochart. After dissipating his pro- perty by gaming, he Avas made master of the horse to the duchess of A’ork. He then married a daughter of the earl of Burling- ton, and applied to poetry. Died, 1684. DIAISDALE, Thomas, a physician, who became celebrated by his successful mode of inoculating for the small-pox. In 1768 he Avent to Russia, and inoculated the Empress Catharine II., and Grand-duke Paul, for Avhich Air Dimsdale Avas created a baron of the empire, physician to her Alajesty, and 271 din] % ^nitjersal ISiogrnpf)^. ' [dio counsellor of state. A gratuity of £12,000 was given him for his journey, and a pen- sion of £500 a year. In 1781 the baron again visited Kussia, to inoculate the two sons of the grand-duke. In the year preceding he was elected into parliament for Hertford, and again in 1784, on which he quitted prac- 1 tice. He wrote several tracts on inocula- tion, in which is an account of his first jour- ney to Russia. Died, 1800. DINEZ DA CRUZ, ANTONIO, an eminent Portuguese poet, was born in 1730, and died in 1798. As a writer of odes, sonnets, and lyrical pieces, he holds the first rank among his countrymen. DINOCRATES, 'a Macedonian architect, who was employed by Alexander in building the city of Alexandria. He also rebuilt the temple of Ephesus, and proposed to cut Mount Athos into a statue of the Macedo- nian hero. He died in Egypt, under the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus. DIOCLETIANUS, Caius VALERIUS, Ro- man emperor, born in Dalmatia, 245. He entered the Roman army, distinguished him- self under several emperors, and was elected emperor by the soldiers on the death of Numerian,284. Two years later, to strength- en himself against the numerous enemies threatening the empire both in the east and the west, he made Maximian his associate, assigning to him the charge of the west. A further division was afterwards made by the creation of two new Caesars, Constantins Chlorus and Galerius, four emperors thus reigning at one time. "War was almost conr tinually going on, but Diocletian seldom took any personal share in it. In the latter part of his reign he was induced to sanction a cruel persecution of the Christians, whom he had long protected. In 305 Diocletian abdicated the imperial dignity, and retired to his native country, where he died in 313. DIODATI, JEAN, an eminent Protestant theologian, descended from an Italian family, but born at Geneva, 1576. He became pro- j lessor of Hebrew there in 1597, and pro- fessor of theology in 1609, holding the latter 1 post till 1645. He was a friend of the cele- 1 brated Father Paul, and translated into 1 French his great “ History of the Council of j Trent.” He made also French and Italian 1 translations of the Bible, not without en- ! countering opposition. Diodati attended j the Synod of Dort in 1618, and took part in j drawing up the deliberations of the synod. He published various theological works, ! among which are his Annotations on the Bible, which were translated into English. Died, 1649. DIODORUS SICULUS, a native of Agy- 1 rium, in Sicily, who wrote a Universal His- tory, in 40 books, of which only 15 books and a few fragments remain. It is a labori- ous but uncritical compilation of most he- terogeneous materials, and occupied him 30 years. It is still valued for the portions which it has preserved to us of many lost works. He flourished about B. C. 50. DIOGENES, surnamed the Cynic, was born at Sinope, a city of Pontus, B. c. 412. He accompanied his father to Athens, where he applied to the- study of philosophy under Amtisthenes, the founder of the cynic school. He distinguished himself by the excessive austerity and eccentricity of his manners, Avith which was blended a great knowledge of human nature, and a zeal for the practical good of men, on which account Plato called him the “ mad Socrates.” Being on a voyage to JEgina, the vessel was taken by pirates, who sold Diogenes to a rich Corinthian citi- zen named Xeniades, who intrusted to him the care of his sons. His famous interviCAv wi th Alexander took place at Corinth, where, at the age of 90, he died. DIOGENES LAERTIUS, a Greek his- torian, was born in Cilicia. He Avrote the “ Lives of the Philosophers,” in 10 books, an immethodical and uncritical work, valuable, as such books often are, for the fragments they contain of earlier writings which have perished. He is supposed to have lived in the second century. DION, a celebrated patriot of Syracuse, was the disciple and friend of Plato when that philosopher was at the court of Dio- nysius the elder, whose daughter Arete Dion married. Being accused of treason, he was banished by Dionysius the younger, and went to Athens, where he acquired con- siderable popularity ; wRich so provoked the tyrant, that he confiscated his estates, and compelled his wife to marry another man. Dion, irritated at this treatment, re- solved to attempt the deliverance of his country ; and Avith a small force he landed in Sicily during the absence of Dionysius, and entered Syracuse in triumph. After various successes he perished, the victim of a conspiracy, headed by one Calippus, an Athenian, B. C. 353. DION CASSIUS, an historian of the third century, born in Bithynia, Avent to Rome about 180 ; was appointed in succession to many high offices ; Avas twice consul ; and wrote, in Greek, the History of Rome, from the arrival of JEneas in Italy, to A. B. 229. The small portions extant of Dion’s work are highly valued. DION CHRYSOSTOMUS, THE GOLBEN- MOUTHEB, a celebrated Greek rhetorician, flourished in the first century of the Chris- tian era. He was a native of Prusa, in Bi- thynia, but lived mostly at Rome. Suspect- ed of conspiracy by Domitian, he took refuge in the country of the Getm, returning to Rome on the accession of Nerva. He enjoy- ed the favour both of Nerva and Trajan, and lived to an advanced age. He left about 80 orations or discourses on morals and politics, Avhich are admired for their elegance of style. Died, A. B. 117. DIONYSIUS I., the elder, tyrant of Syra- cuse, Avas born B. c. 430. He served in the Avar Avith the Carthaginians, got himself ap- pointed general, and, in 405, sole general and head of the republic. He formed a poAverful body-guard, conquered other cities of Sicily, carried on war with the Carthaginians, and after making peace with them in 392, in- vaded Italy and subdued several of the Greek cities of the south. He Avas after- wards again at war Avith Carthage. Diony- sius, like some other tyrants, was a patron of literary men and artists ; aspired to liter- ary fame, and contended for the prize at the Olympic games. He erected many fine tern- 272 Dio] ^nibersal 113itigrapf)|). [dob pies and palaces, and also constructed in the rock near Syracuse the famous prison called Lautumi?e, spoken of in later times as the “ Ear of Dionysius.” Died, B. C. 367. DIONYSIUS II., the younger, tyrant of Syracuse, was son of the preceding, and succeeded him, B. C. 367. Idly brought up, he was for a time restrained from excesses by the influence of Dion and Plato. Many other distinguished men visited him or lived at his court. His subsequent treat- ment of Dion and his family led to his own overthrow in 356. He went to Italy and obtained the chief power at Locri, and after ten years returned and regained his throne at Syracuse. A final end was put to his tyranny by the noble Greek Timoleon, 343, and he spent the rest of his life in exile at Corinth, Avallowing in. the mire of sensuality and vice. DIONY'SIUS, an ancient geographer, who ■was called Pkriegetes, from his poem of Periegesis,” or Survey of the AVorld. He lived probably at the beginning of the 4th century. DIONY'SIUS of Halicarnassus, a Greek rhetorician and historian, who settled at Home about B. C. 29, that he might study the I.atin language, and collect materials for the history which he afterwards wrote. Dionysius wrote many rhetorical and criti- cal -works, which are of great value, but his principal work, and that by which he is most generally known, is the “ Homan Arch- aeology.” It was in 22 books, of which about II are extant. In these he dwells at great length on the early history of Home, but his want of accurate knowledge, the bias under Avhichhe wrote, and the rhetorical character of his style, render his history un- trustworthy. Died at Home, B. c. 7. DIOPHANTUS, a mathematician of Alex- andria, to whom is attributed the invention of algebra. It is uncertain at what period he lived. DIOSCOHIDES,PEDAKlIJS,orPEDACruS, physician, was born at Anazarba in Cilicia, in the 1st century of the Christian era ; and distinguished himself as the author of a work on Materia Medica, in which all the veget- able substances then used as medicines are described or catalogued. This work held its ground as first and sole authority on the subject of which it treats for sixteen hun- dred j'ears. Its infallibility and completeness being almost as hard to shake and disprove as that of Aristotle or the pope. It was printed by Aldus in 1499. DIPPED, JOHANN CONRAD, a German physician and celebrated alchemist, was born at Frankenstein, in Hesse, in 1672. He led a wandering life, made himself obnox- ious to various governments, and was often imprisoned. He pretended to have dis- covered the philosopher’s stone, and pro- phesied that he Avould not die till 1808. He, however, falsified his prediction, by sud- denly departing this life in 1734 j and in- stead of finding the philosopher’s stone, he discov^-red Prussian blue, and the animal oil which bears his name. DISHAELI, Isa ac, the illustrious author of the Curiosities of Literature,” the Quarrels ” and “ Calamities of Authors,” and “ Illustrations of the Literary Charac- ter,” was born at Enfield, 1767. He was the only child of Benjamin Disraeli, a Venetian merchant ; and was originally destined for his father’s oeexxpation ; but having shown a premature inclination for literature, he was sent first to Amsterdam, and afterwards to Bordeaux, to be initiated into the mysteries of a mercantile life. But all in vain. Hous- seau and Voltaii’e had superseded the ledger in his estimation ; and he returned to Eng- land with such an antipathy to commerce, that he at length abandoned it altogether ; and he thenceforward devoted his longlife to literary pursuits. Besides the works above mentioned, he published “ Commen- taries on the Life and Heign of Charles 1.,” the “ Amenities of Literature,” and was for many years a contributor to the Quarterly Heview and the Gentleman’s Magazine. Mr Disraeli was smitten with blindness in 1839. Few writers have been so much devoted to literature from a pure love of it for its own sake ; and many a mind has been excited to literary effort by his graceful and entertain- ing works. Died, 1848. DISSEN, George Ludolf, German phi- lologist, was born near Gottingen in 1784. He studied at the university of Gottingen, where, after a short residence at Marburg as extraordinary professor of classical philo- logy, he became professor of classical litera- ture. He was a zealous hard-working stu dent and lecturer, but has not written much. He published editions of Pindar, Tibullus, and the oration of Demosthenes “ De Co- rona.” A collection of his minor writings was published after his death. Died, 1837. DITTON, Humphry, a learned mathe- matician, Avas born at Salisbury in 1675; became mathematical master of Christ’s Hospital, and died in 1715. He wrote several papers in the Philosophical Transactions ; but he is best knoAvn by a treatise entitled “'fhe Institution of Fluxions.” He also wrote a treatise on Perspective, and “ Gene-* ral LaAVS of Nature and Motion.” D 0 B H E N TE I, GABRIEL, Hungarian archaeologist and miscellaneous Avriter, was born in 1786. After studying at the univer- sity of Leipsic, and residing for some time in Transylvania, as private tutor, he settled, in 1820, at Pesth, where his time Avas divided betAveen literature and the duties of various offices which he held under the government. During the last 30 years of his life he was principally occupied in the preparation of his great work on the “Ancient Monuments of the Magyar Language,” the first volume of Avhich appeared in 1825, and Avhich is a standard authority. Dobrentei was for several years secretary to the Hungarian Academy ; he contributed papers to various periodicals, and carried on an extensive correspondence. Died, 1851. DOBHIZHOFFEH, MARTIN, Jesuit mis- sionary, Avas a native of Styria. He was born in 1717, entered the order at the age of 19, and went to Paraguay in 1749. He laboured there nearly tAventy years, and then returned and settled at Vienna. In his old age lie wrote in Latin a curious and pro- lix account of the Abipones, one of the native nations or tribes of Paraguay. It is T 273 dob] 3BiograpI)5« [dod full of interest, not without marvel and pro- bable exaggeration. It was translated into German by Kreil, and into English by Sara Coleridge. Died, 1791. DOBROWSKY, JOSEPH, the celebrated Bohemian philologist and antiquary, was born near Raab, in Hungary, in 1753. He entered the order of Jesuits not long before its suppression, and became tutor to the children of Count von Noltitz, whose pro- tection he enjoyed through life. In 1792 he was sent with Count Joachim Sternberg to Sweden, in search of the literary treasures carried off during the Thirty Y^ears’ War. He afterwards visited Russia and Italy. During the last thirty years of his life he was subject to periodical fits of mental aber- ration, but his studies and labours were con- tinued, and procured him a European re- putation. He wrote chiefly in German. His principal works are, “ Institutiones Linguje Slavicae Dialecti Yeteris,” a “ Bohemian Grammar,” “German and Bohemian Dic- tionary,” “History of the Bohemian Lan- guage and Literature,” &c. He contributed many important papers to the Transactions of the Bohemian Scientific Society, and was a member of numerous academies. He took a prominent and rather passionate part in the controversy respecting the curious li- terary discoveries of Hanka, and, was irri- tated to find his judgment generally re- versed. Died, at Brunn, in 1829. DOBSON, AVILLIAM, an English painter, who succeeded Vandyke as sergeant painter to Charles I., was born in 1610, and died in 1646. He painted several historical pictures, but was chiefly celebrated for his portraits, in which he remained unrivalled till the time of Sir Joshua Reynolds. DODD, Dr WILLIAM, was born in 1729, at Bourne, Lincolnshire ; and after being educated at Cambridge, entered into orders, became a popular preacher in London, and was made one of the king’s chaplains. But he kept high society, and was extravagant ; and finding himself unable to support an expensive establishment, he endeavoured to procure the living of St George’s, Hanover Square, by offering a bribe of £3000 to the lady of the lord chancellor. She was, how- ever, indignant at the offer, and on her in- forming the chancellor, Dodd was struck off the royal list. The earl of Chesterfield, to whom he had been tutor, afterwards pre- sented him with a living ; but being pressed for money, he forged a bond for £4200 on his former pupil and patron, probably intending to take it up before it became due ; but the fraud was soon discovered, and he was tried, convicted, and executed at Tyburn, in 1777, notwithstanding great interest was used, and the most extraordinary efforts made to obtain his pardon. He was the aupior of several works ; the principal of which are “ Sermons,” “ Poems,” “ Reflections on Death,” and “ Thoughts in Prison.” DODDRIDGE, or DODDERIDGE, Sir JOHN, an English judge, and the author of several works on legal science, was born in 1555, at Barnstaple in Devonshire, and edu- cated at Exeter College, Oxford. In 1613 he became one of the judges of the King’s Bench, and died in 1628. His chief works are “ The i 1 Lawyer’s Light,” “ The English Lawyer,” “ The Law of Nobility and Peerage,” “ The Complete Parson,” &c. DODDRIDGE, PHILIP, a Dissenting di- vine, was born in the metropolis in 1702. He was successively minister at Kibworth, Market Harborough, and Northampton, and acquired a great and deserved reputation. He established and presided over an aca- demy for the training of young men designed for the ministry. Being afflicted with a pul- monary complaint,. he went to Lisbon for the benefit of his health, but died there in 1751. His principal works are, “ The Family Expositor,” 6 vols. 4to, “ The Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul,” which had an immense circulation, and to which John Foster wrote a remarkable Introduc- tory Essay, “ The Life of Colonel Gardiner,” and “ Hymns.” Many of Doddridge’s “ Hymns ” are of a far higher order than the majoi'ity of those in his day in common use in public wmrship. DODINGTON, GEORGE BUBB,Lord MEL- COMBE Regis, a statesman, remarkable for political versatility, was born in 1691, in Dorsetshire, and educated at Oxford. In 1715 he came into parliament for 'VVinchel- sea; was soon after appointed envoy to Spain ; became a lord of the treasury during YValpole’s administration ; and, after years of political intrigue, in which the most shameless dereliction of principle was mani- fest, he was made a peer by the title of Lord Melcombe. Though servile as a politician, he was generous, witty, and hospitable in private life ; and had the merit of associating with and patronizing men of talent. His celebrated “ Diary,” published in 1784, is h ighly interesting, revealing, as it does, much of the art and mystery of statesmanship. Died, 1762. DODONJEUS, the Latinized name of RAMBERT DODOENS, a celebrated Dutch physician and botanist, born at Mechlin in 1518. He studied at Louvain and the prin- cipal universities of Europe, and settled at Antwerp. In 1572 he became first physician to the Emperor Maximilian II., and held the same office under his son, Rudolph II. Re- turning to his country, he held the chair of medicine at Leyden from 1582 till his death. Among his works are “Stirpium Historiae LibriXXX.,” “ Medicinalium Observationes Exempla Rara,” &c. , Died, 1585. DODSLEY, ROBERT, miscellaneous writer and bookseller, was born in 1703, at Mans- field, Nottinghamshire. His parents being poor, he was apprenticed to a stocking- weaver, which trade he left and became footman to the Hon. Mrs Lowthcr. AVhile in this situation be published a volume of poems, entitled “The Muse in Livery,” and a dramatic satire, called “ The Toyshop,” which being patronized by Pope, and suc- cessfully brought out on the stage, enabled Dodsley to commence business as a book- seller in Pall Mall. He still continued his literary pursuits, and produced “ Clconc,” a tragedy, and four light dramas; many poems ; “The Economy of Human T.ifo,” &c. He also edited and published a “ Collection of Old Plays,” in 12 vols. ; and Avas the pro- jector of “I'he Annual Register.” After a dod] iRcbj ^ni'ocrsal 33iograpf)p. [dol prosperous career, he retired fi’om business, and died in 1704. IlODSWOKTir, ROGER, an English to- pographer, was born in Yorkshire, in 1585, and died in 1654. He collected a large mass of materials for an account of the antiquities of his native country. 7.’hey form 162 folio volumes, which are now in the Bodleian library, Oxford. DODWELL, Henry^ a learned critic and theologian, was born at Dublin, in 1641, and educated at Trinity College. In 1688 he Avas appointed Camden professor of history at Oxford, but lost his office soon after the revolution. He wrote several books on Chronology, a volume of Dissertations, “De Yeteribus Graecorum Romanorumque Cy- clis,” his most important work; and a dis- course on the Natural Mortality of the Soul, Avhieh occasioned a good deal of offence, on account of a ridiculous speculation on the power of the bishops to confer immortality. Died, 1711. — His sons, Henry and "Wil- liam, were also both distinguished by their writings ; the former, who was bred to the law, by his scepticism; the latter, who was a prebendary of Salisbury, by his ortho- doxy. DODWELL, Edward, classical antiquary and topographer, born about 1737. He studied at Cambridge, and spent the greater part of his life in travels and researches in Greece and Italy. The fruits of his la- bours appeared in tiie following works: “A Classical and Topographical Tour through Greece,” “Views in Greece,” and “Views and Descriptions of Cyclopian or Pelasgic Remains in Greece and Italy.” These views are from original drawings and sketches by himself. Died at Rome, 1832. doederlein, Johann Christoph, a learned Lutheran divine, professor of theo- logy in the university of Jena. He was the author of several Avorks illustrative of the sacred writings, and enjoyed a high reput- ation for biblical knowledge. Died, 1792. DOES, Jacob van der, a Dutch painter, born in 1623, and died in 1673 ; he studied at Rome, and adopted the style of Eamboccio. — His sons, JACOB and Simon, were both good artists; the former, celebrated for his historical pieces, died in 1691; the latter, who excelled in landscapes and cattle, died in 1717. DOES, JAN VANDER. [DODSA.] DOGGETT, Thomas, an actor and dra- matic poet, was a distinguished comic per- former at Drury Lane, of which house he Avas joint-manager. He is now remembered for the legacy he left to provide a “ coat and badge,” which is rowed for annually on the 1st of August, from London Bridge to Chelsea, by six watermen. Died, 1721. DOLABELLA, PUBLIUS CORNELIUS, a profligate Roman of a patrician family, and son-in-law of Cicero, whose daughter Tullia he married, B. C. 51. He joined the party of Caesar, served under him at the battle of Pharsalia and on other occasions, and was made consul, 44. After the death of Caesar he had Syria for his province, took Smyrna by stratagem, and put to death the procon- sul Trebonius. On the motion of Cicero he was declared a public enemy, and being be- sieged in Laodicea by Cassius, killed himself, B. C. 43. DOLCE, Luigi, a Venetian miscellaneous writer, Avas born In 1508, He translated into Italian great portions of Horace, Ovid, Seneca, Euripides, &c. He also wrote a Life of Charles V. Died, 1568. DOLCl, Carlo, a celebrated painter, born at Florence, in 1616. He was a pupil of Jacopo Vignoli, and being of a very religious turn, he limited himself in painting to sacred subjects. He had no strength of character, but was excessively timid and satisfied to be priest-ridden. For grace, tenderness, and finish, his heads of Madonnas, Magdalens, and saints are inimitable. Died, 1686. DOLCINO (DULCINUS), of Novara, a celebrated heresiarch and martyr of the 14th century. Born near No\mra, he became the disciple and successor of Gerhard Sagarelle, as head of the Apostolic Brethren. With the courage of a soldier and the earnestness of a prophet he preached and taught, and attracted numerous folloAvers. In 1304 they appear as a regular community in Piedmont. They were orthodox in doctrine, hut severely denounced the hierarchy of the church. The Inquisition assailed them, and the little so- ciety became an army. A papal bull was published, and a mighty league formed against them. Dolcino occupied a strong but desolate position on Monte Calvo, and, after many deadly combats, on Mount Zer- bal. Famine joined its awful forces to those of their enemies, and after tAvo years of heroic endurance they were conquered and most of them massacred. Dolcino and Mar- garita, the sister Avhom he had chosen ac- cording to the enstom of the sect, were burnt with horrid deliberate tortures at Vercelli, in 1307. There is a recent account of Fra Dolcino and liis times, by L. Mariotti. DOLGORUCKI, JOHN MICIIAELOVICH, a Russian noble, who greatly distinguished himself in several campaigns against the Turks and SAvedes, W’as born in 1764, and died in 1824. Latterly he held several high offices, and he was also known as a poet. DOLGORUCKI, VASSILI VLADIMIRO- VICH, Russian diplomatist and field-marshal, was born in 1667. He entered the army, and was employed by Peter the Great on diplomatic missions to Poland, France, Ger- many, and Holland, but in 1718 he wa^ dis- graced and imprisoned. Recalled by Cathe- rine I., he conducted an expedition against Persia, was made field-marshal and member of the council of war by Peter II., suffered a second imprisonment, was again restored by Elizabeth in 1741, and made president of the council of war. Died, 1746. DOLLOND,George,F.R.S., &c.,the cele- brated mathematical-instrument maker, was born in London, 1774. Having lost his father Avhen very young, his education devolved upon his maternal uncle, Peter Boiiond, then carrying on the business in St Paul’s Churchyard, to which the nephCAV ultimate- ly succeeded (on which he took the name of Dollond, his father’s name being Huggins). In 1787 he was sent to the manufactory of Mr Fa-irbone, to learn the trade of a mathe- matical-instrument maker, and in March, 1788, commenced an apprenticeship to the — 275 dol] ^ 13iograpf)t). [dom business. In 1805 he assumed the position he so long and honourably filled, both in conjunction with his uncle, until the retire- ment of the latter in 1819, and afterwards on his own account. Of the many instru- ments by which he maintained the celebrity of his name, the Atmospheric Recorder de- serves notice, as the closing effort of his long life, and as having obtained the Council Medal of the Great Exhibition of 1851. He contributed various papers to the “ Philoso- phical Transactions ” df the Royal Society. Rut it is by his connection with the Royal Astronomical Society, of which he Avas one of the founders, that George Dollond will be chiefly remembered ; and to the last he was indefatigable in the interest he took in the advancement of the Society. Died, 1852. DOLLOND, John, an eminent optician, was born in Spitalfieds, London, in 1706, and brought up as a silk-weaver; but, de- voting himself to the study of astronomy, his attention became directed to the im- pi’ovement of telescopes, &c. ; and, in con- junction Avith his eldest son, Peter, he commenced business as an optician. He invented the achromatic object-glass, for which he received the Copley medal of the Royal Society ; and he applied the microme- ter to reflecting telescopes, &c. Died, 1761, having only a feAv months before been elect- ed F.R.S.— His son PETER also, Avho died in 1820, made many valuable improvements in optical instruments, and they both enjoyed a Avell-deserved reputation. DOLOMIEU, DeODAT GUI SYLVAIN TAN- CR^IDE DE Gratet de, a French geologist and mineralogist, Avas born in Dauphine, in 1750, and entered into the order of Malta. He accompanied Ruonaparte to Egypt, and on his return Avas taken prisoner and con- fined at Messina. Sir Joseph Ranks obtained his release in 1801, but he died during the same year. Dolomieu had travelled, for scientific purposes, in many parts of Europe ; and he is especially distinguished for his discovery of the peculiar geological forma- tipn of the mountain-ranges of South Tyrol, Avhich have since been named, after him, the “ Dolomite Mountains.” He Avas author of many esteemed Avorks, of which his “ Mi- neralogical Philosophy ” and a “ Voyage to the Lipari Islands ” are the chief. DOMAT, Jean, a very eminent French jurist, born at Clermont in Auvergne in 1625. He Avas educated at the college of Clermont, Paris, and the univei'sity of Rourges; and for nearly 30 years held the office of advocate of the king in the court of Clermont. He Avas the intimate friend of Pascal, and the associate of the other eminent port-royalists. He made the Je- suits his enemies by his opposition to their efforts to get possession of the College of Clermont. In 1681 he settled at Paris, and applied himself to the completion of his gi-eat Avork, “ Les Lois Civiles dans leur Ordre Naturel.” It appeared in 1689, has been several times republished, and Avas translated into English by Strahan in 1726. Domat also Avrote a work entitled “ Legum Delectus,” which appeared after his death. Died at Paris, 1696. DOMENICHINO, a celebrated Italian painter, whose real name was Domenico ZAMPIERI, Avas born at Rologna, in 1581. He studied first under Denis Calvart, and then in the school of the Caracci. At about the age of 20 he Avent to Rome, Avhere he acquired a great reputation, especially by his fresco of the ” Flagellation of St An- drew.” He spent the latter part of his life at Naples. His chef-d’oeuvre is the ” Com- munion of St Jerome in the church at Reth- lehem,” noAV placed in the Vatican, opposite “ Tiie Transfiguration” of Raphael. The “Martyrdom of St Agnes,” “Martyrdom of St Sebastian,” and his scenes from the Life of the Virgin are among his finest works. Domenichino Avas one of the victims of the malignant persecuting triumvirate of paint- ers at Naples, Avhere he died, 1641. There are four of his Avorks in the National Gallery. There is a very large collection of draAvings and studies by this master in the Royal Collection at Windsor Castle. DOMINIC, St, founder of the Dominican Order, and instigator of the crusade against the Albigenses, Avas born in Old Castile, in 1170. He Avas ordained priest in 1198, and soon distinguished himself as a fervent and eloquent preacher. With a fiery zeal he laboured in Languedoc for the conversion of the Vaudois and Albigenses, and conceived the project of founding an order of monks for the especial purpose of preaching the Catholic faith and bi'inging back “ heretics ” to the church. In aid and support of the preachers he procured the establishment of courts for the trial and punishment of ob- stinate heretics, avIio might be put to death as a last resort. The commissioners iiiA^ested with this terrible jurisdiction were called “Inquisitors.” In 1208, at the instigation of St Dominic, the crusade against the Al- bigenses was proclaimed by the pope, Avhich Avas carried on mercilessly for years, and involved frightful slaughter. The order of Dominicans, called Preaching Friars, in England Rlack Friars, and in France Jaco- bins, Avas confirmed by Pope Honorius III. in 1216, and spread rapidly in France and Spain. Above fifty houses of this order existed in England at the time of the disso- lution of monasteries. Dominic Avas made master of the Sacred Palace, an office cre- ated for him. Died at Rologna, 1221. Can- onized by Gregory IX. in 1234. DOMINIS, Marc-Antonio DE, Jesuit and natural philosopher, born in Dalmatia, in 1556. He studied at the university of Padua, entered the Society of Jesus, became a professor at Padua, bishop of Segni, and archbishop of Spalatro. He embraced Pro- testantism, and in 1616 came to England, Avhere he Avas made dean of AVindsor. He, hoAvever, returned to Rome and the Catholic faith ; was nevertheless suspected and im- prisoned, and died in the castle of San An- gelo, 1624. He Avas soon after declared a heretic, and his body Avas publicly burnt. De Dominis Avrote a treatise, “ De radiis visus et lucis in vitris perspectivis tt iride,” in Avhich he for the first time explainedsthe formation of the rainboAv. AMiilo in Eng- land he Avrote a Avork on church discipline “ De Republica Ecclesiastica,” once highly 276 dom] i^efcD Slnib^rsal ^tograp^e. [don esteemed. He also edited Fra Paolo’s His- tory of the Council of Trent. DOMITIANUS, TITUS FLATIUS, the se- cond son of Vespasian, and tlie last of the 12 C»sars, was born A. D. 51, and succeeded his brotlier Titus in 81. He was voluptuous, cruel, and malignant; and though at his accession he made some show of justice, and even of kindness, to the citizens, yet the cruelty of his disposition was too deep-rooted for concealment, and he was both feared and hated for his tyranny. Wars were carried on in his reign in Britain, in Germany, and in Dacia, but, except in Britain, unsuccess- fully. Agricola, who achieved the conquest of our island in this reign, excited the jeal- ousy of Doinitian, and was recalled to Rome. He was in continual dread of conspirators, and at length fell by the hands of an as- sassin, in the 45th year of his age, A. D. 96. DON, David, a Scottish botanist, boi-n at Forfar, in 1800. At the age of nineteen he settled at London and became librarian to the Linnaean Society, and in 1836 professor of botany at King’s College, London. He was author of numerous botanical memoirs contributed to the Transactions of the Lin- naean Society, to the Wernerian Society, Edinburgh, and the Edinburgh New Philo- sophical Journal. He also published a work on the Flora of Nepaul. Died, 1840. DONALD VII., king of Scotland, com- monly called Donald Bane, usurped the throne in 1093. He was expelled from the throne by Duncan in 1094, but regained it again by the murder of that prince. He did not, however, long enjoy it, for he Avas finally dethroned by Edgar Atheling in 1098. DONALDSON, JOHN WILLIAM, D.D., born in 1812, M'as educated at the London University, and afterwards graduated at Cambridge, where he was placed second in the classical Tripos, and his great powers at- tracted the special notice of one of the ex- aminers,— the present bishop of St David’s. Within five years after taking his degree he published his “ New Cratylus,” the first of a series of works which raised him to high eminence in the science of philology. After holding for a short time a Fellowship at Trinity College, he became master of King Edward’s School, in the tOAvn of Bury St Edmund’s. Several years later he resigned this post, and devoted himself altogether to scholarship and biblical criticism, in both of which he exhibited the highest powers, while his peculiar views were much controverted. As a grammarian and linguist his reputation is unquestioned ; his theological Avorks, espe- cially “Jashar,” Avritten in Latin, incurred severe condemnation from many who appre- ciated his great learning. AVorn out with long and incessant labour. Dr Donaldson fell pre-eminently the victim of a hard work- ing age. In spite of constant warnings from friends who saAV that liis strength Avas failing, he relaxed not in his toil of compiling a Greek lexicon, as Avell as in preparing new editions of his classical Avorks, when he was prematurely cut off at the age of 48, Febru- ary 10, 18