.;^S. .'^> — ^mi^ (^ Otxx^^^L^ L I E) RA FLY OF THE U N IVER5ITY or ILLI NOIS From the Library of Theodore Calvin Pease Cop. 2. Ki Hia. sui.v'f 1 AMERICAN FACTS. f J^Uf. IvAB.turuii from the RiU kiijth Portra.i': by Col TrumluU bel^njms t-s Ysle Coll. (S-21®IS©]1 ■W^SIir2rKr©5?®Mo AMERICAN FACTS. %* The Plates, in the volume lalU'U " American Facts," were transferred from ordinary prints, by Darloiis new process, as described in Ike Art-Union, for January, 1815. Tlie ^rfisl was confident of obtaining faitlif id transcripts from the original prints ; hut, as is evident, he has not succeeded. It would be unfair to con- demn an art yet in its infancy— for it may yet do all it promises — hut, as these plates were advertised, the Publishers have been obliged to use them, with this explanation, (5, Waterloo Place, April ith] 1845. LONDON: \V1LEY AND PUTNAM, 6, WATERLOO PLACE, And 161, Broadway, New Yokk. 1845. V. t£a,_s.r^j^ MJ,,i AMERICAN FACTS, NOTES AND STATISTICS GOVERNMENT, RESOURCES, ENGAGEMENTS, MANUFACTURES, COMMERCE, RELIGION, EDUCATION, LITERATURE, FINE ARTS, MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. BY GEORGE PALMER PUTNAM, KMBFR OF THE NEW YORK HISTORICAL SOCIETY ; HON. MEM. OF THE CONNECTICCT HIST. SOC. ; HON' SECRETARY OP THE AMERICAN ART-UNION. AUTHOR OF AN INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY, ETC. WITH PORTRAITS AND A MAP. LONDON : WILEY AND PUTNAM, 6, WATERLOO PLACE, And 16L Buoadway, New York. 1845. LONDON : PriBled by Manning and Mason, Ivy L«ne, St.PauleS. PREFACE. A few weeks since it was suggested that a com- pilation of this kind might be useful. A very small statistical manual was all that was at first proposed : the present volume is more ambitious in size, but is still moderate in its pretensions. It does not aim at a display of fine writing ; it is merely a collection of plain, unadorned notes, relative to the progress and present condition of the United States. These notes, rapidly prepared, amidst the cares of business, do not assume to be above error; but yet, with due regard to the title, suitable care has been taken to avoid all statements not properly authenticated, or founded on personal observation. The Notes and Documents in the Second Part will speak for themselves. In regard to the ' Parody on on an English Criticism,' the compiler would regret having quoted it, if it should be construed into VI PREFACE. a sober attempt to apologize for our own sins by recrimination. Those who have referred to any of the sixty volumes of the 'North American Review/ must have found invariably that its articles are characterised by courtesy and intelligent impartiality. Its usual course has been varied in this instance, for the sake of holding up a mirror to another species of reviewing. No candid person, who has read the article thus imitated, should quarrel with either the statements, or tone of the parody. The Portraits in this volume scarcely do full justice, either to their subjects or to the original engraver ; but as specimens of a new process, by which they have been transferred or re-engraved, in a few days, from ordinary and defective copies of the American prints, they are somewhat remarkable. The portrait of Washington, by Stuart, would have been preferred to the military one, here copied ; but, as an engraving, the latter was better suited for the experiment. ERRATA. Page 98, for "as the novelist," read " o/" the novelist," — i.e. of Cooper. Page 184, in the table, the Silk Cocoons in ftlassachussetts should be 10,000 lbs., and the total of the column should be 189,272 lbs. CONTENTS Page Introduction. - - - - - - -11 PART I. GENERAL SKETCHES. CHAP. I. EXTENT AND RESOURCES. Geographical Extent — Population and its Classes — Foreigners — Slavery — Occupations of the People — Agricultural Statistics — Minerals — Commerce — Manu- factures — Revenue and Resources of the general Government — Premium on its bonds — ' Repudiation' and Delinquency of some of the States — Causes and Explanation of these matters - - - - - 25 CHAP. II. CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Formation of the Government in 1789 — Mode of electing, and Powers of tlie President — Of the Congress — Of the Judiciary — Nature and Character of the Supreme Court — ' Checks and Balances' of the Political System — Army — Navy — Foreign Intercourse — Post-Office — Mint 43 a CONTENTS. Page CHAP. III. RELIGION AND PHILANTHROPY. Religious Denominations — Voluntary Principle — Public Worship in New England — Number of Churches — Theological Education — Religious and Benevolent So- cieties — Foreign Missions — Bible Society — Education Societies — Sunday School Union — Temperance — Prison Discipline ------.-51 CHAP. IV. EDUCATION. Early Provision for Education — Colleges — Tabular View — Popular Education, how supported — Great number of School-books - - -- - - -57 CHAP. V. LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS, Libraries, etc. _---____ 69 CHAP. VI. LITERATURE. Encouragement of Native Authors — Large circulation of expensive Works — Production of standard Works in History, Travels, Science, Theology, Classics, Ethics, Politics — Proportion of Re-prints and Original Works — Copyright — International Copyright — Wholesale Pla- giarisms — American Books Reprinted in England - 75 CHAP. VII. LITERATURE CONTINUED. Brief Notices of leading Authors — Colonial Literature — Revolutionary Politics — Noah Webster — Cooper — Irving — Channing — Everett — D. Webster — Bancroft — Sparks — Prescott — Stephens — Miss Sedgwick, etc. — Poets 88 CHAP. VIII. LITERATURE CONTINUED. Writers in Theology — Science — Medicine — Jurispru- dence - - - - - - - - -103 CONTENTS. IX Fage CHAP. IX. THE FINE ARTS. Notices of leading Artists — Exhibitions and Private Col- lections — Encouragement of Art _ _ - - 112 CHAP. X. SOCIETY AND manners; With parallel Notes," etc. - 128 CHAP. XI. SOCIETY AND MANNERS CONTINUED. Libraries in the Mountains — Practical Virtuoso — Learned Blacksmith — Southern Philanthi-opy — Reforms com- menced in Ameiica — Specimens of English Criticism — Natural Ties of England and the United States — Evil Influence of the Uneducated Class of Foreigners — Conclusion - - - - - - - -141 PART II. DOCUMENTS, NOTES AND STATISTICS. I. Constitution of the United States _ . . 156 II. Analysis of some Provisions in the Constitutions of the several States - - - - - 173 III. Chronological Table of chief Events in the History of the United States 175 IV. Population of the United States at six different periods - - - - - - -180 V. Agricultural Statistics _ _ - - - 181 VI. General View of the Sources of Wealth - - 193 VII. Exports of the Produce of the United States - 194 VIII. Exports of Cotton, and other Produce for twenty- three years - - - - - -197 IX. Imports from, and Exports to Foreign Countries - 198 X. Imports and Exports for twenty-one years - - 199 X CONTENTS. Page XI. Value of Articles Imported from 1821 to 1842 - 200 XII. Value of Imports from each Country, from 1821 to 1842 202 XIII. Value of chief Articles of Export from 1821 to 1842 203 XIV. Balance of Trade for and against the United States, with each Foreign Country, in 1 843 - - 204 XV. Commerce of New York ----- 205 XVI. Statistics of American Fisheries . - - 206 XVII. Tabular Estimate of Crops in 1843 - - 209 XVIII. Statistics of Ohio— an Agricultural State - -211 XIX. Progress of Invention and Manufacture in the United States 213 XX. British and American Trade — Origin of the Com- mercial difficulties - - - - - 221 XXI. Resources compared to the Debts of the States — Causes of Embai-rassments, etc. - - _ 224 XXII. American Railroads and Canals - _ . 232 XXIII. Slavery in the United States - - - -237 XXIV. American Newspapers - - _ . . 239 XXV. Theological Schools ------ 243 Medical and Law Schools - - - _ 244 XXVI. Tabular View of Education in the United States and Europe ------. 245 XXVII. Notes to previous Chapters - - - .247 XXVIII. A Parody on an Englisli Criticism - - _ 249 ILLUSTRATIONS. Portrait of Washington - - - Frontispiece. Map of the United States - - - Page 24 Portrait of Fennimore Cooper, to face - - 89 Edward Everett, to face - - - 91 INTRODUCTION. "American Facts! — We have had quite enough both of their facts and their fictions. Bankruptcy and vulgarity are the only facts left in their swindling 'land of liberty.' "* Such was one anticipated comment suggested by a name. " Facts are dry things — who will read them ? Even to a more agreeable tune than the everlasting Yankee doodle, figures make but very dull nuisic." So said another captious critic, looking at the outside of the cover. Not encouraging. Unreadable books waste a great deal of me- dium and foolscap. Taste rages for the piquant and witty — the funny and the abusive. In this Age of Punch, a plodding dealer in decimals stands but a poor chance with his wares. Facts are too stubborn to worship either Momus or Humbug. Prosy talkers are even more tedious than prosy writers. But in the want of a better explanation of the purpose of the following notes, and at the risk of a yawn or two, I quote the substance of a dialogue, in veiy plain prose, which I happened to hear a few days since. Enter J G , an unsophisticated specimen of trans- atlantic nature — a farmer from the State of Ohio — with a Byronic collar, but with a matter-of-fact face — indicating more shrewdness than transcendentalism : meets one Mr. F , a New York merchant, who has more the air of a 'man of the world." They ' Vide Current English Literature — specimens quoted in Chapter xi. 12 INTRODUCTION. claim acquaintance, and take seats. G rests his right foot on his left knee, clasps his ancle with his left hand, and says — Well, F , I'm right glad to see you. Who would have thought, now, of meeting an old friend in such a village as this. F . Oh, I have been here before — I am an old traveller you know ; I saw your name in the steamer's list last month. — Never here before? G . No. It's my first acquaintance with Old England. F . And what do you think of it, so far? G . Why, I haven't seen it all — but it is a great country — considering it's an island. F . Esjiecially when you consider this Island as the con- troller of "an empire upon which the sun never sets." G . What a deal of room they have, even in the island, I went to see those great parks at Eaton-Hall and Blenheim — each for the pleasure, mind you, of one family. They don't look much like the over-crowded country they tell us about in books. If the grass hadn't been quite so smooth, and the trees so trim and regular, I might have imagined m3'self in Ohio again. — They must have plenty of farming land, if they use these parks only to look at. The're pretty places, and no mistake — but what a fine lot of wheat might be grown in them ! F . That's a true Yankee notion. Our utilitarianism wants civilizing. There- is no doubt that hundreds of thousands in the districts you have not seen yet, would like the chance of earning their bread in those parks. But if you happen to have more land than your neighbour you wouldn't be an Owenite and give him your extra acres? It is not in human nature. The owners of these parks may be philanthropists without being agrarians. G . Just so — but if they have many such parks here, and land enough to support twenty- four millions besides, they must crowd not a few into close quarters. F . They do ' crowd ' a good many — no doubt of that — and the political economists have not yet solved the problem how these extremes are to be reconciled and harmonized. G . But what an everiasting deal of money it must cost to keep up these places. At one of them, the big man in uniform told me they had sixty horses and a hundred servants for the use INTRODUCTION. 13 of the family — besides all they used on the farm. I can't imagine what they use them all for — or how they pay for them. F . If you liad a million of dollars per annum to spend, as some have here, you could do "upward of considerable," as we say. The wealth of England is enormous, almost beyond ima- gining — and magnificent are her charities — and yet her destitu- tion is unparalleled. But these are truisms. G • These English are a curious people. The driver going to Hampton Court the other day, discovered my Yankee- ship — for I was born in Connecticut, and only raised among the Buckeyes. Well, Jarvey asked me if there are any railroads in America? I thought I'd he even with him — so said I, as we were passing a bridge, "What brook is this?" You should have seen how puzzled and compassionating he looked, when he said in the tone of a judge, "That's the Te/tis, sir." F . Scarcely fair, considering that money don't make the rivers, whoever makes the railroads. Besides, you must have injured jarvey's feelings by calling him driver. Coachman is the word in this country. G . No? — Well, the next one shall have his due. Then a passenger on the coach — what top-heavy concerns they are — overhearing the word America, asked me if I knew a cousin of his, one John Smith, who lived "in a place they called Ala- bama." I hadn't that pleasure ; but I just remarked as a sort of explanation, that Alabama is as far from where I live, as a Londoner is from Russia. F . They certainly have rather vague notions here of the degrees of latitude on the Western continent — but American geography fills a very small corner of the English school-books. A Yankee boy learns far more of his 'fatherland,' as we call England, than England cares to know of her degenerate descend- ants over in the woods. Jonathan sends over a book now and then, with his "compliments, and is progressing as well as can be expected, considering his age;" but Uncle Bull shakes his head, and growls something about "that good-for-nothing scamp — he'll never come to any good — Iv"e disowned him, and cut him oft" witliout a shilling long ago — and I wish he would keep his ' notions at home and mind his own business." Ci . They say very odd things in this country. In the 14 INTRODUCTION. Birmingham cars I was talking with a respectable, clever sort of man — quite a gentleman — on matters and things in general, and as usual, it would come out that I was one of the " Pariahs of the earth," as one of their editors called us: in short, that I was an American. Would you believe it ? he looked amazed, and said, " Why, how long have you been in England? you speak very good English." F . Ha, ha ! Not a new occurrence. I never knew a decent American in England who was not similarly complimented more than once. It is surprising ; for though as a nation we have had a snuffing from the Scotch, a peppering from the Irish, a perfuming from the French, and a smoking from the Germans and Dutch, there is still so large a proportion of the pure English descent; and the English language, of nearly all natives of the United States, is so universally uniform, that it seems strange to us that an American speaking English is an outre curiosity, even to an illiterate Englishman. For my part, I think that in spite of the New England nasal twang, and the Southern drawl, among ' the million,' the English language is more generally spoken by all classes in the United States, than it is in England. You will scarcely find anything like the dialects of Somersetshire, Essex, or Yorkshire, even in the wilds of Arkansas or Iowa. G . I had supposed my English was pretty tolerable; but travellers must live and learn. The very next day, I over- heard a young lady, whose papa had been patronizbig me, expressing her svu-prise that I was a white man ! I don't know whether she expected a negro or a copper-face; but was it not rather droll? F . I ha\-e been many a time amused in just the same way. There seems to be a hazy, floating notion, in England, that an 'American ' must necessarily mean one of the red aborigines of the forest; and this, after all, is not surprising, on second thoughts, for the poor red man once monopolized the name. Intelligent men, to be sure, ought to know the present accepta- tion of the word. Half the difficidty is owing to our having no patronymic — no proper national designation — for, strictly speak- ing, a Patagonian is an American as well as a native of Massa- chusetts. G . Why, they do call us " Yellow-faced Yankees." 1 INTRODUCTION. 15 am not particularly jaundiced, for one; but I've no sort of objection to the word Yankee. I think a real Yankee, a genuine New Englander, has something to boast of. F . You are quite right. But speaking of boasting, it's a pity some of our worthy countrymen (and Yankee girls too, "smart" and pretty as they are) would not shew a little better taste and a little less patriotism, and not make quite so grand a floiu-ish abroad about 'oiu* glorious republic' This is getting to be a nuisance to sensible men of all countries, and especially when it is the mere vapouring of a braggadocio. I consider myself as true an American as any of them, and think all the better, on the whole, of 'my native land,' and all that sort of thing, after studying Europe. I believe there is virtue enough extant among the people to purge out all the dross which has accu- mulated (and there is quite enough of it), and to shew yet to Europe that man is capable of self-government. But this pugna- cious thiiisting of our national vanity into the teeth of every sti'anger we happen to meet is worse than nonsense. No good comes of it. Instead of convincing, it only disgusts. We do not need proselytes. The countrj' is able to take care of itself, indifterent both to foreign likes and dislikes, always provided that its engagements, both public and private, are honourably fulfilled. I wish, by the way, they always had been so. G . But you wouldn't tamely listen to abuse without a retort ? F . A ' retort com-teous ' occasionally is a 'reproof valiant.' I like to hear the tnxth on both sides. But recrimination does no good. Two wrongs never make a right. If there are ' wliite slaves ' in England, the fact does not alter the other fact, that in some parts of the United States there are black ones. G . But they seem to be always preaching and reviling us about slavery. I have seen quite enough in books, and every body I meet here has the same sneer on his lips, for almost the first greeting you get; we all get it alike: " You profess to be so free — look at your slavery." Yet my noble young State, with its million and a half of people, has no more to do with slavery or its continuance than the Emperor of China. F . They do talk very absurdly, especially as some six or eight States which received slaves from Great Britain, liberated 16 INTRODUCTION. them long before their venerable mother even dreamed of such a process in her other colonies, I believe sincerely that nineteen- twentieths of the present slaves are really better treated than an equal number of the lower classes in England, to say nothing of Ireland. But this does not affect the system, which I abhor from my soul. The time is coming when we shall see the end of it, and, meanwhile, you may tell the man who attacks you next about it, that a part of the United States, equal in extent to all Great Britain, Ireland, and half the rest of Europe, has no slavery at all. G . And where did the slavery come from? I have heard that England had a good deal to do in forcing on us just what they now abuse us for. She infected us with a plague-spot, and now she says, " Don't come near us, you knaves, we shall be contaminated." I read as much as that in a speech of O'Con- nell's, that was received with shouts of applause by the pious audience in Exeter Hall; at least, so said the newspaper. F . It would be more to the pui-pose if they would tell us the remedy. A worthy English Quaker said to me, '* Friend, there is but one way — the slaves of thy comitry should be liber- ated, as om's have been." But who is to pay for them? The British Government have recognised a property in slaves by paying money for them. If the principle is carried out, it will cost one hundred millions sterling to liberate those in the United States, without taking them a step from where they are now. Besides, thirteen different Governments may not at the same moment agree upon so serious an experiment, and no one can force the other. And then, what will become of the slaves when free? If England had dispersed these two and a half inillions, in her own cities and counties at home, instead of in distant colonies, owned by absentees, and governed by 'middle-men,' she would have found a different result from her experiment. G . Then how they reproacli us \\\t\i ' repudiation ' at every step. They talk to us as if to be an American and an honest man at the same time were a moral impossibility. "Your country has repudiated its debts, and cheated its creditors," say they; and yet, as I told them, the Government of the United States does not owe them a farthing; and at home I can sell one of its hundred-dollar bonds for a hundred and fourteen dollars, in INTRODUCTION. 17 any city of the Union. And what have I to do with the debts of Mississippi ? F . Yon forget that here they never make those dis- tinctions. One of the United States is dishonest, they argue. The States all form one nation, ergo, they are all dishonest. This is English logic ; and though it is questionable, yet still the truth remains, that in the eyes of Europe, the disgrace of one State covers the whole country. The million repudiated by Missis- sippi has injured the country more than a hundred times the amount, and, besides, has fixed upon popidar Governments a stain which half a century may not eradicate. G . But Mississippi did not borrow the money, and never had a penny of it. F . An excuse, but not a sufficient reason. Pei-haps common law did not require her to sustain the unauthorised acts of her agents. At least, even an English Vice-Chancellor has given his opinion, that for illegal acts of her agents a State cannot be responsible. But law is one thing, equity and sound policy another. And what are a few millions, moi-e or less, to the honour of an independent State, and especially when such States are working out a problem for the benefit of the rest of the world. G . But the other States that do not pay, have got into the scrape against their will, and the difficulties are not all of their own making, as London capitalists well know. If a monied man offers me funds to build a bridge, with the understanding that I shall pay him back out of the toll, and then stops the supplies when the bridge is half finished, how can he expect his interest? The money is all buried in the bridge — and the bridge is not done, so it can not pay. To be sure the States ought to have laid a tax at once— but the people had had hard times, and were vexed and discouraged. However, they never ^repudiated' as they call it, and they will all pay up yet, or my name is not G . F . I have no doubt of it. Pennsylvania deserves the lash more than all the rest, for she had the means in abundance, and only wanted the energy, by a slight taxation on her own im- mense resources to pay forty such debts. She has not said in words, " I won't pay;" — but her apathy and delay have placed her in a most disgraceful position. She owes me and the citizens of 18 INTRODUCTION. every solvent state in the Union, for defamation of character, ten times the amonnt of her bonds for filthy lucre. It is a sickening subject — and the more vexatious, because people here know- but very little about it ; — but the least said the better, till every farthing is paid. This may take time, but it will be done notwith- standing the forebodings and distrust of those who sold their bonds for sixty per cent. ; they are worth seventy-five now, and will be worth a hundred, or the names of William Penn and Franklin should be expunged from the annals of Pennsylvania. G . Well, they can't abuse Ohio; any of them who hold her paper may have the money for all it promises to pay, principal and interest, any moment they choose. F . Yes, when Bull jumbles us all into the same cate- gory, he forgets that twenty States and Territories out of the twenty-nine, either have no debts at all, or have promptly and honorably met their engagements. And it will be another Fourth of July, w^hen the rest come to the counter with their bags, and say, "give us our parchment, — here is your gold — principal and interest!" Honesty is not extinct, and it will last a little longer. G . English editors are very facetious, I read in the Liver- pool Times the other day, that the United States treasury, after paying all demands, had a balance of about ten millions. The editor didn't seem to like this ; he couldn't fire away about 'repudi- ation', and what do you think he said? — " If the Americans expect to use this sum in conquering Texas from Mexico, and Oregon from England, they will find it miserably deficient." This is rather funny, considering that the United States produce a pretty clear title to Oregon; and as to Texas, why should England recognise her independence, and receive her Minister at the British Court, if Texas yet belongs to Mexico? F — ■ — . You must ask Lord Aberdeen. Texas does not belong to us, and I hope never will. If the Texans are their own masters, they may go into partnership with whom they please for all I can see. But, for one, I don 't covet the partnership, and think we can both do better as we are. G . Do you think the partnership will be brought about ? F . It is hard to guess. Our 'extraordinary' President will not have the means of national mischief much longer in his hands, and tlie country I think, will be well rid of such 'acci- INTRODUCTION. 19 dents.' It is fortunate that he could not say, like Louis — " I am the State." There are checks upon rash measures in our political system, after all; and too many substantial men near the helm, to let the ship go on the rocks yet awhile. But English editors are not always profound in their knowledge of our Government. I have met Members of Parliament, who did not know even that the President has a Cabinet — and of course knew less of minor matters. G . I suppose they 're too old to learn. If my boy, twelve years old, wouldn 't tell more about England, than the grown people here seem to know about us, he would pass for a dunce. And yet their abusiveness in the newspapers beats all I ever heard of, F . Sneers and abuse of every thing American have been the fashion for tlie last five years, and whatever is most popular, of course is most likely to pay. We deserve a good deal of it, there is no doubt of that. And I heartily hope it may do us good. It would do much, if these attacks did not shew so much wilful maliciousness. The bad spirit is so apparent, that it nullifies all the good effect of the dose. Some of these writers have a vast deal of bitter and angry feeling on both sides to answer for; they seem to revel in the very clover of insulting words when they touch upon Yankee land ; they miss their mark — such a fever of abusiveness must re- act. G . I think they must find this game pretty profitable as you say, from the way the people shook the house with de- light, when they poked some fun at us, in the Pantomime at Drury Lane. To be sure there were sly raps all round, but the sneer at the Yankees seemed to be the palpable hit. The laugh- ing and clapping were first rale — almost equal to the fun itself; they seemed to scorn Jonathan into annihilation. F . But this is only a bit of fun. John fires off squibs at all the rest of the world as well as at us, and then growls at himself. With us, to be sure, it is a family antipathy — always the most bitter. And these squibs please the multitude in all conn- tries. It's the same with the ti-avellers and their books. Sensible men may write discriminating and sensible books — which the masses never hear of — or they do not write at all. As to the man- ners and customs and sins of the United States, and the way they 20 INTRODUCTION. have been pictured by the popular travellers — let the verdict and the castigation rest with such men as Mr. Lyell, or Lord Morpeth, or Mr. Godley, or any intelligent man whose pocket has not prompted him to write racy and abusive caricatures, — and I think the people will not dispute the sentence, though it may be ever so severe. Some English writers give you a rude and unprovoked kick on your shin, and then sneer at you for being 'thin- skinned.' Now, I think the Americans have shewn an amazing deal of good-nature. Their guests have been hospitably enter- tained — as Englishmen deserve to be — for no people can be more hospitable than themselves, — they are treated with every atten- tion — sometimes with quite too much parade, — they go home and publish — not well-meant, judicious strictures upon the state of things they have seen — with the intention of correcting evils, — but wholesale, indiscriminate, malicious caricatures — calcvilated to strengthen antipathies, and make all bad matters ten times worse ; and yet every new comer is treated just as kindly as the last. Now, I believe, that no other people would take a rap over the knuckles with a better grace, provided it were given in a good spirit. They only ask a fair field and no favour, and to be judged as they deserve, by facts. Heaven knows, there is evil enough in the country that needs to be cured; but, time and circum- stances considered, its progi'ess and condition are not quite so desperate as has been represented. G . Well, F , you've given me quite a lecture. Tm glad I met you, for I have picked up an idea or two to let off at the next man who gives me a knock. F . There is nothing better than facts, when they are to the purpose. By the way, I took up the new edition of MaccuUoch's Dictionary of Commerce, the other day, and read this precious scrap, which I have copied : " But the injudicious outlay [of the borrowed funds] does not afford so much as the shadow of an excuse for the conduct of Pennsylvania, Michigan, Mississippi, Louisiana, and other States who have proceeded to repudiaie their debts. Nothing, in fact, was ever heard of* in the public conduct of nations, more entirely * It is rather singular, that while this paragraph was being copied for the press, a trial was going on at the Court of Queen's Bench, of a pecuniary claim against the British Government ; and one of the pleas for the crown was, not against the Justice of INTRODUCTION. 21 profligate, and audaciously villanous, than this repudiation. Necessity may compel a State, as well as an individual, to become bankrupt; but the repudiating American States have no such excuse The other (?) repudiating States, are imiversally also in the most prosperous circumstances The truth is, that their dishonesty is glaring and barefaced, admitting of neither palliation nor excuse To decline paying their just debts on such flimsy grounds, is the climax of Icnuverg. We regret to have to state, that our countrymen are large creditors of the states who have repudiated their debts, holding no less than 20,026,458 dollars (about 4,000,000/.) of Pennsylvania stock. We would fain hope, that the experience they have now had in American honovir will make them more cautious how they trust it on future occasions." And again (page 889) : " W^ith a few distinguished exceptions, the State governments, instead of providing by a small increase of taxation for the payment of their creditors, and the completion of the works in which they had engaged, were impolitic enough to abandon the latter, and dishonest and shameless enough to repudiate the former ! Discredit and bankruptcy have been all hut tiniversal in America ; and thence the limited amount of her imports. In so far, however, as we are concerned, the decline of the latter is of little imjjortance. It is better to export nothing, than that the exports shoidd not be paid for ! After the experience they have purchased, at the expense of many millions, our countrymen will, it is to be hoped, be cautious in the extreme, how they deal with the Americans in future." In another place, Mr. Macculloch, speaking of American newspapers, says : " No people, with any pretensions to instruc- tion and morality, can continue to patronise a press whose prin- cipal features are misrepresentation, exaggeration, and abuse." Now, with all deference to the superior judgment of the learned gentleman, I would venture to remark, that, if ever those three ' features' were unnecessarily displayed, they are so, in the above paragraphs of his own. I only know the gentleman by the claim, but that it was barred by the Statute of Limitations, and the accession of a new Sovereign. Cases were quoted by the counsel, of former claims on English Sovereigns for borrowed money, being resisted, and partially cancelled by their successors ; in other words, as far as I can understand the quotation, these just claims were directly repudiated. And again, the draft of the Queen's representative in a distant colony, protested by the Government at home. There were reasons for all this, no doubt ; but in the only cases of American State repudiation, there were reasons too, though nobody alludes to them. Besides, the charge is made against States that never did repudiate a farthing. 22 INTRODUCTION. his high reputation, and will merely say, that it is a pity such a man should stoop to write and stereotype in a book of permanent and daily reference, the eight or ten deliberate and wanton misre- presentations in these paragraphs. Newspaper, or pantomimic squibs, or the witty burlesque of a reverend divine, may pass cun-ent at their proper value ; even a ' drab-coloured man of Pennsyl- vania' would cherish no malice for the satire of the great canonical critic : but such statements and comments as the above, in such a work, cannot be properly characterised by any epithet less harsh than that we have used. They involve untruths and false inferences from beginning to end ; falsehood affecting not one individual, but millions. If Mr. MaccuUoch did not know this at the time he wrote them, he had only himself to blame. Any one who takes half an hour for the j)urpose, can prove the error and injustice of evei-y sentence thus displayed as grave history in the great 'Commercial Dictionary,' of the greatest of political economists. G . I should imagine his own book must show that American trade, with all its drawbacks, has been worth having on the whole. F . Yes; considering that the United States have long been England's best customers, and in twenty years have PAID her for merchandize to the amount of two hundred millions ster- ling; besides promptly paying her five, six, and seven per cent, for about as much more of her capital in the same time ; considering that himdreds of thousands in England have long received their sole support by employment resulting from American purchases; the advantage does not appear to have been entirely on one side ; and the losses by these trading connexions, taking them at their worst, would seem to be, after all, but a small item in the trial balance. But, probably, the great political economist knows best. It would, doubtless, be better for both parties, that they should rely more upon their own resources ; and, certainly, better for us not to run into debt again, even if England again makes the offer of her disinterested services. For my part, I have no reason to dislike Old England — the land of my forefathers, the progenitor of twelve millions of my countrymen. She has always treated me well, commercially; and when I come here, she receives me with her usual liberal INTRODUCTION. 23 hospitality. And it's a jjity that two kindred nations should be bamboozled by bookmakers into unnatm-al antipathy. Sensible men on both sides know better — but here, they need American Fads. G . They do, indeed, if I may judge from the information I have come in contact with. Why don't you collect a few items and give them a book ? F . It is almost useless to expect that such a book would be read just now. The Anti-American feeling is too strong. Our former best friends and well-wishers are now the most bitter against us. When the delinquents turn the tide by fully and faithfully bringing up arrears and paying their debts, some hints and facts on vario\is American topics might be advantageous to both parties. But for myself I have little leisure or inclina- tion for the honours of authorship. POSTSCRIPT. Extracts from the Message of the Governor of Pennsylvania to the Legislature, January 7th, 1845. " If the provisions of the act of 1844 be fairly carried into effect, in the valuation of property, and the collection and prompt payment of the tax to be enforced, the annual revenue hereafter to be derived from that source, will amount to at least 1,500,000. dollars. This sum, with the other resources of the commonwealth, will be entirely adequate to furnish the necessary amount to discharge the interest upon the public debt, and thus ensiu-e the fidehty of the State to her engagements." " It nuist be gratifying to every Pennsylvanian to reflect that the credit ef this great State, which has been for upwards of two years subjected to reproach, will thus be restored to the iinsuUied character, which until this unavoidable reverse of fortune she had steadfastly maintained. The claims of all her honest creditors will be punctually discharged, and the gross imputations which have been heaped upon her name, wiped out, and the abiding confidence which we have ever felt in the disposition and ability of the State to comply with all her engagements, will be fully realized." Correspondence of the Commercial Advertiser. Philadelphia, Feb. 1, half-past six p.m. The bill pending for the payment of interest on the State debt due this day, has passed both branches of the Legislature by unanimous votes in each, and has been signed by the Governor. Philadelphia, Feb. 3, three p.m. The interest due on the debt of the State of Pennsylvania was paid to-day at the Bank of Pennsylvania, as far as called for before three o'clock, the usual hour of closing the Bank. « # * » * At noon a salute of as many guns as there were votes in the Legislature in favour of the bill for the payment of the interest was fired at Bush Hill, by a detachment of the National ArtUlery Company. This movement, at least, shews something of public feeling. PART I. CHAPTER I. GEOGRAPHICAL EXTENT POPULATION AND ITS CLASSES FOREIGN- ERS SLAVERY OCCUPATIONS OP THE PEOPLE AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS MINERALS COMMERCE MANUFACTURES REVENUE AND RESOURCES OF THE GENERAL GOVERNMENT PREMIUM ON ITS BONDS 'repudiation' AND DELINQUENCY OF SOME OF THE STATES CAUSES AND EXPLANATION OF THESE MATTERS. The United States of America occupy an area of 2,300,000 square miles; or 650,000 more than the whole of Europe, excepting Russia. Collectively, their greatest length is 3000 miles; their greatest breadth 1 700 miles. They have a frontier line of about 10,000 miles; a sea-coast of 3600 miles; and a lake-coast of 1200 miles. Of the rivers: the Missouri is 3600 miles in length, or more than twice as long as the Danube; the Ohio is 600 miles longer than the Rhine; and the Hudson (entirely in the State of New York, and navigable for 160 miles) is 120 miles longer than the Thames. The territory of the United States is divided into twenty-six separate States and three territories, each of which has a separate government. [The population and statistics of each are given in Part II.] The State of Virginia has an area of 70,000 square miles, and is about one-thiixl larger than England. B 26 GEOGRAPHICAL EXTENT. The State of Ohio contams 40,000 square miles, or 8000 more than the whole of Scotland. The harbour of the city of New York is the Atlan- tic outlet of a river, canal, and lake navigation of about 3000 miles, or the distance from Europe to America. From Augusta, in the State of Maine, to New Orleans in Louisiana, the distance is 1800 miles; or 200 miles more than from London to Constantinople. Such general landmarks may be useful, perhaps, to some, in referring to the internal relations of the North American republic, and comparing it with other nations. The want of accurate outlines of its geographical extent and political divisions, frequently leads English writers into very erroneous impressions and statements,* which a few general facts would * When Mr. Alison {History of Europe, vol. x.) charges " the ardent democrats of Maine, the Ohio, and the Mississippi," with causing the Canadian disturbances, and says they would suffer little in case of a war, " because their connexions are all inland," — he writes, to say the least, very loosely: for he wrongly charges hundreds of thousands who live 1000 miles from Canada; and as to inland connexions, Maine happens to be the very State of the whole twenty-six which has the longest line of Atlantic coast: while the whole commerce of the Mississippi centres at New Orleans, one of tlie principal seaports. The English journals recently represented the Governor of New York, as being obhged to call out the militia to an-est Anti- Mormon criminals; but the transactions referred to took place in a frontier state as far from New York as St. Petersburgh is from London. Maunder's, Brookes', and other Gazetteers, published in London in 1844, describe New York, and other States and cities in the United States, exactly from the Gazetteers of fifty years ago! They would seem to have considered the country either as having been asleep since that time, or as too unimportant to need later description. And yet these works profess to be " derived from the latest and best authorities." Cincinnati, a city containing 40,000 inhabitants, is not even mentioned in these works. POPULATION AND ITS CLASSES. 27 materially correct. jNIore particular information on various points will be found in the second part of this volume, in tables, of which the following is a general summary, viz. — I. The Population was — In 1790, 3,929,328 1800, 5,309,758 1810, 7,239,903 In 1820, 9,638,166 1830, 12,856,165 1840, 17,062,666 * The proportion of the different races which con- stitute the present population of the United States has been most incorrectly and absurdly estimated. A German paper recently asserted that of the fourteen and a half millions of whites in the United States, five millions are Germans. This is preposterous. As the census does not give any returns of national origin, it is not easy to ascertain this matter with exact precision. We have, hoAvever, the Custom-house returns of immigration; and Professor Tucker, who has elaborately analysed them, and the census itself, in a series of tables, arrives at the conclusion, that, allow- ing both for deficient returns, and for re-emigration to Canada and Texas, foreign emigrants and their descen- dants in the last fifty years have added to the population of the United States about one million. This may be below the mark: but including the original French population of Louisiana and the Spanish of Florida, it is safe to conclude, from the best data, that foreigners and their descendants in the United States at present amount at the utmost to 1,500,000. [By * foreigners' is meant all who have been adopted by the nation since it achieved its independence.] Thus leaving thirteen • Including 2,487,3.i5 slaves. 28 FOREIGN INFLUENCE. millions of a purely native stock descended from the founders of the nation — of whom four-fifths must have been of English blood. Of the million and a half of foreigners and their descendants, probably 600,000 are natives of Europe. I should estimate the proportion in every 100 to be thus : — Irish . . . . .35 Germans and Swiss . . .20 English and Scotch . . .20 French . . . . .15* Others lOf 100 How much is the country under foreign influence? Of the two and a half millions of electors, Custom- house returns will shew that from 150,000 to 200,000 are natives of Europe. Compared to the whole, this number is not formidable; but, unfortunately, these 200,000, though nearly all incapable of understanding the nature and peculiarities of a republican govern- ment — and with nothing whatever at stake in the national councils — have yet been permitted to enjoy privileges which give them in fact a controlling power in public measures: for their numbers are sufficient to turn the scale, of the political parties, and hence they are courted and feared by each party, and they hold the balance entirely in their own hands. The evils arising from this state of things are now beginning to be apparent; and a strong effort is being made, and very properly, to limit the right of suffrage either to • Including the people of Louisiana. t The descendants of the original Dutch settlers of New York are among the most respectable and wealthy of the present population of that State. SLAVERY, AND ITS ORIGIN. 29 natives of the country, or to residents of twenty-one years. Slavery, the foulest blot, the most withering curse inflicted upon the United States, exists in thirteen States. Its origin, causes, and cure, need not be discussed here, for this is merely a record, and not a dissertation. No one can desire its speedy and thorough eradication more heartily than the writer of this. If those, however, who are the loudest and most eloquent in their denunciations of this great evil, would but admit the difficulties of the case — a case entirely without parallel in ancient or modern history ; if they would look these difficulties in the face, and offer any reasonable, practicable remedies for them, instead of idle declamation and abuse; the direful problem of its removal would stand a better chance of an early solution. Meanwhile, it is but fair to remember that the United States was the first nation in the world to declare the slave trade piracy; that slavery was inflicted upon most of the original states as British colonies, and against their repeated protests ;* and that * Queen Anne directed the Colonial Governor of New York to " take care that the Almighty should be devoutly and duly served accoi-ding to the rites of the Church of England, and to give all possible encouragement to trade and traders — particu- larly to the ' Royal African Company in England;' which Com- pany was expressly desired by the Queen ' to take especial care that the colony should have a constant and sufficient supply of Merchantable Negroes, at moderate rates.'" — See Governor Seward's Introduction to Natural History of Nerv York. In 17S8, five years after the war of independence, this State passed an act against the foreign slave trade. In 1 798 it passed another for gradually abolishing slavery at home ; which measure was fully consummated in 1817. The census still returns certain numbers under the head of ' Slaves' in this and other States — belonging chiefly to travellers from the south, or else born before the first act was passed, whose slavery is scarcely nominal — but the evil really exists only as above stated. 30 OCCUPATIONS. THIRTEEN of the States and two territories, equal toge- ther, in extent, to the lohole of Great Britain, Ireland, France, Belgium, Holland, P^'ussia, Greece, Switzerland, and Portugal, * either abolished slavery several years since, or never had any at all. Occupations of the People. — By the census of 1840, it appears that there were employed — In agriculture 3,717,756 In commerce 117,575 Manufactures and trades . 791,545 Navigating the ocean . . 56,025 Navigating rivers and lakes . 33,067 In mining 15,203 Learned professions . . . 66,236 Agricultural Statistics. — In 1840, there were — Horses and mules .... 4,335,669 Neat cattle 14,971,586 The Royal acts of the mother country for fastening slavery upon the colonies were protested against in Virginia, Maryland, etc., as well as in New York, but without success. See Part II. In the present generation at the South, which has grown up in the midst of an evil so essentially interwoven with the very existence of society, of course there are many who assert that it is not an evil, and even that it is not a wrong. South Carolina in particular has been absurdly jealous of any agitation of the subject : but that the recent manifesto of her favourite states- man, Mr. Calhoun, does not speak the sentiments even of the slave-holding States is evident from the tone of their newspapers on the subject. An influential Kentucky paper, published in the midst of Slaveholders, recently said in an article on the subject: " We regard slavery as an unnnt'ujated curse in every aspect." . " The Universal sentiment of the north, and we believe, of a majority of the people of the slave-holdiny States regards slavery here as a plague-spot and a curse." . " In Kentucky, the people would joyfully adopt any just and practicable scheme of relieving themselves of the evil." — Frankfort (Kentucky) Commomvealthy Jan. 1845. * Proved by tables of their extent in square miles. GENERAL AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS. 31 Sheep 19,311,374 Swine 26,301,293 And poultry to the value of 9,344,410 dollars. There were produced — Wheat 84,823,272 bushels. Barley .... 4,161,504 „ Oats 123,071,341 bushels. Rye 18,645,567 „ Buck wheat . . . 7,291,743 „ Indian corn . . . 377,531,878 „ Wool 35,802,114 pounds. Hops 1,238,502 „ Wax 628,303 „ Potatoes .... 108,298,060 bushels. Hay 10,248,108 tons. Hemp and flax . . 25,251 „ Tobacco .... 219,163,319 pounds. Rice 80,841,422 „ Cotton 790,479,275 „ Silk cocoons . . . 65,552 „ Sugar (from cane) . 155,100,809 „ Wine 124,734 gallons. Value of the products of the dairy 33,787,008 dollars.* Ditto of the orchard . . . 7,256,904 „ Ditto of lumber .... 12,943,507 „ Of Minerals, etc. — Iron ore, coal, limestone, and salt, are abundant. The lead region in Missouri, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa, is probably the finest in the world. There is an ample supply of marble and gypsum. Gold is found to some extent in Vir- ginia, North Carolina, and Georgia. Of coal, the * One dollar is equal to 4*. 2d. sterling. 32 COMMERCE, FISHERIES. supply is doubtless inexhaustible. Mr. Lyell, the eminent geologist, describes a single coal-field in Pennsylvania and Ohio as extending 700 miles ! The commerce of the United States is, in extent, second to that of no other nation except Great Britain. In 1840, the capital invested in foreign trade by importing and commission merchants, was 119,295,367 dollars; in home retail trade, 250,301,799 dollars; in the fisheries, 16,429,620 dollars. The aggregate tonnage of vessels was 2,190,615 tons, of which 136,926 were employed in the whale fishery. The value of exports in 1840,* was — Dollars. Dollars. Of domestic produce, 113,895,634 Of foreign produce . 18,190,312 ■ 132,085,946 Value of importsf . . 107,141,519 Excess of exports . . 24,944,427 *For tables of Destination and details of the Exports, 5ee Part II. t The Imports in 1836 were about 180,000,000. This was the year of over-trading. The American vessels generally are noted for their superior models and sailing qualities; but the New York packet-ships, in particular, have long been famous in Europe, in these respects, and for their size, beauty, and appointments. Great improvements have been made recently; and there are now, in regular lines from New York, twenty-four packet ships to Livei-pool; twelve to London; and twelve to Havre. AH these are built at New Yoi-k — the size varies from 600 to 1200 tons. A New York packet sails to and from England and New York eight times a month. A considerable amount of American capital is invested in the South-sea whale fishery. The small town of New Bedford ( 1 2,000 inhabitants) owns no less than 120 whaling ships, and Nantucket sends out about 50 whalers. See Part II. The town of Salem (Mass.), with 15,000 inhabitants, is probably the wealthiest place of its size in the world. It is largely engaged in the India trade, and has a valuable Museum, collected by navi- o-ators from its own port, in different pai'ts of the world. MANUFACTURES. 33 The manufactures of the United States, though inferior to their agriculture and commerce, have re- cently received much attention, and have largely in- creased in amount, both for home consumption and for exportation. In 1840, the amount produced of home-made or family goods was 29,023,380 dollars. The cotton manufactories were 1240 with 2,284,631 spindles. They employed 72,119 persons ; produced articles to value of 46,350,453 dollars ; and had a capital employed of 51,102,359 dollars.* The woollen manufactures employed 21,342 persons, and a capital of 15,765,000 dollars: and produced goods to the amount of 20,696,999 dollars. Some other manufactures, etc. in 1840, are thus summed up : — Persons Capital. 1 Amount employed. maoal'acuirid. Dollars. Dollars. Hats and caps . . ... 8,704,342 i^traAv bonnets . . , 1,476,595 Tanneries . 26,018 15,650,929 — Leather manufac. 12,881,262 — Carriages . . . 21,994 5,551,632 10,897,887 Mills 60,788 65,858,470 76,545,246 Vessels .... . 7,016,094 Furniture . . 18,003 6,989,971 7,555,405 Iron manufacture . , 20,432,131 — Glass manufacture . 2,084,100 2,890,293 Coal (anthracite) . 4,355,602 — (bituminous) 1,868,852 — Lead 1,346,756 — * Some hundred packages of American cotton goods, consigned to an eminent English house for re-exportation a year or two since, were temporarily seized at the docks in London, because they were marked '^ Stark Mills, Manchester, N.H." this being supposed a fraud on the Manchester manufacturer. It appeared, on inquiry, that the suspicion was groundless. There are some five or six Manchesters in the United States, and there N.II. is the usual abbreviation for New Hampshire. Travellers say that they buy in New York a better hat, n 34 FACTORY OPERATIVES. There Avere 1552 printing-offices, 447 binderies, 138 daily newspapers, 125 semi- or tri-weekly, 1141 weekly, 227 periodicals : the whole employing 11,523 persons, and a capital of 10,619,054 dollars. The total amount of capital employed in manufac- tures of every kind was 267,726,579 dollars, or say fifty-five millions sterling. The condition of the ' factory operatives,^ as is well known, is very difierent from that of the same class in Europe. The town of Lowell has been more par- ticularly described by English tourists : — its " three miles of factory girls," with their silk stockings (holiday stockings?) their parasols; their lyceums and reading rooms ; their piano, and literary magazine {all their own), have been chronicled in full ; and specimens of their pencraft have been widely distributed in England under the auspices of an author-publisher,* whose liberal and intelligent labours to difi"use sound ' know- ledge for the million,^ in both hemispheres, place him high among the benefactors of mankind. The Revenue of the general government is de- rived chiefly from duties on imports and from the sale of the public lands. f The financial statement for the better boot, and even a better made coat, than they usually can obtain in London ; and this is not altogether an idle boast. It is ascertained that no less than 60,000 American cheap clocks have been imported and sold in England within one year. Only four or five years since large niimbers of German clocks were sent to New York. Some Connecticut ariizans took up tlie subject; and the same dealers at Hamburgh and Bremen who formerly exported clocks to the United States, now receive the American article for the German market. . The annual fair of the American Institute displays a very re- markable progress in hom6 manufactures in the last ten years. See Part II. * Charles Knight. f The United States have 272 millions of acres of public lands surveyed and unsold, and 811 millions more which are unsurveyed. GOVERNMENT FINANCES. 35 year ending 30th June 18-i4, is thus : Receipts. Dollars. Customs. . . ... 1^6,183,570 Lands 2,059,939 Treasury notes . . . 1,877,182 Miscellaneous sources . . 261,009 Total receipts . . . 30,381,700 Balance in Treasury . . 10,431,507 Total .... 40,813,207 Expenditure. Dollars. Ci^'il List, Ai-my, Navy, etc. . 32,958,827 Balance in Treasury . . 7,854,380 July 1, 1844. In 1837, the Government, after j9Qyin_<7 q^ Me whole, principal and interest, of the National Debt, contracted during two long wars, was enabled to distribute among the different States, no less than 37,468,859 dollars of surplus revenue. The subsequent decrease in customs, owing to the commercial revulsions, com- pelled the government again to incur a small debt. The loan, however, was promptly taken at home, and the stock, by the last quotations, was sold at a pre- mium of fourteen per cent.: i. e. 114 dollars in money were given for 100 dollars of stock. These facts are a sufficient commentary upon the indiscriminate wholesale sneers, which have been so frequent in books and newspapers, in theatres, and in Exeter Hall, These lands are sold at 125 cents, (say bs. sterling) per acre. The Indian lands have been purchased by treaty, and paid for in n^oney, or by exchange for other parts of the public domain. See Part II. 36 STATE debts: ' kepudiation/ respecting ' the Bankrupt American Government/* The stain of repudiation, which so lamentably ob- scures the fair fame of one of the States, so far as a part of her debt is concerned ; and the embarrass- ments and temporary delinquency of six or seven of the other States, are greatly to be deplored. A full and fair account of the causes of and reasons for all this would shew the injustice of much that is said and written on the subject. Not a syllable should be suggested even in palliation of intentional fraud : and no one will deny that some States have too long abused the confidence of their creditors j or, at least, have not exerted their energies as they were bound to do, by a just sense of honour and public faith, to meet their engagements. But those who are most bitter upon this subject, are not, or should not be, ignorant of these facts; viz. 1. That the 5,000,000 dollars' stock disowned by Mississippi, was disowned because it was wrongfully negotiated, and appropriated against the laws, and not for the benefit of the State.f 2d. That, in other States, the public works for which loans were obtained, could not yield a * Thousands, even now, in England, suppose that the insolvent ' Bank of the United States,' was a National, or Government, Bank. It would be equally just to make the British Govern- ment responsible for the operations of the ' National Linen Com- pany." Far be it from me to make light of the case of widows and orphans, and persons of moderate means, who suffered by this disastrous failure. So great was the confidence in this bank, even as a private institution, that hundreds and thousands had invested their all in it ; and widows and orphans in Philadelphia suffered quite as much or more than those in London, 1 1 do not repeat this as a sufficient excuse ; the honour of the State should have been held sacred at any expense ; but it should not be said that she wilfully and causelessly disavowed her just debts. TWENTY STATES NOT DELINQUENT. 37 revenue until they were completed ; and that the means of these States were thus suddenly crippled by the course of foreign stockholders and the Bank of England, in unexpectedly refusing, at the time of the great commercial disasters, the continuance of the supplies which had before been temptingly offered, and which were necessary for the completion of the works, and for rendering them capable of paying the inte- rest as due.* 3d. That twenty out of the twenty- nine States and territories, equal in extent to the whole of Europe, save Russia, either have no debt at all, or have honourably and promptly fulfilled all their pecuniary engagements, to the extent of several millions annually.-^ These considerations, in connexion with the fact that a large part of the deferred debts are due at home, to Americans themselves ; that American journals of all grades have urgently protested against the present state of things, and most of the State legislatures have pointedly condemned even the very excuses of the delinquents; that the natural resources of the States, when sufficiently developed, are ample for ten times the amount of their liabilities ; * This may not be true of Pennsylvania ; and the delinquency of that wealtliy State has excited just indignation at home, as well as abroad : but she has now made ample provision for her engagements, and the retrievement of her credit ; and, like the other States, will in future, it is to be hoped, depend more entirely upon her own resources. f The Ohio and Kentucky State stocks sell in New York, by the last quotations, at a premium oi from one to four per cent.; those of the State of New York, at a premium of from three to fourteen per cent. ; those of Massachusetts (if offered), at about six per cent, premium. New Hampshire, Vermont, Rhode Island, Connecticut, North Carolina, New Jersey, Delaware, Wisconsin, Missouri, and Iowa, have no debts at all. 38 STATE DEBTS. and, moreover, that tlie constitutions of the States, and the nature of the federal system, preclude all control of one State over another, and render each one alone responsible for its local pecuniary affairs, in just the same way as the civic expenses of an English city would belong to its municipal govern- ment, and not to the Queen and Parliament : all these points should have some consideration, before it becomes necessary in England to stereotype ' American' and ' swindler^ as synonymous terms. After the above was in type, anxious to state this case exactly as it is, uncoloured by national partiality, I requested an English gentleman, whose means of information on the subject, on both sides of the Atlan- tic, are authentic and accurate, to write a brief statement of the facts. He obligingly did so, as follows : " In England, it is a common remark, that the Americans have repudiated, have openly refused to pay, their just debts, and that they ought, one and all, to be removed from the society of gentlemen. The accusation of repudiation by the Americans is the constant theme in the daily newspapers, and is to be found reiterated in works of received standard utility; and it is against this wholesale condemnation, as well as to fit the saddle upon the right back, that the following remarks are written. " Of the twenty-nine States and Territories con- stituting the Federal Union, the following are the only defaulters ; viz. Pennsylvania, Maryland, Missis- sippi, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Louisiana, Arkansas, and the Florida Territory; and the only one of the above which may justly be accused of the damnable doctrine of repudiation, is Mississippi. THE CASE IMPARTIALLY STATED. 39 " Many extenuating circumstances can be urged for each of the States separately ; but as the limits of this article will not permit of their being dwelt upon, it will be only requisite to mention that four out of the seven, namely, Illinois, Indiana, jNIichigan, and Florida, are all of them of such recent origin, that difficulties might reasonably be expected. Never- theless, each of these States has been exerting itself to get out of its difficulties. Illinois has succeeded very recently in raising in this city a loan of 1,600,000 dollars, of Avhich sum 200,000 dollars are now in the hands of the London banker : this money is to be applied to the finishing of her canal, and as soon as it is finished the farmers will be able to send their produce to market, and then they will be able to pay their taxes. " Indiana ofi'ers to pay 60 per cent, on the amount due annually for her interest, the principal being acknowledged in full. "Michigan pleads that she is ready to pay the inte- rest on every dollar which she has received; but is unable to pay on the amount of which she was robbed by the United States Bank, who received the subscription on the loan, and only paid the States one-fourth of the money. " Florida territory alone is inert. " Maryland, with its small extent of territory and large canal, has had much to contend with, more especially as the downfall of American credit has prevented the further advance of those funds which were absolutely requisite to finish the canal to the coal region, from whence the chief source of profit- able returns is to be expected. 40 WHO ARE THE DELINQUENTS. " Louisiana can hardly be called a defaulter, inas- much as she continues to pay regularly on the larger portion of her loans, and has only failed in those bonds issued to two of her banks. ^' Pennsylvania, since February 1842, has not paid any dividends, at least not to any who did not come under the denomination of small holders ; but never was satu'e more misplaced, or ignorance more com- pletely shewn, than when ' the drab-coloured men of Pennsylvania' were held up to public odium; for the fact stands forth, simply thus : the ' drab-coloured men^ are almost entirely limited to Philadelphia, and the city of Philadelphia never for an instant defaulted : its five per cent, stock, even during the worst times, never fell below ninety-eight in America. The really blameable parties are the agricultural German settlers, who possess a majority in some of the counties; many of them cannot either read or write in any language : almost all are unable to understand the English language, and place a ban upon any descendant who should so far forget the manners of his forefathers as to make any attempt to assimilate himself, by his acquirements, to those people among whom he dwells. At present there are nearly as many German news- papers published in Pennsylvania as English ones : — now, however, that the Germans have been made to understand that deep dishonour has fallen upon their State, and that Faderland sees with sorrow the con- tempt into which they have fallen, they have readily come forward with their hard dollars, and contributed remove the stigma. " By condemning in one fell swoop the entire of the States, those States which have made efforts to uphold TAXATION IN NEW YORK, OHIO, ETC. 41 their honour derive no credit from their exertions; and here let me point out some of those whose actions are deserving of praise. " Ohio, which was nearly falling into the same error as Pennsylvania, took a very summary course for paying the interest: the legislature of that State placed the power of raising the requisite taxes in the hand of the auditor; he was to name the per centage on the property in the State required to pay the interest; and, if any irregularity occurred, he was to be held answerable. " Alabama went yet further to uphold its credit; she laid sundry taxes on billiard-tables, cotton, brokers' commissions, and finally, an unmitigated poll-tax, without reference to age, sex, or condition : this was twelve months ago, and up to this present time a second Wat Tyler has not been heard of. "New York State has raised its property-tax, so that if a citizen of the State has 1000/. in New York stock, he pays a tax of 1/. per annum; while, if he has the same sum in British consols, he would only pay I7s. 6d. per annum, or three per cent, on his income. A holder of property in England pays 7d. in the pound sterling, on the income produced by it; but a holder of property in Ohio, or Pennsylvania, pays 6s. on every one hundred pounds of capital; and if he did not obtain a better interest for his money than the holder of consols obtains, this tax would then be equivalent to 2s. in the pound, or ten per cent, of his income; and yet these very Ohioans, who have endured this heavy taxation, are classed in the same category as the repudiating Mississippians. " In fact, all these States have made many stringent laws to fulfil their engagements; and recent cii'cum- 42 MISSISSIPPI. stances indicate that the same course of policy will continue to be pursued. "The only State in the Union against which the scorn of civilisation can be justly directed, on the ground of entertaining the doctrine of repudiation, is Mississippi. This State is rich in resources, and cannot plead poverty; but even here a few words might be urged in mitigation. By the last accounts of voters there, we find that the number of persons in that State who were for payment of the bonds were 18,665, and against paying them 21,036; and there can be no question but that the minority contains the wealth, the talent, and the respectability of the State; but unfortunately they are outvoted by those who are neither the tax-payers, nor have any deep interest in the commonwealth." It remains to be seen how long the mixed adven- turers, who form the present majority in that State, can withstand the tide of indignation which is setting against them in every part of the Union. Such a state of things involves influences which must soon produce the desired effect, even unassisted by foreign opinion. It may be added as an example, that, in Massa- chusetts, the American holders of the State bonds voluntarily consented that the foreign holders should Jirst be paid, while they waited for their dividends until the public works yielded sufficiently profitable returns. It is estimated that, of the 200 millions of the State debts, ninety millions are due in Europe; the remainder to Americans. Of the foreign debt, on about forty millions out of the ninety, the interest has been regularly paid. 43 CHAPTER II. CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT : FORMATION OF THE GOVERN- MENT IN 1789 THE MODE OF ELECTION AND POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT OF THE CONGRESS OF THE JUDICIARY NATURE AND CHARACTER OF THE SUPREME COURT CHECKS AND BALANCES OF THE POLITICAL SYSTEM ARMY NAVY FOREIGN INTERCOURSE — POST-OFFICE MINT. It sliould be first remembered, that each of the twenty-six States, forming the Federal Union, has its own separate and independent government; its own governor, legislature, and laws. Intelligent men in Europe need not be told this : but with the many, this system of special local jurisdiction is but little understood; and errors on this point lead to false conclusions on many others. When the original thirteen States had achieved their independence, they appointed delegates to a convention, for the purpose of forming a constitution and a general government. This constitution was adopted in 1789. [It will be found entire in the Second part.] While it recognised the local rights and local sovereignty of the respective States, it delegated to a President and National Congress certain specific powers; which are, chiefly, to regulate official inter- course with foreign nations, and foreign and domestic commerce, and " to provide for the common defence and general Avelfare." Washington was the first President elected under this constitution. 44 GENERAL GOVERNMENT — THE PRESIDENT. The President is chosen for the term of four years, by electors (first chosen by the people) from each State, equal in number to the representatives and senators from the State in Congress. The number at the last election was 275.* The candidate must have a majority of all the votes ; but, if no one has such majority, the House of Kepresentatives chooses a President from the three candidates having the greatest number of votes. In such case, the votes are given by States, and not individually. No person is eligible to the office who is less than thirty-five years of age, and is not a native-born citizen of the United States. The Vice-President is chosen at the same time, in the same way. He is ex-officio Presi- dent of the Senate. The Pow^ers of the President. — He is com- mander-in-chief of the army and navy, and of the militia, when in the actual service of the United States. He has power to make treaties ; to appoint ambas- sadors, and judges of the supreme court, and most * The whole number of votes for electors in 1840 was 2,403,485. In 1844 the number was about the same. When it is considered that on both of these occasions the political excite- ment was unusually great ; thac upon the turn of the scale de- pended, not only the leading principles held by each of the great parties respectively to be viially important, but also the appoint- ment or dismissal of some 60,000 persons to offices of various grades; when it is further remembered that these two and a half millions of votes were given, after immense popular assem- blages, not only without a single instance of military supervision, but with scarcely the shadow of a police — and yet that these mammoth meetings and processions, and the elections themselves, went off, not only without riot or bloodshed, but without a single serious breach of the peace, — we think that some capacity for self-government and respect for the laws were fairly evinced by the American people. THE CABINET — CONGRESS. 45 of the other officers of the general government : but all this must be done " with the advice and consent of the Senate :" and no treaty can take effect, unless approved by two-thirds of the Senate. In case of the death, removal, or resignation of the President, the Vice-President succeeds to the office. The President has a Cabinet appointed by himself, consisting of a Secretary of State, Secretary of the Treasury, Secretary of the Navy, Secretary of War, Attorney-General, Postmaster-General. The salary of the President is 25,000 dollars (5000 /.)> with an official residence : of the Vice-President, 5000 dollars (1000/.) : of the Cabinet (except Attor- ney-General), 6000 dollars (1200/.) each. Congress consists of the Senate and House of Representatives — resembling in their checks upon each other the two houses of the British Parliament. The Senate consists of fifty-two members — two from each State — who are chosen, not by the people, but by the legislature, for the term of six years. As a guard against sudden changes of policy, it is pro- vided that one-third of the Senate shall be chosen every year. It belongs to the Senate to try all cases of impeachment of the Presdent and Vice-President. The representatives are chosen for two years, by districts in each State, arranged by Congress every ten years, at the taking of the census. The present number is 225, or one for every 70,680 inhabitants. The Congress, jointly, has power to levy and col- lect taxes ; to establish uniform laws of naturalization and bankruptcy; to coin money, and regulate its value ; to establish post-offices, and post-roads ; to grant patents and copyrights ; to regulate commerce, 46 THE JUDICIARY. foreign and domestic ; to define and punish piracies, and offences on the high seas, and against the law of nations ; to declare war, and grant letters of marque and reprisal ; raise and support armies ; provide and maintain a navy ; provide for calling out of the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrec- tions, and repel invasions ; and to exercise exclusive jurisdiction over the district of Columbia. No member of Congress is allowed, (while he continues such) to hold any office under the general government. Thus, the members of the Cabinet, or President's ministers; have no seat in Congress. All bills for raising money must originate in the House of Representatives. No bill becomes a law, until passed by both houses, and approved by the Presi- dent. The President may veto any Act of Congress ; but the act may yet be made a law, if re-enacted by a vote of two-thirds of both houses. The Judicial Power of the United States is vested in a Supreme Court, consisting of a chief justice and nine associate justices ; nine district courts, con- sisting of a judge of the Supreme Court, and a district judge ; and thirty-four district courts, held by a district judge alone; from whose decisions, there is, in certain cases, an appeal to the Circuit Court, and from this to the Supreme Court. All these judges are appointed by the President, subject to the approval of the Senate. They hold their of- fices ' during good behaviour ;' — in other words, for life, unless impeached for misconduct ; a case which has happened but once with a judge of the Supreme Court, and rarely, if ever, with a district judge. These 'United States' District Courts,' have only THE SUPREME COURT. 47 jurisdiction in cases affecting the general government — such as those connected with the customs and re- venue, offences on the high seas, etc. The Supreme Court meets annually at Washington. It is a tribunal eminently calculated to command respect. The judges have always been those of the highest legal ability, and of unimpeachable character. Appointed as they are for life, not by the people, but by the President and Senate, and holding office usually during many successive administrations, they are far removed from corrupting influences and po- pular control. Their decisions are, of course, final. They have the power of cancelling any Act of Con- gress, even though signed by the President, if they decide it to be at variance with the principles of the constitution. To them also lies an appeal upon all judicial questions arising between the citizens or governments of the different States, "In the nations of Europe," says De Tocqueville,* "the courts of jus- tice are only called upon to try the controversies of private individuals; but the Supreme Court of the United States summons Sovereign Powers to its bar. When the clerk of the court advances on the steps of the tribunal, and simply says — 'The State of Ohio, versus the State of New York,' it is impossible not to feel that the court he addresses is no ordinary body; and when it is recollected that one of these parties represents one million, and the other two millions of men; one is struck by the responsibility of the seven judges, whose decision is about to satisfy or disappoint so larsre a number of their fellow-citizens." The political system of the United States is there- * Democracy in America, vol. ii. 48 PROVISIONS OF THE CONSTITUTION. fore eminently one of ' checks and balances.' While all power is recognised as emanating from the people, there are many safeguards against the dangerous abuse of that power, either by the people themselves or by either branch of government. The Senate (selected from men of mature age and distinguished ability — not by a popular vote, but by a legislative assembly) holds in check the other house — the repre- sentatives of the people. The President revises the acts of both Houses of Congress; and they, in turn, revise his, and may impeach him for any misconduct or stretch of power: while the Supreme Court sits in judgment both upon the legislative and executive department, and may reverse the decisions and actions of each. Thus the framers of the Constitution foresaw and wisely provided for dangerous contingencies; and though many such have occurred during the fifty-five years of the government as now framed, — and though there have been questionable acts on the part of a President, and as questionable, perhaps, on the part of the legislature, — yet the Constitution has thus far been found sufficient to guard against serious and per- manent evils; and by its provisions many errors which have crept into the State have not remained recorded as a precedent, but have worked out their own cure. The regular Army of the United States was re- duced in 1842, to 9012. This force is employed chiefly to garrison the fortifications on the sea-coast and the frontiers. There has always been a jealousy in the Hepublic ARMY — NAVY, ETC. 49 against any unnecessary standing army. The prin- cipal reliance of the country for defence is on the militia of the several States, amounting, by the returns of 1841, to 1,587,722 men. Of this number, about one-fifth, say 300,000 men, are uniformly equipped, and are mustered and drilled several times a-year. The officers of the regular army are chiefly educated at the Government Military Academy, at West Point, from which have graduated, in all, 1206 cadets. The army expenses in 1844 were 6,174,485 dollars. The Navy of the United States, though compara- tively small, is said to be unexcelled in the complete- ness and efficiency of its appointments. It consisted in 1841 of eleven ships of the line; thirteen frigates of the first class; two frigates of the second class; twenty- three sloops of war; four brigs; eight schooners; two steam-frigates, and several smaller steam-vessels. There are six commodores, commanding squadrons; seven commanders of navy yards; three post-captains; two commanders of naval stations ; a governor of the Naval Asylum; and sixty-seven captains. The naval expenses in 1844 were 4,703,950 dollars. For salaries of officers in the army and navy, see American Almanac. Intercourse with Foreign, Nations. — The Go- vernment of the United States is represented by Ministers Plenijwtentiary at the Courts of Great Britain, France, Spain, Kussia, Prussia, Austria, Brazil, and Mexico : and by Charges (T Affaires, thii"teen in number, in most of the other countries with which the United States are connected by much 50 FOREIGN INTERCOURSE. commercial intercourse. It has also two special Commissioners in China and the Sandwich Islands ; and a ' Minister Resident ' in Tm'key. The salary of the Ministers Plenipotentiary is 9000 dollars, with 9000 dollars for an outfit. The Charges d^Afiaires receive 4500 dollars per annum; and Secretaries of Lega- tion 2000 dollars. Consids are appointed for aU places at which their ser^dces are desirable. Post-office Establishment. — 13,814 post-offices; 142,295 miles of post-roads; revenue 4,295,925 dollars; annual transportation of the mails 32,500,000 miles. Mint. — The whole amount of coinage in 1843 was 11,967,830 dollars— say two and a half millions sterling. CHAPTER III. RELIGION AND PHILANTHROPY: RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS ' VOLUN- TARY principle' PUBLIC WORSHIP IN NEW ENGLAND NUMBER OF CHURCHES — THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION RELIGIOUS AND BENE- VOLENT SOCIETIES FOREIGN MISSIONS BIBLE SOCIETY EDUCA- TION SOCIETY SUNDAY SCHOOL UNION — TEMPERANCE PRISON DISCIPLINE. The constitution of the United States forbids the establishment of religion by laAv; but every person who does not interrupt the peace of society is pro- tected in the exercise of his religion. It is asserted, and probably with truth, that the ' voluntary prin- ciple' has been found to be more efficient than any legal enactment for the support of religious insti- tutions. The chief Religious Denominations in 1840 were : Churches or Ministers. Congregations. — Baptists 7130 4907 Methodists — 3506 Presbyterians 3744 2898 Congregatioualists 1300 1150 ' Christians' 1000 800 Episcopalians 950 849* Lutherans 760 267 German Reformed 600 180 Roman Catholics 512 545 Friends 500 — Universalists 653 317 Unitarians 200 174 various sects . 306 — * There are twenty-live Bishops of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States, as follows : 52 KELIGION— EPISCOPAL BISHOPS. The deficiency of ministers for the ' Churches' has been commented upon by Miss Martineau and Mr. Alison ; and the latter draws an argument and sundry conclusions against the voluntary system upon the erroneous supposition that the word ' Churches' Maine — New Hampshire — Massachusetts Manton Eastburn. Rhode Island J. P. K. Henshaw, D.D. Vermont John H. Hopkins, D.D. Connecticut Th. C. Brownell, D.D. New York Vacancy. Western New York . . . . W. H. De Lancey, D.D. New Jersey George W. Doane, D.D. Pennsylvania Vacancy. Delaware Alfred Lee, D.D. Maryland W. R. Whittingham, D.D, Virginia William Meade, D.D. North Carohna Levi S. Ives, D.D. South Carolina Chr. E. Gadsden, D.D. Georgia Stephen Elliott, D.D. Ohio C. P. Mcllvaine, D.D. Kentucky Benjamin B. Smith, D.D. Tennessee "| Mississippi > James H. Otey, D.D. Arkansas J \^^lf^^^ '•] Leonidas Polk, D.D. Michigan S. A. McCoskry, D.D. Illinois Philander Chase, D.D Florida N. W.Dist. : Indiana Wisconsin Iowa Missouri The first bishops in America were Rev. S. Prevost, of New York, and Rev. W. White, of Pennsylvania, who were consecrated by the Archbishop of Canterbury, at Lambeth, in 1787. The Episcopalians in the United States number a great portion of the most influential citizens. One of their most wealthy corporations is that of Trinity Church, New York, which has immense property, and has just erected a splendid Gothic church, probably the finest in the country. Jackson Kemper, D.D. C. S. Hawks. CHURCHES IN NEW ENGLAND. 53 in the table referred to buildings; but it is applied to congregations merely, many of which, in the Western States, consist perhaps of fifty or one hundred indi- viduals, and are at great distances from each other. In the six States of New England, more especially, the attendance on public worship and the observance of the Sabbath are more universal, it may be safely said, than in any other country in the world. The city of Boston, with a population of 93,000 has seventy-five churches; Hartford, with 9468, has twelve churches; New Haven, with li3,960, has twenty churches and places of public worship; and nearly every town in the six States has about the same proportion. This part of the Union is half as large again as England, and its people are nearly all of pure English descent. The best religious and literary institutions of theu* ancestors — the hardy, energetic, and respectable ' pilgrim' colonists— have been faithfully preserved and ex- tended; and all foreigners who have taken more than a railway glance at their homes, have united in saying that the general intelligence, education, morality, energy of character, independence, and love of order among the people of New England, are unsurpassed, if not unequalled, in any other country. The writer, whose ancestors for five generations were proud to call themselves natives of Massachusetts, may not be an impartial or competent witness ; but having again and again revisited the neat and thriving villages of New England, after comparing them with towns of the same class in Europe, he is only the more reasonably convinced that the above will be the verdict of every impartial and observing traveller. For theological education, the Episcopalians have 54 THEOLOGICAL EDrCATlOX. three institutions, with, fourteen professors, and 124 students; the Congregationalists, five, with eighteen professors, and 248 students ; the Presbyterians, thir- teen. Math thirty-seven professors, and 548 students; the Baptists, seven, with fourteen professors, and 185 students; Unitarians, one, with two professors, and thirty-five students; Lutherans, Dutch Reformed, and others, eight, with eighteen professors, and 134 stu- dents.* There are also two or three Education Societies to assist and promote education for the ministry. The American Missions to the East, and to the South Sea Islands, are considerable in number, and are liberally supported. The annual receipts of the 'American Board of Foreign Missions' in 1843, were 244,224 dollars (50,000/. sterling). In 1835 (we have not at hand the latest returns), there were 308 missionaries employed: of which there were in Greece, four; Palestine and Asia Minor, twenty-six; Persia, four; India, fifty-five; China, three; Siam, seven; Japan, etc., five; Africa, eighteen; Sandwich Islands, sixty-five, and to the North American Indians, 118. At these missions they have 474 schools, with 37,000 pupils; seventeen printing-ofiices ; four type founderies, and thirty-one presses; and they have produced books, etc., in the following languages, viz. Grebo, Bassa, Zulu, Italian, modern Greek, Hebrew, Armenian (ancient and modern), Turkish, Arabic, modern Syriac, Mahratta, Hindostanee, Siamese, Chinese, Japanese, Malay, Bugis, Hawaian, Mar- quesas, and in eleven North American Indian lan- guages. Fourteen of these were written or translated by Missionaries of the Board; and in these languages * See full table, under head of Education. FOREIGN MISSIONS. 55 nearly 400,000,000 pages have been printed at the estabhshments of this society.* For an account of the extraordinary results effected by the missionaries in the Sandwich Islands, in intro- ducing civilization, education, and morality among the people, see the society's Reports. Whoever may object to religious missions, such results as these should find no enemies. The American Baptists have nineteen foreign mis- sions, eighty stations, 103 missionaries, and 114 native preachers and assistants. They have translated the Bible and parts of it, and printed grammars, etc., in eight different languages. Funds in 1835, 58,520 dollars. The Episcopal Board have missions in Turkey, Greece, Persia, China, etc. In October 1844, Mis- sionary bishops were consecrated for Texas, for Turkey, and for China. Among the establishments of this society are large schools at Athens, in which 700 children are educated. The Rev. Horatio South- gate, author of " Travels in Mesopotamia," etc., is the new Bishop for Turkey and Greece. The American Home Missionary Society, in 1835, sent 719 missionaries and agents to about 2000 dis- tricts and congregations in the United States. The other religious and philanthropic Societies in the United States are numerous, and their receipts and operations are only excelled by those of Great Britain in liberality and extent. Some of the more national societies are the following — most of which have branches in each State and large city. * See Report of Amer. B. C. F. M. and Journal of American Oriental Society, No. 1. The Board is now printing in Arabic, from new founts of types cast at Leipsic with great care. 56 RELIGION AND PHILANTHROPY. American Bible Society, founded in 1816, composed from various denominations. It has issued in all 3,269,678 copies of Bibles and Testaments, of which about nine- tenths are in English, the remainder in French, German, Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, Mo- hawk, etc. Most of these were distributed in the United States; and besides these the society furnishes money to missionary establishments in Turkey, Bom- bay, Ceylon, Burmah, China, Sandwich Islands, etc., for printing the Scrij)tures in the native languages. The total receipts of the society have been about two and a half millions of dollars. American Education Society, founded 1815, has aided the education for the ministry of 2258 young men, of seven denominations. The Amei'ican Sunday School Union, formed in 1824. Receipts, in 1834, 136,855 dollars. This institution is conducted by laymen of different denominations. It has issued about 600 different publications. There were connected with it in 1835, 16,000 schools, 115,000 teachers, and 799,000 pupils. The American Tract Society was instituted in 1814, and another in 1825. The latter issued in 1835 fifty- three millions of printed pages. Its receipts were 92,000 dollars. The American Temperance Society, formed 1826. In 1835 there were in the country 8000 Temperance societies, with 1,500,000 members; 4000 distilleries had been stopped; 8000 traders had ceased to sell ardent spirits; more than 1200 vessels were navigated without using spirits. The Prison Discipline Society, formed 1825, has effected immense reforms in the manajjement of prisons and the improvement of prisoners. CHAPTER IV. EDUCATION EARLY PROVISION FOR EDUCATION COLLEGES TABULAR VIEW POPULAR EDUCATION HOW SUPPORTEi) GREAT NUMBER OF SCHOOL BOOKS. One of the first topics to which the early colonists —the * Pilgrim Fathers ' of New England, turned their attention was that of collegiate and popular education. In 1638, or only eighteen years after the first European landed on the wintry shores of Massa- chusetts, and before the primitive forests had scarcely began to fall under the axe of the colonist, a univer- sity was founded near Boston, which has existed more than two centuries, has educated 5804 individuals, and continues to be the alma mater of about 250 graduates annually. The subject of popular instruc- tion also received early attention and ample provision from the colonists ; and has ever been considered one of the most important and primary objects of legis- lation since the colonies became independent States. A tabular view of the colleges is given on page 63. The two oldest and most flourishing are Harvard (mentioned above), and Yale, at New Haven, Con- necticut. Harvard College has thirty professors, about 250 classical students; a library of 61,000 volumes; philo- sophical and chemical apparatus, which is very com- plete; a valuable cabinet of minerals; an anatomical museum, and a botanical garden of eight acres, richly 58 EDUCATION. stored with an extensive collection of trees, shrubs, and plants, both native and foreign. The university buildings are extensive and commodious; there are four spacious brick buildings for the students; the university hall and chapel, of granite; Harvard hall, containing the museum and apparatus; divinity hall; the law and medical schools; and the library, an elegant gothic edifice of granite, recently erected. They are situated upon a beautiful plain, in the rural and quiet village of Cambridge, four miles from Boston. Among the professors whose names are known in Europe, are Judge Story, the eminent jurist, professor in the law school; Dr. Gray, author of the American Flora, etc., professor of natural history; Felton, professor of Greek, and Beck, of Latin, both editors of some excellent classical works; and Longfellow (the poet), professor of the modern languages. Professor Norton, of the divinity school, is the author of a learned and able work on the genuineness of the Gospels. The History of the University, by its president, the Hon. J. Quincy, has been pub- lished in two large octavos. The institution is richly endowed. Yale college is pleasantly situated at New Haven, a town which for the neatness and beauty of its arrangement, the large proportion of competence and independence among its people, and the intelligent character of its society, is probably unsurpassed by any place of its size. The college buildings are similar to those of Harvard, but are of an early date, and need restoration. A new and elegant building for the library has just been erected, the wings of which are HARVARD AND YALE COLLEGES. 59 appropriated to the libraries of three societies of the students, each of these having about 5000 volumes. The chemical laboratory, philosophical apparatus, and cabinet of minerals, are particularly valuable and complete. Professor Silliman, of the chemical department, is well known in Europe, through the medium of his valuable ' Journal of Science,^ which has now been continued for twenty-eight successive years — a much longer existence than that of any one purely scientific periodical in England. He is also personally known to many savans abroad, not only as a man of science, but as a Christian gentleman, in the best sense of those terms. His son, Benjamin Silliman, jun., is now assist- ant professor of chemistry, and co-editor of the Jour- nal of Science. Mr. Olmsted, the professor of astronomy, is also highly respected as a man of great ability, and of high and gentlemanly character. Professor Shepard, in mineralogy; Professor Woolsey, in Greek literature; Professor Kingsley, in Latin; and the President Day, in mathematics, are well known through their several works in those departments. Yale college was founded in the year 1700, and the number of its alumni is 6387. It now has thirty-five instructors, 383 students, and 34,000 volumes in its libraries. Its arrangements embrace an extended and liberal course of study, and it has always had a high reputation for scholarship. The college of New Jersey, at Princeton, is now 100 years old, and has 190 students, and 2615 graduates. Professor Henry of this institution is well known for his researches in chemical science. Dartmouth college, at Hanover, New Hampshire, 60 COLLEGES. founded in 1769, has sent forth 2228 alumni, and now has 331 students, and a library of 16,000 volumes. Its mineral cabinet, laboratory, and philosophical apparatus, are remarkably excellent. It has fifteen professors. Professor Crosby, of the department of languages, has published some useful editions of the classics. Columbia college, in the city of New York, has existed nearly a century, and educated 1170 graduates. It now has eleven professors, 95 students^ and a library of 14,000 volumes. Professor Anthon, of the classical department, is the editor of several valuable works, some of which have been re-printed in England, and have had a large sale. Professor Renwick has pub- lished several works in science; and Professor M'Vickar, some in moral philosophy and political economy. Brown university, at Providence, is vigorously conducted, and has a good reputation. It has existed eighty years, has had 1496 graduates, and now educates 169 students. The catalogue of its library, contaiiiing 17,700 volumes, is one of the best arranged and most convenient ever printed. The president, the Rev. Dr. Waylaud, has written a work on moral science, and another on political economy, both of them remarkable for clearness and ability. The University of Virginia was estabhshed under the fostering care of Mr. Jefferson and Mr. Madison, Presidents of the United States. Its graduates are 1236, students 170, and its library contains 16,000 volumes. Union college, at Schenectady, New York, now just fifty years old, has educated 2125, and now has COLLEGES. 61 222 students. Some valuable works on education have been written by one of its professors, the Rev. Dr. Potter. It is a flourishing and highly respectable institution. Bowdoin college at Brunswick, Maine, is respect- ably endowed, and is presided over by the Rev. Dr. Woods, jun. a theologian and metaphysician of superior ability. Of its eight professors, Cleaveland, in chemistry and mineralogy, Upham, in moral philosophy, and Newman, in rhetoric and political economy, are well known by their published works. The university of Vermont, beautifully situated in the very pretty village of Burlington, on lake Champlain, has a library of moderate extent, but remarkably well selected. Some of the other most flourishing colleges are, Williams and Amherst, in Massachusetts ; Washington and Middletown, in Connecticut; New York Univer- sity, Geneva, and Hamilton, NewYork; Rutgers, New Jersey; University of Pennsylvania, and Dickinson, Pennsylvania; William and Mary, and Hampden- Sydney, in Virginia; University of North Carolina; South Carolina College; University of Alabama; Wes- tern Reserve, and Kenyon, Ohio; and University of Michigan. A full list is given in the table. The course of study at nearly all these colleges is for four or five years, and embraces chiefly the classics and mathematics. Most of them have also courses of study in chemistry and natural philosophy, with lectures and experiments; in modern languages; and in moral and political philosophy; and some have pro- fessorships of botany, natural history, geology, and mineralogy, etc. 62 COLLEGES — COURSE OF STUDY. To several of them, law, medical, and theological schools are attached, as specified in the table. The whole number of students is upwards of 16,000, all of whom study the classics — which is a marginal note for Mr. Alison's remark, that with the Americans "the classics are in little esteem ^^ Europeans would naturally remark the plainness and roughness, in many cases, of the college build- ings ; but it should be considered that the prime object has been to place the means of a suitable and sufficiently complete course of education within the reach of the greatest number of people, at the least necessary espense. Some of the colleges in the Western States are as yet little more than academies — they must grow with the growth of the people that require them. But there is already a greatly im- proved taste in architecture introduced in collegiate buildings, as well as in churches and residences. The 'University of the City of New York,' is of white marble, in the Tudor style, and is one of the most elegant and picturesque edifices of the size in the United States, if not unexcelled by any of its kind in Europe. Its chapel is particularly beautiful. The nei/;er buildings of Yale, Harvard, Brown, and Union colleges, are substantial and appropriate. COLLEGES. 63 COLLEGES IN THE UNITED STATES. Name. Bowdoin Waterville* Dartmouth University of Vermont... Middlebury Norwich University..., Harvard University..., Williams , Amherst Holy Cross§ Brown University* Yale Washington! Wesleyan University :f Columbia! Union Hamilton Hamilton Lit. & Theol Geneva t University of New York St. John's'§ College of New Jersey . Rutgers University of Pennsylva Dickinson^ Jefferson Washington Alleghany I Pennsylvania Lafayette Marshall West. Univer. of Penn. Newark St. John's Su ]Mary's§ Blount St. Mary's § Georgt-town § Columbian* William and Mary t Hampden-Sidney Washington University of Virginia... Kandolph-Macon | Place. Brunswick, Waterville, Hanover, Burlington, Middlebury, Xorwich Cambridge, Williamstown, Amherst Worcester, Providence, Xew Haven, Hartford, Middletown, New York, Schenectady, Clinton, Hamilton, Geneva, Xew York, Rose Hill, Piinceton, .V. Brunswick, Philadelphia, Carlisle Canonsburo', Washington, Meadville, Gettysburg, Easton, Mercersburg Pittsburg, Xewark, Annapolis, Baltimore. (Cmmetsburg, Georgetown, Washington, 'A'illiamsburg, Prince Ed. Co. .exington, Charlottesville, Boydton, Me. do. N. H Vt. do. do. ]\Iass do. do. do. R. I Con. do. do. N. Y do. do. do. do. do. do. N. J. do. Penn do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. Del. Md. do. do. D. C. do. Va. do. do. do. do. 1794 1820 1769 1791 1800 1834 1638 1793 1821 1843 1764 1700 1824 1831 1754 1795 1812 1819 1823 183 1843 1746 1770 1755 1783 1802 1806 1815 1832 1832 1836 1819 1833 1784 1799 1830 1789 1821 1693 1783 1812 1819 1832 2i 749 210 2228 257 771 88 5804 967 662 142 1496 5387 246 229 1170 2125 487 140 167 2615 39 933 561 693 243 16 59 28 5 11 5 124 187 41 90 104 126 1236 77 182 70 331 109 56 104 250 144 169 383 72 110 95 222 113 74 66 151 190 21 111 92 164 76 00 76 130 49 64 100 27 160 130 14(1 25 98 65 136 170 73 24860 7000 16500 9200 7054 61000 7500 15000 17700 34000 7900 11000 14000 13000 7000 4600 5400 12500 12000 5000 11200 4500 3300 8000 2270 5000 3500 4000 12000 3500 25000 4200 5000 8000 2700 16000 (^continued) 64 COLLEGES. Colleges in the United States continued. Name. Place. Emory and Henry J Rector* University of N. Carolina Davidson Wake Foiest *...... Ciiarleston South Carolina Franklin Oglethorpe Emoryl Mercer University* Christ Coll. &Ep. Inst, t University of Alabama . La Grauget Spring Hill§ Centenaiy X Oakland Louisiana Jefferson St. Charles § Baton Rouge Franklin Greenville Washington University of Xashville East Tennessee...., Jackson , Transylvania St. Joseph's§ Centre Augustaf Cumberland Georgetown • Bacon St. Mary's § University of Ohio Miami University., Franklin Western Reserve.. Kenyon t Granville* jMarietta Oberlin Institute.. Glade Spritig, do. Harrison Co. do. Chapel Hill, N. C. Mecklenberg Co. do. Wake Forest, do. Charleston, Columbia, Athens, Midway, Oxford, Penfield, Montpelier Tuscaloosa, La Grange, Spring Hill, S. C. do. Ga. do. do. do. do. Ala. do. do. Brai.don Sp'gs. Miss. Oakland, Jackson, Bringiers, Grand Coteau, Baton Rouge, Opelousas, Greenville, Wash'n Co. Nashville Knoxville, do. La. do. do. do. do. Tenn. do. do. do. Near Columbia, do. Lexington, Baidstown, Danville Augusta, Princetown, Georgetown, Harrodsburg, Maiion Co. Athens, Oxford, New Athens, Hudson, Gambler, Granville, Marietta, Oberlin, Ken. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. Ohio do. do. do. do. do. do. do. 839 839 789 838 838 795 804 785 836 837 839 828 831 830 841 831 825 831 838 839 794 794 806 807 830 798 819 822 825 825 830 836 837 821 809 825 826 826 832 832 834 o c . E O 3 ' 46 50 787 160 3ll 44 11' 24 67 50 [134 433 11b 25 65 11 70 I 35 74 80 50 106 I 70 jl70 160 18 109 122 65 I 45 I 70 110! 41 110 43 316 104 40; 56 3; 100 610215 150! 69 1431185 60; 75 82 49 20 132 1203 21150 149; 162 309 105 84l 51 82! 57 115 57 ' 12 21; 50 81 70 2800 10000 1150 4700 3000 13000 11000 2000 6000 2200 4000 1850 5500 300 3000 1000 9200 3307 1250 4500 7000 4000 2500 1050 3100 1200 5000 2500 4356 1900 6247 8750 3000 3500 COLLEGES. Colleges in the United States continued. 65 Name. CincinDati St. Xavier W oodward Indiana State University South Hnnover Wabash Tnd. Asbury University | St. Gabriel's^ Illinois Sliurlleflf* MacKendreet Knox Manual Labor.... University of St. Louis (S Kemper Collegef St. Mary's§ Marion Missouri University St. Chariest Fayette Michigan University.... Marshall St. Pliilip's^ Cincinnati, Ohio Cincinnati, do. Cincinnati, do. Blooniington, Ind. South Hanover, do. Crawt'ordsville, do. Greencastle, Vincennes, Jacksonville, Upper Alton, Lebanon, Galesburg, St. Louis, St. Louis, do. do. 111. do. do. do. Mo. do. Cape Girardeau, do. Marion Co. Columbia, St. Charles, Fayette, Ann Arbor, Marshall, Near Detroit, do. do. do. do. Mich. do. do. i o 3 o a . E O 3 C V -a t« ^< 3 □ '/) "^ E S — -2 o 'Jj 1819 8 84 1840 5 50 6 20 1827 fi 6 59 1829 5 120 1833 5 12 23 1839 3 70 1843 7 50 1829 5 43 54 1835 6 3 4:J 1834 4 47 1837 4 24 1832 13 10 146 1840 6 8 19 1830 5 1831 5 13 45 1840 1839 5 85 2 75 1837 3 174 2 7 62 1839 4 30 800 1765 2000 2000 1000 790O 6400 2500 6000 3700 3000 The Colleges marked (•) are under the direction of the Baptists; thus (f ) Episcopalians; thus (t) Methodists; thus (§) Catholics. With respect to the Colleges which are unmarked, the prevailing religious influence of those that are in New England States is Congregationalism ; of most of the others, I'resbyterianism. The provision for public schools and elementary education in most of the States, and more particularly in New England and in New York, is liberal and ample. The general statistics are thus given by the census of 1840 — 3248 academies and grammar schools, with 164,270 scholars; 47,207 primary * For Tables of Law, Medical, and Theological Schools, see Part II. 66 POPULAR EDUCATION. schools, with 1,845,113 scholars. Scholars at the public charge, 468,323; white persons above twenty- years of age who cannot read or write, 549,905. Of this number it is estimated that two-thirds are foreigners. In Massachusetts and Connecticut, the scholars in primary schools are one in four of the whole popu- lation. In Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont, about one in three. In Rhode Island, the students in colleges are one to every S26 persons in the State. In these six States, the proportion of students and primary scholars to the population is greater than in any country in the world, except Prussia and Scotland. In Connecticut, only 526 persons, or one in every 574 of the whole population, were unable to read and write. By tables, prepared by Professor Tucker,* it appears that in the whole country, the number of college students is as one in 900 of the population ; that those in grammar schools are one in eighty-six ; those in primary schools, one in about eight ; and that the scholars of every description are equal to just one- seventh of the whole white population. In several of the States, the public primary schools are supported by a tax : in Connecticut, Virginia, and others, by a permanent fund. The permanent school fund of Connecticut is 2,240,000 dollars (say 550,000/. sterling), and the amount paid from it in forty-four years was 2,609,315 dollars ; yet this is one of the smallest of the States. In the State of New York there are 10,886 ' dis- trict school' libraries, containing 630,000 volumes. * Progress of the United States, etc., 8vo. New York, 1840. SCHOOL BOOKS. 67 The whole fund permanently invested for the sup- port of public elementary education in that State, is 10,500,000 dollars, or more than two millions sterling. For these 16,000 classical students, and the 2,000,000 scholars at public and private schools, an immense number of text-books would of course be required ; and the competition in their supply would naturally tend, in many instances, to excellence in the article. Thus many of the American school books have been acknowledged as superior to those of the same class in England, and several of them have been there reprinted. The great extent of the demand induces consider- able care and expense in the preparation of some of these books. There are, for instance, some fifteen to twenty different manuals of geography, with engraved maps. Of one of these (Olney's), a duodecimo, with a quarto atlas, no less than 300,000 copies were sold in ten years; and several others have had an enor- mous sale, to the great profit of author and publisher. Even in Cincinnati, a place less than fifty years since a wilderness, a single publisher printed in six years an aggregate of 650,000 school books. Of the ' Algebra^ by President Day of Yale col- lege, an octavo volume for advanced students, a liberal copyright had been paid the author for no less than 90,000 copies, called for in about twelve years. Many other instances of this kind might be men- tioned. At least nineteen-twentieths of the school books in use are by American authors, who are paid liberally for them, generally by a per-centage on the sale. Very few English educational works are reprinted, although they would cost no copyright. 68 FEMALE EDUCATION. Text-books of various grades, in astronomy, botany, chemistry, natural philosophy, arithmetic, and mathe- matics, geography, geology, political and moral phi- losophy, are used in all the higher classes of the schools. Female education, both useful and ornamental, is very generally and liberally attended to. Among the larger institutions is the female seminary at Troy, New York, which has more than 200 pupils. In this institution, even the mathematics and classics are studied — a practice upon which opinions may differ. At the admirable female seminary in Albany, there are more than 400 pupils, and the course of study is very extensive. Music and drawing are ■very generally taught in private schools, as essentials in a young lady's education. CHAPTER V. LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS, LIBRARIES, ETC. It cannot be expected that a comparatively young country should at once possess a Bodleian library, a Vatican, or a Bibliotheque du Koi, — the growth of centuries; but, considering the time and the means, there has certainly been gratifying progress in the collection of useful available libraries of moderate pretensions. — The college libraries, as we have seen, number about 600,000 volumes. Boston has its Athe- naeum, with 32,000 ; New York, its ' Society' with 40,000; and 'Mercantile" with 30,000; Philadelpliia, a collection of 52,000;* Congress, one of 27,000; and the cities of Charleston, Providence, Salem, Portsmouth, Portland, Hartford, Albany, and others, have their Athenaeums or public libraries, each num- bering from 5000 to 15,000 volumes. Besides these, there is scarcely a to^^^l of any importance in the Union, but has some sort of a public library, reading- room, lyceum, or athenaeum. The libraries of the legislatures of the different States are also consider- able ; and there are many valuable books in the col- lections of the various scientific and historical societies, to be mentioned presently. There are then, at least, some 800,000 or 900,000 volumes in public collections • This collection is open to every respectable person, for reading or consultation, every day, without charge. 70 LITERACY AND SCIENTIFIC mostly well chosen, and placed within the reach of all classes. Are they not more adapted to be useful, as far as they go, than two or three times the amount of learned lumber piled in folios and quartos on miles of dusty shelves, and rarely disturbed in their slumbers ? But learned lumber is not quite neglected, and many important additions have recently been made to the collections mentioned. The princijoal scientific and literary societies may be briefly mentioned — The American Philosophical Society, at Philadelphia, founded in 1769, by Franklin, has published ten illus- trated quarto volumes of Transactions. The American Academy of Natural Sciences, at Phila- delphia, has published its transactions in some ten or twelve volumes; and a society of nearly the same name, at Boston, has existed since 1780. The Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, at New Haven, founded 1799. The Literary and Philosophical Society of New York, founded 1815. The National Institute of Science, at Washington, founded 1840, has issued three 'bulletins' of its pro- ceedings. Scientific and historical lectures have been given at its hall, by the Hon. J. Quincy Adams, and other members of Congress. The American Institute, at New York, holds an annual ' fair' of several days, and gives premiums for the encouragement and display of American industry and agriculture. At the anniversaries, lectures are given by some competent person on these subjects ; and there is a library and reading-room always open. The Boston Society of Natural History, has published SOCIETIES, LECTURES, ETC. 71 twelve numbers of a quarterly * Scientific JournaF on that subject. The American Antiquarian Society, at Worcester, has a valuable library, and has published two volumes of its transactions and collections. The American Oriental Society was recently forv>ir:l at Boston, and has published the first number of a ' Journal.' The president is the Hon. John Pickering, the learned philologist, and author of a Greek lexicon ; Professors Robinson and Stuart, the oriental scholars, are vice-presidents. The United States Naval Lyceum, at Brooklyn, New York, is a useful institution connected with the navy. The list of local societies, etc. would be quite too long to quote. The religious and benevolent societies have already been mentioned. Popular Lectures, historical, literary, and scientific, have been of late what may be termed fashionable, in all the larger cities. In Boston, especially, they have been carried to an ultra extent — theatres, concerts, and balls stood no chance before them; ladies preferred experimental philosophy even to Macready, and Egyp- tian antiquities to the mysteries of the Polka ; and the principal theatre was actually shut up and sold for a church. There are frequently three or four courses of lec- tures going on at the same time — at the ' Lowell Institute,^ the ' Temple,' or the ' Mercantile Library,' so that every evening in the week is provided with one or more of these intellectual entertainments. Many of these lectures are by the most competent and distinguished men in the country. At the Lowell Institute, endowed by a wealthy citizen of that name. 72 MERCANTILE LIBRARIES. with a fund of 250,000 dollars, there is an annual course by such men as ex-president Adams, on his- tory ; Professor Silliman, on chemistry; Professors Nuttall and Gray, of Harvard College, on botany, etc. ; and to all these the public are admitted (by the founder's will) free of expense, yet they are attended by the 'highest classes' of society. At the Mercantile Library of New York, with a well-chosen collection of 27,000 volumes, and a read- ing room filled with the periodicals of the world, there is also an annual course of twenty lectures by distin- guished men, who are Avell paid ; and yet it belongs exclusively to merchants and tradesmen's clerks, who, being 4000 in number, pay for all these privileges but two dollars (8s. sterling) per annum ! Nearly the same is true of the New York and Brooklyn lyceums, and many similar institutions in smaller places ; and whatever may be the abuse of such lectures, or the different degrees of estimation of their utility, there can be no doubt that, especially to ' clerks' in such a busy place as New York, they have afforded a vast amount of useful information and sound knowledge, which would not otherwise have been acquired ; and the form in which this knowledge is thus presented — orally, and with maps or experiments, is at once more graphic, pleasing, and available, than it could be by mere reading. One of the earliest incentives to a study of history, which the writer remembers, was a lecture at this same ' clerks' library in New York, by the present American minister to Great Britain, who is so justly respected as a classical scholar, a rhetorician, and a gentleman. The force of his original and happy ill us- HISTORICAL SOCIETIES. id trations of the subject — society in Europe during the Middle Ages — was much more impressive and remem- berahle than any "svritten eloquence. Such lectures are of course suggestive, and lead the interested listener to further inquiry, to "which the well-filled shelves of the adjoining room afford the means of saUsfacfcory solution. There are in nearly all the States, historical societies, for collecting and preserving national records, books, coins, etc. especially those relating to the early history of the country. The Historical Society of Massachu- setts has published twenty-seven volumes of 'Collec- tions ;' that of New York, about six volumes ; those of Georgia and Ohio, one or two volumes each.* The New York Historical Society has a curious and valuable library, rich in American history. The society meets once a month for conversation, and the reading of communications. A course of lectures is also frequently given. The present president is the venerable and respected Albert Gallatin, formerly secretary of the treasury and minister to England. At the instance of this society, the legislature, folloM'- ing the example of other States, recently sent an agent to Europe, to copy from the archives of England, France, and Holland, whatever might relate to the early history of New York. Access to the State Paper offices of those govern- ments was liberally granted, and about eighty folio volumes of documents, copied at an expense of 12,000 dollars, have been taken to the State-house at Albany. * There are also historical societies in Maine, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rliode Island, Pennsylvania, Louisiana, etc. 74 HISTORICAL RECORDS. The addresses at historical commemorations and cen- tenary celebrations, which are peculiar to the United States, become the means of recording and perpetu- ating much historical information. Probably there are 500 different pamphlets of this kind. The original archives of other States have been carefully arranged ; those of the general government, with the State papers, have been printed in about forty folio volumes; at least 2000 volumes of documents have been printed by Congress and the State legisla- tures. All these, with the private publication of more than seventy different volumes of American historical memoirs and diplomatic correspondence — among which the writings of "Washington, in twelve expensive octavos, have been actually sold to the extent of 6500 copies.* These facts should make another qualifying note to ]\[r. Alison's assertion that the Americans are " wholly regardless of historical records and monu- ments." * Another rather curious historical fact is the sale of 22,000 copies of an octavo volume, by J. Priest, on American Antiquities. The demand for some other historical v.orks in the United States has also been definite]}' ascertained, and is mentioned in the Second Part of this volume. CHAPTER VI. IITERATURE : ExVCOURAGEMENT OF NATIVE AUTHORS LARGE CIR- CULATION OF EXPENSIVE WORKS — PRODUCTION OF STANDARD WORKS IN HISTORY TRAVELS SCIENCE THEOLOGY CLASSICS ETHICS POLITICS PROPORTION OF REPRINTS AND ORIGINAL WORKS — COPYRIGHTS — INTERNA I ION AL COPYRIGHT WHOLESALE PLAGIARISMS AMERICAN BOOKS REPRINTED IN ENGLAND. The promiscuous introductiou into the United States of the -vrorks of EngHsh authors, unrestricted by international laws of copyright, has had the tendency, unq^uestionably, of checking the progress there of a native literature. It is thought, however, that those who suppose that American literature has thus been utterly extinguished, or that no such thing ever existed, are somewhat in error — or are at least too much influenced by prejudice and incredulity. Mr. Alison's argument that " European habits and ideas" are decisively '* necessary" for the " due development" of even the best American works, because " they are all published in London," it has already been suggested, is rather illogical and falla- cious. The works of the writers he mentions (Chan- ning, Cooper, and Irving), with the exception of a single book, were all fii'st ' developed' at home, where the authors have received the just compensa- tion for their labours, arising from the American 76 AMERICAN LITERATURE. demand for their books. Neither of them was com- pelled to come to Europe for a publisher; and in the case of one, although there have been seven rival editions of his works in England, the author Avas none the richer, in money, for his European fame. The other two have probably been well remunerated by London publishers, for the simultaneous publication of their works; but it is scarcely a fair sequence that, because it is sometimes found profitable to reprint American works in London, therefore those works are neglected at home. The learned historian's inference might be thus fairly parodied: "the works of Byron, Scott, and Dickens, are all published at Boston; a decisive proof that American habits and ideas are necessary for their due development. " Beference has already been made to the American historical publications and collections of materials for history. As illustrative of the demand in the United States for original works of this character, it may be repeated, that of Mr. Brescott^s, ' Ferdinand and Isa- bella,' in three expensive octavos, nine editions were called for in four years; and of his ' Conquest of Mexico,^ 5000 copies were printed as the first edition from the stereotype plates. Each of these works is elegantly printed, and costs about a guinea and a half per copy. The first volume of Bancroft's ' History of the L^nited States,' was published in 1834; and the last edition, was the tenth. The three volumes cost the same as Brescott's. The writings of Washington, collected by Mr. Sparks, form twelve illustrated octavos — an expensive set; those of Franklin fill ten large volumes; yet no ORIGINAL STANDARD WORKS. 77 less than 6500 sets * of the former, and 4500 of the latter, have actually been prmted, and purchased by the not ungrateful countrymen of those two great men. A similar taste and demand exist for good books of travels. The first two works of Stephens, although published anonymously, and the subject not very novel, had an immediate and extensive sale worthy of their subse- quent reputation; and no less than 12,000 copies of his expensive work on Central America were called for in less than three years, f Of Dr. Robinson's Biblical Researches in Palestine, in three octavos, which even the ' Quarterly' was ready to praise, the first edition consisted of 2500 copies. The great work on the Government Exploring Expedition to the South Seas, speaks for itself. It is in five large volumes, with an atlas, inagnificently published, at a very heavy cost; and this work and the expedition itself shew that the government has done something for the advancement of science, as well as of commerce. The Journal of the American Oriental Society gives a list of sixty-three volumes of American works on Asia, Africa, and the South Seas. All these, be it observed, are instances of original American works, the copyright of which yields the authors a suitable and handsome compensation — ■ * Formerly under- estimated. These are tlie numbers given by Mr. Sparks himself. t The London editions of this work, and ' Yucatan,' for which the liberal publisher handsomely pays the aiithor, are entirely printed at New York, and are the same as the New York editions. 78 AMERICAN LITERATURE. though the publishers might reprint foreign works for nothing. To prove that science is not utterly neglected, it may he mentioned that Dr. Bowditch, the self-taught, ci-devant cabin boy, translated and published, in four large quartos, La Place's Mecanique Celeste, adding a commentary of abstruse calculations and problems, about equal in bulk to the text. The legislature of New York appropriated 200,000 dollars (40,000/.) for the preparation of the 'Natural History ' of that State, in twelve quarto volumes. Professor Silliman, as already stated, has continued his quarterly 'Journal of Science' more than a quarter of a century; the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia, has, for nineteen years, issued a monthly 'Journal' of their transactions; Mr. Audu- bon, whom Americans are proud to mention as their countryman, had, in Boston, United States, alone, twelve subscribers for his great work on Birds, at 180 guineas each; and 800 American subscribers to the smaller work, at about 24/. each; and is now pro- ducing a splendid work on Quadrupeds, beautifully executed at Philadelphia, and costing sixty guineas per copy: the American Philosophical Society sends forth ten quartos on ~ Science; and other societies and individuals have contributed many works of much scientific value. In poetry, about 120 original works; and in fiction about the same number, were published chiefly be- tween 1830 and 1842. In biblical, theological, and classical literature, it is well known that many valuable contributions have been made in the United States; and many excellent German works have been there first put into English. EVIDENCE OF PROGRESS. 79 The ouly translations in English of the several biblical and classical works of Eschenburg, Buttmann, Gese- nius, Jahn, Ramshorn, Hengstenberg, Giesler, AViner, etc., are those of American scholars. The Seminary at Andover has done much in this department; and the labours of its professors, Robinson, Stuart, Edwards, Park, Woods, and others; and those of Nordheimer, Gibbs, Bush, Hodge, etc., are made extensively available by English students, as well as those at home. Probably, in Hebrew literature, and in some other departments, much more has been done of late years in the United States than in England. The attention paid to the study may be estimated by the demand for text-books. Of Stuart's Hebrew Grammar, six editions had been printed up to 18-11 ; of Professor Bush's, two editions; and of Nordheimer's, in two volumes, 1500 copies were sold in three years. Two editions, consisting together of 6000 copies, of Dr. Robinson's Gesenius' Hebrew Lexicon, have been printed in Boston— the first in 1836, the second in 1844. Three rival editions of Professor Robinson's Greek Lexicon, and one of Professor Stuart's Hebrew Grammar, were reprinted in England. Nearly all the classical works used by the 16,000 students annually are American editions, with original notes, by the instructors in the colleges at home. Herodotus, Xenophon, Livy, Sallust, Casar, Tacitus ; Homer, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes; Horace, Ovid, Plautus, Terence, Juvenal, Plutarch, Seneca, Cicero, Quintilian, Longinus— and even a work of Plato, — are thus made accessible to tens of thousands, in the original text, enriched by ample modern illus- trations. These for students: while the general 80 AMEKICAN LITERATURE. reader of the most moderate means is supplied in his own hinguage with all the best works of the " sages of antiquity/'' Ethical and political philosophy receive some little attention in the United States, as would appear by booksellers' lists. The works of President Edwards (whose name as a metaphysician has been heard of abroad), and those of recent writers, such as Upham, Tappan, Schmucker, Rauch, Wayland, Marsh, Day, Bowen, Adams, and Emerson, may afford some proofs that Americans occasionally indulge in ' speculation' of another sort, than that for mere money-getting. Added to these original treatises, are original trans- lations of the woiks of Cousin, Jouffroy, De Wette, Gall, Spurzheim, and others: and it is a rather curious fact, that Americans \\2(.yejirst collected dctid. first printed complete editions of the works of such English writers as Cudworth, Bolingbroke, Burke, Paley, and Dugald Stewart; and first printed in a book form the essays and reviews of Carlyle, Macaulay,* Jeffrey, Talfourd, Stephens, and Professor Wilson. They have also reprinted the works of Bacon, Dr. Brown, Keid, Cole- ridge, Bentham, Abercrombie, Dymond, Adam Smith, Chalmers, Isaac Taylor; and yet a learned historian, already quoted, says that in America '^ works on the higher branches of speculation and philosophy are unknown." Some useful contributions to the science of political economy maybe mentioned — such as those of the late Matthew Carey, of Henry C. Carey (the publisher), * The whole of Macaulay 's Essays, in two volumes, are sold in New York for 50 cents (2s. sterling). This is giving literature " to the million." — 5000 copies, at least, have been circulated. ETHICS — THEOLOGY. 81 of President Wayland, Condy Eaguet, Vethake, Gallatin, Rae, Sedgewick, Tucker, etc. The ' Fede- ralist/ written by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay, was one of the earliest American works on political science, and contributed largely to the adoption of the present constitution, which was ably defended also by a work of the elder Adams. A large number of books and tracts on public economy were published by the phi- lanthropic ISIatthew Carey; and the chief work of his son, on that subject, is elaborate and of high character. Dr. Lieber, of South-Carolina College, a German by birth, but one whom America has been proud to adopt as one of her most intelligent, able, and dis- criminating citizens, has enriched the American stock of political learning by a profound work on political ethics, and a treatise on political hermeneutics. He also edited the Encyclopedia Americana. The demand for theological literature, both native and foreign, is remarkable, considering the whole number of readers: biblical commentaries are largely called for: that of Scott, a voluminous and costly work, has been multiplied to the extent of 60,000 copies ; that of Henry nearly as much. Even the ponderous work of Patrick, Lowth and Whitby, is distributed in thousands ; while of original works, it is an authentic fact that 150,000 volumes of a series on the New Testament were printed in nine years; and 100,000 large volumes of original compilations on biblical literature were sent forth from one little village in the State of Vermont.* Thus, nearly every family, * Brattleboro. The same building receives rags at one door, and sends them forth as bound books at the other. d2 82 AMERICAN LITERATURE. rich and poor, not only has its Bible, but its * Com- mentary' and illustration of the Scripture text. The statistics of book-making in the United States are not accessible in a complete form, owing to the deficiency of a general register. A list for about twelve years, ending 1842, gives the following par- ticularSj viz. — Number of Works. Subjects. Original American. Reprints. Biography . . . . 106 American History and Geography 118 Foreign History and Geography 91 Literary History ... — Ethics ..'... 19 Poetry (in separate volumes) . 103 Novels and Tales . . . 115 Greek and Latin Classics, with notes .... 36 translated — Greek, Latin, and Hebrew text books .... Medical, law, and miscellaneous- 122 20 195 12 31 76 none 36 none 35 -not ascertained. In the year 1834, the proportion was thus: — Original American. Reprints. Education Divinity Novels and Tales . History and Biography Jurisprudence Poetrj' . Travels Fine Arts Miscellaneous 13 9 37 18 19 95 19 17 20 8 8 3 8 10 8 — 59 43 Total 251 198 Not ascertained, but a large number. ENCOURAGEMENT TO AUTHORS. od whicli shews that the United States do not entirely rely upon foreign sources for their intellectual suste- nance, and especially not for their school-books. The editions are usually larger than in England, and oftener repeated. The capital invested in the book and paper business, in 1840, was 10,619,054 dollars. Several American works may be mentioned which have been pronounced by English critics as superior to any others in their departments. American authors are not always deprived of just remuneration for their writings. The Harpers, of New York, are said to have paid ]Mr. Prescott 7500 dollars (1500/.) for the Jii'st edition of his 'Conquest of Mexico,' and to have offered double that sum (which was declined) for the entire copyright. In two years the sale of ' Barnes' Notes' yielded the author alone more than 5000 dollars. President Day has received more than 25,000 dollars (5000/.) for an Algebra; and Dr. Webster had about the same sum from a spelling- book (!); and all these yet retained their copyright in future editions. A Philadelphia publisher paid to authors 135,000 dollars in five years. These are certainly peculiar instances; but much more proof could be given, that native literary genius and useful talent are not neglected, but receive a fair amount of encouragement from American publishers and the public. The various periodicals in the United States diffuse altogether an immense amount of reading, a large proportion of which may be said to contain sound and useful knoAvlcdge, The North American Review has existed about thirty years, and has always been conducted with a dignity and courtesy worthy of 84 AMERICAN LITERATURE. imitation. The literary magazines are very numerous, and their articles have often proved available in more ways than one. Some of these magazines have a cir- culation of from 20,000 to 30,000 copies. There are in all 227 periodicals, 138 daily newspapers, and 1266 weekly or semi-weekly papers.* It is to be hoped that the literary relations of the United States and the * mother country/ will ere long be placed on a just and proper footing by a law of international copyright. There are difficulties in the way of this measure which are not thought of by many of those writers who have so indignantly and coarsely denounced "^American pirates;' and this sort of intemperate zeal and unwarrantable insult is not well calculated to accomplish the desired object. That American publishers, as a body, are not the opposers of it, but are ready to pay the foreign author for his works, is evident from the fact that the writer of this, in 1843, personally procured the signatures of ninty-seven of the principal publishers, printers, and bookbinders, in the American cities, to a petition to Congress " in favour of international copyright."! This petition was referred to select committees in each house of Congress, which are understood to favour the measure, but various causes have delayed its progress. * See Part II. — Newspapei's. ■\ While so engaged, the writer happened to visit a student at an institution in a country village, and found him engaged in a discussion at the regular meeting of one of the Societies of the Students. This meeting was in an appropriate hall, adjoining the library of the society. The subject of debate was " International Copyright." It was conducted in due form and order, the Presi- dent checking the speakers the moment the time for each expired. The arguments were really able and ingenious on both sides, and would have edified Freemason's Hall. This was at a quiet country town in Connecticut. INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT. 85 Whatever may be the culpability of American pub- lishers in reprinting English books, and in sometimes adding to, or abridging them, we never heard of a sinsrle instance there, of dishonest concealment of the origin of a book by an alteration of the title and preface, or the suppression of the author's name. Yet several instances have been quoted of this practice in Eng- land. Two or three articles from the North American Review, at different times, have been appropriated entire, as original, in the pages of a London Review, whose age and respectability should have discounte- nanced such an act. The transplanting of American magazine articles into English periodicals, frequently in so disguised a shape that the exotic loses its identity, has become an ordinary occurrence. Some works of fiction, in their new names and English dress, would scarcely be recognised by their own fathers. The transformations of 'Burton' into 'Quebec and New York;' of 'The Infidel' into 'The Fall of Mexico;' of ' Probus' into ' The Last Days of Aure- lian;' and 'Letters from Palmyra' into 'Zenobia' herself; of 'Young Maiden' into 'English Maiden;' and 'American Traveller' into 'African Traveller,' are as sudden and ingenious as the changes of a pan- tomime. ' Charcoal Sketches' jump into the middle of Lon- don orthodox ' three-volumes,' and leave their own name and their father's on the other side of the ocean. The Londoners take a Nataral History from Dr. Harris, a translation of Heeren from Mr. Bancroft, a Greek Grammar from Mr. Everett, and a Law of Bailments from Judge Story, not only with no " by your leave," but with a false assumption of paternal 86 AMERICAN LITERATURE. honours. And more recently a bulky Greek Lexicon of high standing, by an Edinburgh professor, has copied page after page from the American work of Mr. Pickering, without so much as alluding to the existence of such a work in its list of authorities.* In these, and other similar cases, the American author is not only 7ninus pecuniary advantage, but loses also the credit or fame (if there be any), which is justly his due; and what author is wholly indif- ferent to the "bubble reputation?" As the law now stands, English publishers have clearly a right to reprint foreign works if they choose, and Americans have as clearly the same right. " We claim reprisals," says the English — be it so — the claim is undisputed; and some of the transatlantic literati will even thank you for the attention : but while the pj-ac- tice of each party recognises this ' right,' is it not folly for them to pelt each other with hard words, because they mutually exercise it? Print from each other on each side: and the more the merrier — but let the author have his fair chance for what credit he may earn; and do not bandy ' beams' and 'motes' about the rest. The number of American books reprinted in Eng- land is much greater than is usually supposed, because * On the other side, an American author was chai-ged bitterly with bad faith, for quoting as his authority ' Cyclopaedia of Useful Knowledge, vols., London,' instead of ' Penny Cyclopaedia.' This should not have been so; but those who know the gentleinan and the facts, know well that there was no sort of intention of de- ception or disguise. The woi-k referred to was by many currently called the 'Cyclopedia of Useful Knowledge,' i.e. 'The Cyclo- psedia of the Society of Useful Knowledge,' briefly expressed. We venture to say that there were very few who possessed the work mentioned who did not know at once what Cyclopaedia was quoted. ENGLISH REPRINTS. 87 many a one gives no indication of its origin. " Who reads an American book?" was asked by the witty Sydney Smith, in the * Edinburgh/ perhaps twenty years since; and he had no unfriendly doubts. Now, many do read these outlandish books, without being themselves aware of it. In about ten years, the * London Catalogue ' chronicled in the same list with their English brethren, the following English reprints from the American: Theology . 68 works Poetry 12 works Fiction . 66 Ethics . 11 „ Juvenile . 56 Philology . 10 „ Travels . 52 Science . 9 „ Education . 41 Law . 9 „ Biography History . 26 . 22 Total . 382 works Of some of these, — such as books by Abbott, Channing, Stephens, Peter Parley, Barnes, Dana, etc., many thousands have been printed. There were three or four rival editions of Dana's ' Two Years before the Mast,' and the sale of one of them reached 15,000 copies; and yet scarcely any of these writers received a penny out of their own country. CHAPTER VII. LITERATURE CONTINUED BRIEF NOTICES OF LEADING AUTHORS COLONIAL LITERATURE REVOLUTIONARY POLITICS NOAH WEB- STER COOPF.R IRVING CHANNING EVERETT D. WEBSTER BANCROFT SPARKS PRESCOTT STEPHENS — MISS SEDGE WICK BROWN PAULDING BIRD KENNEDY, ETC, ETC. POETS! DANA SPRAGUE PERCIVAL BRYANT HALLECK LONFELLOW. Whatever Americans have done toward fostering and cultivating a native literature, at all worthy of the name, has been done in a comparatively recent period. The colonists were necessarily more engaged in level- ing forests and panthers, than in serving the Muses in academic shades : and the few polemical treatises, historical tracts, and rhyming couplets, which the ' natives' allowed them leisure to manufacture, were mostly of too local or temporary an interest to be per- petuated, and they are now almost forgotten or seldom refei'red to. There were among the ' pilgrims,' and their children, a Winthrop, a Mather, a Bradford, a Prince, and a Hutchinson, to commemorate the ad- venturous progress of those hardy and high-minded men who became the founders of a nation; a Roger Williams, a Cotton, and many others, to beat " the drum ecclesiastic," and chronicle the dogmatical and pugnacious theology so peculiar to that age; and a Broadstreet, a Wolcott, a Trumbull, to invade the realms of imagination, and perpetrate dull rhymes on prosy subjects : but all these are only preserved as curiosities on the shelves of historical societies, or occasionally quoted for the same purpose by a chro- JAMKS IIMMr>|;h lOOl h H • JC^ft^H^or^y^ Cc-C'/h'^^ NOTICES OF AUTHORS. 89 nological collector of national jingles. "With the exception of the political -writings of Adams, Jefferson, Hamilton, Madison, and Jay, already mentioned, the works of Franklin and the State Papers of Washington, the durable part of American literature, if there be any such, belongs to the last 30 years. The veteran Noah "Webster, who died two years since, at the age of eighty-five, was the first to propose a law for the recognition and protection of literary property in the United States. This was soon after the national independence was accomplished. Web- ster was the author of several useful works on edu- cation, besides historical and political papers, which were recently collected. His elementary spelling- book is used in every part of the country, and has been the chief cause of that uniformity of pronuncia- tion in widely distant places, which has been often remarked by travellers. His great 'American Diction- ary of the English Language', the product of thirty years' labour, was reprinted in England, and by good authorities pronounced the most comprehensive and useful one extant. It is now the general standard in the United States, and in various abridged forms is found in nearly all the schools and private libraries. Webster was much respected as a true benefactor of his country ; at his funeral some hundred young ladies, fi-om schools in the place, walked to his grave with a long procession of citizens, and heard there an eloquent eulogy on his virtues. James Fennimore Cooper, the novelist, now resides at the family seat at Cooperstown, New York, the ' Templeton' of the ' Pioneers.' He has written in all, twenty-one novels ; a naval history, ' the American 90 AMERICAN LITERATURE. Democrat/ and some occasional essays. His early works, the Spy, the Pilot, etc. were first published by Charles Wiley, at New York, in 1818-19. His novels, especially the earlier ones, were always eagerly sought for by his countrymen. The first editions of some of the later ones have consisted of 10,000 copies. Nearly all of them have been translated into French, German, and Italian, and some of them into Russian and other languages, and are very popular on the Continent. Washington Irving is at present minister of the United States at the court of Spain. At home, he has a picturesque retreat on the banks of the Hudson. His writings are too well known in Europe to need comment. Two or three years since he contributed a series of papers to the magazine, which is named from his own veritable and facetious ' Knickerbocker.' No American writer is more admired by his country- men, and none more respected and beloved by those who know him in private life. The lamented Channing died in 1842, at the age of sixty-two. He was a grandson of one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence; was educated at Harvard, and for many years was minister of a church in Boston. His essays on Milton, Buonaparte, and Fenelon, have been admired by tens of thousands in both hemispheres; and his numerous tracts against slavery, and on behalf of the labouring classes, place him in the foremost rank of true philanthropists. His various writings, including religious discourses, fill six volumes. He had planned larger and more important works for the improvement of society — but his health was always feeble, and death prema- turely reached him. :^£rt.v-a V-^tari:. 3 IlT-r,a:iini. ^cii^&ica < [lloy\?^lvj. \yjllins,^^"'' 0^r2^<-(A^2- i--^<^ (X'-fA^^t^ NOTICES OF AUTHORS. 91 Edward Everett, the present American minister to Great Britain, is distinguished as an accomplished scholar, a graceful and eloquent public speaker, and an able statesman. He was for several years a member of the national Congress, and afterwards was for three successive terms Governor of Massachusetts, his native State. He is said to be an accurate Greek scholar. His translation of the Greek Grammar of Buttman was used at the institution where he was educated — the ' venerable Harvard,' as it is called by its sons: and two centuries of existence in a ' young country' may warrant the term. Mr. Everett's literary and historical discourses and orations on various public occasions were collected in a volume a few years since. His literary acquirements are extensive, * and few public men have obtained, more generally, the respect of all parties. Daniel Webster, the ex-Senator and Secretary of State, is frequently confounded in England with Noah Webster the philologist. Mr. Webster has long held a prominent rank among American statesmen. His style of oratory is massive, clear, and forcible, appeal- ing to reason and good sense, rather than to feeling and passion; and it is much aided by his remarkably impressive and commanding personal appearance. His speeches and forensic arguments (for he is also eminent at the bar) have been collected in three volumes,! and justly place him in a high literary rank, as well as that of a statesman. Many of them are on occasional and local topics, but the ' eighth edition' on * He has occasionally written poetry — his Dirge of Alaric and Santa Croce are often quoted. f By a publisher. Mr. W. has not sought an author's fame. 92 AMERICAN LITERATURE. the title page exhibits some sign of their general inte- rest, and enduring vitality. George Bancroft, the historian, resides in Boston. He was the first to put into English some of the historical treatises of the German professor Heeren.* His ^History of the United States' has been pre- pared with elaborate care, from original authorities and unpublished documents; and the style, though perhaps rather stately and Gibbonish, is worthy of the subject. As yet it has only narrated the colonial history: the revolution and later times remain to be described; and it may be said, that then, for the first time, will the American history have been fairly and authentically told. Jared Sparks, the able and industrious editor of numerous important contributions to American his- tory and biography, is now professor of history in Harvard university. Dr. Sparks has published alto- gether, chiefly from materials before un-edited, more than sixty different volumes, several of which are original biographies. The twelve volumes of AVash- ington's writings were selected from 200 folio volumes of manuscripts. William H. Prescott, the historian of 'Ferdinand and Isabella,' is a resident of Boston. His father, an eminent and highly-respected jurist, died a few weeks since; his grandfather was a leading officer of the American army at Bunker Hill, in 1775. Thus it appears the impression of many in England, that the historian and the eminent banker of Lombard- street are the same person, is somewhat erroneous. * One or two of these were reprinted at Oxford, minus the translator's name. NOTICES OF AUTHORS. 93 While engaged on his first work, Mr. Prcscott was ahnost entirely deprived of the use of his eyes; so that all of the laborious reference to materials, and the actual writing of the book, was by dictation to an amanuensis Indeed all his reading and literary labours, since the age of twenty, have been done in this way; a remarkable instance of patient and successful perseverance. From this affliction he has now happily recovered, or nearly so. He is still a young man, on the sunny side of thirty-five, and a fine specimen, physically as well as mentall}^ of a New England gentleman. He is understood to be now engaged on the History of the Conquest of Peru. English critics have united in placing him in the first rank of modern historians. John L. Stephens, the enterprising and intelligent traveller in Yucatan and the East, is a native and resident in New York, where he was educated for the bar. The anonymous publication of his first work, on Arabia Petra^a, etc., as already mentioned, was at once remarkably successfid. Many who would have shrunk from more learned and drier descriptions, were for the first time made familiar, by his pleasant and sensible pages, with the actual condition and every-day life of the land of Ishmael and of Pharaoh. His persevering and adventurous researches in Yu- catan have been more elaborately presented, and have made the world familiar with the gigantic and wonderful remains of a former age. No traveller, probably in modern times, has had a larger number of readers. Catherine M. Sedgcwick, is a native of Stockbridge, Massachusetts, and belongs to a family which has for 94 AMERICAN LITERATURE. nearly a century been distinguished as personifying the best qualities of the New England character. Her father, once a judge of the Supreme Court, and mem- ber of Congress, was a politician and a gentleman of the ' old school.' Miss Sedgewick's writings all shew a hearty but discriminating nationality and love of country, and are characterized by sound sense, refined taste, and a faith in the better qualities of human nature. Besides her novels,— Hope Leslie, Redwood, The Linwoods, etc.,— she has written some excellent and useful works for children and for ' the people.' Her politics are expressed by the title of one of these — 'Live and let live.' Charles Brockden Brown was one of the earliest American writers of fiction. His works, comprising ' Wieland,' ' Arthur Mervyn,' etc., were collected in six volumes. James K. Paulding is the author of twenty volumes of novels, of which ' The Dutchman's Fireside,' ' Salmagundi,-* and 'John Bull in America,' were among the most popular. Mr. Paulding was some- time Secretary of the Navy, and gave the instructions to the Exploring Expedition sent by government to the South Seas, the account of which is just now before the world. Dr. Robert M. Bird, of Philadelphia, has written five novels, most of which are known to English readers by the reprints. John P. Kennedy, of Baltimore, is the author of three novels, the first of which, ' Horse-shoe Robin- son,' Avas deservedly popular. "W. Gilmore Simms, of South Carohna, has written twelve Avorks of fiction, most of which have been re- printed in England, in a popular form. NOTICES OF AUTHORS. 95 The Rev. William Ware, whose * Letters from Palmyra/ and ' Letters from Eome,' have been so much admired in various shapes, was editor of the ' Christian Examiner,' a Unitarian review of high reputation, which was the first vehicle of the writings of Channing. Some popular and itseful contributions to the stock of history, geography, and lighter literature, have been made by H. R. Schoolcraft, and the late W. L. Stone, of New York, both authors of curious and valuable works relating to the North American Indians, who have also had enthusiastic historians in Samuel G. Drake and George Catlin. Wm. Dunlap, who wrote the History of the Fine Arts, and of the State of New York; Robert Walsh, now United States Consul at Paris;* R. H. Wilde,t of Georgia; Charles F. Hoffman,^ of New York; Nathaniel Hawthorne, |f of Concord; Timothy Flint, § Mrs. Kirtland (Mary Clavers),^ Mrs. Child,** Willis Gaylord Clark, John Neal, Robert C. Sands, and many others, have con- tributed to elegant literature much that will not soon be lost in the waters of Lethe. The manner in which Commander Wilkes has performed his literary part in narrating the South-Sea Expedition will secure him an honourable place among authors, as well as among navigators. Attached to this expedition were also Messrs. Hale, philologist; Pickering and Peale, naturalists; Conthouy, conchologist; Dana, minera- logist; Rich, botanist; Brackenridge, horticulturalist; Drayton and Agate, draughtsmen. * Didactics, etc. § Geography of Western States, t Researches on Tasso& Dante. Mississippi Valley, etc. X 'Greyslaer,' 'Winter in the ^ A New Home, etc. West.' ** Philothea, Letters from New II Twice-told Tales, etc. York, etc. 96 AMERICAN LITERATURE. American Poetry has succeeded in ' reminding:' an elegant London critic* of Britannia ware and other imitations of silver. It is true that he quoted some rather antiquated specimens, which are about as much read and esteemed in the United States, as the lucu- brations of such versifiers as Henry James Pye, esq. Poet-laureate to his Majesty, are read and classicalized in England. The North American Review, by a very fair parody,t but only imitating the spirit of this sage critic, shewed pretty clearly the absurdity and the dishonesty of such sort of reviewing — but this retort was too cutting and too just to be even alluded to by the amicable reviewer, or his brethren of the press. Americans have never laid claim to great achieve- ments in poetry; and it has often been remarked by their own critics, and by very patriotic critics too, that as yet no remarkable work in verse, of enduring qualities, has originated in the Western world. Any man of candour and sense would see, that, if such rhymesters as Frenau, Trumbull, Paine, or Barlow, are occasionally referred to and quoted, it is simply for the purpose of shewing the progress of literature in the New World, and of filling up a chronological series. This was quite apparent in the case referred to; but critics are sometimes wilfully blind when it suits their purpose not to see. Much even of the readable verse which floats about in American magazines, and sometimes gets into a book, is undoubtedly tame and common-place; much more is imitative. There is no lack, as has been said, of original themes, in transatlantic nature and the * See Foreign Quarterly, January, 1844. \ See Part II. poetry: notices of writers. 97 nation's history; but with the literature of England at our firesides, and in the mouths of every school- boy, and that too in our own native tongue, it would be strange if entirely new poetical veins were struck out, or new modes of working them adopted by every American writer of verse. Our Shakbpcare, and Milton, and Wordsworth, are yet to come — if, indeed, such spirits can re-exist, — and, meanwhile, the study of such models can do no harm. But there are, nevertheless, a few Americans already who deserve the name of poets, slight though their writings are, so far as bulk is concerned. Richard H. Dana, of Cambridge (N. E.), a scholar of polished and cultivated mind, has written 'The Buccaneer;' a poem of remarkable power, illustrative of the darker passions. James A. Hillhouse, another accomplished and elegant scholar of superior acquirements, bequeathed to us 'Hadad,' a sacred drama, loftily conceived, and. polished with classical taste. Charles Sprague, the Boston banker-poet, whose ' Curiosity,' though it may not raise him to the rank of his brother-financier, the bard of ' Memory,' was yet considered 'pretty good' by the London critics when it came to them disguised in the uniform of a Calcutta officer, who translated in it the words 'Cooper' into 'Scott,' 'Channing' into 'Chalmers,' and 'Sprague' into his own name! * Joseph Rodman Drake, who — " In the middle watch of a summer's night When the earth was dark and the heavens were bright," — invaded fliiry realms, and brought back the 'Culprit * A fact. E 98 NOTICES OF authors: Fay/ a little production of ' delicate fancy and artistic skill/ though modest enough in her presentation to society. James G. Percival, who leaves the shades of science occasionally to woo the muse, and discover that — " The world is full of poetry : the air Is living with its spirit ; and the waves Dance to the music of its melodies, And sparkle in its brightness:" being a practising surgeon, who 'writes with fluency all the modern languages of Europe,' and makes legislative reports on geology, must find that the world has other duties than rhyming, and has other hills besides that of Parnassus. Fitzgreene Halleck, the business manager of a millionaire, despatches cargoes to the antipodes, and then facetiously scribbles as the novelist, touching our good-natured national boasting — " That faithful to the act of Congress, quoted, As law authority — it passed )iem. con. — He writes that we are, as ourselves have voted, The most enlightened people ever known. * * * * And furthermore, in fifty years, or sooner, We shall export our poetry and wine; And our brave fleet, eight frigates and a scliooner, Will sweep the seas from Zembla to the Line!" or throws off a stirring lyric of the Greek hero, whom he makes say to his crushed and oppressed countrymen — > " Strike — till the last arm'd foe expires, Strike — for your altars and your fires, Strike — for the green graves of your sires, God, — and your native land !" POETRY. 99 William Cullen Bryant,* whose thankless task in conducting a daily party newspaper, at commercial New York, does not make us forget his reflective ' Thanatopsis,^ or feel the less that — " To him who in the love of natm-e holds Communion with her ^^sible forms, she speaks A various language; for his gayer hours She has a voice of gladness, and a smile And eloquence of beautj'; and she glides Into his darker musings, with a mild And healing sympathy, that steals away Their sharpness ere he is aware." Neither does the noisy strife of politics so utterly absorb his or our own thoughts, that we cannot reflect upon ' The Ages^ of the past — those ' stern ages' that ' have no memory,' but — " have left A record in the desert — cohmins Strewn on the waste sands — « * » « Vast ruins, where the mountain's ribs of stone Were hewn into a city," ruins, ordained by the same Power that sends the MV'inds' to " Scoop the ocean to its briny springs. And take the mountain billow on their wings, And pile tlie wreck of navies round the bay!" And we may wander awhile even from the eager excitement of a presidential election into the shades of the 'Forest groves' which were 'God's first tem- ples,' and think of Him whose hand — * Bryant wrote poetical compositions of merit at the early age of nine years. 100 NOTICES OF AUTHORS And " Hath rear'd those venerable columns, And weaved that verdant roof." " meditate In those calm shades His milder majesty ; And to the beautiful order of His works, Learn to conform the order of our lives." Many lyrics and minor compositions by Pierpont, Brainard, Hoffman, Whittier, Willis, Holmes, Ben- jamin, are graceful and energetic : their poetical merit needs no trumpeter — they speak for themselves. "Whittier has written much in behalf of the coloured race, and against the wrongs of slavery; he writes in an ardent temperament, but he truly deserves the name of philanthropist. The lyrics of Holmes, Hoffman, and Benjamin, shew great facility and power in rapid and spirited versification. Of female writers: Mrs. Sigourney's volumes are too well known in England to need description. She has written a great deal for various periodicals ; and there is perhaps a sameness in many of her smaller poems, but there is a pure and gentle mind breathing through all of them. Mrs. Sigourney is a lady of taste and acquirements, and of most estimable character.* Miss Gould, Mrs. Brooks, Mrs. Ellett, have pub- lished volumes which have adorned the literature of the country. Mrs. Ellett is an excellent German scholar, and has translated several of Schiller^s and other German plays. * This lady has been rather fiercely attacked on the strength of a charge made against her by 'The Story-Teller,' of London — a charge of interpolating a letter of Mrs. Southey's, etc. Eveiy thing essential in this charge was proved to have been unfounded, but the Story-Teller remained as he was. POETRY. 101 The writings of Lucretia and INIargaret Davidson need only be referred to: the EngHsh reprints, and the Quarterly Review, have given them a currency in England. Few more striking instances of pre- cocious genius have been developed in any country. They wrote feeling and thoughtful verses at the age of nine or ten, and their maturer poems were all written before they reached fifteen. Henry W. Longfellow has perhaps written the most, of late years, that will live as American poetry. He is professor of modern languages in Harvard college. His acquirements in this department are deemed extraordinary. He has as yet reached but the early prime of life, but that he thinks, as well as studies, is indicated when he says — " Life is real! Life is earnest! And the grave is not its goal; ' Dust thou art, to dust retumest, ' Was not spoken of the soul Not enjoyment, and not sorrow, Is our destined end and way; But to act, that each to-morrow Find us farther than to-day. Art is long, and time is fleeting, ^nd our hearts, fhouffh stout and brave, Still, like viuffied drums, are beating Funeral marches to the grave. Lives of great men all remind us, We may make our lives sublime ; And, departing, leave behind us, Foot-praits on the sands nf lime. 102 NOTICES OF AUTHORS. Foot-prints, that perhaps another Sailing o'er life's solemn main ; A forlorn and shipwrecked brother, Seeing, shall take heart again. Let lis then, be np and doing, With a heart for any fate ; Still achieving, still pm-suing, Learn to labom- and to wait." While volumes of thoughtful lines like these find purchasers and readers at home for eight editions in three or four years^ we need not despair of the 'better influences' which are at work among the people. CHAPTER VIIL LITERATURE CONTINUED THEOLOGY: DWIGHT EDWARDS MASON EMMOiNS STUART ROBINSON, ETC. SCIENCE: FRANKLIN FULTON AUDUBON BOWDITCH — SILLIMAN, ETC. MEDICINE I JURISPRUDENCE. The compass of this volume permits but a brief reference to authors in other departments. We men- tion first some of those in THEOLOGY. Timothy D wight, the author of a ' System of Theo- logy,' which has long been much esteemed at home and abroad, was president of Yale college. He also wrote ' Travels in New England/ in four volumes, which at the time were much read, and still have a historical value. President Dwight died in 1817. As a theologian he was probably equalled by few contemporaries. Two volumes of his sermons were collected -and printed after his death. Jonathan Edwards has already been mentioned as a metaphysician, and his theological writings have been equally celebrated with his ethical treatises. He was president of the college of New Jersey. His collected works were first published in ten volumes, and have passed through numerous editions in England and America. Nathaniel Emmons was another able divine of the same stamp as the two just mentioned, i. e. of the Calvinistic or ' orthodox' school. He was much cele- brated as a preacher. He died about ten years since at an advanced age. His sermons w'cre recently collected in six volumes. 104 NOTICES OF ALTHORS: John M. Mason D.D. of New York, more recently was highly distinguished as a Presbyterian divine of superior talents and acquirements. A posthumous collection of his works fills four volumes. Moses Stuart, at present professor of sacred litera- ture in the Andover Theological seminary, is one of the most thorough Hebrew scholars of the day. He is the author of several biblical and philological works, such as ' Commentary on the Epistles to the Hebrews,' and on that to the Romans; another on the Apocalvpi^p; a Hebrew Grammar and Chrestomathy, extensively used, and reprinted at Oxford. He has also written many valuable articles in the Biblical Repository, Bibliotheca Sacra, etc. Edward Robinson, D.D., the author of a Greek lexicon to the New Testament, a Hebrew lexicon, a dictionary of the Bible (in addition to Calniet), and several other important contributions to biblical litera- ture and oriental philology, is now professor of sacred literature in the New York Theological seminary. He was the originator and first editor of the quarterly Biblical Repository, which has now existed thirteen years; and in 1842 he commenced the Bibliotheca Sacra, another quarterly, consisting chiefly of elaborate articles by himself and by Professor Stuart. Dr. Robinson's reputation as a profound oriental scholar is familiar both in England and on the continent. His ' Biblical Researches in Palestine' were printed simultaneously in Boston, in London, and in Leipsic, in three large volumes, as before mentioned. Pro- bably no person living is so thoroughly acquainted with the subject of biblical geography, and none has done so much in the United States to extend and elevate theological learniilsr. THEOLOGY. 105 The Hev. Dr. Sprague, of Albany, New York, has written several popular religious works, besides one or two volumes of sermons. Professor B. B. Edwards of the Andover seminary, is, in connexion with Pro- fessor Park of the same institution, the present editor of the BihJiotheca Sacra. Professor Edwards also has done much for the cause of sound knowledge, and particularly of theological education. Formerly, as secretary of the Amei-ican Education Society, he con- ducted a valuable ' Quarterly Register,' connected with educational statistics ; and his other writings indicate a judicious and cultivated mind. Professor Hodge of the Princeton Theological seminary, has written a learned ' Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans,^ and is one of the editors of the ' Biblical Repertory and Princeton Review.' The Rev. Albert Barnes, of Philadelphia, is the author of some very useful and comprehensive notes on the New Testa- ment, a commentary on the Book of Job, and a commentary on Isaiah, which are highly esteemed on both sides of the Atlantic. The Rev. George Bush, professor of Hebrew in New York University, has written similar notes on the Pentateuch, a Hebrew grammar, and several theological works, chiefly re- lating to the Prophecies. Professor Bush is a learned Hebrew scholar; perhaps very few are more so. Of the episcopal divines there have been many who were distinguished for eloquence in the pulpit. The late venerable Bishop White, of Virginia ; Bishop Griswold, of Connecticut; Bishop Hobart, of New York ; and Bishop Ravenscroft, of South Carolina ; the late Dr. Bedell, of Philadelphia; Bishop M'llvaine of Ohio (also author of 'Evidences of Christianity'); Rev. Dr. Tyng, of Philadelphia, and others, have e2 106 NOTICES OF authors: published volumes of sermons. The Rev. Dr. Hawks, late of New York, and bishop elect of Mississippi, one of the ablest pulpit speakers of the day, commenced an elaborate history of the American Episcopal church — of which that of two States, Virginia and Maryland, have been printed. Bishop Doane, of New Jersey, one of the most energetic and eminent of the American prelates, has published numerous occasional discourses, of which a reprint has appeared in London. A volume on the English and American church, by Professor Ogilby, and a work on Genesis, by Professor Turner, both of the New York Episcopal seminary, should be referred to, as evincing able scholarship. Besides the well-known discourses of Channing, Unitarian theology has been illustrated by works of the Rev. Messrs. Greenwood, Palfrey, and Ware, of Boston ; Dewey, of New York; Furness, of Philadel- phia, and others ; and the work on the authenticity and credibility of the Gospels by Professor Norton of Cambridge, is one which must secure the author's lasting reputation, as an original and thorough inves- tigator of the sources of truth. Dr. Dewey's ' Moral Views of Society,^ must command the admiration of candid and unprejudiced men of whatever sect. Dr. Palfrey has published a learned commentary on the Old Testament in four volumes octavo, and recently two volumes of lectures on Evidences of Christianity. Professor Noyes, of Cambridge, has published valuable translations of the Hebrew Prophets, the book of Job, and the Psalms of David, which place the author in the highest rank of Biblical scholars. The sermons of the late Dr. Freeman and Mr. Buckminster, of Boston, are remarkable for their eloquence and power. SCIENCE. 107 IN SCIENCE. It would be unnecessary to specify the works of Franklin, whose fame, as a philosopher, is not con- fined to one hemisphere. Few mechanics' boys that ever saw a book, but have heard of Franklin ; but all the older boys may not remember that the man who, not to speak profanely, was the first mortal that guided the lightnings of heaven, and averted the thunderbolt ; and who was courted by sage philoso- phers and powerful statesmen, and was the honoured guest of kings ; the same Franklin was an American printer's boy, and worked with his own hands at the press. Robert Fulton, practically and successfully applied the steam-engine to navigation on the Hudson, in the year 1807 ; and whatever theoretical results may have been reached by previous experiments, it is believed that this was the first actual steam voyage the M'orld ever saw. Scotland claims much for very early experiments on the Clyde ; Fitch, of Philadel- phia, had, even in 1789, shewn something very Hke an embryo steam-boat on the Delaware ; but the Knickerbockers of the noble river of the ' Empire State' were the first to be startled and amazed by the unheard-of vision of a sail-less and oarless vessel, pufi'ing and smoking itself briskly along against wind and tide : the fishes of the Hudson were the first to be roused from their sleepy propriety by the paddle-wheels of a veritable moving steam-boat. How even gunpowder must be astonished by the revolution which steam has since effected ! On this same Hudson there are now upwards of forty steamers, several of immense size. The writer, in 108 NOiiCES OF AUTllOKS: October 1843, reached New York from Albany (150 miles) in eight hours, in a steamer, the 'Knicker- bocker,' which is tenfeetlonger than the 'Great Britain,' and has 150 comfortable and elegant state rooms ; and provides good berths and an elegant supper for 1000 passengers! " All very fine, but your steamers are always blowing themselves up !" Not in this region. On the Hudson, during the last ten years, in these forty steamers, carrying hundreds of thousands per annum, not a single life has been lost by explosion or fire. In all the northern States these accidents are rare. In the south and west, there is, alas ! too much recklessness, and too frequently a fearful loss of life. It should be remembered in explanation too, that, on the Mississippi and its branches alone, there are 1000 steam-boats, and 26,000 miles of navigation ! David Kittenhouse, Dr. Samuel L. Mitchill, of New York, and Dr. John D. Godman, of Philadelphia, were among the men of science, now deceased, who have added to the stock of scientific knowledge at home and abroad. John James Audubon is a native of South Caro- lina. His enthusiastic love of nature and devotion to the science of natural history have led him into most adventurous and oft-repeated invasions of the wildest haunts of the forest, and the furthest bounds of the prairie ; often pursued amidst great jjrivations andditficulties, in every variety of climate, and extend- ing over several years. The result has been a work of unequalled magnitude and beauty on American Birds, with a charming ornithological biography; a reduced edition of this work, in seven volumes, and a work on North American quadrupeds, is now in course of publi- SCIENCE. 109 cation at Philadelphia, in a similar style, but somewhat smaller than the ' Birds.' Mr. Audubon is a member of many of the learned societies of Europe ; his fame is cosmopolitan. His age is about seventy. He resides at New York, where his son, V. G. Audubon, is also distinguished as an artist. Nathaniel Bowditch, LL. D., translator and editor of the ' Mecanique Celeste,' died at Boston, in 1838. lie was essentially a self-taught man, and "'progressed' by his own unaided genius, from the humblest station as a navigator, to a very high rank in science, and an enviable station in society ; while at the same time he acquired wealth, and in private life was universally respected and beloved. His great work, the ' Me- canique Celeste,' was published at his own expense, and several copies were liberally presented to learned societies abroad. His ' Practical Navigator' has passed through seventeen editions. Benjamin Silliman, LL. D., professor of chemistry in Yale college, and editor of the American Journal of Science, has been referred to in the notice of colleges. He published, some years since, ' Elements of Che- mistry,' in two large volumes. As an experimental lecturer, he secures the respectful attention and inte- rest of his audience, by his dignified, yet pleasing and eloquent manner and gentlemanly address, and by his thorough and familiar knowledge of his sub- ject. Few literary or scientific men in the United States are more generally esteemed. Of other votaries of science in the "Western world, our space permits brief reference only, to Professor Cleaveland, of Bowdoin college, author of a valuable system of mineralogy, long out of print; Mr. Nuttall, 110 KOTICES OF AUTHORS : the ornithologist, and editor and continuer of ' Mi- chaux's Sylva Americana;' the late Dr. Samuel George Morton, whose ' Crania Americana,' ' Crania Egyptiaca,' and various scientific papers, are well known abroad; Professor Hitchcock, the geologist of Massachusetts;* Professor Olmsted, author of text- books on natural philosophy and astronomy ; Professor Gray, of Cambridge, and Dr. Torrey of New York, the joint authors of the 'Flora of North America;' Dr. Dekay, an able zoologist, and Dr. Beck, the mi- neralogist, contributors to the natural history of New York ; Mr. Holbrook, author of an elaborate work on Herpetology , in four quarto volumes; Isaac Lea, the publisher, of Philadelphia, author of a work on geology, and many scientific papers on shells, etc., in the American Philosophical Transactions; Professor Loomis, of Ohio; W. C. Redfield, of New York, and Mr. Espy, of Philadelphia, all authors of scientific papers or books on meteorology and the theory of storms ;t Professor Shepard and James D. Dana, of New Haven, each authors of valuable works on mi- neralogy; A. J. Downing, of Newburgh,has published useful and elegant works on horticulture, landscape gardening, etc.; and various branches of useful arts and engineering have been illustrated by Ithiel Town,:J: Professor Mahan, Thomas Ewbank, Paul E. Hodge, C. B. Tower, etc.|| * Professor Hitchcock prepared two elaborate and valuable works on the geology of Massachusetts, at the expense of the State ; the second report being in two large illustrated quartos. I Espy's Philosophy of Storms received marked attention and praise at the French Institute. t Mr. Town had one of the choicest libraries of works of art in the United States ; perhaps scarcely excelled l)y any of its extent in Europe. It consisted of about (jOOO volumes. II Tower's History of the Croton Aqueduct describes a work AGRICULTURE— LAW. Ill For Medical Science something has been done by the works of Rush, Barton, Hosack, Bigelow, Warren, Dewees, DungHsson, Bartlett, Horner, Wistar, Forry, Doaue, and others, known to the profession in Europe. On Agriculture, we have four or five octavos, by Henry Colman, the agricultural commissioner of Massachusetts, published by the legislature of that State ; several quartos and octavos from the New York and other State Agricultural Societies; some useful treatises by T. G. Fessenden, of Boston ; Buel, Gaylord, Tucker, of Albany; Prince, of Long Island, etc.; and several agricultural journals. Mr. Colman is now preparing an elaborate report on European agriculture. As to Jurisprudence, there are local treatises and digests, and voluminous reports, the very list of which would frighten the ex-chancellor; but this was not intended for a catalogue raisonne. The jurist needs only to be reminded that Chancellor Kent has co7n- mented with learning and ability upon ' American Law;^ a branch of knowledge which has also been 'digested' by Nathan Dane, into nine octavos; AVheaton has written a standard treatise upon interna- tional law. There are some able legal treatises by John Sergeant, of Philadelphia ; David Hoffman, of Balti- more; Greeuleaf, Curtis, and others, of Boston ; and the commentaries of Judge Story on national and commercial law, arc studied by the barristers of the Temple, at the same moment that their opinions are being quoted as authority on the banks of the Mis- sissippi. which for its magnitude stands alone among all works of this description. It is forty miles in length, and supplies New York with pure water. Its construction cost ten millions of dollars. CHAPTER IX. THE FINE ARTS. A glance at the statistics and progress of the Fine Arts in the United States^ may properly include the names of artists of what may be called the Colonial Period— those who commenced painting before the revolution. The only names of note under this head, are Watson, Smybert, West, Copley, Peale, and Stuart. John Watson, who was born in Scotland in 1685, Avas the first practising artist of any celebrity in North America. He commenced painting portraits in New Jersey in 1715. Nathaniel Smybert, a native of Edinburgh, com- menced the profession of an artist in Boston in 1128. He was a man of superior talent, and his works were the earliest studies of Copley, West, and others. Benjamin "West may be considered as the first native American artist. . He was born in Chester county, Pennsylvania, in 1708, and painted his first portrait in Lancaster, Penn., in 1753. As the colonies were then destitute of models, and nearly so of ' patrons' of art. West soon went to London, and nearly all his great works were painted there. He was a special favourite of George III., who liberally encouraged him. In 1792 he became President of the Roval Academy. His works were doubtless held FIXE ARTS. 113 in much higher estimation at that time, than they are at present: but, considering the mediocrity of that age, they must still be classed much above those of his contemporaries, of course excepting Eeynolds. His Christ Rejected was sold for 3000 guineas. Death on the Pale Horse, for 2000 guineas; Death of Nelson, for 850 guineas; Death of Wolfe, 500 guineas. John Singleton Copley was born in Boston in 1738. He painted his first portraits there in 1700; and subsequently painted many of the most distinguished Americans of the time. Like "West, he went to London for study and practice, and became highly distinguished in his profesbion. He wai the father of the present Lord Lyndhurst, as is generally known; and thus the American Boston may claim to have given England a Lord Chancellor. Charles W. Peale, born in iSIaryland in 1741, was a distinguished artist, especially in portraits. He was a student of West. Gilbert Charles Stuart, whose portraits were pro- nounced in London to be equal to Vandyck's, was born in Rhode Island in 1754. He, too, resided some time in London, but his genius was never neglected at home. He practised his profession many years in Boston, where his works are now as then very highly prized. The only true and authentic portrait of Washington is that by Stuart, though it has often been badly copied and engraved. The original was purchased for the Boston Athenecum, where it is now placed as one of the choicest treasures. Of the leading artists, since the Independence from Great Britain was effected, the following is a list, in the order of time when they began to practise their art: 114 FINE ARTS. Names. .John Trumbull, William Dunlap, Edward G. Malboue, John Vanderlyn, Kembrandt Peale, Henry Sargent, John W. Jarvis, Thomas Sully, Washington Allstou, Samuel L. Waldo, James Frothingham, Charles B. King, Chai'les E-. Leslie, William E. West, Charles C. Ingham, Samuel F. B. Morse, Chester Harding, A. B. Durand, Henry Inman, Thomas Cole, John Neagle, George Catlin, Thomas Doughty, Robert W^. Weir, .John J. Audubon, Francis Alexander, Fred. S. Agate, •John G. Chapman, Geo. W. Flagg, H. C. Shumway, AVilliam S. Mount, AVilliam Page, Place and Date of Birth. Began. Connecticut, 1756 1774 New Jersey, 1766 1782 Rhode Island, 1777 1794 Kingston, N. Y., 1766 1795 Pennsylvania, 1778 1796 Massachusetts, 1770 1797 England, 1780 1798 England, 1783 1799 South Carolina, 1779 1802 Connecticut, 1783 1803 Massachusetts, 1786 1805 Rhode Island, 1785 1812 London, 1794 1811 Baltimore, 1794 1815 Dublin, 1796 1816 Massachusetts, 1791 1817 Massachusetts, 1792 1817 New Jersey, 1796 1817 New York, 1801 1820 England, 1820 Boston, 1799 1820 Wyoming, 1820 Philadelphia, 1793 1820 New York, 1803 1821 South Carolina, 1824 Connecticut, 1800 1825 New York, 1807 1827 D.Columbia, 1808 1827 Connecticut, 1816 1830 Connecticut, 1808 1829 New York, 1807 1829 New York, 1811 1832 FINE ARTS. 115 Names. Cornelius Verbryck, G. P. Healy, Daniel Huntington, Henry P. Gray, F. W. Edmonds, John Frazee, Horatio Greenough, H. Augur, Hiram Powers, Clevenger, T. G. Crawford, H. K. Browne, A. Anderson, P. Maverick, A. B. Durand, J. B. Longacre, J. A. Adams, Charles C. Wright, Geo. ^V. Hatch, J. Smillie Freeman E.awdon, J. Cheney, J. I. Pease, W. Humphreys, J. A. Eolph, Place and Date of Birth. New York, (died 1844) Boston. now of New York. SCULPTOKS. New Jersey, 1790 Boston, 1805 Connecticut, 1791 Vermont. Ohio, (died 1843) New York. ENGRAVERS. New York, 1794 New Y^ork. New Jersey, 1796 Pennsylvania, New Y^'ork, Maine, New York, Beofan. Connecticut, ARCHITECTS. A. Benjamin, Ithiel Town, John Frazee, Alexander J. Davis,* 1815 1825 1827 1817 1825 1826 1827 1830 1834 1834 ' There are many others, but we have no record of them at hand. 116 FINE ARTS. We can only refer briefly to the works of these artibts, without undertaking to pronounce upon their merits. Dunlap was distinguished as an historical painter. He was one of the students of West. He was the first secretary of the American Academy of the Fine Arts, and the author of the History of the Arts of Design in the United States; a gossiping and loosely written, but yet entertaining and valuable, work. Dunlap was much esteemed by his fellow artists. Trumbull was one of the aides-de-camp of Wash- ington, at the commencement of the war of indepen- dence. He witnessed many of the chief occurrences of that period; but jireferring the pencil to the sword, he left the army and adopted the more civilized pro- fession. Several of his paintings relating to American history were presented, for certain equivalents, to Yale college, and now form a part of the Trumbull Gallery at New Haven, in a building erected specially for the purpose. He was also commissioned by Con- gress to execute four large paintings from American history, which are now placed in the Rotunda of the capitol. For these he was paid 8000 dollars (1600/.) each. They are in the style of his master. West, and have been severely criticised, but their merit in many particulars is of a high order. Colonel Trumbull visited Europe several times; was President of the American Academy of Fine Arts; and lived to a ripe old age, highly respected as a true patriot and a Christian gentleman. He died at New Haven, in 1842, at the age of eighty-six. He published, in 1841, his ' Reminiscences of his Own Time,' a work of very considerable interest, filled with anecdotes of celebrated contemporaries in Europe and America. FIXE ARTS. 117 Vanderljm was an artist of considerable genius and high standing. His two most noted pictures are 'Ariadne' and ' Marius amidst the Ruins of Car- thage.' The latter was exhibited in Paris, in 1808, and received the Napoleon gold medal from the academy as a work of the first merit. His 'Ariadne/ a delicate subject, but delicatel}- and chastely handled, has been exquisitely engraved by Durand. It is a fact creditable to both parties, that Congress, having commissioned Vanderlyn to paint a full-length of Washington for 1000 dollars, as soon as the picture was placed in the capitol, unanimously voted him the additional sum of 1500 dollars. Vanderlyn also painted several large panoramas. Malbone may be considered the earliest American miniature painter, and his works have scarcely been excelled since his death in 1807. On shewing his Avorks to the President of the Eoyal Academy, he was told, " No man in England could excel them." Rembrandt Peale's chief works are ' The Roman Daughter,' ' The Court of Death,' (a large picture, the exhibition of which produced nearly 9000 dol- lars); and a portrait of Washington, now in the senate chamber of the capitol. He is the author of a useful little work on drawing, called ' Graphics.' Sai-gent, a Boston artist, produced, among other larger works, a picture of 'Christ entering Jerusalem,' which was sold for 3000 dollars, after about as much was received for its exhibition. Jarvis was born in England, but was taken to New York at the age of five years, and there became highly celebrated as a portrait painter. He executed several full-lengths of public characters, for the City Hall of New York, and other places. 118 FINE ARTS. Sully has long been one of the first portrait painters in America, if not at the head of his profession there. He is the son of an actor, and was born in England, but was carried to \irginia in early childhood, and there first imbibed his taste for the fine arts. He has since resided for several years in Philadelphia, and is much esteemed both as an artist and a man. He has painted several works for different city governments and institutions, and now receives very liberal prices for his portraits. He is chiefly known in London by his very graceful and pleasing portrait of Queen Victoria, painted for a society in Philadelphia. A fine engraving has been published from it. Washington Allston, who died at Boston about a year since, was unanimously placed by his contempo- raries at the head of American artists, and he is of all of them perhaps the best known in Europe, In Italy artists had no other name for him than ' the American Titian,^ Mrs. Jameson, the accomplished author of the ' Diary of an Ennuyee,' has written copious sketches of Allston since his death, which were printed in the Athenceum. He was educated at Harvard col- lege, and was a man of a highly instructed and poetical mind. His love of art was much cultivated and deve- loped by his friend Malbone. He visited London and Italy, and became a friend of West, AVilson,Fuseli, Beaumont, Leslie, etc. His most noted pictures were 'The Dead Man revived by Elisha,' (which obtained the first prize of 200 guineas at the British Institu- tion in 1811, and was purchased by the Pennsylvania academy for 3500 dollars) ; 'Uriel in the Sun,^ now in the Sutherland collection; ' Jacob's Dream,' pur- chased by Lord Egremont; and several Scripture and FINE ARTS. 119 other subjects for American collectors. His greatest work, ' Belshazzar's Feast/ was never finished ; but artists and others, who have seen it in his studio, speak of it as one of the subliniest productions of modern art; and such higli praise conies from compe- tent and impartial critics. A\^aldo, Frothingham, W. E. West, Ingham, and Harding, are distinguished as portrait painters. W. E. West is known chiefly by his portrait of Byron. Ing'ham is remarkable for the exquisite finish of his style of painting, rather than for grace and skill in drawing. Harding's portraits are in the foremost rank. Leslie's parents were Americans, but he was born in London, during their visit to England. When he was five years old they^ returned to America. He was educated in Philadelphia, and there it was that his taste and love for painting was first developed. His genius there received prompt and liberal encou- ragement before he went again to England. Ameri- cans therefore naturally claim him as their own, both by paternity and education; and when the nationality of a man of genius is in question, as in Leslie's case, they are not disposed by Avhat they consider secondary accidents readily to resign their claim. Since 1811 Leslie has resided in England, where his ' earliest friends' and advisers were West, Allston, King, and Morse, all American artists. In 1833 he was ap- pointed professor of drawing in the United States military academy, but certain circumstances induced him to resign that post. His works are too well known in England to need description or comment. Ameri- can collectors possess some of his best efibrts. 120 FINE AKTS. C. B. King, now resides in Washington, where his gallery of Indian portraits and other Avorks, is a special attraction. Morse was the chief originator, and is yet the president of the National Academy of Design. His ' Dying Hercules,' a large picture, was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1813, and placed by the critics among the twelve best pictures of the ?000 there. He also received the Academy's gold mednl, for his model in clay of Hercules. He painted a large picture of the Gallery of the Louvre, copying, in miniature, several of the pictures on the walls : it is a work of very high merit. Durand is a remarkable personification of versa- tile talent. He had long been by far the best engraver in the country, when he commenced the higher branch of art ; and he is now about equally distinguished for his portraits and his landscapes. His commissions in both of these departments are as numerous as he could desire. He is a man of decided genius, and most estimable character, with all the modesty of true merit. The genius of Inman has placed him in the first rank of portrait painters : if he is second to any in the United States, probably Sully only can claim precedence. Inman formerly painted miniatvires of great celebrity, and he occasionally throws off a charming bit of landscape, in a style which shews him to be equally ' at home ' with nature in all her various forms; but his ' portrait' reputation has left him little leisure for other pursuits. He now holds a commission from Congress, to paint one of the eight large historical subjects for the capitol. Mr. Inman is vice-president of the National Academy. riXE ARTS. 121 Cole, thougii born in England, acquired his taste for colours in his father's paper-hanging manufactory in Ohio ; and in the forests of that noble State, his genius for landscape -svas first developed. In this department, he is in many respects unsurpassed on either side of the Atlantic. He has painted a con- siderable number of pictures of large size, which have found ready and eager purchasers at liberal prices as soon as exhibited. His four pictures, called the 'Course of Empire,' are among his most noted pro- ductions; others are mentioned as in the 'collections.' Doughty has long been distinguished as one of the best American landscape painters. His pictures usually find ready purchasers. "Weir, an artist of decided and original genius, now holds the office at West Point, which was resigned by Leslie. Like many others already men- tioned, he was self-taught, and had to struggle with many discouragements in his early career. Of his later works, a portrait of the Indian chief, 'Red Jacket,' and his ' Embarcation of the Pilgrims' in the capitol, are best known. The ' Embarcation' (painted for Congress for 10,000 dollars) was exhibited by itself in New York and Boston, and visited by several thousands, who paid the same admission fee as at the largest public collections. John James Audubon's artistical skill has been developed in his great works on birds and animals. His son, V. G. Audubon, is a rising artist in landscapes. Alexander, Elagg, Gray, Agate, and Verbryck, have gained a prominent place in the chronicle of American art. The bright promise of the two latter has been cut oiF by their premature deaths. F 122 FINE ARTS. The style of Chapman is peculiarly his own, and has been sometimes severely criticised ; but that he has great talent cannot be doubted. He was one of the four selected by Congress to fill the niches in the capitol, and his picture, ' The Baptism of Poca- hontas,' was placed there three years since. Shumway, in miniatures, and Page, in portraits and history, both belong to the first class of artists. The style of Page indicates great genius, especially in rich and mellow colouring. Some of his works might pass for gems of the age of Titian or "S'an- dvck. He promises to reach a very distinguished position in his profession. Huntington, quite a young artist, has produced already several works of great merit, which have sent him forward in advance of many older painters. Two of his pictures (from Pilgrim^s Progress) were exhi- bited alone in New York, and were visited by great numbers of people. AVe give a copy of one of them. Mount is almost alone in his particular line — familiar life and comic groups. His works are always an attractive part of the exhibitions. Edmonds is a rare impersonation of amateur genius in an ungenial atmosphere. He is one of the ablest and busiest financiers in busy New York, and yet he finds time to amuse himself, and delight others by some of the happiest pictures of familiar life which the Academy has to display. He has chiefly painted figure pieces and groups in humble life, and some of these unpretending specimens of his talent would not be out of place even by the side of "Wilkie; while they yet have a character of their own. Healy has been some time in Europe : he has had FINE ARTS. 123 extensive and liberal orders from the King of the French, and has copied for him many of the celebrated English pictures and portraits, besides a complete series of the American Presidents. Some forty or fifty other artists arc represented in the catalosfiies of the annual exhibitions: this list mentions only a part of those who have given an existence and character to American art. AVe can merely add respecting the Sculptors, that Frazee, of New York, chiseled the first marble bust executed by a native artist; that Greenough and Powers (now in Italy) are estimated by artists there from every part of Europe, as at the head of the art at the present day; that Crawford has won for himself laurels at home and abroad; and Clevenger, who was prematurely lost to his country and to the world of art, rose, like Powers, from a common stone- cutter's yard in a country village, to a high rank even in Italy as a sculptor. Greenough's best known works are the 'Medora' belonging to INIr. Gilmore; the 'Chanting Cherubs,' a group done for Mr. Fennimore Cooper; and his colossal statue of Washington, recently placed in the capitol. This great work, on which he was engaged many years, while it has had many detractors, has been pronounced by able critics to be worthy of any sculptor of ancient or modern times. Powers is achieving triumphs in sculpture, which astonish artists even amidst the treasures of art in Rome and Florence. He is a native of Vermont. Crawford's fame rests on several admirable works; one of which, ' Orpheus,' a full-sized statue in marble, was ordered for the Boston Athenaeum, wliich it now adorns. 124 FINE ARTS. When Clevenger, but recently a humble stone- cutter in Ohio, went to Italy, four years since, it is said he took with him fifty orders from American citizens for busts, or other works in marble, at liberal prices. He only lived to give promise of a brilliant reputation. Augur, a tradesman of New Haven, in 1827, amused himself by attempts in sculpture — which were successful enough to secure his adoption of the profession. He chiseled a group, ' Jephtha and his Daughter,^ directly from marble, without any previous model; this excited great attention, and was much admired. He now has abundant employment as a successful sculptor. H. R. Brown, now also in Italy, is said to be doing ' beautiful things' in sculpture. Fourteen American painters and sculptors are at present studying in Rome and Florence. In Engraving very great and rapid progress has been made in the United States within the last twenty years. Anderson first introduced wood-engraving there in 1794. J. A. Adams, a self-taught native artist of New York, is probably the best wood-en- graver at present in the country, and his productions will bear criticism and comparison with those of any other country. Durand was one of the earliest line-engravers of any note. His first great work was the ' Declaration of Independence,' from Trumbull, engraved in 1820, in a style which could not have been excelled at that time in London. One of the most exquisite specimens of engraving any where to be found is Durand's copy of Vanderlyn's 'Ariadne.' His portraits in the American National Gallerv are also beautifully executed. As FINE ARTS. 125 already mentioned, Darand has since become highly- distinguished as a portrait and h^ndscax^e painter. Other specimens of American engraving may be seen in the above-mentioned work ; in ' The Gift/ and other annuals; the ' United States Exploring Expedi- tion/ etc. etc. Academies and Exhibitions. — At Boston, there is an annual exhibition of about 250 works of art in the gallery of the Athenaeum. In New York, the annual exhibition of the National Academy of Design, comprises usually about -iOO original paintings; and the number of visitors to the gallery averages 40,000. This institution is incor- porated as a regular academy of art, and has several professors. Bryant the poet is the professor of history. The American Art Union of New York numbers 3000 members, who pay an annual subscription of five dollars. At the last annual meeting sixty-seven works of art were distributed — many of them paint- ings of considerable merit and value. A fine engrav- ing is also given to all the members. The Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, and the Artists' Fund Society, at Philadelphia, give annual exhibitions of paintings. There is also an academy of the fine arts at Charleston, South Carolina, and at other places. Collections of Pictures, etc. — Although there are no very extensive public and private galleries of art in the United States, a large number of separate works will be found scattered in various parts of the country, the aggregate of which would tell much for the growing taste of the people. The collection of Kobert Gilmore, esq., of Balti- more, is one of the largest and most valuable in the 126 FINE ARTS. country. This gentleman, besides being a liberal encourager of American artists, possesses undoubted specimens of Poussin, Backhuysen, Ostade, Knysdael Cuyp, Canaletti, Vandyck, Velasquez, Michael Angelo, Teniers, Holbein, Kubens, Kneller, Eaphael, and also some choice pictures by Sir Thos. Lawrence, AVilson, Stuart Newton, etc. and by several Flemish artists of note. There are several other rich private collections in Maryland, in Avhich Keynolds, Lawrence, and other English artists, are represented. Dr. Hosack, of New York, collected some choice pictures, including a Madonna, by Corregio. The collection of Philip Hone, esq. of that city, comprises one or two of the happiest efforts of Leslie and Stuart Newton, and a fair representation of American art by Weir, Cole, Dunlap, Morse, and others. The late Luman Eeed, of New York, was one of the most distinguished and liberal lovers of the fine arts in the country. To him several American artists owe the encouragement and discrimination which developed some of their best works. Cole painted for him an epic series of four pictures, called ' The Course of Empire,' -which have been considered triumphs of art. IVIr. Eeed paid for these 5000 dollars, or 1050/. Edward L. Carey, the well-known publisher of Philadelphia, is also a discriminating and munificent encourager of art, and especially of native artists. His collection embraces some of the best works of nearly every distinguished American painter — including Leslie. He has also choice pictures by many of the leading English artists, such as Stuart Newton, Sir Thomas LaAvrence, Calcott, Turner, Stanfield, East- lake, Collins, etc. FINE ARTS. 127 A very long list might be given of other possessors of fine pictures in the United States, many of whom are persons of great taste and liberality — such as Thomas H. Perkins, of Boston; G. C. Verplanck, Henry Brevoort, James Lennox, G. P. Morris, Fenni- more Cooper, M. Van Schaick, of New York; Henry Carey, Philadelphia; and many in Charleston, Colum- bia, etc. The late Mr. Hillhouse, the poet, and F, Winthrop, esq. of New Haven; and Dr. Hosack and Samuel AVard, esq. of New York, (both recently deceased), had fine collections. That of Mr. Dowse, of Cambridge-port, is mentioned elsewhere. Some extensive and valuable collections of rare Engravings were made by the late Ithiel Town and Michael PafF, of New York; those of John Allen, esq. of New York, and G. P. INIarsh, esq. of Vermont, are remarkably curious. It is worth mentioning, that Mr. Luman Peed, of New York, paid the family of Raphael Morghern, 400 dollars (80 guineas), for that great engraver's own copy of his 'Last Supper.' A fine statue of "Washington, by Chantrey, now adorns the Boston State House. Another, by Canova, highly valued, was lost by fire in North Carolina, a few years since. Sir Thomas Lawrence received 400/. for a portrait of West, painted for the American Academy. Greenough was paid 25,000 dollars for his statue of "Washington, and Congress appropriated 72,000 dollars for the eight paintings in the Potunda of the capitol. Such are a few notes chiefly from memory (but reliable as far as they go), on the progress of the Fine Arts in the New World. 128 CHAPTER X. SOCIETY AND MANNERS. Many of the pictures of American Society and Man- ners, by British tourists, have been wrongly drawn and coloured in three particulars. They have been taken (far too much for a fair average), 1. from the travelling population. 2. From the large sea-ports, where are centred the poverty and vices of the worst class of European emigrants. 3. From the Western and South-western borders and the backwoods — far distant from the older States and more cultivated society — a region yet in a state of fermentation, and shewing its crude and unsettled materials on the surface. It is always better to ' start fair.' The last thing I expect to do, is to prove that society and manners in the ^new world' are universally pure, polished, and unexceptionable. No American of common sense is so presumptuous as that. Let the disagreeable superfluities of tobacco chewing and spitting be scourged as they deserve, and more than one American will say — Amen! I can sympa- thize in the most hearty antipathy to such practices, without assuming a self-righteous fastidiousness. Vulgarity and rudeness of manners are not neces- SOCIETY AND MANNERS. 129 sary consequences of " free and enlightened repub- licanism," or one might well desire less freedom and more civilization. For one, I will not quarrel with the most caustic satire, or with the broadest burlesque, which would hold the mirror up to any American propensity offensive to good manners or good taste, in any way which would cure it. Let the castigation be ever so severe to sensitive nerves — if given in a right spirit, it will do no harm. Even the caricatures of Mrs. TroUope (whose writings are themselves not overloaded with refinement) were taken on the whole in very good part. Americans would forget her Western bazaar speculation and its irritable conse- quences, and tliank her for another dose. Her name is a very scarecrow to all evil-doers. Let an unlucky wight in the boxes of a theatre but innocently turn his back for a moment to the pit, and Trollope ! Trol- lope! Trollope! from the 'gods' and 'groundlings/ soon brinsfs him to his senses. Such watchwords are useful in public places. Their ' moral suasion ' is immense. No sanguinary enactments of a Draco would now be so much feared by an American back- woods' audience, as this terrible ' Trollope ! ' buzzed from a hundred tongues. But though there is a want of refinement among the masses, which is to be lamented, and though their manners and customs might graze roughly against the fastidiousness of one accustomed to the more quiet, dignified, and polished circles among the wealthy of the Old world, — and though this noted sin of ' expec- toration' is so offensive and so prevalent in certain quarters, — I still maintain that the English popular pictures of American popular manners represent the f2 130 TRA.VELLING POPULATION. whole subject about as fairly as the ' fore and aft' pas- sengers of a Thames steamer on a Sunday would represent English society : life in Bethnal Green, or Spitalfields, or Billingsgate, would just as truly be Life in London. To revert to the specifications of error. Let it be considered that a foreigner who makes a short stay, and a rapid run over a country, must necessarily come in contact with out-of-door jieople, rather than people at their own homes. This is especially the case in the United States, where visitors fly over thousands of miles in the same time they would take for hundreds, or tens, in Europe. And besides this, they forget that in the United States everyhochj travels, and everybody travels in the same stage-coach, the same railroad car, the same steamboat cabin. "With the exception of the actual labourer or needy emigrant on the deck, there is no separation or classification. Your neighbour at table may be a senator, a boot- maker, or a blacksmith,— and yet, for the time being, you are all on a level of rights and privileges. Eng- lish ideas will naturally revolt at the system; but as such is the system, it is needless to expect from all your fellow-travellers as much considerateness and refinement, as if you were in the 'first-class^ Bir- mingham carriage, with a strong partition between you and the three lower grades bound on the same journey. But consider, on the other hand, what a variously assorted cargo you are packed with — the men who make the shoes, as well as the men who make the laws, — and wonder at the general good order, harmony, and mutual forbearance, rather than carp at minor STEAM-BOAT DINNERS. 131 annoyances which you may encounter for the first time. Consider too that, though you may be talking to an actual labouring farmer, he is yet the owner of the soil he cultivates, and therefore naturally assumes a brusquer and more forward air than would be ventured upon by an European tenant, or serf, who has very little he can call his own. And there is much in those words. The rush to the dinner-table in hotels and steamers, and the almost equally rapid rush away from it, are justly lashed by foreigners, and are far too pecu- liarly American habits. Let such habits be dosed till cured. The eager mechanic or man of business is unfortunately apt to be governed by the hurrying principle, even at his meals; and more quiet people are too prone to fall into the ranks — for in this age of screw-propellers no one likes to be the last.* As to the crudities and disorders of the sea-ports. * Remember this is in promiscuous tables d'hote of public conveyances and hotels. We ai'e inclined to believe that American private life is somewhat different. And here may be mentioned a very common English mistake about domestic service in the United States. At an English dinner-party recently, a lady commiserated a gentleman from New York, with " How do you manage with your servants ? — it must be so odd to ha\e your servants sitting at yom- own table! " The lady was scarcely con- vinced, even by quotations from English writers, that a dinner or evening party in New York, Boston, or most large towns, is as civilised and ' fashionable ' as the same thing in Marylebone or St. Pancras — we won't say May-fair, for in the Republic, gold plate and livery are rather scarce. In New England villages, where all American girls and boys aspire to something higher, there is certainly a di-y air of independence in domestic servants — if they are American, — which must grate harshly on the nice class\ca\ perceptions of an Englishman : but the lady in question had evidently been reading, not even of country life in older States, but of life in the backwoods — the manners and customs of 'Montacute,' or a 'New Purchase." 132 WHO ARE BAD CITIZENS? let the records of the prisons and almshouses tell in figures what proportion of their inmates are natives of the country, and for how many we are indebted to our friends from Europe. The tale, if fully told, would be instructive to both hemispheres.* And an almost equally instructive moral might be gleaned from an accurate return of the relative influences at work in sustaining or degrading the public faith and the pecu- niary engagements of the several States. I have no wish to screen or excuse the sins of the defaulters, or to suggest an unfair shirking of the responsibility; but the fact is too notorious to be doubted, that the chief part of the opposition in Pennsylvania and else- where to energetic measures for sustaining the public faith by direct taxation, has been made — not by Americans properly so called — not by the descendants of those who founded and freed the nation; but by ' citizens ' of yesterday — the unsettled and needy population which has recently been bestowed upon us by Europe— the same Europe that now stigmatizes 'repudiation' and insolvency as peculiarly republican sins. An English quarterly critic has recently pronounced judgment upon the excellence and impartiality of some recent ' Excursions,' because the author was * " Admissions to the almshouse, New York, Dec. 1 84-1, 131 ; of whom eightij-six were foreigners." How many more were sons of foreigners does not appear. The proportion of foreigners I have often seen stated as much larger, in this and other places. A writer in a recent New York paper commenting upon the frequent omission of the birth-place of paupers and criminals in the re- turn?!, says, " While from heme, an American is incessantly mortified by the accounts of atrocities that are all set down to his country and to the workings of her institutions, when, where the truth known, it would be seen that they were nine times out of ten the work of strangers recently imported." UNFAIR TRAVELLERS. 133 not a transient visitor, but a twenty years' resident. The inference is natural, but not infallible. Did the author live twenty years in or near the places he describes? — or ten years, or one year? Oh, no; his residence was only distant a thousand miles or so. He is an unimpeachable witness, for he was there twenty years, says the critic. A full account of his twenty years' experience would be decidedly interest- ing to his former friends and neighbours. Unfortu- nately he buries all of them in oblivion, and, in search of more picturesque materials, he excursionises over the continent to the frontiers. He happened there, twelve years ago, to witness scenes which excited as much horror through the United States as they would anywhere else; and lo! in 1844 (his famous ' red- line' -tempest-in-a-teapot having blown over mean- while, and left his antipathies harmless), this twelve- year-old drama of gamblers and lynchers forms the staple of a couple of octavos, printed and reviewed as the last new work on American Society! Such are some of the materials for the one-sided and dark-shaded drawings of life in the New world. And for others, a bare landing in Boston, 'a step to New York, a run to Niagara, a sail of one or two thousand miles on the Mississippi, a chase among the wild men of the woods and prairies, and a 'railing' and steaming back to New York, and the note-book is full. I have seen more than one intelligent man ' using up' the subject in this way. A gentleman of sense and information, and (I believe) of high family, landed with me a year or two since at New York. We were both on a visit — he to a foreign country — I to my native land. In three or four days he had disap- 134 RAILROAD TIE-\VS. peared in a Hudson-river steamer. About five weeks after, I met him again at Hartford, in Connecticut, where he stopped — to dine. " You will stay here a day or two V " No, I go on in ten minutes. I have been to Niagara, and across the Alleghanies, and I sail in the Liverpool steamer next week." " But this is a nice sort of a village — you should see it : did you stop at New Haven?" " No; only passed through it — it seemed a pretty little place, — but I had no time to spare." Now, in these two places, par exemple, an intelligent traveller who had come 3000 miles to look at the country, saw a steam-boat landing, a rail-road car, a bar room, and a stage-house dinner — the usual materials. And what had he omitted? In New Haven, he might have seen a flourishing institu- tion of learning, with its 400 students, its valuable mineral cabinet and laboratory, its picture gallery ; and he would have found among its professors, men who would do honour to any such institution, and who woidd gladly have received him with the hospitality due to a liberal and intelligent Englishman. If he had cared for popular instruction, he might have visited in this little town, eleven schools for boys, and ten female seminaries, and he would have been sur- prised at the number and extent of their studies. And in this little town, scarcely as large as Green- wich, he would have found twenty churches and places for public worship ; nine printing-offices ; two daily newspapers ; two, tri-weekly, and five weekly papers ; and four magazines or periodicals. In Hartford, two-thirds as large, he would have found another flourishing college, with a botanical garden ; an extensive asylum for the deaf and dumb, and another for the insane, both on an admirable plan ; PARTIAL AND ONESIDED. 135 an Atheneeum, historical society, young men^s insti- tute ; gallery of paintings ; a museum ; an arsenal ; twelve churches ; fourteen newspapers ; six periodicals, and publishers of books to the amount of 50,000/. per annum. In both of these places he would have found a large proportion of neat, and some even elegant, private residences; all indicating comfort, taste, and competence. If he had visited the firesides of the people, he would have found those people, I venture to say, intelligent, respectable, ener- getic, thriving ; and ready to give the right hand of hearty hospitality to an inquiring visitor from the land of their forefathers. But my English friend had heard of 'nothing particular^ in those places; and so he saw the bar-rooms, dined, and — pushed on. I again overtook him at Boston, and proposed to shew him some of the numerous public institutions, literary and benevolent, of that city — a city unsur- passed, in these particulars, by any other town of its size in either hemisphere. He glanced from its State-house dome over the panorama of cultivated environs with their neat villages, and at the fine harbour and bay studded with the white fiag of com- merce from every part of the world ; looked at the navy yard and the loalls of the university, and the steamer was ready, and he was gone. I visited other places. At Providence, a manufac- turing town of Rhode Island, perhaps as large as Dover, I found another university respectably endowed for giving a sound classical education to 150 students; an ' Athenaium' with 15,000 volumes, including such works as Dcnon's great folios on Egypt. At Andover, I visited a theological seminary, which for efiiciency and the ability of its professors is highly distinguished 136 EVIDENCES OF INTELLIGENCE. both at home and abroad. At Worcester, I saw the hall of an antiquarian society (founded half a century ago), with its curious library of 6000 volumes. At Salem, a town equal in size to the English Portsmouth, there was the usual ' Athenaeum,^ in which one may consult ' Philosophical Transactions,' ' Asiatic Re- searches,' or any ' such branches of learning;' and an interesting museum of curiosities, brought home from India, China, and the South Seas, by the town's own navigators ; and here are merchants, worthy of the name, whose wealth and leisure permit them to cul- tivate the study of science and art. At Portsmouth, Portland, and many smaller places, I found invariably a lyceum, or public library, filled with standard useful books. Lowell, with its cotton mills and steam-en- gines, has also its lyceum and scientific lecture-room, and its Mechanics Library Association. In the valley of the Connecticut, I found town after town outvying each other in the neatness, taste, and independence displayed in every dwelling. Such were Springfield, and Northampton, Amherst, Brattleboro, Hanover. In excursions through all the six States of New England, and in a great part of the State of New York, while 1 saw everywhere an industrious — thriving, and orderly* population, and abundant proofs also of the general diifusion of intelligence ; I did not see a single person intoxicated, a single beggar, or even a single case of extreme destitution. Now, if after ample opportunities of seeing and * I use this term deliberately, and in its fullest sense, as cha- racteristic of the large part of the country I have seen thoroughly, at different times, and compared with Europe. And j'et, how easy is it to take a string of isolated occurrences of a week, or month, scattered over millions of square miles, and condense COMPARATIVE MORALITY, ETC. 137 studying the condition of the masses in Europe, an American compares it deliberately and reflectively for the third and fourth time, with that of the people of New England, and finds such results, must all his love for his native land be placed to the account of them into an essence of accidents and crimes. The PhiUidelphia correspondent of the Monthif/ Chronicle usually concludes his letter with such a list : a monthly chronicle of dreadful occur- rences of all sorts from Maine to Georgia, and from the Atlantic to the Oregon. A weekly Britannia joyfully copies it under the head of " Characteristic pictures of society in the ' pattern repub- lic,' " or something of that sort. Why, what would be a month's list of that kind from The Times? How do the Sunderland riots differ from Missouri Ijnch-law tribunals? An obnoxious citizen mobbed — his house sacked and burnt to the gi-ound; he and his family barely escaping with their lives by rushing into the fields in the dead of night ; even his legal advisers hooted and pelted in the public streets. And how were the lynchers punished ? Perhaps the Simderland magistrates can tell. Again, a clergyman of the Established church, of unimpeached private character, is mobbed on the Sabbath, on his way from the pulpit to the parsonage, and scarcely protected even by the police from actual violence. This is not in the woods of Arkansas in 1830, but in England in 1844 : while in the sister isle, the funeral of a peer of the realm is assaulted by the populace, and the chief mourner, another peer of the realm, narrowly escapes actual violence from the mob. Again, in the parish of St. Luke, in the metropolis of the empire, they sell tbe veiy f/raves and bones of their ancestors for money ! This has been a common traffic there ; and a nephew of a deceased clergyman actually sold his uncle's tomb at the auction mart for 10/. The ])urchaser erased the inscription and re-sold it for 20/. [Vide The Times, October, or November, 1814.] [American civilization has not progressed so far as this.] Again, look into Cripplegate church, in the same metropolis, Jan. 23, 1S45. The corpse of a cliild is brought in, followed by its weeping parents and their friends. The grave is ready — the fees are paid ; the poor father is called into the vestry. " Has the child been baptized by a Churchman ?" " No !" " Are you a Unitarian ?" " Yes !" " Then the child cannot be buried here." " But its mother was a member of the Church of England ; our first child now lies in this grave-yard ; we wish to place them together." The curate is a kind man — he relents — he will ask the rector. The mourners, the mother, stand trembling for the dictum of the man of God, the preacher of the Gospel. Jt comes. The burial is pei'emptorily forbidden. The poor fainting woman is lifted 138 PARALLEL NOTES. ignorance, prejudice, and national vanity ? Or may he not venture to think of a part, at least, of his own country, that if she has not reached the Old World's refinement, luxury, grandeur, and destitution, she has yet something desirable in the intelligent and con- tented faces around her own firesides ? A common English charge against Americans is that of excessive love of money, inordinate greedi- ness for gain. There is, doubtless, too much of this. Dollars are sought for and talked about. The people of all grades find dollars useful; they think of them, work for them, plan out schemes on large and small scales for obtaining them ; with many, indeed out ; the corpse is carried home again. What would a Mohawk Indian, or a South-Sea Islander, say to the humanity of Christian London?— Vide Times, Jan. 25, J 845. Supposing paragraphs like these, and no others, to be copied into the American papers, as ' the way they do things in England ! ' Americans know better, and would not believe it. These things are not referred to in a sneering or impertinent spirit, but simply to suggest parallel cases. While writing this paragraph, I take a London Railway Bell, of January 18 ; and in this one paper read the captions only of some of one week's occiUTences in England : ' Dreadful case of Fratricide.' — ' A father dying for grief for his son, a murderer.' — 'A too frequent tale of soitow and stan-ation in honest poverty.' — 'Attempt to poison.' — 'Execution of Mary Sheming for murder.' — 'Starvation of an Italian boy in London.' — ' A man living like a dog.' — ' A husband, child, mother, and brother poisoned by a woman.' — 'Suicide at Waterloo Bridge.' — ' Frightful cruelty.' — ' A clergyman committed for two months.' — ' A row in the buildings.' — 'Extensive Robbery.' — ' Suspected murder.' — ' Murder at Salt Hill.' In another paper, I read of an English mother murdering her own child, by holding it over the fire, and seeing it burn to death before her eyes ; threatening the child's little sister with the same fate, if she dared to reveal the horrible crime! And in the government report on the health of towns, I read of scenes, even in such flourishing towns as Liverpool, at which humanity shud- ders : the details are too dreadful and sickening to repeat. Yet who would be base enough to single these things out, as ' pictures of society in England?' How would they appear to a resident of Wisconsin or Iowa, if they were his only pictures of England ? LOVE OF MONEY. 139 this is the chief occupation. And dollars have been discussed in drawing-rooms, sometimes — much to the detriment of good taste. This spirit and practice is changing however ; and, it is to be hoped, will be radically cured. But, although the word ' dollar^ is so commonly current, and projects for gain are so staple a jiart of the conversation of many people, and the spirit of gain is strongly enough developed, I should doubt whether there is any more sordidness or greediness in all this, than is common to all com- mercial people. [Money is sought, for the use of it; because it gives the means of enjoijing life : and very seldom for the purpose of mere accumulation. If earnestly sought for, it is also usually as freely and liberally spent. A miser in the United States is a vara avis. Mere wealth, without a liberal disposition to devote it to some useful or tasteful purpose, would there excite little respect. I honestly think that though there may be in England less of that ' talking of dollars,' there is no less of the same motives and principles at work for the acquirement of gain.* I have suggested instances in which travelling visiters take away impressions of a town from a passing glance at its inn, its coach-office, and its bar-room. * All unsophisticated fellow-coiintryinan, reading an English remai'k on the everlasting ' dollars ' of American conversation, makes a doleful jeremiad upon the more jjersnnaUij a^\>ea\vag 'pence, pence, pence!' which had greeted him since his landing in England. " From the portly and respectable dame who shews you the palace, and the blue-gowned historians who take your cop- pers at the Abbey, to the ragged urchin who sweeps the crossing, it is all the same — money, money, money ! Your hand must be always in your pocket ; you never know when all is paid. With us at home, we call for our bills, pay them, and the business is done : but the servants at English inns are worse than Macbeth's kings — they come — again, and yet again, bowing and scraping ; ' please sir, remember sir, boots sir ; ' until in desperation you 140 PROGRESS OF TEMPERANCE. These bar-rooms, by the way, are rapidly vanishing into thin air. If travellers will write the rest into non-existence, ninety-nine out of one hundred will say. Amen ! Capt. Hall, fifteen years ago, complained that the people in stage-coaches drank so much brandy as to be quite offensive. Mr. Dickens, in 1842, com- plained of temperance being so general, that, on more than one occasion, he could not obtain a glass of brandy at a public-house. The writer, in 18-13, dined at some fifty different tables d'hote, in different States — some of them of the first class, with abundant specimens of French cookery; and he can confidently say, that of all the guests at these fifty tables, not one in ten drank anything but water. I will mention one or two of many cases, in which such summary judgments of the characteristics of a place would be erroneous.* exclaim, * I'll see no more! ' It is not the amount; I would, of coiu'se, pay several two-pences for a peep at the Abbey, for we don't see such things every day; and as to palaces and private residences, I only wonder that they should be willing to shew them at all; but the hotel and coach fees are so needless a nuisance ; why don't they pay their servants as we do, and let them feel like men dahning their own, rather than like paupers begging a pittance. Some of the liveried gentry at the show places look dignified enough for the bench, and yet they will bow and smile, and thank you for a shilling. I have travelled tens of thousands of miles in the United States, seen all sorts of things — attended church in forty sti-ange places, and I never dared to offer anything like a fee. The insult might not be relished." * An eminent professor of natural science, at one of the English Universities, and especially eminent as a mineralogist, states in his account of Harvard University, at Cambiidge, United States, that all the buildings ai-e of brick ; and that one of them, the most imposing, is ivhite-waslted. So things may appear through the optics of prejudice. The truth is, there is not a daub of white- wash on either of the buildings, and the one in question is built ivholhj of the finest while granite, or sienile. 141 CHAPTER. XI. SOCIETY AND MANNERS CONTINUED. In passing througli the upper part of Vermont, I arrived on a cold and cheerless evening at the pretty- little town of Burlington, on Lake Champlain. The stage-house was even less inviting than usual, for the bar-room and passages were filled with drinking and spitting village 'loafers,' as such places will be, on the eve of an election, or something of that sort. I can imaafine the reminiscences of its attractions in the note-book of a stranger merely passing through the place. "Burlington; disagreeable inn; office redolent of smoke and tobacco," etc. But for a fortunate card in my pocket I would have made the same entry. I killed the evening by calling on the gentleman to whom I was introduced. It was a very modest house of one story; com- fortable, but with no superfluities. My new friend shewed me his library— in a very snug, plain, brick building in the garden. I knew that books, and sometime books of a high character occasionally made their way even to the Green Mountains, but I was not quite prepared to find there such things as rare and costly editions of the classics— black-letter folios— liter- 142 LIBRARIES IN THE MOUNTAINS. ature of the age of Elizabeth, in the first editions of the time; a choice collection in Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, German; and no less than 2000 volumes in Scandinavian literature alone! besides an extraordinary collection of rare and curious engravings. And yet the collector of all these had never been in Europe — never out of his own country. I found too, that he was not a mere bibliomaniac — a miser of rarieties, onhj as rarities — but that he could read and translate his Spanish, his Portuguese, his Swedish, Danish, and Icelandic; he could tell you the contents of his 2000 Gothic volumes — and more, had himself written an Icelandic grammar.* You take up a volume, and he tells you it is one of Miss Bremer's novels in Swedish — he read them in the original some years ago when they first came out. You cast your eye on a rusty folio — it is the first edition of Froissart. You open a port- folio — and see a rare impression from Ostade — perhaps even an Albert Durer. You step over a parcel just arrived; it contains a member's copy of the last volume from the Society of Antiquaries at Copenhagen. This is in a little village of the rural State of Vermont ; and the village has other readers and other books. You may be curious in such matters, and your friend gives you a line to a collector, JNIr. D., in a village which you will visit. You find the house, * I refer to George P. IVIarsh, a scholar whose ability and acquirements must eventuallj' send his name beyond the Green Moinitains. His profomid discom-se at Middlebury on the Goths in Nctc Evyland, and that Ijefore the New England Society, give ample evidence of extensive and thorough reading, discriminating judgment and original views of the sources of history, particularly that of England and her colonies. A PRACTICAL VIRXrOSO. 143 enter a sbop-cloor, and see a person in a leather apron and round-jacket, dressing skins. O! this is a leather- dresser^s — quite a mistake. " I am looking for Mr. D." " I am Mr. D." says the leather apron. "O,— ah, yes, — beg your pardon; Mr. tells me you have some fine books." " I will shew you what I have, with pleasure.'^ You ascend to a pair of plain rooms, neatly fitted with bookshelves, and there you find 3000 or 4000 volumes of choice and rare books; many of them early editions of the age of Elizabeth, the Stuarts, and Queen Anne, — works of art — curiosities of literature; and all in neat or elegant bindings. This praci'ical collector reads these books. He will give you promptly the character of any one of them, or of most others you may mention. He would talk of this gem at Fonthill, and that at Strawberry Hill, as if he were another AValpole, — yet I believe he has never seen England. More than this, he loves the arts ; he will take you to his picture- gallenj, and shew you some fifty drawings, by the most distinguished English artists, such as Westall, Turner, Stanfield, Prout, Fielding, etc.; and native art is also there represented. You have a dull evening to .manage, and in want of " metal more attractive,^^ you lounge into a lyceum. There is a well-dressed audience of ladies and gentle- men — the young belle and the old senator — the mer- chant and the scholar. The lecturer discourses, perhaps, on the philosophy of history — or it may be on improvements in the useful arts. You are inte- rested by his manner and matter, and pick up some new fi\cts. You inquire the lecturer's name, and are told it is •' Mr. , the learned blacksmith." 144 PHILANTHROPY — INSTRUCTION. These are indeed extreme cases, but they are true; and free from all pretension and quackery; and they shew that, added to the general stock of elementary knowledge, common to all, there are individual instances of extensive and accurate learning; of taste and liberality in collecting books ; and of remarkable acquirements in a practical working man, in the hum- blest walks of life. The general attendance on public worship; the provisions for classical education and primary instruc- tion; the amount of practical and useful information diffused by libraries, lyceums, and popular lectures; the religious and philanthropic institutions and socie- ties, have been already referred to. These notes have chiefly related to the seven Northern States — by them- selves as large again as Great Britain. To shew that even the States where slavery exists are not utterly heathen in these respects, I may quote from an English traveller, 2^art of a list of institutions and societies in 07ie town — Charleston, South Carolina — with but 15,000 inhabitants. Oi-phan House. Episcopal Clergy Society. Congregational Clergy Society. Mechanics' Society. Charleston Bible Society. Soc. for Advocating Christianity New England Society. Ladies' Benevolent Society. Female Education Society. Charleston Marine Society. Marine Bible Society. Snnday School Union. Female Domestic Missions. Episc. Young Men's Miss. Soc. Charleston Bethel Union. ^ Port Society. Female Charitable Association. Apprentices' Library Society. British and American Tract Soc. Foreign Mission Society. Female Seamen's Friend Soc. Bible Society. Young Men's Temperance Soc. Bible Society. Education Society. Medical Society of S. Carolina. Literary and Philos. Society. Charleston Library Society. Chamber of Connnerce. Agricultural Society. St. Cecilia Music Society. Young Men's Debating Society. REFORM COMMENCED IN AMERICA. 145 Let it be remembered too, that many of the great moral Reforms of the Age have originated in the United States. Popular education — the temperance reform — the prison discipUne reform — the ministry for the poor in cities : all these things have received their first impulse from American philanthropists, and have only been echoed and transplanted by those of Europe. This is not vain-glorious boasting. Intel- ligent Europeans know these truths. Is the country utterly immoral and worthless, out of which such things have sprung?* Looking carefully then at the various considerations which have been suggested — and only suggested, by the foregoing facts, — and admitting at the same time even the most direful pictures of American popular manners to be correct — which the utmost candour does not require us to>do; let me ask any candid Englishman if he can approve and endorse the spirit of English writers who give a stereotyped and illustrated currency to such elegant extracts as these: — "We would ask with what face Americans can affect pride in their connexion with a nation which, by every effort, public and private, they never cease to vilify ? t That great men lived before [the * See American Morals and Manners, by Orville Dewey, D. D. t This query is rather ludici-ous. Physican, heal thyself? The passage occurs in a notice of a work professing to be written by an American lady. The critic, sneering at somebody's doubt about the lady's identity, stakes upon the intrinsic evidence of the book, his sage reputation — " an American against the world." " The Yankeeisms are too apparent," says he, and asks whence comes the word " napery.' Tliisisin an Irish Magazine. The present writer, being a Yankee, may guess that the lady'« G 146 SPECIMENS OF American separation] is very possible, inasmuch as great men existed before America was ever known or thought of; and as to any co-partnery they possess in the iUustrious names of Enghsh history, they have it in common with Jack Siieppard and Ttjrpin, and others of that stamp — ay, and pretty much on their own conditions too/' — Dublin University Magazine, July, 1843. " The [American] declaration of National Bank- ruptcy." — Ibid. [Query, when was that made?] Passages from a ' Sweet Nut for the Yankees,' in the same Magazine; since reprinted in an illustrated volume for ' general circulation :' "Lord Chesterfield once remarked, that a thoroughly vulgar man could not speak the most common-place word, nor perform the most ordinary act, without imparting to the one and the other a portion of his own inborn vulgarity. And exactly so is it with the Yankees; not a question can arise, no matter how great its importance, nor how trivial its bearings, upon which, the moment they express an opinion, they do not completely invest it with their own native coarse- ness, insolence, and vulgarity. The Bou^ndary question was made a matter of violent invective and ruffian abuse; the Kight of Search was treated with the same power bii'th -place was a good deal nearer Duhl'in than New York; and as to Yuiikeeisms, she knew too little of them to keep up her assumed character. Her inducement for writing the book was probably better known to herself than to her publisher. As to the word napery, the critic may find it in an English essayist — The Observer. It appears to be from the French, nappe — Italian, nappa, napparie, linen for the table. I never heard the word in the United States. But it is certain that many ciUTent American words, which have been styled Yankeeisms, may be found in Chaucer and Shakspeare, and the earlier English writers ; and it is equally certain that most of the vulgar phrases used by Ainsworth's 'Uncle Sam,' and others, as American, have nnich more Cockneyism than Yankeeism in their composition. ENGLISH 'criticism.' 147 of ribaldry toward England." [We should like to see the English and American articles in parallel columns — we fear the tameness of the Yankee would be too apparent in comparison.] "My present business is with the Yankee declara- tion, that English authors, to be readable in America, must be passed through the ordeal of re-writing. What, is it seriously meant that Scott and Byron, Wordsworth, Southey, Rogers, Bulwer, James, Dickens, and a host of others, must be converted into the garbage of St. Giles, or the foetid slang of Wapping, before they can pass muster before an American public? Must the book reek of ' gin-twist,' ' cock-tail' — and the bowie-knife and whittling-stick — coarse jest — tobacco chewing — wild-cat-whipping — penny-a-lincr,' etc. etc. . . . *I certainly have few sympathies with brother Jonathan, [very few we should hope]; I like not his spirit of boastful insolence, his rude speech, or his uncultivated habits. That extent of baseness that dares to step in between an author and his reputation, insert- ing between him and posterity, their own illitei-ate degeneracy and insufferable stupidity." We have no room for the rest of this precious string of words, such as ' Prison discipline school of man- ners,' ' Savage vandalism,' 'Euffian profligacy,' 'Stabs its author,' ' Pirates,' ' Scurrility,' ' Robbery,' ' Mur- der,' etc. And what is it all about ? — Why some re-printers of juvenile books in Boston were opposed to international copyright, because it would prevent them from adapt- ing foreign juveniles to American children; and so they petitioned against it; and the petition was M'ritten by the very Peter Parley, whose own books had been thus 'adapted' by English pubHshers to suit their own fancy and purpose; [and the interpolations of the English publishers in these books were specially G 2 148 SPECIMENS OF picked out and denounced as Americanisms by English reviewers, who otherwise had no fault to find with the books !] No, Mr. Nutcracker; if some of the effusions of lite7'ateurs, like yourself, were omitted in the re-prints, probably the world at large would have no sort of objection; the loss to mankind would be very small indeed: but even your own ' sweet nuts,' disagreeable as they are to good taste, have been unfortunately transplanted with all their medicinal effects untouched. We can answer your question. It was not ' seriously meant' that 'Scott and Byron, Wordsworth, Southey, Rogers, Bulwer, James, Dickens,' and a host of others, should be converted into 'gin-twist' and 'cock-tail.' We venture to say, that all those authors have had as many readers in the United States, as in their own country: of the works of the last three, some hundred thousand volumes exist in American editions: but we would respectfully invite this Don Quixote, who has set up a windmill to shoot hard words at, to point out a work of any of the above writers, printed in America, with alterations or substitutions of any kind whatever. Until he can do this, his vituperation can only excite a smile of pity. Choice scraps from an article on American Poets : " ' Swagger and impudence' — ' political immoralities, and social vices of which a democracy may be ren- dered capable." .... 'As yet, the American is horn-handed and pig-headed, hard, persevering, un- scrupulous, carnivorous ; with an incredible genius for lijing,' etc. ' Peopled originally by adventurers of all classes and casts, America has been consistently replenished ever since, by the dregs and outcasts of all other countries.' . . . ' like wolves in search of the means of life, living from hand to mouth.'' ENGLISH 'criticism.' 149 . . . . ' Catholics, Unitarians, Calvinists, and Infidels, were indiscriminately mixed up in this work of violent seizure and riotous colonization.'' ' This bricjund confederation.' ' An open haven of refuge for the PaViahs of the wide earth/ ' The best blood America boasts was injected into her at the time of the Irish rebellion, and she looks up to it with justifiable pride.' * Can poetry spring out of an amalgam so monstrous and revolting ? Can its pure spirit breathe in an air so foetid and stifling ? You might as reasonably expect the vegetation of the tropics on the wintry heights of Lapland. The whole state of American society, from first to last, presents insuperable obstacles to tbe cul- tivation of letters, the expansion of intellect, the for- mation of great and original minds.' . • . ' The population (of the United States) has advanced at an alarming ratio.' ' Has never produced statesmen, but teems with politicians. Hence, the judges on the bench constantly give way to popular clamour, and law itself is abrogated by the law-makers, and openly violated by its functionaries. Hence, the total abne- gation of all dignity, earnestness, truth, consistency, and courage, in the administration of public aifairs. Hence, the ascendency of Lynch-law over State-law : hence, assassination in the daylight in the thronged streets ; hence, impunity to crime, backed by popular fury ; hence, the wild justice of revenge, bearding the justice of the judicature in his own courts ; hence, the savage bowie-knife, glittering in the hand of the murderer on the floor of Congress.' ' Outrage and disorder, and naked licentiousness.' * That depravity which rots like a canker at the core of American society.' ' The leading journal of New York,' [being the paper which no decent man there would then be seen reading — though it is now somewhat reformed,] ' says,' etc. etc. etc. ' This is a portrait of American society, drawn by one who knows it well, and who is of all men the best qualified to describe it accurately." [That is, by a foreign adventurer, who 150 ENGLISH * CRITICISM.' for his vulgar and abusive personalites on respect- able citizens, publicly received more than once a deserved 'cow-hiding,' instead of the 'black-mail^ for which he had attacked them.] ' The orator must strew his speech with flowers of Billingsgate . and a garnish of falsehoods, to make it effective. The preacher must preach down to the fashion of his congregation, or look elsewhere for bread and devotion. The newspaper editor must make his journal infa- mous and obscene, if he would make it popular.'" — Foreign Quarter li/ Review, Januarj^ 1844.* " That republic but yesterday let loose upon her noble course, and to day, so maimed and lame, so full of sores and ulcers, that her best friends turn from the loathsome creature in disgust."" — Mr. Charles Dickens. " War luith Ameinca, a blessing to Mankind." — Title of an article in Frazer''s Magazine. " My great object was to do serious injury to demo- cracy." — Honest confession of Captain Marryat to Edinburgh Review. Such paragraphs speak for themselves— they need no comment; and they are but specimens of the lan- guage of a large portion of the British press. And yet these same writers affect to sneer at Americans for being foolishly sensitive, and ' thin skinned ' as it is elegantly expressed. They accuse Americans of hatred to England. If the charge be untrue, it is not the fault of English travellers and critics. The most insensible of stoics would not stand proof against * The reader is referred to this elegant article (we have room only for specimens), and also to a parody upon it in Part II. of this volume. These morceaux, be it observed, are from the same grave Review (?) wliich so recently expended two long articles full of indignation and self-righteousness upon the ill-manners and bad taste of the American press ; and then most uncandidly quoted a notorious paper conducted by foreignei-s, as a fair specimen of 1600 Amex-ican newspapers. See Part II. AMERICAN INTEREST IN ENGLAND. 151 such attacks. Criticism is one thing — open insult is another. But though some of these compliments have been returned in kind, and though some American news- papers have re-echoed this vituperation, I deny that Americans (as a nation) hate England. Ten millions of them look back to England as their father-land. If the parent has had cause to complain of being injured by some of her American descen- dants — she can count up gains of a hundred-fold from the rest, to whom she has been but a step-mother. Nay, let her curb her impatience, and they will pay her all. It is scarcely worth while for her needlessly to insult a whole people, " with whose prosperity," to use the words of her own Prime Minister, that of England is "so extensively interwoven." The Anglo-Saxon race in the New world, yet look to England as the home of their ancestors: as the land of Chaucer and Spenser, of Bacon and Newton, of Shakspeare and Milton,* — whose woi'ks are theh' in- heritance, as well as that of Middlesex or Berkshire. They look upon England, as the source of their com- mon lao", and of many of their written statutes : as the land of the MagnaCharta — the land of John Hampden; the country which sent forth the "Adam and Eve of their empire in theNew world," — not" from Newgate," or the pauper ' Union,'t but from the substantial, edu- cated, and high-minded gentry and yeomanry of Eng- * I should estimate, from some knowledge of American book- making, stereotj'pe plates, etc., that there have been printed in the United States, altogether, at least 200,000 copies of the com- plete works of Shakspeare ; and about as many of Paradise Lost, and the complete works of Milton. t See Britannia newspaper, January, 1845. 152 NATURAL TIES OF land's brightest age — the age ofElizabeth and Cromwell. The founders of the American nation were not paupers or criminals, or adventurers, such as have been recently sent to its shores — the Winthrops and Dudleys, and Bradfords, and Mortons, and Calverts, were men of a different stamp. Their descendants, looking to Eng- land as the leader in the march of modern improve- ment, ask only a fair and open competition. They will give up whatever of vulgarity and dishonesty may be found within their borders to all the satire M^hich may be levelled at them; but they have objections to wholesale and ignorant abuse. "American hatred to England!" — Does the hospi- table reception given to one English traveller after another look like hatred? And especially when satirical burlesque from the preceding, arrives with each new comer? Where is 'goodnature' and 'long- suifering' to be found, if not among these same hating Yankees ? Do the admiring allusions to England which abound in the writings of some of the most popular American authors exemplify this hatred? Mr. Webster, the distinguished statesman, address- ing an assembly of 15,000 or 20,000 persons at Boston, just before the late presidential election, alluded in some way to England. A person in the crowd, whom in charity we may suppose was too recently ' acquired ' from Europe to appreciate American popular senti- ments, cried out : " They are all slaves in England." Mr. Webster paused; turned his dark piercing eye upon the speaker, and said in a tone of stern indig- nation : " Who dares thus to libel the land of his ancestors? Who in this assembly does not know that our most valued institutions are modelled on ENGLAND AND THE UNITED STATES. 153 those of England, and that our own freedom is but a modification and extension of her's?^' We have not the exact words — but he said more to that effect. — " His address," says the reporter, " was marked with utter scorn of such petty, narrow, anti-English prejudices." This, be it observed, was in an immense popular assembly, on the very eve of the great national contest, when every speech was framed for popular effect, and compliments to England w^ere quite uncalled for. What was the result ? Was the intruder applauded, and the apologist of England coughed down ? " Mr. Webster's remarks," say the papers, "Avere received with general and hearty cheers.'' And what American school-boy has not repeated the same orator's admiring allusion to the extent of the British Empire ; " The morning drum-beat of whose troops, following the sun, and encircling the earth, keeps up a continual strain of the martial airs of England !'^ What are even the "expansive and aggressive pro- pensities of democracy" (if such indeed belong to it), but the fruit of the precepts and example of our vener- able parent? Would not Oregon (even if not now Democracy's) be suggested by her Scinde ; and Texas acquired even much more naturally than New South Wales? The very highest school-boy boast of Yankee vanity only shews their respect for England — 'The Britishers can whip all the world, and we can whip the Britishers.' To sum up conclusions from facts, we may distinctly affirm — I. That the substantial, thriving, and intelligent population of the United States, is essentially that part g2 154 CONCLUSION. which is purely American— natives of the country, or descendants of the founders of the nation. II. That four-fifths of the crime, poverty, and disorder, and of the causes of bad faith, belong to the population which Europe has bestowed upon us within the last thirty years.* Americans must work out the cure of this evil ; and while their country may yet be a home for the oppressed of all nations, they may, with their own artist-poet, say of England — " All hail, thou noble land. Oiu- fathers' native soil ! " While the manners, while the arts, That mould a nation's soul, Still cling around our hearts, Between let ocean roll ; And still from either beach, The voice of blood shall reach, More audible than speech, "We are one !" * I am not so bigoted or insane as to place all emigrants of the last thirty years in this category ; on the contrary, I know many adopted citizens who would be valuable acquisitions to any country, and who have already done honour to the country of their adoption. When Ireland gives us such men as Emmett and JMacneven; and (Jermany sends us a FoUeu and a Lieber; and Italy a Da Ponte, a Maroncelli, a Foresti ; Switzerland, a Gal- latin; and when it is a noon-day fact, that some of our most distinguished and substantial citizens are from those countries, or are of French, Dutch, or Scotch extraction ; it would be folly to argue that political privileges should be accorded only to American birthright and English descent. The assertion is simply that, whereas all emigrants of all descriptions have been very early admitted to the rights of citizenship, experience has shewn that the mass of them have been incapable of understanding and appre- ciating those rights; and the public councils have suffered accordingly. PART II. NOTES, DOCUMENTS, AND STATISTICS. PART 11. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. Preamble. We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, pro- vide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secm-e the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this constitution for the United States of America. ARTICLE I. Of the Legislature. SECTION I. 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. SECTION II. 1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several States; and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislature. 2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this union, accord- ing to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by 158 CONSTITUTION OF adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three j-ears after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three; Massachusetts, eight; Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, one; Connecticut, five; New York, six; New Jersey, four; Pennsylvania, eight; Delaware, one; Mary- land, six; Virginia, ten; North Carolina, five; South Carolina, five; and Georgia, three. 4, When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill up such vacancies. .5. The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment. SECTION III. 1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years, and each senator shall have one vote. 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided, as equally as may be, into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year; of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year; and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year; so that one-third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen, by resignation or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. 4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. THE UNITED STATES. 159 5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a presi- dent jjro tempore, in the absence of the "Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. 6. 'I'he Senate shall have sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirma- tion. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside; and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. 7. Judgment in case of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honour, trust, or profit, under the United States ; but the party convicted shall, nevertheless, be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. SECTION IV. 1. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators and representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the legislature thereof ; but the Congress may at any time, by law, make or alter such regulations, except as to the place of choosing senators. 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. SECTION V. 1. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns and qualifications of its own members ; and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner and under such penalties as each House may provide. 2. Each House may determine the rule of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behaviour, and, with the con- currence of two-thirds, expel a member. 3. Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secresy ; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House, on any question, shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 160 CONSTITUTION OF 4. Neither House during the session of Congress shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. SECTION VI. 1. The senators and representatives shall receive a compensa- tion for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of tl)e United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and in going to or returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place. 2. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States wiiich shall have been created, or the emolu- ments whereof shall have been increased, during such time ; and no person holding any office under the United States shall be a member of either House during his continuance in office. SECTION VII. 1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments, as on other bills. 2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Represen- tatives and the Senate shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States ; if he approve, he shall sign it; but if not, he shall return it, with his objections, to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objec- tions at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that House, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each House respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted), after it shall have been pre- sented to him, the same shall be a law in like manner as if he THE UNITED STATES. 161 had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 3, Every order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except a question of adjournment), shall be presented to the President of the United States ; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. SECTION VIII. The Congress shall have power — 1. To levy and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States : 2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States : 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several Slates, and with the Indian tribes : 4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies, throughout the United States : 5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures ; 6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securi- ties and current coin of the United States : 7. To establish post-offices and post-roads: 8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries : 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme court. 10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offences against the law of nations : 11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water : 12. To raise and support armies; but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years : 13. To provide and maintain a navy : 14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces : 162 CONSTITUTION OF 15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions : 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respect- ively the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress : 17. To exercise exclusive legislation, iu all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square), as may, by cession of particular States and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places puixhased, by the consent of the legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings ; and 18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this constitution in the government of the United States, or any department or officer thereof. SECTION IX. 1 . The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be pro- hibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed ou such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be sus- pended unless when, in case of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may require it. 3. No bill of attainder or ex-post-facto law shall be passed. 4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in pro- portion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken. 5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. No preference shall be given by any regulation of com- merce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another; nor shall vessels bound to or from one State be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties, in another. 6. No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in conse- quence of appropriations made by law; and a regular statement THE UNITED STATES. 163 and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. 7. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States, and no person holding any ofHce of profit or trust under them shall, without the consent of Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign State. SECTION X. 1 . No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confedera- tion; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit: make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex-post-facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts ; or grant any title of nobility. 2. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws ; and the nett produce of all duties and imposts laid by any State on imports or exports shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States, and all such laws shall bes ubject to tlie revision and control of Congress. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty on tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. ARTICLE II. Of the Executive. SECTION I. 1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : — 2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to tlic whole number of senators and representatives to which the State maybe entitled in Congress ; but no senator or representative, or person holding any office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. 164 CONSTITUTION OF 3. The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each; which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representa- tives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the Pre- sident, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if there be more than one who have such a majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose by ballot one of them for President; and, if no person have a majority, then, from the five highest on the list, the said House shall in like manner choose the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every case after tlie choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be Vice-President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by ballot the Vice-President. 4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors and the day on which they shall give their votes, which day shall be the same throughout the United States. 5. No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a i-esident within the United States. 6. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inabilitj' to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-Pre- sident ; and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the President THE UNITED STATES. 165 and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act as Pre- sident ; and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed or a President shall be elected. 7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. 8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath or affirmation . — " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the constitution of the United States." SECTION II. 1. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual service of the United States ; he may require the opinion in writing of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices; and he shall have power to grant repriefs and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present, concur ; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme court, and all other offices of the United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law. But the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commis- sions, which shall expire at the end of their next session. SECTION III, 1. He shall, from time to time, give to Congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such 166 CONSTITUTION OF measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them ; and in case of disagreement between them, with i-espect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed ; and shall commission all the officers of the United States. SECTION IV. 1. The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for and conviction of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and mis- demeanors. ARTICLE III. Of the Judiciary. SECTION I. 1. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as Congress may from time to time order and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behaviour; and shall, at slated times, receive for their services a compensation, which shall not be diminished during their conti- nuance in office. SECTION II. 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases in law and equity arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority; to all cases afiecting ambassadors, other public mini- sters and consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdic- tion; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party; to controversies between two or more States; between a State and citizens of another State; between citizens of different States; between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different States ; and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign States, citizens, or subjects. 2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls, and those in which a State shall be a party, the Supreme court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other THE UNITED STATES. 167 cases before mentioned the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations, as Congress shall make. 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury, and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed ; but when not com- mitted witliin any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as Congress may by law have directed. SECTION III. 1 . Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason, unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or con- fession in open court. 2. Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason; but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attained. ARTICLE IV. Miscellaneous. SECTION I. 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each Slate to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And Congress may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings, shall be proved, and the effect thereof. SECTION II. 1. The citizens of each Slate shall be entitled to all the privi- leges and immunities of citizens in the several States. 2. .\ person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice and be found in another State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. 3. No person held to service or labour in one State, under the lr:ws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labour ; but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labour may be due. 168 CONSTITUTION OF SECTION III. 1. New States may be admitted by Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other State, nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States, without the consent of the legislatures of the States concerned, as well as of Congress. 2. Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory, or other property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular State. SECTION IV. 1. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion ; and, on application of the legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence. ARTICLE V. Of Amendments. 1. Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this constitution ; or, on the application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by Congress ; provided, that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article ; and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the senate. ARTICLE VI. Miscellaneons. 1. All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the confederation. THE UNITED STATES. 169 2. This constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land ; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in the constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. 3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several State legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this con- stitution : but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualifi- cation to any office, or public trust, under the United States. ARTICLE VII. Of the Ratification. 1. The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same. Done in Convention, by the unanimous consent of the States present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the Independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. George Washington, President and Deputy from Virginia. NEW HAMPSHIRE. NtW JERSEY. John Langdon. William Livingston. Nicholas Oilman. David Brearly. William Patterson. MASSACHUSETTS. Nathaniel Gorman. onathan Dayton. PENNSYLVANIA. R"f"« ^'"g- Benjamin Franklin. CONNECTICUT. Thomas Mifflin. ■^^^•^■\• .„ o i t i. Robert Morris. William Samuel Johnson. D oi George Clvmer. Roger bherman. ° ■' Thomas Fitzsimons. NEW YORK. Jared Ingersoll. Alexander Hamilton. James Wilson. Governeur Morris. H 170 CONSTITUTION OF DELAWARE. George Read. Gunning Bedfovd, jun. John Dickinson. Richard Bassett. Jacob Broom. MARYLAND. James IM'Henrj\ Daniel of St. Tho. Jenifer. Daniel Carroll. VIRGINIA. John Blair. James Madison, jun. NORTH CAROLINA. William Blount. Richard Dobbs Spaight. Hugh Williamson. SOUTH CAROLINA. John Rutledge. Chas. Cotesv/orth Pinckney. Charles Pinckney. Pierce Butler. GEORGIA. William Few. Abraham Baldwin. Attest William Jackson, Secretary. AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. Art. 1. Congress shall make no law respecting an establish- ment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. Art. 2. A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. Art. 3. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner; nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. Art. 4. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and eifects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated ; and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and parti- cularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. Art. 5. No person shall be held to answer for a capital or other- wise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia when in actual service in time of war or public THE UXITED STATES. 171 clanger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be put twice in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled, in any criminal case, to be witness against himself; nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation. Art. G. In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favour; and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. Art. 7. In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved; and no fact tried by jury shall be otherwise re-ex- amined in any court of the United States than according to the rules of the common law. Art. 8. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. Art. 9. The enumeration in the constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. Art. 10. The powers not delegated to the United States by the constitution, nor prohi'uited by it to the States, are I'eserved to the States respectivelj' or to the people. Art. 11. The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign State. Art. 12. § 1. The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with them- selves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-Pre- sident ; and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which list they shall sign and 172 CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES. certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate; the Pre- sident of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes sjiall then be counted ; the person having the greatest number of votes for President shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have such a majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers, not exceeding three, on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose imme- diately by ballot the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representative from each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two- thirds of the States, and a majo- rity of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional dis- ability of the President. 2. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice- President shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majo- rity of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list the Senate shall choose the Vice-President : a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of Presi- dent shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. 173 II. ANALYSIS OF SOME PROVISIONS IN THE CONSTITUTIONS OF THE SEVERAL STATES. ^[Prepared for this Volume.'] I. Qualifications of Voters — There are Property Qualijications in Connecticut, Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. Payment of Taxes atid Citizenship required in the above, and in New Hampshire, Vermont, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Georgia, Louisiana, and Ohio. Citizenship and Residence in the Slate of three to twelve months, in Maine, Maryland, Alabama, Arkansas, Kentucky, Missouri, Tennessee, Indiana, and Michigan. Right of Voting limited to the whites in all the States, except the six States of New England, Pennsylvania, and Georgia. In New York, coloured persons may vote if they possess a freehold of 250 dollars or more. II. Qualifications of Members of State Legislatures — Freehold, or Property QuaUficalions, in thirteen States, viz., New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York (for Senators), New Jersey, Delaware, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Tennessee. Payment of Taxes'm four States, viz., Missouri, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. Citizenship and Residence of various terms. In all the above, and in Maine, Vermont, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Alabama, Ar- kansas, Kentucky, and Michigan. The Legislative body is styled, the General Court, in Maine, New Hampshire, and Massaclmsetts; the Legislature, in New York ; and in all others, " The General Assembly." The lower branch is elected for one year, in fifteen States ; for two years in Delaware, North Carolina, South Carolina, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Tennessee, and Illinois. The Senate, or Upper House, is elected for four years, in New York, Virginia, South Carolina, Mississippi, Lousiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Kentucky, and Illinois; iot three years, m Alabama, 174 CONSTITUTIONS OF and Indiana ; for two years, in Ohio and Micliigan ; for ^re years, in Maryland; and for one year in all the others. HI. The Executive: Powers and Mode of Election — The Governor is chosen hy the people annually, in tlie six States of New England. By the people for /?/'o years, in eight States, viz. New York, North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Ten- nessee, Ohio, and Michigan. By the people for tliree years, in two States, Pennsylvania and Indiana. By the people ^or four years, in five States; Delaware, Arkan- sas, Missouri, Kentucky, and Illinois. By the legislature or assembly for one year, in New Jersev and Maryland. By the legislature for two years, in South Carolina, and for tliree years, in Virginia; and in Louisiana, by the assembly, for four years, from the two candidates having the greatest number of votes from the people. There are certain restrictions on the re-election of the governor in Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Mississippi, Mis- souri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. The Governor has the pardoniny power, either alone, or with his council, in all the States, except Rhode Island, where he has onlj' a vote in council. He has official patronage alone in Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and Louisiana ; and with the Senate in Missouri, Kentucky, In- diana, Illinois, and Michigan. He has a ' qualified neyative ' (or power of vetoing the acts of the legislature, unless re-enacted by a two-thirds' vote), in Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Vermont, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan. IV. The Judiciary is thus appointed: — By the Governor and Legislature, or Senate, or Council, in Maine New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New York, Maryland, Louisiana, Missouri, Indinna, and Michigan. By the Legislature alone, in Vermont, Rhode Island, Connecti- cut, New Jersey,Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Arkansas, Tennessee, Ohio, and Illinois. THE SEVERAL STATES. 175 By the Governor alone in Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Kentucky. By popular vote, in Mississippi. The term of Office of the superior judges, is for life for 'during good beha\aour)' in Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, De- laware, Mavylaud, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Louisiana, Kentucky, and Illinois. Until seventy years of age, in Maine,NewHampshire,Connecticut. Until sixty-five years of age, in Missouri ; until sixty, in New York. For periods varying from tivo to twelve years, in New Jersey, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Tennessee, Ohio, In- diana, Michigan ; and for one year, in Rhode Island, and Vermont. They are removeable — B}' impeachment, in fourteen States, By conviction of miscon- duct in a court of law, in Maryland. B}- joint resolution of Senate, and two-thirds of Assembly, in New York. The Three ' TERRITORIES ' of the United States— Florida, Wisconsin, and Iowa, have each a legislature elected by their own people ; but their governors are appointed by the President and Senate of the United States. After the federal Union of the first thirteen States, bordering on the Atlantic, the public domain, as it gradually became inhabited, was divided into territories, under the supervision of the general government : and it was provided that these territories, whenever they should contain 50,000 inhabitants, might, on their application to Congress, be received into the Union as independent States ; with rights and privileges in common with the original States. Thirteen States have thus been added to the Union since 1789: and the above three territories now remain, besides a large tract of country yet unsettled, or appropriated to the Indian tribes. Wisconsin is said to contain, at present, more than 50,000 in- habitants, and will probably soon become a State. iJRIEF LIST OF THE CHIEF EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 1564. St. Augustine, Florida, the oldest town in the United States, founded by the Spaniards. 1584. Virginia visited by Sir Walter Raleigh, and so named in 176 CHIEF HISTORICAL EVENTS honour of Queen Elizabeth. A colony of 107 persons were left there in 1585, but returned to England next year. 1602. Voyage of Gosnold, who discovers Cape Cod. 1603. Voyages of Pring and Gilbert to Virginia. 1 607. The first permanent English settlement in North America, made in Virginia, and the place named Jamestown, in honour of James I. 1620. The first settlement in New England, by a colony of English Independents, who embark from Leyden, and land on the 21st of December at a place they name Plymouth. 1622. First permanent Dutch settlement in New Netherlands (afterwards the state of New York), at Fort Orange, after- wards Albany, and New Amsterdam, afterwards the city of New York. The Dutch had erected a fort and a factory in this region in 1615. 1628. The town of Salem, Massachusetts, founded. 1634. Maryland first colonized by Lord Baltimore, who receives a grant of the territory from Charles I. 1636. Rhode Island colonized, and Providence founded by a party from Massachusetts under Roger Williams. 1638. The colony of New Haven (Connecticut) founded. A colony of Swedes on the Delaware — soon after incor- porated with the Dutch of New Netherlands. 1643. Union of the colonies of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, New Haven, and Connecticut, under the style of the United Colo- nies of New England. 1663. Carolina granted by Charles II. to Lord Clarendon and his associates: settlements made at Albemarle, Port Royal, and Charleston (1664—1671). 1664. Charles II. grants to the duke of York, afterwards James II. the country extending from Connecticut to the Delaware, and an English force takes possession of New Amsterdam, which is named New York. In the same year, the duke of York grants a part of this tract to Lord Berkeley and others, by the name of Nova Caesarea, or New Jersej'. The first represen- tative assembly was held in New York in 1683. 1679. New Hampshire, which had been granted in 1622 to John Mason and Sir Ferdinando Gorges, and had been governed by Massachusetts, now receives a separate government. IN THE LNITED STATES. 177 1081. William Penn, having received a charter of the territory be- tween Maryland and the Delaware.conducts there a body of emi- grants, chiefly Quakers, and founded the city of Philadelphia. 1G90. French and Indian war in Canada. Several of the English settlements destroyed. 1699. French settlements on the Mississippi, and in the territory called Louisiana. 1717. New Orleans founded. 1732. George Washington born in Virginia. 1733. Georgia colonized by a company under general Oglethorpe. Savannah founded. 1739. War between Great Britain and Spain in 1745. The New England troops capture the important fortress of Louisbourg, Cape Breton. 1756. War between Great Britain and France; continues seven years, and is actively carried on between the colonies of the two nations in North America. 1759. Quebec taken, and Canada reduced by the English. 1764. St. Louis on the Mississippi founded. 1765. Commencement of the dispute relative to the taxation of the Anglo American colonies, which terminates in the war of Independence. Taxes first laid by parliament on sugar im- ported into the colonies in 1764 : this year the " Stamp Act," levying duties on stamped paper, causes great excitement and general resistance in all the colonies. They send dele- gates to a genei-al assembly, and adopt a "declaration of rights," asserting the exclusive right of the colonies to tax themselves. The stamp act was repealed in 1766. 1767. Colonial revenues again attempted by the British govern- ment ; duties laid on paper, glass, tea, colours, etc. 1768. The Massachusetts House of Representatives sends a circular to the other colonies, calling upon them to unite in obtaining a redress of grievances ; and refusing to rescind these resolu- tions, is dissolved by the governor. New bodies of troops sent to Boston. 1769. Parliament condemns the proceedings of Massachusetts, and calls for a commission for the trial in England of treasonable offences committed in the colonies. Most of the colonial legislatures adopt resolutions against this proceeding. H 2 178 CHIEF HISTORICAL EVENTS 1770. The British troops iti Boston being annoyed by the people, fire upon the crowd (March 5th), and kill four persons. 1773. Cargoes of tea, sent out by the East India company : sent back from New York and Philadelphia, and at Boston a cargo is thrown into the dock. 1774. The Boston Port Bill passed, and another, virtually annihilat- ing the chartered privileges of the colony. Virginia observes the day when the act goes into operation as a solemn fast. A general congress meets at Philadelphia (Sept. 5th), and adopts a declaration of rights and grievances, and addresses to the king and people of Great Britain, etc. Massachusetts adopts a plan of defence, 1775. British troops sent out from Boston to destroy military stores collected by the people at Lexington : are resisted by the in- habitants : a skirmishing fight ensues between the troops and the people, and the former are driven back to their quarters. This was the first bloodshed of the struggle for Independence. The militia of the various colonies assemble promptly, and shut up the British troops in Boston. Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17. George Washington elected commander-in-chief of the American army. 177G. Boston evacuated by the British troops. July 4th, Congress declares the united colonies to he free and independent States. 1777. Thirteen "articles of confederation and perpetual union," adopted. A British army under General Burgoyne, surren- ders to the American general Gates, at Saratoga, Oct. 17. 1781. Another British army, under Lord Cornwallis, surrenders at Yorktown, Oct. 19. 1783. Definitive treaty of peace between Great Britain and the United States, signed at Paris, Sept. 3. The American army disbanded, and Washington resigns his commission, Dec. 23. 1787. A convention of delagates from all the States, except Rhode Island, meet at Philadelphia, May 25th, and having elected Washington president, the}' proceed to frame a federal con- stitution for a general government, which is adopted Sept. 17. 1788, The constitution ratified by all the States, except North Carolina, which accedes to it in 1789, and Rhode Island in 1790 The first settlement in Ohio, made at Marietta by IN THE UNITED STATES. 179 emigrants from New England. [Ohio now (1S45) contains a million and a half of people]. 17S9. The first Congress under the new constitution, meets at New York, March 3d, and Washington is declared President of the United States. 1791. Vermont admitted into the Union. 1792. Kentucky admitted into the Union. 1794. Treat}' of commerce with Great Britain negotiated by Jay. 1 796. Tennessee admitted into the Union. 1 797. John Adams, President of the United States. Washington again retires to his farm at Mount Vernon. 1799. Death of Washington. 1800. Seat of the federal government removed to the village of Washington. ISOl. Jefferson, President. 1802. Ohio admitted into the Union. 1803. Louisiana ceded to the United States. 1806. Expedition under Captain Lewis, and Clarke, to the Pacific ; sent by the United States government. 1807. The Chesapeake American frigate boarded, and some of her men seized, and carried off by the British frigate Leopard. 1812. The above, and many similar aggressions having been re- monstrated against without success, and Great Britain still claiming the right of searching American vessels, and of taking away all who might be suspected of being British subjects, — War against Great Britain, is declared by Congress, June 18. [Madison, President.] Four British frigates captured by the Americans. 1813. British naval force on lake Erie captured. 1814. Washington taken, and the public buildings and libraries burnt by the British. British fleet on lake Champlain captured. 1815. The British army defeated at New Orleans. Treaty of peace (which had been signed at Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814) ratified by the President. ISIO. Indiana admitted into the Union. 1817. James Munroe, President. Mississippi admitted into the Uin'on. 1818. Illinois admitted into the Union. 180 1819. 1820. 1821. 1821. 1825. 1829. 1836. 1837. 1841. 1845. POPULATION. Alabama I Maine V admitted into the Union. Missouri J Florida territory ceded to the United States. John Quincy Adams, President. Andrew Jackson, President. Arkansas and Michigan, received into the Union as States. Wisconsin territory organized. Van Buren, President. Harrison, President, dies ; and John Tyler, Vice-President, becomes acting President. James K. Polk, President. Term of office begins March 4. IV. POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES, According to the Six Eiinmeratioiis ; from the Official Revision. States. 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 Maine . . . 93,540 151,719 228,705 298,335 399,955 501,793 New Hamp. 141,890 183,762 214,360 244.161 2(,9,328 284,574 Veimi'iit . . 85,410 154,41)5 217,713 235,764 280,652 291,943 Massaciin!setls 378,717 423,245 472,040 623,287 610,408 737,690 Rhode Island 69;I10 08,122 77,o:ii 83 0,59 97, 1 99 103,830 Connecticut ■i.i8,I41 251,002 262, 04> 275,202 297,665 309,978 New York 340.1'20 586,756 959,949 1,372,812 1,918,608 2,428.921 New Jersej' 184,139 211,949 249,555 277.575 320,823 373,306 Pcnnsj Ivania 434,.^73 602.3ii5 810,091 1,049,458 1,318.233 1,724,033 Delaware . . 59,098 64.273 72,674 72,749 70,748 78,085 BlarjUnd . . 319,728 341 548 380,546 407, .350 447,040 470,019 Virginia . . 748,308 880,200 974,623 1,065.379 1,211.405 1,239,797 North Carolina 393,751 478,103 555,500 6.38,829 737,987 753,419 South Carolina ■249,073 345,591 415.115 502,741 581,185 594,398 Georgia . . 82,548 162,101 252 433 340,987 516,823 691,392 Albania . . 20,845 127,901 .309.527 590,756 Mississippi . 8,850 40,352 75,448 136,621 375,651 Louisiana . . 76,55t; 153,407 215,732 3,52,411 14,273 422,813 30,388 681,904 97,574 Tennesfee 30,791 105,602 261.727 829,210 Kentucky 73,077 220,955 406,511 564.317 687,917 779,828 Ohio . . . 45,365 230.760 581,434 937,903 1,519,467 Michigan . . 4,76v 8,896 31,639 212,267 Indi.iiia . . 4,875 24,5V0 147,178 343,031 685,866 Illinois . . 12,282 55,211 157,4.';5 476,183 Missouri . . 20,845 6fi,5S6 140,445 383,702 Dist. Columbia 14,003 24,023 33,039 39,834 43,712 Florida 34,730 54,477 30,945 43,112 Iowa . . . 12,866,920 Total . . 3,929,8^7 5,305,925 7,239,814 9,638,131 17,063,353 AGRICULTURE. 181 AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS, ESTIMATED FOR 1841. States, etc. Maine New Hampshire Massachusetis ... Rliode Island ... Connecticut Vermont New York New Jersey Pennsylvania ... Delaware Maryland Virginia North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Tennessee Kentucky Ohio Indiana Illinois Missouri .■\rkansas Michigan Florida T Wisconsin T. .. Iowa T D. of Columbia Population according to tlie Census of 1840. 501,973 284,574 737.699 108,830 309,978 291,948 ,428,921 373,306 ,724,033 78.085 470,019 ,239,797 753,419 594,398 691,392 J90,756 375,651 3.r2,411 829,210 779,828 ,519.467 685,866 476,183 383,702 97,574 212,267 54.477 30,945 43,112 43,712 Fotal 17,069,453 17,835,217 91,642,957 Population in 18-11, esti- mated on the Annual Aver- age Increase lor 10 years. 522,059 286,622 762,257 111,156 312,440 293,906 2,531,003 383,802 1,799,193 78,351 474,613 1,245,475 756,505 597,040 716,506 646,996 443,457 379,967 858,670 798,210 1,647,779 754,232 584,917 432,350 111,010 248,331 58,425 37,133 51,834 46,978 Knmber of Bm.-IkIs of Wheat. 987,412 426,816 189,571 3 407 95 090 512,461 12,309,041 919,043 12.872,219 317,105 3,747,652 10,010,105 2,183,026 963,162 1,991,162 869,554 305,091 67 4.873.584 4,096.113 17,979,647 5,282,864 4,026,187 1,110,542 2,132,030 2,896,721 624 297,541 234,115 10,105 Is amber of Bnshels of Barley. 360,267 125,964 157,903 69,139 31,594 55,243 2,301,041 13,009 203,858 5,119 3,773 83,025 4 208 3,794 12,897 7,941 1,784 5,197 16,860 245,905 33,618 102,926 11,515 950 151,263 50 1 1,529 1,342 317 5,024,731 REMARKS ON THE AGRICULTUKAL STATISTICS. [^Extracted from Report of Commissioners of Patents, accompanying thefuregoinr) table, made to Congress, Feb. 7th, 1842.] This tabular view has been prepared from the census statistics taken in IS40, upon the agricultural products of the year 1839 as the basis. These have been carefully compared and estimated by 182 AGRICn.TURE. Agricultural Slal'islics — continued. Stales, etc. Maine New Hampshire ... JNIassachiisetts Rhode Island Connecticut Vermont New York New Jersey Pennsylvania Delaware Maryland Virginia North Cirolina ... South Carolina ... Georgia Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Tennessee Kentucky Ohio Indiana Illinois IMissouri Arkansas Michigan Florida T Wisconsin T Iowa T D. of Columbia ... Total. Number of Biisliels i)f Oat5. Number of Bushels or Rje. 119, 312. ,276 188, 431, 601. ,896, ,745 ,872. 937, .827, 962, 832 374 523 ,476, 697, 109, ,457 825 995 606 964, 580 13, 511 301 12 236 ,915 ,425 ,127 ,491 ,668 ,454 ,425 ,205 ,061 ,591 ,105 ,365 ,108 ,729 ,562 ,623 ,670 ,235 ,425 ,818 ,974 ,112 086 410 ,641 ,561 ,527 ,498 ,694 ,941 102 130,607,623 143,458 317,418 509,205 37.973 805,222 241,061 2,723,241 1,908,984 6,942,643 .35 162 671,420 1,317,574 256.765 49,064 64,723 55,558 11 978 1,897 322.579 1,652,108 854.191 162 026 114,656 72,144 7,772 42.306 320 2.342 4,675 5,009 19,333.474 Numbfr of Bushels of Btick-Wlieal. 53.020 106 301 91,273 3,276 334,008 231,122 2,325.911 1,007,340 2,485,132 13,127 80 966 297,109 18,4f)9 85 542 60 69 19,145 9,669 666,541 56,371 69,54-1 17,135 110 127,504 13,525 7,873 312 7,953,544 Number of Busliels of Indian Corn. 988.549 191,275 1,905,273 471,022 1,-521,191 1,167,219 11,441.256 5.134.356 14.969,472 2,164,507 6.998,124 33.987,255 24,116,2.S3 14,987,474 21,749,227 21,. 594.354 5.985,724 6,224,147 46.285,359 40,787,120 35.. 552 161 33,195.108 23,424,474 9,725.146 6,039,450 3 058,290 694,205 521.244 1,547,215 43,725 387,380.185 a laborious examination and condensing of a great number of agricultural papers, reports, etc., throughout the Union, together with such other information as could be obtained by recourse to individuals from every section of the country. It is believed to be as correct as with the present data can be reached. The estimates are doubtless more closely accurate with regard to some portions AGRICULTURE. jiciricultiircd Slatisttcs — continued. 183 Slates, etc. Maine , New Hatnpshiie ISIassachusetts ... Rhode Island..., Connecticut Averment.. New York New Jersey Pennsj'lvania Delaware Maryland Viroinii North Carolina.. South Carolina.., Georgia , Alabama , Mi.ssissippi , Louisiana Tennessee Kentucky , Ohio Indiana , Illinois Missouri , Arkansas JNIichigan Florida T , Wisconsin T Iowa T D. of Columbia, Total Numbpr of Bnsliel.s of Potatoes. NiiiTibor of Tons of Hay. 10,912.821 6.573,405 4,947,805 1,003,170 3,002.142 9.112 008 30,617,009 2,486,482 9,747,343 213.090 827,363 2,889,265 3,141,086 2,713,425 1,644.235 1,793,773 1,705,461 872,563 2,018,632 1.279,519 6,004,183 1,830,952 2,633,156 815,259 367,010 2,911,507 271,105 4.54,819 261,306 43,725 111,183,619 713,285 505,217 617,663 69,881 497,204 924 379 3,472,118 401,833 2,004.162 25,007 87,351 367.602 111,571 25,729 17,507 15 353 604 26.711 33,106 90,360 1,112,6-)1 1,213,634 214,411 57,204 695 141,525 1.045 35.603 19,745 1,449 12,804,705 Niimljer of Tons ot Flax and ilcinp. 40 28 9 J 45' 31 1,508 2,197 2,987 54 507 26.141 10,705 13 7 21 "3,724 8,827 9.584 9,110 2,143 20,547 1,545 944 3 459 101,1811 Nunihrr of Ponnils of Tobacco gathered. 75 264 87,955 454 547,694 710 9S4 2,566 415,908 365 26,152.810 79,450,192 20,026,830 69,-524 175,411 286.976 155,307 129,517 35,168,040 56,678,674 6,486,164 2,375.365 863,623 10,749,454 185,548 2,249 74.963 311 9,616 59,578 240,187,118 of the country than others. The numerous agncultiiral societies in some of the States, with the reports and journals devoted to this branch of industrj", aflTord a means of forming sucli an estimate as is not to be found in others. Papers of this description, giving a continued record of the crops, improvements in seeds, and means of culture, and direction of labour, are more to be relied on in this 184 AGRICULTUKE. Agricultural Statistics — continued. States, etc. Number of Pounds of Cotton. Number of Pounds of Rice. Number of lbs. of Silk Cocoons. Number of Pounds of Sugar. Number ofGallons of Wine. Maine New Hampshire Massachusetts.. Rhode Island Connecticut... Vermont New York .... New Jersey... Pennsylvania... Delaware Maryland Virginia North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Tennessee Kentucky Ohio Indiana Illinois Missouri Arkansas Michigan Florida T Wisconsin T.. Iowa T D. of Columbia 2,402 34,437 43,927 116,514 84,854 148,o04 112,511 20,872 607 352 ,484 ,117 ,581 ,171 ,211 ,118 395 263 ,433 ,456 165 196,231 132,109 7,038,186 6,009,201 Total. 578,008,473 3,084 ,324,132 ,897,244 ,417,209 156,469 861,711 ,765,541 8,455 16,848 598 65 5,987 '495,625 527 692 200,000 745 93,611 5,684 3,425 3,116 17,324 2,963 5,677 5,341 4,929 4,792 5,185 4,902 158 881 5,724 3,405 6,278 495 2,345 16^ 171 984 376 25 916 263,592 162,519 496,341 55 56,372 5,119,264 11,102,070 67 2,894,016 39,'892 1,657,206 8,924 31,461 357,611 10,650 127 88,189,315 275,557 1,409,172 7,109,423 3,914,184 415,756 327,165 2,147 1,894,372 269,146 147,816 51,425 2,349 104 207 801 1,924 109 5,162 9,311 16,115 296 7,763 13,504 31,572 671 8,117 354 17 2,911 692 2,261 11,122 10,77/S 05 O C CJ -ocoootot^cor-tcc) •^ t-- ^ cocJcocot»r~0"*iO — O) — O — T—. lOO'*' a lO — >OCO'rOr:)C^«OOOCO^ O COO-C-^COOT-^C^J rj.oco 5^„ -c (^JSt^cot~-Oico<^>oo fo— • , iC-i — oi-hoiX) t^ 1O--1 oT ^ tb- UO ^^^ CO !N CO to -* CO 1 'to — 1 O) C^ (N l^ r-lCTiCTiC^-*35'nt~-l:^'»C002COCOa3(M(MCO-^a!OiOOO>»/JiOi— OiOO) r.H r-cc^— 'COOiMcococccoc-j— '42cocor^ t- CDC^c~'0'S'a:cO'MooiO'*'f— '■"HTT^r^c-it^^i— icoxj'.-o-^ c»^ aj TJ oTco'o •*-*oof^i-':!0)c^C2a)Co«ioooiC(N — co-*o-)'*.-iOi^ coi>io 0"- >.J5 »cr-o"*c^t^«--coc-i^r--*Tict^«3" coocooii^ft^ co co BS s 1— ICOCO 0)(NvOCO-T C^(NO» CO ^^J^ '-* ■— ' c»^ " eo'c^'oT r^ _r~^^-^a>^c•J^co^=o_ OT a. ^ ccrc3'oD~cr^'--"t^o"co^orrCorcd"Tr"cd~^co"co~^co'co^rorco-^cr'* co~-* co" oT ■^ "? 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Indian Corn - - . . 494,618,306 — Potatoes 105,756,133 — Oats 145,929,966 — Rye 24,280,271 — Buck Wheat - - . - 7,959,410 — Barley - - . _ . 3,220,721 — Hay 15,419,807 tons. Silk 315,965 pounds. Wine ----- 139,240 gallons. Flax and Hemp - - - - 161,007 pounds. Tobacco 185,731,554 — Cotton 747,660,090 — Rice - . - - - 89,879,145 — Sugar ------ 126,400,310 — This was the crop of the United States in 1843, a year in which the yield of many products was unusually short. In 1842, the amountofbreadbtuffs, including corn and potatoes, was 716,147,950 bushels, which allowed for each man, woman, and child of the whole population, nearly thirty-nine bushels. But the capabilities of production there, are no more tested than are the powers of consuniption here. In the foregoing table, the agricultural import- ance of the State of Ohio will not escape notice, and a more detailed examination will excite still greater astonishment. Let it not be forgotten, that this State, at the close of the last century, was the hunting-field of the Indian; yet, in 1842, the Governor of Ohio supposed, that, after deducting sufficient of the wheat crop for the home consumption, 14,000,000 of bushels would remain for exportation. XVIII.— STATISTICS OF OHIO, AN AGRICULTURAL STATE. The State of Ohio contains a fraction over 40,000 square miles, or 25,000,000 acres. Estimated quantity of arable land, 20,000,000 acres. Wet, broken, and sterile, 5,000,000 acres. Assessed for taxation in 1840, 20,215,044 acres. Probable amount liable to taxation in 1841, 21,200,000 acres. Total number of acres in cultivation, including meadow and pasture land, 7,500,000 acres. 212 STATISTICS OF OHIO. Population. Ohio became a State a.d. 1802. Estimated population in 1802 - 50,000 increase. Population, as per census, in 1810, 230,760 - - 180,760 „ 1820 - - 581,434 - - 3o0,'674 „ 1830 - - 937,679 - - 356,215 » 1840 - - 1,515,161 - - 577,482 Exports in 1840. Dollars. Breadstuff's, mostly wheat and flour, estimated value 7,098,810 Other agricultural products, including distilled spirits 1,874,402 Products of domestic animals; chiefly pork, lard, butter, cheese,"and wool - - - . . 2,315,069 Domestic animals, driven from the State on foot - 2,600,000 Products of mines and forests - _ . . 782,700 Manufactured articles - - - - - - . 5,000,000 Total value of the products of Ohio, 1 exported in the year 1940 - ] ' ^-^.fa^^.^S^ Such was the State of Ohio in the year 1840. In itself it forms but a small portion of that magnificent country which stretches from the Alleghanies to the Rocky Mountains; a country through which the mightiest rivers roll, where an unimpeded navigation of a few days interchanges the productions of the Tropics for those of the Frigid zone : a country which at the close of the present century may be supporting a population of 50,000,000 ; in whom the predominating political influence of the Union must be centred, and whose resources, as a producing country, must cause its commerce to be sought for by all nations. The mind loses itself in the vain attempt to picture the conse- quences that will follow the peopling of such a mighty region, when well-cultivated fields will occupy what is now the haunt of the sturdy trapper ; when cities shall rise up where now is the lodge of the Indian ; when mineral wealth shall be opened, and in the discovery of new minerals and new products, new inventions in science and art shall arise to produce as mighty changes, as steam has done and is doing now. — American Corn and British Manufactures ; London, S. Clarke, 1845. PROGRESS OF INVENTION. 213 INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS OF OHIO. ' Ohio seems to be participating most abundantly in tlie prosperity of public works. The following is a statement of income for two years ending the middle of May : — 184243. 1843-44. dollars. 47,480 76 28,873 15 2,754 61 948 39 660 16 105 63 7,904 78 dollars. 94,530 04 43,446 82 Medinaex.(unfin. will be complett d tills year) 5,253 27 12,812 23 1,692 12 584 23 Muskingum improvement 14,340 70 88,729 48 172,659 41 88,729 48 Increase in 1844 83,929 93 XIX. PROGRESS OF INVENTION AND MANUFACTURES IN THE UNITED STATES. The Annual Report of Mr. Ellsworth, the Commissioner of Pa- tents, for the year 184.3, is a document of great interest, embracing, as it does, a large amount of information on subjects connected with the progress of the arts, manufactures, agriculture, and the general resources of the country. We propose, in the present article, to exhibit a few of the facts and statements of the report, in a concise and comprehensive form, as they fall within the design of this Magazine. From this report, we learn that five hundred and thirty-one patents were issued during the year 184.3, including eleven re-issues, fourteen designs, and two additional improvements to former patents. During the same period, four hundred and forty-six patents expired. The applications for patents, during the year 1843, amounted to eight hundred and nineteen; and the number of caveats filed, three hundred and fifteen. The receipts of the office, for 1843, amounted to 35,31 5-81 dollars; from 214 PROGRESS OF INVENTION which are to be deducted, repaid, on applications withdrawn, 5,026 dollars. The ordinary expenses of the patent-office, for the past year, including payments for the library, and for agri- cullurcxl statistics, were 24,750 dollars, leaving a net balance of 4,538 dollars to be accredited to the patent fund. The whole number of patents issued by the United States, up to January 1814, was 13,523. The patents granted for the year 1843, ex- ceeded those of the previous year by twenty-four, and the excess of apphcations amounted to fifty-eight. The rapid improvement of the arts may help to account for the reduction of price, as to many articles of manufacture, and especially in some that are usually ranked among the necessaries of life. Shirtings, for instance, which cost, thirty years ago, sixty-two cents per yard, are now bought for eleven or twelve cents, and equally as good. Hosiery is now made in the United States with astonishing rapidity, by the aid of the power weaving loom, an American invention, which has not yet been introduced into England. While, there, it is a full day's work to knit by hand two pairs of drawers, a girl, here, at 2J dollars per week, will make, by the power-loom, twenty pairs in the same time. A piece, twenty- eight inches in width, and one inch long, can be knit in one minute, thus reducing the expense of manufacturing this article one-tenth of the former method by the handlooms. The import- ance of this improvement may be estimated from the fact, that the quantity of hosiery used in the United States is valued at 2,500,000 dollars; and the stockings, woven shirts, and drawers, made in this country, at 500,000 dollars. Hooks and eyes This is another illustration of the progress of inventive industry. Thirty years ago, the price was Ih dollars per gross ; now the same quantity may be purchased from fifteen to twenty cents. At one establishment in New Britain, Connec- ticut, 80,000 to 100,000 pairs per day are made and plated by a galvanic battery, on the cold silver process. The value of this article, consumed annually in the United States, is estimated at 750,000 dollars. HoKSE-sHOEs furnish a similar proof of the bearing of the pro- gress of inventions. An improved kind of horseshoes, made at Troy, New York, for some time past, is now sold at the price of AND MANUFACTURES. 215 only five cents per pound, ready prepared, to be used in shoeing the animal. At a factory, recently erected, fifty tons of these are now turned out per day; and, it is believed, they can be made and sent to Europe at as good a profit as is derived from American clocks, which have handsomely remunerated the exporter. Leather. — The improvement in the manufacture and making up this article has also greatly reduced the price of shoes. By further inventions, to render leather water-proof, likewise, much has been done to protect the health, and promote economv. " Those who have not turned their attention to tins sul)ject may be surprised to learn that leather, made water-proof in the best manner, will last at least one-third longer than other kinds." Allowing, therefore, three dollars per head for each person in the United States, for shoes, the cost of the whole article in the country would be 50,000.000 dollars, one-third of which, gained, would be over 16,000,000 dollars. Sugar. — By a progress of sugar-making, invented b)' Professor Mapes,* at the sugar-works of Messrs. Tyler and Mapes, 15,000 to 20,000 pounds of sugar are manufactured per day, from com- mon West India molasses, and generally of a quality superior to that made from the cane in Louisiana. Molasses which has become sour, is often used for this purpose with good effect. Pins. — The progress made in the United States, in the manu- facture of this article of universal use, within a few years, is truly astonishing. A manufactory, near Derby, Connecticut, has a con- trivance for sticking pins in paper which is quite marvellous. It takes, in England, sixty females, to stick in one day, by sunlight, ninety packs, consisting of 302,460 pins. The same operation is performed here, in the same time, by one woman. Her sole occu- pation is to pour them, a gallon at a time, into a hopper, from whence they come out all neatly arranged upon their several papers. The mechanism, by which the labour of fifty-nine persons is daily saved yet remains a mystery to all but the inventor; and no person, but the single woman who attends to it, is, upon any * Professor Mapes is now taking patents in the United Slates and abroad, for a new evaporation and some other improvenients connected with sugar-m.iking and sugar-refining. It is calculated to effect a great change in the whole system ot sugar-making, in Louisiana, and the \\ est India islands. 216 AMERICAN INVENTIONS. pretext whatever, allowed to enter the room where it operates. — American Mercharits' Magazine, June, 1844. A great part of the machinery used in cotton-mills in England, is either entirely American in its origin, or has American improvements that are essential to its perfection. The card-making and reed-making machines are American inventions. The nail-machines, the screw machines, the pin machines, the hook-and-eye ma- chines, all originated in the United States. The present improved method of bleaching fabrics of all kinds, which has so essentially simplified the former tedious and expensive progress, is the inven- tion of Mr. Samuel W. Wright, formerly of New- Hampshire, who has been the originator of several labour-saving machines, generally adopted in this country. He has recently perfected a process for making paper from straw, that bids fair to revolu- tionize the present mode both as regards quality and cost. Extract from the Report on Exjiortation of Machinery {House of Commons J Ajwil, 1841. Question 1544. " Chairman. — Are we indebted to foreigners to any great extent for inventions in machinery? Answer. — I should say, that the greatest portion of new inventions lately introduced in this country have come from abroad; but I would have it to be understood, that by that I mean, not improvements in machines, but rather entirely new inventions. There are certainly more im- provements carried out in this country; but I apprehend that a majority of the really new inventions, that is of new ideas alto- gether in the carrying out of a certain process by new machinery, or in a new mode, have originated abroad, especially in America." There are in the United States, about 1000 cotton mills, with 45,000 power-looms. The number of yards of cotton cloth woven annually is about 300,000,000. BRITISH AND AMERICAN TRADE. 217 Extracts from Mr. TaUmadges Address before the American Institute, October, 1843. " Protection to commerce and manufactures should ever be con- sidered a measure in support of agriculture. It is the duty of government to provide and secure an adequate market for the surplus productions of the countrj-. It can onl}' be provided, bv protection to its commerce, and from the consumption occasioned b}' the encouragement of its domestic manufactures. The relative importance of these three great departments of industry will be made best to appear from tables founded on the census of 1 S40, shewing the value of the annual products: — Dollars. Of agriculture . . . 654,387,597 Of manufactures . . . 239,836,224 Of commerce . . . 79,721,086 One-third of our whole foreign commerce is with England and her colonies. The balances of our foreign trade have been against us for many years past, and have varied in different years from four millions even up to sixty-one millions a j'eai-. The import- ation of manjr English manufactures lias been received by us upon little more than nominal duties, while duties oppressive and pro- hibitory have been exacted on our produce exported in return. Our bread-stuffs are prohibited, unless on a sliding scale of prices under her corn laws, and at a rate merely to save her people from famine. To cripple our whale fisheries, her duty imposed on American oil is 26/. 12s. per ton, against Is. imported in her own vessels.* American whalebone is subjected to a duty of 95/. per ton, against 1/. imported from her own colonies. Tobacco, in leaf, worth to the producer from three to four cents per pound, is sub- jected to a duty of 3s. sterling, which is from 1800/. to 2000/, per cent. If the tobacco is stemmed, it is called 'manufactured,' • A now tariff was passed \>y KnglanJ, July 9, 1842. (Published as Doc. No. 29 of the last Con-^'ress.) It took effect at different dates : on some articles, July 9, 1842; on otiiers, beef, pork, etc., Oetohnr 10, 1842; on oil, fisheries, etc , July 5, 1843. It lessens the rate ol duties; but no returns are yet made under it. It does not affect the question of the causes of our late revulsion, and the balances of trade, constituting our indebtedness. Our oil is prohibited in ail the British colonies. K 218 BRITISH AND AMERICAN TRADE. then the duty is 9s. sterling, which is 5000 per cent.* Rice is subject to a duty of 15s. sterling per cwt., which is above 100^. per cent. If rice is in the rough, then the duty is nominal; because she secures the labour of cleaning it. This difference in the rate of duty on tobacco, and also upon rice, is upon the well- known principle of British legislation; to prohibit the labour of other countries, and also to encourage and give employment to her shipping interest. A monopoly of the carrying trade of the raw materials from other countries, and which she cannot produce, is thus secured to herself: her shipping interest is sustained, and her seamen are employed and trained. " To encourage their carrying trade, and to the disadvantage of the American shipping, duties are provided on American produce, at one rate if carried in direct trade, and at another rate if sent out by way of the Canadas — which trade is confined to her own ships. A plan more destructive to American navigation could not be contrived. " This system of free trade and a judicious tai-iff has brought upon the country the late disastrous state of things. For example, look at the official tables for a single year, 1841; the imports, amounting in value to 127,000,000, upon which we exacted duties 14,000,000 dollars, or about eleven per cent, upon the aggregate. During the same year the exports of home products amounted in value to 105,000,000/. on which foreign nations imposed duties, being about 124 per cent, upon the home value, amounting to 130,000,000 dollars. " Inquiries made have ascertained, that of the heavy importations into this port, eighty per cent, was avowedly on foreign account; while, of the residue, it is estimated about one-half was nominally imported by commission hovises, but actually on foreign account. These measures have driven many of our own merchants out of business, and provided numerous bankruptcies. * » » » * " Many persons present will remember when encouragement was * The British Government collected, 1840 : On tobacco . . . . 17,223,158 dollars. On cotton . . . . 3,176,401 „ Revenue on two articles . 20,399,559 AMERICAN MANUFACTURES. 219 asked for the culture and manufacture of cotton, nullification would dissolve the Union; while Free Trade laughed, and a judi- cious tariff sneered, at the possibility of sustaining a competition with England in the manufacture of cotton. The result is before us. Domestic cottons supply the demand of the country, and at greatly reduced prices.* Its surplus manufactures are sent abroad as an article of commerce, to India, to South America, and to England herself; and is now bringing back in return, a portion of the value which was before shipped abroad to pay former balances of trade against us. " Manufactures have well performed their duty to the nation. They have struggled into life through an infancy surrounded with difficulties and beset with perils — in the war of 1812, patriotism called them to efforts of premature manhood. The cold neglect which chilled their energies in aftertimes, too truly taught them it sprung from the influence of the agents of their great rival, whose interests they were invading. They have survived, and now come showing from the census of 1840, that the value of the annual products from the manufactures amuunts to 239,830,224 dollars. The whole value of the average annual imports is 110,000,000 dollars. It is about one-half of the annual products from manufactures. "The value of the annual exports is about 100,000,000— all the grain, provisions and agricultural products sent to all countries, being included. It is less than half of the annual products of manufactures. " In 1840, manufactures, in addition to its products, 240,000,000, gave employment to 450,660 persons; who were thus withdrawn from the competition of labour on the soil, and became consumers of the agricultural productions of others. • It is but few years since an attempt was made in tiie United Stales to print calicoes. Previous to 1825, all goods of this description were imported from foreign countries, the greater part coming from England. mm*** The business is now one of vast importance to the country. In 1836, over 150,000,000 yards of calicoes were imported. Last year the importations fell off to 15,000,000 yards, while the American prints made in 1842, reachd the enormous amount of 158,028,000 yards, worth 14,000,000 dollars. 'i"he capital employed in all branches of (he business is not far from 8,000,000 dollars. Instead of importing, we begin to export. We are competing in the article with the British in South America; and in the China market, in the coarser qualities. 220 AMERICAN MANUFACTURES. "The manufacturers of New England provided a market for one- third of the whole cotton produced in this country; while they receive and consume more flour and grain from the agricultm-e of New York, than was ever shipped abroad from her port in the best days of her commercial prosperity." The President next proceeded to render judgment, in the name of the American Institute, for the Premiums which had been awarded to the successful competitors — according to the report of the managers and the committees of examination upon the several articles entered for competition. He stated that the number of contributors was 1814; and the number of articles offered for competition at the present fair, was about 20,000. The number of persons which had entered the fair during the seventeen days, as appeared from tickets of entrance at the door, the free tickets and admissions, as nearly as could be ascertained, amounted to 200,000 persons — exclusive of those who attended &% the ploughing-match, estimated at about 3000. The President then proceeded to review the various articles ih exhibition: — beginning with Agriculture and Horticulture. He pointed to the specimens of most distinction; commended the evident improvements now making in both agriculture, and espe- cially in horticulture, which had not before equalled the present occasion. The specimens of cattle and animals had been of superior order; and the ploughing-match he described, and said it had been conducted with great skill and success. The adaptation of the sciences in the treatment of the soils was the basis of important advancements. He commended the evident improve- ment in agricultural implements: and he said much was to be anticipated from the production oi silk. Commerce, and its many proud specimens, next passed in review, with a designation of the models, and most useful and scientific improvements connected with naval architecture. Manufactures, in every variety of machine and hand-labour; and in silver, iron, glass, wood, and almost every material, were exhibited in all parts of the rooms; and sustained a high rank, from the skill and perfection of the artizan, in production and finish. On the survey of the selected specimens, mueh commen- dation was pronounced on the excellence of production . BRITISH AND AMERICAN TRADE. 221 The steam-engine, and the various and divers new or improved machinery which had heen in motion during the fair, were named, and their interesting peculiarities and claimed excellencies, were explained. The general character and grade of specimens were pronounced of high order, and as affording ample evidence of the improvement and advance in manufacturing skill. The list of new inventions was long and respectable, and abundantly demonstrated the great skill and extraordinary ingenuity of Americans in the wide field of invention. It is a remarkable and interesting fact, said the President, that Europe, which has been conspicuous for her machinery, certainly durino- the last century, has scarcely sent us a specimen, which has not soon been returned, amended and improved by American ingenuity. He proceeded to recount, in glowing terms, many gratifying illustrations. He spoke of the Jrts, and pointed to the excellent specimens of nautical, astronomical, and scientific instruments in exhibition. The fair was then adjourned to the next year, with thanks to the crowded audience for their attendance, and their uniform and firm support of the American Institute. The exhibition of the Sixteenth Annual Fair then closed with music, and some splendid fireworks. — Annual Report of American lustilute, 1813. XX. BRITISH AND AMERICAN TRADE. Let us glance for a moment at the course of England towards America. A few years since, we had a boundless credit on the London Stock Exchange. American bills and American stocks were as current as gold ; goods were pressed in exchange for stocks and credit in vast quantities into America; mushroom banks and mushroom houses were forced by British capital and credit to a hot-bed growth, and States newly created, whose capital was in forests, log-cabins, and backwoodsmen, were tempted by the facility 222 ORIGIN OF THE LATE of credit to embark in works of improvement beyond the present wants of the community. Amid the fever thus created and fanned by the great bank of Pennsylvania, and indiscreet rulers at home, a great fire suddenly annihilates thirty million dollars in New York — the specie is drawn from the country; a panic follows, and the wise men of London, of a sudden, decide that nothing American shall be current. The fiat is obeyed. In a twinkling, a credit of one himdred million dollars more is extinguished ; merchants are required to send specie, who have none to send ; States, who require but one link more to get some return for their outlay, are utterly discredited, property rendered valueless, and, in the crash that ensues, amid the wreck of banks, merchants, and States, all who falter, however honest may be their views, are branded with the names of cheats, swindlers, and knaves. In this state of things, the American tariff continues annually to fall by a descending scale; the British merchant, to sustain his home market, sends to New York all that is unsaleable in England, draws away the little specie that is left, and breaks down the home manufacturer. What is the result? The country is disheartened, and, for a moment, discredited. A sudden fever seizes the patient in the flush of his manhood, but his constitution is not destroyed. The sagacious physician prescribes frugality, temperance, caution, industry, self-reliance, and the homespun dress. Cash duties are adopted, which, while they create a revenue, check the excess from abroad, and wages and salaries are reduced. The spindle, loom, hammer, saw, and plough, are set in motion. The flour England will not take is consumed at home. The patient revives. The exports of the country increase. Gold and silver return. Interest, in the great cities, falls from eighteen to three per cent. The credit of the States, and the Union, rapidly revives, and the United States stock, which was refused in England, at par, is going thither, at sixteen per cent, premium. Domestic produce rises, new factories are commenced on a firmer basis than the old, and new articles are manufactured. The country becomes equal to any emergency, and its honour will ere long be retrieved ; and long may it be ere it again places it in the power of another nation. COMMERCIAL DIFFICULTIES. 223 But let us glance at the other side of the water, and see what England has gained by her vacillating policy — encouraging her best customer to day, and then throwing him off, with dishonour, to-morrow. Mark the result. With the loss of American trade came an excess of goods, a fall of prices, a terrible deficiency in the revenue. Dividends are lost, profits destroyed, operatives discharged and left to starve ; while the flour America offers for her debt is refused, furnaces are blown out, rival manufacturers created, branches of trade annihilated, property depressed in value, the Bank of England calls on Paris and Hamburgh for money, and heavy income taxes are imposed, which barely save the country from bankruptcy. It is easy to trace a large propor- tion of this to the loss of American trade. A little more mode- ration at first, and a little more forbearance and liberal policy afterwards — for instance, the opening of the corn trade — would have greatly mitigated, if not prevented the evil. For the future, England must not expect to supplant the coarse manufactures of America; she must content herself with selling the porcelain, stone-ware, worsteds, plaids, linens, silks, and fancy goods, we do not make and consume most when most pi-osperous, and such overplus of others, as the rising price in America may admit ; and be cautious that her denial of admission to our bread- stuffs does not deprive her even of these. With such caution it is fair to presume the demand from the United States, which, even more than the opening of China, is reviving her commerce, may prove progressive.* — " Two Months Abroad," — By a Railroad Director of Massnchusetts. • English Reciprocity. — England charging one hundred per cent, duty on Ciiinese teas, and requiring of Ciiinaa duly of only sixpence a yard on English broadcloth ! England charging both specific and ad valorem duties, amounting in the aggregate to one hundred per cent, on wooden ware, one thousand per cent, on tobacco, and virtually prohibiting American flour, lumber, fish , and other staples, and meanwhile complaining and protesting against revenue duties levied on British manufactures, which compete with our own. 224 KESOURCES AND XXI. RESOURCES COMPARED TO THE DEBTS OF THE STATES. According to the view that has been taken of the resources of these States, their puhlic debts, on the most liberal estimate made of them, bear an insignificant proportion to their means. Sup- posing the amount of those debts to be 200,000,000 of dollars, at an interest of six per cent., the annual charge is 12,000,000 dollars, which is little more than one per cent, of their income in 1840, and may be presumed to be less than one per cent of their present income. But if they were all to provide for the punctual payment of this interest, and thus restore that confidence in the national faith which once existed, or even make an approach to it, the debt could be readily converted at par into a five, or even four per cent, stock, and the excess would be sufficient for a sinking fund that would discharge the debt in thirty years or less. In this interval, too, as wealth would be steadily increasing, the burthen would become lighter and lighter, and in twenty-five years it would bear but a third or a fourth of its present rate on the value of property. With such ample means of complying with their engagements, the States have not a shadow of excuse for not faithfully fulfilling them. It is true that these debts are distributed among them very unequally, because their affairs have been administered with very unequal degrees of wisdom and forbearance; but even those States which are most encumbered, may provide for the payment of interest by a moderate tax, which shall be made to bear on all sources of revenue. Thus the debt of Pennsylvania, estimated at 40,000,000 dollars, beai-s, at five per cent., an annual interest of 2,000,000 dollars. The income of this State was, in 1840, 131,000,000 dollars, and is probably at this time not less than 150,000,000 dollars. A net revenue of only one-and-one-third per cent, of that income would produce the 2,000,000 dollars required. But were the burthens yet greater, and the means of discharging them yet less, no State, which does not set a higher value on pro- perty than integrity, can consent to a violation of the national DEBTS OF THE STATES. 2l25 faith ; nor would any right-minded citizen deem the saving thus effected any compensation for the stain of national infamy it would leave hehind it. But the public sentiment of the Union, to say notliing of our character abroad, to which we never have been, and never ought to be, indifferent, is so decided on this subject, that it is impossible the people of any State can permanently resist it. Even the excuses and pretences which were but too successfully urged by those who make a political traffic of their principles when the first stunning effects of the revulsion in 1839 were felt in full force, will soon find no support from any considerable portion of the American people. All men who have at once common sense and common honest}', must see that 'repudiation,' if warranted by strict law, would not be just; and though it were just, would be neither liberal nor wise. We confidently trust, then, that the cloud which now fearfully overhangs a few States, and to the distant observer casts a shade over their uncontaminated associates, will soon disappear, and leave the path before us as bright and cheering, as that it is our pride to have passed over. — Tuckers Progress of the United States, Causes of the Embarrassments. I must again refer to the nature of our general government, resulting from the union of independent States, for national pur- poses only. The question whether power was given to it to make roads or other communications of national importance, was one of early interest. The opinion that it teas given, rather prevailed at first, and some appropriations for purposes of this nature were made. President Jackson gave a decided opinion against it, and refused his assent to any furtlier aid. The separate States, then, concluded that they must undertake such works for themselves. The great canal in New York, made by De Witt Clinton, from Lake Erie to the Hudson, was an example of the use of State power eminently successful. It is rare that the sagacity and skill, or care of an individual, in his private affairs, leads to so profitable a result. Its income has been sufficient to pay all interest on the k2 226 PUBLIC DEBTS loans made by the State of New York for completing it, and rapidly to accumulate a fund for repaying the cost. It gave an impression that either of the States could execute any such work within herself; and still further, that any great avenue through a State was likely to be profitable. This sanguine impression was unfortunate. Several of the States began operations in this waj', and exer- cised their sovereign powers, largely, in borrowing money for these purposes. But they disregarded one very important consideration, which was, indeed, likely to escape notice in the trial of a new system. While they retained rights as separate governments, they had each relinquished, for national uses, one important pri- vilege of sovereignty, the right of raising revenue by duties on the importation of merchandise from abroad. The States of Pennsylvania and Maryland, for instance, are now deeply indebted. If the control of the custom-house in Philadelphia were given to one, and of that in Baltimore to the other, their difiiculties would vanish in a day. But that cannot be. The importations at those ports are not solely for their own use, but pass through them for the use of other States. This was not sufficiently thought of. Several of the States, who undertook great works of this sort, have found themselves unable to complete them ; and, therefore, fail to derive the revenue from them that they expected. They must now tax themselves to pay the interest on the loans ; and here conies the difficultj'. There was, in most cases, a large party opposed to these undertakings. It was thought that they were too mighty ; that too many of them came together; that some of them were ill conceived ; and that the people, at large, were not sufficiently aware what liabiHties they were exposed to, in case of failure. Most of this has turned out to be true ; particularly the last point. The people were not fully aware that they might have to assume such heavy debts. Now that they are so, they do not refuse to admit their liability ; except in three cases, where it is denied, as to part of the money, that authoi-ity to bind the States had been given. This is called repudiation ; and it is made to resound in Europe as if we were all guilty of it. I do not believe that the people will sanction any improper refusal. They intend to make provision for all that is due. It is true that the}' seem to be long in doing so ; but when you hear it said that the whole OF THE STATES. 227 nation is bankrupt, that we are all swindlers and knaves, etc. etc., just bear in mind, for your own consolation, the truth as it is. NATIONAL DEBTS. First. — The national government is not involved. It has always performed its engagements. It has, at one time, within your day, been burthened with an immense debt, about 200,000,000 of dollars ; and has jiaid every dollar of it, principal and interest. For several years afterward, it was entirely free from debt. But, owing to some changes in revenue laws, etc., it lately required a new loan of a moderate sum, less than its income for a single year. The capitalists in Europe declined lending this; partly, perhaps, from real doubts of the solidity of our institutions, and partly, probably, with a view to make us all feel discredit so sensibly, that our national government should be induced to assume, as it has no right to do, the debts of the delinquent States. The money was lent, however, by our own people ; and the only subject of regret with them, is, that the government will not keep it longer than it is likely to do. Every man who has lent it a hundred dollars, can now receive one hundred and fourteen for the engagement that he holds. Our national government, then, is not bankrupt; but has performed all its engagements with punctuality and honour. DEBTS OF SEPARATE STATES. Next, let us look at the separate governments of the States. There are twenty-six of them. Beginning at the north, on the line of the British territory, Maine has a small debt, perfectly safe ; and if any one, to whom a part of it is due, wishes for the money, he can have it, and more, from others who stand ready to purchase his security. Massachusetts is responsible for a consi- derable amount, raised, however, for great public works, that are now completed and productive ; her engagements are perfectly good. Those who hold them can dispose of them without loss ; and, for this State, I can assure you that we mean never to suffer her name to bear discredit. New Hamphire, Vermont, Connec- ticut, and Rhode Island, are free of debt to Europe. New York owes a large amount still; but it rests chiefly on the security of her great canals, and there is no delinquency there. New Jersey owes nothing. 228 PUBLIC DEBTS Here, then, from the St. John's river, at the extreme north, up to your own beautiful Delaware, are eight States, nearly one-third of the whole Union, either entirely free from debt, or performing all their obligations. We then come to Pennsylvania. She owes a great amount (expended rather unprofitably), and ought to pro- vide for it, for she has still great wealth ; and I think she will do so. But, although the delay casts discredit on us all, nobody, cut of the State, can interfere to direct her measures. The failure of her own great bank, which I have described, reduced many of her principal people to poverty; and she has, within her limits, a large German population, still speaking only their own language, ignorant of much that relates to national character or reputation abroad, and not easily convinced of the necessity of taxation for the payment of such debts ; but wielding a political power that outweighs the influence of all the gentlemen in Philadelphia. If the decision lay with the latter, provision would be promptly made. Maryland is deeply indebted; and being neither a large, nor a very productive State, I apprehend she must struggle very hard to clear herself. Virginia owes a considerable sum, but has met her engagements, though occasionally, perhaps, with difficulty. North Carolina owes nothing. South Carolina has borrowed money, but pays punctually. Without taking you the full round of the States, I may say, in short terms, that two-thirds of them are either out of debt, or pay punctually what they have engaged to pay ; and that one- third, or less, of them have failed, not to repay their loans, for they are not yet due, but to pay the interest on them, under the following circumstances : There had been a simultaneous impulse in a large number of States to engage in great works, absorbing, together, an immense amount of European capital ; when one or two should have been sufl^ei'ed to complete their enterprises, and render them productive, before others began. Then, some of these works, as the plans became developed, have been found to conflict with others. Prudence required that they should be abandoned, even if the means for completing them were at hand. Some of them have been given up. Of course, what had been expended on these is entirely lost. OF THE STATES. 2529 In addition to these circumstances, other causes were at work, about the same time, to produce a great depression in the value of all property in this country. So that it has been a much more difficult matter than is generally supposed, for several of the States, from the day of their first discredit, nearly up to the present time, to have met their engagements, however they might wish to do so. The dominant party in politics, when they put an end to the bank of the United States, resolved, if possible, to substitute gold and silver coins for bank-bills in all payments. You will easily perceive that, so far as they succeeded, they very much diminished the quantity of what had passed as money. For, as bank-bills had been received for dollars, if their use were abolished, the number of dollars must be greatly reduced. A large number of banks had failed too, and ceased to furnish a circulating medium. Each dollar then was made to represent a greater amount of property than it had done before. That is, property fell in value surprisingly. Where a bushel of corn had procured a dollar before, two bushels, or more, were required afterward. Yet the dollar, when obtained, would go no farther than it had ever done, in cancelling an old debt. Think, then, of the situation of newly-settled States, like Indiana and Illinois, beyond the' Alleghany mountains; and what was the natural lan- guage of the inhabitants, until the present year, when their affairs are improving? They went there to settle, because they were poor. They had become prosperous, but not yet rich. " We meant no dishonesty," they said, " in borrowing this money. We were told that the canals and railroads would repay it. Had we understood the real danger, we would not have suffered the loans to be made. We find ourselves indebted to a frightful amount, for works that are rather premature in a new country ; and at the same moment, we find, from a change of currency, that the surplus of our products from which we were deriving wealth, has become of too little value to bear the cost of transportation to a market. To tax ourselves would look well ; but it would be almost useless. Unless we can sell our produce, the tax could not be paid. We may offer our property for sale, but there are no purchasers at any price. The money is not here." This was very much the language that they were obliged to use with respect to their private debts. I speak of it as merely temporary ; and it could never have been used, with justice, in Pennsylvania. 230 PUBLIC DEBTS The case, however, is not unlike one that frequently happens in the affairs of individual men. The capitalist, tempted by a liigh rate of interest, lends more money than is prudent to an enterprising, sanguine man, who undertakes too much, and finds that he cannot get on. The capitalist looks into the matter; perceives that the man meant fairly ; that though both parties have been imprudent, the schemes in themselves ai'e good ; and he concludes that his wisest wa}'^ is, to lend more money to com- plete them. If the same thing is now proposed by the States, they are asked if the)' suppose the people in Europe " are so easily duped" as to do that. They are told to ask their own general government to guarantee the payments of their debts first. This is about as reasonable as it would be to ask Queen Victoria, in England, to assume a few of the powers of the Pope, in order to effect some particular purpose. It probably never can be done ; for it was never intended to give the national government that power. The proposal is mischievous to the creditors, who hope to be benefited by it ; for it tends to relax exertions of another nature, on which their best reliance is founded. I mean the exertions of those States who owe the money, and who must repay it, from their own m.eans. It is best that the world should now understand on whom they have alone to depend, in lending monej' to one of our States. And if the consequence should be, that no future loan should ever be made us from Europe, it would, perhaps, be rather fortunate than otherwise, for us all. I should be very glad to know that such might be the result. It is said that we are indifferent to the disgrace of our position. I think that the imputation is unjust. Our public men omit no opportunity of enlarging upon it, and urging speedy payment. -Our men of education and property use their influence to the same end. Each one, however, has but a vote ; and that can only be used in his own State, where, perhaps, all engagements have been faithfully met. Let me offer my own case, as an instance. A considerable amount of money from Europe has been under my control in this country, and is duly repaid. In one case I caused a large sum to be invested in an old-fashioned security, called bond and mortgage, for a Britisli peer, who had asked my advice. It remained here several years, yielding punc- tually the rate of interest that was looked for; and when recalled, OF THE STATES. 231 lately, was all safely returned, to the last dollar. The State in which I live, and the national government, through which it is represented to the world, are, as I have explained to you, both free from reproach in all pecuniary affairs. In these three relatioTis, then, private and political, I have a right to exemption from blame. Yet I find myself involved with the rest of the nation, in indis- criminate censure, because some of those who unite with us under the same government, Pennsylvania and Mississippi, are delin- quent. Still I have no power to act there. The debts are too mighty for any private subscription to be of use. If the city of Edinburgh were indebted to foreigners for money borrowed for improvements of her own, the city of London would hardly undertake to repay it; nor would the ministry consent that the Chancellor of the Exchequer should include it in his estimate for supplies from the Parliament. Neither can it be expected then, that one State will pay for the other ; or that the nation will pay for either. When the money was lent, these distinctions were clearly perceived ; and a higher rate of interest was required and allowed, for the very reason that the faith of the nation was not pledged. To affect not to comprehend them now is something- worse than idle. On the whole, nothing can be done but by the people of each delinquent State acting separately ; and I have hopes that they will do all that is requisite at no distant period, for they seem to me to be fast recovering fiom the misfortunes that have embar- rassed them, and indeed actually disabled most of ihem, within the last six years. However humbling the delay may be to us all, I think that those who will examine the subject will be convinced that, at least, there was no intention among any of us to defraud. You might suppose, from what you hear said, that no individual among us could get credit from Europe for any sum, however small. Quite the reverse is the truth. In commerce, our people get credit as far as it is at all desirable. Although much of the evil that has befallen our commercial world, of late, has arisen from the dangerous facility of obtaining foreign capital, there are, now, agents of European bankers in this country, ready, for a small commission, to furnish credit for new enterprises to the full extent to which it is prudent for any of us to engage in them. — Letter to a Lady in France : Boston, 1S43. 232 RAILROADS IN xxir. AMERICAN RAILROADS AND CANALS. [^From American Railroad Journal. '\ RAILROADS. Maine Incl'd. in «Bost.& Me." & " Eastern." N. H.Concord Mass. Boston and Maine " Boston and Lowell " Boston and Providence " Boston and Worcester " Berkshire " Charlestown branch " Eastern « Fitchburg " Hartford and Springfield " Nashua and Lowell " New Bedford and Taunton... " Norwich and Worcester " Taunton branch ,. " West Stockbriiige " Western (117 miles in Mass.) " Worcester branch Con. Hartford and New Haven " Housatonic '• Stonington (ending 1st Sept.) N.Y.Attica and Buffalo " Auburn and Rochester " Auburn and Syracuse '* Buffalo and Niagara " Erie (456 miles) " Erie, opened " Harlem " Hudson and Berkshire " Long Island " Mohawk '• Tonnawanda " Troy and Greenbush '' Troy and Saratoga '« Troy and Schenectady " Schenectady and Saratoga " Utica and Schenectady " Utica and Syracuse N. J. Camden and Amboy " Elizabethtown and Somervilk- " Morris and Essex " New Jersey " Paterson Length in miles. 109 28 41 43 21 105 25 14 20 59 11 3 150 1,384. 1,863. r,900, 2,885. 250! 250, 2,388, 322, 380, 428, 2,166, 250, 1-2 53 26 95 16 43 6 25 20 22 78 53 92 26 32 16 3-4 1-2 Cost. 050 ,746 000 ,200 000 000 631 538 000 543 566 000 8,319,520 5,500 1,244,123 2,600,000 268,275 1,727,361 743,931 5,000,000 2,200,000 1,500,000 1,030,949 600,000 180,000 475,865 633,520 300,000 2,124,013 1,080,219 3,200,000 500,000 2,600.000 300,000 1843. Licoiiie. Gross. Nett. 178,745 277,315 233,388 404,141 279,563 84,079 50,671 102,336 573,882 113,8R9 45,896 189,693 86,291 69,948 76,227 44,325 28,043 42,242 277,164 163,701 682,832 68,499 144,000 110,823 162,000 17,500 140,595 24,000 24,871 20,000 284,432 7,522 112,000 27,334 48,000 58,780 21,000 32,621 3,000 180,000 72,000 383,880 Receipts in 1844 much increaaed, being about 850,000 dollars. THE UNITED STATES. American Railroads — continued. 233 RAILROADS. Lcnglh in Miles. Cost. 18. Inco Gross. 3. nie. Nett. Div. per cent. 26 46 10 1-2 36 10 29 16 1-2 9 18 20 30 29 1-2 94 10 25 93 16 188 58 38 17 1-2 60 78 1-2 61 1-2 22 1-2 32 84 1-2 161 136 66 190 147 1-2 46 15 40 40 40 25 33 56 1,000,000 1,250,000 860,000 120,000 900,000 100,000 315,000 800,000 401)000 1,500,000 9,000,000 1,000,000 400,(00 4,400,000 600,000 7,623.600 3,000,000 1.800,000 260,000 766.000 850,000 1,200.000 700.000 500,000 1,360,000 1.800.( 00 2,400,000 800,(100 2.581,723 2,650,000 212,000 500,00( 450.000 400,000 152,00t 20,000 575,235 177,227 227,532 248,026 279,402 71.691 93,190 158,207 12,000 " Franklin " Ilarrisburg and Lancaster " Little Schuylkill " JNlauch Chunk " Minehill and Schuylkill Haven 12 " Philadelphia and Trenton " Pottsville and Danville " Keadincr " Williamsport and Elmira .... " Philadelphia and Lalliraore... Md. Baltimore and Ohio (1st Oct.) " Baltimore and Susquehanna. . Va. Greensville and Roanoke " Petersburg and Roanoke " Portsmouth and Ro;inoke " Richmond and Fredericksburg " Richmond and Pelersburg " Winchester and Potomac " VVilminston and Raleigh S. C. Charlestown and Hamburg .. " Louisville and Cincinnati Ga. Central Can. Champlain and St. Lawrence. Ohio Little I\liami " Monroeville and Sandusky Ind. Madison and Indianapolis ... 234 STATE WORKS AND CANALS. State Works. STATE WORKS. Length ill Miles. N.Y. Pa. Ohio Ind 111. Mich Black river canal (4yrs'. def.) Cayuga and Seneca (14 years' deficiencies) Champlain canal Chemung (11 years' def.) Chenango (7 years' def.) Crooked lake (10 years' def.). Erie — enlargement of Genessee valley (5 years' def.) 52 miles opened, cost 1,500,000 dollars Oneida lake (4 years' def ).... Oswego (14 years' def.) Beaver division canal * Delaware canal * French creek * Main line Columbia railroad Susquehanna division canal... Juniata canal Portage railroad Western division canal North branch Susquehanna canal West branch Susquehanna canal year ending 30lh Nov. Hocking canal Miami canal Miami extension Muskingum Ohio Wabash Walhnnding , Western road , Sundry works JNlaume canal , Sundry works , Central railroad ^ Southern railroad \ 35 21 64 23 97 8 363 120 6 38 25 60 45 82 39 130 36 105 73 72 310 68 Cost. 1843. Income. Expend. 2,066,285 419,830 1,257,664 1,012,685 3,267,590 263,950 20,435,406 4,167,846 85,082 882,399 947,670 1,660,742 2,949,250 1,602,018 4,600,000 2,955,270 607,269 255,014 11,000,000 10,000,000 2,776,297 16,557 102,308 8,140 16,195 461 1,880,316 12,292 225 29,147 4,757 68,640 8,'291 23,167 322,754 33,922 838 7,254 149,987 24,064 10,953 14,486 15,967 3,674 13,819 2,239 22,742 38,826 123,398 6,400 39,005 1,782 75,960 7,907 • We have not been able to procure the last report from 'Harrisburg. The total receipts for 1843 were 1,019,401 dollars; for 1844, 1,164,326 dollars, and the cost about 30,000,000 dollars. t The canals of Ohio are supported by a properly tax of 5 1-2 mills on the COMPARATIVE STATISTICS. Canals. 235 CANALS. Blackstone Bald Eagle Navigation.,.. Beaver and Sandy (part).. Charleston, (S. C.) Chesapeake and Ohio Conestota Delaware anl Chesapeake Schuylkhill Farming ton Jamas river and Kenhawa Middlesex Port Deposit Delaware and Rariian South wark Tide Water Union jMorris Dismal Swamp Lengtl: in Miles. 25 184 12 13 108 10 43 45 80 101 Cost, 400,000 1,000,000 12,370,470 300,000 3,500,000 200,000 2,900,000 300,000 2,900,000 2,000,000 1,000,000 IS43. Income. Gross. Nett. 47,637 I 279,795 102,221 99,623 53,327 American and European Raihvay Statistics. Miles completed. Cost. Now being constructed. Miles. Projected. Miles. Great Britain 1,800 1,339 560 4,000 £60,000,000 25,000,000 589 3,096 United States Gcrniany has 152 miles of railway completed for every million of inhabitants; France, sixteen ; Belgium, fifty; England, eighty- six; United States, 222. Russia, after her first success, in a short road of sixteen miles, is now constructing a road from St. Petersburgh to Moscow, 400 miles long, superintended by American engineers, with Americans dollar. There are 853 miles of canal in the State, which yielded in 1843— 471, 623 dollars, and in 1844— 515,393 dollars; the cost, 1st Jan. 1843, being 15,577,233 dollars. The increase of 1844 over 1843 is only 43,770 dollars, tliough the year 1844 has exhibited a greater in- crease throughout the country than ever before known. 2S6 RAILROAD TRAVEL. in her workshops to teach tlie art of making locomotive engines, carriages, etc. The engines manufactured in Philadelphia are used, not only in Russia, but in Prussia, Belgium, and to some extent in England. There is a connected line of railway from Boston, Massachusetts, to Buffalo, on lake Erie, a distance of about 500 miles : thus con- necting the Atlantic with the great chain of inland lakes and an interior navigation of more than 8000 miles. When this railway was completed, there was opened a continued line of steam com- munication (broken only by the Isthmus of Suez) from Niagara Falls, and even from the western shores of lake Michigan, to Bombay, in the East Indies — nearly or quite half of the circum- ference of the globe. New England has 26,000,000 dollars invested in railwaj's which now pay a nett dividend of six per cent., and are rapidly increasing in productiveness. The line from Albany to Buffalo, 320 miles, costing 7,000,000 dollars, yields seven per cent. Increase of Railroad Travel. The receipts on ten of the following works, to the 1st September, shows an in<;rea3e of 800,357 dollars. The receipts on all the public and private works — railways, canals, and turnpikes — in the different States, in 1844, compared with 1843, will present an increase of four millions of dollars, or an enhanced value of eighty millions of dollars, calculated on an interest of five per cent. 1843. 1S44. Incrense. Utica and Schenectady dollars. 155,044 27,033 20,929 91,911 346,556 858,445 578,879 232,637 1,452 89,288 dollars. 179,078 52,022 34,179 ] 40,060 460,677 1,137,717 714,801 365,004 4,364 99,632 dollars. 24,034 Tonawanda, to Auc^ust 24,988 Bufi'alo and Attica, August 13,250 Norwich and Worcester 58,149 114,121 279,272 140,922 132,367 2,911 10,343 Western railroad Pennsylvania Reading railroad Southern railroad Hartford and New Haven railroad SLAVERY. 237 These various lines all shew a very favourable state of things, and clearly demonstrate that, for investment, railroad shares are as profitable as bank shares, and but little short of manufacturing stocks. — Hunt's Merchants' Magaxine, January, 1845. XXIII. SLAVERY IN THE UNITED STATES. Facts ascertained and admitted by a British Writer. 1. The negro was originally carried to colonial North America, forcibly, by the ships of the mother country, contrary to the feel- ings and in despite of the resistance of the colonists, and of the re-iterated and solemn protestations of their legislative assemblies.* 2. After a course of opposition to the slave-trade on the part of the colonies, we find the violent prosecution of the slave-trade, as countenanced and enforced by Great Britain, among the wrongs enumerated by colonial Virginia, in that solemn protestation ad- dressed to the British parliament, which opened the Revolution. And moreover, the same appears in the declaration of political rights of Virginia independent, and, yet farther, was inserted in the preamble to the constitution of that State. 3. The same was further inserted among the list of grievances enumerated as authorizing rupture from English dominion in the original draft of the revolutionary Declaration of Independence, as drawn by Franklin, Jefferson, and Adams; and subsequently effaced, from considerations of general polic}', easy to appreciate under the circumstances. 4. The slave-trade was immediately abolished by the United States independent. t 5. The slave-trade was afterwards assimilated to piracy, punish- able with death, by a law of the United States. * See Bancroft's United States, vol. i. chap, v., and Kent's Com- mentaries, vol. i. page 192, t The first Congress, called in 1774, to resist the measures of the crown and Parliament, passed resolutions against the slave-trade. Acts against tiie slave-trade were also passed in 1794, 1800, 1817, and 1820. — Kent's Comment, i. 192. SLAVERY. 6. Slavery was abolished in all the American States in which the number of Slaves was not sufficient to render an act of enfran- chisement menacing to the major interests of public order, in- dustry, and the general welfare of the country. 7. This abolition was full and entire from a certain date speci- fied, and was passed without any question of indemnity to the masters. But the act so rendered, be it observed, was not an act of spoliation, made by a government distinct in interests or re- moved by distance from the population ; but an act of conceived, if not altogether of real, propriety and wisdom on the part of governments making a part of the population. Extracts from Holme's American Annals. 1563. The English began to import negroes into the West Indies. Their first slave-trade was opened in the preceding year, on the coast of Guinea. Sir John Hawkins, in the prospect of great gain, resolving to make this nefarious and inhuman traffic, communicated the design to several gentlemen in London, who became liberal contributors and adventurers. Three good ships were immediately provided, and with these and 100 men, Hawkins sailed to the coast of Guinea, where by money, treachery, and force, he procured at least 300 negroes, and now sold them at Hispaniola.* 1020. Negro slaves first indroduced into Virginia, by a Dutch man-of-war. 1645. A remarkable instance of justice occurred in Massachu- setts this year in the execution of the law against buying and selling slaves. A negro, who had been ' fraudulently and inju- riously taken and brought from Guinea,' and sold to Mr. Williams of Pascataqua, was demanded by the General Court, that he might be sent home to his native country ' without delay. ' * Hakluyt, i. 521, 522. AMERICAN NEWSPAPERS. 239 XXIV. AMERICAN NEWSPAPER PRESS. In the 'American Book Circular,'' April 1843, it was said : — " The ' Foreign Quarterly' article on the Newspaper Press of the United States (endorsed by Mr. Dickens), has at its head, as text, the names of eleven newspapers (out of about 1600 in the country), while at least nine-tenths of the censurable extracts, to prove the writer's views, are from one paper — the New York Herald : and from eight out of the eleven, not a single line is quoted, either for praise or censure ! The candid writer of the article, forgets to men- tion that this same Herald, the disgrace and curse of the country, is entirely owned and conducted hy foreigners. He refers to the circulation, as boasted for obvious purposes, by its editor, and doubtless much exaggerated. Do not the English stamp returns shew a greater circulation of the Weekly Dispatch than of almost any other paper? And are we then to infer that that paper is the best index of the tastes, opinions, and literature (!) of the English people ? " Mr. Dickens refers all doubtful readers to the papers themselves for proof of this ' perfectly truthful' article. If any one took the trouble, did he find that either of those eight papers, with all their imperfections, deserved the atrocious character which is disin- genuously fastened upon them by extracts — not from themselves, but from the New York Herald? We would second the suggestion — "let the malefactors be examined." 1640 American newspapers are certainly not immaculate; deficiencies in ability, in courtesy, and in integrity, may, without question, be fairly charged upon many in this vast number, and in particular upon such as are blindly enlisted in political partizanship; but the Satirist is scarcely a fair specimen of the English press, nor is the New York Herald a representative either of the American newspapers, or American people." 240 A:NtERICAN NEWSPAPERS. This paragraph being extracted in the AthencBnm, occasioned the following note to that journal : — "By extracts in your journal, you have given currency — some value even — to the ' Remarks and Figures' with which Messrs. Wiley and Putnam defend American literature against alleged mis-statements of 'Mr. Alison, Mr. Dickens, and the Foreign Quarterly Review.' — 'Remarks' when they happen to be silly, answer themselves well enough, but ' Figures' when false, do not. [A part of above is then requoted.] ' The censurable extracts" in the article consist of about 318 lines. Of these, eighty-five lines are from the New York Herald, and 233 from other journals. Of the eleven newspapers given as the text of the article, six are quoted, and the remaining five, though unquoted, are not un- described. In the course of the article, fifteen other newspapers are referred to (four by name), and passages given. As many hundreds might have been quoted, no doubt, could anything have seemed to justify the production beyond what was strictly called for, of matter offensive to decency and good taste. Yours, etc. The Editor of the Foreign Quarterly." An answer to this being declined by the Atliencpum, as in- volving a 'controversy' of no interest, the writer inserted and paid for the following as an advertisement: — " 7o tlie Editor of the Athenteum. " Sir, — Will you permit a very brief reply to the note of the editor of the Foreign Quarterly? "We did not count as 'censurable extracts,' sixt3'-six lines re- cording, as journalists are expected to do, the occurrences of the day, whether good or bad; and also 128 lines from other papers specially descriptive of the character and evil effects of ' The Herald.' If these protests against the foreign adventurer (whom, as the reviewer incidentally admits in his second article, 'Scotland voided across the Atlantic,') and two or three very sill}', but verv harmless (anonymous) paragraphs, are to be classed in the same category of 'infamous, degrading, and disgusting,' then the pro- portion was wrongly stated in our allusion to the article. AMERICAN NEWSPAPERS. 241 In regard to papers named as text, and yet unquoted — we said eight, the editor says five. We counted as unquoted — Tlie Journal of Commerce, The American, The Evening Post, and the Atlas (?) of New York; The Daily Advertiser, and the Atlas of Boston ; and the Intelligencer and the Globe of Washington. On a second reference to the article, it appears that mention is made of re- porter's letters from Waslibtgton to ' The American' and ' Journal of Commerce.' We do not consider these as quoting tliose jour- nals, or as having anything to do with their character. Is an editor or a paper responsible for public occurrences chronicled by Lis reporters? If so, he would have much to answer for, on either side of the Atlantic. Other than these we see no quotation from "eight out of the eleven papers." In the second article, which is styled " The Answer of the American Press," (!) besides paragraphs about the Somers Mutiny and the Asliburton Treaty (neither relevant to the case in hand), the whole number of lines quoted is about 404: — Of which there are from the Herald . 321 Courier and Inquirer . 36 American ... 18 Journal of Commerce . 10 All others . . . 19 404 A part only of these last eightj--three lines is at all applicable to the reviewer's article, except, as before, to disown and denounce, in suitable terms, the abominable nuisance inflicted upon the country, by the self-styled "Socrates of New York" and "Napo- leon of the Press in both hemispheres." "Silly remarks," says the editor of the Foreign Quarterly, "answer themselves." Can any one believe that the ridiculous and reckless bravado which he quotes from this person, would be the language of one really possessing such mighty influence and such immense patronage? The New York Commercial Advertiser — one of the best and most influential journals in the country — is scarcely alluded to, in either article; and The Journal of Commerce, decidedly at the head of the daily commercial papers, is summarily dismissed as a "very dull — and very harmless journal." No sensible person could object to judicious, fair, and canddid. strictures on the American newspaper. A thorough .leform — a L 242 AMERICAN NEWSPAPERS. higher standard of character is much needed ; and whoever could introduce an improvement, would deserve the thanks, rather than ill-will, of Americans, These articles, had they been written in a fairer, kindlier spirit, might have done much good; but as they are, all good tendency is controverted by feelings of resentment, that a worthless and scurrilous print, raised by a variety of causes to a bad eminence of notoriety, should be thus prominently dis- played in a grave critical review as "the leading journal of Ame- rica!" There may be good and sufficient reasons why this print is more quoted in Europe, than perhaps all other American journals together — though these reasons can hardly be understood at home. But what does this fact prove, except that European editors prefer it to those which give a more favourable notion of American jour- nalism, and which are the really influential papers among "real Americans?" The reviewer took pains to quote in full, from a Western paper, a disgraceful libel on Mr. Webster. If he wishes to see " all justice" done, we would respectfully suggest another article from materials nearer home. Nearly every paper in London, if not in England, about three months since, gave currency to a gross libel on this same Mr. Webster; charging him, in no very courtly terms, with "dishonesty" and "swindling." This libel might, and did, have much more effect on Mr. Webster's reputation, than the other, which "refuted itself;" — and all the excuse for it has long since been shewn, in the highest quarters, to be groundless : but in not one of these papers have we yet seen a syllable of retracta- tion, or of apology for those abusive attacks. Nay, this same reviewer, in this same article of indignant reproof of the American press, forgets not to make a quiet sneer at " red-lined maps, and smart doings;" although the tables had been completely reversed by the official admission of a much stronger case on the other side! W^ill not the reviewer's respect for the purity of the press induce him to re-consider and acknowledge his own errors ? Again: a recent paragraph, generally copied by the English press, amiably intimated, that all New York would soon be bank- rupt, for there were 700 names gazetted in one paper ! This long list was, in fact, only equivalent to the sum total of all the London gazettes for years, instead of one day, combined in one paper, and repeated daily; and this was fully explained in a note to the THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. 243 Chronicle. The paragraph was calculated seriously to injure many individuals : but was the explanation copied where the slander had been repeated? Oh, no! And yet, are not such grave charges in respectable papers infinitely more injurious than the nonsensical ribaldry which this reviewer delights to quote? This is an ungracious and a thankless task — perhaps it is im- pertinent for mere publishers to meddle with it. It cannot be supposed of particular interest to you or your readers, but we are sure you will at least pern,iit the ejcplanation of what we at first ventured to say. — W, ^- P. XXV. THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. Name. Places. Denomina- f 5 .5 « is' Vols. in tion. I -^2 6 s Lib. Bangor Theol. Seminary Bangor, Me. Cong. 3 43 139 70no Gilriianton Theol. Seminary.. Oilmanton.N. H. Cong. 3 23 52 4300 Theolo^iical Seminary Andover, Mass. Cong. 5 93 932 1(500 Divinity School, Harv. Univ. Cambridge, do. Cong. Unit. 2 35 213 1800 Theological Inslilution Newton, do. Baptist i 33 137 4000 Theol. Dep. Yale Collfge .... N. Haven, Ct. Cong. 1 (!0 3S1 Theol. Inst, of Connecticut . . . E. M'indsor, do. Cong 3 29 71 4000 Theol. Inst. Epis. Church N. York, N. Y. Prot. Epis. 5 74 186 7260 Union Theological Seminary.. do. do. Presbyt. 3 96 100 12000 Theological Sem. of Auburn. . Auburn, do Pre^byt. 1 71 359 5000 Hamilton Lit. and Tli. Inst.. Hamilton, do. Baptist 1 37 124 2250 Hartwick Seminary Hartwick, do. Newburgh, do. Lutheran Ass. Ref. Ch. . 2 3 i 11 1000 Theol. Sem. As. Ref. Church . 4000 Theol. Sem. Dutch Ref. Church N.Br'wick,N.J. Dutch Ref. , i 23 179 Theol. Sem. Pr. Ch. U. S Princeton, do. Presbyt. I 117 753 7000 Sem. Lnih. Ch. United States Gettysburg, Pa Evang. L. i 2(5 130 7000 German Reformed York, do Alleghany, T. do. G. Ref. Ch. i Presbyt. i . 20 50 182 West. Theological Seminary . . 6000 Theological School Canonsburg, do. Pittsburg, do Asso. Ch. -4 22 47 1600 Theological Seminary Asso. Ref. 19 Epis. Theol. School of Va. .. Fairfax Co. Va. Prot. Epis. -1 46 182 4000 Union Theological Seminary.. Pr. Ed. Co. do. Presbyt. C 20 175 4000 Virginia Baptist Seminary. .. Richmond, do. Baptist C tJ7 1000 Southern Theol. Seminary . .. Columbia, S. C. Presbyt. 2 16 82 4000 Theological Seminary Lexington, do. Lntheran S 10 20 1800 Furman Theol. Seminary .... High Hills, do. Baptist 'i 30 30 1000 Lit. and Theol. Seminary.... Eaton, Ga. Baptist 10 South West Theol. Seminary. Maryville, Ten. Presbyt. 2 24 90 6000 Lane Seminary Cincinnati, Ohio. Gambler, do do. 3 Prot Epis. 5 66 4 43 10300 Theol. Dep. Ken. College Theol. Dep. Wes. Res. College Hudson, do. Presbyt. 3 20 Granville Theological Dep Granville, do. Baptist 2 8 ., 500 Oberlin Theological Dep Oberlin, do. Presbyt. 4 58 Indiana Theological Seminary 5. Hanover, In. Presbyt. 2 10 Alton Theological Seminary.. Upper Alton, 11. Baptist Carlinville Theol. Seminary.. Carlinville, do. Presbyt. 700 Theol. Dep. Mai ion College.. N. Palmyra, Mo. Presbyt. 1 244 MEDICAL AND LAW SCHOOLS. r>IEDICAL SCHOOLS. Name. Place. ■c •c c o ■c 2 o (X tc Maine Me;e Ditto 1839 6 60 Medical School University Aid Baltimore 1807 fi 100 909 \Va^hu gton Medical College. .. Ditto 1827 6 25 Medical School Colum. College Washington 1825 6 40 81 Medical Schi.ol University Va.. Charlof.esville 1825 3 45 Richmond Medical Collese Richmond 1838 6 75 14 Medical College Stale of S. C CharleslOD 1833 8 158 Medical College of Georgia .. . . Augusta 1830 1835 7 7 115 30 124 Medical College of Louisiana ... New Orleans Medical Dep.'l lansyl. University Lexington 1818 7 214 1351 Louisville Medical Instit. Louisville 1837 6 242 53 Medical College of Ohio Cincinnati 1819 8 130 331 Medical Dep. of Kemp College St. Li'uis, Mo. ..■.. 1841 9 75 19 Medical College St. Louis Univ. Ditto 1836 6 30 A\ illou^hby Medical College W'illougUby 1834 5 57 LAW SCHOOLS. Place. Name. Prof. Students. Cambridge, Mass New Haven, Conn 2 3 3 1 1 I 3 3 1 154 Yale College 44 New York Cily Law Department, N.Y. Univ. Dickinson College William and Wary College... Carlisle, Pa 5 Williamsburg, Va Charlottesville, Va 32 72 Lexington, Ky Transylvania University Cincinnati Colleo'e 75 25 Cincinnati, Ohio Bloomington, Ind Indiana State University 15 • From 1791 to 1838, inclusive. EDUCATION. 245 Schools for the study of law are much less frequented than schools for the study of the other professions. The first institution of this nature, of much note, that was established in the United States, was the Law School at Litchfield, in Connecticut, which had, from 1798 to 1827, 730 students, but it is now discontinued. American Almanac. XXVL TABULAR VIEW OF EDUCATION In the United States and in Europe. [This Table is modified from that in the American Annah of Education, in 1832. The proportion of Students in Europe has probably not altered much since that time. The numbers given include Medical, Law, and Theological Students. In the United States in 1844 there were 10,393 Students in Colleges; 3532 Medical, 1 174 Theological, and 422 Law Students. The returns do not refer to where the Students belong, but where they are now studying. "We have taken the number of Inhabitants in 1840, and the number of Students in 1844. The proportion of Students to the Whites only, in the Southern States, would be much greater.] American States, 1840 — 4, European Countries, 1832. - No. of Studenii Proportion lo Inhabitants No. of Students Proportion to Inhabitants Dist. Columbia R. Island Vermont Kentucky Connecticut... Massachusetts N. Hampshire 205 258 ■J67 1609 625 1171 434 276 100 441 475 1931 351 442 330 1 to 213 1 to 422 1 to 425 1 to 476 1 to 496 1 to 630 1 to 658 1 to 768 1 to 780 1 to 799 1 to 816 1 to 893 1 to 1063 1 to 1063 1 to 1138 3249 1399 1360 10,549 (c 1 to 683 Michigan Delaware Louisiana IMissouri Pennsylvania . 1 to 816 1 to 1040 N. Jersey Maryland England 1 to 1132 Mississippi.... onlinued) 246 EDUCATION. Tabular View of Education — continued. American States, 1840—4. European Cotintries, 1832. 1 ' No. of iStQ(1ents 1 Proportion to Inhabitants 1 to 1245 1 to 1305 1 to 1421 1 to 1465 1 to 1491 1 to 1682 1 to 1688 1 to 2213 1 to 2269 I to 2834 1 to 3304 i No. of Students Proportion to Inhabitants Virginia 995 1855 353 1037 398 411 347 358 256 168 228 Hanover 1203 2593 900 9867 6236 877 2687 1604 2998 1722 767 578 2065 8584 1 to 1303 N.York i Bavana... 1 to 1312 1 to 1402 1 to 1414 Maine Prussia Ohio 1 to 1470 S. Carolina.... Wirtemberg Indiana 1 to 1731 Sweden & Norway 1 to 1732 1 to 1879 Netherlands 1 to 1979 Tennessee Alabama Sardinia 1 to 2420 Switzerland 1 to 2655 Illinois Denmark N. Carolina... 1 to 3342 Naples and Sicily.. Austria 1 to 3590 1 to 3760 France Ireland 6196 1254 3626 1 to 5140 1 to 5767 1 to 15455 Unit. States, ) inc. Slaves 1 ^^'^"^^ 1 to 1821 Europe — the Coun- 1 tries as above . . j 71,824 1 to 2923 Europe (in 1832). luhab. Proportion of Pupils in Common Schools to whole Population U. States (exclusive of coloured) Inhab. Maine 1 to 3' N. Hampshire 1 to 3'4 Vermont 1 to 3*5 Massachusetts 1 to 4-5 Connecticut 1 to 46 New York 1 to 4*7 T?hode Island 1 to 6' New Jersey 1 to 6*7 Delaware 1 to 8'4 Pennsylvania 1 to 93 United States at large.. 1 to 7-6 Wirtemberg 1 to Canton Vaud I to Bavaria 1 to Prussia 1 to Netherlands 1 to Scotland 1 to Austria 1 to England 1 to France 1 to Ireland 1 to 6- 6-6 7- 7- 9-7 10- 13- 15-3 17-6 18- Russia 1 to 367' NOTES TO PREVIOUS CHAPTERS. 247 The annual appropriation in England for Public Instruction is 30,000/., or 150,000 dollars. The annual appropriation in the town of Boston, United States, for public instruction, is 180,000 dollars. England has 14,000,000 inhabitants. Boston has 93,000 inhabitants. Note to Chapter IF. — Education. The Hon. Horace Mann, secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education, is one of the ablest and most energetic of modern promoters of Education Reform. His several annual reports to the Legislature, and the six or eight volumes of his ' Common School Journal,' have been of great value to the cause of sound popular education. His report on education in Europe is a remarkable document. W. C. Woodbridge Esq, the founder of the ' Annals of Education' (commenced about ten years since), Professor Bache, and Professor Stowe, authors of elaborate reports on ' Education in Europe,' and a number of other names, stand prominent in connection with this important subject. The education of the blind has been wonderfully advanced by Dr. S. G. Howe, the distinguished and philanthropic superintendant of the noble Asylum for the Blind at Boston. Notes to Chapter VI. In the treaty recently negotiated by the United States Com- missioner in China, there is a clause to this effect: "American citizens shall at all times have permission to hold free intercourse with the learned men of China, to study their language and lite- rature, to purchase books and manuscripts upon all arts and sciences, and to gather up wisdom from its Chinese storehouses." Plagiaris7m. The editor of the English 'Quarterly Journal of Education,' Mr. Martin, is in the habit of extracting entire articles from the 'American Annals of Education,' and other works, and publishing them as original communications, without the least acknowledge- ment of the sources from which they are derived. As an instance: An ' Essay on Penmanship,' written by Mr. B. F. Foster, and first published by the American Institute of histruction, has been twice 248 NOTES TO TREVIOUS CHAPTERS. published by this editor as an original article — first in the ' Jour- nal of Education,' and recntly in the ' Quarterly Journal of Education.' Even the title of the latter would seem to be abstracted from its American prototype, for when completed in a volume it is styled — ' English Annals of Education.' Copyright, etc. Mr. Farnhani's ' Travels to the Rocky Mountains,' etc., an American book originally published in New York for 25 cents {one shilling sterling), was reprinted in London, spread out into two volumes, post octavo, and the price to this da}'^ is one guinea, as if it was an orighial copyright book. Yet the author never received a penny from his London publisher. Note to Chapter V. — Libraries. [A paragraph from a New York paper.] The Apprentices' Library. — The General Society of Mecha- nics, with praiseworthy liberality, has, for the last five years, contributed to the support of the Apprentices' Library 1250 dollars per annum, in addition to the free use of the commodious building in Crosby-street, purchased of the High School Society. The committee, composed of gentlemen of the highest character and respectability, impressed with the conviction tliat the w'elfare of the whole community is to a considerable extent involved in promoting the moral and intellectual improvement of the meclia- nics' apprentices, have appealed to their fellow citizens for aid in sustaining the Apprentices' Library. The library contains at present about 12,000 volumes, and the number of readers is about 2000. Fifty thousand volumes were taken out during the year ending September 1, 1842, an average of twenty-nine volumes to each reader. — Journal of Commerce. Note to Chapter I. — American Ship-Building, etc. Several of the ships in the Turkish navy were constructed under the immediate superintendence of an American naval architect, Mr. Henry Eckford, of New York; and the chief naval architect of the sultan, at present, is an American. A large steam frigate was built a year or two since at New York, for the Emperor of Russia. The locomotive engines made at Philadelphia are used in Russia, Prussia, and Austria, and some of them even in England. A large order for them was recently given from Austria. 249 XXVIII. A PARODY ON ENGLISH CRITICISM. \_From the North American Review, No. cxxiv.] Note. — Those who are acquainted with the character of the North American Review, during the twenty-five years of its existence, might well be surprised on seeing the following article quoted as from its pages: and as many, in England, have taken it up without looking at the last explanatory paragraph, and have thrown it aside as " a most unjust and abusive article," we have thought proper to reprint it, with the explanation at the beginning. "If our readers are surprised at the tone and temper of this article, so unlike anything which has hitherto appeared in the pages of this journal, we commend them to an attentive perusal of the paper from the ' Foreign Quarterly Review,' the title of which we liave placed at the head of our remarks; and ' we conclude by saying,' in the words of another of our respected English contemporaries, ' tiiat we have no national prejudices ourselves, nor any wish to foster them in others,'" The Poets and Poetry of America; an Article in the Foreign Quarterly Review, for January, 1844. London. The earliest notices we have of Britain represent it as fruitful in barbarians, tin, and lead. It has continued so ever since. The Greeks knew something of it, but their notions were vague and uncertain ; the Phoenicians, who were to the ancients what the American navigators are to the moderns, found out the island, and drove a profitable trade, exchanging trinkets, that always please the fancy of barbarians and children, for the useful metals which their advanced civilization knew how to put to good use. Herodotus is supposed to have included it in his Cassiterides or Tin islands. The barbarous condition of the inhabitants is indi- cated even by the name, which is derived from the old word brit, meaning painted: for they painted their bodies, like the North American Indians. Caesar made two expeditions into Britain, as an interlude in his Gallic conquests; and from his graphic pen we have two or three paragraphs describing their manners — that is, all the manners they had; and it is curious to see how many traits are still pre- served, in t.pite of innumerable mutations, and the silent action of more than eighteen centuries. Peconnn, says he, magnus niime- rus ; " they have a vast number of sheep;" they have them now. ASre utuntur imporlato ; but this at present is unnecessary, as they have brass enough of their own. The ancient Britons thought it l2 250 AN ENGLISH CllITICISM impious to "taste the hare, the hen, and the goose;" this, with a great many other religious scruples, the modern Britons have thrown off; but they still raise game-cocks, animi voluptatisque causa, " for the salce of intellectual delight." In Caesar's time, the seaboard was settled by people who went over from Belgium, prcBdce ac helli inferendi causa ; and from these persons came not a little of the partiality for plunder and war, which has ever since been characteristic of the English people. The inhabitants of the interior, he states, fed on milk and flesh, and were clothed with skins. It must be admitted, that, in these respects, a great change has taken place, and for the worse; for, at present, great numbers of the British people are utterly unable to procure milk or flesh, and have no other skins to wear than their own. All the Britons dyed themselves with woad, which produced a blue colour, and gave them a more horrible look — a thing quite unnecessary — in battle; the cerulean tint is now confined to the females, and its terrors are exhibited only in society. They did not cut the hair, or shave the upper lip ; and the same fashion exists to the present day among the dandies, who are their most direct descendants. Uxores hahent deni duodeniqiie inter se communes ; and the records of Doctor's Commons shew, that, in these particulars, the English are not a whit behind their barbarous ancestors; nay, the present laws of England carry out the principle, so well stated by the Roman conqueror, si qui sunt ex his nati, eorum hahentur liberi, quo priiyium virgo quceque deducta est. The poets, especially Virgil and Horace, make frequent allusions to the barbarity of the ancient Britons. Horace talks of bringing them in chains d(>wn the Sacred Way ; of visiting in safety — which he never did — the Britons, hospitibus feros, "cruel to strangers;" language prophetic of the manner in which he was long after- wards mutilated by the ferocious Bentley ; and, in another place, he hints at turning war, famine, and pestilence, against the Persians and Britons, regarding them as equally extreme points from the centre of civilization. Virgil speaks of them as divided from the whole earth; which, in a moral sense, they have con- tinued to be ever since. Tacitus, in his admirable life of Agricola, gives some interesting notices of this barbarous people. He begins, in his usual pithy style, by saying, Britanmam qui moriales initio coluerint, indigence ON AMERICA, PARODIED. 251 an advecti, ut inter barbaros, parum compertum. He then men- tions the light or red hair of the Caledonians, and their brawny limbs; and, in describing the whole nation, he says, they had the same bravery as the Gauls in demanding to be led into danger, and the same cowardice in running from it when it actually came. Here we see the very germ of John Bull's love of bullying ; though candour compels us to confess, that he stands fight a little better now, than, according to the gi-eat historian, he did in former times. The Britons had a notion, too, that respectability consisted in driving a chariot — honestior auriga ; undoubtedly the source of the modern reverence for a coach and six — a feehng which is very nicely graduated for vehicles of every degree of pretension, down to a gig — constituting what Carlyle very justly styles the "gigmanity " of the British nation. Tacitus proceeds to describe the physical peculiarities of the island, which he does in a masterly manner, and the description is as true to-day, in most particulars, as it was when first written. The Romans, for various reasons, but chiefly because they thought the play was not worth the candle, made but little progress in the conquest, until the enterprise was entrusted to the vigorous genius of Agricola. Even in the time of Quintilian, so little was known of this barbarous dependency, that he expressly affirms, that, in the schools of rhetoric, a common question discussed by the young students as an exercise in elocu- tion was, whether Britain was an island or not ; and we are told by no less an authority than a committee of the House of Commons, that precisely the same question being put in the course of their inquiries on the subject of education, many Englishmen, born in the interior probably, exhibited the same geographical uncertainty as formerly existed in the Roman schools. The early Druidical religion or superstition of these barbarians left its imprint on the national character, and may be traced to the present day. The ancient hierarchy, like the modern, had the exclusive right to teach the doctrines of religion, which they inculcated in verses that sometimes had a hidden meaning ; the modern Druids make no verses, and their sermons sometimes have no meaning at all. In other respects, they are very much the same ; like their predecessors, they utter terrible curses on all who dissent from them : they advocate the keeping of religious know- ledge from the people, especially at the great Druidical establish- 252 AN ENGLISH CRITICISM ment of Oxford, where the ancient superstitious rites are maintained with a punctilious observance worthy of the darkest ages. They insist on having the exclusive control of the education of the young ; and so great is their power, that, under its influence and the terror of their infuriated denunciations, a reformed House of Parliament recently refused to make a grant of money for a system of national education, unless it should be placed entirely under the direction of the modern Druids, the priests of the Established church — so priest-ridden have the inhabitants of that Tin island been from the days of Cfesar and Tacitus. Just as Roman civilization had gained a slight foothold in Bri- tain, the disturbances in the empire compelled the government to withdraw their troops, and leave the half reclaimed barbarians to fall back into their aboriginal condition. Their labours of four centuries were thus completely lost ; and it is a striking proof of the stupidity of the British race, that, just before the Romans bade a final adieu to Britain, they had to " erect anew the wall of Severus, which was built entirely of stone, and which the Britons had not at that time artificers skilful enough to repair." The Britons, then, did not know enough, after some four hundred years of training, to build a stone wall. They have not built many since, but have used hedges, which require less genius, and only need occasionally to be trimmed. A modern historian judiciously remarks, that *' the sudden, violent, and unprepared revolutions incident to barbarians are so much guided by caprice, and terminate so often in cruelty, that they disgust by the uniformity of their appearance; and it is rather fortunate for letters, that they are buried in silence and oblivion." This train of reflections was suggested to his mind by the contem- plation of the orig'mes of the English nation ; and it has been re- called to oiu-s by the same process. We shall not, therefore, trace the formation of the national character through its successive stages, under the Saxon robber^;, the Danish pirates, and the free- booting adventurers from Normandy, all of whom left distinct marks upon the moral development of the Englishman, until at length the constitution — as a nonentity, about which a vast amount of nonsense is dealt out at every session of Parliament, is face- tiously termed — was consolidated by the revolution through which the Prince of Orange received the crown; of whom it was said, ON AMEHICA, PARODIED. ^53 by one who knew whereof he spoke, that "the receiver is as bad as the thief." Of a people descended from such a stock it would be unreason- able to expect either morals, manners, or poetry; and we are not at all surprised or disappointed, therefore, by the unfavourable results of a cursory survey of their literature and their public and private history during the lastcentury or two, and of thoir condition at the present time. The population of England is made up of masters and serfs, otherwise called the aristocracy and the people; the former being the legitimate, or rather the illegitimate, des- cendants of the marauding tribes who conquered and settled the country; and the latter being the present representatives of the barbarous and ignorant races who were subjugated by them. No other theory will account for the insuflerable arrogance and haughtiness of the higher class, or the tame submissiveness and cringing servility of the inferior tribe. Among no people in the ■world, excepting perhaps the Hindoos, are the distinctions of caste more rigidly preserved than in Great Britain. Barriers and fences of every sort are multiplied with the most jealous care, to prevent the dreaded effects of a mixture of races; and these ob- structions are usually sufficient to preserve the purity of blood from any known and acknowledged contamination, except when a bank- rupt man of rank condescends to repair his ruined fortunes by espousing the daughter of a wealthy merchant, or a titled de- bauchee forms a matrimonial connection with an actress or an opera-dancer. But usually, a peer and a tradesman, a baronet and a labourer, a country gentleman and one of his tenants, are the representatives respectively of what we might almost call two orders of being. It would be as great a blunder for an English- man to put the two into the same class, as for a naturalist to place quadrupeds and qtiadrumani in the same order, or, in other words, to rank together a horse and a monkey. It is difficult to say which of the two classes is the most to be pitied — the one for his overbearing insolence, or the other for the cowed and slavish manner in which he submits to it; the one who browbeats his inferior with every token of lordly and supercilious contempt, or the other, who, "with bated breath, and whispering humbleness," receives the full measure of scorn and contumely. Some of the most offensive peculiarities of English manners, as 254 AN ENGLISH CRITICISM they appear to foreigners, have resulted naturally from this ab- surdly exaggerated estimate of the importance of rank. Hence, an Englishman's coldness and reserve, — his sulkiness in mixed society,— his repulsive manner towards strangers, — his overbearing treatment of domestics and dependents, — his horror at the idea of dining at a fable d'hote, or of travelling in a crowded conveyance, where he might find himself "cheek by jowl" with an inferior. He manifests all the petty jealousy of a man who is himself half conscious, that his factitious claims to respect and distinction are vastly above his real merits. He is punctilious in exacting all the little observances of station and etiquette, in order that this morti- fying consciousness may not be increased by the apparent insen- sibility of the world around him to his absurd pretensions. Hence, also, the discomposure that he suffers, when he becomes a traveller, and finds the people of continental Europe, or of this country, not at all inclined to respect those arbitrary distinctions of social life, on which so much stress is put in his own petty island. All the world laughs at a travelling John Bull and his ridiculous humours; his pride and his mortifications; his hauteur and his gul- libility ; his insolence and his ignorance. The polite Frenchman shrugs his shoulders and laughs at the haughty airs of " Milord," and compares him to his own bouledogue ; the supple Italian cheats him and despises him ; the independent Yankee pesters him with questions, annoys him with cool sarcasm when he becomes testy, and treads most remorselessly on the corns of his self-esteem and his prejudices. Bull is obliged to suffer it all, and only finds his revenge, after he returns home, by writing a book to prove that all the nations of the earth are a set of Yahoos, except the inhabitants of enlightened England. Illustrations of these remarks are so common, that it is useless to cite any, or to specify particular cases in which they are specially applicable. But one instance of the annoyances to which this class of travellers are subject is directly in point. Half the plea- sure that an Englishman experiences at a public-house in his own country consists in bullying the waiter, who is hectored most un- mercifully about all the faults, real or supposed, of the whole establishment; and the cringing domestic receives the scarifying lecture with a subdued face and a patient shrug, "for sufferance is the badge of all his tribe," knowing that every box on the ear ON AMERICA, PARODIED. 255 will be recompensed by a handsome douceur to his pocket. This same Englishman goes abroad, to America perhaps, and attempting to practise the same insolence in a hotel there, rims imminent risk of being kicked for his pains by the independent waiter, who, instead of being mollified by the subsequent offer of a shilling or a half-crown, actually throws the intended gratuity in his customer's face. The indignant traveller hurries home, and writes a book in a perfect frenzy, in which he expatiates, with great earnestness, upon the insufferable impertinence of republican domestics. A writer in a late number of the Edinburgh Review, speaking in the name of the English nation, observes, with admirable com- placency, " We have a sound, rational, philosophical respect for birth." Of course, this profoundly respectful feeling is entertained only on account of the high moral qualities that are invariably dis- played by men of noble blood. We will mention a few facts, therefore, that may throw some light on the moral character of the nobility of England ; and, that the examples may not appear ob- scure or far-fetched, we will begin with royalty itself. the , and his brother, the of , and present of , were probably the most profligate men in Great Britain. The character of the former was marked with almost every stain of moral turpitude that can dishonour and degrade a human being ; the latter was charged, and that not obscurely, with crimes at which human nature revolts. Before he came to the throne, the former was expelled from the Jockey Club for his dishonest prac- tices; he put a lie in the mouth of his champion in the House of Commons, in regard to his marriage with Mrs. Fitzherbert; he appeared as a beggar at the bar of that House, for money to pay the immense debts that he had incurred in his career of gambling, intemperance, and debauchery ; he was guilty of the meanest and foulest ingratitude towards his early friend, Sheridan; he perse- cuted his wife to death for incontinence, after he had separated from her without cause, and given her a "letter of licence," and while, in his own private life, he was emulating the orgies of Tiberius at CapreiB. All the world knows the history of that dis- gusting trial, when a queen of England was brought to the bar of the House of Peers, for adultery; and the storm of popular indig- nation, roused by the story of such nefarious and disgraceful con- duct, was diverted from the guilty wife to fall upon the more guilty 256 AN ENGLISH CRITICISM husband. Sed maxime in luhrico egtt acceptd in matrimonium Julia, impudicitimn uxoris tolerans aut declinans. » * * » * The next illustration of the morals of the royal family is even a more notorious one ; for the affair was investigated by Parlianient, and the full and damning proof may be found in the j)ublished *' Debates." One of the most stately monuments that now arrest the attention of the stranger in London is a circular column of stone, that rises to a great height in a fine situation, on the border of one of the parks. If the traveller asks what is its object, he is told that it was erected in honour of the Duke of York, another brother of George the Fourth, and one who was for a long time commandei--in-chief of the British armies. If he asks further, by what virtuous or heroic deeds the Duke merited this high station during life, and this splendid and enduring monument to his memory, the answer is to be found in the proceedings of the House of Commons in 1809. He was then charged with allowing the profligate Mrs. Clarke, who had long been his mistress, to dispose of commissions in the army by bargain and sale; and in the inves- tigation that followed, all the essential parts of the accusation were fully established. His connection with this abandoned woman was admitted, and British officers were not ashamed to confess, that they had purchased of her their promotion, which she had obtained by her influence with the duke. He was compelled to resign the command of the army, but before two years had passed, a venal ministry reinstated him in office. To complete this pic- ture of the royal family, we need only mention the guilty con- nection of the of , another of these brothers, with the actress, Mrs. Jordan. The base-born offspring of this shame- less union were placed by their father, when he became king of England, among the nobles of the land ; and the are still conspicuous in the English church, in fashionable society, and at the court of the youthful Queen. "These are thy gods, O Israel!" These are the members of that royal house of Brunswick, in whose veins flow the blood of the Plantagenets, the Tudors, and the Stuarts, and to whom Eng- land professes such unbounded loyalty. Such have been the lives and characters of the men who have profited by Englishmen's " sound, rational, philosophical respect for birth." A more lucky ON AMERICA, PARODIED. 257 family than that of George the Third was never known. Three of the royal profligates, whose conduct we have noticed, ascended a throne, and since the days of the Roman emperors, never has the sceptre fallen into more weak and wicked hands. Their scan- dalous courts were often frequented by men of rank, whose morals were as corrupt, and whose lives as dissolute, as their own. In our own day, we have seen a Minister of State and a Lord Chan- cellor, who had run away with other men's wives, and subsequently married the partners of their infamy, admitted, with their con- sorts, to the councils and the drawing-rooms of their sovereign. As the facts are so notorious, it is only necessary to mention the names of the late lord and the present Sir . The English people have a " philosoj)hical respect for birth," and therefore tliey tolerate such things ; but nothing can equal their virtuous indignation at profligate conduct, when the offender is not of high rank. They collect in crowds to hoot a poor actor off'the stage, for no other offence than that of "disturbing the conjugal felicity of an alderman." An abundance of other facts might be cited, to shew the cor- ruption and dissoluteness that exist in high places in England ; but the record is a disgusting one, and we forbear. We will merely allude to some very recent facts — to the bankruptcy of lord Huntingtower, the midnight exploits of the Marquess of Waterford, the notoriety of the noble lover of Madame Grisi, and the late prosecution of Lord Cardigan by Lord William Paget. The filthy details of this last case were spread out at length, a few months since, in the columns of the Times, the Morning Chronicle, and the London Examiner, and were thus brought Lo the knowledge of nearly every family in the land, by means of the very journals which profess a holy horror of the degraded and licentious condi- tion of the newspaper press in America. And English writers, who witness and record such things, continue to boast of " the high standard of morals established in England," and to contrast it with great pride, with " Parisian laxity." As they are so fond of preaching morality to other nations, it may be worth while to look for a moment at the conduct of their clergy, their own instructors in virtue. In the course of the last century, a doctor of divinity was hanged for forgery ; and about thirty years ago, a Lord Bishop of Ireland, a scion of one of the 258 AN ENGLISH CRITICISM noblest families in the realm, was compelled to fly his country, for a crime not fit to be mentioned. This wretch bore the title of Bishop of Cloglier. Within a few months, the particulars of another case of clerical licentiousness have come to light. The Rev. Herbert C. Marsh, son of the distinguished bishop of that name, and rector of Barnave and prebendary of Peterborough, two situations in the church producing about six thousand dollars a year, one or both of which he has held for twelve years, appeared before a court of law to give evidence for establishing his own in- famy. He had kept a mistress, and had been intimate with women of the town, both in London and Paris, for many years, while he was all the time wearing the robes, and officiating at the altar as a minister of religion. And these sacred offices and revenues he still holds, having suffered no other punishment than that of ex- posure and being prohibited from preaching — a thing of no import- ance to him, as the active duties of his station are performed by a curate. The common vices with which the dignitaries of the English church are char-geable will appear by a brief extract from a tract by Dr. Watson, himself a respectable and beneficed clergyman of the Establishment In the very act of confuting infidels and putting scoffers to silence, he was obliged to use this language of his brethren of the clergy. " The lofty looks of lordly prelates shall be brought low ; the supercilious airs of downy doctors and perjured pluralists shall be humbled ; the horrible sacrilege of non-residents, who shear the fleece, and leave the flock, thus despoiled, to the charge of unin- terested hirelings that care not for them, shall be avenged on their impious heads. Intemperate priests, avaricious clerks, and buckish parsons, those curses of Christendom, shall be confounded." Another unimpeachable witness respecting the character of the English clergy is Dr. Southey, among whose polemical writings is a most learned and argumentative defence of the English church. But in ' Espriella's Letters,' he is compelled to speak of the con- duct of its priests as follows : " The customs of England do not exclude the clergyman from any species of amusement; the popular preacher is to be seen at the theatre, and at the horse-race, bearing his part at the concert ON AMERICA, PARODIED. 259 and the ball, making his court to old ladies at the card-table, and to young ones at the harpsichord ; and in this way, if he does but steer clear of any flagrant crime or irregularity (which is not always the case, for this order has had more than one Lucifer), he generally succeeds in finding some widow or waning spinster, with weightier charms than youth and beauty." When the nation is afflicted with such licentious kings and nobles, and such a profligate clergy, it is not surprising, that im- morality and crime should prevail to a frightful extent among the lower classes. The aristocracj', with all the brutality which they inherited from their marauding ancestors, endeavoured to suppress these evils among their serfs, by the terrible severity of the punish- ments which they enacted. Nothing could equal the appalling character of the criminal code of England during the last century, except the number and the atrocity of the crimes against which it was directed. The laws of Draco were not half so bloody ; the American Indian showed less ingenuity in torturing his prisoner at the stake. A hundred and twenty crimes were punishable with death; and Dr. Southey affirmed, in 1807, that "more persons annually suffer death in England than in the whole of Christendom besides." The parricide and the fire-raiser were dragged to the scaffold, together with the poor thief who had stolen only a sheep, and the girl who had filched a few yards of lace from a shop. A criminal who refused to plead was laid upon his back, and enormous weights piled upon his breast till he was pressed to death. Women were burned alive at the stake for the same offences for which men were only hanged. As late as 1763, Mary Heald was burned alive at Chester, England, for poisoning her husband. Mrs. Hayes, a murderess, was burned at London, about a century ago, and a crowd stood around, listening to her screams, and watching her vain efforts to push away the fagots. Indeed, there seems to be a mania among these brutal islanders for witnessing public execu- tions. When one is to take place in London, the householders near the spot make large profits by letting out their windows to spectators, and noblemen and ladies of rank are their best cus- tomers. Lord William Paget and some ladies of his acquaintance were accommodated in this way at the recent execution ot Courvoisier. 260 AN ENGLISH CRITICISM The most appalling severity was exercised, of course, on those wretched vassals who conspired to throw off the intolerable yoke of their tyrannical masters. The doom of traitors in this unhappy realm was one at which humanity sickens. The wretches were sentenced to be hanged, but to be cut down while still alive, their bowels to be torn out, and their bodies to be cut into four quarters, and sent to different parts of the land. The ghastly heads were severed from the trunks, and stuck up on spikes over a gate dividing the most crowded thoroughfare in London. Who does not recognise in these atrocities the savageness of the old Danish and Norman vikings and pirates, reducing the conquered barbarians of Britain to tame submission by their frightful cruel- ties ? To mangle, or in any way abuse the dead, has always been deemed an act worthy only of nations in the lowest stage of bar- barism. And yet, till within a short period, along the great high- ways of England were erected numerous gibbets, on which the decaying carcasses of executed highwaymen were hung in chains. " Some five and twenty years ago," says Southey, writing in 1S07, " about a hundred such were exposed upon the heath (at Staines, a few miles from London); so that, from whatever quarter the wind blew, it brought with it a cadaverous and pestilential odour." And this execrable barbarity was allowed by a people who pride themselves on their morality and refinement, and read grave lec- tures to foreign nations on their vicious conduct and cruel practices! But all these severities were not adequate to repress the frightful propensity of the English for crime, and therefore a new expe- dient was to be tried. The attempt is now made to repress vice and wickedness, by thrusting out the participators in them to other shores. Thus it seems, that England produces criminals enough, not only to fill her own borders, but to people other islands and continents with them. Beginning at Botany Bay and Norfolk Island, she has tried a new experiment in the theory of colonization; she has actually peopled New Holland and Van Dieman's Land with cheats, thieves, and forgers. A wholly original state of society exists there, the guardians of the laws being the former breakers of them ; housebreakers and highway- men are converted into jurymen and petty constables, and the pickpocket Barrington is appointed chief justice ! We are curious to know what sort of criminal law is enforced in such a court; ON AMERICA, PARODIED. 261 their ' revised statutes ' probably consist of an inverted decalogue. The barbarous cliaracter of the English appears also in the brutal sports which are indigenous in the island. The baiting of bulls and bears, it is true, is not common now, though it was nuich in vogue in the last century. But their proficiency in horseracing and boxing is still the glory of Englishmen. To their eagerness for the former, even their absurd pride of rank gives way ; and on the turf at Epsom and Derby, jockeys and members of the House of Commons, blacklegs and noblemen, meet and cheat each other on a footing of perfect equality. More fortunes and reputations are every year ruined at these noted places, than were ever sacri- ficed, in the same space of time, at the most noted gambling saloons of Paris. The cruelty to the poor animals is not the worst feature of this savage amusement ; every species of knavery, every extravagance in the way of gambling, is practised without reserve and without remorse. Drugs are given to the horses, or they are poisoned, jockeys are hired not to win, and various other expedients are used, by which the ignorant and the unwary are plundered. And among the participators in these nefarious trans- actions are the noblest personages in the land. These abominable games are not only tolerated, but favoured, by the laws ; they are called the " manly, rural sports of England." Another favourite diversion of John Bull is boxing, one of the most vulgar and savage kinds of personal encounter that was ever peculiar to a nation. Two blackguards, stripped to the waist, and surrounded by their seconds and 'bottle-holders,' are put in the midst of a ring formed by blacklegs and noblemen, to pummel and bruise each other out of any vestige of the human shape. The most noted of these bruisers, the one who is able to thrash all his fellows in the noble game, is called the champion of England. Such a brute might well be chosen to sustain the fantastic part of the personage who bears the same title at that mountebank show called a 'coronation.' In what estimation this sport is held appears from the fact, that, a few years ago, Gulley, one of the most notorious of these prize-fighters, was chosen a member of Parliament. At one of these encounters, between Tom Cribb and Molyneux, a negro, when the prize of victory was the ' championship,' after a battle of thirty-nine minutes, the poor black was carried senseless out of the ring, and the whole kingdom 262 AN ENGLISH CRITICISM resounded with the praises of the victor. His engraved portrait appeared in all the print shops ; songs were indited in his honour, and his exploit was heralded in all the newspapers. And at this disgraceful scene, Lord Yarmouth, a senator, a diplomatist, and a statesman, was present, and, we believe, was one of the ' backers.' The game not unfrequently terminates in the death of one of the parties ; and when this is not the case, the bruised and bloody combatant usually offers a more schocking sight than a man who has just undergone a frightful surgical operation. Certainly, the contests of the Roman gladiators with each other, and with wild beasts, formed, comparatively speaking, a humane and ennobling spectacle. The evidences'we have presented of the essential brutality and licentiousness of the English character are sufficiently striking ? but the picture would be incomplete, if a sketch were not added of the misery and oppression to which the labouring classes, the unhappy descendants of the subjugated tribes of savages who once held the island, are exposed. The materials here are so abundant, and the facts are so appalling, that we know not how to make a selection, or how to avoid wearying our readers with the sickening details. It is necessary to be brief and moderate — to give only a few items, and those not the most fearful ones, in the long catalogue of woes and vices that lies open before us, confirmed by undoubted authority. We will say nothing, then, of the immorality, misery, and crime, that exist in Ireland, where the conquest of the native barbarians is of most recent date, and where consequently the ruthless sway of the brutal victors is most keenly felt. We will say nothing of the condition of the Irish poor, huddled together in mud cabins by the wayside, in which fowls, pigs, women, and children, occupy one room, and share one couch, the hard earth — the human creatures clad in rags not sufHcient for decency, feeding upon a little store of potatoes and buttermilk, going forth in crowds to beg, and often dying of starvation at the very gates of the sumptuous castles and country- seats in which the licentious nobles and pampered clergy of the land are wallowing in luxury. We will say nothing of the out- breaks of popular disorder to which these miseries urge the un- happy people, — of the conflagrations and murders that often abound over a whole district, till an overwhelming force of troops ON AMERICA, PARODIED. 263 is poured into it, and, after a number of the wretches have been transported or hanged, the remainder of the excited populace sink back into their dens. We will pass over the general condi- tion even of the English poor, worn out by hard labour and dying of unhealthy food in their cottages, or sinking under exhausting employments and a pestelential atmosphere in the garrets and cellars of the manufacturing towns, or crowded into workhouses, in which a graduated system of starvation has been established by law. We will speak only of the sufferings and brutality to which the women and children are exposed, since these classes seem to have the strongest claims on the humanity of a civilized and Christian nation. The reports recently made to Parliament, respecting the em- ployment of women and children in the factories and the mines, present a multitude of heart-sickening details, to which, we dare affirm, neither the present experience nor the past history of any other country affords a parallel. In most of the large manufacto- ries throughout the kingdom, children, or rather infants, of both sexes, many of them being less than nine years of age, were kept at hard labour for twelve, fourteen, or even sixteen hours every day. Made dizzy with the hammering and clatter of engines and the whirling of wheels, breathing an atmosphere full of dust, and flying cotton, and every species of noisome effluvia, these little victims were kept at the incessant task under the lash of their tormentors. No provision was made for their moral or intellectual culture, and the pittance that was given them hardly supplied them with necessary food. Stunted alike in mind and body, bruised by kicks and blows from the brutal overseers, often falling asleep on their feet before the untiring engines, and dismissed at night to gnaw a crust for supper, and then to catch a few hours of slumber on tlie straw, — these poor children might well envy the condition, not merely of slaves in the West Indies, but of the brutes at home, in the stall and the sty. For a long period, this atrocious system of tyranny was continued without attracting notice or comment. British philanthropy had no time to listen to the wail of infants at its own doors ; it was busily occupied in preaching about the horrors of slavery at the antipodes, and in ' hemming moral pocket-handkerchiefs' for black babies in the West Indies. At last, the subject attracted the attention of Parliament, 264 AN ENGLISH CRITICISM and that body, two or three years ago, mercifully fixed the age of admission at nine years, and the period of work for children at eight hours daily, except in the silk factories, where they might be admitted at any age, and employed for any length of time. Dark as this picture is, there is a still blacker page in the ac- count of the infamous treatment of children in England. British barbarity has hunted its victims into the bowels of the earth, and in the depths of the coal-mines atrocities are practised, the bare recital of which makes the whole heart sick and the head faint. To comprehend the nature of the employment, it is necessary to understand the construction of the mines. Perpendicular shafts are sunk to a great depth in the earth, and from the bottom of them horizontal galleries, usually several hundred yards in length, branch off in various directions. At the end of one of these pas- sages, in a dark but hot cell, the air filled with the stifling coal dust, and feebly lighted by a single lamp, a swart and brawny man, entirely naked, is at work with a shove! and pickaxe, breaking down the coal from its primitive bed, and heaping it into little wagons. Male and female children, from four to twelve years of age, are employed to pass the whole length of these galleries on their hands and knees, dragging these wagons behind them, to the foot of the shaft. The necessity of employing very young children for this work arises from the low and narrow dimensions of the passage, which is often but twenty, and seldom moi-e than thirty- two, inches high. The poor child, wearing only a pair of coarse and ragged trousers, is fitted with a girdle to which a chain is attached, that passes between its legs, and is fastened to the wagon behind. Slowly then, through the long gallery, over the broken and sharp surface, often through water several inches in depth, the poor wretch creeps on its hands and knees, dragging the heavy weight behind. Sometimes, instead of wearing the girdle and chnin, it creeps behind the wagon, the forehead resting against it, and thus pushing it forward. The skin is often rubbed and bruised against the board or by the pressure of the girdle, and the heavy chain strikes against the legs and excoriates them. And to these sufferings, half-naked girls, from six to twelve years of age, are exposed for twelve hours in the day. Frightful accidents sometimes occur, from the earth above the galleries falling in, or from the explosion of the ' fire-damp,' and the children are buried alive, or miserably scorched, or burned to death. ON AMERICA, PARODIED. 265 These facts appear so extraordinary and appalling, that it is necessary to substantiate them by testimony; and the evidence lies before us, to an overwhelming amount, in two great folios containing the reports of the commissioners, made to Parliament in 1842. The commissioners visited the mines, and the evidence was taken on oath. The following is an abridged extract from the report of S. S. Scriven, Esq., sub-commissioner for inspecting the mining districts of Halifax and Bradford. " I have often been shocked in contemplating the hideous and anything but human appearance of the colliers, who are generally found in a state of bestial nakedness, lying their whole length along the uneven^iloor, and supporting their heads upon a board or short crutch. Black and filthy as they are, in their low, dark, heated, and dismal chambers, they look like a race fallen from the common stock. It did not much surprise me to be told, that old age came prematurely upon them, and that they were ' mashed up' at forty or forty -five. The only wonder is, that human life should be even so far prolonged in an atmosphere constantly impregnated with noxious gases, together with the exhausting effect of exces- sive perspiration." In respect to the number of children employed in the mines, — *' I should say they average at least twelve to every pit in the two unions (of Halifax and Bradford): there being upwards of 300 pits, it follows that there are near 4000 children and young persons between the ages of five and eighteen, employed as hurriers, thrusters, trappers, etc. Joseph Gledhill, a banksman, states, that he took his child into the pit at three years old; it was made to follow him to the workings, there to bold the candle, and when exhausted with fatigue, was cradled upon the coals till Ijis retmn at night. This child he took regularhj to work at the age oi five; another he took between four and five, and a third between five and six. A reference to the tables will shew seven- teen out of thirty, in six pits, between that age and nine. " Hurriers are children who draw loaded corves or wagons, weighing from two to five hundred weight, from the headings to the main gates. In the thin seams, this is done upon their hands and feet, having frequently no greater height from the floor to the ragged roof, than sixteen, eighteen, and twenty inches. To accomplish their labour the more easily, they buckle round their M 266 AN ENGLISH CRITICISM naked persons a broad leather strap, to which is attached in front a ring, and about four feet of chain terminating in a hook. The younger children thrust in pairs. The average of their wages is 4s. 8|f7. a week. " Girls from Jive to eighteen perform all the work of boys. There is no distinction whatever in their coming up the shaft or going down, — in the mode of hurrying or thrusting, — in the weights of corves or the distances they are hurried, — in wages or dress. Indeed, it is impossible to distinguish, either in the darkness of the gates (galleries) in which they labour, or in the cabins, before the broad light of day, an atom of difference be- tween one sex and the other. They are to be found alike vulgar in manner, and obscene in language. But who can feel surprise at their debased condition, when they are known to be constantly associated, and only associated, with men and boys, living and labouring in a state of disgusting nakedness and brutality, while they have themselves no other garment than a ragged shift, or a pair of broken trousers, to cover their persons? " The children that excite the greatest commiseration are those who stand behind the doors to open and shut them for the thrusters to pass ; they are called ' trappers,' who, in the darkness, solitude, and stillness as of night, eke out a miserable existence for the smallest amount of wages. I can never forget the first unfortu- nate creature that I met with ; it was a boy of about eight years old, who looked at me, as I passed, with an expression of counte- nance the most abject and idiotic — like a thing, a creeping thing, peculiar to the place. On approaching and speaking to him, he slunk trembling and frightened into a corner, from which neither coaxing nor temptations would draw him out." Thomas Mitchell, a boy thirteen years of age, gave the follow- ing evidence. " I have hurried four years for Thomas Mitchell (iTis uncle) ; I don't know what you mean by uncle ; I never heard of Jesus Christ; I don't know what you mean by God; I never heard of Adam, nor know what you mean by Scriptures. I have heard of a Bible, but don't know what it is about. If I tell a lie, I don't know whether 't is good or bad." Mr. James Wilcox, a proprietor of mines, says — "You have expressed some surprise at Thomas Mitchell not ON AMERICA, PARODIED. 267 having heard of God. I judge that there are very few colliers about here that have." Sally Fletcher, eight years old, testifies — " I have worked here short of two years ; I cannot read or write ; I never went to any school, day or Sunday ; I go to work between six and seven o'clock in the morning ; I thrust corves with Josh Atkinson; he is ten years of age; I don't go home to dinner, I get it at the pit's mouth. I always have my trousers and jacket on, and also my clogs. We sometimes hurry twenty corves a day, and have 400 yards to hurry them." Esther Craven, aged fourteen, says — " I have been hurrier for Joseph Ibbotson all the time of five years. I have one brother a hurrier, and a sister a hurrier, and a little one at home. I get my breakfast before I come, and bring my dinner with me — a piece of cake ; when I go home, I get milk and meal, sometimes potatoes. I hurry in trousers, barelegged, and a pair of old stays. Joseph Ibbotson often brays (beats) us; he was beating my sister when you came down. I many a time hurt my feet by hurrying ; I get all the skin off my leg sometimes by the stones in the gate, and with the rail ends when they are loose. A pick struck me once and broke by finger. I cannot read or write. I never think naught about being brayed a bit by the getters." Harriet Craven, aged eleven, says — " I am sister of Esther Craven. Wliat made me cry when you came down was, because Ibbotson had been braying me ; he flung a piece of coal as big as my head at me, and it struck me in my back. I have thrust for him three j'ears. I cannot read or write; I do not go to Sunday-school, — never went in my life, I hurry in trousers, barelegged." And could no sharp cry of anguish, or dull groan under stupefy- ing pain, reach even from the depths of those dreadful pits to the ears of the philanthropists of Christian and enlightened England ? Alas! no; they were occupied with projects for promoting the spiritual welfare of the Chinese, and for ameliorating the condition of the fat and indolent negroes, the happy, though brutish dwellers in the tropical climate of the West Indies. Far be it from us to extenuate in any way the evil and the wrong of slavery ; but we 268 AN ENGLISH CRITICISM may affirm, that the condition of the galley slaves in France, or of the Blacks in Cuba and the Carolinas, compared with that of Eng- lish children immured in the coal-mines, is like the contrast of Elysium with Tartarus. We could almost find it in our hearts to adopt the project ascribed to the Spanish philanthropist, Las Casas, and advocate the bringing of Negroes from Africa to be slaves in England, so that these infants might be i-eleased from the horrors of the mines, and be clothed, fed, and taught. The subject is now at last before Parliament, and probably some scanty and inefiicient measure of relief will be proposed and enacted; but no compensa- tion can be made for past sufferings, nor will any effectual preven- tive of such cruelties be established for the future, lest it should somewhat diminish the enormous incomes of a few of the coal- digging nobility. As we have been led to speak incidentally of slavery and the slave-trade, it may be worth while to examine for a moment the exclusive and arrogant pretensions of England to humanity and disintei-estedness in endeavouring to put a stop to these evils. Let it be remembered, then, that little more than thirty years have elapsed, since Englishmen were the leaders in the abominable traffic; that under her laws slaves were first introduced into this country; that English capital and English ships were largely em- ployed in " Guinea voyages;" and that there are men still living in Liverpool and Bristol, whose immense fortunes were solely acquired in this trade. John Newton, the pious friend of Cowper, once commanded a Guinea ship, and was accustomed, in his trips to Africa, to provide himself with a large store of " Prayer-books and hand-cuffs." The traffic was long obstinately defended in Parliament, and the speeches of some of the most eminent British statesmen, in its support, are now on record among the published debates. " For twenty-five years," says Lord Brougham, " I am ashamed to repeat, for twenty-five years, to the lasting disgrace of the Parliament, the African slave-traffic was thus defended." Tardily and reluctantly did England consent to the abolition of the trade, more than twenty years after the time when the United States, by the adoption of the Federal Constitution, had fixed a period for its termination. Still, she continued to hold slaves in the British West Lidies, and to subject them to sharper sufferings than any that the corresponding class were exposed to in any other ON AMERICA, TARODIED. 269 country. Such were the barbarities practised in Barbadoes and Jamaica, that, in spite of the natural fruiffuhiess of the negro race, there was, between 1818 and 1824, a frightful decrease of the slave population; while the Negroes in North America, where they were better fed and better treated, multiplied rapidly. We quote the fervent language of Lord Brougham, applied to one case of English cruelty towards slaves, which occurred as lately as 1826. " It is painful to me that I cannot stop here,— that I must try faintly to paint excesses unheard of in Christian times, — which to match we must go back to heathen ages, to the days and to the stations, wherein absolute power made men, but j^agan men, pro- digies of cruelty exaggerated by caprice, — that I must drag before you persons moving in the higher walks of life, and exerting pro- portionable influence over the society they belong to : an English gentleman and an English gentlewoman accused, guilty, convicted of the most infernal barbarity; and an English community, so far from visiting the enormity with contempt or indignant execration, that they make the savage perpetrators the endeared objects of esteem, respect, and affection." It is useless to give the details of the case here referred to, or of a multitude of others, which incontestibly establish the fact that, while the English continued to hold slaves, the essential brutality and savageness of the English character led to a treat- ment of them far more inhuman than that of the negroes owned by Spanish, Portuguese, or American masters. The institution e.Kisted under the protection of British law, and these atrocities were practised by British hands, till about ten years ago, w'hen the first great step was taken by Parliament for the abolition of slavery. The policy then commenced was consummated only six years ago, when the act was passed for the final emancipation of slaves throughout the English colonies. And thus having professed a sullen and dilatory repentance, having thus lately cleared her own skirts of an evil which she had done more than any people in tlie world to establish and perpetuate, while the gold earned for her by slaves was still in her coffers, and before the chains had yet grown rusty with which she had bound them, England siuldenly appoints herself custos 7norum for the universe, and attempts, by Quintuple Treaties and other means, to bully all the nations of the earth into philanthropy, 270 AN ENGLISH CRITICISM The repentance of a profligate and a debauchee, if it be but sincere, may justly demand from mankind a fair measure of charity and forbearance. We would not taunt him with his former vices; we would not always open before him the foul record of sins not yet atoned for, and of a course of iniquity so long pursued, that it has left a permanent taint in the constitution. But the zeal of the new convert to virtue must be tempered with some discretion and humility. He must not arrogantly claim the privilege, that be- longs only to men who have always preserved a spotless character, of rebuking with severity the imperfections of a fellow-man. He must not attempt to assume the part of Cato, when his own early career was that of a Catiline. He must not harshly censure the faults of another, lest men should be tempted to think of the devil reproving sin. As long as slavery continues to be tolei'ated in America, as long as a single Negro remains in the British West Indies, so long it behoves England to lay her hand upon her mouth, and to bow her head in the dust; for the institution and the man are there in consequence of her own acts. Of the tj'rannical character of the English government, and the inhumanity of the people when engaged in war, the present con- dition and past history of Ireland aflbrd the most melancholy proofs. Few pages in the annals of any nation are so deeply stained with blood as the records of the Irish Rebellion in 1798. The North American savages might have learned a lesson from the atrocities practised on both sides — by the insurgents, mad- dened by a long course of suffering and oppression, and by the troops and magistrates who were employed to put them down. "Although no public act," says Plowden, "sanctioned the picket- ing?, stranglings, floggings, and torturings, to extort confessions, yet under the very eye of government, and with more than their tacit permission, were these outrages practised, in breach of the constitution, and in defiance of humanity and policy." We learn from the same authority, that, three or four hours after an unsuc- cessful attack by the rebels on the town of Naas, where Lord Gosford commanded, the royal forces murdered fifty-seven persons out of a crowd in the streets; "and many of them were shot when escaping from their huts, which were set on fire. Others were taken out of their houses, and instantly hanged in the street. Such was the brutal ferocity of some of the king's troops, that they half ON AMERICA, PARODIED. 271 roasted and ate of the flesh of one man, by the name of Walsh, who had not been in arms." After the battle at Vinegar Hill, a house used as a hospital by the rebels was set on fire, in which many sick and wounded were burned to death. One ingenious mode of torture was the application of a pitched cap to the head of a rebel, or croppy, as he was called, because the insurgent party wore their hair short. If one of these "roundheads," or a person having any part of his dress of a green colour, was seen in the streets, he was seized by the soldiers, and a cap made of coarse linen or strong brown paper, smeared with pitch on the inside, was put on his head, to which it adhered so firmly, that it could not be dis- engaged without laceration of the hair and skin. These barbarities, it is admitted, were practised reciprocally > though the most trustworthy historians assert, that "more cold blood was shed, more property destroyed, more houses burned, and more women abused by the troops, than by the insurgents." Parties of the former were sent out to scour the country, "who hunted, not unfre- quently with dogs, in the brakes, hedges, ditches, and woods, to spring any unfortunate peasant that might have concealed himself from the fury of these blood-hunters." The practice of shooting prisoners in cold blood, without trial, was quite common. At Carnew, twenty- eight prisoners were brought out of the place of confinement, and deliberately shot by the yeomen ; and at Dunlavin, thirty-four were shot without trial, and, among them, the informer, on whose evi- dence they were arrested. Every kind of mockery was practised, to enhance the bitterness of death. The rebel general. Murphy, "being a priest, was tauntingly desired to work miracles, scoffed at, and particularly insulted by a young officer, who went the length of offering indecent insult to his person ; which so irritated his feelings, that, though on the brink of eternity, with his fist he knocked down the officer at a blow. He was then flagellated, and instantly hanged." The accounts of such atrocities must appear incredible; but we have not made a single statement that is not confirmed by Plowden, the able and faithful historian of Ireland. Let the reader remember, that these acts were perpetrated within the life- time of the present generation, in a Christian land, under a government that professes to be the most civilised, intelligent, just and humane of any on the globe. We are not here reciting tra- 272 AN ENGLISH CRITICISM ditional tales of the cruelties practised in the contests of the Danish pirates and Norman invaders with the native painted barbarians of the island; we are not narrating the horrors of the war of ex- termination waged by the infidel Turks against the Greeks; we have simply culled a few facts from the history of Ireland under the administration of Cornwallis, Castlereagh, and Pitt. And tliese deeds were done by men who affected to shudder at the crimes of the first French Revolution ; who wept over the fate of the victims of the guillotine ; who are now besieging all the courts of Europe with importunities to put a stop to the slave-trade ; and who lift up their voices in righteous indignation, when they hear that Lynch law has been occasionally practised in a frontier town in the backwoods of America, in order to drive some gamblers and horse-jockeys out of the neighbourhood. What consistent humanity! What just, enlightened, and impartial philanthropists! If we look at the foreign policy of England, — her intercourse with other countries, her diplomacy in peace, and her conduct in war, — we find fresh and striking illustrations of the perfidy, cruelty, and injustice of the government, supported and sanctioned by the people. The full proof of this assertion would carry one over a wide tract of the recent history of the countrj', and fill a volume rather than an article. We are able only to glance at two or three passages in the last great struggle of England with France. The first point to be noted is, that the war itself was brought about by a gross and shameless violation of faith on the part of the former country. She had formally covenanted to surrender Malta, and though the performance of this engagement was demanded again and again, she obstinately refused to yield pos- session. The avowed breach of a solemn treaty, executed only a year before, was considered as nothing, so long as her strength at sea enabled her to be faithless with impunity. Bonaparte indig- nantly remarked to the English minister — " The English people have no respect for treaties; henceforth, they must be shrouded in black crape. Woe to those who violate them ! they must answer for the consequences to all Europe." A still more atrocious act, in violation of plighted faith and the laws of nations, was committed by the English government in 1804, by which Spain was compelled to take part with France in the war against Great Britain. The arrogant demands and hostile ON AMERICA, PARODIED. 273 aggressions of the latter country had tailed to drive the feeble Spanish government out of that neutral position, in which alone it could hope for any safety from the piratical attacks of that power, which then seemed to covet the title of " the great robber of the seas." But England was not thus to be foiled, when she wished for war as a pretext for plundering an inert but wealthy people. The treasure frigates of Spain were on the ocean, home- ward bound from America, bearing an immense sum in bullion and coin. Without any declaration of hostilities, in a state of profound peace, which the Spanish ministry had dearly purchased by submitting to every insult and aggression, " at the very moment when English vessels were enjoying the full rights of hospitality in the harbours of Spain," England resolved to seize and plunder these frigates. A naval force, just sufficient to make resistance hopeless, though not large enough to justify the Spanish conuiiander in striking his flag without a contest, was sent out on this freebooting expedition. The squadrons met, and an action ensued, in which, after one of the Spanish vessels was blown up, and nearly four hundred Spaniards were killed, the three frigates were captured, and, with the treasure they contained, amounting to more than ten millions of dollars, were carried into an English port. A more high-handed act of piracy and nuirder on the high seas never was committed — we will not say by a civilized nation — but by the buccaneers of the West Indies, or by the corsairs of Northern Africa. The ministry and the nobility of England, who sanctioned the deed, shewed that they had not only inherited, but had improved upon, the cruelty and lawlessness of their ancestors, the piratical Danes and Normans. Mr. Pitt and Lord Hawkes- burv seemed to be emulous of the reputation of Captain Kidd, and if strict justice had been meted out to them, they would have ' suffered,' like that noted freebooter, at Execution Dock. In vain did a few members of the opposition in Parliament raise their voices against this deed, as "an unwarrantable invasion of the rights of nations, and an act derogatory to the honour of the British name." To acknowledge the criminality of the action was to assume the duty of making restitution of the money; and the English people were bribed by the ten millions of dollars to sanction the conduct of their ministers, and to share their guilt. Mr. Alison, the tory historian of the war, who seizes every m2 274 AN ENGLISH CRITICISM occasion and pretext to defend the conduct of his countrymen, and vihfy that of their antagonists, is shamed into impartiality by the flagrant character of this transaction, and is compelled to speak of it as "the darkest blot on the character of England which the annals of the revolutionary war can exhibit." We differ from him in opinion, and think the censure is too strong. Three years afterwards, a deed of darker atrocity, surrounded with greater horrors, stained more deeply with blood and crime, was ordered by the ministry, was effected by the army and navy, and was sanctioned by the Parliament and the people, of Great Britain. We refer to tlie bombardment of Copenhagen, and the seizure of the Danish fleet, in 1807. The two countries were at peace with each other, the most amicable relations existing between them, and not the slightest complaint was made of the conduct of the Danes. At this period, England suddenly demanded, that the Prince Royal of Denmark should surrender his whole fleet into her keeping, to be retained till the conclusion of the war; and that this modest request might be made with due formality, it was brought to Copenhagen by an envoy, who was accompanied by twenty-seven ships of the line, and twenty thousand land troops. Though the Danes were wholly unprepared for hostilities, the ramparts being unarmed, the fleet unequipped, and few regular soldiers within the walls, the Prince indignantly refused to submit to the arrogant demand. " No example," said he to the British envoy, " no example is to be found in history of so odious an aggression as that with which Denmark is menaced; more honour may now be expected from the pirates of Barbary than the English government. You offer us your alliance! Do we not know what is its worth? Your allies, vainly expecting your succours for an entire year, have taught us what is the worth of English friend- ship." As the Danes persisted in this refusal, the envoy coolly informed them, that " the horrors of a besieged and bombarded capital must fall on their own heads." The troops were accord- ingly landed, the ships were drawn up before the city, and the bombardment began, and was continued for three days and nights. The inhabitants sustained with heroic resolution the flamino- tempest; but in spite of all tlieir efforts, the conflagration spread with dreadful rapidity. " From the top of a tower," says an eye- witness, "I beheld the extent of the devastation; whole streets ON AMERICA, PARODIED, 275 were level with tlie ground; 1800 houses were destroyed; almost every house in the town bore some marks of violence; 1500 of the inhabitants lost their lives, and a vast number were wounded." The Danes defended themselves like men, but the obvious danger of the total destruction of the city at last compelled them to yield; and the only terms they could obtain were the unconditional surrender of the whole fleet, and all the artillery and naval stores that the place contained. The English armament then returned, carrying ' the magnificent prize ' of eighteen ships of the line, fifteen frigates, and a number of smaller vessels. "The Copenhagen expedition," says Mr. Alison, "excited a prodigious sensation throughout Europe; and as it was a mortal stroke leveled at a neutral power, without any previous declaration of war then ascertained, or ground for hostility, it was generally condemned as an uncalled for violation of the law of nations,"* " Blood and fire," said Napoleon, "have made the English masters * Mr. Alison contradicts himself more than once in his comments upon this aflFair, and exhibits in this and other phices a pitiable con- fusion of ideas, thai we can hardly reconcile with his other high quahties as a historian. The passage quoted above seems to convey a strong censure upon this measure of the Biitish ministry; but on the very next page he alludes to the secret articles of the Treaty of Tilsit as aftbrding a complete vindication of this abominable breach of international law, and shewing that '' the conception of the measure was honourable to the government." Then again, he goes on to speak of the detestation with which the act was regarded by a small party of his countrymen, as being " creditable to the public inind and the severe jMnciples of morality which religious faith and long established habits of freedom had jjroduced in Great Britain." This is admirable. If the measure itself was an honourable one, how happens it, that it was creditable to the moral feelings of a portion of the British public, that they visited it with the severest censure] And what shall we think of the historian, who con- cludes his account of the e.\pf;dition to Copenhagen with the following ludicrous exhibition of twaddling morality and national self-esteem? " Contrasting this honourable feeling (the detestation aforesaid) with the utter confusion of all moral principle which in France resulted from the revolution, and the universal application to public measures of no other test than success, it is impossible to deny, that the religious feelings and the tempered balance of power, which in England both saved the country from a disastrous convulsion, and, by restraining the excesses of freedom, preserved its existence, were equally favourable to the maintenance of that high standard of morality, which, in nations as well as individuals, constitutes the only secure basis of durable prosperity." Certainly, Mr. AWson's forte does not consist in irony. 276 AN ENGLISH CRITICISM of Copenhagen." A general cry of indignation burst forth against them, and was echoed all over the Continent, and throughout the civilized world. No language is strong enough to characterize an act of such atrocity that it would be difficult to find a parallel to it in the annals of mankind. The common epithets, with which we stigmatize the conduct of the pirate and the felon, seemed ludicrously inadequate to describe a crime of such stupendous magnitude. It is little to say, that it combines the guilt of high- way robbery, arson, and murder; for never before were these crimes committed on so grand a scale. Amidst the flames of that devoted capital, on which the storm of war suddenly burst with such ruthless violence, while its inhabitants v/ere looking up in confidence to a peaceful sky, in which murdered women and children sunk down by the side of the strong men and active combatants, pierced by sharp shot, or buried under the fall of the burning houses — in that dreadful scene, continued for three days and nights, appeared an awful illustration of that regard for honour, justice, and humanity, which has been claimed as charac- teristic of the British government and people. We know it is urged, in palliation of this fearful crime, that Napoleon was prepared to seize the Danish fleet, if England had not anticipated him. But what consolation did tliis plea afford to injured Denmark, thus placed between rival plunderers? Is the highwayman justified in robbing and murdering the peaceful tra- veller, because he knows there is another footpad on the road into whose hands the victim will be likely to fall, if he escapes from the first robber? Instead of palliating the crime, this plea only fixes a deeper stain on the character of the perpetrator, who confesses that he is actuated only by a desire to rival another brigand in the career of blood and crime. And yet, the govern- ment which is guilty of such acts, and is guided by such motives, assumes the right of reading a moral lecture to other nations on the obligations of natural law, and the necessity of conforming to the high principles of humanity and justice ! It is impossible that so peculiar a histor}', and so unexampled a state of morals, as the preceding brief survey has shewn to exist in England, should not have produced singular effects in the lite- rary and poetic development of the nation, when it had partly emerged from barbarism. We trace the successive steps of their ON AMERICA, PARODIED, 277 intellectual formation in the changes through which their anoma- lous language has passed, from the earliest monuments that have come down to us. We have nothing to illustrate the language of the original Tin-men, who held the island in the time of Csesar and Tacitus ; but the culture of the Romans must have had some influence upon the speech of that portion of the inhabitants who were not too leaden to receive it. After the Danes and Saxons had conquered the tribes more barbarous than themselves, some traces of a poetical spirit begin to appear. But the piratical Danes and robber Saxons wei-e men of large fists and small brains; men of many blows and few thoughts; harsh, hard-headed, gruff as northern be;irs, whom they strongly resembled in temper, man- ners, and tones of voice. Their language corresponded to the paucity of their ideas; it was brief, snappish, growling; harmonious as the howl of wolves, intelligible as the scream of vultures. The best productions of Anglo-Saxon genius have but little interest, except as the monuments of an ancient race. They are obscure and awkward; they abound in those tricks of assonance and alH- teration, tliat indicate the love of the savage for jingle, and the total absence of art and refinement. The Normans, bad as they were when judged by any moral standard, were less barbarous than the Saxons. They had some tincture of civility, inherited, at a long remove, from the Romans. Their language, degenerate daughter as it was of the ancient mother, was not a stranger to the expression of gentle sentiments, or to the poetry of the softening passions. They came in, it is true, like a swarm of vagabond robbers; but they brought with them the elements of culture, and a certain high aristocratic cast of manners and countenance, which doubtless benefited the boorish tribes over whom they tyrannized. They made slaves of the churls whom they found on the island, and, to a certain extent, by their own somewhat polished dialect, supplanted tiie Saxon language, which was wholly insuflicient and unfit for the wants of civilised life. Tbe Norman-French became the language of the court and the politer circles — politer only in comparison with the Saxon savages. In the natural progress of things, an amalgam of the two was produced, by the eclectic process of adding to the Saxon the words expressive of those ideas which had never entered the hard heads of the barbarians. It is a curious proof of the entire 278 AN ENGLISH CRITICISM absence of civilization in the Saxon race, that the Norman-French supplied the language of the island with nearly all the terms de- scriptive of articles of food, when prepared for the use of civilized man, while the names of the raw materials remained Saxon ; proving, by the iucontestible evidence of etymology, that the Saxons were scarcely acquainted with the common arts of cookery, and probably devoured their food like the beasts of prey. We may remark, in confirmation of this view, that the Norman aris- tocracy of England have been obliged, ever since the Conquest, to import their cooks from France, having found their subjects wholly incapable of preparing a dish of any description, that a stomach of less power than an ostrich's could digest. The Saxon sheep was boiled into Norman mutton ; the Saxon calf •vra.sfricandeaued into Norman veal; the Saxon ox was roasted into Norman beef; and so on, through the whole national bill of fare. This language, thus compounded of the rude Saxon materials and the more culti- vated Norman, is substantially the spoken and written language of the present day, among those, at least, who claim to be civihzed; for the great mass of the English nation gibber their scanty thoughts in a complication of hideous sounds, which neither gods nor men can comprehend. They are not merely like their savage ancestors; but having so long been trodden in the dust by the Norman robbers, they have lost the consciousness even of their former beastly liberty, and with it all the virtues, such as they are, of savage life. From a nation composed of such discordant elements, descended from such dishonest ancestry, speaking a language made up of such harsh, jarring, and hostile vocables, it would be unfair to expect a free and harmonious intellectual development. At every period of their literary history, they have had to look abroad for models ; all the arts which exist in England have been laboriously trans- planted from other countries, to whose genius the barbaric British mind was compelled to go to school. Music came from Italy ; but, taking cold and growing hoarse in the eternal damps of that seabound realm, fled back again in dismay. John Bull was trained to dance quadrilles by the French, and he has succeeded as well as a dancing bear; the waltz and transcendental philosophy were borrowed from Gf.rmany ; and surely, in the whole range of modern spectacles, there is not one so well suited to inspire serious reflec- ON AMERICA, PARODIED. 279 tions upon the uncertainty of human affairs, as an Englishman of the present day attempting to wind through the mazes of a waltz, or to thread a dark problem of Teutonic metaphysics. Historical painting has been attempted, but each attempt has been a failure ; portrait-painting has met with a little better success, because that branch of the art appealed to the personal vanity of the Normans — the most self-conceited race, probably, that ever played off" their fantastic tricks before high heaven. But what picture, displaying a particle of original genius, has ever been painted by an English- man ? When, after the burning of the Parliament-house, it was proposed to build a new one, and adorn it with historical pictures, so thoroughly ignorant were the Tin-islanders of the principles of art, that the government was obliged to send to Bavaria, and in- treat the illustrious Cornelius, who is one of the fifty or sixty great historical painters in that small kingdom, to help them out of their distress with his advice. He went over and tried to make the British barbarians comprehend something ; but his success was not very encouraging. The world is on tiptoe to see with what savage embellishment these slow-witted and aping islanders mean to blazon the halls that are destined to hold the wordy wisdom of the nation. He who wishes to know the best that British genius can do in the way of sculpture may look to Chantrey's equestrian statue of George the Fourth, which, with that delicate perception of appropriateness that marks all their insular attempts in the fine arts, is a companion of the monument to Nelson. A recent journal says, "It may now be seen, as the bard of Blarney singeth — " Like Alexander or Helen fair. Standing all naked in the open air. Nigh the cocked-hat column of Trafalgar Square." The statue of the profligate King, whose knavery degraded him even in the eyes of British blacklegs, is a fit companion to a monu- ment raised by the gratitude of the nation to the Admiral-Duke, who shamelessly violated his marriage vows, lived in adulterous connection with a prostitute, and, to complete the tale of his in- famy, at her bidding, put to an ignominious death, by hanging, a gray-haired Italian nobleman, who threw himself on British honour, protected, as he imagined, by the express and solemn terms of an amnesty. It may be asked, if the English are such universal plagiarists, 280 AN ENGLISH CRITICISM where they got their manners. What foreign nation had the honour of leaching John Bull the minor morals? Where did he go to school to acquire good-breeding? Nowhere, because he has none. Here lie resembles no other being under heaven; "none but himself can be his parallel." Turning, for a moment, from this cursory survey to the special subject of literature — British literature, as some of the native writers humorously call it — we find the same pilfering and aping disposition. Italy, Spain, France, and more recently Germany, have successively been laid under contribution to supply the defi- ciencies of English intellect. Even in individual cases, few and far between, where original talent was not wanting, as in that of Shakspeai-e, the natural tendency of the Englishman, inherited through a long line of intellectual pickpockets, has broken out, and he has stolen, when stealing was quite unnecessary — by pre- ference, and, as it were, to keep his hand in. How little scruple had the Stratford deer-stealer, in enlarging the sphere of his prac- tice! With what natural ease and grace did he turn his light and nimble fingers to the conveying of plots, scenes, and long pass- ages verbatim, from the works of other, perhaps forgotten, writers, to his own wonderful plays! Milton was the very Napoleon of poetry; he levied taxes and heavy contributions on all ancient and modern writers. Take away the loans he forced from the Greeks and Romans, and the large supplies from the Italian narrative poets, — reclaim the devils' battles, and silence the devils' speeches, which he stole from Saxon Caedmon, the old Monk of Whitby, — strip him of the ornaments which he has picked with grasping hand from every storehouse of the literary world, not disdaining to borrow largely even from the Jews; and you will leave him as helpless as Bonaparte after the battle of Waterloo; — you will bind him to a barren rock of St. Helena in the ocean of poetry, an ob- ject of curiosity and wonder, and a warning example of the down- fall of literar}' usurpers. The highest effort of national genius is undoubtedly an epic poem. Shakspeare was too indolent to steal enough to make one ; Milton had several epic schemes, but executed none of them; for, whatever ' Paradise Lost' and ' Paradise Regained ' may be, they are not national epics. It was reserved to men of bolder and more aspiring genius to achieve this great task; to place ON AMERICA, PARODIED. " 281 their names in characters of living light upon the immortal scroll of heroic bards. Homer heads the list of the epics of the world, ■and— Bobert Pollok closes it. The constellation of English genius includes those bright stars, Cowley's ' Davideis,' Glover's 'Leoni- das,' Joseph Cottle's 'Alfred,' and Robert Pollok's 'Course of Time.' Montgomerj' — sometin)es called ' Satan Montgomery' — has written a good deal of nondescript verse, which occasionally soars into the region of the English epic, but he is not in the least like Milton. Several other bards, more recently, 'have essayed the heroic strain, but no judgment of less authority than the consenting voices of successive centuries justifies us in placing a poet on the epic catalogue. We cannot, therefore, at present, class such versifiers as Southej', Byron, and the other lesser names of the present age, with the great and famous worthies whom we have above enumerated. A rapid survey of these works will shew what the British have regarded as epic poetry ; what a very peculiar conception they have formed of this the highest display of genius. The following lines are part of the invocation with which, according to ancient custom, the grocer bard of the ' Davideis ' opens the high heroic strain. " Ever thou my breast with such blest rage inspire As moved the tuneful strings of David's lyre, Guide my bold steps with thine old travelling flame In these untrodden paths to sacred fame; Lo, with pure hands thy heavenly Jires to lake, My well changed muse I a chaste vestal make ! From earth's vain joys, and love's soft witchcraft free, I consecrate my Magdalene to thee!" The Italics as well as the poetry are Mr. Cowley's. This great poet had an ingenious mode of bringing together abstract nouns and proper names, and by that means animating the one into something like life, and softening the others, so that they might not be too lively for the sustained flow of heroic verse; thus : " Much danger, first, much toil did he sustain, Whilst Saul and Hell crost his strong fate in vain." And again : " Angels and men did peace and David love, But Hell did neither him nor that approve." 282 AN ENGLISH CRITICISM As Hell seems to have been Mr. Cowley's strong point, we cannot deny ourselves the pleasure of copying a part of his description of it, again following his italics. " Beneath the dens, where unjletched tempests lye, And infant winds their tender voices try, Beneath the mighty ocean's wealthy caves. Beneath the eternal fountain of all waves. Where their vast court the mother-writers keep. And undisturbed by moons in silence sleep, There is a place, deep, wondrous deep below, Which genuine night and horror does o'erflow, No bound controls the unwearied space, but hell Endless as those dire pains that in it dwell." The following lines describe Satan's advent into these com- fortable quarters. " Once general of a gilded host of sprights, Like Hesper leading forth the spangled nights; But down like lightning, which him struck, he came. And roared at his first plunge into the flame," We cannot withhold from our delighted readers the description of the way Saul jumped out of bed, after envy had put her ' dear worm' into his bosom, to be her 'viceroy.' " Th' infected king leaped from his bed amazed. Scarce knew himself at first, but round him gazed. And started back at pieced-up shapes, which fear And his distracted fancy painted there. Terror froze up his hair, and on his face Showers of cold sweat rolled trembling down apace. Then knocking with his angi-y hands his breast, Earth with his feet; he cries, O 'tis confest, I've been a pious fool, a woman-king; Wronged by a seer, a boy, every thing." The last part of the last line we understand has been greatly admired in England, as a most impressive close of a masterly description. What would be thought of such stuflT among any civilized people ? Not content with the circle of English readers, the author of this wonderful epic translated and published it in the I,atin tongue, to the end that it might be read by the whole literary world, and with a secret purpose, no doubt, of supplanting the jEneid of Virgil. This secret purpose, so characteristic of English ignorance and arrogance, it need hardly be said, has had no other effect, than to excite the laughter of the world. ON AMERICA, PARODIED. 283 The next great English epic on our list is the ' Leonidas,' by Mr. Richard Glover. This famous author was the son of a tradesman, but he early felt the flame of poetic ambition, which burned out from his soul all thoughts of tea, herrings, and candles, and fired him with a determination to immortalize his own name by immortalizing the Spartan hero. The loftiness of his aspira- tions is well expressed by a motto on his title-page from Pindar. In accordance with the spirit of this citation, the muse-struck youth sat down and wrote nine mortal books of exceedingly blank verse. The rhythmical character of this production is remarkable for its smoothness ; unaccented and accented syllables alternate without breaking the continuous and sleepy flow from the begin- ning to the end. So great was the reputation of this epic, that on the strength of it, Mr. Glover was elected to a seat in Parliament, as an excellent anodyne for a nervous House of Commons. ' Leonidas' has not, by reason of its equable and slumberous excellence, any of those prominent passages which distinguish the ' Davideis' of Mr. Cowley; and we shall therefore adorn our essay only by short extracts — double extracts of poppy — from its paregoric pages. We first take Leonidas ' at home.' " But to his home Leonidas retired. There, calm, in secret thought, he thus explored His mighty soul, while nature to his breast A short-lived terror called. What sudden grief, What cold reluctance thus unmans my heart, And whispers that I fear? Can death dismay Leonidas, so often seen and scorned, When clad most dreadful in the battle's front? Or, to relinquish life in all its pride, With all my honours blooming round my head, Repines my soul ? or rather to forsake, Eternally forsake, my weeping wife. My infant oflspring, and my faithful friends? — Leonidas, awake ! Lo ! thy country calls." The wonder is, not that Leonidas had to call on himself to awake after such a composing draught, but that he ever got suf- ficiently over the legarthy it must have produced to fight as he did at Thermopylae. We must give a few lines more : " Thus passed these heroes, till the dead of night, The hours in friendly converse, and enjoyed Each other's virtue ; happiest of men ! 284 AN ENGLISH CRITICISM At length, with gentle heaviness the hand Of slee]) invades their eyelids. On the ground, Oppressed with slumber they extend their limbs; AVhen, sliding down the hemisphere, the moon Now plunged in midnight gloom her silver head." This is what the English — the grosse Krdmernation, the great shopkeeping nation — trumpet to the world as epic poetry ! The third epic on our list is ' Alfred,' in twentj'-!our books, by- Joseph Cottle. It is fully equal to the Iliad in the number of lines; it resembles the Iliad in having a national subject, and in containing a great deal of swearing and killing. It is, however, more subjective than the Iliad ; that is, we see more of the perso- nality of Mr. Cottle in ' Alfred,' than we see of the personality of Homer in the Iliad. For instance, the singer of Chios opens with the following invocation : " Sing, O Muse, the wrath of Achilles, son of Peleus." The bard of Bristol, with a loftier consciousness, exclaims, " Alfred, victorious o'er the Danes, / sing." We must give a few lines of the admired speech of Ivar. " At Regner's name, Ivar uprose ; his eye Beamed fearful indignation, when he cried, ' Death to our foes ! my spirits thirst to see The blood of Saxons flowing ocean-like Before my greedy eyes, whilst ever round Some mangled corse, writhing in agony. Shall add new transport to my bounding heart. Odin, immortal chief! I hear thy call, And like thee, forth I go, to scorn the looks. And scatter wide the bones, and heap the skulls Of vanquished enemies. Death, view in me Thy proudest champion, soon ordained to swell Slaughter's rank pile, and for the ravenous wolves Provide new banquets! By the rapturous hope Of one day joining the celestial throng Amid Valhalla, hearing, as I stalk. From each brave warrior, gratulations loud, — By that proud confidence, here do I swear To scorn all mercy.' " And he keeps his word ; for he goes on through two terrible pages of like bombast, breathing nothing but fire and slaughter. From ON AMEKICA, PARODIED. 285 one of the innumerable fine descriptions, we cite two or three lines : — " The third approach to earth Is through an avenue, at whose dark mouth Two furious toads, opposing, stand and spit Their deadly venom, whence the pestilence Steams up." O Joseph Cottle ! — The well-known and heroical incident that befell the cakes in the neatherd's cottage, is thus related to her husband by the scolding dame, who had but too just cause for anger : — " Never came beneath a door a man More thoughtless, or perversely bent on dreams Bewildered. Many an hour he sits and hums About old Ca>dmon, and then stops and frowns At something in the air; then rises up, And walks with stately mien, then sits again, And shaves his bow, or, with more furious eye, Gazes in vacancy. In truth, I tliink The man half mad ; for, not an hour ago, The household cakes, that yonder lie half burnt And smoking on the hearth, I to him gave. And with strict charge, and caution often told, Warned him to turn, and with due care preserve From scorching heat; then to the lields I sped To mark the kine ; and now again returned ; When, as the door I opened and looked rovmd. There on his wicker chair he sat, liis eyes Fixed on the floor, his knife beside, wbile near Lay many a half-formed bow. But, sad to tell ! My cakes, for thy return, prepared to shew A wife's affection, hi/ involved in smohe ! Now nothing worth ! and this great loon at hand, Unmindful. ' Dost thou hear ?' sbe cried, And stamped her foot, and, with indignant ire. Vowed oft and bitterly, no other food His lips should touch, till he had eaten all The black-burnt cakes." No reader of discriminating taste can fail to adnu're the per- fectly un-Homeric style of this whole description. Now what must our readers think of English taste, when we assure them that this poem has passed through more than one edition, and that all who have read the work consider it a most remarkable pro- duction. 286 AN ENGLISH CRITICISM We have indulged so largely in heroics, that we almost fear to proceed to the next great epic, Mr. Pollok's ' Course of Time.' But it is so universally admired in England, has passed through so many editions, has been reviewed in so many Quarterlies, and committed to memory by so many old women, that we must spend a few moments on its brilliant beauties, by way of further illus- trating the epic taste of England. It is a highly religious poem, and its dullness is equalled only by the scandalous licentiousness of some of the favourite passages. We have no idea of citing these, even for the purpose of exhibiting the moral hideousness of the English character. This favourite epic has been so well described by an American critic, that we cannot resist the tempta- tion to quote his introductory paragraphs. "The Reverend Mr. Balwhiddei-, the author of the 'Annals of the Parish,' had the design of writing * an orthodox poem, like Paradise Lost, by John Milton, wherein he proposed to treat more at large of original sin, and the great mystery of redemption.' What he only contemplated, the Reverend Mr. Pollok has ex- ecuted, and in a manner so satisfactory, so accordant, as far as we can judge, with the conceptions of the Reverend Mr. Balwhid- der, as to leave no room for regret that his design was not carried into effect. The great popularity of Mr. Pollok's production is a sufficient pledge of its merit. The copy before us is of the fifth Edinburgh edition ; and it has, as we are told, been twice stereo- typed in our country. " It is indeed a poem treating of high matters. The time sup- posed is some period beyond the consummation of this world. A beautiful spirit, whom we should have supposed to have been that of a Calvinistic divine, if the writer had not informed us that it was the spirit of some great poet, is represented as giving an account of this world to another blessed spirit, newly arrived from a distant planet, and to two seraphs, who accompany him, for the purpose of having their curiosity satisfied also. He explains to them all those facts respecting the past and yet future history of man, which we find stated in Ridgeley's ' Body of Divinity,' and other works of like authority on the subject; and introduces a great variety of matter upon a multitude of interesting topics, such as pride, ambition, vanity, avarice, infidelity, Unitarianism, govern- ment, modern politics, and modern authors. The writer has made ON AMERICA, PARODIED. 287 quite an extensive display of his powers ; and we must confess, that, in attempting to follow him, our faculties have been so ' strained by this celestial colloquy divine,' that we could, we think, have * sought repair ' even from a novel by Lady Morgan. Our perceptions have become confused. We have at times almost lost the consciousness that we were reading. We seemed to make no progress ; and were disheartened, like a traveller in one of those solemn deserts where nothing is to be seen but sand and sky."* We give a single short passage, which has less to revolt the civilized taste than perhaps any other of equal length in all the ten dreary books. "The other. Disappointment, rather seemed Negation of delight. It was a thing Sluggish and torpid, tending towards death. Its breath was cold, and made the sportive blood Stagnant, and dull, and heavy, round the wheels Of life. The roots of that whereon it blew Decayed, and with the genial soil no more Held sympathy; the leaves, the branches drooped, And mouldered slowly down to formless dust; Not tossed and driven by violence of winds. But withering where they sprung, and rotting there, Long disappointed, disappointed still The hopeless man, hopeless in his vain wish, As if returning back to nothing felt; In strange vacuity of being hung, And rolled, and rolled his eye in emptiness, That seemed to grow more empty every hour." Satan Montgomery's very popular works we are obliged to pass over for want of room. The same is the case with a great many other favourite poets. Some departments also of English poetry will not bear touching on account of their revolting indecencies. English comedy, for example, is absolutely unreadable. Its genuine character was stamped upon it in the licentious and debauched reign of Charles the Second. Bawdry is the only wit the Englishman relishes or knows. " For witty, in his language, is obscene." The indescribable nastiness and brutality of the British comic * ' Christian Examiner,* vol. vi. pp. 86, 87. 288 AX EXGLISH CRITICISM theatre are even gi-eater than the history of the people would lead us naturalh' to expect ; but when we observe how naturally their religious poetry, like Mr. Pollok's, runs into licentiousness, perhaps we ought not to wonder at the excesses of the stage. Passing from this disgusting limbo, we enter upon a region where leaden dull- ness — prose and decenc}', at least — await us, — the lyric poetry of England. We are far from regarding it as a just ground of reproach to the English, that their lyrical poetry is little better than a far-oft" echo of antiquity; but we think it is a reproach to them, that they should be eternally thrusting their pretensions to the lyrical cha- racter in the face of educated nations. In this particular, as in most others, what they want in the integrity of their assumption, they make up in swagger and impudence. To believe themseh'es, they are the finest lyrical poets in the whole world ; but with two or three exceptions, there has not been a lyrical poet of mark since the Saxon Heptarchy, nor before. Having no lyrical poetry of their own, they have imported such as their scanty learning has enabled them to get from other countries. But, alas! how does the lyric muse lose herself amidst the damps and fogs of uncon- genial England! The lyrical poetry of all other countries is dis- tinguished by particular characteristics, by its forms, colouring, and temperament. There is nothing of this kind in English lyrical poetry; it takes all forms and colours. It is national only in one sense — it never fails, opportunity serving, to hymn the praise of — " Britannia's happy isle, Blessed by a patriot monarch's smile." Upon this point all the lyrists are unanimous. The want of his- torical elements is made up by the intensity of the glorification. The great topics are British liberty, British loyalty, British supre- macy over the sea and — the East Indians. More unfortunate topics could not have been hit upon. To speak of British liberty, in the face of the crushed descendants of the Saxon savages; of British loyalty, with two millions of Chartists ready to rise in arras ^ with all Wales in insurrection, with the starving hordes of Ireland on the eve of rebellion; to boast of British naval supremacy, with the history of Dutch and American triumphs staring at them in the annals of the world; is an absurdity of which nothing but the dull arrogance of the Englishman is capable. As to the East ON AMERICA, PATIODIED. 289 Indians, nothing can exceed the interest these oriental lyrists take in their picturesque heads and flowing limhs, — except the interest they take in their lacs of rupees and their lands. It is quite impossible to account for the incredible folly which tempts them to indulge in such themes, unless we refer it to the same infatua- tion which makes them boast of their morality, in the face of their filthy newspaper and weekl^y press, and the disgusting debaucheries of their priests and nobles, and to plume themselves upon their honesty, in the teeth of a government which has loaded the country with a debt it never dreams of paying, and despite a nineteen years' suspension of cash payments by the Bank of England, still fresh in the memory of the present generation. Gray was a meritorious imitator of the ancients ; he explored industriously all the mines of the lyric poetry of Greece and Rome; he is entitled to the praise of a skilful stringer together of foreign gems ; but he is no English lyrical poet. Cowley's metaphysical conceits were mostly stolen from the Italian. Dryden, Pope, and Addison, wrote a few pieces of lyrical jingle, to be set to music on special occasions. Coleridge stole his lyrical poems, as well as his pretended philosophy, from the Germans. Campbell was a Scotch- man, and so was Burns. Tom Moore is a licentious Irishman. The only representative, therefore, of English lyrical poetry is Henry James Pye, Esq., poet-laureate of ^George the Third. On account of his preeminence among the poets of his day, he was appointed to fill the place once occupied by the ponderous Ben Jonson ; and his new year's and birthday odes, composed in honour of that heroic and muse-inspiring Dutchman, George the Third, present the lyrical genius of England in a favourable light. They produced an immense excitement in their time, and continue to be read with unabated enthusiasm by the lovers of that highly popular work, the ' Annual Register.' That Americans may see what trash satisfies the coarse taste of the English, we quote two or three passages. "O'er the vexed bosom of the deep. When rushing wild with frantic haste, The winds with angry pinions sweep The surface of the watery waste; Thongh the firm vessel proudly brave The inroad of the giant wave, N 290 AN ENGLISH CRITICISM Though the bold seaman's firmer soul Views unappalled the billowy mountains roll, Yet still along the murky sky Anxious he tlirows the inquiring eye, If haply through the gloom that round him lowers Shoots one refulgent ray, prelude of happier hours. " So Albion, round her rocky coast, While loud the rage of battle roars, Derides Invasion's haughty boast; Safe in her wave-encircled shores, Still safer in her dauntless baud, Lords of her seas, or guardians of her land, Whose patriot zeal, whose bold emprise, Rise as the storms of danger rise; Yet, tempering glory's ardent fiame With gentle mercy's milder claim, She bends from scenes of blood the averted eyp, And courts the smiles of peace 'mid shouts of victory."* The following stanzas, full of sound and furv, were sung on his Majesty's birthday. " Triumphant o'er the blue domain Of hoary Ocean's brinv reign, While Britain's navies boldly sweep. With victor prow, the stormy deep ; Will Ciallia's vanquished squadrons dare Again to try the watery war. Again her floating castles brave, Terrific, on the howling wave, Or on the fragile hark adventure o'er. Tempt her tempestuous seas, and scale her rocky shore? " Or, should the wind's uncertain gale Propitious swell the hostile sail; Should the dim mist, or midnight shade, Inva-ion's threatened inroad aid; Shall Britain, on her native strand, Shrink from a foe's inferior band? She vows by Gallia, taught to yield On Cressy's and on Poictiurs' field; By Aginconrt's high trophied plain, Piled with illustrious noblfs slain; By wondering Daimbe's distant flood, And Blenheim's ramparts, red with blood ; By chiefs on Minden's heaths who shone, By recent fame at Lincelles won ; Her laureled brow she ne'er will veil, Or shun the shock of fight, though numerous hosts assail. ''f • Annual Register, vol. xxxix. p. 442. f Ibid, vol xl. p. 444. ON AMERICA, PARODIED. 291 We rather think this is enough. If the reader desire more of this delectable poetry, we refer him to the volumes of the ' Annual Register,' about the beginning of the present century. In the words of a brother poet, " Here 'twas thou niadest the bells of fancy chime, And choked the town with suflbcating rhyme, Till heroes, formed by thy creating pen. Were grown as cheap and dull as other men." If oiu" readers are surprised at the tone and temper of this article, so unlike anything which has hitherto appeared in the pages of this journal, we commend them to an attentive perusal of the paper from the 'Foreign Quarterly Review,' the title of which we have placed at the head of our remarks ; and " we con- clude by saying," in the words of another of our respected English contemporaries, " that we have no national prejudices ourselves, nor any wish to foster them in others." NOTE, In our paper on English morals, manners, and poetry, we said that the line of epic poets closed with Robert Pollok. We were never more mistaken in our lives; it ends with John Filchett. Since that article was printed, we have received from England literary intelligence of the highest importance. VVe re2;ret extremely, that the steam-sliip which crossed the Atlantic ocean, freighted witli such interesting news, should have been delayed by an adverse fate too long for us to make the great announcement in the body of our article. The epic genius of Britain has lisen to the vertical point — "his beams at noon Culminate from the equator" — and henceforth he can only descend towards the setting. A new epic poet, of such gigantic dimensions, liiat the great men of olhor ages seem dwarfed to pigmies in his presence, has unexpectedly burst, a hundred and thirty-thousand verses strong, upon tiie startled woild. The light of his genius has had no dawn, but has blazed forth, like the meridian sun, or the intrusive comet of 1843, witii strange fear, perplexing the critics. The journals advertise, as Jnst from the prfss, ' King Alfred, a poem by John Fitchett,' six vols. 8vo.: Pickering, London. iNIr. John Fitchett was a country lawyer. He devoted leisure, fortune, and life to the composition of ' King Alfred ;' resolved, cost what it might, to outdo the immortal work of Joseph Cottle. He was forty years in travelling the great and terrible desert of this epic, — just the time the Israelites were occupied in getting through the wilderness, — and did not reach the promised land of publication at last. He died in 1838; nor ought any reasonable pcson to be surprised at the melan- choly event. The volumes are published by his surviving friends — that 292 AN ENGLISH CRITICISM, PARODIED. any should have survived 'King Alfred!' — as a monureent to his memory, a cenotaph to his fame. The poem was not entirely finished at his lamented demise, but, more fortunate than Virgil, or the famous Londoner, who " left half told The story of Cambuscan bold," he had a friend wbo took up the tale, — all told to be sure, except the last few pages of the sixth volume, — and without pause or faltering sung it out to the end. " Cedite Romani scriptores, cedite Graii," We regret extremely, that we cannot give our readers a fuller account of this, the last and greatest work of the British epic muse. The English reviewers are so full of wonder and admiration, that they cease to be as perspicuous and didactic as usual. In the midst of their rhapsodies, however, we discern the fact, that the machinery consists of demons, headed by Satan, on the part of the Danes, and of an angelic host which supports Alfred and the English. A writer in the London Spectator, byway we suppose of proving him to be a true John Bull of a poet, remarks, that the work shews Mr. Fitchett to have had " not the least idea of the manners of a barbarous age, or of any other." He then proceeds to quote, with such panegyrical comments as he seems to think the poetry deserved, a loity description of the portent by which the arch- angel IMichael stops the career of the Danes in the midst of victory. We subjoin only a few lines, by way of whet to our readers' appetite for the whole, which they will have by and by, if they want it. " Immediate from the victor host arose Shrieks horrible of terror and dismay. Filling heaven's concave; shouts and cries succeed, That stun all ears. Lo ! wondrous to relate, Suddenly stops the universal mass In height of victory. Nor the hot pursuit, Nor lust of battle, claims one wandering thought; Sok towards the awful omen each mau bends His total soul; " — or his (Jemucd total, as Mr. Mantalini says. 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Also, Information which the Emigrant needs on arrival : such as, Choice of Lodgings, Ways of Sharpers, How to get Employment, Wliere to look for Land ; Steam- boat, Canal, and Railroad routes ; Rates of Travel in all directions, How to preserve Health, 6cc. &c. BY A PRACTICAL EMIGRANT from North Britain. *«* This little volume has been carefully and impartially prepared. It vntU prove of great value to all Emigrants to the United States. " This is by far, and beyond all comparison, the 6m< guide to emigrants that we have met with in recent days." — Liccrpool Journal. " An exceedingly valuable work." WORKS PUBLISHED BY NEW WORK OX THE EMPIRE OF BRAZIL. Just read I/, in 2 vols, post Hvo., ISs. cloth, with abutil 50 Engravings, Portraits and Maps SKETCHES OF A RESIDENCE AND TRAVELS IN BRAZIL, EMBRACING HISTORICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL NOTICES OF THE EMPIRE AND ITS SEVERAL PROVINCES, BY THE REV. DANIEL P. KIDDER. "Mr. Kiddhr resided for between two and three years in Brazil, and travelled throusli the whole extent of that larj-e empire, residing in all the principal cities, and thus making himself thorouKhly acquainted with the character of the country and its institutions. There is pmhably no country in the world of equal importance, in a nolitical, commercial, and social view, about which there is so little popular knowledge. Mr. Kidder is in every respect admirably qualified to supply this uiarked and important delect in historical and statistical literature. lie is an accomplished scholar, and has Riven much attention to the preparation of the work. He has drawn his geographical, statistical, and other informa- tion, from the best official sources, embracing not only the Reports of the Imperial Ministry, but also those of the Presidents of Provinces ; and has received the greatest and most valuable assistance from the representatives of the Brazilian government in this country. The work will be publ'shed in very superior style, in two volumes octavo, accom- panied by maps, portraits of the leading statesmen of the empire, and titty or sixty illustra- tive engravings. Vie anticipate, from our knowledge of the author and of the facilities he has enjoyed, a work of rare interest and value."— -Yew I'ork Courier. PROFESSOR BUSH'S NEW AVORK. In l'2mo., ds. THE RESURRECTION OF THE BODY UNSCRIPTCR.U, AND UNFOUNDED IN KE.iSON. ANASTASIS; OR, THE DOCTRINE OF THE RESURRECTION OF THE BODY, SCRIPTURALLY AND RATIONALLY CONSIDERED. BY GEORGE BUSH, A.M., PBOFESSOB OF HBBBEW IS NEW VOBK UMVEBSITY. " A work of great learning and ability." REV. MR. BARNES' NOTES ON .JOB. In 2 vols. V2mo, with Illustrations, (Uniform with the Author's Kotes on the Is'cw Testament. J l'2s. cloth., NOTES, CRITICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE, AND PRACTICAL, ON THE BOOK OF JOB. WirH A SEW TRANSLATION AND AN INTRODUCTORY DISSEIlTATION, By ALBERT BARNES. GESENIUS'S HEBREW LEXICON BY ROBINSON. Nmo ready, in 1 large vol. royal 8fO, 31*. 6d. cloth, a New Edition of A HEBREW AND ENGLISH LEXICON OF THE OLD TESTAMENT, INCLUDING THE BIBLICAL CHALDEE. TRANSLATED FROM THE LATtN OF WILLIAM GESENIUS, LATE PROFESSOR OF THEOLOGY AT HALLE. A New Edition, wth large additions, partly furnished by the Author in MS., and partly condensed from his larger Thesaurus. By EDWARD ROBINSON, AUTBOB OP "biblical RESEARCHES IN PALESTINE," ETC. The whole 'Work w?s re^•ised and re-written, usith important additions by Gesenius just before his death ; and the presect edition is translated by Professor Robinsom, fiom the MSS left by the lamented Author, which were transmitted for the purpose by his Son. No pains have been spared to render this the most perfect and comprehensive Hebrew Lexicon now extant. KUHNER'S LARGER GREEK GRAMMAR. Royal 9,1-0, IS*, cloth, GRAMMAR OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE, FOR THE USE OF HIGH SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. BY DR. RAPHAEL KUHNER, COBBECTOB OF TEE LYCEUM HANOVBB. TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN BY PROFESSOR B. B. EDWARDS AND S. H. TAYLOR. See Reviews in the "Classical Jluseum," &c. This is the intermediate Grammar of Kiihner, and is undoubtedly the most perfect and complete Work for its purpose yet published. DR. CHEEVER'S LECTURES ON BUNYAN. Now ready, in medium Svo, icith Engravings, 18*. cluth, gilt edge*, JOHN BUNYAN : HIS LIFE AND TIJIES ; WITH LECTURES ON THE " PILGRIM'S PROGRESS." BY THE REV. GEORGE B. CHEEVER, D.D. WORKS PUBLISHED BY MONTGOMERY'S ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE LAW OF KINDNESS- 18»«o, 3*. rloth, or (jilt edges for presents, Zs. 6rf. ILLUSTRATIONS of the LAW OF KINDNESS. BY THE REV. G. W. MONTGOMERY. WITH A PREFATORY ADDRESS TO THE ENGLISH READER. *»* "No house should be without this little book — it should be read in every school — it will please the old, charm the young, and benefit all ; and it is so full of anecdote and interest that, when taken up, it is with reluctance that it is laid down a^ain. " — TluCritie. 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