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To renew call Telephone Center, 333-8400 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN DUE: 1^ L161— O-1096 NELSON'S PERPETUAL LOOSE-LEAF ENCYCLOPEDIA An International Work of Reference Complete in Twelve Volumes, with 7000 Illustrations, Colored Plates, Manikins, Models, Maps and Engravings EDITOR-IN-CHIEF JOHN H. FINLEY, LL.D. COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION AND PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK CANADIAN EDITOR WILLIAM PETERSON, LL.D., C.M.G. PRINCIPAL OF McGILL UNIVERSITY, MONTREAL EUROPEAN EDITOR GEORGE SANDEMAN, M.A. EDINBURGH, SCOTLAND EDITOR TO THOMAS NELSON & SONS SIR EDWARD PARROTT, M.A.,LL.D., F.E.I.S. NEW YORK THOMAS NELSON AND SONS LONDON EDINBURGH TORONTO PUBLISHERS' NOTE Nelson's Encyclopaedia was first published in 1905 by Thomas Nelson & Sons, in Great Britain in part form. In 1907 it was issued in Great Britain in ten volumes and has had the largest sale of any Encyclopaedia. Nelson's Encyclopaedia, published in New York in 1906, was edited by a staff of American Scholars and Specialists under the direction of Frank Moore Colby, M.A., as Editor-in-Chief in the United States, and George Sandeman, M.A., in Edinburgh. In 1909 the Perpetual Loose-Leaf edition was issued under the direction of John H. Finley, LL.D., President of the College of the City of New York, Editor-in-Chief ; Associate Editors, William Peterson, LL.D., C.M.G., Principal of McGill University, Montreal, Canada, and George Sandeman, M.A., Edinburgh, Scotland, assisted by Scholars and Specialists in the United States and Canada, who prepared many special articles that are not to be found in any other Encyclopaedia. Volume I Pages 481 to 640, both inclusive, constitute Nelson's Encyclopedia Part IV Copyright, 1905, by Thomas Nelson & Sons, New York Copyright, 1906, by Thomas Nelson & Sons, New York Copyright, 1907, by Thomas Nelson & Sons, New York Copyright, 1909, by Thomas Nelson & Sons, New York Copyright, 1910, by Thomas Nelson & Sons, New York Copyright, 1911, by Thomas Nelson & Sons, New York Copyright, 1912, by Thomas Nelson & Sons, New York Copyright, 1913, by Thomas Nelson & Sons, New York Copyright, 1914, by Thomas Nelson & Sons, New York Copyright, 1915, by Thomas Nelson & Sons, New York bio ^ V.I v) cv ^ EDITOR'S PREFACE |HE publishing firm responsible for this enterprise has aimed at producing a complete, up-to-date, and scholarly Encyclopaedia in a moderate compass. In the allotment of space to the various topics, Nelson's Encyclo- pedia differs considerably from its predecessors. It is essentially a modern book. While topics of classical or antiquarian interest are not neglected, a new and special emphasis has been laid on subjects which are of wide and active interest to-day, such as biographies of living persons, recent developments in science, and the results of modern invention. By judicious condensation, and by recognizing the needs of the life of the world to- ( day, and especially of this part of the world, the publishers have succeeded in present- ing information of greater practical value and upon a larger number of subjects than ^ has ever before been brought within the same compass. Within the available space, the publishers have endeavored to insure four things: — (i.) Accuracy. — This applies to the brief summaries and illustrations as well as to the longer articles. (2.) Completeness. — Every topic is treated so as to present all the facts which read- ers other than specialists are likely to require. (3.) Clearness. — Even the most technical subjects are discussed in language in telligible to such readers. (4.) Guidance for Students. — full and carefully selected bibliography is appended to each important article, to guide readers to the best sources for further study. This ~ feature of the work places it in the front rank as a work of reference. The result is that Nelson's Encyclopedia contains all that the well-informed man of to-day needs to know, together with the guidance that a student requires. It is, in fact, a Complete Library of Reference. ^ In the illustration of the work, the publishers have considered utility rather than 00 EDITOR'S PREFACE mere ornament. Technical and scientific illustrations are introduced to elucidate the text; reproductions of paintings, statuary, etc., to give some idea of the art of different ages and schools, or the character of scenery in different lands. In fact, not only can a wider range of subjects than is customary in general reference works be claimed, but also a greater number of illustrations. All of the leading cities of the world with their famous buildings and architectural monuments are represented. The reader may also see depicted ancient and modern civilization as well as nature in its many aspects. Portraits, which, owing to their human interest, are the most attrac- tive of all illustrations, have been freely inserted. This work, whose most distinguishing feature is that its contents are kept current with changes and progress from year to year, is issued by Messrs. Thomas Nelson & Sons, and has been prepared and edited by competent scholars, writers, and practical experts of the day. Nelson's Encyclopedia rests upon the reliability of its information, which has been thoroughly tested, the wide reach of its contents, and the unique means of keep- ing the material accurate to date. For its successful completion no efforts have been spared to obtain the services of scholars and men of letters of both the Old World and the New who are not only masters of their subjects but are able to expound them in simple language. Moreover, since the activities of the publishers are maintained in both Great Britain and America, it has been possible to unite the work of editors in both countries. The results justify the claim that Nelson's Encyclopedia is truly international. The American articles have been written in the United States by leading authorities, while those dealing with European countries and institutions have been prepared in the Old World by scholars who are not only high authorities but have had unusual opportunities to use European libraries and collections. Further- more, all articles of this latter class have undergone the scrutiny of American authori- ties and in their present form embody the results of American criticism and revision. JOHN H. FINLEY, editor in chief. NELSON'S ENCYCLOPEDIA. PARTIAL LIST OF THE EDITORS AND SPECIALISTS WHO HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO THIS WORK. Editor-in-Chief: John H. Finley, LL.D., President of the College of the City of New York. Canadian Editor: William Peterson, LL.D., C.M.G., Principal of McGill University, Montreal, Canada. European Editor: George Sandeman, M.A., Edinburgh, Scotland. AERONAUTICS. ArtSSS'"*^*' Kruckman, Arnold, Aeronautical Editor of the New York ''World." Ferris, Richard, B.S., C.E., Author of ''How It Flies." AGRICULTURE. ASicie""'*' True, Alfred C, A.M., Ph.D., Director of the Office of Ex- Forestry, periment Stations, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Kgrai^ wo^i?'"'" Allen, Edwin West, B.S., Ph.D., Assistant Director, Editor of "Experiment Station Record." Irrigation. Mead, Dr. Elwood, Chief of Irrigation and Drainage Investi- gation. ffta^rm*MSn- Beal, W. H., Editor of "Experiment Station Record." ery b?J?o, wheTt, Ind ScHULTE, J. I., Associatc Editor of "Experiment Station Record." other Field Crops. Horticulture. Smith, C. B., Associate Editor of "Experiment Station Record." Animal Diseases. WiLCOX, Dr. E. V., Associate Editor of "Experiment Station Record." Economic Botany. j?VANS, Dr. W. H., Chief of Insular Experiment Stations. Meat Packing In- dustry. SoUs. Foreign Agriculture. MoHLER, Dr. John R., Pathologist of the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. HiLGARD, Eugene W., LL.D., Ph.D., Professor of Agriculture, University of California. Wallace, Robert, F.R.S.E., F.L.S., Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy, University of Edinburgh, and Garton Lecturer on Colonial and Indian Agriculture. An thropological Articles. Ethnological and Geographical Articles. Physical Anthropology. American Indians. ANTHROPOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY. WissLER, Clark, Curator of Ethnology, American Museum of Natural History, New York. Haddon, Alfred C, M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S., University Lecturer in Ethnology, Cambridge; Author of ''Studies of Man." Keane, Augustus H., LL.D., F.R.G.S., Emeritus Professor of Hindustani, University College, London. Hepburn, Prof. David, M.D., CM., M.R.C.S., F.R.S.E., Pro- fessor of Anatomy and Dean of the Faculty of Medicine, University of Wales. MooNEY, James, Ethnologist, American Bureau of Ethnology. ARCHEOLOGY. Egypt. Assyria, Babylo- nia, ete. Phoenicia, Hittites, Semites, etc. Gypsies, Iron Age, Archaeology, Witchcraft, etc. Antiquarian Sub- jects. Petrie, Wm. Matthew Flinders, D.C, Litt.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Egyptology, University College, London. Pinches, Theoppiilus Goldridge, LL.D., Assyriologist, Lec- turer in Assyrian, University College, London, formerly Assistant in Department of Oriental AAtiquities, British Museum. Sayce, Rev. Archibald H., M.A., LL.D., D.D., Professor of Assyriology, Oxford University. MacRitchie, David, F.S.A. Scot., Authority on Gypsy Lore and Archaeology; Author of ''Fians, Fairies, and Picts," etc. Coles, F. R., Assistant Keeper, Scottish National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh. American Biographies. BIOGRAPHY (AMERICAN). Gladden, George, formerly Editor of "Current Literature." Hubert, Philip G., Jr., formerly Dramatic Editor, New York "Evening Post." Haworth, Paul L., Lecturer in History, Columbia University. Southern Biographies. American Biogra- phies — Franltlin, Washington, etc. John Marshall. U. S. Grant. James Madison. Roosevelt, Taft. Martin Van Buren, John W. Tyler. Marquette, Pontiac. miliain Penn. Derry, Joseph T., Department of Agriculture, Atlanta, Ga.; Author of historical works on the Southern Confederacy. MacDonald, William, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of History, Brown University. Baldwin, Simeon E., A.M., LL.D., Judge of the Supreme Court of Errors, Connecticut. Church, William C, Editor ''Army and Nayy Journal,'^ Brevet Lieutenant-Colonel, U. S. Army. Hunt, Gaillard, Chief of the Passport Bureau, U. S. Depart- ment of State. Leupp, Francis E., A.M., LL.B., former U. S. Commissioner of Indian Affairs; Author of "The Man Roosevelt." Thompson, Holland, Professor of History, College of the City of New York. Thwaites, Reuben G., LL.D., Superintendent of the Wiscon- sin State Historical Society, Lecturer on American History, University of Wisconsin. Fisher, Sydney G., L.H.D., LL.D., Author of "The Making of Pennsylvania," "The Evolution of the Constitution," "The True WilHam Penn," etc. Daniel Webster. Wheeler, Everett P., of the New York Bar. BIOGRAPHY (FOREIGN) Biographies. Revision of Biographies. Literary Biographies. Sharp, R. Farquharson, Assistant Librarian, British Museum, London; Author of ''Dictionary of Enghsh Authors," ''Mak- ers of Music," "Architects of English History," etc. Stronach, George, M.A., Chief Assistant Librarian, Advocates' Library, Edinburgh. Macpherson, Hector, Editor "Edinburgh Evening News"; Author of Lives of Gladstone, Thomas Carlyle, Adam Smith, Herbert Spencer, etc. PoLLAK, GusTAV, formerly Editor "Century Dictionary of Names." Smith, David Nichol, M.A., Professor of English Literature, Newcastle-on-Tyne ; Editor of "Dryden's Essay on Dramatic Poesy." Chambers, Edmund K., B.A., Acting Assistant Secretary, Board of Education, England; Editor of "Red Letter Edition of Shakespeare." 3 French Literary Biographies. French Historical Subjects and Biog- raphies. Duff, Rt. Hon. Sir Mountstuart E. G., G.C.S.I., M.A., P.C., F.R.S., D.L., formerly Lord Rector of Aberdeen University; Under-Secretary of State for India (1868-74); Under-Secre- tary for the Colonies (1880-81); Governor of Madras (1881- 86) ; formerly President of the Royal Geographical and Royal Historical Societies; Editor of "Victorian Anthology." Grant, Arthur J., M.A., Professor of History and Dean of the Faculty of Arts, University of Leeds; Author of ''The French Monarchy," etc. Keary, Charles F., Novelist and Historical Writer, formerly Member of the Staff of the British Museum. German Literary Biographies. Scottish Biographies. Irish Subjects and Biographies. The Coleridge Family, etc. RippMANN, Walter, Professor of the German Language at Queen's College, London. Crockett, Rev. William S., Author of "The Scott Country," ''Sir Walter Scott," "Robert Burns," "Minstrelsy of the Merse," ''The Border Country," etc. Henderson, T. F., Author of many Scottish historical works. Morris, Judge William O'Connor, formerly Irish County Court Judge. Coleridge, Ernest Hartley, M.A., formerly Secretary to the late Baron Coleridge, Lord Chief Justice of England; Editor of "Letters of S. T. Coleridge," "Poetical Works of Lord Byron," "Life and Letters of Lord Coleridge," etc. John Buskin. CoLLiNGWOOD, WiLLiAM G., M.A., F.S.A., formerly Secretary to Ruskin; Author of "Life of Ruskin." Saxo Grammatlcus. Elton, Oliver, M.A., Professor of English Literature, Univer- sity College, Liverpool; Author of "Mythical Books of Saxo Grammaticus," "Historia Danica," etc. George Berkeley, John Locke. Eraser, Alexander C, D.C.L., LL.D., Litt.D., F.R.S., Edin- burgh, Emeritus Professor of Logic and Metaphysics, Edin- burgh University; formerly Editor of the "North British Review." William Congreve. GossE, Edmund, LL.D., Author and Critic, Librarian to the House of Lords; Author of "Life of Congreve," etc. Charlotte Bronte. George Fox, Edward Gibbon. Shorter, Clement K., Editor of "The Sphere," London, founder and formerly Editor of "The Sketch." HoDGKiN, Thomas, D.C.L., Litt.D., Historian; Author of "Italy and Her Invaders," "Life of Charles the Great," "Life of George Fox," and " PoHtical History of England." 4 Leibniz, Erigena, Scliolasticism. Junius. Mlrabeau. Herbert of Cherbury. Geo^e Meredith. Latta, Robert, M.A., D.Phil., Professor of Logic and Rhetoric, University of Glasgow. Rae, W. Fraser, Author of ''Notes on England, from the French of M. Taine." Rose, John H., M.A., Litt.D., Historical Writer, University Extension Lecturer, Editor of the Victorian Era Series, and Author of ''The Development of the European Nations, 1870-1900," etc. SoRLEY, William R., M.A., LL.D., Litt.D., Knightbridge Pro- fessor of Moral Philosophy, Cambridge University; Author of "Ethics of Naturalism," etc. Erskine, John, A.M., Ph.D., Adjunct Professor of English, Columbia University. Biology, Embryology, Sex, Heredity, etc. Biological and Botanical Articles. Fisheries. Foreign Fisheries. Mosquitoes. Seals and Seal Fishery. Zoological Articles. BIOLOGY, BOTANY, AND NATURE STUDY. Thomson, John Arthur, M.A., Professor of Natural History, Aberdeen University; formerly Lecturer on Zoology and Biology, School of Medicine, Edinburgh. Ingersoll, Ernest, Naturalist, Editor, and formerly Lecturer on Zoology, University of Chicago. ScHERREN, Henry, F.Z.S., late Editor of the Encyclopjedic Dic- tionary; Specialist in Zoology and Botany. Bristol, Charles L., B.S., Ph.D., Professor of Biology, New York University. Fulton, T. Wemyss, M.D., F.R.S.E., Scientific Superintendent, Fishery Board for Scotland. Howard, Leland 0., M.S., Ph.D., Chief of Bureau of Entomol- ogy, U. S. Department of Agriculture; Curator Department of Insects, U. S. National Museum. Jordan, David Starr, M.D., Ph.D., LL.D., President of Leland Stanford, Jr., University; Member U. S. Seal Commission. Newbigin, Marion L, D.Sc, Lecturer on Zoology, College of Medicine for Women, Edinburgh; Editor of the ''Scottish Geographical Magazine." CHEMISTRY. Coblentz, Virgil, Ph.D., Phar.M., A.M., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry, Department of Pharmacy, Columbia University; Member of U. S. Pharmacopoeia Revision Committee; Author of "Volumetric Analysis," "The Newer Remedies," etc. 5 Chemistry. Curtis, Robert W., Ph.D., Instructor of Chemistry, College of the City of New York. Marshall, Hugh, D.Sc, F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Lecturer on Chem- istry, Mineralogy, Crystallography, Edinburgh University. Chemistry of Cookery. Langworthy, Charles F., Ph.D., Associate Editor of the ''Ex- periment Station Record," U. S. Department of Agriculture, and Chief of Nutrition Investigation. Alchemy. Radium, Radio- activity, etc. Food, Foods, Preserved, Meat. Ferguson, John, LL.D., F.S.A., Professor of Chemistry, Glasgow University; Author of ''Papers on the History of Chemistry." Baskerville, Charles, Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry, College of the City of New York; Author of "Radium and Its Ap- plication in Medicine." Wiley, Harvey W., A.M., M.D., formerly Chief Chemist, U. S. Department of Agriculture. EDUCATION. Education, Universities, etc. Education, Educational Sys- tems, Infant Education, etc. Industrial Education, manual Training. Medical Education, Medical Practitioner. Monroe, Paul, Ph.D., Professor of Education, Teachers Col- lege, Columbia University. Adams, John, M.A., B.Sc, F.C.P., Professor of Education, Uni- versity of London; Lecturer on Education, Glasgow Uni- versity. Richards, Charles R., Director of Cooper Institute, New York, and former Director of Manual Training, Columbia Uni- versity. Flexner, Abraham, Author of Carnegie Foundation Report, "Medical Education in the United States and Canada." American Colleges and Universities. Arrowsmith, Robert, Ph.D., former Professor of Latin, Teachers College, Columbia University. American Museums, Scientific Societies. National Education Association. Benjamin, Marcus, Ph.D., Editor, U. S. National Museum. Shepard, Irwin, Secretary of the National Education Asso- ciation. Library of Congress. Smithsonian Institution. Carnegie Institu- tion of Wasliington. Putnam, Herbert, A.B., LL.D., Librarian of Congress. Walcott, Charles D., Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. Gilbert, Walter M., Assistant Secretary of the Carnegie In- stitution. 6 Bowman, John G., Secretary Carnegie Foundation. Bather, Francis A., M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S., Assistant Keeper, Department of Geology, British Museum. Wells, Joseph, M.A., Fellow and Tutor, Oxford University; Author of a ^'History of Rome." Miller, Frank J., I*h.D., Associate Professor of Latin and Dean of Afhliations, University of Chicago. Sewall, M. W., formerly Principal of the Girls' Classical School, Indianapolis, Ind. Burr, William H., C.E., Professor of Civil Engineering, Co- lumbia University; formerly Member of the Panama Canal Commission. ELECTRICITY. Kennelly, Arthur E., D.Sc, F.R.A.S., Professor of Electrical Engineering, Harvard University. Sever, George F., formerly Dean of the Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Columbia University. Barker, Harry, Associate Editor of "Engineering News," New York. Baily, Francis G., Professor of Physics, Heriot-Watt College, Edinburgh. Hay, Alfred, D.Sc, Head of Physics and Electrical Engineering Department, Hackney Technical Institute, London. MacDonald, Charles, Lecturer in Leith Technical College. De Forest, Lee, Ph.D., Inventor of De Forest System of Wire- less Telegraphy. Collins, A. Frederick, Author of "Manual of Wireless Teleg- raphy." Browne, William Hand, Jr., Technical Editor of "Electrical Review." Mayer, William, Jr., Electrical Engineer and Writer on Tele- graph Practice. BosTwiCK, Arthur E., Ph.D., Director of Public Libraries, St. Louis, Mo.; writer on scientific topics. 7 ENGINEERING, CONSTRUCTION, MECHANICS, AND MACHINERY, Engineering Articles. Baker, Moses N., Ph.B., Editor of Engineering News," New York. Burr, William H., C.E., Professor of Civil Engineering, Colum- bia University; formerly Member of Panama Canal Com- mission. ScHMiTT, Fred. E., Jr., Associate Editor of ''Engineering News," New York. Civil Engineering. Mechanical Engi- neering. Applied Science and Engineering. Hydrokinetics, Hydrostatics. Magnetism, Terrestrial. Motor Cars, Motor Boats, Motorcycles. Locomotives. Railroads. Steam Engines, Steam Turbines. Hydraulic Ma- chinery. Bridges, etc. Governors, Thermodynamics, Valves, etc. Engines, Boilers, etc. Morrison, Charles E., Instructor in Civil Engineering, Colum- bia University. Allanson-Winn, Rowland G., B.A., M. Inst, of C. E. of Ire- land, Author of ''Foreshore Protection," etc. Trowbridge, Amasa, formerly Adjunct Professor in Columbia University. Gibson, George H., formerly Associate Editor of ''Engineering News." Wade, Herbert T., Author (with Professor W. Hallock) of " Out- lines of the Evolution of Weights and Measures and the Metric System," etc. Peddie, W. D., Professor of Physics, University College, Dundee; formerly Assistant Professor of Natural Philosophy, Edin- burgh University. Bauer, Louis A., Ph.D., A.M. (Berlin), Director Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of Washington. Potter, Rossiter, Associate Editor of "Engineering News," New York City. Gordon, Reginald, Editor of "The Master Mechanics' Asso- ciation Locomotive Dictionary." HiTT, Rodney D., Associate Editor "Electric Railway Journal." Kent, William, A.M., M.E., formerly Dean of College of Ap- plied Science, Syracuse University. Blaine, R. G., M.E., Lecturer in the Technical College, London. FiDLER, Prof. T. Claxton, M. Inst, of C. E., Professor of Engi- neering and Drawing, University of St. Andrews, Scotland. Foster, E. D., Lecturer, Municipal School of Science, Brighton. Stanfield, Richard, A.R.S.M., M. Inst, of C. E., Professor of Engineering at Heriot-Watt College, Edinburgh. 8 Concrete. Mining Disasters and Safety. New York State Barge Canal. Andes Tunnel, Brazil, etc. Wight, Frank C, Associate Editor of ''Engineering News," New York. Fay, Albert H., Editorial Staff of '' Mining and Engineering Journal." McElroy, John H., State Engineering Department, New York. Hale, Albert, Special Compiler, Pan-American Union. Art and Architecture. Drama. Art Subjects. Caricature. Heraldry. Sculpture, Painting, Painters, Biograptiies. Posters. Opera. FINE ARTS AND MUSIC. Kriehn, George, Ph.D., Lecturer on Art, Columbia University. CoRBiN, John, A.M., Dramatic Critic, Literary Manager of the New Theatre; Author of "The Elizabethan Hamlet," etc. Caw, James L., F.S.A. Scot., Curator of the National Portrait Gallery, Edinburgh. Maurice, A. B., Editor of "The Bookman." Ross, Andrew, "Ross Herald," Edinburgh, Scotland; Author of "Old Scottish Regimental Colors," "The Nisbet Plates," etc. Sharp, E. A., Art Critic; Author of "Women Poets," "Sea Mu- sic," "Heine's Italian Travel Sketches," "A Monograph on Rembrandt," etc. Bradley, Will, Artist and Author. Joffe, Judah a., B.A. Supervision of Gazetteer Articles. American Gazetteer. American Cities. Canadian Articles. GAZETTEER. Heilprin, Louis, Editor of "Lippincott's Gazetteer." Hasse, a. R., Librarian of Document Department, N. Y. Public Library; Author of "Bibliography of Official Publications of Colonial New York," etc. Russell, John W., formerly member of the Editorial Staff of the New York "Commercial Advertiser." McConachie, Lauros G , A.M., Ph.D., New York State Library. Pierce, John A., Author and Journalist. Hemmeon, J. C, Ph.D. (Harvard), Associate Professor of Eco- nomics and Political Science, McGill University. Davidson, John, M.A., formerly Professor of Political Economy, University of New Brunswick. 9 Ireland. Welsh Topog- raphy. German Topog- raphy. Russia and Central Asia. Japan, Korea. Chinese and Korean Topography. Himalayas. Porto BIco. Alps, Bernese Oberland, Mont Blanc, etc. Cole, Grenville A. J., Professor of Geology, Royal College of Science for Ireland. Edwards, Owen M., M.A., Lecturer on Modern History at Lin- coln College, Oxford, and Author of Works on Welsh Liter- ature, etc. Bealby, John T., Assistant Editor of the Times Gazetteer"; formerly Editor of the '' Scottish Geographical Magazine." Beazley, Charles R., M.A., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S., Fellow of Merton College, Oxford; Translator and Editor; Member of the Lisbon Geographical Society, the Royal Historical So- ciety, the African Society, and the Hakluyt Society. Aston, William G., M.A., C.M.G., formerly British Consul- General for Korea ; Author of Grammars of Japanese Written and Spoken Languages, ''History of Japanese Literature," etc. Carles, William R., C.M.G., F.R.G.S., F.L.S., formerly British Vice-Consul in Korea, Consul- General at Tientsin and Peking. Baines, Sir Jervoise A., Kt., C.S.I., India Civil Service, re- tired; Census Commissioner under Government of India. WiLLOUGHBY, WiLLiAM F., former Treasurer of Porto Rico. CooLiDGE, Rev. William A. B., M.A., F.R.G.S., Life Fellow of Magdalene College, Oxford; Editor of Murray's "Handbook for Switzerland." Queensland. South Africa. Critchell, James T., J.P., London Correspondent of "Austral- asian Pastoralists' Review," "Sydney Morning Herald," and "North Queensland Herald." Greswell, Rev. Wm. Henry P., M.A., F.R.G.S., Author of "A Geography of Africa South of the Zambesi," "Outlines of British Colonization," etc. Victoria and Tasmania. Morocco. Cyprus, Greece, etc. Mexico. Levey, George C, C.M.G., London Correspondent of the "Mel- bourne Age," formerly Editor of the "Melbourne Herald." Meakin, Budgett, formerly Lecturer on Oriental Life and Cus- toms, and Editor of "The Times of Morocco." Myers, John L., M.A., F.S.A., Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford; Lecturer on Classical Archaeology, University of Oxford; Secretary of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. Shepherd, William R., A.M., Ph.D., Professor of History, Columbia University; Author of ''Latin America." 10 West Indian Topography. Armenia. Edinburgli. Hill, Robert T., Mining Geologist, U. S. Geological Survey, Author of ''Cuba and Porto Rico," etc. Cook, Stanley A., M.A., Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, Cam- bridge University; Assistant Editor of "Encyclopaedia Biblica." Geddie, John, Assistant Editor of ''The Scotsman," Edinburgh. Geological Articles. Geograplilcal Articles. Geology, Geography. Earthquakes. Messlna- Reggio Earth- quake. GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. Berkey, C. p., Ph.D., Instructor in Geology, Columbia Uni- versity. Flett, Dr. John S., Geological Survey and Geological Museum, London. Davis, William M., M.E., Professor of Geology, Harvard Uni- versity. Herbertson, Andrew J., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S., Reader in Geography, Oxford University; Secretary Geo- graphical Association; Editor ''Geographical Teacher." Newland, D. H., Assistant State Geologist, New York State Museum. Knott, Car gill G., D.Sc, Lecturer on Applied Mathematics in Edinburgh University, and formerly Professor of Physics, Imperial University, Japan, and Director of the Magnetic Survey, Japan. HovEY, Edmund O., Associate Curator, Geological Department of the American Museum of Natural History, New York. History, General. American History. HISTORY. Strunsky, Simeon, Editorial Staff, New York ''Evening Post." Hassall, Arthur, M.A., Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford; Au- thor of "A Handbook of European History," "History of France," etc. Lodge, Richard, M.A., LL.D., Professor of History, Edinburgh University. Mullinger, James B., M.A., University Lecturer in History, and Librarian and Lecturer in History, St. John's College, Cambridge. Whinery, C. C, Editor and Journalist. Thompson, Holland, Professor of History in the College of the City of New York. 11 American History. Haworth, Paul, Lccturer in History, Columbia University, New York. A?ti?/e ij! f!^*"*^^' Vincent, John M., Ph.D., LL.D., Associate Professor of History, Johns Hopkins University. i9oo*t?mof' Leupp, Francis E., A.M., LL.B., former U. S. Commissioner of Indian Affairs. lilhts, Fleming, Walter L., M.S., Ph.D., Professor of History, West Secession. Virginia University. American Kevoiu- y^^ jyne, Claude H., Ph.D., Assistant Professor of American History, University of Michigan. Russo-Japanese ' Donald, I., Assistant Editor, Edinburgh Evening Dispatch." War. cSifucius.*'*'''^' Parker, Edward H., M.A., Professor of Chinese, Victoria Uni- versity, Manchester. India. Warner, Sir William L., K.C.S.I., M.A., Member of Council of India; formerly Secretary to the Government of Bombay, and Under-Secretary in Foreign Office of India. PCTicles, Abbott, Evelyn, Writer on Classical Literature and Philosophy, Sparta-* Author of a ''History of Greece." Scotland. Brown, Peter H., M.A., LL.D., Professor of Ancient (Scottish) History and Palaeography, Edinburgh University; Editor of the Register of the Privy Council of Scotland, and Author of ''History of Scotland." LAW. Legal Articles. KiRCHWEY, George W., Dean of School of Law, Columbia University. Kaps, John D., formerly Lecturer School of Law, Columbia University. Kemp, John, Barrister, Lincoln's Inn, London. International Law. Mqore, John Bassett, LL.D., Profcssor of International Law, Columbia University. Copyright Putnam, George Haven, A.M., Litt.D., Authority on Copy- right Law; Author of numerous works on copyright. LITERATURE AND PHILOLOGY. ISmaSce.""**"'^' Saintsbury, George E. B., M.A., LL.D., D.Litt., Professor of Rhetoric and English Literature, Edinburgh University; Author of "Essays in Enghsh Literature," "Nineteenth Century Literature," "A History of Criticism," etc. 12 American Litera- ture. Hale, Edward Everett, Jr., Professor of English Literature, Union University, Schenectady, N. Y. English Language. Philology. Pronunciation, Spelling Reform, Dictionary. Dialogue. Pali, Jainism, Sanskrit Language and Literature. Dra vidian Language, Tamil, Telugu. Gaelic Language and Literature. Welsh Language and Literature. Classical Subjects. Encyclopaedia. Bradley, Henry, M.A., Ph.D., Joint Editor of the ''Oxford EngHsh Dictionary," and Editor of several lexicographical and philological works. Gray, Louis H., A.M., Ph.D., formerly Instructor in Indo- Iranian, Princeton University. Allen, F. Spurges, A.B., LL.B., Chief Ofhce Editor of ''Web- ster's International Dictionary." Baildon, Henry B., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.S.L., Lecturer on English Language and Literature, University College, Dundee (University of St. Andrews) ; formerly Lecturer on EngHsh in Imperial University of Vienna. Davids, T. W. Rhys, LL.D., Ph.D., Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University; Professor of Pali and Buddhist Literature, University College, London. Frazer, R. W., LL.B., C.E., Indian Civil Service, retired; Lec- turer in Tamil and Telugu, University College, London; Librarian and Secretary, London Institution. MACKINNON, Donald, M.A., Professor of Celtic Languages, His- tory, and Antiquities in the University of Edinburgh. Anwyl, Edward, M.A., Professor of Welsh and Comparative Philology, University College of Wales, Aberystwyth. Green, George B., M.A. (Oxon.), Classical Master, Edinburgh Academy. Smith, Benjamin E., A.M., L.H.D., Editor of the "Century Dictionary," "Dictionary of Names," and "Atlas." Animism, Folk-Lore. Hartland, Edwin S., F.S.A., President of the Folk-Lore So- ciety, and of the Anthropological Section of the British Association; Author of "English Fairy and Other Folk Tales." Second Sight, Ballad, Epic, Fable, Literary Biographies. Parody, Jane Austen, Charles and Mary Lamb. Lang, Andrew, D.Litt. (Oxon.), Author and Critic; Author of "Ballads in Blue China," "Books and Bookmen," "Blue Fairy Tale Book," "Essays in Little," "Homer and the Epic," etc. Lucas, Edward V., formerly Staff Contributor to "London Globe," Staff Contributor to "Punch"; Author of "The Life of Charles Lamb," and Editor of "The Works and Letters of Charles and Mary Lamb." 13 Libraries, Bookbinding. Slang. Autographs, Bibliography, Book Subjects, British Museum. Nelson, Charles Alexander, Reference Librarian, Columbia University. Peck, Harry Thurston, A.M., Ph.D., L.H.D., LL.D., Pro- fessor of Latin, Columbia University; formerly Editor of ''The Bookman." Pollard, Alfred W., M.A., BibHographer, Assistant in the Library of the British Museum, London; Author of ''Early Illustrated Books," and Editor of "Books About Books," "BibUographica," etc. Mathematical and Physical Articles. Geometry. Mathematical Articles. MATHEMATICS. Knott, Cargill G., D.Sc, Lecturer on Applied Mathematics in Edinburgh University, and formerly Professor of Physics, Imperial University, Japan, and Director of the Magnetic Survey of Japan. TwEEDiE, Charles B., Science Lecturer, Edinburgh University. Gibson, James, M.A., Professor of Logic and Philosophy, Uni- versity of North Wales. HoRSBURGH, Ellice M., M.A., B.Sc, Associate Professor of Mathematics, Edinburgh University Medical Articles. Surgery and Surgical Articles. Physical Training. Tuberculosis. Deaf and Dumb. Blind. MEDICINE AND SURGERY. HuDDLESTON, JoHN H., A.M., M.D., Visiting Physician, Gouverneur Hospital, New York. Ferris, Albert W., A.B., M.D., Associate Professor of the Principles and Practice of Medicine, New York University and Bellevue Medical College. Denno, W. J., M.D., Acting Director, Division of Tuberculosis, New York State Department of Health. Duncan, Andrew, M.D., B.S., F.R.C.S., F.P.C.P., Physician of Seaman's Hospital Society; Fellow of King's College, Strand, London; Author of "The Practitioner's Guide," etc. Meylan, George L., Adjunct Professor of Physical Education, Columbia University. Knopf, S. Adolphus, M.D., Director of the National Association for the Study and Prevention of Tuberculosis, New York. Addison, W. H., Superintendent of the Glasgow Deaf and Dumb Institute. Allen, Edward E., M.D., Director of the Perkins Institution and Massachusetts School for the Blind. ^ 14 Meteorological Articles. Hydrography. METEOROLOGY AND HYDROGRAPHY. Stetson, Frank O., U. S. Weather Bureau. LiTTLEHALES, George W., C.E., Chief Engineer, U. S. Hydro- graphic Office. Army Articles. Naval Articles. Guns, Artillery, Coast Defence. Sea Power. Strategy and Tactics. MILITARY AND NAVAL SCIENCE. Shipton, James A., Major Artillery Corps, U. S. Army. Cromie, Captain W. H., Librarian to the British War Office. Van Duzer, Lewis S., formerly Captain U. S. Navy, and for- merly Editor of ''Journal of U. S. Naval Institute." Nugent, Major George A., Director of the Department of Artillery, Coast Artillery School, Fort Monroe, Va. Mahan, Alfred T., LL.D., D.C.L., Captain, U. S. N., retired; U. S. Delegate to Hague Peace Conference; Author of ''In- fluence of Sea Power on History," "Life of Nelson," etc. Carter, William H., Brigadier-General, U. S. Army. PHILOSOPHY, PSYCHOLOGY, AND ETHICS. Spiritualism, Psychical Research. Hyslop, James H., Ph.D., formerly Professor of Logic and Eth- ics, Columbia University; Secretary of the American Society for Psychical Research. Philosophical Ar- ticles, Logic, Biographies. Ethics. Barker, Henry, M.A., Lecturer on Moral Philosophy, Edin- burgh University. Seth, James, M.A., Professor of Moral Philosophy, Edinburgh University, and formerly Sage Professor of Moral Philos- ophy in Cornell University. Aristotle. Vol. I.— 2 Burnet, John, M.A., Professor of Greek, St. Andrews Univer- sity; Editor of ''Plato" in "Oxford Classical Texts." 15 Psychology. Stout, George F., M.A., LL.D., Professor of Logic and Meta- physics, University of St. Andrews; Editor of "Mind/' Wilde Reader in Mental Philosophy, Oxford University, and formerly Lecturer on Comparative Psychology, Aberdeen University. Psychotherapy. Parker, William B., A.B., Editor of ''Psychotherapy," for- merly Associate Editor of the ''Atlantic Monthly," and General Editor for Houghton, Mifflin & Company, Boston. POLITICAL SCIENCE, SOCIOLOGY, AND ECONOMICS. Economic Articles. Laughlin, J. Laurence, A.M., Ph.D., Profcssor of Political Economy, University of Chicago; Editor of the "Journal of PoUtical Economy." Johnson, A. S., Professor of Political Economy, University of Nebraska; formerly Professor in Columbia University. Bastable, C. F., M.A., LL.D., Professor of PoHtical Economy, Dublin University; Author of "Theory of International Trade," "Commerce of Nations," etc. Jenks, Edward, B.C.L., M.A., formerly Editor of the "Inde- pendent Review," Principal and Director of Legal Studies of the Law Society, London; Author of "EngHsh Local Gov- ernment," etc. Empi^yeTs^Liibm- Gettemy, Charles F., A.B., A.M., Director of Massachusetts ty, Arbitration, etc. Burcau of Statistics; State Director of Thirteenth Census. Sociology. Small, Albion W., Ph.D., Head of Department of Sociology, University of Chicago; Editor "American Journal of So- ciology." Kic^JIio^t;*' Fairlie, John A., A.M., Ph.D., Professor of PoHtical Science, si»ip- University of Illinois; Author of "Local Government of the United States." citizenship?™^"*' McCoNACHiE, Lauros G., A. M., Ph. D., Member New York Elections, etc. gtatc Library Staff, Legislative Reference Section; Author of "Congressional Committees," " National Expansion." etc. c"mmi!sions! Maltbie, Milo R., Member of the New York PubHc Service Subways. ' Commission. c"ommerce CoNNOLLY, WiLLiAM H., Chief Clerk of the Interstate Com- SSoadf etc. "^erce Commission. i6 Conservation, Keclamation, Public Lands, National Parks, etc. Poor Law. Wells, Philip P., Ph.D., General Counsel of the National Con- servation Association, formerly Lecturer in History, Yale University. Folks, Homer, A.B., Secretary of the State Charities Aid Asso- ciation of New York. Public Accountancy. City Planning. WiLDMAN, John R., Instructor of Accountancy, New York University. Howe, Frederic C, Ph.D., Lecturer on Municipal Administra- tion, University of Wisconsin; Author of ''The City, the Hope of Democracy." Post Office, Postal Savings Banks. Cost of Living. International Arbitration. Morgan, Edward M., U. S. Postmaster, New York City. Clark, Walter E., Associate Professor, Department of Political Science, College of the City of New York. Moore, John Bassett, LL.D., Professor of International Law and Diplomacy, Columbia University; Author of ''History and Digest of International Arbitration," etc. Atlantic Fisheries Arbitration, Inter national Prize Court. Constitution, Comparative Constitutions. Pan-American Conference. Peace. Money, Economics, Taxation, Prices, etc. - BoRCHARDT, Edwin M., United States Law Librarian. KiRKPATRiCK, John, M.A., Dr.Jur. (Heidelberg), LL.D., Pro- fessor of History in Edinburgh University. RowE, Leo S., LL.B., Ph.D., Professor of PoHtical Science, Uni- versity of Pennsylvania; U. S. Delegate to Pan-American Conferences. Short, William H., Executive Secretary of the New York Peace Society. Price, Langford L., F.R., M.A., F.R.E.S., F.S.S., Fellow and Treasurer of Oriel College, Oxford; Author of "History of Political Economy in England." Life Insurance. Cox, Robert L., LL.B., General Counsel and Manager of Asso- ciation of Life Insurance Presidents. Annuity, Insurance. Mitchell, Thomas W., Assistant Professor of Finance, School of Commerce, New York University. Merchant Shipping of the U. S. Criminology, Marriage. Eugenics. Chamberlain, Eugene T., U. S. Commissioner of Navigation. Ellis, Henry H., L.S.A., Fellow of the N. Y. Medico-Legal Society, and the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain. Kelsey, Carl, Ph.D., Professor of Sociology, University of Penn- sylvania. 17 Speculation. Emery, Henry C, A.M., Ph.D., Professor of Political Economy, Yale University; Member of U. S. Tariff Commission. s?c\aifettiements. HAMILTON, James H., LL.B., Ph.D., Head of University Settle- ment, New York City. Trade Unions. Labor Organizations. Hollander, Jacob H., Ph.D., Professor of PoHtical Economy, Johns Hopkins University. SoKALSKi, A.M., Ph.D., formerly of Johns Hopkins University. Banlcs and Banliing. Cannon, James G., Vice-President of the Fourth National Bank, New York. stocic Exchange. Stevens, Albert C, Financial Editor Newark " Evening News." piaygJoun'ds'.*'''' GuLiCK, LuTHER H., M.D., President Playgrounds Association of America; Author of various works on Physical Culture and Hygiene. RELIGION AND RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS. Religions. Collins, W. R., Professor of Liturgies and Ecclesiastical Polity, Seminary of the Reformed Episcopal Church. Sherman, C. C, Assistant Editor of the ''Schaff-Herzog Ency- clopaedia." GiLMORE, George W., A.B., B.D., Editorial Staff of the ''Schaff- Herzog Encyclopaedia." Asceticism, etc. Addis, Rev. Wm. E., M.A., Profcssor of Old Testament Criticism, Oxford; Author of ''Christianity and the Roman Empire," etc. uSileJSK.*"'* Atwood, Dr. I. M., Secretary of the UniversaHst General Con- vention. Methodism. Buckley, James M., A.M., D.D., LL.D., Editor of the New York ' ' Christian Advocate . " Salvation Army. ^^ jj EdUoY of the ''War Cry," New York. Young Men's Christian Association. DoGGETT, Lawrence L., A.M., Ph.D., President of the Inter- national Y. M. C. A. Training School, Springfield, Mass. Roman Catliolic Church, Sisterhoods, Editor of Catbollc Articles. Driscoll, Rev. James F., President of St. Joseph's Seminary, Yonkers. i8 Protestant Episcopal Church. Hodges, George, A.M., D.D., D.C.L., Dean of the Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass. Missions and Missionary Societies. Johnson, Rev. A. N., Home Secretary of the London Missionary Society. Septuaglnt and Biographies. Young Women's Christian Association. Kennedy, Rev. J., Librarian of New College, Edinburgh. Wilson, E., Secretary of the Training Department, Y. W. C. A. Chicago, 111. Sunday Schoa!: ScHAUFFLER, Rev. A. F., Secretary of the International Sunday School Lesson Committee. . Biblical subjects. Qrieve, Rev. ALEXANDER, M.A., Ph.D., Greyfriars, Glasgow. SANITARY SCIENCE. Articles on Sanitation and Public Health, Salvarsan, Serum Therapy, etc. WiNSLOW, Charles-Edward A., M.S., Associate Professor of Biology, College of the City of New York; and Curator of Public Health, American Museum of Natural History, New York. SPORTS AND PASTIMES. Track and Field Athletics. Football. Sporting Articles. Golf. Lacrosse. Anderson, William G., M.Sc, M.D., Director of the Depart- ment of Physical Education, Yale University. Camp, Walter, A.B., A.M., Author of "American Football." Sawyer, C. P., Sporting Editor of the New York "Evening Post." Hutchinson, Horatio G., ex-Golf Amateur Champion; Author of "Hints on Golf," "The Book of Golf and Golfers," ''Cricketing Saws and Stories," "Golf," in Badminton Library, etc. Barr, James ("Angus Evan Abbot EngHsh Journalist, Author of "The Great Frozen North." Dogs, Cricket, Swimming, Deer Stalking, Game Shooting, etc. Fencing. Compton, Herbert E., NoveHst, Biographer and Essayist; Author of ''A Master Mariner," ''A King's Hussar," "The Twentieth Century Dog," etc. Cook, Theodore A., M.A., F.S.A., formerly Editor of the "St. James' Gazette," Associate Editor of the ''Daily Telegraph," and Author of a "History of the English Turf." 19 Ffihtfng Elkington, E. Way, F.R.G.S., Author and Essayist; Author of ''The Lucky Shot," ''The Rugged Way," " The South Seas," etc. Angling. Maxwell, Rt. Hon. Sir Herbert E., Bart., P.C, F.R.S., LL.D., formerly Rhind Lecturer on Archaeology, Edinburgh; Author of "British Fresh- Water Fishes," "Salmon and Sea Trout," "The Story of the Tweed," etc. Falconry. HoPKiNS, TiGHE, NovcHst and Essayist; Author of "Nugents of Carriconna," "An Idler in Old France," "Dungeons of Old Paris," etc. TECHNOLOGY, MANUFACTURES, INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY, Bleaching, Dyeing, Calico Printing. Flour. Woollen Textiles, Fabrics, Carpets. Glass. Gas. Metallurgy of Gold, Silver, Lead, Iron, Steel, etc. Appleyard, J. R., Lecturer, Royal Technical Institute, Salford, England. Chamberlain, J. S., Expert in Chemistry of MilHng, U. S. De- partment of Agriculture. Barker, A. F., Lecturer in the Municipal Technical College;, Bradford, England, and Author of several works on textile subjects. Brookfield, H. M., President of the Brookfield Glass Company. Brown, E. C, Editor of the ''Progressive Age." HiORNS, A. H., Professor of Metallurgy, Municipal Technical School, Birmingham; Author of "Iron and Steel Manufac- ture," ''Practical Metallurgy and Assaying," etc. Mining,'iron, and Struthers, Joseph, Ph.D., Assistant Secretary and Editor of "American Institute of Mining Engineers"; Lecturer in the School of Mines, Columbia University. steel. Sugar. Technological Subjects. Soap. Printing. HoRNE, William, Ph.D., Chemist of the National Sugar Refining Company. HoRSBURGH, Ellice M., M.A., B.Sc, Associate Professor of Mathematics, Edinburgh University. VuLTE, H. T., Ph.D., Lecturer in Chemistry, Teachers College, Columbia University. Little, Joseph J., formerly President of the Board of Education, City of New York. 20 Petroleum. Day, David T., A.B., Ph.D., U. S. Government Expert. Pottery, Terra Cotta. Whiskey- Paper. RiES, Heinrich, Ph.D., Professor of Economic Geology, Cornell University. ToLMAN, L. M., U. S. Bureau of Internal Revenue. Wheelwright, H. M., of the Wheelwright Paper Co., Boston, Mass. UNITED STATES. United States and U. S. Topography, Philippine Islands. Gannett, Henry, B.S., M.E., LL.D., Geographer and Statis- tician of the U. S. Geological Survey, Geographer of the U. S. Census, Chairman of the U. S. Board on Geographic Names. statistics, Commerce and Commercial. Austin, Oscar P., Chief of Bureau of Statistics, U. S. Treasury Department. Fauna and Flora under U. S. Revision of U. S. Gazetteer. San Francisco and San Francisco Earthquake. Gannett, M. C, U. S. Forest Service. Heilprin, Louis, Editor of Lippincott's "Gazetteer.'' Hyde, A. E., formerly Secretary of the San Francisco Relief Committee. Geology of u. s. Merrill, George P., Ph.D., U. S. National Museum. Geographical Articles. Newland, D. H., Assistant State Geologist, New York State Museum. statistics in U. S. Article. Berkey, C. p., Ph.D., Instructor in Geology, Columbia Uni- versity. New York City. Philadelphia. New Orleans. Hubert, P. G., Jr., formerly of the Editorial Staff of the New York Evening Post." Stirling, Edmund, Editorial Staff, Philadelphia 'TubKc Ledger." Walker, Norman, Editorial Staff, New Orleans ''Times-Demo- crat." St. Louis. State Articles. Byars, William Vincent, JournaKst and Author, St. Louis. Hankins, F. H., Clark University, Worcester, Mass. U. S. Bureau of Mines. Holmes, Joseph A., Chief of the Bureau of Mines. 21 MISCELLANEOUS DEPARTMENTS AND ARTICLES. nines. C'ollege i5 are the remains of the two cross strokes; the Arabic | has lost even these. The name aleph, Greek alpha, means an 'ox.' Some think the original sign represents a head and horns. A is in musical notation the sixth note of the natural diatonic scale of C, and the first note of the relative minor scale; called la in Italy, France, and Spain. In concert pitch, A has about 900 vibrations per second, or a multiple of that number. Con- tinental tuning forks are set to this note. Most stringed in- struments have a string tuned to it, which in the violin is the second string, in the viola and violoncello the first, and in the contrabasso generally the third. It is the note given for tuning the orchestra. The key of A major has three sharps. A, as a symbol of order or emi- nence, denotes the first of a series, or the chief of a class. A, in the calendar, is the first of the seven dominical letters. Vol. I.— a In old books of which only the alternate pages are numbered it denotes left-hand pages. A as a symbol in logic is the universal affirmative. A, as an ab- breviation, denotes many words of which it is the initial letter — e.g., American (a.a.a.s.), anno (A.D.), ante (a.m.). Antiquaries (f.s.a.), artium or arts (b.a.). In medical formulae a or aa (Gr. ana) signifies that equal parts of each ingredient are to be taken; in Roman anti- quities it stands for absolve ('I acquit') on the judge's tablet; in textual notes on the Old and New Testaments it denotes the Codex Alexandrinus. See Al- phabet. A 1, a term used in the classi- fication of vessels to denote first- class condition and equipment after inspection. See Lloyd's. Aa ('water' or 'stream'), name of many rivers in France, Swit- zerland, and Russia. Alternative forms are AcH, Aach, Achen. Aachen. See Aix la Cha- PELLE. Aal, red dye obtained from the root of Morinda citrifolia (allied to madder), used largely for dyeing cotton cloth in India. The centre of the industry is at Gujarat. Aalborg, city and port in Northeast Jutland, Denmark, on Liim Fjord, at the entrance to the Kattegat. It is an important railroad and commercial centre, and a bishopric. Two bridges across the fjord connect it with Norre Sundby. There are some seventeenth-century stone houses (notably the Apothecary's House) , but the town as a whole is modern in aspect. There are large cement works and a nautical school. Pop. 35,000. Aalen, town, Wurtemberg, Germany, on the Kocher, 48 m. northeast of Stuttgart. It has iron works, woollen mills, etc. Pop. 10,000. Aalesund, town and fishing port, Romsdal county, Norway, on two islands of the west coast, Norvo and Aspo, connected by a bridge. It has an excellent harbor. It was destroyed by fire in 1904, but has been practically rebuilt in stone. Pop. (1910) 13,836. Aali Pasha, Mehemet Emin (1815-71), Turkish statesman, was born in Constantinople; Turkish ambassador to London (1840-4) ; Foreign Minister (1846- 52); represented Turkey at the Congress of Paris (1856, ; took part in suppressing the Cretan rebellion (1867-8); and brought about the submission of the Khe- dive of Egypt (1869). He was five times grand vizier, and an ardent advocate of reform. Aalst. See Alost. Aar, or A are, Swiss river; rises in canton Bern in the Grimsel at about 6,250 ft. It traverses Lakes Brienz, Thun, and Bienne, and is navigable after its emer- gence from the Lake of Thun at the town of that name. It flows past Meiringen, Interlaken, Bern, Solothurn, and Aarau; and aug- mented by the waters of the Limmat and the Reuss, enters the Rhine near Waldshut. Its length is 175 miles. Canalization work has been undertaken in several portions of the course. Aarau, capital of canton Aargau, Switzerland, on the Aar, 50 miles northeast of Bern, 1,300 ft. above sea level. It is a railroad junction, a military station, and an important manufacturing cen- tre for vsilk, cotton, tile, ribbon, cement, railroad material, bells, and cannon. After the French seizure of Switzerland (1798), Aarau was the capital of the Helvetic Republic, but in 1803 was made capital of the newly constituted Swiss canton of Aargau (q.v.). Pop. (1910) 9,536. Aard-vark ('earth-pig'). See Cape Ant-eater. Aard-wolf {Proteles cristatus), a burrowing, nocturnal animal, closely related to the hyaena. It is confined to South Africa, and feeds on carrion and insects. Aarestrup, Carl Ludwig Emil (1800-56), Danish lyric poet, was born in Copenhagen; practised as a doctor. His Efter- ladte Digte (1863) created a sen- sation by their erotic tone. His Samlede Digte were edited by Georg Brandes. Aargau (French Argovie), a canton of Switzerland, south of the Rhine. Area, 542 sq. m., of which 95 per cent, is productive. There are extensive vineyards and fruit is largely cultivated. The chief manufactures are cot- tons, silks, straw hats, and tobacco. At Baden and Schinz- nach are noted sulphur springs, and at Windisch (ancient Vin- dinissa) are Roman remains. Its capital is Aarau (q. v.). Pop. (1910) 229,850: 222,571 being Ger man-speaki ng. Aarhtis 10 Abartm Aarhus, or Aarhuus, port on east coast and largest city of Jutland, Denmark, 22 m. south- east of Randers, with a good harbor, generally ice-free. It is a railroad junction and an im- portant trading centre, and has manufactures of machinery, glass, and cement. There are steamer connections with Copenhagen and England. Exports grain, flour, butter, cattle, pork, beef; imports coal, iron, petroleum, and maize. Pop. 58,000. Aaron, the elder brother, col- league and interpreter of Moses. According to the Pentateuch, he was consecrated to the high- priesthood (Ex. xxviii., xxix.; Lev. viii.), and was consequently regarded as the ancestor of all lawful priests in Israel, Though always second to Moses, he was joined with him in the perform- ance of miracles (Ex. vii. 19f. ; viii. 5f .) ; his budding rod was deposited in the Ark (Heb. ix. 4). His great sin was the making of the golden calf (Ex. xxxii. 4) ; for a subsequent fault he was denied entrance into Canaan (Num. XX. 8-13), and died, aged 123, on Mount Hor, in Edom (Num. XX. 23-29), being suc- ceeded by his third son, Elea- zar. See Moses. Aaron's Beard, the name of two different plants — Hypericum calycinum ('rose of Sharon'), so named because of the tufted, beardlike stamens of its yellow flowers; and Saxifraga sarmen- tosa ('mother of thousands'), a Chinese plant, often seen hang- ing at cottage windows. Aaron's Tomb ( Kabr Harun), on east peak (4,360 feet) of Mount Hor, is, according to ancient tra- dition, the place where Aaron was buried. It is alluded to by Josephus {Antiquities, iv. 4), and is a place of pilgrimage. See Hor. Aasen, Ivar Andreas (1813- 96), Norwegian philologer and author, was of peasant origin, and self-educated. In 1848 his A^ors^e Folkesprogs Grammatik was pub- lished, and his Ordbog over del Norske Folkesprog in 1850. Aasen reconstructed an eclectic 'national' language (Landsmaal) out of the existing Norwegian dialects; his efforts in this direc- tion being chiefly concentrated upon a grammar ( Norsk Gram- matik. 1864), a dictionary ( Norsk Ordbog, 1873), which has been supplemented by the Norsk Ordbog (1890-2) of Hans Ross.and the publication of original poems. Aasviir Islands, near the Arctic Circle, west of Norway about 10 miles. It has impor- tant herring fisheries. A.B., Bachelor of Arts* See Degree. Ab, in Jewish calendar, fifth month of the ecclesiastical and eleventh of the civil year; part of our July and August. The 9th of Ab was set aside to commem- orate the destruction of the Tem- ple (586 B.C. and 70 A.D.) Ababdeb, pastoral Arab Mo- hammedan tribe living in the hilly district about the frontiers of Upper Egypt and Nubia, be- tween the Red Sea and the Nile. They are Hamites, and in color are deep brown to black. Abaca, or Abaka. See Ma- nila Hemp. Abaco, Great, or Lucaya (80 m. by 20 m.), one of the Bahama Islands, east of Great Bahama. Pop. 3,314. Little Abaco is northwest of Great Abaco. See Bahamas. Abaculi, small cubes of col- ored glass, enamel, stone, or other material, used in mar- quetry and mosaic work. Abacus, an instrument to facilitate calculation, used by the ancient Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, Hindus, and Mexi- cans. It consists of a board in which parallel grooves are cut to contain pebbles, or a rectangular frame of wires on which beads are strung. The latter form ex- ists in the tschotii of Russia and the suan-pan of China, and is used for teaching arithmetic. Abacus, in architecture, a flat stone, square, octagonal, or cir- cular, and either plain or va- riously ornamented, placed above the capital of a column. Abaddon, Hebrew word for 'ruin' or 'destruction.* Though sometimes used in this general sense (Job xxxi. 12), it is often equivalent to Sheol, the place of the dead (Prov. xv. 11), or, more particularly, that of the lost. Sometimes it is personified, as in Job xxviii. 22; while in Rev. ix. 1 it is the name of the 'angel of the abyss,' and is inter- preted as Apollyon ('the de- stroyer'), made familiar by Bunyan in his Pilgrim's Progress. Abakansk, town, Yeniseisk, Siberia, near the junction of the Abakan with the Yenisei River. There are coal mines and iron works, and ancient tombs. The town has considerable trade in furs. Pop. 2,000. Abalone, a flatly coiled mol- lusk (Haliotidac) of the sea-coast; numerous in Southern California. The shell is used as mother-of- pearl, and the flesh is dried and eaten. Many species occur in all warm seas. Abana (Amanah) and Phar- PAR, rivers of Damascus (2 Kings V. 12), now the Barada (a branch of which is still called the Banias), flowing through the city, and the Awaj, to the south of the Da- mascus plain. Some identify the Pharpar with the Barbar, a south tributary of the Barada. Abancay, town, in a silver- mining district in Peru, the chief city in Apurimac department, about 40 m. southwest of Cuzco. on the Abancay River. Its chief industry is sugar refining, as it is situated in a rich sugar-growing district. Other products are maize, fruit, barley, potatoes, and vegetables. Pop. 5,000. Abancourt, Charles Xavier Joseph d' (1758-92), a supporter of Louis XVI. in the French Revolution. He was made Minis- ter of War (June, 1792), and was killed at Versailles by the pop- ulace. Abandonment. The leaving of a person or persons to whom one is legally bound, or the relinquishment of property or rights, with the intention of not returning to such person or per- sons, or of not reclaiming such property or rights. Abandon- ment or exposure of an infant with intent to cause its death is murder, if death ensues; and in general a desertion which results in injury to the person aban- doned is punishable as a mis- demeanor, both at common law and under modern statutes. Abandonment ot wife and family has in many of the United States been made a penal off"ence, and is in most States a ground for divorce. Abandonment of pat- ent occurs when an inventor fails either to punish infringe- ments or to obtain a patent for his invention. The term is also used in connection with mining claims, easements, and public rights of way. See Desertion. Abano, watering place, prov. Padua, Italy, foot of Euganean Hills, 6 m. southwest of Padua. Its hot saline springs (98 to 181° F.) were known to the Romans. A statue of Hercules or Nero was excavated here. Pop. 5,000. Abano, Pietro di (1250- 1316), physician, was born in Padua. He became professor of medicine at Padua. He was a disciple of Averrhoes, and given to the study of alchemy and astrology. He was brought before the Inquisition on a charge of heresy, and condemned to death, but died before the sen- tence could be carried out. His most famous work is Conciliator Diff erentiarum quce inter Philo- sophos et Medicos versantur (1472). Abarbanel. See Abravanel. Abarlm ('those on the other side'), a range of highlands east of the Dead Sea, containing Pisgah, where Moses viewed the Abasa 11 Abbas Hllml Promised Land (Num. xxi. 20; xxiii. 14; Deut, xxxiv. 1); and, 2 miles to the east, Mount Nebo, 'the lonely mountain,' where Moses died and was buried (Deut. xxxii. 49; xxxiv. 1). Abasa, or Abasins, Circassian tribe, of Indo-European origin, akin to the people of Abkhasia. They were originally Christians. Abasia. See Abkhasia. Abatement, in law, is the in- terruption or suspension of a legal claim. Abatement of suit is the suspension of a proceeding at law or in equity owing to the lack, from death or otherwise, of proper parties to go on with it. The defect may be cured by the sub- stitution of the legal representa- tive of the defaulting party, \vhen the action revives. Abatement of nuisance is the forcible removal by the injured party of an inconvenience consti- tuting an infringement of his property rights. Such removal is legally permissible if accomplish- ed without unnecessary damage or disturbance. Abatement of freehold is the suspension of a lawful seisin of land through the wrongful entry of a stranger thereon in the in- terval between the death of the owner and the entry of his lawful successor to the inheritance. It is terminated by the entry of the latter. Abatement of legacies or debts is the scaling down of legacies or debts, owing to the insufficiency of the assets of a testator to discharge them in full. A plea in abatement, in the common-law system of pleading, involves not the merits of the case, but the completeness or correctness of the writ. If suc- cessful, such plea quashes or abates the action, and compels the plaintiff to begin over again. Abatis, a fortification made by felling trees, stripping them of their smaller branches, and secur- ing them with the sharpened trunks in the earth and the branches pointing upward and outward toward the enemy. Abattoir ( French abattre, 'to slaughter'), a slaughter-house for cattle and other animals used for food. An abattoir should be on the outskirts of a city or othef location that will allow for ex- tension; and should be close to a plentiful water supply, main thoroughfares, and railroads. It must include accommodation for penning, killing, dressing, cool- ing, inspection of suspected animals and meat; offices, and various buildings for the treat- ment of the feet, intestines, and blood. The slaughter room and the pen should be so arranged that living animals shall not be frightened by the smell of blood, and that animals led in for slaughter shall not see traces of those just killed. The walls and floors, therefore, should be smooth and impervious, to pre- vent absorption, and to admit of thorough cleansing. The offal is usually removed in trucks or in barges, to be used as manure; and in the best conducted estab- lishments, practically every part of the animal is used. A public health officer and a veterinary surgeon always supervise the operation of a good abattoir, and in the United States, gov- ernment officials inspect meat for interstate or foreign trade. In Europe, abattoirs are com- monly owned or controlled by the public authorities; in the United States, by private com- panies. The first abattoirs were those of Paris, established in 1818, on the recommendation of the Commission of 1810. In Austria, the movement was begun in 1850 with the erection of a large abattoir in Vienna; and Prussia followed in 1868 with a law requiring such build- ings, which had considerable effect on legislation in the other German states. Public abattoirs are now common in France, Germany, Austria, Belgium, Switzerland, and Russia; but it is only recently that they have been actively promoted in Great Britain. Typical abattoirs are those in Chicago, in Paris (105 acres), and in Dresden (1910; 68 separate buildings). See Meat; Packing Industry. Consult Schwarz' Abattoirs and Cattle Markets (1903) ; Cash's Our Slaughter- House System (1907); Ayl'mgs Public Abattoirs (1908). Abauzit, Firmin (1679-1767), was born in Uzes, France. He fled to Geneva on the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes; assisted in translating the New Testament into French (1726), and became librarian at Geneva (1727). He was a great scholar, much esteem- ed by Newton, Voltaire, and Rousseau. Abba (Aram, 'father'), a devo- tional expression for the Divine Father, and apparently the chief appellation of God used by Jesus in prayer, occurs four times in the New Testament (Mark xiv. 36; Matt. xxvi. 39; Rom. viii. 15; Gal. iv. 6), accompanied by its Greek equivalent. It is sup- posed to have been used as a sacred proper name; servants were forbidden to use it to their masters. Abbadle, Antoine Thomson d' (1810-97), French savant and explorer, of French-Irish parent- age, was born at Dublin. He was educated in France, whither his parents removed in 1818. He was sent by the Academie des Sciences on a mission to Brazil (1835); occupied with the explo- ration of Abyssinia (1837-48); a member of the Academie des Sciences (1867), and of the Bureau des Longitudes (1878); received the Arago medal, along with Lord Kelvin (1896). He bequeathed his estate of Abbadie to the Academie des Sciences, on condition of its publishing a cata- logue of 500,000 stars in 50 years. Abbadie, Arnaud Michel d' (1815-93), accompanied his brother Antoine to Abyssinia, and wrote Douze Ans dans la Haute-Ethiopie (1868). Abba(lie,jACQUEs(i654-1727), Protestant theologian, a native of Nay, in Bearn, France. He was pastor of a French Protestant church in Berlin (1676), and in 1688 pastor of the French church of the Savoy in London. Wil- liam III. nominated him dean of Killaloe, Ireland. His best- known work is Traite de li Verite de la Religion Chretienne (1684), an apologetic work in- spired by the Cartesian philos- ophy. Other noteworthy books are U Art de se connattre soi- meme (1692); Defense de la Na- tion Britannique (1692); La Grande Conspiration d'Angle- terre (1696). Abbas (c. 566-652), uncle of Mohammed, was taken prisoner at the battle of Bedr, and after- ward became the leading sup- porter of the faith. He was the founder of the dynasty of the Abbassides, who were califs of Bagdad from 750 until the Mon- gol conquest in 1258. See Calif; Califate. Abbas I., 'The Great' (1557- 1628), Persian monarch, ascend- ed the throne in 1586. He defeated the Uzbegs at Herat (1579), and the Turks in many battles (1601-9), and, with Brit- ish assistance, drove the Por- tuguese from Ormuz (1622). His dominion extended from the Tigris to the Indus. He estab- lished the capital at Ispahan, and was the author of many im- portant reforms. Abbas Effendi. See Ba- HAISM. Abbas Hilmi (1874), Khedive of Egypt, son of Mohammed Tewfik, was educated in Vienna, and is an accomplished linguist, speaking French, German, Eng- lish, and Arabic. He succeeded to the throne on the death of his father in 1892. At first antago- nistic to British influence, he has in recent years given his sup- port to the improvements in- Abbas Mirza Abbey itiated by the British. He owns extensive farm lands near Cairo, Alexandria, and Koubbeh, some of which were reclaimed by- drainage; and he is interested in horse and camel breeding. Abbas Mirza (1783-1833), Prince of Persia, son of Shah Feth-Ali, was commander in the the Earth's Atmosphere (vol. 1877, II. 1891, III. 1909); The Altitudeof the Aurora (1896); Physical Basis of Long- Range Forecasting (1902). He edited the monthly Weather Review (1892-1909.) and now edits the quarterly Bulletin of the Research \ Observatory at Mount Weather. Russian campaigns of 1811-13 \A Abbe, Robert (1851), Amer and 1826-8, in which Persia lost ^can surgeon, brother of_ Cleve her Caucasian territories. He was recognized as Shah by the treaty of 1828. Abbas Pasha(1813-54), grand- son of Mehemet Ali, succeeded his uncle, Ibrahim Pasha, as vice- roy of Egypt (1848). He aided the Sultan of Turkey in the Crimean War. His rule was wasteful and reactionary. Abbassldes. See Abbas, Abbate, Niccolo dell' (1512- 71), Italian painter, was born in Modena. He studied under Cor- reggio, and assisted Primaticcio in decorating the palace of Fon- tainebleau. His best works are the altar piece of San Pietro (Mo- dena), and Execution of the Apos- tles Peter and Paul (Dresden). Abbates Milites, Abbato- COMITES, or Abbacomites, lay abbots from the ninth to the eleventh century, who deputed deans or priors to the spiritual oversight of their abbeys. Abbazia, health resort in Istria, Austria, at the head of the Gulf of Fiume, 9 m. west of Fiume, with which it is con- nected by boat and rail. It is well sheltered at the foot of Monte Maggiore; mean summer temperature, 77°; winter, 50° F. It is known as the Nice of the Adriatic. Pop. about 2,000. Abbe, at first meaning abbot, was early applied in France to any ecclesiastic, a sense which the word still holds. See Abbot. Abbe, Cleveland (1838), American astronomer and me- teorologist, was bor.n in New York City, and was educated first at the College of the City of New York. He studied as- tronomy at the University ot Michigan, at Cambridge, Mass., and at Pulkova, Russia. In 1868 he was appointed director of the Cincinnati Observatory, where he organized for the Chamber of Commerce a system of daily telegraphic meteoro- logical reports and weather pre- dictions for the benefit of the whole city. In 1871 he became professor of meteorology at the Signal Office, and subsequently at the Weather Bureau at Wash- ington. His works on meteor- ology are of high authority. His best-known works include Meteorological Apparatus and Methods (1887); The Mechanics land Abbe (q. v.), was born in New York City. He was grad- uated at the College of the City of New York (1870), and at the College of Physicians and Sur- geons (1874). He was attending surgeon at the New York Hos- pital (1877-84), and at the New York Babies' Hospital (1892-7); and has been surgeon to St. Luke's Hospital since 1884, and to the New York Cancer Hos- pital since 1893. He was for two years professor of didactic sur- gery in the Women's Medical College, professor of surgery in the New York Post-Graduate Medical School (1889-97); and since 1898 has lectured on sur- gery at the College of Physicians and Surgeons. He is eminent both as a surgeon and for his researches in radium. Abbess, female superior of a nunnery, chosen by the secret votes of the nuns. She must be over forty years old, and have kept the vows of the order for at least eight years. She is installed by episcopal benediction, and exercises the temporal and spir- itual duties of an abbot, except confession and preaching. Abbeville (Abbatis Villa). town, dept. Somme, France, on an island and both banks of the Somme River, 15 m. from its mouth in the English Channel. Exports grain, fodder, flour, cloth, and rope; imports tar, coal, salt, wool, wine, and cattle. There are a communal library (50,000 volumes), a museum, and colleges for boys and girls. It is noted for its Church of St. Wolfram. Abbeville was founded in the ninth century, was fortified by Charlemagne and Hugh Capet, and later became the residence and capital of the courts of Ponthieu. It was occupied by the English in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and was the scene of English-French treaties in 1259 and 1527. It was taken by Germany in 1870. Pop. 22,000. Abbeville, town, South Caro- lina, county seat of Abbeville county, on the Southern and other RRs., 107 m. west by north of Columbia. Cotton and other agricultural products are raised in the neighborhood, and in the town are cotton gins, manufactories of cottonseed oil and fertilizers, and flour mills. Pop. (1910) 4,459. Abbey, the abode of a commu- nity of monks or nuns. As a Christian institution it originated among the early Christian her- mits of the Egyptian desert as a cluster of separate huts built round that of an anchorite of dis- tinguished piety; anticipated as a form of community by the Bud- dhists, Essenes, and Therapeutae; it is a natural corollary of the ascetic principle. As the monastic system became organized, there arose a form of architecture suited to its needs. The prin- ciple adopted by the Benedic- tines, that an abbey should be entirely self-contained, led to great complexity in the many thousand buildings erected by that order throughout Western Europe. These included the church, the centre of the whole monastic life; the chapter-house; abbot's house; common room of the monks; the refectory; dor- mitories; cloisters; buildings de- voted to the reception of guests; the almonry; infirmary and physician's residence; library and writing-room; house and schools for novices and children, etc. (See diagram under Monastery.) The whole abbey was surrounded by a wall. Among British abbeys are Westminster, Canterbury, York, Tewkesbury (Benedictine), Durham, Fountains (Cistercian), Bolton, Bristol, Holyrood (Au- gustinian). The first English abbey was founded at Bangor in 560. Henry viii. suppressed many of the smaller foundations in 1525 and following years, and abolished all institutions of this kind in 1539-40. See Priory; Monastery; Monasticism. Con- sult Wishart's Short History of Monks and Monasticism (1900); Cram's Ruined Abbeys of Great Britain (1905); Dixon's Abbeys of Great Britain (1908) ; Gasquet's Greater Abbeys of England (1908); Hibbert's Dissolution of the Monasteries (1910). Abbey, Edwin Austin (1852- 1911), American illustrator and figure painter, was born in Phila- delphia. After studying at the Philadelphia Academy of Fine Arts he went to New York (1871), and was for several years an il- lustrator for Harper and Broth- ers. In 1878 the firm commis- sioned him to go to England in search of local color for illustra- tions to Herrick's poems; and he subsequently made his home in that country. He transferred his attention from pen and ink to the brush, and his first acade- my picture was A May Day SOME OF THE MOST PICTURESQUE OF THE RUINED ABBEYS OF GREAT BRITAIN I. Bolton. 2. Kiikstall. 3. BristoL 4. Holyrood. 5. i'ountains. Abbey 14 Abbot Morning (1890). In 1896 he was elected a.r.a., in the year of his fine picture Richard III. and Lady Anne (etching by M. L. Flameng) ; and r.a. in 1898, his diploma picture being A Lute Player. Abbey is best known to Americans for the frescoes — fifteen panels telling the story of the Holy Grail — in the Boston Public Library (1901), and for the eight immense paintings in the dome of the Pennsylvania capitol at Harrisburg (1908) ; and to the English for the pic- ture of King Edward's coro- nation (1904), now in Windsor Castle. Other paintings are Hamlet (1897); King Lear's Daughters (1898); Crusaders Sighting Jerusalem (1901); Co- lumbus in the New World (1906). In general. Abbey's works are story pictures, and show remark- able ability to enter into and interpret the conceptions of other minds and bygone ages. It was this fineness of dramatic imagination that made him such a good illustrator. His ideal fig- ures are characterized by great purity of feeling, as well as by delicacy of drawing; while the compositions abound in histori- cally accurate detail, and are rich in masses of vivid color. Abbiategrasso, town, prov- ince Milan, Italy, 17 m. south- west of Milan, on the Naviglio Grande Canal. It has a castle, a convent, and a hospital. There is considerable trade in rice. Pop. 14,000. Abbot, the head of a monas- tery. The name was first given as a title of honor to any monk, then to aged or distinguished monks, finally to the superior alone. In the East the corre- sponding title is archimandrite or hegumenos. In the West, in orders founded after the eleventh century, superiors are known, not as abbots, but as priors, guardians, rectors, provosts, etc. An abbot may be chosen tor life or for three years; must be at least twenty-five years old, and a priest; the choice is made by the professed monks who are in holy orders, and confirmed by the bishop, or, in case of exempt monasteries, by the superior ab- bot or by the Pope; must, as a rule, receive solemn benediction for his office at the hands of a bishop; he may empower priests to absolve his subjects, etc.; in important cases he must obtain the consent of the community. He may preside over one house, or over many; he may be exempt from episcopal jurisdiction, and be subject directly to the Pope ; he may possess quasi-episcopal juris- diction over a whole district; he may be mitred— i.e., have the right to wear the insignia of a bishop; he may hold political rank, like the prince-abbots of Germany, or the twenty-eight English abbots who sat in the House of Lords before the disso- lution of the monasteries. Commendatory abbots are per- sons who enjoy the revenues of an abbey without necessarilv being monks. Originally ap- pointed for the protection of the monasteries in troublous times, they were afterward appointed as a mark of royal favor. Hence the French courtesy title of abbe or the Italian abbate, given to secular unbeneficed clerics. Abbot, Benjamin (1762- 1849). American educator, was born in Andover, Mass.. and was educated at Harvard University. For fifty years he was a teacher, most of the time being principal of Exeter Academy at Exeter. N. H., where he numbered among his pupils Bancroft, Edward and Alexander H. Everett, Jared Sparks, and Daniel Webster. Abbot, Charles. See Col- chester, Lord. Abbot, Ezra (1819-84), Bib- lical scholar, was born in Jackson, Me., and educated at Bowdoin. From 1872 to 1884 he was Bussey professor of New Testament criticism at the Harvard Divin- ity School. He edited Hudson's New Testament Concordance (1870), and assisted the Amer- ican committee for New Testa- ment revision (1871-81). He edited Smith's Bible Dictionary (1867-70); wrote Literature of the Doctrine of a Future Life (1864) and Authorship of the Fourth Gospel, and revised Schaff's Com- panion to the New Testament (1883) and Mitchell's Critical Handbook to the New Testament (1881). Consult Barrows' Life. Abbot, Francis Ellingwood (1836-1903). American leligious and philosophical writer, was born in Boston, Mass., and was edu- cated at Harvard University and Meadville Theological School. He had charge of several Uni- tarian churches and was instruc- tor of philosophy at Harvard (1887-8). He also edited The Index, a religious liberal weekly. He was the author of Scientific Theism {lSS&)\The Way Out of Agnosticism (1890); Syllogistic Philosophy (1906). Abbot, George (1562-1633), archbishop of Canterbury, was born in Guilford. He gained a fellowship at Oxford (1583), and became master of University College, dean of Winchester, and vice-chancellor (1600) of Oxford. He was bishop of Coventry and Lichfield (1609), then of London (1610), succeeding Bancroft as archbishop in 1611. As piesident of the Essex Divorce Commis- sion, he incurred the king's dis- pleasure by opoosing the peti- tion (1613). Ill-health and the accession of Charles I. (who fa- vored Laud) crippled his influ- ence, and in 1627 he was deprived of authority. An ardent Calvin- ist, he did not scruple to employ torture and the stake. He as- sisted in the translation of the Bible. Consult Hook's Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury. Abbot, Henry Larcom(1831), American engineer officer, was born in Beverly, Mass. He received his military education at West Point, Under General Humphreys he took part in the hydrographic survey of the Mis- sissippi delta, of which he wrote (with Humphreys) an elaborate report. Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi River. During the Civil War he saw service in the Manassas campaign; was wounded at Bull Run, and took part in constructing the defences of Washington, He also served in the Virginia Peninsula Cam- paign (1862), and in the opera- tions before Richmond in 1864-5. In 1865 he was chief of artillery in the operations before Fort Fisher, and in the Department of Virginia. He attained the rank of brigadier-general. After the war he was engaged in the mili- tary and scientific duties of the Corps of Engineers, until his retirement from active service in 1895. He received the degree of LL.D. from Harvard in 1886. He was a member of the Board of Consulting Engineers which formed, in 1896, the adopted plan of the Panama Canal. Abbot, Joseph Hale (1802- 73) , American educator, was born in Wilton, N. H., and was edu- cated at Bowdoin College. He taught mathematics and modern languages at Phillips Academy, Exeter, and was a frequent con- tributor to the Transactions of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He was one of the editorial staff in the compilation of Worcester's Dictionary of the English Language (1860). Abbot, Samuel (1732-1812), American merchant and philan- thropist, was born in Andover, Mass. He was one of the founders of Andover Theological Seminary, and its generous friend. He gave the institution $20,000 in his lifetime, and left it $100,000 by his will. Abbot, Willis John (1863\ formerly editor of The Pilgrim, and writer of story books for the young, was born in New Haven, Conn , and was educated at Abbot of Unreason 15 Abbott the University of Michigan. He was managing editor of the Chi- cago Times (1892-3), and served on the staff of the New York Journal (1896-8). He is best known for his stories for boys, including the Blue Jackets series; Battle Fields and Camp Fires; Battle Fields of i86i; Story of Our Navy for Young Americans (1910); Panama arid the Canal in Picture and Prose (1913). Abbot of Unreason, also Lord OF Misrule, the master of the revels at the season of Christmas, the former being his title in Scot- land, the latter in England. At Oxford and Cambridge the part was filled by a Master of Arts, who superintended the annual representation of Latin plays by the students, and took charge of their Christmas diversions. His 'reign' lasted from All-Hallows Eve to Candlemas Day. The revels of the London Inns of Court {e.g.. Inner Temple and Gray's Inn) were presided over by a Lord of Misrule. Abbotsford, the home of Sir Walter Scott from 1812 to 1832, is an estate on the right bank of the Tweed, 3 miles from Melrose. In 1811 Scott bought a farm of 110 acres, called Cartleyhole (not Clartyhole, as Lockhart terms it) , and named it Abbotsford. In 1813 he added the hilly tract from the Roman road near Turn- again to Cauldshiels Loch; in 1815, Kaeside, 'a large lump of wild land'; and, in 1817, the lands of Toftfield, which he bought for .f50,000. The house stands on a terrace between the river and the road from Melrose to Selkirk, and is a picturesque, irregular building in the vScottish baronial style. Abbotsford, com- pleted only in 1825, was involved in the collapse of 1826, and was not liberated till 1847, on the death of Scott's son. The vScott collection of books, paintings, and relics is held in trust by the Dean and Council of the Faculty of Advocates, who leave it in the keeping of Scott's representa- tives. See Scott, Sir Walter. Consult Smith and Crockett's Abbotsford (1905). Abbott, Austin (1831-96), American lawyer, son of Jacob Abbott (q. V.) , was born in Boston, and wasgraduatedfrom New York University (1851). He attained eminence in the legal profession, and was dean of the faculty of law of New York University from 1891 till his death. He aided his brother Benjamin in the publication of the latter's legal compilations; and he was counsel for Theodore Tilton in his celebrated suit against Henry Ward Beecher. Abbott, Benjamin Vaughan (1830-90), American lawyer, son of Jacob Abbott (q.v.), was born Vol. I.— 3. in Boston, Mass., and was grad- uated from New York University (1850). He was admitted to the bar in 1852; was associated with his brothers Lyman and Austin in legal practice; and in collabo- ration with the latter compiled many legal works. He draught- ed the present penal code of New Pennsylvania (1865), and was a surgeon in the Union Army dur- ing the Civil War. While assist- ant curator of the Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass., he gathered a fine collection of 20,000 archaeological specimens, which he presented to that museum. His published writ- Abbotsford House. Sir Walter Scott's Library. York vState; and was one of the three commissioners that revised the U. S. statutes in 1870-73. His legal compilations include: Digest of New York Statutes; Di- gest of U. S. Court Reports and Acts of Congress; National Digest; Patent Laws of All Nations; and a Law Dictionary. Abbott, Charles Conrad (1843), American archaeologist and naturalist, was born in Tren- ton, N. J. He was graduated in medicine from the University of ings include: Primitive Indus- try (1881); Cyclopaedia of Nat- ural History (1886); Wasteland Wonders (1887); Days Out of Doors (1889); When the Century was New (1897); Clear Skies and Cloudy (1898) ; In Nature's Realm (1900); Rambles of an Idler (1906); Ten Years' Diggings in Lenape Land, iqoi-ii (1912), Abbott, Edward (1841-1908), American clergyman, son of Ja- cob Abbott (q.v.), was born in Farmington, Me. He was grad- Abbott 16 Abbreviations uated from New York University (1860), and studied theology at Andover Seminary. He was or- dained in the Congregational ministry, and was pastor of the Pilgrim Church at Cambridge (1865-9); in 1879 he was or- dained in the Episcopal Church, and became rector of St. James' parish, Cambridge. He was edi- tor of The Congregationalist and of The Literary World, Boston. His works include a Memoir of Phillips Brooks (1900) and of his father, Jacob Abbott (1882); Paragraph History of the United States (1875); Paragraph History of the American Revolution (1876). Abbott, Emma (1849-91), American soprano singer, was born in Chicago, 111. After singing in New York churches, she studied abroad under San Giovanni and Mme. Marchesi, and made her operatic debut at Covent Garden, London, as Maria in La Fille du Regifnent. Three years later she returned to the United States, where she headed the Emma Abbott Opera Company for a number of years, and attained nation-wide success. Her reper- toire included the works of Verdi, Bellini, and Donizetti, Martha, Faust, Les Huguenots, and The Chimes of Normandy. In 1878 she married E. J. Wetherell, of New York. Abbott, Frank Frost (1860), American educator, was born in Redding, Conn., and was grad- uated from Yale (1882; ph.d. 1891; Hon. A.M. 1912). From 1891 to 1908 he was associate professor and professor of Latin in the University of Chicago; and since 1908 has been pro- fessor of Latin at Princeton. He has written: History of Roman Political Institutions (1901); The Toledo Manuscript of the Germania of Tacitus (1903) ; A History of Rome (1906) ; Society and Politics in Ancient Rome (1909); The Common People of A ncient Rome ( 1 9 1 1 ) ; and articles in American and foreign periodi- cals. Abbott, Jacob (1803-79), American clergyman and writer, was born in Hallowell, Me., and was graduated from Bowdoin College (1820). He was or- dained in the Congregational ministry; was professor of mathe- matics and natural philosophy at Amherst (1825-9); organized the Eliot Church at Roxbury (1834); and after 1840 devoted himself to writing, spending his life in New York City and in foreign travel. He was a prolific and popular writer of stories for the young, and published over 200 volumes, including Harper's Story Books (36 vols.), the Rollo Books (36 vols.), the Franconia Stories (10 vols.), the American Histories for Youth (8 vols.), and His- tories for the Young (19 vols.). Abbott, Sir John Joseph Caldwell (1821-93), Canadian public official, was born in St. Andrews, Quebec. He was edu- cated at McGill University, stud- ied law, and in 1847 was ad- mitted to the bar. He was a member of the Canadian As- sembly from 1859 until the union in 1867, when he became a member of the Dominion Parliament. In 1867 he joined the Cabinet of Sir John A. Mac- donald, and on the latter's death, in June, 1891, succeeded him as Premier, resigning in November, 1892. He was also a member of the Cabinet of his successor. Sir John Thomson. He was dean of the faculty of law of McGill University for ten years, and was knighted in 1892. Abbott, John Stevens Cabot (1805- 77), American writer, brother of Jacob Abbott (q.v.), was born in Brunswick, Me. He was graduated from Bowdoin College (1825); studied theology at Andover; was ordained in the Congregational ministry (1830); and held pastorates at Worcester, Roxbury, and Nantucket, Mass. After 1844 he devoted himself to Hterature, and wrote many his- torical works, including: Ameri- can Pioneers (12 vols.); The French Revolution; History of Napoleon; Napoleon at St. Helena; History of Napoleon IIP; His- tory of the Civil War; History of Frederick the Great. Abbott, Lyman (1835), Ameri- can minister and editor, son of Jacob Abbott (q.v.), was born in Roxbury, Mass., and was grad- uated from New York Univer- sity (1853). He practised law with his brothers Austin and Benjamin; studied theology with his uncle John S. C, and was ordained in the Congregational ministry; and became pastor of a church at Terre Haute, Ind., and of the New England Church, New York. After 1869 he edited the Literary Record of Harper s Weekly. In 1871 he became editor of The Illustrated Christian Weekly, and in 1876 associate editor, with Henry Ward Beech- er, of The Christian Union. In 1888 he succeeded Beecher as pastor of Plymouth Church, Brooklyn, retaining the editor- ship of The Christian Union, of which he had then become editor- in-chief. He continued the double work of preacher and editor for eleven years, during which time The Christian Union changed its name to The Outlook. In 1899 he resigned his pastorate to devote himself to the editorship of The Outlook and to literary work. Dr. Abbott's numerous pub- lished works include: Diction- ary of Religious Knowledge (with the late T. J. Conant, 1876) ; A Study in Human Nature (1885); In Aid of Faith (1891); Life of Christ (1894); Evolution of Chris- tianity (1895) ; The Theology of an Evolutionist (1897); Christianity and Social Problems (1897); Life and Letters of Paul (1898); The Life That Really Is (1899); Prob- lems of Life (1900); Life and Literature of the Ancient Hebrews (1900) ; The Rights of Man (1901) ; Henry Ward Beecher (1903); The Great Companion (1904); Chris- tian Ministry (1905); Personality of God (1905); Industrial Prob- lems (1905); Christ's Secret of Happiness (1907); The Home Builder (1908); The Temple (1909) ; The Spirit of Democracy (1910) ; America in the Making (1911) ; Letters to Unknown Friends (1913). Abbott, Nathan (1854), American educator, was born in Norridgewock, Me. He was graduated from Yale (1877), and studied law at Boston Univer- sity. After practising for some time in Boston, he became Tap- pan professor of law at the Uni- versity of Michigan (1891), pro- fessor of law, Northwestern Uni- versity (1892-4), and professor of law and dean of the law school, Leland Stanford University (1895-1907). Since 1907 he has been a member of the law faculty of Columbia University. Abbott, Wilbur C. (1868), American educator, was born in Kokomo, Ind. He was grad- uated from Wabash College (1892), and studied abroad at Oxford and on the Continent. Since 1897 he has been instructor in history at the University of Michigan, assistant professor of history at Dartmouth College, professor of European history at the University of Kansas, and professor of history at the Shef- field Scientific School, Yale (since 1908). He wrote Colonel Blood, Crotvn Stealer (1911). Abbre'viations are portions of a word, generally the first letter or syllable, used in place of the word to save time and space. In ancient Greek and Roman inscriptions, in the rabbinical writings, and in the manuscripts of the Middle Ages, abbrevia- tions were especially abundant (see Paleography) ; but with the invention of printing these became largely unnecessary. Along with abbreviations are usually grouped Contractions, in which one or more letters are elided, and Symbols, such as & for 'and,' $ for 'dollars,' etc. (see Symbols). Some of the more common of these are included in the accompanying list, which contains most of the important abbreviations in gen- eral use. Many obvious abbrevi- ations — e.g., those of the months, Abbreviations 17 Abbreviations States of the United States, countries, societies — are omitted, as well as special forms employed in geography, grammar, mathe- matics, and other technical sub- jects. For exhaustive lists con- sult Dobbs' Abbreviations, British and Foreign (1911); Rogers' Dic- tionary of Abbreviations (1913). A.B. Artium Baccalaureus (Bachelor of Arts). Ab init. Ab initium (from the beginning) . A.C. Ante Christum (before Christ). Accel. Accelerando (more quick- ly) • A.D. Anno Domini (in the year of our Lord) . A.D.C. Aide-de-camp. Ad fin. Ad finem (to the end). Ad inf. Ad infinitem (to infin- ity). Ad lib. Ad libitum (at pleasure) . Ads. Ad sectam (at the suit of). Adv. Advertisement. Ad val. Ad valorem (according to value). JEt. jEtatis (of his or her age). A.H. Anno Hegirce (in the year of the Hegira). A.M. Ante meridiem (before noon) ; anno mundi (in the year of the world) ; Artium Magistcr (Master of Arts). A.R.A. Associate of the Royal Academy. A.U.C. Ab urbe condita (from the founding of the city — Rome, 753 B.C.). A. V. Authorized Version (of the Bible). Av. Avoirdupois. Ave. Avenue; average. B. Born. B.A. See A.B. Bart. Baronet. Bbl. Barrel. B.C. Before Christ. B.C.L. Bachelor of Civil Law. B.D. Bachelor of Divinity. Bibl. Biblical; bibliography. B.L. Bachelor of Letters. B/L. Bill of lading. B.M. Bachelor of Medicine. B.Mus. Bachelor of Music. B.Sc. Bachelor of Science. Bu. Bushel. B. V.M. Blessed Virgin Mary. C. Chapter; centum (a hun- dred); century; Centigrade; circa (about). Cantab. Cantabrigiensis (of Cambridge). Cap. Capitulum (chapter). Cath. Cathedral; Catholic. C.B. Companion of the Bath. C.E, Civil Engineer. Cent. A hundred; century. Cf. or Cp. Confer (compare). Circ. Circa (about). C.M.G. Companion of St. Mi- chael and St. George. Co. Company; county. C/O. Care of. C.O.D. Cash, or collect, on de- livery. Cod. Codex. Con. Contra (against). C.P.A. Certified Public Ac- countant. Cr. Creditor. Cresc. Crescendo (increase of tone) . C. S.A. Confederate States of America. Cwt. Hundredweight. D. Delete (erase); died; penny, pence; 500. D.A.R. Daughters of the Amer- ican Revolution. D.C. Da capo (from the begin- ning) . D.C.L. Doctor of Civil Law. D.D. Doctor of Divinity. D.D.S. Doctor of Dental Sur- gery. D.G. Dei gratia (by the grace of God) ; Deo gr alias (thanks be to God). Dim. Diminuendo (decrease of tone) . D.L. Doctor of Laws. D.Litt. Doctor of Letters or Literature. Do. Ditto (the same). D.O.M. Deo Optimo maximo (to God the best and greatest). Dr. Debtor; doctor. D.Sc. Doctor of Science. D.T. Doctor of Theology. D. V. Deo volente (God willing). Dwt. Pennyweight. Ed. Edited; edition; editor. E. g. Exempli gratia (for ex- ample). Est. Established. Et Al. Et alia, alii (and others) . Etc. Et cetera, ceteri (and the rest) . Et. seq. Et sequentes, sequentia (and the following). Ex. Late. Ex. p. Ex parte (on behalf of). F. Fahrenheit; the following; forte (loud). F. and A. M. Free and Ac- cepted Masons. F.D. Fidei Defensor (Defender of the Faith). Fee. Fecit (he made it). Ff. The following (plural); fortissimo (very loud). Fl. Floruit (he flourished). F.M. Field Marshal. F.O.B. Free on board. F.R.C.P. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians. F.R.C.S. Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons. F.R.G.S. Fellow of the Royal Geographic Society. F. R.S. Fellow of the Royal Society. G. C.B. Grand Cross of the Bath. G. P. Graduate in Pharmacy. Hab. Habitat (dwelling). H. M.S. His or her Majesty's Ship. H.P. Horse Power. L Imperator, imperatrix (F2m- peror, EmprCvSs). lb. or ibid. Ibidem (in the same place) . Id. Idem (the same). Le. Id est (that is). I.H.S. From first three letters of Greek IH20Y2, Jesus; taken also for in hoc signe (by thi'i sign) ; in hoc salus (in this { •; salvation) ; Jesus hominum sal- vator (Jesus saviour of men). Imp. Imperator (Emperor) ; Im- perial. Inc. Incorporated. Incog. Incognito (unknown). Inf. Infra (below). In loc. cit. In loco citato (in the place mentioned). I. N.R.I. Jesus Nazarenus Rex ludceorum (Jesus of Nazareth. King of the Jews). Inst. Inst ante (mense) (this month) ; Institute. I.O.O.F. Independent Order of Odd Fellows. I.O.U. I owe you. I.W.W. International Workers of the World. J. CD. Juris Civ His Doctor (Doctor of Civil Law). J. P. Justice of the Peace. Jr. Junior. Kal. Kalendce (Kalends). K.C. King's Counsel. K.C.B. Knight Commander of the Bath. K.G. Knight of the Garter. K.G.C. Knight of the Grand Cross. K.G.C. B. Knight Grand Cross of the Bath. Kilo. Kilogramme. K.K.K. Ku Klux Klan. L. Fifty. £. Pound sterling. Lb. Libra (pound weight). L.C. Loco citato (in the place mentioned) ; lower case. Leg. Legato (connected). Litt.D., L.H.p. Litterarum Doc- tor (Doctor of Letters or Liter- ature) . LL.B. Legum baccalaureus (Bachelor of Laws). L.D. Legum Doctor (Doctor of Laws) . Loc. cit. Loco citato (in the place mentioned). Loq. Loquitur (speaks). L.S. Locum sigilli (the place ot the seal). L.S.D. Pounds, shillings, pence. Ltd. Limited. M. Mer idles (noon); monsieur; 1,000. M.A. Magister Artium (Master of Arts). M.B. M edicince Baccalaureus (Bachelor of Medicine). M.C. Member of Congress. M.D. M edicince Doctor (Doctor of Medicine). Mdse. Merchandise. M.E. Methodist Episcopal; Mining or Mechanical En- gineer. Mf. Mezzo forte (moderately loud). M.F.H. Master of Fox Hounds. M.I. C.E. Member of the Insti- tute of Civil Engineers. Mile. Mademoiselle. MM. McvSsieurs. Mme. Madame. Abbreviations 17A Abdication M.P. Member of Parliament. MS. Manuscript. M.Sc. Master of Science. MSS. Manuscripts. Mus.B. Musicce Baccalaureus (Bachelor of Music). Mus.D. Musical Doctor (Doc- tor of Music). N.A. National Academician. N.B. Nota bene (Mark well). Nem. con. Nemine contradicente (no one opposing; unanimously). No. Number. N.S. New Style. N.T. New Testament. Ob. Obiit (he died). O.K. All correct. Op. Opus (work). O.P. Ordinis prcBdicatorum (of the Dominican Order). Op. cit. In the work cited. O.S. Old Style. O.S.A. Order of St. Augustine. O.S.B. Order of St. Benedict. O.S.F. Order of St. Francis. O.T. Old Testament. Oxon. Oxoniensis (of Oxford). Oz. Ounce. P. Piano (softly) ; page. P.C. Privy Councillor. P.E. Protestant Episcopal. Per an. Per annum (by the year) . Ph.B. Philosophice Baccalaureus (Bachelor of Philosophy). Ph.D. Philosophice Doctor (Doc- tor of Philosophy). Ph.G. Graduate in Pharmacy. P.M. Post meridiem (after noon) ; Postmaster. P.O. Post Office. Pp. Pages. Pro. tem. Pro tempore (for the time). Prox. Proximo (mense) (next month) . P.S. Postscript. Q. Query; question. Q.C. Queen's Counsel. Q.E.D. Quod erat demonstran- dum (which was to be proved) . Q.E.F. Quod erat faciendum (which was to be done). Q.M.G. Quartermaster-General. Q.s. Quantum sufficit (A suffi- cient quantity). Q.v. Quod vide (which see). I^. Recipe (take). R. Rex, regina (king, queen); Reaumur. R A. Royal Academician; Royal Artillery. RA.M, Royal Academy of Mu- sic. R.C. Roman Catholic. R.E. Royal Engineers. R.I. P. Requiescat in pace (May he rest in peace). Rit. Ritardando (more slowly). R.M. Royal Marines. R.N. Royal Navy. R..S.V.P. Repondez s'il vous plait (Kindly reply). R.V. Revised Version (of the Bible). S. .Shilling; saint. Sc. Scilicet (namely); sculpsit (he sculptured it). Sf. _ Sforzando (with emphasis). S.J. Society of Jesus. S.p. Sine prole (without issue). S.P.C.A. Society for the Pre- vention of Cruelty to Animals. S.P.C.C. Society for the Pre- vention of Cruelty to Children. S.P.Q.R. Senatus Populusque Romanus (the Senate and People of Rome). Sq. Sequens (the following) ; sqq. (plural). SS. Saints. S.S. Steamship, Sunday school. St. Saint; street. Stacc. Staccato (distinct). S.T.B. Sanctce Theologies Bac- calaureus (Bachelor of Sacred Theology) . S.T.D. Sanctce Theologice Doctor (Doctor of Sacred Theology). S.T.P. Sanctce Theologice Pro- fessor (Professor of Sacred Theology) . Sup. Supra (above). S.v. Sub voce (under the head- ing). Temp. Tempore (in the time of) . Tr. Trillo (trill). Trem. .Tremolo (q.v.). U.K. United Kingdom. Ult. Ultimo {mense) (last month) . U.P. United Presbyterian. U.S. United States. U.S.A. United States of Amer- ica; United States Army. U.S.N. United States Navy. U.S.S. United States ship. Ut sup. Ut supra (as above). v.. Vs. Versus (against). V.C. Victoria Cross; vice-chan- cellor. V.G. Vicar-general. Vid. Vide (see). Viz. Videlicet (namely). V.S. Veterinary Surgeon. W.C.T.U. Women's Christian Temperance Union. Xmas. Christmas. Y.M.C.A. Young Men's Chris- tian Association. Y.W.C.A. Young Women's Christian Association. & And. &c. Et cetera (and the rest). $ Dollar, dollars. % Per centum (by the hun- dred). Abbreviators, the draughtsmen of papal bulls, etc. See Bull. Abd (Arabic, 'slave,' 'servant,' 'worshipper'), in Mohammedan countries, forms, in composition with Allah (God) and with other names or attributes of deity, many of the common Arabic personal names — e.g., Abdullah, Abd-el-Kader. Abd - el - Aziz, abd' - el - azez', MuLAi (1878), sultan of Moroc- co, succeeded in 1894 to the throne of his father, Mulai Has- san, and attempted to introduce European customs and methods of government. During the re- ligious uprising which ensued, France established a dominating influence; and at the Algeciras Convention (190G) gained with Spain the right to maintain order in Morocco. In 1907 Mulai Hafiid (q.v.), elder brother of Abd-el-Aziz, was proclaimed sul- tan; and in 1908, after futile opposition, Abd-el-Aziz surren- dered the throne. See Morocco, History. Abd-el-Kader, abd'-el-ka'der, or Abdul-Kadir, Emir (1807- 83) , Algerian patriot, was the son of a marabout of Mascara, with whom he twice performed the hajj, and visited the shrine of Sidi Abdul-Kadir at Bagdad. Preaching a jihad (holy war) against the French, he opened the campaign at Oran in 1833. Concluding a treaty with the French, he was recognized as emir in 1834; but war was soon resumed, and Abd-el-Kader fled to Morocco in 1843. In 1847 he gave himself up to General Lamoriciere, and was sent to Toulon. Released by Louis Na- poleon in 1852, he received a pension of $20,000 (1863), and finally resided at Damascus. He wrote a work on the Consolations of Philosophy (translated into French under the title Rappel a V Intelligent: Avis a F Indifferent) . Consult Lives by Churchill and Pichon. Abdera, ab-de'ra, town, which stood in ancient Thracia, on the ^gean Sea. Although the birth- place of such distinguished men as the philosophers Democritus, Protagoras, Anaxarchus, and the historian Hecataeus, Abdera was the Gotham of antiquity, and 'Abderite' was a proverbial name for a simpleton. A bd-er- Rahman. See Abdur Rahman. Ab'dica'tion, the resignation of office by a ruler or sovereign, may result from various causes. It was from being wearied with dominion that Diocletian (305 A.D.) and, in more modern times, Christina of Sweden (1654) re- signed their sovereignty. Charles V. laid down the crown (1556) chiefly from ill health. Philip v. of Spain abdicated (1724) in a fit of melancholy. Louis Bonaparte resigned the crown of Holland (1810) because he would not con- sent to treat that country as a province of France. Charles Emmanuel of Sardinia in 1802, and Victor Emmanuel in 1821, abdicated because they felt themselves unable to cope with an existing crisis. William i. of the Netherlands resigned (1840) as his policy had become impos- sible from the turn of affairs in Belgium. Foreign force com- pelled the abdication of Augustus of Poland (1704), and later, that of Stanislaus Leszczynski (1735) and of Poniatowski (1795); as well as that of Charles iv. of Spain (1808), and of Napoleon (1814 and 1815). Abdiel 17 B Abdul-Kadir Insurrections have been a fre- quent cause of abd'cations. In England there was the compul- sory abdication of Richard ii. (1399); in Scotland that of Mary at Lochleven (1567). Modern times have seen Charles x. of France (1830), Louis-Philippe of France (1848), Abdul- Azez of Turkey (1876); Abdul-Hamid ii. of Turkey (1907), Ali Mirza of Persia (1909), Manuel ii. of Portugal (1910), Hsuan-Tung of China (1912) and Nicholas, Czar of Russia, (1917) retire before the storm of revolution; have seen, too, the abdication of Ferdinand of Austria (1848), of Louis of Bavaria (1848), of Charles Albert of Sardinia (1849), of Amadeus of Spain (1873), of Prince Alex- ander of Bulgaria (1866), of King Milan of Servia (1889), of King Constantine of Greece (1917), of Emperor William ii. of Ger- many (1918), of Ferdinand of Bulgaria (1918), of Charles v. of Austria (1918), of the Sultan of Turkey (1922), and of King George of Greece (1924). Although it is not the custom to apply the term abdication to the withdrawal from office of the head of a republic, the resigna- tion in 1895 of the presidency of the French Republic by Casimir- Perier was in effect an abdication. In the United States, provision is made, under the Tenure of Office Act (q.v.), for the en- forced retirement or abdication of a President, after conviction by two-thirds of the Senate of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. Had the impeachment (q.v.) of An- drew Johnson been followed by his conviction, his removal from office would have fallen within the category of enforced abdica- tions. Abdiel, ab'di-el ('servant of God'), a Gadite chief mentioned in 1 Chr. v. 15; also the faithful angel of Milton's Paradise Lost, who opposed Satan's revolt in heaven. .. DIAPHRAGM ...SPLtCN ... PANCRtA* The Abdomen Abdo'men, in vertebrates, is the cavity supported by the pelvis, separated from the thorax by the diaphragm, and sur- rounded by muscular body walls. It contains the stomach, intes- tines, liver, bladder, and internal genital organs. A delicate serous membrane, the PerUoneum, lines the abdomen and covers its vis- cera, permitting a smooth, glid- ing movement of the organs (see peritoneum). For abdominal surgery, see Surgery. See also Intestines; Liver; Stomach. In Systematic Zoology the term Abdomen is used to describe the posterior region of the body in insects, crustaceans, arach- nids, and other arthropods which have the body divided into re- gions. The abdomen in arthro- pods is typically segmented, or divided into rings; but the seg- ments tend to disappear in parasitic or much-modified forms. Abduc'tlon, a term meaning the unlawful taking away of a free person, or of a slave belong- ing to another. Thus, the buying of a free person was punishable by the criminal law of Rome under the name of plagium. In the United States, abduction is the taking and carrying away of a child, a ward, a wife, or other relative, by fraud, persuasion, or open violence. Any one who takes away any female under the age of eighteen years from her father, mother, guardian, or other per- son having the legal charge of her person, without her consent for the purpose of prostitution, is guilty of a felony. The gist of the offence is the enticing and carrying away. In abduction for the purpose of marriage, it is not necessary to use physical force or violence, nor is it any defence that the abductor really believed, or had reason to be- lieve, the girl to be over sixteen. Abduction throughout the United States is a felony, and in some States may be punished by fine, not exceeding $10,000, and by separate or solitary confine- ment at labor for a period not exceeding twenty-five years. See Kidnapping. Abdul-Aziz, abd'ool-ii-zez' (1830-76), the thirty-second sul- tan of the Ottoman Turks, the younger son of Sultan Mahmud II., succeeded his brother, Abdul- Medjid, in 1861. His reign was marked by risings in Crete, Rou- mania, Servia, Bosnia, Herze- govina, and Bulgaria, chiefly the outcome of continuous misgov- ernment. A conspiracy forced him to abdicate the throne; and four days later he was found dead. Abdul-Hamld I., abd'dol-ha- med', or Ahmed iv. (1725-89), sultan of Turkey, who succeeded to the throne in 1774. In the first year of his reign Tur- key, disunited by revolts in Egypt and Syria, and defeated by Russia, was compelled to sign the Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainardji (1774), by which the questions of the Near East definitely enter into European diplomacy. By this treaty Russia secured some fortresses, important rights in the Black Sea, the independence of the Tartars of the Crimea, and be- came the protector of the Chris- tian populations of the Balkan Peninsula. War broke out again in 1786, and Turkey again sus- tained reverses at Jassy, Kholm, and Ochakov, which brought about the death of the sultan. Abdul-Hamid 11.(1842-1918), second son of Abdul-Medjid, suc- ceeded his brother, Amurath v., Abdul-Hamid II. as sultan of Turkey in 1876. His long reign was marked by reactionary measures, misgovern- ment, and foreign interference. He was thought to be progres- sive, but soon showed his real aims by exiling Midhat Pasha, the author of a constitution. The following events marked his reign: Servian war and Bul- garian atrocities (1876); Russo- Turkish war (1877-8); Treaty of Berlin (1878); union of Bulgaria and East Roumelia (1885); Ar- menian atrocities (1895-6); Grae- co-Turkish War (1897); and the rise of the Young Turk Party, the declaration of independence by Bulgaria, and the completion of Austrian control over Bosnia and Herzegovina (1908). Com- pelled to grant a constitution and an amnesty to exiles in 1908, he opened the first Turkish Parlia- ment in the same year, but next year was forced to abdicate in favor of his brother, Reshid Effendi, known as Mohammed V. (q.v.). Abdul-Hamid was sent to Salonika, whence in Novem- ber, 1912, he was brought to Constantinople by a German warship, and imprisoned in a palace on the Bosporus. In 1915 he was removed to Magnesia near Smyrna. Abdul-Kadir. See Abd-el- Kader. Vol. -March '28 Abdul-Latif 18 Abelard Abdul-Latif, la-tef (1162- 1231), noted Arabian writer, was born in Bagdad. He studied and taught medicine and philos- ophy at Cairo and Damascus. His best known book is a valu- able descriptive work on Egypt. Abdul-Medjid, me-jed'(1823- 61), sultan of Turkey, succeeded his father, Mahmud ii. (1839), and in 1841 concluded peace with Mehemet Ali of Egypt. He fol- lowed up the reforms of his father by the organic statute of Gulhana (Nov, 3, 1839), securing the rights of person and property to all his subjects without dis- tinction of religion; and he intro- duced many reforms, which form part of the Treaty of Paris (1856). In 1853 he resisted those claims of Russia to a pro- tectorate over his orthodox sub- jects which led to the Crimean War. He instituted the Im- perial Order of the Medjidieh (1852). Abdur-Rahman, abd'obr-rah- man', Arab chief, fought at the battle of Toulouse (721); in- vaded Aquitaine in 732, sacked Bordeaux, and carried destruc- tion as far as Burgundy. In 732, however, after seven days' fighting, he was defeated and slain by Charles Martel, leader of the Franks. Abdur-Rahman (?1830- 1901), ameer of Afghanistan. On the death of his uncle, Shere Ali (1879), he succeeded in over- throwing that ruler's son, Yakub Khan, and after 1800 was him- self recognized as ameer by the leading chiefs and by the Anglo- Indian government. He showed masterly skill and energy in con- solidating his power, and in pro- moting European arts and manu- factures and was considered a wise and intelligent ruler. Abdur-Rahman I. (731-787), founder (755) of the Ommiad dynasty of Cordova, Spain, was born in Damascus. He was engaged in almost constant war- fare, and conquered the Iberian peninsula northward to the Pyrenees. Abdur-Rahman II. (788- 852), fourth Ommiad ruler of Cordova, and son and successor of Al-Hakim i. (822). His reign was disturbed by wars at home and abroad. He wrote Annals of Spain in Arabic. Abdur-Rahman III., or Ab- DERAME (891-961), eighth and greatest ruler of the Ommiad dynasty in Spain, ascended the throne in 912. His wars against the Christian princes Alfonso III. of Leon and Sancho of Na- varre culminated in the defeat of their combined forces in 918. He was defeated by Ramiro ii. of Leon at Aljandega (939) ; but on Ramiro's death assisted the de- posed Sancho i. to regain his throne. He did much to pro- VoL. I. — March '28 mote Mohammedan unity in Spain. A'beceda'rians, a small sect among the Anabaptists in Ger- many in the sixteenth century, noted for their dislike to learn- ing. They thought it best not even to learn to read, as a knowledge of the Scriptures was all that was necessary, and this was communicated by the Holy Spirit direct to the believer without the medium of the written word. A Becket, Thomas. See Becket. A Beckett, Gilbert Abbott (1811-56), English barrister, magistrate, and man of letters, was born in London. He founded Figaro in London, the forerunner of Punch and also wrote the comic Blackstone and the comic Histories of England and Rome — the first illustrated by Cruik- shank, the last two by Leech. A Beckett, Gilbert Arthur (1837-91), English journalist and dramatist, son of Gilbert Abbott a Beckett, was born in London. He was educated at Oxford, studied law but was never called to the bar. In 1879 he became one of the regular staff of Punch and also wrote several plays and libretti, among which are The Happy Land, in collaboration with Sir W. S. Gilbert, Savona- rola, The Canterbury Pilgrims and La Cigale. Abeel, a-bel', David (1804- 46), American missionary, was born in New Brunswick, N. J. He w s educated at Rutgers College, and was for a time pas- tor of a church in Athens, N. Y. Later he became a missionary to China, founded the Amoy Mission, and travelled widely in the Far East. Throughout his life he was hindered by ill health, but he was indefatigable in his zeal for missions. He published Journal of a Residence in China. A'bel, the second (perhaps twin) son of Adam; a shepherd, who, having offered to God a more acceptable sacrifice than his brother Cain, was slain by the latter out of jealousy (Gen. iv. 1-8). In the New Testa- ment 'righteous Abel' is re- garded as the first martyr, and as a hero of faith (Matt, xxiii. 35; Heb. x. 4). Around his name many Jewish and Mohammedan legends have gathered. Abel, Sir Frederick Augus- tus (1827-1902), English chem- ist, was born in London. He was professor of chemistry at the Royal Military Academy (1851- 5) ; chemist to the War Depart- ment (1854-88); and president of the British Association (1890). He was an authority on explo- sives, and especially improved the manufacture of guncotton. He was part inventor (with Pro- fessor Dewar) of cordite, and invented the close-test apparatus for determining the flash point of petroleum. His published works include Guncotton (1866); Modern History of Gunpowder (1866); On Explosive Agents (1872); Researches in Explosives (1875); Electricity Applied to Explosive Purposes (1884). Abel, John Jacob (1857- ), American pharmacologist and chemist, was born in Cleveland, O, He was educated at the Uni- versity of Michigan and Johns Hopkins University, thereafter studying in Germany. Since 1893 he has been professor of pharmacology in Johns Hopkins University. He has also made valuable contributions to the knowledge of the fluids and tis- sues of the body, and to the action of drugs and poisons. Abel, a'bel, Niels Henrik (1802-29), Norwegian mathe- matician, was born in Findo. He distinguished himself by his able development of the theory of elliptical functions and alge- braic equations. Abelard, or Abailard, a-ba- lar'; Eng. ab'e-lard (Latin Ahce- lardus), Pierre (1079-1142), theologian and scholastic philoso- pher, was born in Pallet (Palais) near Nantes, whence he received the epithet 'Doctor Palatinus.' He lived when the controversy of the scholastic philosophy be- tween Nominalism and Realism was at its height; studied under Roscellin, and then under Wil- liam of Champeaux, the cham- pions, respectively, of the oppos- ing principles. He became, at thirty-six years of age, the most famous teacher in Europe, and his school at Notre Dame was crowded by students from every land. He rose above the abstract controversy of the schools, and taught a critical as opposed to the prevalent dogmatic method. Abelard is best remembered for the story of the love of He- loise. Within the precincts of Notre Dame lived Heloise, the niece of the canon Fulbert, then seventeen years of age, and al- ready remarkable for her beauty and accomplishments. They fled together to Brittany, where with the consent of her uncle Heloise was privately married to Abelard and bore him a son. Not long after, Heloise, with singular devotion, denied the marriage, that her love might be no hindrance to Abelard's advancement in the church. Abelard became a monk and Heloise took the veil. Having suffered imprisonment for heresy, by judgment of the synod of Soissons in 1121, Abe- lard retired to a hermitage — the 'Paraclete' — where eager students surrounded him; and later he was called to preside over the abbey of St. Gildas-de-Rhuys in AbeUn Id Aberdeen Brittany, while Heloise directed a sisterhood at Paraclete. Leav- ing the abbey after ten years, Abelard again became a teacher of great influence; but his ene- mies accused him of heresy, and Abelard set out for P.ome, to die in the priory of St. Marcellus, near Chalon-sur-Saone. His body was taken to Paraclete, where Heloise was laid beside him in 1163. In 1817 their remains were placed in one tomb within the churchyard of Pere-la-Chaise in Paris. Abelard did more than any other to develop and fix that method of joint philosophizing and theologizing which was char- acteristic of the great Scholastics; it was he who made Aristotle the almost exclusive basis of theological dialectics. In oppo- sition not merely to the unrea- soning devotion of Bernard and the mystics, but as against the systematic dogmatism of An- selm, he taught that only that faith is well assured which is founded on reason. 'Under- stand that thou mayest believe' was his motto. The best collective edition of Abelard's work is that of Victor. Cousin. The story of his life forms the subject of a drama by the Comte de Remusat. Con- sult also works by Wilkens, Car- riere, Deutsch, and Gingold (1906); Gabriel Compayre's Abelard and the Origin and Early History of Universities (' Great Educators ' Series) ; Pope's Epis- tle of Eloisa to Abelard; Life by Joseph McCabe; Wright's Lives and Letters of Abelard and Helo- ise; Richardson's Abelard and Heloise. Abelin, a-b'lah', Johann Phil- ipp (d. c. 1635), German historian — better known by the pseudo- nym Johann Ludwig Gott- fried, or GoTHOFREDUs — was born in Strassburg. He founded the Theatrum Europceum; and wrote Arma Suecica (1631), In- ventarium Suecice (1632), His- toria Antipodum (1655), etc. Abelites, a'bel-its, a Christian sect of the fourth and fifth cen- turies, living in North Africa, whose principal distinction was their refusal to propagate chil- dren, holding it to be the original sin, although they accepted mat- rimony, and adopted children. Abenaki. vSee Abnaki. Abenakis Springs, a-be-na'- kiz, Quebec, Canada, summer re- sort, with mineral springs, on the St. Francis River; 18 miles from St. Guillaume. Abencerrages, a-ben'se-ra-jez; Span, a-ben-the-ra'hes, an an- cient and powerful Moorish fam- ily of Granada, who were at feud with the family of Zegris, and were, it is traditionally said, Vol. I.— Oct. '15 massacred within the hall of the Abencerrages in the Alhambra in the fifteenth century. Their story is found in Gines Perez de Hita's Guerras Civiles de Granada, on which Chateaubriand's Aven- tures du dernier des Abencerages and Cherubini's opera are based, Aben-Ezra. See Ibn-Ezra, Abeokuta, or Abbeokuta, a-be-6-kob'ta ('under a rock'), city, Lagos province. Southern Nigeria, on the Ogun River; 60 miles by rail north of Lagos. The city is spread over a wide area, and most of its inhabitants are artisans, weavers, or traders. Commerce in European goods is carried on with the surrounding district. Pop. 275,000. Aberavon, ab'er-a'von, or Ab- erafon, town, Glamorganshire, Wales, on the River Avon. It has tin, copper, and steel works. Pop. (1911) 10,506. Aberbrotliwick. See Ar- broath. Ab'ercarn, village, England, 10 miles northwest of Monmouth. It has collieries and iron works. Pop. (1911) 16,445. Abercrombie, ab'er-krum-bi, John (1780-1844), Scottish phy- sician, was born in Aberdeen. He became one of the foremost con- sulting physicians in Edinburgh, and was appointed physician to the king in Scotland (1824). His papers in the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal (1816-24) formed the basis of his later works. Diseases of the Brain (1828) and Diseases of the Stom- ach (1828). He also published The Intellectual Powers (1830) and The Moral Feelings (1833). Abercrombie, John Joseph (1802-77), American soldier, was born in Tennessee, and was grad- uated from West Point (1822). He served on the Western fron- tier in the Black Hawk, Seminole, and Mexican Wars. He was wounded at Monterey, and was bre vetted lieutenant-colonel for gallantry. During the Civil War he served in the Peninsula and Shenandoah campaigns, and was wounded at the Battle of Fair Oaks. In 1865 he retired from active service with the rank of brigadier-general. Abercrombie, John William (1866), American educator and legislator, was born in vSt. Clair County, Ala., and was graduated from Oxford College (1886) and the law school of the University of Alabama (1888; ll.d. 1904). He was president of Ashland High School (1886-7) and prin- cipal of Cleburne Institute (1888-9), Alabama; president of Bowdoin College, Georgia (1890- 91); superintendent of schools in Anniston, Ala. (1891-7); presi- dent of the Southern Female Seminary (1897-8); Alabama State superintendent of educa- tion (1898-1902); and president of the University of Alabama (1902-11). In 1896-8 he was a member of the State senate ; and in 1913 he was elected a member of Congress for the State at large, and re-elected in 1915. He has been active in educational affairs in the South, and was president of the Southern Educational As- sociation. Abercromby, James (1706-81), British soldier, was born in Glassbaugh, Scotland. He was sent to America in 1756, and two years later became com- mander-in-chief of the British and Colonial forces. On July 8, 1758, he Jed an army of 15,000 men against Ticonderoga (q. v.),' but was repulsed with the loss of 2,000; and in September, 1758, he was superseded. Sub- sequently he became a Member of Parliament, and supported George iii.'s colonial policy. Abercromby, Sir Ralph (1734- 1801), British soldier, was born near Tullibody, Scotland. He fought under Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick in Germany (1758) ; served under the Duke of York in Flanders (1793-5); and was knighted on his return to Eng- land. In 1795-6 he conducted a successful campaign in the West Indies. In 1799 he commanded the first division in the expedi- tion to Holland; and in 1801 landed at Aboukir Bay, in Egypt. On March 21, at Alex- andria, he repulsed the attack of the French under General Menou, but was himself wounded, and died on March 28. Abercromby did much to improve the dis- cipline of the British army, and was universally respected for his courage, uprightness, and per- sonal charm. Consult Memoir by his son James, Lord Dun- fermline. Aberdare, ab-er-dar', town, Glamorganshire, Wales; 4 miles southwest of Merthyr-Tydfil. It has coal mines and iron and tin works. Pop. (1911) 50,844. Aberdeen, ab-er-den', the chief city and seaport of North Scot- land, on the North Sea; 130 miles northeast of Edinburgh by rail (Tay and Forth bridges).. The municipal borough comprises the district between the Dee and the Don, embracing Old Aber- deen, Woodside, Cults, and Torry. Aberdeen is a handsome town, built mainly of granite, and so called 'the Granite City.' Of modern edifices, the chief are the fine Municipal Offices in the Scottish Baronial style, the Post Office and Parish Council Offices in Renaissance style, Marischal College in Gothic, and the United Free Church College in Tudor; the new Market, Tradgg Aberdeen 20 Abcrncthy Hall, Royal Infirmary, Asylum, Grammar School, Theatre, Art Gallery and School, and Gor- don's College. Of its churches, the most noteworthy are the East and West, which have a spire in common, and the Roman Catholic pro-Cathedral, with a beautiful spire 200 feet high. Mention may be made of the Market Cross (1686); the Wal- lace, Gordon Pasha, Prince Con- sort, and King Edward statues; and the Duthie Public Park of 47 acres. King's College and University, founded in Old Aber- deen in 1494, and Marischal Col- lege and University, founded in New Aberdeen in 1593, were in 1860 united as the University of Aberdeen (q. v.). The city has an excellent har- bor, and steamer connection with Leith, Newcastle, Hull, and London. The chief industries are quarrying and working in granite, salmon and herring fish- eries, fish curing, engineering, chemical tanning, brewing, paper making, and shipbuilding; and manufactures of woollens, linen, jute, and combs. The trade of the port is valued at over $7,- 500,000 annually, of which two- thirds are imports. Aberdeen rose into importance in the twelfth century, when it became the see of the north, and received its charter as a royal borough from William the Lion in 1179. It took an active part on behalf of the Bruce. Its present prosperity dates from the rise of the granite-polishing industry of 1818. Pop. (1901) 153,114; (1911) 163,084. Aberdeen, city. South Dakota, county seat of Brown county, on the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul, the Chicago and North- western, the Minneapolis and St. Louis, and the Great North- ern Railroads; 280 miles west of Minneapolis. It has a fine municipal building and a Federal building, and is the site of a State normal and industrial school. Its artesian wells fur- nish valuable water power, and there are manufactures of flour, chemicals, brick, clothing, and artesian well supplies, also grain elevators and creameries. Pop. (1900) 4,087; (1910) 10,753. Aberdeen, city, Chehalis coun- ty, Washington, at the head of Gray's Harbor, on the Northern Pacific and Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul Railroads, with steamship connections; 50 miles west of Olympia. It has exten- sive lumber industries, including mills, cooperages, and shipyards, and fish and clam packing houses. Pop. (1900) 3,747; (1910) 13,660. Aberdeen, city, Mississippi, county scat of Monroe county, on the Tombigbce River, and Vol. I.— Oct. '15 the St. Louis and San Francisco, the Illinois Central, and the Mobile and Ohio Railroads; 140 miles by rail southeast of Mem- phis. It is a cotton mart, with mills and gins, and has manufac- tures of cottonseed oil, clothing, wagon spokes, and barrel staves. Pop. (1900) 3,434; (1910) 3,708. Aberdeen, George Hamilton Gordon, Fourth Earl of (1784-1860), British statesman, was born in Edinburgh, and was educated at Cambridge. In 1813 he was appointed minister to Vienna, and conducted the nego- tiations which led to the alliance of that power with Great Britain. At this time he formed a close friendship with Prince Metter- nich, which decidedly influenced his subsequent policy as a states- man. In 1828 he took ofiice in the new Wellington ministry; and the general principle which guided his policy as Foreign Secretary was that of non- interference in the internal affairs of foreign states. He was Co- lonial Secretary in 1834-5. In 1841 he again became Foreign Secretary in Peel's administra- tion, his chief services as such being the conclusion of the Chinese War, the Ashburton Treaty (1842), and the Oregon Treaty (1846). In 1852 Aber- deen became head of a popular coalition ministry, which lost credit owing to mismanagement in the Crimean War. He wrote an Inquiry into the Principles of Beauty in Grecian Architecture (1822). His Correspondence was privately printed. Consult Life by his son. Sir A. Gordon. I Aberdeen, Sir John Campbell Hamilton Gordon, Seventh Earl of (1847), British ad- ministrator, grandson of the fourth earl, succeeded to the title in 1870. He has served as lord- lieutenant of Ireland (1886), Governor-General of Canada (1893-8), and again as lord- lieutenant of Ireland (since 1905). The honorary degree of ll.d. was conferred on him by Princeton University in 1897, and by Harvard in 1898. His wife, Isabel Maria, daughter of the first Baron Tweedmouth, is devoted to social questions, es- pecially to the prevention of con- sumption in Ireland. She has published Through Canada with a Kodak. Aberdeenshire, maritime coun- ty in the northeast of Scotland, bounded on the north and east by the North Sea. Toward the sea the land is fertile and compara- tively level, but a great portion lies in the mountainous region of the Grampians, which form in the southwest the group of the Cairn- gorms. About 37 per cent, of the area is cultivated, the chief crops being oats, barley, and turnips, while nearly 8 per cent, is under wood. Aberdeenshire is famous for its cattle, the prin- cipal breed being the hornless variety known as Polled Angus. The principal rivers are the Deveron, Ythan, Don with the Urie (82 miles), and the Dee (87 miles). They are all noted sal- mon rivers. Minerals are gran- ite, manganese, plumbago, rock crystal (cairngorms), and ame- thysts. The coast fisheries are very productive. The county town is Aberdeen. Area, 1,980 square miles. Pop. (1901) 304,- 439; (1911) 311,350. Aberdeen, University of, com- prises the two separate founda- tions of King's College and Marischal College, which were united in 1860. The former, originally the College of St. Mary, was founded in 1494-5, at Old Aberdeen, by Bishop El- phinstone. Marischal College was founded at New Aberdeen in 1593 by George Keith, fifth earl marischal. Under the five faculties of arts, science, divinity, law, and medicine are conferred the honorary degrees of d.d. and LL.D., and twelve degrees in course. In 1914 the faculty numbered 26; instructors, 125; students, 1,050, of whom 318 were women. The library con- tained 200,000 volumes. Abergavenny, ab-er-gen'i or ab-er-ga-ven'i (the Roman Goban- nium), market town, Monmouth- shire, England; 16 miles west of Monmouth. It vStands on an eminence in the Valley of the Usk. Its Castle, still partly in- habited, was the scene of the treacherous murder of Welsh princes by William de Braose (1176). There are collieries and iron works. Pop. (1911) 8,511. Abernethy, ab'er-ne-thi, John (1680-1740), Irish clergyman, was born in Colerain. He be- came minister of a Presbyterian church in Antrim (1703), and was called to Dublin, but refused to go at the bidding of the synod. This led to a schism iij the Irish Presbyterian Church. Subse- quently, in 1730, he went to Dublin, and was afterward a strong opponent of the Test Act (1731). He left a manuscript diary. His Discourses on the Divine Attributes (1740-2), Post- humous Sermons (1748-51), and Tracts (1751) show advanced principles. Abernethy, John (1764-1831), eminent English surgeon, was born and studied in London. He was surgeon of St. Barthol- omew's Hospital (1815-27), and lecturer on anatomy at the Col- ege of vSurgeons (1814-29). His insistence on the connection of local diseases with disorders Aberration 21 Abhedananda of the digestive system deeply- influenced English medical prac- tice. His writings were collected in the Works (4 vols., 1830). Consult Brodie's Autobiography. Aberration of Light, an ap- parent displacement of the heav- enly bodies, due to the combined effects of the earth's orbital mo- tion and of the finite velocity of light. Each star, consequently, describes about its true position a small ellipse, the semi-major axis of which represents the arc traversed by the earth during the interval of light transmission from the sun, and is known as Apparent Annual Path of a Star Due to Aberration of Light. the 'constant of aberration.' Its accepted value is 20.47". And since it stands for the ratio of luminous to terrestrial speed, the distance of the sun can thence be deduced when the velocity of light has been independently de- termined. This explanation is very simple on the old corpuscu- lar theory of light, but presents great difficulties on the wave theory of light. (See Ether.) A similar but much smaller effect, depending upon the earth's axial movement, is known as 'diurnal aberration.' A third variety, called 'planetary aberration,' arises from the delay in the visi- bility of a moving luminous body caused by the progressive trans- mission of light. The aberra- tion of light was discovered by the English astronomer Bradley in 1727, while seeking to deter- mine the parallax of certain fixed stars. See parallax. Aberration, Spherical and Chro- matic, in optical instruments, means the deviation of part of a pencil of rays from the point through which every component ray of the pencil should pass, if the theoretical conditions for dis- tinct vision are to be rigorously fulfilled. Spherical Aberration results from the sphericity of the lens Vol. I.— Oct. '15 surfaces, or of the mirror used to produce the image of the object, distant or near according as the instrument is a telescope, camera, or microscope. Consider in par- ticular the case of a convex lens. (See Lens.) Parallel rays pass- ing through the lens are brought very nearly to a focus; but no lens with spherical surfaces will bring all rays exactly to this focus, even though these rays are of the same color and refrangi- bility. The amount o{ deviation of any particular ray from the focus will depend upon which part of the lens it passes through. Lenses might be ground with suitable forms of surface to pro- duce perfect focussing for a par- ticular kind of light from a source at a definite distance; but these would not have the same accurate focussing effect upon other kinds of light, or upon rays coming from sources at different dis- tances. For ordinary use of telescopes and microscopes this imperfection is not of great sig- nificance, and in high-class types of instruments other causes operate which are as effective as spherical aberration in diminish- ing definition. Chromatic Aberration is due to quite a different cause — viz., the different refrangibilities of the colored components of white light. When a single lens is used, the different colored rays from a given source are brought to different foci, thereby pro- ducing an image fringed with color. (See Dispersion.) This defect — a much more serious one than any that practically arises from spherical aberration — is al- most entirely removed by means of achromatic combinations of lenses. These are compound lenses formed of lenses of differ- ent kinds of glass; and their ac- tion depends upon the fact that there is no necessary relation between refraction and disper- sion. See Telescope. Abersychan, ab'er-suk'an, town, Monmouthshire, England; 11 miles north of Newport. It is situated in a mountainous region, near the coal deposits of Monmouthshire and Glamorgan- shire, and has collieries, iron foundries, and establishments for the manufacture of sheet steel and tin plate. Pop. (1901) 17,- 7G8; (1911) 24,656. Ab'ert, John James (1788- 1863), American military en- gineer, was born in Shepherds- town, Va., was graduated from West Point (1811), and served in the War of 1812. In 1814 he joined the U. S. corps of engin- eers, and in 1829 became colonel in charge of the topographical bureau. For many years he was actively engaged in national works of an engineering char- acter. He retired in 1861. Ab'ertil'lery, town, Mon- mouthshire, England; 16 miles northwest of Newport. It is located in the Monmouthshire and Glamorganshire coal district, and has recently experienced rapid growth under the stimulus of mining, its chief industry. Pop. (1901) 21,945; (1911) 35,- 415. Aberystwyth, ab-er-ist'with, port and watering place, Cardi- ganshire, Wales, on the River Ystwith; 245 miles northwest of London by rail. It is the seat of the University College of Wales and of the Welsh National Library. Its fine situation and climate combine with its marine terrace and promenade pier to make Aberystwyth a favorite bathing place. Industries are slate enamelling and the manu- facture of lead-mining machin- ery. Exports, lead and blende ore. Pop. (1901) 8,005; (1911) 8,412. Abet'tor. See'AccESSORY. Abey'ance, an English law term importing that a heredita- ment, dignity, or office is not vested in any one, but is sus- pended, until the true owner ap- pears, or the right thereto is de- termined. In the United States, personal property may be in a state of legal sequestration or abeyance. A parsonage, a vessel captured at sea, until condemned as a prize, may be in abeyance. The re- mainder or reversion in fee, where there is a tenant of the freehold, may for a time be said to be in abeyance when without any par- ticular owner. The right of a citizen to vote may be held in abeyance when he is not allowed to exercise that right. Ab'gar, the titular name of twenty-eight kings of Osroene (in Mesopotamia, of which Edes- sa was the capital), one of whom was said to have sent a letter to Jesus, asking Him to share his kingdom and cure his disease, and to have received ,a reply from Christ. These letters, trans- lated into Greek from the Syriac by Eusebius of Caesarea, were denounced as spurious by Pope Gelasius in 494, and lost all credit. Abhedananda, ab'ha-da'nan- da, SwAMi (18G6), Indian lecturer and author, was born in Calcutta, and was educated at Calcutta University. He was a disciple of Sri Ramakrishna Parama- hansa, and entered the order of vSanyasins. Coming to the United States in 1897, he organ- ized the Vcdanta Society of New York, of which he became the head, and other groups for the study of Vedanta philosophy. Abhorrcrs 2lA Ablngton At present he makes his head- quarters at West Cornwall, Conn., where in 1907 he estab- lished 'Vedanta Ashrama,' a summer school for the study of this philosophy. His lectures and publications have made him a leading exponent of monistic Vedanta in America. Among his publications are: Reincarnation (1899); Spiritual Unfoldment (1901) ; Philosophy of Work (1902) ; How to Be a Yogi (1902) ; Divine Heritage of Man (1903); Self-Knowledge (1905); India and Her People (1906); Human Affection and Divine Love (1911); Great Saviors of the World (vol. I., 1911). Abhor'rers, in English history, a name given (1679-80) to the Court or Prerogative Party, who signed addresses to Charles ii. ' abhorring' the petitions of the ' Petitioners.' The latter be- sought the crown not to pro- rogue Parliament further, in order that the Exclusion Bill against the Duke of York, after- ward James ii., might be pro- ceeded with, and that measures might be taken, in the Protestant interest, ' to smite the king through the duke's side. ' The Abhorrers later received the nickname of ' Tories,' and the Petitioners that of ' Whigs.' Abi'athar ('Father of Plenty'), son of Ahimelech or Ahijah the high priest, escaped when Doeg slaughtered the priests at Saul's command (1 Sam. xx. 20), and joined David at Keilah. Ap- pointed high priest with Zadok (1 Chron. xv. 11), he became David's counsellor (1 Chron. xxvii. 34), and remained faithful to him during Absalom's rebel- lion (2 Sam. XV. 24), but later joined Adonijah in his revolt (1 Kings i. 7, 19), and was therefore deposed from the priesthood by Solomon (1 Kings ii. 26). A'bib, in the Jewish calendar, the first month of the ecclesi- astical year, on the 14th of which the feast of the Passover is cele- brated; later named Nisan, and corresponding nearly to April. Abich, a'bic/t, Wilhelm Her- mann (1806-86), German geolo- gist, was born in Berlin. In 1842 he became professor of mineralogy at Dorpat, and in 1877 went to Vienna. He ex- plored the Caucasus, Russian Armenia, Northern Persia, and Daghestan, and published Geo- logische Forschungen in den Kau- kasischen Ldndern (3 vols. 1878- 88); Ueber die Geologische Na- tur des Armenischen Hochlandes (1893.) Abies, a'bi-ez. See Fir. Ab'lgall ('Father has rejoiced'), wife of Nabal the Carmelite, who by her tactful speech and gifts dissuaded David from taking Vol. I.— Oct. '15 revenge upon her churlish hus- band (1 Sam. XXV. 18-35). After Nabal's death she became the wife of David (39-42), and, after a short period of captivity among the Amalekites, resided at He- bron, where she bore David a son, named Chileab or Daniel (2 Sam. iii. 3; 1 Chron. iii. 1). In speaking to David she called herself 'thine handmaid,' and her name has thus come to be collo- quially used for a waiting maid or servant. Abi'jah, the name of several individuals mentioned in the Bible, of whom the most notable are the following: (1.) A king of Judah {c. 920-917), also called Abijam, the son and successor of Rehoboam. The meagre account of him given in 1 Kings xiv. 31- XV. 8 is supplemented by 2 Chron. xiii., according to which he gained an overwhelming vic- tory over Jeroboam, of whose army no fewer than half a million were slain, near Mount Zemar- aim, in the hill country of Ephraim. He was succeeded by his son Asa. (3.) A son of Jeroboam I., who died in child- hood (1 Kings xiv.). (3.) One of the descendants of Eleazar, son of Aaron, who was chief of the eighth of the twenty-four courses of David's priests (1 Chron. xxiv. 10; cf. Luke i. 5, 'Abia'). (4.) Second son of Sam- uel (1 Sam. viii. 2, R. V.), whose corrupt administration of justice gave the elders of Israel a color- able plea for their demand for a king. For other bearers of the name, see 1 Chron. ii. 24 (Abiah) ; vii. 8 (R. V.) ; 2 Chron. xxix. 1 (mother of Hezekiah). Abilene, ab'i-le'ne, a district of the ancient kingdom of Iturea, formed into one of four tetrarch- ies by the Romans (36 B.C.-23 B.C.). The chief town was Abila on the Abana River. It was in- corporated in the Roman prov- ince of Syria (100 B.C.). Abilene is referred to in Luke iii. 1. Abiiene, ab'i-len, city, Kansas, county seat of Dickinson county, on the Kansas River, and the Union Pacific, the Chicago, Rock Island, and Pacific, and the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroads; 160 miles west of Kansas City. The city has grain mills, machine shops, man- ufactories of carrousels, and is a shipping point for live stock. Here is Mount Saint Joseph Academy. The commission form of government was adopted in 1911. Pop. (1900) 3,507; (1910) 4,118. Abilene, city, Texas, county seat of Taylor county, on the Texas and Pacific and other railroads; 160 miles southwest of Fort Worth. Here is located a State epileptic colony. Indus- tries include grist, flour, and planing mills, cotton gins and a cottonseed oil mill. The city has commission government. Pop. (1900) 3,411; (1910) 9,204. Abimelech, a-bim'e-lek ('My father is king' or 'is Molech'). (1.) A king of Gerar, who, owing to Abraham's misrepresentation, took Sarah into his harem; but being warned in a dream, restored her to her husband (Gen. xx.). What is regarded as a variant of the same story is told in connec- tion with Isaac and Rebekah (Gen. xxvi.). (2.) Son of Gideon and a Shechemite woman, who persuaded the Shechemites to make him their king, and by assassination got rid of his seventy half-brothers except Jo- tham (Judg. ix.). The Shechem- ites ultimately rebelled against his authority, and while assault- ing Thebez he was struck by a piece of a millstone cast from the wall by a woman; and, to save himself from the disgrace of having died by female hands, he ordered his armor bearer to kill him. Ab'ingdon, market town, Berk- shire, England; 6 miles south of Oxford, It dates from about 675, when a Benedictine monas- tery was founded. It has manu- factures of ready-made clothing and carpets. Pop. (1901) 6,480; (1911) 6,810. Abingdon, city, Knox county, Illinois, on the Chicago, BurUng- ton, and Quincy and the Iowa Central Railroads; 50 miles west of Peoria. Here are situated Hedding College (Methodist Epis- copal) and Abingdon College. Industries include an animal- trap factory (claimed to be the largest in the world), and manu- factories of wagons, brick, tile, cement, and shirts and overalls. Pop. (1900) 2,022; (1910) 2,464. Abingdon, town, Virginia, county seat of Washington coun- ty, on the Norfolk and Western and the Virginia-Carolina Rail- roads; 205 miles southwest of Lynchburg. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic academy and convent, of the Stonewall Jack- son Institute (Methodist), and the Martha Washington College (Presbyterian) for girls. De- posits of salt, plaster, iron ore, and gypsum are in the neighbor- hood. Industries are iron fur- naces and forges, brick works, canning and wagon factories, and flour and lumber mills. Pop. (1900) 1,306; (1910) 1,757. Ab'ington, town, Massachu- setts, county seat of Plymouth county, on the Plymouth Divi- sion of the New York, New Ha- ven, and Hartford Railroad; 20 miles southeast of Boston. Boots and shoes are manufactured, and there are machine shops. The Ablngton Abo town was settled about 1680. In 1912 a memorial arch to the veterans of the Civil War was erected. Pop. (1900) 4,489; (1910) 5,455. Abington, Mrs. Fanny (1737- 1815), English actress, was born in London, the daughter of a soldier. She was a flower girl at the theatres, and made her first appearance at the Haymar- ket as Miranda in The Busybody. During her career on the stage (1755-99) she created thirty- original characters, her most famous being Lady Teazle. Abiogenesis, ab-i-6-jen'e-sis. See Biogenesis. Abi pones, a-be-po'nas, South American aborigines who for- merly inhabited the Gran Chaco, Argentina, between the Bermejo and Rio Grande. They were a fine tall race, with black eyes, aquiline nose, and long black hair, and were the bitter foes of the Spaniards. In 1780 the tribe numbered about 5,000, but it is now extinct. Consult Church's Aborigines of South America (1912). Abishai, a-bish'a-i, nephew of King David, and one of his most daring and faithful followers (1 Sam. xxvi. 6). He assisted in the night expedition to the camp of Saul (1 Sam. xxvi. 6-9). After David's accession he took part with Joab in numerous wars (2 Sam. ii. 18, 24; iii. 30), was faith- ful to the king in Absalom's re- bellion, and became one of the captains of the kingdom (2 Sam, xxiii. 18). Abitibi, Lake, a-bi-tib'i, near the boundary of the provinces of Ontario and Quebec, in lat. 48° 30' N., long. 80° w. It is drained to the west and north by the Abitibi River, which, joining the Moose River, flows north- ward into Hudson Bay at Moose Factory, James Bay. Ab'Jad is the first of eight mnemonic words which give the numerical order of the Arabic alphabet from 1 to 1,000. It is also the name for the alphabet, as in the phrase hurufu-'l-abjad, 'the letters of the alphabet.' The word is derived from the first four characteristic letters of the Arabic alphabet, a, b, j, and d. Abjuration. The Oath of Ab- juration was imposed in 1701 • upon members of the British Parliament and all holders of public offices, including clergy- men, teachers, barristers, etc. It was a declaration in favor of King William and the Revolu- tion Settlement, and against the 'late King James,' and concluded with the words, 'upon the true faith of a Christian.' It has by subsequent enactments been merged in a general oath of Vol. I. — Oct. '15 allegiance to the person of the reigning sovereign. Abjuration of the Realm, in old English law, was a means of avoiding the death penalty for felony by voluntary expatriation. It was open to any person ac- cused of crime (except in cases of treason or sacrilege) who took sanctuary and thereafter con- fessed his guilt and took oath abjuring the realm. See Sanc- tuary. Abkhasia, ab-ka'shi-a, or Ab- asia, district, Kutais, Asiatic Russia, along the Black Sea littoral. It is mountainous, with deep, well-watered, and fertile valleys; produces wheat and wine. Chief town, Sukhum Kale. It became Russian in 1809-10, but was not pacified till 1864. Pop. 30,000. Ab'lative Case, a grammatical inflection of nouns and pronouns used to denote the place, person, or thing from which something is taken away. It is found in Indo-European languages, par- ticularly Latin, in which it also expresses other relations; Sans- krit, Oscan, and Umbrian. In Greek its functions have been diverted to the genitive case; and in other languages, as Eng- lish, it is usually replaced by the prepositions in, with, by, from, etc. Ablaut, ab'lout. The use of the term ablaut in philology is due to Jacob Grimm (Deutsche Grammatik); the word gradation is frequently employed as its equivalent in English. It finds special application in the com- parative grammar of the Indo- Germanic languages, especially in the Germanic so-called 'strong verbs,' where, as in Anglo-Saxon, for example, there are six dis- tinct classes, differentiated by varying but regular ablaut rows (compare English sang, sung; write, wrote, written). Ablaut is an inheritance from the hypothetical Indo-Germanic parent speech, and is connected there with the influence of the accent (compare Greek narrip, evnoLTup). The differentiation at first was phonetic only; after- ward it was utilized in the ex- pression of differences of mean- ing — as in strong or 'irregular' verbs of the Germanic languages, where the ablaut serves to mark difference of tense. The exist- ing types of tense gradation may be distributed into seven classes, which are exemplified in the English verbs fall, shake, bear, give, drink, drive, choose (Skeat's examples). The regularity of vsequence has been obliterated in many verbs by phonetic changes. Consult Skeat's English Ety- mology. Ab'legate, a special papal en- voy, sent to confer the symbols of office upon a newly appointed cardinal or other dignitary. Ab- legates are classed as apostolic and pontifical, the former having the higher rank. Ablu'tlon, a rite symbolizing the purification of the soul by the cleansing of the body. In the Roman Catholic Church the word indicates the washing of the chalice and the priest's fingers with water and wine after mass. Abnaki, ab-na'ke, Abenaki, or Abnakis, an Indian tribe of the Algonquin Confederacy, formerly inhabiting the State of Maine, in the region of the St. John Valley and the sources of the Kennebec and St. Croix Rivers. In the struggle on the Acadian border between the French and English colonists, just before the era of Queen Anne's War (1702- 14), the Abnaki were the allies of the French in Canada, and greatly harassed the 'Boston- nais' or New Englanders. After the fall of French dominion in America, most of the Abnaki withdrew to Canada. They now number less than 2,000 persons, located in New Brunswick, Que- bec, and Maine. Abner ('Father is Ner'), a Hebrew warrior, son of Ner (1 Sam. xiv. 51), cousin of Saul, and captain of the army. He pro- claimed Ish-bosheth king (2 Sam. ii. 8), abandoned him for David (2 Sam. iii. 12), and was killed by Joab (2 Sam. iii. 27). Ab'ney, Sir William de Wiveleslie (1844), English chemist and physicist, was born in Derby, and was educated at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. He became instruc- tor in chemistry to the Royal Engineers, Chatham; adviser to the Board of Education in 1003, and a member of Council for Education to the War Office. In 1900 he was knighted in recog- nition of his scientific attain- ments. His researches in light, including stellar photometry, in photography, and in spectros- copy are of great value. His writings include: Instruction in Photography (11th ed. 1905); Treatise on Photography (1875); Color Vision, Color Measurement and Mixture (1893); and many papers in the Philosophical Trans- actions and the Proceedings of the Royal Society. Among his works in other fields are: Thebes and Its Five Great Temples (1876) ; The Pioneers of the Alps (with C. D. Cunningham, 1888). Abo, o'bob or 6'boo, port, Finland, Russia; 125 miles north- west of Helsingfors, 50 miles from the open sea. It is a coal- ing station, and has exports of timber, paper, wood pulp, fruit, eggs, and hides. It has ship- yards, cotton mills, tobacco fac- Abo 22 Abortion tories, sugar refineries, and ma- chine shops. Here was signed the Peace of Abo between Swe- den and Russia in 1743. Pop. (1897) 34,964; (1910) 49,377. Abo, I BO, or Eboe, town. Southern Nigeria, on the River Niger (Quorra); 80 miles from the sea. Exports palm oil. Pop. 8,000. Abo - Bjorneborg, byur-ne- bor'y', government Finland, Russia, on the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland. Its principal in- dustries are agriculture, cattle raising, and fishing. It is the most important manufacturing province of Finland, its manu- factures including brewing and distilling, wood and metal work- ing, and the manufacture of paper, sugar, leather, and to- bacco. Mining products include granite, black marble, iron, and clay. Area, 9,333 square miles. Pop. (1910) 499,332. Ab'oli'tionists, a term applied, broadly, in the United States to those who, before the Civil War, advocated the abolition of slav- ery; but especially applied to those who urged immediate abo- lition, without compensation to the slave owners, and who, dis- avowing the Federal Constitu- tion as a pro-slavery document, endeavored to attain their object by moral agitation rather than by political action. What is distinctively known in American history as the Abo- lition Movement began in 1831 with the establishment by Wil- liam Lloyd Garrison (q. v.) of an intensely anti-slavery journal, The Liberator, devoted to agita- tion for the immediate and un- conditional emancipation of all slaves in the United States. This movement found expression not only through the press and from the platform — various anti- slavery journals co-operating with The Liberator, and innumerable anti-slavery lectures and 'ad- dresses being delivered — but also through effective anti-slavery or- ganizations such as the New Eng- land Anti-Slavery Society (formed 1832) and the American Anti- Slavery Society (formed 1833). These societies and the move- ment generally gained the sym- pathy even of many conserva- tives when Congress in effect denied to Abolitionists the right of petition, and when President Jackson denied to them the right to use the United States mails in furthering their propaganda. The Abolititionists were a united body until 1839-40, and then came a division. The seeds of discord lay in the extreme views of Garrison, who was an idealist in his thinking, not alone on slavery, but also on other political and social questions. Vol. I.— Oct. '15 He countenanced the activity of women in the cause, and even appointed them to lecture; he believed in the political equality of the sexes; he opposed all political systems based on force; he denounced churches for com- plicity in slavery, thus obtaining the stigma of being unorthodox. Moreover, believing the Consti- tution to be a pro-slavery docu- ment, he called it immoral, a covenant with death and hell, and so concluded it was wrong to take the oath to support it. Others who were more conserv- ative realized the difficulty, and either explained away the Consti- tutional clauses or decided to support the Constitution at any cost, lest greater evils should result. While the radical Abolition- ists under Garrison would not countenance political activity to attain their ends, a strong senti- ment for such activity developed among the members of the Amer- ican Anti-Slavery Society. This feeling grew until in 1840, at a test vote, the Society was cap- tured for Garrison, and became unavailable as a party organiza- tion. As many high-minded and noble men differed from Garrison and the radical element, a divi- sion resulted, and this led to the formation of a new National Anti-Slavery Society. James G. Birney (q. v.) of Kentucky, for years an ardent worker for Aboli- tion, became leader of the new society, and under him the 'Con- stitutional Abolitionists' launch- ed the Liberty Party (q. v.), with Birney as its nominee for Presi- dent of the United States. Twice (1840 and 1844) the party failed to elect Birney, and in 1848 was virtually absorbed by the Free Soil Party (q. v.), which in turn was one of the political elements fused into the Republican Party (q. v.), in 1854-6. Under Garrison, with his Lib- erator, the Abolitionists continued their moral agitation for im- mediate abolition with vehement and even rancorous language until the Emancipation Proclam- ation. In 1865 Garrison dis- continued The Liberator, and counselled the dissolution of the American Anti-Slavery Society. Among other prominent Aboli- tionists may be mentioned Wen- dell Phillips, Theodore Parker, Samuel May, Lucretia Mott, and Gerrit vSmith (qq. v.). The radical Abolitionists were a stern, unyielding, uncompro- mising, and high-minded group of idealists, who devoted them- selves, with remarkable fervor and singleness of purpose, to their cause. In the vSouth they were naturally regarded with intense and bitter hatred. The practical effects of their agitation were the arousing of the con- science of a large part of the North, the antagonizing of nu- merous conservatives, and the solidifying of the South, which became more and more sensitive to any outside interference. See Slavery. Consult Garrison's William Lloyd Garrison; William Birney 's Life and Times of James G. Birney; Hume's The Abolitionists (1905); Herbert's The Abolition Crusade and Its Consequences (1912). Abomey, a-bo-ma', town, Da- homey, French West Africa; 70 miles northwest of Porto Nova, 65 miles north of Whydah. The former capital of Dahomey, it was occupied by the French on Nov. 17, 1892. Trade in ivory, palm oil, and gold. Pop. 12,000. Abony, o'bony, town. Pest county, Hungary; 50 miles south- east of Budapest. Pop. 15,000. Aborigines, ab'o-rij'i-nez. This word was first used of the original inhabitants of Italy; it was after- ward extended to the inhabitants of other countries when first known; now it generally means the natives found in a country by European colonists — as, for ex- ample, the North American In- dians. The word is also used of plants and animals, to denote the flora and fauna indigenous to a place. All civilized nations have now passed acts for the protection of the aborigines within their terri- tories. The British North Amer- ica Act, 1807, gives exclusive legislative authority with regard to Indians to the Dominion (of Canada) Parliament. The Gen- eral Act of the Brussels Con- ference, signed July 2, 1890, sets out what the Powers declare to be the most effective means of counteracting the slave trade in the interior of Africa, and contains restrictive measures con- cerning the drink traffic, intended to protect the native population from the abuse of it. For Australian aborigines, see Australia. Abor'tion, in medicine, de- notes the expulsion of the prod- uct of conception (the impreg- nated ovum) from the womb before the sixth month of preg- nancy. If the expulsion takes place after that date, and before the proper time, it is termed a premature labor (q. v.) or mis- carriage. In law, however, no such distinction is made. Causes. — The causes of abor- tion may depend ui)on the health of the foetus, or on that of the mother. Illness of the mother during pregnancy, cither by lowering the general health or by a more direct action, may induce Abortion 23 Abraham abortion or miscarriage. Among predisposing causes are a dis- eased condition of either parent, especially a syphilitic taint, and most fevers. Among the direct causes of abortion may be placed blows on the abdomen, falls, any violent muscular efforts, and severe mental shock. Moreover, the death of the foetus from any cause is sure to occasion abortion. Symptoms. — Abortion is some- times preceded by feverishness, shiverings, a feeling of weight in the abdomen, or other discom- fort. But the first certain indi- cation of threatened abortion is usually hemorrhage, followed, if not arrested, by pain, which after the second month more or less resembles the pain attending nor- mal labor. Treatment. — Preventive treatment means in the average case merely the living of a sane life, not inactive, but quiet, regu- lar, and healthy, with special care to avoid exhaustion, excite- ment, and crowded rooms, and the pressure of tight clothes. Should abortion be threatened, the patient must at once go to bed, and send for medical assist- ance. Cold compresses, changed before they grow warm, will help to check the hemorrhage tempo- rarily; but for this purpose it is of the greatest importance to lie quiet. Should abortion take place, and skilled assistance be unobtainable, absolute quiet, complete rest, and cleanliness are the most important points. Un- less a woman treats herself as care- fully after an abortion or a mis- carriage as she would after a con- finement, she runs not only grave immediate danger, but also risks chronic invalidism later. Intentional abortion, except when judged necessary by medi- cal men in consultation, and per- formed by them with the care necessary for any surgical opera- tion, is not only always criminal, but often proves suicidal. Criminal Abortion, — In law, procuring, or attempting to pro- cure, abortion, whether by the woman herself or by another, is a felony in most of the States of the United States, unless the act be necessary to preserve the mother's life. The mere solici- taticm or advice given to a preg- nant woman that she attempt to produce a miscarriage is a mis- demeanor, if the woman follows the advice. It is a misdemeanor for any person knowingly to de- po ',it for mailing or delivery any article or thing designed or in- tended to procure abortion. Al- though to procure abortion with consent of the woman is not in- dictable at common law, it is a felony, and punished with severe I)enalties. Vol. I.— Oct. '15 In England procuring or at- tempting to procure an abortion is a felony, and in Scotland a crime, punishable by penal servi- tude for life, or by imprisonment. If the woman dies, or if the child is born alive but dies because of premature birth or the means used, it is murder. In England, to supply any poison or instru- ment, knowing that it is intended to be used to procure abortion, is a misdemeanor punishable by penal servitude not exceeding five years, or by imprisonment. It cannot be too generally known that all attempts at pro- curing criminal abortion, either by the administration of power- ful drugs or the application of instruments, are accompanied with extreme danger to the preg- nant woman. See Infanticide. Aboukir, or Abukir, a-bob- ker' (ancient Kanohos), village, Aboukir Bay, Egypt; 13 miles northeast of Alexandria. Abou- kir Bay, 16 miles wide, was the scene of the Battle of the Nile (Aug. 1, 1798) in which Nelson defeated the French. At Abou- kir, Bonaparte, with 6,000 men, defeated an army of 18,000 Turks (July 25, 1799); and there Sir Ralph Abercromby landed in face of the French, whom he de- feated (March 21, 1801), and compelled them to quit Egypt. In the vicinity are many ancient remains. _ _ Abousambul, a-boo-sam-bool'. See Ipsambui.. About, a-bob', Edmond Fran- cois Valentin (1828-85), French novelist and dramatist, was born in Dieuze, Lorraine. He de- voted himself to fiction and jour- nalism, and produced La Grece Contemporaine (1854), the first of a long list of works. In the Franco-German War he accom- panied Macmahon's army as special correspondent of the Soir; after 1875 he was editor of the XIX^ Steele, which he founded with Sarcey; and was elected a member of the Academy (1884), but died (in Paris) before his re- ception. His fame rests prin- cipally upon his novels, such as Roman d'lin Brave Homme (1880) ; Le Nez d'un Notaire (1862); Le Roi des M^ontagnes (1856); Made- Ion (1863); L' Homme a I'Oreille Cassee (1862); Trente el Quaranle (1865) — all of which have been translated into English. Abra, ii'bra, river and province, Luzon, Philippine Islands. The river, navigable for boats, and rising in the Caballeros Cordil- lera, finds outlet through many branches on the west coast. To- bacco is the main product of the province, which is volcanic and mountainous. Copper is found, but the resources are as yet undeveloped. Industrial schools with American and native teachers have been established. Area, 1,484 square miles. Pop. 55,000. Ab'racadab'ra, a cabalistic word or formula constructed from the letters of the alphabet, used by Basilidian Gnostics of the second century, and later as a spell to secure the assistance of good spirits against evil; sup- posed, when written in the form of a triangle and worn round the neck for nine days, to act as a charm against fevers, etc. It first occurs in a poem by Sam- monicus (second century). See Abraxas. A'braham. The account of Abraham given in Gen. xi. 31 ff. is less a connected biography than a series of tableaux. As Abram, the son of Terah, he comes before us a noble figure, great in moral and religious char- acter, as also in material posses- sions. A native of Ur of the Chaldees (in Mesopotamia, or, less likely, Uru, now Mugheir, in Babylonia), married to his half- sister Sarai, he migrates to Haran in Upper Mesopotamia; thence, in obedience to a divine com- mand, to Canaan, which land is thereupon promised to his seed (Gen. xii. 1-6). Thenceforward he lives the life of a nomad chief, wandering mainly in the districts around Shechem, Beth-el, and Hebron. While sojourning in Egypt, he imperils Sarai's honor by misrepresenting her as only his sister (cf. the similar action in Gerar, Gen. xx. 1-11) ; but he shows true self-denial in giving the choice of pasture land to his nephew Lot, and true courage in his successful attack upon the victorious Chedorlaomer; while the tenderness of his nature is evinced in his unwillingness to expel Hagar and Ishmael from his tent at Sarai's instigation, and in his pathetic intercession on behalf of Sodom. The promises grow ever in splendor; Jehovah makes a cove- nant with him, ordaining the rite of circumcision, and chang- ing his name from Abram to Abraham (and Sarai's to Sarah), as the credentials thereof; heav- enly messengers are commis- sioned to visit him, and his pray- ers have power on high (Gen. xvii., xviii.). At length Isaac is born, and the crowning expres- sion of Abraham's faith is given in his willingness to obey God even to the extent of offering up the son of promise as a sacrifice (Gen. xxi., xxii.). After Sarah's death Abraham marries Keturah, and has six sons by her; and at last, at the age of 175, he is laid to rest beside .Sarah in the cave of Machpelah (Gen. xxv. 1-10). Abraham-a-Santa-Clai'a 24 Abraias The patriarch plays a great role in later Judaism, as also in the New Testament; many re- markable legends have gathered round his name; and to the Arabs he is, as Ibrahim, the first and greatest Moslem. The Mo- hammedans bring Abraham to Mecca to build the Kaaba, and believe his remains to have been covered by the famous mosque near Hebron. He was regarded as the ancestor not merely of the Israelites and the Ishmaelite Arabs, but of the Edomites (through Esau) and Midianites. The date of his arrival in Canaan has been variously computed. Bunsen put it as 2866 B.C., and Lipsius as 1730-1700 B.C. If Assyrian scholars are right in identifying Arioch, the king of Ellasar, defeated by Abraham, with Eri-aku, king of Larsa, who reigned in 2120 B.C. according to the inscriptions, then the date of Abraham's coming into Ca- naan would be very near that proposed by Hales, 2153 B.C. On the more debatable or extra-Biblical points, the com- mentaries {e. g., Dillmann, De- litzsch. Driver) and the recent Bible dictionaries (e. g., Hastings' and Cheyne's) may be con- sulted. For Assyrian relations, consult Tomkins' Studies on the Times of Abraham, and Sayce's Patriarchal Palestine; for Abra- ham's place in Biblical history and theology, Schultz's Old Testament Theology (Eng. trans.), and Kittel's History of the He- brews (Eng. trans.). There is a late apocryphal book, The Testa- ment of Abraham, published in Texts and Studies (1892). Abraham-a- Santa- Clara — family name, Ulrich Megerle — (1644-1709), a great pulpit orator of the Roman Catholic Church; born near Messkirch in Baden. He joined the Barefooted Augustinians (1662); was court preacher (1677); from 1682-9 worked at Graz; but spent the rest of his life at Vienna. His style was fearless, humorous, and racy. The sermon. Up, up, ye Christians! (1683), against the Turkish menace, was used by Schiller in Wallenstein's Lager. His most typical book is Judas der Ertz-Schelm (1686-95). Abraham, Heights of, or Plains of Abraham, southwest of Quebec, along the St. Law- rence River, the scene of the battle between Wolfe (q. v.) and Mont- calm (Sept. 13, 1759), which added Canada to the British empire. Both Wolfe and Mont- calm were killed in the battle. Wolfe ascended the heights at Anse du Foulon (Wolfe's Cove), IV2 miles above Quebec. In 1908 the Plains were made a Canadian National Park. Vol. I. — Oct. '15 Abrahamites, a Syrian sect in the ninth century who denied the divinity of Christ. Also ap- plied to a deistic sect in Bohemia in the eighteenth century, who professed to be followers of Huss; they were expelled from Bohemia in 1783. Abraham-men, a class of sturdy beggars who simulated lunacy, and wandered about Great Britain in a disorderly manner; at one time working on the sympathy, and at another on the fears of women, children, and domestics. They were common in Shakespeare's time, and, it would seem, existed even as late as the period of the civil wars. The term is a cant one, as old at least as 1561. A verbal relic of this class is still preserved in the slang phrases, 'Abraham cove' and 'to sham Abraham.' Abraham's Bosom, a term ap- plied by the Jews to the abode of the righteous after death. As a metaphor, it is borrowed from the custom of reclining at meals, the head of each guest leaning toward the breast of his left-hand neighbor; to be next the host was to lie in his bosom — i. e., to oc- cupy the place of distinction. By some it is supposed that Abraham's bosom — otherwise the Garden of Eden and Para- dise — denoted one of the com- partments of the intermediate state in which all must sojourn for a time before entering the abode of final weal or woe. It is certain that the Jews of our Lord's time believed in an inter- mediate state with two localities; but it is questionable whether the term 'Abraham's bosom' was then used of the intermediate resting place of the righteous, and not rather of the higher para- dise or heaven itself. The latter seems the more probable, from the fact that in the only Scrip- tural passage in which the phrase ^occurs (Luke xvi. 22 /.) its cor- ' relative Hades is plainly the place of torment. Consult Sal- mond's Christian Doctrine of Im- mortality. Abrantes, a-bran'tes, town, province Estremadura, Portugal, at the head of navigation on the River Tagus; 88 miles northeast of Lisbon. Strongly fortified. It has trade in grain, olive oil, wine, and fruit. Pop. 8,000. Abra'sives, substances pro- ducing wear by friction, used for grinding, polishing, and scouring in the arts and in manufacture. The abrasives commonly found in scouring soaps and powders are tripoli, kieselguhr, and pumice (qq. v.). Lapidaries use the dia- mond, hardest of known abra- sives, in solid and powdered form, and jeweller's rouge, a peroxide of iron. For finishing wood in carriage and furniture manufac- ture, and for leather polishing, garnet is regularly employed, powdered and applied with glue to paper or cloth. The economic importance of abrasives results largely from their function in the manufacture of tools and machinery. Sand, grindstones of hard sandstone, and rotary stones of other natu- ral rocks have long been used. Grinding machines of many varieties are now made. The principal natural abrasives are corundum (q. v.), a crystalline aluminum oxide of about 90 per cent, purity, and emery (q. v.), of about 65 per cent, purity. More reliable in quality are the artificial abrasives: carbide of silicon, known as carborundum (q. V.) or by other trade name; alundum (q. v.), an aluminum hydrate, manufactured from bauxite, much used in the grind- ing of steel; and crushed steel. These abrasives are either pow- dered for use on cloth or paper, or crushed into particles of graded sizes which are amalga- mated into the desired shapes by the addition of a cohesive sub- stance called a bond. In 1913 the total value of natural abrasives produced and consumed in the United States was $1,648,578; of artificial abrasives, $2,017,458. In addi- tion, abrasives to the value of $916,913 were imported. Con- sult U. S. Geological Survey's annual report. Mineral Resources of the United States. Abravanel, a-bra-va-nel', or Abarbanel, Isaac ben Jehuda (1437-1508), minister of state to King Alfonso v. of Portugal, and from 1483 to 1492 chancellor to Ferdinand the Catholic, king of Castile; subsequently lived at Naples, in Corfu, and at Venice. He was distinguished for his high intellectual and moral qualities; author of a number of philo- sophical and exegetical treatises, his chef-d' ceuvre being probably his exposition of the Messianic belief among the Jews in his Spring of Salvation, Salvation of his Anointed, and Herald of Salvation. Abravanel, or Abarbanel, Leo HEBRiEus, physician at the court of Gonsalvo de Cordova, and friend of Pico de Mirandola. His principal work is the Dialoghi di Amore (written 1502; pub- lished 1535). In philosophy he was an eclectic, trying to combine Plato, Aristotle, and the Arabic philosophy into a harmonious system. Abrax'as, a mystic word of Eastern origin, thought by the Basilidian Gnostics to signify the 365 spiritual orders of the divine manifestation, because in Greek Abridgment 26 Abscess notation the equivalents of its letters yield that number. This sect, and later theosophists, cut the word on gems {abraxas stones) ,» t,ibgether with monstrous figures— e.g., a man with a cock's head and serpentine limbs. See BasiliDes. Abridgement, a shortened or condensed form of a book, usually for the benefit of those who do not desire a profound knowledge of the subject under discussion. This is usually accomplished by the omission of detail and the exclusion of controversial ques- tions. At law a fairly made abridgment is deemed a new work, and is not an infringement of copyright. If the text of the work is reproduced in part, the production is legally not an abridgment, but a compilation, and is held to be an infringement of copyright. See Copyright. Ab'roga'tlon is a term derived from the Canon Law, where it meant the total as opposed to the partial repeal of a pre- existing law. In modern times it denotes, strictly speaking, the tacit nullification of a rule of law, which is generally brought about through the adoption by the courts, or enactment by the legislature, of a new rule incon- sistent therewith. The express nullification of a statute by subsequent legislation is desig- nated the 'repeal' of the former, but in popular language the distinction between the two terms is not maintained. The abrogation of legal rules through non-us^e or contrary usage is a matter on which different sys- tems conflict. The theory of English law is that one statute can only be abrogated or repealed by another; but rules of com- mon law may, under certain cir- cumstances, fall into desuetude. Abrolhos, a-brol'yos, a group of low, rocky islands, 5 miles east of Brazil (lat. 17° 58' s.; long. 38° 42' w.), forming part of Bahia, Brazil, the largest, Santa Barbara, having a lighthouse. Another group called Abrolhos lie off the west coast of Australia, separated by Geelvink Channel. A'brus Prec'ato'rius (Greek hahros, 'elegant'), wild licorice, a leguminous plant having seeds like small peas, of a scarlet color, with a black patch on one side. These arc used in India as weights (rati), and are .strung together to form rosaries, whence their name 'prayer beads.' They are said to have given origin to the carat, the jeweller's unit of weight. AbruzzI, a-brmj'tsi, Prince LiJiGi Amadeo, Duke of the (187.*^), Italian Arctic explorer and geographer, third son of Amadeo, Duke of Aosta, and cousin of the king of Italy, was Vol. I.— Oct. '15 born in Madrid. He ascended Mount St. Elias, Alaska, on July 31, 1897, when he determined its altitude and geological origin. From his Arctic expedition (1899- 1900) a sledge party, commanded Abrus Precatorius and Fruit. by Capt. Umberto Cagni, reached the highest recorded latitude, 86° 33' N. He established the north- ern limits of Franz-Josef Land, and proved the geographical non- existence of Petermann's Land. In 1906 he reached the summit of Ruwenzori in Africa; and in 1909 conducted an expedition to the Karakoram Range of North- west India, ascending Mount Godwin-Austen to a height of 24,600 feet — the highest point on the earth's surface ever at- tained by man. On Sept. 30, 1911, he commanded the squad- ron which attacked Preveza, the first action of the Italian-Turkish War. Consult Filippi's Ascent of Mount St. Elias (Eng. trans.); On the 'Polar Star' in the Arctic Sea (Eng. trans.); Ruwenzori (1908). AbruzzI and M olisc, a-brob'tsi, mo'le-za, a territorial division (compartimento) of Central Italy, occupies the half of the peninsula on the Adriatic side, to the cast of the province of Rome. It is traversed by the two main ranges of the Central Apennines, Idc- tween which lie the high valley of the Aterno (2,300 feet) and the plateau basin of the now drained Lake Fucino (2,165 feet). The jagged mountain groups reach in the Gran Sasso (1' Italia an elevation of 9,600 feet. On the Adriatic side the eastern range goes down abruptly to the sea, and its flanks are seamed with numerous short, .swift streams. In the higher parts the climate is severe. Forestry and pasturage are the chief occupa- tions; cereals and wine are pro- duced in the fertile lower valleys; saffron in Aquila. Asphalt is found in Chieti. The territory embraces the provinces of Aquila, Chieti, Teramo, and Campobasso — the last named corresponding to Molise, and the first three to the Abruzzi. Area, 6,565 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 1,442,365; (1911) 1,427,642. Ab'salom, King David's third son, born at Hebron. Because of his personal charms, Absalom be- came a universal favorite, and his ambition made him a danger to the realm. Though forgiven by his father for the murder of his half-brother Amnon, he stirred up sedition, and raised a formidable insurgent force. His army was routed by the royal troops in the wood of Ephraim, and Absalom, fleeing upon a mule, was caught by his hair in a tree, and killed by Joab, to the great sorrow of the king. See 2 Sam. xiii.-xviii. Absalom and Achitophel, a-kit'o-fel, Dryden's greatest po- litical satire, published (first part, 1681) on introduction of the English Exclusion Bill. It is an allegory of the history of King David, thinly veiling the real theme — the attempt by the court party, led by Shaftesbury (Achit- ophel), to secure the succession of the Duke of Monmouth (Ab- salom), Charles' illegitimate son. For a criticism thereof, consult Ward's English Poets. Absalon, iib'sa-lon, or Axel, archbishop of Lund (1128-1201), was born in Sja^lland, Denmark. From 1157 onward he energeti- cally assisted King Valdemar to reconstruct the Danish state; took an active part in the strug- gle with the heathen Wends; and became successively bishop of Roeskilde and archbishop of Lund (1178). After Valdemar's death (1182) Absalon's influence became still stronger, and he was of essential service to young King Canute in his successful struggle with Bogislav of Pom- erania (1184). Absalon was of the best type of the mediaeval warrior priests, one of the great- est of Danish statCvsmen, yet pious and conscientious. A scholar himself, he supplied his clerk, Saxo Grammaticus (q. v.), with the materials for his great hivStory. Ab'scess (Apostema), a circum- scribed collection of pus formed within some tissue or organ of the body, through the presence of specific organisms, such as streptococci or staphylococci. The vessels supplying the area dilate so tliat there is an increased flow of blood into the part; the organisms multiply, and throw out certain poisons or toxins Absciss Layer 27 Absolution which, attacking the tissue cells and white blood corpuscles, de- stroy them, and thereby produce the pus corpuscles. Once formed, this pus may either become dried up to form a caseous or cheesy mass, or it may escape by burst- ing through the skin or into a canal such as the rectum, urethra, etc. Treatment. — In abscesses su- perficially seated — either in or close under the skin — the early treatment consists chiefly in pro- moting the formation of pus by the application of moist and warm bandages or poultices. The next step is the removal of the pus. When this is too long de- layed, serious disturbance of the organ and destruction of sur- rounding structures may ensue. After the abscess has been emp- tied the wound is dressed anti- septically until healed, and, if deep, is drained by a tube. Recently, vaccine therapy (q. v.) has been employed. Absciss Layer, a layer of cork formed in autumn between the base of the leaf and the stem in many deciduous trees. It di- vides across the middle, and causes the fall of the leaf, half ,of the cork remaining to cover the leaf scar. See Cork. Abscond'ing is fleeing or re- maining away from one's usual residence, or the place where one is generally found, in order to avoid legal proceedings. In crim- inal cases, absconding is generally an aggravation of the offence. In the case of a debtor it is an act of bankruptcy, and exposes his estate to the attack of credi- tors; and in some States renders him liable to arrest if he should be found within the jurisdiction. Ab'sentee', a term applied, by way of reproach, to landlords who derive their rent from one coun- try, and spend it in another. It has been especially used in dis- cussions on the social condition of Ireland. Absintlie, ab'sinth; Fr. ab- sant', a liquor made by distilla- tion, containing alcohol and a number of essential oils, the chief among the latter being the oil of wormwood or absinthum (Artemisia absinthum), to which the deleterious properties of the liquid are in great measure due. The green color of absinthe should be due to chlorophyll, which is usually introduced by the maceration of the liquor with spinach or parsley; but various artificial coloring matters — e.g., indigo, turmeric, or copper sul- phate — are frequently employed. The average composition of ab- sinthe is as follows: Alcohol, 50.00; oil of wormwood, O.'.VA; other essential oils, 2.. '32; sugar, 1..5; chlorophyll, traces; water, Vol. I.— Oct. '15 45.65. Absinthe is principally made and consumed in France and Switzerland (especially in Neuchatel), and in some parts of the United States. It was first introduced as a febrifuge in the Algerian army (1844), but is now prohibited in the French service. When about to be drunk, the greenish liquor is usually mixed with water; whereupon the pre- cipitation of the contained vola- tile oil causes the mixture to cloud or whiten. The essential oil — derived from the wormwood — combined with the spirit, pro- duces rapid intoxication. Ab- sinthism, caused by excess in absinthe, is common in France. The symptoms are distinct from those of alcoholic poisoning. Ab- sinthe seems to act directly through the higher nerve centres, nervous symptoms being the most prominent throughout, ap- pearing first in the forms of ex- citation, giddiness, hallucinations, and terrifying dreams, and end- ing in epilepsy. (See Alcohol- ism.) Attempts to decrease the use of absinthe were first successful in Belgium, where in 1906 its manufacture, transportation, and sale were forbidden. In Switzer- land a law was passed in 1908, making illegal the manufacture, sale, and importation of absinthe. In France no decisive action was taken until prohibition gained general attention through the European War. In November, 1914, the sale and consumption of absinthe and similar liquors were forbidden by the government, and in January, 1915, the decree was extended to forbid their transportation. Efforts are be- ing made to have the prohibition extend beyond the duration of the war. Ab'solute, that which is freed from relation, limitation or de- pendence. As an adjective it is therefore applied (1) to the es- sence of a thing apart from its relations or appearances, and (2) to the complete or perfect state of being. Hence comes its sub- stantival meaning of 'The Abso- lute' as the self-existent, self- sufficient Being, that which is free from all limitation, the all- inclusive Reality. The absolute in one form or another is a cen- tral feature in the philosophical systems of Spinoza, vSchelling, and Hegel. The absolute was made a theme of discussion in British philosophy by Sir William Hamilton, whose denial of the possibility of knowing the abso- lute gave rise to much contro- vensy. In its general sense, absolute is opposed to relative: thus, in phys- ics, in speaking of the motion of one body through space, we refer to its absolute velocity; in com- paring the motion of two or more bodies, we speak of their relative velocity. In music, abso- lute is used to denote the definite pitch of a musical note, which does not vary with the pitch to which an instrument may have been tuned, but depends on a definite number of sound vibra- tions per second. For absolute monarchy, see Absolutism. For absolute alcohol, see Alcohol. For absolute zero of temperature, see Temperature. Absolu'tion, originally a legal term, was adopted by the pre-, latical churches to express the remission of sin, or of certain con- sequences of sin, in virtue of power committed by Christ to His Church. The claim to this power is usually based on Matt, xviii. 18 and John xx. 19-23. In the former of these passages Christ empowers the Church to enact conditions of fellowship: what it binds (i.e., forbids) or looses (i.e., pronounces lawful) on earth shall be bound or loosed in heaven. The second passage goes further. There the risen Christ confers, not merely on His apostles, but upon all His dis- ciples (cf. Luke xxiv. 47), the Holy Ghost; and then, having thus endowed them with spiritual discernment, he gives them au- thority to remit or retain sin (i.e., to declare the true condi- tions of forgiveness). From the latter part of the second century the Church spe- cially exercised the power in the case of persons excluded from its communion because of notorious and enormous sins — viz., mur- der, adultery, robbery, and apostasy from the Christian faith. Such persons were sub- jected to long and severe pen- ance, but might be absolved by the bishop, who restored them to the Church by imposi- tion of hands and prayer. Great changes occurred in the custom of confession. The list of mortal or capital sins was extended; secret sins were secretly con- fessed; the penitent confessed sins of thought to the priest, after the example of the monks, who confessed such sins to thoir su- perior, though he, as a rule, was not a priest. But down to the thirteenth century absolution was simply a petition for the forgiveness of the penitent. Such is at this day the only form used in the Eastern churches. The doctors of the Church regarded the priestly ab- solution as declaratory, like the absolution of the daily service; or precatory, like that in the Anglican communion office. Largely under the influence of a Absolution, Day of 28 Absorption treatise ascribed to St. Augus- tine, the view obtained that God forgives through the priest, and the modern form, 'I absolve thee from thy sins,' was introduced. Absolution was then regarded as the one appointed means for re- mission of mortal sin after bap- tism. In the Roman Catholic Church absolution from sin can be given only by a priest em- powered to do so by his bishop or by the Pope. Absolution from the censures of the Church may be given by any cleric au- thorized duly. The Council of Trent defines absolution from sin as a judicial act on the part of the priest, who, as judge, passes sen- tence on the penitent, and who acts in the name of God, The word absolution is also used of certain prayers said over a corpse before it is taken from the church to the cemetery. Absolution, Day of. In the early Church public absolutions were pronounced on Good Fri- day, or on the previous day, Thursday, on which our Lord was betrayed. So St. Ambrose {Ep. xxxiii.. Ad Marcellin Soro- rem) says that 'the day on which the Lord gave Himself for us was that on which penances are re- mitted in the Church.' In the Roman Catholic Church, in the time of Pope Innocent, penitents were absolved only on Thursday before Good Friday, unless great urgency, such as imminent death, required otherwise. The Em- peror Valentinian introduced the practice of civil absolution at the Paschal festival, granting pardon to criminals. The monks who pleaded for Eutyches at the Sec- ond Council of Ephesus evidently refer to both the ecclesiastical and civil customs in the granting of absolutions. Ab'solutism is the term ap- plied to that form of government in which no constitutional checks are imposed on the power of the monarch. Perfect absolutism can, however, never be realized. No man can hold absolute au- thority unless with the acquies- cence of the most powerful sec- tion of the people — as a rule, the army. The great mediaeval absolute monarchies arose out of the ruins of the feudal system, and constituted a necessary stage in the evolution of the modern state. The breaking up of the power of the semi-independent nobility was an indispensable preliminary to the establishment of representative institutions. Louis XIV. of France was the great champion of absolutism on the continent of Europe. His famous dictum was L'etat, c'est moi (T am the state'). Henry VIII. of England was practically an absolute monarch, though he Vol. I.— Oct. '15 preferred to keep up constitU» tional forms. Russia is the most noteworthy example in modern times of a country governed ab- solutely, although in Germany and Austria the Emperor pos- sesses great personal authority. The tendency in democratic states toward greater centraliza- tion — in the United States the preponderance of Federal, as opposed to State rights — is the modern counterpart of mediaeval absolutism. See Government; Sovereignty. Absolutists, a name given to a Spanish political party which in 1819 wished to abrogate the con- stitution of 1812, and to restore the absolute power of the throne. Their opponents — the Exaltados — favored the constitution which was afterward abrogated (in 1814). Absor'bents. In medicine, the term absorbents is applied to such substances as magnesia, chalk, etc., which absorb or neu- tralize acid fluids in the stomach; in chemistry, to anything that takes up into itself a gas or a liquid {e.g., to such a drying agent as caustic soda, which with- draws moisture from the air); and in physiology (animal and vegetable), to the vessels by which the processes of absorption are carried on, such as the lym- phatics in animals and the ex- tremities of the roots in plants. See Lymphatics. Absorp'tion in Plants can only take place when the substance to be absorbed has been changed into the liquid form of solution; for all food has to pass through the actual cell walls by a process of osmosis. In the case of the higher plants, the greater part of the water and dissolved sub- stances which enter the plant do so by way of the roots, the root hairs and the uncuticularized epidermal cells of the younger roots being the actual absorbing parts. In the case of ordinary terrestrial plants, the roots pene- trate among the minute air spaces between the small par- ticles of solid earth. Each of these particles is covered with a layer of water adherent by at- traction. This water is absorbed by the root hairs, as also are any salts which it has in solution. Moreover, by force of capillary attraction, the water covering the neighboring particles is con- tinuously sucked in, as oil is sucked up by the wick of a lamp. In the case of plants with aerial roots, moisture drops or is de- posited on the roots, and is ab- sorbed together with the dis- solved dust previously deposited on the roots' external surface. Parasitic plants, again, send their roots into the substance of an- other plant, and thence derive both their water and dissolved food. But plants do not absorb all the soluble matter brought into contact with their roots. They exercise a selective power; and plants of a given species absorb definite foods approximately in a definite proportion only. The principal elements required by plants are carbon (see Aeration), nitrogen (in the form of nitrates), hydrogen and oxygen (in the form of water); oxygen also in the form of mineral salts (also in aeration), sulphur (as sul- phates), phosphorus (as phos- phates), silicon (as silica), chlo- rine (as chlorides), potassium, calcium, magnesium, and iron. See Plants, Nutrition. Absorption of Gases by liquids depends on the pressure, the temperature, and the nature of the particular gas and liquid. If the temperature remains con- stant, and the pressure is altered, the amount of gas absorbed is directly proportional to the pres- sure (Henry's Law): thus, one volume of water at 15.5° c, and under ordinary atmospheric pres- sure, takes up one volume of carbon dioxide; while under a pressure of two atmospheres it absorbs an equal volume at that pressure, but, in accordance with Boyle's Law, twice as great a mass of the gas. In the case of mixed gases, Dalton discovered that the quantity of each gas dissolved was such as if the others were absent, the pressure of each component being that which would obtain if it were spread over the whole volume. The volume of a gas dissolved dimin- ishes with the temperature. Thus at 0° c. one volume of water ab- sorbs 1.8 volumes carbon dioxide, at 20° c. half that amount; while on boiling, this gas is entirely expelled. The coefficients of ab- sorption of some common gases are as follows: one volume of water at 15.5° c. absorbs .015 volume of nitrogen, .03 of oxy- gen, 3.25 of hydrogen sulphide, 450 of hydrogen chloride, and 727 of ammonia. Many solid bodies also absorb gases: thus, iron and platinum take up hy- drogen, palladium absorbs 936 times its volume of the same gas, and wood charcoal will condense 90 volumes of ammonia. In such cases the gas may be 'oc- cluded,' and form a solid solu- tion; or 'absorbed,' when it is likely held by an effect of sur- face tension; or it may even enter into chemical union. See Occlusion; Gases, Laws of. Absorption of Light occurs whenever light falls upon a ma- terial surface and suffers refrac- tion and reflection. Neither of Absorption Lines and Bands 29 Abu-Bekr these phenomena could be pro- duced unless the light penetrated some distance into the substance. The vibrations in ether which constitute light act upon the particles of the substance and set them in motion, which is partly irregular, and produces heat. This involves an expendi- ture of energy, and hence the light loses part of its original energy; and this we call absorp- tion. Opaque bodies absorb more light than transparent bodies; and yet it is the very opaque bodies like metals, which absorb a great proportion of the light falHng upon their surface, that also behave as good reflectors. That great absorptive power should, in certain cases, be ac- companied by great reflective power is not so paradoxical as it might seem. For absorption im- plies a taking in of vibratory energy from the disturbed ether; and the molecules being then set into vibration, may well become centres from which energy, in the form of light, may pass back again into the ether. Most substances exert a general absorption, so that all kinds of radiation suffer diminution in passing through them; but they also exert a selective absorption, certain rays being more freely absorbed than others. It is this selective absorption which gives rise to the varied tints and colors of bodies, the color of any body being determined by the excess of the corresponding kind of light in the radiations sent back from it or transmitted through it. A great law, first recognized in some of its applications by Prevost, and established independently by Balfour Stewart in Great Britain, and by Kirchhoff and Bunsen in Germany, asserts that a sub- stance absorbs what it radiates, and the emissive and absorptive powers of any substance for each kind of ray are equal. The phe- nomena of fluorescence form an exception to this so-called law of exchanges. Some of the most striking instances of the law will be found discussed under Spec- trum. See also Color; Dis- persion. Absorption Lines and Bands. When sunlight falls upon a prism the emergent rays are split up into a band of color called the Solar Spectrum. Closely exam- ined, this color band is found to be crossed by a large number of dark lines. If the source of light be changed the spectrum changes with it. In the spectrum of the white light of a candle, for in- stance, or that of the oxyhydro- gen limelight, the dark lines van- ish, and we have a continuous spectrum. Again, if light from an incandescent gas or vapor be Vol. I.— Oct. '15 examined, we get, in general, a spectrum consisting of a definite number of bright lines on a dark background. Further, every gas or vapor yields a different and quite characteristic spectrum. Thus, if any salt or sodium be burned in a Bunsen flame, the flame becomes yellow, and the spectrum consists of two narrow Hues of yellow light. Whenever these two lines appear sodium is present in the flame. Similarly potassium gives a violet flame, and two bright lines in the red and one in the violet of the solar spectrum, while strontium colors the flame red, and has a number of lines in the red, one in the orange, and one in the blue. Now, these bright lines exactly correspond in position to certain of the dark lines of the solar spectrum, and it has been estab- lished that the dark lines also indicate the presence of the metals in question in the sun. See Spectrum. Abstemii, ab-ste'mi-I, a name formerly given to those who re- fused to partake of the cup of the eucharist because of their aversion to wine. Calvinists considered that such persons might be permitted merely to touch the cup; this the Luther- ans strenuously opposed. The controversy has recently been revived in regard to the use of unfermented wine. Ab'stinence. See Temper- ance; Fasting. Ab'stract and Ahslrac'tion. An abstract term or idea, in the logical sense, is one which ex- presses a quality or essence re- garded apart from the individuals or particular objects of which it may be predicated — e. g., color, man, wisdom. (See Nominal- ism.) Abstraction is the selec- tive process by which such ideas are formed : for example, in form- ing the abstract idea of Man, the particular differences which dis- tinguish one man from another are disregarded, and only the qualities common to all men, or those that belong lo man as such, are retained. Abstraction in this sense is one aspect of generaliza- tion. The terms abstract and abstraction are also used in a depreciatory sense to signify a partial or limited view of a thing, in which the thing, being more or less isolated from its proper con- text or surroundings, is therefore imperfectly understood. But thinking may involve abstraction in the former sense, without be- ing abstract in the latter — i. e., it may abstract from what is trivial, to fasten upon what is real and essential. Abstract, in Law, means a concise summary of the contents of a document, and corresponds to a precis in diplomacy. It is most commonly employed in connection with titles to landed property (see Abstract of Title). An Abstract of Indict- ment is a summary of the charge against a prisoner prepared by the clerk of the court or prose- cutor for the use of the judge. In Arithmetic the term is ap- plied to numbers considered by themselves, without reference to any objects enumerated. Thus, 9, 12, are abstract numbers, 9 dogs, 12 dollars are concrete numbers. Abstract of Title is a concise statement of the instruments and events under and by means of which a person derives his title to property. It is prepared by the owner's solicitor on the oc- casion of a sale or mortgage of land, and delivered to the pur- chaser's or mortgagee's solicitor, for the purpose of enabling him to judge whether the title is satisfactory. It may be a bare enumeration of the various links in the chain of title; but it should in all cases contain a sufficient description of the items set forth, with dates, the names of parties, the amount of prop- erty conveyed, and the various conditions and covenants in- volved. In England, where all attempts to establish public reg- isters have practically failed, the title deeds themselves are the source of information in the prep- aration of the abstract. In the United States, the abstract is usually compiled from the public records, though the original in- struments should, if possible, be compared. Absur'dum, Rcduc'iio ad. See Reductio ad Absurdum. Abt, apt, Franz (1819-85), musical composer, was born in Eilenburg, Prussia. He was Ka- pellmeister at Zurich (from 1841) and at the Hof Theatre, Bruns- wick (from 1852). He visited the United States in 1872. He wrote many popular songs, such as 'When the Swallows Home- ward Fly,' 'Good Night, My Child,' and 'Sleep Well, Sweet Angel.' Abu, a'boo, is much used in Arabic in the formation of per- sonal and topographical names. The common view is that 'pa- ternity' is the primary meaning; but W. Robertson Smith assigns 'possession' as the primary and 'paternity' as the secondary meaning. Abu-Abdallah, ab-dal'la. See Al-Battani; Boabdil. Abu-Bekr, bek'r ('father of the maiden') (573-634), received this name in allusion to his daughter Ayesha, the only maid- en among the wives whom Mohammed married. A man of Abu-Hamld 30 Abydos wealth and position among the Koreish, as well as a native of Mecca, he was one of the first to believe in the Prophet, and was his sole companion in the Hejira; and on the death of Mohammed (June 8, 632) was elected head of the Moslems, with the title of Calif {khalifa, 'successor'). He reigned two years. He was bur- ied at Medina, near the grave of Mohammed. See Calif. Abu-Hamld, ha-med', or Abu- Hammed, town, Egyptian Sudan, on the Nile, 199 miles by rail south of Wady Haifa, where the caravan highway from Berber crosses the Bishari Desert (240 miles) to Korosko. It was taken from the Mahdists on Aug. 7, 1897. Abukir. See Aboukir. Abu-Klea, kla'a, wells on the caravan highway across the Bayuda Desert, between Korti and Metammah, from which it is 25 miles distant. Here Sir H. Stewart defeated the Mahdists (Jan. 17, 1885). Abulfaraj, a-bool'fa-raj' (Lat- in Abulfaragius), Mar Gregory John (1226-86), called by the Syrians Bar 'Ebhraya, 'the son of the Hebrew,' but commonly known by his Latinized sur- name Bar-Hebr^us, was born at Malatia, in Armenia. After studying Greek, Arabic, and Syriac, he devoted himself to philosophy, divinity, and medi- cine, completing his studies at Antioch, where he began his monastic life. Ordained bishop of Gubos, near Malatia, Sept. 4, 1246, he was successively bishop of Lakabhin and of Aleppo, and was maphrian, or primate, of Taghrith and the East from 1264 until his death at Maragha. He was 'one of the most learned and versatile men that Syria ever produced' (Wright) . Of his many works, the most celebrated is the Chronicum Syriacum, or Univer- sal History. Consult Wright's Syriac Literature; Budge's Laugh- able Stories of Bar-HebrcEUS. Abulfeda, a-bool'fed-a, or Abulfida (1273-1331), born at Damascus, early achieved dis- tinction in the field (against Crusaders and Mongols) and by his pen. He was sultan of Ha- mah, but a vassal of the Mame- luke sultan of Egypt, from 1310 till his death. Of his many works the most celebrated are a Universal History down to his own day, and a Geography. The History has been edited (with Latin translation) by Reiske; the Geography has been edited by Reinaud and De Slane, and translated into French by Rei- naud and Guyard. Abul Ghazl Bahadur, ga'ze ba-h6'd()br (1605-63), gave up the khanate of Khiva in favor of his son, and devoted himself to Vol. L— Oct. '15 writing a history of the dynasty of Jenghiz Khan, since translated into German and French. Abulug, a-boo'ldog, pueblo, Cagayan province, Luzon, Phil- ippine Islands, on the Abulay River; 14 miles northwest of Aparri. There is a fishing trade, and tobacco, rice, and corn are raised. Pop. 8,500. Abu, Mount, in Southwest Rajputana, India, a detached granite mass rising like an island from the plain of Marwar, near the Aravalli ridge, and in its highest point reaching 5,650 ft. above the sea. It is a celebrated place of pilgrimage, especially for the Jains, who have a magnificent group of five temples at Delwara. The mountain contains a beauti- ful lake, called the Nakhi Talao ('Gem Lake'), iK by 34 miles, about 4,000 feet above the sea; and the region is a hot-weather resort. Abu-Nuvas, a-bdb noo'-was (762-810), lyric and Bacchic poet, was born at Al-Ahwaz, in Susiana. His mother was a Per- sian washerwoman employed in a fuller's yard. He was 'educated at Bassora by the poet Waliba and by Abu-'Ubaida; spent a year in the desert to acquire the Bedouin tongue; and at Bagdad was a favorite of the Califs Haroun and Amin. Composed elegies, humorous verse, satires, etc., and, in later life, religious poems. He is said to have been murdered in consequence of a lampoon written on Ali, son-in- law of the Prophet. Aburl, a-boo'ri, town, West Africa, in the British colony of the Gold Coast; 20 miles north- east of Accra. It has a govern- ment botanical station and san- atorium. Altitude, 1,400 feet; rainfall, 42 inches. Abuse of Process is the im- proper exercise of the general right of instituting and carrying on legal proceedings. Every court has, in virtue of its inherent jurisdiction, the right to stop or restrain at any stage proceedings which appear to be vexatious or unreasonable. It is a jurisdic- tion which ought to be very sparingly exercised, but in ex- ceptional cases it is indispensable that a court should have the power to protect itself from the abuse of its procedure. Plead- ings which are frivolous, or which disclose no good or reasonable ground of action or defence, may be ordered to be struck out. When the machinery of the courts is put in motion mali- ciously, and without reasonable and probable cause, the party injured has at common law an action of damages. In England the attorney-general has the statutory power of showing to the court that a certain person has habitually and persistently instituted vexatious proceedings, and of obtaining an order re- straining him from bringing fur- ther actions unless he satisfies the court that he is not abusing its process. See Malicious Prose- cution. Abushehr, a'boo-sher'. See Bushire. Abu-Sim'bel. See Ipsambul. Abu-Thubi, thoo'be, town, Arabia, on an island in the Per- sian Gulf, west of Oman, princi- pal town of the Banu Yas. It sends 600 boats to the pearl banks. Pop. 20,000. Abu-Tig, or Abutige, town, Upper Egypt, on the River Nile; 13 miles southeast of Siut. Pop. 11,000. Abu'tilon, or Flowering Ma- ple, a genus of shrubs belonging to the order Malvaceae, with maple-like leaves and bell-shaped flowers, usually drooping. They Abutilon. a, Flower, one sepal removed. are desirable garden and window plants, although tender. The Velvet Leaf, or Indian Mallow, has become naturalized from Asia, in the warmer portions of the United States, and is a pest in meadow lands. It contains a fibre which is exported from China as 'China jute,' and which resembles jute; it can be used for cordage, and takes dyes readily. Abut'ment, in architecture and engineering, that portion of a pier, bridge, or wall constructed to receive the thrust of an arch or vault. The word is applied particularly to the terminal piers of a bridge; the lower part of a bridge pier or dock which divides water or ice in a stream; and the outer .section of a wall com- monly called a buttress (q. v.). Aby'dos, ancient city. Upper Egypt, near the modern Arabat- Abydos 31 Abyssal Animals el-Madfuneh, on the left bank of the Nile. During the nineteenth dynasty it was a place of great commercial importance; later it declined, and in early Christian times was in ruins. Abydos was the seat of a fa- mous oracle of the god Bes. In 1899-1900 Prof. Flinders Petrie made discoveries during excava- tions which add thousands of years to the world's history; among others, the tombs of the kings of the first dynasty. Here was also the tomb of Osiris, one of the holiest places of pilgrimage in ancient Egypt; discovered in 1898 by Amelineau. The ex- plored ruins show that a series of ten temples were built here, as indicated by their foundations: in some cases overlapping, but generally the new temple re- placed the old, on a larger scale. The oldest bit of human history is the fact that ten kings reigned in Abydos, from 4900 B. c. Here also are the ruins of the temple built by Seti i., during the nineteenth dynasty, and frag- ments of another temple, built by Rameses ii. The temple of Seti was built half a mile south of the site of the ten early tem- ples, and is known as the Great Temple of Abydos. The neighborhood is filled with private tombs, which in the early part of 1909 yielded many objects of ornament; vases, the oldest in existence, and small engraved tablets of ivory and ebony inscribed with history of events of the time from 4700 B.C. onward. The most recent discovery (1911) is of a series of twelve sealed limestone cofifins, in perfect condition, belonging to the Roman period. Consult Amelineau's Les Nou- velles Fouilles d' Abydos (3 vols., 1899-1904) ; Caulfeild's Temple of the Kings at Abydos (1902); Pe- tx'i^'s Abydos (1902-4); Murray's Osireion at Abydos (1904). Abydos, ancient town near Ka- le-i-Sultaniye, Asia Minor, on the Hellespont (Dardanelles), here less than one mile wide, opposite to ancient Sestos. Here Xerxes crossed (480 B.C.) by a bridge of boats. It is associated with the tradition of Hero and Leander. Abyla. vSee Ceuta. Abyssal Animals. One of the most interesting discoveries of the last half of the nineteenth century was the fact that the animal life of the ocean extends down to its greatest depths, and is not, as was once supposed, con- fined to its upper strata and in shallow water. Scientific ex- ploration with delicate and trust- worthy instruments, recording the conditions they encounter at any designated depths, have proved that the great abysses of the ocean support a varied popu- lation. All the large groups of marine animals are represented there, but the fauna is not of a primitive type, ancient forms such as the trilobites being un- known in the deep sea. In other words, the deep-sea animals show clear signs of having been de- rived from shallow water or sur- face forms which have wandered into the depths chiefly since cre- taceous times; and they do not shed any light on the origin of life in the sea. Further, as was only to be expected from the great un'rormity of the physical conditions, deep-sea animals tend to be widely distributed, the tem- perature, pressure, and other conditions not being affected by geographical position; but their vertical range is limited, chiefly by the pressure conditions. At great depths the water, even under the equator, is only slightly above the freezing point; the sun's light cannot penetrate; the pressure is enormous, being 9,000 pounds to the square inch at a depth of 3,000 fathoms— this being about the average depth of the floor of the Pacific; above all, plants, the basal food supply elsewhere, are here neces- Types of Deep-Sea or Abyssal Animals. 1. Gastrostomus Bairdii. 2. Chlasmodon niger. 3. Cottus bathyblus. 4. Bathy- teuthis abyssicola. 5. Octopus pictus. 6. Ibaccus Verdi. 7. Thaumastocheles za- lenca. (All half natural scale except No. 1. which is 20 in. long.) Abyssal Animals 32 Abyssinia sarily absent, save for certain bacteria, which may, however, play a minor role in food supply. It follows that the animals must all be carnivorous, and must ultimately depend upon the dead organisms which drop downward from the surface waters. Again, the striking peculiarities of form are associated with the peculiar conditions under which the ani- mals are found. A few deep-sea animals, especially fishes and crustaceans, are blind, while others have exceptionally large eyes, as though to catch the faint gleams of phosphorescent light. The many forms with large eyes among deep-sea animals leads one to suspect that a faint light may penetrate to the floor of the deep ocean; for were it wholly dark one would expect deep-sea animals to be characteristically blind, as are those of caves. Correlated with the reduction or absence of eyes in abyssal fish, we have a great development of delicate tactile organs, these being often produced by the elongation of some of the fin- rays. Many abyssal animals possess phosphorescent organs, but it is still uncertain whether the power of emitting light is commoner in deep-sea or in surface-swimming pelagic forms. A striking characteristic of virtually all abyssal animals is the uniformity of the body color. Though the colors are most diverse when a collection from one locality is studied, they are quite uniform if the individuals themselves be considered. The crustaceans, for example, are often a bright uniform scarlet, or dark red, and the latter color also occurs among the jelly-fishes. Blue is a rare color among deep- sea invertebrates, while dark red is characteristic in many orders of such animals. This fact has led some naturalists to assume that the red rays of sunlight may penetrate to the depths. Among fish dark tints are prevalent, and no brilliantly colored fish, such as abound among coral reefs, have been found in the deep sea. Another common peculiarity is the feeble development of the hard parts, the bones of deep-sea fish and the shells of molluscs and crustaceans being deficient in salts of lime, while the corals are small and usually fragile. While it is true that the deep- sea life is derived from creatures whose ancestors once lived in shallow water, the common eel is exceptional in that it is a deep- sea fish which has migrated into the rivers, but still returns to the ocean depths to lay its eggs. Deep-sea animals are abun- dant only under the great ocean currents or along the continental slopes where the food supply is plentiful. Over the floor of the outer Pacific there is but little life, the concentration of deep- sea forms being dependent chiefly upon conditions of the surface whence the food is derived. The last volume of the Chal- lenger monographs, entitled Sum- mary of Results, gives a historical account of deep-sea dredging. For American work in this field, consult the publications of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries; Agassiz' Three Cruises of the Blake; Goode and Bean's Oceanic Ichthyology. Abyssinia (Amhar, Hahasha or Ahasa), or Ethiopia (Ethiopian and Amhar, Ityopya; Latin, ^Ethiopia), an independent em- pire of Northeast Africa, lying, roughly, between 6° and 15° n. lat., and 35° and 43° e. long. It is composed of the former king- doms of Tigre, with Lasta, in the north and northeast; Amhara, with Gojam, in the centre and west, and Shoa in the south; also portions of Somaliland and Galla in the southeast and south. It is wholly an inland country, being cut off from the Red Sea by the Italian colony of Eritrea; from the Gulf of Aden by French Somaliland and British Somali- land, and from the Indian Ocean by Italian Somaliland. It has Nubia on the northwest, the Sudan (British) on the west, and British East Africa on the south. The area of the empire is esti- mated at about 400,000 square miles, and the population vari- ously from 5,000,000 to 11,000,- 000. The largest cities are Harar (.50,000) and the capital, Adis Abeba (35,000). - Abyssinia consists chiefly of an elevated, irregular table-land, with a general elevation of 6,500 feet, rising in parts to 8,000 and 10,000 feet, and in summits to 15,000 feet. The eastern scarp, running south to Ankober, and thence southwest, and rising abruptly from the low, arid, and hot coastlands to a height of 8,000 to 10,000 feet, forms a vast retaining wall, along the coping of which are many of the chief towns. The western scarp is less elevated, but both in the north- west and southwest there is a rapid descent of several thousand feet. This massif is divided by deep ravines — in some instances 3,000 feet in depth — into many subordinate table-lands, above which, as bases, rise giant moun- tain ranges, groups, and isolated peaks of fantastic form, and im- mense table mountains, exhibit- ing a level sky line reaching for many miles. There are many forest tracts of magnificent trees, with a dense undergrowth of ferns and parasitic creepers. The predominant formations are gneiss and schist, basalt and trachyte; columnar basalt in Lasta, Amhara, and Shoa; lime- stone and marble in Geralta, Enderta, and Harar; sandstone, chiefly red, in Temben. The de- termining physical agency has been volcanic, with subsequent erosion. Earthquakes are common in the northern section, and there are hot springs. The main slope in the north is drained by the system of the Nile, to which be- long the Atbara, Abai, and Sobat. In the southeast are the systems of the Webi Shebeli and Juba. The largest lake is Tsana, occu- pying the great northern basin. It is 45 miles in length and 37 miles in width, and lies at an altitude of 6,372 feet above sea level. It is the source of the Blue Nile, which makes a long detour (130 miles) to the south before turning northwest to join the White Nile at Khartum. The climate is determined by altitude, according to which a native division recognizes three zones. These are lowlands be- low 4,000 feet, uplands up to 7,000 feet, and highlands above 7,000 feet. There are two sea- sons — the rainy, which lasts from June to September, and the dry. The lowlands are unhealthful, hot, and humid. Their vegetable life is tropical, comprising sugar- cane, cotton, coffee, indigo, aloe, baobab, tamarind, banana, syca- more, fig, tamarisk, and acacia: the total loss of foliage during the dry season is characteristic. The climate of the middle zone is quite pleasant; the uppermost region is subject to bitter north winds. Among the products of the middle zone are the vine, bamboo, oil palm, banana, wheat, teff, dagusa, tobacco, pome- granate, orange, lemon, olive, and peach. In the highlands, which are chiefly pastoral, wheat, barley, and oats are grown up to 12,000 feet, above which the vegetation is alpine. In general the soil is extremely fertile. In the northern country the slopes of the valleys are laid out in terraces and irri- gated, and three crops annually may be harvested from the same ground. In the lowlands are found the elephant, two-horned rhi- noceros, hippopotamus, zebra, giraffe, gazelle, and many birds, reptiles, and insects; in the high- lands, the buffalo, antelope, wolf, jackal, lynx, hyaena, lion, leopard, and ibex. Monkeys and baboons are found up to ele- Abyssinia 32 A Abyssinia vations of 10,000 feet above the sea. The minerals comprise iron, gold, coal, saltpetre, sulphur, copper and silver, platinum, potash, and there are numerous mineral springs. Precious stones are plentiful, especially emeralds and agates. Some diamonds have been found. The dominant race is Semitic (Tigre or Agazi in the north and Amhara in the south). The Hamitic is the aboriginal race, and is represented in the north by the Agau and Falasha; in the south by the Oromo (or Galla), metals and leather. The chief exports are gold, civet, ivory, rubber, hides, goat skins, coffee, wax, and native butter. The roads in Abyssinia are mere tracks, and transport is by pack animals, with an expensive change to porters in regions in- fested with the tsetse fiy. Camels are used from the coast through the lowlands; mules, horses, ponies, and donkeys in the high- lands. A railway (488 miles) has been built from Jibutil, on the coast of French Somaliland, to Addis Ababa, the capital. The the subordinate states, and the governors (ras) of the chief prov- inces. These constitute a council of state. The administration of justice lies with the governors, but there is an appeal to the emperor. The legal code is of Byzantine origin, with additions from the Mosaic code. The standing army is about 100,000 strong, and with the state troops can be increased to 300,000. It is well armed with modern weapons. The national religion is Mono- physite Christianity, but Juda- @Ewing Galloway, N A Country Home in Abyssinia, with Typical Thatched Roof. the Sidama, and Gonza; and in the east by the Afar (or Danakil), Faltal, and Somali. The Negritic people are known as Shankela or Shangalle. Others occur spo- radically, as the Adone (Bantu), on the Shcbeli, and the Wato (or Waito). Pigmies are met with south of Kaffa and the Oromo, as in the Doko. The Habashi or Makadi slaves, prized in the Moslem East for their good looks and intelligence, are Galla or Sidama. The profession of arms is most esteemed. The court or official language is Amharic, but Geez or Ethiopic is that of the church and literature; Tigrai is the language of the Tigre. The native industries are the weaving of cotton and mohair fabrics, and the working of telegraph lines (2,000 miles) are under French control. The unit of currency is the Maria-Theresa dollar (value about 50 cents), which is divided into 16 parts to make the Menelik piastre. Abyssinia has commercial treaties with Great Britain (1897), Italy (1897), the United States (1903), Germany (1905), and France (1908). The annual value of the imports and exports is about $12,000,000. The government is a despotic monarchy, based on a system partly federal, but chiefly feudal, and tempered by the power of the clergy. At its head is the emperor, whose full title is Ne- gusa Nagast za-Ityopya, 'King of Kings of Ethiopia.' Next to him come the princes {negus) of ism is found among the Agau or Falasha; Islam is the faith of the Afar, Somali, and most of the Galla. At the head of the Abys- sinian Church is the abuna ('our father'), who is a Coptic monk nominated by the patriarch of Alexandria. His influence is modified, however, by the Itchege, who is an Abyssinian, and who controls the religious orders, numbering 100,000 ecclesiastics. Education is restricted to the teaching of the secular and regu- lar clergy. A cabinet formed on European lines was introduced in 1919 but is somewhat vague in function. History. — By the evidence of speech, the Abyssinians — i.e., the dominant Semitic race — are im- migrants from Southern Arabia, Vol. I. — March '29 Abyssinia 32 B Acacia where to this day a cognate dia- lect quite distinct from Arabic is spoken. The Abyssinian empire dates from the first century B.C. or the first century a.d., when these colonists founded the king- dom of Aksum, or Axum, on the downfall of the empire of the Ptolemies. The chief events of this period were the introduction of Christianity (c. 330) by Fru- mentius; the introduction of monachism from Egypt (c. 480) by the 'nine saints'; the trans- lation of the Bible into Geez; the invasion of Yemen by Kaleb in 522, at the request of the Em- peror Justinian, to avenge and protect the Christians of Najran; and the defeat of the Abyssinians at Mecca in 570. After the seventh century the kingdom of Aksum declined, and came to an end about 925, when an insur- rection of the Agau or Falasha led to the revolution. Then fol- lowed a dynasty, known as the Zague, which held sway till 1270; its most celebrated member was Lalibala (c. 1200), who threat- ened to deprive Egypt of the At- bara flood by diverting it into the Marab, and had the ten rock-hewn churches excavated at the capital of Lasta. Modern history begins with Yekuno Amlak (1270-85), who had his capital at Taguelat in Shoa, and made Amharic the language of court and state. His successors, to the middle of the sixteenth century, were occupied in repelling the advance of Islam, which had invaded the lowlands in the seventh century, and by the fourteenth had become domi- nant in the southeast from Zeila to Harar. The Moslem aggres- sion culminated in the reign of Lebna Deugel (1508-40), when Grafi, in a succession of cam- paigns, gained possession of nearly the whole of Abyssinia. In this extremity aid was sought from Portugal. But the saving of the state (1543) was at the cost of the church, which, to- gether with the dynasty, has been the main cohesive strength of the nation. The Jesuits, who came with the Portuguese, were expelled by Fasilidas (1632-7). Abyssinia suffered heavily from the Galla or Oromo, who, at the end of the eighteenth century, gained possession of Amhara and the person of the sover- eign. Shoa had become inde- pendent. Kasa, chief of Kuara, succeeded in making him.self master of the whole of Abyssinia between 1852-5, when he was crowned as Theodore ii. Neguse, who had seized Tigre during Theodore's campaign against the Galla and Shoa in 1855, and was recognized king of Abyssinia by the French, was taken prisoner and put to death in 1861. After Theodore's death (1868), on the Vol. I. — March '29 taking of Magdala by Sir Robert Napier, Ras Kasa of Tigre suc- ceeded against his rivals, Gobaze of Lasta and Menelik of Shoa, and was crowned at Aksum (1872) as Johannes, or John. He repelled the aggression of the Khedive by his defeat of the Egyptians at Gura (1876), but was killed in battle with the Mahdists at Galabat (1889), and Menelik ii. of Shoa, aided by the Italians, was crowned at Antotto. Having denounced the Uchali treaty of May 2, 1889, under which Italy claimed a protecto- rate, he assumed sovereign posi- tion by the Addis Ababa conven- tion with Italy (Oct. 26, 1896), after the Italian defeat at Adua (March 1, 1896). He also con- cluded the Anglo-Abyssinian treaty (May 14, 1897), under which Great Britain ceded to Abyssinia about 8,000 square miles of British Somaliland. On Dec. 13, 1906, Great Britain, France, and Italy signed a mutual agreement to respect and endeavor to preserve the integrity of Abyssinia as an in- dependent nation. In 1907 the boundary line between Abyssinia and British East Africa and Uganda was established. In June, 1908, Menelik, having no son, decreed as his successor to the throne his grandson. Prince Lidj Jeassu, then sixteen years of age. The powerful Ras Tassamma was appointed his guardian. Upon the serious ill- ness of Menelik in August, 1908, Ras Tassamma was appointed regent during the minority of Lidj Jeassu. The regency was brief, however, as Menelik re- covered. The arrangement for the succession aroused the negus of Tigre to revolt. In October, 1909, Menelik sent Ras Michael, the father of Lidj Jeassu, to crush the uprising. He was suc- cessful, and became the recog- nized successor to the throne, instead of his son. Menelik was stricken with paralysis, early in 1910, and died in 1913, and mean- while Ras Tassamma seized the throne as regent for Lidj Jeassu, and Queen Taitu and the chiefs who acted with her were impris- oned. In 1911 Ras Tassamma died, and Lidj Jeassu assumed the reins of government, but his mismanagement and dissolute conduct and his support of Islam estranged his subjects and in 1916 he was excommunicated, deposed, and Zanditu, a daughter of Menelik, was proclaimed em- press with Ras Tafari, her cousin, regent and heir to the throne. After a period of desultory fight- ing with the followers of Lidj Jeassu, who himself was at length captured in 1921, order and improvement in government were finally achieved and in 1923 Abyssinia was admitted to the League of Nations, subject to certain conditions regarding the control of slavery and of the arms traffic. Educational ad- vance has been made, roads opened up and hospitals built and progress in the last few years, although slow, has been real and lasting. Consult Skinner's Abyssinia of To-day; Rey's Unconquered Abys- sinia as it is Today (1923). Acacia, a-ka'sha, a genus of usually thorny trees and shrubs, belonging to the bean family (order Leguminosae, sub-order Mimosacese), of which over 400 species are found in tropical and subtropical regions throughout the world, but more extensively in Australia and Africa. They are evergreen, and have small flowers crowded into round or elongated heads, white, pink, purple, or yellow, the latter predominating; the leaves are bipinnate (doubly feathered), except in species adapted to desert life, in which the leaf for the most part dis- appears, its functions being per- formed by a flat and spiny leaf stalk. The acacias vary in form from furze and heath-like shrubs to trees 60 feet in height. Stunted acacias form the scrub ('wattles') of Australia and of the Sudan, where zerebas (en- closures) are formed of them. The wattle bark is used in tan- ning, and its cultivation for this purpose has proved profitable where land and labor are cheap. Most Australian species have no leaflets, but the leaf stalk be- comes flattened into a phyllode, which presents its thin edge to the light, and thus the tree gives little shade. A. vera yields the true gum arable. A. arabica, or babul tree, much cultivated in India, gives a hard timber; the bark is used in dyeing and tanning; its leaves form an important fodder; and the red babul gum is used as a substitute for true gum arable, and is eaten by the natives in times of famine. A. catechu yields a resinous extract, catechu, used in medicine as a powerful astringent. A. Senegal, growing in Western Africa and India, is valuable for a gum nearly ap- proaching gum arable. A . filicu- loides is a thornless shrub found on the Western prairies, and the fragrant opoponax (A. Farne- siana), from which the Italian perfume cassie is obtained, with other species, has entered the Southern United States, sup- posedly from the West Indies. The acacias of Mexico and tropical America are valuable for their very hard and fine grained timber, used in furniture, billiard tables, piano sounding boards and veneered work. The wood takes a high polish. The name acacia is often ap- ^cademle Fran^alse 33 Academy plied, erroneously, to the Robinia (q.v.) or flowering locust. Academie Fran^aise. See Academy. Academy, an institution for the cultivation of learning, of letters, or of art. The name has been applied to many and vari- ous organizations, such as schools, universities, colleges for instruc- tion in particular arts and sciences, and societies of scholars, literary men, and artists. The present article, however, confines itself to academies which have for their object the promotion of learning and of letters. The Platonic Academy origi- nated in a gymnasium and pleas- ure garden about one mile north of Athens, called after the hero Academus, and presented by Cimon to the Athenian public. It was frequented by Plato and his disciples for nearly fifty years; and the successive 'schools' which developed the doctrine after his death (348 b.c.) derived the name Academies from the place where their common master taught. The first or 'old' Acad- emy (347-270 B.C.), which was led by Speusippus, Xenocrates, Polemo, Grantor, and Crates suc- cessively, was Pythagorean in tendency. Cicero calls it 'the workshop of every artist,' and says that the teaching of its fol- lowers comprised all liberal learn- ing, all history, and polite dis- course. The second or 'middle' Academy (316-241 B.C.), founded by Arcesilaus, insisted on the sceptical element in the Platonic teaching; and this method was further developed by the third or 'new 'Academy (214-129 B.C.), led by Carneades, who denied all knowledge of reality, and set up the doctrine of probability as a practical guide in life. Some dis- tinguished a fourth Academy, of Philo of Larissa, and a fifth, of Antiochus, both of whom were teachers of Cicero; these later schools were more dogmatic in method. Although not bearing the name of Academy, the school of learn- ing which had its centre at the museum in Alexandria (300 b.c- 500 A.D.) was essentially an in- stitution of the same kind. Charlemagne's Palatine Acad- emy, founded before the year 800, was devoted to the study of mathematics, history, and letters; and the University of Oxford had its origin in the Academy of Alfred the Great in that city. In 529 A.D. all the Platonic academies were abolished by Justinian; and from that time to the fourteenth century, traces of such societies practically disap- pear. But it has been plausibly surmised that clubs of some sort, necessarily secret, possibly work- ing through the trade guilds, connected the old academic tra- dition with the active founding of academies of the modern type at the time of the Renaissance. The Accademia della Crusca, founded in Florence in 1582, had as its object the purification of the Italian language. For that purpose it published, in 1612, the Vocabulario della Crusca, which has gone through many editions, and is comparable in its influence to the Dictionary of the French Academy. There are 12 active and 30 corresponding members. It publishes Transactions. Institut de France. — The old French academies were abolished during the Revolution, but in 1795 the Institut de France was founded with three sections, re- organized with four in 1803 and 1816, and enlarged in 1832 by the admission of the Academie des Sciences Morales et Politiques. The Institute has a fund and library (455,000 volumes) com- mon to all of its academies, and is under the general supervision of the Minister of Public Instruc- tion; but the academies are autonomous. Each member of the Institute gets a government pension of |240 (1,200 francs). The Academie Francaise, most famous of the five, 'origi- nated (1630) as the informal weekly meetings of a few literary friends. Though assemblies of any kind were illegal at that time, Richelieu offered his pat- ronage, and the society was in- corporated in 1637 as the Acad- emic Frangaise. Like its Italian prototype, it announced for its purpose the purification of the language, its immediate task being the compilation of a dic- tionary. The Dictionary was first published in 1694; the eighth edition is in preparation (1912). A Dictionnaire historique de la Langue Francaise was started in 1858, but, after four volumes de- voted to the letter A, was aban- doned in 1894. The Academy has included most of the French writers of high rank, although, from various causes, Moliere, Pascal, Rousseau, Diderot, Bal- zac, and others have not been Academicians. The Academy has retained its original member- ship of 40, and each member, after his election by ballot, must be sanctioned by the govern- ment. Its famous Dictionary has furnished an authoritative national standard of orthography and accuracy of language. A committee of the Academie Francaise, entrusted by Colbert in 1663 with the editing of the legends on public monuments and similar tasks, was increased to a membership of forty, and in- corporated as the Academie des Inscriptions et Medailles (1706). The name was changed to Aca- demie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres (1716), and later it became a section of the Insti- tut de France. It has 40 regular members, 10 members at large (from whom future members are chosen) , 8 foreign associates, and 70 corresponding members. It has conducted important anti- quarian researches. Memoirs and reports of sessions are pub- lished. Among its works are Histoire Litteraire de la France; Recueil des Historiens de France; Corpus Inscriptionum Semitica- rum. , The Academie des Sciences, founded by Colbert in 1666, formed the basis of the Institute as constituted in 1795. It is divided into eleven sections, each with six members, and has 10 members at large, 10 honorary members (French), 12 foreign associates, and 1 1 6 corresponding members. It publishes Memoirs and Reports. , The Academie des Beaux- arts (1655) was united with the Academy of Architecture as the fourth section of the Institute. It has 5 sections, including. 40 members, besides 10 members at large, 10 foreign associates, and 50 corresponding members. Five volumes and two parts (one- half) of the sixth volume of the Dictionnaire de V Academie des Beaux-arts have been published (1912). The Academie des Sciences Morales et Politiques, fifth class of the Institute (1832), has 40 active members, 10 members at large, 8 foreign associates, and 60 corresponding members. It publishes Memoirs and Reports. France possesses numerous other academies in the principal provincial towns, the most im- portant of which are the acade- mies of Lyons (1700), Marseilles (1726), and Toulouse (1782). Royal British Academy. — It was not until June 28, 1901, that the British Academy was founded, having for its object the promotion of the study of moral and political science, including history, philosophy, law, politics and economics, archaeology and philology. A royal charter was granted by the King in August, 1902. The maximum number of members is 100. The Acad- emy embraces four divisions — History and Archaeology, Philol- ogy, Philosophy, Jurisprudence, and Economics. The Royal So- ciety of London (q.v.) is also Academy 34 Academy of Arts and Letters a member of the International Association of Academies. The Royal Irish Academy in Dublin was founded by royal charter in 1786. The Royal Society of Literature has announced its in- tention (1911) of forming from its membership an Academy of Literature of 40 members. The Akademie der Wissen- SCHAFTEN (Academy of Sciences) is the oldest academy in Ger- many — founded in Berlin in 1700 by Frederick I., after the plan of Leibniz. It is divided into two sections — science and philosophy. The membership is 64 active, 20 foreign, and 200 corresponding and honorary members. There are 15 sub- sidiary organizations. Transac- tions have been published since 1811, and Acta Borussica {Me- moirs of the Prussian Government) since 1892. Other important German academies are the Acad- emy of Sciencesat Munich (1759), the Association of Sciences at Gottingen (1742), the Royal Society of Sciences at Leipzig (1846), and the Academy of Sciences at Heidelberg (1909). In Holland there are the Royal Academy of Sciences at Leyden, the oldest in the country ; another at Haarlem, founded in 1752; and another at Amsterdam (1855). Each of these publishes Ver- handelingen (Transactions). The Royal Academy of Sciences at Vienna, founded in 1847, is divided into two sections — philosophical and scientific. Besides Memoirs, it has pub- lished many valuable books, chiefly connected with the his- tory of Austria. The oldest acad- emy of the empire is the Bohe- mian Society of Sciences in Prague, founded in 1769, and in- corporated by charter in 1785. The Hungarian Academy was founded at Budapest in 1825. It is divided into three sections and has an active membership of 84. It has a valuable library of 150,000 volumes. Belgium has the Academic Royale des Sciences at Brussels and Academic Royale d'Archeolo- gie at Antwerp. The former was founded in 1773, and divided in- to three sections — science, litera- ture, and arts. In 1909 it had published twenty volumes (Aa- Rythovius) of a dictionary of national biography. Italy has numerous influential academies, besides the Accade- mia delta Crusca, which is still of great importance. The Reale Accademia dei Lincei (Royal Academy of Sciences) at Rome (1603, revived 1807) has 92 reg- ular and nearly 250 Italian and foreign corresponding members. The Reale Accademia das Sci- encias, the Institute of Bologna (1714), has in its division of physical sciences 24 active, 24 honorary, and 90 corresponding members; in its division of moral sciences, added by royal decree in 1907, 16 active, 14 honorary, and 60 corresponding members. It publishes Memorie (Memoirs). The Milan Academy, removed there in 1820 from Bologna, is styled the Istituto Lombardo di Scienze, and has published Me- morie since 1820. In Portugal there is the Aca- demia Real das Sciencias at Lis- bon, founded in 1779, reorganized in 1851. It has 40 active mem- bers and publishes Memorias. A Portuguese Society of the Natural Sciences, founded in 1907, has 61 regular members and publishes a Bulletin. In Russia the most important academy is the Imperial Acad- emy of Sciences at St. Peters- burg, founded in 1725 by the Empress Catharine i. It pos- sesses a rich and valuable collection of manuscripts, a large library, museum, etc. Its studies in Oriental languages and customs are of great value. It publishes Memoires. There are 34 regular members, who are salaried state officials, 50 honor- ary, and 238 corresponding. The Real Academia Espanola (Royal Spanish Academy), at Madrid, was founded by PhiUp v. in 1713. It has published Mewo- rias since 1793, and since 1870 it has admitted as corresponding sections academies founded in Mexico City, Bogota, Lima, and Caracas. It has 36 regular and 124 Spanish and foreign corre- sponding members. Its Diction- ary has been the great national authority. The Royal Academy of Scien- ces (Svenska Vetenskapsakade- mien) in Stockholm (1741) is divided into seven classes, and numbers 90 members. A com- mittee of the Academy awards the Nobel Prizes (q.v.) for Physics and for Chemistry. In 1893 it began the publication of a national Dictionary of Swedish. The Swedish Academy (1786) has eighteen members, a com- mittee of whom award the Nobel Prize for Literature. There is an academy at Upsala (1719), which has published Acta since 1740. Other academics of Europe are the Academia Romdna (Rou- manian Academy) in Bucharest (1866); the Videnskabs Selskab (Society of Sciences) in Christi- ania (1857); the Royal Academy of Sciences in Copenhagen (1742) ; the Royal Academy of Sciences in Belgrade (1886), and the Society of Sciences in Helsing- fors, Finland (1838). In Asia the most important academy is the Asiatic Society at Calcutta, founded in 1784. which publishes valuable Asiatic Researches. United States. — In the United States the tendency has been to form learned societies of unlimited membership, rather than academies in the restricted sense in which that term is gen- erally used on the Continent. Of the latter type of academies, however, the United States has the American Academy of Arts and Letters (1780), the National Academy of Sciences (1863), and the National Institute of Arts and Letters (1898), with the Academy of Arts and Letters (1904) . The American Philo- sophical Society, founded by Franklin in Philadelphia (1743), is the oldest scientific society in the United States. It has 522 members and a library of 50,000 volumes. It publishes Proceed- ings. A list of American learned societies is included in the article Societies (q.v.). An interesting phase of the development of academies in recent years has been the found- ing of several institutions that are international in scope. The Institute of International Law (1875) has 58 regular members (limited to 60), 58 associate members (limited to 60), and 12 honorary members. The In- ternational Institute of Statistics (membership limited to 100), the International Institute of Sociology (1893; membership limited to 100), and the Inter- national Agricultural Institute (1905) may also be mentioned. Significant of the modern ten- dency to federation is the Inter- national Association of Academies (1900), composed in 1910 of 21 national societies. Consult Handbook of Learned Societies and Institutions of America (Carnegie Institution of Washington, Publication No. 39; 1908) ; Matthew Arnold's ' Liter- ary Influence of Academies,' in Essays in Criticism (First Series) ; Harnack's Geschichte der Preussis- chen Akademie der Wissenschaften (4 vols., 1901); Rosengarten's American Philosophical Society (1909) ; Robertson's History of the French Academy (1910); Minerva, an admirable annual guide, in German, to all universities, museums, libraries, and societies; Official Year Book of the Scientific and Learned Societies of Great Britain and Ireland. Academy of Arts and Letters, American, was founded in 1904 by the National Institute of Arts Academy of Arts and Sciences 35 Acanthus and Letters (See Institute of Arts and Letters) as an inner circle of the latter society, its aim being 'to represent and further the interests of the fine arts and literature.' The membership, at first thirty, was increased to fifty in 1908, and vacancies are filled, by a majority vote of the Academy, from the membership of the National Institute (q.v.). Regular meetings are held for the discussion of literary and artistic topics. The members of the Academy on March 1, 1928, were: Adams, Herbert Alderman, Edwin A. Baker, George P. Blashfield, Edwin H. Brownell, William C. Bruch, George deF. Butler, Nicholas M. Chadwick, George W, Channing, Edward Cole, Timothy Cortissoz, Royal Cross, Wilbur L. Finley, John H. Eraser, James Earle French, Daniel C. Garland, Hamlin Gibson, Charles D. Gilbert, Cass Gillette, William Grant, Robert Hadley, Arthur T. Hadley, Henry Hassam, Childe Hastings, Thomas Hazen, Charles D. Hill, David Jayne Huntington, A. M. Johnson, Robert U. Lowell, Abbott L. MacMonnies, F. MacNeil, Hermon A. Matthews, Brander Mead, William R. Melchers, Gari More, Paul Elmer Perrv, Bliss Piatt, Charles A. Pope, John Russell Robinson, Edwin A. Root, Elihu Shorey, Paul Sloane, William M. Taft, Lorado Tarkington, Booth Tnomas, Augustus Van Dyke, Henry Van Dyke. John C. Whitlock, Brand Wister, Owen Woodberry, G. E. Academy of Arts and Sci- ences, American, an institution founded in Boston in 1780. There are three classes. The membership in 1926 (limited to 600) was 574 resident fellows, 16 associate fellows, and 60 foreign honorary members (limited to 75) . From the Rumf ord Fund are awarded gold and silver medals ($300) to the author of 'any important discovery of a useful improvement in light or heat which shall have been made and published in America'; and from the Warren Fund, prizes for work in chemistry. The Acad- emy has published Memoirs since 1785 and Proceedings since 1846. Academy of Design, Na- tional. See National Academy OF Design. Academy of Medicine, American. See Medicine, American Academy of. Academy of Natural Scien- ces, an institution founded in Philadelphia in 1812, the oldest natural science society in the United States. There are seven sections, comprising benefactors, who make a contribution of $10,000, sustaining members, life members, annual members, associate members, and junior members. There are also a number of correspondents. There is a library of about 70,000 volumes. A Journal has been published since 1817, and Pro- ceedings since 1841. Academy of Political and Social Science, American. See Political and Social Science, American Academy of. Academy of Sciences, Na- tional. See National Acad- emy OF Sciences. Academy (the Royal) of Arts, London, was founded in 1768, with Sir Joshua Reynolds as its first president. It usually consists of 40 members, about 30 associates, and a few foreign honorary members. An annual exhibition of painting and sculp- ture is held in Burlington House, Piccadilly, lasting from May till August. In connection with the Royal Academy are the schools which give instruction in art to students who pass the entrance examination (held on Jan. 1 and July 1 of each year). There are many prizes, the chief being the gold medals and travelling stu- dentships of £200 each for historical painting, sculpture, and architecture, and the Turner gold medal and scholarship of £50 for landscape, all tenable for two years. Academy, U. S. Military. See Military Academy. Academy, U. S. Naval. See Naval Academy. Acadia, a-ka'di-a, or Acadie, a name supposed to be derived from a Micmac expression mean- ing 'abounding in.' It is first found in a petition of De Monts to the king of France asking for permission to colonize a part of the New World. The territory which was granted to De Monts was of uncertain limits, and so extensive as to include within its borders the present cities of Montreal and Philadelphia. La- ter, its bounds were defined and limited to the province of New Brunswick, the peninsula of Nova Scotia, and part of Maine. The first settlement and most important town was Port Royal, founded in 1604, now known as Annapolis Royal, and situated on Annapolis Basin, an arm of the Bay of Fundy. In 1621 Acadia, enlarged by the addition of the island of Ca.pe Breton and the Gaspe peninsula, was granted to Sir William Alexander, who named it Nova Scotia. Then followed a long struggle between England and France for the possession of the coveted terri- tory, which was eventually brought under English control by the Treaty of Paris in 1763. See Nova Scotia. Acadia University, ' a co- educational institution situated in Wolfville, Nova Scotia. It was founded in 1838 by the Baptist Church in the maritime provinces. For recent statistics see Table under the heading College. Acajutla, a-ka-hoot'la, port of Sonsonate (12^ miles) and San Salvador (50 miles), Salvador, Central America. It is connected with the cities named and Santa Ana by a narrow-gauge railway, and is the gateway for a con- stantly increasing trade. The new port is in a more sheltered location than the old one, a mile farther north. Excellent sea-bathing adds to its attrac- tions. Acamapichtli, a-ka-ma-pesh'- tie, an Aztec chieftain of the fourteenth century, the ruler of a limited territory in Mexico. He maintained peace, and was in- strumental in constructing the Lake Tezcoco canals, and in embellishing with stone edifices his capital of Tenochtitlan, the site of the present City of Mexico. Acantha'cese, a family of dicotyledons belonging to the group Tubiflorae or Sympetalae. It comprises nearly 150 genera, with more than 2,000 species, which are found chiefly in the tropics. Some species, however, occur in the United States, in the Mediterranean region, and in Australia. The leaves are gener- ally thin and entire, the flowers usually have united petals of four or five parts. Among the genera are Nelsonia, Ruellia, Justicia and Acanthus. Acan'thite, a mineral form of silver sulphide (AgjS), nearly related to argentite. It occurs in slender, iron-black, prismatic crystals of the - normal ortho- rhombic type. Acanthite is found with other ores of silver in Freiberg, Saxony, and in other German localities. Acan'thus, or Bear's-breech, a genus of about 20 tall, herba- ceous plants in tropical and sub- tropical Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia. The varieties native Acanthus to the country about the Medi- terranean have large, thorny- toothed leaves, which are sup- posed to have suggested the acanthus (q.v.) of ancient archi- VoL. I.— Oct. '28 Acanthus 36 Accession tecture. They are mostly weeds, but some are cultivated for their foliage. Only a few species of acanthus grow wild in North America, mainly in the South and Sou.thwest. Among them are Ruellia, Calophanes, Dianthera, and Phryma. The varieties familiar m the United ' Composite Capital, with " Acanthus Ornament States are chiefly tender garden or hothouse plants, such as Justicia, or Thunbergia. Acanthus, in architecture, a conventionalized leaf decoration believed to have been designed after the leaf of the acanthus spinosus. It is seen in charac- teristic form in the Corinthian capital of ancient Grecian archi- tecture. The Roman acanthus is more of the type of leaf of the acanthus mollis. In modified forms the acanthus also served for the decoration of furniture, laces, vases, and personal orna- ments. See Architecture. A Cappella, a ka-pel'la, or Alla Cappella, a musical term implying that a composition is to be sung as ecclesiastical music. Frequently it means that the voices are unaccompanied, or accompanied only by an instru- ment (usually the organ) played in unison with the voices. Acapulco, a-ka-pool'ko, sea- port, Mexico, in Guerrero, on the Pacific Ocean, 230 miles southwest of Mexico City. It lies among low hills, and the climate is hot throughout the year. It has one of the finest harbors in the world, a semi- circular bay covering about 8 square miles and with 16 fathoms of water. The region is subject to earthquakes, and Acapulco \Vas partly destroyed by a series of shocks in 1909. Exports in- clude hides, cedar, and fruits. Pop. about 7,000. Acarina, an order of arach- nids. vSee Mites; Tick. Acarnania, ak-iir-na'ni-a, dis- trict. Northwest Greece; with /Etolia it forms the province (nomarchy) of Arcanania and ^tolia, stretching north from the (}ulf of Patras, and including part of the Gulf of Arta; area, Vol. I. —Oct. '28 3,034 square miles. The western part is well wooded, and the soil is rich. There are many fruit orchards. The finest tobacco country of Greece is the plain of Agrinion in Acarnania. Lake Trichonis lies in a famous region. Pop. 175,000. A'carus (Demodex) Follic'- ulo'rum, the pimple mite, a minute parasitic mite which infests the hair follicles and sebacious glands in man. It is very common in comedones ('black heads') and seems to have no deleterious influence. The size varies from one-fiftieth to one-hundredth of an inch; and as in mites in general, four pairs of legs are present, heie rudimentary. See Mites. Acatalec'tic Measures, metres which do not allow of the excision of an unaccented syllable at the beginning or the end of the line. See Catalectic. Accad. See Akkad. Accault, a-ko', Michel, a Frenchman who, with an ex- plorer named Du Gay, accom- panied Father Hennepin, at the instance of La Salle, in Henne- pin's discoveries in the upper waters of the Mississippi. In 1680 all three were made prison- ers by a wandering band of Sioux. Accelerando, at-cha-la-ran'- do (Italian), a musical term in- dicating that the tempo is to be gradually increased. Accel'eration, the rate at which the velocity of a moving body changes. It is positive when the velocity is increasing, negative (with the minus sign) when it is decreasing. The ac- celeration of a falling body, due to gravity, amounts to 32.2 feet per second. If the body in- fluenced by gravity is moving upward, as a ball thrown into the air, its acceleration by gravity is negative, and is represented by -32.2 feet per second. See Kinematics; Kinetics. Ac'cent, the stress laid in pro- nunciation upon one syllable of a word — corresponding to empha- sis, the stress laid in elocution upon a word or words in a phrase. In Indo-Germanic languages ac- cent is either musical (con- sisting of higher or lower tones, as in Sanskrit and Greek) or expiratory (consisting of simple stress, as in English). In Old English the first syllable of simple words bore the accent, and the inflectional parts re- mained unaccented, as now — e.g., love, lovable, loveliness. Again, nouns compounded with a prefix threw the accent back on the prefix; but verbs similarly compounded retained their form- er accent. Thus in modern English we say outcome (noun), but outdo (verb). This principle was extended to words borrowed from other languages, and hence we have such pairs as accent (noun) and accent (verb), per- fume (noun) and perfume (verb). Words taken from other lan- guages generally conform to the same principles as native Ger- manic words — i.e., they throw the accent as far back as possible toward the beginning of the word. Most English words have only one accent, but in the case of long words, like dissimulation, we may also have a secondary accent. This accent is scarcely perceptible in ordinary speech, but is of considerable importance for metrical purposes. The English habit of slurring over the unaccented syllables of a word has given us some of our most curious derivations, such as 'proxy,' from French procuracie, and 'alms,' from Greek elee- mosyne. In like manner, accent has been one of the chief factors in inflectional and phonetic decay, and is probably one of the chief factors of ablaut (q.v.). For accent in its metrical aspect, see Verse. Accent, a grammatical sign used to distinguish the varying sounds of the same vowel. They are three in number — viz., grave C), acute ('), and circumflex C), as exhibited in the French words pere, ete, tete. Accent, in music the regular recurrence of stress or emphasis upon certain notes — always (un- less syncopated) upon the first note of a bar; while a slighter accent falls on the third note of a bar in common time, or the fourth in a bar of Vs time. Acceptance. See Bills and Notes. Access, Right of, a legal right, in the nature of an ease- ment, which a riparian owner possesses, of uninterrupted access to the sea or navigable river. This is a right of property, and cannot be cut off through the grant by the state of the shore to a railroad company or other private owner. See Riparian Rights. Accession, in law the mode of acquiring property by the nat- ural or artificial increase, addi- tion to, or improvement of things already ours. Thus the owner of land becomes entitled to plants and trees growing upbn it, and to the increase or addition to it arising from accretion and allu- vion; the offspring of animals belong to the owner of the mother. When the increase or improvement is artificial, as by the addition to our property of the property or work of others (houses built on our land, or em- broidery worked on our cloth), the owner of the principal thing is entitled to what was accessory to it, subject generally to the Accessories 37 Accidents Industrial payment of compensation, and subject also to certain exceptions. For example, when the result of expending work upon another's goods is the production of a new thing, the rule is reversed — as when a man makes wine from an- other's grapes, he keeps the wine and pays for the grapes; or when an artist paints a picture on the canvas of another, he keeps the picture and pays for the canvas. These doctrines were fully worked out in the Roman law. English and American law differs from the Roman only in making a distinction between the innocent and the wilful transformation of a man's property by accession, permitting him in the case of wilful accession to recover his goods even though they have been changed by the wrongdoer into something of a different na- ture — as grain into whiskey. A not uncommon source of diffi- culty is the determination as to which of two objects is the principal and which the acces- sory. Acces'sorles, the parapher- nalia, other than the shield, of a heraldic achievement — viz., the helm, wreath, crest, cap, crown, mantling, badge, scroll, etc. See Heraldry. Accessory (Latin accessarius) , a term derived from scholastic logic, and used by lawyers to distinguish certain classes of accomplices from the chief actors in the commission of felonies. An accessory before the fact is one who deliberately instigates oth- ers to commit a felony, but who does not himself take a direct part in its commission. An ac- cessory after the fact is one who, knowing that a felony has been committed, takes active steps to shelter the felon from justice, or to enable him to escape. Whether accession after the fact should in the ordinary case be considered a crime is a matter of dispute. A distinction is generally made be- tween accessories and principals in the second degree, that is, per- sons who, though not the actual committers of the crime, were nevertheless present as aiders and abettors. The tendency of modern legislation, however, es- pecially in the United vStates, is to abolish the formal distinction between principals and acces- sories before the fact. It is thought preferable that the degree of punishment meted out to each of a number of co- delinquents should be deter- mined not in accordance with technical subtleties, but with the facts of each individual case. See Crime. Ac'cho. See Acre. Acclaccatura, at-chiik-ka-too'- ra. See Appoggiatura. Acciajuoll) a-cha-yoo-o'le, Do- NATO (1428-78). Italian scholar and mathematician, was born in Florence, and was a pupil of Argyropulus. Like other scholars of the Renaissance, he was sent on several important embassies, dying at Milan while on his way to France to seek aid of Louis xi. on behalf of the Florentines against Pope Sixtus iv. His body was carried back to Florence and buried in the Church of the Carthusians at public expense. Besides commentaries on Aris- totle's Ethics and Politics, in which he was aided by Argyro- pulus, he wrote biographies of Hannibal, Scipio, and Charle- magne and translated parts of Plutarch's Lives. Ac'cidence, that part of gram- mar which deals with inflections, or changes in the form of words produced by the declension of nouns and adjectives or the con- jugation of verbs. See Gram- mar; Inflection. Ac'cident, in the narrower and stricter sense an occurrence which is due neither to design nor to neglience; in its wider sense, any casualty whether caused by fault or not. According to the first of these definitions, an injury caused by anything which comes under the category of vis major or 'act of God' — e.g., lightning, tempest, or flood — is accidental, and therefore not actionable. Similarly, the sudden and un- explained bolting of a horse is accidental, as is anything that can be called a damnum fatale. Primitive systems of law held the owner of property responsible for any accidental injury caused through its instrumentality {e.g., by the fall of a tree), however in- nocent of intention or negligence he might be. Such liability was, however, satisfied by the sur- render of the offending property (see Deodand). In its broader sense, the word accident is applied to a wide range of disavSters, many of them due to negligence if not to actual intention. (See Accidents, In- dustrial; Aircraft Disasters; Fire Disasters; Marine Dis- asters; Mining; Railroads, Accidents.) In criminal jurisprudence an effect is said to be accidental when 'the act by which it is caused is not done with the in- tention of causing it, and when its occurrence as a consequence of such act is not so probable that a person of ordinary prudence ought, under the circumstances in which it is done, to take reasonable precautions against it.' See Insurance, Accident. Accident, in logic, a predicate which neither is contained in nor can be inferred from the defini- tion of its subject — e.g., the predicate black as applied to the subject crow. If all crows without exception were black, blackness would be an 'inseparable acci- dent' of the subject crow; other- wise it is a 'separable accident.' See Predicables. Accidental Colors, the imagin- ary complementary colors which are seen when, after looking fixedly at a bright-colored object, the eye is turned to a white or hght-colored surface. If the object was red, the accidental color is green. Blue corresponds in like manner to yellow. See Color. Accidentals, in music, are signs of chromatic alterations of the notes, differing from the sig- nature in applying only to par- ticular notes, and not extending their effect beyond the bar in which they occur, or according to others, the first note of the next bar. They indicate a tem- porary change of key. They are five in number: the sharp (#), the double sharp (X), the flat (b), the double flat (bb), and the natural iS). Accident Indemnity. See Em- ployers' Liability. Accident Insurance. See In- surance, Accident. Accidents, Industrial. The term 'industrial accident,' as ordinarily used, connotes a per- sonal injury sustained by an employee in the course of his employment, and includes both fatal and non-fatal injuries. The term 'accident' generally im- plies a fortuitous or unexpected happening, but industrial acci- dents, so-called, are so character- istic, and their number so often more or less constant, in many in- dustries, that the usual meaning of the term is in this case lost sight of. The speeding up of industrial processes in the interests of in- creased production was not at once accompanied by adequate consideration of the human equation. Men, women, and even children, in the earlier days of the factory system, spent long working hours in badly con- structed buildings, surrounded by unguarded machinery, with the result that when rush periods came, with consequent fatigue and loss of alertness on the pArt of the workers, accidents oc- curred, bringing suffering and loss both to the individual and to the industry. The problem presented by in- dustrial accidents is a three-fold one, affecting the employer, the worker, and the public. From the point of view of the employer the problem is one of efficiency. Accidents interfering with the stability of his working force constitute a form of industrial waste, reflected in increased costs of production. For the Vol. I.— Oct. '26 Occidents Industrial 37A Acclimatization wage earner the problem involves his own physical and mental well-being; the consequences of accident to him are personal and irreparable. For the public, which ultimately pays the price both for the increased produc- v.ion cost and the laborer's lost time, the problem assumes a fi- nancial and humanitarian aspect. As the number of accidents multiplied, therefore, and similar accidents recurred with increas- ing frequency, some action was inevitable. This took the form largely of legislation requiring safety devices and better labor- ing conditions and of employers' liability and workmen's compen- sation laws. Besides the provision of safety devices (for which see Safety, Industrial), correct ventilation and proper lighting contribute much toward the prevention of industrial acci- dents. A workman laboring in a place of high temperature, where ventilation is slight and spas- modic, may easily grow faint and fall into some rapidly moving machinery. One such injured workman may cost an employer more than an entire system of cor- rect ventilation. The importance of good illumination is evidenced by the fact that the rate of acci- dents increases during the winter months when artificial lighting is more in use. The prevention of accidents, however, does not rest wholly with the employer, for the carrying into effect of any plans for accident prevention is largely dependent on the co- operation of the wage earner. Among the causes of accidents common to industry the follow- ing may be cited as perhaps the more usual: falling objects; flying objects; careless handling of materials, machines, or tools; burns; tripping and falling. In Europe for many years the compilation of accident statistics has formed a definite branch of statistical research; but in the United States, no machinery for collecting adequate and reliable reports for industrial accidents exists. Those States which have no workmen's compensation laws do not report accidents; other States report compensable acci- dents only; still others report coal-mining accidents alone. Estimates place the number of industrial accidents in the United States at 2,453,418 annually, causing the loss of more than 225,000,000 working days and more than $1,000,000,000 in wages. It is further estimated, by the National Safety Council, that of the 100,000 blind persons in the United States, 15,000 have been blinded in industry. The accompanying table summarizes the number of fatalities by in- dustries. Vol. I.— Oct. '26 In Great Britain and Northern Ireland the number of working people, other than seamen, re- ported as killed in 1924, in the course of employment, was 2,487, as compared with 2,445 in 1923. Of this number, 1,201 were killed in the coal mines, where 195,423 workers were also more or less seriously injured. In 1923 the death rate per 1,000 of those employed in coal mines was 1.20 for those working underground and 0.49 for those on the surface; for those employed in quarries it was 1.06, and for railway workers it was .35. For the prevention of industrial accidents see Safety, Industrial. See also Employers' Liability; Insurance, Accident; Trades, Dangerous. Consult Eastman's Work Ac- cidents and the Law (1910); Schwedtman and Emery's Acci- dent Prevention and Relief (1911); Report of the Massachusetts Commission on Compensation for Industrial Accidents (1912); Kendall's Safety; Methods for Preventing Occupational and Other Accidents and Diseases (1913); American Labor Year Book (an- nual). Accip'ltr6s, a term applied by Linnaeus to birds of prey, such as the hawk (Accipiter). See Prey, Birds of. Accii'matiza'tion, the process whereby animals or plants be- come adapted to, and so thrive in, a climate different from that in which they are indigenous. Biologically considered, acclima- Industrial Fatalities in the United States (1923) by Industry Groups. Industry Number of Fatalities Number of Employees Rates per 1000 1 ii r J. J ; 1 „J_., 2,359 2,335,761 1.02 Gardening, fruit growing, etc 30 160,083 .20 903 205,315 5.00 Extraction of minerals 2,370 *7Qf\ 007 ('o0,8o7 no 4.08 151,792 3 66 135 77,960 2.04 177 91,022 2.05 Manufacturing 247 494,523 .67 2 191,526 .01 OA 11 ,001 1 no 31 308,141 13 467 753,806 .70 178 257,942 .78 113 3o8,209 .32 187 113,620 1 76 2 25,508 .08 324 1 AO AAA 198,990 1.76 137 1,021,864 .20 44 1 Q7 OOA 137, 32U .34 43 71A 1 AA 719,109 .07 32 161,530 .23 571 >IA7 OOA 497,331) 1.35 200 ICC Oco 166,862 1.33 1,532 2,393,957 .72 106 459,201 .26 Miscellaneous 773 1,309,909 .66 Construction 170 129,829 1.54 1.773 2,162,268 1.46 Transportation 384 96,067 4.00 113 85,928 1.76 Road and street (chauffeurs, delivery men, etc.).. 1,625 878,669 2.05 2,591 1,280,137 2.25 303 177,146 1.90 229 343,879 .74 13 29,414 .50 Public utilities 160 31,366 5.73 104 146,418 .79 Trade 453 1,968,373 .26 333 131,442 2.84 Clerical and professional service 708,167 .18 99 89 2,950;769 .04 99 1,655,337 .08 .74 Care and custody of grounds and buildings 250 373,160 178 2,546,739 .08 1.76 80 50,771 431 116,621 4.10 244 387,283 .66 21,232 29,679,763 Acclimatization 37B Accommodation tization is part of the general process of modification of organ- ism by environment. When the conditions in the new home are approximately similar, no fresh changes will be imprinted on the organism, and the survival of the imported form is obviously natural. Such cases are instances simply of dispersion, generally by human selection, and hardly of acclimatization in the strict sense. At the other extreme, the sum of the external forces, or 'natural selection,' may be pre- dominantly adverse, the conse- quent changes pathological, the result non-survival. The term acclimatization should thus be restricted to cases between these two extremes, where the plastic organism becomes actively and passively adapted to the new environment. All organisms are capable of physiological and of morphologi- cal variation; and if the climatic conditions change slowly, they can adjust themselves to these, and become acclimatized. Such acclimatization has been very extensively practiced by man, as in the case of domestic animals; but it also occurs without his aid. Almost all the domestic ani- mals now commonly spread over Europe, and even in high north- ern latitudes, were originally na- tives of warm climates. The change produced by the accli- matizing of animals may be either an improvement or a de- terioration; of the latter, we have an instance in the Shetland pony; of the former, we see an example in the merino sheep of Spain. There is some doubt as to the effect of a mere change of tem- perature upon organisms; but it seems certain that in the majority of cases transference from an equable climate to one in which there is a great annual range of temperature is rapidly fatal. Thus, many plants from South- ern Europe will live out of doors in the mild uniform climate of the west coast of England, but will not live in localities on the Continent where the mean an- nual temperature is the same, but where the extremes of heat and cold are greater. Similarly, many marine organisms are widely distributed in both warm and cold seas, apparently be- cause in both cases the range of temperature is small, and the power of adaptation to a new but constant temperature is readily acquired. In America some interesting experiments in naturalization have been made. Many Euro- pean birds have been set at lib- erty by local societies, and a few species promise to become Amer- icanized. The camel breeds well in a half-wild state in Nevada and Arizona; while alpacas, though repeatedly tried, have nowhere thriven. Ostrich farm- ing (q.v.) has been successful in the Western United States, as well as in the Argentine Repub- lic. Australasian trees, notably the eucalyptus, thrive in Cali- fornia, and successful experi- ments have been made with them in the cotton-growing States; the tea plant also grows well in various parts of the United States. The introduction of cof- fee into the West Indies and of cinchona into India offer further examples of successful acclima- tization. American zoologists have found that European earthworms have become naturalized in many parts of the United States, and are often much more abundant than the native species. They ascribe this in part to the fact that the European species has a long breeding season, and the American a very short one. Associated with the fact of the frequent great fertility of an in- troduced species is the fact that a parasitic or semi-parasitic form often inflicts far greater injury on its host in a new country than in the old. Thus, the vine phyllox- era, introduced into Europe from America, has worked serious havoc in vineyards in the former continent, while it produced rela- tively little injury in its native habitat. A great obstacle to the colo- nization of various parts of the world by the white man is his liability to parasitic diseases to which the natives are almost or entirely immune — notably ma- laria. On the contrary, the coming of the white man often results in the decimation of the natives, owing to the introduc- tion of micro-organisms to whose action the white man is at least partially immune, while the na- tives are peculiarly susceptible to such action — e.g., smallpox among the Indians. White men settling in tropical parts are liable to disease of the liver; while natives of tropical lands, when resident in colder latitudes, are exposed to pulmonary dis- ease. These facts show that or- ganisms are adapted to their surroundings, not only by their structure, but also by functional peculiarities which are equally real, but are less capable of exact description. Such functional pe- culiarities are hereditary, but in the case of dominant stocks, at least, are capable of slow, cumu- lative modification, so that the descendants may ultimately be- come habituated to surroundings which would have been rapidly fatal to the original stock. Ac- climatization is thus a proof of the occurrence of physiological variation in organisms. Consult Darwin's Animals and Plants under Domestication; Wal- lace's The Geographical Distribu- tion of Animals; Ireland's Trop- ical Colonization; Peschel's The Races of Man and Their Distri- bution; Semple's Influences of Geographical Environment (1911). Accolade, ak'ko-lad'. (1) The ceremony by which knighthood is conferred: formerly an em- brace round the neck, now the touch of a sword on the shoulder. The king, or his representative, touches both shoulders of the kneeling knight-elect with the flat of a drawn sword, addresses him with 'Sir' prefixed to the Christian name, and finally proffers his hand to be kissed. (2) In musical score, the brace connecting the staves. (3) In architecture an ornamental moulding over a window or doorway, characterized by re- verse curves tangent to the curves of the arch, rising to a finial or other ornament above. Accolti, ak-kol'te, Benedetto (1415-66), Italian jurist and his- torian, was born in Arezzo, Tuscany. He was for a time pro- fessor of law in the University of Florence, and in . 1459 became chancellor of the Florentine republic, a position he retained until his death. In collaboration with his brother Leonardo he wrote in Latin a history of the first crusade, De Bello e Chrisli- anis contra Barbaros gesto pro Chrisli Sepulchro et Judaea re- cuperandis libri tres (1432), which was translated into Italian and French and is said to have been used by Tasso as the basis for his Jerusalem Delivered. He also wrote De Praestantantia Virorum sui Aevi. His son Bernardo (1465- 1536) was a poet of some talent, noted especially as the reciter of impromptu verse. Another son, PiETRO (1455-1532), became car- dinal of Ancona. As abbreviator under Leo x. he drew up the bull against Luther. Accom'moda'tion, in com- merce, is either a loan of money directly, or the service rendered when one becomes security for a sum advanced to another by a third party, as by a banker. Accommodation, a theological term for the use in Scripture of methods by which abstract spiritual truths are conveyed to human understanding by means of fannliar natural phenomena and ordinary experiences; con- cessions to the limited spiritual understanding of man. Thus Christ kept back from his dis- ciples many things which they could not then understand (John xvi. 12) and Paul (I. Cor. vii. 17) did not exact the same require- VOL. I.— Oct. '26 Accommodation Bill 38 Account ments from all members of the churches under his care. Accommodation Bill. See Bill OF Exchange. Accommodation of Vision. When parallel rays from a distant object fall upon the nor- mal eye, they pass through the lens, and are brought to a focus upon the retina which lines the eyeball internally and com- municates with the optic nerve. To secure clear vision it is essen- tial that rays should be focussed exactly on the retina. But the laws of optics show that diver- gent rays falling on a lens are not brought to the same focus as parallel rays. Objects upward of 70 yards away may be re- garded as sending practically par- allel rays to the eye; hence those rays are focussed on the retina, and the objects are clearly seen. But it is also possible to see clearly objects within that dis- tance, so long as they are at least 4 inches from the eye. It follows that the eye must in some way accommodate itself to vary- ing distances. That it does so readily is proved by experience; for if, from a distance of a few feet, we look through a railing at a spire, we can see either the spire or the railing distinctly, according as we fix our attention on the one or the other, but we cannot see both distinctly at once. The theory of the accommoda- tion of vision was advanced by Thomas Young (1773-1829), but to Helmholtz belongs the credit of proving that it is accomplished by a temporary alteration in the curvature of the lens which corrects for the divergence of non-parallel rays, so as still to focus the image on the retina. In the normal condition the lens, which is elastic, is kept habitu- ally at tension by the pressure of the suspensory ligament. It has consequently a flatter form than it would take if left to itself. When we look at a near object, the ciliary muscle of the eye contracts by reflex mechan- ism. This contraction relieves the tension of the suspensory ligament, and the lens bulges out by its own elasticity, thereby automatically accommodating it- self to the shorter distance. As soon as the ciliary muscle ceases to contract, the lens resumes its former shape. See Eye; Vision. Consult Helmholtz' Physiological Optics (Eng. trans. 1924). Accom'paniment, in music, the instrumental or subservient vocal parts assisting a solo part. It is either ad libitum, when it may be omitted at pleasure, or ohligato, when it forms an integral part of the composition. It serves to support and beautify the solo part, and therefore should not predominate, but merely enhance the charm of the solo. The prime requisites for a good accompanist are the ability to read quickly and correctly, an ample technique, and a wide repertoire. Accompanying first became a matter of importance in the eighteenth century, the days of Bach and Handel. In the scores of these earlier masters, frequent- ly very faint indications are given of the parts of the accom- paniment beyond a 'figured bass' — i.e., the bass part with certain recognized figures written above it — indicating the har- mony to be played to each note. At that time the art of playing from such scores was in general practice among musicians; but it is now necessary to have the accompanying parts written out. The work of supplying additional accompaniments to these scores, adapted for the modern orches- tra, has been performed by numerous eminent musicians, as Mozart, Mendelssohn, and Rob- ert Franz. Accom'plice, any person who in any way is associated with another in the commission or attempted commission of a crim- inal offence. An accomplice is punishable with his associates either as principal in the first or second degree or as accessory (q.v.). He is a competent witness either against, or under certain conditions for, his associates at every stage of the proceedings. His evidence, however, being given, as a rule, under a promise or in the expectation of pardon or immunity, is usually regarded with suspicion, and it is a well- established practice for the judge to direct the jury to acquit where the prosecutor's case rests solely on the testimony of an accom- plice. Accoramboni, ak'ko-ram-bo'- ne, Virginia, or Vittoria (1557- 1585), a beautiful Italian woman sought in marriage by the duke of Bracciano, but married by her father to Francesco Peretti, nephew of Cardinal Montalto (later Pope Sixtus v.). Peretti was murdered (1581), but Pope Gregory xiii. for a time pre- vented the widow's marriage with the duke, the supposed assassin. Ultimately the mar- riage took place and after the duke's death, his widow was murdered in Padua by a relative of her husband. Her tragedy forms the subject of various plays and novels. Accord' and Satisfac'tion, a term signifying a discharge of an obligation arising out of contract or tort by a new agreement based upon a good and sufficient con- sideration. The claimant must undertake to accept and the debtor undertake to pay or do something to satisfy the cause of action — this is the accord; and actual payment or fulfilment of the newly constituted debt or obligation must follow — this is the satisfaction. It is the latter which makes the 'accord' effec- tive, and takes the case out from the operation of the rule that a debt is not discharged by an agreement to forego it. A cardi- nal part of the doctrine is that the satisfaction must constitute a good and sufficient consideration for the 'accord.' It follows, there- fore, that payment of a lesser sum in satisfaction of a greater can- not be any satisfaction for the whole, because the promise to waive the unpaid part of the debt is a 'bare fact,' being with- out consideration. But the prom- ise and performance of something different from, not merely a part of, what was due under the for- mer obligation is good, because the courts will not consider the adequacy of the consideration for a contract. In England, and in most of the States of the United States, these rules are strictly enforced. But in some States the contrary doctrine, held in Scot- land and in most European countries, has been introduced, that a receipt in full is a valid discharge of a debt, though no consideration has been given. See Contract. Accor'dion, a portable musical instrument, with keyboard and mechanical contrivance for wind, invented by Damian at Vienna in 1829. Each key gives two notes, one in expanding, the other in compressing the bellows. The right hand manipulates the keyboard, while the left works the bellows, on the lower side of which are usually two keys that admit wind to other reeds, thus furnishing a simple harmony, generally chords of the tonic and dominant. The concertina (q.v.) is based on the same principle. Accosted, in heraldry, a term often applied to a bend, chevron, or fess, placed between two cotises. Accoucheur. See Obstetrics. Account, a statement in writ- ing of the debits and credits, or either, existing with respect to the transactions between persons, or associations of persons, or with respect to things of value, costs of operation of business enterprises or commercial or other undertakings, or the cost of production of goods or other things of value, or the rendering of service. An account is a record of transactions, acts, re- ceipts, or payments involving things of value. It is usually kept or prepared as an aid to determining the status or result of business dealings, commercial, Vol. I.— Oct. '26 Accountancy 39 Accumulator, Electric fiscal, or fiduciary acts or rela- tions. The varieties of accounts are practically innumerable. Sale, cash, property, stores, expense, proprietorship, cost, appropria- tion, and fund accounts are types of accounts customarily main- tained by divers kinds of enter- prise. An account is legally demand- able in actions at law based upon a series of transactions, and in all cases involving a fiduciary relation, as between principal and agent, trustee and benefici- ary, executor and creditor or legatee, assignee in bankruptcy and creditors of the bankrupt, and in the dissolution of partner- ships and the winding up of companies. Private corporations, as well as public officials and other persons acting in a fiduci- ary capacity, are generally re- quired by law to keep accurate books of account. A current ac- count may be legally closed by rendering it to the party in- debted, and by its acceptance by the latter. It then becomes an account stated, and the bal- ance may thereafter be sued for without proving the items upon which it is based, though it may be impeached for fraud or mutual mistake. An accounting could be had at common law through the form of action known as an Action of Account, but the cum- bersome character of the pro- ceeding has caused it to be gen- erally superseded, both in Eng- land and the United States, by a Proceeding in Equity instituted by Bill of Account. See Ac- countant; Bookkeeping. Accountancy. See Account- ant; Bookkeeping; Cost Keep- ing; Public Accountancy. Accountant, a person trained and skilled in the science of ac- countancy. His work may be roughly divided into two classes — the devising and installing of systems oi accounts, and the audit and examination of ac- counts. The first class is con- tructive, the second analytical. An accountant should be versed not only in the art of bookkeep- ing, but in the theory and prac- tice of finance, commercial law, and in scientific principles of or- ganization and business manage- ment. The profession of ac- countancy, of long standing in Scotland and England, since 1896 has rapidly acquired wide- spread recognition in America. The degree of Certified Public Accountant (c.p.a.) is now con- ferred after examination by each of the States. See Public Ac- countancy. Account Current, a periodical statement of the debit and credit transactions between parties, in order of date; usually made up in such a form as to show the in- terest charged or allowed on each item at the date of rendering. See Bookkeeping. Account Sales, a statement sent by an agent or a broker to the consignor of goods when sold, giving particulars of weight, price obtained, etc., and showing the net proceeds after deduction of expenses. See Bookkeeping. Ac'cra, or Akkra, seaport, West Africa, capital of the British colony of Gold Coast. The most important town on the coast, it lies slightly to the west of the longitude of Greenwich, It is a healthful place, much at- tention being paid to the drain- age and water supply. Features of interest are the old English, Dutch, and Danish forts. Rub- ber, cocoa, and ivory are ex- ported. Pop. 38,000. Accrescimento, ak-kresh-i- men'to, in music, the prolonga- tion of a note for another half of its value, by a dot placed after it. Accre'tion, the addition made to riparian land by the gradual action of the water. Such addi- tion, if imperceptible in its prog- ress, becomes the property of the owner of the land to which it is added, whether it be due to allu- vion (q.v.) — the deposit of sand and soil by the action of the tides, the washing of waves or the current of a stream — or by reliction — the gradual withdraw- al or drying up of a water course. For the corresponding principle in law of personal property, see Accession. Ac'crington (ancient Akering- ton), town, Lancashire, England; 23 miles north of Manchester. Industries include cotton spin- ning, weaving, calico printing, and manufacture of textile ma- chinery. In the district are coal mines and quarries. Pop. (1921) 43,610. Accu'mula'tlon is the increase of a fund through the periodical addition of the interest accruing thereto. The policy of the law is against accumulation for more than a strictly limited period, but a certain indulgence is al- lowed in a few exceptional cases, as where provisions are made for the payment of debt. The most important statute dealing with this matter is the English Thel- lusson Act of 1800, which has been the model for similar stat- utes in the United States and other countries. Accu'mulator, Electric, or Storage Battery. When an elec- tric battery is discharged, there occur chemical changes in the liquids and electrodes, caused by the passage of the currents through the cell. In some forms of cell all the products of the change remain in the cell, and in contact with the electrodes, in such a manner that the passage of a current in the reverse direction will produce the reverse action and restore the original conditions. Such a bat- tery acts as a reservoir or ac- cumulator of electric energy; for after each discharge, electric en- ergy is again stored in it by driv- ing a reverse current through it from some other source of electric energy. In the process of charging, the voltage developed by the cell must be overcome, and the re- sistance of the cell (as a conduc- tor) absorbs additional pressure. On discharging, there is likewise a loss of pressure, due to the re- sistance of the cell, and the pressure when discharging is therefore materially lower than when charging (Figs. 1 and 2). The quantity of chemical action taking place is proportional to the quantity of electricity passing in either direction; and in a per- fect cell, with no irregular actions and no resistance, the same quan- tity of electricity could be de- rived as is put in; but in prac- tice this is not completely real- ized, though under favorable conditions the loss from second- ary chemical reactions is not more than about 5 per cent. The ordinary efficiency, including heat losses, is about 75 per cent. Though many forms of battery allow a reversal, few of them are satisfactory. The simple collec- tion of oxygen and hydrogen at the poles is impracticable, since they pass off as gases, and the only batteries that have proved successful are (1) the acid lead type developed by Plante, Faure, and Brush, and (2) the alkaline nickel-iron type of Edison. Theory of the Lead Cell. — In the first batteries, devised by Plante, a lead plate covered with spongy lead formed the negative elec- trode, and a plate covered with a layer of lead peroxide formed the positive electrode; these were immersed in sulphuric acid and water. The heavy weight and large size of the Plante bat- tery led to the development of the Faure or 'pasted-plate' form, in which stiff lead-alloy grids are filled with lead oxide paste; and on the first charge the plates as- sume the spongy lead and per- oxide conditions of the Plante form. As a consequence, both negative and positive plates may be constructed of porous, spongy material, presenting an enormous surface to the acid, and solid metal is used only as a frame- work or carrier. Certain modi- fied forms of the Plante bat- tery, with stiff frames and thin lead insets 'formed' into active material by repeated charging and discharging, have aKso been successful. On discharging these batteries the lead is converted into sul- phate of lead, and the hydrogen conveyed to the positive plate is Vol. I.— Oct. '20 Accumulator, Electric 40 Accumulator, Electric oxidized by the peroxide of lead. The lower oxide thus formed is attacked by the acid, so that sul- phate of lead is produced on both plates, and a part of the acid is removed from the liquid. On reversing the current, hydrogen effect is modified by the fact that the resistance of the cell changes with the state of charge. For example, as the cell becomes more fully charged gassing be- gins; the gas bubbles on the surface of the plates increase 2.55 2.50 ZA5 2.40 235 2.30 225 2.20 2.15 2.10 2.05 2.00 VOLTS / i UR S H OU 2.05 2.00 7.95 I.90 1.85 1.80 1.75 1 2 3 4^ 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14- 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 i? Fig. 1. — Typical Charging Curve of Lead Battery VOLTS HO \- HOI RS 2 3 4 5 6 7 S 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Fig. 2. — Typical Discharging Curve of Lead Battery is carried to the negative plate, and reduces the sulphate of lead back to metallic lead, while the oxygen converts the sulphate on the positive plate to peroxide; and the sulphate in both cases returns to the liquid as sulphuric acid. THscharqe: — Pb02 (positive plate) -f2H2S04 +Pb (negative plate) = PbS04 (positive plate) + 2H2O 4- PbS04 (negative plate), aarffe.— PbS04 + 2H2O + PbS04 = Pb + 2H2SO4 + Pb02. The acid becomes continually weaker as the discharge proceeds, and its strength indicates the state of the reservoir. So long as any portion of unchanged material remains in contact with the acid, the voltage of the cell is maintained at just above 2.00 volts, provided no current is flowing. The voltage of a cell at no load is the same when fully charged as when practically dis- charged. But when current is flowing, the internal resistance of the cell affects the terminal voltage; vSO that while a charging current is flowing, the terminal voltage rises (the larger the current the greater the voltage rise) ; and while discharge current is flowing the voltage drops, pro- portional to the current. This Vol. I.— Oct. *26 the resistance; hence the voltage must rise. While discharging, the deposits of lead sulphate on the plates and the decrease of the specific gravity of the acid in- crease the resistance as the cell becomes more and more dis- charged, and the terminal volt- age drops. Fig. 2 shows a typical curve of discharge in which horizontal dis- tances represent ampere hours. The cell is practically discharged at 1.8 volts. On charging (Fig. 1), the E.M.F. rises rapidly to nearly 2.1 volts, then more slowly to 2.5. volts. These curves hold only while the current is con- tinuously flowing. Both curves are for one particular current value. With other currents, the curves would change in magni- tude, but have the same general character. At any point, if the current were stopped, the voltage would return to just above 2.00 volts, regardless of the state of charge. The action of the cell in the secondary battery is similar to that of an ordinary primary bat- tery (see Cell, Voltaic), but there are important differences. By the use of lead instead of zinc there is formed the insoluble lead sulphate in place of the sol- uble zinc sulphate or chloride. Arrangement of Lead Cell. — A lead cell contains two groups of plates, positive and negative, arranged alternately. If the positive and negative plates of a battery touch, it is short- circuited and so disharges itself. To prevent the plates from com- ing in contact with each other, insulating separators of some kind are generally employed, usually thin sheets of wood. These wooden separators are treated chemically to remove all injurious substances, and are grooved vertically to allow gases to escape and electrolyte to circulate freely. Thin hard- rubber sheets, perforated with small holes, or made with im- bedded threads, are also used. The separator must be very- porous, so that acid may readily diffuse through it, otherwise the resistance of the battery is in- creased; at the same time it must prevent particles of solid material from bridging across from one plate to another and so short-circuiting the cell. The acid is specially prepared, free from metals, with a density of 1,15 to 1.30 depending upon the type of service. If it is too strong, the lead and separators are slowly attacked; if too weak, the resistance of the cell, and hence the drop in voltage when current is drawn, is increased. The plates are usually con- tained in ebonite boxes which fit the plate and separator as- sembly tightly. The plates rest upon ribs projecting above the bottom of the box. The space between these ribs allows any loosened material to fall clear of the plates and rest on the bottom of the box. The tops of the boxes are sealed on, and have a small cap for filling, and a vent hole. Glass jars and lead- lined wooden boxes are some- times employed for large sta- tionary batteries. Care of Lead Cells. — Batteries deteriorate but little if they are not discharged to the full extent, and charged immediately after discharge. But if allowed to stand for some time after a discharge, the spongy electro- lytic lead sulphate crystallizes into hard precipitated lead sul- phate which is not easily decom- posed by an electric current. This is difficult to convert, and the material thus 'sulphated' is apt to split off and be lost. The life may be anything from six months to ten years, accord- ing to treatment. Frequent ex- haustion, heavy currents, and leaving uncharged shorten the life. When the plates are worn out, new ones can be inserted. While being charged, as the plates approach the fully charged condition, or during over-charg- ing, some of the charging current. Accumulator, Electric 41 Accumulator, Electric instead of carrying on the above reaction, will dissociate water in the electrolyte into hydrogen and oxygen, the hydrogen ap- pearing at the negative plate and the oxygen at the positive plate as gases. These gases bubble to the surface and escape. Provision must be made for the escape of these gases from the container and since they form an explosive mixture, precau- tions against explosion must be taken. Because of the loss of water in this manner, distilled or rain water is added as soon as the tops of the plates emerge. Hard water produces a skin on the plates. Fresh acid is rarely needed. It will be found that when gas is evolved from the cells a fine mist of acid rises, and the room must be well ventilated. Also all metal and woodwork should be kept well painted, to prevent corrosion. Theory of the Edison Cell— As shown in Fig. 4, the negative plate (left) is a nickel-plated steel grid into which are pressed steel pockets packed with iron oxide bearing a little mercury; the positive plate (right) • is a nickel-plated grid to which are fastened perforated nickelled steel tubes filled with alternate layers of nickel hydrate and thin nickel flakes. These plates are ar- ranged alternately, there being one more negative than positive, and all the like plates in a cell are bolted to one steel terminal. The nested set is placed in a nickel-plated steel jar, which then has its top welded on. The electrolyte is a 21-per-cent. solu- tion of potassium hydrate plus a little lithium hydrace. The first charge changes the nickel hy- drate to oxide and the iron oxide to metallic form. With every cycle of use thereafter, on dis- charge the iron becomes oxidized, and the nickel oxide goes from a higher to a lower form; while on charge, metallic iron and high oxide of nickel are produced. The following equation, when read from left to right, shows discharge changes; when read from right to left, indicates charge: 2Ni02 -I- 2KOH + Fe = Ni203 -f 2KOH + FeO. The net result is a transfer of oxygen from iron to nickel, and back again; hence the Edison has been called an 'oxygen lift' cell. It develops 1.4 volts at completion of charge, and is nor- mally recharged when its e.m.f. has dropped from 1.0 to 0.8 volt. Care of Edison Cell — An Edison cell may be charged or discharged at any rate, so long as the internal temperature does not exceed about 45°c. It may remain completely dis- charged for any length of time without injury. The same ex- plosive mixture of hydrogen and oxygen as that of a lead cell is given off on charging, and must be disposed of, but these gases contain no acid fumes, and are non-corrosive. Distilled water must be added from time to time to make up for this loss. The specific gravity of the electrolyte is the same' at all times, and gives no indication of the state of charge. The cell voltage is the best indication of this state. Capacity. — The capacity of a cell is determined by the quan- tity of electricity it will deliver, usually reckoned in ampere hours. This depends on the construction and size of the plates; but instead of using very large plates, several of each kind may be used, with positive and negative placed alternately. The capacity, particularly of the lead cell, is not a constant quantity, for with a large current the acid in the pores of the plate is so rapidly weakened that fresh elec- trolyte from outside cannot dif- fuse into the plate quickly enough. Hence the interior por- tions are not fully discharged, unless the cell is given a period of rest. Comparison. — The Edison bat- tery is mechanically rugged and can stand jarring. It w'^ig'hs from one-half to one-third as much as a similar lead battery, and the space occupied is about the same. The Edison battery may be allowed to remain dis- charged indefinitely. It forms very little sediment. In general it has a longer life. The lead battery is cheaper. The internal resistance of a lead battery is less, so that heavy currents may be drawn with a smaller drop in voltage at the battery ter- minals. This makes a lead bat- tery preferable for automobile starting service. For this reason, also, the energy efficiency of a lead battery is slightly greater. Uses. — Storage batteries are used for the starting, lighting, and ignition of automobiles, motor boats, and airplanes. They furnish the energy supply for radio sets. The glass jar types are used for farm lighting, and in power plants and sub- stations for emergency operation of auxiliary devices. The very large lead-lined wood-box types are used for energy supply to telephone systems. Bibliography. — ConsultPlante's Storage of Electrical Energy; Treadwell's Storage Battery ; Wade's Secondary Batteries ; Holland's Edison Storage Battery; Lyndon's Storage Battery Engi- neering; Jansky and Wood's Ele- VOL. I.— Oct. '26 Accumulator, Heat 41A Accumulator, Heat tnenis of Storage Batteries (1923); Vinal's Storage Batteries (1924). Accumulator, Heat, has for its purpose (1) the accumulation of heat deUvered continuously, so that it may be expended during short intervals, or (2) the storing of heat delivered intermittently. so that it may be available for continuous use. In engineering practice the heat-storing medium is usually water, which is not only generally available, but has the highest specific heat per unit of weight of all common sub- stances, and readily transfers its heat to or absorbs it from steam by evaporation or condensation of the latter. (1) An example of accumula- tors of the first class is found in special heat-storage boilers adapted to receive steam at high pressure from steam boilers oper- ated continuously, and then to ■give off steam during short peri- ods of great demand, as during the rush hours in electric trac- tion power plants. The steam pressure carried in the accumu- lator, which is simply a large and strong steel tank, must be con- siderably higher than the work- ing power of the engines, as it is Vol. I.— Oct. '2G only by allowing the pressure (and therefore the temperature of the mass of water in the heat storage tank) to fall that the lat- ter is able to supply heat and steam. For instance, if the work- ing pressure of the engines is 150 pounds per square inch, corre- sponding to a steam temperature of 365.6° F., the maximum pres- sure in the accumulators may be 300 pounds per square inch, cor- responding to a temperature of 421.8° F. During the period of withdrawal, steam will be allowed to flow from the storage tanks through a pressure reducing valve, and each 100 pounds of water in the storage tank will be capable of giving up 56 heat units in cooling 421.8° to 365.6° F., and further of evaporating .07 lb. of steam. During the period of charging the boilers are in free communication with the accumu- lator, but during the period of discharge of the accumulator the boilers supply steam directly to the engines. This class of heat accumulator has found only lim- ited application, chiefly in Eu- rope. The advantages claimed for it are that it enables a large maximum load to be carried by a moderate-sized equipment of boilers, and that it permits the boilers to be operated at a uni- form and efficient rating through- out the day. The disadvantage is the extra cost of apparatus. (2) The other type of heat ac- cumulator, in which heat from an intermittent source is stored for continuous use, is found in low pressure steam turbine prac- tice. Consider, for instance, steel mills, where large volumes of steam are exhausted at irregular intervals by powerful engines used for driving the rolls, or in collieries where the same is true of the winding engines. A steam turbine receiving this steam from the engines at atmospheric pres- sure and exhausting into a high vacuum produced by a condenser will generate, roughly, about as much more power as has already been produced in the main en- gine. As steam turbines are usually employed to drive elec- tric generators, and must run constantly, it becomes necessary to store the steam and heat ex- hausted by the main engine. This is accomplished by the fol- lowing methods: first, by direct- ing the exhaust steam into large chambers or tanks filled with scrap iron, as old rails, etc.; sec- ond, by directing the steam into a chamber filled with a multitude of small trays, each containing water; third, by blowing the ex- haust steam in under the surface of water contained in suitable closed tanks; fourth, by direct- ing the steam into a tank above a large body of water, and by mechanical means throwing the water up into the steam. In all four methods, it will be noted, the object aimed at is to bring the exhaust steam into in- timate contact with the whole mass of water or other material which is to store the heat. In order to prevent dangerous ac- cumulations of pressure in the heat accumulator, a direct con- nection to the atmosphere is usually provided through a 'back pressure' valve. On the other hand, to supply steam continu- ously to the turbine, in case the main engine should be shut off for an exceptionally long time, a pressure reducing valve admit- ting live steam from the boilers is necessary. Suppose the back pressure valve be set to open at ten pounds above atmospheric pressure, and the reducing valve to begin admitting live steam at three pounds below atmospheric pressure; we thus have a total pressure range of thirteen pounds, and a temperature range of 38° F. Under these conditions one pound of water in the accumu- lator is capable of condensing .04 pound of exhaust steam, thereby storing 29 heat units, and of giving up equal quantities Accamulafor, Hydraulic 41B Acetone of steam and heat when the pres- sure falls again. Accumulator, Hydraulic. See Hydraulic Machinery. Accu'satlve Case. See De- clension. Aceldama, a-seVda-ma, or Akeldama (Aramaic, 'the field of blood'), so named either because it was bought with the money with which Judas had been bribed (Matt, xxvii, 7, 8), or because it was the scene of the traitor's tragic death (Acts i. 18, 19). It is traditionally identified with Hakk-ed-Dumm, near the Pool of Siloam, south of Jerusa- lem. Acephalous, a-sef'a-lus, a rhe- torical term applied, in scanning verse, to a line that is short of a syllable at the beginning. Thus, 'A sea that is stranger than death' would be called 'anapaestic trimeter acephalous,' because the first foot is an in- complete anapaest. A'cer, Acceraceae. See Ma- ple. Acerra, a-cher'ra (ancient Acerroe), town and episcopal see, Italy, province of Caserta; 9 miles northeast of Naples. It has a cathedral, rebuilt in 1788 after an earthquake, and a seminary. There are sulphur springs. Pop. 17,000. Acetab'ulum (Latin acetum, 'vinegar'), an ancient Roman sauce vessel; thence an ancient liquid measure, about half a gill. The word is applied in anatomy to the cavity of the os innomi- natum, or hip bone, which re- ceives the head of the femur, called also the cotyloid cavity. Similar cup-like structures in animals and plants receive the same name. Ac'etal, C2H4(OC2H6)2, is a colorless liquid of an agreeable odor, and a flavor resembling that of the hazel nut. It is one of the products of the slow oxi- dation of alcohol under the in- fluence of finely divided plati- num, or of chlorine. Its specific gravity is 0.821, and it boils at 104° c. Acetal'dehyde, or Acetic Al- dehyde, CHsCHO, a volatile liquid produced by the oxidation of ethyl alcohol and theoretically, at least, by the reduction of acetic acid. The method of laboratory preparation consists in distilling a mixture of alcohol, water, sul- phuric acid, and manganese dioxide. The distillate contains the aldehyde, which is further purified by distillation over calcium chloride and subsequent precipitation of acetaldehyde ammonia by saturating a solu- tion of the aldehyde in ether with gaseous ammonia. The aldehyde is recovered from this compound by distillation, after acidifying with sulphuric acid. Commer- cially large quantities of acetalde- hyde are prepared as the first step in the manufacture of acetic acid by the oxidation of acety- lene in the presence of mercury salts by air. The aldehyde is a thin, colorless liquid, burning with a blue flame and having a specific gravity of 0.778, a boiling point of 20.8°c., and a melting point of — 120. 7°c. It has a sharp, suffocating odor. Like all aldehydes, it forms a crystalline compound with am- monia and with bisulphites, and it is easily oxidized to acetic acid or reduced to ethyl alcohol. Acetaldehyde has antiseptic properties; it is used to some ex- tent in photographic developers, and in the form of vapor or a solution in alcohol possesses the property of hardening gelatin films. Its greatest use is as an intermediate step in the manu- facture of synthetic acetic acid and a number of other com- pounds, as the aldols. Small amounts are used in the manu- facture of certain dyes. Acetamide, as-et-am'Id, CHs- CO.NH2, is a white crystalline solid prepared by the reaction of acetyl chloride and ammonia. It melts at 83° c, boils at 222° c, and is easily soluble in water. When heated with a dilute min- eral acid it hydrolyzes, yielding acetic acid and the ammonium salt of the mineral acid. When it is boiled with a strong base, ammonia is evolved, and an acetate formed in solution. Acetanilide, as-et-an'il-id, Antifebrin, or Phenylaceta- MIDE, CH3CONHC6H5. is pre- pared by boiling aniline with glacial acetic acid. It is a color- less crystalline powder, slightly soluble in water, and with a pungent taste. Its melting point is 113° c. It is employed in medicine as an antipyretic and analgesic, in place of quinine, and is a common ingredient of so- called 'headache powders.' It is also used in large quantities in the preparation of para-nitro- aniline, an important interme- diate for dye manufacture. Acetates, as'i-tats, salts of acetic acid, consisting of the characteristic group of that acid, CH3 • COO, combined with a posi- tive element or group — as NaC2- H3O2 (sodium acetate) or C2H5- C2H3O2 (ethyl acetate). They may be prepared by dissolving a metal, a metallic oxide, hydrox- ide, or carbonate in acetic acid, and evaporating to crystalliza- tion, or in the reaction of an alcohol and acetic acid in the presence of a dehydrating agent, as sulphuric acid. Acetates are generally soluble in water, and react with acids to yield acetic acid and a salt of the positive element or group. To test for an acetate, a mixture of the substance with a little alcohol and concentrated sul- phuric acid is heated gently. Ethyl acetate is evolved, recog- nized by its fruity odor. Important metallic acetates are: aluminum acetate, used by dyers in mordanting; calcium acetate, largely used as a source of acetone; basic copper acetate, verdigris; copper aceto-ar senile, the chief constituent of emerald green, Paris green, or Schwein- furt's green; lead acetate, sugar of lead. Many organic acetates are found in nature, and a con- siderable number are manufac- tured as artificial fruit essences- Acetic Acid, a-set^ik or -se'- tik, CH3CO.OH, is formed by the oxidation of alcohol, but is chiefly prepared from the com- plex mixture obtained in the destructive distillation of wood, called Pyroligneous Acid; it is purified by neutralization with lime, and subsequent distillation of resulting calcium acetate with sulphuric acid. It is also made by exposing poor wine to the air, oxidation of the alcohol taking place in the presence of the micro- organism Mycoderma aceti ('mother-of-vinegar'). Large quantities of acetic acid are manufactured synthetically from acetylene. The process consists in condensing acetylene with water vapor in the presence of a catalyst (mercury salts) to form acetaldehyde and oxidizing this with air. Acetic acid is a colorless liquid, having a penetrating odor, sharp sour taste, and caustic action on the skin. It boils at 118° c, and solidifies, when pure, at about 16.7° c. into a crystalline solid known as Glacial Acetic Acid, of specific gravity 1.057 at 15° c. It mixes with water in all pro- portions. It is very stable, and acts as a monobasic acid, form- ing a series of salts called Ace- tates (q.v.). Other derivatives of acetic acid may be formed by substitution, as mono-chlor (CH2- CICO.OH), di-chlor (CHCI2CO.- OH), and tri-chlor (CCI3CO.OH) acetic acids, which are made by replacing successive portions of hydrogen by chlorine. Acetic acid is used in dilute water solution as vinegar, which contains 3 to 6 per cent,; as a solvent for gelatin, albumin, res- ins, oils, etc.; for the prepara- tion of acetates; in the manu- facture of acetanilide and of white lead; and in medicine. Acetic Ether, or Ethyl Ace- tate, CH3CO.O.C2HS, prepared by the reaction of sodium ace- tate, sulphuric acid, and alcohol, is a colorless liciuid with a re- freshing, penetrating, fruity odor; specific gravity, 0.905 at 0°; boiling point, 77° c. It is used as a solvent and flavoring agent, and in medicine as a stimulant. Acetone, as'i-ton, dimethyl- ketone, CH3CO.CH3, is the simplest of the class of organic compounds called ketones (q.v.). Vol. I. — March '27 Acetophenone 42 Achsemenlans It is present in the urine nor- mally in small quantities; in certain diseases, especially dia- betes, in larger quantities. It is obtained from the products of the destructive distillation of wood, or by heating calcium acetate. Large quantities are also made, in the United States, as a by-product of the manu- facture of butanol from corn- starch by the fermentation proc- ess. This process, which consists in the fermentation of a solution of cornstarch containing a part of the protein of the grain, by Clostridium acetohutylicum, yields a mixture of 30 parts of acetone, 60 parts of normal butanol, and 10 parts of ethyl alcohol as a 2.5 per cent, solution in water. This mixture is subjected to fractional distillation and yields a very high grade acetone. The production of acetone by this process in the United States amounts to over 30 tons a day. Acetone is a colorless, volatile liquid of penetrating, pleasant, ethereal odor; boiling point, 56.1° c; specific gravity, .792 at 20° c. It mixes with water and alcohol, and is a useful sol- vent for gums, resins, fats, etc. It is used in the preparation of chloroform, iodoform, sulphonal, and smokeless powders. Ac'etophe'none, or HypNone, phenyl-methyl-ketone, CeHsCO.- CHa, is a yellowish, oily liquid which boils at 199°-202° c. and is crystalline at low temperatures; specific gravity 1.028 (15° c). It is used as a hypnotic in doses of 5 grains. When taken in large doses it causes coma and death. Acetyl, as'i-til, CH3CO, is a univalent group or radical, of which acetic acid, acetyl chlo- ride, etc., are compounds; the former being the hydroxide (CH3COOH), and the latter the chloride (CH3COCI). Acetylene, a-set'i-len, C2H2, a gaseous hydrocarbon, discov- ered by Berthelot in 1862, is readily prepared by the reaction between calcium carbide and water, calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) being formed at the same time. One pound of carbide yields about 5 cubic feet of acetylene at ordinary tempera- ture (15° c.) and normal baro- metric pressure (760 mm.). The gas is colorless, and when pure has an ethereal odor which is not unpleasant; the disagree- able odor of the gas, as usually prepared, being due to small quantities of impurities. It is poisonous, and produces head- ache. For numerical properties, see Gases. Acetylene burns in air, one volume requiring 12>< volumes of air, and yielding two volumes of carbon dioxide (gas) and a ([uantity of water vapor. A mixture of acetylene and air in the same ratio by volume is highly explosive. Vol. I.— March '27 The flame of burning acetylene is luminous and smoky, but if burned from a jet of very fine aperture, with a proper admix- ture of air, an exceedingly lumi- nous fiame is produced, yielding nearly white light. A form of Acetylene Burner burner from which the gas issues in two small jets striking against each other, forming a flat flame not easily displaced by air cur- rents, is in common use. The high luminosity may be explained by the fact that when acetylene is heated carbon read- ily separates, and that in the combustion of acetylene an exceptionally large amount of heat is liberated. On account of its ease of preparation and great lumi- nosity, acetylene is extensively Acetylene Lamp used in lamps for bicycles, auto- mobiles, and other vehicles, for lighthouses and buoys (see Buoy), and for home lighting in places remote from the regular supplies of illuminating gas. The most approved form of generator consists principally of a chamber containing water, into which calcium carbide is dropped automatically as required. This arrangement has the advantage that the heat of the reaction is dissipated in the comparatively large mass of water. From the generator the gas passes to a gas holder, weighted to give a moderate pressure, as three or four inches of water; and thence to a purifier, in which the gas is exposed to a large surface of bleaching powder. In the oxy-acetylene blowpipe the flame is produced by burning a mixture of oxygen and acety- lene gases delivered under pres- sure. At the apex of the small central cone of this flame a tem- perature of about 3,000° c. is attained, which is sufficient to melt iron and steel. The instru- ment is therefore used for weld- ing these metals under condi- tions where it would be otherwise impracticable; for welding alu- minum castings; and for cutting steel beams in the repairing or wrecking of structures. The temperature of this flame (2,400° c.) is said to exceed that of any other blowpipe. (See Oxy-acety- lene Flame.) In storing the gas a pressure of 30 lbs. per square inch must not be exceeded, because of liability to explosion even by shock. Ace- tone dissolves 24 times its vol- ume at one atmosphere pressure, in ordinary temperature, which provides a convenient method of storage. Acetylene forms ex- plosive compounds with copper, and should not be passed through copper or brass pipes or fixtures. Chemically, acetylene is an unsaturated hydrocarbon, add- ing on chlorine, bromine, and halogen acids. When heated it polymerizes to benzene, CeHs. In the presence of mercuric salts it combines with water to form aldehyde. The manufacture of acetaldehyde from acetylene by the action of water in the pres- ence of salts of mercury reached large proportions in Canada during the World War, and since then has continued to flourish. Recently (1926) a plant has been started at Niagara Falls, New York, to develop this process further. Immense quantities of pure acetic acid are made by the oxidation of this acetaldehyde, and from this, acetone may be prepared by the dry distillation of calcium acetate. Achsei, a-ke'i, or Ach^eans, a name applied by Homer to the whole of the Greek nation, and so used also by later poets. It probably represents the popula- tion of Greece before the admix- ture of races caused by the Dorian invasion. In historical times the name is restricted to the inhabitants of the north coast of the Peloponnesus (Achaia), who were united in a league of twelve towns, the AcHiEAN League, which after 251 b.c. became the chief power of Greece. Finally, the league declared war against the Romans, and was crushed by them (146 B.C.). See Greece, History. Achieinenians, ak-i-me'ni- ans, or Ach^menides, a dynasty Achala 43 Achillea of ancient Persia; it occupied the throne from about 730 B.C. to 333 B.C., and counted among its kings Cyrus the Great, Cam- byses, and Darius the Great. In old Persian inscriptions Darius proudly traces his lineage back to Achsemenes, the founder of the line. See Persia, History. Achaia, a-ka'y«- With Elis, a province (nomarchy) of modern Greece, extending from east to west along the south side of the Gulf of Corinth. It is mountainous; coast low; and the chief currant-producing re- gion of the mainland. Area, 2,028 square miles. Pop. 260,000. The chief town and port is Patras. (2.) In New Testament times the southern province of Greece, the northern being Macedonia. Gallio was Roman 'deputy' or proconsul of Achaia (Acts xviii. 12). Achamoth, ak'a-moth, or -moth, AcAMOTH, the (Valen- tinian) Gnostic name for a lower or imperfect manifesta- tion of Wisdom, mother of the Demiurge (q.v.) ; the form in which spirit becomes subservient to matter, and thus the basis of the material world. Achaquas, a-cha'kwaz, or AcHAGUAS, a savage Indian tribe, of Arawakan stock, who formerly inhabited the waters of the upper Orinoco, on the boundary be- tween Colombia and Venezuela. Achar, a'char, used by Hindu philosophers to signify the all-in- all, the source of all matter, and the ultimate end to which matter will return — matter and all its phenomena being merely sensible manifestations of Achar. Achard, a-shar', Franz Karl (1753-1821), German chemist, was born in Berlin. He was the first to manufacture sugar from beet root (in 1801, at Kunern, in Silesia). Consult his Europdische Zuckerfabrikation aus Runkel- ruben (1812). Achard, Louis Amedee Eugene (1814-75), French nov- elist, was born in Marseilles. He adopted journalism, and was a war correspondent in Spain (1846) and with the French armies (1870). The chief of his fourteen novels are: Belle Rose (1847) ; Madame de Sarens ( 1 865) ; Marcelle (1868); La Cape et L'Epee (1875). Achates, a-ka'tez, the constant companion of .^neas in his long and varied wanderings. He is always styled by Virgil 'fidus Achates,' hence the name has become a synonym for a trusty companion. Ache, Caran d'. See Poire, Emmanuel. Ache, a-sha'. Count d' (c. 1700-75), a French vice-admiral Vol. I.— Oct. '15 who lost to the British the French possessions on the Malabar and Coromandel coasts of India (1757). Ache, Robert Francois, Vi- COMTE d' (1757-1809), son of the above, during the French revolu- tion was a leader of the royalist Chouans of Brittany. He escaped to England, returned to France in 1809, and fell in the Chouan insurrection of that year. Achelous, ak-el-6'us (modern name, Aspropotamo) , largest river of ancient Greece, rises in Mount Pindus, flows south, and, dividing ^Etolia and Acarnania, falls into the Ionian Sea opposite the Echinades Island, after a course of about 130 miles. In Greek mythology the god of this river was the oldest of the river gods. Achenbach, aK'en-baK, An- dreas (1815 - 1910), German painter of the Diisseldorf school, was born in Cassel. He was a leader of the realistic movement in German landscape painting — especially sea pieces. Typical works: Foundering of the S. S. 'President' (1842); Hardanger Fjord (1843); Pontine Marshes (1846); Fish Market in Ostend (1866) ; Flooding of Lower Rhine (1876). Several of his canvases are in the United States. Achenbach, Oswald (1827- 1905), German landscape paint- er, brother of Andreas (q.v.), was born in Diisseldorf. From 1866 to 1872 he taught landscape painting at the Diisseldorf Acad- emy. He has painted chiefiy in the mountainous parts of South- ern Europe. Several of his works are in the United States. Achene, a-ken', a one-celled, one-seeded fruit, dry, indehis- cent, and with a closely fitting pericarp about the seed. The name is usually applied to the fruit of Compositae and allied families. Achensee, aK'en-za, Lake, or Achen; 20 miles northeast of Innsbruck, Tyrol, Austria, at an altitude of 3,050 feet. It meas- ures 5 miles by K mile, and is surrounded by mountains 5,000 to 6,000 feet high. Achenwall, aK'm-val, Gott- fried (1719-72), German statis- tician, was born in Elbing. He was lecturer in Marburg (1746); professor of philosophy at Got- tingen (1748); and professor of law there later. He first form- ulated the treatment of statistics as a distinct science in Abriss der neueslen Staatswissenschaft der Vornehmsten Europdischen Reiche und Republiken (1749). Achernar=a Eridani, a white star of 0.5 photometric magni- tude, showing a spectrum in- termediate between the Sirian and solar types. The small par- allax of 0.043", determined for Achernar by Sir David Gill of the Cape of Good Hope Observatory, corresponds to a light journey of seventy-six years, and implies that the star exceeds three hun- dred times the lustre of our sun. Acheron, iik'^-ron, the name given to several rivers by the ancients, always with reference to some peculiarity, such as black or bitter waters, or mephitic gases. The Acheron in Epirus, flowing through Lake Acherusia into the Ionian Sea; another river of the same name in Elis, now called Sacuto; and several streams in Egypt were all sup- posed to have some communica- tion with the infernal world. Acherusia, ak'i-roo'shi-a, name given to several lakes, swamps, and caverns which were supposed by the ancient Greeks to communicate with the lower world — e.g., one near Cumae, in Italy, now the Lake of Fusaro (q.v.). Acheson, ach'^-son, Edward Goodrich (1856), American chemist and inventor, was born in Washington, Pa., and received an academic education. In 1880 he became assistant to Thomas A. Edison, and helped to perfect the incandescent lamp. In 1881 he invented the abrasive car- borundum (q.v.); in 1899 he perfected his process for making 'Acheson-graphite,' an artificial graphite that is far superior to the natural for industrial pur- poses; and in 1907 invented 'Aquadag' and 'Oildag,' graphite lubricants. He has been awarded the Rumford Medal (1908) and the Perkin Medal in recognition of his services in applied chem- istry. Acheval Position, a-sh'val', a position taken up by an army on both banks of a river. Achievement, or Hatchment, in heraldry, the shield and ac- cessories fully represented; in a restricted sense, a representa- tion of those of a deceased per- son, exhibited at his obsequies, and framed in black. Achillas, a-kil'as, Greek gen- eral and minister of Ptolemy Dionysius, king of Egypt. With L. Septimius he murdered Pom- pey (48 B.C.), and was assassi- nated by Ganymede, instigated by Arsinoe, sister of Ptolemy (47 B.C.). Achillea, ak-i-le'a. Milfoil, or Yarrow, hardy plants, two to four feet high, with yellow, white, or pink flowers, widely naturalized in Europe and Asia. Achillea is highly astringent. There are many species, all easily cultivated, and spreading very freely — some, of alpine Achilles 44 Acids - habit (A . tomentosa, rupestris, aizoon), suitable for rock gar- dens; others {A. ptarmica, eupa- , torium) for borders. A. ptarmica has become naturalized in the United States. A. millefolium - is a native species of the West, and has also been introduced from Europe into the Eastern States. Achilles, a-kil'es, the hero of Homer's Iliad, was the son of the r; nereid Thetis and Peleus, son of , iEacus, and king of the Myrmi- dons at Phthia in Thessaly. He was taught by Phoenix, and by the centaur Chiron. He led his Myrmidons in fifty ships to Troy. Homer's Iliad opens with his fa- mous quarrel with King Aga- memnon, who had robbed him of his cherished slave girl Briseis. . Achilles retired in anger to his tent, and took no further part in the war until his friend Patro- : clus was slain by Hector. He t then re-entered the field, and at once turned the tide against the Trojans. He slew Hector, and ; dragged his body at the tail of , his chariot. The Iliad closes with the burial of Hector. Achilles , himself fell in a later battle, and was buried with Patroclus on the . coast of the Hellespont. His . mother Thetis is said to have . dipped him into the River Styx, .. so that he became invulnerable except at the spot where she held • him by the heel. Foreknowing ,. his doom before Troy, she hab- i^^ited him as a girl, but he was .^discovered by UlyvSses at the . court of Lycomedes and per- ,^uaded to join the heroes. He , was mortally wounded in the i ixeel by Paris. (vSee Homer.) In ,;^the Odyssey he is one of the he- , j.Q^s of the under world visited by Odysseus; and he is also one ,'pf the characters in vShakespcare's ' Troilus and Cressida. Achilles Tatius, ta'shi-us. See ,-Tatius. Achilles Tendon. See Ten- , DON OF Achilles. = 1 1 Achill Island, ak'il, county . Mayo, Ireland, separated from the mainland by Achill Sound, which is crossed by a bridge. It .;js 16 milts long, 7 miles wide; is v^O^jky,; with precipitous coasts; jiha$ fisheries, cromlechs, and the . Btonef fort of Dun xEngus. Pop. -i4,§00. I , ; Achimenes, a-kim'i-nez, a genus V of plants of the natural order "Gesneraceae (q.v.). The species "i,a;:e numerous, and are natives of oltropical America, /f'/r Achin, a-chen'. See Atjeh. ' '^J , ' Achlsh, a'kish, probably a gen- ,;f4-fil title l)ornc by certain rulers jfif , the Philistines, but applied ['.specifically to the king of Gath V (Who sheltered Pavid when he fled : Jfrorn Saul (1 Sam. xxi. 10/.). A Vol. I.— Oct. '15 second Achish was contemporary with Solomon (1 Kings ii. 39). Achmet, aK'met. See Ahmed. Achondroplasia, a-kon-dro-pla'- zhi-a or -zi-a, imperfect develop- ment of cartilage, with resulting stunting of bones; a disease of the embryo, in which the bones fail to develop, leading to excessive shortness of limbs and other de- formities. Acho'rion. See Favus. Achray, Loch, aK-ra', Perth- shire, Scotland (I1/4 miles by mile); 7 miles southwest of Cal- lander. Its beauties have been described by Scott, Coleridge, and Dorothy Wordsworth. Achroite, ak'r5-it, a colorless variety of the mineral tourmaline (q.v.), found chiefly on the island of Elba. Achromat'ic Lens. See Achro- matism. Achro'matism, the property in virtue of which certain combi- nations of lenses, etc., refract a beam of light without pro- ducing colored fringes. Any arrangement of lenses or prisms which refract light without dis- persion (q. V.) is achromatic. For example, by properly combining a convex lens of crown glass with a concave one of flint glass, a compound achromatic lens can be produced. The achromatism in the above arrangement, and in every other arrangement yet tried, is not absolutely perfect. The reason is that such media do not give exactly similar spectra (see Spectrum) — i.e., the ratio of the distances between any two pairs of rays is not quite the same for the different media. A combination of three lenses, or prisms, gives a better approxi- mation to absolute achromatism than a combination of two. Blair, in 1791, constructed an achromatic telescope with a com- pound lens consisting of two glass lenses enclosing a liquid. See Lenses. Achro'matop'sia. See Color Blindness. Achsah, ak'sa, daughter of Caleb. She was promised in marriage to whosoever would take Debir. Othnicl performed the task, and received her hand (Josh. XV. 16-19). Acida'lius, Valens (1567-95), philologist and Latin poet; na- tive of Wittstock, Brandenburg; known for his commentaries on Quintus Curtius, Plautus, and other Latin authors, which gained him great reputation as a critic. Acidaspis, as-i-das'pis, a genus of trilobites of rather small size, found in Silurian and Devonian strata. The genus is distin- guished by an indistinctly lobat- ed head shield, a thorax of nine or ten segments, and a small tail, each segment of the thorax ter- minating in long spines. See Trilobite. Ac'idim'etry, the process of estimating the quantity of a free acid. Several methods of deter- mination are in use. (1) When acids are mixed with water only, the strength may be determined by taking the specific gravity; (2) by measuring volumetrically the weight of alkali required to neu- tralize the acid; (3) by a gravi- metric process adapted to the particular acid; (4) by loss of weight, after expelling the acid — this method is generally applied in the estimation of carbonic acid. See Analysis, Chemical. Acid'ity. The incomplete oxi- dation of organic substances in the body results in the production of various acids, such as lactic, oxalic, uric acid, etc. A healthy adult excretes by the lungs and skin about 28 ounces of carbonic acid daily, and the acids excreted by the kidneys are equivalent to about 30 grains of oxalic acid. The excess of acid in the body, or acidity, depends mainly on two causes — (1) excessive formation, the result of incomplete oxida- tion of the food and the tissues; and (2) deficient elimination of the acid formed. These result from overfeeding, insufficient ex- ercise, sedentary habits, or dis- ease. The skin and mucous membranes are affected by acid- ity, which shows itself in the skin by attacks of eczema, urticaria, and erythema, and in the mucous membranes by catarrh. In acid dyspepsia there is a regurgitation from the stomach of acid liquid, consisting chiefly of lactic, buty- ric, and acetic acids. Abnormal acidity of the urine irritates the urinary passages, and causes a deposit of insoluble uric acid in them, leading to the formation of calculi. Similar deposits may occur in the middle coat of the blood vesvscls and in the joints. Treatment. — The treatment of acidity includes active open-air exercise and careful regulation of the diet. Pastry and fermented liquors are particularly hurtful; starchy and saccharine foods should be used sparingly; meat, fish, and poultry may be eaten slowly and in moderation; and skim milk and lime water may be drunk. See Digestion; Dys- pepsia. Acids, in chemistry, a class of substances having the following characteristics: (1) The element hydrogen is a constituent of all acids; they are therefore some- times called 'salts of hydrogen.' All organic acids, but a few, con- tain the group CO.OH (called Carboxyl). (2) If soluble in wa- ter — as most are — acids affect Acids 45 Aci Reale many coloring matters (called 'indicators'): e.g., litmus, a pur- ple dye obtained from certain lichens, is turned red. (3) Acids have a sour taste. (4) Acids re- act readily with bases, forming a salt and water; thus, sulphuric acid and sodium hydroxide react, and sodium sulphate and water are formed. Such a reaction is called neutralization, and the acid is said to neutralize the base, or conversely. (5) Acids react readily with some metals, hydro- gen being frequently set free, and a salt forming; for example, sulphuric acid and zinc yield hydrogen and zinc sulphate. When applied superficially, the acid is said to corrode or 'eat' the metal. Acids are found in nature, the sourness of fruits being due to their presence, as in the lemon, apple, currant, etc. Acetic acid, present to the extent of from 3 to 6 per cent., gives to vinegar its agreeable sour taste. Many acids are formed during fermen- tation, as lactic acid in sour milk. Hydrochloric acid, present in the gastric juice of the stomach, per- forms an important part in the process of digestion. Mineral waters frequently contain car- bonic acid. Most of the common acids are liquids; some are solids, though generally used in solution — e.g., boric, citric, salicylic, etc. The halogen acids, of which hydro- chloric (or muriatic) is the best known, and some others, are solutions of gases in water; the gases themselves, however, in the absence of water, showing no acid properties. A common method suitable for the preparation of a number of acids is the reaction between a less volatile acid and the salt of a more volatile acid. Thus, sul- phuric acid and sodium nitrate yield nitric acid and sodium sul- phate. Some oxides react with water to form acids, as carbonic acid in water charged with carbon dioxide (plain soda water). Some acids are spoken of as 'stronger' than others; or one solution of an acid in water is said to be 'stronger' than another solution of the same acid in water. In the second case, it is preferable to express the dif- ference in terms of concentration, this being defined as the ratio of the weight of the acid to the weight of the solution, usually denoted in per cent. Thus, a solution consisting of 10 grams of an acid dissolved in 100 grams of water would be 9.09 per cent, acid. To find the volume occu- pied by such a solution, as there is no known simple mathematical relation, reference must be had Vol. I.— Oct. '15 to well-known tables, one for each acid. A strong acid, then, in the sense of a concentrated acid, is one containing a high percentage of acid; and a weak or dilute acid is one containing a low percentage of acid. These are relative terms, and no definite line can be drawn between them; but in general, concentrated acids are 70 to 100 per cent, acid, and dilute acids 10 per cent, and less. The branch of chemistry devoted to the determination of the con- centrations or strengths of acids is called Acidimetry (see Acid- imetry) . Turning now to the relative strength of acids of the same concentration — as, for example, the comparative strength of 60- per-cent. sulphuric acid and 60- per-cent. nitric acid, it may be said that some confusion exists in the use of the term. In forming a judgment from observation, one may be misled by the vigor- ousness of a reaction of the acid, or the velocity of the reaction, or the difference in behavior of the two acids with a given metal, the comparisons of which do not lead to consistent conclusions. For example, as mentioned, sul- phuric acid produces nitric acid when reacting with its salts, from which it might be con- cluded it is the 'stronger' acid; but nitric acid reacts much more readily and vigorously with cop- per than sulphuric acid does, which lead to the opposite con- clusion. A number of methods of com- parison have been devised to avoid these difficulties, and sub- stitute terms proposed, such as 'avidity.' The method most in favor at the present time is based upon considerations derived from the Theory of Electrolytic Dissoci- ation. In this theory it is as- sumed that an acid, when placed in water, dissociates to a greater or less extent into 'ions' (q.v.). The extent of this dissociation is taken to be proportional to the electrical conductivity of the so- lution, which can be readily measured by appropriate appa- ratus. According to this view, that acid is strongest which is most highly dissociated when put in water. The relative strength of the common acids, determined in this way, is as follows: hydro- chloric, 100; nitric, 99.6; sul- phuric, 65.1; phosphoric, 7.3; acetic, 0.4. An acid is defined in terms of the Electrolytic Theory as a sub- stance that yields hydrogen ions when put in water, or in a few other solvents; and the acid properties, as taste, eff^ect on coloring matters, etc., are at- tributed to the hydrogen ions. (See Electrolysis.) Acids find a wide field of use- fulness. For example, the com- mon sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol, is used in almost all in- dustries, and is required in large quantities in the manufacture of fertilizers, alkalies, dyes, explo- sives, and in the refining of petroleum. Etching depends upon the action of acids, nitric being used with metals, and hy- drofluoric with glass. Gold is attacked by no single acid, but dissolves readily in aqua regia, a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids (3:1 by volume). Acids are brought into the market in carboys, large glass bottles holding about twelve gallons, encased, all but the mouth, in wooden boxes, and are commonly sold by weight. To counteract the injurious ac- tion of acids on objects an alkali is applied. In case a large quantity is spilled, marble dust, whiting, slaked lime, or lime may be used. Ammonia water is best for the clothing or hands. A solution of sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) or sodium carbon- ate (washing soda) is a good anti- dote for internal administration. As used in Medicine, acids dif- fer widely in their action. Ex- ternally applied, some of them, such as sulphuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acids, act as caus- tics, and are never given inter- nally, except in a very diluted form. If swallowed pure — as they sometimes are in error — they act as corrosive poisons. (See Poisons.) Internally, the above acids, much diluted, stim- ulate first the flow of saliva, and next that of the gastric juice, which itself contains hydrochloric acid. Nitric acid is also much used as a cholagogue. Insuffi- ciently diluted, when not strong enough to act as corrosives, these acids are gastric irritants, and so interfere with digestion. Other acids, such as carbolic and sul- phurous acids, are disinfectants. Carbonic and hydrocyanic acids are gastric sedatives, the latter being also the most rapid of poisons. Tannic acid is an as- tringent, coagulating albumin. Salicylic acid is a valuable anti- pyretic. For information about indi- vidual acids, see the separate articles, as Acetic Acid; Bo- RACic Acid; Hydrochloric Acid; Sulphuric Acid; etc. Acl Rcale, ii'che ra-ii'la, or AciREALE (vSicilian J^ci), town and episcopal see, Catania, vSicily, at the foot of Mount Mtna; 9 miles northeast of Catania. It has warm sulphur baths, and i|8 visited for sea bathing. Linen, Acts 45 A Acne cotton, and filigree work are manufactured. Pop. 36.000. Acis, a'sis, a Sicilian youth, beloved by the nymph Galatea, was crushed under a huge rock by the Cyclops Polyphemus, who was his rival. His blood was changed by the nymph into the River Acis, at the foot of Mount iEtna. Handel composed an opera on the subject. Ackermann, ak'er-man, KoN- RAD (1712-71), German actor, is generally regarded as one of the founders of German drama. His new theatre at Hamburg was opened in 1765, and was con- ducted with the highest artistic success. Ultimately it passed into the hands of a syndicate, and was known as the Deutsches Nationaltheater. Ackermann, Rudolph (1764- 1834), a native of Saxony, opened a print shop in the Strand, Lon- don, 1795. He introduced lithog- raphy as a fine art into Eng- land, and was the originator of the 'Annuals,' which he com- menced by his Forget-Me-Not, published in 1823 and the follow- ing years. Among the illustrated works published by him were his Repository of Arts, L terature, and Fashions (1809-28), and works illustrating London, Westminster Abbey, Oxford, and Cambridge. Acklin, or Acklin's Island (45 miles by 1 to 2 miles), one of the South Bahamas (largest of the Crooked Island group). Acknowl'edgment, in law, is the act of avowing before a proper officer or a court that one has executed a legal instrument, and of obtaining a certificate thereto appended which admits the instrument as evidence without further proof of its genuineness. In England, all deeds purporting to dispose of the land of a woman married be- fore 1883 must in general be executed by her and her husband, and acknowledged by her in ac- cordance with statutory forms. In the United States, acknowl- edgment is the regular mode of authentication of a deed or instrument for purposes of evi- dence, though not in general necessary to its formal validity. The Recording Acts, however, usually require the due acknowl- edgment of a deed as essential if it is to obtain priority on the record. A commissioner of deeds or a notary public is the regular officer before whom acknowledg- ments are made, though judges, clerks of court, mayors of cities, and in some vStates aldermen and justices of the peace, are suffi- cient for the purpose. In all cases the acknowledgment must be signed by the person in whose presence it is made. Vol. I.— Oct. '15 The term is also applied to an admission of indebtedness, which must generally be in writing, made for the purpose of keeping alive an obligation which would otherwise fall within the opera- tion of the Statutes of Limita- tions (q.v.). Ac'land, Lady Christian Henrietta Caroline (1750- 1815), commonly called Lady Harriet, was famous for her devotion to her husband. Major John Dyke Acland, an English officer, during the Revolutionary War. She accompanied him dur- ing the Burgoyne campaign, nursed him when he was seriously ill in Canada, and after he was wounded at Hubbardtown (1777). Again, after the second battle of Saratoga, where he was seriously wounded and taken prisoner, she fearlessly sought him out within the American lines — where she was received with all courtesy by the American officers — and re- mained with him until he had recovered. Acland, Sir Henry Went- worth Dyke (1815-1900), Eng- lish physician, was born in Exe- ter, and was educated at Oxford, where he was Radcliffe librarian for more than forty years, and regius professor of medicine (1857-94). The formation of the Oxford University Museum was largely due to his labors. He came to the United States with the Prince of Wales in 1860. Among his works are: Oxford Museum, with letters from Rus- kin (1859); Memoir on the Chol- era in 1854; Village Health (1884). Acland, John Dyke (d. 1778), English soldier, the husband of Lady Acland (q.v.). In 1775 he accompanied Burgoyne's expedi- tion to America. He died from the results of exposure incident to a duel he fought on the ques- tion of the valor of American soldiers. His portrait was paint- ed by Sir Joshua Reynolds. Aclln'ic Line, or Magnetic Equator, an irregular and vary- ing line passing through those points on the globe at which there is no inclination or devia- tion from the horizontal position. See Magnetism; Dipping Nee- dle. Acne (according to Littre a corruption of the Greek a/c/u,ij, 'a point') is a functional disturb- ance of the sebaceous glands and hair follicles of the skin (q.v.). The ducts of the glands become clogged by inspissated sebum, or by the action of invading micro-organisms. Their natural secretion accumulates within the glands, and there is at the same time a tendency to inflammation of the follicle and surrounding tissue. The characteristic erup- tion, either papular or pustular, usually appears upon the face, neck, back, or chest of young people at or near the age of puberty; and when once estab- lished, may persist for many years. While generally admitted that the disease is of parasitic origin, there is less unanimity in regard to the cause. Unna, Sabou- raud, and Gilchrist have each described organisms as constant- ly present in cases of acne; and the latter succeeded in cultivat- ing a bacillus which he called Bacillus acnes, and with it in- oculated mice and guinea pigs. Two varieties of acne are usu- ally described: Acne vulgaris or simplex, and A . indurata. In A . vulgaris the lesions may be either papular or pustular, but usually both are present at the same time. Comedones or 'Blackheads' may be few or many, but are usually' part of the clinical pic- ture. Comedones are collections of thickened sebaceous matter retained in the glands whose mouths are closed by black- topped plugs. They appear as pin-point papules in the skin, are not accompanied by inflamma- tory symptoms, and are spoken of as acne punctata. Pressure at the base occasions the expul- sion of an elongated, spiral white mass with a black point at its outer end, commonly but errone- ously regarded as a worm; though in the midst of the white mass of sebaceous matter, a par- asite, the Acarus folliculorum (q.v.), is occasionally found. Interspersed are the red inflam- matory papules about the ori- fices of the glands and follicles, many of which go on to pustula- tion. Sometimes deeper and larger areas of inflammation ap- pear, and these are known as A . indurata. These areas usually suppurate, and may leave scars. Treatmeni. — T he primary cause must first be looked for in each case; and may be gastro- intestinal disturbance in one, anaemia and debility in another, or disease of sexual origin in a third. Treatment, both internal and local, appropriate to the con- dition should then be instituted. Diet and hygiene will accomplish more than drugs. Locally, as long as there is no inflammation, the treatment aims at favoring the escape of the contents of the follicles by rubbing the aff'ected parts with cold cream at bed- time, washing thoroughly next morning with soap and water, and applying vigorous friction with a towel. The tops of super- ficial pustules should be removed with a skin curette, and deep pustules should be incised. In Acne Rosacea 45 B Acollas recent years, the Roentgen rays and vaccine therapy (q.v.) have been employed with marked suc- cess. See Acne Rosacea. Acne Rosacea is a reflex flush- ing of the central region of the face, due to vasomotor disturb- ance. This passive congestion of the region eventually results in a permanent redness, accom- panied by dilatation of the blood vessels and a secondary acne of the sebaceous glands. Although commonly called acne rosacea, the disease is in no sense a true acne, and should better be called Rosacea. It is also known as Gutta Rosea. Rosacea, in most cases, is lim- ited to the middle third of the bluish purple lines running down onto the face. The second stage is character- ized by the development of papules and pustules. The pus- tules are usually smaller and more superficial than those of acne simplex (see Acne) . Come- dones may also be present, but the whole condition is secondary to the chronic hyperaemia. While the majority of cases never progress beyond the second stage, certain heavy drinkers, especially if much exposed to the cold, develop the third stage of the disease. In these cases the follicles on the nose become very large, and the tip and sides be- come converted into a lobulated degree by the reflex flushing of the face that occurs during men- struation, and especially during the menopause. Treaiment should be both lo- cal and general, but the latter is the more important. The re- flex cause must be found and corrected. The diet must be planned with great care, elimi- nating such articles as are found by experience to cause flushing. Alcohol should be strictly for- bidden. Locally, the patient should protect his face from ex- tremes of heat or cold, and cold water should never be put on the face. In the first and second stages a calamine lotion, a mild ich- Aconcagua, the Highest Summit of the Andes and of the New World (23,080 Feet). face, and usually first appears at or near the end of the nose, which in many cases is the only portion of the face involved. In others it may extend to the cheeks, forehead, and chin, and rarely over the whole face. Rosacea has three stages. In the initial stage the skin of the part affected assumes a deep red color, usually transient at first, but returning either on no spe- cial provocation, or in conse- quence of some digestive or uterine disorder. The redness slowly becomes permanent, and dilatation of the capillaries and veins takes place. These dilated blood vessels are most commonly seen on the nose, and look like Vol. I,— Qgt. '15 mass of tissue, the hypertrophy in some cases being so great as to form pendulous tumors hang- ing down over the mouth. This condition is known as Rhino- phyma. It may also occur in persons of regular habits of life. Disorder of the digestive sys- tem is so often associated with rosacea as to exclude the idea that the combination is acci- dental. In women, the disease is frequently associated with dis- order of the menstrual functions. It is five times as common in women as in men, due in part to the tight clothing worn about the neck, chest, and abdomen, which tends to produce hyper- aemia of the face, and to a greater thyol cream, or a powder such as cornstarch may be used. Di- lated vessels are best destroyed by electrolysis. In the third stage, multiple scarification, or even better, a plastic operation to restore the nose to its original shape and size, gives most satis- factory results. Accemetse, a-sem'e-te, or Accem- ETi ('the Sleepless Ones'), com- munities of monks who in the fifth and sixth centuries, in Con- stantinople and elsewhere, car- ried on devotions without ceas- ing day or night. They were excommunicated in 534. Acollas, a-ko-la', Emile (1862- 91), French professor of law, was born in La Chatr?. Hq ?^4- Acolytes 46 Acosta yocated extreme revolutionary ideas; was appointed president of the legal faculty by the Paris Commune of 1871; and in 1880 became inspector-general of penitentiaries. Chief works: Manuel de Droit Civil (1869-74); Les Droits du Peuple, Cours de Droit Politique (1873); Philoso- phie de la Science Politique (1877). Acolytes, ak'o-llts, in the early Church, were youths in holy orders who assisted in the ritual of the Church. In the Roman Catholic Church, aspirants to the priesthood still pass through this order. See Orders, Holy. Aconcagua, a-kon-ka'gwa, a presumably extinct volcano, the highest summit of the Andes and of the New World, in the prov- ince of Mendoza, Argentina; lat. 32° 39' s.; long. 70° w. Alti- tude, 23,080 feet. The first as- cent was made in 1897, by Zur- briggen. The Aconcagua River rises on its slopes, and flows 200 miles to the Pacific Ocean. Aconcagua, a central province of Chile, lying between the Pa- cific and the crest of the Andes; bounded on the north by Co- quimbo, and on the south by Valparaiso and Santiago. It is mostly mountainous, although the valleys are fertile and pro- duce fruit, hemp, grain, and wine. Area, 5,487 square miles. Pop. (1910) 132,730. Capital, San Felipe. Ac'onite (Aconitum), Monks- hood, Wolfsbane, or Blue Rocket, a genus of the order Ranunculaceae, common in tem- perate regions. A . napellus, often cultivated in gardens, is a peren- nial plant from two to six feet high, and has dark green, deeply cleft leaves, and a long branched head of deep blue flowers; the sepals are petaloid, and resemble a hood, whence the popular name. All parts of the plant are very poisonous. The root has often been mistaken for horse radish; but while the latter is cylindrical, and is often branched, the aconite root is tapering, pointed, and un- branched. A. columbianum, the species native to the Western United States, is dangerous to grazing live stock. Aconite applied to the skin and mucous membranes pro- duces first tingling, then numb- ness. In medicinal doses it acts as an antipyretic, lessening the force, frequency, and volume of the pulse, and causing perspira- tion. It is also Uvsed externally and internally for neuralgia, lumbago, and rheumatic pains. Its effects are due to the three alkaloids, aconitine(q.v.),benzaco- nine, and aconine, each of which possesses some quality peculiar to itself, and sometimes antag- VOL. I.— Oct. '15 onistic to those of the other two. The symptoms of poisoning are first tingling of the tongue and general numbness of the mouth, then cold sweats and giddiness, followed perhaps by insensibility, with failing circulation and res- piration. Treatment consists in first emptying the stomach with either a stomach tube or an emetic. Stimulants should be given freely afterward, and the sufferer put to bed, with hot bottles to the extremities if they Aconite, with Flower and Fruit. are cold. Artificial respiration with friction must be employed, if necessary, and the medical man will use hypodermic in- jections of strychnine or digitalis. Winter Aconite (Eranthis hyemalis), a small herbaceous plant of the order Ranunculaceae, with buttercup-like flowers, grows freely in gardens, thrives well under the shade of trees, and flowers with the snowdrop. Acon'itlne (C33H43NO12), the active principle of aconite (q.v.), is one of the most potent poisons known, so small a quantity as Veoth of a grain of the pure alka- loid having nearly proved fatal. Its recognition in poisoning cases is a matter of difficulty, owing to the small amount necessary for the purpose. When applied to the eye in even very dilute solu- tion it causes a sensation of in- tolerable heat and tingling, the pupil at the same time contract- ing. This tingling, associated with numbness, is felt when a piece of aconite root is chewed; hence its use in the treatment of neuralgia, toothache, and rheu- matism. Acorn. See Oak. Acorn-shells (Balanus), a ge- nus of Cirripedes. in the class Crustacea. They occur in abun- Acorn-shell and Section. dance incrusting the rocks be- tween high and low water mark, and are exceedingly familiar ob- jects. At first sight, and in their adult form, all cirripeds are so unlike crustaceans that even Cuvier regarded them as mol- luscs. The body is enveloped in a fold of skin, or mantle, which forms round about the animal a conical protective shell of six pieces, and a fourfold movable lid. When the animal is active (under water), six pairs of curl- like double legs may be seen al- ternately protruded and retract- ed through the valvular opening of the shell. These are borne on the thorax of the animal, and serve to brush the floating food down to the moutK, where it is seized and masticated by the three pairs of jaws. - The acorn-shells feed on small marine animals. They are at- tached not only to rocks, but to floating objects, and to other animals. Numerous species are known. Some of the larger species of balanus were esteemed by the Romans, and are still eaten by Chinese and others. See Barnacle. Ac'orus, a genus belonging to the order Araceae. A. Cala- mus, popularly known as Sweet Flag, of wide geographic distri- bution in the north temperate zone, resembles bulrushes, with tall linear leaves, sharp edged and sharp pointed, about an inch wide. The flowers, small and greenish yellow, are arranged like a spike on a naked spadix, the spathe being elongated above it. The plant spreads by long horizontal and branched root stocks, called Calamus i?oo^,which are fleshy and warmly aromatic. Calamus root is candied and used as a sweetmeat in Europe; it also furnishes a stimulative, carmina- tive drug, called Calamus. Acosta, ii-kos'tii, Gabriel, or Uriel d' (1594-1640), a Portu- guese of noble Jewish birth, was born in Oporto. Brought up a Roman Catholic, he early re- verted to Judaism, of which he later became a critic. A charge of atheism, following his Exami- Acosta 47 Acquisition nation of Pharisaic Traditions (1624), subjected him to humili- ating penance. He at last shot himself. His autobiography was published in Latin and German. Gutzkow made him the hero of a tragedy. Acosta, JoAQUiM (1790-1852), South American explorer and geographer, was born at Guaduas, Colombia. He penetrated the northern districts of South Amer- ica (1834-45), giving special at- tention to the history of the early Spanish settlements. He published : Compendio Historico del Descuhrimiento y Colonizacion de la Nueva Granada (1848); Semenario de la Nueva Granada (1849). Acosta, Jose d'' (1539-1600), Spanish Jesuit and historian, was born at Medina del Campo. He was a missionary in Peru for sev- eral years. On his return to Spain in 1587 he became superior of the Jesuits at Valladolid, and rector of the Jesuit college at Salamanca. His famous Historia Natural y Moral de las Indias, written originally in Latin, has been translated into Spanish, English, French, and other lan- guages. Acouchy. See Agouti. Acoustics, a-koos'tiks or -kous'- tiks, strictly speaking, is the science of sound in relation to hearing. The conditions under which an aerial disturbance is audible as sound cannot be de- scribed with accuracy. If we confine our attention to musical sounds, or sounds of definite pitch, we know that the number of vi- brations per second must lie be- tween two limits; but the limits of hearing differ for different ears. Roughly speaking, the lower limit may be set at from 20 to 30 vibra- tions per second, and the upper limit at about 70,000. Cases have been observed in which the ear was not sensitive to a certain range of high-pitched notes, but could hear notes both of lower and of higher pitch. When the sound has no definite pitch, the condition of audibility seems to be a certain abruptness of change of pressure, such as we have in a tap or a blow. The change may be very slight, but it must be sufficiently abrupt. In judging of the direction from which a sound comes, we require the ears to be at different distances from the source of sound; or, to express it more accurately, the ears must be affected simultaneously by the same disturbance in different phase. For example, if a sound be produced at a point in the plane which passes medially through the head and bisects at right angles the line joining the Vol. I.— Oct. '15 ears, it is impossible for the hearer to say whence the sound comes. Noises and musical notes form two distinct classes of sound, as received by the ear, and are distinguished by their abrupt- ness, or by the regular succession with which they occur. The 'velocity of sound,' as it travels through air or other media, de- pends upon the density of the medium and upon its elasticity. Marin Mersenne in 1636, Brook Taylor in 1715, and Daniel Ber- noulli in 1755 all made valuable discoveries in relation to the the- ory of vibrations. Experimenta- tion in the vibration of plates was carried on by the German physi- cist Chladni; while Poisson, the French mathematician, contrib- uted to the mathematical side of the problem. An important practical branch of acoustics is the construction of musical instruments, the aim being to produce tones pleasing to the ear. It is here that the far-reaching principle .of reso- nance finds its earliest and most familiar illustrations. By suit- ably constructed cavities or tubes, within which the column of air vi- brates naturally in definite peri- ods, sounds having those periods are powerfully reinforced. In this way we produce the various qualities of tone associated with trumpet, organ pipe, flute, and wind instruments generally. It is well to distinguish between true resonance, in which the body, sympathetically vibrating to the original sound, absorbs energy and gives it forth again, and ordi- nary reflection or echoing, in which the sound is thrown back unchanged from a hard surface, such as the walls of a hall, a rock, or a forest. The application of acoustic principles in the construction of a large hall is only partly under- stood. The quality of the acous- tics of a room or hall is based upon the duration of the rever- beration, or re-echoing, of the sounds produced. In turn, rever- beration is dependent upon the cubic metres included in the room ; the acoustic absorption, or the receiving of the energy of 'sound waves'; the materials of which the room is constructed, and with which it is furnished; the degree of intensity of the sound; and other considerations. Experience has led to the construction of rectangular halls, and the reason is obvious. A hall with part of its walls in a circular form must of necessity give rise to focal con- centration of rays of sound after reflection; and if the hall is large, a person placed at such a focus will hear the original sound and an echo separated distinctly in time. For a discussion of the physi- cal characteristics of the aerial vibrations which produce the sen- sation of noise, see Sound; for the physiological side of the question, see Ear. Lord Rayleigh's Theory of Sound is the most complete treat- ise on the subject of acoustics, Helmholtz' Tonempfindungen, or Sensations of Tone (Eng. trans.), is one of the classics of scientific literature, and discusses in a mas- terly manner many of the most profound problems connected with the sense of hearing. Con- sult also J. H. Poynting and J. J. Thomson's Text Book of Science (vol. II., 'Sound'); W. C. Sabine's Architectural Acoustics (1906); Alexander Saeltzer's Treatise on Acoustics in Connection with Ventilation (1908). Acoyapa, or San Sebastian, town, Chontales department, Nic- aragua, Central America. Pop. 6,000. Acq ua pendente, ak-wa-pen- den'ta, town, Rome province, Italy; 25 miles northwest of Vi- terbo. It has a fine cathedral. Pop. 6,200. Acquaviva delle Fonti, ak-wa- ve'va del'la fon'te, town, Apulia, Italy, at the foot of the Apen- nines; 18 miles southwest of Bari. Pop. 11,000. AcquI, iik'kwe, town and epis- copal see, province Alessandria, Italy, on the Bormida; 21 miles southwest of Alessandria. It has hot sulphur springs; temperature 115°-167° F. The Gothic Cathe- dral dates from the twelfth cen- tury. Wine and silk are pro- duced. Pop. 14,000. Ac'qules'cence denotes an im- portant principle of equity other- wise known as 'laches' (q.v.), 'standing by,' or 'delay.' It is constituted by the fact that a person has by his conduct led others to believe that he has waived or abandoned his rights. This being so, he is precluded or 'estopped' by the principle in question from asserting those rights. Acquired Characters. See He- redity. Acquisition by a state usually comes about in one or other of three ways: (1) Occupation con- fers a title to newly discovered territory; but for this purpose mere discovery is not sufficient, nor is it enough that it is fol- lowed by a formal act of annexa- tion. An actual settlement must be made in the country, and a regular administration set up. The question of title by occupa- tion was formerly of great prac- tical importance in connection with the settlement of America, and has in modern times bieen revived by the colonization of Acquittal 48 Acromegaly Africa. In the latter case, inter- national conflict has been avoided by the delimitation of tracts of land as within the 'sphere of influence' (q.v.) of a nation, which is then entitled, without interference from other nations, to acquire by occupation any terri- tory lying therein. (2) Treaties and conventions may include the settling of fron- tiers and boundaries, or the ces- sion of territory by one state to another in consideration of a sale or otherwise, or the exchange of territories by different states. (3) Conquest (q.v.), which is the forcible appropriation by one nation of territory belonging to another, when followed by a dec- laration of annexation, vests the title of sovereignty in the con- quering state. Such matters are, however, usually settled by a treaty of peace. Other modes of acquisition are accession (e. g., of an island formed within the territorial waters of a state), prescriptive possession, and in- heritance by will or by succes- sion. Occupation, accession, and prescriptive possession are termed 'original' titles, all others are 'derivative.' Property is also said to be ac- quired by private individuals when the ownership of it is gained in any manner recognized by law. Acqult'tal, the judgment of a court of criminal jurisdiction absolving a person accused of crime. The term applies to a fa- vorable decision on a technical de- fence (that the act charged does not constitute a crime, or that the prosecution is barred by pardon or by the statute of limitations), as well as to a verdict of 'not guilty' after a full trial; but not to a discharge by a committing magistrate, nor to the failure of a grand jury to find an indictment. An acquittal upon a verdict after a full trial is both at the common law and under the Federal and State constitutions of the United States a bar to a second prosecu- tion for the same offence. See Autrefois Acquit; Jeopardy. Acquittance, a written dis- charge of a debt or other money obligation. To be effectual, an acquittance, if based upon part payment only, must be by release under seal, or by accord and satis- faction (see Accord and Satis- faction). Where full payment is made, an ordinary receipt or any other written acknowledg- ment of payment is a sufficient acquittance. A'cre, a word (from Anglo-Sax- on cBcer) which is identical with Gothic akr-s, German Acker, Latin ager, Greek agros, Sanskrit ajras — a measure nearly corre- VOL, I.— Oct, '15 sponding to the quantity which one plough could plough in a day. The American and English stat- ute acre consists of 4,840 square yards. The chain with which land is measured is 22 yards long, and a square chain will contain 22 X 22, or 484 yards; so that 10 square chains make an acre, or 4 roods-, or 160 perches, or 4,840 square yards. Before the fixing of the statute acre in England, in the reign of George iv., the acre varied in different parts of the country, and still survives locally in several counties — varying in size from 2.115 statute acres in Cheshire to 0.477 in Leicester- shire. The old Scotch acre is larger than the English, the Irish than the Scotch; 23 Scotch acres = 29 imperial acres; 'SOH Irish acres = 40 imperial. 640 acres = 1 square mile. The hectare (nearly 2}^ acres; see Are) of the French metric system has superseded on the Continent almost all the ancient local measures corresponding to the acre.' See Weights and Measures. Acre, a'kra, former territory of Bolivia, now part of Brazil. See Bolivia; Brazil. Acre, a'ker or a'ker, St. Jean d' (Turkish a ^^a; Old Testament Accho; New Testament Ptolemais; the Ace of Strabo), city and sea- port, Syria, on a promontory at the foot of Mount Carmel; 80 miles northwest of Jerusalem, and 27 miles south of Tyre. The harbor is partly sanded up, yet is one of the best on the coast. A railroad has recently been con- structed from Haifa and Acre to Damascus. The older fortifica- tions, much breached, may be traced outside later ones. Pop. 11,000 (8,000 Moslems; 3,000 Christians, Jews, and others). The city is famous for its many sieges: (1) 1104, taken by first Crusaders, and retaken by Sara- cens (1187); (2) 1191, taken by third Crusaders, under Richard Cceur de Lion and Philip Augus- tus, and handed over to Knights of St. John (Fr. St. Jean, whence its modern name), and retaken by Saracens (1291); (3) 1517, captured by the Turks; (4) 1799, besieged for sixty-one days by Bonaparte, who failed to take it owing to the heroic defence made by Sir Sidney Smith and Jezzar Pasha; (5) 1832, taken by Ibra- him Pasha, and held by him for eight years; (6) 1840, captured by combined British, Austrian, and Turkish fleej:s. Acrl, a'kre, town and province, Calabria, Italy. The town is on the River Mucone; 20 miles northeast of Cosenza. Pop. 13,- 500. Acridildse, See Grasshopper. Acrisfus, a-krish'i-us, king of Argos, and father of Danae, whom he shut up in a tower, because an oracle had foretold that her child would kill him. See Danae; Perseus. Ac'robat, literally one who walks on tiptoe, but commonly applied to a person who practises feats of personal agility, such as tumbling, vaulting, and partic- ularly walking, dancing, etc., on rolling balls, pyramids of chairs, etc., and especially on the slack or tight rope, a feat which was popu- lar among the ancient Greeks and Romans. The Chiarinis and Kolter were famous in this line, and, in the nineteenth century, Farioso, Madame Saqui, Diav- olo, and Blondin. Consult Le Roux and Garnier's Acrobats and Mountebanks (Eng. trans.) ; Tum- bling for Amateurs (Spalding's Athletic Library). Acroceraunian, ak-ro-se-ro'ni- an, or Ceraunian Mountains, Albania, on the Adriatic coast, lat. 40° 15' N.; highest peak, Tchika (6,300 ft.). Acrocerau- NiA is the modern Cape Lin- guetta or Glossa, 40 miles north- east of Otranto. Acrolein., a-kro'le-in, or Acryl- ic Aldehyde, C2H3COH, is a colorless, limpid, strongly re- fracting liquid, lighter than wa- ter; boiling i)oint, 52,4° c. It is the acrid constituent pro- duced in the destructive distil- lation of fatty substances, and is in part due to the decomposi- tion of glycerin. It may be pre- pared by distilling a mixture of glycerin and anhydrous phos- phoric acid, the object of the latter being to effect the removal of water from the glycerin. Its vapor is extremely irritating to the eyes, nostrils, and respir- atory organs. When mixed with a solution of potash or soda, the irritating odor disappears; cer- tain oxidizing agents, as oxide of silver, convert it into Acrylic Acid, C2H3COOH. Acroliths (Greek akron, 'ex- tremity,' and lithos, 'a stone'), the oldest works of Greek plastic art, in which wood carving is seen in transition into marble statuary. The trunk of the figure is still of wood, but the head, arms, and feet, which are meant to appear outside the drapery, are of stone. See Chrys- elephantine. Ac'romeg'aly, a disease causing general enlargement of the bones, especially those of the head, feet, and hands; usually occurring be- tween the ages of twenty and forty, most frequently in females, and lasting for ten or twenty years before death. The cause is still uncertain, though disease of the pituitary body (q.v.) is generally Acromion found associated with it; and no very effective treatment has been discovered. It is often associated with some nerve lesion — e.g., atrophy of the optic nerve — but the intellect is generally unim- paired. It is probable that the giants of the olden times were cases of acromegaly. See Giants. Acro'mion, the summit of the shoulder blade which articulates with the clavicle or collar bone, and gives attachment to part of the deltoid and trapezius mus- cles. It is commonly called the Acromial Process. Acroph'ony, a term applied to a stage in the development of alphabetical writing — viz., to the use of a picture of an object, or of a symbolical picture of an object, to represent the first syllable of the name of that object, and, later, to represent the first sound of that syllable. Acrop'olis (Greek akros, 'lofty' ; poUs, 'a city') was the name given by the Greeks to the fortified eminences around which many of their towns were built. The acropolis served also as a sacred enclosure, in which were placed the principal temples and works of art. Among the most famous were those of Mycenae, Tiryns, Argos, Corinth, Thebes, Per- ■gamum, and in particular Athens, the last being generally referred to ac, the Acropolis. The Acropolis of Athens (called also Cecropia, from its reputed Pelasgian founder. King Cecrops) is a rocky eminence, precipitous on all sides except the west, rising about 150 feet from the Attic plain, and enclos- ing on its summit a plateau of an irregular oval shape, measuring from east to west 1,150 feet, and from north to south 500 feet. Prior to the fifth century B.C. an ancient Pelasgian wall surround- ed the plateau; but this had fallen into ruin, except on the north side, and was replaced along the south escarpment by the wall of Cimon. Round the base to the hill, especially on the south, were grouped numerous temples and theatres, the chief of these being the Temple of ^sculapius, the Theatre of Dio- nysus, and the Odeon of Herod Atticus. The whole area of the summit was occupied by a series of edifices, the most famous and the most important artistically in the world s history. These were the outcome of the creative spirit of Athens when at the height of her fame. Pericles gave the impetus; Phidias, and a band of architects — Mnesicles, Ictinus, Callicrates, and others — were the creators. Among these buildings were the Propylaea, the Pinacotheca, the Temple of Nike 49 Act Apteros, the Erectheum, the Parthenon, etc. See Athens. Consult Penrose's Principles of Athenian Architecture; Burnouf's L'Acropole; Botticher's Die Ak- ropolis von A then. Acros'tic, a verse or verses in which the initial letters of the lines, when read in order, spell a name, word, or phrase. Some- Act has various technical meanings, legal and other; fre- quently a document in writing, as when a person executing a legal instrument, declares it to be his act and deed. Or it may be the record of an act or proceeding of a public nature, as an Act of Congress. In the United States, an act signifies something done 0 200 20a 300 Plan of the A cropolis. times the final letters spell words as well as the initial, and this pe- culiarity may even run down the middle of the poem. The acros- tic is of ancient origin, known specimens dating back to the fourth century. Some sacred Greek verses, quoted by Euse- bius, bishop of Csesarea, in the fourth century, are written so that the initial letters spell the phrase 'Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour.' The first letters of the five Greek words of this phrase spell the word ichthus, 'a fish' ; hence the use of the fish as a symbol for the Saviour. The Hebrew form of acrostic, as seen in several of the Psalms, is alpha- betical. In the 119th Psalm, each of the eight verses of the first division begins with aleph; each of the eight verses of the second division begins with the second letter, beth; and so on, through the twenty-two letters of the Hebrew alphabet. The best known English acrostics are an ingenious collection by Sir John Davies, called Astrcea, written to Queen Elizabeth, the initial let- ters of each forming the words 'Elizabetha Regina.' Ac'rote'ria, or Acroters, small pedestals on buildings, on which are placed statues or orna- mental finials; also the statues or ornaments thus placed. for which the person doing is responsible; something done by an individual in his private ca- pacity, or as an officer; or by a body of persons, as an associa- tion, corporation, legislature, or court. It includes not only physical acts, but also decrees, orders, resolutions, and laws. An act indicates intention. In crim- inal matters an act does not make the actor criminal unless the in- tention was criminal. An act is also an instrument in writing to verify facts. A Public Act is one that has public authority, made public by authority, or attested by a public seal, and one per- taining to the whole community ; while a Private A ct operates upon particular persons and private concerns. In the Drama, an act is a dis- tinct section of a play, in which a definite and coherent part of the plot is represented. It is gener- ally subdivided into smaller por- tions, called scenes. Every dra- matic plot naturally divides itself into three parts, but it has often been found inconvenient to en- close extended plots in such lim- its, and since the earliest days of tragedy five acts have generally been considered necessary for its satisfactory development. Shakespeare never departed from that number; but modern plays Vol. T.— Mar. '20 Acta 50 Acting have three, four, five, or even more. Ac'ta (Latin 'transactions') was a title given to various rec- ords, memorials, or minutes pub- lished in Roman times. They may be treated under the follow- ing heads: (1) Acta Populi, or Acta Diurna, an official journal of important events, both public and private, which was published daily in ancient Rome after 59 B.C. The original acta were de- posited in the state archives after a certain time. They contained imperial and magisterial notices and decrees, resolutions and dis- A.D, have been found, and edited by Henzen. Actse'a. See Baneberry. Actae'on, in classic mythology a famous hunter, whom the god- dess "Artemis (Diana) changed into a stag, because he saw her bathing; in this form his dogs tore him to pieces. Ac'ta Pila'ti, or Gesta Pilati ('Acts of Pilate'), the name of an apocryphal work giving, by way of an official report purporting to have been drawn up under the orders of Pontius Pilate (q.v.), an account of the trial, crucifixion, and resurrection of Jesus. It is, close of the fourth century, it has no claim to authenticity, but is probably connected in its origin both with the heathen acts (by way of confutation) and with the earlier narrative alluded to by Justin. It now forms chaps, i-xvi. of the Gospel of Nicode- mus. Acta Sanctorum. See Bol- LANDISTS. Acte additionelle, akt a-de-syo- nel'. L'Acte Additionnel aux Constitutions de I'Empire was is- sued by Napoleon on April 23, 1815, during the 'Hundred Days,' as a concession to Liberal poli- The Acropolis of Athens (as It Was in the Time of Pericles). cussions of the senate, possibly the results of chariot races, adver- tisements of births, marriages, divorces, and deaths. No genuine acta are extant, though fifteen spurious fragmcMits have been published by Pighius (1615). (2) Acta Senalus, the minutes of the transactions in the senate, first published by Julius Caesar as consul in 59 B.C. They were kept in the imperial archives, being accessible only to vsenators; or in separate parts of public libraries, being then accessible only by special permission of the city prefect. (.3) Acta Fratrum ALva- lium, minutes of the JEva.\ broth- erhood, a priestly college in an- cient Rome. Important frag- ments covering the period 14-241 Vol. I.— Mar. '26 of course, by no means improb- able that Pilate furnished the Emperor Tiberius with some rec- ord of his dealings with Jesus; but as it is extremely unlikely that such ever became public property, the references made by Justin and Tertullian probably refer to some spurious composi- tion designed to fill up the blank. Eusebius speaks of heathen Acta Pilati circulated in the Galerian persecution, for the purpose of bringing the Christian passion story into divsrepute, but seems to know nothing of a Christian writing under that title. The extant Acts of Pilate is written from a Christian standpoint; and although it was known in some form to Epiphanius toward the ticians. It contained provisions for individual liberty and free- dom of the press, and was an advance upon 'The Charter' of Louis xviii. Actian Games, ak'shi-an. The, were instituted by Octavius in commemoration of his great naval victory over Antony and Cleopatra (b.c. 31) at Actium (q.v.). They included musical contests, wrestling, horse racing, and, in memory of the battle, sea fights. They were held every fifth year. Acting and Actors. In the evo- lution of dramatic art, the actor preceded both the playwright and the theatre, and still remains the most essential factor. Acting first emerged in Greece, Acting 51 Acting when the leaders of the choric dances in honor of Dionysus began to distinguish themselves from the other participants. As this distinction became more and more emphasized, a dramatist became necessary to prepare parts for these leaders. Later, as the religious revels took on more and more the form of what we know as drama, the demand arose for a theatre to accommo- date the spectators. The drama can never exist without actors; that it can still exist without a theatre, is proved when plays are given on a lawn or in a drawing- room; it can also exist without a dramatist, since in certain peri- ods, like that of the Italian commedia del arte of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the actors have improvised their own lines in the presence of the public. Acting, by its very nature, is a compound art, appealing si- multaneously to the eye, like sculpture and painting, and to the ear, like poetry and music. In different periods, the pro- portion to each other of these two appeals — the visual and the auditory — has differed greatly. In ancient Greece, acting was mainly auditory; in the modern drama, it has become mainly visual; in Elizabethan drama, it stood midway between these two extremes. Despite the vast size of the open-air theatres of the Greeks (the theatre of Dionysus in Athens seated over twenty thou- sand people), it was not difficult to hear in them, as is demon- strated by acoustic experiments conducted in such of them as remain extant; on the other hand, it was difficult to see minutely. The actors wore stilted boots, not to make them- selves look heroic in stature, but that they might appear of normal height to the thousands of spectators gazing down on them from the hillside. Their ges- tures, in order to carry meaning to their vast audience, had to be hinged from the shoulder. Facial expression could not be distin- guished; and for this reason masks were worn, of exaggerated size, to convey a conventional suggestion of the dominant mood of a scene. ^Eschylus used only two actors, Sophocles and Eurip- ides three; but each actor, dis- guised in different masks, played several parts in the same play. In such a theatre, the actor relied for his effect mainly on his voice. Greek tragedy de- manded recitation of the highest o-der but required little else than oratorical eloquence. In the modern theatre acting has become mainly a visual art, owing chiefly to the invention of the electric light, which makes it possible for the remotest spec- tator to see clearly any minutest portion of the stage to which the director wishes to attract his attention. Gestures are no longer hinged from the shoulder, but mainly from the wrist, and often only from the knuckles. Facial expression has become of paramount importance, and vocal prowess is no longer the sine qua non of the actor. The Elizabethan theatre stood midway between these two ex- tremes. It was an open-air theatre, without artificial light- ing; but it was not nearly so vast as the ancient theatre. Gestures hinged from the elbow could carry easily to the specta- tors; and, whereas an oratorical use of the voice remained appro- priate in many passages, it was possible, in others, to drop to a comparatively quiet tone of intimacy. The ancient actor performed for spectators who encompassed him on all sides except the one cut off by the rear wall of the stage. On the stage of Shake- speare, and also on the stage of Moliere, privileged persons were permitted to sit on stools to the right and left of the performers; and, even in the eighteenth cen- tury theatres of Sheridan and Beaumarchais, the arrangement of the boxes placed a good many spectators on either hand of the actors (see Theatre for illustra- tion). In all these theatres, the actor was required to imagine himself in three dimensions and to handle his body in terms of sculpture. As he stood or moved about the stage, he had to povse as a statue, to be viewed simul- taneously from three different directions. In the modern theatre, on the other hand, where all the spectators sit in front of a pic- ture-frame proscenium, the actor has come to imagine himself in two dimensions and to handle his body in terms of painting. He plays in profile, as it were, because he can be viewed from only one direction. He no longer Vol. I.— Mar. '26 A View of the Early English Stage, with Spectators on All Sides 0. OF JLL LIB. Acting 51 A Acting poses as a statue, but comports himself unobtrusively as a com- ponent part of an ever-moving picture hung within a picture- frame. In the history of the theatre, the periods of great authors and the periods of great actors have never coincided, probably be- cause the public cannot, at the same time, take an equal interest in the creative art of authorship and in the representative art of acting. In Greece, the names of the prize-winning dramatists be- came immortal; but little was said of the performers. In the Elizabethan period, when so many dramatists besides Shake- speare became famous, only two actors stood out notably, — Edward Alleyn, the leading actor of Marlowe's company, the Lord Admiral's men, and Richard Burbage, the leading actor of Shakespeare's company, the Lord Chamberlain's men. But the greatest of all English actors, David Garrick, and the greatest of all French actors, Talma, each flourished in a period when dra- matic authorship in his country was at its lowest ebb. In Eng- land and in the United States, the theatre of the nineteenth century was dominated by a long line of great actors — Mrs. Siddons, John Philip Kemble, Edmund Kean, William Charles Macready, Henry Irving, Ellen Terry, in the older country, and Junius Brutus Booth, Edwin Forrest, Charlotte Cushman, Ed- win Booth, Lawrence Barrett, Helena Modjeska, Ada Rehan, Richard Mansfield, in the young- er country; but they acted little else than Shakespeare and imi- tations of Shakespeare. When, however, the new English drama arose at the end of the nine- teenth century and the domi- nance of the theatre passed into the hands of such dramatists as Pinero, Jones, Shaw, Gals- worthy, Barker, Fitch, Thomas, and C)'Neill, the race of great actors appeared, temporarily at least, to pass away. In Greece, the actor, though little celebrated, seems to have been a person of good class. It is known, for instance, that ^schylus acted in his own plays; and, while Sophocles was still in his early teens, he was accorded the high honor of leadership in the choric dances held in celebration of the victory of Salamis. In Rome, however, where the audience for the comedies of Plautus was made up mainly of the rabble, the act- ing was done by slaves who were trained up for the profession. Roscius, by his extraordinary prowess, succeeded in winning his freedom; but, in the main, the actors never rose above the social status of slavery. Vol. I.— Mar. '26 When the Christian religion overwhelmed the ancient world, in the fourth century, a.d., the drama was abolished, and for nearly a thousand years it re- mained a dead art. Throughout these dark centuries, however, acting was kept more or less alive by strolling mimes, who performed their comic antics in the market-places. It was in the Christian church itself that the drama was born again, emerging slowly from the liturgical dialogues of the twelfth century into the mysteries and miracle plays of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. So long as this new embryonic drama remained a part of the religious service, it was per- formed within the church, in the Latin language, by the clergy; but when it expanded to such proportions as to out- grow the church which housed it and was moved out of doors, it was performed in the vernacu- lar by laymen. In several English cities, long cycles of these mys- tery plays were acted annually by members of the various trade-guilds; but in France a travelling company of profes- sional actors, known as the Con- frerie de la Passion, was organ- ized to carry the mystery and miracle plays from town to town. It was not until the latter half of the sixteenth century that professional acting com- panies were organized in Eng- land. The actors had no social standing; under the laws of the time, they were classed as rogues and vagabonds, and to be allowed to practise their craft, they were obliged to seek the protection of some great nobleman. Even in Shake- speare's day, women were not permitted to engage in so dis- reputable a profession, and fe- male parts were played by boys. A generation later than Shake- speare, Moliere, in France, found himself in a somewhat superior position. Although he had be- gun life as a strolling player, he served, after establishing his troupe in Paris under the patron- age of the king's brother-in-law, as one of the valets de chamhre of the king himself. It should be said, however, that this honor was inherited from his bourgeois father, who had been an up- holsterer. Although Louis xiv. was very friendly with Moliere, he expressed astonishment when Boileau told him that this actor- dramatist was the foremost man of letters of his reign; and when Moliere died, he was denied Christian burial, because his prowess as a poet was out- weighed, in the eyes of the Church, by the ignominy of his profession as an actor. It was not till after the Res- toration, in 1660, that women were first introduced upon the English stage, by Thomas KilH- grew, at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane. The dissoluteness of the times expressed itself light-heartedly in an exceed- ingly licentious theatre; and though an actress, like Nell Gwynne, might rise to be a king's mistress, neither actresses nor actors were countenanced in good society. In the eighteenth century, such actors as Colley Cibber and more particularly David Garrick managed by sheer personal worth to associate on terms of equality with the lead- ing people of their times, and the same may be said of the very greatest actors of the nineteenth century; but it was not until the end of that century, when the signal honor of knighthood was conferred upon Sir Henry Irving, that actors and actresses were generally received into good society as ladies and gentlemen. Fortunately for the theatre, actors are now at last regarded as the social equals of painters, sculptors, architects, authors, and all other artists. The question whether or not acting can be taught is no more problematical than the same question applied to any of the other arts. Many of the quali- ties enabling an aspirant to excel in the art may undoubtedly be acquired from example and improved by dint of study under good instruction. Grace of carriage, appropriateness of ges- ture, the management of the voice, may well be learned by an apprentice from his elders and betters; but the dramatic in- stinct, the spark of histrionic personality, without which these things are as nothing, is a gift of nature. Like the poet, the actor is born, not made; but, like the great poet, the great actor needs a long and arduous experience. The French government has maintained for centuries a school of acting from which the Comedie Francaise, the world's most noted company of actors, draws its material; and most of the best actors and actresses on the French stage have passed through this Paris conservatoire. In England dramatic schools have never prospered; and mainly for this reason, the traditions of the classic English drama have not been passed down unbroken from Shakespeare's actors to our own, as the traditions of the classic French drama have been passed down from Moliere's own company through the many suc- ceeding generations of the Come- die Francaise. In the United States, the American Academy of Dramatic Arts, founded in Actinia 51 B Actinium New York City in 1884 by Franklin H. Sargent, has gradu- ated many students who have subsequently achieved success upon the stage. While it is obvious that an actor must feel his part while he is studying it and composing it, opinions differ as to whether or not he should feel it while he is performing it before an audi- ence. According to Constant Coquelin, the true actor, regard- less of his own feelings at the time, can assume his role at a moment's notice. He has no need to attune his mind to it by preliminary meditation. Whether it is Romeo or Lear, provided only he is word perfect, he can step on to the stage and produce the impression he desires. In brief, Coquelin held with Diderot and against Horace, that an actor should not feel his part while he is playing it. Many other great actors and actresses, on the other hand, have stated that, in order to produce their greatest effects, they must identify themselves emotionally with the characters impersonated. Mrs. Siddons prepared herself for her great scene as Constance by deliber- ately concentrating her mind on her imaginary woes, and Mac- ready used to shake and rattle a ladder violently off stage in order to work himself up to the frenzy of Shylock's scene with Tubal. Salvini deliberately de- voted several hours to solitary brooding before his appearance on the stage; and once, on being asked at a social gathering in America, to render a short scene from Othello, was obliged to refuse on the ground that he could not do so acceptably without living through the entire play. See Drama; Moving Pic- Pictures; Opera; Theatre. Consult Diderot's The Paradox of Acting; Lewes' Actors and the Art of Acting; Hamerton's The Art of Acting; Archer's Masks and Faces; Jefferson's Autobiog- raphy; Symons' Plays, Acting and Music; Calvert's Problems of the Actor. Actinia. See Sea Anemone. Actln'ic Rays, or Ultra-vio- let Rays, are those radiations which are found, by suitable means, as one passes from the red light through yellow, green, blue, and violet, on out into the region where no light is visible to the eye. They are of shorter wave length than the visible waves of light, have a greater frequency of vibration, and therefore are more refrangible. Being invisible to the eye, they must be detected by other means than vision. They were first observed through the photo- graphic actions produced by them. Photographic plates which were known never to have been exposed to visible light were found to be 'light struck' when placed in the part of the spectrum iDcyond the violet, where nothing could be seen by the eye. A more striking way of detect- ing and displaying actinic or ultra-violet Hght is by means of the phosphorescence which is brought about by such light in various substances, as uranium glass, salts like platinum-barium cyanide, certain ores like the zinc ores, Franklinite, Willemite, and sulphate of quinine. To accomplish this, a spectrum is produced by passing a ray of sunlight through a quartz prism; any of the several phosphorescent substances mentioned is placed in the several colors, beginning with the red, and then carried on out into the region where there is no color at all. At once the substances begin to glow with ghostly colors, varying with the nature of the substance. Still another means of detec- tion is by means of the ionizing effect of ultra-violet rays. When Heinrich Hertz was carrying on the famous researches which led him to the discovery of the wire- less telegraph in its earliest form, he made use of a small electric spark across a small gap. He found this very variable: some- times he obtained sparks easily; again, under apparently the same conditions, he got none at all. He showed convincingly that the variations were caused by the variations of the ultra-violet light from the main spark. When these rays, the ultra-violet, illumi- nated the gap, sparks passed easily, but when the ultra-violet or actinic rays were cut off, sparks passed only with diffi- culty, if at all. If a beam of ultra-violet rays is made to fall upon an electrically charged body, the air will be ionized and made conducting, and will carry the charge off from the body. Glass is transparent to visible light but quite opaque to the ultra-violet. Quartz is trans- parent to ultra-violet rays as well as to visible light. There- fore, for photographic purposes, the lenses will, with marked advantage, be made of quartz. Red light has a wave length of about 7,600 Angstrom units; violet light has a length of about 3,800, while the ultra-violet rays have wave lengths down to about 2,000. Rays of shorter wave lengths are well known, but are not ordinarily spoken of as actinic rays. There are various sources of ultra-violet light, as sunlight, the electric arc between zinc or iron electrodes, and the mercury vapor lamp. Actinotherapy. — Because of their germicidal and stimulative properties, the actinic rays have found important applications in the treatment of disease, and actinotherapy has become an accepted branch of therapeutics. The principal source of ultra- violet rays for medical applica- tion is the mercury vapor lamp, in which the essential feature is a quartz tube containing mercury vapor, through which an electric current is made to pass. The light produced by the mercury lamp contains about 28 per cent, ultra-violet rays as compared with 7 per cent, in ordinary sun- light, but this amount may be modified by dust, moisture, and organic matter in the air, as well as by the voltage of the current used. The mercury vapor lamp comes in two main types: the water cooled and air cooled. The first issues a larger proportion of the short ultra-violet wave- lengths, which possess germi- cidal activity. The second radi- ates more of the longer wave- lengths, which have greater power of penetration, stimulate metabolism, and are absorbed in larger amounts. The reasons for the effect of ultra-violet rays on cellular or bodily activity are still not definitely known, but in general it is agreed that the blood is stimulated to an increase in hemoglobin, red blood cells and, eventually, white blood cells. Resistance to infection is increased. A sedative action results, and pain is relieved, due, perhaps, to a selective action on the (sensory) nerve endings. Metabolism and elimi- nation are promoted, and there is an increase in the calcium and phosphorus in the blood. To the latter action is attributed the beneficial effect of sunlight in rickets. The dosage is roughly classified as mild (stimulative), medium (regenerative), and severe (de- structive), depending upon the effect sought. The stimulative is the degree usually employed. The regenerative is used in widespread inflammatory skin diseases, and the destructive in infective and hypotrophic skin lesions. The rays are bene- ficial in deep-seated localized infections, sluggishly healing wounds, sinuses, chronic ulcers, burns, almost all skin infections, simple anemia, and conditions with disturbed metabolism. They should not be administered in diabetes, hemophilia, acute pul- monary tuberculosis, or in in- dividuals with very sensitive skin. See Fluorescence; Light; Radiant Energy; Spectrum. Actin'ium, a radioactive chem- ical clement discovered by Debi- erne in 1899, soon after the dis- covery of polonium and radium. Vol. I.— Mar. '26 Actinograph 52 Action It is present in all uranium minerals, but in an amount rela- tively much smaller than radium. It is probable that actinium is a disintegration product of urani- um, but its formation therefrom, directly or indirectly, has not been detected. It is prepared from pitchblende residues left from the extraction of radium. Actinium disintegrates into the following products, in the order named: rad^o-actinium, actinium x, actinium emanation, actinium a, actinium b, actinium c, actinium C2 (?), actinium D, actinium e. The analogy of this series to the corresponding series of thorium products is striking. Actinium undergoes a slow- disintegration. Its period of half life is taken to be about twenty years. If there is any radiation from actinium, it is very feeble. Rutherford studied the emanating power of aged actinium by placing a highly active sample of this substance on a screen of phosphorescent zinc sulphide. The screen phos- phoresced and showed the char- acteristic scintillation. If, then, a jet of air was blown over the specimen, the phosphorescence was displayed in the direction of motion of the current. The emanation of the actinium had been displaced. When the air current ceased, the emanation diffused and caused the reappear- ance of the phosphorescence. Some uncertainty still exists as to the atomic weight of actin- ium; it vseems probable that its value should be taken as 226. Chemically, the element is asso- ciated with the group of rare- earth elements, and occupies, in the opinion of Auer von Wels- bach, a position between lantha- num and calcium. Actin'ograph, a self-recording actinometer (q.v.), in which the record is being made by the chemical effect of the sun's rays on vsensitized paper. Actin'olite, a variety of amphi- bole (q.v.) containing calcium, magnesium, and iron, and char- acterized by a dark green or gray green color. It occurs in bladed crystals or in fibrous or granular masses. It is found in serpentine rocks, and in crystalline schists, of which, in the case of actinolite schist, it forms the essential min- eral. A hard dense sub-variety of actinolite, known as Nephrite (q.v.), which is included with a similar variety of pyroxene (see Jadeite) under the generic name of jade, is much used for carved ornaments and utensils through- out Eastern Asia. Actlnom'eter, an instrument for determining the amount of heat received from the sun on a surface of definite size in a given time. vSir John Herschel's actinometer, invented about 1824, consists of a large cylindri- cal thermometer bulb with a very open scale, so that small changes may be readily observed. The bulb is of transparent glass filled with a deep blue liquid, which is expanded when the sun's rays fall on it. When an observation is taken, the instrument is shaded for one minute and read off; it is then placed for one minute in sunshine, and its indi- cation recorded; it is finally shaded again, and another read- ing made. The average of the two readings in the shade, sub- tracted from that in the sun, indicates the expansion of the liquid produced by the sun's rays in one minute of time. In other forms of apparatus, such as those of Draper, Bunsen, Roscoe, and Abney, the chemical action of radiation is used. In the most practical form there is exposed to the sunlight a strip of paper sensitized with chloride of silver, the action of the rays being measured by the blacken- ing of the paper. The best modern instruments for measur- ing solar radiation are con- structed on quite a different plan — the absorbing body being a blackened wire, whose change of temperature is measured by its change in electric resistance. The generic name for this type of instrument is bolometer; so called by Langley, who has used it with great skill in the measurement of solar radiation. See Bolom- eter. The pyrheliometer (q.v.) is really a form of actinometer. Ac'tinomyco'sis (Greek olktLs, ray, fxvKrjs, fungus), a disease of man and certain domestic animals, manifested by abscess formation and the production of inflammatory tissue, and characterized by the presence in the lesions of a vegetable parasite, Actinomyces bovis. Its frequent occurrence in the jaw and tongue has led to its being known in Great Britain as Woody Tongue, and in the United States as Lumpy Jaw. The true nature of the disease had been overlooked up to 1876, when Bollinger accurately de- scribed and identified the char- acteristic micro-organism from which its name is derived. In 1877, J. Israel described cases in man, identifying the micro- organism, but failed to recognize its identity with that described by Bollinger. It remained for Ponfick, in 1879, to show that the human and the bovine dis- ease are due to the same causa- tive agent. The symptoms in cattle and in man are essentially the vsame — a chronic inflamma- tory process characterized by the formation of tumors which tend to undergo suppuration, fibrosis, or calcification. It is generally believed that the micro-organism is widely distributed on grains and vege- table material, and that it is carried into the tissues by the penetration of these sharp for- eign bodies, 75 per cent, of the recorded cases in man having been in farmers, millers, farm laborers, grooms, and others who deal with cereals. Accord- ing to another theory, the causa- tive organism exists normally in the alimentary tract, whence it may gain entrance to the tissues through wounds or lesions due to carious teeth. The seat of infection in man and in animals is the mouth or the neighboring passages, although almost any tissue and any organ of the body may be affected. The disease ex- tends by a gradual invasion of the contiguous tissues, regard- less of their anatomical bound- aries, so that a focus of disease in the liver may spread to the diaphragm, and thence invade the base of the lung. It may also spread by metastasis, al- though this is less common. When the tumor masses break down, they discharge a thick, gelatinous pus of a greenish or yellowish tinge, odorless as a rule, which together with the tumors is almost pathognomonic. In actinomycosis of the mouth and pharynx, the fungus is believed to penetrate the tissues through carious teeth. The lower jaw is more frequently affected, but the disease may extend to any of the neighboring tissues. In the tongue, actino- mycotic nodules are formed under the mucous membrane, which becomes ulcerated. The muscular, bony, and other tis- sues of the head and neck may be extensively replaced by gran- ulation and connective tissue, enclosing abscess cavities and sinuses. The mortality of actinomy- cosis depends largely upon the region involved. It ranges from 10 per cent, in the more super- ficial lesions of the head and neck, to 100 per cent, where the liver, brain, and spinal cord are involved. The disease is nearly always chronic, lasting for months or even years. Treatment is largely surgical, with care of the general health. Iodide of potassium is con- sidered by some to have a specific action. Recurrence is frequent. Actinother'apy. See Actinic Rays. Actinozo'a. See Anthozoa. Action, as generally under- stood, means any civil proceeding in a court of justice. Formerly the term was applied solely to proceedings in the courts of common law, 'action at law' being contrasted with 'suit in Vol. I. — Mar. '26 Actium 53 Acton Yale equity.' In New York and a few other States it includes criminal proceedings also, and excludes non-litigious matters (termed 'special proceedings'), such as the probate or the interpretation of a will. In the action is em- braced every step in the judicial procedure, from the service of the summons to the final judgment, but not the means subsequently taken for enforcing such judg- ment. The various steps in an ordinary action are as follows: (1) the service of the writ by which the party sued is brought into court; (2) the ascertainment by written or oral pleadings of the actual question at issue; (3) the ascertainment of the merits of the case presented by either party; (4) the judgment of the court, whether given in accord- ance with the verdict of a jury or otherwise; and (5) the ap- peal to a higher judicatory where such is competent. When the matter is non-litigious the course of procedure will be modified. In particular, no writ of summons will be issued, and in place thereof intimation will be given to all parties interested that they may take such steps as are necessary to protect their rights. Formerly, the progress of an action was characterized by much formality and technicality; but the trend of modern legislation is all in the direction of greater simplicity, and the removal of legal fictions and subtleties. The main division of actions used to be into 'real' and 'personal,' the former dealing with disputes as to land, the latter with money claims against persons — e.g., for breach of contract. With the growth of the science of jurispru- dence, the classification has be- come more various, and the old formal division is now obsolete. Most modern actions range them- selves under one or another of the following heads: (a) contract actions; (b) tort actions; (c) ac- tions for the recovery of real property; (d) actions for the recovery of personal property; (e) suits in equity; (/) matrimonial actions; (g) probate and adminis- trative actions; (h) statutory ac- tions — a numerous class, varying in different jurisdictions, and therefore difficult of more ac- curate classification. See Law. Actium, ak'shi-um, a promon- tory on the west coast of Greece, at the entrance of the Ambracian Gulf, memorable for the naval victory of Octavian (afterward the Emperor Augustus) over Mark Antony and Cleopatra, which decided the fate of Rome and of the world (Sept. 2, ,31, B.C.). Octavian had 2.50 ships of Vol. I. — Oct. '15 war; Antony, 500 ships. An- tony's ships were large, and well provided with engines for throw- ing missiles, but clumsy in their movements; Octavian's were smaller and more agile. Octa- vian's fleet, by a skilful manoeuvre, induced Antony to extend his line of battle, and broke through and scattered his ships. In com- memoration of this victory, an- nual games, consisting of wres- tling, horse racing, and mimic sea fights, were instituted (31 B.C.). They were known as the Actian Games (q.v.). Act of Bankruptcy. See Bankruptcy. Act of Congress. See Con- gress. Act of Faith, or Auto-da-Fe. See Inquisition. Act of God, as a legal ex- pression, signifies any occur- rence not caused by human negligence or intervention; such as storms, lightning, tempests, the consequences of which no party under any circumstances (independently of special con- tract) is bound to make good to another. The chief applications of the term are in insurance, where Act of God is an exception to the liability of the insurer; and in the law of contract, where Act of God often excuses from performance. Act of Parliament. See Par- liament. Act of Settlement, or Succes- sion Act, settling the crown in the present royal family of Great Britain, was passed by Parlia- ment in 1701. The succession to the crown was an urgent question, owing to William and Mary hav- ing had no issue, and owing to the death (July, 1700) of the Duke of Gloucester, the Princess (later Queen) Anne's sole surviving child. The act cut away the hereditary claim of the elder house of Stuart, and vested the succession in the house of Han- over, by providing that, on the death of Anne, and in the absence of issue, the crown should go to the Electress Sophia of Hanover, granddaughter of James i., and her descendants, 'being Protes- tants.' A number of other provi- sions were included in the Act, most of which have since been repealed, however. See Crown. Act of Toleration. See Toler- ation. Act of Union. See Scotland, History. Ac'ton, residential suburb of London, England; 7 miles west of St. Paul's, Pop. (1911) 57,523. Sec London. Acton, village, Middlesex county, Massachusetts, on the New York, New Haven, and Hartford Railroad; 13 miles southwest of Lowell. It is a manufacturing town. Pop. (1900) 2,120; (1910) 2,136. Acton, John Emerich Ed- ward Dalberg, First Baron (1834-1902), English historian, was born in Naples. He was educated at Oscott under Dr. (afterward Cardinal) Wiseman, and at Munich under Dollinger, who imbued him with a love of historical research and a deep sense of the value of historical criticism. In 1869 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Acton. The relationship of Gladstone and Acton was well summed up by Matthew Arnold: 'Gladstone in- fluences all round him but Acton; it is Acton who influences Glad- stone.' On the death of vSir John Seeley he was appointed Regius Professor of History at Cam- bridge — the first Catholic to hold the chair since the Reforma- tion (1895). Lord Acton was a historian of almost incomparable learning, and had profound influ- ence, as a liberal Catholic, upon English religious thought. His writings include: The War of 1870; Wolsey and the Divorce of Henry VIII. (1877); Schools of History in Germany (1886); pub- lished posthumously — Lectures in Modern History (1906), Historical Essays and Studies (1907), Lec- tures on the French Revolution (1910). He planned The Cam- bridge Modern History (1903 et seq.), written by several scholars in co-operation, but which he did not live to see completed. After his death his vast library was bought by Andrew Carnegie, who presented it to Lord Morley, by whom it was handed over to the University of Cambridge. Con- sult Letters of Lord Acton to Mary Gladstone (1904) ; Gasquet's Lord Acton and His Circle. Acton, Sir John Francis Ed- ward (1736-1811), was born at Besangon, where his father (an Englishman) was a physician. He served first in the French, then in the Tuscan navy, and was generalissimo and prime minister at Naples during the French Revolution. After Napo- leon's successes in the north of Italy, in 1798, Acton fled with the king and queen to Palermo. He was soon restored to power, but his arbitrary rule caused a reac- tion against the royal family. On the demand of France he was removed in 1804, but shortly afterward was reinstated. When the French entered Naples (1806) he fled with the royal family to Sicily, and died at Palermo. Acton Vale, town, Bagot coun- ty, Qucl)ec province, Canada, a junction of the Grand Trunk and Canadian Pacific Railways; 55 miles east of Montreal. Nearby Actors* Church Alliance of America 53 A are copper mines. The town has manufactories of bricks, doors and window sashes, and a tan- nery. Pop. (1901) 1,175; (1911) 1,402. Actors* Church Alliance of America, organized June 19, 1899, by Rev. Walter E. Bentley, a clergyman of the Protestant Episcopal Church, and a former actor. Its chief aims are that the church and the stage may each justly appreciate the other; that those on the stage may enjoy Sunday as a day of rest; and that Sunday performances may be suppressed. Actors and actresses, church members, and others who are interested in the work are eligible to membership. The chaplains are of all denomina- tions. There are chapters in New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Pitts- burgh, Albany, and other cities. Membership, about 5,000. It is affiliated with the Actors' Church Alliance of England. Actors* Fund of America, The, was instituted in 1882 to provide for needy or disabled members of the profession. It maintains a home for that pur- pose (opened in 1902) at West New Brighton, Staten Island. There are nearly 500 honorary and life members. Secretary, E. D. Miner, 1476 Broadway, New York City. Acts of Pilate. See Acta Pi- LATI. Acts of the Apostles, the fifth book of the New Testament, and the most trustworthy source for the early history of the Chris- tian Church. It is in form sub- vStantially a continuation of the Gospel of Luke, and both tra- dition and the majority of Bibli- cal critics ascribe these books to the same author, who was the companion and friend of Paul. The book falls roughly into two parts: the first (ch. i.-xii.) nar- rates the spread of the Church from Jerusalem outward to Ju- daea, Samaria, and Antioch, the central figure being St. Peter; while the second part (ch. xiii.-xxviii.) carries the story to Asia Minor and Europe, being in the main a fragmentary biogra- phy of St. Paul, detailing his mis- sionary labors in company with Barnabas, and subsequently with Silas and others. The book is addressed to The- ophilus, probably to inform him of the means by which the Gos- pel had been carried to the Gen- tiles. The probable date of its preparation is about 170 A. D., as indicated by the writings of Irenaeus toward the close of the second century. The Acts and the Third Gospel were both in circulation in Rome, but tradi- tion does not point out positively Vol. I.— Oct. "15 the details and the place of the Lucan writings, whether in Rome or in Asia Minor. The MS. of the Acts is found in two forms, the so-called 'Western' and the com- mon text: one the original, and the other a revised edition, prob- ably by Luke himself. It is represented in the Codex Bezae (q.v.). The difficulty of reconciling some of the statements in the Acts with Paul's Epistles — nota- bly the account of the Council of Jerusalem in Acts xv., as com- pared with Gal. ii. 9 — taken along with the parallelism between Paul and Peter apparently car- ried out in the Acts, plays an im- portant part in the 'Tendency Theory' of the Tubingen School (q.v.). Baur and his disciples held that the early Christian Church consisted of two widely divergent and warring sects, the Jewish-Christian or Petrine, and the more liberal Pauline party; and that the Acts were written with the view of minimizing the differences that had existed be- tween the two hostile sections of the Church, at a time when the Pauline spirit was on the whole in the ascendency. The later followers of Baur are less extreme than the earlier ones (as Zeller) in their differences from the or- thodox view. See New Testa- ment. Consult E. Zeller's Contents and Origin of the Acts of the Apos- tles; F. H. Chase's Credibility of the Book of the Acts of the Apos- tles; A. Harnack's New Testament Studies (Part iii., 'The Acts,' 1908); W. M. Ramsay's Luke the Physician, and Other Studies (1907). Acts of Uniformity, passed by the British Parliament to insure uniformity of public worship in the Church of England. The Act of 1548 orders clergy to use the Book of Common Prayer, under penalty of imprisonment. The Act of 1558 applies that of 1548 to the new Elizabethan Prayer Book. The Act of 1662 ordains a new Prayer Book, and orders morning and evening prayer to be read daily. The Act of 1872 authorizes a shortened form of service except on feast days, and special forms of service if ap- proved by the ordinary. Actua'rial Society of America, an organization founded in 1889 in New York City, for the promo- tion of actuarial science, and in- cluding among its membership the actuaries of the principal life insurance companies. It has 140 fellows and 110 associates. Ac'tuary. In the Roman em- pire the actuarii were clerks who recorded the acta or deeds of the senate and other bodies, and who kept the military accounts; and hence the English word actuary originally denoted a registrar or clerk. Later it was applied to an officer appointed to record the pro- ceedings of a court, and then to the managing secretary or ac- countant of a public company. At the present day, an actuary is an official in an insurance company whose duties are to deal with statistics, deduce therefrom rates of mortality, and, by com- bining these with rates of inter- est, to calculate premiums for all kinds of insurances; also to esti- mate the liability of the company under its contracts; and generally to perform calculations of all kinds, and advise on all questions of accounting and finance. He has also, as a rule, to deal with many legal questions; and should have a certain amount of medical knowledge, in order to under- stand and benefit fully by the advice of the company's medical officer as to the acceptance or rejection of lives proposed for insurance. Actuarial work has now an international character, congresses having determined several questions of universal importance, such as the adoption of a uniform system of notation. See Annuity; Insurance; Prob- abilities. Ac'upres'sure, a method of closing a blood vessel devised by Sir J. Y. Simpson (1859), who passed a needle under the tissues and tied it in such a way as to press upon the artery. It is now rarely used. Ac'upunc'ture, the insertion of needles into the body to a depth of one or two inches, generally until they pierce a nerve, where they are left for half an hour, to relieve lumbago and sciatica. It has been a specific surgical opera- tion of the Chinese from very early times. The surgeon, by a rotatory movement, passes one or more needles to the desired depth in the tissues, and leaves them there from a few minutes to an hour. Needles protected except at their points by insulating material are sometimes used as conductors of the galvanic cur- rent to deep-seated parts. A.D., Anno Domini — in the year of our Lord — the chronolog- ical era now universally used in Christian countries, beginning with the supposed date of the birth of Christ. A'da, city, Pontotoc county, Oklahoma, on the St. Louis and San Francisco, the Missouri, Kansas, and Texas, and the Okla- homa Central Railroads; 80 miles southeast of Oklahoma City. It is the seat of a State normal school. Industries include cot- ton and lumber, and the manu- Ada 53 B Adam facture of asphalt and cement. Pop. (1900) 3,257; (1910) 4,349. Ada, village, Hardin county, Ohio, on the Pennsylvania Com- pany Railroad; 15 miles east of Lima. It contains the Ohio Nor- mal University. It manufactures staves and tiles, and has canning industries. . Pop. (1900) 2,576; (1910) 2,465. Ada, od'o, town, Bacs-Bodrog county, Hungary, on the River Theiss; 30 miles south of Sze- gedin. Industries include cattle, fish, and cereals. Pop. 13,000. Ada-Bazar, a-da-ba-zar' ('isl- and bazaar'), town, Anatolia, Asia Minor, on the Sakaria River; 24 miles east of Ismid. Ada-Ba- zar station {5H miles) is on the Anatolian Railway. The town is the seat of an Armenian bishop- ric. There are industries of silk, tobacco, and walnut wood. Pop. 18,000 (Moslems, 10,000; Chris- tians. 8.000). Adagio, a-da'jo (Ital.), a slow or very slow movement or meas- ure of time in music. The word is also used as the title of a piece of music, or as the name of a movement in a symphony or sonata, etc. The distinctive feature of the adagio is its power of expression. The finest speci- mens of the adagio are found in the works of the old masters, above all in Beethoven (q.v.). See Symphony. Adair, a-dar', James, Indian trader, resided among the Chick- asaws and Cherokees from 1733 to 1775, when in the latter year he published his History of the American Indians. In this work he attempts to prove, from the assumed resemblance between the customs of the Jews and the Indians, that they were de- scended from the same stack. The portion of the work relating to the Indian dialects is still valuable. Adair, John (1759-1840), American soldier, was born in Chester coUnty, S. C. He served in the War of the Revolution, and against the Indians (1791) as a major of militia. In November, 1792, he was defeated at Fort St. Clair, O., by the Miami chief Little Turtle. He aided Shelby in the Battle of the Thames (1813); served under General Jackson at New Or- leans (1814); was U. S. Senator (180.5-06), governor of Kentucky (1820-24), and Member of Con- gress (1831 -.3). Ad'albcrt (c. 1000-1072), Ger- man ecclesiastic, was appointed archbishop of Bremen and Ham- burg in 1043 by the Emperor Henry hi. He became tutor to the young Henry iv.. over whom he exercised such influence as to be the virtual ruler of the em- VOL. I.— Oct. 15 pire. He introduced Christianity among the Wends, and endeav- ored, ineffectually, to found an independent patriarchate in the north. Adalbert, St., an early English saint (c. 700), probably a grand- son of Oswald, king of Deira. He is supposed to have been the first archbishop of Utrecht. Adalbert, St. (c. 950-997), the 'Apostle of the Prussians,' was a native of Prague, and was chosen its bishop in 982. His austerity irritated the lawless and but recently converted Bohemi- ans, and he was obliged to flee from his diocese. He was after- ward murdered by the heathen Poles and Prussians. His body was buried in the Cathedral at Gnesen, and afterward carried to Prague; and here, in 1880, his bones were discovered and re- interred in the Cathedral. Adalia, a-da'li-a, or Antalia (ancient Attalia, founded by At- tains II.; the Satalia of the Mid- dle Ages), seaport of Anatolia, Asia Minor, at the head of the Gulf of Adalia; 200 miles south- east of Smyrna. It exports tim- ber, cattle, grain, and sesamum. Pop. 30,000 (Moslems, 24,000; Christians, 6,000). Ad'am, the first man. See Adam and Eve. Adam, a-dah', Adolphe Charles (1803-56), French mu- sical composer, chiefly of comic opera, was born and died at Paris. The Postilion de Longjumeau (1836) and the ballet Giselle (1841) were his most popular works. Consult Pongin's Adolphe Adam. Ad'am, Sir Frederick (1781- 1853), British soldier, was made brigadier-general in 1813, and fought against General Suchet, whom he repulsed, losing, how- ever, 3,000 men. He was twice severely wounded at Ordell. Made major-general (1814), he fought with great distinction and intrepidity at Waterloo. After- ward he held important com- mands in Malta and Madras (1837) . Adam, Graeme Mercer (1839-1912), Canadian man of letters, was born at Loanhead, Midlothian, Scotland, and was educated in Edinburgh, where he learned the publishing business. In 1858 he went to Toronto, and after that time was engaged there and in New York City in literary work as publisher, au- thor, and editor. For twelve years he was private secretary to Goldwin Smith. He edited The Canadian Monthly, The Can- ada Educational Monthly, and LovcU's Gazetteer of the Canadian Dominion. His writings include: The Canadian Northwest, lis History and Its Troubles; Life of Gen. Robert E. Lee; Canada from Sea to Sea; Outline History of Canadian Literature. Adam, a-dah', Juliette (1836), French writer, was born at Verberie, Oise. She is best known by the name of her second husband, Edmond Adam, pre- fect of police and life senator (d. 1877). Under the name of her first husband, 'Messine,' she published (1858) her I dees Anti- proudhoniennes sur 1' Amour, la Femme, et le Mariage; and there- after, as 'Juliette Lamber,* Mon Village (1860). and other works. In 1879 she founded La Nouvelle Revue, in which ap- peared her various studies of European society. La Societe de Paris, La Sainte Russie, etc., written under the pseudonym 'Paul Vasili.' She also wrote: Romance of My Childhood and Youth (Eng. trans. 1902); My Literary Life (Eng. trans. 1904); Mes Sentiments et Nos I dees avant 1870 (1905); Mes Illusions et Nos Souffrances Pendant le Siege de Paris (1906); Nos Angoisses et Nos Luttes (1907); Apres r Abandon de la Revanche (1910); Impressions Francaises en Russie (1912); Chetienne (1914). Adam, Lambert Sigisbert (1700-59), French sculptor, was born in Nancy. In 1723 he gained the Prix de Rome. He became a member of the Acade- my in 1737, and a professor in 1744. His works, which are chiefly symbolic, adorned the gardens of St. Cloud and Ver- sailles, and the Chateau de Choisy. In 1754 he published a Recueil de Sculptures Antiques, taken from the examples dis- covered at Rome. Adam, Paul (1862), French author, was born in Paris. His first novel. Chair Molle (1885), brought on him an unsuccessful prosecution. He played a part in the Boulangist movement. His other works, in the method of the symbolists, include: Robes Rouges (1891); Le Mystere des Foules (2 vols., 1895) ; La Bataille d'Uhde (IS97); La Force (189S) ; L' Enfant d'Austerlitz (1902); La Ruse (190.3); Au Soleil de Juillet (1903); La Ville Inconnue (10th ed. 1911); Stephanie (1913). Ad'am, Robert (1728-92), Scottish architect, was born in Kirkcaldy. In 17.54 he visited Italy with Clerisseau, and going to Dalmatia made studies of Di- ocletian's ruined palace at Spa- lato (consult his Ruins of the Palace of Diocletian, 1764). He and his brother James built the Register House and the Univer- sity at Edinburgh; the screen to the Admiralty Office, and Lans- downe House in Berkeley Square, Adam and Eve 54 Adam and Eve London; and Lord Mansfield's mansion, near Hempstead. Rob- ert is buried in Westminster Ab- bey. They published Works in Architecture (1773-8), to which a posthumous volume was added lin 1822. Adam and Eve, the first hu- man pair, are represented in the 'well-known Biblical story (see 'Gen. i. ff.) as having been created by God and placed in the Garden of Eden, where they lived in a state of innocence until the Fall. It is now generally conceded that the narrative of Genesis is a com- bination of two accounts of the considerably in regard to the sub- stance of the story. P speaks of man (Hebrew 'adam) as having been created on the same (sixth) day as the animals. Elohim makes him in His own image, a male and a female {ix., as a species) ; He blesses him, and gives him dominion over all other created things. J's narra- tive is much more detailed: it tells how Yahweh (-Elohim) formed the man {ha- adam), placed him in Eden, and subsequently fash- ioned the woman out of a rib taken from the man's side. Both accounts, however, agree in rep- fore proceeding to consider these attacks, or the place of the Fall in theology, let us ask what, if any, light is thrown upon the narrative by (1) philology, and (2) the study of comparative religion. (1) The supposed proper name Adam is a generic term, appli- cable to both man and woman, in Gen. i.; but it is a proper name used with the article in ch. ii., iii., and iv. The origin of the name is usually connected with the He- brew root Adam, 'to be red.' It is often derived from Adamah, 'the ground,' but this is taking the simpler from the more devel- The Sacred Tree with Eagle-headed Deities (Assyrian Sculpture), creation of man (see Hexa- teuch). The greater and the more picturesque portion, from ch, ii. 4b onward, is attributed to a writer distinguished as J (i.e., the Jahvist or the Jehovistic nar- rator); while ch. i.-ii. 4a is as- signed to P (i.e., the Priestly Code). The latter, called the Elohistic narrator, always speaks of the Deity as Elohim (God), while the former uses Yahweh; the use of the combination Yah- weh-Elohim (the Lord God), in J's account, being explained on the hypothesis that some later compiler or editor added Elohim to Yahweh, in order to make the transition less abrupt. But apart from this, and from other marked differences of form and style, the two writers diverge Vol. I.— Oct. '15 resenting man as the crown of creation, and imply that he pos- sesses a community of nature with God, and a capacity for fel- lowship with Him. In P there is nothing corresponding to J's account of the serpent, the Fall, or the expulsion from Paradise, the former writer's more concise and abstract representation be- ing (though it stands first) a product of later theological and philosophical reflection. Origin of the Paradise Story. — Naturally, the greater interest centres in J's account. The story of the Garden of Eden, having been taken as the historical basis of the doctrine of sin, has become in consequence the objective of the most trenchant attacks from the side of modern science. Be- oped form. The Assyrian equiv- alent is Adamu, 'man,' used only in a general senvse, not as a proper name. This is connected by Sir Henry Rawlinson and Professor Sayce with Adamatu, 'red skins,' the Assyrian word by which the dark-skinned Accadians of primi- tive Babylonia are designated in the bilingual tablets. Eve is the Hebrew Havvah, and means 'life.' The question, then, is whether the common name became spe- cialized into the proper (because the first man was necessarily the man), or whether the proper name was of independent origin, and merely happens to coincide with the common. Attempts to prove the latter alternative have failed to carry conviction. But since there exists the Assyrian Adam and Eve 55 Adamawa admu, meaning 'child' {i.e., 'one made [by God']), and since, according to Sayce, adam is the common Babylonian word for 'man,' we may safely conclude that adam was originally a ge- neric term that subsequently (perhaps through a misunder- standing) became a proper name. (2) It has been supposed that the Paradise story of Gen. ii. ff. is of Babylonian origin; but as yet investigators have not gathered from the cuneiform inscriptions any narrative sufficiently resem- bling the Biblical account to be deemed the source of, or even a fair parallel to, the latter. Doubt- less there are points of similarity between Gen. ii. ff. and certain elements in Babylonian mythol- ogy — e.g., the garden with its four rivers finds a parallel in the Baby- lonian isle of the blessed, which also has four streams; and the tree of life may be compared with the herb of life which grew on the island (see Eden, Garden of). There is a Babylonian seal cylin- der which shows a fruit tree with two human figures and a serpent, and which has been supposed to represent the temptation; but this theory is now abandoned. We may mention that the cheru- bim which, according to Gen. iii. 24, guard the gate of Paradise correspond to the Babylonian and Assyrian figures of winged genii which protected houses. Finally, the serpent plays an im- portant part in the mythology not only of the Babylonians, but of many other peoples. The tree of life is also a widely dissemi- nated conception. Hence, even if the parallels and analogies re- vealed by means of comparative religion were much more striking than they really are, the litera- ture of Babylonia and Assyria has furnished as yet nothing to be compared, for richness of color- ing or detail, with the Paradise story of Genesis. Nor have re- searches into other literatures brought to light any but obviously fortuitous resemblances to the Biblical narrative. The Writer's Own Purpose. — It remains to inquire what the writer intended by his own nar- rative. Did he imagine that he was writing actual history? or shall we credit him with con- structing a skilful allegory, or merely a picturesque story? Per- haps to neither of these questions can be given an unqualified an- swer. Note, first, that the writer vseems to be well aware that his story moves in a world other than the real — a world in which, for example, God is hardly more, and the serpent (an actual animal) hardly Icsjs, than human; and, again, that the serpent and the Vol. I. — Oct. '15 tree of knowledge seem decidedly to indicate some older tradition lying at the basis of the narrative as now extant. Taking these in connection with the fact that the writer speaks of 'the man' and 'the woman,' rather than of 'Adam' and 'Eve,' the most prob- able conclusion is that he found a popular tradition — richly laden, doubtless, with mythical ele- ments — and idealized it — i.e., re- told it so as to make it expressive of moral and spiritual truths. In his hands, therefore, the grosser and more fantastic features of the myth were purged away; and while preserving its dramatic form and quality, he permeated it with such truths about human nature as his own moral experi- ence and environment suggested. It is these embodied truths or ideas which constitute the real and permanent value of the story; and the psychological insight, the knowledge of human nature, dis- played by the writer, must im- press every attentive reader as remarkably penetrating. To note a few examples: the forma- tion of the woman from the man's rib seems to express her subordi- nation to the stronger; her weak- er character is supposed to be in- dicated by the serpent's choosing her as the immediate victim of his deceit; the connection between sin and shame and between sin and suffering is implied in Adam and Eve hiding from God and their expulsion from Paradise, respectively; while the fact that the serpent is not asked to explain its action may signify that the writer did not consider it a moral agent, thus registering a clear dis- tinction between man and even the most 'subtil' of the animals. Scientific and Theological Rela- tions.— li the above be a fair state- ment of the case, it is plain that the objections of modern science to the Paradise story of man's Creation and Fall are beside the mark. It follows, further, that discussions about the unity of the human race, and related ques- tions, are entirely out of place in this connection. In the Pauline theology Adam stands as the typical head and representative of the whole human race, in con- tradistinction to Christ, 'the second man,' 'the last Adam.' (See Creation; Fall). Later Developments. — The story of Aflam and Eve has proved a fruitful theme for speculation in many directions. Leaving aside the theories of doctrinal theology as to the effects of the Fall, the story of Adam's creation is retold in the Talmud with much of the mythical grossncss and dualism which the writer of Gen. ii.ff. was so careful to exclude. Thus, Adam is represented as a man- woman of monstrous size, a terror to the angels. Having cast him into a sleep, God took parts of all his members, which, when scat- tered abroad, developed into human beings. Again, Adam's first wife was Lilith — the word occurs in Isa. xxxiv. 14; 'night monster,' as in R. V.; 'harpy,' 'succuba' — who, becoming the mother of demons, flew away. Her place was taken by Eve, created from a rib. Adam was afterward tempted by an envious seraph, Sammael, and, in conse- quence of his sin, driven forth to wander up and down the earth. The Koran tells the story with other mythical variations. Many of the later Jews ex- plained the story as an allegory. Philo, the foremost writer of the Alexandrian school, explains Eve as the sensuous part, Adam as the rational part, of human nature. The serpent attacks the sensuous element, which yields to the temptation of pleasure, and next enslaves the reason. Clement and Origen adapted this interpretation to Christian theology. In several of the Gnostic systems Adam occupies an important place, be- ing made the earthly representa- tive of the Demiurge. Augustine accepted the story as history, but admitted a spiritual meaning superinduced upon the literal; and his explanation was adopted generally by the Church. Among more modern interpreters, Mar- tensen describes the story as a combination of history and sa- cred symbolism, 'a figurative pres- entation of an actual event.' Apocryphal literature is rich in themes drawn from Adam and Eve — e.g., the lost Gnostic works. Revelations of Adam, Penitence of Adam, and On the Daughters of Adam; The Ethiopic Book of Adam (Eng. trans, by Malan) ; Testament of Adam. In art and poetry the beautiful Garden, as well as the innocence and the tragic experiences of its occu- pants, have proved fruitful themes for pictorial and literary treatment — e.g., Michelangelo's beautiful fresco in the Sistine Chapel of the Vatican, and Mil- ton's Paradise Lost. See Gene- sis; Creation. Ad'amant, a term now used to express any substance of ex- traordinary hardness, chiefly a rhetorical or poetical word. The name was attached to a supposed stone or mineral, as to the prop- erties of which vague notions long prevailed. It has been iden- tified with the lodestone, emery, and diamond. Adamawa, a-da-ma'wii, a Cen- tral African state. North of Yola Adam de la Halle 56 Adams (on the Benue River), the capital of the state, Adamawa stretches north toward Bornu, and north- east toward the Shari; on the southeast it forms part of French territory. Its area is perhaps 100,000 square miles. The cen- tral and northern part is a block land, rising 4,250 to 6,500 feet. East of this the country is occu- pied partly by isolated groups of mountains, partly by undulating plains. The mean annual tem- perature is 76°. Rain begins in June, and is very frequent in July and August, accompanied by heavy thunderstorms. The dry northeast wind (Harmattan) blows from November to May. Pop. 3,000,000, mainly Fulahs. Arabs, Kanuri, Hausa, and Yo- ruba also dwell in Adamawa. Islamism is the dominant re- ligion; the masses are pagan. Gum arable, rubber, ivory, skins, kola nuts, and a few slaves are exported in exchange for cotton cloth, silk, copper, salt, sulphur, and beads. Cotton, indigo, and henna, as well as cereals and vegetables, are cultivated. The ruler is a native sultan. The territory of Adamawa has been divided by treaties between Great Britain, Germany, and France, without regard to natural boundaries or tribal divisions. Consult Passarge's Adamaua. Adam de la Halle, a-dah' de la aV (1240-88), called 'Le Bossu d' Arras' (Hunchback of Arras), author of Le Jeu de Robin et de Marion, the oldest French dra- matic pastoral, or primitive comic opera, was a trouvere of Arras in Picardy, who found his way to the court of Charles of Anjou at Naples, where his piece was played in 128.3. From an- other of his works, Le Jeu de la Feuillee (?1262), a true mediaeval medley of fantasy and satire, we glean hints of his early life. In 1282 he followed Robert it. of Artois to Italy. A complete edition of his works was pub- lished in 1879 by Coussemaker. Consult Petit de Julleville's Les Comediens au Moyen Age. Ad'amitos, an Antinomian Gnostic vsect in north Africa in the second century, who professed to return to the innocence of Eden, abstained from marriage, and rejected clothing. The doctrine reappeared during the reign of Henry v. (a.d. 1106-1121) in an extreme form; again under Charles v. (a.d. 1364-80) in Dau- phine and Savoy; among a sec- tion of the Brethren of the Free Spirit, or Beghards, of the four- teenth century, some of whom lived naked and had wives in common; among a section of the Bohemian Taboritcs, who were cut to pieces by Ziska, leader Vol. I.— Oct. '15 of the Hussites (1421); and in 1848-9 there was a small sect in Austria, the nocturnal meetings of which were attended without clothing. Ad'amnan (c. 625-704), Irish saint, and abbot of lona (Hii) — ninth in the succession of that office from Columba, whose life he is credited with having written — was born in Donegal, a scion, like his great predecessor, of the powerful local tribe of the Neills or O'Donnells (the clan Domh- naill). In 679 he was appointed abbot of lona. In 686 he came to the court of Northumbria to beg for the release of certain Irish captives, and remained with King Aldfrith for a time. Ori completing his work, De Locis Sanctis, he presented it to Ald- frith. This book (subsequently reproduced by Bede in an abridged form) is of note as containing one of the first Western accounts of Palestine. At the National As- sembly of Tara in 692 there was enacted the 'Law of Adamnan,' or 'Law of the Innocents,' which freed Irish women from compul- sory military service. Adamnan visited Ireland once again before his death at lona in 704, Sept. 23, the day whose saint he is in the older Irish calendars. The Latin Life of Columba, now generally accepted as Adamnan's, is al- most the only record outside Bede's History of one of the most attractive portions of the life of the early church in Scotland. Adamnan' s Vision, a professed account of his visit to heaven and hell, is preserved in an Irish MS. of the twelfth century. Ad'am of Brem'en (d. ?1076), born in Upper Saxony, mission- ary, traveller, and canon of Bremen, is chiefly remembered by his historical and geographical writings relating to Northwestern Europe during the first millen- nium of the Christian era. His principal work, Gesta Poniificum H ammenburgensium, contains this passage referring to America: 'Besides this, he [the king of Den- mark] told of still another island that had been found by many in that ocean [the Atlantic]. It is called Wineland, because vines spring up there spontaneously, producing excellent wine.' Ad'ams, town, Berkshire coun- ty, Massachusetts, on the Hoosac River, and the Boston and Al- bany Railroad; 16 miles north of Pittsfield. There are paper, cot- ton, and woollen mills, and ma- chine shops. Greylock Mountain (q.v.) is in the township, which includes the villages of Maple Grove, Renfrew, and Zylonite. Pop. (1900) 11,134; (1910) 13,026. Adams, town, Jefferson county. New York, on the New York Central and Hudson River Rail- road; 12 miles southwest of Watertown. It has flour mills and manufactures of wagons and canned goods. Pop. (1900) 3,081; (1910) 3,128. Adams, Abigail Smith (1744- 1818), wife of John Adams and mother of John Quincy Adams, was born of Puritan stock at Weymouth, Mass. In 1764 she married John Adams (q.v.), and in 1785-8 accompanied her hus- band when the latter was first American Minister at the Court of St. James. Her letters, which were collected and published in 1840 by her grandson, Charles Francis Adams, afTord valuable glimpses of the life of that period. Adams, Alvin (1804-77), founder of the Adams Express Company, was born in Andover, Vt. In 1840 he organized an ex- press route between New York and Boston, and in 1854 the Adams Express Company was founded. Adams, Brooks (1848), Amer- ican author, son of Charles Fran- cis Adams (1807-86), was born in Quincy, Mass., and was gradu- ated from Harvard (1870). He subsequently studied at Harvard Law School, and until 1881 prac- tised law, after which he devoted himself to literature. He is a member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters. He has pub- lished : The Emancipation of Mas- sachusetts (1887) ; The Gold Stand- ard (1894); The Law of Civiliza- tion and Decay (1895); America's Economic Supremacy (1900); The New Empire (1902); Railways as Public Agents (1910); Charles Francis Adams (1912); The The- ory of Social Revolutions (1913). Adams, Charles Follen (1842) American humorous writer, was born in Dorchester, Mass. He has written numerous verses in German dialect, which have been collected as Leedle Yawcob Strauss and Other Poems (1878) and Dialect Ballads (1887). Adams, Charles Francis (1807-86), American diplomat, the son of John Quincy Adams, was born in Boston, Mass. His childhood was spent in Russia, his father having become U. S. Minister there in 1809, and in England, where he attended school. In 1825 he was gradu- ated from Harvard. He then studied law under Daniel Web- ster; spent several years in pri- vate study, in writing for The North American Review, and in mlanaging the business affairs of his father; was a member of the Massachusetts legislature (1840-5); and edited the Boston Whig (1846-8). An ardent op- ponent of slavery, he presided in 1848 over the National Free Soil 4dams 57 Adams Convention, and was the Free Soil candidate for Vice-President. From 1858 to 1861 he was a Member of Congress. During the Civil War period he repre- sented the ITnitcd States at Lon- don, with marked ability. In 1871-2 he was a member of the Geneva Court of Arbitration, which adjusted the difficulty be- tween the United States and Great Britain growing out of the Alabama Claims. He edited the Works of John Adayns (10 vols., 1850-6) and the Diary of John Quincy Adams (12 vols., 1874-7). Adams, Charles Fr.a.ncis,Jr. (1835-1915), American lawyer and man of letters, son of Charles Francis Adams (1807-86), was born in Boston, Mass. He was graduated from Harvard (1856), and was admitted to the Massa- chusetts bar in 1858. During the Civil War he served as a cavalry officer. Resuming his profession in Boston, he made a specialty of railroad law, and in 1869 became a railroad commissioner of Massa- chusetts. In 1879-84 he served on the board of arbitration of the Trunk Line organization; in 1884-90 was president of the Union Pacific Railroad; and in 1892-5 was chairman of the Mas- sachusetts Metropolitan Park Commission. He was president of the American Historical Asso- ciation (1901), and was a member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters. His works include Railroads, Their Origin and Prob- lems (1878) ; Richard Henry Dana (1891); Massachusetts, Its His- torians and Its History (1893); Life of Charles Francis Adams (1900); Lee at Appomattox, and Other Papers (1902); Studies, Military and Diplomatic (1911); Transatlantic Historical Solidar- ity (1913); Autobiography (1916). Adams, Charles Francis (1866- ), American public official, the great-great-grandson of President John Quincy Adams, ■*as born in Quincy, Mass. He was graduated from Harvard University in 1888, read law in the office of Sigourney Butler, and was admitted to the Massa- chusetts bar in 1893. He was twice elected mayor of his native city and practised law in Boston after 1893. He has always been an enthusiastic yachtsman and in 1920 sailed the Resolute, the America's Cup defender which defeated Shamrock IV. In 1929 he was made Secretary of the Navy in President Hoover's cabinet. Adams, Charles Kendall (1835-1902), American educator, was born in Derby, Vt. He was educated at the University of Michigan, and in France and Germany, and in 1863-85 was assistant and full professor of history at his alma mater. In 1881 he was made non-resident professor of history at Cornell University, and was president of Cornell from 1885 to 1892, and of the University of Wisconsin from 1892 until his death. He was editor-in-chief of Johnson's Universal Encyclopcedia (1892- 5). His published works include Democracy and Monarchy in France (1872); Manual of His- torical Literature (1882); Chris- topher Columbus, His Life and Work (1892); History of the United Stales (with W. P. Trent). Adams, Cyrus Cornelius (1849-1928), American geogra- pher, was born in Naperville, 111. He was graduated from the University of Chicago (1876), in 1884 became a writer of geo- graphical topics for the New York Sun, and in 1908-15 was editor of the Bulletin of the American Geographical Society. He was president of the Association of American Geographers (1906). His works include Commercial Geography for High Schools ( 1 90 1 ) ; Elementary Commercial Geogra- phy (1902); David Livingstone, African Developer (1902). Adams, Edwin (1834-77), American actor, was born in Medford, Mass. His first ap- pearance was at the Boston Na- tional Theatre as Stephen in The Hunchback (1853). He toured the principal cities of the United States, and in 1867 appeared at Booth's Theatre as Mercutio, Narcisse, lago, and Enoch Arden (his best part), and in other roles. He was one of the best light comedians of his day. Adams, Ephraim Douglass (1865- ), American historian, was born in Decorah, la. He was graduated from the Univer- sity of Michigan (1887), and was assistant professor (1891-4), asso- ciate professor (1894-9) of history and sociology, and professor of European history (1899-1902), at the University of Kansas. In 1902-6 he was associate professor and professor (since 1906) of his- tory at Leland Stanford Junior University. In 1919 he began the collection and organization in Paris, France, of the great Ameri- can research library on the World War and Reconstruction known as the Hoover War Library, lo- cated at Stanford University, and has since remained a Director of that Library. His publications include The Control of the Purse in the U. S. Government (1894); The Influence of Grenville on Pitt's Foreign Policy (1904); British Interests and Activities in Texas (1910) ; The Power of Ideals in American History (1913); Great Britain, America and De- mocracy (1919); Great Britain and the American Civil War (1925). Adams, Frank Dawson (1859- ), Canadian geologist, was born in Montreal. He was graduated from McCiill Universi^ ty (1878) 'and Heidelberg (1892), and holds several honorary de- grees. In 1880 he became a member of the Dominion Geo- logical Survey. In 1889 he was appointed lecturer on geology. McGill University, and later Logan professor of geology, Dean of the Faculty of Applied Science and Vice Principal of that Uni- versity. In 1924 he retired as Emeritus Dean and Vice Princi- pal. He has served as president of the Royal Society of Canada, and other similar organizations. He has been awarded the Lyell Medal by the Geological Society of London, and is a member of many scientific societies. His works include The Geology of a Portion of the Laurentian Area (1897); Iron Ore Deposits of Bil- bao (1901); The Monteregian Hills (1903); The Geology of the Haliburton and Bancroft Areas (1910) ; An Experimental Investi- gation into the Flow of Rocks (1911) ; The National Domain in Canada and Its Proper Conserva- tion (1913); A Visit to the Gem Districts of Ceylon and Burma '(1926); Tin Mining in Malaya (1926). Adams, Franklin Pierce (1881— ), American humorous writer, was born in Chicago, 111., and attended the University of Michigan (1899-1900). He served on the editorial staff of the Chicago Journal (1903-04), New York Evening Mail (1904- 14), NewYorkTribune(1914:-2l), and the New York World (since 1922), where he now conducts, over his initials, a column of mis- cellaneous verse and prose, 'The Conning Tower.' He has pub- lished Tobogganing on Parnassus (1910); In Other Words (1912); By and Large (1914) ; Weights and Measures (1917); Something Else Again (1920); Overset (1922); So Much Velvet C1923); So There! (1924); Half a Loaf (192.5); The Column Book of F. P. A. (1928). Adams, George Burton (1851-1925), American historian, was born in Fairfield, Vt. He was graduated from Beloit Col- lege (1873), Yale Divinity School (B.D., 1877), and Leipzig Univer- sity (PH.D., 1886). He was pro- fessor of history at Drury College (1877-88) and at Yale Universitv (1888-1925). He is the author of Civilization During the Middle Ages (1894); The Growth of the French Nation (1896); European History (1899); Vol. ii. of Hunt and Poole's Political History of England (1905) ; The Origin of the English Constitution (1912); The British Empire and a League of Peace (1917); Constitutional His- tory of England (1920); Council and Courts in Anglo-Norman England (1920). Adams, Hannah (1755-1832), American author, was born in Medfield, Mass. She was the Vol. I. — Oct. '29 Adams 58 Adams first American woman to make literature a profession. Her works include Views of Religious Opinions (1784); History of New England (1799); Evidences of Christianity (1801) ; History of the Jews (1812). Adams, Henry (1838-1918), American historian, son of Charles Francis Adams (1807-86), was born in Boston, Mass., and was graduated from Harvard (1858). From 1861 to 1868 he was private secretary to his father, and from 1870 to 1877 assistant professor of history at Harvard. In 1870- 76 he edited The North American Review. He was a member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters. His publications in- clude Documents Relating to New England Federalisrn (1877); Al- bert Gallatin, and Writings of Albert Gallatin (1879) ; John Ran- dolph (1882); History of the United States, 1801-1817 (1889); Historical Essays (1891); Mont Saint Michel and Chartres {l^OA)', The Education of Henry Adams (1906, printed privately but pub- lished after his death); Letter to American Teachers of History (1910) ; Life of George Cabot Lodge (1911) . Adams, Henry Carter (1851-1921) , American economist, was born in Davenport, Iowa. He was graduated from Iowa College (1874) and Johns Hop- kins University (ph.d. 1878). After spending two years of study in Europe he became lecturer on economics at Cornell and later at the University of Michigan. From 1887 until his death he was professor of political economy and finance at the University of Michigan. From 1887 to 1911 he acted as statistician to the Interstate Commerce Commis- sion, and he was special agent in charge of the department of transportation of the Eleventh Federal Census. Besides numer- ous reports, he published Outlines of Lectures upon Political Econo- my (1881) ; Taxation in the United States, 1789-18 16 (1884) ; Relation of the State to Industrial Action (1887) ; Public Debts (1887) ; Rela- tion of Modern Municipalities to Quasi-Public Works (1888); The Science of Finance (1888); Sta- tistics of Railways (1888-1910); Regulation of Railway Rates (1906); American Railway Ac- counting (1918); Description of Industry (1918). Adams, Herbert (1858- ), American sculptor, was born in Concord, Vt. He was educated at the Worcester Insti- tute of Technology and the Mas- sachusetts Normal Art vSchool, and studied abroad (1885-90). He is a trustee of the American Academy in Rome, and a mem- ber of the National Academy of Arts and Letters, and of the Na- tional Academy of Design (presi- VoL. I.— Oct. '29 dent, 1915-1918). Besides hon- orable mention at the Paris salons of 1888 and 1889, he has received several medals. Among his works are the statues of Professor Henry, Library of Congress, Washington; Dr. Channing, Bos- ton; William CuUen Bryant, New York; Fitchburg Fountain and Fitchburg War Memorial, Fitch- burg, Mass.; Winchester War Memorial, Winchester, Mass.; MacMillan Memorial Fountain, Washington; Welch Memorial, Auburn, N. Y.; Hoyt Memorial, Judson Church, New York; Pratt Memorial, Emanuel Baptist Church. Brooklyn; Jonathan Ed- wards Memorial, Northampton, Mass; bronze doors. Library of Congress, and St. Bartholomew's Church, New York. Adams, Herbert Baxter (1850-1901), American educator, was born in Amherst, Mass. He was graduated from Amherst College in 1872, and received the degree of ph.d. at Heidelberg. He was associate professor and professor of history at Johns Hopkins University (1883-1901), and was one of the founders of the American Historical Associa- tion, and its first secretary. He edited an important series of monographs known as the Johyis Hopkins Studies in Historical and Political Science and also a series of monographs on the history of education in the United States. His books include The College of William and Mary; The Study of History in American Colleges and Universities; Maryland' s Influ- ence in Founding a National Com- monwealth; Thomas Jefferson and the University of Virginia; History of the United States Con- stitution; Life and Writings of Jared Sparks. Adams, James Truslow (1878- ), American historian, was born in Brooklyn, N. Y. He was graduated from Yale Uni- versity in 1900 and until 1912 was a member of the New York Stock Exchange. During the War he served on the Colonel House Commission to prepare for the Peace Conference at which he was detailed for special duty (1919). In 1920 he won the Pulitzer Prize for the best book on American history. He is a member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters. His published works include Me- morials of Old Bridgehampton (1910); History of Southampton (1918) ; Founding of New England (1921); Revolutionary New Eng- land 1691-1776 (1923); New England in the Republic (1926); Provincial Society (1927); Jeffer- sonian Principles (1928); Hamil- tonian Principles (1928). He is a frequent contributor to the Atlantic Monthly, Harpers, the Forum, Saturday Review and other periodicals. Adams, John (1735-1826), American statesman, second President o.' the United States, was born in that part of Brain- tree, Mass., now known as Quin- cy, on Oct. 30, 1735, the eldest son of a prosperous farmer (d. 1760) of the same name. He was graduated from Harvard in 1755, and was designed for the minis- try; but instead he studied law, and was admitted to the Massa- chusetts bar in 1758. In 1765, John Adams during the excitement aroused by the Stamp Act, he sprang into prominence as the author of the instructions which were sent by the town of Braintree to its repre- sentatives in the Massachusetts General Court, and which were soon adopted by forty other townships in the colony; and in the same year he contributed to the Boston Gazette four vigorous articles directed primarily against the Stamp Act, which were after- ward issued as a pamphlet en- titled A Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law (1768). Throughout the period imme- diately preceding the outbreak of the Revolutionary War, Adams was one of the most influential leaders of the Whig or Patriot Party in Massachusetts; but as compared with some of his asso- ciates, he was conservative, and he had the courage to act as counsel for the British soldiers tried for murder in connection with the so-called 'Boston Mas- sacre' (1770), the soldiers being acquitted. From 1774 to 1777 he was one of the most conspicu- ous members of the Continental Congress. He was at the head of the Board of War; seconded the nomination of Washington as commander-in-chief; and with his relative, Samuel Adams (fl.v.), headed the party of independence. He was a member of the committee ap- pointed to draft the American Declaration of Independence Adams 59 Adams (q.v.). which document he signed. In 1778 he was sent to France as representative of the new na- tion, but returned the following year to^take an important part in drafting the first constitution of Massachusetts. Late in 1880 he again went to Europe, and after much difficulty not only secured recognition from the United Provinces (April 19, 1782) as the minister of an independent nation, but negotiated a treaty of amity and commerce — the second in the history of the United States. He was one of the American commis- sioners who signed the Treaty of Paris at the close of the Revolu- tion (1783). From 1785 to 1788 he was the first Minister of the United States to Great Britain, and at that time wrote his Defence of the Constitution of the United States (1787). On his return he became the first Vice-President of the United States, serving two terms (1789-97), and was one of the leaders of the new Federalist Party (q.v.). In 1797 he suc- ceeded Washington in the Pres- idential chair, serving until 1801, during a period marked by crit- ical relations with France, result- ing almost in war; by the passage of the hateful Alien and Sedition Acts (q.v.), which did much to bring odium upon the Federal- ists; and by the appointment of John Marshall to be Chief Jus- tice of the U. S. Supreme Court. During his term Adams became alienated from Alexander Ham- ilton (q.v.), the real leader of the Federalists; and unable to secure the undivided and enthusiastic support of his own party, he was defeated in 1800 by Thomas Jefferson. He lived for the rest of his life in retirement at Quincy, Mass., and died there on July 4, 1826 (on the same day that Jef- ferson died). John Adams was in many re- spects a typical New Englander of his time. He was scrupu- lously honest, thoroughly sincere, indomitably fearless and cour- ageous, a tireless and self-sacri- ficing worker in the common cause, and quick to perceive and as quick to oppose oppression in any form, however subtly dis- guised. On the other hand, un- fortunately, he was inclined to be pompous, vain, opinionated, and contentious, impatient of contra- dict^n or opposition, and eager for applause. Both his writings and his speeches are character- ized by vigor, forcefulness, ear- ncvStness, and intensity of convic- tion, by warm emotion, exuber- ance, a certain splendor of truc- ulence, and an affluence of ideas, theories, and speculations. Consult his Works, with Life Vol. I.— Oct. '15 and Notes, and Familiar Letters of John Adams to His Wife, both edited by Charles Francis Adams; Morse's John Adams, in the 'American Statesmen Series'; Chamberlain's John Adams; C. M . Walsh's The Political Science of John Adams (1915). Adams, John (c. 1760-1829), seaman and mutineer, served on board H.M.S. Bounty (1789), where he took a prominent part in the famous mutiny (see Bounty, Mutiny of the). His real name was Alexander Smith. He afterward sailed with nine men to Pitcairn Island, which he governed with great wisdom and success. See Pitcairn Island. Adams, John Couch (1819- 1892), British astronomer, was born near Launceston, Cornwall. He was sent in 1839 to St. John's College, Cambridge, where in 1843 he became senior wrangler. He undertook to find out the cause of the irregularities in the motion of Uranus, anticipating, indeed, his own and Leverrier's discovery — that they are due to the influence of a then unknown planet. Leverrier did not com- mence his researches till the sum- mer of 1845; but on Nov. 10 he published the results of his calcu- lations, assigning to the unknown planet almost the same place as Adams had done in a paper which he left with the Astronomer Royal at Greenwich Observatory in the previous October, but which he neglected to publish. (See Neptune.) Neptune was actually observed, near the place assigned, by Galle at Berlin in September, 1846. In 1858 Adams was appointed to the Lowndean professorship of astronomy, Cambridge. Consult his Scientific Papers (ed. by W. G. Adams, with Life by Glaisher). Adams, John Qitincy (1767- 1848), American statesman, the sixth President of the United States, was born in that part of Braintree, Mass., which is now Quincy, on July 11, 1767, the eldest son of John Adams (q.v.), President in 1797-1801. He studied for a year (1778-9) in Paris, while his father was on a diplomatic mission there, and later (1780) at the University of Leyden; was private secretary (1781-2) to Francis Dana, Ameri- can envoy to Russia; and on his return to the United States was graduated from Harvard. He then studied law under Theophi- lus Parsons, was admitted (1790) to the Massachusetts bar, and practised in Boston. His inter- est was primarily in politics, however, and he soon attracted attention by a scries of articles opposing Paine's Rights of Man, arraigning certain aspects of the French Revolution, and urging the observance by the United States of strict neutrality in the European conflicts of the time. In 1794 he received from Presi- dent Washington the appoint- ment of Minister Resident at The Hague; was afterward sent to the Court of St. James; was nomi- John Quincy Adams. nated by Washington as Min- ister to Portugal; and on the accession of the elder Adams to the Presidency, was appointed Minister to Prussia, where he negotiated (1799) a treaty of amity and commerce. In 1802 he was chosen State senator by the Federalists of his district, and in 1803 was elected to the U. S. Senate from Massachusetts. In 1806 he boldly denounced in the Senate the right claimed by the British government of search- ing and confiscating the cargoes of neutral vessels, and introduced resolutions (which were sup- ported by the Republicans) re- questing the President to demand the restoration of property so confiscated. This position thor- oughly alienated Adams from the Federal Party, and he resigned his seat in the Senate. From 1809 to 1814 Adams was Minister to Russia, and was one of the negotiators (1814) of the Treaty of Ghent terminating the War of 1812; from 1815 to 1817 he was Minister to England, and with Clay and Gallatin negoti- ated (1815) a treaty of commerce with that nation; and from 1817 to 1825 he was Secretary of State in the Cabinet of President Monroe, negotiating with Spain the treaty by which Florida was ceded (1821) to the United States, and being credited by many with the first formulation of what is now known as the Monroe Doctrine (q.v.). In 1824 he was one of the candidates Adams 60 Adams for the Presidency, along with Andrew Jackson, W. H. Craw- ford, and Henry Clay. Jackson received 99 electoral votes, Adams 84, Crawford 41, and Clay 37. None of them having re- ceived a majority of the electoral votes, the House of Represent- atives was called upon to decide from among the three highest candidates. Thereupon the fol- lowers of Clay joined with those of Adams, and insured the latter's election; while Adams made Clay his Secretary of State. As President (1825-9), Adams advocated internal improve- ments, and steadily refused, in spite of considerable pressure, to remove office holders for politi- cal reasons. He was not popu- lar, however; was bitterly at- tacked both in and out of Con- gress; and among other things was unjustly charged with hav- ing gained Clay's support by a corrupt agreement to make the latter Secretary of State. (For the events of Adams' administra- tion, see United States, His- tory.) His own followers refused to ally themselves with the Jack- sonian Democrats, and organized the short-lived National Repub- lican Party. At the close of a troublous and comparatively un- eventful term as President he was defeated for re-election (1828) by Andrew Jackson (q.v.). Instead of retiring into private life, however, Adams returned to Vol. I. —Oct. '15 Washington in 1831 as a Repre- sentative in Congress, where he served continuously until his death, seventeen years later. This Was in many respects the most noteworthy period of his career, and was marked by his long and finally successful fight (1844) to secure the repeal of the 'Gag Rules' (q.v.), which virtu- ally took away the right of peti- tion as regards slavery; and, in general, by his courageous and able fight against all measures (such as the annexation of Texas) in the interest of the institution of slavery. In one of his speeches (May, 1836) he seems to have been the first to assert that slav- ery could be legally abolished by the exercise of the war powers of the Federal Government. He was not technically an Abolition- ist, however. On Feb. 21, 1848. while in his seat in the House of Representatives, he suffered a stroke of paralysis, and died two days later. John Quincy Adams' chief characteristics were his extreme independence, his unyielding courage, his conscientiousness and self-sacrificing devotion to duty, his sturdy patriotism, his thoroughgoing honesty, his ca- pacity for work, his coldness and unbending pride, his pugnacity, persistent censoriousness, and irritability, and his frequent in- dulgence in keen, biting invec- tive. He was never really popu- lar, had few intimate friends, and numerous and bitter political enemies; but his qualities every- where compelled respect. Adams kept an extensive diary, which is included in his Memoirs (edited by C. F. Adams), and which constitutes a storehouse of valuable material for the period during which he was active in diplomatic and political life, although marred by personal crit- icisms often acrid and deprecia- tory in the extreme. Consult W. H. Seward's Life; Morse's John Quincy Adams, in the 'American Statesmen Series' ; Quincy's Memoir. Adams, John Quincy, the 2d (1833-94), American legislator, was born in Boston, the son of Charles F. Adams (q.v.) . He was graduated from Harvard (1853), and was admitted to the bar. He served three terms in the Massa- chusetts legislature; in 1867 and in 1871 he was unsuccessful candidate for governor on the Democratic ticket; and in 1872 he was the candidate for Vice- President on the ticket with Charles O'Conor (q.v.). Adams, Maude Kiskadden (1872), American actress, was born in Salt Lake City, both her parents being actors. At an early age she appeared in children's parts, and when sixteen years old joined the stock company of E. H. Sothern, and later that of Charles Frohman. In 1892 she played with John Drew in The Masked Ball; in 1898 became a star as Lady Babbie in The Little Minister; and in 1899 played Ju- liet to William Faversham's Ro- meo. In 1900-01 she appeared in Rostand's L'Aiglon; in 1902, in Barrie's Quality Street; in 1905, in Barrie's Peter Pan, a great popu- lar success; in 1908, in the same author's What Every Woman Knows; in 1911, in Rostand's Chanticleer; in 1913-14, in Bar- rie's Legend of Leonora. She has played the leading role in notable spring performances at some of the principal universities — e.g.. Twelfth Night, 1908; Schiller's Joan of Arc, 1909; and As You Like It, 1910. Adams, Nehemiah (1806-78), American Congregational clergy- man, was born in Salem, Mass., and was educated at Harvard and at Andover Theological Seminary. His ministry, ex- tending over a long period at Cambridge and Boston, gained him the reputation of a scholar and a man of eloquence. He antagonized the anti-slavery ele- ment by maintaining, in A South Side View of Slavery, that slavery heightened the religious character of tiie negroes. He was also the author of Sable Cloud (1863); Maude Adams. Adams 61 Adams Under the Mizzenmast, a voyage round the world (1871); Life of John Eliot. Adams, Oscar Fay (1855), American author and lecturer, was born in Worcester, Mass., and was educated at Leicester Academy and the New Jersey vState Normal School. Since 1902 he has been secretary of the Bos- ton Authors Club. He is chiefly known for his useful Dictionary of American Authors (new ed., 1905), and his edition of Through the Year with the Poets (12 vols., 1886). He is also editor of the American issue of the Henry Irv- ing Shakespeare, and author of Brief Handbook of English Au- thors (1884); Poet Laureate Idylls (1885) ; Brief Handbook of Amer- ican Authors (1886); Dear Old Story Tellers (1889); The Story of Jane Austen's Life (1891); The Archbishop' s Unguarded Moment, and Other Stories (1899); Some Famous American Schools (1903) ; Sicut Patribus, and Other Poems (1906); A Motley Jest, Shake- spearean Diversions (1909); Scot- land Since Culloden (1909). Adams, Samuel (1722-1803), American statesman, was born in Boston. Mass., on Sept. 27, 1722, the son of Samuel Adams (d. 1748), a man of considerable wealth and some political promi- nence. He was graduated from Harvard (1740; a.m. 1743), and took up the study of law; but he soon entered business for him- self, for which he had little taste and less aptitude, and in which he failed. He then became his fa- ther's partner in a brewery, and this also failed after his father's death. It was not until he was forty- two, in 1764, that Adams entered upon the career which made him famous. In that year he drew up the instructions for the represen- tatives of the township of Boston in the Massachusetts General Court. These instructions, be- sides suggesting the co-operation of the various colonies, contain what is thought to be the first public denial of the validity of the Stamp Act, about to be passed; the following is, perhaps, their keynote: 'If taxes are laid upon us in any shape without our having a legal representation where they are laid, are we not reduced from the Character of free Subjects to the miserable State of tributary Slaves?' From 1765 until 1774 he was a member, and after 1766 clerk, of the lower house of the General Court; and during this period he was practically the leader of the opposition in Boston — and there- fore in Massachusetts and the New England colonies — to the arbitrary measures of the British Vol. I —Oct. '15 government. He virtually con- trolled and inspired the policy of the Boston town meeting; drafted nearly all of the more important papers of that body; was in- strumental, after the so-called 'Boston Massacre' (q.v.) of March 5, 1770, in forcing the withdrawal from Boston of the two British regiments quartered there; and brought about the appointment of the Boston Committee of Cor- respondence, and thus put into operation one of the most efficient means for securing colonial and intercolonial union and co-opera- tion. He probably inspired the 'Boston Tea Party' (q.v.) of Dec. 16, 1773; and above all, by per- sonal contact with his fellow citi- zens and by numerous articles in the press, he won over many wa- verers to the patriot cause, and greatly influenced the views of the colonists. Naturally, he in- curred the bitter enmity of the royal authorities of Massachu- setts: it was partly to capture him that the famous expedition of April 18-19, resulting in the Bat- tle of Lexington (q.v.), was sent out from Boston; and he and John Hancock were expressly excepted in the proclamation of pardon issued by Governor Gage on June 12, 1775. From 1774 to 1782 (excepting 1779) Adams was a member of the Continental Congress, and exercised a powerful influence over its deliberations, especially exerting himself to win his fellow members to the cause of indepen- dence. During the war he served as secretary of State of Massa- chusetts; took an important part in drafting (1779-80) the first State constitution; and in 1782 was president of the State senate. At first opposed to the Federal Constitution framed at Philadel- phia in 1787, he ultimately used his influence to secure its ratifica- tion. He became the recognized leader of the Republicans in Massachusetts; from 1789 to 1794 was lieutenant-governor of the State; and from 1794 to 1797 governor. He died in Boston on Oct. 2, 1803. Samuel Adams' great services were rendered immediately be- fore and during the Revolution- ary War. Fiske speaks of him as being second only to Wash- ington; Jefferson said, 'I always considered him, more than any other member, the fountain of our more important measures'; Bancroft calls him 'the type and representative of the New Eng- land town meeting.' Astute, cool, and clear headed, tactful, shrewd, and far-seeing, skilled in all the arts of the practical politician, he was pre-eminently a manager of men. Careless of personal fame, he was capable of continual self-effacement — other men put forward by him often appearing responsible for measures or acts which he himself originated or inspired. Though not a great orator, he was always an effective speaker, and he was perhaps the most voluminous political writer of his time in America. He fre- quently concealed the authorship of his contributions to the press, and altogether used as many as twenty-five fictitious signatures. Consult W. V. Wells' Life and Public Services of Samuel Adams; J. K. Hosmer's Samuel Adams, in the 'American Statesmen Series' ; H. A. Cushing's The Writings of Samuel Adams (4 vols., 1904-8). Adams, Samuel Hopkins (1871), American journalist and author, was born in Dunkirk, N. Y., and was graduated from Hamilton College (1891). After serving as reporter and special writer on the New York Sun (1891-1900), he was successively managing editor of McClure's Syndicate (1900-1), advertising manager for McClure, Phillips & Co. (1901-2), and a member of the staff of McClure's Magazine (1903-5). In 1906 his series of articles in Collier s Weekly on the patent medicine evil attracted wide attention. He has written: The Great American Fraud (1905) ; The Mystery (with S. E. White, 1905) ; The 'Flying Death (1906) ; Average Jones (1911); The Secret of Lonesome Cove (1912) ; The Health Master (1913) ; The Clarion {1914.). In 1913 he was elected an associate fellow of the American Medical Association in recognition of his work for the advancement of the public health. Adams, Sarah, nee Flower (1805-48), English hymn writer; author of the hymns, 'Nearer, My God, to Thee' (1840), and 'He Sendeth Sun, He Sendeth Shower.' Her principal work is Vivia Perpetua, a dramatic poem (1841). Adams, Suzanne (1§73), American operatic soprano, was born in Cambridge, Mass. She studied in Paris under Mme. Marchesi, making her debut there in Romeo and Juliet in 1894. She sang at Covent Garden. London, with the Maurice Grau Company for several years; and in 1898-9 was a member of the Metropoli- tan Opera Company in New York City. Her principal roles have been Juliet, Marguerite, Gilda, Mimi, Micaela, the queen in Les Huguenots, and the queen of the night in The Magic Flute. Adams, Thomas, Puritan preacher, who held charges in Bedfordshire, Buckingham, and London between 1612 and 1653. Adams 62 Adaptation His works were collected and printed by Joseph Angus and Thomas Smith (3 vols., 1862). Southey named him 'the prose Shakespeare of Puritan theolo- gians.' He died before the Res- toration. For his sermons, con- sult Nichol s Puritan Divines. Adams, Thomas Sewall (1873), American economist, was born in Baltimore, Md., and was graduated from Baltimore City College (1893) and Johns Hop- kins University (ph.d. 1899). He is a member of the Wisconsin Town Commission, and professor of political economy at the Uni- versity of Wisconsin. He has served as expert on the Wiscon- sin State Tax Commission (1904- 8) and in the Department of Commerce and Labor (1908-9), and is secretary of the National Tax Association (since 1912). His writings include: Taxation in Maryland (1900); Labor Prob- lems (with H. L. Sumner, 1905); Mortgage Taxation in Wisconsin and Neighboring States (1907). Adams, William (1575-1620), English navigator, was born in Gillingham, near Chatham. He went to Japan about 1600; was taken into the government ser- vice (after having been impris- oned) ; and after 1613 was active, with Richard Cocks and other Englishmen, in developing the industries of that country. He married a Japanese woman. A Tokyo street bears his name. Consult his Letters in vol. i. of Purchas his Pilgrimes. Adams, William (1807-80), American clergyman, was born in Colchester, Mass. He was graduated from Yale (1827). studied theology at Andover, and was ordained pastor (1831) of the Congregational Church at Brighton, Mass. He afterward removed to the Broome Street Presbyterian Church, New York City, which in 1853 became the Madison Square Presbyterian Church, a pastorate he held until 1873. In that year he became president of the Union Theolog- ical Seminary. He wrote: The Three Gardens (1859); Conversa- tions of Jesus Christ with Repre- sentative Men (1865). Adams, William Davenport (1851-1904), English author, widely known as a literary and dramatic critic. After editing several country newspapers, he worked on the editorial staff of the London Globe. His published works include: Dictionary of Eng- lish Literature (1877); Sketches in the Highways and Byways of English Literature (1879); By- ways in Bookland (1888) ; Diction- ary of the Drama ( 1 899) . Adams, William Ta v l o r (1822-97), popularly known as Vol. L— Oct. '15 'Oliver Optic,' American au- thor of juvenile fiction, was born in Medway, Mass., and for many years was a teacher in the public schools of Boston and Dorches- ter. His first book, Hatchie, the Guardian Slave (1853), was suc- ceeded by over a hundred vol- umes of juvenile fiction, pub- lished in series, which included: The Boat Club, Young America Abroad, The Starry Flag, Onward and Upward, and The Yacht Club. He also edited Oliver Op- tic's Magazine, Student and Schoolmate, Our Boys and Girls, and Our Little Ones. Adam's Apple, the popular name given to the projection in the fore part of the neck formed by the anterior extremity of the thyroid cartilage of the larynx (q.v.); so called from the notion that it was caused by a bit of the forbidden fruit which stuck, in Adam's throat. Adam's Bridge, a ridge of sand and rocks, about 30 miles long, extending from a small island off the Indian coast to one just off Ceylon. It formed at one time a portion of an isthmus which connected India with Ceylon, and is referred to in the Rama- yana as the bridge over which the god Rama passed to invade Ceylon. Adams, Mount (5,805 feet), one of the Presidential Range in New Hampshire, 4 miles north- west of Mount Washington (q.v.), to which it is second in height. Ad'amson, Patrick (1537- 92) , Scottish prelate, was born in Perth. He went to France as a tutor (1566), where he suffered imprisonment for referring in a Latin poem to Queen Mary's son as king of France and Eng- land. He returned to Scotland (c. 1572), became minister of Paisley, chaplain to the Regent Morton, and in 1576 was ap- pointed by the regent to the as yet unabolished archbishopric of St. Andrews. From this time he was at open war with the Gen- eral Assembly, until his excom- munication in 1588 on various charges. He was the author of many religious works, and ranks high as a Latin poet. Adamson, Robert (1852- 1902), English educator, was born in Edinburgh, where he was educated. He obtained the Ferguson vScholarship (1872), and the Shaw Fellowship (1873). In 1876 he was appointed pro- fessor of philosophy in Owens College, Manchester; in 1883 pro- fessor of logic at Aberdeen University, and in 1895 to the same position at Glasgow. He wrote: The Philosophy of Science in the Middle Ages (1876); The Philosophy of Kant (1879) ; Fichte (1881); The Development of Mod- ern Philosophy (1903); The De- velopment of Greek Philosophy (1906); A Short History of Logic (1911)— the last three published posthumously. Adam's Peak (7,420 feet), called by the natives Samanella, an isolated granite mountain on the southwest edge of the central highlands, Ceylon, and a place of pilgrimage for Buddhists and Moslems. The cone forming the summit is a naked mass of gran- ite, in the middle of which is a hollow, 5 feet long, having a re- semblance to a human footstep. Mohammedan tradition makes this the scene of Adam's peni- tence, after his expulsion from Paradise, where he stood 1,000 years on one foot. To the Bud- dhists it is the Sri-pada, or sacred footmark, left by Buddha; and the Hindus recognize Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu. Adana, a-da'na, capital of the Turkish vilayet of Adana (15,500 square miles; pop. 425,000), is situated in Anatolia, Asia Minor, on the River Sihun; 528 miles southeast of Constantinople, and 42 miles by rail northeast of Mer- sina. Recent irrigation projects have added 1,200.000 acres of fer- tile land to the surrounding dis- trict. Trade is carried on in wool, cotton, grain, and wood ; and iron is mined. Adana was a place of importance in the time of the Romans. In 1909, 30,000 Ar- menian Christians were massa- cred in the city and vilayet. Pop. 50,000. Adanson, a-dan-son', Michel (1727-1806), French botanist, was born in Aix, Provence. He studied under Reaumur and Jus- sieu at Paris. When about twenty-one years old he went to Senegal in Africa, and stayed there five years. He made im- portant researches in the field of electro-physics, but his best known work was in the field of botany. He wrote: Histoire Na- turelle du Senegal (1757) ; Families des Plantes (1763); Histoire de la Botanique et Plan des Families Naturelles des Plantes (2 vols., ed. by his son, A. Adanson, and Payer, 1864). Ad'anso'nia. See Baobab. Ad'apta'tion. One of the most striking characters of living things is their fitness for their surroundings. This fitness is never absolute; but where it is specially marked in any species, the members of that species tend to increase in number, such in- crease being at the expense of other forms less well fitted for the given environment. Charac- ters which o])vi()UsIy render an or- ganism well suited to its peculiar Adar 63 Addison environment are termed adap- tive characters, or adaptations. But it is clear that organisms not nearly related may have a common environment, wherefore the term 'adaptive character' has a secondary significance in addi- tion to that indicated above, and implies that the particular char- acter is of no value in classifica- tion, but has been acquired as a consequence of a certain method of life. Thus, parasites tend to lose locomotor organs and sense organs, are usually hermaphro- dite, and invariably prolific. But the possession of these common characters does not indicate that all parasites are nearly related; they are rather to be described as adaptations to the parasitic mode of life. In general, it may be said that every organism possesses two sets of characters: (1) those whose use it is often difficult to define clearly, which it has inherited from its ancestors, and which are of supreme importance in classi- fication; and (2) those which are adaptations to a particular mode of life, which have been acquired during the evolution of the stock, and which are of no importance in classification. It is one of the great problems of systematic biology to distinguish between these two sets of characters, and to determine whether a given character is or is not of adaptive nature. The study of natural history in the broad sense is the study of adaptation. The works of Darwin and of subsequent leaders in biology exhibit the methods and results of research in this direction. See Darwin- ism; Environment; Evolution. Adar, a'dar, the twelfth month of the sacred (and the sixth of the civil) Hebrew year — end of Febru- ary and beginning of March. As the months were lunar, a second adar, called veadar, was interca- lated once in three years. The term occurs first after the Exile in Esther iii. 7. Adda, ad'da (Latin Addua), river of Italy, rises in the Bernina Alps, flows into Lake Como, then south through the Lombard plain, to enter the Po a few miles above Cremona. Length, 190 miles, of which 77 are navigable. Adda, or Ada, port on the Gold Coast, on the River Volta; 6 miles from its mouth, and 62 miles northeast of Accra. Pop. 13,000. Ad'dams, Jane (1860), Ameri- can social settlement worker, was born in Cedarville, 111., and was graduated from Rockford College (1881). In 1889, with Ellen Gates Starr, she opened Hull House set- tlement in Chicago. Her interest in sociological theories has been expressed by a life devoted to Vol. I.— Oct. '15 practical efforts to better the con- dition of the poor and the de- graded, a work in which she has been highly successful. In 1909 she was made president of the National Conference of Charities and Correction, and in 1910 re- ceived the first honorary degree ever given by Yale to a woman. In 1912 she was prominent in the formation of the national Pro- gressive Party, and was vice- president of the National Wo- men's Suffrage Association. In April, 1915, she presided at the International Peace Conference of Women at The Hague. She has written: Democracy and Social Ethics (1902); Newer Ideals of Peace (1907) ; Spirit of Youth and the City Streets (1909); Twenty Years at Hull House (1910); A New Conscience and an Ancient Evil (1912). Ad'dax, Addas (Addax naso- maculatus), an antelope allied to the gemsbok, but having ringed horns which ascend in an open spiral, instead of being straight. These horns are present in both sexes, and measure nearly three feet along the spiral (see illustra- tion under Antelope). The ad- dax is a desert animal, inhabiting North Africa and Arabia, but is becoming rare. It is of a general yellowish-white tint, the head, neck, and mane being brown save for a white band and spots on the muzzle. Its height is over three feet. Ad'der, the popular name for certain poisonous snakes of the viper family (see Viper; Puff Adder), as well as of harmless snakes of the family Colubridae. The term is most commonly ap- plied to the viper V. berus, wide- ly distributed throughout Eu- rope, and the only British ven- omous snake. It attains a length Head of Adder, of more than two feet; is brown, with a black, zigzag line down the back; feeds chiefly upon mice, and is viviparous. Its bite rarely proves fatal, except to weak per- sons and children. A very ven- omous serpent of New South Wales {Acanthopis tor tor) is com- monly called the Death Adder or Black Adder. In the United States, the name adder is applied to some poison- ous snakes without rattles, as the Moccasin (q.v.) or Water Adder, and the Copperhead (q.v.) or Red Adder; also to the harm- less Hognose (q.v.). Adder's Tongue (Ophioglos- sum vulgatum) , a small fern which forms annually one leaf, dividing into a flat, ovate, sterile portion, and an elongated, narrow, un- branched, spore-bearing part. It is found throughout the Northern Hemisphere, the Cape of Good Hope, and New Zealand. Ad'dicks,JOHNEDWARD(1841), American political leader, was born in Philadelphia, Pa. He made a fortune, estimated at $10,000,000 to $15,000,000, by operations in gas properties, espe- cially the Bay State Gas Company of Boston, the Brooklyn Gas Com- pany of New York City, and works in Wilmington, Del. From 1895 to 1905 he was an important factor in the politics of Delaware, and despite numerous charges of cor- ruption made repeated attempts to become a U. S. Senator from that State. As a result of his activities, Delaware was without representation in the Senate from 1901 to 1903, and at other times was represented by only one vSen- ator. In later years, campaign expenses and business reverses diminished his wealth, and in 1915 he was unable to pay a judg- ment of $16,000. Addicks, Lawrence (1878), American metallurgical engineer, was born in Philadelphia, Pa. He studied at Spring Garden Institute, Philadelphia, and at the University of Pennsylvania, and was graduated from the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology (B.S., 1899). Since 1905 he has been superintendent of the United States Metals Re- fining Co. He has made a special study of the properties of refined copper. In September, 1915, he was selected to serve on the U. S. Naval Advisory Board, as a representative of the American Electro-Chemical Society. Adding Machines. See Cal- culating Machines. Ad'dington, Henry. See Sid- mouth, Lord. Addis Abeba. See Adis Abe- BA. Ad'dison, town, Steuben coun- ty. New York, on the Canisteo River, and the Buffalo and Sus- quehanna and the Erie Railroads; 28 miles west of Elmira. Its manufactures include boots and shoes, foundry and machine shop products. Pop. (1900) 2,080; (1910) 2,004. Addison, Joseph (1672-1719), English writer and essayist, was born in Milston, near Amesbury, Wiltshire, where his father was rector. He was educated at the grammar school in Lichfield, and at the Charter House, from which, in his sixteenth year, he passed to Queen's College, Oxford. In 1693 he began his literary career Addison 64 Addison's Disease with a poetical address to Dry- den; the next year appeared his Account of the Greatest English Poets, and a translation of the fourth book of the Georgics, with an essay on that poem. In 1696 he was elected probationary fel- low of his college, and in 1699 obtained a pension from the crown of $1,500. He spent four years on the Continent, when he wrote his Letter to Lord Halifax, and made notes for his Remarks on Several Parts of Italy, and his Dialogue on Medals. Addison's first preferment — a -. Joseph Addison. commissionership of appeal in the excise — came in 1704. Thus en- dowed, he entered upon the com- position of The Campaign, which launched him on his career of state service — a career which, thanks to the magnanimity of Swift, whose close friendship he won when in Ireland as secretary to the lord-lieutenant (1709), was not altogether broken even by the Tory triumph in 1710. This Irish visit also marks the opening of Addison's true literary vein. He had just started for Dublin when (April 12, 1709) Steele began The Vol. I. — Oct. '15 Taller, and in No. 18 his first con- tribution appeared. But it was with the more famous Spectator (March 1, 1711. to Dec. 6, 1712) that Addison really found himself, and left the imprint of his genius upon literature. Under George i., Addison again became secretary to the lord-lieutenant of Ireland; then a commissioner for Trade and the Colonies; and finally (1717) secretary of state, a post resigned in March, 1718, owing to ill health. From 1710 till his death he was m.p. for Malmes- _ bury. On Aug. 3, 1716. Addison {After Knellcr.) married Charlotte, Countess of Warwick, who bore him a daugh- ter (1719). He died that same year (June 17) at Holland House, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Apart from his Latin poems, Addison's writings fall under the heads of political journalism, verse, and miscellaneous prose. His political writings embrace The Whig Examiner (September- October, 1710), an opposition sheet to The Examiner, in which Matt Prior, and afterward Swift, fought under the Tory flag; The Late Trial and Conviction of Count Tariff (1713), a squib on the Treaty of Utrecht;. The Free- holder (55 numbers, 1715-16); The Old Whig_ (1719), a reply to Steele's Plebeian, etc. Of verse, besides The Campaign, a number of h>;mns are still remembered. But neither his opera. Fair Rosa- mond (1706), nor the celebrated Cato (1713) lives either as poetry or drama. The Drummer, a prose comedy, shares their oblivion. As a light essayist he has no equal, and scarcely a second, in English literature. The noble monument of his success is the Spectator, a paper in which the foundations of much that is sound and healthy in modern English thought may readily be traced. As an 'abstract and brief chronicle' of the manners of the time, it is incomparable. The praise of his prose style has been written by Johnson, and it is not exaggerated; his manner reflects the peculiar character of his hu- mor, a singular grace and breed- ing being conveyed in sentences full of subtle irony, which are balanced without being formal, and though constructed with apparent simplicity, defy me- chanical imitation. Addison's works were first col- lected by Tickell (4 vols., 1721), and have since appeared in nu- merous editions. Reprints of the Spectator are also numerous. His Life has been written by Lucy Aikin and by Courthope. Con- sult Macaulay's 'Essay on Ad- dison,' and Johnson's Lives of the Poets. Addison's Disease is associated with disease of the suprarenal bodies, usually of a tuberculous nature, and is characterized by weak heart, low blood pressure, gastric and intestinal irritation, anaemia, increasing muscular weakness, and generally, though not always, by discoloration or browning of the skin. Recently, the disease has been considered to be an affection of the entire sym- pathetic system. The disease was first described by Dr. Thomas Addison (1793-1860). The pig- mentation usually begins on the face, neck, and hands, and is reg- ularly deeper on the exposed parts. After death the adrenals are usually found enlarged, nod- ulated, and changed into a dense, grayish, translucent fibroid ma- terial, enclosing opaque, yellow, cheesy masses, manifestly tuber- culous. Some cases die with no obvious change in the suprarenals, but with marked changes in the semilunar ganglia of the abdom- inal sympathetic. Treatment. — Before the use of extract of the suprarenal gland, or Adrenalin (q.v.), the disease Addlllon 65 Address, Forms of was invariably fatal — usually within a few years; but since the use of the extract several cases are said to have been cured, and many have been temporarily im- proved. The permanent efficacy of this treatment is questioned by many. Rest, careful dieting, avoidance of certain drugs, no- tably arsenic, and general hy- giene should be observed. See Adrenalin; Suprarenal Cap- sules. Addi'tion, in arithmetic, is the uniting of two or more numbers in one sum total (see Arith- metic). In Algebra, it is the combining of quantities accord- ing to their algebraic signs. Addled Parliament, name giv- en to the second Parliament of James i. of England, which sat April 5 to June 7, 1614. The court politicians endeavored to secure supplies for the king, but Parliament insisted first on re- dress of grievances, and discussed the illegalities of the king so freely that it was dissolved be- fore it had passed a single act. Addlestone, village, England, in Surrey, a mile southeast of Chertsey. It is the site of a new model village and park (war memorial). Pop, (1921) 8,098, Addorsed, or Addosse, he- raldic term signifying turned back to back. Address', Forms of. Social custom prescribes certain forms in addressing by letter, as well as orally, persons of distinction, and those occupying official po- sitions. In the United States, where there is no nobility, the forms are few, and the usage not very strict. In Great Britain, formal address is much more elaborate, owing to the custom of investing each rank with its ap- propriate terms of respect. United States.— The President of the United States, the Gover- nors of States, and the United States Ambassadors and Minis- ters to foreign nations are ad- dressed 'To His Excellency' (the official title following); e.g., 'To His Excellency, the Presi- dent of the United States.' (Simply, 'To the President of the United States' is not incorrect, however.) No word should be abbreviated. Ambassadors of foreign nations are addressed 'To His Excellency .' In conversation the form prescribed is 'Your Excellency.' The form 'To the Honorable the ' is prescribed for the Vice-President of the United States, the Secretaries of Depart- ment at Washington, Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States and of the States, and Judges of the superior courts. Members of Congress, the Lieu- tenant-Governors of the States, and the mayors of cities. It is not incorrect to address simply, 'To the Secretary of State .' The Chief Justice of the United States is addressed 'Mr. Chief Justice,' as well as 'To the Hon- orable' ; and other Justices as 'Mr. Justice' (the surname fol- lowing), as well as 'To the Hon- orable'. Judges of all courts below the State superior courts are addressed as 'Honorable ' (the personal name following, and preferably the official title also). The form of oral address in official relations, as with a judge on the bench, is 'Your Honor.' 'Honorable' is also the form of address for State senators, speakers of houses of representa- tives and delegates, ex-Presidents, and other former high officials, 'Mr.' (a contraction of Master) is used both in written and oral address for all persons not digni- fied with a specific title, as 'Dr.' or 'Prof.' It is customary with some to omit the prefix 'Mr.' and to affix 'Esq.' to the surname. In ecclesiastical circles the usages are more formal. The Pope is addressed 'To His Holi- ness the Pope,' or 'To Our Most Holy Father Pope ,' The form for the inscription and oral address is 'Most Holy Father,' or 'Your Holiness,' A cardinal is ad- dressed 'Most Eminent and Most Reverend Sir,' and orally as 'Your Reverence,' If he is also an archbishop, the form is 'To His Eminence the Cardinal, Archbishop of .' An arch- bishop is addressed 'The Most Reverend the Archbishop of '; but in the Episcopal Church, 'His Grace the Lord Archbishop of .' Both Roman Catholic and Episcopal bishops are 'The Right Reverend the Bishop of ,' or 'The Right Reverend ,' The Methodist bishop is 'The Rev, Bishop .' The presiding bishop in the Episcopal Church is 'The Most Rev. '; the dean of a cathedral, 'The Very Rev, ' ; the archdeacon of a diocese, 'Venerable' or 'Ven,' A monsignor is 'The Right Rev- erend Monsignor,' or simply 'Right Reverend,' A vicar-gen- eral is 'Very Reverend,' Clergy- men of all denominations are 'The Reverend,' usually abbre- viated to 'The Rev.' Communi- cations are begun, 'Rev, Sir,' 'The Rev, Mr, ' is often used. Sisters of religious orders should be addressed as 'Sister' or 'Mother,' In Canada the Governor-General is addressed as 'His Excellency'; the Lieutenant-Governor as 'His Honor'; and the Cabinet mini- sters as 'Honorable', Great Britain. — Custom has ordained the forms summarized below for the beginning and ending of communications, and for oral address, to the person- ages named. King or Queen. — 'To the King's (or Queen's) Most Ex- cellent Majesty: Sire' (or Mad- am), Conclusion: 'I have the honor to remain Your Majesty's most obedient Servant.' Orally, 'Your Majesty.' Royal Family. — To His (or Her) Royal Highness, Prince (or Princess) : Sir (or Mad- am) . , , I have the honor to remain Your Royal Highness' most humble Servant. Orally, Your Royal Highness, Duke. — To His Grace the Duke of : My Lord Duke, , , , I beg to subscribe myself. Your Grace's most obedient Servant, Orally, My Lord, or Your Grace, The eldest son is addressed as if a peer, taking the grandfather's title. Duchess. — To Her Grace the Duchess of : My Lady- ship (or Madam). Conclusion as for Duke. Marquess. — To the Most Hon- orable the Marquess of : My Lord Marquess, , , , I have the honor to be Your Lordship's most obedient Servant, Orally, My Lord, The eldest son takes his father's second title, and is ad- dressed as if an earl or a vis- count. Marchioness. — The same as for the Marquess, substituting the feminine terms for the mascu- line. Orally, My Lady, If the title is not taken from a place, the word 'of is not used, the family name following the title. Earl. — To the Right Hon, the Earl of : My Lord. ... I have the honor to remain. My Lord, your most obedient Ser- vant, Orally, My Lord or Your Lordship. Countess. — To the Right Hon. the Countess of : Madam. Conclusion as for Earl. The eldest son has the title Lord and Right Hon., and his wife is addressed accordingly. The younger sons are styled Esquires, and Honorable; their wives. Honorable, Viscount or Baron. — 'The Right Hon, the Lord Viscount,' or 'The Right Hon, Lord ,' 'Right Hon,' may be omitted Begin 'My Lord,' and refer to as 'Your Lordship,' in either case. Substitute the feminine terms for the Viscountess or Baroness, Prefix 'The Hon,' in the case of sons and daughters. In Scot- land the eldest son is usually styled 'The Hon, the Master of ,' Baronet or Knight. — To Sir (first Christian name), Bart, (omit Bart, in case of a knight) : Sir (first Christian name), . , , Your obedient Servant, The wife of a baronet or knight has the title Lady, Refer to as Your Ladyship. Privy Councillor. — To the Right Hon. : Sir. . , , Your obedient Servant, Orally, Sir. Lord Mayor. — To the Right Vol. I.— Mar. '26 Address, Gettysburg Adelphi College Hon. the Lord Mayor of : My Lord. Mayor. — The Right Worshipful the Mayor of : Sir. Orally, Sir. Lord Chief Justice. — To the Right Hon. the Lord Chief Jus- tice of England : My Lord. Oral- ly, My Lord. Judges. — To the Hon. Mr. Justice (personal name); if a knight, The Hon. Sir . On the bench a judge is ad- dressed My Lord. Councillors are addressed Mr. Councillor . Ambassadors. — To His Excel- lency . . . H. B. M.'s Ambassa- dor and Plenipotentiary, Sir. Orally, My Lord. Archbishop. — To His Grace the Lord Archbishop of : My Lord Archbishop (or Your Grace). ... I remain, My Lord Archbishop, Your obedient Serv- ant. Orally, Your Grace. Bishop. — The Right Reverend the Lord Bishop of : My Lord Bishop. Dean. — The Very Reverend the Dean of : Very Rev. Sir. Archdeacon. — ■ The Venerable the Archdeacon of : Sir. Clergy. — The Reverend (personal name) : Sir. Members of Parliament have M.p. affixed to the usual form of address. Military and Naval Officers have their professional rank prefixed to any other rank which they may hold. It is usual to affix special initials to the names of all who hold orders or special offices. See Salutations. Consult Ransone's Good Form in Eng- land; Davidson's The Correspon- dent; Thomas' Official, Diplo- matic, and Social Etiquette of Washington; Clapp's Courtesies; Gavit's Etiquette of Correspond- ence. Address, Gettysburg. See Gettysburg Address. Ade, ad, George (1866- ), American author and playwright, was born in Kentland, Indiana. He was graduated from Purdue University (1887) and from 1890 to 1900 was connected with the Chicago Record. He is a member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters. Among his best- known books are: Fables in Slang (1899); More Fables (1900) ; The Slim Princess (1907) ; Knocking the Neighbors (1912); Handmade Fables (1920). His plays include: The Sultan of Sulu (1902) ; The County Chairman (1903) ■,The College Widow (1904) ; Father and the Boys (1907); Nettie (1914); Marse Covington (1923) ; Just Out of College (1924). A'dee, Alvev Augustus (1842-1924), American public official, was born in Astoria, N. Y. He was educated privately and in 1870 began his official career as secretary of the United States legation at Madrid. In 1882 he became third assistant secretary of state, and after 1886 served as second assistant secre- tary. He took an active part in the diplomatic negotiations incident to the Chinese Boxer uprising of 1900; assisted in preparing the Treaty of Paris after the Spanish-American War; and in 1908 acted as Secretary of State ad interim. Adelaer, a'de-lar. Curt Si- VERTSEN (1622-75), Danish ad- miral, was born in Brevig, Nor- way. As a youth he took part in the Battle of the Downs (1639) under Van Tromp, and in 1645 entered the Venetian service, during that republic's warfare with the Turks. On his return to Copenhagen, in 1663, he was made an admiral; in 1666 he became admiral-general, and was ennobled. He died of the plague while in command of the fleet, on the outbreak of the war with Sweden. Ad'elaide, city, Australia, capi- tal of South Australia; 6 miles east of the Gulf of St. Vincent, 7 miles by rail from Port Ade- laide, and 506 miles by rail northwest of Melbourne. It stands on a large plain, bounded on the east and south, at a distance of 4 to 8 miles, by the Mount Lofty Range (alt. 2,333 feet). North Adelaide, the resi- dential quarter, is separated from South Adelaide, the busi- ness quarter, by a park half a mile wide, through which runs the Torrens River, spanned by numerous bridges. Public build- ings include the Government House, Parliament Houses, Town Hall, and Post Office; St. Peter's Cathedral (Anglican) and the Cathedral of St. Francis Xavier (Roman Catholic) ; the vice-regal summer residence at Marble Hill, 12 miles from the city; and the Art Gallery, Museum, Meteoro- logical Observatory, Public Li- brary, and School of Mines. Be- side the Botanic Gardens and Botanic Park (104 acres), and the Zoological Gardens (17 acres), there are a number of city parks, including three children's play- grounds. The town is sur- rounded by a belt of reserved parklands half a mile wide. At Belair, 40 minutes journey from Adelaide, is the National Park (2,000 acres) , a recreation reserve. Among educational institu- tions the most important are Adelaide University (q. v.), St. Peter's (Episcopal) College, St. Barnabas' Theological College, and Prince Alfred (Wesleyan) College. There is a large school of mines and industries, as well as a technical college. Adelaide is the seat of an Anglican and of a Roman Catholic bishop. It has telegraphic communication with the other colonies, and is the terminus of the direct line to London via Port Darwin. The leading manufactures are woollen, leather, iron, and earth- enware goods; but the city's chief importance depends on its being the great emporium for South Australia. Wool, wine, wheat, flour, and copper ore are the staple articles of export. Port Adelaide (q. v.) ranks third among Australian ports, both imports and exports being valued at between S20,000,000 and $25,000,000 annually. Adelaide, named after the queen of William IV., was founded in 1837 and incorporated in 1840. Pop., with suburbs (1922), 270,329. Adelaide University, in the city of Adelaide, South Australia, was founded by act of Parlia- ment in 1874. The institution was opened in 1876, and the present buildings occupied in 1882. Sir Thomas Elder and Sir W. W. Hughes were munifi- cent donors, Parliament adding an annual grant of $50,000 and a land endowment of 50,000 acres, and the city providing a site of 5 acres. The Elder Con- servatory of Music was opened in 1900, and the Engineering and Science Schools in 1903. The University grants degrees in Arts, Science, Law, Medicine, Dentistry, Engineering, and Music, and diplomas in Com- merce, Music, Education, Eco- nomics and Political Science, and various branches of Applied Science. In 1924 there were 764 undergraduate students in the University, and 564 in the Elder Conservatory. Ad'elbert College, the collegi- ate department of Western Reserve University (q. v.). Adeler, adVl-gr, Max, pseudo- nym of Charles Heber Clark (1841-1915), American author, born in Berlin, Md. He was educated in Georgetown, D. C, and entered the field of journal- ism in 1865. He was for ten years secretary of the Manu- facturers' Club of Philadelohia, and editor of their magazine. The Manufacturer, for which he wrote important papers on economic subjects. He is best known for his works of fiction, which in- clude: Out of the Hurly Burly; Captain Bluitt (1901); In Happy Hollow; The Quakeress (1905); By the Bend of the River (1914). Ad'elochor'da or Hemichorda, a sub-class of the Chordata, em- bracing the worm-like Balano- glossus ((1. V.) and allies, in which the spinal cord is very obscure. These are the lowest of verte- brates. vSee Chordata. Adelphi College, a-del'fi, anon- sectarian institution for the higher education of women, located in Brooklyn, N. Y. It offers a four-years college course and special courses to teachers. It awards in its own name its diplomas and degrees, and is an Vol. I.— Mar. '26 Adelsberg 67 Adenitis approved college of the Univer- sity of the State of New York for the reception of the university scholars. It was chartered by the Board of Regents in 1896, and has awarded 462 normal diplomas and 618 degrees. At the present time it receives women only in its regular classes, but maintains separate courses of college grade for teachers and other qualified persons which lead to the degrees of B.A. and M.A. The honor sys- tem has always prevailed in Adel- phi College. In 1914-1915 it had a corps of 41 professors, instruc- tors, and lecturers; a membership of 560 students; and a reference library of 16,000 volumes. A college house for social occasions has recently been opened. Adelsberg, a'dels-ber<:/i (Slav., Postojna), town and summer re- sort. Carniola, Austria; 22 miles northeast of Trieste. Near it are caves, the most famous being a large stalactite cavern, the A dels- berg Grotto. This cavern, the largest in Europe, is divided into the old and the new grotto, the latter discovered in 1816. Poik River runs through a part of the grotto, and then disappears below the ground. Pop. (1911) 3,863. A d e I u n g , Friedrich von (1768-1843), German philologist. Oriental scholar, and student of Russian history. His chief work is Kritisch-Utterarische Uebersicht der Reisenden in Russland bis 1700 (1846). Adelung, a'de-loong, Johann Christoph (1732-1806), German philologist and lexicographer, was born in Spantekow, Pomerania. From 1787 till his death he was librarian of the Electoral Library at Dresden. He wrote Gramma- tischkritisches Wdrlerbuch der Hochdeutschen Mundart (1774- 86) ; Mithridates Oder Allgemeine Sprachenkunde (1806), completed by J. S. Vater. Ademp'tion is the complete or partial revocation of a testa- mentary benefit by a subsequent event in the testator's lifetime, not being a revocation by a testamentary instrument. Thus if a testator bequeaths a specific article, and then before his death that article is destroyed or totally changed in character either by his own act or otherwise, the legatee gets nothing. But an unauthor- ized conversion will not cause ademption. Ademption is vsome- times improperly used to denote the 'satisfaction' of legacies. See Legacy. Aden, a'den or a'den, penin- sula and fortified port near the southwestern extremity of Ara- bia; 105 miles east of the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, 1.300 miles from Suez, and 1,650 miles from Bombay. It is a port of call for Vol. I.— Oct. '15 all P. & O. liners. Aden is a British possession, and comprises the peninsula of Aden proper (21 square miles), the peninsula of Little Aden (15 square miles), and the district of Shaikh Oth- man (34 square miles) on the mainland — or, including the hin- terland Protectorate, some 9,000 square miles. The peninsula of Aden is an irregular oval, con- nected with the mainland by a narrow, sandy isthmus; the pe- ninsula of Little Aden is a mass of granite. Between them is the harbor, Aden West Bay. The town, or Aden Camp, is on the east side, opposite the fortified island of Sira. The climate is hot, but healthy; mean annual temperature, 83° F. in the shade, or from 76° in January to 91° in June. The mean annual rainfall is 2.45 to 3 inches. Snakes and scorpions are numerous. The outer harbor affords anchorage in 19 to 28 feet of water; the inner harbor, which is the crater of an old volcano, is dredged to a depth of 26 feet. Solyman the Magnificent forti- fied Aden, and it was afterward occupied successively by the Por- tuguese and the Turks, until it became a British possession in 1839. It has a garrison and strong fortifications, and is known as the 'Gibraltar of the East.' The imports, including coal, cot- ton and silk fabrics, live stock, grain, provisions, tobacco, are valued at $15,000,000 annually; the exports, coffee, gums, spices, ivory, ostrich feathers, hides, pearls, at $14,000,000. Aden, along with the islands of Perim, Kuria-Muria, and Socotra, is under the government of Bombay. Most of the natives are Arabs, and Somalis from Africa, all speak- ing Arabic. Pop. (1911) 46,165. Aden, Gulf of, arm of the Arabian Sea, to the south of the Red Sea, between Southern Ara- bia and the Somali coast. Length, 500 miles; breadth, 150 to 200 miles. Ade'nia. See Anemia. Adenitis, ad-e-nl'tis (Greek dST^f, a gland), and Angeioleu- ciTis (Greek a'^yeiov, a vessel, \€vk6s, white) are the terms em- ployed in medicine to indicate inflammation of the lymphatic glands and inflammation of the lymphatic vessels, respectively. The latter condition is more commonly known as Lymphan- gitis. In most instances of in- flammation in the lymphatic system, the vessels and glands are simultaneously involved. De- pending upon the cause, this in- flammation may be either Acute or Chronic. Acute Lymphangitis, or sep- tic inflammation of the lymph vessels and glands, is never a primary disease. It is due either directly to the invasion of micro- organisms, or to the irritation arising from their products. The focus of infection may be either an external wound, as a puncture, a cut, or a blister, or some inflammatory condition, such as a boil. Injuries received while making post-mortem ex- aminations, especially of septi- caemic cases, often cause inflam- mation of extreme virulence. The inflammation in these cases may extend from the vessels and glands to the surrounding tis- sues, while abscess formation and patches of gangrene may occur along the course of the vessels. Occurring more com- monly in the extremities, it al- ways progresses toward the trunk. Treatment depends upon the severity of the inflammation, and varies from simple fomentations to extensive incisions. Because of its fulminatory character, acute inflammation of the lymph vessels and glands should always be under the observation of a competent surgeon. Chronic Lymphangitis occurs in the course of various diseases, by far the most common being syphilis and tuberculosis. The Adenoids 68 Adiaphora symptoms are hiostly objective, and are characterized by a thick- ening of the vessel walls, with the formation of nodules. Chronic oedema of the extremities may occur. Treatment is that of the constitutional disease which in- duces the condition. Chronic Adenitis, while com- monly caused by syphilis and tu- berculosis, occurs also as the result of uncleanliness, pediculo- sis, ulcers, etc. Enlarged tonsils and adenoids and carious teeth are often responsible for enlarged cervical glands. Treatment should be both constitutional and local; but if syphilis be the cause of the glandular enlargement, local treatment is seldom necessary. Adenitis due to gonorrhceal infec- tion, or Bubo (q.v.), frequently requires incision. Tuberculous glands should usually be excised. See Glands. Ad'enoids (Greek ddriv, gland, c?5o5, form) are gland-like aggre- gations of lymphoid tissue on the roof and posterior wall of the naso-pharynx. This pharyngeal or Luschka's tonsil is very similar in structure to the faucial ton- sils, and is subject to the same inflammatory and hypertrophic changes. It is normally charac- teristic of childhood, gradually diminishing in size after puberty; but it does not necessarily follow this course, and large post-nasal growths in adults are by no means uncommon. Unless un- duly enlarged so as to cause total or partial obstruction to nasal breathing, the pharyngeal tonsil should not be considered patho- logical. The symptoms of hypertrophy vary in kind and severity, de- pending upon the amount of na- sal obstruction, but in the ma- jority of cases are unmistakable. The child habitually breathes through the mouth, is dull and listless, with vacant expression, and is often deaf to a greater or less degree. The breathing of children affected with adenoids is noisy and snuffling, due to the nasal catarrh commonly present. At night the child snores, and the sleep is usually troubled from embarrassment of respiration. The speech is thick, the school work is retarded, and partly from lack of tone resonance, partly from deafness, the articu- lation is defective. If uncor- rected, permanent deformity of the face and chest wall may re- sult. Treatment. — Operative treat- ment is the only effectual meth- od. The results are favorable in direct proportion to the age of the patient and the length of time the obstruction has existed. The removal of hypertrophied Vol. I.— Oct. '15 adenoids often produces a re- markable improvement in the child; while the older patient usually shows marked improve- ment, both physical and mental. Aderbaijan, a'der-bi-jan'. See Azerbaijan. Aderno, a-der'n5, town, Cata- nia, Sicily, on the southwest slope of Mount Etna; 20 miles by rail northwest of Catania. It con- tains two Norman structures of Roger I. — a keep and a monas- tery (1157). It stands on the site of ancient Hadranum or Adra- num, famous for its temple of Hadranus. Many interesting ruins are near by. Pop. (1911) 30,190. Adersbach Rocks, aMers-bak, labyrinthine group of sandstone rocks near the village of Aders- bach, in Northeastern Bohemia, close to the frontier. There are thousands of curious cones, peaks, and pinnacles (one over 200 feet high). These varied conforma- tions have been produced by the influence of rain, frost, and other atmospheric changes, and cover an area of about 4 by IV2 miles. Adhe'sion, in Physics. See Co- hesion; Friction. Adhesion, in Pathology, a vital union between two surfaces of a living body which have been either naturally or artificially separated. In the healing of wounds it is usually an alto- gether beneficial process; though even in this case it may cause deformity — e.g., when adjacent surfaces of two fingers are allowed to become united by adhesion after a burn. After injuries to joints, adhesion frequently takes place between the injured struc- tures and those adjoining, which may cause subsequent stiffness. Adhesion is a frequent conse- quence of inflammation of serous and synovial membranes — e.g., pleurisy may cause adhesion of the lung to the chest wall. Adiabatic, ad-i-a-bat'ik. See Steam Engine; Thermodynam- ics. Adiabene, a'di-a-be'ne, the an- cient name used by Pliny for As- syria, lay between the Tigris, Lycus (Upper Zab), and Caprus (Lower Zab) Rivers. By the Ara- maeans it was called Hadyab. At one time its territory also in- cluded Nisibis, a district of Meso- potamia, and Ecl^atana in Media, The capital of Adiabene was Ar- bela (q.v.), celebrated as the place where the Macedonians com- manded by Alexander the Great defeated the Persian army under Darius (3:U b.c). Monobazus i. ruled over Adiabene toward the close of the first century B.C. His son Izates came to the throne in 25 A.D., and following the exam- ple of Helena, his mother, both he and his son embraced Judaism. Adiabene was conquered by Tra- jan in 116 A.D., who changed its name to Assyria; under Hadrian it enjoyed semi-independence; but it was again conquered by Septimius Severus in 195 a.d. Adian'tum, or Maidenhair (Adiantum Capillus-Veneris) , a small, delicate, and graceful fern, with bipinnate fronds, alternate obovate and wedge-shaped mem- branaceous pinnules on capillary stalks, and marginal sori hidden beneath oblong indusia. It grows on moist rocks and old walls, especially near the sea; rare in Adiantum (Maidenhair Fern). 1, Part of frond; 2, involucre laid open; 3, capsule. Great Britain, but very abundant in the south of Europe. Another species of the same genus, A. pedatum, a native of North Amer- ica, with pedate leaves, has a sweet, fragrant root stock, of which capillaire is made. It is supposed that the name maiden- hair originated in the use of a mucilage made from this fern by women for stiffening their hair. Adiaphora, ad-i-af 'o-ra ( Greek, 'indifferent things'), in Ethics, are such actions as lie between the spheres of good and of evil. The Stoics gave currency to the word in this scuvse, and Cicero (De Finibus, iii. 10) translates it by Hndifferens.' The Adiaphoristic controversy troubled the Re- formed Church in Germany for a few years subsequent to 1548. In that year the Emperor Charles v., desiring to heal the breach be- tween Catholics and Protestants, prescribed a certain rule of faith and ritual as binding on all till some permanent form should be Adige 69 Adirondacks promulgated by a general council. Thereupon the Elector Moritz of Saxony urged Melanchthon and his followers to declare what por- tions of the document they were willing to accept; and they decid- ed, in the Leipzig Interim, to re- gard certain customs and tenets {e.g., the use of candles, pictures, Latin hymns, but notably the doctrine of justification by faith) as indifferent — adiaphora. This was more than the stricter follow- ers of Luther would allow, and there ensued a bitter contro- versy. Adige, a'di-ja (ancient A thesis, German Etsch), after the Po the most important river in Italy, rises in tlae Rhaetian Alps, in the Tyrol (alt. 5,005 feet). After a swift descent to Glarus it trav- erses the Vintschgau eastward; at Meran it bends south, flowing past Botzen, Trent, and Rove- redo into Lombardy; then south- east past Verona to Badia, and finally east to the Adriatic. In its lower course the Adige is con- nected with the Po by canals, and is itself canalized through allu- vial deposits. Its banks have repeatedly been the scenes of bloody engagements. Length, 250 miles, of which 120 are in Italy. It is navigable up to the confluence of its chief tributary, the Eisach, 190 miles. Adi Granth, a'di granth, the sacred books of the Sikhs, first edited in the sixteenth century. They consist in great part of poems and legends, and are ex- alted in ethical and intellectual tone. An additional Granth, known as the 'Granth of the Tenth Reign,' was composed in the seventeenth century under the direction of Guro Gobind. vSce vSiKHS. Adigrat, Adigherat, Addi Garaht, or Ategerat, town, Tigre, Abyssinia; about 90 miles south of Massowah. It is an important market, and the cen- tre of several routes. Altitude, 8,500 feet. Pop. 2,000. Adip'ic Acid, C4H8(COOH)2. is a dibasic acid of the oxalic series, having the general for- mula CnH2n-204; aucl is obtained in the form of white, opaque, hemispherical nodules (which are probably aggregations of small crystals) by the oxiflizing action of nitric acid on oleic acid, suet, spermaceti, and other fatty bodies. Adipoccre, ad-i-p5-ser' (Latin adeps, 'fat,' cera, 'wax'), a sub- stance resembling a mixture of fat and wax, and resulting from the decomposition of animal bod- ies in moist places or under water. Human bodies have been found, on disinterment, reduced to this state. Vol. I.— Oct. '15 Ad'ipose Tis'sue consists of an aggregation of minute vesicles filled with fat or oil. Under the microscope, each vesicle presents a very delicate envelope enclosing a drop of the oily matter. Thus it is that in the living body the fat, although nearly liquid, is not moved by gravitation, as is the case when the tissues are infil- trated by water. It is copiously supplied with capillary blood vessels, but no nerves have been seen to end in it, and thus it may be punctured without causing pain. Adipose tissue is widely distributed throughout the body. It occurs in the yellow marrow of bones; and a considerable layer is found under the skin, where, being a poor conductor of heat, it is specially valuable in retaining the warmth of the bodies of ani- mals exposed to great cold, such as whales. Being light and elas- tic, it forms an excellent packing substance, hence it is also found surrounding large vessels and nerves, the kidneys, joints, etc., where it affords support, and protects from injurious pressure. Its utilization as a reserve supply of nutriment is well illustrated in hibernating animals like the hedgehog. See Fat. Ad'iron'daclc Parle, an exten- sive area in the heart of the Adi- rondack region of New York State, was established in 1892. It comprises all of Hamilton county, and the adjacent por- tions of Essex, Franklin, St. Lawrence, Warren, and Herkimer counties, and contains 3,313,564 acres, of which the State owns 1,412,702. The Park is distin- guished from the 'Adirondack Preserve,' which is the general designation for lands owned by the State of New York in the Adirondack counties for preserv- ing the forests. The entire tract is under the direction of the Conservation Commission, and is policed by fire wardens, game wardens, and foresters. The region is mountainous, and much of it densely wooded, comprising large areas of virgin forest. It embraces over a thousand lakes and ponds, which are well stocked with game fish. Many private preserves and summer re- sorts are included within its borders. The Park is visited annually by thousands in search of health and recreation. At Saranac Lake (q.v.) there is a sanatorium for consumptives. See Adirondacks. Adirondaclis (Indian, 'tree eaters'), specifically a group of mountains in Northeastern New York, as well as an extensive area including nearly all the ter- ritory lying between Lake Cham- plain and the valleys of the St. Lawrence and Mohawk Rivers, and occupying Clinton, Essex, Franklin, St. Lawrence, Lewis, Herkimer, Hamilton, and War- ren counties. The mountain section culminates in Essex coun- ty, the tallest peaks being Mount Marcy, the highest land in the State (5,344 feet), Mclntyre (5,112 feet). Skylight (4,920 feet). Haystack (4,918 feet), and Dix (4,916 feet). The geological formation of the Adirondacks consists prin- cipally of crystalline rocks of the Pre-Cambrian epoch — gneisses, labradorites, and syenites. The most important mineral deposit is iron ore of the magnetite vari- ety. Building stone is quarried near Keeseville and Potsdam — ■ one a green granite, the other a valuable sandstone. Other min- eral deposits are marble and talc at Gouverneur, and graphite near Lakes Champlain and George. The physical features of the region have a general north- easterly and southwesterly trend, and are heavily scored by the Pleistocene ice sheet which trav- ersed them from north to south, covering the region with sand and boulders. Toward the west and south the country assumes the form of a great plateau, ele- vated from 1,500 to 1,800 feet above the sea; and this section has received the distinctive title of the 'Lake Region,' owing to its abundance of lakes and ponds of varying size and great beauty. The largest lakes of this region are Lake Champlain (q.v.), over 120 miles long, and from 700 feet to 15 miles wide, and Lake George (q.v.), 33 miles long, and from mile to 3 miles wide. Others are Big and Little Tupper (q.v.), Raquette (q.v.), the Fulton Chain, Blue Mountain, Schroon, and Long Lakes. In the mountain region, Lake Placid (q.v.) and the Upper and Lower Saranac Lakes are noteworthy. All of these are favorite vacation resorts, and places of summer residence, the wild beauty and healthfulness of the region constituting per- manent attractions. Much of the Adirondacks is heavily forested with red and black spruce, balsam fir, white pine, red Norway pine, hemlock, yellow and white ash, cedar, tamarack, soft maples, and other species. Above the forest line grow juniper, grasses, and mosses. The fauna include deer, hares, beaver, and partridges. In the streams and lakes are found black bass and brook trout. Salmon once lived in these wa- ters, but is now extinct. The immense watershed lying Adis Abeba 70 Adier between the Hudson and St. Law- rence Rivers is formed by the Adi- rondack Mountains, and in order to conserve the water supply the State has purchased and set apart extensive areas as a 'Forest Preserve.' Altogether, the State holds about 1,700,000 acres, nearly all lying within the limits of Adirondack Park (see Adi- rondack Park). In 1902 the Association for the Protection of the Adirondacks was permanently organized; its headquarters are in The Tribune Building, New York City, and Edward Haga- man Hall is secretary. Consult the Reports of the New York State Geologist, State Botanist, and State Forestry Commission; Bulletin of the State Museum. Adis Abeba, a'dis a-ba'ba, or Addis Abbeba (Finfini), capital of Abyssinia, in the province of Shoa, and in the midst of moun- tains, near one of the sources of the Blue Nile (alt. 10,000 feet). The town is poorly laid out, and is intersected' by deep ravines. It contains the royal palace, a series of flimsy buildings sur- rounded by walls. Telegraph lines connect it with Harar and Jiboiiti, and a railroad to Harar is projected. Here was signed the treaty of peace between Abyssinia and Italy (Oct. 26, 1896). Pop. 50,000. Ad 'it (Latin aditus, an ap- proach or access), a mining term for nearly horizontal passages which are opened for drainage purposes. Adits, in many cases, facilitate drainage by saving the cost of raising water above the outlet which they afford. Nota- ble adits are found in Cornwall, where the district of Gwennap is drained by an adit extending some 30 miles inland, and meet- ing shafts at a depth of 400 feet; in the Ernst August adit in the Harz Mountains of Germany; in the Joseph ii. adit at Schemnitz; and in the Sutro Tunnel draining the Comstock Mines in Nevada. See Mining. Ad'jective (Latin adjectivus, 'added') in grammar defines and limits the noun to which it refers, though earlier grammarians spoke of a noun-adjective (see Parts of Speech). In dyeing, 'adjective colors' are such as require to be mixed with some basis to make them permanent. In law, what relates to forms of procedure is 'adjective law,' while 'substan- tive law' is the law of the land interpreted by the courts. Adju'diea'tlon, in a general sense, is the decision of a court of law on a question of law or fact arising in an action. vSpecifically, it is the final judgment in a bank- ruptcy proceeding. See Bank- VOL. I.— Oct. '15 ruptcy; Judgment; Res Judi- cata; Adjustment of Average is a term used mainly in Marine In- surance, but also in Fire Insur- ance, to denote the ascertainment of the amount which the insured is entitled to receive under the policy, and of the proportion of the loss to be borne by each underwriter. The adjustment is generally done by the brokers or the agents of the insured, or the matter may be referred to arbi- tration. In the United States, the adjustment, to be binding, must be intended by the parties to be absolute and final. No spe- cific form is necessary; it may be made by indorsement on the pol- icy, by payment of the loss, or by the acceptance of an abandon- ment. Fraud on the part of either party will vitiate an adjustment. If one party is led into a mistake of fact by the fault of the other party, the adjustment will not bind him. See Insurance. Ad'jutant {Leptoptilus argala), a stork-like bird, common during summer in India. It stands about 5 feet high, and measures 14 or 15 feet from tip to tip of ex- tended wings. The four-sided, pointed bill is very large; the head and neck are almost bare; Adjutant. and a sausage-like pouch, some- times 16 inches long, and appar- ently connected with respiration, hangs down from the base of the neck. While feeding largely on carcasses and offal about the towns, it also fishes for living food, and sometimes devours birds and small mammals. The loose under-tail feathers are used for decorative purposes. It is protected as an efficient scav- enger in the towns of India. Adjutant, a staff officer of a post, battalion, squadron, or regi- ment, whose duties are to assist the commanding officer in the details of military work. In the U. S. Army, the adjutant of a regiment of infantry or cavalry holds the rank of captain. Each infantry regiment has three extra first lieutenants who are adju- tants of its three battalions,, and each cavalry regiment three squadron adjutants of similar rank. The tenure of office is four years, unless sooner relieved. Every army post has an adjutant detailed from the officers on duty thereat, and each artillery district has an adjutant; also each inde- pendent small command in the field. The adjutant is appointed by the commanding officer, and as- sists him in the training, disci- pline, and administration of his command. He is responsible for the proper keeping of all records and rosters of duties in his com- mand; also for the receipt and distribution of all orders from higher authority, and for the is- suance, in proper form, of all orders of his commanding offi- cers. Consult U. S. Army Regu- lations. Adjutant- General, staff officer to the commanding general, with the duty of assisting in all de- tails of the command, such as issuing orders, receiving and executing orders, dealing with reports, and regulating the de- tails of the service. All officers acting as above are called assist- ant adjutant-generals. The ad- jutant-general has the rank of major-general. There are also adjutant-generals in connection with the militia of most of the States. See Army of the United States. Consult U. S. Army Regulations. Ad'juvant, part of a prescrip- tion intended to aid the action of the base or principal drug. AdIer, iid'ler, Cyrus (1863), American Orientalist, was born in Van Buren, Ark., and was graduated from the University of Pennsylvania (1883). From 1884 to 1893 he was successively PH.D., scholar, fellow, instructor, and associate in Semitic lan- guages at Johns Hopkins Uni- versity. He was special commis- sioner of the Columbian Expo- sition to Turkey, Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco (1890-92); repre- sented the United States at the Conference on an International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, London, 1898, and is now mem- ber of its International Council; librarian of the Smithsonian In- stitution (1892-1905), and assist- ant secretary (1905-08) ; assistant curator and curator of historic Adier 71 Administration archaeology and historic relig- ions, U.S. National Museum (1888-1908). In 1908 he became president of the Dropsie College for Hebrew and Cognate Learn- ing, in Philadelphia. He is presi- dent of the American Jewish His- torical Society, of the Jewish Community of Philadelphia, and of the United Synagogue of America, and a director of the Jewish Theological Seminary. He has written: Told in the Coffee House (with Allan Ramsey, 1898) ; The Voice of America on Kishi- neff (1904); Jews in the Diplo- matic Correspondence of the Unit- ed States (1906); and numerous papers on Oriental, philological, and archaeological subjects. He was also one of the editors of The Jewish Encyclopcedia; editor of The American Jewish Year Book (1899-1905). of the Jeffer- son Bible, and of The Jewish Quarterly Review. Adler, Felix (1851), American educator, was born in Alzey, Ger- many. He came to the United States in 1857, and was graduated from Columbia University (1870). He was professor of Hebrew and Oriental languages and literature at Cornell University (1874-6); established the New York Society for Ethical Culture in 1876; and became professor of social and political ethics at Columbia in 1902. In 1908-9 he was Theodore Roosevelt exchange professor to the University of Berlin. His works include: Creed and Deed (1877); The Moral Instruction of Children (1892); Life and Des- tiny (1905); Religion of Duty (1905); Marriage and Divorce (1905); What the Ethical Culture School Stands for (with W. H. Maxwell, 1910); and several pamphlets of the National Child Labor Committee (1908-11). Adler, Friedrich (1827-1908), German architect, was born in Berlin. He travelled extensively in Europe and Asia Minor, and returned to teach in Berlin. He carried out the designs of the Christuskirche and Thomaskirche at Berlin, and made valuable re- searches into ancient architecture in connection with excavations in the Peloponnesus. Among his works are: Baugeschichtliche For- schungen in Deutschland (1870- 79) ; Die Baugeschichte von Berlin (1861); Die Weltstddte in der Baukunst (1872). Adler, Georg (1863-1908), German economist, was born in Posen. He was professor of soci- ology at the University of Basle, and professor of political econ- omy at the University of Frei- burg. He was an opponent of radicalism in social policy, and published: Karl Marxsche Krilik (1886); Inlernationaler Arheiter- VOL. I.— Oct. '15 Schutz (1888); Staat und Arheits- losigkeit (1894); Die Social-Re- form imA Iter turn ( 1 898) ; Geschichte des Socialismus und Communis- WM^ (1900); Die Bedeutung der Illusionen fiir Politik und Sociales Leben (1904). Adler, George Jakob (1821- 68), German-American lexicog- rapher, was born in Germany. Coming to New York at the age of twelve, he was graduated from New York University in 1844. From 1846 to 1854 he was pro- fessor of German there. He is best known for his German-Eng- lish Dictionary (1848) andOerman Grammar (1868). Adler, Hermann (1839-1911), Jewish rabbi, was born in Han- over, Germany, and was edu- cated at University College and at Prague and Leipzig. On the opening of the Bayswater Syna- gogue, London, in 1864, he was appointed its minister and preacher. On the death of his father Nathan, in 1889, Dr. Adler was unanimously chosen to suc- ceed him as chief rabbi of the United Hebrew congregations of the British Empire. He also served as president of the Jews' College, London. In 1909 he re- ceived the degree of c.v.o. from St. Andrews, and of Hon. d.c.l. from Oxford. He published: Ibn Gabirol and His Relatiqn to Scholastic Philosophy (1864); Jewish Reply to Dr. Colenso; Can Jews be Patriots? (1878); Anglo- J elvish Memories (1909). Adler, Jakob Georg Chris- tian (1756-1834), Danish Ori- entalist. He was one of the best Arabic scholars of his day; author of an interesting treatise on the Cufic Mss. in the University of Copenhagen (1770), and of the celebrated Novi Testamenti Ver- siones Syriacce (1789). In 1789- 93 he edited Abulfida's Chronicles in Arabic. Adler, Nathan Marcus (1803- 90), chief rabbi, was born in Hanover, Germany. Havingfilled the office of chief rabbi of the duchy of Oldenburg, and later of Han- over, he was in 1844 elected chief rabbi of London, where he per- formed an important part in the reunion of the English congrega- tions. He published Nethinah Lager, a Hebrew commentary on the Chaldee paraphrase of the Pentateuch. Adler, Samuel (1809-91), Ger- man-American rabbi, was born in Worms, and was educated at Bonn and Giessen. For fifteen years (1842-57) he was rabbi of congregations in Rhine-Hesse, when he was called to Emanu- El Temple, New York City. He was a learned scholar, and a man of advanced and progressive views. His books include: Jeww/i Conference Papers (1880); Bene- dictions (1882). Adlershof, town and summer resort, Brandenburg, Prussia; 7 miles southeast of Berlin. Pop. (1910) 10,645. Ad Lib'itum (in Italian a pia- cere, or a piacimento) is a musical term which implies that the part so marked may be performed ac- cording to the taste of the per- former, and not necessarily in strict time. When there is an accompaniment to the music thus marked, it must strictly follow the ad libitum time of the principal performer. Ad libitum also frequently means that the part for a particular instrument or instruments may be left out. Also a common expression, mean- ing 'to an indefinite extent.' Adme'tus, son of Pheres, king of Pherae in Thessaly, married Alcestis, the fairest daughter of Pelias, king of lolcos; Apollo be- coming his obedient slave either because of affection simply, or by way of punishment for slaying the Cyclopes. The god procured from the Fates (Moirae) that Admetus should be spared, if another would die for him ; and to this Alcestis, in spite of his par- ents, consented. The earlier leg- end, as in Euripides' Alcestis, says Heracles rescued her from death; the later, that his skill cured her of a dangerous malady. Administration, in politics. See Government; Local Gov- ernment. Administration, in law, is the settlement of the estate of a de- ceased person. This is effected through the agency of one who is known as the personal representa- tive, because he represents the person of the deceased in his legal relations. When designated by will, this representative is known as an executor (q.v.) ; when not so designated, as an administrator (q.v.). In either case, the per- sonal representative acquires ti- tle at once to the personal prop- erty of the deceased, subject to the obligation of paying the debts, funeral expenses, and lega- cies, so far as the assets received by him enable him to do so; or, if there be no bequests, subject in the same way to the claims of those entitled by law to the sur- plus assets. The administration of an estate comprehends every act of author- ity exercised by any one, whether rightfully ornot, over the personal estate of a decedent. It begins with the taking possession of any part of the property; it includes the collection and settlement of claims by suit or otherwise, the payment of debts and legacies, etc. ; and it does not end until the final accounting and discharge in 1. Admiral George Dcwoy. 3. Admiral David G, Farragut. 2. Admiral D. P. Porter. 4. Bear-Admiral W. T. Sampson. 5. Rear-Admiral R. D. Evans. C. Hoar-Admiral W. S. Schley. Vol. I.— Oct. '15 Administrative Law 71 B Admiralty, Board of the probate court. The adminis- tration of estates is everywhere subject to legal supervision. In the United States it is executed by probate and surrogates' courts. See Administrator; Assets; Probate; Will. Administrative Law {droit ad- ministratif) means in most Euro- pean states that special body of rules which applies to the agents of the government. The doctrine of the separation of powers, as there understood, forbids inter- ference on the part of the judi- ciary with officials of the execu- tive in the performance of their duties. Accordingly, it is the general practice that the latter can be tried only in special ad- ministrative courts where the bureaucratic element is strong. If, however, an official goes alto- gether outside the scope of his authority, he may render himself amenable to the ordinary courts. The administrative law, as car- ried out by the administrative tribunals, has in some states be- come a highly developed system. The theory of the English com- mon law, which has extended to the United vStates, is directly op- posed to any such principle as that of droit administratif. In the United States and Great Brit- ain the ordinary courts are com- petent to try all offences on the part of the government officials according to the ordinary law, though something corresponding to administrative law may be found in statutory provisions pro- tecting executive officers from vexatious interference in the exer- cise of their official duties. The term Administrative Law is also used in a less technical sense, to denote that part of law which regulates \he composition and action of inferior govern- mental agencies — e.g., the police. In this seuvse it is merely a branch of the ordinary law of the land, not a special system with rules of its own. See Executive. Administrator is the person appointed by a probate court to administer the estate of an in- testate, or of a person who has made a will but has failed to appoint an executor. In the latter case he is called an admin- istrator cum testamento annexo. If an executor dies without having distributed the estate of the testator, an administrator de bonis non is appointed — that is, of the property not yet distrib- uted. Any person competent to contract may be appointed. The husband of a deceased wife, or the wife of a deceased husband, has generally the first claim; failing whom, the next of kin of the creditors may receive the appointment. Vol. I.— Oct. '15 The duties and liabilities of an administrator correspond closely to those of an executor. He is generally obliged to give security for the due fulfilment of his office. He must file an inventory of the deceased's property; pay out- standing debts in the order of preference; and finally distribute the balance among the parties entitled thereto under direction of the court. An administrator derives his sole title from the court, and can do nothing before letters of administration are granted to him. In the event of his decease the office does not devolve on his legal representa- tives, but a new appointment must be made. In the United States, he is usually entitled by law to a commission on all moneys received and disbursed by him. See Administration. Admirable Crichton, krl'tun. See Crichton, James. Ad'miral (butterfly) . See Red Admiral. Admiral (Arabic, emir, 'com- mander'), the title of a naval officer of the highest rank. It has been in use among maritime coun- tries since the thirteenth or four- teenth century. In its earliest application in England, the title was used only for the official in supreme command of all the naval forces, and it was not until 1311 that it became of gen- eral use in application to all com- manders of fleets and squadrons. The office of Lord High Admiral seems to have been first created about 1406, and vested in John, Earl of Somerset. With the in- crease of the British fleet, the grades of vice-admiral and rear- admiral were established. Ad- mirals in command of large fleets are styled 'admirals of the fleet.' Practically all the leading navies of the world make use of the ranks of rear-admiral, vice-ad- miral, and admiral. United Stales.— In the U.S. Navy, no rank above that of cap- tain was actually conferred until 1862, when the grades of commo- dore (hitherto only a courtesy title given to the commanders of squadrons) and of rear-admiral were successively created by Con- gress and conferred upon David G. Farragut (q.v.). In 1864 the rank of vice-admiral, and in 1866 that of admiral, were established, and in each case Farragut was the first to be promoted to the new rank. After their establishment the grades of admiral and vice- admiral were held as special honorary rewards to which offi- cers might be appointed for dis- tinguished service in war. The officers who earlier attained the rank of admiral are David G. Farragut (1866-70) and David D. Porter (1870-91); those who held the rank of vice-admiral are David G. Farragut, David D. Porter, and Stephen C. Rowan. At their deaths those grades be- came extinct. For his distin- guished services in the Battle of Manila Bay (May 1, 1898), George Dewey (q.v.) was pro- moted by Congress to the high rank of 'admiral of the navy.' During recent years, the in- creasing size and importance of the American fleets have caused efforts to be made to revive the highest ranks of the Navy. These efforts were crowned with success in 1915, when the naval appropri- ation bill contained a provision that on and after June 1, 1915, the commander-in-chief of the United States Atlantic fleet, the Pacific fleet, and the Asiatic fleet shall, while serving as such, have the rank of admiral, and the offi- cer serving as second in command of those fleets shall, while serving as such, have the rank of vice- admiral. Under that provision, Frank F. Fletcher, Thomas B. Howard, and Walter Cowles were named as admirals. The new admiral's flag has a navy blue background on which four stars are arranged like the points of a diamond in the middle of the pennant. Flag officers of the Navy take rank with general officers of the Army as follows: admirals with generals, vice-admirals with lieu- tenant - generals, rear - admirals (first half of list) with major-gen- erals, and rear-admirals (second half of list) with brigadier-gen- erals. All officers of the Navy are retired after forty years' service, or at the age of sixty-two, but the age of retirement is extended for those officers who receive the thanks of Congress for specially meritorious and important ser- vices. For table of pay, see Pay Department; for personnel, see Navy, U. S. Ad'miralty, Board of, a gov- ernment department which has the management of all matters concerning the British navy. It comprises six lords commission- ers, who decide collectively on important questions. Besides this collective or corporate ac- tion, each has special duties assigned to him. There are two civil or political lords, and four naval or sea lords. The First Lord, who is always a Cabi- net minister, besides having a general control, is responsible for all business of the Admiralty, and the other members of the Board act as his assistants in the various duties which are divided among them. The only lord who necessarily resigns when the Prime Minister resigns is the Admiralty Courts 72 Adoiphu£! First Lord, yet a change of the others usually takes place. Some statesmen advocate a modified plan: proposing to appoint a few naval officers of rank as perma- nent lords of the Admiralty, and only changing the others on a change of ministry. All delicate or doubtful matters are specially reserved for the First Lord; but in the Board meetings he has only one vote, like the rest, though from his general Parliamentary responsibility he practically has both an absolute veto and an absolute power of giving action to his views. Admiralty Courts. The Eng- lish Admiralty Court (whose functions are now exercised by the Probate, " Divorce, and Ad- miralty Division of the High Court of Justice, constituted in 1873-5) was created for the purpose of trying and deciding maritime causes. In the United States, the court of original admiralty jurisdiction is the United States district court. From this court causes may be removed, in certain cases, to the circuit court, and ultimate- ly to the Supreme Court. The jurisdiction of admiralty has been extended beyond that of the English Admiralty Court. Its civil jurisdiction extends to cases of salvage, bonds of bot- tomry, respondentia, seamen's wages, seizures under the law of imposts, navigation or trade, cases of prize or ransom, charter parties, contracts of affreight- ment between different States or foreign ports, contracts for con- veyance of passengers, contracts with material men, jettisons, maritime contributions and aver- ages, pilotage, surveys of ship and cargo, and generally to all damages and trespasses occurring on the high seas. Its criminal jurisdiction extends to all crimes and offences committed on the high seas, or beyond the jurisdic- tion of any country. Courts of Admiralty, within the limits of their jurisdiction, resemble courts of equity in their practice and modes of proceeding, but are even more free from technical rules. See Maritime Law. Admiralty Inlet. (1.) East arm of Puget Sound, Washington, connecting it with the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Greatest width, 10 miles; navigable for largest ships. Seattle, Tacoma, and Port Townsend (qq.v.) are upon this inlet. (2.) Northwest opening in Tierra del Fuego; 54° s., 70° w. Admiralty Island lies off the coast of vSouthern Alaska, be- tween Chichakov and Baranov Islands, in 57° 30' N. lat., and 1.34° 15' w. long. It is about 90 miles Vol. I.— Oct. '15 long, well wooded and watered; and contains coal and copper. It is inhabited, and belongs to the United States. Admiralty Islands, a group of forty islands in the Pacific Ocean, to the northeast of New Guinea, about 2° s. lat., and 147° e. long. The largest is 60 miles long, and is mountainous but fruitful; their total area is 872 square miles. Together with New Britain and some adjoining groups, they were annexed by Germany in 1885, and were made part of the Bismarck Archipelago (q.v.). Admiralty Law. See Mari- time Law. Admiralty Sound separates Tierra del Fuego from the main- land of South America. It is 43 miles long and 7 miles wide, and constitutes a southern extension of Magellan Strait. Admission, in criminal law, is any confession, tacit or express, made by an accused person of his guilt, or of any fact or cir- cumstance relevant to the proof thereof. Such admissions are not valid evidence unless shown to have been made freely and voluntarily, and not extorted by threat or promise by any person in authority. In civil pro- ceedings, every allegation of fact in the pleading of one party, if not specifically denied in the pleading of the other, or at least stated to be not admitted, is in general held to be admitted. Further, as relevant admissions against a party it is permissible to prove any statement, act, or omission of his, which suggests an inference as to any fact in issue. For example, it is allow- able to prove that an opponent has attempted to suborn wit- nesses, as this suggests that he knew his case was fraudulent. On the other hand, statements made or acts committed under illegal compulsion are not admis- sible as evidence. Admissions may sometimes be relevant, though made by an- other than the party directly in- volved. Thus, the statements of a ship owner may be proved against the master, who is suing on his behalf; those of one partner against another; those of an agent against his principal. A solicitor or counsel engaged in the conduct of a case has authority to make admissions which, while they stand, are conclusive against the client. In certain cases, however, the court may allow admissions made by those repre- senting a party to be withdrawn, if the interests of justice so re- quire. See Confession; Evi- dence. Admoni'tlonlsts, in English history, were the supporters of a Puritan memorial called An Admonition to the Parliament, issued by two clergymen about 1572; and also of a second docu- ment, which similarly urged the advantages of the Presbyterian method of ecclesiastical govern- ment as opposed to that of the Church of England. Adoa, Adowa, ii'do-a. See Adua. Adobe, a-do'ba (Spanish; An- glicized into doby, plural dobies, in New Mexico), the sun-dried brick of Spanish America, first used by the Indians of Mexico and Peru, and introduced into the Southwestern United States by the Spaniards. The clay, with hay or dried grass sometimes added, is trodden to the proper consistency, moulded into bricks 18x9x4 inches, or 16x12x4 inches, or smaller, and hardened by exposure to the sun. The bricks are adapted for use in arid and tropical climates, but lack the coherence necessary to resist moisture. Similar brick, fre- quently mixed with straw, was used in ancient Egypt and As- syria. The term is also applied to the clay from which the brick is made. Adoles'cence (Latin adoles- centia, from adolesce, 'to grow') means the state of growing, and is used almost exclusively of human beings to denote the period of youth — that is, the period be- tween puberty and full growth: for men, stretching from four- teen to twenty-five years of age; for women, from twelve to twenty-one. The development of the organs of reproduction which takes place during this period is commonly accompanied in both sexes by general physical and mental instability, due to new functioning of the body and the widening of the sphere of the feelings and desires. At this time, too, when the diseases of child- hood are losing, and those of ma- turity are gaining, in power, the boy or girl is peculiarly liable to the lighter forms of both. Ado- lescence is the crucial period in the development of character, the whole future depending on how the newly acquired powers are organized and directed. See Pu- berty; Hygiene. Consult Hall's Adolescence (2 vols., 1904). Adol'phus, or Adolph (?1255- 98), king of Germany, was elected king of the Romans on the death of Rudolph of Hapsburg (1292), but, disgusted with the German princes, he formed an alliance with England. He accepted money from the latter, but failed to supply the help against France to which he had pledged himself. For seizing Meissen and other 4donai 73 Adoration districts Adolphus was sum- moned before the assembled princes, and, refusing to obey the summons, was deposed in 1298. In the same year he was killed in battle with his successor, Al- brecht. Adonal, a Hebrew name for God. Adon means 'lord,' and Adonai is probably a 'plural of excellence.' The final i means 'my,' but the original possessive signification came to be ignored, as in 'monsieur,' 'madonna.' See Jehovah. Adonai Shomo. See Com- munistic Societies. Adoni, or Adwani, town, province of Madras, India; 64 miles from Bellary. It has cot- ton and silk manufactures, espe- cially carpets. Pop. 30,000. Adonic Verse consists of a dactyl and a trochee, and was so called because the songs sung at the festival of Adonis (q. v.) were written in this metre. Adonijali. (1.) The fourth son of David, king of Israel, was the next heir to the throne on the death of Absalom, but was set aside in favor of Solomon, who caused him to be put to death (1 Kings ii. 22) on the charge of conspiring for the crown. (2.) A Levite teacher to the Judaeans (2 Chron. xvii. 8). (3.) One of the 'chiefs of the people' after the Captivity (Neh. x. 16). Adonis, a beautiful youth be- loved by Aphrodite. He was slain by a boar while hunting, and the goddess, coming too late to his rescue, changed his blood into flowers. Her grief was so great that Pluto, the god of Hades, allowed him to spend six months of every year on earth. A yearly festival was celebrated in honor of Adonis, and con- sisted of two parts — a mourning for his departure to the under world, and a rejoicing for his re- turn to Aphrodite. The myths connected with Adonis belong originally to the East. They display a worship of nature con- joined with that of the heavenly bodies, and Adonis himself ap- pears to be the god of the solar year. Adonis, a small genus of the Ranunculaceae. A. autumnalis (Pheasant's Eye), found in Euro- pean cornfields, is about 12 inches high; flower terminal, small, and bright scarlet with a black centre flowers in autumn. A larger- flowered variety is cultivated in gardens as Flos Adonis. A. ver- nalis has large yellow flowers, opening in early spring. Adonis Gardens, small jars containing lettuce and other quickly growing plants, used by the Greeks in their annual fes- tival of Adonis; typical of short- lived beauty. Plato (Phced., 276) and Shakespeare (1 Henry VI. 1. 6) allude to them; and Isa. xvii. 10 (R. V. margin) reads 'plant- ings of Adonis.' Adoptianism, a heretical doc- trine regarding the person of Christ, allied to the tenets of Nestorius, which, arising in a crude form in the fourth century, was recast toward the close of the eighth century, and main- tained in Spain by Elipandus, archbishop of Toledo, and by Felix, bishop of Urgel. These held that Christ was the Son of God only in His divine nature; in His human nature He was, like the rest of humanity, but a child of God, becoming the Son by adoption. Charlemagne summoned various synods (Rat- isbon, 792; Frankfort, 794; Aix- la-Chapelle, 799) to deal with Felix and his teaching. Adop- tianism was condemned, and Fe- lix deprived of his bishopric. Its ablest opponent was the Eng- lish monk Alcuin. The subject remained under discussion, first by the schoolmen, to be revived by Georgius Calixtus of Helm- stadt, and finally by Johannes Major in Jena (1656). Adoption, in law, is the ad- mission of a child, not the lawful issue of the adopter, to the legal rights and privileges of a son or daughter. In the United States, the common law makes no provi- sion for adoption, and the prac- tice is therefore based on statutes in the several States. The regu- lations governing adoption vary considerably, requiring judicial proceedings, or at least an order of the court, in some States, while it may be effected by a deed of adoption in other States. In all cases, however, the status of the adopted person is substantially that of a child born in lawful wedlock. (See Parent and Child.) Adoption, or the admission of an alien to the full rights and privileges of a gens or family, is a practice of very ancient date. Its primary motive was that of strengthening the influence of the clan; and it is to this custom that Sir Henry Maine traces the beginning of civilization, for it was by this means that tribal life developed into federal and national life. The law of adoption fills an important chapter in Roman law, where the practice was not lim- ited to the adoption of children. A person alieni juris (i. e., under the patria potestas of another) entering a new family was adopted by means of a threefold fictitious sale {mancipatio) . If the stranger was sui juris (his own master, free of patria potes- tas), he entered the new family by arrogation, which in ancient times was effected by a vote in the comitia, who jealously watched such proceedings, lest the last of a gens should arrogate himself, and its sacra be lost. Simpler modes of arrogation and adoption were employed in later times, especially by Justinian, who decreed that unless the adopter was an ascendant, the person adopted should not pass out of his natural family. Exogamy, the custom of tak- ing a wife from an alien tribe, still invariable in some savage races, is one form of adoption; and among the Somalis of Northeast Africa such exogam- ous marriages, which are only of occasional occurrence, are avow- edly made for the purpose of obtaining immunity from the blood feud existing between the rival tribes. 'Blood brother- hood' between men of different race, symbolized by an exchange or transfusion of blood, is held to make them thenceforth actual kinsmen. Transferred into religious usage from its usual and legal signifi- cance, the term adoption is em- ployed by Paul to designate the new filial relation subsisting be- tween Christians and the Father. In the Bible the word does not occur outside the letters of Paul; it is rare in Greek literature, but is found with great frequency in inscriptions of the Hellenistic period. Adoration (Latin ad, 'to,' 05, 'the mouth'), among the Ro- mans, was the act of kissing the hand and waving it toward some person or object as a sign of deep reverence. The kissing of a sovereign's hand or of the cross on the Pope's slipper is the mod- ern form of this practice. In our time, adoration denotes a mental attitude of worshipping devotion to God. The Roman Catholic Church recognizes three kinds of wor- ship: (1) latria, the worship due to God alone; (2) dulia, the hon- or paid to angels and saints or relics and images of the saints; (3) hyper dulia, the veneration of the Virgin Mary. Adoration of the Cross is a special ceremony carried out on Good Friday. Adoration of the Host is the su- preme act in the celebration of the Mass. In Christian art and archaeol- ogy an Adoration is a representa- tion of the adoration of the In- fant Jesus by the Magi. It has been the subject of many pic- tures. Adorf 74 Adrian dl Castello Adorf, town, Prussian Saxony; 65 miles south of Leipzig. It manufactures cottons and moth- er-of-pearl goods. Pop. (1910) 7,861. Adour (ancient Aturus), river, France, drains the west half of the northern slopes of the Pyre- nees and flows to the Bay of Bis- cay. It passes through Dax and Bayonne; receives on the right the Midouze, on the left the Gave de Pau. It is navigable for about 80 miles. Length, 207 miles. Adowa. See Adua. Adra {Abdera or Abdora of the Phoenicians), port in Almeria, Spain; 8 miles from Berja, on the Mediterranean. It has cane- sugar industry, lead mining, and exports grapes. Pop. 12,000. Adrammelech. (1.) A form of the sun god worshipped by the inhabitants of Sepharvaim (2 Kings xvii. 31), and introduced into Samaria by the Sepharvite colonists. (3.) A son of Sen- nacherib, king of Assyria (2 Kings xix. 37; Isa. xxxvii. 38). Adramyti (Turkish Edremid), town, western coast of Asia Minor, opposite Mitylene, amid rich olive groves. To the east lay the ancient Adramyttium. Pop. 6,000. Adrar. See Rio de Oro. Adrastus, king of Argos, whose daughter married Poly- nices of Thebes, who had been exiled from his native city by his brother Eteocles. He led the ex- pedition of the 'Seven against Thebes, ' but was the only one that survived, as Amphiaraus had foretold. Ten years later he led the six sons of the heroes to a new attack on Thebes — the war of the Epigoni ("descendants'). This time the attack was success- ful, but a son of Adrastus fell in the struggle, and the father im- mediately died of grief. Adrenalin. One of the most important advances in pharma- cology and therapeutics in re- cent years has been the discovery of adrenalin, the active principle of the suprarenal glands. These glands have been shown to con- tain a body which possesses a very powerful action on the or- ganism, and which the glands normally secrete into blood ves- sels. The active principle was discovered about the same time by a Japanese scientist, Taka- mine, and an American investi- gator, Abel. When very small doses are in- troduced into the system there is a great increase in the blood pressure, with a slowing and strengthening of the heart beat, these results being due chiefly to a profoundly stimulating action on the non-striped muscle in the walls of the blood vessels, but also to a stimulating effect on the heart and vasomotor centre. As a result of the constriction of the blood vessels the parts supplied by them become blanched. An extremely minute dose suffices to produce this effect if injected in- to the vein; more is required for subcutaneous injection; and much more to produce the effect by oral administration. It pro- duces its effect when locally applied to different mucous mem- branes, such as the conjunctiva, nasal and uterine mucous mem- brane, but it has no action on the unbroken skin. Its action is, as a rule, of short duration. A re- markable feature is that the ves- sels of the lungs are in no way influenced by this active prin- ciple. Another striking feature is the occurrence of glycosuria, due to an increased production of sugar by the liver; the mechan- ism of this is not fully under- stood. The uses of adrenalin are many, and of very great value. If directly applied to a bleeding surface it is a most valuable haemostatic, and is so used for bleedings from the uterus, nose, bladder, and eye. A solution of a strength of 1 ::o 5,000 to 10,- 000 suffices for this purpose; and in the case of bleeding from the nose it is often applied in the form of a spray. The complete local bloodlessness induced by it is also of great value to the surgeon, more especially in op- erations on the nose and eye. For this purpose it is often com- bined with cocaine and other local anaesthetics. Locally applied it is of value in hay fever. It is also valuable as a rapidly acting stimulant in heart failure due to shock, more especially in chloro- form poisoning. In a few cases the internal administration of adrenalin has proven of value in Addison's Disease, but as a rule it has been inefficacious in the treatment of this disease. See Addison's Disease; Suprare- nal Glands. Adria, town, Rovigo prov- ince, Italy, between the Rivers Po and Adige; 20 miles by rail southwest of Chioggia. It was an important seaport of the Etruscans, and was formerly on the Adriatic, to which sea it gave its name, but from which it is now 14 miles distant. Here, in 213 B.C., the Romans built a large port, which flourished until the twelfth century; but the con- tinual deposition of alluvium on the eastern coast of Italy gradually separated it from the sea. Pop. 16,000. Adrian, city, Michigan, coun- ty seat of Lenawee county, on the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern, the Detroit, Toledo, and Ironton, and the Wabash Railroads; 73 miles southwest of Detroit. It is well furnished with water power, commands the trade of a large grain-growing region, and has several factories, especially flour and planing mills. Adrian College, the State Indus- trial Home for Girls, and St. Joseph's Academy (R. C.) are situated here. Pop. (1900) 9,654; (1910) 10,763. Adrian, Emperor of Rome. See Hadrianus. Adrian, the name of six popes of the Roman Catholic Church. Adrian i. (772-95) obtained the help of Charlemagne against Didier, king of the Lombards, and was visited at Rome by the great monarch, whom he after- ward eulogized in Latin verse. Adrian ii. (867-72) took part in the struggles between Louis II. and Charles the Bald, and freely used against his opponents the terrors of excommunication. During his term of office the schism between the Eastern and Western Churches began. Adrian hi. (884-5) passed a decree restraining the Emperor Charles iii. from interfering with the papal election. Adrian iv. (1154-9), Nicholas Breakspeare, was the only Eng- lish pope. He was born at Langley, near St. Albans; en- tered a French house as a menial, but rose to be its abbot. The canons' complaints of his sever- ity resulted in his election as cardinal (1146), and in his mis- sion to the Scandinavian king- doms; after which, owing to his success as Apostle of the North, he was made Pope (1154). Ad- rian's pontificate was a constant struggle for the supremacy which Frederick i. stubbornly claimed. Adrian v. (1276) held office only for a month. Adrian vi. (1522-3) had held office as canon of St. Peter's, pro- fessor of theology, dean of the Church of Louvain, bishop of Tortosa, cardinal (1517), tutor to Charles v., ambassador to Ferdinand of Spain, and regent of Spain during the minority of Charles v. He tried to arrest the progress of the Reformation in Germany. Adrian dl Castello (1460?- 1521?), Italian cardinal, who was English ambassador at Rome, and held the bishopric of Here- ford and of Bath and Wells. He was implicated in the plot to poison Leo x., and was de- graded (1518). He wrote poems and philosophical works. Adrianople 74 A Adularia Adrianople, ad-ri-an-5'p'l, former vilayet of European Tur- key. It is chiefly an agricultural region, producing grain, tobacco, wool, cheese, eggs, skins, and milk. Most of the vilayet lies in the territory ceded to the Bal- kan allies in 1913. Area, 14,822 square miles. Pop. 1,-500,000. Adrianople (Turkish Edirne; ancient Uskudama or Orestia), city, capital of the vilayet of the same name, in that part of European Turkey which was ceded to the Balkan allies by the Treaty of London (May, 191.3) ; on the Oriental Railways, and on the left bank of the Mar- itza, at its confluence with the Tunja; 137 miles by rail north- west of Constantinople. The principal edifices are the beauti- ful mosque built by the Sultan Selim II., the Serai (palace), the Michael bridge (built by Byzan- tine emperors) , a modern railroad station (1912), and a great ba- zaar for the products of the vicinity, especially cereals and wine. The city is an important centre of commerce. There are carpet factories, distilleries, tan- neries, and manufactures of textiles and perfumes. Pop. (1912) 83,000. The name Adrianople dates from the second century, when the Emperor Hadrian enlarged and beautified the town (hence Hadrianopolis) . It was cap- tured by the Turks in 1361, and was the capital of the Ottoman empire until 1453 — i. e., pre- vious to the capture of Con- stantinople. It was occupied by the Russians in 1829, and here, in September of that year, was signed the Treaty of Adrianople, which concluded the war between Russia and Turkey. In the war of 1877—8 it was again occupied by the Russians. It was after- ward strongly fortified by a line of defences 24 miles in circum- ference; and the construction of outworks in 1909 made it one of the strongest positions in the country. In 1912-13, with a garrison of 50.000 men under Shukri Pasha, Adrianople sustained for five months a siege by the Bulgarians and Servians; but it finally sur- rendered after a three days' as- sault, on March 26, 1913. King Ferdinand of Bulgaria entered the town two days later. After conflicting territorial claims had resulted in hostilities between Bulgaria and the other Balkan allies in July, Adrianople was re- captured by the Turks. It was then declared in Constantinople that Adrianople was within the new confines of European Turkey. See. Balkan War. Adrian, Saint, a'dri-an (a.d. 300), one of the soldier-saints of the early Christian Church. A member of the Praetorian Guard, Vol. 1. — March, '20 he was converted through his admiration for the steadfastness of certain Christian martyrs, and was beheaded after torture. His wife, Natalia, was canonized with him, their day of commemora- tion being Sept. 8. Adriatic Sea, a'dri-at'ik or ad'ri-at'ic {Mare Adriatico) , or Gulf of Venice, an arm of the Mediterranean, extending from Venice for 460 miles southeast to the Strait of Otranto (less than 40 miles wide), lies between the low, sandy beaches of Italy on the west and the rocky cliffs, islands, and inlets of Dalmatia and Albania on the east. Its general breadth is about 90 miles. The depth on the south is from 550 to 860 fathoms, and industriously worked; sponge fishing has recently been im- proved by artificial propagation. The principal ports are Brindisi, Ancona, and Venice, Trieste, Pola. and Fiume, Corfu, Zante, Vostitza, Patras, and Kala- mata. The annual wedding of the Doge to the sea on Ascen- sion Day, a ceremony instituted in 1174, symbolized the mari- time basis of Venetian prosper- ity. Consult F. H. Jackson's The Shores of the Adriatic — The Italian Side (1906), The Aus- trian Side (1908). Adua, a'dwa, Adoa, or Adowa, city, Abyssinia; 150 miles north- east of Gondar, and 120 miles southwest of Massowah. It is an important centre for trade The Adriatic Sea. shoaling to 4 fathoms inshore and 36 fathoms in the centre of the northern part. The color is green, darker than that of the Mediterranean; the water is very salty. Tides are almost absent except at Venice and in the Strait of Otranto. A current runs up the east coast and down the west. Navigation is easy for steamers, but frequent heavy gales make it dangerous for sailing vessels. The Italian coast is well popu- lated, with many small harbors artificially enlarged for the busy trade in agricultural produce. The Dalmatian coast is inhos- pitable; provisions and even fresh water are scarce. The fisheries of the Adriatic are rich, between the coast and the in- terior. The railway line from Massowah to Gondar passes through it. Here Menelik in- flicted a crushing defeat on the Italian forces on March 1, 1896. Altitude over 6,300 feet. Pop. 3,000. Adularia, ad-u-la'ri-a, a clear, transparent, glassy form of pot- ash feldspar (see Orthoclase) which is found mainly in the crevices of crystalline schists and gneisses, often in perfect crystals. It has sometimes a pearly, opal- escent reflection or play of colors. Like albite (q. v.), a similar variety of feldspar, adularia is often employed as a semi-precious stone under the name moonstone. See Feldspar; Oligoclase. Adults 74 B Adult Education Adulis, a-dii-le', or Adule, town and territory claimed by the French on the west coast of the Red Sea; 30 miles southeast of Massowah. It comprises ZuUa or Sula (ancient Adulis), with its bay (Annesley Bay), and the islands of Dessi and Ouda. Here was found in the sixth century the Monumentum Adulilanum, a Greek inscription of the con- quests of Ptolemy ii. Euergetes. In the Abyssinian War (1868) it was the British base. AduUam, a-dul'am, a cave, or rather 'stronghold,' on the Phil- istine border of Judah, in which David and four hundred refugees and outlaws took shelter — 'every one that was in distress, and every one that was in debt, and every one that was discontented,' Consult 1 Sam. xxii. Adul'lamites, a term applied to those English Liberals — Lowe was the most notable of about forty — who in 1866 seceded from Russell and Gladstone on the question of Parliamentary re- form, and voted with the Con- servatives. The group was known also as 'the Cave,' in ref- erence to its likeness to the band of political outlaws who took refuge with David in the cave of Adullam (q. v.). Adult Education. Public provision for education in a dem- ocratic state cannot be con- sidered complete until adequate opportunity for study, research, and intellectual life is offered to all the people, irrespective of age or social or occtipational status. The fundamental principles un- derlying the movement are stated by the British Adult Education Committee as follows: 1. The main purpose of educa- tion is to fit a man for life, and therefore in a civilized communi- ty to fit him for his place as a member of that community. 2. The goal of all education must be citizenship. 3. In a democracy citizenship must be defined as including intelligent and active participation in the life of the state. 4. The capacity to de- velop an open habit of mind and to absorb essential facts on all questions of the relations of man to man in actual society is prac- tically universal. 5. The neces- sary conclusion is that adult education is a permanent nation- al necessity, and should be both universal and lifelong. 6. The opportunity for adult education should be spread uniformly and systematically over the entire community. 7. Intelligent pub- lic opinion can be created only by a long, thorough, universal process of education continu- ing throughout the life of the adult. England claims to have been the pioneer in the modern move- ment, with a history that can be Vol. L — March, '20 traced at least to the eighteenth century. The religious revival, natural science, and political radicalism all contributed to the early move- ment. Adult schools were founded early in the eighteenth century by the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowl- edge. The Society of Friends and other denominations and societies established schools in- tended chiefly for religious in- struction, but also in part for secular studies. Natural science and industrial revolution called forth the demand for Mechanics Institutes for the instruction of mechanics, first established in 1799, for the popularization and application of physical science. These institutes with the Me- chanics Magazine exerted a great influence until the middle of the nineteenth century. Political radicalism, under the leadership of Robert Owen and William Lovell wrote the philoso- phy of the movement, and estab- lished on a firm foundation a system of adult 'civic education.' The first People's College at Sheffield was founded in 1842. The Christian Socialists under the lead of Frederick D. Maurice, John Ruskin, and Charles Kings- ley took up the movement for the establishment of organic educa- tion, at once humane and social, not so much a system of instruc- tion as a 'way of life shared by student and teacher.' The Roch- dale Pioneers and the other co- operatives were the first and chief working-class bodies that consistently and persistently stood for humane education as essential to the establishment and preservation of democracy. University extension started at Cambridge University in 1873, with a clear conception of a peri- patetic university for working men and for women. Although suffering from insufficient sup- port, the movement was moder- ately successful from the first. In 1903, at the instance of a group of workingmen, the tutor- ial class system was devised to overcome the shortcomings of the lecture system, and the Workers Educational Association was or- ganized, chiefly by working-class organizations, to provide con- tinued support of the enterprise. The new system has been called the most promising educational movement in England to-day, and has its significance in being a practical alliance of the uni- versities, labor organizations, and the state educational boards, in furthering a thorough system of adult working-class education. The tutorial class system pro- vides a serious and continuous course of study, usually of three years' duration and grade. It includes essay work and original study. One-year courses are also provided. Summer residen- tial schools at the universities provide for tutorial students the advantages of academic life and associations. The course of study has been consistently liber- al, being devoted chiefly to eco- nomic, government, and other subjects of particular importance to the labor movement. There has been evidenced a strong an- tagonism to vocational training. This is of particular signifi- cance as the courses are deter- mined by the preferences of the working-class students. The as- sociation has over 2,700 support ■ ing societies, over 14,000 mem- bers, and over 200 branches. In 1919 there were conducted over 150 courses with nearly 4,000 students. The movement has spread to Australia, New Zea- land, and recently to Canada. In Australia alone there are over 3,000 student members. Ad- ministrative costs are met partly by university and public grants. The ideals of the association are briefly summed up in its motto that education is not a ladder from gutter to university, but a public highway on which all are free to walk. England has nine labor col- leges. Not all of these are strictly of college grade, but two are residential colleges to which students are sent largely by supporting scholarships of trade unions. The Working Men's College, London (founded 1854), and Ruskin College, Oxford (founded 1899), have a chief function in the higher training of trade union officials. The Labor College, London (founded 1909), is for training for radical labor propaganda. Some of the labor colleges are more nearly evening schools, and some are educational social settlements. Adult education in England is firmly established, and has won a large measure of support from the working people, the universi- ties and the state. Its chief handicaps have been inadequate financial support, and prevailing industrial conditions. A serious attempt is being made to con- sider the entire subject of adult education, with the view of its establishment as a permanent part of the national educational system. The Adult Education Committee of the Ministry of Reconstruction has issued four important reports, and has not hesitated to recommend radical economic and social changes in order that education may be- come, in fact, free and popular as is the public highway. The committee recommends as a first step the doing away with condi- tions that stand in the way of the development of adult education — long hours of labor, overstrain, Adult Education 75 Adult Education monotonous work, bad working and living conditions. The committee further recom- mends that the facilities for higher education be brought within the reach of the inhabi- tants of' every town and village; that the opportunity for adult education be spread uniformly and systematically over the whole community; that the scope of adult education be broadened to include a larger provision for science, modern language, litera- ture, music, drama, craftsman- ship and the like; that the part of the university in providing extra-rural adult education be greatly increased, residential summer schools largely de- veloped, and that adequate op- portunities be estabHshed for the training of civil servants, teach- ers, trade union officials and other groups; that local authori- ties develop systems of adult education to meet local needs, establish evening institutes as centres of popular education and social life, and local colleges as centres for more serious study; that voluntary associa- tions and groups be greatly en- couraged; and that in rural dis- tricts village halls be erected to house village institutes, the cost to be met chiefly by national grant. Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Denmark has in its People's High Schools a well, de- veloped system for the education of adult young people, mostly from the rural districts. Of these schools there are 80 in Denmark, 45 in Sweden, and 24 in Norway. About half give a purely liberal course of study, while some are chiefly agricul- tural, and others offer vocational courses. They are residential schools with a one and two years* course of study. Winter courses of 6 months are provided for young men, and summer sessions of 5 months for young women. The men frequently spend one winter at the liberal schools, and follow this with a second at one of the agricultural schools. It is estimated that from one-third to one-fourth of the entire rural population of Denmark have at some time attended the People's Schools. The annual attendance is over 8,000. The cost of tui- tion is kept very low, and a part of the expense is met by state grant. France. — In France consider- able provision is made by the state system of education for the vocational training of adults. Non-vocational education of adults is provided chiefly, as in all Latin countries, by 'popular universities,' which are private associations for the mutual im- provement and education of the people of every condition. Vol. I. — March, '20 The Germanic countries had before the war a considerable system of adult schools. Under the leadership of the elder Lieb- knecht and the Social Demo- cratic party, there was organized a considerable activity in edu- cational matter.<^ by both the so- cialist and labor movements. In Russia, since the revolu- tion of 1917, both the Provisional and Soviet authorities have en- couraged the establishment of elementary and other schools for adults, and 'people's universities.' Local Soviets have made large appropriations for adult schools. China is the last country to attempt national provision for adult education. A Society for the Promotion of National Edu- cation, founded in 1919, plans to establish free courses for adults at industrial establish- ments, and to promote the dif- fusion of general information, social and civic instruction, and health and sanitary information. United States.— The United States ranks first among the na- tions in the provision and finan- cial support of adult education. Indeed in these matters it is probable that it has more to show than all the rest of the world together. The early history of educa- tional extension is treated else- where (see University Exten- sion). The modern movement dates from 1907, when the Uni- versity of Wisconsin began its plan of carrying information directly to all the people of the State. The faults of the earlier extension movement were chiefly that it did not in practice provide facilities for consecutive and advanced study. The modern movement has enriched the cur- riculum until it is often as truly universal as that taught on the campus, and in some respects offers a much wider service. University extension has proved wonderfully resourceful in devising new educational methods and devices. Corre- spondence study, extension class study, club study, lectures, ex- hibits, visual instruction, adviso- ry mail instruction, directed reading courses, demonstrations, printed courses, commercial short courses, teacher's training courses are a few of the established meth- ods. The public welfare service furnishes general information on any subject, package and travel- ling libraries; promotes debate work, current topics study, com- munity drama, pageants, and music, library extension, art ex- hibitions, community and special institutes, community centres, Americanization work; and con- ducts conferences, investigations and surveys of State, municipal, or social problems and condi- tions. In this service the uni- versity breaks definitely with the tradition of academic remoteness, and becomes a potent instrument of social and civic betterment. It aims to co-operate with of- ficial and voluntary groups in community improvement, and to promote a sound public opinion in support of American institu- tions and ideals. Much of this service is effected through the furnishing of experts to advise local communities, associations, or groups in the best solution of their community problems. Specialized service has been developed for the promotion of agriculture, engineering, and commercial subjects. Co-opera- tive work by the U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture (q. v.) and the State Agricultural Depart- ments, Agricultural Colleges, and experiment stations is carried on through 7,500 special agents, and local bureaus, and brings expert knowledge and advice to practically every man and woman engaged in agriculture. Engi- neering experiment service in some States performs much the same service for the great engi- neering industries and their em- ployees. Some idea of the present im- portance of the movement can be had from the following statistics. There are said to be in the en- tire United States two students in university extension classes for every one in residence on a college or university campus. In 1917-18 there were reported nearly 100,000 extension students enrolled in 69 institutions in 42 States. Nearly, 1,000,000 per- sons attended extension lectures; 3,000,000 were reached by edu- cational moving pictures and slides; 900,000 by debates and discussions; 263,000 by institutes and conferences; and 59,000 re- quests for special information and advice were answered. During the first half of 1919 there was in operation a Federal Division of Educational Exten- sion, designed to relate and sup- port the extension work of the several States, and to continue some of the most important edu- cational activities called out by the war. Congress has as yet failed to permit the continuation of this work by the necessary legislation and appropriations, but there can be little doubt that the Federal government will soon support general educational extension in the same liberal way that it now supports agricultural extension and vocational educa- tion. Many American trade unions have schools for the vocational training of their apprenticed members. Non-vocational schools are maintained by the International Ladies Garment Workers Union in New York and Adulteration 75 A Adulteration Philadelphia, by the Boston Cen- tral Labor Union (Trade Union College), by the Chicago Federa- tion of Labor in co-operation with the Women's Trade Union League. After a study of these schools, the American Federation of Labor in 1919 voted to under- take a campaign for the general establishment of public adult schools for workers. It favors a liberal education for adult schools as in other parts of the public educational system, and fears the dangers of a too narrow interpretation of voca- tional studies. The Y. M. C. A. has enrolled in its educational schools and classes over 80,000 different students, a considerable pro- portion of whom are adults. The educational plan of the as- sociation ranges from the at- tempt to guide reading in libra- ries to the provision of an elabo- rate course of study in the large and important evening classes. (See Young Men's Christian Association.) The Knights of Columbus have recently initiated a plan of adult business and voca- tional education on somewhat similar lines. Adult education has already been established as an impor- tant and permanent part of pub- lic education. It has developed adequate and effective methods of instruction peculiar to its field. It has called forth a large body of support from all sorts and conditions of men. It is at present the area of educa- tion in process of the most rapid development. There is in evi- dence a widespread and per- sistent demand that it receive from the State and Nation ade- quate support and assistance, and that it be universally de- veloped as the crown of the public educational system. Bibliography. — Consult Bul- letins of the World Association for Adult Education; M. E. Sadler's Continuation Schools in England and Elsewhere; H. W. Foght's Rural Denmark and Its Schools (191.5); Year Book of the Workers' Educational Associa- tion (1918); Reports of the British Adult Education Com- mission (1918-19); A. G. Klein's A dministration of Correspond- ence-Study Departments of Uni- versities and Colleges (U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin 56, 1919). Adulteration (Latin adulter- are, 'to debase,' 'to corrupt,' 'to render impure'), a term applied generally to the practice of add- ing cheaper substances to arti- cles of commerce, or of abstract- ing from them one or more of their valuable ingredients for separate sale, with the purpose of making a greater profit. While all adulterations are to be Vol. I. — March, '20 condemned on the ground of fraud, the adulteration of food and drugs, as affecting the health and nutrition of the com- munity, is held to be the most serious offence. The evil of food adulteration is a very old one. Pliny tells us of one article which was so ex- tensively adulterated in his time that even the wealthier mem- bers of the community could not obtain it in a state of purity, and in both Athens and Rome laws and inspection were re- quired to safeguard the purity of wine. In the United States practi- cally nothing was done officially to prevent food adulteration un- til about 1880. In 1881 the Division of Chemistry of the U. S. Department of Agriculture began a series of investigations. In 1883 the first practical food inspection law was enacted by Massachusetts; and by 1906, when the national Pure Food and Drug Law (q. v.) was passed, 25 States had special regulations as to the purity and methods of labelling foods and drugs. Among the more common adulterations of food which still exist are chicory (often in harm- ful quantity) in ground coffee; plum and other leaves in tea; suet in cheese; tallow and cotton- seed oil in lard; starch and glu- cose in jellies and jams; gelatine and boric acid in cream; peanut and. cotton-seed oil in olive oil; poisonous copper salts in canned green peas, string beans, and spinach; sugar, saccharin, and starch in canned corn; glucose and invert sugar in honey; rye, corn, and wheat flour in buck- wheat flour; alum and acid phos- phate, ground gypsum and terra alba, in cream of tartar and baking powders. The fat or 'butter' of cocoa is sometimes removed, and the residue ground with cedar saw- dust, cocoa shells, and iron oxide for cheap brands of break- fast cocoa. Ground spices may be heavily adulterated with ground cocoanut shells, buck- wheat hulls, corn meal, almond shells, and olive pits. In the case of ginger, a recent sample was found to be mixed with powdered stems of cloves, cayenne pepper, rice, potato, and wheat flour, with turmeric added to give it the proper color. Wines offer a fertile field for adulteration — glucose, resins, and coloring matters being freely used, with the addition of car- bonic acid gas in the case of 'champagne.' Extract of soap bark is sometimes added to beer and beverages to give them a more enduring 'bead.' At one time wheat flour was largely mixed with corn flour; but this adulteration has been stopped by the energetic enforcement of the Federal mixed flour law. Prior to the enactment of the United States law of 1848 govern- ing the importation of adulter- ated and spurious drugs, medi- cines, and chemicals, no de- pendence could be placed on the strength or purity of any of these important articles. Roots, barks, and herbs were imported after the valuable ingredients had been extracted, and the refuse stained or coated to ap- pear fresh. Opium was often robbed of two-thirds of its active principles; and quinine was heavily adulterated with salicin made from willow bark. The excuses which have been urged in extenuation of adultera- tions are numerous, and in some cases plausible. Many articles of food are prepared and sold in an adulterated form under the claim of popular demand. Thus it is said that certain preserved vegetables must possess a green hue in order to be accepted by the public. For example, peas do not retain their natural color when preserved, and therefore the manufacturers of these arti- cles color them with verdigris (copper acetate) or other salt of copper. Sauces and preserved meats are dyed red; butter and cheese are tinted yellow; bread is whitened. Again it is asserted that some forms of adulteration — or ad- mixture, as it is less harshly called — are quite allowable be- cause they are deemed to be im- provements. Thus it is main- tained that to mix chicory with coffee is commendable, as the compound is regarded by many as superior to pure coffee. A third form of excuse asserts that certain things must be mixed with others in order to in- sure their preservation — as corn starch with baking powder, or lime with table salt. Another excuse is that it is impossible to supply pure articles at the cur- rent price. Finally, we have the plea advanced that in many cases adulteration does no harm — as in the addition of water to milk or whiskey; therefore to dilute those substances cannot be re- garded as a criminal act. It is possible that one unac- quainted with the facts might prefer bright green peas to those of a yellow tint. If, however, he were informed that the bright, fresh-looking article owed its attractive appearance to the presence of a poisonous copper salt, it is hardly probable that he would still elect to be supplied with it. As to admixtures being improvements, it is significant that the articles which are added by way of improvement are al- ways much cheaper than the articles whose bulk they increase. Adulteration 75 B Advent The statement that adultera- tion is necessary because the public refuses to pay a fair price for pure articles seems absurd when it is considered that the dealers, not the public, fix the price; and that if a dealer were to inform his patrons of the truth, they would undoubtedly prefer to pay the higher price for unadulterated brands. With regard to the admixture of water to milk doing no harm, as well might it be said that selling milk by means of a meas- ure which holds only half as much as it is represented to hold does no harm. The public is not thereby poisoned, but is certainly defrauded. Manufacturers of certain classes of food products have protested against the stringency of the present laws, claiming that the term 'adulteration' should apply only where substances of less pro- portional value have been added. This definition would remove the ban from such chemical preserva- tives as boric acid, benzoate of soda, formaldehyde, etc., also saccharin, and many flavorings and coloring matters. The stat- utory decisions, however, have been uniformly against any addi- tions, except the ordinary con- diments. As the discovery of fraud and consequent exposure is often the most salutary form of punish- ment, the detection of food adul- teration becomes highly impor- tant. In the United States this is effected m.ainly by two agen- cies, chemical analysis and micro- scopical examination, employed for the purpose by inspectors under the Pure Food and Drug Law, or State and local enact- ments. By the provisions of the Federal Act, food is deemed to be adulterated if it has been mixed or packed with any substance so as to reduce, lower, or injuriously affect its quality or strength; if any valuable ingredient has been wholly or in part abstracted; if its appearance has been changed in any way to conceal damage or inferiority; if any substance in- jurious to health has been added to it; or if it contains any filthy or decomposed ingredient. All foods and drugs imported from foreign countries are re- quired to fulfil the conditions laid down in the Pure Food and Drug Law. In the administra- tion of this law, branch labor- atories of the U. S. Bureau of Chemistry have been established at the principal ports of entry, where inspections and analyses are made of articles of both do- mestic and foreign production whenever adulteration is sus- pected. The U. S. Department of Agri- culture has established 'Stand- ards of Purity' for all food prod- ucts, a summary of which has been published in the Depart- ment's Circular No. 19. See Pure Food and Drug Law; Meat, Government Inspection; Packing Industry. Consult Bigelow's Foods and Food Control (U. S. Chemistry Bureau Bulletin No. 69, 1902- 4); Bartley's Adulterations of Food (1907); Wiley's Foods and Their Adulterations (1907); Bruce's Food Adulterations (1908); Parry's Food and Drugs (2 vols., 1911); Olsen's Pure Foods — Their Adulteration, Nu- tritive Value, and Cost (1911); Bruce's Detection of the Common Food Adulterants (3d ed. 1917); Year Books of the U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture. Adul'tery is the voluntary sexual intercourse of one spouse with any person except the other spouse. It was punished se- verely by the Jewish and Roman laws, and under the canon law, was held a good ground for sep- aration, though the marriage it- self was indissoluble. Since the Reformation it has been gener- ally recognized as a ground for divorce at the instance of either husband or wife. Adultery is not a criminal of- fence at the common law either in England or America, though a number of States of the United States have by statute made it punishable with more or less severity. In every modern country in which divorce is permitted, adul- tery is a sufficient cause for a severance of the marriage rela- tion. Both in the United States and in England the injured hus- band has a claim for damages against his wife's seducer; and in some of the States the con- verse also holds good. See Di- vorce. Ad Valo'rem (Latin, 'accord- ing to value'), a phrase used in levying customs duties, when the duties on the goods are fixed, not according to weight, size, or number, but at rates propor- tioned to the value of the goods as estimated and sworn to by the owner and confirmed by customs authorities. Advance Guard, a detachment of troops detailed from the main body to protect it on the march against sudden attack and to give time for deployment. The strength and composition of the advance guard depend upon the length and formation of the marching column, the efficiency of its cavalry screen (see Cav- alry), the nature of the terrain, the strength, activity, and prox- imity of the enemy, and other contingencies; it varies from one- eighth to one-fourth of the whole command. During a retreat the advance guard becomes the rear guard (q. v.), and must be con- siderably strengthened. See Army; Cavalry; Outposts; Reconnaissance. Advancement denotes a doc- trine of equity which operates in several directions. When a purchaser takes a conveyance or transfer in the name of another it acts as a counter presumption to that of a resulting trust. When a parent makes a gift of personal property to a child as an advance payment of an in- tended legacy or distributive share of his estate, this doctrine causes the legacy or share in question to be pro tanto reduced. In some of the States of the United States the doctrine has been ex- tended by statute to gifts made with that intention by others than parents to their children. The term advancement is also applied to the gift itself. Advancement of Science, American Association for the, an organization formed to pro- mote scientific research and the dissemination of scientific knowl- edge. The Association has fif- teen sections, as follows: (a) Mathematics; {b) Physics; (c) Chemistry; {d) Astronomy; (e) Geology and Geography; (/) Zo- ological Sciences; {g) Botanical Sciences; (/?) Anthropology; (i) Psychology; (k) Social and Eco- nomic Sciences; (0 Historical and Philological Sciences; (m) Engineering; («) Medical Sci- ences; (o) Agriculture; (?) Edu- cation. Each section has a chairman, who serves as a vice- president of the Association. The Association, formed in 1848, is a continuation of the American Association of Geolo- gists and Naturalists, organized in 1840; it was chartered under its present name in 1874. It is one of the largest scientific bodies in the United States, having a membership of more than 14,- 000. It publishes Science, a weekly magazine, and an annual volume of Proceedings. Advancement of Science, Britisli Association for the. See British Association. Advance Note, a draft, gener- ally for a month's wages, given to sailors by shipowners when they sign articles of agree- ment. Advent (Latin adventus, 'the coming'), a season of preparation for the festival of Christmas. In the Greek Church, the Advent period comprises forty days; and similarly, in the earliest authen- tic notice of Advent, a canon of the Council of Macon (581 a.d.), fasting three times a week is enjoined from the feast of St. Martin (Nov. 11) to the Nativ- ity. In England, this forty days' fast was observed even after Bede's death (735), though Greg- ory the Great (590-004) had re- stricted the season to the four Vol. I. — Mar. '26 Advent, Second 75 C Advertising Sundays of Advent, now ob- served in the Roman Catholic communion and the Church of England. The ecclesiastical year commences with the First Sun- day in Advent. See also Ad- vent, Second. Advent, Second. While it was formerly held that the com- ing of Christ was fourfold — (1) at his Nativity; (2) to His dis- ciples at His death (John xiv. 3); (3) at the fall of Jerusalem (Matt. xxiv. 30 /.); (4) at the Day of Judgment — the term Second Advent is now usually restricted to the last mentioned, when He shall appear 'the second time without sin unto salvation' (Heb. ix, 28). The whole subject of Christ's second coming, or Parousia, forms one of the most perplexing themes in theology. In Mat- thew, Mark, and Luke it seems to be associated with the fall of Jerusalem, and to be imminent. Occasionally Paul also speaks as if the event were at hand, but again he seems to remove it to the distant future; while the Book of Revelation introduces the millennium as having to ensue before the final day. The doctrine of the second coming of Christ has run like an underground stream through- out the history of Christianity. There is a quite general agree- ment among Christians that He is coming again, but as to the purpose of His coming, and how and when, there is a wide diversity of opinion. The study and literal interpretation of the Bible is a special inciting cause for a belief in the second advent. The greater the emphasis laid on the written word as authori- tative as the inspired message of God to man, the stronger is the tendency to accept the message of the Book of Revelation, with various supplementary passages from the Old and New Testa- ments. The German Pietists, the Shakers, the modern Ad- ventists, and the Premillennialists in England and America all believe in the personal coming of Christ. The latter number among their ranks many out- standing evangelists who have made notable contributions to Christian activity and have furnished no little driving power to the cause of Christianity. See Antichrist; Eschatology; Mil- lennium; Second Adventists. Adventists, Second. See Sec- ond Adventists. Adverb, a part of speech gen- erally modifying verbs, adjec- tives, or other adverbs; fre- quently formed from the corre- sponding adjective by the addi- tion of 'ly.' Adverbs which by their meaning admit of compari- son are compared by the addition of more and most, or by irregul^>r Vol. I.— Mar. '26 forms. According to the classi- fication adopted by G. R. Car- penter, there are adverbs of man- ner, place or direction, time, number, quantity, and degree; interrogative adverbs, introduc- tory adverbs {'There are 100,000 books in the library'), general ad- verbs, qualifying an entire state- ment ('perhaps,' 'therefore'), and relative (or conjunctive) adverbs ('whereas'), introducing subor- dinate clauses. See Parts of Speech. Adverse Possession, in law, designates the undisturbed oc- cupancy of real estate by some one other than the true owner, for a specified term of years, the length of the term being fixed by statute — usually twenty years. To secure title to real property by adverse possession, the occu- pancy and use of such property must be in the open view and knowledge of the public, exclu- sive as against any other claim- ant, even the rightful owner, and continuous during the pre- scribed statutory period. It is not required that the occupancy shall be continuously by the same person; but the right under ad- verse possession may be contin- ued by inheritance, will, or deed until the statutory period has been completed, or until posses- sion has been secured by some other claimant. Adverse possession, therefore, is not legal possession, but pos- session adverse to the rightful owner. It becomes legal posses- sion through the expiration of a statutory period during which the rightful owner has made no claim. See Limitation, Stat- utes of; Possession. Advertising is defined as the application of the force of organ- ized publicity to business. It is associated to-day mainly with printed forms, though oral ad- vertising doubtless preceded the written or chiselled word, and was employed soon after barter began among men. In general, as soon as people began to deal with one another, to live together in communities, or to have any rule, they were under the ne- cessity of finding some means of spreading information. How soon the forces of publicity were employed to exploit the sale of privately owned wares cannot be told. Doubtless it was early in the history of human communi- cation. The public notice was a means of disseminating information as early as Babylonian times, and a clay tablet of Babylon bears an inscription of cattle and feed for sale. An Egyptian papyrus in the British Museum containing a notice of a runaway slave and of a reward offered for his appre- hension is assuredly the first known advertisement on mate- rial which can be classed as pa- per. The Greeks and Romans painted signs on walls in public places, the announcements still to be observed in Porripeii and Herculaneum being distinctly of an advertising character. The crier was another means of call- ing the attention of the populace to wares for sale, in Greece and probably elsewhere. The Middle Ages witnessed a great vogue of public criers. Posters were also painted, chiefly as the signs of the guilds, and signboards were much favored in France by innkeepers and shop- keepers. An ordinance of 1567 required the keeper of an inn to report his 'enseigne,' and a royal decree of 1616 limited the size of these devices, probably in the interest of public safety, so great was the rivalry among en- terprising advertisers to engage attention by their signs. The trademarks of artificers to iden- tify the origin of goods must also be regarded as advertising, for simple as all these measures were, they embodied a definite attempt to attract the attention of the buyer, and to create a favorable opinion of the seller and his goods. Printing afforded the first means of broadcasting announce- ments, and the handbills which followed soon upon its invention were advertising. Although there were issued, with some reg- ularity, various news letters as early as the first half of the sev- enteenth century, the idea of as- sociating paid advertisements with such reading was slow in arriving. The first regular ad- vertisers were booksellers, fol- lowed by dealers in quack medi- cines, and merchants. Books and pamphlets were advertised in 1647-8; and the Mercurius Polil- icus for Nov. 22, 1660, had a quack advertisement which might have appeared at the present time. The Public Advertiser (1657) consisted almost wholly of advertisements, including the ar- rivals and departures of ships, and books to be printed. Other papers now commenced to insert more advertisements; and by 1682 newspaper advertising was well developed, chiefly through the medium of the London Ga- zette, In 1785 was established The Daily Universal Register, which in 1788 changed its name to The Times. Its establishment marks the beginning of the era of modern advertising. In America, one of the earliest records of advertising was in John Campbell's Boston News Letter. The following notice is taken from his first issue, pub- lished April 24, 1704. 'This News Letter is to be continued Weekly and all Persons who have any Houses,, Lands, Tenements, Farmes, Ships, Advertising 75 D Advertising Vesaels, Goods, Wares or Merchandizes, Ec. to be Sold or Lett; or Servants Runa- way; or Goods Stoll or Lost may have the same inserted at a Reasonable Rate from Twelve Pence to Five Shillings and not to exceed; Who may agree with Nicholas Boone for the same at his shop, next door to Major Davis's Apothecary in Boston near the Old Meeting House. . . . ' The idea of advertising was well recognized in the latter half of the eighteenth century, though the mediums for its expression were limited in their circulation and influence. The founding of daily newspapers naturally gave it a strong impetus, while the perfection of the cylinder press was a further aid, permitting the increasing of circulations to a point never before thought of. It can hardly be denied that the first persons to appraise cor- rectly the power of mass adver- tising were those who used it to mislead the public by extrava- gant language, for though the early announcements of local tradesmen were, in general, mod- els of sober utterance, the patent medicine men, then as now, promised far more than their physicks could perform. Such extravagant claims brought the whole practice of advertising into a disrepute, in the eyes of many, from which it was long in recovering. Barnum was, for a time at least, regarded as the true type of advertiser. But economic and business forces were at work which were to de- mand just such an aid to distribu- tion as advertising afforded. It was soon realized that so potent an ally of business must be cleansed of its bad reputation, and the era of greater honesty in announcements began. The economic and business forces which made modern ad- vertising indispensable were the mechanical inventions which ush- ered in mass production and es- tablished the factory system. Increased, centralized production called for new methods of dis- tribution, and organized public- ity, or advertising, offered itself as the natural means of attract- ing public attention to the merits of the goods. The same era which witnessed the rapid prog- ress of mechanical invention, speeding up the output of the factories, witnessed also the de- velopment of printing machinery, which enabled publishers to ob- tain enormous circulations, and the improvement of communica- tions, so that both advertising and merchandise could be trans- ported over great distances. A strong factor in the sr)read of newspaper advertising was the influence, in the three decades after 1850, of such journals as the New York Tribune, Times, and Herald. The greatest in- crease in volume, however, came in the period of business expan- sion between 1880 and 1900. Postal rates on newspapers and magazines had been reduced in 1879 to two cents a pound, and this undoubtedly contributed greatly to advertising progress. In 1885 the rate was still further reduced to one cent a pound. In 1919 it was increased and the zone system established (see Post Office), but this had little effect on the volume of advertising. Modern advertising has as- sumed tremendous proportions. That form of it which the public chiefly associates with the term advertising, namely space bought in newspapers and magazines, accounts for the larger part of a vast expenditure. Other forms are direct mail, business or trade papers, window and store dis- plays, billboards and street-car cards, novelties, painted and elec- tric signs, and motion pictures. Expenses of propaganda or pub- licity campaigns are sometimes charged to advertising, though not properly so. The total sum laid out in ad- vertising cannot be estimated, but fairly accurate figures for the major items in the United States are available and give some idea of its magnitude. The advertis- ing volume of 2,015 American dailies, in 1925, exceeded 10 bil- lion lines, while the total expen- diture for all newspaper advertis- ing was estimated at $900,000,- 000 to $1,000,000,000. Maga- zine advertising in the same year was estimated to have cost $100,- 000,000 to $125,000,000. If, as one authority says, newspaper advertising accounts for two- thirds of the country's advertis- ing expenditure, the total annual outlay in the United States would be approximately $1,450,000,000. Newspaper advertising falls into three main divisions, na- tional (placed by firms distribut- ing their goods through dealers or directly over all or large areas of the country) ; local display (by local drygoods or other firms) ; and classified (small announce- ments of a few lines inserted by individuals seeking or offering positions, offering rooms or houses for rent, etc.). The ad- vantages of newspaper advertis- ing are primarily those of local- izing a sales appeal, its cheapness, the assurance that the paper reaches a given number of homes in a definite area, the speed and flexibility of control over adver- tising schedules, and the possi- bility of tie-up between national advertisers and local dealers carrying the goods advertised. Newspaper advertising permits the testing of a sales campaign on a limited scale, and the avoid- ance of waste inseparable from any nation-wide publicity in sections where the goods are not offered for sale, or, because of climate or other reasons, are inap- propriate. Quotations of prices, a potent appeal to the consumer, form a large part of newspaper advertising. A significant change in local merchandising, and con- sequently in the volume of news- paper advertising, has come with the automobile, which has greatly enlarged the trading area of a community's merchants. Magazine advertising (except in those small periodicals of purely local interest) is wholly of national concerns. It reaches the consumer, stimulates the de- sire to buy, and encourages the dealer to stock advertised trade- marked goods. Much of this advertising is of the mail-order type, the buyer purchasing direct from the manufacturer by mail. The superior printing of maga- zines on good paper has made possible advertising of the high- est typographical beauty. The insertion of pages in two, three, and four colors is a development of recent years; artists of high reputation are frequently em- ployed, and some of the adver- tising pages have real artistic worth. Advertising rates in news- papers and magazines are based chiefly on circulation. They are generally quoted per agate line, one column width, fourteen agate lines being measured to one inch depth. A convenient means of comparing newspaper rates is the milline figure, i.e. the rate per line per million copies. The milline rate of the Sunday edition of a leading New York news- paper is $1.50, the agate line rate being 90 cents, and the circula- tion 600,000. The rates of other newspapers may vary as much as 50 per cent, from this instance. Magazine rates are subject to even greater variations in pro- portion to circulation. The cost of a page in certain magazines of enormous circulation seems stag- gering. The back cover of one magazine, in colors, costs $15,000 per issue; inside pages in color are less in proportion; a full page in black and white is $7,500. One adjunct to magazine and newspaper advertising is the 'key system' by which various adver- tisements are so prepared as to enable the advertiser to trace the replies received from each par- ticular medium. Bill-posting, or outdoor adver- tising, is much Uvsed both by national and local companies, along railroads and vehicle routes, on walls, fences, and roof boards in cities. Some signs are painted, others are covered with printed posters, frequently renewed. The largest boards for printed posters are for twenty-four sheets, each 28x42 inches. Some public op- position has been aroused to the use of this form of advertising in Vol. I.— Mar. '26 Advertising 76 Advertising places of scenic beauty, but such abuses have been taken in hand by the companies contracting to furnish the boards. AUied to bill-posting is the advertising sign, painted or electric, used over the dealer's store or else- where. Electric signs in strate- gic positions on the roofs of build- ings in great cities bring enor- mous prices, one in the Times Square district (New York City) costing for rentals, current, and operation about $150,000 a year. The greatest ingenuity has been shown in making these signs flash changing pictures or text. Street-car, bus and train-car card advertising is also a popu- lar means of reaching the public, used alike by national and local companies. Direct-mail advertising is widely employed. This embraces the preparation of circulars, cata- logues, and other printed mat- ter, and their distribution by mail, and involves the prep- aration or the purchase of mail- ing lists from firms which special- ize in their compilation. The direct-mail method is used to a considerable degree by local firms, but to an even greater de- gree by national mail-order com- panies. Frequently a concern manufacturing an article will supply circulars or other 'dealer helps' to be enclosed with bills and mail sent to the individual dealer's customers. Periodicals seeking to build up their circula- tion also employ the direct-mail method. The postage cost makes any considerable direct-mail cam- paign an item of large expense; but the results (which are sub- ject to precise checking) are carefully watched. The per- centage of returns from a par- ticular list, the returns to be ex- pected from a 'follow up' sent to the same list, the response to various types of appeals, are mathematically figured. Expert sales-letter writers are employed. Other mediums of advertising are trade papers, theatre pro- grammes, sampling and demon- strations, motion pictures, novel- ties, etc. Large national con- cerns freciuently make use of all kinds of advertising in the dis- tribution of their goods. A recent development, though necessarily one of limited appli- cation, is aerial advertising. By the medium of an expert opera- tor in an aeroplane the name of some well known product is written in a heavy smoke in the sky on a cloudless day. At night aerial advertising is ob- tained by a string of aeroplanes, each carrying one large electric- lighted letter, a sufficient number of planes being employed to spell the trademark of the ad- vertiser using this method of publicity. Vol. I. — Mar. *26 Advertising by radio is another very recent means of publicity. The prevailing method is to an- nounce on behalf of some adver- tiser a concert, song, speech, etc., by some organization, artist, or well known person, with a brief mention of the advertiser's name or the trademark of the product for which the publicity is desired. The magnitude of the advertis- ing appropriation of a large national company may be judged by the expenditure in one year, for newspaper and magazine ad- vertising alone, of $3,084,000 by a talking machine manufacturer. $2,650,000 by one automobile company, $2,202,000 by another, $1,808,000 by a tobacco firm, $1,608,000 by a soap and toilet preparation company, $1,612,000 by a soup company. Virtually all magazine and a considerable share of newspaper advertising is placed by agencies, a large factor in this modern business. Such agencies bring together in their organization trained men in the fields of copy- writing, technical research, ty- pography, art, visualization, space buying in various media, merchandising, sales planning, etc. The more important agen- cies undertake the most thorough study of markets, of the psycho- logical effects of copy upon read- ers, and of the preference of the consumer in matters of size, shape, taste, appearance, and other qualities of the product to be advertised. Field surveys are conducted and scientific lab- oratory tests are made to estab- lish new uses for the product or new reasons for its consumption. The advertising agencies de- rive their income chiefly from commission and cash discount allowed them by newspaper and magazine publishers, such com- mission usually being 15 per cent., with a cash discount of 2 per cent., occasionally 10 per cent, and 5 per cent. Adver- tisers placing their announce- ments direct pay the full rate quoted on the rate card. The agencies are responsible to the publication for the payment of all bills in behalf of their clients, and their credit standing is closely watched. Commission is allowed only to agencies recog- nized by the various publishers' associations, national or local. The agency may, and generally does, charge its client an addi- tional service fee for art or other work in connection with the handling of the account. The majority of large advertisers maintain their own departments and employ agencies as well. The purposes of advertising, stated in the simplest form, are: (1) to attract the attention of the reader; (2) to impress upon his memory the name and superior qualities of the product adver- tised; (3) to convince the reader; (4) to induce him to purchase. The knowledge of methods by which these ends may be accom- plished, and the ability to make the various forms of advertising perform effectively one or all of these functions, are the equip- ment of the professional adver- tising man. Copy and 'layouts' are analysed as scientifically as possible to test their appeal to the human emotions, instincts, interests, or desires. The 'sell- ing points' of the article adver- tised are carefully listed, perhaps developed further, so that they may be stressed in advertising. A 'plan,' which is the basis of any campaign, includes a thorough analysis of the product, the chief bases of sales appeal, the ob- jective to be attained, a copy plan or list of media and esti- mates of the cost. The most significant change in advertising in recent years has been the growing importance of the 'reason whj^' style of copy. In former years greater atten- tion was paid to 'reminder' ad- vertising, the repetition of the name, or perhaps the name and slogan or trademark. This was successful in an era in which competition was not too keen and in which the volume of produc- tion had not attained its present magnitude. When, however, a half a dozen large, well financed companies are competing for the national market, each naturally tries to demonstrate by analysis and appeal to the reason its points of superiority, as purity of ingredients, scientific manu- facture, specific fitness for vari- ous purposes, etc. Institutional advertising has also had a great vogue. When the distribution of goods was from one individual in a small community directly to another, the character of the craftsman was known to the buyer. Now the company is but a name to its millions of consumers. By in- stitutional advertising it seeks to establish in the reader's mind a conviction of the good character of the company manufacturing the product. Similarly cam- paigns of a special sort are under- taken when a company whose name is identified in the public mind with a given class of mer- chandise wishes to market a new product and reach a different public. An important movement in advertising in recent years has been the enforcement of higher standards of honesty. This has come about in part by the action of publishers in excluding from their columns misleading or fraudulent announcements and those detrimental to the public Advertising 77 Advocate, Lord standards; in part bj^ the crea- tion of such agencies as the Bet- ter Business Bureaus; and in part by the voluntary action of manufacturers or dealers in a given industry. Furniture com- panies, for instance, adopted a 'name the woods' agreement, whereby only the actual woods used were to be named in adver- tising. Most reputable publications exclude nearly all medical adver- tising — quacks were among the first to see the power of this form of publicity and to play upon the imaginations and fears of in- dividuals — questionable financial offers, advertisements of lotteries, and extravagant promises which would mislead the ignorant. The cleanliness of its columns is of great influence in creating confidence among the readers of a newspaper or magazine. A movement for absolute hon- esty in circulation statements of pubHshers was commenced in the last quarter of the nineteenth century. A majority of impor- tant newspapers and magazines in the United States now belong to the Audit Bureau of Circula- tions (A. B. C), which examines the books of the pubUsher, deter- mines exactly the net paid circu- lation, its distribution locally and otherwise, the use of pre- miums to obtain subscribers, etc. More recently advertisers and agencies have engaged in research to estabHsh the quality as well as the quantity of circulation, measured by the buying power of a publication's readers and their confidence in its columns. In general, opinion has tended in recent years to put a greater emphasis upon the value of qual- ity in circulation, of 'class' as against 'mass.' This is due to the greater buying power of such class circulation, to the intelli- gence of the people reached, and their disposition to be influenced by well founded advertising ap- peals to their self-interest, and to remember to ask for trade- marked goods when a conviction of merit is established. It is argued — and with good reason — that advertising has been a strong factor in raising the national standard of living, in bringing the conveniences en- joyed by the urban dweller to those living in small communities or rural districts; that it has edu- cated the buyer to be discrim- inating, and that it has tended to equalize prices. Critics of ad- vertising have charged (and this, too, is true) that a large part of the sums so spent are wasted. The charge, frequently made, that advertising increases the price of the articles sold is not, however, in the main well founded. Successful advertising leads to such a distribution of goods as to permit of mass pro- duction, and the resultant saving allows lower prices which eco- nomically more than justify the advertising cost. No other nation has developed advertising to the same degree as the United States. Great Britain, more conservative in its methods and particularly in its copy appeal, is now taking greater interest in American ideas in this field, though not adopting them rapidly. On the continent ad- vertising is still less of a factor in business than in Great Brit- ain. Europe has employed poster work effectively, and has created an artistic style in this form of advertising in advance of any- thing seen in America. The in- ternational exchange of adver- tising is less than might be ex- pected in view of the enormous world trade in manufactured goods. Foreign makers of arti- cles have in general been content to let the importers advertise locally to increase the consumer demand. A word remains to be said of the economic place of advertising in publishing. Advertising pays the bills. A newspaper having gross revenues, from all sources, of $18,000,000 receives S3, 250,- 000 from circulation and $14,- 750,000 from advertising. Its paper bill alone is in excess of $6,000,000, so that it is obvious that its readers do not nearly pay for the cost of the white paper. A magazine of 2,250,000 circulation is said to receive $40,000,000 from advertising; its gross revenue from circulation at the face subscription price could not be more than $4,500,000 and probably is nearer $3,000,000. It is obvious, therefore, that cir- culation is developed with little thought of revenue from this source, and mainly as a basis for attaining advertising. The two examples cited are extremes, but the principle holds true. The laws of the various coun- tries relating to advertising are comparatively unimportant. In the United States the postal reg- ulations bar from the mails only those advertisements which are indecent, advertisements of lot- teries, and prize offers which are not bona-fide. The majority of statutes and local ordinances in the United States and elsewhere deal with posters and the distri- bution of hand bills. With the development of ad- vertising there have arisen a con- siderable number of organiza- tions devoted to the interests of the profession. There were in 1926 some 325 advertising clubs (275 in the United States and Canada) associated in an organi- zation known as The Advertising Clubs of the World, established in 1904. The slogan of this or- ganization is 'Truth in Adver- tising,' and it has been an im- portant influence in the sup- pression of fraudulent adver- tising. A further development has been the establishment of nu- merous schools for the study of advertising and the introduction of courses in advertising, includ- ing psychology, publicity, sales- manship, typography, and com- mercial art, in some of the leading American colleges and univer- sities. Bibliography , — A considerable bibliography of advertising has arisen in recent years. For an adequate idea of the available volumes on the many phases of the subject the reader must be referred to a good library cata- logue. Consult especially Samp- son's i7w/o/'yo/.4 dver Using (1874:) ; Calkins and Halden's Modern Advertising (1905); P. T. Cher- ington's A dvertising as a Business Force (1913); Tipper, Hollings- worth, Hotchkiss, and Parsons' Advertising: Its Principles and Practice (1913); D. Starch's Principles of Advertising (1923); J. G. Frederick's Masters of Ad- vertising Copy (1925); G. P. Far- rar's How Advertisements are Built (1925). Advice, in commerce, formal notice given by one party to an- other of any transaction, espe- cially of bills drawn. Advocate (Latin advocatus) in its general sense includes any one who pleads for another in a court of law or other tribunal. In the days of the Roman Republic such a person was called patronus or 'orator,' and it was not until im- perial times that the term advo- catus was applied to him. It is clear that in Rome the functions of a patronus, orator, or advo- catus were considered as quite distinct from those of a procura- tor (attorney, solicitor, or agent) . In some countries the same dis- tinction is still strictly main- tained. In England, professional advocates are called barristers, and they alone have audience in the higher courts. In France the avocat and avoue correspond closely to the barrister and solici- tor in England. In the United States, most of the British colo- nies, and some parts of Europe, the two branches of the legal profession are not kept separate. See Barrister; Disbar; Law- yer; Solicitor. Advocate, Lord. The Lord Advocate, or His Majesty's Ad- vocate, is the chief law officer of the crown in Scotland, and one of the great officers of state. He represents the sovereign in all proceedings which aff ect the roy- al or the public interest. One of his special functions is to sit as public prosecutor of crimes. He is assisted by the Solicitor-Gen- eral, four regular and two extra advocates-depute, and the pro- curators-fiscal in the inferior Vol. L— Mar. '26 Advocates, Faculty of 78 iC^ades Islands courts. He is always in practice a privy councillor, a member of Parliament and of the Ministry, though not in the Cabinet, He goes out of office with his gov- ernment. Advocates, Faculty of, a col- lective term for the advocates practising at the Scottish bar. It is necessary to pass two exam- inations before admission to the body can be obtained, one in general scholarship and one in law. The first may be dis- pensed with if the applicant has taken the m.a. degree in a British University. Advocates* Library, in Edin- burgh, Scotland, the property of the Faculty of Advocates (q. v.), is the largest and most important library in Scotland. It was founded in 1682, and in 1709 re- ceived the privilege of obtaining free a copy of every book pub- lished in the United Kingdom. It now consists of more than half a million volumes, besides a large number of valuable manuscripts. Advocatus Diaboli. See Devil's Advocate. Advowson, ad-vou'z'n, the right of presentation to an ec- clesiastical benefice in England. Advowsons are either presenta- tive or collative. In the former the patron presents his nominee to the bishop, with the request that he be instituted to the va- cant living; in the latter case the bishop is himself the patron. Before the passing of the Bene- fices Act (1898), there existed donative advowsons in gift of the sovereign or other patron, with- out reference to the bishop; these are now merged in the presentative. In the case of Ro- man Catholic patrons of Angli- can benefices, the presentation passes to either Oxford or Cam- bridge. If the lord chancellor is a Roman Catholic, the presenta- tions in his gift pass to the Arch- bishop of Canterbury. An advowson is regarded as real estate, and may be disposed of as freely as other rights of property, subject to the rules of law relating to simoniacal con- tracts. An agreement to sell an advowson or next presentation while the living is vacant is si- moniacal, and therefore unlawful (see Simony). But it may hap- pen that a clergyman, who owns the advowson of his living, offers it for sale 'with immediate pos- session' — in other words, he agrees to resign as soon as the sale is complete, that the pur- chaser may present himself or the person for whom he has pur- chased the living. The Benefices Act of 1898 provides that advow- sons shall not be sold by auction except along with landed estate adjacent to the benefice, and makes various other restrictions cn the transfer of patronage. Adytum, ad'i-tum (Greek 'not Vol. I.— Mar, '26 entered'), the innermost chamber in ancient Greek temples where oracles were given or mysteries performed. It could be entered only by the priests and the initiated. iHacus, e'a-kus, son of Zeus and iEgina, grandfather of the hero Achilles, and king of the island ^Egina; so famous for righteousness that after death he was made one of the judges of the dead, the others being Minos and Rhadamanthus. Aeby, a'bi, Christoph Theo- DOR (1835-85), Swiss anthropol- ogist, was born near Pfalzburg, Lorraine. He devoted himself especially to craniotomy, and wrote German works on the sub- ject. He also showed the influ- ence of atmospheric pressure on the joints of the body. ^diles, e'dilz (Ediles), mag- istrates of ancient Rome, who were entrusted with the care of public buildings, streets, markets, weights and measures, etc.; fixed the prices of foodstuff's; were the custodians of the decrees of the senate and of the people; and maintained public order. Two aediles of the people were created in B.C. 494; in 388 two patrician or 'curule' aediles were added; and Caesar appointed others (b.c. 45) to administer the corn sup- ply. The public games and spectacles were arranged by the aediles. iDdui, ed'u-i, or H^dui, one of the most powerful tribes in Gaul at the time of Caesar's ar- rival (58 B.C.), whose territory lay between the Rivers Liger (Loire) and Arar (Saone). They formed an alliance with Caesar, but joined the rest of the Gauls in the final struggle for inde- pendence. After his victory, Caesar treated them leniently for the sake of their old alliance. iEetes, e-e'tes, or ^eta, in Greek mythology, son of Helios and Penscis, was king of Colchis (^a) when Jason, the leader of the Argonauts, sought the golden fleece. His daughter Medea (called by the poets ^etis) as- sisted Jason to obtain the prize, and left Colchis as his wife. She subsequently returned, and re- stored her father to the throne, which his brother Perses had seized. vSee Argonauts. i^gades Islands, e'ga-dez (Italian Egadi, 'goat islands'), three islands off the west coast of Sicily — Maritimo (ancient Hiera), reaching 2,245 feet in Monte Falcone; Favignana (an- cient jEgusa), 1,070 feet; and Levanzo (ancient Phorbantia) , 850 feet. Their total area is 70 The ^gean Sea ^gean Civilization 79 ^ifheah sq. m. Pop. 6,500. Here, in 241 B.C., C. Lutatius Catulus de- feated the Carthaginians, and terminated the First Punic War. Msesin Civilization. See My- CEN^AN Civilization. JEsesLn Sea, the northeast division of the Mediterranean, between Greece, Turkey, and Asia Minor. Its waters are rela- tively shallow, and studded with islands (the Greek Archipelago), and its shores are greatly indent- ed. The greatest depth, between Samos and Chios, is only 640 fathoms. ^geus, in classic mythology, son of Pandion and father of Theseus, and king of Athens, where he introduced the cult of Aphrodite. When he was driven from the throne by his nephews the Pallatides, Theseus, who was being educated at the court of his grandfather Pittheus at Troe- zen, and was in ignorance of his origin, restored his father to the throne. When Theseus went to Crete to deliver Athens from the tribute to Minos, he promised his father he would hoist a white sail on his return, as a signal of safe- ty. But in the intoxication of his victory he forgot his promise, and his father, perceiving the black sail, thought that his son had perished, and threw himself into the sea, which, from this event, received the name of the iEgean. il}gilops ('hard grass,' 'goat grass'), hard dwarf annual grasses native to the south of Europe, now included in the genus Triti- cum (wheat). A. ovata is sup- posed by some to be the source from which wheat originated; it is capable of considerable im- provement under cultivation. iflgina, a Greek island, now Egina, area 33 square miles, in the Gulf of ^gina (the ancient Saronicus Sinus). It is moun- tainous, with deep valleys and chasms. The most ancient name of the island was CEnone, and the Myrmidons dwelt in its valleys and caverns. For a century be- fore the Persian War it was pros- perous, and the chief seat of Greek art. (See ^ginetan Sculptures.) The Athenians in 429 B.C. expelled the original in- habitants. Pop. 10,000. M^tiA. The town of ^gina stands on the site of the ancient town, at the northwest end of the island. The considerable remains left of the ancient city attest its size and importance. Pop. 4,700. ^gina. Gulf of, or Saronic Gulf, between the Greek penin- sulas of Attica on the north and Argolis on the south. It contains many islands and good harbors. iCgineta Paulus. See Paulus y^^GINETA. il]ginetan Sculptures, ^gina (q. V.) holds an important posi- tion in the history of Greek art. On an eminence in the eastern part of the island stand the ruins of a temple of Pallas Athene. Among these ruins a series of statues were excavated in 1811, which are now the most remark- able ornaments of the Glypto- thek at Munich. One group rep- resents a combat of Greeks and Trojans. The figures are true to nature, but there is no individual- ity. Probably they date from not more than fifty years before Phidias. iEgir, a Norse deity, husband of Ran, with nine daughters. He has power over the stormy waters, and regales the gods with foamy ale. His journey to As- gard is chronicled in Snorri Sturluson's Edda. i^^girite, or ^girine, a mineral belonging to the group of pyrox- enes; a silicate of soda and iron. It is frequently found in the rocks known as phonolites and nephe- line syenites. It crystallizes in the monoclinic system, is dark green in color, pleochroic, and easily fusible under the blow- pipe. jEgis, in mythology, the cloud surrounding the thunderbolts of Zeus; thence the shield of Zeus, Apollo, and Athena. (Consult Iliad, V. 738 #.) In ancient art it is shown as a mantle fringed with serpents, that of Athena bearing Medusa's head. The word is now used as a symbol of protection or patronage. il^gisthus, son of Thyestes and cousin of Agamemnon. While the latter was away besieging Troy, ^gisthus became the paramour of Clytaemnestra, Agamemnon's wife. On Agamemnon's victori- ous return they murdered him; but some years afterward, Ores- tes, son of Agamemnon, returned from Phocis, where he had taken refuge, and slew the guilty pair. This is the account given by Homer; the tragic poets make Clytaemnestra alone murder Agememnon — her motive in ^s- chylus being her jealousy of Cas- sandra, in Sophocles and Eurip- ides her wrath at the death of Iphigenia. Later writers also de- scribe iEgisthus as the son of Thyestes by unwitting incest with his daughter Pelopia. i^gium, town, ancient Greece, one of the twelve towns of Achaia, and its capital after the destruc- tion of Helice (373 B.C.) . Accord- ing to legend it was the birthplace of Zeus. Here Agamemnon mus- tered the Greek chiefs against Troy; and here the Achaean League met, as the Amphictyons did at Thermopylae and Delphi. The modern town is Voslilsa. iUgle, a genus of Aurantiaceae, one of which, A. marmelos, pro- duces a fragrant, delicious, and wholesome Indian fruit resem- bling the orange, called Bael or Bhel fruit. The unripe fruit, bark, and leaves, have astringent prop- erties; the rind gives a perfume and yellow dye; the seed yields a cement. ^gospotamos (Greek 'goat river'), a river in the Thracian Chersonesus, famous for the de- feat of the Athenian fleet by the Lacedaemonians under Lysander (405 B.C.), which put an end to the Peloponnesian War, and to the predominance of Athens in Greece. i^grotat, a medical certificate granted to students in English universities, to show that illness prevented due attendance to du- ties; colloquially, 'an aeger.' iEgyptus, son of Belus and Anchinoe, and twin brother of Danaus. He received Arabia from his father, and, conquering the land of the Nile, called it Egypt, after himself. He had, according to the legend most ac- cepted, fifty sons who were feared by their uncle, Danaus, who, strangely enough, had fifty daughters. Danaus fled to Argos in the PelojDonnesus, but was pursued by the sons of iEgyptus, who sought the hands of his daughters in marriage; and taking advantage of their several loves, he bestowed on each a daughter, who received from her father a dagger with which to slay her bridegroom on the mar- riage night. This infamous race of the Danaides succeeded by this means in despatching all the husbands with one exception, Lynceus, who was saved by Hypermnestra. iEken, or Hieronymus, Jerom VAN (1462-1516), or JerOM Bosch from his birthplace, a Dutch painter and sculptor. One of the first Dutch painters in oil, he loved the grotesque. His chief work. The Temptation of Saint Antony, is in Antwerp, while Vienna possesses his Last Judgment, and the Louvre his Hell. Breughel was one of his disciples. ^Ifgar, Earl (d. c. 1062), son of Leofric, Earl of Mercia, and of the 'Lady Godiva' of legend. He and his father assisted Edward the Confessor against Earl God- win. Outlawed by the Witan in 1055, he took refuge in Ireland, thereafter invading Hertfordshire with Welsh allies. He succeeded as Earl of Mercia in 1057. ^Ifheah, or St. Alpiiege, An- glo-Saxon bishop of Winchester in 984, and archbishop of Canter- bury in 1006; in 1011 taken pris- oner by the Danes and killed. St. mtred 79 A ^olians Alphege Day in the English Church is April 19. ^fred. See Alfred. vElfred Atheling, son of ^th- elred ii. and Emma; taken with his brother Edward (afterward the Confessor) to their uncle, Richard the Good of Normandy. In 1036, on the death of Canute, the claims of Alfred and Edward to the English throne were set aside by the Witan. Alfred landed at Dover with a force of Normans, but was attacked and captured by Earl Godwin, who cruelly blinded him; he died from his injuries at Ely. iElfric (called Grammaticus, 'the Grammarian'), a volumi- nous Old English writer about the close of the tenth century, whose history and personality are alike involved in obscurity. It is known that he was a pupil of yEthelwold, most likely at the Benedictine monastery of Abing- don, and it is more than probable that he accompanied his master on his advancement to the see of Winchester. He was appointed to rule over the new monastery at Cerne, and afterward became abbot of Ensham. The gram- matical works ascribed to ^Ifric are his Latin and English gram- mar and glossary, printed by Somner at Oxford in 1659; and his Colloquium, a series of dia- logues containing interesting de- scriptions of common life, in Lat- in, with English interlinear trans- lation. His most important work is his collection of Homilies, eighty in number, edited by Thorpe for the ^Elfric Society (1844-6). They are short and vigorous, and attracted great at- tention at the time of the English Reformation. Among his other works are a treatise on the Old and New Testaments, and an abridgment of the Pentateuch and the Book of Job. MWz, Capitolina, the city which the Emperor Hadrian wished built on the ruins of Jeru- salem (135 A.D.), but which Aquila his kinsman erected. The old Temple was replaced by a pagan shrine of Jupiter Capito- linus, whence the city's name is derived. i^lianus, Claudius, a native of Pra?neste in Italy, who studied and taught rhetoric in Rome at the end of the second century A.D., and was styled the 'Sophist.' Two of his works remain. i^ius Aristides. See Aris- TIDES. m\2L (Ella), died 588, first king of the Deirans, an East An- glian tribe, whose name, and espe- cially those of his race (Angli) and kingdom (Deira), are commemo- rated in the legendary tale of Pope Gregory and the English captives in the market place at Rome. ^uroidea. See Carnivora. illmilian Way, a famous Roman road built in 187 B.C. by Marcus ^milius Lepidus, Roman consul. It ran from Rimini, on the Adri- atic, through Bononia (Bologna), in a northwest direction to Pla- centia (Piacenza), on the River Po, being the continuation of the Flaminian Way from Rome to Rimini. The 79th milestone was found in the Rhine, and it records that Augustus restored the road from Ariminium to the River Trebia (2 B.C.). To-day the road follows the same line and crosses some of the same bridges. i^milius Paulus. See Paulus. ^naria, Italy. See Ischia. il}neas, the hero of Virgil's ^neid, was, according to Homer, the son of Anchises and Aphro- dite (Venus), and ranked next to Hector among the Trojan heroes. The traditions of his adventures before and after the fall of Troy are various and discordant. The best known is that of Virgil, who makes ^neas escape from Troy, carrying his aged father on his shoulders; but in the confusion of his hasty flight he loses his wife Creusa. His filial affection to- ward his father earned him the name of the 'pious ^neas.' Hav- ing collected a fleet of twenty vessels, he sailed to Thrace, where he began building a city, but was terrified by an unfavorable omen, and abandoned his plan of a set- tlement there. A mistaken in- terpretation of the oracle of Del- phi now led him to Crete; but from this place he was driven by a pestilence. Passing the promon- tory of Actium, he came to Epi- rus, and then continued his voy- age to Italy and round Sicily to the promontory of Drepanum on the west, where his father Anchises died. A storm afterward drove ^ne- as to the coast of Africa; and landing near Carthage, he was hospitably received and enter- tained by Queen Dido. His mar- riage with Dido was prevented only by an express command of Jupiter that he must return to Italy. The hero sailed away, leaving the unhappy queen to despair and death by her own hand. During his stay in Sicily, where he celebrated the funeral of his father, the wives of his com- panions and seamen, weary of long voyages without certainty of finding a home, set fire to his fleet. After building the city Acesta, he sailed for Italy, leav- ing behind him the women, and some of the men belonging to his fleet. On landing in Italy he visited the Sibyl at Cuma?, and received intimations of his future destiny. Then, sailing along the Tiber, and landing on the east side of the river, he found himself in the country of Latinus, king of the Aborigines. Lavinia, the daughter of Latinus, had been destined to marry a stranger, but her mother had promised to give her in marriage to Turnus, king of the Rutuli. A war ensued, which terminated in the marriage of ^neas with Lavinia. His landing in Italy occurred seven years after the fall of Troy. Many of the episodes in the story, as his meeting with Queen Dido at Carthage, are irreconcil- able even with mythical chronol- ogy, lulus or Ascanius, son of /Eneas and Creusa, was claimed as their eponymous ancestor by the Julian gens at Rome; hence constant allusions to the divine ancestress of Augustus occur in Virgil, Horace, and other poets of the time. .«:neas Silvius. See Pius ii. i^neid. See ^neas; Virgil. Aeng, or An, river and town, Kyauk-pyu district, Arakan, Lpwer Burma, in 19° 45' N. Aeng, pass through Arakan Yoma Mountains, between Bur- ma and Arakan. ^olian Deposits, formations due to the action of the wind, such as the sandhills or dunes of many maritime regions, and the similar hillocks which occur in desiccated areas, such as those of the Sahara, Arabia, Utah, Ari- zona, etc. Rocks of aeolian origin are found interbedded with sedi- mentary strata in many of the older geologic formations. See Loess. ^olian Harp, a simple musical instrument formed by stretching eight or ten catgut strings of va- rious thickness, all tuned in uni- son, over a wooden shell or box. The sounds produced by the ris- ing and falling wind, in passing over the strings, are of a drowsy and lulling character. St. Dun- stan is said to have invented it; modifications were Schnell's An- emochord (1789), and Herz' Pianoeolien (1851). ^olian Islands. See Lipari Islands. ^olian Mode in Music. See Mode. ^olians, one of the principal races of the Greek people, who were originally settled in Thes- saly, from which chey spread arid formed numerous settlements in the northern parts of Greece and in the Western Peloponnesus. In the eleventh century B.C. some of them emigrated to Boeotia and other districts of North Greece, colonized the island of Lesbos, and founded more than thirty cities on the northwest coast of Asia Minor. Their dialect was generally regarded as the oldest form of Hellenic speech. It is usually divided into four vari- eties, the chief of which is the Lesbian, in which Alcaeus and Sappho composed their lyrics. It threw out the aspirate or rough breathing, and was smoother than Doric. ^olipile (Latin 'ball of ^o- lus'), a hollow metallic ball ro- tating about its vertical axis, with horizontal, arm-like tubes projecting radially, and having their free ends bent round in a tangential direction. When the water in the globe is heated, and steam rushes out of the tubes, rotation is set up. It was in- vented by Hero of Alexandria about 120 B.C. See Turbines, Steam. iEoIotropy (from Greek words for 'changeful' and 'turning'), or Anistropy, is the opposite of isotropy, and implies change in the electrical, optical, or other physical properties of bodies in consequence of change of posi- tion — as when the refractive property of a transparent body is not the same in all directions. See Isotropy. ^olus (Greek 'fleet'), in Greek mythology, the god of the winds and ruler of the i^^olian (Lipari) Islands, where he kept the several winds immured in a cave. According to euhemeris- tic interpretation, ^olus was an ordinary mortal, the first chief of the Cohans. iSoii, a cosmological term sig- nifying an age, an indefinitely long period of time, an era; chiefly used rhetorically. Also, in Gnostic doctrine, a divine emanation partaking of the eter- nal duration of God, having a specific and independent activity in providential history. ^pinus, Franz Maria Ul- RiCH Theodor (1724-1802), German physicist who discovered the electric properties of tourma- line and devised many new ex- periments in electricity. He was the discoverer of the method of magnetization known as 'double touch.' He held the 'single fluid' theory of elec- tricity. iEpyornls (Greek 'tall bird*), the name given to a great wing- less bird, whose remains occur in Post-tertiary deposits in Mada- gascar. Its sub-fossil eggs are 13 to 14 inches in diameter, and have the capacity of three os- trich eggs. There appear to have been two or three species, one as large as the Dinornis, or larger. See Moa, iSqui, a warlike tribe of an- cient Italy who inhabited the upper valley and hills to the southeast of the River Anio, on the eastern border of Latium. Together with the Volsci, a kin- dred tribe, they v/aged constant warfare with the young Roman republic, sometimes carrying their raids to the very gates of the city. In 446 B.C. they ap- peared for the last time before the city, and in 418 they were dispossessed of their great strong- hold on Mount Algidus. Their last struggle with Rome began in 304, and ended with their com- plete subjugation. ^rarium, the public treasury of ancient Rome, in the temple of Saturn, on the Capitoline Hill. It contained all important state papers, the laws engraved on brass, the standards of the le- gions, and the state money and accounts. Aerated Bread is bread not fermented with yeast, but me- chanically charged with carbonic acid gas, the gas being derived usually from carbonic acid water. See Bread. Aerated Waters, a name ap- plied to the large class of bev- erages which are rendered spark- ling by dissolving in them car- bonic acid under pressure. The term does not include cham- pagne or other carbonated bev- erage in which the carbonic acid gas is produced by the natural process of fermentation. Car- bonic acid dissolves readily in water, that liquid absorbing at the ordinary atmospheric pres- sure and temperature about its own volume of the gas. Under pressure, however, as when the gas is forced into a strong vessel containing the water, it absorbs many times its own volume; and when the pressure is released, the extra amount of carbonic acid escapes, rendering it sparkling or effervescent. Various forms of apparatus, constructed upon the same prin- ciple but differing in detail, are used for the production of aerated water on a large scale. In fact, in no branch of industry has more ingenuity been ex- pended in the devising of labor- saving apparatus. Essentially, the process consists in the pro- duction of carbonic acid from whiting or chalk by the action of sulphuric acid. The refuse, con- sisting of plaster of Paris, is dis- carded, while the gas, after being purified by washing with water, is stored in a copper bell or gaso- meter. Thence it is pumped along with water into copper or gunmetal vessels lined with pure tin, being made to dissolve in the water either by agitation or by other processes. When the pres- sure inside these vessels reaches about 100 lbs. per square inch, the water contains about seven times its volume of gas, and is ready to be filled into bottles. The siphon is a glass bottle, fitted with a metal top, and fur- nished with a lever or handle, which, enables a portion of the contents to be drawn off without difficulty. The head should be of the purest tin, to avoid contami- nation of the aerated water. For- merly there was risk of lead poi- soning by aerated waters, as they readily dissolve lead, but all man- ufacturers of repute now use pure tin pipe alone. For use in soda fountains, the water is de^ livered in large cylinders. The better known kinds of aerated waters are: (1) Potash and Soda waters, which, when of full medicinal strength, contain 15 grains of the bicarbonate of potash or soda in each bottle; usually, however, much less is put in, and the amount ranges from 1 to 7 or 10 grains; (2) Aerated water, which is frequently sold for soda water, but is a sim- ple solution of carbonic acid, and contains no admixture; (3) Seltzer water (q. v.), which contains the chlorides of sodium, calcium, and magnesium, along with phos- phate and sulphate of sodium; (4) Medicinal waters, containing varying proportions of chemicals, as, for instance, lime, carbonate of iron, citrate of lithia, or bro- mide of potassium. The temperance drinks, which include such favorites as lemon- ade, ginger ale, ginger beer, and tonic bitters, are made by put- ting the requisite quantity of flavoring syrup into a bottle, and filling up with simple aerated water; md the varying qualities in the market correspond to the variety in the recipes from which they are made. Aerated fruit beverages are produced when the water charged with carbonic acid is received in a glass containing about a tablespoonful of any of the fruit syrups. Many waters naturally aerated have important medicinal prop- erties, and are treated under Mineral Waters. Aeration, in plants, is the process by which interchange of gases takes place between the plant tissues and the surrounding medium. Leaves are the speciai organs set apart for the absorp- tion of gases, as well as for the transpiration of water vapor and the expiration of other gases. Gases, however, can be absorbed by the cells of leaves or other parts of the plant only when these gases are in a state of solu- tion; and in the larger plants the great number of cells and com- pactness of structure would make it impossible for all but the sur- face cells to procure the neces- sary aeration. Hence an exten- sive system of irregular passages between the cells has been devel- oped, communicating with the outer air by minute openings between the surface cells or through larger breaks in the cork layers. In the case of submerged water plants, the gases are al- Vol. I.— Oct. '27 Aerial Mail Aeronautics ready dissolved in the water sur- rounding the leaves; but in the case of land plants, the gases contained in the atmosphere are dissolved by the sap which sat- urates the cell wall. A small amount of nitrogen is absorbed, but chiefly oxygen and carbon dioxide are taken in by the leaves; both of the latter are also exhaled. Carbon dioxide is absorbed not only by the leaves, but by all parts of the plant's sur- face which contain chlorophyll. It is the main food of green plants, which utilize the carbon, along with water and a small amount of mineral constituents, to build up their structure. Under certain circumstances small quantities of ammonia, sulphur dioxide, and sulphur- etted hydrogen are also ab- sorbed by the leaves of plants. See Absorption; Plants, Phys- iology OF. Aerial Mail. See Aeronau- tics. Aerial Ropeways. See Rope- ways. A'erodrome, the name pro- posed by S. P. Langley for flying machines with wing-like appen- dages, has been superseded by Aeroplane. Aerodrome now signifies aviation grounds. A'erodynam'ics, that branch of hydrodynamics which treats of air and other gases in motion. See Gases, Kinetic Theory of; Hydrokinetics; Hydrostatics. A'eroklin'oscope, the name of an instrument invented by Buys- Ballot, and used, principally in Europe, in connection with weather signals for exhibiting publicly the difference of baro- metric pressure at different ob- serving stations. Aerolites. See Meteorites. A'eronau'tics, the term used to designate the entire science of aerial navigation, while Aviation is specifically limited to denote flight in machines that are heav- ier than the air (see Flying Ma- chines) . A Free Fying or Spher- ical Balloon, also called an Aero- stat, is an apparatus with an en- velope which is filled with a gas whose specific gravity is lighter than the atmosphere near the surface of the earth. It cannot be steered by the pilot, and is practically at the mercy of the air currents (see Balloons). A Dirigible Balloon or Airship usually has an elongated en- velope, and is equipped with a motor, propellers, and rudder, with which it can be steered at will against a moderate wind (see Balloons, Dirigible). Kite Bal- loons are a combination of the elongated balloon and kite prin- ciples (see Kite). Captive Bal- loons are firmly anchored to the ground, and can be automati- cally raised or lowered by means of a mechanical device fixed on the ground. Sounding Balloons Vol. I.— Oct. '27 are small balloons used to carry a set of recording instruments to the higher altitudes, when the balloons burst, and the instru- ments are carried safely to earth by means of a parachute. A Parachute (q.v.) is a scientific- ally constructed, umbrella-like apparatus which, by compressing the air systematically, regulates the descent of a body heavier than the air. An Aeronaut is a person who sails in any of the various forms of air craft. An Aviator is one who flies in ma- chines that are heavier than air. Though it is said that, in 1685, Laurenzo de Gusmann con- structed a lighter-than-air ap- paratus at Lisbon, which suc- ceeded in raising itself from the ground by means of the lifting power of hot air, the science of aeronautics definitely dates from 1783, when the Montgolfier brothers, at Annonay in France, constructed their first balloons. They and their co-workers, Charles, Pilatre de Rozier, Rob- ert, and the Marquis d'Arlandes, rapidly developed the spherical balloon to a state of efficiency which practically has not been improved upon to this day. In the balloon used by MM. Robert and Charles in 1783 there were present all the details of a modern balloon with the excep- tion of the guide rope and the ripping cord. In all Europe, and principally in France, ballooning became a great fad and an object of scientific inquiry; but it languished about 1812, owing to a number of untoward accidents. In the meantime, the balloon had been adapted to military uses, and a company with a bal- looning school was instituted in France. On June 13, 1794, the French at Maubeuge, in a battle with the Austrians, for the first time used an aerial vessel in war- fare. It proved exceptionally useful for purposes of reconnais- sance, and aroused a supersti- tious dread in the ranks of the enemy. In the meantime, Gen- eral Meusnier, an exceptionally far-sighted officer of the French army, had been studying the resistance of the air, and had planned an elliptical dirigible airship, which in the main in- cluded all the important prin- ciples involved in the modern dirigible. It is probable that he would have carried out his scheme if he had not been killed fighting the Prussians at May- ence in 1793. When Napoleon, in 1789, closed the French bal- looning school and disbanded the two companies, the airship in warfare disappeared. After the early years of the nineteenth century the science of aeronautics was left almost en- tirely to showmen. In the inter- val, meteorologists used the bal- loon to obtain remarkable at- mospheric data, and several na- tions utilized the apparatus in their military operations, no- tably the United States during the Civil War and the French at the Siege of Paris. But the im- provements were insignificant. A passing interest was aroused by Giffard in France, who, in 1852, constructed an airship with a small steam engine of 5 h.p,, with which he succeeded in nav- igating. Paul Haenlein in Ger- many shortly afterward man- aged to propel a dirigible by means of a gas engine, the first in history to be so used. Another notable impetus was given to the science by the French army officers Renard and Krebs, in 1885, who in their dirigible described a figure eight and returned to their starting point. Contemporary popular inter- est in the science of aeronautics dates from 1898, when Santos- Dumont, a wealthy young Bra- zilian, performed many spec- tacular feats. Immediately bal- looning became the sporting fad in France, and spread rapidly over the Continent and England. The various governments estab- lished aeronautical military di- visions; numerous airships of the dirigible type made their ap- pearance; many balloon fac- tories were established; and aero clubs, in some, cases aided by government subsidies, were formed throughout Europe and later in the United States. The clubs in the various sections of the country are federated divi- sionally; are banded together under a national organization; and the aero clubs of the world are combined in an organization known as the Federation Aero- nautique Internationale. This organization certifies all avia- tion records, which are only official when made under the supervision of the national as- sociation which is a member of the international body. The effort to fly by means of heavier-than-air craft antedates all other experiments in aerial navigation. The first authentic instance is recorded in 67 a.d. One of the early students of heavier-than-air machines was the celebrated painter Leonardo da Vinci, whose sketches, still in existence, indicate an extra- ordinary technical knowledge of the mechanical problems involved. The first aeroplane to fly by mechanical propulsion was invented by an Englishman named Henson, who, in 1843, flew under power of a 20 h.p. steam engine. Sir Hiram Maxim built a machine in 1888 which was practically successful, and Ader flew in Paris in 1900. S. P. Langley (q.v.), who began ex- perimenting in 1885, constructed a model which flew across the Potomac River in 1896. Otto Aeronautics 79 D Aeronautics Lilienthal of Germany carried out systematic investigations regarding gliding flight, and in 1892 made over 2,000 glides u^ith gliders of his own construction. The Wright Brothers, Orville and Wilbur (qq.v.). following along the lines of Lilienthal and Lang- ley, made their initial flights under motor power in 1903. For the subsequent develop- ment of the flying art and the evolution of modern aircraft, prior to the Great War, the reader is referred to the articles on Balloons and Flying Ma- chines, which discuss in detail the various types. Development of Aeronautics during the Great War. — Lighter- than-Air Craft, as they exist at the stage to which they were developed during the war, are in general of three classes — Non- rigid, Semi-rigid, and Rigid. The Non-rigid is the simplest and oldest form in use, nearly all spherical and kite balloons, as well as small dirigibles or 'blimps,' coming under this class. These are made of per- fectly flexible fabric, and de- pend entirely on an excess of in- ternal pressure to maintain their proper shape. Fabrics used in balloon construction are of three main types: (1) Gas-tight fabric, used where gas-tightness is the prime consideration; (2) Outer-covering fabric, the prin- cipal function of which is to form a rain- and weather-proof outer cover to the ship (usually of a rigid type) both as a fairing to reduce air resistance and to protect the internal balloonets from sudden variation in tem- perature due to radiant heat and from deterioration caused by sunlight; (3) Fabric combining the properties of both gas-tight and outer-covering fabrics, such as is required for the envelopes of non-rigid ships. The lightest method of ren- dering a fabric gas-tight is the application of gold beaters' skin — a membrane through which water will easily pass but which has a pronounced tendency to resist the passage of hydrogen. This material, however, is no longer in general use, having been superseded by the use of a cotton fabric, rubber coated, and consisting usually of several layers stuck together by a rub- ber solution — a fabric which both fulfils the function of an outer covering and is capable of withstanding considerable stress produced by the internal pres- sure of the gas and the tension of the riggings attached to it. The rubber coating usually contains aluminum powder, which forms a surface that reflects much of the radiant heat and prevents rapid temperature changes and is also opaque to the light, which would injure the fabric. In non-rigid types the mini- mum pressure between the in- side and outside of the fabric is usually 15 mm., the pressure which it is necessary to main- tain in the envelope depending upon the load supported by the rigging and the excess of external pressure caused around the bow of the envelope due to the for- ward motion of the ship, which becomes a matter of great im- portance as the speed increases. The carrying capacity of air- ships is perhaps the feature of greatest importance from both a military and commercial point of view. The basis for calcu- lating the disposal lift varies in different countries, from 62.5 to 68, which is about the pres- ent standard, though at one time it was taken as high as 70.14 in Great Britain and 72.5 in France, that being the weight in pounds that could be raised by 1,000 cubic feet of hydrogen. As the volume of gas increases as the cube of the linear dimen- sion, while the weight of the mass is considerably less, the non-rigid having no hull structure will for the same size have a greater proportion of available lift. For commercial purposes there is perhaps much to be gained by carrying a given weight in several small ships rather than in one large one, as the best figures that are available as regards the cost of the largest British rigid and non-rigid indicate that several of the non-rigid type can be built for the same price as one of the large rigid type. In the last year or two, however, the ten- dency has been toward larger airships of the rigid type for commercial purposes. The Brit- ish have constructed two large dirigibles of nearly 6,000,000 cubic feet capacity which will be used in commercial flights to India, and Germany is also con- structing a large dirigible for an air route over the South Atlantic. In construction, the problem of suspension is one which in- volves most careful considera- tion of the ordinary principles used in calculating the distribu- tion of loads and bending move- ments in ships and similar struc- tures. Usually a small model experiment is made in which the lift of the gas and distribution of load are reproduced in a small envelope filled with water and inverted, the weight of the water acting downward corresponding to the lift of the gas acting up- ward in a full size ship. Load is taken by a number of wires ar- ranged similarly to the rigging and passing over pulleys which support the equivalent of the load of the airship. The method of carrying out these experiments is simple: the various loads are distributed along the envelope, and the pressure reduced until the fabric begins to pucker at some point; the value is then noted, and the distribution of load may be varied in order to reduce the compression in the fabric at this point. Water models are usually arranged so that the whole system can be inclined up or down at one end in order to reproduce the condi- tions of airships pitching, which occasions greater difficulty than the mere suspension of load when the ship is on an even keel. Semi-rigid Balloons have been developed chiefly in Great Brit- ain, though considerable work along these lines has been done also in Italy. Airships of this class are, like non-rigid ships, dependent for their shape upon the excess of internal pressure. They are provided, however, with a rigid keel of sufficient strength to maintain rigidity under the action of various loads, carried by the envelope that con- tains the gas. It appears doubt- ful, all things being equal, if there is much to be gained by this construction, for the keel, having to be sufficiently strong to take the load of the airship without the assistance of the en- velope, would collapse in event of the pressure failing, and could not be restored to proper shape by re-inflation. The most successful semi- rigid type of airship developed so far, appears to be the one in- invented by Gen. Umberto No- bile, chief of the Italian air services, which was used by Amundsen and Ellsworth and Nobile on the flight across the North Pole. This airship has an ingeniously built keel, made up of V-shaped sections, which are connected by ball and socket joints in the steel tubing of the frames. The ship is extremely flexible, and in a storm during flight the entire keel can be seen to undulate, taking stresses which might wreck a rigid frame. Its strength was proved during the storms over Alaska at the end of the flight. The Japanese government bought one of these ships from Italy. For very large ships it be- comes necessary to divide the gas chamber into a number of compartments, and for this reason a rigid construction that calls for no excess of internal pressure must almost certainly be adopted for ships of the largest class. The framework of a rigid air- ship consists of a number of rigid longitudinals connected by transverse members which form rings at intervals along the length of the ship, each of these rings being braced in its position by a number of radial wires. The gas bags are placed in these compartments and the outer Vol. I. —Oct. '27 Aeronautics 79 E Aeronautics covering stretched over the framework, the upward pressure of the bags being transmitted through nets attached to the inner edges of the various rigid members of the framework. The weights are mostly carried in a strong keel that runs along the bottom of the ship, which acts as a distributor of load to the main transverse section of the framework, and to which are also attached the cars that are suspended below the hull. The necessity of dividing the gas space into a number of compart- ments is not due to the possi- bility of loss in leakage, but to the fact that any great increase in the angle of the ship's position produces an excess of internal pressure at the upper end con- siderably greater than that at the bottom, and of the air out- side, which is usually estimated at 1 mm. per metre difference in level. To stabilize the motion of the ship, planes are fitted to the after end with vertical and horizontal rudders, for steering either way, resembling in construction the conventional aeroplane wings, and braced by guy wires, though in the latest German ships these are made some six feet thick at the base and faired off into the rudder and tapered to the outer edge so as to be almost totally self-supporting, requiring no guy wires. Heavier-than-Air Craft. — The greatest progress in heavier- than-air craft during the war was along lines of general refinement and elaboration, with the adop- tion of numerous accessories that had previously received but scant consideration, as the application and use of wireless and general radio equipment, photographic installations, and oxygen respir- atory sets for both passengers and motors. There were no larger machines on either side than those used in Russia before the war. In gener- al the tendency had been to small planes, a large proportion being equipped with the rotary air- cooled type of motor, and but few of any kind exceeding 120 horse power. With the outbreak of war and the extraordinary demands created by military activities, the motor power increased at first faster than the size of the planes, this holding good until very nearly the end of the war. There were but few machines using more than three motors and the prevailing type seems to have been two. No radical types were devel- oped or used, the general ten- dency being towards improving the maximum performance of the plane as a whole, i.e., for a given power, increavsed speed, rate of climb, radius of action, and car- rying capacity, with better visi- VoL. I.— Oct. '27 bility and angle of fire for crews. Flying radius was doubled for a given load, as was proved by many successful air raids, the larger number of which were carried out at night. The state of efficiency reached in motors in general was the greatest single contribution of the war towards the successful development of aeronautic activi- ties, next to this coming plane design. In many cases individual skill reached an astonishingly high state of perfection, but on the whole, it would seem that less skill was required as the planes became proportionately better. In the development of avia- tion motors, the greatest orig- inality seems to have been dis- played in France, which pro- duced the first rotary, stationary, and V-type, air-cooled motors used in this work. In the heavier type of water-cooled engines honors are about equally divided among Great Britain, Italy, and Germany, though Germany may be considered the pioneer in this line of development, if not in conception. In high powers, the motors produced in Italy have been among the largest flown, a single unit of 750 h.p. being pro- duced in quantity as early as 1916, although at the time there were no planes built that could mount such high powers. In the last few years the United States has developed perhaps the most reliable airplane motors yet built, notably air-cooled motors, and has produced motors of large horse power and much less weight per horse power than had been thought possible. The reliability of American motors has been proved by the several trans-Atlan- tic and trans-Pacific flights, on all of which the motors functioned perfectly, and astonished foreign engineers by the simplicity of their design and their care- ful workmanship. There has been a constant tendency toward the perfection of air-cooled mo- tors so that the cumbersome water-cooling devices, which so increase the weight of the motor, may be discarded. Even the water-cooled motors have been greatly improved, however, and their weight per horse power steadily decreased. The largest water-cooled motor yet built develops a horse power of more than 1,200, and weighs less than 1,400 pounds. This motor, while still experimental, shows the increased efficiency of motor design, caused by the necessity for larger and larger horse power. There has been a wide differ- ence of opinion between engineers of different countries as to the comparative values of air-cooled and water-cooled motors. Ger- many has done almost nothing with the air-cooled motor, al- though it has developed a few, but has built some excellent water-cooled types. France and England each have one or two excellent air - cooled motors, but in both countries the water-cooled motor still holds its own. In the United States, however, the air-cooled motor is being more and more widely adopted, particularly for commercial work, and would probably be even more com- monly used were it not for the large stocks of water-cooled motors left over from war production. The United States Navy air service has been fore- most in utilizing the air-cooled motor, and the majority of its seaplanes are built around these engines, but the army air service still largely uses water-cooled motors. It seems probable that the use of the air-cooled motor will in- crease rapidly, and many in- teresting experiments have been made to determine its relative efficiency. It is claimed for it that because higher temperatures are permissible — as there is no water to boil — greater fuel econ- omy is obtained, and at McCook Field, tests of air-cooled motors run at a temperature of about 700 degrees have disclosed some very interesting economies. The development of the motor in the United States has been steady and conservative, and many types of motors have developed. They have been flown over the North Pole and in the tropics, and have made altitude records in rarified atmosphere, showing their adaptability. The increasing size of airplanes has made necessary the develop- ment of more powerful motors. So rapid has been the develop- ment of airplane design that at present there seems to be no logical limitation to the size of planes, other than the problem of getting them off the ground. Planes have already been built which will carry sixty or seventy persons, and it seems to be merely a question of a few years before designers solve the problem of the multi-motored plane with a safe cruising radius of several thoUvSand miles, suitable for passenger carrying. This devel- opment of the large plane, begun in Russia before the war, has been carried on most widely in Germany, France and England. Two factors enter into this de- velopment, subsidies by the government which permit the extension of air passenger lines, and the necessity for large planes which will carry the larg- est number of paying passengers at the minimum operating ex- pense. Subsidies have not been been granted to air lines in the United States, and as a result the large airplane has developed here more slowly. Aeronautics 79 F Aeronautics One of the most interesting points in recent large airplane designs has been the increasing tendency toward the mono- plane. The monoplane, having had an early period of ascendan- cy, was later forced behind by the biplane but has in recent years been gaining rapidly in favor, except for fast military or racing planes. This increasing importance of the monoplane has led to two distinctly different types of large passenger planes. The English stick rather closely to the biplane, many of their large planes carrying twenty persons comfortably. The French have large planes of both the monoplane and biplane types, while the Germans have been most successful with the monoplane and have developed it to a remarkable degree of safety. Some European pas- senger planes have two or three compartments, some with berths for sleeping. All these large planes, which have a high record of safe performance, are multi- motored, most of them having three motors. The development of the large seaplane is distinctly European, and has been most successfully done by Germany, although Italy and France have also built some remarkably successful large seaplanes, notably the type in which Col. Francesco de Pinedo has made his long distance flights. These large seaplanes, or flying boats — for they usually consist of a large boat-like hull of metal, with the wing above — are almost exclusively mono- planes. The monoplane wing sets high enough above the water not to trip in an ordinary sea. A large monoplane flying boat has been landed in the ocean and towed for days in a storm without serious damage to the wing. The motors of European flying boats are generally set above the wing, frequently one behind the other, in tandem, so that they may be as free from spray as possible. A plane of this type carried sixty-eight people on Lake Constance in 1927 and cleared the water in less than a minute, and probably trans- Atlantic passenger lines will use planes of this type. So far the range of these large flying boats is limited because of their weight, which prohibits carrying much gasoline in addition to the neces- sary passengers or freight. The only large flying boats built in the United States have been constructed by the navy for military purposes, and have been of the biplane type. Small seaplanes have been built suc- cessfully, and in 1927, powered with air-cooled motors, made several speed and altitude records. An amphibian plane, largely used by the navy and coast guard, has also been developed in the United .States, and is perhaps the most success- ful of its type. The efficiency of all these planes has been due to recent rapid improvements in design. Wind tunnel experiments have provided engineers with data — still far from complete — by which they can estimate fairly well the performance of a plane before it is built, and by means of which they have learned the causes of many accidents. They have progressed so far, in fact, that they now build airplanes which cannot be made to spin or stall, and which can be flown with hands off the controls for long periods of time. Problems of resistance have been solved, and the fuselage and other parts of the plane so refined that drag has been diminished to a mini- mum. The thick wing, which gives maximum lift, due to the increased vacuum on the upper surface, has been developed so that enormous loads can be carried. Many improvements in the design of landing gear have also been made recently, shock ab- sorbers of rubber or hydraulic cylinders taking up the impact of a huge plane when it hits the ground. Practically all airplanes are now built with the split axle type of landing gear, so as to eliminate the danger of the axle tripping the plane on a stump or other projection on rough ground, and decreasing the resistance in taking off through high grass. As a result airplanes can be landed with safety on any fairly smooth field. The use of metal in building the bodies and wings of airplanes is becoming general, many Euro- pean airplanes being entirely constructed of metal, while two or three types of all-metal planes have been built in the United States, The fuselage of an airplane now is generally built of steel or duralumin tubing, welded together, some manufacturers preferring steel because of the peculiar structural and chemical changes to which duralumin iS still subject. Airplane speeds have rapidly increased due to the improve- ments in motors and airplane design. The highest speed yet attained by an airplane is 278 miles an hour, attempts to exceed this mark being made constantly. Planes which attain such a speed are tiny things, with a small wing spread and powerful motors. American military pursuit planes have a speed of nearly 180 miles an hour. Flying planes at a speed approaching .300 miles an hour lays a terrific strain upon the aviator in turning, and most military aviators believe that aerial combats in the future will be at speeds considerably less than a potential one. Manoeuverability in aerial war- fare is more important than blind speed, and few pilots have the physique to withstand the shock of quickly changing a course at 250 miles an hour, or the instinct to handle a plane at that speed. A racing plane bucks like a broncho and the slightest touch on the controls causes it to whizz off its course. A racing plane at full speed, merely from the impetus of its flight, will climb several thousand feet with a dead motor. The years 1926 and 1927 saw the period of most interesting development in the field of aviation. Up to that time had been the work of the pioneer; the experiments of Eiffel just before the war were the basis of inten- sive research work which revo- lutionized principles of design. Then came the period of record flights — those of Lindbergh, Byrd, Chamberlin, Maitland and others — which showed the remarkable reliability of the airplane motor, and the lifting capacity of planes. These so aroused public interest and enlisted public support that designers found themselves for the first time working with the encouragement of sympathetic and understanding public opin- ion. Navigating Instruments. — Co- incident with the improvement in air craft there has been a cor- responding development in nav- igating instruments for aerial use. These consist in general of the following instruments: 1. Altimeter, indicates the height at which the machine is flying; is actuated by the atmos- pheric density. 2. Air Speed Indicator, usually a form of Pitot tube or Venturi tube construction, sometimes both; indicates the relative air speed. 3. Compass, made in numer- ous types and styles, but usually of the standard principle, card arrangement, submerged in ker- osene. The earth inductor com- pass, operating by the relation- ship of generator brushes to the lines of magnetic force of the earth, is the latest and most important addition to the com- pass family. (See Compass.) The Radio Compass or Direction Finder responds to the control of a certain station to which it is 'tuned' by radio wave, and keeps constantly to that direc- tion, and not to the magnetic pole. Of equal importance, and a parallel development to the Radio Direction Finder, is the recently developed system of Audio Frequency Landing Sta- tion Receivers, the work of Earl C. Hanson, of the U. S. Navy Vol. L— Oct. '27 Aeronautics 79 G Aeronautics Bureau of Steam Engineering. A plurality of insulated electric conductors are located around the outer edge of the landing field, and a similar smaller set nearer the centre, both con- nected to a source of audio fre- quency current of different de- grees of strength and intensity, projecting upward to varying heights electro-magnetic energy to be received by planes ap- proaching at night or in a fog, which are thus able to deter- mine their approximate position in relation to the centre of the landing field, and by different sound intensities standardized for varying distances ascertain their altitude above the sending point. With proper field illumi- nation, a safe landing is thus as- sured even under conditions of adverse visibility. 4. Inclinometer, shows the ex- tent of deviation from the hori- zontal, or 'line of flight,' either in ascent or descent, constructed in several forms, usually a bent glass tube with a bubble in liquid, balanced pendulum construction, or statoscope with bubble read- ing. 5. Turn Indicator, a very recent development, somewhat on the lines of the inclinometer, but in longitudinal direction and very sensitively balanced to show deviation from the course to right or left. 6. Bank Indicator, also a curved tube which shows by a bubble whether the plane is banking and at what angle. This instrument, with the turn indicator, is particularly useful at night or in a fog. 7. Drift Indicator, indicates leeway over the surface; indicates whether or not the machine is flying square to the wind. For navigating over the ground ob- servation is made through a slot, a point taken as reference, and the position noted. The object is then followed and the variation is read on a small condensed scale at the side or top of the instrument. 8. Rate of climb indicator, which shows on a dial the speed at which the airplane is ascending or descending. 9. Tachometer, used to show the number of motor revolutions; generally of round-face appear- ance, the face plainly showing the figures representing motor turns per minute, indicated by the usual hand or arrow. Prin- ciple of operation, either centrif- ugal, magnetic, or escapement (clock). 10. Oil-pressure Gage, showing that oil is being supplied to the parts to be lubricated. 11. Gasoline Gage, indicating the amount in the tanks. Either magnetic float, ordinary column sight glass or rotating dial, actuated by the float. Vol. I.— Oct. '27 12. Flow Meter, an indicator set in the main fuel supply line to show at a glance amount of gasoline that is being consumed by the motor at the time, operat- ing on the lines of the usual water meters, either the rotative or glass column with float principle. 13. Thermometer, operating on the lines of the standard instru- ment, and installed in the water- cooling system, to show the thermal state of the motor. 14. Oil temperature gage, to show if the motor is over-heating, of particular value in air-cooled motors. These instruments have added greatly to the safety of flying, particularly at night or during foggy weather. When Alcock and Brown first flew the Atlantic at times they did not know whether or not they were flying on an even keel, and several times found themselves diving toward the water or flying almost upside down. With the modern turn and bank indicator and incli- nometer, as well as the earth in- ductor compass, the recent trans- Atlantic and trans-Pacific fliers were able to keep on a level keel and fly steadily on their course, even when for hours they could see nothing beneath them or on either side. Aeronautic Maps. — The use of maps for aviation was not seri- ously dealt with or to any great extent before the war, as lengthy flights were seldom made, and then only after extensive prepa- ration that permitted the careful study of the proposed route. Later, however, when flights of several hours became a daily affair, and accuracy of reports of observation were vitally impor- tant, a variety of aeronautic maps were evolved. The general ordnance maps were quite suit- able for a large part of the work; these supplying the basis for all future improvements that were rendered possible through the application of aerial photogra- phy. In France, where military maps had reached a high state of development, the two stand- ard sizes produced, 1-1,000,000 and 1-20,000, supplied the basis on which all other maps were either enlarged or reduced. For general aviation work the pre- vailing size seems to have been 1-50,000 and to have given satisfactory results. (See also Photography; Maps and Map Making.) Practical Applications. — The most important application of the science of aeronautics up to 1925 was along military lines. This phase of the subject has already been discussed in the course of this article, as well as under the heading Army Avia- tion (q.v.). Other applications may be touched upon briefly. Naval Aeronautics have wit- nessed a rapid development since the war, and the five-year build- ing program for aviation includes at least 1,000 airplanes for the navy. These are divided into pursuit, scouting, observation and bombardment planes, equip- ped both as seaplanes on pontoons and land planes with wheels. The planes on pontoons are shot from catapults from battleships, and when they land alongside are swung aboard again by cranes. The land planes when operating with the fleet fly from airplane carriers. Two of these ships, of high speed, and carrying an upper deck on which planes can land, have been built to succeed the present airplane carrier, the Langley, a converted ship. Naval seaplanes largely built around air-cooled motors have been brought to a high state of efficiency. Aerial Mail. — The history of the aerial mail service in the United States dates back to the Nassau Boulevard Aviation Meet of 1911. The first mailbag was carried by airplane on Sept. 23, and on Sept. 27 Post- master - General Hitchcock opened a route from the aviation field to Mineola, over which 43,247 pieces of mail were car- ried during the ten days of the meet. A special aero-mail ser- vice of a similar character was conducted between the aviation fields and the fair grounds at St. Louis, Mo., a distance of twelve miles, in October of the same year, and from that time to the opening of the first regular U. S. aerial mail route, some seventy special routes were established in connection with various fairs and meets, such routes being au- thorized by the Post Office De- partment, the mail being carried by sworn carriers but without expense to the governmowt. The first regular air mail route was opened on May 15, 1918, be- tween New York and Washing- ton, starting from New York at 11:30 A.M., and from Washing- ton a few minutes later. The plane leaving Washington was obliged to return to its point of departure on account of a slight accident, but the New York to Washington trip was successfully accomplished in three hours and twenty minutes, with a stop of nine minutes in Philadelphia to transfer the mail to a relay plane. The service thus inau- gurated was continued by the War Department for the Post Office Department until August 12, 1918, when equipment and flying operations were transferred to the Post Office Department. The government developed the daily transcontinental service from New York to San F'rancisco, and operated it until the summer of 1927, when it was taken over Jo Wtst Indies, CentntI and South America Tu Sasltatoon. North Bnttleford To Favnurable Lake '• Islan O \ lA Valley CityJ J^oorhei_^ James tQ*^^^^^.^*"^.^-^ Hot* -o^r-^ L. „„. *x mv/:.teav='"'^r^%2^-?l ' n 1 jJwrii' I nil ^ I iiiiiiiWiiiiiiii'i*''! I'll I lir i i ^.^-^ „.aos.. Vr4» 23^1^^^^"- ■'^"-'i-itl ^/i^ I VI «^ >^ ...\ pjgnufort yjeftersonCity! MISS "■"He, Socorr, ••pity '"^fjr^J^. 1 ( \Juare' 1 utlahoma CityflB^^ ' K L ai H E AIRWAY MAP OF THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA Copyright C. 3. Hammond & Co. N. T. Cbihuahua" I Parral" JoBolobanp oPresidio /"^To^^' ' fPresidK INorto c oEacalon IHot Spring Pine Bluff Ji £. m To e|!n n>^e iS X^JacksOny cbattano' Corinthl Florence^ Gadsai ' L^rovidencc 1 I lis \k. Waycr"^ jPBruDS^ 1 %lfA» " \~ / _v,„ma»'",^k- /VFernandii —1^/ o ValdosT— ■ " " Baton Rou£^^ 1 1 PusChriati LEGEND \t Airways under mail contract Airways under mail contract but not in operat Commercial airways not carryinir mai Lighted airways ilacWcola^ Fernai 70 Mexico an] i].„in,l Jin,r-nc- Aeronautics 79 H Aeronautics by private contractors as the result of a policy begun a year before. In the spring of 1926 the contract air mail system was started in the belief that a greater stimulus to commercial aviation would be given by the withdrawal of the government from competition. When the service was turned over to private operators it had been in success- ful operation from 1918 over a route 2,680 miles long. Landing fields were located at Hadley Field, N. J., Bellefonte, Pa., Cleveland. O., Bryan, O., Chicago, 111., Iowa City, la., Omaha, Neb., North Platte. With the exception of the govern- ment route between Salt Lake City and New York, lighted by the Post Office, all civil airway flying was being done without lighting facilities. The Depart- ment of Commerce is now aiding in lighting airways on the con- tract routes. The transcon- tinental system was divided when it was turned over to pri- vate operators in 1927, and the section from New York to Chicago was let to the National Air Transport for day and night operation, while the section from Chicago to San Francisco, was let to the Boeing Airplane Company. high averages of operation, and came through their first year without a fataUty. In 1926 there were 585 operators engaged in all kinds of airplane services in the United States, flying a total of nearly 19,000,000 miles, and carrying more than 700,000 passengers. Foreign air routes. — Practically all European countries, many Latin American countries, Aus- tralia, parts of Africa and the Far East now have air mail routes. The French service was officially opened March 1, 1919. Italy had daily service by means of flying boats between Civitavec- Courtesy of the A erial A ge The U. S. Navy Flying Boat, N. C. 4, Which Made the First Successful Trans-Atlantic Flight, at Rockaway, Long Island, Before Leaving for Trepassey Bay, Newfoundland. Neb., Cheyenne, Wyo., Rawlins, Wyo., Rock Springs, Wyo., Salt Lake City, Utah, Elko, Nev., Reno, Nev., and San Francisco, Cal. In July, 1924, a day and night service was inaugurated by which a letter or parcel travels between New York and San Francisco in a day and a half. There are sixty-six station stops on the present air mail routes of which there are seven- teen. They serve sixty-four cit- ies with a population of nearly 24,000,000. More than $5,000,- 000 had been invested in the contract air system in 1926, and nearly $17,000,000 was repre- sented in real estate and im- provements at the airports. Other contract lines operating at present (1927) are Boston- New York, 220 miles; Chicago- St. Louis, 277 miles; Chicago- Dallas, 995 miles; Salt Lake City-Los Angeles, 589 miles; Pasco-Elko, 424 miles; Detroit- Cleveland, 148 miles; Detroit- Chicago, 278 miles; Seattle-Los Angeles, 1,073 miles; Chicago- Minneapolis and St. Paul, 384 miles; Cheyenne-Pueblo, 200 miles; Seattle-Victoria, 78 miles; New Orleans-Pilottown, 80 miles; Detroit-Grand Rapids, 140 miles; Cleveland-Pittsburgh, 115 miles. These air routes operated planes for a scheduled air mileage of nearly four and a half million miles up to the end of 1926. Some of them performed very chia and Terranova, Sardinia, as early as June, 1917. In the years after the war air routes spread rapidly all over Europe. At present it is possible to fly by connecting air passenger and mail lines from Africa to Sweden and Finland, and from London to Moscow. The air line map of Europe has so many connecting links that there are large airplane time-tables com- parable to railway time-tables, and the schedules are closely kept. The largest unit in the Euro- pean system is the German Luft Hansa. In 1926 this organization carried 56,268 passengers, 641 tons of freight, and 301 tons of mail. It operates three inter- VOL. I.— Oct. '27 Aeronautics Aeronautics national routes, between Berlin and Zurich, Stettin and Stock- holm, and between Amsterdam and Bale, Switzerland, via several German cities. With the co- operation of other concerns the Luft Hansa operates six other international lines: Malmo, Swe- den, Copenhagen, Denmark, and Berlin; Zurich, Munich, Vienna, and Budapest; Malmo, Copen- hagen, Hamburg, and Amster- dam; Berlin, Cologne, and London; Berlin and Moscow; Berlin, Cologne, and Paris. The French Air Union operates a important international routes and the Luft Hansa is planning an air route to China as soon as conditions in China become more settled. The preliminary- flights over the long route to the East have been made success- fully. Other applications. — In ad- dition to the air mail routes, several of which now carry passengers, there are many other commercial uses for airplanes. They are used widely for survey- ing and mapping districts which would otherwise be difficult to in 1914, however, led to the suspension of the offer and prevented any further efforts in the direction until after the sign- ing of the armistice (Nov. 11, 1918), when interest was again aroused by the renewal of the prize offer. While the first successful trans- oceanic flights were made from west to east, the first attempt was in the opposite direction. It was made by the Englishmen Major Wood and Captain Wyl- lie, who left Eastchurch, Eng- land, April 18, 1919, in a pre- CovvrigM by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. Front View of the Vickers-Vimy Plane, Which Made the First Non-stop Trans- Atlantic Flight. The figure in uniform stands just front of the pilot's seat, which is in the forward part of the fuselage. The four-bladed pro- pellers are seen on either side. number of lines: Paris-Marseilles; Paris - Geneva; Paris - London. Other French lines operate planes between Paris and Vienna, and by other connections on to Bel- grade, Sofia and Constantinople. A French line operates between Paris and Casablanca in Africa, and there are other lines to other parts of Northern Africa. English planes fly from London to Paris, Brussels, Rotterdam, Amsterdam and Cologne, and the Imperial Airways also sends planes to Zurich. The latest addition to the English lines is the long air route to Cairo, Egypt, connecting with Karachi, India, but there has been no development of air lines betv/een English cities. There are a number of other chart. Airplane cameras have now been developed to the point where they will automatically register the altitude, speed, focal length and other important data on the film itself, and record minutely every character- istic of a landscape many square miles in area. These photo- graphic flights are usually made at a great height, about three miles, and their results have been of great value in forestry work, map making, fire patrol and even in plotting cities. Trans- Atlantic Flight (Aero- plane). — The problem of a trans-Atlantic flight was first brought to popular notice by the offer of a $.50,000 prize by the London Daily Mail, in April 1913. The outbreak of the war liminary flight to the point of final departure in Ireland. All went well until Holyhead was passed, when the machine devel- oped trouble and a forced de- scent was made, the plane alight- ing in the Irish Sea. Neither of the fliers was injured, but the projected flight was abandoned. The Sopwith. — Among the first entries for the Daily Mail prize was the Sopwith plane, manned by the Englishmen, Hawker and Grieve, who arrived at vSt. John's, Newfoundland, March 4, 1919, and at once commenced the as- sembly of their plane, a specially built machine, known as the At- lantic type, fitted with one 375 H.p. Rolls-Royce Eagle Mark vm engine; estimated flight duration, 25 hours at 100-106 Vol. I.— Oct. '27 Aeronautics 79 L Aeronautics miles per hour; driving a geared- down, four-bladed propeller; span 46 feet 6 inches; length 31 feet over all; weight, fully loaded, 6,300 lbs. Hawker and Grieve started their trans-Atlantic flight on May 18, 1919, at 5.51 p.m., from the Mount Pearl Aero- drome, near St. John's, in an attempt to reach Ireland in a non-stop flight of 1,925 sea miles. After about a four-hour flight through clear weather, they encountered heavy clouds, fol- lowed by squalls and rain, though by keeping at 15,000 feet alti- tude they passed above them. Engine trouble developing, they descended after sighting the tramp steamer Mary. Their total flight time out from New- foundland was 14 hours 30 min- utes; time of alighting on the water 8:30 p.m., British summer time; distance covered, 1,050 miles. The Martynside. — The second entry for the trans-Atlantic race to arrive at St. John's was the Martynside, April 2, 1919; Capt. F. P. Raynham, pilot, Capt. C. W. F. Morgan, navigator; aerodrome at 'Quid Vidi.' The machine was wrecked in taking off. The N. C. 4.— The efforts of the United States Navy were di- rected towards the trans-Atlan- tic flight problem shortly after the signing of the armistice, and the construction of a new type of large flying boat was altered with this in view. In all four planes were built, known gener- ally as the N. C. 1, N. C. 2, N. C. 3, and N. C. 4, the letter N standing for Navy and C for Curtiss, indicating the joint pro- duction of the Navy Depart- ment and the Curtiss Engineer- ing Corps. The term Flying Boat is used for this type of craft, it actually being a stout seaworthy boat construction, permitting a water speed of 60 miles per hour, and an air speed, with full load, of 90 miles per hour. The hull proper is 45 feet long by 10 feet beam, bottom of double plank V con- struction, single step. Five bulkheads divide the hull into six water-tight compartments, used for the accommodation of the crew and the location of gasoline tanks. Engines, 4 Liberty (see Liberty Motor), 1,600 h. p.; wing span, 126 ft. upper, 96 ft. lower; length 68 ft. 5 in.; height, 24 ft. 5 in.; weight (empty), 15,874 lbs., (loaded). 28,000 lbs.; useful load, 12,126 lbs.; gravity tank, 91 gals.; fuel tanks, 1,800 gals.; oil tanks, 160 gals. The first step in the trans- Atlantic flight was made on the morning of May 10, 1919, at 10 A.M., when the three planes, the N. C. 1, 3, and 4, in command of Lieut.-Comm. P. N. L. Bel- linger, Comm. John H. Towers, and Lieut.-Comm. A. C. Read, respectively, left Rockaway Point Naval Station en route to Trepassey Bay, Newfound- land, where the final cross-Atlan- tic start was to be made. At this point the flight was started on the evening of May 16. It was not to be a non-stop flight, and naval vessels were to patrol the general course to the Azores and from the Azores to Portugal. The A^. C. 4 reached the island of Horta, in the Azores, at 9:25 A.M., May 17, and left on May 20, flying to Ponta Delgada, a distance of 150 miles, in one hour and forty-five minutes. The next day the flight was delayed because of engine troubles, but was later resumed, the plane ar- riving at Lisbon, Portugal, May 27, and continuing to Plymouth, England, which it reached May 31, with a grand total of 4,514 miles flown, including the 775 miles from Lisbon. The com- plete record of the N. C. 4's fly- ing time and speed is given in the accompanying table. Of the other flying boats, the N. C. 3 was forced to alight on account of bad weather and poor visibility. She was badly dam- aged in the heavy seas that were running, but succeeded in mak- days for favorable weather, they started their flight June 14, at 4.28 P.M., Greenwich mean time, in the direction of Ireland. Weather conditions were decid- edly unfavorable, and the report of the trip showed that it was possible to make only three ob- servations during the voyage. In spite of these difficulties, the plane landed at Clifden, Ireland, at 8.40 A.M., Greenwich mean time, June 15, after a total flight time of 16 hours and 12 minutes, and a distance covered of 1,960 miles, thus winning the Daily Mail prize of $50,000. ThoV ickers- Vimy flight was the world's long distance non-stop aeroplane flight for several years. The best previous record was made on May 24, by Lieutenant Roget of the French Army, who flew from Paris to Morocco, 1,361 miles, without stop, beating the earlier record for distance made in 1914, by Lieutenant Boehm, of the German Army, who cov- ered 1,350 miles over a circuit course, flying for 24 hours and 12 minutes. These splendid early achieve- ments in long distance flying were, however, all eclipsed in 1927, which will probably go down in aviation history as the year of the big flights. Aeroplanes, Course of the N. C. 4. Date. Distance, Knots. Time. Speed. Knots. Rockaway-Chatham (forced land- h. m. ing about 100 miles off Chatham) May 8 300 5:45 52 May 14 320 3.51 85 May 15 460 6:20 72.6 May 16-17 1,200 15:18 78.4 Horta-Ponta Delgada May 20 150 1:45 86.7 May 27 800 9:44 82.1 May 30 100 2:07 48.8 Mondego River-Ferrol May 30 220 4:37 45.6 May 31 455 6:59 64.8 ing the port of Ponta Delgada. The N. C. I was less fortunate, having to alight also because of bad weather. The crew were compelled to abandon the plane and were taken aboard the S.S. Ionia and landed at Horta. Vickers-Vimy. — The next entry for the trans-Atlantic flight from Newfoundland was the Vickers- Vimy aeroplane, at the time one of the largest land type machines actually assembled for the pur- pose, having a wing span of 67 feet, length 42 ft. 8 in., cord 10 ft. 6 in. It was fitted with two Rolls-Royce motors of 350 h.p., and its gasoline capacity had been increased to 865 gallons, giving an estimated flying radius of 2,440 miles. About June 1 Capt. J. Al- cock and Lieut. Arthur W. Brown, of the British air service arrived at St. John's and pro- ceeded to have this plane erected on the Mount Pearl aerodrome, formerly used by the Sopwith machine. After waiting several motors and instruments had by that time become so efficient that one flight after another was made, although American planes and motors were the most suc- cessful. Up to that year the longest flight had been by Capt. Rignot and Lieut. Costes of the French army from Paris to Djask, Persia, a distance of 3,313 miles, on October 28-29, 1926. The French were the first also to attempt the trans-Atlantic pas- sage in 1927, Capt. Charles Nungesser, French war ace, and Capt. Frangois Coli, hopping off from Paris on May 8. They had a large biplane with a single, powerful water-cooled motor. They were never heard from again, and no trace of them was ever found, so it is supposed that they came down somewhere in the Atlantic with such force that their plane was demolished. Col. Charles A. Lindbergh was the next to attempt the flight, and his success was one of the most spectacular events in the Vol. I.— Oct. '27 Aeronautics 79 N Aeronautics history of aviation. It took the peoples on both sides of the ocean by storm and made this 25-year- old flyer an international hero. He flew alone in a Ryan mono- plane with a Wright 220 horse- power air-cooled motor, leaving Roosevelt Field on May 20, at 6:52 A.M., New York standard time, and reaching Le Bourget just 33K hours later. His flight was a masterpiece of navi- gation, as without a sextant, and with only the aid of his com- passes and drift indicator, he reached the Irish coast within two miles of his course. He had previously brought his plane to circle course from point to point, but as Chamberlin was for many hours lost in a severe storm over Germany he probably flew about 4,400 miles. His plane was a Bellanca monoplane, powered with a Wright motor. The next great flight was over the Pacific from San Francisco to Honolulu, a distance of 2,000 miles. The difficulty in this flight was the small mark which must be found in the wastes of the Pacific, the Hawaiian Is- lands being easily missed in fog or bad weather. The flight required careful navigation, but Lieuts. Lester J. Maitland, Paris because of a severe storm which was raging when they reached the French coast. They finally turned back to the coast after circling somewhere near Paris and landed in the water off Ver-sur-mer, a French fishing village, after having been in the air 43 hours and 20 minutes. Commander Byrd, on May 9, 1926, flew from Spitzbergen to the Pole and back again in six- teen hours. His pilot on the trip was Floyd Bennett. Byrd ver- ified Peary's observations tak- en at the pole, and saw no land although he flew in a wide circle. The Congressional Medal was U.S.NAVY Courtesy of the Bureau of Aeronautics, U. S. Navy Department The U. S. Airship Los Angeles, Formerly the Z-Rj This airship was constructed by the Zeppelin Airship Company for the United States Government as a replacement for two smaller airships to which this country was entitled at the close of the Great War. The Los Angeles is designed as a commercial airship, and has accommodations for twenty passengers. New York from San Diego, Cal., in two swift flights, so that his entire flight was about 6,000 miles broken by a stay of a few hours in St. Louis, and a week in New York. His dashing courage while others, who had begun to prepare before him were on the ground, caught the imagination of the world. His flight was a new record of 3,610 miles and won for him the $25,000 Orteig prize. Closely following Lindbergh was Clarence Chamberlin, who with Charles A. Levine as the first trans-Atlantic passenger, flew from Roosevelt Field, L. I., on June 24, and reached Eiseleben, Germany, 46>2 hours later. His distance was 3.911 miles, as calculated according to the rules of distance-flying on a great pilot, and Albert F. Hegenberger, navigator, took off on June 28, and reached Honolulu in 25 hours and 50 minutes. Their flight was in a Fokker monoplane with three Wright Whirlwind motors. Just after they landed in Hono- lulu, Commander Richard E. Byrd, u. s. N., who had reached the North Pole by aeroplane the year before, took off for France from RoOvSevelt Field in a plane which was a duplicate of the one used on the Pacific flight. With him were Bert Acosta, pilot, Lieut. George O. Noville, radioman and flight engineer, and Lieut. Bernt Balchen, relief pilot and relief navigator. They flew in very bad weather, were unable to see land or sea for sixteen hours, and could not find bestowed on Byrd and Bennett. In 1927 also, Col. Francesco de Pinedo, the Italian long dis- tance flyer, made another of his famous seaplane flights. In 1923 he had flown from Rome to Japan and back by a circuitous route, making 34,000 miles in all. In 1927 he left vSardinia on Feb- ruary 14, flew to Dakar, Africa, then to the Cape Verde Islands, then to Fernando de Noronha, to Brazil, and up to the United States, where his plane was destroyed by fire in Colorado. He obtained another plane from Italy, and flew back by way of Newfoundland to the Azores. He was forced by a storm to land in the sea some distance from the Azores, was towed to land, and went on after his plane was repaired. Vol. I.— Oct. '28 Aeronautics 80 Aeronautics Two of the most significant flights of the year were those of the two Detroit fliers, Edward F. Schlee and Wilham S. Brock and the French aviators. Captain Dieudonne Costes and Com- mander Josef Lebrix. Brock and Schlee took off from Harbor Grace, Newfoundland, on the morning of Aug. 27 and flew across the Atlantic to Croyden Airport, London. From there they flew across Europe and Asia, ending their flight 12,395 miles from the start at Tokyo on Sep- tember 14. In eighteen days of flying they crossed the Atlantic and two continents, having used a Stinson monoplane with a Wright Whirlwind motor, Costes and Lebrix left Paris on the morning of October 14, 1927, flying a Breguet biplane A^ith a 500 horsepower Hispano Suiza motor and landed twenty hours later at St. Louis, Senegal, West Africa. Thence they flew 2,100 miles across the South Atlantic to Port Natal, Brazil, completing the first successful nonstop east to west flight across the Atlantic. They toured South America and crossed that conti- nent by night flying over the Andes at 20,000 feet altitude from Rio de Janeiro to Santiago, Chile, from where they flew north to land at Mitchel Field, L. L, February 11, 1928, after 23.000 miles of flying. After a visit in New York they flew to Seattle, proceeded with their plane by steamer to Japan and then flew across Asia and Europe to Paris, 43,000 miles of flying without an accident of any sort. The first great flights of 1928 came in April. Captain Herman Koehl, Baron Guenther von Huenefeld, both Germans, and the Irish aviator Major James Fitzmaurice took off from Dublin on the morning of April 12 and landed at Greenely Island off the coast of Labrador 36 hours later, after wandering for many hours over the forests and moun- tains of Labrador. Theirs was the first westward crossing of the North Atlantic in an airplane. They used a Junkers all-metal monoplane powered with a 310 horsepower Junkers motor. While the German-Irish expedition was still stranded at Greenely, on April 15-lG, Captain George Hubert Wilkins, the Australian explorer, and Lieutenant C. B. Eielson, his American pilot, flew from Point Barrow Alaska, 2,100 miles across the top of the world to Dead Man's Island, a tiny speck twenty-five 'miles off the coast of Spitzbergen. They were stormbound there five days be- fore they were able to fly on to Green Bay, Spitzbergen. They used an American built Lockheed Vega monoplane powered with the Wright Whirlwind motor. On May 31 Captain Charles Vol. L— Oct. '28 Kingsford-Smith and Captain Charles T. P. Ulm, Australians, with Captain Harry Lyon and James W. Warner, Americans, as navigator and radio operator took off at San Francisco in a tri-motored Fokker monoplane landing the next day in Hawaii. Three days later they took off for Suva, capital of the Fijis, making this water jump, 3,138 miles, the longest in the history of aviation, in 34 hours and 33 minutes after flying through several storms, guiding them- selves with absolute precision by radio bearings. June 8, they left the Fijis by air for Brisbane, Australia a flight of 1,762 miles in 21 hours and 18 minutes. On June 17, the first woman to fly the Atlantic, Miss Amelia Earhart of Boston took off from Trepassy Bay, Newfoundland, in a tri-motored Fokker seaplane piloted by Wilmer Stultz with Louis Gordon as mechanic and co-pilot. After flying nearly all of the distance across the ocean above clouds and fog, 20 hours and 40 minutes later they landed at Burry Port, South Wales. Captain Arturo Ferrarin and Major Carlo P. Delprete, Italians, took off from Monte- cello airdrome near Rome, July 3, flew 4,475 miles across the Medi- terranean, Northwest Africa, and the South Atlantic and landed on the beach near Port Natal, Brazil two days later, 51 hours after they left Rome, surpassing Chamberlin and Levine's flight from Roosevelt Field to Germany by more than 500 miles and es- tablishing a new world's distance record. They used a special Savoia Marchetti monoplane powered by a 550 horsepower Fiat motor mounted on top of the wing. Records: Many new records were made in 1927 and during the early months of 1928. Fol- lowing are the more important which are recognized by the Federation Internationale Aero- nautique. Speed: Major Mario de Ber- nardi of Italy flew a Macchi 52 monoplane (seaplane) with an 800 horsepower Fiat motor at a speed of 318.624 miles an hour at Venice, Italy on March 30, 1928. Lieutenant S. N. Webster of Great Britain flew a Supermarine monoplane (seaplane) with a 1,000 horsepower Napier motor 100 kilometers at the rate of 283.669 miles an hour at Venice, September 26, 1927, a world's record for 100 kilometers. The maximum speed in the United States was made by Lieut. A. J. Williams, u. s. N., in a Curtis racer, with a 500 horse- power motor, at Mitchel Field, L. I., where he flew at a rate of 266.59 miles an hour on Nov. 4, 1923. The record for an American seaplane over a straightaway course was made by Lieut. James H. Doolittle, u. s. a. in a Curtis racer, at Bay Shore, Baltimore, Oct. 27, 1925, when he flew at the rate of 245.713 miles an hour. The day before he made a speed of 234.772 miles over the 100 kilometer course. Distance: Colonel Charles A. Lindbergh, Roosevelt Field — Paris, May 20-21, 1927, 3,610 miles. Clarence D. Chamberlin, Roosevelt Field — Eiseleben, Ger- many, June 4, 5, 6, 1927, 3,911 miles. Captain Arturo Ferrarin and Major Carlo P. Delprete, Rome — Port Natal, Brazil, July 3, 4, 5, 1928, 4,475 miles. Duration. — Clarence D. Cham- berlin and Bert Acosta in the same Bellanca monoplane in which Chamberlin flew to Ger- many, using a 220 horsepower Wright air-cooled motor, made a duration record 51 hours, 11 minutes, 25 seconds, at Roosevelt Field, L, I., on April 12, 13, 14, 1927. Johann Risticz and Cor- nelius Edzard broke Cham- berlin and Acosta's record with a Junkers L. monoplane powered with a Junkers 310 horsepower motor at Dessau Aug. 3, 4, 5, 1927 when they stayed aloft 52 hours, 22 minutes, 31 seconds. Edward A. Stinson and George W, Haldeman flying a Stinson Detroiter with 220 horse- power Wright Whirlwind motor again broke this record at Jack- sonville, Fla., March 28, 29, 30, 1928 by staying up 53 hours, 36 minutes, 30 seconds. Ferrarin and Del Prete, the Italians, took the record to Italy with the plane they flew to Brazil, a Savoia Marchetti pow- ered with a Fiat 550 horespower motor on May 31-June 1, 2, with a sustained flight of 58 hours, 34 minutes, 26 seconds. Johann Risticz and Hans Zim- merman took this record again to Germany when they stayed aloft at Dessau in their Jm Junkers monoplane powered with the Junkers 310 horsepower motor, 65 hours, 31 minutes, on July 5, 6, 7. Altitude. — Lieut. C. C. Cham- pion u. s. N. flying a Wright Apache with a Pratt and Whit- ney 425 horsepower 'wasp' motor made the world's record for altitude at Anacostia Field, Washington, D. C. with a flight to a height of 38,418 feet on July 25, 1927. Lieut. Champion, flying the same plane equipped as seaplane, established the world's seaplane record over the same field on July 4, 1927 with a flight to a height of 37,995 feet. The First World Flight.— In the Fall of 1923 the United States Army announced its plan to TEMPORARY PAGES FOR NELSON'S L. L. ENCYCLOPAEDIA Insert in Volume I., following page 80. The World Flight Circumnavigation of the world by air was accomplished in 1924 by the United States Army. Of the four heavier-than-air flying machines that set out on the world flight, however, only two completed the journey in its en- tirety; one came to grief early in the attempt; another, with the goal almost in sight, was wrecked and forced to forego the flight across the Atlantic, but the avi- ators were provided with a new aeroplane and, rejoining their companions, completed a greater part of the journey. The route taken was from east to west and the time consumed was approxi- mately six months. It had been certain since the safe crossing of the Atlantic by U. S. Navy seaplanes five years earlier that a round-the-world flight would be attempted. In- deed, several plans were made and actually launched, but these were private enterprises and failed more for lack of organiza- tion and supplies than for any want of skill on the part of the aviators. In fact, while the American fliers were going around the world, representatives of France, England, Portugal, Italy, and Argentina were trying to do the same thing, but misfortune overtook each of them, and un- able to repair and refit, they had to abandon the attempt. Simi- lar misfortunes befell the Ameri- cans, but advance preparation and superior organization en- abled them to overcome these obstacles. The Plan.— in the Fall of 1923 the United States Army an- nounced its plan to circumnavi- gate the world by air. There were obviously two great ob- stacles to be overcome — unfavor- able flying weather and lack of supplies. Aeroplanes had not reached that state of perfection where invariably they could ven- ture successfully against storm and fog and, in any event, they could not fly without gasoline and oil. It was to overcome these obstacles, so far as humanly possible, that the army air service set itself in the months preceding the flight. A route was mapperl out that would best avoid at known times known conditions of storm and fog. though it was, of course, not dreamed that storm and fog would be alto- gether escaped. Bad weather would inevitably be met with, but by starting in the Spring of the year and flying from the west coast of the United States to Alaska and then by way of Japan, China, India, Persia, Tur- key, France, England, Iceland, Greenland, and Labrador, thus regaining the eastern coast of North America, it was thought that the worst weather conditions of the Pacific and the Atlantic would be avoided. Accordingly, with the route decided on, ar- rangements were made to have supplies on hand at each of the stopping places, and in northern regions ice-breakers and dog- sleds were engaged to transport the supplies to points where they would be needed. The Purpose. — Major-General Mason M. Patrick, Chief of the U. S. Army Air Service, gave the following reasons for the flight: 'The purpose, of this flight has been to demonstrate the feasi- bility of establishing aerial com- munication with all the countries of the world ; the practicability of travel by air through regions where surface transportation does not exist, or at best is slow, tedi- ous, or* uncertain; to prove the ability of modern types of air- craft under all climatic condi- tions; to stimulate the adaptation of aircraft to the needs of com- merce; to show the people of the world the excellence of American- produced aircraft, and thus stim- ulate our American aircraft industry; and lastly to bring to the United States, the birthplace of aeronautics, the honor of being the first to fly around the world.' The Personnel. — The personnel selected for the flight were: Major Frederick L. Martin, Flight Commander, and vSergeant Alva L. Harvey, mechanic; Lieutenant Lowell H. Smith, pilot, and Lieu- tenant Leslie P. Arnold, me- chanic; Lieutenant Erik H. Nel- on, pilot, and John Harding, me- chanic; Lieutenant Leigh Wade, pilot, and Lieutenant H. H. Ogden, mechanic. The Aeroplanes. — Douglas bi- planes, equipped with single en- gines of twelve cylinders, and capable of easily being provided with pontoons or running gear as conditions might demand, were specially constructed for the flight. Each was capable of carrying a pilot and a mechanic. No. 1, that of Major Martin, was named Seattle; No. 2, that of Lieutenant Smith, Chicago; No. 3, that of Lieutenant Wade. Bos- ton; No. 4, that of Lieutenant Nelson, New Orleans. Subse- quently Boston II was provided for Lieutenant Wade. The Flight. — On March 17, 1924, the flight began. On the morning of St. Patrick's day the four aeroplanes rose from Clover Field, Santa Monica, California, for the first leg of their flight, which was to end at Sacramento, 370 miles away. The journey was accomplished without mis- hap, and the aviators expressed themselves as confident of be- ing able to carry out their orders successfully. Their next hop was to Seattle, 550 miles distant, which they reached on March 20. There the running wheels of the aeroplanes were removed and pontoons were substituted, as their journey for some time on was to take them over water. On April 6 they reached Prince Rupert, British Columbia, on April 10, Sitka, Alaska, and on April, 13, Seward, Alaska. Thus far the flight, although beset with many aggravations, had been without any serious in- cident. From Seward the route called for a hop of 450 miles to Chignik. The four pilots took off" on the morning of April 15. Three of them made port suc- cessfully that evening. Major Martin, however, who had been experiencing some engine trouble, was forced down by a crack in the crank case through which he lost his lubricating oil. He landed in Portage Bay and rode at anchor all that night. His situation was serious, as it was impossible to continue. American destroyers, however, had been patroling the water flights, and when the flight com- mander was missed a search was begun that ended in his rescue. A new engine was then sent to him, but while the others were disposed to wait for their commander and did wait for four days, instructions came to them from Washington to proceed. Ac- cordingly they flew on 400 miles to Dutch Harbor. There they were storm bound for almost two weeks and it was not until May 3 that they were able to continue to Atka Island. In the meantime. Major Mar- tin and his mechanic, having in- VOL. I.— Oct. '24 The World Flight 4 The World Flight stalled their new engine, contin- ued their flight. They encoun- tered the snowstorm, however, that had held up the others in advance and, while flying with almost no visibility, their plane hit the side of a mountain near Port MoUer and was wrecked beyond hope of repair. The avi- ators escaped without serious in- jury, but found themselves on foot in a snow-covered wilderness with almost no food. They set out to walk, in the hope of reach- ing some habitation, but nearly a week passed before they ar- rived at a small camp. Here Attu. the end of the chain of Aleutian Islands, and before them stretched 880 miles of the north Pacific ocean to the Kuriles. On May 16 they took off, but ran into bad weather and decided to come down near Commandor- ski on the Kamchatkan coast. They passed the night on their planes at anchor on the water and continued the following day for the Kuriles, arriving safely. Here they met with more snow and bad fog and were again held up, but at last were able to con- tinue to the mainland of Japan, where the aeroplanes were over- the aviators had passed from arctic to equatorial regions, from extreme cold to extreme heat, and while it had been their en- gines that demanded the closest attention in the former, it was now the fabric of their wings that required rigid scrutiny. They came through, however, and con- tinued on to India, reaching Cal- cutta on June 26. It was ex- hausting work, sandstorms add- ing to the discomfort of the heat, but they flew on to Allahabad, to Umballa, to Multan, and to Kurachi in the northeast, their last Indian stop. During this ©Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. Lieutenant Smith's Flagplane "Chicago," equipped with Pontoons for Flight Over Water they found rest, food, and warmth, and news of their safety was sent out to a world that had prepared itself for the worst. A destroyer was despatched for the aviators, and they were instructed to return to Washington. At that time, it was intended to send Major Martin to the Near East to rejoin the flight with a new plane. The flight commander, however, asked that the plan be cancelled; his wishes were ob- served and Lieutenant Smith took command. The longest and one of the most dangerous legs of the jour- ney now faced the aviators. From Atka they had flown to hauled and the aviators were made much of. On June 1 they continued to Kushimoto and thence to Kagoshima. The route of the airmen now led to China. At Shanghai the pontoons that had been put on at Seattle were removed and wheeled landing gear was at- tached, for the sea was now be- hind, for some time at least, while ahead lay hill and plane and snow and sand. P^rom Shanghai to Hongkong, thence to Haiphong in French Indo-China, they flew, continuing on to Bang- kok, in Siam, and to Rangoon, in Burma. In a comparatively few days flight Lieutenant Smith fell from the wing of his aeroplane and fractured two ribs, but he did not permit this mishap to hold him back. His one object was to push forward and on July 7, with new engines in the aero- planes, he led his command on through Persia by way of Char- bar, Bendar Abbas and Bushire to Bagdad in Mesopotamia. Thence the fliers made their way to Aleppo in Syria, reaching Constantinople on July 10. Two days later they crossed into Europe. Their route to Paris lay by way of Bucharest, Vienna, and Strassbourg. They reached the F'rench capital on Vol. I.— Oct. '24 The World Flight 6 The World Flight Bastille Day, circled the Arc de Triomphe, dropped flowers on the tomb of the Unknown Sol- dier, and landed on an airfield in the outskirts of the city. Thence they flew north, crossed the Eng- lish Channel, and reached Lon- don, Although little time had been lost, four months had elapsed. There was dangerous flying ahead, and the success of the venture was by no means as- sured. Consequently, no time was wasted in London. After one day the aviators continued to Hull. There their aeroplanes were once more fitted with pon- toons, and on August 2 they hopped off for Kirkwall, Scot- land. It was in the next leg of the journey that misfortune fell upon Lieutenant Wade and his aero- plane Boston. The plane was forced down by engine trouble ofl" the Faroes, and was taken in tow by the scout, cruiser Richmond. In the sea that was running, the Boston did not tow well and it was decided to hoist her on board. The equipment of the Richmond was, however, designed for smaller and lighter planes and in the attempt the vessel's boom broke, the aeroplane fell to the water, and was wrecked. Lieutenants Wade and Ogden were scarcely more disappointed than their companions when it became ap- parent that another plane could not be sent and assembled in time to avoid the winter weather that would soon be setting in off Ice- land and Greenland. Such, how- ever, was the case, and the two aviators were sent to Canada by ship and the Boston II was fitted out and flown up to Pictou, Nova Scotia, for them. By the end of July Lieutenant Smith with Chicago and Lieuten- ant Nelson, with New Orleans, were in Reykjavik, Iceland. Their next scheduled hop was to Angmagsalik, on the east coast of Greenland. For the greater part of each year Angmagsalik is ice-bound, but for fifteen years entrance to the harbor had been effected at this season. Now. however, ice filled the harbor and extended northward to a width of fifteen miles off shore. The supplies that the aviators would need at Angmagsalik were on board the Danish steamship Gertrud Rask, but although that vessel was an ice-breaker, she was unable to push through. In- deed, she was caught in the drift ice and as the precious days went by was carried further and fur- ther from her destination. The flight now reached its crisis, and it became clear that unless some oi)en harbor could be found, the attempt would have to be aban- doned. Advance officers of the army began a hunt for a safe Vol. I. — Oct. '24 landing place, and just when hopes were at their lowest, for it was a time of the heaviest fog off the southern tip of Greenland, Fredriksdal, on the west coast, just beyond Cape Farewell, the most southerly point of Green- land, was decided upon as a suit- ble landing place in the emer- gency. By this time Antonio Locatelli, an Italian, who had left Rome with four companions in a sea- plane originally constructed to fly to the North Pole, had reached Reykavik and had obtained per- mission to accompany the Ameri- cans. He hopped off with them and flying a more powerful sea- plane, took the lead. American warships patrolling the route re- ported all three, with the excep- tion of the destroyer nearest to Fredriksdal, which sighted only the Americans and attributed failure to see Locatelli to a dense fog that had set in. It was a fog that gave both Smith and Nelson much trouble. Both, however, reached Fredriksdal safely. Loc- atelli, on the other hand, was forced down near Fredriksdal, fearing he might strike an ice- berg in the fog. The sea was heavy, and he and his compan- ions had difficulty keeping the seaplane headed into the wind. Waves threatened to sink them, and the fog continued. Loca- telli now found that he could not rise from the water. He had provisions for ten days, but on the fourth day was picked up by the Cruiser Richmond. A Very light, fired by himself, had been seen by a lookout on the Rich- mond just before midnight, and the rescue had followed. The aviators were taken on board, but it was impossible to save their airplane, which had to be burned. Locatelli was taken to Labrador and later to Boston by ship. From Fredriksdal Lieutenants Smith and Nelson flew around Cape Farewell to Ivigtut, later described by Smith as 'the avi- ator's Hell.' At Ivigtut engines were changed and plans made for the dangerous crossing to the North American continent. Ice Tickle, in Hamilton Inlet, Lab- rador, had been selected as the landing place, and there supplies were on hand, as well as a meteor- ological officer of the Army Sig- nal (^orps, who sent weather re- ports twice daily to the aviators. He warned them that they had best face head winds, for such winds would drive off fog. Sunday, July 31, dawned, a cold, raw, somewhat rainy day. The aviators decided they could risk delay no more. Accord- ingly, early in the morning they took off from Ivigtut, destroyers stationed en route reporting their progress every hour. During the middle of the afternoon they reached Ice Tickle. Wind, how- ever, had sprung up, and the landing place that had been pre- pared was too rough for a safe descent. At the last moment two emergency buoys had been made ready in the lee of the shore in an adjoining cove and it was there the aviators came down. They were taken on board the Richmond, which had arrived from Iceland, and greetings from the President of the United States were read to them. Later Lieutenant Smith gave credit for his safe arrival to his companion. Lieutenant Arnold. Two hours out from Ivigtut the gasoline feed broke down and Arnold kept the engine supplied with fuel by means of a hand pump, making two strokes to the minute, keep- ing this up for three hours. Two days later the aviators continued on to Hawkes Bay, on the west coast of Newfoundland, and proceeded thence to Pictou. There they were met by Lieuten- ants Wade and Ogden with Bos- ton II and the three hopped off for Boston on Friday, Sept. 5. Off the coast of Maine, however, they encountered fog and decided to come down at Mere Point in Casco Bay. It was their first landing on the shores of the United States since they had left, nearly six months before. The following morning they contin- ued, arriving in Boston in the early afternoon. There they were met by officials of the na- tion. State, and city, were hon- ored by public receptions and given many presents. In Boston the pontoons were removed from the aeroplanes for the last time, and landing wheels put on. On Sept. 8. accom- panied by eight escorting planes, led by General Patrick, the world cruisers flew on to New York, where the Secretary of War, and the Prince of Wales, then visiting in America, and many other dis- tinguished persons greeted them. The next day they proceeded to Washington and were received by the President. Thence, by easy stages, they continued their flight across country to the starting point. They reached San Diego, Cal., Sept. 22, 1924. The /?csu//5.— While it is doubt- ful that the World Flight accom- plished all that General Patrick hoped for, it did bring to the United States the honor o'f the first circumnavigation of the world by air. Subsequent flights undoubtedly will greatly reduce the time, but it is not likely that extreme northern lanes will be traversed for some time to come at least. The impracticability of the Greenland route was shown and doubtless in the next at- tempt the Atlantic will be crossed by way of the Azores. Aeronautics 81 Aeronautics circumnavigate the world by air. By starting in the Spring of the year and flying from the west coast of the United States to Alaska and then by way of Japan, China, India, Persia, Turkey, France, England, Ice- land, Greenland, and Labrador, thus regaining the eastern coast of North America, it was thought that the worst weather conditions of the Pacific and the Atlantic would be avoided. Accordingly, arrangements were made to have supplies on hand at each of the stopping places, and in northern regions ice-breakers and dog- sleds were engaged to transport the supplies to points where they would be needed. 2, that of Lieutenant Smith, Chicago; No. 3, that of Lieuten- ant Wade, Boston; No. 4, that of Lieutenant Nelson, New Orleans. On the morning of March 17, 1924, the four aeroplanes rose from Clover Field, Santa Mo- nica, California, for the first leg of their flight, which was to end at Sacramento, 370 miles away. Their next hop was to Seattle, 550 miles distant, which they reached on March 20. There the running wheels of the aero- planes were removed and pon- toons were substituted, as their journey for some time on was to take them over water. On April 6 they reached Prince Rupert, British Columbia, on April 10, to Dutch Harbor. There they were storm-bound for almost two weeks and it was not until May 3 that they were able to continue to Atka Island. In the meantime. Major Mar- tin and his mechanic, having installed their new engine, contin- ued their flight. They encoun- tered the snowstorm, however, that had held up the others in advance and, while flying with almost no visibility, their plane hit the side of a mountain near Port M oiler and was wrecked beyond hope of repair. Major Martin, at his own request, was relieved of the command, and it was assumed by Lieutenant Smith. Copyright bv International Film Service The Great British Dirigible Skirting the Ground at Roosevelt Field, Mineola, Long Island, Just Ready to Land. Major G. H. Scott, R. A. F., in command of the airship, is shown in the inset in the upper left-hand corner. The personnel selected for the flight were: Major Frederick L. Martin, Flight Commander, and Sergeant Alva L. Harvey, me- chanic; Lieutenant Lowell H. Smith, pilot, z.nd Lieutenant Les- lie P. Arnold, mechanic; Lieu- tenant Erik H. Nelson, pilot, and John Harding, mechanic; Lieu- tenant Leigh Wade, pilot, and Lieutenant H. H. Ogden, me- chanic. Douglas biplanes, equipped with single engines of twelve cylinders, and capable of easily being provided with pontoons or running gear as conditions might demand, were specially con- structed for the flight. Each was capable of, carrying a pilot and a mechanic. No. 1, that of Major Martin, was named Seattle; No. Sitka, Alaska, and on April 13, Seward, Alaska. From Seward the route called for a hop of 450 miles to Chignik. The four pilots took ofl" on the morning of April 15. Three of them made port successfully that evening. Major Martin, how- ever, was forced down by a crack in his crank case through which he lost his lubricating oil. Land- ing in Portage Bay he rode at anchor all that night and was later rescued by American de- stroyers, which had been patrol- ing the water flights. A new engine was then sent to him, but while the others were disposed to wait for their commander, in- structions came to them from Washington to proceed. Ac- cordingly they flew on 400 miles The longest and one of the most dangerous legs of the jour- ney now faced the aviators. From Atka they had flown to Attn, the end of the chain of Aleutian Islands, and before them stretched 880 miles of the North Pacific ocean to the Kuriles. On May 16 they took ofi^, but ran into bad weather and came down near Commandorski on the Kamchatkan coast. They passed the night on their planes at anchor on the water and con- tinued the following day to the Kuriles. Here they met with more snow and bad fog and were again held up, but at last were able to continue to the mainland of Japan. On June 1 they con- tinued to Kushimoto and thence to Kagoshima. Vol. I.— Oct. '27 Aeronautics The route of the afrmett noW led to China. At Shanghai the pontoons that had been put on at Seattle were removed and wheeled landing gear was at- tached, for ahead lay hill and plane and snow and sand. From Shanghai to Hongkong, thence to Haiphong in French Indo-China, they flew, continuing on to Bang- kok, in Siam, and to Rangoon, in Burma. They reached Calcutta on June 26, and from there flew on to Allahabad, to Umballa, to Multan, and to Kurachi in the northeast, their last Indian stop. During this flight Lieutenant Smith fell from the wing of his aeroplane and fractured two ribs, but he did not permit this mis- hap to hold him back. On July 7, with new engines in the aero- planes, he led his command on through Persia by way of Char- bar, Bendar Abbas and Bushire to Bagdad in Mesopotamia. Thence the fliers made their way to Aleppo in Syria, reaching Constantinople on July 10. Two days later they crossed into Europe. Their route to Paris lay by way of Bucharest, Vienna, and Strassbourg. They reached the French capital on Bastile Day (July 14). Thence they flew north, crossed the English Channel, and after one day in London continued to Hull, where their aeroplanes were once more fitted with pontoons. On July 30 they reached Kirk- wall, Scotland. In the next leg of the journey the Boston was forced down by engine trouble off the Faroes, and was wrecked in an attempt to hoist it on board the scout cruiser Richmond. Lieutenants Wade and Ogden were sent to Canada by ship and the Boston II was fitted out and flown up to Pictou, Nova Scotia, for them. Lieutenant Smith, with the Chicago, and Lieutenant Nelson, with the New Orleans, continued the flight, and on Aug. 5 reached Reykjavik, Iceland. Their next scheduled hop was to Angmag- salik, on the east coast of Green- land, but as the harbor was ice- bound, Fredriksdal, on the west coast, just beyond Cape Farewell, was decided upon as a landing place. From Fredriksdal Lieutenants Smith and Nelson flew around Cape Farewell to Ivigtut, where engines were changed and plans made for the dangerous crossing to the North American continent. Thence on August 31 they made their way to Ice Tickle, in Hamil- ton Inlet, Labrador. Two days later the aviators continued on to Hawkes Bay, on the west coast of Newfound- land, and proceeded thence to Pictou. There they were met by Lieutenants Wade and Ogden with Boston II and the three hopped off for Boston on Sep- VoL. I.— Oct. '27 ^1 A tember 5. Off the coast of Maine, however, they encountered fog and came down at Brunswick, Maine — their first landing on the shores of the United States since they had left, nearly six months before. The following morning they continued, arriving in Bos- ton in the early afternoon. There the pontoons were removed from the aeroplanes for the last time, and landing wheels put on. On September 8, accompanied by eight escorting planes, the world cruisers flew on to New York. Thence, by easy stages, they continued their flight across country to the starting point, reaching San Diego, Cal., Sept. 22, 1924, and Seattle on Sep- tember 28. Dirigible Flights. — Faith in'dir- igible airships has not been shaken in spite of tragic losses both in this country and in Europe. Rigid ships of this type have crossed the Atlantic Ocean and the American con- tinent and returned safely to their bases. Plans to build much larger craft than now exist have already been made in Great Britain and are under considera- tion in the United States. R-3Jf.— On July 2, 1919, the British dirigible left her hangar at East Fortune, Scot- land, for Roosevelt Field, Mine- ola, N. Y. She carried thirty- one persons, including an Ameri- can observer and a British stowaway. Encountering head winds, she ran into a gale off the coast of Newfoundland and was tossed 500 feet into the air but remained under control and was not damaged. She was made fast at Roosevelt Field after a flight of 3,200 miles in 108 hours. Refueling, the R-SJ^^ recrossed the Atlantic and reached East Fortune again without mishap. Her dimensions were as follows: Length, 670 feet; beam, 70 feet; capacity, 2,200,000 cubic feet. Shenandoah. — Laid down as the Z-R 1, the dirigible airship subsequently named Shenandoah was built at the Naval Air Sta- tion, Lakehurst, N. J., in a hangar specially constructed to hold three ships of her size (see Hangar). She was successfully launched on Sept. 4, 1923, and made a number of short trial flights. On Jan. 16, 1924, when she was moored for test pur- poses to a mast at Lakehurst, a gale blew up and tore her loose. She proved airworthy, however, and after riding out the gale for eight hours returned to Lake- hurst and was berthed in her hangar. On Aug. 8, 1924, she was moored to a mast on the U. S. S. Patoka, proving her availability for use at sea as an air scout with the fleet. In October 1924, the Shenandoah made a successful transconti- nental flight. She returned im- Aeronautlcs mediately, accomplishing a flight of 9.000 miles in 272 hours, 30 minutes. She was safely berthed in her hangar with the Z-R 3 on October 26. On Sept. 3, 1925, while making a flight from her hangar at Lakehurst, N. J., to St. Louis, the Shenandoah en- countered a thunder squall near Caldwell, Ohio, and was totally wrecked with a loss of 14 of her crew, including the commander. For details see Aircraft Dis- asters. Dimensions: length 680 feet, beam 78 feet, capacity 2,150,000 cubic feet. (For illus- tration, see Hangar.) Dixmude. — Formerly the L-72, the Dixmude had been almost completed by the Germans when the war was concluded. She was turned over to France under the terms of the peace treaty and in September 1923 broke all distance and endurance records when she landed at her aero- drome at Marseilles, after a flight of 4,500 miles, during which she had been in the air 118 hours, 41 minutes. In that flight she crossed the Mediter- ranean and cruised over Algeria, Tunisia and the Sahara, return- ing successfully to France. On Dec. 18, 1923, the Dixmude left France on a similar cruise. On Dec. 20 she was over Biskra. On Dec. 21, at 3 a.m., she com- municated by radio that she was in a storm area and was return- ing to France. She was never heard from again. In some manner she was lost over the Mediterranean and all of her crew of 50 were killed. The body of her commander was taken from the sea a few days later off the Sicilian coast and some charred wreckage subsequently was found. It is not known whether she collapsed from structural defects or whether she was struck by lightning. Los Angeles. — On Oct. 12 the German dirigible Z-R 3, which had been built at the Zeppelin works for the United States under the terms of the peace treaty, left Friedrichshaven, Ger- many, for the naval air station at Lakehurst, N. J. She reached her destination on Oct. 15 and was turned over to the U S. Government by her builders. The voyage of approximately 5,000 miles was a new distance record and was accomplished in 81 hours. After she had been accepted, the Z-R 3 was renamed Los Angeles. The terms under which this vessel was awarded to the United States specify that she shall be used for commercial purposes. For accounts of the Roma and Z-R 2, vsee Aircraft Disasters. The greatest long distance flight for dirigibles was ac- complished in 1926 when the dirigible Norge, carrying the Amundsen-Ellsworth- Nobile po- TEMPORARY PAGES FOR NELSON'S L. L. ENCYCLOP/EDIA Insert in Volume I, following page 8lA The Graf Zeppelin Round-the- World Flight: August 8-29, 1929 Captain Sir George Hubert Wilkins, who has written this account of the Graf Zeppelin world flight, was one of the nine passengers who made the complete round-the-world trip in the giant dirigible. He is now (1929) in command of the Wilkins-Hearst Antarctic Expedition. The present article was written by Captain Wilkins especially. for the Nelson Loose-Leaf Encyclopaedia, by per- mission of the Hearst newspapers. , The Publishers. In August 1929 a new chapter in aeronautic history was written when the giant German dirigible Graf Zeppelin, which in October of 1928 had crossed the Atlantic in one hundred and eleven and a half hours, circled the globe from Lakehurst, N. J., to Lakehurst, N. J., in twenty-one days, seven hours, and twenty-six minutes. After achieving this record, the great airship returned to Fried- richshafen, Germany, its original point of departure, bettering its own time and making a new rec- ord from Friedrichshafen to Friedrichshafen of twenty days and four hours. The flight was made possible through arrange- ments with Mr. William Ran- dolph Hearst, and through his efforts the hangar at Tokio was made available and a mooring mast was provided at Los An- geles. Considerable help was 'afforded by the United States and Japanese navies, and many private enterprises contributed. In accompUshing this feat the Zeppelin established not one but several records. It made the fastest airship time ever made across the Atlantic, covering the distance between New York and Paris in forty-six hours fifty-two minutes (Lindbergh's time in an airplane was thirty-three and one-half hours, while Com- mander Byrd took forty-three hours twenty-one minutes from New York to the coast). It was the first lighter-than-air craft to fly around the world and the first aircraft of any type to make the eastward passage of the Pa- cific. It bettered by more than two days the former record for circumnavigating the globe, twenty-three days, fifteen hours, eight seconds, set in 1928 by Collyer and Mears, travelling by airplane, train, automobile, and steamer. It made, also, in the course of its journey, the longest hop in aeronautic history — Fried- richshafen to Tokio — a distance of 6,880 miles in one hundred and one hours and fifty minutes. Construction of the Airship. — The Graf Zeppelin, named for the inventor of airships, Graf (Count) von Zeppelin (q.v.), was completed at the Zeppelin factory at Friedrichshafen, Ger- many, in September 1928, the 177th airship built since the first Zeppelin made its initial flight in July 1900. A large portion of the funds required for its construction was provided by pubUc subscription. Although the latest airship of its type, the Graf Zeppelin is not considered to be the most per- fect in design, having been built to fit the only existing hangar at Friedrichshafen rather than with the idea of conforming to the best aspect ratio, streamline, and steering qualities. The diam- eter of the ship in proportion to its length was controlled by the size of the hangar, and two extra parallel sections were included in the hull design in order to pro- vide room for power gas, a feature which adds somewhat to the difficulty of control. The frame- work is of duralumin, and is built in triangular sections. Longitudinal girders connect the circular framework, and the whole structure is braced to- gether with piano wire. The ship is 776.2 feet long, 100.1 feet in diameter at its greatest girth, and has a gas capacity of 3,708,- 000 cubic feet, about three fourths of which is used for lifting gas and about one fourth for power gas. Hydrogen is used for lifting and Blau or Luna gas for fuel. The empty ship weighs about 30 tons, and more than 20,000 square yards of specially woven cotton fabric are used for the outside covering. The gas is contained in cells or ballonettes within the main envelope. A cat walk about eight inches wide extends from the nose of the ship to its rear fins, affording access to all parts of the vessel. The crew enter the engine nacelles by means of a collapsible ladder. Inside the envelope the officers and crew occupy small tents cov- ering hammocks slung from the framework of the ship. The cargo, stores, supplies, and mail are distributed along the keel of the ship on special steel and fabric nets. The Graf Zeppelin is powered with five twelve-cylinder May- bach water-cooled engines, each of 570 horsepower, each engine being installed in a separate gon- dola called a power car. A mechanic is in constant attend- ance in each power car to regu- late the speed of the engine ac- cording to the orders of the cap- tam in charge of the ship. These orders are sent by means of a machine telegraph similar to that used on board steamers. There are also electric telephone com- munication and voice tubes be- tween each engine room and control point on the ship. The Maybach motors are directly reversible and accomplish the reverse action without the ne- cessity of complicated reversing mechanism. They are consider- ably heavier than those used on heavier-than-air craft but of ex- tremely low fuel consumption. When operating on gasoline, at cruising speed, each engine con- sumes about 245 pounds of fuel per hour, about 50 pounds an hour less than the average air- plane engine of the same horse- power. An ingenious device at- tached to the carburetors of the engines makes it possible to switch from gasoline to gaseous fuel without interrupting opera- tion. For purposes of economy and safety, however, gaseous fuel is used. The control room, navigators' quarters, wireless room, elec- trically equipped kitchen, pas- sengers' saloon, and sleeping ac- commodations are in a gondola forward and beneath the centre of the main structure. If the ship is at a high mooring mast the passengers enter a small door be- neath the mooring attachment; if it is in the hangar or near the ground they enter through a door in the gondola. Accom- modations are furnished for twenty passengers in ten two- berth compartments and two wash rooms, supplied with hot and cold water. The dining saloon occupies a compartment about twenty-five feet square. A special fan is operated at the end of the gondola to insure and regulate ventilation. For cold- weather flying, special heating apparatus using heat from the Vol. I.— Oct. 29 Graf Zeppelin Flight 2 Graf Zeppelin Flight exhaust of the engines has been installed, but under ordinary conditions and on the round-the- world flight no extra heating ar- rangements were needed. Crew and Passengers. — On her epoch-making flight from Lake- hurst to Lakehurst the Graf Zeppelin was manned by a crew of thirty-three, captained by Dr. Hugo Eckener, with Cap- tains Lehman, Fleming, and von Schiller as watch-keeping officers. Two navigating offi- cers were carried on each watch; three watches were kept. Nine passengers made the trip from Lakehurst to Lakehurst and fix the position of the ship with- out seeing the horizon; an instru- ment to solve mechanically all the mathematical problems and logarithms connected with nauti- cal astronomy; an Echo-lot, an instrument which electrically measures by sound the altitude of the ship and with which the navigators were able to check every change of barometric pres- sure and adjust their pressure altimeters, thus gaining an exact knowledge of the height of the ship required to ascertain the speed and drift; a drift indicator, and gyro compass, which records the direction irrespective of the be either vertical or horizontal and are sometimes so sharply defined that in spite of the ef- forts of the men at the controls the Zeppelin will climb or fall at an angle of 18 or 20 degrees, though ordinarily this angle is not in excess of 10 to 15 degrees. On several occasions during the world flight — once over Siberia and again over the Pacific Ocean, of¥ the coast of Japan — about 600 feet in altitude were lost in a single manoeuvre. The arrangement of the con- trol car on the Graf Zeppelin af- fords good visibility of the weather and it is possible for the From Wide World Photos The Giant Dirigible Graf Zeppelin Setting a New World Record for Circumnavigating the Globe The inset shows the control room, which occupies the forward part of the gondola. Back of this are the navigators' quarters, wire- less room, kitchen, passengers' saloon, and sleeping accomodations. many others made separate legs of the journey, keeping the pas- senger list to about twenty. The nine passengers who made the entire trip were Commander Rosendahl and Lieutenant Rich- ardson of the U. S. Navy; Karl von Wiegand, well known war correspondent; Lady Drummond Hay, noted writer and the only woman passenger; William Leeds, of New York; Joachim Rickard of Boston; Herr von Eschwege- Lichbert, German newspaper correspondent; Robert Hartman, photographer, and Captain Sir Hubert Wilkins. Some Features of Navigation. — The navigating equipment in- cluded the latest type bubble sextant, which made it possible to take an altitude of the sun and Vol. L— Oct. '29 magnetic hues of influence, which vary with position. Adequate short and long wave wireless equipment kept the offi- cers frequently informed as to weather conditions, winds, and storm centres, while their knowl- edge and skill made it possible for them to take advantage of this information. Following winds are of special importance, since every mile per hour that the wind travels in the direction which the airship is taking means one mile less for it to cover under its own power. In order to reach these favorable air cur- rents, however, it was necessary at times to venture into storms and sudden changes of wind di- rection, or 'line squalls.' These changes in wind direction may officer on watch — if he under- stands weather conditions and the laws of storms — to avoid the worst consequences of violent air- stream changes. Visibility is an important thing in all flying but on an airship over the ocean or on a long distance flight it is less es- sential than under other condi- tions. With the aid of instru- ments the vessel can steer through cloud and fog for many hours. On its record-breaking trip over the Atlantic the Graf Zeppelin flew for hours through a wet blanket of cloud. Water flowing down the sides of the giant airship streamed along its bottom and dropped ofif in mini- ature waterfalls. The total amount of water on the envelope was considerable, but it was nee- Graf Zeppelin Flight 3 Graf Zeppelin Flight essary to increase the angle of attack only one degree to com- pensate by aerodynamic lift for the effect of the heaviest rain on the ship. The Round-the-World Flight. — After leaving Lakehurst at 11.40 P.M. August 8 (all times given are Eastern Standard time), the Zeppelin circled New York and then flew east for a thousand miles to go south of a a trip of 4,200 miles accomplished in fifty-five hours twenty-two minutes. Here engineers, me- chanics, balloon men, and riggers went carefully over the whole ship and made several small ad- justments. One spark plug had been changed on the journey and one valve spring. Three more spark plugs and several valves were changed at Friedrichshafen. The fabric on three sections of hafen for twenty-four hours, and the airship took off on August 14, flying north to Berlin and Stet- tin, crossing over Danzig, Poland, and a part of the Baltic Sea. It then cut across a corner of Lat- via and Esthonia and crossed the Russian border at night. The course was laid for Mos- cow, but head winds soon drove Dr. Eckener, in command, to choose a more northerly route, no 100 30 80 S 2S/fAf. AUG 19^0 K I O LEFTZISRM ^•i ^flUG 23 IbO 170 ISO ITO IbO OS'ANGELES^ f1RRlV£D 3 :35 fi.M /7U6 26 L£FT4/5ff.M,ffU6.27 130 120 110 100 90 do 70 (>0 York Times Course of the Graf Zeppelin in Its World Flight {New York daylight-saving time shown) storm centred in Hudson Bay. There were disturbances east of Greenland and northeast of Ice- land and beneath these, in the North Atlantic, was a big move- ment of circulating atmosphere with its northerly edge travelling in the direction which the airship planned to follow. Fog and low visibility were en- countered off the English coast, but over the continent the air was clear and a splendid view of Paris was afforded. A landing was made at Friedrichshafen early in the morning of August 10, after the tail and two on the bow of the envelope were tightened and some frames set lengthwise be- tween the longitudinal girders were installed to overcome any further difficulty in that respect. A larger buffer bag with extra flotation gear was installed un- der the control gondola to pro- vide for emergency landings or heavy landings in Tokio and Los Angeles, and fresh provisions and emergency supplies and equip- ment were taken on board. Adverse weather conditions de- layed the start from Friedrichs- and the picturesque town of Wologda was the first Russian town to be seen by daylight. The course now lay over the lower ranges of the Ural Moun- tains (not more than two thou- sand feet in altitude), and beyond these over the desolate swamp lands of Siberia, with winding rivers meandering through low, stunted growth. For a great part of the way the ship was fly- ing low over the ground, and only an occasional indication of habitation was seen. Several trappers' camps were observed. Vol. L— Oct. '29 Craf Zeppelin Flight 4 Graf Zeppelin Flight and native tents with a few dogs and shaggy horses about them. The few people seen ran to their houses, and rarely showed them- selves until the ship was well away. At occasional places where rivers joined, what ap- peared to be trading stations were seen, and an occasional house on a raft was sighted floating slowly along stream. While the route here lay over what is per- haps the coldest country in the world in winter, the temperature was not as low as that encoun- tered later over San Francisco and New York State. The favorable winds experi- enced carried the ship on with such speed that it covered the 4,000 miles between Friedrichs- hafen and Yatusk (the actual distance travelled was probably nearer 4,800 miles) in sixty-seven hours. In order to economize on fuel only four engines had been used. The air speed was prob- ably never more than sixty miles an hour and more often less than fifty. Over the entire journey there was a tail wind averaging between 15 and 20 miles an hour. It was over Central Siberia that one of the great thrills of the trip was experienced, when the ship ran beneath a rain cloud, was sucked up as if by a living force, enveloped in the dark gray belly of the cloud, and at its other side spat out with a down- ward motion which Lost nearly five hundred feet of altitude in a few seconds. Another thrilling experience was the approach to the Stanova Mountains which mark the eastern side of Siberia and fringe the Sea of Okhotsk. These mountains were indicated on the map as 3,400 feet high but even at 5,000 feet the airship was far below the highest peaks, and was steered through the ranges much as a pursuit pilot might steer his light plane. It was a memorable experi- ence, also, to hurtle down from five thousand feet over Asia to the edge of the Pacific Ocean. Cloud and more or less unfavor- able weather were encountered over the Okhotsk Sea. Notice had been received of a cyclone in the neighborhood, but, with courage born of experience. Dr. Eckener sought the tail of it and took advantage of the favorable wind, which was with the ship for a few hours while it flew through heavy rain and storm. Passing out of the storm, the Zeppelin met with head wind. It was not strong, however, and in a few hours two records had been made — the first non-stop flight from the Baltic to the Pa- cific and the first non-stop flight from Germany to Japan — a dis- tance of 6,880 miles in one hun- dred and one hours, fifty min- utes, with fuel left to go half as far again. At Tokio the Japanese Navy gave a fine exhibition of skill and training, landing the ship with despatch and walking her into a hangar which had been taken over from the Germans after the war and which also housed the small semi-rigid dirigible built in Japan and a blimp which con- stituted the Japanese lighter- than-air fleet. Great honors and a furious round of entertain- ments were showered upon Dr. Eckener and the crew and pas- sengers. A close inspection of the air- ship at this point showed that there was nothing to do in the way of repairs. Gas and fuel were replaced, and at the ap- pointed time the ship was moving out of the hangar. Here the first slight damage sustained on the trip was experienced. The trolley guiding the airship jammed in the runway and when the order came to lift the rear car over an obstruction the men could not budge the ship, which was held fast by the ropes. The rear engine power car struck the ground and several bracing wires and struts were broken. No serious damage was done to the main structure, however, and in about eight hours the crew had effected repairs with the spare parts carried in the ship. The start was then further de- layed by local storms and it was the evening (local time) of the fourth day before the departure was made. At this time there was a storm directly in the path of the airship but it was not of great area, and beyond it was favorable weather. The ap- proach to the storm came late in the evening, and from informa- tion at hand the officers knew they would have to go through it from "behind' — that is, meet a downward thrust of air current as they approached the cloud. The helmsmen were warned, but even so the ship dipped so steeply that articles slipped from the tables and passengers ran to the windows. The black cloud over- head shadowed and darkened everything. For a few minutes the ship rumbled along over un- dulating air as if crossing a series of corrugations and at the other side of the storm cloud shot up several hundred feet into an air stream travelling in an entirely different direction. With the aid of the drift indi- cator the wind was soon gauged, it was found to be favorable, and the Zeppelin hurried on its long flight over the Pacific, flying for hours through thick fog where the visibility was not more than a few hundred yards. Many times the ship rose above the clouds to get a sight of the sun and fix its position and at others descended to within two or three hundred feet of the water to get an observation for drift and speed. In spite of forty hours of fog, the estimated position just before the Farallon Islands near San Francisco were sighted was only eight miles from that certi- fied by a passing steamer. The time of crossing the Pacific from Japan to San Francisco, a dis- tance of 5,400 miles on the route covered, was sixty-eight hours, fifty-one minutes. Some time was spent in circling over San Francisco, Berkeley, and Oak- land, and then the great aircraft loitered along the coast, cruising around about Los Angeles and out to sea, waiting for daylight to land at the mooring mast erected by the U. S. Navy. This increased the time from Japan to Los Angeles seventy-nine hours, twenty- two minutes. At Los Angeles, with the effi- cient aid of the U. S. Navy and the officials at Mines Field, the ship was moored to a low mast and refueled in record time. After a stay of about eight- een hours, it was again on its way. It was after leaving Los An- geles that the greatest danger was encountered. In spite of the fact that nine of the crew were left behind, the sr«ip was heavy and the temperature fairly high. The airship had been walked from the mooring mast toward the end of the field, and as it rose in the air it was seen that it was not light enough to rise above the high-tension wires surrounding the field, and the engines were put on to give the speed necessary to rise with aero- dynamic lift. The forward speed soon ate up the distance to the end of the field, and when the nose of the ship was over the wires the tail could be felt still dragging on the ground. It was only the expert handling of the aircraft that avoided a grave disaster. The tail cleared the wires by a few feet and it was safely under way. By going south from Los An- geles and following the railway line the high mountains of Ari- zona were avoided, but the flying over that mountainous dry coun- try was the worst, according to Dr. Eckener and Captain Leh- man, that they had ever experi- enced over such a long period. For four hours the ship was in 'bumpy' weather. Crossing over El Paso, Kansas City, Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, and many other smaller towns, the Zeppelin reached New York City and Lakehurst at 7.06 a.m., August 29, thus making the total time for the hop, step and a couple of jumps around the world — over twelve different countries, and over thirteen States of the United States — twenty-one days, seven hours, and twenty-six minutes. Vol. I.— Oct. '29 Aeronautics 81 B ^schylus lar expedition, flew over the North Pole from Spitzbergen to Teller, Alaska, on May 11, 12, 13. The dirigible had previously flown to Spitzbergen from Rome, via London, Oslo and Leningrad. When the weather conditions are taken into consideration this flight stands out as one of the most remarkable ever made by an airship. The flight was for the purpose of exploring the unknown area of the polar sea between the North Pole and Alaska, to determine if there was land there. No land was seen, but as the ship flew much of the way in fog the visibility was limited. (See Arctic Explora- tion.) Routes. — There are three dis- tinct routes by which a heavier- than-air machine may cross the Atlantic: 1. The route from Newfoundland or Labrador to Southern Greenland in the vi- cinity of Cape Farewell, 700 miles; thence to Iceland, 900 miles; thence to Northern Scot- land, 700 miles. 2. The route from Newfoundland to Ireland (Skelligs Rocks), 1,860 miles— the most direct way between the Americas and Europe. 3. The southern route, from Newfound- land to the Azores, 1,195 miles; tnence to Portugal, 850 miles; thence to the final destination. A fourth route has also been considered, but only in a westerly direction. It lies down the west coast of Africa to a point where the prevailing trade winds blow in a strong and constant direc- tion, due west to the eastern coast of Brazil. The first route from east to west was adopted from the U. S. Army's round-the-world flight in 1924. It presents serious diffi- culties owing to bad weather and lack of landing places or supply depots. The second is the course followed by Captain Alcock and Lieutenant Brown in their non- stop flight with the Vickers- Vimy aeroplane on June 15, and previously by Hawker in the Sopworth. plane, until he was forced to descend after a flight of 1,050 miles. The third, or southern, was the route taken by the U. S. Navy seaplanes in their trans-Atlantic flight. A possible route is from Nor- folk, Va., to Bermuda, about 650 miles; thence to the Azores, about 1,800 miles; and thence to Portugal. This route would assure the maximum of good weather conditions through the year, although the distance is a long one, the single flight from Bermuda to the Azores being about equal to the No. 2 route. Whatever course the aerial navigator may choose, the prob- lem of visibility is a serious one, for without the possibility of making observations to deter- mine the position of the plane. no way of checking the amount of drift from the line of course can be reached. Over land, the pilot or navigator has always within sight certain of the char- acteristics of the country that readily provide the necessary reference points from which to check his position, especially at heights of 15,000 feet and over, when prominent landmarks are distinctly visible long before they are close at hand. At sea quite the reverse is true, and height does not tend to simplify the problem of taking an obser- vation, for the error due to the 'dip' of the compass may be quite appreciable. A number of simple tables, computed for use by naval aircraft in the war, have been employed with a fair amount of success. The usual ship's instruments can also be used and several new instruments have been devised. See Balloons; Flying Ma- chines; Liberty Motor; Army Aviation; Aircraft Disasters. Bibliography. —Consult F. W. Lanchester's Aerodynamics and Aerodonetics; Sir Hiram Max- im's Natural and Artificial Flight; S. P. Langley's Experiments in Aerodynamics and The Internal Work of the Wind; H. W. L. Moedebeck's Pocket - Book of Aeronautics; O. Chanute's Prog- ress in Flying Machines; R. Soreau's Navigation Aerienne; R. Brewer's Art of Aviation. Aeroplanes. See Aeronau- tics; Army Aviation; Flying Machines. A'eroscope, an apparatus for collecting microscopic objects (dust, etc.) from the air. It con- sists of a glass vessel smeared with glycerin, through which a stream of air is drawn by an in- spirator. As the air passes through, the particles of dust adhere to the film of glycerin. Since the amount of air passing through is known, it is possible to find out the degree of purity by the particles. Aerostatic Press, a machine for extracting the colormg matter from dyewoods and similar sub- stances. Aerostatics, that branch of hydrostatics which treats of the equilibrium and pressure of air and gases. See Hydro- statics. A'erotherapeu'tlcs, the term commonly applied to the treat- ment of disease by atmospheric air and specially prepared atmos- pheres. Modified atmospheric pressure is used on the surface of the body, on the respiratory organs, or on both. The open- air treatment, under ordinary pressure, may also be classed under this head. The air treat- ment may consist of inhaling such gases as oxygen and nitrous oxide, or such liquids as easily volatilize — i.e., chloroform and ether, or the vapor of mercury or sulphur, produced by arti- ficial heat. The latter method is used in cases of syphilis and skin parasitic diseases. Arti- ficial atmospheres may also be made by respirators, the air be- ing drawn through a sponge moistened with some disinfec- tant. The term is also applied to treatment by change of climate. Phthisical patients are benefited by residence in a dry climate — either in warm latitudes, or in high and cold or high and warm altitudes. See Health Resorts. Aerschot, ar'skot, town, Bra- bant, Belgium, on the River Demer; 9 miles northeast of Louvain. It is an important junction on the Antwerp- Aachen Railway. Pop. 8,000. .iHschines, es'ki-nez (389-314 B.C.), an Athenian orator, second only to Demosthenes. Demos- thenes advocated the policy of opposing King Philip before it was too late, while ^Eschines was the head of the peace party. He was a member of more than one embassy sent by the Athenians to Philip. Demosthenes accused him of receiving bribes from the Macedonian monarch, and of betraying the cause of Athens and of her allies, but there is no proof that this was the case. When it was proposed to reward Demosthenes with a golden crown for his patriotic exertions in defence of his coun- try, ^schines indicted the pro- poser, Ctesiphon, for bringing forward an illegal proposition, but his charge not being proved he was obliged to retire from Athens. He finally established a school of eloquence in Rhodes. The oration against Ctesiphon and two others are the only authentic productions of ^s- chines that have come down to us. ii:schylus, es'ki-lus, the son of Euphorion, the earliest of the three great Athenian tragic poets, was born in Eleusis, the town of the Mysteries, near Athens, in 525 B.C., and no doubt had his religious feelings stimu- lated by the solemn services which represented the deepest elements of Greek religion. He fought for Athens in the great Persian wars, and is reported to have been wounded at Marathon, where his brother fell. He won thirteen first prizes in tragic competitions, and was exceed- ingly hurt at being defeated by vSophocles in 4G8 B.C. This may have induced him to leave and go to vSicily, which he had al- ready visited to bring out a play for the artistic tyrant Hiero. He produced there a new edition of his extant Persce. His trial before the Areopagus on the charge of divulging the Mysteries is, however, also stated as a cause Vol. I.— Oct. '27 iCschylus 82 of his departure. His last great victory was won in 458 B.C., with the trilogy which we still possess, and three years later he died at Gela in Sicily, where his tomb was shown long after. Out of some sixty plays ascribed to him, we have only seven extant. The Suppliants is the earliest, at least in form. The plot, which is exceedingly simple, is based on the escape of the fifty daughters of Danaus from their suitors, the sons of ^gyptus, and their sup- plications to the king of Argos to protect them. This simple subject gives the poet occasion for the loftiest utterances on Fate and Divine Providence, ex- pressed in that tremendous dic- tion which no other Greek poet ever equalled. The Persa is most interesting as giving us, in tragedy, a piece of contemporary history, for the poet fought in the Battle of Salamis, which he describes. The Seven Against Thebes brings us to a more advanced stage of the poet's development. It is no longer the chorus, but Eteocles, the patriotic king of the Cadmeans, who takes the leading part. The drawing of his char- acter is clear and sharp. Both the narrative of the messenger who gives the details of the fight, and the choruses uttered by ter- rified maidens of the city, are full of life and beauty. The Prometheus Bound is the perfection of ^schylus' art, and shows us what his genius could do in simple tragedy, in the old plotless, motionless, surpriseless drama, made up of speeches and songs and nothing more. We now have three actors together on the stage, and the duties of the chorus, once so prominent, are becoming restricted to sub- ordinate work. Prometheus, the heroic sufferer, sustains the whole interest of the play. He is driven with insult to the Caucasus. He soliloquizes. He discourses with friendly nymphs and their cau- tious father, Oceanus. He con- doles with the frantic lo, who passes by in her wanderings; he prophesies her future. Lastly, he bids defiance to Zeus, through his messenger Hermes, and dis- appears amid thunder and whirl- wind. The Oresteia or three plays on the fortunes of Orestes, is the latest and greatest work we have from iEschylus. The first of the series, the Agamemnon, is the longest play left us by the poet, as perhaps the greatest Greek play of all that have survived. With a per- fectly simple plot, there is splen- did and consistent drawing of character, deep philosophy in the choral songs, and a certain gloomy grandeur which makes it unique. The Chcephorce, a shorter and Vol. I.— Oct. '27 less striking play, but not with- out the same grandeur and the same gloom, gives us the return of Orestes from exile, and his murder of Clytaemnestra. In the Eumenides we find the necessary results of the previous tragedy. Though Orestes has obeyed one great moral law, avenging the blood of his father, he has violated another no less sacred in taking the life of his mother, whose Furies (Eumen- ides) persecute him with cease- less pursuit. The genius of ^schylus is quite peculiar in Greek litera- ture, and he has no equal. There is something Oriental in his bold- ness, his uncouth yet expressive compounds, his daring, piled-up metaphors. But what distin- guishes him still more from great contemporaries like Pindar, or great successors like Sophocles, is the grandeur of his conceptions in theology, in the providential ruling of the world, the inheri- tance of sin, the conflict of a rude with a purer religion. Consult Wecklein's critical edition of the works of ^schylus, Paley's edition (with English notes), and numerous editions of single plays. There are trans- lations by Potter, Blackie and Plumptre; Browning and Fitz- gerald published translations of the Agamemnon, and Mrs. Browning of Prometheus. ^sculapius, es - kii - la'pi - us (Greek Asklepios) , appears in Homer as the 'blameless physi- cian,' of human origin; in the later legends he has become the god of the healing art. The most common account makes him the son of Apollo and Coronis. He was brought up by Chiron, and instructed in the healing art, in which he soon surpassed his teacher, and succeeded so far as to restore the dead to life. Pluto, fearful lest his realm would get no new inhabitants, therefore com- plained to Zeus, who slew the physician by a thunderbolt. After this he was raised to the rank of the gods by the gratitude of mankind, and was especially worshipped at Epidaurus, on the coast of Laconia. From Epi- daurus the worship of the healing god extended itself over the whole of Greece, and even to Rome. According to Homer, iEsculapius left two sons, Ma- chaon and Podalirius, who, as physicians, attended the Greek army. From them the race of the Asclepiades descended. Hygieia, Panaceia, and JEgXe are repre- sented as his daughters. The temples of ^sculapius usually stood outside of the cities in healthful situations, on hillsides, and near fountains. Patients who were cured of their ailments offered a cock or a goat to the god and hung up a tablet in his temple, recording the name, the disease, and the man- ner of cure. Many of these votive tablets are still extant. There was a statue of the god at Epi- daurus formed of gold and ivory by Thrasymedes. The great healer is represented as seated on a throne, holding in one hand a staff about which a snake is coiled. At his feet is a dog, sym- bolic of watchfulness. Praxiteles and other sculptors represented -iEsculapius as an ideal of manly beauty, closely resembling Zeus. The followers of ^sculapius, who inherited the secrets of the healing art, were known as As- clepiades, and constituted a medical, priestly caste or order who preserved as mysteries the doctrines of medicine. They were bound by an oath not to divulge the secrets of their profession. Consult Dyer's The Gods in Greece; Caton's Temples and Rit- ual of jEsculapius at Epidaurus and Athens. ^sculus. See Horse Chest- nut. Aesir, a'ser (plural form of As), the name given to an order of mighty beings in the Scandina- vian and Teutonic mythology — the children of Odin, of whom the most famous were Thor, Freyr, Balder, Bragi, Heimdall. There were also corresponding female demigods — e.g., Frigga and Idun. These divinities waged warfare against the Vanir and against the Giants. Their country is known as Asgard. See Mythology. ^sop, e'sop, or .Esopus (prob- ably 620-560 B.C.), a celebrated Greek fabulist. Certain writers deny the personal existence of ^sop altogether, owing to the uncertainty attaching to the authorship of many fables at- tributed to him. But the general conclusion seems to be that ^Esop was a real person — a Phrygian by birth, a contemporary of the 'seven sages,' and a slave to several masters until set free by Jadmon of Samos. He then visited the court of Croesus and gained his confidence to such an extent that he was sent on several missions, in one of which, to Delphi, he was thrown over a precipice by the priests, infu- riated at his witty blasphemies. The traditions of his ugliness and his buffoonery may be dismissed. The fables connected with his name were long transmitted through oral tradition. Socrates turned such of them as he could remember into verse during his imprisonment, and the same was done by Demetrius Phalereus. It has been proved that certain stories traditionally attributed to yEsop have a more ancient origin, and are the common property of other nations — e.g.. The Lion and the Mouse, and The Dispute Be- tween the Stomach and the Mem- bers — which have been shown by both Brugsch and Maspero ^sopus 83 iDsthetics to be identical with certain fables found on Egyptian papyri . 1 1 has, indeed, been maintained that they are all of Arabian and Persian origin, and that ^sop is the Gre- cian figure corresponding to the Arabic Lukman or Lokman. None of ^sop's fables have come down to us in the original Greek, if there was ever such a compilation in existence; but two Bust of jEsop the Fabulist. authors — Babrius in Greek, and Phaedrus in Latin — have preserved many of them. In the Middle Ages there were three principal collections published, including many spurious fables: (1) that of Maximus Planudes, a monk of Constantinople, in the latter part of the fourteentla century; (2) one published at Heidelberg (1610); and (3) one discovered in ms. at Florence, probably a century old- er than that of Planudes. There is a statue to ^sop in the Villa Albani at Rome. Consult Jacobs' Introduction to the Fables of jEsop. i^sopus, e-so'pus, Claudius or Clodius, a celebrated Roman tragic actor, a friend of Cicero, and of equal merit with his con- temporary Roscius, the comedian. He left a large fortune to his son — that worthless ^sop who is said to have boastfully dissolved in vinegar a pearl worth $50,000, in order to provide a costly drink. iSsthesiometer, es-the-si-om'- e-ter (Greek 'measure of percep- tion'), an instrument used for estimating the sense of touch in any part of the body. Two points are applied to the part, and the minimum distance is recorded at which they are felt as two points, and not as one. On the tongue tip two points can be distinguished, normally, at a distance of 1 mm. apart. See Touch. if}stheticism, es-thet'i-siz'm, is, primarily, attachment to the prin- ciples of aesthetics. The term is popularly applied to extravagant devotion to trifling forms of beau- ty, which frequently develops in- to whimsical absurdities. In Eng- land aestheticism has at times Vol. I.— Mar. '16 been carried to this extreme, and has been ridiculed in Gilbert and Sullivan's opera Patience and in Du Manner's Punch cartoons. Among the promoters of a saner aestheticism were Ruskin, Leigh- ton, Millais, and Morris. ^Esthetics, es-thet'iks. By aes- thetics is meant primarily a the- ory of the beautiful as exhibited in works of art. That is to say, aesthetics, considered on its ob- jective side, has to investigate, first, the function of art in general as expressing the beautiful, and the nature of the beauty that is so expressed; and, second, the spe- cial functions of the several arts, and the special aspects of the beautiful with which they are sev- erally concerned. .(Esthetics, there- fore, has to discuss, among others, such topics as these: the relation of art to nature and lite; the dis- tinction of art from nature; the relation of natural to artistic beauty; the conditions and na- ture of beauty in a work of art; the distinction of beauty from truth, from utility, andf rom moral goodness; the classification of the fine arts; the conditions and limitations of artistic representa- tion or production in the several arts — i.e., the kinds of beauty the several arts are fitted to represent — and so on. ^Esthetic theory is thus distin- guished from art criticism by its more abstract character, or by the importance — relatively much greater in the former than in the latter — of the scientific as com- pared with the artistic interest. Art criticism is concerned prima- rily and mainly with the appre- ciation of particular works of art; whereas aesthetic theory seeks rather to formulate the more ab- stract and fundamental concep- tions, distinctions, and principles which underlie all such criticism. Esthetic theory is thus one re- move further from the actual works of art and their immediate appreciation. It is not, however, on that account to be regarded as quite severed from, or discontinu- ous with, art criticism. For al- though in aesthetics the scientific interest in the statement of prin- ciples has become, in a sense, of even primary importance, yet science would degenerate into ped- antry if the artistic interest did not retain its vitality. In fact, art criticism is, in this respect, simply a mean between aesthetic science on the one hand and intelligent appreciation on the other. And as appreciation at the one extreme does not sink to the level of fea- tureless sensation, so, too, knowl- edge at the other does not aim at an abstractness that is different to all artistic content. A second main subject of in- quiry may be included in aesthet- ics — viz., the investigation, on the subjective side, of the aesthetic consciousness. By this is meant an inquiry into the psychological nature, origin, and development of aesthetic judgment and aesthetic emotion or sentiment — in other words, a theory of taste and the pleasures of taste. This second inquiry is obviously dependent on the first, and subordinate to it, since we cannot define the sense of beautj'^ apart from the beauty cf which it is the sense. It is to be observed that psychological aesthetics may investigate the process and conditions of artistic production, as well as of artistic perception or appreciation. The two mOvSt important con- tributions of classical antiquity to general aesthetic theory are, on the one hand, those discussions in Plato and Aristotle of the value of art and the relation of art to nature, that centre round the con- ception of art as imitative; and, on the other hand, an insistence on the more formal conditions of artistic excellence, such as the unity of the work of art as a whole, and the due proportion of the parts that make up the whole. The most important single work on aesthetic theory in antiquity is Aristotle's Poetics, in which the theory of poetic art (and mainly tragedy) is discussed both on its objective and on its subjective side. (See Aristotle.) In the modern period, the great- est and most c'ontinuous develop- ment of aesthetic theory has taken place in Germany. The valuable work of Lessing in his Laocoon and his dramatic criticism was fol- lowed in 1790 by Kant's epoch- making Critique of Judgment, in which, for the first time, the sphere and object of the aesthetic judgment — in other words, the general nature of the beautiful — were clearly defined. Most of the great German thinkers since Kant's time have dealt in some fashion with aesthetic theory. He- gel's Lectures on ALsthetics is per- haps the greatest work on the whole subject, aiming, as it does, at determining the nature of the ideal or the beautiful, and exhib- iting the manner of its concrete realization throughout the whole scope of art. Herbart and Fech- ner, again, seek to bring an exact psychology to bear upon the prob- lems ot aesthetic science; while in no philosophy is the place of art more exalted than in that of Scho- penhauer. Later German writers on the subject have been Lotze, Carriere, and F. T. Vischer. The British writers on aesthet- ics of the eighteenth century, such as Hutcheson.. Hume, Home, Ali- son, Burke, were concerned pri- marily and mainly with the psy- chological investigation of the aesthetic emotions. No work on aesthetics, as a whole, has been produced in the United States or Great Britain which can compare JCstlvation 84 .i:toUa with the works of the great Ger- man writers and their successors. Most of the leading works above mentioned are translated (see, for example, Lessing, Kant, and Hegel). Consult also Bosan- quet's History of Esthetic, with bibliography; Santayana's The Sense of Beauty; Baldwin Brown's Fine Arts. The most striking re- cent work on the subject is that of the Italian, Benedetto Croce (Eng. trans. 1909). iEstiva'tion, in Zoology, a sum- mer sleep, not uncommon in ani- mals which inhabit climates where the summer is very hot and dry, especially in the case of forms re- quiring a considerable degree of moisture, or whose habitat is fresh-water ponds. Thus many snails, and both land and water tortoises, frequently retire into cavities of the ground during heat and drought, and there remain till the recurrence of the rainy season. The African fish Protop- ierus and several Oriental fishes in the dry season construct mud nests, in which several months may be spent awaiting the return of the rains. The phenomenon is entirely comparable to hiberna- tion. See Hibernation. i^stivation, in Botany, the ar- rangement of leaves in the bud with relation to one another. The term is applied chiefly to flower buds; and as the aestivation of buds is usually constant for the same flower, and often for the same genus, and even for the or- der, the study of them is im- portant in reference to classifica- tion. See Flower. JEt.i abbreviation for atatis an- no, "m the year of his age.' Aetas, a'a-tas, or Inagtas, a Negrito people, woolly haired, dwarfish, and aboriginal, found in Luzon and other parts of the Phil- ippine Islands (q. v.). See Ne- grito. iHtheling, ath'el-ing, or Athel- ing, in Anglo-Saxon times meant, at first, one of noble (athel) birth, and, later, from the ninth to the eleventh century, a prince of the blood royal. The title is especial- ly associated with Edgar (q. v.), grandson of Edmund Ironside. iE'ther. See Ether. .^ther, in Greek mythology, son of Chaos and Darkness, one of the elementary substances out of which the universe was formed ; in later times the wide expanse of heaven, the abode of the gods. iE'thrioscope, an instrument designed by Leslie in 1817 for the purpose of measuring changes of temperature produced by radia- tion. It consists of a differential thermometer, with both bulbs contained in a cup-shaped mirror, and one of them in its focus. By this instrument slight variations of temperature, due to changes in the condition of the sky, a,ve also estimated. Vol. L— Mar. 'IQ iU'tiol'ogy. See Etiology. Action, a-e'shi-on, a Greek painter contemporary with Alex- ander the Great, His masterpiece was The Marriage of Roxana and Alexander; it was exhibited at the Olympic Games. The picture is described in detail by Lucian, and was reproduced by Raphael. Aetius, a-e'shi-us, a Roman general, the last successful de- fender of the Roman Empire, was Alexandria; but in 361 he was re- called by Julian the Apostate, from whom he received an estate in Lesbos and a position in the court at Constantinople, where he died in 370. His work De Fide was refuted by Epiphanius. JEt'na, See Etna. illtolia, e-to'li-a, a district of ancient Greece, on the north coast of the Gulf of Corinth, bounded on the east by the Ozo- hmetoUcus'w-. Stadia (600= D 60 100 j^tolia. born in Moesia. Early in life he was handed over to Alaric (q. v.) as a hostage, and became familiar with the tactics of the barbarians. As commander-in-chief of the armies of the Western Empire he kept Italy, Spain, Britain, and Gaul in peace from 433 to 450 a.d. In 451 he succeeded in checking the advance of Attila (q. v.) in the great battle in the Catalau- nian plains, near Chalons; but in 454 he was murdered by Valen- tinian iii. (q. v.), who suspected him of aiming at the throne. Consult Gibbon's Decline and Fall (chaps, xxxiii., xxxv.). Aetius, surnamed 'the Athe- ist,' the leader of the Anomcean sect of Arians, who are sometimes called after him Aetians. Or- dained deacon in 348, he was present at the first synod of Sir- mium, when he defeated in argu- ment the bishops Basilius and Eustachius of the Homoiousian party. In 356, from fear of Con- stantius ii., he left Ahtioch for lian Locrians, south by the Co- rinthian Gulf, west by the Ache- lous River, and north by Epirus and Thessaly. In ancient times the inhabitants appear to have been equal in culture to the rest of the Greeks, and their chief city Calydon was famous in the leg- ends. In historical times, how- ever, they, like their neighbors the people of Acarnania, were semi-barbarous. About 323 B.C. they were united in an impor- tant confederacy, the .^tolian League, which was joined by several cities in the north of Greece. They sided with the Ro- mans against the Achaean League (see AcHAEi), but afterward aid- ed Antiochus nr., king of Syria, against the Romans, and on his defeat became virtually subject to Rome. After 146 B.C. they were included in the province of Achaia. With Acarnania, .(Etolia now forms the nomarchy Acarnania and ^tolia of modern Greece. Afanasiev 85 Affinity, Chemical Area, 3,034 square miles. Pop. 190,000. Afanasiev, a-fa-na'sief, Alex- ander NiKOLAIEVITCH (1826- 71), Russian author and scholar, born in the government of Vero- netz. He was in the civil service until 1862. His principal work. The Poetical Views of the Slavs about Nature (3 vols., 1865-9). is a rich storehouse of information concerning Slav mythology. He published also a large collection of Russian Popular Tales (4 vols., 2d ed. 1873), many of which have been translated into European languages. Afar, a'far, Arab tribe. See Danakil. A'fer, used by Milton for the southwest wind that blows from Africa over Italy. Afer, DoMiTius, of Nemausus (Nimes) , a celebrated Roman or- ator; praetor a.d. 25. He gained the favor of Tiberius by accusing Claudia Pulchra, cousin of Agrip- pina, A.D. 26. By flattery he se- cured the consulship under Ca- ligula (39), and is said to have died of over-eating. Affec'tion, a psychological term used to designate the con- sciousness of a general change in the tone of the nervous system. As such it is considered one of the two elements of consciousness (see Sensation), and possesses two qualities, pleasantness and unpleasantness. Feeling, emo- tion, and sentiment are usually regarded as complexes of affective processes. From a biological point of view, life is assumed to be a state of equilibrium between the forces that destroy and those that reconstruct tissue. Con- sciousness is intimately connect- ed with the nervous system, which holds all parts of the or- ganism in intercommunication, so that when the balance of nutri- tive processes is disturbed, bio- logical conditions result, which come into consciousness as un- pleasantness or pleasantness, as the case may be. Affenthaler, a red wine which takes its name from the village of Affenthal in Baden. Affettuoso, iif-fet-two'so, an Italian musical term indicating a tender and affecting style; it lies between adagio and andante, and is frequently joined with these terms. A ffetto and con affetto are used in the same sense. Afflda'vit (Latin, 'he hath sworn') is a written statement of facts made upon oath or solemn affirmation before a magistrate, or other person authorized by law to administer the oath. In inter- locutory and non-contentious pro- ceedings, the use of affidavits as evidence is almost universal. In contentious cases, however, oral evidence is generally insisted on, unless parties agree to have a oroof by affidavit. In England Vol. I.— Mar. '16 the tendency in recent times has been to discourage such proofs. Affidavits should set forth facts only, and not arguments or state- ments of the merits of the case. Generally, the matters dealt with should be within the knowledge of the deponent, but in some cases he is entitled to speak 'to the best of his knowledge and belief.' Af- fidavits must run in the first per- son, and are signed by the depo- nent. The 'jurat' is the final part of the document, in which are spec- ified the person before whom, the place where, and the time when it was sworn, and this is signed by the magistrate or other party ad- ministering the oath. In the United States, an affida- vit made solely on information or belief is not held sufficient to au- thorize the arrest of a person charged with an offence. Affllia'tion is the legal process whereby the father of a bastard child, upon the paternity being proved against him, may be ren- dered liable to contribute toward its maintenance and education. It is usually instituted at the in- stance of the mother, but when the child has become chargeable to a town or parish it may be raised by the local authorities. The procedure and penalties are in most jurisdictions laid down by statute. Affln'ity (Latin, affinitas) is the tie which arises in consequence of marriage betwixt one of a married pair and the blood relations of the other. The rule of computing its degrees is that the relations of the husband stand in the same degree of affinity to his wife as that in which they stand to the husband by consanguinity, and conversely. The canon law draws no distinc- tion between consanguinity and affinity as a barrier to marriage, and this rule still prevails gener- ally throughout Christendom. In the United States, marriage is in nearly every case permitted between a man and the sister of his deceased wife, and between a woman and the brother of her de- ceased husband. In Great Brit- ain, a recent statute has allowed marriage between the former, but not the latter pair. It is to be observed (1) that there is no affinity between the rel- atives of the one and the relatives of the other spouse, and (2) in modern times, contrary to the canon law, mere illicit intercourse is not regarded as giving rise to relationship by affinity. See Con- sanguinity; Marriage. Affinity, Ctiemicai. According to Ostwald, chemical affinity is that property in virtue of which, when bodies are brought into con- tact, they react on each other, forming new bodies. It may be further defined as a force; for by its action energy is produced, as is manifested by the resulting heat, light, electrical or mechan- ical energy. The existence of this phenome- non of mutual reaction by sub- stances which are of the same origin, or of the same kind, was recognized by the Greek philoso- phers, and was likened by them to the human qualities of sym- pathy and antipathy. As knowl- edge grew, these conceptions took on a more scientific aspect — no- tably when Sir Isaac Newton in- troduced into chemistry the idea of an attractive action between one small particle and another, to explain the mutual reactions of bodies. Later investigators, in- cluding Buff on, Bergmann, Ber- thollet, and Davy, by their chem- ical studies aided in the develop- ment of a greater knowledge of chemical affinity; and the theory advanced by Berzelius, that chem- ical affinity was simply the attrac- tion of opposite electricities con- centrated on the smallest parts of substances, was long accepted, al- though it failed to reveal the exact nature of the phenomenon. With the discovery by Mayer and Joule of the actions of forces, it was recognized that chemical af- finity must be classed with me- chanical, electrical, and thermal energy, in so far as it is converti- ble into any of these, and can be produced from one of them. The way in which chemical forces act has been extensively studied. For a time it was be- lieved that the force acting be- tween two different kinds of mat- ter began to exert itself on bring- ing the ultimate particles nearer together, and if, under the given conditions, it was possible, com- bination ensued. Then the phys- ical conditions of the reacting bodies were found to have an in- fluence on the final results of the actions of affinity. Bunsen and Gladstone contributed their share to the development of our knowl- edge of chemical affinity. Be- sides the intensity of the forces, the mass of the reacting sub- stances was found to be a factor in the combination. In 1867 Guldberg arid Waage announced the law that 'chemical action is proportional to the active masses of each of the substances par- ticipating in the reaction.' At present, in conformity with the 'electron conception of va- lence,' as developed by Sir J. J. Thomson and others, the belief is that the union of two atoms is brought about by the transfer of a negatively charged corpuscle from one atom to the other; the atom losing the corpuscle becom- ing charged positively, the one gaining the corpuscle becoming charged negatively. The Unkings between atoms which represent the bonds, usually shown by lines and dots, are replaced as a result of the electronic considerations AflBrmation 86 Afghanistan by arrows — the head of the arrow indicating the direction in which the corpuscle is assumed to be transferred in the production of the chemical bond. Chemical af- finity between two combining atoms corresponds to the inten- sity factor in chemical energy, and can be measured quantita- tively by the change in free en- ergy of the reaction. See Elec- tro- Chemistry; Electrolysis; Equilibrium, Chemical. For the older views on chem- ical afhnity, consult the article on 'Affinity' in Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry; for a more modern discussion of the subject. Sir J. J. Thomson's Corpuscular Theory of Matter (1907). Affirma'tion, a solemn decla- ration made in the legal form as required by law. Affirmation has now in most Protestant countries been admitted in place of an oath. In Great Britain and a few of the United States the person desiring to affirm has to state either that he has no religious belief, or that the taking of an oath is contrary to his religious belief. In most of the United States, however, no such declaration is required. In all cases a false affirmation carries with it the penalties of perjury. See Oath. Afforesta'tion is the conver- sion of habitable land into forest or woodland. See Forestry. Affray', the fighting of two or more persons in a public place, to the terror of other people. Of two persons engaged, each must be guilty of attacking the other to constitute an affray; if one does not exceed the limits of self- defence, it is an assault (q. v.). An affray is a misdemeanor (q. v.). Affre, af'r', Denis Auguste (1793-1848). In 1840, on ac- count of his prudent and tem- perate character, he was made archbishop of Paris by the gov- ernment of Louis Philippe. When in 1848 a republic was pro- claimed, he kept aloof from po- litical strife. During the June insurrection he climbed on a bar- ricade in the Place de la Bastille, carrying a green bough in his hand, as a messenger of peace; but he had scarcely uttered a few words, when he fell mortally wounded. Affreight'ment is the general term for any contract by which a ship owner undertakes to carry goods in his ship for reward. The sum paid for the carriage is termed freight, and the person who vsends the goods the freighter. The contract may take the form of a charter party (q. v.), when the freighter hires tlie use of the ship, or that of a bill of lading (q. v.), when it is made between the ship owner and each of a number of persons who transport goods in a general ship. Vol. I— Mar. '16 Affronte, a'froh'ta'. Affront- ant, or Affronted, in heraldry, said of the figures of men or ani- mals placed full face to the spec- tator, Afghanistan, af-gan-is-tan', in- land country of Asia, bounded on the east and south by India and Baluchistan, on the north and northeast by the Russian and Chinese empires, and on the west by Persia Its length from west to east, between Khorassan and the Punjab, is 600 miles, but about 900 miles to the Chinese borders: its breadth, north to south, is from 450 to 500 miles; area, about 250,000 square miles. As a 'buffer state' between the Russian and British empires, the precise limits of its territory have been settled by treaty, and locally demarcated by several boundary commissions. By the Anglo- Russian treaty of September, 1907, Russia declared that Af- ghanistan was without the Rus- sian sphere of influence, and un- dertook to act in all political re- lations with Afghanistan through the British government. The Russo-Afghan border line starts from Zulfikar, on the Hari-Rud, runs through the Badghais dis- trict, and, leaving Panjdeh to Russia and Meruchak to Afghan- istan, terminates on the Amu Daria at Khamiab. Thence it is formed by the Amu Daria and the Ab-i-Panj up to Lake Vic- toria, whence it follows the crest of the Nicholas range, between the Great and Little Pamirs, to a peak in the Sarikol, the meeting place of Russian, Afghan, and Chinese dominions. The Sarikol range, north and south, separates the Little Pamir from the Chi- nese Pamir. From the Wakhjir Pass, where the British, Afghan, and Chinese spheres meet, the Indo-Afghan border follows the Hindu-Kush to the Dora Pass, and then to the divide between the Bashgol and Chitral Rivers. From the Kabul River it follows the Safed Koh to the Caiwar Ko- tal.and thence south to the junc- tion of the Gumal and Kundar Rivers. From this point Afghan- istan borders with Baluchistan for 800 miles to Koh-i-Malik Siah, where Persian, Afghan, and Brit- ish territories converge. Physical Features. — The chief mountain range is the Hin- du-Kush (q. v.), with its pro- longation the Koh-i-Baba. The Hindu-Kush takes its rise in the northeast, where it abuts on the Himalayas in a group of magnifi- cent peaks (23,000 feet) ; thence it extends in a southwest direction to the Khawak Pass as a single range of great height; and farther west it divides into a system of parallel chains, with high plateaus and valleys between them. To the east are the vSulaiman Moun- tains, forming the watershed of the Indus, and the Safed Koh, dividing the Kabul from the Kuram. The whole country forms part of the Iran plateau, and has a general elevation of 2,000 to 4,000 feet. Hydrographically, Afghanistan may be divided into the three great river basins of the Oxus, the Indus, and the Helmund. The northern slopes of the Hindu-Kush are drained by a number of rivers flowing north toward the Oxus; with its tributaries, the Argan- dab, Tarnak, and Arghastan, it drains all Southwest Afghanistan. The Indus basin includes the great basin of the Kabul itself and its tributaries, draining the southern slopes of the Hindu-Kush and the northern valleys of the Safed Koh, the basin of the Kuram, and the streams issuing from the Wa- ziri and Sulaiman Hills. The Helmund drains the three great plateaus on the Indian side. The climate is continental, with great heat in summer and severe cold in winter (above 5,000 feet), but is generally healthful. The rainfall is slight, and the snowfall heavy in the highlands. The northwest 'wind of the 120 days' blows from March to the end of July. Though the minerals are not much worked, they are tolerably plentiful in Northern Afghanis- tan, and comprise gold, silver, rubies, lapis lazuH, iron, copper, lead, antimony, zinc, sal ammo- niac, gypsum, and nitre. Agriculture and Trade. — While much of the country is mountain- ous and unfit for successful culti- vation, the valleys and plains are exceedingly fertile, and with the aid of irrigation agriculture is ex- tensively carried on. There are two harvests in the year, one sown in the late fall and gathered in the summer, the other sown to- ward the end of spring and reaped in the fall. Among the natural productions of Afghanistan is the plant yield- ing the asafoetida. The castor-oil plant and madder are everywhere grown in the district of Kandahar. The cultivated area round Herat produces magnificent crops of wheat, barley, cotton, grapes, mel- ons, and the mulberry tree. Sur- rounding the villages, and in or- chards, the ash, elm, apricot, ap- ple, plum, quince, peach, and pomegranate are cultivated; the zizyplius is indigenous. In special localities are forests of pistachio, the leaves of which are used in dyeing. . Domestic animals include cam- els, horses and ponies, cattle, goats, and dogs. A curious va- riety of fat-tailed sheep is of considerable economic value, its flesh furnishing meat, its wool wearing apparel, and its skin an important article of export. Manufactures are limited. The AFGHANISTAN 60 zoo js_ John Bulhoiutue^* & Co- Vol. I. Page 87 Vol. I.— Oct. '29 Afghanistan 88 Afghanistan industrial products are silk, chief- ly for domestic use, carpets, felts, and fabrics from the wool of sheep, goats, and camels. The manufacture of poslins, or sheep- skins, is one of the most impor- tant of the industrial occupations. Trade is carried on with Persia, Russian Central Asia, China, and India. The chief exports are wool, silk, sheepskins, timber, drugs, cattle, and fruits. The imports are cotton, silk, and woollen goods, coarse cloths, sugar, tea, indigo, drugs, arms, and metal goods. With the re- moval of some of the heavy duties and other restrictions formerly imposed upon commerce, the trans-frontier trade with India has increased within the last few years. For the year ending March 31, 1925, it was valued at £325,700, of which £l22,600 rep- resented exports, and £203,100 imports. The chief highways are through the Khaibar, Gumal, and Bolan Passes (qq.v.) to Kabul, Ghazni, and Kandahar; from Kabul to Bokhara, Herat, and Kandahar; from Kandahar to Seistan, Herat, and Meshed. Oxen, camels, and horses are used for caravans. There are no railways, but there are some 200 miles of road fit for motor traffic, mostly near the capital. People. — The population is about 8,000,000 (1928), and con- sists of many discordant ele- ments, the dominant race being the Afghans or Pathans (q.v.), who number about 3,000,000. Non-Afghan races comprise the Hazriras, Aimaks, Arabs, Jews, Baluchis, and Kaffirs. The lan- guage is Pushtu, but Persian is in general use. Most of the Af- ghans are pastoral and nomadic, the townsmen as a rule belonging to non-Afghan races, who prac- tise various trades and handi- crafts considered derogatory by men of rank. The principal towns are Kabul (pop. 100,000), the seat of gov- ernment and centre of a fertile district; Kandahar (00,000), the chief city of South Afghanistan; Herat (121,000), formerly consid- ered the key of India; and Ma- zar-i Sharif (40,200). Government, etc. — The gov- ernment of Afghanistan is a con- stitutional monarchy, with legis- lative and State assemblies and a cabinet. At its head is the king, who is assisted by a cabinet. There are departments of war, foreign affairs, internal affairs, education, commerce, justice and revenue, each in charge of a minister. For administrative purposes the country is divided into five provinces — Kabul, Kandahar, Herat, Afghan Turkestan, and Kataghan-Badakhshan. At the head of each province is a hakim or governor, under whom are the kazis or chief magistrates, as- sisted by muftis or mulaassihs, somewhat resembling detective officers. Criminal cases are in the hands of govcnmient officials, but in otlKM- cases justice- is ad- ministered by the /v(;,/.v or their subordinates in accordance with the law of the Koran. The Afghan army is said to number about 25,000, in addition to large numbers of well-armed tribesmen. The religion of the Afghans is (Sunni) Islam. They were con- quered and converted to this faith in the seventh century, a.d. Many of the tribes are fanatical, and the mullahs have much power. Elementary education is free and compulsory. There are elementary and secondary schools throughout the country and two colleges at Kabul, besides various schools of fine arts, agriculture and telegraphy. History. — Afghanistan is the gateway to India. Most historic invasions of that peninsula have been made through its passes from the days of Darius and Alexander (330-329 B.C.) to Mos- lem and Mogul times; the Af- ghans themselves have made many predatory incursions, and have even set up Afghan or Pa- than dynasties. After forming successively part of the Parthian and Sasanian empires, the country was at times partly subject to Persia, palrtly to the Mogul em- pire, and at times divided among small native dynasties, of which that of Ghazni (1001-1186) was the most notable. In 1708 the Ghilji rose against Persia, and set up an independent kingdom at Kandahar, and in 1717 the Afghans asserted their independence at Herat. Nadir, Shah of Persia, who had levied a strong Afghan contingent for his invasion of India, was assassi- nated (1747), and the Afghans chose as king, Ahmed, a general in Nadir's army. Ahmed re- duced to his rule the whole of Afghanistan, and annexed Sindh, part of the Punjab, and Kashmir. The years following 1793 were disturbed by domestic conflict and anarchy, out of which Dost Mohammed emerged as Emir ('commander') in 182G. After some complications which in- volved Russia, the British occu- pied Kandahar and Kabul, and set Shah Shuja on the throne (1839). Dost Mohammed sur- rendered, but his eldest son, Ak- bar Khan, continued the resis- tance. In a revolt at Kabul (Nov. 2, 1841) Sir A. Burnes, British resident, was killed; Sir. W. Mac- naghten, envoy, was shot by Ak- bar (Dec. 23); and on Jan. (>, 1842, the garrison capitulated upon terms of a safe escort to India. Practically the whole army was killed, or perished of hunger and exp(jsure during the retreat, the only white man who escaped being Dr. Brydon. An avenging army under (ren- eral Pollock relieved jelalabad (Ai)ril 1842), demolished the citadel of Kabul (Sept. 15), and. Shah Shuja having been killed, replaced Dost Mohammed on the throne. From that time his friendly relations with Great Britain were marked by British aid against Persia, and by his faithfulness during the time of the mutiny. Having taken He- rat, and thus consolidated the whole kingdom, he died in 1863, and was succeedisd by his son Shere Ali. The new Emir's reign was greatly harassed by a series of conflicts with Azim, his brother, and Abdur-Rahman, his nephew, who occupied Kabul (1866) ; but he regained his throne and king- dom in 1869, and received a sub- sidy of money and arms from Britain, and a recognition of his northern boundary by Russia. Alarmed by the fall of Khiva, Shere Ali sent to Simla to request an offensive and defensive alli- ance, with recognition of his heir- apparent, and when the British refused his request concluded a treaty with Russia (1878). His action was regarded as hostile; the British occupied Kandahar; and Shere Ali died a fugitive from Kabul (February, 1879). Shere All's son, Yakub Khan, came into the British camp and signed the treaty of Gandamak (May 26), by which a resident was to be admitted at Kabul, the Khaibar Pass and certain districts in Baluchistan were ceded to Britain, and Afghan foreign rela- tions were to be submitted to British guardianship. In the same year, however, the envoy (Sir Louis Cavagnari) and the whole garrison were murdered (Sept. 3). General Roberts occu- pied Kabul (Oct. 12), and sent Yakub Khan to India. Early in 1880, Abdur-Rahman, who had invaded the Turkestan province, was accepted by Lord Ly tton as a suitable ruler, and was pro- claimed Emir (July 22); and the British prepared to withdraw (Aug. 10), when news of the de- feat of General Burrows at Mai- wand by Eyyub Khan, and of the siege of Kandahar, arrived. Then followed Roberts' famous march to Kandahar (Aug. 9-31), and its relief and the defeat of Eyyub Khan. Abdur-Rahman regained He- rat, and was occupied during most of his reign in putting down opposition and disaffection. In 1883 his rule was endowed by the British with an annual subsidy of twelve lakhs of rupees. After the occupation of Merv by Russia (1884), it was found necessary to have the northwestern boundary defined. An Anglo-Russian com- mission was appointed, and a pro- VoL. I.— Oct. '29 Arghanistan tocol was signed at St. Petersburg (July 22, 1887). The Durand mission visited Kabul (1893) and settled the Anglo- Afghan border; at the same time the subsidy was increased to sixteen lakhs. Ab- dur-Rahman broke the power of the tribal chieftains by maintain- ing a standing army, and by skil- fully husbanding the resources of his treasury. HabibuUah, his eldest son, suc- ceeded him (Oct. 3, 1901), and in 1905 signed a treaty accepting and confirming the engagements entered into by his father. Friendly feelings with the British were further established by the Emir's visit to India in 1907. By the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 the political status quo was maintained, and Afghanistan de- clared to be outside the Russian sphere of influence. In 1910 an agreement was reached by the governments of Afghanistan and India to submit their disputes to a joint commission. The virtual protectorate estab- lished by Great Britain in Af- ghanistan was resented by tribal chiefs and others and in 1919 HabibuUah, who was blamed for the existing situation, was assassi- nated. His fifth son. Amanullah, succeeded him as ruler of the country. One of Amanullah's first acts was to vow publicly that he would liberate Afghanis- tan. Shortly afterward he noti- fied the Viceroy of India that he would no longer permit Afghan foreign policy to be determined by the British Foreign Office. He attacked the Indian frontier and hostilities continued for four months before the signing of peace at Rawalpindi (1919). In February, 1921, a» permanent treaty was signed whereby Great Britain recognized the unquali- fied independence of Afghanistan. Three weeks later Amanullah entered into friendly treaty rela- tions with Great Britain's rival, Soviet Russia. In spite of Brit- ish protests, Russian consulates were opened in Afghanistan. Promises of a Russian subsidy and of a trained Russian per- sonnel for certain Afghan services were not carried out. Instead it was German and Turkish tech- nicians who were actually em- ployed by Amanullah to improve Afghan standards in the army and in the civil administration. Amanullah's enthusiasm for reform carried him to Europe on a tour of inspection in 1928. Lavishly entertained in many capitals, he examined western industrial methods and military e([uipment wherever he went with a view to their introduction into Afghanistan. On his return to Kabul, however, he found that the reforms he contemplated would be vigorously opposed by the clergy and all reactionary elements of the population. Dis- 89 regarding all warnings, he vset actively to work to create a more efficient government and to in- troduce the manners and dress of the west. Insurrection broke out in December, 1928. In January Amanullah was forced to abdicate in favor of a brother, but the latter was almost imme- diately driven out before the advance of a rebel chieftain, Bacha Sakao, who installed him- self in the capital as ruler under the name of Habibullah Khan. An attempt on the part of Ama- nullah to regain his throne failed in Mav, 1929. Bibliography.— G. B. Malle- son's History of Afghanistan; Con- stitution and Laws of Afghanistan (ed, by Sultan Mahommed Khan, 1910); Holdich's Gates of India; Lyons' Afghanistan, the Buffer State; G. P. Tate's Kingdom of Afghanistan. Afiu m-Kara-Hissar, a-fi- oom'-ka-ra'-his-sar', or Kara-His- sar-Sahib (ancient Synnada), town, Turkey in Asia, in the vila- yet of Afium-Kara-Hissar. It is the centre of the opium (afium) district. A ruined citadel stands on a hill 800 feet above the plain. Pop. 25,000. Afra, a patron saint of Brescia, who became a Christian on wit- nessing the fortitude of her brothers when thrown to the wild beasts by Hadrian. She was martyred in 121. The name also belongs to a patron saint of Augsburg, con- verted by the teaching and example of a Spanish priest who had taken refuge in her house during the Diocletian persecu- tion. Accused of harboring Christians, she was burned at the stake in 307. Afragola, a-fra-go'la, town, Italy, in the province of Naples, 4 miles northeast of the city of Naples. It is famous for its manufacture of straw hats. Pop. 25,000. Afra'nius, Lucius, Roman comic poet who flourished about 100 B.C. Roman scenes and manners, for the most part of the lower classes, form the subjects of his comedies. Afranius, Lucius, Roman general and friend of Pompey, whom he served in the Sertorian and Mithridatic Wars, B.C. 77. He was elected consul in B.C. 60, and when Pompey obtained the provinces of the two Spains in B.C. 55 he sent Afranius and Petreius to govern them. On the breaking out of hostilities be- tween Caesar and Pompey, Petre- ius and Afranius, after a short campaign, were compelled to sur- render at IMerda, B.C. 49. Afra- nius was present at tlu' Battle of Pharsalia; and on the defeat of Pompey at Rliapsus he fell into the hands of Sittius, and was slain (B.C. 46). Africa, a continent of the Africa Eastern Hemisphere, forming the southernmost prolongation of the Old World, and a southwest ex- tension of Asia. The greater bulk of its compact mass lies between the tropics; the Equator crosses it almost halfway between north and south. The distance from north to south is 5,000 miles, and from west to east (Cape Verde to Ras Hafun, south of Cape Guard- afui) 4,650 miles. Its shape roughly resembles that of a pear, bulging out in the north and ta- pering to the south, so that its breadth at 10° s. is only about 1,800 miles. Total area, 11, 513,- 000 square miles. In the northeast, Africa is sep- arated from Asia by the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea, between which it is almost joined to Asia at the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb (14 miles wide). In the north it is actually continuous with Asia at the Isthmus of Suez (75 miles wide), across which the Suez Ca- nal has been cut. The Mediter- ranean Sea separates Africa from Europe in the north, but the two continents approach to within 9 miles of each other at the Strait of Gibraltar. Africa is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the west, and by the Indian Ocean on the east. The coast line, disre- garding minor indentations, is 19,000 miles. There are no true peninsulas of any size in Africa, and the islands — which are all small, with the exception of Mad- agascar — form but two per cent, of the total area. Physical Features. — Africa is a massive platform rising out of deep seas. The continental ledge or shelf is everywhere narrow. It is most marked in the south, where it forms the triangular Agulhas bank. The lowlands under 660 feet above the sea are also narrow, and represent only about 15 per cent, of the surface. Only 2 per cent, of Africa is over 6,600 feet, and this is mostly in Abyssinia and the Atlas region. The average elevation of the continent is 2,130 feet. Except for the folded chain of (1) the Atlas, which is sharply distinguished from the rest of the continent, the natural divisions are not well marked. A line from the mouth of the Nile to that of the Zambezi separates (2) East Africa from the rest of the table- land, which may be subdivided into (3) the Northern Plateau, north of 5° N.; (4) the Central Plateau, or Congo Basin; and (5) the Southern Plateau south of 10° s. The (6) Eastern Islands and (7) the Western Islands must also be considered as separate natural divisions. The Atlas Mountains (cj.v.), which lie to the north of a line drawn from the Wadi Draa to the Gulf of (iabes, are a continuation of the folded mountain system of Southern Europe. Vol. I.— Oct. '29 Africa 90 Africa The Northern Plateau has an area of between 4,000,000 and 5,- 000,000 square miles, and an aver- age elevation of 1,500 feet. The lowlands are in the west and north. The band of Tarso (Ti- besti highlands), rising from 6,000 to 8,000 feet high, crosses the Central Plateau formerly oc- cupied by a great lake. This de- pression is almost circular in shape, and the river forces its way to the west by a series of rapids to a great estuary. East Africa is bounded on the west by the Nile and the great Africa — Contours this region diagonally from north- west to southeast, and the Upper Guinea Plateau bounds it in the south. The north and centre of this region form the Sahara, a land of barren, stony plateaus and shifting sand dunes, crossed by a few dry valleys. In the south the land becomes less arid, and the Niger and its tributary, the Benue, flow across it to the (lulf of Guinea, the vShari to Lake Chad, and the Bahr-el-Ghazal to the Nile. The Congo Basin is a hollow in Vol. I.— Oct. '29 lakes — Albert Nyanza. Edward Nyanza, Tanganyika, and Nyasa. It is characterized by two lines of rift valleys — the west, that of the lakes just mentioned; and the east, that passing from the north of Nyasa, by Lakes Naivasha, Rudolf, and Margher- ita, to the south and east escarp- ments of Abyssinia. Much of the plateau south of Abyssinia lies about 4,000 feet above the Indian Ocean, to which it de- scends by a series of terraces. The lowest terrace forms the low coastal plain, which is narrow in most places. Between the two rifts the Vic- toria Nyanza fills the lowest ba- sin, and in the east the land rises to an average height of 7,000 feet in the Nandi plateau. Near the west rift active volcanoes, such as Mount Kirunga, are found near Lake Kivu, between Lakes Tan- ganyika and Edward Nyanza. Farther north is the great igneous mass of Ruwenzori (estimated at 19,000 feet). This and the ex- tinct volcanic peaks of Kilima- Njaro (19,720 feet) and Kenya (17,200 feet), which rise near the east rift, are the culminating points of Africa. Abyssinia is also mainly com- posed of young volcanic accumu- lations, rising in Ras Dashan to 15,000 feet. Here Jurassic rock is found beneath the loose vol- canic deposits, in which the rivers have excavated gorges some thou- sand feet deep. In the heart of the plateau is Lake Tsana or Dembea, the source of the Blue Nile. A depression, probably an old Nile course, runs from the first turn of the great south bend of the Nile to the Red Sea, and the towns of Berber and Suakin have arisen at its extremities. The South African Plateau has also a high average elevation, be- tween 3,000 and 4,000 feet; but no great heights rise above it, ex- cept in the southeast, where the massive tables of the Drakenberg or Kwathlamba Mountains reach over 11,000 feet. This plateau is divided into four regions, each over 4,000 feet, by the valleys of the Zambezi, Limpopo, and Or- ange — the Congo-Zambezi Pla- teau in the north, the Matabele Plateau in the east, the High Veldt in the southeast, and the Damara Plateau in the west. Across these most of the rivers flow in gorges, and the undulating landscape is diversified by flat- topped hills (the tables or mesas locally known as kopjes), which are often steep-sided. The de- scent to the coast is by a series of terraces, those in the east being cut up into more rounded hilly regions, which gradually sink to the sea line. In the south, the terrace flats widen, and form the Great and Little Karroos. In its geological constitution, Africa presents the appearance of great stability and antiquity. Unlike those of other continents, the seaboard is subject to scarcely any movements of upheaval or subsidence, except on the north- east coast between the Nile delta and the Gulf of Sidra (an area of subsidence), and parts of the Moroccan and Red Sea coasts (areas of upheaval). Earth- quakes are confined mainly to the Atlas region. Coastal Belt and Islands. — The coast line is very regular. The northwest coast is steep from the Africa d on the ic regions Mediter- outhwest ■s (during arm, dry orth and mnd the rain falls, iperature le North 3 usually South Sa- ^ usually The sub- ler rains, tempera- idequate t of sum- regions, le year ximum at the Congo ist, the d from )f Cap- f Mad- Id s ur- ns the 'ing to ■rature s, and, lateau, ison in untain imatic river, where e their racts. ), with a few A 20-' 1? ^r.e»rmtJwi».tlf if, y°''C-' 10' West T) G 10° H 15°Longitude.J 20° East K from 25° IjOxecnnirh 30° JSZ '^5° ]V 40° Q 45° 50": Africa 91 Africa Wadi Draa to Cape Bon, and from the Barka Peninsula to the Nile. Between the Atlas and Barka a low coast curves south, and forms the Gulf of Gabes in the west, and the Gulf ot Sidra in the east. The east coast along the Red Sea, and to beyond Cape Guardafui, is straight, regular, and steep. The island of Sokotra is an outlier of the Somali Penin- sula, which protrudes eastward south of the Gulf of Aden like a horn, and is bordered on the east by a low plain. From the Equator to Delagoa Bay the coastal plain is narrow, with hills which here and there approach the sea. Off this coast lie the little islands of Pemba, Zanzibar, and Mafia; and south of of Biafra. The North Guinea coast, trending east and west, is known by various names — e.g., the Slave Coast (immediately west of the Niger delta) , the Gold Coast, the Ivory Coast, the Grain or Pepper Coast, each succeeding the other to the west. Off Cape Verde lie the Cape Verde Islands, and off the northwest the Canary and Madeira groups. Climate. — Three-fourths of Africa lies between the tropics, and here the days are of nearly uniform length, with almost twelve hours of Hght every day. At sea level the mean tempera- ture of the coldest month is over 70° F., except near the extremities of the continent, where it falls to 55° F. Around the tropics the tor, and from 80 upward on the Guinea coast. There are nine climatic regions in Africa: (1, 2) The Mediter- ranean and extreme southwest regions, with mild winters (during which rain falls) and warm, dry summers. (3, 4) The north and south desert regions, round the two tropics, where little rain falls, and the extremes of temperature are considerable. In the North Sahara the rain showers usually come in winter; in the South Sa- hara and Kalahari they usually occur in summer. (5, 6) The sub- tropical regions of summer rains, with a smaller range of tempera- ture, and a short but adequate rainy season at the height of sum- mer. (7) The equatorial regions, A frica — Climate. these is the island of Madagascar, which is separated from the main- land by the Strait of Mozam- bique, having the Comoro Islands in the north. The coast is regular south of Delagoa Bay, both round the south coast and north along the west coast as far as the mouth of the Orange. The rest of the west coast is bordered by sandy shores, except at the head of the Bight of Biafra and in some parts of the North Guinea coast. The Gulf of Guinea is formed where the west coast changes from a north-and-south to an east-and-west direction, and is divided by the Niger delta into two bays— the Bight of Biafra in the east, and the Bight of Benin in the west. A line of volcanic islands, including Fernando Po, Prince's Island, St. Thomas, and Annobon, rises above the Bight Vol. I. — Mar. '16 daily and seasonal ranges of tem- perature are great — over 30° f. be- tween the warmest and coldest month; but in equatorial regions, and toward the north and south of the continent, where it is bor- dered by seas, the range is small. A narrow strip of the southwest coast is kept cool at all seasons by an upwelling of cold water along the coast and by low fogs. At the equinoxes a belt of rising air and heavy rains is found near the Equator, and this moves north and south with the zenithal sun; so that around the Equator there are two rainy seasons, and in some regions almost constant rains, while at the tropics there are one wet and one dry season. The mean annual rainfall ranges from under 4 inches in the Sahara and about 10 in the Kalahari, to 60 and 80 inches about the Equa- hot and wet nearly all the year round, but with the maximum rainfall when the sun is at the zenith. These include the Congo Basin and the Guinea Coast, the east coast of the mainland from the Equator to the Tropic of Cap- ricorn, and the east coast of Mad- agascar. (8) The higher land sur- rounding these regions forms the high plateau regions. Owing to their elevation the temperature is lower and the rainfall less, and, except on the great lake plateau, there is only one rainy season in summer. (1)) The high mountain region, above 5,000 feet. Hydrography. — Each climatic region has its own type of river, and most African rivers, where they leave the plateau, have their courses impeded by cataracts. The Zambezi and Limpopo, with the Rovuma, Juba, and a few Africa Africa other coast streams, flow to the Indian Ocean; the Nile, Niger, Congo, Orange, Senegal, together with the Cunene, Coanza, Ogo- wai, Volta, and Gambia, flow to the Atlantic, either directly or through the Mediterranean. Nearly all are still entangled in the intricacies of the interior, hence are obstructed either along their middle or lower courses by formidable falls and rapids, such as the stupendous Victoria Falls on the Zambezi; the Yellala and Isangila on the Lower, and Stan- ley on the Middle Congo; the so- called 'Six Cataracts,' the Ripon, Murchison, and many others, all along the Nile above Egypt; the 'Hundred Falls' of the Middle Or- ange. Freest from these impedi- ments are both the Niger and its great eastern affluent the Benue, which latter affords a clear navi- gable highway into the very heart of the Sudan. The rivers of the equatorial rainy regions are constantly sup- plied with water, and where they flow through flat ground they spread out into numerous chan- nels or loops, so that the limits between water and land are indef- inite. The Zambezi and the Niger reach the sea across great deltas fringed with mangrove swamps. The East African rivers receive most rain in summer. The Or- ange (which flows in a deep gorge, with many rapids in its course) and the Senegal have their sources in coastal lands, with summer rains; but in their lower courses they flow through arid regions, where their volume steadily di- minishes. The deserts are inter- sected by numerous wadis, filled only after heavy rains. The Nile crosses all the climatic zones, and consequently is an epitome of Af- rican rivers. It rises about 50° s. lat., and flows north to the Medi- terranean for some 3,700 miles — a course next in length to that of the Missouri - Mississippi, the longest in the world. The Congo ranks next to the Amazon for vol- ume, discharging probably as much water as all the other Af- rican rivers together. Africa possesses a magnificent equatorial lake system, elsewhere unrivalled except by the Great Lakes of North America. They are grouped toward the east side of the continent, between 15° s. and 4° N. lat., and all stand on the south tableland, draining seaward through the Zambezi (Nyasa, with outflow vShire), the Congo (Tan- ganyika, with intermittent out- flow Lukuja), and the Nile (Ed- ward Nyanza, Victoria Nyanza, and Albert Nyanza). The Vic- toria, queen of African lakes, is next to vSuperior (31,200 square miles) the largest fresh- water ba- sin (30,000 s(iuare miles) on the globe. Scattered over the con- tinent are several other lacustrine Vol. I.— Mar. '16 basins, varying greatly in size, which have no seaward outflow, but form isolated centres of in- land drainage. The most exten- sive of these are Lakes Chad (Tsad) and Ngami. Minerals. — Gold, mined by the ancient Egyptians at Mount El- ba, Red Sea coast, occurs also in many other places, as in Upper Guinea, the Lower Zambezi, and Transvaal; and gold dust has at all times formed a chief article of export. But iron and copper are the characteristic metals, ferru- ginous ores abounding almost everywhere, and copper in Nam- aqualand, the Congo Basin, Dar- Fertit, and many other places. The basin of the Vaal is one of the richest diamond-bearing regions on the globe. Flora. — The regions with win- ter rains are characterized by heaths and other dry, scrubby plants; water-storing species, like mesembryanthemum ; and thick- skinned plants, such as the agave. The deserts have a very poor flora, of even more spiny, leath- ery, or water-storing plants than the above. The most important grass lands are the savannas, which are continuous from the Upper Niger across the Sudan by the Eastern and the Matabili Plateaus; and the High Veldt, a branch running westward along the Congo-Zambezi divide. Flat- topped trees are dotted about the savannas, and form continuous woods along the river courses. The wet jungles of the equatorial forests cover the coastal plain of Upper Guinea, the lower part of the Congo Basin, and the east of Madagascar; they are character- ized by the number of palms. In North Africa are found the olive, date, fig, and cork, several varieties of oak, and the eucalyp- tus, introduced from Australia. The graminaceae are predomi- nant, and vast tracts in Algeria and Tunis are covered with es- parto grass, largely exported to England for paper making. The papyrus still fingers in the Upper Nile, although in the Lower Nile the lotus and other characteristic plants have been largely replaced by cereals, cotton, tobacco, and other economic species. South of Egypt, the date gives place to the doom and deleb palms, wheat and rice to durra; in the forest regions of the Sudan and Guinea the pre- vailing species are the baobab, banana, butter tree, ebony, Elceis guineensis or oil palm, which O O Diamonds. * * Gold. ° ° Silver. + + Iron. » Coal. I Africa — Principal Mining Districts. POLITICAL English MCles 20 longiaidc Wrjrt 10 /Vom Gretnwith O Lorufituda £a Africa 91 B Africa yields the palm oil of commerce, bamboo palm, mangrove, acacias, mimosas, and other gum trees; and in Galla and Somaliland are found aromatic shrubs and the coffee shrub. Indigenous to Af- rica is also the cotton plant, which, like indigo, is widely cul- tivated in Egypt, the Sudan, and Nigeria, and which grows wild in many places as far north as 19° N. lat. But of all African floras, the richest and most diversified is that of the Cape region south from the Orange River. It con- sists chiefly of grasses, shrubs, bushes, and lovely ferns and heathers in greater variety than in the richest European lands. Fauna. — The savannas are very rich in animal life, the most numerous and characteristic be- bique to Sennaar, fatal to the horse, camel, ox, and dog; and the donderobo, south of Kilima- Njaro, which attacks the ass, goat, and sheep. The wet jungles are character- ized by their comparative pov- erty in mammals, and their wealth of bird and insect life. The gorilla, chimpanzee, and other monkeys, the hippopota- mus and elephant, are among the most important mammals. Madagascar has no large-sized mammals, but the lemur and the aye-aye ' are among the characteristic ones. It is rich in birds and insects. Peoples. — The population of Africa is estimated at 180.000,- 000 (1915), or nearly 16 inhab- itants per square mile. These are intruders from Asia, some in remote or prehistoric times (3,000,000 Himyars in Abyssinia and Harar from South Arabia), some since the spread of Islam (over 30,000,000 nomad and other Arabs, chiefly along the Mediterranean seaboard, in West Sahara, and Central and East Sudan). All the rest may be regarded as the true aboriginal elements, which may be roughly divided into two great physical and linguistic groups — Hamites in the north, Negroes in the south, meeting and intermin- gling in the intermediate region of Sudan. The Hamites — that is, the Af- rican branch of the Caucasic family — in physical type are essentially Mediterranean, often Africa — Native Races. Africa — Capacity for White Colonization. ing antelopes. On the borders of the forest, lions, elephants, buffa- loes, leopards, hyenas, and gi- raffes are still found; but ele- phants and most other big game are becoming scarce, owing to indiscriminate shooting by hunt- ers. The double-horned rhi- noceros is abundant on some of the grassy plateaus, while the hippopotamus and crocodile are found in the rivers. Among the birds, besides the ostrich, are the ibis, pelican, sec- retary bird, parrot, and guinea fowl. Reptiles and insects abound, comprising the huge python, many poisonous snakes, termites, locusts, and two little winged pests highly destructive to domestic animals — the tsetse fly, which ranges from Mozam- VOL. I— Oct. '20 are distributed very unevenly over the surface, being massed somewhat densely in the Nile delta, in the Upper Nile valley, and generally throughout the Sudan; less thickly over the southern plateau, and very thinly on the northern and western coast; while large tracts, especially in the West Sahara, the Libyan and Kalahari wastes, are uninhabited. Of the whole number, prob- ably much less than 2,000,000 are white immigrants from Europe, settled chiefly in the extreme north (Egypt, Tripolitania, and French West Africa) and the extreme south (South African Republic, Rhodesia, and the former German colonies) . About 34,000,000, of Semitic stock. characterized by extremely regu- lar features, and in places even by blue eyes and fair complexion (Aures uplands, Algeria). The Negroes include, in addition to the true negroes, the diverse races of the Congo-Nile divide — those who speak the Bantu languages — the aberrant Hotten- tots of the extreme southwest, and a number of dwarf races, such as the Bushmen of the Kalahari steppe, the Obongos of the Gabun, the Akkas (q. v.) south of Monbuttuland, and the diminutive Batwas in the Middle Congo basin. In its inhabitants, as well as its natural history, Madagascar forms a region apart (see Mad- agascar). Languages. — Various classi- Africa 92 Africa fications of the African language have been proposed. Proceeding on the pasis of racial difference, five main classes are distin- guished: (1) Semitic, the tongues spoken by the Arabs and certai^ Abyssinian tribes, and introatJteed into the con- tinent by invaders or immi- grants. (2) Hamitic, including Libyan and various Abyssinian dialects, together with those spo- ken by the Gallas and the So- malis. This language bears no distinct relation to any other Caucasic form of speech, beyond a certain faint resem^^lance to the Semitic sufficient to suggest a possible primeval Semitico-Ham- itic organic tongue. (3) Negro, a bewildering variety of dialects spoken mainly in the Bilad-es- Sudan, or 'Land of the Blacks.' (4) Bantu, spoken by all the black races south of a line running roughly eastward from the head of the Gulf of Guinea. Of this group the Zulu is the most per-^ feet type. (5) Hottentot-Bushman, spoken by the Hottentots and Bushmen, whose precise relation- ship is as yet in doubt. This lan- guage is distinguished by unpro- nounceable sounds kryDwn as 'clicks,' said by some to form a sort of connecting link between articulate and inarticulate speech. The dwarf tribes still retain their own languages, and the natives of Madagascar employ the Mala- gasy language, which is related to that of Malay, Racial Movements. — In the south, Bushmen and Hottentots foriherly roamed over 'a much wider area than at present, but have been driven toward the more barren southwest by ad- vancing Bantus, who are more or less pastoral peoples, some with a powerful military or- ganization. The most remark- able of these Bantus are the Zulus, who devastated much of Eastern South Africa early in the nineteenth century, and from whom the Matabili and Marotse warriors have sprung. The Arabs have expanded steadily for the last thousand years, and their traders and slave traders penetrate as far south as the Tropic of Capricorn. Mediterra- nean Africa has witnessed Egyp- tian, PhcEnician, Grecian, and Roman civilization. Central and South Africa are isolated from Mediterranean culture by the Sahara and the sea. The Portuguese navigators of the fifteenth century made known the central and south coasts to Europe; the Dutch were the first to settle in the temperate lands of the south. Hither, in the seventeenth cen- tury, came refugee Huguenots, and the resulting mixed race gradually spread over the south- ern terraces and the High Veldt. Vol. I— Oct. '20 In the Sast of these terraces, and in Natal, British and Germans settled in some numbers, es- pecially in the middle third of the nineteenth century. Indian coolies have been brought as laborers to Natal, as Malays were for- merly brought to the Cape, and Chinese were imported for the gold fields. Italians, Spanish, and French h'ave settled on the African shores opposite their own lands. EconorrHc Conditions. — The majority of native Africans live by hunting and by superficial cultivation of the soil or pastoral pursuits. Speaking generally, the Northern Hamites and Sem- ites are stock breeders, and 'the Southern Bantus agriculturists; these two factors intermingling in the intervening zone of Sudan. Hottentots, however, are mainly cattle breeders ; and the Algerian Berbers prefer tillage to pastur- age. The economic possibilities of Africa are great. In the south and northwest, in the Nile valley and Abyssinia, agriculture flour- ishes, and tropical plantations are being extended in the Euro- pean possessions of West and East Africa and Madagascar. The warm, moist regions produce abundantly all kinds of tropical products; but the steamy heat, though favorable to vegetation, is unhealthful even for the native negro. On the lands between the tropics over 4,000 feet above the sea Europeans can hve and maintain a fairly healthful exist- ence with care; and although neither temperature nor rainfall is so high as in the lowlands, the savannas might be made to yield rich crops, as has been proved in Nyasaland. The desert regions are healthful, and are fertile where water can be obtained either by storage or from artesian wells. The labor problem is one of the chief difficulties in opening up Africa. Agriculture is, in most tribes, a woman's occupa- tion, and to be compelled to en- gage in it is an affront to the dignity of the men, whose tra- ditional occupations are hunting and fighting. The mineral wealth is in parts most important. Iron is worked by many native tribes; gold and diamonds have attracted Euro- peans to South Africa, and are also found along the Gold Coast and elsewhere. Mining is to the natives, however, even less at- tractive than agriculture. Religion. — Fully one-half of the continent has accepted the tenets of Mohammedanism, which on the whole have had a beneficent influence on the Negro. Elsewhere, progress is barred by all-prevailing fetishism, inti- mately associated with the bane- ful practice of witchcraft. Chris- tianity, introduced at various points of the periphery, has made progress, especially among Basu- tos and other Southern Bantus. Communications. — In addition to the telegraph lines and rail- ways extending throughout the more settled divisions of Africa, a telegraph line to stretch over- land from Cape Town to Cairo was begun by the late Cecil Rhodes in 1893. The project for a Cape ta Cairo Railway running as far as possi- ble through British territory, and serving as a link to bind together the various sectfons of British Af- rica, was ench gold coin struck during the reign of Louis ix., but not used after the time of Charles IX. So called because it had a fig- ure of the paschal lamb (Agnus). Agnes, St., a beautiful Roman Christian in the time of Diocle- tian, who, having in her thirteenth year repulsed the heathen son of Vol. I— Mar. '10 the praetor, was publicly humili- ated. A series of miracles could not save her from the execution- er's sword. Her festival falls on Jan. 21. The eve is known as St. Agnes' Eve. Agnesi, a-nya'ze, Maria Gae- TANA (1718-99), remarkable for her varied attainments, was born at Milan. In her ninth year she could converse in Latin, and later acquired a mastery of Greek, Hebrew, French, Spanish, and German. Of her philosophical discourses with learned men, her father published a number of specimens, called Propositiones Philosophicce (1738). In 1 748 she published her Instituzioni Analit- iche. She succeeded her father as professor of mathematics at Bo- logna, and after his death entered a convent at Milan. Ag'new, Daniel Hayes (1818- 92) , American surgeon, was born in Lancaster county. Pa., and was graduated in medicine from the University of Pennsylvania. He founded the School of Operative Surgery in Philadelphia, and was professor of surgery at the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania. He was one of the surgeons who attended President Garfield after he was shot. His publications include: Practical Anatomy (1867); Prin- ciples and Practice of Surgery (1878). Agni, ag'ne, in Hindu mythol- ogy god of fire and of the earth, to whom many Vedic hymns are ad- dressed. Agno'men, a name added by the Romans to those of any per- son, to commemorate his services, or in allusion to his character — e.g., Cnaeus Marcius Coriolanus. Agnone, a-nyo'na, town, Cam- pobasso, Italy, on the western slope of the Apennines; 22 miles northwest of Campobasso. It has iron and copper industries. Pop. 10,500. Agnos'ticism, a word intro- duced into the English language by Professor Huxley, in 1869, suggested to him by the inscrip- tion, Ayvodo-Tw 6ew ('To an Un- known God'), which the Apostle Paul saw on an Athenian altar (Acts xvii. 23). By its form it suggests, and, Huxley tells us, was meant to suggest, a theory the exact opposite of gnosticism (q. v.), which was a vague and theosophical method of specula- tion widely prevalent in the early church. Agnosticism restricts our cog- nition to the manifestations and transformations of matter and energy, and disclaims all knowl- edge of spiritual existence, wheth- er of God or man. While accept- ing the conclusions of science and sensible experience, it rejects, as unfounded conjecture, all asser- tions regarding the unseen. Ag- nostics are careful, however, to guard themselves against the charge of Atheism on the one hand, and of philosophical Mate- rialism on the other, inasmuch as these theories desert the purely nescient attitude with regard to spiritual existence. Agnostics do not deny that behind the phe- nomena of knowing, feeling, and willing there may be a permanent entity or soul; but they maintain that nothing can be proved or disproved respecting the soul's distinct existence, substance, or durabiHty. Similarly, they admit that behind the material phenom- ena of the universe there may ex- ist a Universal Being; but they hold it impossible to determine whether or not the nature of this Being is conscious and spiritual. To all such questions there is but one answer: we do not know, and nothing leads us to suppose that we shall ever know. History, however, appears to prove that much of religious agnosticism tends to issue in ultimate scepti- cism. There are many shades and varieties of agnosticism, but all reasoned and systematic forms of it at the present day are based more or less overtly upon the speculations of Kant (q. v.). The conclusion of Kant's critical anal- ysis of human reason is that we can know only the phenomenal, while such ideas as God, the soul, and immortality can be appre- hended only by practical faith. The negative side of this theory has been adopted by Herbert Spencer (q. v.), whose works present the most elaborate and impressive exposition of agnos- ticism to be had in English. Ag- nosticism will always be found to rest upon a subjective theory of knowledge, and can be refuted only by the demonstration that our knowledge of reality, so far as it goes, is genuine and trust- worthy. See Phenomenalism; Rela- tivity OF Knowledge. Consult Huxley's Lectures and Essays; Spencer's First Principles; Leslie Stephen's An Agnostic's Apology; Flint's A gnosticism; W. .U Moore's Glimpses of the Next State (1911). A masterly criticism of the theory is to be found in Dr. James Ward's Naturalism and Agnosticism (Gifford Lectures, 1899). Agnos'tus, an important genus of trilobites characteristic of Cambrian strata in Europe and America, The head and tail shields are semicircular in out- line and quite similar; the thorax consists of two segments; and there are no eyes. See Trilo- bite. Ag'nus De'i (Latin 'Lamb of God'), a title of the Saviour (John i. 29); hence a symbolical repre- sentation of Christ as a lam I ) with a halo, and supporting a banner, as found in the catacombs. Also Agonic Lines 101 Agra the figure of a lamb impressed on wax from the Paschal candles and blessed by the Pope on the Thursday following Easter. Also a prayer which since the sixth century has been used in the ser- vice of the Mass — Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi, miserere nobis. In the Greek Church the cloth which covers the chalice is known as an Agnus Dei, this symbol being embroidered upon it. In mediaeval heraldry and religion the Agnus Dei was associated with St. John, and was conse- quently borne by those under the patronage of that Saint. Agon'ic Lines, imaginary lines on the earth's surface connecting those points where the magnetic needle shows no declination. There are two such — a smaller, contained entirely in Siberia and China; and a larger, which passes through Russia, the Indian Ocean, Australia, Antarctic Ocean, Brazil, Atlantic Ocean, and East- ern Canada. See Magnetism, Terrestrial. Agony Column, a column in English newspapers devoted to personal advertisements, such as notices of losses, disappearances, mysterious communications, be- quests and such matters. These notices are often in cipher. In American newspapers the per- sonal column is its prototype. Agoo, a-go'o, pueblo, Luzon, Philippine Islands; in La Union province; 20 miles south of San Fernando. Sugar cane, cotton, corn, and rice are produced. East of the town is Mount Santo Tomas (7,418 feet). Pop. (1918) 12,517. Agora, ag'6-ra (Greek 'assem- bly'), the market place of an- cient Greek towns, corresponding to the Roman /orwm, and the cen- tre of the religious, commercial, and political life of the town or city. The most famous agorae were those of Elis and Athens, the latter being a large irregular area bordered by the Acropolis, Colonos Agoraeus Hill, and the Areopagus Hill. See Athens. Agoraptiobia, ag'o-ra-fo'bi-a (Greek 'fear of the public square'), a nervous disease char- acterized by fear in certain situa- tions, usually large spaces. The patient suffers palpitation of the heart, trembling, coldness, and other symptoms of terror, which come upon him suddenly in the market place, street, or theatre, and cause him to go around rather than cross open or crowded spaces. Improvement in general health and keeping the mind well occupied usually drive it away. Ago'sta, city, Sicily. See Augusta. Agoue, a-gwe', seaport town, West Africa, in Dahomey, be- tween Great and Little Pope. Pop. 5,000. _ Agoult, a-goo', Marie Cath- erine Sophie de Flavigny, Comtesse d' (1805-76), French author whose pseudonym was 'Daniel Stern,' daughter of Vi- comte Flavigny and Marie Bethmann of the Frankfort banking family, was born in Frankfort-on-Main. She was educated in Paris and in 1827 married Count d'Agoult, but left him to live with Franz Liszt. She travelled much in Switzer- land, where she met George Sand, and in Germany and Italy. To Liszt she bore a son and two daughters, of whom Blandine Guiana, Brazil, and Peru, usually making its home at the foot of trees. It is active and graceful, and in cultivated places, when in search of food, often does much damage to sugar plantations and the like. The young ones are said to be easily tamable. Farther south, this form is repre- sented by Azara's agouti (D. azarce), and in the north by a smaller form, the acouchy {D. acouchy) . Agra, a'gra, third city of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, India, and the capital of Agra district, is situated on the Jumna River; 139 miles south- east of Delhi by rail. The native © F. Firth & Co. Ltd. Agra. ■The Taj Mahal, or 'Peerless Tomb' married Emile Ollivier, and Cosima married first Hans von Billow and later Richard Wag- ner. Her salon was long a rendezvous for many prominent men and women. Her published works include Nelida (1845), an autobiographical romance; Let- ires republicaines (1848); Hisloire de la revolution de 18^8 (1851-3); Esquisses morales et politiques (1849), by which she is best known; Mes souvenirs, 1806-33 (1877). Agouta, a-goo'ta, a small, rat- like insectivore {Solenodon para- doxus) of Haiti, closely related to the Almiqui. See Almiqui. Agouti, a-gob'ti (Dasyprocta agouti), a large South American rodent allied to the guinea pig. It is about 18 to 20 inches long; the color of its coarse hair varies from brown to yellow; the form is compact; the legs are slender and pig-like, with three toes on the hind feet; the ears small and rounded; the tail rudimentary. The agouti lives in the forests of city originally covered 11 square miles, about half of which is now occupied. To the south is the British cantonment, within which are the barracks, hotels, post office, banks, and public gardens. Architecturally, Agra is one of the most remarkable cities of India; and some of the public buildings, monuments of the house of Timur, are on a scale of striking magnificence. Within the walls of the Fort, built on the banks of the Jumna by Ak- bar, are the palace and audience halls of Shah Jehan; the Moti Masjid or Pearl Mosque, so called for its beautiful interior of white marble; the Jama Masjid or Great Mosque; and other mosques and pavilions. Without the city, about a mile to the east of the Fort, is the famous Taj Mahal, considered by many to be the most beautiful building in the world (see Taj Mahal). Of British edifices in and near the city, the principal are Gov- ernment House, Government Vol. I.— March '28 Agra and Oudh 102 Agrlcola College, Agra Medical School, St. John's College, the Roman Catholic Cathedral, convent, and school, and the English church. Agra has excellent railway fa- cilities, and is of considerable importance commercially. The principal articles of trade are cotton, tobacco, salt, grain, and sugar. There are manufactures of shoes, pipe stems, gold lace, gold and silver embroidery, carv- ing in soapstone, and of inlaid mosaic work, for which Agra is famous. The mean annual temperature is 79° F.; and there is a hot, rainy season from April to Sep- tember. The most important suburb is Sikandarah, which contains the mausoleum of the Emperor Akbar. Agra is held in great veneration by the Hindus as the scene of the incarnation of Vishnu under the name of Parasu Rama. It first rose to importance in the beginning of the sixteenth cen- tury, and until 1658 was the capi- tal of the Mogul sovereigns. In that year Aurangzeb removed the seat of government to Delhi. In 1784 the city was taken by Sindhia, and was held by the Mahrattas until 1803, when it was captured by Lord Lake. From 1835 to 1858 it was the seat of government of the North- west Provinces, and in the mu- tiny of 1857 it stood a siege of several months. Pop. (1921) 185,532. Agra and Oudh. See United Provinces. Agra Canal, an irrigation and navigation canal which taps the Indian River Jumna, 10 miles below Delhi, and re-enters 20 miles below Agra. It has branches to that city and to Muttra. Agram, a'gram, or Zagreb, city, Serb-Croat-Slovene State, situated at the foot of a richly wooded range of mountains, about 2 miles from the River Save, and 142 miles northeast of Fiume by rail. Features of interest are the Cathedral, a fine Gothic building of the fifteenth century, the Governor's Palace, National Theatre, Archi- episcopal Palace, and Academy of Sciences. Industries include the manufacture of tobacco, leather, linen, porcelain, and silk. There is a good trade in grain and wine. Repeated shocks of earthquake in November, 1880, destroyed most of the public buildings. Agram is a centre of learning and has a university founded in 1874, as well as other educational institu- tions. Until after the Great War it was a city of Hungary. Pop. (1921) 108,338. Agramonte, a-gra-mon'ta, Ig- NACio (1841-73), Cuban lawyer, was born in Puerto Principe, and Vol. I. — March '28 studied law at the University of Havana. He took part in the revolution of 1868; was secretary of the provisional government (1869); and led the revolutionary forces in the Camaguey district. He was killed in the battle of Jimaguayu. Agrapha of Jesus. See LOGIA. Agraph'ia, a nervous com- plaint, analogous to aphasia, in which the patient is unable to write what he means. See Aphasia. Agra'rian Laws, the term used to denote the legislation of the ancient Romans dealing with the ager publicus or public do- main. These laws play an im- portant part in Roman history, their object being to utilize the public lands for the greatest public good. As the Roman power was extended through victories over surrounding tribes and nations, large portions of territory were appropriated by the state. The use of these public lands came largely into the hands of the patrician families, who, by means of slave labor, were able to cultivate huge farms at infinitesimal cost. The demands of the plebeians to share in the distribution of the ager publicii commenced early. In the year 486 B.C., it is said, the consul Spurius Cassius brought in the first agrarian bill. He was not successful, however, and fell a victim to the vengeance of the infuriated patrician order. In 367 B.C. the plebeian tribunes, Lucius Licinius Stolo and Lucius Sextius, after a struggle of ten years, enacted the famous Leges Liciniae Sextiae, one of the provi- sions of which was that no citizen should hold more than 500 jugera of public agricultural land, nor feed more than 100 head of large or 500 head of small cattle on the public pastures. In all cases the usual rates were to be paid to the public treasury, and each occupier was bound to employ so much free labor. For a time these laws had a beneficial effect, but afterward fell into desuetude. Once more the possession of real property fell into the hands of large own- ers, all the more as trade was for- bidden to men of senatorial rank, who in consequence were com- pelled to invest their capital in land. The cultivation of grain was now abandoned by the hold- ers of these vast estates {lali- fundia), in favor of the less toil- some breeding of cattle by which process a feeble class of herdsmen were substituted for the former vigorous peasantry. In 133, however, the tribune Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus turned back to the agrarian law of Licinius and Sextius, and had the boldness to propose that no one should possess more than 500 jugera of state land for himself, and 250 each for grown sons, provided always that not more than 1,000 jugera came into the hands of one family. The lands recovered by this measure were to be given out in lots of 30 jugera to poor citizens and allies on an inalienable tenure. The energy of Gracchus succeeded in carrying the measure in spite of patrician opposition, but both he and his brother and supporter Gains ultimately fell victims to the vengeance of the aristocratic order. The 'Sempronian laws,' as the legislation of the Gracchi was termed, though not formally repealed, were thereafter evaded and rendered practically inop- erative. Various agrarian laws were subsequently passed, the object and intention of which was directly contrary to those of the Gracchi. The name Agrarian Laws was formerly associated with the idea of interference with private property in land, and with the application thereto of communis- tic principles. Thus the French Convention in 1793 passed an act punishing with death any one who should propose an agrarian law, in the sense of a bill for the equal distribution of the soil among all citizens. It has now been conclusively proved that the Roman laws of that name had reference solely to public or state lands, not to those held in private ownership. See Land Laws. Agreda, a-gra'da, Maria Fer- NANDE CORONEL, ABBESS OF (1602-65), known to the convent as Maria de Jesus. She had di- vine revelations even in child- hood, Samaniego tells us, and her whole family entered the religious life. She embodied her inspiration in a life of the Virgin, Mystica Ciudad de Dios, which is full of apocryphal history. She started a valuable correspon- dence with Philip IV., wherein she probably was the mouthpiece of the Franciscans in general. Translated into French, Italian, and German, her book is still read by upholders of the Im- maculate Conception. Agreement. See Contract. Agricola, a-grik'6-la, CNiEUS Julius (37-93), a distinguished Roman of imperial times, dis- tinguished not less by his great abilities as a statesman and a soldier than by the beauty of his private character, was born in Forum Julii (now Frejus in Provence). Having served with distinction in Britain, Asia, and Aquitania, and filled vari- ous civil offices, he was in 77 A.D. elected consul, and in the following year proceeded Agricola 103 Agricultural Education as governor to Britain. He not only effectually subdued the island, but reconciled most of the inhabitants to the Roman yoke. In A.D. 86 he defeated the Cale- donians at Mons Grampius and circumnavigated the island. The line of his chain of forts between the Clyde and the Forth can still be traced. The jealousy of the Emperor Domitian caused his removal, and is supposed to have hastened his death (a.d. 93) His Life by his son-in-law Taci- tus is regarded as one of the finest specimens of biography in literature. Agricola, Georg, whose real name was Bauer (1494-1555), the founder of the modern science of mineralogy, and a valued teacher of practical mining in Germany, was born in Glauchau, Saxony. He practised as a physician at Chemnitz (1531 onward) ; and at Joachimsthal, a mining and smelting village, took up the study of minerals, which he was the first to systema- tize into a logical system in his De Re Metallica. Agricola, Johann (1492- 1566) (originally Schnitter or Schneider, called also Magis- TER IsLEBius from his birth- place, Eisleben), was one of the most zealous founders of Prot- estantism. He was sent in 1525 by Luther to institute the Protestant worship in Frankfort. After his return he held a chair at Wittenberg, which, however, he had to resign because of his opposition to Luther and Me- lanchthon. He retired to Ber- lin, where he became court preacher to the elector, and there he died. He took an active part in the drawing up of the Augs- burg Interim, and wrote many theological books; but his col- lection of German proverbs gives him his best claim to lasting fame. Consult Kawerau's Jo- hann Agricola. Agricola, Rodolphus (1443- 1485), the foremost scholar of the ' New Learning ' in Germany, was born near Groningen, in Friesland. His real name, Roe- lof Huysmann ('husbandman'), he Latinized into Agricola. He entered into a close friendship with Dalberg, later bishop of Worms, and afterward endeav- ored, in connection with several of his former co-disciples and friends, to promote a taste for literature and eloquence. Sev- eral cities of Holland vainly strove with each other to obtain his presence. At length, yield- ing (1483) to the solicitations of Dalberg, he established himself in the Palatinate, where he so- journed alternately at Heidelberg and Worms, dividing his time between private studies and pub- lic lectures. He distinguished him- self also as a musician and painter. Vol. I— March '21 Agricultural Associations, voluntary organizations of farm- ers and others, having for their purpose the advancement of agriculture and the mutual benefit of their members. The earlier associations were almost wholly educational, their activi- ties consisting in meetings and conferences, experimentation with new methods of farming and stock raising, fairs and exhibits, and the publication of agricul- tural journals. Many of these societies exerted a marked in- fluence on legislation, obtaining important State and national concessions in the interests of agriculture. In recent years the emphasis has been upon organ- ization for economic purposes, and farmers now co-operate through associations in produc- tion, transportation, and mar- keting, as well as for the pur- chase of agricultural requisites, the provision of credit facilities, and agricultural insurance. Agricultural associations, lo- cal, regional, and national in scope, are found in all the civi- lized countries of the world; and there is an International Institute of Agriculture, estab- lished in 1905. See Co-opera- tion ; Grange; Farmer's Alli- ance. Consult Pratt's Agricul- tural Organization (1912). Agricultural Chemistry. See Chemistry: Agricultural Chem- istry. ' Agricultural Co-operation. See Co-operation in Agricul- ture. Agricultural Credit. See Rural Credits. Agricultural Education. Al- though agriculture is the oldest and most important of human occupations, it was not provided with special scientific training until a comparatively recent date. The growing importance of stock raising and dairy farm- ing in Denmark led to the creation of a veterinary college at Copenhagen in 1773, which afterward became the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural Col- lege. This was followed by the founding of a chair of agricul- ture at the University of Edin- burgh in 1790, a chair of rural economy at Oxford in 1796, a high-grade agricultural school at Krumman, Austria, in 1799, another at Moglin, Germany, in 1807, and the first in France at Nancy in 1822, followed by Grignon in 1829, and Grand- jouan in 1830. United States. — Columbia College, in New York, estab- lished a 'professorship for nat- ural history, chemistry, and agri- culture' as early as 1792, and a professorship of natural history was created at Harvard in 1801 The first practical school of agri- culture was the Gardiner Lyceum in Maine, which, receiving a grant of money from the State, was opened in 1823, and flour- ished for many years. It was designed for the education of farmers and mechanics, and its equipment included a farm. A similar school was opened at Derby, Conn., in 1826, and with- in a few years there were several schools in which instruction in agriculture was given in that State and in New York. In 1846 the chair of agricultural chem- istry and vegetable and animal physiology was established at Yale. The State of Michigan pro- vided in her constitution for an agricultural college, and after the selection of an admirable site near Lansing, the new capital, the college was opened in 1857, the first public institution of that character in the United States. State agricultural col- leges were opened in Maryland and Pennsylvania in 1859. In 1862 the Morrill Land Grant Act, which marks an im- portant stage in the development of agricultural education in the United States, was signed by President Lincoln. This Act, proposed by Senator J. S. Mor- rill (q. v.), donated to each State and Territory 30,000 acres of public lands for each Senator and Member of Congress at that time, the proceeds to constitute a fund to endow and support State colleges for the benefit of agri- culture and the mechanical arts. Some of the States divided the fund; some located and sold the lands unwisely; while others turned the gift into a magnificent patrimony. In 1890 Senator Morrill secured the passage of the Second Morrill Act, which now provides the sum of $25,000 a year for each college. In 1907 Congress, by the Nelson Amend- ment, gave each college an addi- tional annual endowment of $25,000. In 1914 the income of the State colleges was still further increased by the passage of the Agricultural Extension Act, which provides for an appropria- tion of $480,000 ($10,000 for each State) for instruction and practical demonstration in agri- culture and home economics for such persons as do not attend the sessions of the colleges. This sum is to be increased each suc- cessive year for seven years, at the end of which time there will be a permanent annual appro- priation of $4,580,000 for exten- sion work. Under the Morrill Act a total of 10,320.843 acres of land was granted. In 1920, 67 institutions were in operation, with an en- rollment, in all departments, of 123,000 students. The value of the property of these institu- Agricultural Education 104 Agricultural Education tions was $184,400,000 in 1918. The income for that year was $47,700,000. Seventeen sepa- rate schools for colored students are maintained. In 1887 an act of Congress made provision for the establishment of experi- ment stations at these colleges (see Agricultural Experi- ment Stations). In all the colleges for white persons, and in several of those for negroes, a four-year course of instruction is provided; many also make provision for graduate study. The instruction includes general studies, scientific studies, and technical agriculture, one- third of the course being devoted to each group. In addition, a shorter two-year course, largely of a practical nature, is offered in many of these institutions; in others, a one-year course is, offered. In most of the colleges winter courses, ranging from four to twelve weeks, are also offered, which are widely attended by mature farm boys who are un- able to leave home at other times or for a longer period. The tui- tion in these short courses is al- ways free, while in most colleges no tuition is charged to residents of the State for the longer courses. Agricultural experi- ment stations are conducted by all the State colleges, and farm- ers' institutes, farmer's read- ing clubs, summer sessions, and correspondence classes by many of them. Among the technical subjects pursued at the agricultural col- leges may be mentioned the fol- lowing: Agronomy, soils, farm equipment, farm crops, plant breeding, feeding live stock, breeding live stock, farm butch- ering, types and breeds of farm animals, vegetable garden- ing, fruit growing, landscape gardening, dairying, judging live stock, plant diseases, animal diseases, insects, rural economics. These group subjects are further subdivided, giving each student opportunity to specialize along particular lines. Special schools for the study of agriculture have also been estab- lished in nearly all the States — the State legislature providing the funds and designating the institutions that are to receive aid. These schools are not com- petitors of the State colleges, their mission being to give agri- cultural training in connection with the lower grades of study, on a par with what is called common school or secondary edu- cation. The movement that has gained the greatest headway is the teaching of agriculture in the public schools. Several States now require agriculture in the school courses, placing it on a par with reading, writing, and Vol. I.— March '21 arithmetic. EfTorts are"" also being directed toward the enact- ment of Federal legislation which shall provide national aid for special schools in every State in which agriculture, domestic sci- ence, and manual training are taught; give similar aid to exist- ing high schools that teach these subjects; maintain branch agri- cultural experiment stations in connection with each special school; and insure Federal aid for the training of teachers at the various normal colleges. A com- mission appointed to consider these matters reported its find- ings and recommendations -on June 1, 1914; and a billrwas in- troduced in Congress providing for a Federal board of vocational education and granting appro- priations for the State prepara- tion of teachers. This act went into effect in July, 1917. (See Vocational Education.) In 1916 the ntunber of public high schools teaching agriculture was reported as 2,175, and the number of students of secondary grade studying agriculture, as 24,743 boys and 16,312 girls. There were 68 special secondary agricultural schools supported in whole or in part by the States. In addition to the 17 agri- cultural schools for negroes, 67 other negro institutions above elementary grade reported agri- culture as ^ part of the curricu- lum. Definite agricultural in- struction is also becoming a part of the educational work in a number of State prisons, reform- atories, and schools for delin- quents. (See Gardening.) Canada. — In Canada instruc- tion in agriculture is furnished chiefly by means of agricultural colleges established in the va- rious provinces. Of these the foremost is the Ontario Agricul- tural College at Guelph. This college is affiliated with the University of Toronto, and com- prises some twenty main build- ings, containing classrooms and scientific laboratories, and a college farm of over seven hun- dred acres, a large part of which is laid out in experimental plots. Instruction is given in both agri- culture and household science. The course in agriculture, which covers four years, leads to the degree b.s.a. (Bachelor of Sci- ence in Agriculture) . There are, in addition, a two-year associate course for students who do not wish to proceed to the degree, and a number of short courses, from two to six weeks in length, for farmers and their families. There are some sixty members of the teaching, research, and ex- tension staff, and in 1920 there were 1,900 students in attend- ance, including those attending the short courses and special summer courses for teachers Similar colleges have been es- tablished in the other provinces. Nova Scotia has maintained an agricultural school at Truro for many years. Macdonald Agri- cultural College, about twenty miles from Montreal, is an incor- porated College of McGill Uni- versity. Agricultural colleges have been established also in connection with the University of Manitoba, at Winnipeg; the University of Saskatchewan, at Saskatoon; the University of Alberta, at Edmonton; and the University of British Columbia, at Vancouver. In Ontario, in addition to the Agricultural College, an agricultural school has been established at Kempt- ville, and in Alberta there are six agricultural schools at dif- ferent centres. Agricultural so- cieties. Women's Institutes, trav- elling dairies, live stock asso- ciations, fruit growers' associa- tions, and bee-keepers' associa- tions are encouraged and aided by the provincial governments, and their departments of agri- culture have done much to pro- mote the interest of agricultural education by the distribution of bulletins. The Ontario Ex- perimental Union has also been active in encouraging improved agricultural methods. Agriculture is taught as part of the regular work of the public and high schools in a number of provinces where application has been made by the boards of trustees for the establishment of such courses. The subject also forms part of the course for teachers-in-training in the nor- mal schools, and special summer courses for teachers are offered at the Ontario Agricultural Col- lege. The teaching of agricul- ture in public and high schools is liberally encouraged by special government grants. In addition to the agricultural instruction which is furnished by the different provinces, the Dominion Government supplies information, in the form of bulle- tins, with respect to agricultural methods, based chiefly on the results of experiments. It main- tains also five experimental farms and eleven experimental stations. Other Countries. — The best organized systems of agricultural education in Europe are to be found in France and Belgium. At a recent date there were in the French republic 16 special farm schools (fermes-ecoles), 46 prac- tical schools of agriculture, 6 national schools of agriculture and horticulture, 3 veterinary schools, a shepherd's school, a dairy school at MamiroUe, a school of horticulture at Ver- sailles, a veterinary school at Alfort, a school of forestry at Nancy, and a school of agricul- Agricultural Education 105 Agriculture tural industries at Douai. Above all these is the National Agro- nomic Institute at Paris, where instruction of the highest grade is given. In Belgium the govern- ment has introduced instruction in the elements of agriculture, horticulture, and forestry in all the normal and primary schools; while higher instruction in agri- culture is given at Gembloux and Louvain, secondary instruc- tion in agriculture at 60 different state and private schools, and in horticulture at 7 schools, in vet- erinary science at Cureghem, and in forestry at Bouillon. Although Germany has devel- oped no system like that of France, the empire possesses a large number of farm schools (Ackerbau-schulen) and a num- ber of schools of secondary and higher grade. There are also special courses of agriculture in schools of a secondary grade, and agricultural institutes in connec- tion with many of the univer- sities. The Royal Agricultural High Schools at Berlin and Pop- pelsdorf are widely and favor- ably known; while the forestry schools in Germany, some five or six in number, are considered the best in the world. While some of the agricultural colleges of Great Britain rank high, progress there has not been commensurate with that in other branches of learning. Something has been done in Scotland and Ireland toward teaching agricul- ture in the public schools, and of late England has made suc- cessful efforts in that direction. Ireland has two excellent insti- tutions in the Albert Institute at Glasnevin and the Munster Dairy School. In England there are the Royal Agricultural Col- lege at Cirencester, the South- eastern Agricultural College at Wye, and agricultural depart- ments in connection with Cam- bridge University and many col- leges. In the British colonies much has been accomplished. There are a dozen agricultural colleges in Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, and an excellent veterinary school and forestry school in India. Though one of the smallest states in Europe, Denmark has promoted the prosperity of her people by providing them with 44 agricultural high schools. In addition, the Royal Agricultural Society of Denmark sends out veterinary and dairy experts to assist and instruct the people. Sweden has an Agricultural In- stitute at Ultuna and an Agricul- tural and Dairy Institute at Al- narp, founded respectively in 1849 and 1862. Norway has a Higher Agricultural School at Aas, dating from 1859. Finland has an Agricultural and Dairy Institute at Mustiala, founded in 1840. In these four northern countries there are no less than 159 agricultural, horticultural, forestry and dairy schools of all grades. In Russia the government sus- tains about 75 agricultural schools or institutes, located in different parts of the empire and affiliated with the universities at Kazan, Kiev, and Moscow. Provision is also made for courses in the secondary schools. In Austria-Hungary there are 6 high-grade agricultural schools, 6 forestry schools, and over 150 of all grades devoted to general and special instruction in agri- culture. Switzerland is liberally provided with educational facili- ties in agriculture, dairying and forestry; and the Federal Poly- technic School, at Zurich, devotes two of its six courses to agricul- ture and forestry. In Italy there are agricultural colleges at Milan and Portici, and about 30 gen- eral and special schools of a sec- ondary grade scattered through- out the kingdom. Japan is making great prog- ress, and an agricultural school was opened in Egypt in 1898. Of the Latin-American countries, Brazil and Chile have done most; efforts have also been made in Mexico, Argentina, and Uruguay to provide instruction in agri- culture. Agricultural Experiment Sta- tions are institutions or depart- ments devoted to practical, sys- tematic investigations in the science of agriculture. The first public experiment station was opened near Leipzig, Germany, in 1851, in connection with the University of that city. Such stations are now maintained in almost every civilized country, and are usually supported by the government. United Stales. — Experiment stations are to be found in every State, as well as in Alaska, Porto Rico, Hawaii, and Guam. These stations are maintained by the several States, and each station receives an annual appropriation of S30,000 from the Federal Government under the Hatch Act of 1887 and the Adams Act of 1906. Of this sum, $15,000 is 'to be applied only to paying the necessary expenses of con- ducting original researches or experiments bearing directly on the agricultural industry of the United States.' In 1912 the total income of the stations was $4,068,240, of which $1,440,000 was received from the National (Government. With few exceptions the ex- periment stations are depart- ments of the land-grant agricul- tural colleges, but in some in- stances the subsidy has been divided between two stations. There are also separate stations maintained wholly or in part by State funds in Alabama, Connec- ticut, New York, New Jersey, Hawaii, Louisiana, North Caro- lina, Virginia, and Missouri. In 1913 there was a total of 64 stations in the United States. A vast amount of valuable re- search and experimental work has been accomplished at these stations; and the results have been published in special reports, bulletins, circulars, and press notices for free distribution. They also encourage private ex- periments, and publish the re- sults, and give advice and in- formation to farmers on applica- tion. The stations are represent- ed in the U. S. Department of Agriculture by the Office of Experiment Stations. The bulletins issued by the Agricultural Experiment Stations are devoted to special subjects, and embody the results of the latest researches. Every sub- ject connected with agriculture is included. They are free to all citizens of the State in which the station is located, and are sent to other applicants when the supply permits. The U. S. De- partment of Agriculture also publishes an exceptionally valu- able list of Farmers' Bulletins, which are distributed gratuitous- ly on application to members of Congress or to the Secretary of Agriculture. These publications enable the farmer to acquire a complete and valuable working library at no other expense than the postage on his letters of application. In addition, the Office of Ex- periment Stations issues a pub- lication entitled the Experiment Station Record, which is especial- ly useful to the progressive farmer. It summarizes the work of all the experiment stations and of the various divisions of the Department of Agriculture, and reviews the world's litera- ture on scientific agriculture for the benefit of investigators, in- cluding abstracts of the experi- ments reported in the leading agricultural publications and for- eign works. Two volumes are issued annually, each consisting of nine numbers, which are sold by the Superintendent of Docu- ments, Washington, D. C, at $1 a volume. Agriculture. In a broad sense. Agriculture includes Horticulture and Forestry, as well as what is ordinarily called Farming. The dividing line between these sub- jects cannot be sharply drawn, and in particular farming and horticulture overlap each other at various points. In this ar- ticle, agriculture will be used in Agriculture 106 Agriculture December. Agriculture in the Eleventh Century. (From a calendar of the twelve months prefixed to an English Hymnarium.) its narrower sense as synonymous with farming; the subject of horticulture being separately con- sidered under the title Garden- ing, and that of forestry in the article on Forestry. The scope of the subject may be best realized by considering the various matters which must engage the attention of the agri- culturist. Besides cultivated fields, he may possess extensive woods, grazing land, lakes, and streams, all of which are capable of development. The cultivated land cannot be tilled without im- plements and farm buildings; while both it and the pasturet require a varied knowledge of live stock. The interests involved are therefore very numerous, and it is scarcely too much to say that for the thorough understanding of them all, nearly every branch of human knowledge must be laid under contribution. Agriculture demands a knowl- edge of the soil, atmosphere, cli- mate, and meteorology. Still more directly does it involve a knowl- edge of vegetable life, not only as regards crops, but also weeds, crop enemies, fungoid attacks, and poisonous and injurious plants. Forage plants alone form a group of the first interest to farmers. In ascending series, all the phenomena of animal life are observable in live stock — the anatomy, physiology, pathology, and treatment of animals in health and disease, besides ques- tions of heredity, variation, natural selection, hybridization, and acclimatization; a knowl- edge of Zoology, therefore, is of great importance. Chemistry is required in the study of the soil, fertilizers, feeding stuffs, and the composition of plants. Geology throws light on the distribution and origin of soils, the presence of springs or of water-bearing strata, and on land drainage. Entomology opens up to us the study of noxious insects, and of the devastating effects of entozoa on live stock. Of late years Bac- teriology has been shown to be intimately concerned with nitri- fication in the soil, fermentation and putrefaction, and the varia- tions in cheese and butter in dif- ferent districts. Sterilization and serous inoculation for tubercu- losis, anthrax, and other dis- eases, all form parts of the theory of agriculture. Further, agricul- ture requires engineering knowl- edge for construction, drainage and reclamation, as also a knowl- edge of machinery and imple- ments. It also demands no small knowledge of Physics and Mathematics. Historical. — That the two principal branches of agricul- ture should be distinctly sep- arated in Gen. iv. 2 is remark- able. 'Abel was a keeper of sheep, but Cain was a tiller of the ground.' Very primitive tribes cultivate the ground, and possess cattle, sheep, and horses. Some knowledge of the art of agriculture must therefore be as- sumed. All our cultivated plants and breeds of domestic animals have been developed from wild prototypes; and in this develop- ment the work of man in breed- ing and selecting for a definite object has been an essential fac- tor, as well as the environment and food presented by different localities. Although the origin has usually been traced, the orig- inal wild form is often extinct. Efforts to trace the origin of European cattle to three types, all now extinct as absolutely wild animals, have been fairly success- ful; but Bos primigenus (Au- rochs) is the only one which ex- ists in a semi-wild condition in the wild cattle of Chillingham Park, Northumberland, Cadzow Forest, Lanarkshire, and in parts of Russia and the Caucasus. Un- imjiroved races of sheep are gen- erally of varied color; but the ef- forts of Jacob to breed sheep to particular colors afford evidence Agriculture 107 Agriculture that cattle and sheep were bred with care in the earliest times. Charred grains of wheat and bar- ley have been found in Switzer- land on the site of ancient lake dwellings, and well-preserved grains in mummies of great an- tiquity; ears of maize in the huacas of the ancient Peruvian Indians; and the bones of domes- ticated animals have been re- covered from the prehistoric kitchen-middens in Denmark and elsewhere. The earliest definite knowledge of agriculture that we have is found in the history of ancient Egypt. The sovereign, priest- hood, and military caste were the owners of the land and the live stock, while the people did the actual work. The Egyptians possessed cattle, sheep, goats, and swine, and produced wheat, bar- ley, durra, and millet. They cul- tivated and irrigated the soil, using wooden ploughs and hoes, and rude harrows and rollers. They likewise cultivated flax for its fibre from very remote times; grew lentils, lupines, onions, garlic, and radishes, grapes, olives, figs, pomegranates, and dates; and cultivated water- melons and the castor-oil plant. In those early times Palestine was also a rich agricultural coun- try. The productions were wheat, barley, millet, the grape and olive. Sheep were raised in flocks. The land was rich, and was held under more favorable conditions than in Egypt, and the farmers were good tillers of the soil. Greece owed much to Egypt, for its products were sim- ilar, though a greater variety of fruit and vegetables were culti- vated. Cotton was grown in India as early as 1500 B.C. The Romans were the pioneer agriculturists of Europe. They loved their herds and flocks and well-tilled fields, and even during the decay of the empire their af- fection for their country estates remained strong. The Romans introduced their methods into the countries conquered by them. They brought wheat into Great Britain, and transplanted the vine from Sicily to France. They grew wheat, barley, millet, oats, and rye; alfalfa and vetches for fodder; hemp and flax for fibre; beans, turnips, and lupines; and a great variety of fruit. They were also skilled in raising horses, cattle, sheep, mules, swine, and poultry, and made cheese and butter They practised some sort of rotation, the land being allowed to lie fallow after grain, and made use of irrigation and land drainage. They utilized the sickle and flail, and the treading floor for threshing grain. Al- though much that they taught the world was lost when the Goths and Vandals overran Eu- rope, the progress they made in agriculture and the dignity they attached to it must ever remain to their credit. During the Middle Ages, agri- culture in Europe owed its pres- ervation to two agencies — the Saracens in Spain, and the church estates. The barbarians had trampled out nearly every vestige of Roman husbandry, and the feudal barons were more in- terested in devastating their neighbors' fields than in cultivat- ing their own. The Saracens, however, introduced various plants from Asia and Africa; grew rice, cotton, and sugar cane; and brought Spain under a de- gree of cultivation then unknown in Europe. Many of the church estates were also noted for good management; and at a time when war and robbery were favorite occupations, they taught the arts of peace and preserved habits of industry. The revival in agriculture first appeared in Northern Italy, where the waters of the Po trav- erse one of the most fertile re- gions of Europe, and in the Low Countries, where the industrious Dutch developed dairy farming and the Flemings became famous for their knowledge of farming and gardening. In England, ag- ricultural conditions were greatly improved in the fourteenth cen- tury by the extinction of serfdom and the appearance of the tenant farmer. Periods of prosperity and plenty, however, were fol- lowed by periods of adversity and semi-starvation. Rye and oats were still the food of the poor, wheat that of the rich. The discovery of America brought in three new products — tobacco, maize, and the potato; and the last two became in time the food of, the poor with rye and oats. The sixteenth century showed marked prosperity in British ag- riculture because of the greater restrictions on the rights of com- mon and the extension of land enclosures. Hops were intro- duced from Holland, and wheat became an article of export. About the middle of the century temporary restrictions on this export caused great distress, and turned the cultivated fields into pasture land, but the mistake was soon corrected. In the sev- enteenth century the cultivation of garden vegetables began, and turnips and red clover were in- troduced from Flanders, prac- tically revolutionizing agriculture in Great Britain. As food for cattle and sheep they gave a new impetus to stock raising; while the introduction of timothy and orchard grass from America about 1760 likewise added to the stock raisers' resources. During the eighteenth, nine- teenth, and twentieth centuries agriculture has shown steady progress throughout the world. Great Britain solved the problem of providing cheaper food for a large manufacturing population by the abolition of protective duties on grain in 1848. This compelled the readjustment of her agricultural industries, which, with the aid of modern science, has been successful. Germany and France have become great agricultural countries; Austria- Hungary and Russia are leading wheat producers; Italy is return- ing to her old estate; improved conditions are manifest in Spain and the Balkans; Holland and Belgium have brought tillage of the soil and dairy farming to a high degree of perfection; the Scandinavians have become pros- perous dairymen and grain pro- ducers; and Portugal is noted for its vineyards and gardens. The influence of Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, In- dia, South America, and Eastern Asia is now felt in many direc- tions, and is slowly readjusting the agricultural industries of the world. Brazil practically con- trols the world's coffee market, though excellent coffee is pro- duced elsewhere. The wheat, wool, and meat products of Ar- gentina, Australia, and South Africa, and the rice of India and Eastern Asia, are competitors with which the farmers of the United States and Canada must reckon. The increasing popula- tion of the civilized world must have cheap foodstuffs, and it is the mission of agriculture every- where to provide them. United States. — American agriculture is practically a con- tinuation of what the first colo- nists brought over from the Old World, modified to meet new conditions, and re-enforced from time to time by fresh importa- tions. The early colonists were obliged to discard in great part the customs and practices of the mother country. They came from long-settled, thickly popu- lated districts; they found be- fore them a forest-covered region of unknown extent, occupied only by savages. The climate was new to them; there were puzzling variations in the fertility of the soil; they had no market for their products; and their colonies were separated by path- less forests. They found the natives cultivating maize and tobacco, and these became their staple productions. They also brought seeds from the old coun- try, and in this way the New World received many of the productions that were destined to become prime sources of its incalculable wealth. Horses, Agriculture 108 Agrtculturd cattle, fiheep, swine, and poultry, all of them unknown to the New World, also came with the early settlers. Under such conditions only a primitive type of agriculture was possible during the first century of our colonial life. Later on, the development of cotton production in the South and the discovery that rice could be grown there added two im- portant products; while the en- terprise of the sailors of New England developed new markets. As the American settlers moved westward they found vast tree- less plains with a deep alluvial soil — one of the richest agricul- tural regions in the world. They became extensive producers of wheat, maize, hay, cattle,, sheep, and swine, and in time their food products found a market in every port, and brought them wealth. In recent years the tide of emigra- tion and settlement has flowed across the boundary line into the great Canadian Northwest. From colonial days there has been continuous improvement in American agriculture, while dur- ing the past sixty years the development has been remark- able. Two main reasons for American pre-eminence are to be found in the fine quality of the soil and the high character of the agricultural class. Among the influences which have exerted a profound influence for good may be named the following: (1) the opening up of vast areas of new land; (2) the inventive genius of the nation, as shown in the creation of labor-saving machinery; (3) the development of transportation by land and water; (4) the abolition of slav- ery; (5) the establishment of government and other institu- tions and agencies for the pro- motion of agricultural knowledge; (6) co-operation among farmers, and the further dissemination of knowledge by means of books and periodicals and meetings; (7) the ready adoption of such important aids as irrigation, dry farming, selective plant and ani- mal breeding, specialization in crops, fertilizers, cold storage, etc. American Crops. — In North America much the same crops are raised as in corresponding latitudes in Europe, except to the northward, where there are vast areas of inarable ground. The winters in the United States and Canada are much more severe than those of Western Europe, while the summers are quite as hot and moist, and hence arise considerable variations in the practice of agriculture. In the Northern States and Canada, wheat is a staple article of export. In some exporting districts, wheat and red clover are grown as alternate crops. In Canada and the adjacent States and Territories, spring wheat is more profitable than the ordinary winter wheat. South of 42°, winter wheat is more commonly the standard crop. Wheat is the great staple in the northern half of the Mississippi Valley and on the Pacific Coast. Between lati- tudes 42° and 39°, wheat is often grown alternately with maize or Indian corn, after the land has been under pasture for some years. Again, between latitudes 39° and 35°, the climate is Better suited for maize than wheat, which be- comes less productive. Below latitude 35°, maize is much less productive, and the climate be- comes suitable for cotton. This plant furnishes the staple article of production from latitude 35° to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico. Rice is a very profitable crop in some of the Southern States; but its culture is chiefly con- fined to swamps which can be flooded by fresh water. The sugar cane is chiefly limited to the rich alluvial lands near the Mississippi as far north as lati- tude 31°. Tobacco is a principal crop in several States. On the Pacific Coast the climate is characterized by mild winters and dry summers. On the great plains of the Western half of the Continent, and also in the Rocky Mountain region and in Texas, there are many extensive ranches for the pasturage of cattle and sheep. In the older Northern States and Canada, dairy prod- ucts form leading articles of export. The production of Corn or Maize ranks first among Ameri- can agricultural industries. It is produced in every State, and compared with wheat has nearly quadruple its product and more than double its value. It fur- nivshes a valuable food for man and domestic animals, and its suc- culent stalks and leaves supply coarse forage for cattle. The high estimation in which Wheat is held as an article of human food naturally gives it an im- portant place, and it has always been a principal article of export. The application of steam or other motive power to the work of ploughing, reaping, and thresh- ing on the great wheat farms of the West has reduced enormously the manual labor required, and has proportionately decreased the cost. By improved methods of culture and the introduction of drought-resisting varieties the cultivation of wheat has been rapidly extended in the semi- arid regions. The large increase in the output of Oats, which has ranked second in product in the last three census returns, indicates that this cereal is taking the place of wheat in those States where the production of the latter is no longer profitable. Among the other staple pro- ductions, special mention may be made of cotton, hay and for- age, potatoes, orchard fruits, tobacco, barley, sweet potatoes, cane and beet sugar. Of these, hay and forage and barley have shown a rapid increase in recent years. For a more detailed account of the crops of the United States, see the section on Agriculture in the article United States. Rotation of Crops. — The main- tenance of fertility in soils is greatly aided by proper rotation or succession of crops. This is due to the difference in the demands made upon the soil by different crops, the methods of cultivation called into play, the fertilization given to certain crops in the rotation, and the residues left by the roots and stubble of such crops as clover and other legumes, which gather nitrogen from the air. Fallowing, often introduced in a system of rotation, exposes the soil to atmospheric changes which dissolve the mineral matter in the soil, and encourage nitri- fication, with great benefit to succeeding crops. See Rotation OF Crops. Live — When the Unit- ed States was first settled there were no domestic animals worthy of note; and of the early stock of horses, cattle, sheep, swine, goats, mules, and poultry brought here by the settlers, some were of good grade, some not. Since the early nineteenth century, however, a continuous stream of live stock of all kinds has been brought into the United States to upbuild and improve the native farm stock; so that practically every noted breed in Great Brit- ain and Europe is now repre- sented in America by superior animals. Among draught horses, the Percheron, Clydesdale, and French Draught were early brought over; the Shire and Belgian are of more recent im- portation. These breeds accli- mate readily, and are strong and massive. Among coach breeds the most popular are the Hack- ney, French Coach, German Coach, and Cleveland Bay. The American trotting horse makes a superior roadster. To England credit is due for the leading breeds of cattle. The Shorthorn, most popular and widely distributed among the beef breeds, is forced to share at- tention with the Angus, Gallo- way, and Hereford breeds. In the dairy world, the Jersey and the Holstein share first honors; the Guernsey is preferred by Agriculture 110 Agriculture, IT. S. Department of some to all others; and the rugged Ayrshire is gaining friends. Since the introduction in 1801 of a number of Spanish Merino sheep, this breed has attained the most popularity. The mod- ern Merino has taken a new name, the American Merino, due to breeding, vselection, and im- provement. The demand for mutton has brought in the Shrop- shire, Southdown, Oxford Down, Horned Dorset, Leicester, Lin- coln, Cotswold, and Hampshire hardy. Hog raising early attracted attention, on account of the large American corn crop; and the Poland China, Duroc-Jersey, and Berkshire breeds have long been money makers. Some farmers prefer a white hog, such as the Chester White and the Ohio Im- proved Chester. The demand for bacon hogs is met by the Tamworth, Hampshire, . and Yorkshire breeds. For further information see Horse, Cattle, Sheep, Pig; also the section on Stock Raising in the articles United States and Canada, and the article on each State and province. Dairy Farming. — Probably no industry is more highly spe- cialized and scientifically man- aged than dairy farming. The enormous daily consumption of milk in the cities, and the ever- increasing demand for butter, cheese, cream, and condensed milk, for export as well as for home consumption, render it one of the safest and most lucrative of industries. The means em- ployed to meet this demand is shown by the exceptional interest which has been developed all over the country, not only in the quantity and value of the prod- uct, but in a scientific study of the business. See Dairying; Butter; Cheese; Milk. Agricultural Implements. — The earliest plough was probably a pointed stick charred or shod with iron at the end, and the other tillage implements were at first correspondingly primitive. The harrow was of brushwood or thorns wattled through a frame, and the roller was a cylindrical boll of a tree fitted with axle ends and attached to a frame. Har- rows consisted of strai^iht, point- ed iron teeth, fixed at the points of intersection of a square framework of hard wood. Ploughs, harrows, and rollers were the only tillage implements. The seed was sown from a basket or a sheet by hand ; the crop was reaped by sickles, threshed by flails, and winnowed by a shovel in the wind. The transition from these crude beginnings to the methods and appliances of the present day forms a remarkable con- trast. Especially during the past thirty years many machines and implements altogether new have been placed in the farmer's hands, while those he formerly possessed have undergone radical improve- ment — all tending to increase efficiency and lessen cost. For a detailed list of these appliances, see Implements and Machin- ery, Agricultural. Statistics of agriculture for the United States will be found under United States, section on Agri- culture; for Canada, under Can- ada, Agriculture. The articles on the several countries, the States of the United States, and the provinces of Canada contain sec- tions on Agriculture. For further information, see also the following titles: Anthrax. Hops. Barley. Horse. Bean. Implements, Beet. Irrigation. Bone Fertilizers. Landlord. Bread. Milk. Buckwheat. Mule. Burbank. Oats. Butter. Onion. Cabbage. Orchards. Carrot. Parasites. Cattle. Pasture. Cheese. Pea. Clover. Peanut. Conservation. Pig. Corn. Potato. Cotton. Poultry Farming. Dairy Factories. Public Lands. Dairying. Reaping. Drainage. Reclamation. Elevators (Grain). Rice. Ensilage. Rotation of Crops. Fallow. Rye. Farm Buildings. Sheep. Feeding Stuffs. Soils. Fertilizers. Sugar Cane Flax. Sweet Potato. Forestry. Threshing. Fruit Industry. Tobacco. Gardening. Turnips. Grasses. Watermelon. Guano. Wheat. Hay. Bibliography. — The publica- tions of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, especially the Ex- periment Station Record, Farmers' Bulletins, and Year Books, as well as the reports of the State boards of agriculture, are invalu- able to the progressive farmer. Early ideas on agriculture in the American colonies may be found in J. Eliot's Agricultural Essays and S. Deane's New England Farmer. General works on Agriculture include: Fream's Rothamsled Ex- periments in Wheat, Barley, and Grass Lands (London) ; Johnson's How Crops Grow and How Crops Feed; Flint's One Hundred Years' Progress; Miles' Stock Breeding and Land Drainage; Stewart's Shepherds' Manual; Harris' Talks on Manures; Periam's American Encyclopcedia of Agriculture; El- liott's Practical Farm Drainage; Waring's Draining for Profit, Draining for Health, Report of the Massachusetts Drainage Com- mission, and Sewerage and Land Drainage; Armsby's Manual of Cattle Feeding; Sempers' Manures : How to Make Them and How to Use Them; King's The Soil, Irri- gation and Drainage, and The Physics of Agriculture; Wing's Milk and Its Products; Voorhees' First Principles of Agriculture; Roberts' The Fertility of the Land; Storer's Agriculture in Some of Its Relations to Chemistry; Hen- ry's Feeds and Feeding; Bailey's The Principles of Agriculture; Decker's Cheese Making; Bailey and Miller's Encyclopaedia of American Horticulture (4 vols.); Conn's Agricultural Bacteriology; Jordan's The Feeding of Animals; Snyder's Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life. Recent works include the fol- lowing: Wilcox and Smith's Cyclopedia of Agriculture (1904); Taylor's Agricultural Economies (1905) ; Hunt's Cereals in America (1905) ; How to Choose a Farm (1906) , and Forage and Fibre Crops in America (1907) ; Plumb's Types and Breeds of Farm An- imals (1907); Lyon and Fippin's The Principles of Soil Manage- ment (1909); Brewer's Rural Hy- giene (1909); Hay's Farm De- velopment (1910); McLennan's A Manual of Practical Farming (1910); Mayo's The Diseases of Animals (1910); Widtsoe's Dry Farming (1911) ; Agee's Crops and Methods of Soil Improvement (1912); Van Slyke's Fertilizers and Crops (1912); Weather's Commercial Gardening (4 vols., 1913); Montgomery's The Corn Crops (1913); Warren's Farm Management (1913); Ekblaw's Farm Structures (1914); Bailey's New Standard Cyclopedia of Hor- ticulture (in preparation. Vol. I. ready). Agriculture in Canada. See Canada, Agriculture. Agriculture, U. S. Department of, is administered by the Secre- tary of Agriculture, who is a member of the Cabinet (q.v.). Broadly speaking, the province of the Department is to foster the agricultural development of the country through its various bureaus and divisions. The Weather Bureau (q.v.) forecasts the weather, issues warnings of floods, frosts, and storms, collects and transmits marine intelligence, reports tem- perature and rainfall conditions, and conducts climatological and meteorological investigations. The Bureau of Animal Industry has charge of animal husbandry, studies and investigations in dairying, poultry and sheep rais- ing, meat inspection, and the prevention of animal disease. The Bureau of Plant Industry as- certains what crop plants can be advantageously produced, se- cures new varieties by importa- Agriculture, U. S. Department of 111 Agrippina tion, breeding, and selection, controls plant diseases, and stud- ies farm management, market- ing, and shipping. This division has in charge the distribution of seeds, and in 1913 sent out over 12,050,000 packages of vegetable and flower seeds, be- sides bulbs and plants. The Bu- reau of Forestry administers the national forests, and investi- gates methods of handling wood- lands and utilizing their products. The Bureau of Chemistry is charged with the enforcement of the Food and Drugs Act, and with research looking to the development of new uses, sources, and methods of preparation of foods and drugs. The Bureau of Soils studies the classification and distribution of soils, investi- gates their chemical and physi- cal properties, and prescribes methods of cultivation and fer- tilization. The Bureau of En- tomology studies insects injurious to agriculture, horticulture, and forestry, as well as those affect- ing the health of man and ani- mals; and carries on experimenta- tion in bee culture. The work of the Biological Survey includes investigation of the food habits of North American birds and mammals in relation to agricul- ture, biological investigations with special reference to the geographic distribution of native animals and plants, the super- vision of national bird and mam- mal reservations, and game pres- ervation. The Department of Agricul- ture has also a Bureau of Statis- tics, which prepares monthly crop reports; a Supply Division; Division of Accounts and Dis- bursements; Office of Experi- ment Stations (see Agricultu- ral Stations) ; Office of Public Roads; Insecticide and Fungi- cide Board ; Federal Horticultural Board; and an excellent Library. The results of the experiments, investigations, and studies of the various bureaus and services are made available to the people by the Division of Publications, through their Year Book, Farm- ers' Bulletins, Journal of Agricul- tural Research, and Departmental Bulletins. In 1913 the total out- put of publications was 33,356,- 366 copies, including 9,375,950 reprints. The work of the present De- partment of Agriculture was be- gun in 1836 by the Commissioner of Patents, who undertook the distribution of seeds and plants to farmers; the first appropria- tion for this purpose was made in 1839. The work was carried on under the direction of the Patent Office until 1862, when the De- partment of Agriculture was established. It became an exec- utive department in 1889. The present Secretary of Agriculture is David F. Houston (q.v.). The employees in the Depart- ment in 1913 numbered 14,478, and the appropriation for that year amounted to $24,735,135. Consult Year Book of the Depart- ment of Agriculture. Agrigentum, ag-ri-jen'tum (Greek Akragas), town on the south coast of Sicily, about 2K miles from the sea. It was a col- ony of Gela — itself a colony of Rhodes — founded about 580 B.C. It attained great wealth and splendor, and contained several temples, including those to Jupi- ter and to Concordia; ruins of the former, one of the most magnifi- cent Jn Sicily, still survive. In its palmy days, about the end of the fifth century B.C., it is said to have contained 200,000 inhab- itants; and its territory extended across Sicily. Among its rulers were the tyrant Phalaris, and Theron (488-472). It was de- stroyed by the Carthaginians in 406 B.C. Timoleon rebuilt and recolonized it in 340, but it suf- fered again in the Punic wars, and from 210 B.C. was subject to Rome. Between 828 and 1086 it was in the hands of the Saracens, from whom it was conquered by Count Roger Guiscard. Noted as the birthplace of Empedocles. On its site is the modern GiR- GENTI (q.v.). Agrimony, ag'ri-mo-ni, a gen- eral name for rosaceous plants of the genus Agrimonia. The Com- mon Agrimony {Agrimonia eupa- toria) is a native of Britain and other parts of Europe, growing in borders of fields, on waysides, etc. It has an upright habit, at- tains a height of 2 feet or more, and has interruptedly pinnate leaves, with the leaflets serrate and downy beneath. The fiowers are small and yellow, in close racemes. Very similar to this is A. parviflora, a native of the United States; it has an agreeable fragrance. A. incisa is common in the South Atlantic States. Agrip'pa I. and II. See Herod. Agrippa, Cornelius (1486- 1535), a cabalistic philosopher, born at Cologne of the noble family of Nettesheim. He early entered the service of the Emperor Maximilian, and was sent on a secret mission to Paris (1506), where he joined a theo- sophistic society. In 1509 he was invited to teach theology at Dole, in Burgundy. His lec- tures on Reuchlin's De Verbo Mirifico attracted great atten- tion, but drew on him the hatred of the monks, and he was obliged to resume a diplomatic career. Then followed a series of extraor- dinary vicissitudes; he was by turns soldier, lecturer at Pavia, town orator of Metz, physician, and historian. His chief works are: De Incertitudine et Vanitate Scientiarum (1530); De Occulta Philosophic (1531-33); De Nobil- itate Feminei Sexus (1532). Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius (63-12 B.C.), a Roman of obscure family, but raised to the highest position by his friend Octavius, afterward the Emperor Augus- tus. He married Julia, Augus- tus' daughter, and had by her five children, one of whom, Agrip- pina, became the wife of Ger- manicus. He pacified Gaul in 38 B.C.; defeated Sextus Pompeius in the naval battle at Naulochos, Sicily; and was in command of Octavian's naval forces at Ac- tium. He was generous, upright, and a friend to the arts; Rome owed to him the restoration and construction of several aque- ducts, and the Pantheon, besides other public works of ornament and utility. Agrippa, Menenius, a Roman patrician, who as consul (503 B.C.) defeated the Sabines and Samnites, and who about ten years later, when the Plebeians retired to Mons Sacer, induced them to return to Rome by nar- rating the fable of the belly. He is one of the principal characters of Shakespeare's Coriolanus, where he is represented as a cynical old gourmand. Agrippina, ag-ri-pi'na, the Elder, daughter of M. Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia daughter of Augustus, wife of Germanicus, and mother of Caligula and the younger Agrippina. She was re- nowned for her noble character. As the wife of Germanicus she accompanied him in his cam- paigns, and on his sudden and suspicious death in Asia carried his ashes with dutiful affection to Rome. The esteem in which she was held by the people made her hateful to Tiberius, and in 30 A.D. he banished her to the island of Pandataria, where she died by voluntary starvation three years later. Her statue in the Capitol Museum of Rome is one of the masterpieces of Roman sculpture. Agrippina, the Younger, daughter of the Elder Agrippina and Germanicus, was one of the most detestable women that have lived. She was born at Cologne, hence called Colonia Agrippina. She first married C. Domitius Ahenobarbus, by whom she had a son, afterward the Emperor Nero. Her third husband was the Emperor Claudius, her own uncle, whom she persuaded to adopt her son Nero, to the injury of his own son Britannicus, in 54 A.D. She then proceeded to remove by poison all Nero's rivals and enemies, and finally Claudius himself. Her ascend- ency proving intolerable, Nero Agropyroti 112 Agustina caused her to be put to death in 59 A.D. Agropy'ron, a genus of^grasses having some fifty species. In the United States, Agropyron re pens, Couch Grass or Twitch Grass, is the best known species. See Couch Grass. Ag'ro Roma'no, the territory subject administratively to the municipahty of Rome, Hes on both sides of the Tiber, and along the Mediterranean from the Alban to the Sabine Hills. It consists of pasturage (from Octo- ber to May), scrub and forest (oak, elm, ash, beech, maple), arable land, vineyards, and marshes. Formerly the district was extremely unhealthy in sum- mer, being one of the worst malaria-infected regions of Italy. During recent years the Italian government has done much to alleviate this condition by the use of sucn measures as proper drainage, mosquito netting, and the planting of eucalyptus trees. The percentage of people suffer- ing from malaria in 1890 was 30 per cent.; in 1910 it was only 5 per cent. See Campagna. Agua, a'gwa, a South Ameri- can species of Toad (Bufo mari- nus), the largest known (some- times 8 inches long). The skin is dark brown and covered with warty glands; the male has a loud, snoring bark. Taken to the island of Jamaica to destroy the rats that were devouring the sugar cane, it multiplied till it became a pest. Agua, a volcanic mountain of Guatemala, Central America, southwest of the city of Guate- mala. More than 15,000 feet high, it ejects its hot-water streams from a crater 100 feet wide, and has twice destroyed the city. Aguada, a-gwii'da, town, Porto Rico, near the Bay of Aguadilla; 5 miles southeast of that town. It is said to have been the first landing place of Columbus in 1493. In 1899 a destructive hur- ricane visited the district. Pop. 1,000. Aguadilla, a-gwa-del'ya. pic- turesque town of Porto Rico, on the west coast; 65 miles by rail west of San Juan. It has a fine harbor, and is the commercial outlet for the surrounding dis- trict. Cofi"ee, sugar, tobacco, and fruit are exported. Pop. 6,200. Aguado, a-gwii'do, Alexan- dre Marie (1784-1842), a wealthy Parisian banker of Jew- ish origin, native of Seville. During the vSpanish war of inde- pendence he fought with distinc- tion on the French side, and rose to the rank of colonel. Founding a bank, he soon became one of the first bankers in Paris. He negotiated several Spanish loans, and Ferdinand vii. made him a marquis. He left a fortune of $12,500,000. Aguardiente, ii-gwar-di-en'te, a second-class brandy very pop- ular in Spain and Portugal. Also a Mexican intoxicant made from the juice of the agave (see Pulque) . Aguascalientes, ii'gwas-ka-li- en'tas ('warm waters'), state, Anahuac plateau, Mexico. It is mountainous in the west, with wide plains in the east. The products are the usual grain (wheat, barley), vegetable, and fruit crops of the temperate zone. There are many mines, some fa- mous, producing principally sil- ver and copper, but also gold, lead, tin, iron, and mercury. Area, 2,969 square miles; pop. 120,000. Aguascalientes, town, Mexico, capital of the state of Aguas- calientes, on the Mexico Central Railway; 350 miles by rail north- west of the City of Mexico. It stands on a plateau 6,000 feet above sea level, and is a pros- perous commercial and manufac- turing centre. The town is sur- rounded by fine gardens, and contains some handsome public buildings. The environs abound in hot springs. It has smelting works, potteries, tanneries, cot- ton mills, and tobacco factories. Pop. 45,000. A'gue. See Malaria. Aguesseau, a-ge-s6', Henri Francois d' (1668-1751), pro- nounced by Voltaire the most learned magistrate that France ever possessed, was born in Limoges. A steady defender of the rights of the people and of the Galilean Church, he successfully opposed the decrees of Louis xiv. During the regency of the duke of Orleans he became chancellor of France; but in 1718 he fell into disgrace by opposing Law's fatal system of finance. Twice later h^held office as chancellor. AguUar de la Frontera, a-ge- liir' de la fron-ta'ra, town, Anda- lusia, Spain, on the River Cabra; 22 miles southeast of Cordova. It has a dismantled Moorish castle. The chief trade is in corn and wine. Pop. 14,000. Aguilas, a'ge-liis, town, Murcia province, Spain; 38 miles south- west of Cartagena, on the railway from Murcia to Granada. It is a busy port and bathing resort on the Mediterranean, with large smelters and considerable export trade in argentiferous lead, iron ore, sulphur, esparto, and figs. Pop. 16.000. Aguilcra, a-ge-la'ra, Ventura Ruiz (1820-81), a Spanish doctor who became a journalist, and who played an active part in poli- tics. He wrote poetry which showed the influence of IBeranger and Lamartine. Among his vol- umes are Ecos nacionales; Ele- gias; Armonias y Cantares. His complete works were published in 1873. Aguinaldo, a-ge-nal'do, Emil- lo (1870), Filipino leader, who first distinguished himself in the insurrection of the Filipinos (1896) against the Spanish colo- nists, and with American help finally drove them out of the islands. Their annexation by the United States led to a rupture between the allies and a war of subjugation on the part of the United States, in which Agui- naldo acted as president of the native provisional government. On March 23, 1901, Aguinaldo and his staff were captured at Palawan, Luzon, by the Ameri- cans, and he thereupon took the oath of allegiance. Aguirre, a-ger'ra. Lope de (1507-61), one of those daring adventurers whom Spain pro- duced at the time of the conquest of America. He saw the first rising of the Incas, and set out down the Amazon to discover El Dorado, but proved instead the connection between that river and the Amazon. He killed the new king of Peru, and was de- feated and killed at Barquisi- meto. Aguja, a-goo'ha, or Agujon, a voracious garfish {Tylosurus fodi- ator) greatly feared by fishermen on the West Mexican coast. The name is also applied to the re- lated West Indian species. Agulhas, a-gool'yas. Cape (Portuguese 'needles'), the most southerly point of Africa, lies about 100 miles southeast of the Cape of Good Hope, in lat. 34° 49' s., long. 20° 0' 40" E. On ac- count of its sharp, jagged rocks the point is very dangerous for ships; fogs are frequent, and the currents are uncertain. In 1849 a lighthouse was erected on the point. Agulhas Bank extends east- ward from the Cape to the mouth of the Great Fish River, a dis- tance of 550 miles. Agur, a Hebrew sage, to whom is attributed the collection of wise sayings in Prov. xxx. See Prov- erbs. Agusan, a-gob'siin, or Butuan, bob-too'an, river, Mindanao, Philippines, the second in size of Mindanao, and the third of the Archipelago. It rises in Davao province, and flows north for 236 miles, traversing a chain of lakes, and falling into Butuan Bay. The region drained is fertile, in- cluding the central valley of Surigao province. Agustina, a-go6s-te'na (d. 1857), Maria, the Maid of vSara- gossa, who encouraged the Span- iards to defend Saragossa against the French during the sieges of 1808 and 1809. Consult Byron's Childe Harold, i. 54-56; Ahab 113 Ahmed Mlrza and Southey's History of the Pe- ninsular War. Her portrait was painted by Wilkie. A'hab, king of Israel (875-853 B.C.), was the son and successor of Omri, and the contemporary and ally of Jehoshaphat, king of Judah. A man of undoubted pa- triotism and courage, Ahab joined these virtues to an unfortunate moral indifTerence or weakness. His marriage with Jezebel, daugh- ter of Ethbaal, king of Tyre, ce- mented an alliance designed to act as a counter-check to the am- bition of Benhadad ii., king of Syria; but it fixed the worship of Baal upon Israel, and so brought the king into conflict with the Prophet Elijah. Twice Ahab dis- comfited the Syrians, but in a third battle, at Ramoth-gilead, he was mortally wounded by a ran- dom arrow (1 Kings xvi. 29-33; xxii. 34-40). His whole family was afterward extirpated by Jehu. Ahasuerus, a-haz-u-e'rus, the title in Scripture of several kings of Media and Persia. The best known of these is Esther's hus- band (see Esther), who is prob- ably the same as the Persian king Xerxes. Ahasuerus is also the tradition- al name of the Wandering Jew (see Jew, the Wandering). A'haz, king of Judah (c. 735- 719 B.C.), the Jauhazi of the in- scriptions, was the son and suc- cessor of Jotham. Being threat- ened by Rezin, king of Syria, and Pekah, king of Israel, he sought the protection of Tiglath-pileser III. of Assyria — an act denounced by Isaiah— and ultimately be- came tributary to that power. (See 2 Kings xvi.; Isa. vii.) A'hazi'ah. (1.) King of Israel (c. 853-852 B.C.), the son and suc- cessor of Ahab. He was encour- aged by his mother Jezebel in the wicked ways of his father, and in his reign the Moabites revolted (2 Kings iii. 5-7). ' Ehjah proph- esied that he would never rise from his bed, and he died in con- sequence of a fall from an upper window. (See 1 Kings xxii, 40- 2 Kings i.) (2.) King of Judah {c. 843-842 B.C.), the son of Jehoram (of Ju- dah) and Athaliah, and thus the nephew of the foregoing. In al- liance with Jehoram (of Israel) he made an unsuccessful expedition against Hazael of Damascus; and afterward, while Ahaziah was on a visit to his wounded kinsman at Jezreel, an insurrection broke out under Jehu, in which Jehoram was killed and Ahaziah mortally wounded. (See 2 Kings viii. 25-9 ; 2 Chron. xxii. 9.) Ahlmelech,a-him'e-lek, twelfth high priest of Israel, who at Nob fed David with the shewbread, and gave him the sword of Goliath (1 Sam. xxi. 1-10); and who was slain by Saul for his kindness to David. Vol. I.— Mar. '16 Ahith'ophel, a Gilonite, one of King David's ablest and most trusted counsellors, who neverthe- less joined the revolt of Absalom. When a proposal which he had made for the procuring of David's death was rejected on the advice of Hushai, he rode home to Giloh and strangled himself (2 Sam. xv.-xvii.). Ahlen, a'len, town, Westphalia, Prussia, on the River Werse; 20 miles southeast of Miinster. It manufactures linen and enamels. Pop. (1910) 10,673. Ahlqvist, al'kvist, August Engelbert (1826-89), Finnish philologist, founded the ^Momg/ar. He travelled through Northern Russia and Siberia (1853-8) ; and afterward became professor of Finnish in the University of Hel- singfors. He published grammat- ical and lexicographical works, an account of his travels, and a vol- ume of poems. Ahlwardt, al'vart, Theodor Wilhelm (1828-1909), German Orientalist, was born in Greifs- wald. He became professor of Oriental languages there in 1861. His works, chiefly on ancient Arabic poetry and Saracen his- tory, are : U eber Poesie und Poetik der Araber (1850) ; Diwan desAbu- Nowas (1861); Divans of the Six Ancient Arabic Poets (1870); An- onyme Arabische Chronik (1883); Sammlung alter Arabischer Dich- ^er(1902-3) ; RubasDiwan (1904) ; and a Catalogue of Arabic Mss., Royal Library, Berhn (1887-99). Ahmadabad. See Ahmeda- BAD. Ahmadnagar. See Ahmed- nagar. Ahmed I., ii'med, or Achmet (1589-1617), sultan of Turkey, son of Mohammed iii., whom he succeeded in 1603. In 1606 he concluded the peace of Sitvatorok with Austria, and in 1612 termi- nated an unsuccessful war with Persia. Ahmed II., or Achmet (1642- 95), sultan of Turkey, succeeded his brother vSolyman ii. in 1691. His forces, led by his great vizier Mustapha Kopriilii, were expelled from Hungary after their crush- ing defeat at Salankamen in 1691, when Kopriilii was slain. Ahmed III., or Achmet (1673- 1736), sultan of Turkey, a brother of Mustapha ii., whom he suc- ceeded ( 1 703) . Charles xii. , after his defeat at Poltava (1709), was received by him, and remained in Turkey until 1714. Peter the Great was surrounded near the Pruth (1711), and by a treaty had to surrender Azov. So far suc- cessful, Ahmed regained the Mo- rea from the Venetians in 1715. This brought on him the hostility of Austria, and led to the taking of Belgrade by Prince Eugene (1717). The Treaty of Passaro- witz followed (1718), by which Turkey lost Belgrade but kept the Morea. A disastrous war with Persia led to Ahmed's depo- gition in 1730. Ahmed IV. See Abdul Ha- MID I. Ahmedabad, a-med-a-biid', or Ahmadabad, principal city of Ahmedabad district, Bombay Presidency, British India, is situ- ated on the Sabarmati River; about 300 miles north of Bom- bay. It covers an area of two square miles, enclosed within the remains of an ancient wall pierced by twelve gateways. The great earthquake of 1819 destroyed a large part of the city and some of its finest edifices. Its architect- ural remains, however, are splen- did, and in extent and beauty rank next to those of Delhi and Agra. They furnish a striking example of the combination of Hindu, Mohammedan, and Jain forms. The more important structures are the Jama Masjid, or Great Mosque (1424), remark- able for its decorated minarets; the Ivory Mosque, of white mar- ble, lined with ivory inlaid with gems; Sidi Said's Mosque, with its two windows filled with branches and flowers in exquisite- ly wrought stone tracery; and the modern Jain temple (1848) of white marble, just outside the city walls. Modern Ahmedabad is a centre of manufacture and trade, and is celebrated for its handicraftsmen, including goldsmiths, jewellers, copper and brass workers, lacquer workers, wood and ivory carvers. Brocaded silks, cotton goods, gold and silver lace and thread, pot- tery, paper, shoes, and carpets are manufactured. An extensive trade in cotton, opium, and indi- go is carried on. The city is the headquarters for Gujarat mis- sions, and has many schools, both government and missionary. There is a military cantonment, approached by a magnificent ave- nue of trees three and a half miles to the north. Pop. (1901) 185,- 889; (1911) 216,777; of district (1901) 795,967; (1911) 827,809. Ahmedabad was founded in 1412 by Ahmed Shah. From 1512 to 1572 it declined in power, but rose to a position of influence under the Mogul emperors (1572- 1709). The British, under Gen- eral Goddard, stormed the city in 1780; but it continued in the possession of the Mahrattas until 1818, when it was ceded to the East India Company. Ahmed Mirza (1898), shah of Persia, second son of Mohammed Ali, and lineal descendant of the royal Kajar line, succeeded to the throne on July 16, 1909, upon the abdication of his father. His for- mal coronation, however, did not take place until July 21, 1914; the government, in the meantime, being in the hands of a regent. (See Persia, /^^/ory.) Ahmednj^av 114 Aigulllette Ahmed nagar, a-med-nug'ur, or Ahmadnagar, district, Deccan, Presidency of Bombay. Wheat, Indian millet, and grain are its chief agricultural products. Area, 6,613 square miles. Pop. (1911) 945,305. Ahmednagar, capital of the district, on the River Sina (Seena) ; 125 miles east of Bombay. The fort stands about half a mile to the east of the city. The chief industries are the manufacture of silk and cotton, and the making of. copper and brass vessels. It was occupied by General Welles- ley in 1803, and came permanent- ly under British rule in 1817, Pop. (1911) 42,940. Ahmed Shah (c. 1724-73), founder of the Afghan or Durani dynasty, was the son of Sammaun Khan, hereditary chief of the Ab- dali tribe. On the assassination (1747) of Nadir Shah, in whose bodyguard he had served, Ahmed retreated to Afghanistan, where he was chosen sovereign, and was crowned at Kandahar the same year. He gradually extended his conquests, and left to his son, Timur, an empire which reached from Khorassan to Sirhind, and from the Oxus to the Indian Sea. Ahriman, a'ri-man, or Ari- MANES, was the supreme evil spir- it of the ancient Persian religion (Zoroastrianism) . Coeval with Ormuzd, the Supreme Good, with whom he was ever in conflict, this 'Dark Spirit' inevitably suggests the Jewish Satan. The Zend- Avesta makes him the creator of all poisonous snakes, beasts of prey, obnoxious parasites, etc. Ahuachapan, a-wa-cha-pan', town, Salvador, capital of the de- partment of Ahuachapan; 50 miles west of San Salvador. The department produces sugar cane, coffee, tobacco, cotton, and fruit. Pop. of town 14,000; of depart- ment, 60,000. Ahuatle, a'oo-at'l, a food pre- pared from the eggs of a Mexican species of ephydrid fly by grind- ing them into flour. The flour is mixed with hen's eggs to form a paste, and fried in small cakes. Ahwaz, a-waz', Ahwuz, or Ah- WAS, village, province Khuzistan, Persia; 70 miles northeast of Bas- sora. It is notable for the ruins of the capital of Artabanus, last king of Parthia. Pop. 3,000. Ai, a'e, also Hai, Aija, Aiath, a Canaanite royal city, situated to the cast of Bethel. It is men- tioned in connection with Abra- ham (Gen. xii. 8), but is remem- bered chiefly for its capture and destruction by Joshua, after the severe reverse of the Israelites on account of the sin of Achan (Josh, vii. 2-viii. 29). The site of Ai is probably marked by the modern Haiyan. Aicard, a-kiir', Jean Francois Victor (1848), French poet, was born in Toulon. He has pub- VoL. I. — Mar. '16 lished several volumes of verse — e.g., Les Poemes de Provence (1874); La Chanson de VEnfant (1876); Miette el Nore (1880), an idyll of Provence; Lamar tine (1883); and Jesus (1896, 1912). He has also written novels, as Le Roi de la Camargue (1891) ; L'Ame d'un Enfant (1898); Tata (1901, 1910). His dramatic works com- prise: Au Clair de la Lune (1870) ; Othello, ou le More de Venise (1882) ; Le Pere Lebonnard (1889) ; Le Manteau du Roi (1907) ; Mau- rin des Maures and L'lllustre Maurin (1908). In 1913 he pub- lished Hollande and Algerie. Aid. See Aide-t,e- C amp; First Aid. Aidan, a'dan, St. (d. 651), a Columban monk of lona, where he was consecrated bishop about 635, in which year he began his work of Christianizing Northum- bria, in response to the invitation of Oswald, king of Bernicia. Fix- ing his see at Lindisfarne (the Holy Isle), Aidan founded there the church afterward associated with St. Cuthbert. King Oswy, brother and successor of Oswald, continued to act as Aidan's patron until the latter's death. Bede tes- tifies to the piety, humility, and fervor of this apostle of North- umbria. Consult Fryer's Aidan, the Apostle of the North. Aide, a-e-da', Charles Ham- ilton (1830-1907), English nov- elist and song writer, was born in Paris. He served from 1845 to 1852 in the British army. Among his works are : Eleanor e, and Other Poems (1856) ; Songs without Mu- sic (1882) ; Past and Present (1903) . His novels and romances include: Rita (1859); Penruddocke (1873); Poet and Peer (1880) ; Jane Trea- chel (1899); Snares of the World (1901); The Chivalry of Harold (1907). He was the author of the well-known songs Remember or Forget and The Danube River. Aide-de-Camp, ad'd'kan', or Aid, an officer attached to the personal staff of a general officer. He carries all orders on the field of battle, and, when thus acting as the mouthpiece of the general, is to be implicitly obeyed. In gar- rison and quarters the aide-de- camp superintends the general's household, and acts as his secre- tary, assisting him in' his corre- spondence, introducing military officers, and aiding in dispensing the courtesies of his house. In European countries an aide-de- camp on the staff of a ruler or governor is almost entirely a so- cial functionary. In the United States Army, a lieutenant-general is allowed two aids and a military secretary, with the rank and pay of lieutenant-colonel. Three and two aids, respectively, are allotted to major-generals and brigadier- generals — selected in the former case from captains and lieuten- ants, in the latter from lieuten- ants in the army, but with no ad- ditional rank attached to their position. Officers chosen as aids must have served three of the pre- ceding years with their regiment or corps. The appointment is usually for five years. Aidin, i-den' (Guzel - Hissar), town, Asia Minor, in the valley of the Menderez, and on the River Meander; 60 miles southeast of Smyrna. Morocco leather, cot- ton, figs, olives, and grapes are exported. Pop. 36,000. Aids. Under the feudal sys- tem aids were originally payments to which every tenant in chivalry was liable: (1) To ransom the per- son of the lord when taken prison- er; (2) To make his eldest son a knight; and (3) To provide a suitable portion to his eldest daughter on her marriage. Ten- ants in socage were liable only to the latter two, and the mesne lords were prohibited by Magna Charta from exacting more than these three. Aids were abolished in 1660. Aigrette, a'gret or a-gret' (Ai- gret), the French name of the bird known as Egret (q. v.), the lesser white heron. Hence the term has come to be used for its feathery crest, for feathers in a lady's head dress, or for a similar ornament of precious stones. Aiguesmortes, ag-mort', or AiGUES-MoRTES ('dead waters'), town, department Gard, France; 18 miles south of Nimes. It is situated in a large salt marsh, 3 miles from the Mediterranean, with which it is connected by a canal. Pop. (1911) 3,866. Aiguille, a-gwel' (French 'nee- dle'), an instrument used by en- gineers to pierce a rock for the reception of gunpowder, when any blasting or blowing up is to be effected. The word is also used of the needle-like peaks or summits of mountains, especially in the Alps. See Alps. Aiguillette, a-gwi-let' (diminu- tive of aiguille, a needle), an or- nament of bullion cords or loops, attached to the shoulder of the uniform of certain military and naval officers. In the U. S. Army, aiguillettes are worn by the officers of the General Staff Corps, of the Ad- jutant-General's Department, of the Inspector-General's De- partment, and of the Bureau of Insular Affairs; by aids to regi- mental officers, regimental adju- tants, adjutants of artillery dis- tricts, adjutants of engineer bat- talions, military attaches, and aids to the President. In the U. S. Navy, aiguillettes are worn by naval officers acting as aids to the President and Sec- retary of the Navy, and aids at the White House; by the personal staff of flag officers, naval at- taches, and the aids to the com- mandants of navy yards, naval Algun 115 Alnsworth stations, and the Superintendent of the Naval Academy. Algun, i'goon, Aikhun, or Sakhalin Ula, town, Man- churia, on the Amur River, terminus of the projected hne connecting the Amur and Si- berian Railways. The treaty which gave Russia the Amur re- gion was concluded here in 1858. Pop. (1918) 18,546. Aljalon. See Ajalon. Alkawa, I-ka'wa, town, on the west coast of the island of Sado, Japan; 40 miles north of Niigata. Gold and silver mines occur in the vicinity. Pop. 12,500. Aiken, a'ken, city, South Carolina, county seat of Aiken county, on the Southern and Augusta-Aiken Railways; 17 miles east of Augusta, Ga. It is situated on a sand ridge at an elevation of 600 feet, and is sur- rounded by pine forests. Be- cause of its mild climate, it is a noted health and pleasure resort. Fertile farming lands surround the city; corn, cotton, wheat, oats, melons, sugar cane, and fruits being the chief crops. Here are located Aiken Institute, St. Angelas Academy, The Aiken Preparatory School and Fermata, and two schools for negro stu- dents — the Schofields Normal and Industrial School and the Emmanuel Training School. Pop. (1910) 3,911; (1920) 4,103. Aiken, William (1806-87), American legislator, was born in C'harleston, S. C. He was gradu- -itcd from the College of vSouth Carolina, was a member of the State legislature (1838-43), gov- ernor of South Carolina (1844-6), and member of Congress (1851- 7). Though an ardent Demo- crat, he opposed both nullifica- tion and secession. Re-elected to Congress in 1866, he was not permitted to take his seat. Ailantlius, a-lan'thus, a genus of large Asiatic or Australian trees of the natural order Sima- rubaceae (the Quassia family). The best known species is the 'Tree of Heaven' (A. glandulosa) , which was brought from China in 1751 and is now, because of its rapid growth, extensively cul- tivated in Southern Europe, Great Britain, and the United States. The bark is smooth and brown; the leaves are short- stalked with long petioles; while the flowers of the male tree give out a very unpleasant odor. The wood is fine grained, satiny, and suitable for cabinet making. Ailantlius Motli, a species of silk-spinning moth (Bombyx or Philosamia cynthia) , which lives on the leaves of the ailantlius tree, and, like the tree, was intro- duced into the United States from China. It measures about 5 inches from wing to wing, and is olive brown in color, marked with white spots and bars of pur- VoL. I.— Oct. '22. pie and white. The caterpillar bears tufts of white hairs ar- ranged in rows. The silk pro- duced by the ailanthus moth, al- though inferior in quality to mulberry silk, is cheaper and more durable. Aiily, a- ye', Pierre d', or Petrus de Alliaco (1350- 1420), French theologian and prelate, was born in Compiegne. He was educated at the college of Navarre, becoming its grand master in 1384. In 1389 he was made chancellor of the Univer- sity of Paris, and almoner and confessor of Charles vi., after which he was successively bishop of Puy and bishop of Cambrai. He became a cardinal in 1411. His most important service to the church was rendered at the Council of Constance (1414), where he maintained the super- iority of a general council over the pope, concurred in the con- demnation of Huss and Jerome of Prague, and warmly advo- cated reform in the Church. He was papal legate at Avignon from \418 until his death. His works, chiefly on theology, are numerous. Consult Tschackert's Peter von Ailli. Ailsa Craig, al'sa krag', a rocky islet of Ayrshire, Scotland ; 10 miles west of Girvan. It is about two miles in circumference and rises abruptly to a height of 1,114 feet. The lighthouse was erected in 1836. Aimak, I-mak', a group of four Mongol tribes {char aimak) which, with the Hazaras, occupy the region of Afghanistan be- tween Herat and Kabul, the two groups together numbering about 650,000; the Aimak alone numbering about 250,000. Some authorities consider the Hazaras as belonging to the Aimak group. See Hazaras. Consult McGregor's Central Asia; Elphin- stom's Caubul. Aimara, i-ma'ra, a large car- nivorous fish of South America, especially abundant in the Ama- zon and its tributaries; also known as trahira. It is highly esteemed as food. Aimard, a-miir', Gu stave, (1818-83), French novelist, was born in Paris. Shipping as a cabin boy to America, he spent ten years among the Indians of Arkansas and Mexico, where he gathered themes for a large number of stories of adventure. During the Franco-German War (1870-1), he organized the fa- mous 'francs-tireurs' (q. v.). His many works include Les trappeurs de r Arkansas (1858), Les pirates de la prairie (1859), and Les scalpeurs blancs (1873). Aimon. vSee Aymon. AIn, aii, a river of France, ris- ing in the Jura Mountains, and flowing 118 miles southwest through the departments of Jura and Ain, until it joins the Rhone, 18 miles above Lyons. Ain, department of Eastern France, bounded on the east and south by the Rhone and on the west by the Saone. It is bi- sected by the Ain River, to the east of which is a mountainous region containing some of the highest peaks of the Jura Moun- tains, and, to the west, a flat and marshy area. The department is agricultural and pastoral, and has an area of 2,248 square miles. The capital is Bourg. Pop. (1911) 342,482. Ainger, Alfred (1837-1904). English clergyman and author, was born in London. He was educated at King's College and at Trinity College, Cambridge, becoming in 1866 reader at the Temple Church and in 1894, master. In 1887 he was made a canon of Bristol, later serving as chaplain-in-ordinary to Queen Victoria and King Edward vii. He is chiefly known in literature as a biographer and editor of Lamb. His works include Charles Lamb (1882), editions of Lamb's Essays of Elia (1883), Letters (1888), The Life and Works of Charles Lamb (1899-1900), and Crabbe (1903), Consult Sichel's Life and Letters of Canon A inger. Ainhum, an'hum, a disease, said to be peculiar to the negro race, in which the little toe is gradually cut off by a tightening band of hard skin. It is of the nature of a local scleroderma (q. v.). Ainmiller, in'mil-er. Max Emanuel (1807-70), German designer of stained glass, was born in Munich. He became a designer in the roj^al porcelain factory at Nymphenburg, and, upon the founding of the Royal Manufactory of Stained Glasses at Munich, he was named its director. Through his efforts the art of glass-staining was revived. Some of his best work is found in the cathedrals of Cologne and Glasgow and in St. Paul's Cathedral, London. Aino. See Ainu. Ainswortli, anz'wurth, Fred Crayton (1852- ), American soldier, was born in Woodstock, Vt., and was graduated in 1874 from the medical department of New York University. He was appointed assistant surgeon in the U. S. Army (1874); major and surgeon (1891) ; chief of the Record and Pension Office of the War Department with the rank of colonel (1892), and with the rank of brigadier- general (1899). In 1904 he became military secretary of the Army with the rank of major-general, and in 1907 adjutant-general, retiring at his own request in 1912. Ainsworth, Hk;nrv (1571-1622 or 3), an English scholar whose Ainsworth 115 A AIra birthplace is uncertain, and about whose early life little is known. Because of his inde- pendent religious views he was forced to leave England in 1593 and went to Amsterdam, where he became, three years later, pastor of the Brownist congrega- tion. He wrote many exegetical and controversial works, the most notable of which is A Defence of the Holy Scriptures, Worship and Ministry used in the Christian Churches separated from Antichrist, against the Ca- vils, Challenges, and Contradic- tions of M. Smyth in his hook entitled 'The Differences of the Churches of the Separation' ( 1 609) . Consult Axon's H. Ainsworth, the Puritan Commentator. Ainsworth, William Harri- son (1805-82), English novelist, was born in Manchester. He vilayet of Aleppo, Syria, is situated on the southern slope of Mount Taurus, the reputed site of the ancient Antiochia ad Taurum; 60 miles northeast of Aleppo. It has vinej^ards, manu- factures of leather, and trade in hides and cotton. It is a mili- tary post, and a centre of Ameri- can missionary work. Pop. 74,— 000. _ Ainu, i'nob, or AiNO (signify- ing 'men'), a primitive people inhabiting Yesso, the southern parts of Sakhalin, and the Kurile Islands as far as 48° N. lat. In former times they also occupied a large territory in Hondo, the main island of Japan, where their mixed de- scendants form part of the pres- ent population. Against the en- croachments of the Japanese, to whom they are known as Ebisu, rice beer, partakes somewhat of the nature of a religious cere- mony. Their language is simple and harmonious, similar in struc- ture to that of the Japanese. They have affinities in speech and blood with the people of Kamchatka and the Amur dis- trict. The present number of the Ainu is about 17,000. Most of the scientific works on the Ainu are included by Von Wenckstern in his Bibliography of Japan. Consult also Savage Landor's Alone with the Hairy Ainu; Batchelor's Ainu and Their Folk Lore. Air, in music. See Aria. Air, the mixture of gases con- stituting the substance of our atmosphere. Its chief properties are nitrogen and oxygen, with negligible amounts of aqueous vapor, argon, carbon dioxide, hy- Copyright by Ewing Galloway, N. Y. A Group of Ainu. undertook the study of law but in 1826 abandoned this, and became a publisher, producing in that year Sir John Chiverton, which for forty years was re- garded as his first work, but which really was written in collaboration with John Aston. His novel Rockwood was pub- lished in 1834 and was extra- ordinarily successful. Between 1834 and 1881 he wrote some forty novels, a few of them appearing originally in Bentley's Miscellany, Ainsworth' s Maga- zine, and the New Monthly. His works include Crichton (1837), Jack Sheppard (1839), Tower of London (1840), Old St. Paul's (1841), Miser's Daughter (1842), and Lancashire Witches (1848). Consult S. M. Ellis' W. H. Ainsworth and His Friends. Aln-Tab, in-tab', town, in the Vol. I.— Oct. '22. Yebisu, or Yemishi, they made a most obstinate resistance during a period of fully one thousand years, but were finally driven northward to their present homes. European in type, they are aptly compared to the Russian moujiks; their most striking physical characteristic is their hairiness of skin. They are taller than the Japanese, and have dark brown eyes and regu- lar features. They are poly- gamous, and live in huts, under their own chiefs. Their princi- pal occupations are hunting and fishing. Shamans in religion, they worship the sky, earth, fire, wind, and water, and employ idols or inao made of willow shavings. The bear is the chief object of actual worship, and the annual bear feast, at which they intoxicate themselves with drogen, neon, xenon, helium, and krypton. Formerly, all aeriform fluids, now known as gases, were called 'airs'. See Atmosphere; Gases; Storm; Winds. Air, ii-er', or Asben, a region of French West Africa, situated in lat. 16°-20° n. and long. 6°-9° E., and comprising an area of 21,000 square miles. Its mountains, ranging from 4,000 to 5.000 feet in height, have a beneficial effect on rainfall, and the climate is healthful. The palm, fig, and mimosa grow in the valleys. The town of Asben, situated in the south, is an important caravan centre between Central and North Africa. The capital is Agades, and the chief town is Tintellust. The population, which is composed mainly of Tuareg tribes, numbers about 100,000. AIra. See Hair Grass. Atr Bladder 115 B Aircraft Disasters Air Blad'der, or Swimming Bladder, a sac, present in most fishes, arising dorsally from the aUmentary canal ; in the haddock, and in some other species, con- nection with the intestine is not maintained throughout life. The sac may be double, constricted, or provided with side chambers. In the Dipnoi it serves as a lung, while in other fish its function is hydrostatic, although it may al- so be an accessory organ of respiration. The air bladder of fishes affords the finest isinglass. Air Brake. See Brakes. Air Cells, or Air Spaces, min- ute intercellular spaces in the stems or leaves of plants, which furnish the means for the inter- change of gases necessary for their life. In terrestrial plants communication with the exterior occurs by means of the stomata (q. v.). The buoyancy of many aquatic plants is due to the es- pecially large and numerous air spaces which they contain (see Aquatic Plants). Air Compressors. See Com- pressed-Air Motors. Aircraft. See Balloons; Fly- ing Machines; Gliders; Aero- nautics. Aircraft Disasters. Close to twenty thousand lives have been lost in flying since the reporting of the first aeroplane fatality on Sept. 17, 1908, when Lieut. Thomas E. Selfridge, Signal Corps, U. S. Army, was killed, and Orville Wright, who piloted the aeroplane, was seriously in- jured. Over two thousand of these were lost in disasters to dirigible balloons. The Great War (1914-19) was responsible for over fifteen thou- sand fatalities, the French alone having suffered 7,555 air casu- alties, including 1,945 killed, 2,922 wounded, 1,461 missing, in the war zone, and 1,227 casual- ties outside of the war zone. A total of 1,998 casualties was re- ported among American military aviators serving with the Ameri- can, British, French, and Italian armies overseas between March, 1918, when the first casualty was reported, and Nov. 11, 1918, the causes being assigned as follows: killed in action 714; wounded in action 412; missing 105; killed in accidents 161; injured in ac- cidents 98; prisoners 483; in- terned 12; the last two designa- tions being listed with the casu- alties on account of the implica- tion that something went wrong with the aeroplanes and the aviators were forced to land. At home the fatalities in the Army Air Service from Jan. 1, 1918, to Nov. 8, 1919, numbered 392, being officially attributed to the following causes: tail spin 118; collision 61; nose dive 47; side sUps 22; stall 19; fire 13; collapse of plane 8; motor trouble 6; loss of control 5; fall from plane 4; struck by plane 4; crash and fire 2; steep bank in strong wind 1; fall from aeroplane when turned upside down 1; cause not ascer- tained 68. The casualties in the U. S. Navy and Naval Reserve force from April 1, 1917, to Nov. 29, 1918, numbered 42 officers and 75 enlisted men. The first dirigible disaster oc- curred in 1897, near Berlin, when Wolfert's dirigible exploded, due to benzine vapor ignition, and Wolfert and his assistant were killed. In May 1902 the Bra- zilian inventor, Augusto Severo, was killed with his French as- sistant Sache. at Vaugirard, near Paris, when their dirigible Pax exploded in the air. On Sept. 13, 1902. the dirigible de Bradsky ex- ploded in France, killing the maker, de Bradsky, and his en- gineer, Paul Morin. The destruction of the French dirigible Republique, on Sept. 25, 1909, due to faulty metal pro- pellers, killing Captain Marchal, Lieutenant Chaure, and Adju- tants Reaux and Vincenot, was the first of the disasters to large airships, which now number over one hundred. The early accidents to Zep- pelins were singularly free of hu- man fatalities, even the score of passengers of the Deutschland escaping with their lives when she was caught in a storm with- out fuel to drive her motor and was partially wrecked on June 28, 1910, on her seventh trip. Zeppelin No. 1 was dismantled after tests without accidents. No. 2 was destroyed by a storm on the night of Jan. 17-18, 1906, no lives being lost. No. 3 was damaged when the floating shed was damaged, and sank on Lake Constance, in December 1907*. No. 4 was destroyed by a thunder storm while at anchor at Echter- dinger, on its way to Friedrichs- hafen, Aug. 5. 1908. No. 5 was carried aM^ay by a storm from Limburg, where it was at anchor, on April 25, 1909, and was wrecked on a hill. No. 6 burned in its shed at Oos, Baden. No. 7 was The Deutschland, al- ready mentioned. No. 8, the second Deutschland, was battered against its shed and broken in three parts on May 16, 1918, as it was being taken out. Over one hundred German dirigible airships were destroyed during the war. The naval Zep- pelins L-3 and the L-4, 521 feet long, 54 feet beam, 62 feet high, with gas capacity of 953,000 cubic feet, in 18 compartments, having a gross lift of 29 tons and a useful lift of 8 tons, stranded and foundered in a storm on Feb. 17. 1915, near Esbjerg. The ships were destroyed, some mem- bers of the crews perished, and some were interned. The L-j, of the class and size of the L-3, was destroyed June 7, 1915, in its shed, by bombs dropped by British aviators. On the same day L-6, of the same class, was attacked, set afire and destroyed in mid-air near Ghent, with loss of the entire crew. The was shot down by the naval guns of the ships Galatea and Phaeton on May 4, 1916, off the Schleswig coast. The L-8 and the L-io, of the same class, were also wrecked and destroj^ed, the first on May 14, 1915, the second by the Dunkirk squadron of the British Royal Navy Air Service, on Aug. 16, 1915. The L-18 caught fire and ex- ploded on Nov. 17, 1915, at its dock at Tondern. The and the L-iQ were hit by British anti- aircraft guns and foundered in the North Sea. The L-21 was set afire and destroyed with the entire crew; while the L-/5 was brought down on April 1, 1916, and landed in the mouth of the Thames, near Kentish Knock, where the crew scuttled the ship and surrendered. Over one hun- dred German dirigibles and about a dozen British, French, and Italian dirigibles were destroyed in a similar way during the war. The L-27, which Germany turned over to France under the terms of the Peace Treaty and which was renamed the Dixmude, was lost over the Mediterranean in December 1923. The great dirigible, which had previously broken all distance and endur- ance records (see Aeronautics), left France Dec. 18, 1923, for a cruise over Northern Africa. On Dec. 21, at 3 a.m., a radio message announced that, having encountered a storm area, she was returning to France. She was never heard from again, but the body of her commander was recovered a few days later off the coast of Sicily and some charred wreckage was subse- quently found. All of the crew of 50 were lost. In the United States the first dirigible disaster was the ex- plosion of the Goodyear dirigible Akron, built for Melvin Vaniman, which caused the death of Vani- man and his four assistants on July 12, 1912. A number of American Army and Navy dirigi- bles came to grief during the War, but the most serious disasters happened after the signing of the armistice. A Goodyear diri- gible exploded over Chicago in 1919 and fell on a bank, killing a number of people in the bank as well as the airship crew; the R-38, the Roma, and the Shenan- doah disasters are of still more recent date. The R-38 was a rigid dirigible purchased by the U. S. Navy by arrangement with the British government. It was approxi- mately 700 feet long and 84.4 feet in diameter, designed to Vol. I.— Oct. '25 Aircraft Disasters 116 Airedale make a speed of about 60 miles an hour, and equipped with six 350 H.p. motors. On Aug. 25. 1921, the R-jS, which had been named Z R-2 by the U. S. Navy, buckled, crumpled, and exploded while cruising over the town of Hull, causing the death of 17 Americans, mostly naval officers, and 45 British officers, officials and men, only 4 out of 66 persons on board surviving the tragedy. The disaster to the Roma, a dirigible bought in Italy by the U. S. Army, occurred on Feb. 25, 1922, and caused the death of 35 persons. The reports of the several investigations conducted to ascertain the causes of this tragedy disagree, but the indica- tions are that the basic mechan- ical cause was the breaking of the transmission operating the elevator rudders used to cause the airship to go up and down, due to the fact that the ship had been equipped with Liberty motors, more powerful than its original Ansaldo motors, and that the additional speed, being over 70 miles per hour, strained the ele- vator rudders. The following account is drawn from the re- port of one of the exhaustive investigations: The airship was proceeding at high speed and at 450 feet (150 meters) height over the Army Base of Hampton Roads, when it suddenly made a strong nose dip. Lieutenant Burt, at the wheel, tried to raise the ship and found that the commanding wheel was turning loose and that the elevators did not respond. All the engines were then ordered slowed down, and Lieutenant Burt observed that the two rear engines of each side did slow down but that the front one con- tinued to run at full speed. The inclination thereupon diminished so that it was possible to walk on the floor of the airship. Dur- ing all this time the Roma was perfectly in keel and her course remained almost straight, al- though the direction wheel had been abandoned and the eleva- tor wheel was loose. The airship was at this time passing very close to a smoke stack (120 feet) of the Army Base Power Plant, and observers were fearful lest she hit against it. Continuing, however, at very high speed she went tearing against an electric line at 2,300 volts, hitting the wires only 20 seconds after the occurrence of the original accident. The wires were torn and the spark at break gave fire to the balloon, where- upon the keel collapsed and the nose smashed against the ground, causing some gasoline tanks to break and catch fire. The fire of the envelope lasted only a few seconds. All the rear part of the keel was projected over the wreck. The tail triplane almost intact, and having attached the beams of the keel, went to fall on the electric poles of a second electric line perpendicular to the first one; in order to free this line, it was necessary to cut with the flame and with nippers all the steel tubes of the keel beams. Only 1 1 of the entire personnel on board, numbering 46. survived. The U. S. navy dirigible Shen- andoah, launched on Sept. 4, 1923 (see Aeronautics), was destroyed in a storm near Cald- well. Ohio, on Sept. 3, 1925, while on the way from her hangar at Lakehurst, N. J., to St. Louis. The airship first en- countered a mild storm, which was suddenly followed by a violent squall, subjecting it to uncontrollable angle strains and rapid vertical ascent; the struc- ture broke into three parts, while the control cabin and the forward wing cars were wrenched free in the air. All the officers and men in the control cabin, in- cluding the commander (Lt. Comm. Zachary Lansdowne) were killed. The forward section, with seven occupants, ballooned for about an hour and landed several miles from the point at which the disaster occurred. The midship section crashed to earth with three occupants, none of them seriously injured; the after section also crashed, land- ing 17 occupants safely. Of the 41 on board, 14 were killed and 2 seriously injured. The years 1919-1922 saw an excessive number of aeroplane disasters, costing hundreds of lives, mostly military and due to reckless disregard for human lives and property. Of these, note may be made of the fall of the Army Curtiss Eagle ambu- lance plane near Morgantown, Md., on May 28, 1921, resulting in the death of seven American officers. This flight was undertaken, despite warnings of an impend- ing storm, in an unbalanced plane, equipped with loose camp stools. The plane seems to have run into a wind storm. The pilot flew low and circled about seeking a landing place, the air- plane tipped and nosed down, the loose camp stools slid for- ward throwing the passengers in a heap on the pilot, and the plane was plunged downward by their weight and struck the ground. No other explanation seems possible for the failure to shut off the engine, which was the mechanical cause of the fatalities. To check the fatalities in the U. S. Army Air Service orders were, issued in October, 1921, forbidding the participa- tion of Army aircraft in exhibi- tions, competitions, and other similar activities not of military character. In 1923 U. S. Army aviators flew 9,093,360 miles, with a loss of only 18 lives. The number of civiUan casu- alties has been small compared with the large number of military fatalities, the strict requirements of insurance companies in insur- ing aeroplanes having had a sobering effect. Aird, ard. Sir John (1833- 1911). English engineer. He early became associated with his father, erecting the Crystal Palace (1851) and constructing numerous large gas and water plants in England and elsewhere. He is best known, however, for the building of the Assuan dam (q. V.) and the Assiut barrage (see Assiut). He was a member of Parliament from North Pad- dington (1887-1905), and was chosen first mayor of Padding- ton. In 1901 he was created a baronet and. in recognition of his feat at Assuan, was deco- rated with the Grand Cordon of the Medjidie by the Khedive of Egypt. Alrd, Thomas (1802-1876), Scottish poet, was born in Bow- den, Roxburghshire. At Edin- burgh University he became ac- quainted with Carlyle and James Hogg. and. encouraged by them, determined upon a literary career. He edited for a short time the Edinburgh Weekly Journal, and in 1835 became editor of the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Her- ald, which position he held for twenty-eight years. Although praised by Carlyle and many literary critics, his poems, with the exception of the well-known Devil's Dream, have neither been widely read nor admired. His published works include Mart- zoufle, a Tragedy with other Poems (1826) ; Religious Characteristics (1827) ; The Captive of Fez (1830) ; The Old Bachelor (1845). His Collected Poems were published in 1848 (2d ed. 1856). Airdrie, ar'dre, borough of Lanarkshire. Scotland, 11 miles east of Glasgow. The town has brass and iron foundries, es- tablishments for cotton-weaving, machine shops, fire-clay factories, and paper mills. It is the seat of the first free library in Scotland, founded in 1856. In the neigh- borhood are collieries and iron mines, the principal source of the town's prosperity. Pop. 24,388. Aire, ar, town, department of Landes. France, on the Adour River; 112 miles south of Bor- deaux. It is the seat of a bishop- ric dating to the fifth century and of a cathedral begun during the reign of Louis xii. Aire was the capital of the Visigoths and Alaric ii. (q. v.) drew up his codo of laws there. Pop. (1911) 4,025. Airedale, ar'dal, the valley of the Aire River, Yorkshire, England. It extends from the source of the Aire in Malham Cove to Leeds, a length of about Vol. I.— Oct. '25 Airedale Terrier 116 A Airport 35 miles. Factories and iron works have sprung up along its banks. Airedale Terrier, one of the largest and tallest of the terriers, of which there are some fifteen or more varieties. The Airedale is a splendid game dog, a good watchdog, keen and wide-awake, an excellent water dog and a splendid companion, loyal and Rough Airedale Terrier devoted. The coat should be hard, rough and dense; head long; muzzle strong; eyes, small and dark. In color the dog is black or grizzled, with head and ears of tan. It weighs from 40 to 50 pounds. Air Engines, engines in which the motive power is obtained by the alternate heating and cooling of a quantity of air within a closed vessel, part of which may form the motor cylinder. The expansion of the air drives a pis- ton, which does the work, as in an ordinary steam engine. In an air engine it is possible to use very high temperatures without being inconvenienced by correspond- ingly high pressures; in this re- spect air differs from steam and other saturated vapors. An air engine should therefore have a high thermal efficiency; but in all external-combustion engines there must necessarily be a con- siderable loss of temperature be- tween the furnace and the work- ing fluid; consequently the actual thermal efficiency of such engines is low. Most air engines work with very low pressures, and are there- fore bulky for the power they de- velop. Difficulty is also experi- enced in satisfactorily heating large quantities of air; and, in ad- dition, that part of the air vessel which is in immediate contact with the furnace is rapidly burned away, on account of the high tem- perature to which it is subjected. It is seldom that a hot-air en- gine is now used save in the tropics where wood is cheap; else- where the gasoline engine has replaced it. The earliest hot-air engine was invented by Sir George Cayley in 1807, afterward improved and modernized by Buckett. This engine was practically on tne in- ternal-combustion principle. Of the true external-combustion air enjgines, that invented by Robert Stirling of Edinburgh in 1816, and afterward improved by his broth- er James, is perhaps the pioneer. Ericsson Engine. — A success- ful type of hot-air engine was invented by John Ericsson, the builder of the Monitor, in 1833. Ericsson thought so highly of his engine, which he called the 'Caloric,' that he built a ship also called the 'Caloric', that was driv- en by a 400 horse-power hot-air engine. The ship, however, was a failure. The Ericsson -^ngine of small capacities is now manu- factured by the Rider-Ericsson Co. There are two forms made, a horizontal and a vertical. In the former, there is one long cylinder, the back end of which is heated by the furnace gases coming from the stove; the front end is water jacketed, and thus kept cool. There are two pis- tons — a displacer piston, which is loose fitting, at the back, and a motor piston at the front. The piston rod of the former passes through the latter; both are con- nected by linkwork to a crank shaft, and have separate move- ments. The displacer piston is used merely to cause the air to travel backward and forward in the cylinder. When the displacer piston is moved inward, the heat- ed air from the back or hot end travels to the front, is cooled, and the pressure falls; the motor pis- ton then makes its inward stroke. On the outward stroke of the dis- placer the cool air is forced to the hot end, becomes heated, the pres- sure rises, and the motor piston makes its out or working stroke. The cycle is made up of two constant pressures and two iso- thermal lines. Consult B. Donkin's Gas, Oil, and Air Engines; Ewing's The Steam Engine and Other Heat En- gines; Carpenter and Diederich's Experimental Engineering. Aire-sur-Lys, ar-siir-les', for- tified town, France, in the depart- ment Pas-de-Calais, on the River Lys, and at the junction of three canals; 37 miles bv rail west of Lille. The beautiful Church of St. Pierre dates from the 15th century. The town has cotton and woollen manufactures, flour mills, and trade in farm products. Pop. 8,400. Air Gun, a weapon for propel- ling bullets or darts by the force of compressed air, commonly made like a musket, with lock, stock, and barrel. Its range is short, owing to the comparative- ly small propulsive force of com- pressed air. In one of the simpler types the air is condensed in a chamber above the barrel by means of a syringe in the stock. On pulling the trigger a valve between the air chamber and the barrel is opened, and the bullet is pro- pelled a distance of 60 or 80 yards. Other varieties obtain greater condensation of air by having the condensing syringe detached. A pressure of as much as 500 at- mospheres has been attained with a powerful condenser, but even this is only half the elastic force of fired gunpowder. Inventions for using com- pressed air to fire large shot with pieces of ordnance have been patented by Bessemer (1867) and others. In 1886 Capt. E. L. Za- linski (q.v.), of the U. S. Army, invented a large pneumatic gun for throwing shells containing dynamite. Air at 1,000 lbs. pres- sure, supplied from eight reser- voirs, each 20 feet long by 12 inches in diameter, was admitted through one of the trunnions to a chamber in the gun just behind the projectile. An automatic valve permitted a volume of the compressed air to escape into this chamber. A shell containing 100 lbs. of explosives was thrown 3,000 yards. See Pneumatic Appliances. Air-Lift System. See Pumps. Air Lock. See Caisson. Air Meter. See Anemometer. Airolo, i-ro'lo (German Eri- els), village, Switzerland (alt. 3,822 feet), near the head of the Upper Ticino or Tessin valley (Val Leventina) , in the canton of Ticino. It is the station at the southern mouth of the St. Goth- ard Tunnel (see Gothard). A disastrous landslide took place here in 1898. Pop. 1,840. Air Plants. See Epiphytes. Airport, as defined by the Air Commerce Act of 1926 is 'any locality either of water or land which is adapted for the landing and taking off of aircraft, and which provides facilities for shel- ter, supply, and repair of air- craft, or a place used regularly for receiving or discharging passen- gers or cargo by air.' This definition, generous as it is, would have to be stretched to allow the entrance of some of the 'airports' in the United States within the meaning of the word, but conditions are changing as rapidly as in the other branches of the fast growing aeronautical industry and somewhat the same conditions prevail abroad. In January, 1929, Germany had more than sixty fields that could be called airports with a hundred or more emergency landing fields so carried on the maps of the Lufl Hansa, the great German air trust. Since then new fields have been added and some of the old ones discontinued. In France somewhat the same conditions prevail with emphasis on the military availability of the flying fields rather than their commercial value. The centre of all flying is Le Bourget, a great rectangular airport on the Vol. I.— Oct. '29 Airport 116 B Airport outskirts of Paris along one side of which the French Air Service has its hangars and on the other the various transport Unes oper- ating out of Paris. In Great Britain there are one great airport and a number of flying fields. Croyden, London's airport, is the centre of air trans- portation for Great Britain and it is perhaps the most completely appointed flying centre in the world. However, Croyden, built on Government appropriations of $600,000 in addition to the land value, was scrapped within a year and another million was spent equipping it for modern commer- cial air transport. Because of the short distances and the very good train service commercial aviation as a national transport has not advanced any- where in Europe as it has in the United States, although inter- national airways are many and popular. Russia is an exception to this statement as far as needs are concerned, and Russia is far behind the United States and the rest of Europe in airways and airports. The situation there is changing rapidly, however, and a national society whose member- ship includes nearly every citizen in the Soviet vStates is contribut- ing millions of roubles annually to the development of both com- mercial and military aviation. United States. — At the end of 1928 according to the latest figures available from the De- partment of Commerce there were 921 airports in the making or proposed which was an in- crease of 499 in a single year. A report gathered in January, 1929, put the figure for existing airports and landing fields in the United States at 1324. Of this number 368 were municipal, 365 commercial, 312 auxiliary, 197 intermediate, 64 army, 16 navy, one Department of Agriculture and one Department of Interior. It is very likely that the records will disclose that many classed as 'auxiliary' and 'intermediate' should come under the classifica- tion of 'emergency.' In March, 1929, more than 1,000 towns in the United States had announced definite plans for constructing airports and statis- ticians have placed the amount to be spent on airports in the next eighteen months at $500,000,000. Efforts are now being made by the Department of Commerce, officials of air transport lines whose companies span many States, and other far-seeing citi- zens to coordinate in some man- ner this vast growth. The Aeronautics Branch of the De- partment of (^)nimerce is urging standardization of State laws governing airports and flying and the necessity of seeking expert help in laying out flying fields. Vol. I.— Oct. '29 To this end the Department of Commerce has classified airports and grants rating certificates based upon the terrain, general equipment and facilities and night flying equipment. The highest rating given an airport by the Department of Commerce is the Class A-l-A but these rat- ings were scarcely published be- fore aeronautical authorities with an e5'e to the future began to demand that the first class air- ports be larger than called for by the Government requirements. The first letter in the classifica- tion concerns the general equip- ment and facilities. The numer- al has to do with the size of the field and the last letter marks the lighting equipment and night flying facilities. Government requirements for a first class airport at present state that before a flying field shall be rated at all for com- mercial use, the landing area shall be smooth and well drained, and that if sufficient area is not available for landings and take offs in all directions, two strips 500 feet or more in width and crossing or converging at an angle of not lesss than 60 degrees shall be provided. The maxi- mum slope shall at no point ex- ceed 3 inches in 10 feet. Under the heading 'Freedom from Obstructions,' the law re- quires landing or take ofT lengths over these obstructions equal to seven times the height of the obstruction. This seven-fold distance is measured from the point that the wheels touch the ground to the obstruction. For example a tower fifty feet high on the edge of the flying field would mean that the plane in taking off in the direction of the tower must leave the ground and be climb- ing for more than 350 feet. This distance under circumstances as described would thus cut a strip of 350 from the available landing area. The ratio of 7 to 1 is standard at sea level and in- creases at higher altitudes where higher speeds and flatter climb- ing angles are necessary. A Class A-l-A airport must have at least one hangar, meas- uring not less than 80 by 100 feet with an 18-foot overhead clearance. Its equipment must include safe provision for heating oil and water and in localities where freezing temperatures pre- vail it must be heated. One or more wind direction indicators must be provided; all telephone and transmission line poles and similar obstructions near tlie air- port shall be day marked by painting with alternate bands of black and white or chrome yel- low. Other re(iuirements are re- pair e(iuipment for changing en- gines and rigging planes, weather instruments, radio receiving set and loud speaker, snow removal equipment where it is needed, first aid equipment including an ambulance and litters, and special office equipment for registering incoming and outgoing traffic. The landing area for the first class rating shall provide at least 2,500 feet of take off or landing runs in all directions, and the field shall be in good condition for landing at all times. As an alternative to this, where run- ways or landing strips are pro- vided these shall be at least 500 feet wide and must be so ar- ranged as to provide landings and take offs in eight directions and 2,500 feet long with clear approaches. Many operators are convinced that with the planes increasing in size to twenty and thirty passen- ger transports now, with the prospect of further increases to forty and fifty passenger planes, a take off area providing less than 5,000 feet straight away in all directions is inadequate. This means a landing area either a mile square, or circular with a mile long diameter, or, as some engineers suggest, in the form of an equilateral triangle bounded by mile long sides. The night flying equipment the Department has ruled must include a long range beacon with a candle power of not less than 100,000, proper distribution of fight in the vertical plane to make the beacon visible all around the horizon and to the zenith or nearly so, for altitudes of from 500 to 2,000 feet. An illuminated wind direction indi- cator, boundary lights and ob- struction lights are among the other requirements. The bound- ary lights can be of yellow but dangerous borders must be light- ed in red and all obstructions in the vicinity of the field must have their altitude marked by power- ful red lights. In addition to these illuminations, flood light- ing and lighted roof markings must be provided for the hangars as well as flood lighting for the field. Besides all these the air- port must have a searchlight with a parabolic reflector not less than 12 inches in diameter and with at least a 250-watt lamp of special type. In some cases units up to 24 inches in diameter are required with 1,000- watt lamps. New York City at present has no airport that qualifies unless one excepts the military post, Mitchel Field at Garden City, Long Island. Philadelphia is also without a municipal flying field of A-l-A class, but both these cities are at work on the problem. Chicago has a good airport but its landing area at times fails to come up to the specifications de- fined here and Cleveland is in the same predicament. Detroit, Air Pumps 117A Air Pumps in the privately operated Ford Airport at Dearborn, has a high class field and the city is at work on a project for a water front air- port for both sea and land planes. San Francisco, in the Oakland air terminal, has a splendidly equipped field for commercial use and other cities all over the coun- try are following Oakland's example. Air Pumps, any apparatus for removing air from a given space. Pumps for forcing atmospheric air into closed pressure chambers, or for furnishing a supply at va- rious pressures above atmospher- ic, are commonly known as com- pressors and blowers, as distin- guished from Air Pumps, which work at pressures below the normal atmosphere (see Com- pressed-air Motors; Blowing Machines). Air pumps may be divided into two broad classes — displacement and impulse. Very small hand compressors, such as tire inflators, are also commonly called air pumps. The infiator consists of a tube in which works a loosely fitting pis- ton faced with a leather cup- shaped valve. When the piston is pulled out, air passes the leath- er valve and fills the tube; and when the piston is pushed in, the cup expands, preventing the es- cape of air past the piston, and compelling it to make its way through the tire valve. On the Fig. I. — Cross Section of Wheeler- Edwards Wet- Air Pump piston being pulled out again, the tire valve is closed by the pressure of the air in the tire, the amount of air within it being increased by a definite ciuantity at every stroke. The mechanism of the usual form of laboratory air pump is es- sentially the same as that just de- VOL. I.— Oct. '29 scribed, except that the valves open in the opposite directions, so that the action is reversed. As a general rule, the vessel or space to be exhausted of air is in perma- nent connection with the tube and piston by which the exhaus- tion is effected. It is enclosed in bottom of the stroke it uncovers ports through which the air in the condenser flows freely into the vacuum which has been created by the descent of the plunger. The advantage claimed for the absence of suction valves is that the entrance of air, which has a Fig, 2. — Cross-Sectional View of Rotative Dry Vacuum Pump a glass bell-shaped jar, called the receiver, which rests on a perfect- ly plane plate, the junction being made air tight by means of a lay- er of lard. From the centre of the plate a tube passes to the piston chamber, and brings the space within the receiver into commu- nication with the space through which the piston works. This piston may be single or double acting. In the latter arrangement the valves are so adjusted as to bring into continuous communi- cation the receiver and the end of the piston chamber which is being evacuated by the piston. Dur- ing the return stroke this air is pushed out into the open air through an outward opening valve, while the valve through which the air from the receiver previously passed closes. Thus at every half stroke the receiver loses a definite fraction of the air contained within it, the fraction being the proportion of the vol- ume of the piston chamber to the combined volume of the receiver and piston chamber. Air or vacuum pumps are used in connection with the condensers of steam engines (see Condens- er) to remove the condensed steam and the air carried in with the steam or entering by leakage. An improved style of wet vacuum pump for handling both air and water where the highest vacuum is desired, as in connection with steam turbines, is here briefly de- scribed. As will be noted from the cross-vsecfional view of the pump chamber presented here- with (Fig. 1), this pump contains only one set of valves — namely, stationary discharge valves at the head of the pump barrel. When the plunger reaches the very feeble tension at high vac- uums, is not impeded. While air and vapors are flowing into the pump barrel, any water which has accumulated in the bottom of the pump is splashed out by the conical plunger, and by suitably shaped passages, directed in through the open ports, tending by inspirator action to compress and drive in more air. The rising plunger then closes off the ports and compresses the charge of air and vapor until the latter have a pressure sufficient to lift the dis- charge valves at the top of the pump barrel, and escape to the atmosphere. As the air lies on top of the water and is discharged ahead of it, no air is left within the pump barrel, which is an ad- vantage, as such air would re-ex- pand during the ensuing down- ward stroke, and thereby dimin- ish the effective capacity of the pump to take in a new charge of water and vapor from the con- denser. With pumps of this type it has been found possible, under full load conditions, to maintain a pressure within the condenser of less than one inch of mercury — that is, a vacuum of 29 inches mercury with the barometer at 30 inches. The pump illustrated herewith (Fig. 1) is arranged to be driven by steam cylinders placed above the pump barrel, the motion being steadied by fly- wheels, but this type of pump may aLso be driven by electric motors or by direct attachment to the cross-head of the main en- gine, as is sometimes done in marine practice. In condenser practice it is sometimes desired to withdraw the air and water separately, in which case recourse is had to what Air Pumps 117 B Air Pumps is known as a rotative dry vac- uum pump, or dry-air pump. This is, in efifect, an air com- pressor working through a range of pressure from one to two inches of mercury, up to atmos- pheric pressure, instead of from atmospheric to higher pressures, as in air compressor practice in general. The rotative dry vac- uum pump is distinguished from the air compressor by more care- ful design for the valves and passages, to insure that the rarefied air and vapors may freely enter the cylinder at the beginning of the stroke, and that they will be expelled completely at the end of the stroke. In the dry-air pump, which is illustrated herewith in cross section (Fig. 2) , this is accomplished by a special combination of mechanically op- erated and poppet valves. Com- munication between the con- denser and the pump barrel during the suction stroke is*es- tablished by a mechanically operated valve driven from an eccentric on the crank shaft at the completion of the stroke. The same valve serves to place the cylinder in communication with poppet valves which do not open to the atmosphere until the pressure within the cylinder has reached atmospheric pres- sure. At the end of the stroke the clearance space within the cylinder and the passages con- nected therewith contain air and vapors at atmospheric pressure. If these were allowed to remain, they would re-expand during the succeeding suction stroke and to a certain extent would reduce the capacity of the cylinder to take in a new charge of air from the condenser. In order to get rid of this compressed air in the clearance space, a special port has been provided in the mechanical valve shown in the drawing, which places the clear- ance space of what has just been the discharge side, for a brief moment, in communication with the other end of the cylinder which contains only an uncom- pressed charge. The remnant of the compressed charge in the clearance space then flows through the valve and mingles with the charge which is to be compressed, until an equality of pressure is reached. As it is un- avoidable that small quantities of water should be drawn in with the air in pumps of this character, the valves are placed at the bottom of the cylinder in order to secure perfect drainage. Both types of air pumps above described are widely used for other purposes than condensing steam engines or turbines: for instance, for withdrawing vapors and gases from evaporating pans and stills operated below atmos- pheric pressure; in certain proc- esses of creosoting, or otherwise treating wood, in which air is drawn out of the pores of the wood to permit more easily the entrance of the preserving liquid; in connection with certain proc- esses of dyeing, where it is found advantageous to secure more perfect evaporation by- means of a vacuum; and simi- larly, in certain methods of curing tobacco A series of rotary jet pumps, built upon the principle of the aspirator and injector (q.v.), have become of great importance in recent years, supplanting, to a considerable extent, the recipro- cating pumps for maintaining condenser vacuums. The fore- runner of the rotary jets was the Korting multi-jet condenser, which maintained 95 per cent, ideal vacuum without any mov- ing air pump. A ii.umber of jets sprayed the circulating water down past a series of eductor nozzles opening from the engine exhaust line. These jets both condensed the steam and swept out non-condensible gases by velocity influence. The first of the rotary jet pumps was invented by M. Leblanc, of France, and introduced into America by George Westing- house. With this a vacuum has been realized of about 99 per cent, ideal. A still further improvement in apparatus for producing high vacuums in steam - condenser work is represented by the Rado- jet vacuum pump. It operates on the dry-air principle and may be used to replace any other type of air pump. Its striking features are great simplicity, absence of moving parts and the necessity of lubrication, small weight, and minimum space occupied. The character- istic feature in the operation of the Radojet is the removal of air by means of steam jets, ar- ranged to act as ejectors and placed in series so as to form two stages. A sectional view of the Radojet pump is shown in Fig. 3. It communicates with the condenser by way of the suction opening A, which opens into a suction chamber B that surrounds the upper end of the expanding tube or diffuser C. Above the end of the diffuser and set so as to discharge into it are the expansion nozzles D that form the first-stage ejector. Live steam from an external source is admitted at R and passes through the strainer F, after which a part of it flows through the pipe G, steam valve H, and strainer / to the nozzles D. In passing through the nozzles the steam expands and s(i is discharged at a very high velocity across the upper end of the chamber B. The steam escaping from the nozzles picks up or entrains the air and vapors in the chamber B and carries them along into the diffuser C, from which the combined streams are discharged into the double passages J leading to the chambers K of the second- stage ejector. The chambers K are annular in form and are open at the centre, where the disks L and M are located. Fig. 3. — Radojet Vacuum Pump: Sectional View At the same time that steam enters the upper nozzles D, steam from the supply E flows by way of the chamber N to the disks L and M. These are so shaped and placed that the steam is discharged radially in a thin sheet that passes at high velocity across the central open- ings of the chambers K, entrain- ing the mixture of steam and air from the first stage and carrying it into the diffuser 0, at the same time compressing it to atmospheric pressure. From the diffuser it passes to the annular chamber P surrounding the diffuser and thence to the outlet Q. The position of the disk L with respect to M may be adjusted by the screw R and the expansion ratio of the steam may thus be changed as desired. Mercurial Air Pumps. — To obtain very low pressures — or high vacua, as they are called — recourse is had to mercury air pumps. In these, mercury pis- tons fall through glass tubes much as water slugs in the Le- blanc pump discharge. The two chief types are described in the Vol. I.— 030 Air Resistance 117 B Air Transport Routes article Vacuum. With the best mercury pumps it is possible to reduce the pressure to 4-mil- lionths of a millimetre of mercu- ry — i.e., less than 100-millionths of an atmosphere. The highest vacuum yet ob- tained — equal to a pressure of 0.0000002 mm. of mercury — has been produced by a simple ro- tary air pump devised by W. Gaede of Germany. A cylinder revolves at high speed (up to 12,000 r.p.m.) in a casing with an incomplete circumferential groove. The frictional drag of the cylinder on the gas in the groove forces the molecules to one end, and produces a definite pressure difference between the ends which is maintained at low pressures. By using the Gaede pump with an auxiliary ex- hauster, the approach to com- plete exhaustion of air and vapors needed for Roentgen-ray tubes, etc., is secured without the chemical treatment or freezing once employed to supplement the mercury pumps. Air Resistance, in Projec- tiles. See Projectiles. Air Sacs, in birds, are thin- walled chambers communicating with the lungs. They not only occur within the body cavity, but are usually continued into the cavities of the bones, rendering these pneumatic. The presence of these air sacs slightly lowers the specific gravity of the body; but their main function is un- doubtedly respiratory. The su- perficial air sacs also assist in regulating the body temperature. In the chameleon, among the reptiles, the lungs develop pro- longations which seem to fore- shadow the air sacs of birds. Airstiip. See Aeronautics; Balloons; Flying Machines. Air Space. See Ventilation. Air Transport Routes. Air transportation was welded as an integral part of the world's network of transportation facili- ties between 1927 and 1930, with more than 125,000 miles of civil airways in regular use by commercial air lines throughout the world in the summer of 1930. The United States and Ger- many each had services over more than 40,000 miles of air- ways. Latin America, including American and European owned lines, had about 25,000 miles of regularly flown routes, with the remainder in Australia and Asia. While Germany led the world in the development of air lines during the early years of trans- port development, the United States took the lead late in 1929. Passengers, mail and express were being flown 100,000 miles every 24 hours in the United States during the summerof 1930, serving a territory with 90,000,- 000 population. American air lines were flying one-third the Vol. I.— 030 distance between dusk and dawn on lighted airways, providing night service unparalleled any- where else in the world. According to statistics com- piled by the Aeronautical Cham- ber of Commerce of America, Inc., and published in 'The Air- craft Year Book for 1930,' America's major air transport lines flew 20,242,891 miles during 1929 as contrasted with 10,472,- 024 miles in 1928 and 5,242,839 miles in 1927. The American air lines carried 165,263 passengers in 1929 al- though the average rate per mile was above ten cents. With the lowering of rates on most air- ways early in 1930 came a huge volume of business which taxed the facilities of the transport companies. More than 6,000.000 pounds of mail were carried over the airways of the United States in 1929, doubling the best previous year's figures. Also outside the boundaries of the United States, air mail services were extensive, with more than 50 countries authorizing their foreign mail to be flown over international routes. In China and Japan, where the risks of theft and delay through the older means of transportation were current, air mail was introduced to insure greater regularity of service. Two American companies. Pan American Airways, Inc., and New York, Rio and Buenos Aires Line, are making remark- able progress in the development of a network of airways in Latin America. Further stimulation of traffic over these lines is certain through the cutting of the air mail rates between the United States and Latin American coun- tries from 33}4 to 50 per cent, effective January 1, 1930. The twenty-seven major transport lines in the United States em- ployed 619 planes in their services during 1929, 594 land planes, seven seaplanes, and 19 am- phibians. Single-engined planes (480) outnumbered all other classes, principally because of the large number of efficient mail and express planes so equipped. Seventeen had twin engines and 122 were tri-motored planes. Air cooled engines had the as- cendancy over other types with 836 in use, while 169 water cooled motors were employed. Huge tri-motored or twin- motored planes, seating from 10 to 18 passengers beside their crews, were favored on the ex- clusive passenger lines. Smaller planes for from five to eight passengers were used on lines feeding the trunk systems. The major transport lines de- veloped their own air terminals and intermediate landing fields on routes where public facilities were not available; installed weather reporting systems; and perfected radio communication from station-to-station and with planes in flight. They employed 2,867 persons, of which 372 were pilots and 1,425 mechanics or ground personnel. This tabulation demonstrates graphi- cally the need for about eight men on the ground for every pilot-employee in the air. Almost every important rail- road in the United States is now linked with some air transport line in providing com- bined air-rail service for mutual customers of the air and rail lines. Eleven air transport lines provide air-rail connections for their through passengers; i.e. Colonial Air Transport, Maddux Air Lines, Northwest Airways, Pan American Airways, Southern Air Transport, Southwest Air Fast Express, Standard Air Lines, Stout Air Services, Trans- continental Air Transport, Uni- versal Aviation Corporation and Western Air Express. The latter three provide through service from New York to Los Angeles and San Francisco through their railroad connec- tions. Universal Aviation Cor- poration, extending its existing lines to Garden City, Kan., and entering into an arrangement with the New York Central and Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe railroads, opened the first coast- to-coast air-rail service June 14, 1929. After more than a year of careful preparation. Transcon- tinental Air Transport organized especially for train and plane service between New York and Los Angeles, began its trans- continental operations July 8, 1929. It was linked with the Pennsylvania Railroad, which had a financial interest in the venture, and the Atchison, To- peka and Santa Fe Railroad. The Pennsylvania Railroad was the first to actively invest in air transport. The merger of Maddux Air Lines with Trans- continental Air Transport No- vember 16, 1929, brought the first through air-rail service from New York to San Fran- cisco. Western Air Express, flying between Kansas City and Los Angeles, linked its service with railroads entering Kansas City from the east to provide a third air-rail transcontinental service. Boeing Air Transport, Inc., a division of United Aircraft and Transport Corporation, operates the Chicago-San Francisco mail (C. A. M. 18) express and passenger route. Approximately twenty-five per cent, of the nation's air mail radiating into Chicago, Omaha, Cheyenne and Salt Lake is carried on the Boeing end of the transcontinental route. The first regular night passenger service with Boeing Air Transport Routes 117 Air Transport Routes tri-motored transports was in- augurated May 1, 1929 on the line between Oakland and Salt Lake City. Canadian-American Air Lines, Inc., a division of the Schlee- Brock Corporation, operate daily passenger service between Minneapolis, Winnepeg and in- termediate points, using Lock- heed monoplanes. Canadian Colonial Airways, Inc., a division of the Aviation Corporation, operates Foreign Air Mail Route 1 between New York and Montreal with ac- commodations for passengers. Fairchild cabin planes are used on the 334 daily schedule each way. Colonial Western Airways, Inc., a division of the Aviation Corporation, operates C. A. M. 20 between Albany, Buffalo and Cleveland. Sikorsky amphibians are used during the summer months, but Fairchild cabin planes are put into operation for the winter schedule of only one trip daily. Colonial Air Transport, Inc., another division of the Aviation Corporation, operates passenger service between New York and Boston with four round trips each day. Delta Air Service links Dallas, Tex., with Birmingham, Ala., by way of Shreveport, Monroe, Jackson, Tuscaloosa, Meridan, Birmingham, in an eight-hour passenger service. Embry-Riddle Company, operates C. A. M. 24 between Cincinnati and Chicago, with accommodations for pas- sengers as a division of the Aviation Corporation. Maddux Air Lines, operating a 599-mile daily service exclu- sively for passengers between Los Angeles-San Francisco and Los Angeles- Tia Juana and Agua Caliente flew more than 1.000.000 miles during 1929 and carried more than 40,000 pas- sengers. Mamer Air Transport inaugurated daily passenger ser- vice between Seattle, Portland, Spokane and intermediate cities in 1929, operating 11 planes on the routes. Tri-motored planes connecting with the line at Liv- ingston flew over Yellowstone National Park on daily trips in 1930. Midcontinent Air Express, closely affiliated with Western Air Express, operates a daily passenger service between Den- ver and El Paso, making con- nections at Alberquerque with Western Air Express planes fly- ing between Los Angeles and Kansas City. National Air Transport, Inc., one of the pioneer air mail con- tractors, carries on exclusive mail operation on three routes: New York-Chicago, Chicago- Dallas, and Tulsa-Ponca City, totaling 1,789 miles of airways. The Chicago-Kansas City day mail and express line was ex- tended to Dallas by way of Tulsa, giving the Oklahoma city both day and night service through connections with the night line from Chicago to the southwest over a spur line from Tulsa to Ponca City. More than 8,600 miles were being flown every 24 hours, half of the mileage at night, to meet the demands of heavy mail and express shipments. United Aircraft and Transport Cor- poration obtained control of the line in 1930. New York, Rio and Buenos Aires Line inaugurated the first mail and passenger service over a transcontinental air line in South America September 1, 1929, when the route between Buenos Aires and Santiago, Chile, was opened. The line is 850 miles in length, crossing the Andes at 17,000 feet and is operated on a seven-hour-and- fifteen-minute flying schedule. The first section of the route northward was opened August 21, 1929, between Buenos Aires and Montevideo, Uruguay. Mail was carried over the route under contracts with the governments of Argentina, Chile and Uruguay. In 1930 plans were completed for extending the line northward from Buenos Aires to Rio de Janeiro and opening a section between Florida and Cuba. The Pan American Airways system, including Pan American Airways, Inc., Mexican Aviation Company, Pan American Air- ways of Texas, Inc., and Pan- American- Grace Airways Inc., operates over 12,919 of airways which bring scores of centres in Central and South America within days or hours of the United States as compared with weeks of travel under older modes of transportation. It operates Foreign Air Mail Con- tracts 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. The eight routes are: Miami to Para- maribo, Dutch Guiana, 2,787 miles; Miami to Cristobal, C. Z. 2,074 miles; Miami to Nassau, Bahamas, 200 miles; Cristobal, C. Z., to Curacoa, Dutch West Indies, 1,023 miles; Brownsville, Tex., to Mexico City, 472 miles; Brownsville to Guatemala City, 1,155 miles; Tampico, Mexico, to Merida, Yucatan, 766 miles; and Cristobal, C. Z., to Buenos Aires, Arg., 4,442 miles. Southern Air Express provides exclusive passenger service be- tween Jackson, Miss., Mont- gomery, Ala., and Atlanta, Ga., over a 400-mile route. Weekly vservice is maintained over the route. Southern Air Transport, Inc., a division of the Aviation Cor- poration, operates three passen- ger routes, totaling 1,334 miles, and four mail routes totaling 1,634 miles. Standard Air Lines, closely affiliated with Western Air Ex- press, operates daily passenger service from Los Angeles to El Paso. Stout Air Lines, the oldest ex- clusively passenger air trans- port organization in the United States, extended its service to Battle Creek, Mich., Kalamazoo, Mich., South Bend, Ind., and Toledo, Ohio, November 1, 1929. The extension was made on the second anniversary of operation on the Detroit-Cleve- land route and one year of oper- ation on the Detroit-Chicago division. Thompson Aeronautical Cor- poration operates a trans-lake service between Detroit and Cleveland with four round trips a day, making the 91-mile flight in 55 minutes. Transcontinental Air Transport, Inc., operates a coast-to-coast air-rail service in connection with the Pennsyl- vania and Santa Fe railroads with stops at Columbus, Dayton, Indianapolis, St. Louis, Kansas City, Wichita, Waynoka, Clovis, Alberquerque, Kingman and Los Angeles on the airway division of the service. United States Airways, Inc., provides daily service between Kansas City and Denver exclusively for passengers. Universal Aviation Corpora- tion, a division of the Aviation Corporation, opened the first coast-to-coast air rail service June 14, 1929, in conjunction with the New York Central and Santa Fe Railroads. Passenger lines of the corporation operate between Cleveland - Chicago - Kansas City-Garden City-Kan.; between St. Louis and Chicago; between Chicago-Kansas City- Omaha; between Kansas City- Wichita -Oklahoma City -Tulsa and Dallas. Western Air Express operates two mail routes, and also offers an extensive passenger service. Daily passenger service is provided be- tween Los Angeles and Kansas City, 1,420 miles on a twelve-hour schedule. Some kind of aeronautic deve- lopment has taken place in sixty- three nations, widely distributed over every continent in the world, but this article can mention only the air lines of some of the more important countries. In Australia, three large com- panies operate six regular air lines over routes totaling 7,858 miles, the oldest and longest of these services being from Perth to Derby, a distance of 1,467 miles. In Austria, the German Luft Hansa operates regular air ser- vice from Vienna by way of Prague to Berlin, and by way of Vol. I.— 030 Air Transport Routes 117 C Alsne Salzburg to Munich. The Companie Internationale de Navigation Aerienne, a French line, links Vienna, Prague and Strasbourg with Paris. A Polish lirie, the Polska Linia Lotnicza 'Aerolot, operates a service to Warsaw and the Italian border; and the Trans- adriatica Societa Anonima di Navigazione Aerea of Ancona provides a service from Vienna to Venice, with connections for other cities in Italy. Belgium has mail and pas- senger lines radiating from Brus- sels to London and Cologne. An air line connecting Belgium with her African colony, Belgian Congo, is to be opened in 1930 over the 7,500-mile route with an air mail service operated by the Societe Anonyme Beige d' Ex- ploitation de la Navigation Aerienne, or S. A. B. E. N. A. company, which holds the major operating concessions. Bulgarian air lines operate from Bulgaria to Jugoslavia, Hungary, Austria, Czechoslo- vakia, Switzerland, Germany, Poland, France, Belgium, Den- mark, Spain, Norway, Holland, Sweden, Turkey and England. In China, Aviation Explora- tion, Inc., a subsidiary of the Curtiss-Wright interests, was organized as a $10,000,000 en- terprise to operate air mail lines in China under contract with the government. The first lines to be established con- nected Nanking with Peking, Canton with Hankow, and Shan- ghai with Hankow by way of Nanking. The Czechoslovak state-con- trolled air lines run in coopera- tion with the German Luft Hansa and Austrian Air Traffic Company. In France, Aeropostale, the principal operator, maintains regular service between Toulouse and Casablanca; Marseilles and Perpignan; Casablanca and Da- kar; France and South America; Toulouse and Bordeaux; and Marseilles and Algiers. Air- Union operates lines between Paris and London, Paris and Marseilles; Antibes and Tunis; and Lyon and Geneva. Com- pagnie Internationale de Naviga- tion Aerienne, generally known as Cidna, grew out of the Com- pagnie Franco-Roumaine estab- lished in 1920, and received government subsidies from France, Czechoslovakia, Rou- mania, Jugoslavia, and Poland. The Societe General de Trans- ports Aeriens, the S.G.T.A. or Farman lines, operates daily service between Paris and Am- sterdam; Paris and Berlin; and Paris and Saarbrucken. German aviation is identified chiefly with the principal operat- ing company, the (German Luft Vol. I— .030 Hansa, although there is a small operating company in Bavaria known as the Nordbayerische Verkehrsfiug. Some of the principal mail and passenger routes include: Berlin-Hanover- Amsterdam - London; Berlin- Danzig - Koenigsburg; Berlin- Hanover - Koln - Brussels - Paris; Berlin-Stettin; Berlin-Hamburg- Travemunde - Copenhagen - Malmo; Berlin - Leipzig - Nurn- berg-Munchen; Berlin-Leipzig- Stuttgart-Zurich; Basel-Barce- lona; Berlin-Gleiwitz; Berlin- Frankfurt-Mannheim; Heidel- berg - Dusseldorf-Essen; Berlin- Dresden- Prag-Wien; Genf -Zu- rich- Budapest; Freiburg-Stutt- gart - Munchen; Frankfurt- Darmstadt; Frankfurt - Koln; Dormund - Koln; Frankfurt - Nurnberg; Dortmund-Hanover; Hanover - Magdeburg - Berlin; Bremen - Hanover - Leipzig - Prague; Hamburg- Kiel-Flens- burg; and Essen-Dusseldorf. In Great Britain, Imperial Airways, Ltd., operates the principal air lines to foreign countries with a virtual mo- nopoly. Service is maintained daily between London, Brussels and Cologne, and between Lon- don, Paris and Basle. Regular service between England and India was inaugurated in March, 1929, over one of the longest air routes in the world, stretching 5,000 miles across ten different countries. In Italy, seven Italian air lines employ 7O0 aircraft, mostly seaplanes and flying boats, on nearly a score of lines throughout Italy and stretching into western and northern Europe through connections with the important German, French and British systems. Services to the Near East, Northern Africa and Spain also are in operation by the Italian lines or through connec- tions at terminals outside Italy. In Poland, several semi-private air transportation companies were in operation until January 1, 1929, when the government decided that an all-government organization should be formed to replace the subsidized companies. The new organization maintains service between Warsaw and Danzig; Warsaw- Poznan; War- saw- Katowice ; Warsa w-L wo w ; Krakow - Katowice - Brno - Vien - na; Katowice- Vienna; Katowice- Poznan; and Poznan- Bydgoszca- Gdansk. In Spain: the Union Aerea Espanola air service links Madrid and Seville, Madrid and Lisbon, and Seville and Lisbon. In the Union of Socialistic Soviet Republics, thirteen air lines provide passenger, freight and mail service. Most of the lines operate throughout the year with the exception of the Moscow- Berlin, Leningrad-Riga and Moscow-Irkutsk lines, which are in service only from May until December. Although sever- al radiate from Moscow, the capital, most of them provide service to the outlying regions such as the Caucasus and the Central Asiatic Republics. Airy, ar'i. Sir George Bid- dell (1801-1892), English as- tronomer, was born in Alnwick. He was graduated as senior wrangler from Trinity College, Cambridge (1823); was nomi- nated Lucasian professor of mathematics in 1826, and Plu- mian professor of astronomy and director of the New Cam- bridge observatory in 1828. In 1835 he succeeded John Pound as astronomer royal and entered upon a period of activity at Greenwich, which extended over forty-six strenuous years. The magnetic department was creat- ed by him in 1838; and the spectroscopic department in 1868. He initiated also the electrical registration of transits, and the photographic record of sun spots; observed the solar eclipses of 1842, 1851, and 1860 in Italy, Sweden, and Spain respectively; organized the tran- sit of Venus expeditions in 1874; and was in charge of the obser- vations for determining the boundary between the United States and Canada. His pub- lished works include Astronom- ical Observations at Cambridge and Greemvich (20 vols., 1829- 57); Catalogue of 2,156 Stars (1849); Ipswich Lectures on Astronomy (1851); Algebraic il and Numerical Theory of Errors of Observations (1861); Undula- tory Theory of Optics (1866); At- mos pheric Chromatic Dispersion (1869); Magnetism (1871). Aisha. See Ayeshah. Aisle, il, the lateral subdi- vision of a church parallel to the choir, nave, or transept, from which it is divided by a row of columns or wall piers. In Gothic architecture the breadth of the church is divided into three or five parts by two or four rows of pillars, the middle division being called the nave (q.v.), the other the side aisles. The word is also popu- larly applied to the passage in a church or hall between the pews or seats. Aisle, in heraldry, used when the wings are blazoned of a differ- ent tincture from the animal. Aisne, an, department, North- ern France, comprising parts of Picardy, Brie, and the Isle of France and forming for a few miles the French frontier toward Belgium. Hilly in the south, level in the north, it belongs to the basin of the Seine. It is crossed in a south- westerly direction by the Osie River (having its source in Alsne 117 D Aisne, Battles of Belgium), by the Aisne toward its middle in a westerly direction, and by the Marne in the south. The department is fertile, and in normal times two-thirds of the area is under cultivation. Wheat and the sugar beet are the staple crops; flax, hemp, and hops are also widely culti- vated. Manufactures are ex- tensive, and include iron found- ries, chemical works, weaving and spinning of cotton, wool, and silk, brewing and distilling, flour milling, and the manufacture of sugar, mirrors, and agricultu- ral implements. Capital, Laon. Area, 2,868 square miles. Pop. (1901) 535,583; (1911) 530,226. The department was overrun by the (jermans in the early days of the Great War (1914- 19), and was the scene of some of the most bitter fighting of the war. See Aisne, Battles of; Chateau- Thierry; Sois- soNS; St. Quentin. Aisne, river (ancient Axona), rises in the department of Meuse, traverses the depart- ments of Ardennes, Aisne, and Oise, passing through Vouziers and Soissons, and joins the Oise near Compiegne. It is connected by canals with the other im- portant rivers of the region. Length, 175 miles. See Aisne, Battles of. Aisne, Battles of the, a name given to a number of engagements in the Great War of Europe (q. v.) . First Battle. —On Sept. 12, 1914, following the retreat of the First Battle of the Marne (see Marne, Battles of), the Germans occupied the line of positions on the Aisne and the Suippe which they had previously prepared against such an emergency, a line which is one of the strongest defences in Europe. To the north of the Aisne valley rises a steep ridge, the scarp of a great plateau, ranging in height from 200 feet above Compiegne, in the west, to over 450 feet in the high bluff's of Craonne in the east. The top of the plateau cannot be seen from the valleys or the high ground to the south, as it is muffled everywhere by a cloak of woods which dip over the edge and descend for some dis- tance toward the river. The German positions commanded all the crossings of the river and most of the roads on the south bank. On the Suippe their posi- tion was even stronger. Here they had a natural glacis before them and across the river could command the bare swelling downs for miles, the blindness of the crests making it impossible for the German trenches to be detected. The line crossed the Champagne-Pouilleuse. with the Bazancourt-Grand Pre railway behind it. and rested on the Ar- VoL. I.— Oct. '19 gonne (q. v.). to the east of which the Crown Prince's army was attacking Verdun from Mont- faucon to the Woevre (see Ver- dun. Battles of). Von Kluck. with the First German Army, held the western section from the Forest of the Eagle to the plateau of Craonne. He had against him Maunoury's Sixth French Army, three Corps of the British Army under Sir John French, and D'Esperey's Fifth French Army. Von Bue- low held the ground on Von Kluck's left, from the Aisne crossing at Berry-au-Bac, along the line of the Suippe. The Saxon general. Von Hausen, having fallen sick, was relieved of his command, and the Saxon troops were joined to Von Bue- low's forces. Against Von Buelow was ranged Foch's Ninth French Army. The line of North- ern Champagne was defended by the Duke of Wiirtemberg, who joined hands in the Argonne with the Crown Prince. The French in Champagne were Langle's Fourth Army advanc- ing against the Bazancourt- Grand Pre line. The Crown Prince was faced by Sarrail's Third Army, which at once en- trenched itself and enlarged the Verdun enceinte in order to keep the big German howitzers out of range. South of the Woevre, linked with Sarrail by the forts of the Meuse. the Second Army of de Castelnau was facing the Bavarians, while Dubail held a portion of the Vosges and rested his right on Belfort. On Sept 11 and 12 the Allied armies had believed the enemy to be in full retreat, but by the change of conditions which they now met. they were puzzled to decide whether he meant to make a serious stand or was only fighting delaying actions preparatory to a further retire- ment. As it was. General Joff"re decided to make a frontal at- tack, which would be the natural course against a retreating en- emy who had merely stopped to show his fangs. The first fighting was an affair of advanced Allied cavalry and strong German rearguard ac- tion. By the close of the day, Sept. 13, most of the Allied ar- mies had crossed the Aisne. During the next five days there was a series of attacks and coun- ter-attacks which resulted as follows: Maunoury's Sixth Army had secured a hold on the top of the plateau securely entrench- ed above the villages of Aut- reches and Nouvron facing the German main works, while his left continued its flanking move- ment up the Oise, steadily closing in on Von Kluck's right. The First Corps of the British Army held a key position on the Chemin-des-Dames. D'Esperey's Fifth Army was storming the Craonne escarpment in vain. Foch's Ninth Army fell back on Rheims, while the Germans held the heights of Brimont to the north and Nogent I'Abbesse to the east of that city, upon which they trained their artil- lery. To the right Langle's Fourth Army, though only three miles from the Bazancourt- Grand Pre railway, held its own but found it impossible to break through the barrier. Sept. 18 is known as the end of the First Battle of the Aisne, as it marked the conclusion of the attempt of the Allies to break down the German positions by a frontal attack. The past five days convinced the Allies that this was no rearguard action but a long-thought-out defence of an army ready and willing for bat- tle. The forces were too evenly matched to produce anything better than stalemate, and con- tinued assault meant a useless waste of life. The Allies en- trenched themselves and con- tinued a long campaign of sap and mine. On Sept. 20 De Castelnau with the newly formed Seventh French Army fell in on Maunoury's left, and ten days later Maud'huy's new Tenth Army took position on the left of the Seventh Army. By the 6th of October Maud'huy with the aid of the marines occu- pied the Albert plateau in the face of a strong German opposi- tion. Not less than 50,000 Germans were put out of action in this battle, while the Allied loss was considerably less. Second Battle— On April 1, 1917, the Aisne positions and battle lines were the same as those following the battles of September and October, 1914, with one exception — in June, 1915, Von Kluck had driven a broad shallow wedge in the Allied front which gave him the south bank of the Aisne from Missy-sur-Aisne to a little east of (^havonne. (See Soissons, Battle of). The front upon which a second battle was then planned was fifty miles of ver}^ difficult terrain, the nature of which has already been de- scribed. With the exception of the front at Troyon, the Ger- mans occupied the dominating positions. Gen. Nivelle, of Verdun fame, was in command of the French armies on this front. In a new offensive in which he deliberately departed from the tactics of the Somme — the advance by steady stages to limited objectives — he planned to crush through the German line facing his front. His plan was to force the Aisne heights in one bold assault from Alsne, Battles of 117 E Alsne, Battles of west, south, and southeast; at the same moment to carry the Rheims heights from the north; and to launch his centre through the gap from Craonne to Bri- mont between the other two as- saults into the plain of Laon. Next day a fresh army would at- tack the Moronvilliers massif to distract the German counter- attack, and protect his own right flank. The French armies were di- vided into three main groups — the Eastern, under De Castel- nau; the Central, under Pe- tain; and the Northern, under D'Esperey. A fourth group, a reserve, was under Micheler. Nivelle proposed to put into action the centre and right wing of Micheler's group from Ailette to Rheims — in order, the Sixth Army, under Mangin, between Laffaux and Hurtebise, and the Fifth Army, under Mazel, be- tween Hurtebise and Rheims. The Tenth Army, under Du- chesne, was in reserve. East of Rheims, the day after the main attack, the Fourth Army under Anthoine, would begin the Mo- ronvilliers battle. It was the largest front of attack on the West since the Marne, and the divisions of assault employed were three times those which Haig had used at Arras (q. v.). On the German side the Army Group of the Crown Prince ex- tended from the Oise to Verdun. In the area of attack lay two armies — the Seventh, under Von Boehn, from La Fere to Craonne, and the First, under Fritz von Below, from Craonne to Cham- pagne. The front was defended by not less than 350,000 in- fantry, and by a great mass of artillery and machine guns. The battle was preceded with violent artillery action on the fifty-mile front, as a preparation to baffle the Germans as to the point of attack, which was to fol- low after an all-night blizzard of sleet, which cleared at dawn. The French infantry crossed the parapets at 6 a.m., April 16, in an attack on the Germans from the left of Laffaux to east of Rheims, and almost at once the pall of storm closed in again on the battlefield. Anthoine opened his attack on the Moronvilliers massif the next day. Then followed a con- tinuous battle of attacks and counter-attacks along the whole line in accordance with Nivelle's plans until April 30. But as Nivelle did not gain his objective — the road to Laon was as firmly barred as ever — in the time calculated, discouragement and dissatisfaction arose through- out France, resulting in the re- vival of the office of Chief of the General Staff in the French War Ministry to which Petain was Vol. I.— Oct. '19 appointed. He ordered the re- sumption of the limited objective tactics. Finally on May 15, in conformity with the new trend of events, Petain succeeded Ni- velle as Commander-in-chief of the Frerich armies of the north and northeast, and Foch suc- ceeded the former as Chief of the General Staff in Paris. From then until May 20 the French action was mainly for the im- provement of their lines, which they held against violent Ger man counter-attacks on May 21, 23, and 24. The Second Battle of the Aisne lasted a little more than a month. It did not achieve the aim of the French High Com- mand, which was the disloca- tion of the southern point of the Siegfried Line, and to that extent may be written down a failure, but it was far from barren of results. It engaged and destroyed a large num- ber of German divisions; it used up a quantity of the best German 'shock-troops'; and it cost the enemy positions which were essential to his comfort, and ultimately, to his security. The Germans had lost all the banks of the Aisne, from Soissons to Berry-au-Bac and all the spurs of the Aisne heights, while the French held the centre of the tablelands. The French, took and held a greater part of the Chemin-des-Dames and all but one position in the Forest of Vauclerc on the California Pla- teau; in addition, they con- trolled the whole summit ridge of the Moronvilliers massif. The French captured 33,900 prisoners, including 270 officers, 227 field guns, 161 trench mor- tars, and 515 machine guns. The Second Battle of the Aisne, as far as the main oper- ations were concerned, finished with the capture of the California Plateau on May 5, but it con- tinued to drag out with sharp and costly fighting for more than 100 days. The French resisted continuous German counter-attacks to regain their lost positions, but on June 25 Petain launched an offensive against the spur north of Hurte- bise. The spur was honey- combed by the great limestone grotto known as the Dragon's Cave, the southern entrance of which had been closed by a shell explosion, but the northern en- trance was still in the hands of the Germans and their position commanded the Vauclerc Pla- teau. After a hard struggle, during the day of June 25, the spur was carried, the northern outlet of the cave seized, and some thousand prisoners were taken. Following the successes at Verdun during August and Sep- tember, Petain launched a sec- ond autumn battle against the Germans. He chose that part of the Aisne where the enemy still had a foothold, the western end of the Chemin-des-Dames be- tween AUemant and Malmaison, his aim being to clear the enemy wholly off the heights and to ad- vance to the banks of the Ailette. He chose the triangle between the Aisne-Oise Canal and Sois- sons, for his attempt, where, if he could press the Germans back to the flats, he would compel a general retirement. His battle was staged superbly with an initial front of four miles from Laffaux Mill to La Royers farm where the Sixth Army, now under Maistre, attacked Von Miiller's forces of Von Boehn's Seventh Army. The bombardment be- gan October 17 and was di- rected mainly to breaking the roofs and sealing up entrances to underground caverns which con- stituted one of the main German defences. Mont Parnasse, one of the big- gest quarries behind Malmaison. had been shattered by 16-inch shells several days before. On October 22 the bombardment increased in fury, and at 5:15 A.M. the next day, in rain and fog, the French Infantry crossed the parapets. Their success was immediate and unbroken. The first rush brought them to the line from Le Fruty to the quarries of Boehry. The next bound gave the centre the fort of Malmaison. The German resistance in Mont Par- nasse quarry gave way as the centre descended the northern slopes taking Chavignon. This position was of extreme impor- tance as it gave a clear view of Laon and commanded all the eastern course of the Ailette. Meantime the French left had taken the villages of Allemant and Vaudesson, and the right was on the crest overlooking Pargny and Filain. That day an advance of 2§ miles was made on a four-mile front with 8,000 prisoners and many guns. The Germans were in a position in which they could not remain. During the next three days Maistre swept on. The Ger- mans having evacuated Mont des Singes, he took Pinon in the flats, pushed through Pinon woods to the Aisne-Oise Canal, and en- tered Pargny and Filain. Pres- ently the two armies faced each other across the marshy valley bottom. The Germans were in sore straits, for the new French positions commanded the flank of the Forest of Coucy, enfilading their remaining front on the Aisne hills east of Filain. On November 2, Von Miiller fell back altogether from the hills, and the French entered Courte- Alsne» Battles of 117F Ainse, Battles of Qon, Cerny-en-Laonnois, Allies, and Chevreux, the villages which had seen the fiercest of the mid- summer fighting. After six months' battle the Heights of the Aisne, on which the Germans had, for three years, been en- trenched, were again in the hands of the French. Third Battle. — The success of Von Hindenburg's armies in the West during April and May, 1918, keyed the German people to a high pitch of confidence. The Germans still had a superiority in numbers over the Allies; they also had the strategic initiative and the advantage of interior lines. Ludendorff still aimed at the separation of the British and French armies, and for him the vital terrain was still the Somme. But he did not consider that the time was ripe for the final blow, ^ and he resolved to repeat his Lys * experiment, and strike first in a different area — this time the Aisne — with the object of ex- hausting Foch's reserves and stripping bare his centre. About May 20 the Army group of the Crown Prince had mus- tered forty divisions for the at- tempt, twenty-five for the first wave and fifteen in reserve. The two armies allotted to the task were the Seventh Army, under Von Boehn, on the right; and the First Army, under Fritz von Below, on the left. They lay between the Ailette and Rheims, wholly to the north and east of the plateau; while on the heights was a part of D'Esper- ev's, Sixth French Army; under General Maistre, with only the Eleventh Corps of four divisions in line. On their right lay the British Ninth Corps, under Lieut.-Gen. A. Hamilton Gor- don, which had recently been withdrawn from Flanders. It held the California Plateau and the Craonne, and extended as far south as Bermericourt, with three divisions in line, and one in reserve on the left wing. Around Rheims lay the Fifth French Army, with Gouraud's Fourth French Army on its right, ex- tending into Champagne. On Sunday, May 26, 1918, all was quiet in the threatened area; although the first news of an impending attack came from a prisoner taken by the French that day. At 1 a.m.. May 27, a sharp bombardment began everywhere from the Ail- ette to the suburbs of Rheims. At 4 o'clock the infantry ad- vanced, and in two hours had swept the French from the crest of the ridge. By nightfall the Germans had crossed the Aisne, and reached the Vesle in an ad- vance of 12 miles on the left of the line. Von Below fared less well against the Ninth British Corps, which held its second pj- VOL. I. — Oct. '19 sition throughout the day, but was slowly driven back until its left linked with the Sixth French Army at Fismes. The battle now reached the district of the Tardenois, that upland which is the watershed between the Aisne and the Marne. It was LudendorfT's de- sire to push for the Marne at his best speed; but the difficulty lay with his flanks. So long as Soissons and Rheims held he would be forced by every day's advance into a narrower salient. On May 28 he succeeded in forc- ing back the containing Allied wings. That day the first U. S. Division, brigaded with the Third French Army, attacked in the Montdidier section and took the village of Cantigny, along with 170 prisoners. Three furious counter-assaults failed to retake the place. On May 29 the broadening of the salient began in earnest, and Soissons fell. By the close of May 30. the Germans had advanced over 30 miles in the past 72 hours and occupied 10 miles of the Marne from Dormans to just east of Chateau-Thierry. The next day the German right made con- siderable advance, while Von Below's attacks at Rheims on June 1 and 2 were without results. The Germans now advanced their right, occupying a line from Pontoise on the Oise to Favor- elles on the Ourcq, to the heights of Chateau-Thierry as far as Chezy-sur- Marne. While the Crown Prince had used 41 divisions, thereby exhausting his reserves, he had not as yet drawn upon the resources of neighboring commanders. The situation was very grave. Conse- quently the French brought up fresh reserves. The next three or four days saw a series of at- tacks and counter-attacks with small gains. The American troops had been brought into action on the western and southern side of the salient, and counter-attacked with success west of Torcy, and defeated an attempt to ford the Marne at Jaulgonne, The French and the Americans took Neuilly-la-Po- terie and Bouresches, and the French captured the important Hill 204 above Chateau-Thierry on June 7. About this time Von Boehn, having exhausted his strength, called a halt, and ac- cording to practice announced a victory including the capture of 55,000 prisoners and 650 guns. It had proved impossible to carry away the gate-posts by means of the two armies already engaged, consequently it was necessary to bring the force on the right into action. On Sun- day, July 9, Von Hutier at- tacked the Allies on the Mont- didier-Noyon front on most of which he failed — as there was lacking an element of surprise — except for a local gain of six miles on a short front in the cen- tre. The Germans continued their former tactics but were less successful, while the French were notably quicker in the counter- attack. The battle front was now gi- gantic, not less than 100 miles from Mesnil St. George to Rheims. For the rest of the month there was a nip-and-tuck struggle without any advantages to either side. On June 11, the French made a few minor gains on their left, and between the Ourcq and the Marne the Amer- icans made a fine advance at Belleau Wood (q. v.) and took 300 prisoners. The Germans made a few local gains on the French left on June 12; but the fruitless attack on the same front next day closed the Von Hutier subsidiary operation. Having failed on his right flank, the Crown Prince now made an effort on his left. On June 18, Von Below, under- rating the defence of Rheims, used only three divisions in a futile attack on that front. Al- though encircled on three sides, the city of Rheims stoutly held out with the aid of the Allies on the massif of the Montagne of Rheims to the south and southwest. This Montagne the Germans now recognized needed serious effort before further suc- cess on the Marne could be made. For the better part of the month silence fell on the battle-front, broken only by attacks of the French and British, which, in every case were successful. Last Actions on the Aisne. — In the Second Battle of he Marne (1918), Mangin with the Tenth French Army struck at dawn on Thursday, Aug, 1, and by 9 A.M. took Hill 205. That hill was a key position which was now held against two coun- ter-attacks. Von Boehn ad- mitted defeat as his front was turned between the Ourco and the Vesle and his hold on oois- sons was fatally loosened. Then followed a retirement of the Ger- man Seventh Army while Man- gin continued the advance, enter- tering Soissons and Billy-sur- Aisne the next day. On Aug. 4 Von Boehn- reached the line of the Aisne and the Vesle, This new German position was not altogether what they desired, as the Chemin-des-Dames and the heights of the Vesle do not form one continuous ridge, for there is the valley of the Aisne between; and on the east side the hills die away into levels, with Rheims as an Allied out- post to menace that flank. The Germans remembered the strength of the Aisne defenres Alsne, Battles of 118 Alx in 1914 and now turned to them as a natural refuge. The German dream of an at- tack on Amiens was gone for- ever, the initiative had passed to the Allies, and Ludendorfif's one aim was to find security for the coming winter. He hoped the French would waste their strength on the new Aisne front. He hoped in vain, as Foch had no desire to waste any time in operations that were not vital. All was quiet on the Aisne until 6 A.M., Sunday, Aug. 18, when Mangin's Tenth Army struck between the Oise and the Aisne. It was a strictly lim- ited operation on a 10-mile front. The advance was a mile in depth and gave the French the plateau west of Nampcel with 1,700 prisoners. It was an adroit performance, for Von Boehn, much harassed by re- quests for reinforcements every- where, disregarded the business as only a local attack. He with- drew his troops there to the bat- tle zone and waited. The next day Mangin, by cunningly vary- ing his hour of attack to the con- fusion of the enemy, pressed in on a broader front and took Morsain. On Aug. 20, on a 16- mile front he approached the Ailette, taking 8,000 prisoners and 200 guns. He had estab- lished himself firmly on the western part of the Heights of the Aisne, and threatened alike the German line on that river and their line west of the Oise. Von Boehn used three divisions of his reserve but they were too late to save the critical ground. The result was that on the even- ing of Aug. 20 the whole front was closely engaged on the 100 miles between the Avre and the Vesle, and Von Boehn and the Crown Prince had every man they could muster involved in its defence. On the night of the 20th Mangin, having done his work, held his hand. Mangin gained ground be- tween the Oise and Aisne rivers in an advance on Aug. 30. The next day he pushed north of the Ailette to the west of Coucy-le- Ch^teau, and Sept. 5 found him well north of the Ailette, while his right wing was moving east- ward along the Chemin-des- Dames, and the French and Americans of the Sixth and Fifth Armies had driven the Germans from the Vesle. and stood on the crest between that stream and the Aisne. Man- gin's pincers were also feeling at the St. Gobain massif, which played to the south of the Sieg- fried zone the part which the Drocourt-Queant Switch had been meant to play in the north. Here, however, the French had a difficult problem, for the gap between the St. Gobain Forest Vol. I.— Oct. '19 and the Oise and the valley of the Ailette were alike too nar- row for an easy advance. By Sept. 24 Mangin had fought his way to the edge of the Chemin- des-Dames. On Sept. 28 Mangin and Guillaumat struck between the Ailette and the Vesle. In two days this new attack gained a depth of 3^ miles, with the Italian divisions strongly press- ing the centre. By Sept. 30, Mangin's front ran from Bourg to Filain, then along the south bank of the Ailette to the west of Anizy-le-Chiteau, while Guil- laumat had taken Montigny and Revillion to the east. On Oct. 1 Mangin had regained the west- ern part of the Chemin-des- Dames, and Guillaumat had reached the Aisne and cleared all the land between that river and the Vesle. The Tenth and Fifth French Armies occupied the whole of the Chemin-des- Dames and the Germans were in retreat from the Craonne Pla- teau on Oct. 11. These same forces occupied more than half of the Laon massif during the next two days, with the Germans in full retreat all along the line. On Oct. 14 Laon and LaFere were taken by Mangin; this with the captures of Cambrai and St, Quentin completed the demolish- ment of the key positions of the famous Hindenburg line. A'l'sse, a-e-sa'. or Haidee, Mademoiselle (1694 - 1733), daughter of a Circassian chief, was carried off in early child- hood by the Turks, and sold in the slave market at Constanti- nople to the Count de Ferriol, French ambassador (1698). Brought by him to France, and educated, she became famous for her extraordinary beauty and ac- complishments, as well as for her virtuous life amid the profligacies of the court during the Regency. Her letters to Mme. de Calan- drini and Chevalier d'Aydie were published with Voltaire's notes (1787). _ Aistulf, Is'toolf, or Astolf (d. 756), king of the Lombards, took possession of Ravenna (752) and threatened Rome, where Stephen in. occupied the papal throne. By the armed inter- vention, in 755, of Pepin, (q. v.) king of the Franks, he was forced to abandon his threaten- ing attitude, and made amends to the pope. In the following year he laid siege to Rome, but was attacked by Pepin, who compelled him to retire, and to surrender Ravenna. Aitken, a t' k e n, R~o B e'r t Grant (1864),' American 'as- tronomer, was born in Jackson, Cal. He was graduated from Williams College (1887; A. M. 1892; sc.D. 1917), and was in- structor in mathematics, Liver- more College, from 1888 to 1891, and professor of mathe- matics and astronomy. Uni- versity of the Pacific, from 1891 to 1895, when he became astrono- mer at Lick Observatory. He lectured in astronomy at the summer session of the Univer- sity of California (1908-9, 1913, 1919), and was a member of the Lick Observatory Eclipse Expedition to Flint Island (1908) . He discovered some 3,000 double stars, and in 1906, was awarded the Lalande Prize by the French Academy of Sciences for his discoveries. He is editor of the publications of the Astronomical Society of the Paci- fic (1897-1908, 1911-).and of the A dolfo Stahl Lectures in A stronomy (1919), and author of Measures of Double Stars . . . from June 1895, to December 1912, (1914). and The Binary Stars (1918). Aitken, Robert Ingersoll (1878), American sculptor, was born in San Francisco, Cal. He studied at the Mark Hopkins Institute of Art, California, was subsequently professor of sculp- ture (1901-04) in that institu- tion, and from 1904 to 1907 resided in Paris. Among his important works are the Mc- Kinley Monument (1903), Bret Harte Monument (1904), Hall McAlHster Monument (1904), and monument to the American Navy, all in San Francisco; monuments to William Mc- Kinlev at St. Helena and Berkley, Cal., and to Elihu Burritt at New Britain, Conn.; basts of August Thomas, David Warfield, Mme. Modjeska, W. H. Taft, N. S. Shaler, Bret Harte, Henry A, Jones, and others; the bronze doors for the mausoleums of B. J. Green- hut and John W. Gates; the Bliss Memorial at Woodlawn; Bacchante (1908); The Flame (1909) ; Fragment (1909), and Michelangelo at Work upon His Statue of the Day (1912). For the Panama-Pacific Exposition (1915) he executed four titanic figures — Fire, Air, Water, and Earth — and the Fountain of the Earth. He is an Academician, and a member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters. As a captain in the U. S. Nation- al Army, he served two years in the Great War (1917-19). Aivallk, i'va-lek, Aiwalik, or Kydonia (ancient Heracleia). seaport town, Aisa Minor, on the Gulf of Endremid (Adramyti), 66 miles northwest of Smyrna. Formerly a place of consider able trade, it was burned by the Turks in 1821, but has since revived. It exports oil, soap, skins, and flour. Pop. 25,000. chiefly Greek. Aix, aks or as, small island opposite the mouth of the Cha- rente, department Charcnte-In- Aix 119 AkashI ferieur, France. It forms the outer defence for Rochefort. In 1808 and 1809 naval battles in the roads took place between English and French. Here Napo- leon, on board the Bellerophon, surrendered to the English (July 15, 1815). Aix, aks, or Aix-en-Provence (ancient Aquce Sextice), town, France, in the department of Bourches-du-Rhone; 22 miles north of Marseilles. It was formerly the capital of Provence and enjoyed a wide reputation as a watering-place. Features of interest are the Cathedral of St. Sauveur, a fine Renaissance structure datmg from the 11th century; the Palais de Justice; the Hotel de Ville; and the Museum of Fine Arts with an excellent collection of paintings. The town was formerly the seat of the Facultes d'Aix, a cele- brated university organized in 1409 as the University of Aix, but now incorporated with the University of Marseilles. The University library is one of the finest in Southern France. The leading industries are olive culti- vation, cotton spinning, flour milling, and the manufacture of hats, ironware, and confec- tionery. Pop. (1921) 29,983. Aix-ia-CIiapelle, -la sha-pel', or Aachen, city, Prussia, in the Rhine province, capital of the district of Aachen, is situated in a fertile basin surrounded by wooded heights, near the River Wurm; 40 miles southwest of Cologne. It comprises an inner or old town, whose mediaeval fortifications have been converted into promenades, and an outer modern town and suburbs. The Cathedral, in the centre of the city, dates from the time of Charlemagne, who erected the central octagonal chapel in 796- 804, and whose traditional burial place is located in that edifice. It is surrounded by several chapels of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and is ad- joined by the beautiful Gothic choir, completed m 1414. The Town Hall (1333-70), a splendid Gothic building on the site of the ancient Carlovingian palace, con- tains the famous coronation hall (144 feet by 60 feet) of the German emperors. Aix-la-Chapelle is the centre of a rich coal district and has numerous thriving industries, notably vspinning and weaving woollen fabrics, and needle and pin making. There are also large iron foundries, machine shops, and manufactures of bells, glass buttons, knives, soap, cement, pottery, and crockery. The city is an important station on the Belgian-Rhenish railroads, and carries on an active trade in cereals, leather, wine, and timber. Pop. (1919) 145,748. Aix-la-Chapelle was known to the Romans as Aquisgranutn. It was often visited by the Frankish kings, and was made the capital of his dominions by Charle- magne. Here the emperors from Louis the Pious to Ferdinand I. (813-1531) were crowned. In 1793, and again in 1794, it was occupied by the French, and remained in their possession until 1815, when it passed to Prussia. In 1897, the town of Burtscheid was incorporated with Aix-la-Chapelle. In November, 1918, in accordance with the Treaty ot Versailles, it was occupied by Belgian troops. Ais-la-Chapeile, Congress of, a meeting held in 1818, to regulate the afifairs of Europe after the Napoleonic wars. Its principal object was the with- drawal from France of the army of occupation, 150,000 strong, as well as the re-entrance of France into the alliance of the Great Powers. The five nations there assembled signed a protocol announcing a policy similar to that of the Holy Alliance (q.v.). Aix - la - Cliapelle, Treaties of. The first Peace of Aix-la- Chapelle (166S) ended the war carried on between France and Spain for the possession of the Spanish Netherlands (see Louis XIV.) . — The second Peace of Aix- la-Chapelle (1748) concluded the War of the Austrian Succession (see Austria, History). Aix-les-Bains, - la-ban' (an- cient Aqua Graiiance), town, France, in the department of Savoie, near the eastern shore of Lac du Bourget; 9 miles north of Chambery. Although sur- rounded by high mountains, it enjoys a temperate climate, and is a popular health resort, having copious warm springs (103° and 107° F.), charged with alu a and sulphur. Industries include manufactures of hats, oil, and confectionery, and flour milling. Pop. (1921) 8,764. Ajaccio, a-yat'cho (ancient Adjacium), capital of Corsica, is situated on the west coast, at the head of the Gulf of Ajaccio. It is a winter resort, is the ter- minus of a trans-island railway, and has a good harbor protected by a citadel, and a fine cathedral. The principal industries are anchovy and pearl fisheries and shipbuilding; and there is trade in corn, wines, olive oil, leather, wood, sardines, corals, and cigars. Ajaccio was the birthplace of Napoleon i., and the 'Casa Bona- parte' (Bonaparte's House) is now national property. Pop. (1921) 21,908. Ajaion, aj'a-lon, or Aijalon, the modern Yalo, town of the Levites in ancient Palestine, northwest of Jerusalem. It was in the territory of Dan, and near- by Joshua won a great victory over five Canaanite kings, the sun and the moon being described (Josh. x. 12) as standing still (Hebrew 'were silent') till the rout was complete. A'jax THE Greater, son of Telamon, king of Salamis, and on his mother's side a grandson of iEacus. He sailed against Troy with twelve ships, and is repre- sented by Homer as, next to Achilles, the bravest and hand- somest of the Greeks. After the death of Achilles, Ajax and Ulys- ses contended for the arms of the hero, and the prize being ad- judged to Ulysses, Ajax in rage and despair killed himself. Ajax the Less, son of Oileus, king of the Locrians. He was famous for swiftness of foot and skill in hurling the spear. He led forty ships to Troy and at the capture of the city excited the anger of Pallas, who caused his death by drowning. Ajmere, aj-mer', or Ajmir, ancient city of Rajputana, India, capital of the British district of Ajmere; 220 miles southwest of Delhi. It is situated in a rocky valley, and is surrounded by a stone wall with five gateways. Many of the streets are spacious, and contain fine residences, besides mosques and temples of massive architecture. The Daulat Bagh, or Garden of Splen- dor, now the residence of the British commissioner, is a beauti- ful collection of buildings on the shore of an artificial lake. The dargah or tomb of the Mussul- man saint, Kwaja, within the town, is a venerated place of pilgrimage. There are two col- leges — Ajmere College (187.5), af- filiated with Calcutta University, and Mayo Rajkumar, for the education of noble Rajputs. Oil making and the manufacture and dyeing of cotton fabrics are im- portant industries, and there is trade in opium and salt. Ajmere was founded about 145 a.d.; it was ceded to the British in 1818. Pop. (1921) 113,512. Aj mere-Merwara, mar-wa'ra, division of Rajputana, British In- dia, comprising the districts of Ajmere and Merwara; area, 2,711 square miles. Millet, wheat, cotton, and oil seed are raised; but crops are dependent upon an uncertain rainfall, and severe famines occur. Pop. (1921) 495,271, mostly Hindus. Ajodliya. See Oudh. Akabali, a'ka-b;i, or Ak\b\, town, Arabia, at the head of the Gulf of Akabah, near the Scriptural Elath (Deut. ii. 8). In 1906 the Turks occupied Taba, nearby, but withdrew on an ultimatum from Great Britian. Al c o 0< ^ C/2 M o 0) O O JO o o Alabama Alabama bers and a House of Representa- tives of not more than 106 mem- bers. The sessions are held quadrennially, and are limited to 50 days. Appropriation bills must originate in the lower house, and none may be passed during the last five days of the session. The Judiciary consists of a Supreme Court, Appellate Court, Circuit Court, and County, City and Inferior Courts. A Circuit Court is held in each county of the State at least twice every year. Judges of the Supreme, Appellate, Circuit, and Probate Courts are elected for a term of six years. Each precinct has two justices of the peace and one con- stable. The State senate, when sitting as a court of impeach- ment, also exercises judicial functions. Under the Reapportionment Act of 1911, Alabama has 10 Representatives in the National Congress. Montgomery is the State capital. Recent Legislation. — In 1915 Alabama became a prohibition State by re-enacting the Prohibi- tion Act which had been repealed in 1911. In this same year an equal suffrage measure was de- feated and a child labor law was passed. A constitutional amend- ment for a 3-mill local school tax and one to place savings deposi- tors in sound banks on the- same basis as open-account depositors were carried in 1916. A work- men's compensation act and a State income tax measure were passed in 1 9 1 9 . In the summer of 1920 a special session of the legislature convened and made suitable provision for the en- franchisement of Alabama women in accordance with the Federal amendment. A consti- tutional amendment authorizing the State to issue $25,000,000 bonds for a State highway sys- tem was ratified in 1920. History. — The State takes its name from the Alibamo Indians, found in the Gulf country by De Soto in 1540. The remnant of De Soto's expedition retired to Mexico in 1543," and for more than a century this territory was not visited by white men. In 1682 the Frenchman La Salle took formal possession of the country in the name of his sov- ereign, calling it Louisiana. Iberville (q. v.) with his French colony came to the mouth of the Mississippi in 1699, and in 1702 Fort Louis, on the Mobile River, was built. In 1711 this post was moved to the present site of the city of Mobile, and was for some years the seat of government of the colony. In 1721 Louisiana was divided into nine districts, two of which received the names of Mobile and Alabama. On the breaking otit of the war between the French and English, Vol. I. — March '22 in 1752, the Creek and Chicka- saw Indians of this region be- came allies of the English. The French lost post after post; and finally, in 1763, all of Louisiana east of the Mississippi River passed to the English — the north- ern half being part of Illinois, the southern (below 32° 30') being assigned to West Florida. In 1779 the southern half of Alabama was seized by Spain, but the greater part of it was relinquished to the United States in 1795. Alabama and Missis- sippi were at that time regarded as part of Georgia; but in 1798 the Territory- of Mississippi was created, and made to include a part of what is now Alabama. In 1804 the Territory was extended northward to the Tennessee line. The breaking out of the War of 1812 (q. V.) gave the Lower Creeks encouragement to rise against the Americans, and in August, 1813, they attacked Fort Mims (q. v.), on the Alabama and massacred about 500 settlers who had taken refuge there. Severe punish- ment was meted out to them by General Jackson at Talladega (1813) and Horseshoe Bend (1814) . In 1817 the Territory of Ala- bama was formed of part of the Territory of Mississippi. Cahaba was selected as the seat of gov- ernment, and while the capital was being built Huntsville was inade the temporary capital. A convention assembled here in July, 1819, which drew, up a con- stitution, and Alabama was ad- mitted to statehood on Dec. 19 of the same year. In 1826 the capital was removed from Cahaba to Tuscaloosa. In 1830 the Choctaws, and in 1832 the Creeks, ceded their lands to the United States, and removed to reservations in the West. The Cherokees followed in 1835, leaving the State free from further apprehension of Indian outrages. After a period of notable pros- perity the State banking system fell into unworthy hands, and in 1841 it was necessary to over- throw it. The State assumed the indebtedness of the banks, and for a time barely escaped finan- cial ruin. An attempt to manip- ulate the State government in the interests of the banks' debt- ors was frustrated in 1845 by a political uprising of the people. In 1847 the capital was removed to Montgomery, On Jan. 11, 1861, Alabama passed the secession ordinance, and on Feb. 4 the Provisional Congress of the seceded States met at Montgomery. Selma be- came the seat of an arsenal and navy yard. In 1862 Federal troops took possession of the Tennessee Valley, and on Aug. 5, 1864, a Federal fleet, under Ad- miral Farragut, ran past Forts Morgan and Gaines, which de- fended Mobile Bay, and destroyed the Confederate fleet. The forts, surrounded by a land force, sur- rendered. (See Civil War.) In 1865 the State fell into Federal hands, and remained under mili- tary control until July 14, 1868, when a new constitution was adopted. During the period of Recon- struction much disorder arose from corrupt government and violent party politics. The plan- tations had suffered during the war and the industrial spirit was low; but when the public debt was set on a sound footing (1876), and Northern capital began to develop the mining resources, there was a revival of prosperity. A new constitution was adopted in 1875, which was superseded by another in 1901. In the Great War (q. v.) Ala- bama was the scene of much in- dustrial activity. A large ship- building plant was established at Mobile and a Federal nitrate plant at Muscle Shoals on the Tennessee River, the first atmos- pheric nitrogen being produced in October, 1918. Floods in De- cember, 1919, did serious damage in the southern part of the State. A serious coal miners' strike oc- curred in 1920. It was accom- panied by much violence and the State National Guard was called out to preserve order. In national politics the State has been uniforrnly Democratic since 1874. Bibliography. — Consult His- tories by Brown, Pickett, and Brewer; Fleming's Civil War and Reconstruction in Alabama; McBain's How We Are Governed in Alabama; Du Bose's Alabama History; Owen's History of Ala- bama and Dictionary of Alabama Biography (1921). Alabama, The, a celebrated Confederate cruiser during the American Civil War. She was originally known as 'No. 290' (her number in the yard of the builders, Messrs. Laird of Birken- head), and was a wooden, bark- entine-rigged screw steamer of 1,040 tons, with a speed under steam of about eleven knots. On July 29, 1862, the vessel, under pretext of making a trial trip, slipped out to sea. She made for the Azores; was met there by two other vessels bringing armament; and on Aug. 24 was commis- sioned by Captain Semmes, of the Confederate navy, as the Alabama. Cruising in the neigh- borhood of the Azores, she had by Sept. 14 captured ten U. S. ships, all of which were de- stroyed. After making several other captures between the Banks of Newfoundland and Marti- nique, the Alabama next pro- Alabama 125 Alacoque ceeded to Galveston, then block- aded by Federal vessels, one of which (the Hatteras) she suc- ceeded in drawing off and de- stroying. Thereafter she sailed for Cape San Roque, where she captured many valuable prizes. The Federal Government now took more adequate measures for hunting her down. Semmes made for Cape Town, coaled there, and went on to the Strait of Sunda, where he took several prizes. Being hampered, however, by the presence of the Federal ves- sel Wyoming, he sailed for the Cape at the end of 1863, and ar- rived at Cherbourg in June, 1864. The Unitea States warship Kearsarge (Captain Winslow) , then off Flushing, promptly set off for Cherbourg, and awaited her outside the territorial limit. In response to a challenge, the Alabama, on Sunday, June 19, steamed out of the harbor; and after a close engagement, lasting about an hour, was found to be sinking, and surrendered. During her short existence, the Alabama captured one steamer and no less than 67 sailing ves- sels. In addition to this direct injury, the Alabama and several other commerce destroyers para- lyzed the American shipping trade, and caused the transfer of 348 ships, aggregating more than 250,000 tons, in one year alone to the British flag. For the damage done by the Alabama and several other cruis- ers, claims were made by the United States against the British government for breach of neu- trality, on the ground that Brit- ain had 'failed to use due dili- gence ' ; that after the escape of the vessel the measures taken for pursuit and arrest led to no re- sult; and that the Alabama had been admitted into the ports of Great Britain's colonies. A joint high commission, meeting in Washington, drew up an agree- ment, known when ratified as- the Treaty of Washington (1871), by the terms of which the Ala- bama Claims (as they were gen- erally called) were submitted to an international tribunal, which sat in Geneva during 1871—2. Under the treaty Great Britain agreed to have the tribunal apply to her conduct during the Civil War certain rules embodied in the treaty, enjoining upon neu- tral nations the duty of diligence to prevent the use of their ports for the fitting out of war vessels, or for the renewal of military supplies, or for recruitment of men. The court, presided over by Count Federigo Schlopis of Italy, was made up of one representa- tive each from the United States, Great Britain, Italy, Switzer- land, and Brazil (Charles Francis Adams representing the United Vol. I.— March '22 States, and Sir Alexander Cock- burn Great Britain). In addi- tion, both Great Britain and the United States were represented by counsel, the former chiefly by Sir Roundell Palmer, and the lat- ter by W. M. Evarts, Caleb Cushing, and Morrison R. Waite. A dispute over the indirect claims, which were thought by Great Britain to have been dropped, threatened to nullify the treaty; but the danger was averted through the acceptance by both nations of the tribunal's preliminary decision that such claims, being too general to ad- mit of flnancial compensation, were not arbitrable. The arbi- trators upheld the claims for damage done by the Alabama and the Florida and their tend- ers, and by the Shenandoah after she had received reinforcements at Melbourne. fThe award (signed Sept. 14, 1872) fixed the indem- nity at $15,500,000. Consult Semmes' Service Afloat; Haywood's Cruise of the 'Ala- bama'; Admiral Porter's Naval History of the Civil War; Scharf's History of the Confederate States Navy; Balch's Alabama Arbitra- tion; Hackett's Reminiscences of the Geneva Tribunal (1911). Alabama City, town, Etowah county, Alabama, on the Ala- bama Great .Southern, Louis- ville and Nashville, Nashville, Chattanooga, and St. Louis, and Southern Railroads; 57 miles northeast of Birmingham. Cot- ton manufacture is the most im- portant industry. Pop. (1910) 4,313; (1920) 5, 432. Alabama Claims. See Ala- bama, The. Alabama Polytechnic Insti- tute, a co-educational State in- stitution of collegiate grade founded at Auburn, Ala., in 1872, under Federal auspices. It gives instruction in agriculture, general science, chemistry, home eco- nomics, engineering, architec- ture, pharmacy, and veterinary medicine. For recent statistics see Table of American Colleges and Universities under the head- ing College. Alabama River, river of the eastern United States, flowing through the States of Alabama and Georgia. It rises in the northern part of the latter State in two main branches, Coosa and Tallapoosa, which join about 10 miles north of Montgomery, Ala. Its general course is west, then southwest to its junction with the » Tombigbee, to form the Mobile. It is 320 miles long, and is navi- gable for vessels of six feet draught as far as Claiborne, 60 miles above its junction with the Tombigbee. Alabama, University of, a co- educational institution at Tus- caloosa, Ala., forming part of the public school system of the State. It was established in 1820 on the basis of a Congressional land grant in 1619, supplemented by a further grant in 1884. The university comprises a Depart- ment of Academic Instruction, with undergraduate and graduate departments, and a Department of Professional Instruction, with schools of engineering, mines, law, education, medicine, and commerce and business adminis- tration. In 1906 a movement for a Greater University resulted in an appropriation with which three new buildihgs have been erected — -Comer Hall (engineer- ing). Smith Hall (geology and biology), and Morgan Hall (arts and sciences). For recent statis- tics, see Table of American Col- leges and Universities under the heading College. Al'abaster, the name given to two minerals, similar in appear- ance but quite different in composition. True alabaster is a form of gypsum (q. v.), hydrous calcium sulphate, CaS042H20. It is a fine-grained structure, pure white or delicately tinted, resembling marble in appearance, but much softer. It is quarried in Italy, England, France, and, to a lesser extent, in the United States and Canada. It is largely used in sculpture and also as a decora- tive building stone. In Pisa, Italy, it has been extensively em- ployed as a substitute for the famous Carrara marble. 'Oriental alabaster,' known also as ' onyx marble,' is a variety of marble, a carbonate of lime which has been deposited through the action of springs, or in caves as stalactites or stalagmites. It is harder than true alabaster and is often banded, translucent, and of colors suitable for decorative purposes. It is found in Egypt, Algeria, Persia, Italy, and Mex- ico. In ancient Egypt and Rome it was used for building purposes, sarcophagi and statues. To-day it is employed for stairways, mantels, fireplaces, etc. Consult Renwick's Marble and Marble Working; Kraus and Hunt's Mineralogy (1920); Crook's Eco- nomic Mineralogy (1921). Alabat, a-la-bat', island, Phil- ippines, across the mouth of Lamon Bay, north of the prov- ince of Tayabas, Luzon; length 15 miles, width 5 3^ miles. It is mountainous and well wooded with valuable timber, and has good anchorage. The inhabi- tants are Tagalogs. Alacoque, a-1 a-kok' , Mar- guerite Marie (1647-90), a nun and religious enthusiast, was born in Lauthecour, France, and took the veil in the convent of the Order of the Visitation in Paray- le-Monial. She was the founder of the devotion of the Sacred Heart, and wrote several works Alacranes 126 Alamo on religious subjects. She was beatified in 1846. Consult Lives by Barry, Tickell, and Bougaud. Alacranes, a-la-kra'nas, a group of small islands in the Gulf of Mexico, from 75 to 90 miles north of Yucatan (c. lat. 22° 24' N.; long. 89° 42' w.). There is a dangerous reef 15 miles long and 12 miles wide; but there is a safe harbor on the south side of the group. Ala-dagh. See Taurus. Alad'din, the name of the hero of the 'Arabian Nights' tale en- titled Aladdin or The Wonderful Lamp. Aladdin, a poor boy in China, becomes the owner of a magical lamp and ring which en- able him to obtain possession of anything he wishes through the agency of the powerful djinns, the 'slaves of the lamp and the ring.' He amasses great wealth, wins a princess for his bride, and finally rules with her as Sultan. Alaghez,a-la-gez', ALAGHoz.or Ali-Ghez, a range of mountains, Transcaucasia, Russia, in the northern part of the district of Erivan; extending from west to east. Alaghez (13,436 ft.), the highest point, is an extinct vol- cano. Alagoas, a'la-go'ash ('lakes'), state, Brazil, on the Atlantic coast, lying between Pernambuco and Sergipe; area 22,577 square miles. The climate in the low coast lands is hot and damp, but in the interior is healthful. The soil is generally fertile. The inte- rior is mountainous, and contains iron and other minerals, which are little worked. The woods yield Brazil wood, copaiba bal- sam, and timber. Of the numer- ous lakes, the largest are Mun- dahii in the north and Manguaba in the south. The principal river is the Sao Francisco (q. v.), which forms the boundary between Ala- goas and Sergipe and is famous for its falls and rapids. Sugar, cotton, and tobacco are the chief crops and furnish the material for a few factories. The state rail- roads, controlled by the Great Western of Brazil, connect with Pernambuco, Parahyba, and Natal. The capital and chief port is Maceio (q. v.). Alagoas is second only to Rio Janeiro state in density of population. Pop. (1920) 990,278. Alal Mountains, a-li' {Alai Tagh), the southwest branch of the Tian-Shan (q. v.), in 40° N. lat., which spreads out like a fan as it drops toward the lowlands of Russian Turkestan. This range has two parallel lines, Alai proper and Trans-Alai, on the north and south sides of the Alai River (tributary of the Vaksh, a main branch of the Upper Oxus or Amu Daria). They stretch for about 250 miles along the north- ern edge of the Pamir, with an average elevation of 15,000 to Vol. I. — March '22 18,000 feet in the east. Peak Kaufmann reaches 25,000 feet. Alais, a-la' (ancient Alestum), town, department of Gard, France, on the Gardon d'Alais, where it issues from the Cevennes into the plain; 12 miles north- west of Nimes. It gives its name to a coal basin, including Bes- seges and La Grande Combe, producing yearly between two and three million tons of coal. It is an important centre for the silk trade, and glass, bricks, tiles, and cloth are manufactured. A treaty was concluded here in 1629, which ended the Huguenot wars in France. Pop. 25,000. Alajuela, a-la-hwa'la, chief town of province Alajuela (pop. 110,254), Costa Rica, on both banks of the Las Ciruelas River; 14 miles by rail north of San Jos6. The two parts of the city are con- nected by a bridge, completed in 1911. The town has a national institute, a cathedral, and an in- dustrial school. There is a large trade in sugar cane and tobacco. Pop. (1920) 9.177._ Ala-Kul, a-la-kool', lake in the province of Semiryechensk, Rus- sian Central Asia, in 46° N. lat. and 82° E. long.; 120 miles east of Lake Balkhash. It is about 827 feet above sea level and is nearly 40 miles long and 23 miles wide. A smaller lake, lying just north- west and separated from it by marshes, is sometimes called by the same name, but is more cor- rectly known as Sassyk-kul. Alaman, a-la-man', Lucas (1792-1853), Mexican statesman and historian, author of Diserta- ciones sobre la Hisloria Mejicana (1844-49) and Historia de Mejico (1849-52), both works of high au- thority. He represented the col- ony in the Spanish Cortes until 1823, when he returned to Mex- ico, and was successively Secre- tary of the Interior and Foreign Minister. Alamanni, a-la-man'ne, LuiGi (1495-1556), Italian poet, was born in Florence. Detected in a conspiracy against Cardinal Giu- lio de Medici, he escaped to Ven- ice, and thence to France (1522), where he enjoyed the favor of Francis i., and later of Henry ii., by both of whom he was sent on important embassies. His life thereafter was spent in France, where most of his poems were written. Among his works were La CoUivazione (1546), a didactic poem on agriculture (his principal work, and one of the best of its kind in Italian literature) ; Girone il Cortese (1548), an epic; L' Avar- chide (1570); collections of shorter poems, Opere Toscane (1532) and Epigrammi Toscani (1570); Flora, a. drama.. Consult Raffaelli's Life. Alamans. See Ai.emanni. Alameda, city, Alameda county, California, on San Fran- cisco Bay and on the western division of the Southern Pacific Railroad; 6 miles east of San Francisco, with which it has ferry connection. The College of Notre Dame is situated here, and the city has a number of public parks and playgrounds, an ex- cellent school system, and many fine residences. It is especially popular for its beaches and bathing. While the city is largely residential, manufactur- ing is of importance. The num- ber of establishments in 1919 reached 51, engaging 7,142 persons, and turning out prod- ucts to the value of $25,440,000, the last figure representing an 813 per cent, increase over 1914. Industrial plants include oil re- fineries, packing plants, potteries, and manufactures of borax, aeroplanes, motors, ptimps, and engines. Pop. (1910) 23,383; (1920) 28,806. Alamo, a'la-mo. The, a build- ing or group of buildings, within the limits of San Antonio, Texas, of historical interest because of its stubborn though unsuccessful defence by Texans against a vastly superior force of Mexicans under Santa Anna in 1836, dur- ing the Texan struggle for inde- pendence. The buildings were originally those of the Franciscan Mission San Antonio de Valero, erected about 1718. They in- cluded a church, convent, hos- pital, and plaza surrounded by a stone wall ten feet in height. The Alamo was occupied by "the Texans during the struggle with Mexico in 1835—6, and here in February, 1836, occurred the conflict which made its name famous. The garrison consisted of about 140 men (later rein- forced by 32 others who suc- ceeded in reaching the fort) un- der the command of Lieut. -Col. William B. Travis (q. v.), with James Bowie, David Crockett (q. v.), and James Butler Bon- ham lending valiant aid. The siege lasted from Feb. 23 to March 6, when the Mexicans finally gained entrance. A hand- to-hand encounter took place and only six Texans were left alive. These six, the same day, were treacherously cut to pieces in cold blood. The Mexican forces numbered about 4,000, of whom about 500 were probably killed or fatally wounded . While the defence of the Alamo seemed in one sense a useless sac- rifice of life, the heroism and bravery of the garrison proved such an inspiration to the Texans that later, with the rallying cry ' Remember the Alamo, ' they brought defeat to the Mexicans at San Jacinto. See Texas. Consult Ford's Origin and Fall of the Alamo; De Zavala's History and Legends of the Alamo (1917). Alamos 127 Alashehr Alamos ('poplar trees'), min- ing town, Sonora, Mexico, at the northern end of Sierra de Ala- mos. The city is about 200 years old, and the mines of the vicinity (gold, silver, and lead) were fa- mous in Spanish days. The ex- ports to the United States amounted in 1910 to $153,675 — chiefly silver, gold, and ore, and cyanide precipitates. Pop. about 10,000. Alamosa, town, Conejos county, Colorado, 7,545 feet above sea level, on the Rio Grande River and on the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad; 100 miles southwest of Pueblo. Gold and silver are mined in the neigh- borhood. Pop. (1910) 3,013. Aland Islands (300, of which 80 are inhabited), at the mouth of the Gulf of Bothnia, govern- ment Abo-Bjorneborg, Finland, Russia; separated from Finland by the Skiftet Canal and from Sweden by Aland Bay (25 miles wide). The chief occupations are hunting, fishing, and agri- culture. The strategic position of the islands constitutes their chief value. The capital is Mariehamn. They were Swedish until 1809, when they were ceded to Russia by the Treaty of Fred- erikshamn. After the Crimean War, Russia was a party to an international convention which forbade the maintenance of any military or naval establishment on the islands. Pop. (est. 1910) 25,000, largely Swedish. Alans, Alani, a Sarmatian people who inhabited the steppes north of the Caucasus Moun- tains and the Black Sea during the first three centuries of the Christian era. A large section of them were subdued and incor- porated by the Huns in 370. Subsequently they settled in Pannonia, Lusitania (411), and Africa (429). Alarcon, Hernando de, Spanish navigator, sailed from Acapulco in 1540, and disproved the idea that California was an island. He was the first Euro- pean to explore the Colorado River, the lower course of which, with the Gulf of California, was mapped by a member of the ex- pedition. Alarcon, Pedro Antonio de (1833-91), Spanish author and soldier, was a native of Guadix, in Granada, In 1859, having previously (1857) published his El Hi jo prodigo, he followed the Spanish army in Morocco as newspaper correspondent, and chronicled these experiences in his Diario de un Testigo de la Guerra de Africa (1860). He was sent to the Cortes by Cadiz in 1864, and in 1868 fought at the Battle of Alcolea. His novels enjoyed great popularity by rea- son of their national spirit, and light, humorous, yet sincere tone. Among the best are La Noche- buena del Poeta (many eds.) ; El Escandalo (1875); Las Alpujar- ras; El Sombrero de tres Picos (1874); El Nino de la Bola (1880). His poems are repre- sented by the Poesias serias y humoristicas (1870). Consult his Obras Escogidas, with biography (1874). Alarcon y Mendoza, Juan Ruiz de (1581-1639), Spanish dramatist, was born in Mexico. He was for a time professor at the university of Mexico and a magistrate of the supreme court. He lived in Spain from 1611 until his death, as an officer of the council of the Indies. He was one of the first modern Spanish playwrights to embody types in his characters, and to make each of his plays convey a moral les- son. His most famous comedy, La Verdad Sospechosa, enforces the folly of lying and hypocrisy. It is to this play that Corneille is indebted, as he acknowledges, for the plot of Le Menteur. Twenty of Alarcon's plays still survive, the most notable of which, be- sides the above, are El Tejedor de Segovia, El S erne j ante a si mismo, Todo es Ventura, Las Paredes Oyen, and Ganar Amigos. His style is chaste and elegant. His principal plays are included in Moratin's Teatro Escogido, and in Ramon's edition of the same. Consult Ticknor's His- tory of Spanish Literature. Alaric I. (c. 375-410), king of the Visigoths or Western Goths, was a scion of the noble family of the Balthings. During his mi- nority the Visigoths were in vassalage to the Romans; but on the death of the Emperor Theodosius, in 395, Alaric led the great revolt of the Visigoths, and was elected as their king. He overran Greece, and exacted a heavy ransom from Athens itself. As a result, he was able to conclude a treaty with the Emperor of the East (Arcadius), by which he became vicegerent of the greater part of the Balkan Peninsula. His growing power and ambition led him (in 400) to invade Italy, the northern prov- inces remaining in his power for eighteen months, until his defeat at Pollentia by Stilicho. In 409, however, Alaric once more invaded Italy, and this time laid siege to Rome. He spared the city, contenting him- self with a heavy ransom; but in the following year, on Aug. 24, 410, the imperial city was en- tered and plundered. The Em- pire of the West was almost with- in his grasp, when he died sud- denly at Cosenza. See Goths. Consult Hodgkins' Italy and Her Invaders. Alaric II. (c. 484-507), eighth of the Visigothic kings of Spain, succeeded to the throne in in- fancy on the death of his father, Evaric or Euric, in 485. At that period the Visigothic king- dom included almost the whole of Spain, together with the greater part of Central and Southern France. Nearly all his French possessions, however, were wrested from him by Clovis, king of the Franks, who inflicted a crushing defeat on the Visi- goths at Vougle, near Poitiers, in 507, when Alaric was among the slain. Although a zealous Arian, he showed great tolerance in religious matters. He enacted several useful statutes, and com- piled a code of laws. The Breviary of Alaric II. See Goths. Alarodian Languages, a term sometimes applied to the Cauca- sian languages, of which Geor- gian is the chief division. The group is in the main agglutina- tive, although it frequently ap- proximates inflection. It is not impossible that the cuneiform inscriptions of Van represent an extinct form of Alarodian speech. Consult Sayce's Introduction to the Science of Language. A Lasco, Johannes. See Lasco. Ala- Shan, province. Southern Mongolia, lying between the Desert of Gobi (Golbiin-Gobi) to the north, the province of Kan- su and the Great Wall to' the south, and the Hoang-ho and Ala-Shan range, or Khara-Na- rim (11,000 ft.), to the east. The extreme length is about 800 miles, the mean breadth about 480 miles. It is mostly a vast plain of sand, broken by grassy steppes, chalk downs covered with saline deposits, and low, Unstable, sandy hills rising to 80 feet or so. Vegetation is almost absent; and the fauna is poor — the wolf, fox, hare, crow, crane, lizard, and serpent. The popu- lation is mostly composed of the Kalmuck stock, near relatives of the Kalmucks of the Lower Volga basin. Their live stock are mainly goats and yaks. Kirghiz and Chinese compose the rest of the inhabitants. Chinese and Mongol caravans traverse Ala-Shan on their way to and from Tibet. The prov- ince was annexed to the empire of China in 1636. Pop. 25.000. Alashehr (ancient Philadel- phia), walled city, on the Smyrna and Kassaba Railroad; 74 miles Alaska 127A Alaska east of Smyrna, Asia Minor. The mineral springs in the vicinity attract many visitors. The waters are also bottled and shipped to Smyrna. There is considerable trade. The town is the seat of a Greek archbishop. Pop. over 22,000. Philadelphia was founded by Attalus Philadelphus (c. 150 B.C.) on the site of the Lydian village Callatebus. It was destroyed by an earthquake at the time of Tiberius, but became again an important city in the early Mid- dle Ages. It was sacked by Tamerlane (1402). There are ruins of the ancient stadium, temples, and theatre, and of the mediseval walls and castle. Alaska, a Territory of the United States, comprises the northwestern extremity of North America, west of the 141st meridian, and a strip of coast extending south to 56° north lati- tude, with the adjacent islands. Its area is 590,884 square miles; inlets and island outlines in- cluded, the coast is about 26,000 miles long. The outermost of the Aleutian Islands is as far west of Skagway as that town is west of New York. Point Barrow, the most northerly land of Alaska, lies more than 300 miles north of the Arctic Circle, and is with- out the sun for forty days during the winter season. Topography. — The shores of the Arctic Ocean and Bering Sea are comparatively low and flat — ■ marshy plains or tundras — with a broad ofifing of shallow water and outlying shoals, and few places where a ship may closely approach the shore. The south coast, however, is formed by mountains, the continuation of the littoral ranges of British Columbia, making the sea-front and the islands of the Alexander Archipelago. These islands rise from 3,000 to 5,000 feet above the sea, and are separated by narrow and deep channels, called 'sounds,' affording a protected waterway for ocean steamers almost continuously from Puget Sound to Cross Sound, with many excellent harbors. The precipitous coast is deeply in- dented with fiords, at the head of which glaciers come down to the water, and continually give off small bergs. West of Cross Sound and Glacier Bay rise the Saint Elias Alps, bordering the coast for some 300 miles, and containing many peaks clothed with ice and snow almost to their bases — exceeding 15,000 feet in altitude; the highest are Fair- weather and Saint Elias (18,024 feet). The enjoyable character of the navigation, pleasant cli- mate, and magnificent scenery induce a constantly increasing tourist traffic in summer, which is of great benefit to the residents of this part of the country. West of the Saint Elias Alps and the Copper River, the coast is broken by the great Kenai Peninsula and Cook Sound, and is studded with lofty volcanoes, some active. The Yakutat Bay region has been the scene of some of the greatest earthquakes in history, the tremors in Sep- tember, 1899, reaching over an area of 1,500,000 square miles. In 1912 the Kodiak region was severely shaken, and a large territory covered with ashes by an eruption of Mount Katmai. Inland is a mountainous plateau, forming the divide between the ocean and the Yukon Valley. At the head of the Kuskokim River is the highest peak in North America, Mount McKin- ley (20,460 feet). Southwest from Cook Inlet stretch the Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian Islands, extending almost to the Asiatic Coast, and consisting of a line of half-submerged, treeless mountain summits, mostly vol- canic. The northern half of Alaska is a plain of coast tundra, rising interiorly into low hills, and gradually ascending to the Rocky Mountains, which form the west- ern boundary of the Territory, and reach the Arctic Sea near the mouth of the Mackenzie River. About one-fifth of the drainage of Alaska is toward the Pacific, nearly one half to Bering Sea, and the remainder toward the Arctic Ocean. The great Yukon River is the principal stream, and has a course of ,1,865 miles. It rises in British Columbia, far to the southeast of Alaska, and flows westerly across the middle of the Territory, in a winding, island- studded, and shallow channel, for 1,200 miles. The Yukon is the natural highway of Alaska, its waters being navigable in summer, and its smooth ice coat- ing in winter affording an un- equalled sled road. The Kusko- kwim River, emptying into Bering Sea, is the second in size, having 1,000 miles of navigable waters. Lying west of the Alaskan range, it is wholly within the plateau country. In the Pacific system are the Sushitna and Copper Rivers, also the smaller Alsek, Taku, and Stikine. In the Arctic Ocean system are the Noatak, Kobuk, and Colville Rivers. Glaciers. — The largest gla- ciers outside of the Polar regions are in Alaska — a natural result of the great rainfall (including snow) in that country, ranging from 81 inches to 190 inches annually. The excess of the snowfall over that which can melt during the short summer has formed large valley glaciers, thirty of which reach tide water. The great Malaspina Glacier, on the northwest shore of Yakutat Bay, covers 1,500 square miles — more than the whole State of Rhode Island. The Hubbard Glacier extends inland 28 miles, with many branches or feeders. It discharges icebergs contin- ually from a cliff-like front 5 miles long and 280 feet high above the water, and reaching far below the surface. The Muir Glacier has a front of 3 miles, 300 feet in height, and moves forward 64 feet per day, tum- bling its bergs into the sea with an almost continuous roar. The Columbia Glacier is 4 miles in width and 300 to 400 feet high. There are 170 glaciers important enough to have names. Climate and Products. — The climate and products of so vast and varied an area present marked contrasts. The north has Arctic conditions — a short, warm summer, and a long, dry winter, with moderate snow and excessive cold, the thermometer on the upper Yukon often mark- ing —50°; the soil never thaws more than a few inches deep. In the Nome region a shaft 120 feet deep showed the ground still frozen at that level. The only forest in the northern section is a thin growth of spruce, and this ceases a short distance north of the Yukon Valley. The meadows, however, yield an abundance of excellent natural hay; while planted hay and hardy cereals are cultivated in favored places. Potatoes and a great variety of other vegetables are raised, maturing with great rapidity be- cause of the prolonged sunlight they receive in the long sub- Arctic days of summer. The growing season, between killing frosts, is from four to five months. The southwestern peninsulas and islands have a foggy, wet, and chilly climate, without ex- cessive cold. Some harbors on the Aleutian Islands are open all winter; but those on Bering Sea are closed by ice from October until late in May. The Yukon is unnavigable except during the three summer months, when many large and well-furnished steamers of light draught navi- gate it. The southern coast has a very different climate. The high and ice mountains, which border it. Alaska 127B Alaska catch and precipitate most of the moisture brought from the Pacific by the prevaiUng westerly winds, causing very frequent rain and fog (the annual fall amounting to about 100 inches in the islands south of Sitka), and accounting for the dryness of the interior. The moist sea winds in process of condensation yield a large amount of latent heat, making the climate of the south coast equable and warm — the temper- ature rarely sinking to zero. At Sitka the annual average is 50° F. Anything suitable to the North Temperate Zone may therefore be grown, but the scarcity of level places and of clearings has retarded develop- ment in this direction beyond thriving vegetable gardens. All this southern coast strip is covered with heavy coniferous forests, consisting principally of hemlock and Sitka spruce, the latter spread over most of the Territory west of the mountains and south of the Yukon Valley. There are also some willow, Cottonwood, red cedar, and the more valuable yellow cedar (Cupressus Nootkaensis), which is confined principally to the south coast. Of other trees, a large poplar is the most im- portant. Game. — Alaska is a vast nat- ural game park. On its barren northern shores are found walrus • and polar bears; the flat, open tundras and treeless plateaus are the haunts of the caribou herds; in the interior forests ranges the Alaskan or giant moose, the largest of the moose family, with horns spreading 5 to 6 feet; on the snow-clad mountains are the mountain sheep and the so-called mountain goat, which is less goat than chamois; and in the south- ern coastal forests roam the Sitka deer. Fur seals and sea lions inhabit the islands; the brown, black, glacier, and grizzly bear in a dozen varieties are abundant — the Kodiak (q. v.) being the largest of all bears. Ducks, geese, swans, and sand- hill cranes breed in the number- less ponds; there are myriads of shore birds — plovers, snipes, curlews, and sandpipers; the ptarmigan is everywhere; and there are five species of grouse. Alaska's game is protected by strict game laws, a substantial revenue being received from the sale of hunting licenses. Mining. — Signs of gold and deposits of coal had long ago been found in various places; but until recent years the only considerable mining was at the Treadwell mine, near Juneau, where gold ore of low grade was so easily and cheaply worked that one of the most productive mines in the world resulted. In 1896-7 the discovery of rich gold placers in the Klondike region of the upper Yukon Val- ley was followed by a rush of immigration, which led to the discovery of productive workings all along the upper Yukon, in the Tanana Hills (Birch Creek, etc.) south of the river, along the Canadian boundary, and else- where. This was followed in 1898-9 by the finding of gold in the beach sands of the north shore of Norton Sound, and the establishment of the town of Nome (q. v.). The beach diggings were soon exhausted, however, and placer mining is now carried on in the river and creek bottoms. Dredgers are employed in the Seward Peninsula that dig to a depth of 16 feet, and handle from 1,400 to 2,000 cubic yards of dirt a day. In the thirty-one years from 1880 to 1911, Alaska's mineral output totalled $206,813,594, of which gold amounted to $195,- 916,520, copper $8,237,594, and silver $1,500,441. The yield of gold for 1911 was $17,150,000, of which more than $12,000,000 came from placer workings — half from Fairbanks. Thirteen lode mines are worked, the prin- cipal ones on Douglas Island. Canadian gold to the value of about $10,000,000 is also shipped annually through Alaska. The silver output for 1910 was 126,480 fine ounces, valued at $67,649. The recent discovery of remarkably rich tin placers in Buck Creek indicates that Alas- ka may become an important world source of supply of that metal. There are a number of produc- ing copper mines; and these yielded 22,900,000 pounds of copper in 1911, as compared with a yield of 4,241,689. pounds in 1910. Alaskan mines and quar- ries also produced silver, tin, coal, marble, and gypsum to an estimated value of $390,000 in 1911, an increase of $200,000 over 1910. There are two known areas of high-grade coal in Alaska — the Bering River field, in the Con- troller Bay region, and the Mata- nuska field, north of Cook Inlet. The output for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1911, was 116,- 000 tons. The Bering River field is 25 miles from tide water at Controller Bay, and so far as sur- veyed shows 26.4 square miles of anthracite and 20.2 square miles of bituminous coal. The Mata- nuska field is about 25 miles from tide water at Knik Arm (Cook Inlet) ; but as this is frozen in winter, the nearest open sea port at that season is Resurrection Bay (150 miles). The Matanuska coal is sub-bituminous to semi- bituminous, with some anthra- cite. The coal varies from 5 to 36 feet in thickness, over an area of 74 square miles. Further sur- vey, however, may show a much larger area. Other coal fielJs are of lower grade, in known a:ea reaching 1,238 square miles, with the probability that further sur- vey will show them much more extensive, as coal-bearing rocks have already been found to cover 12,644 square miles. There are also great fields of lignite. Peat is widely distrib- uted, the climate favoring its production, and the great tun- dras appear to be underlaid with peat deposits. Petroleum has been developed in the Cook Inlet and Controller Bay districts. Fine marbles and other valu- able stones and earths exist in Alaska, and are being quarried and exported. Forestry. — The establish- ment of national forests through- out Alaska has checked their wasteful destruction. Lumber- ing is permitted for local needs under scientific supervision. Ex- cept above the 5,000-foot level, the interior of Alaska is well wooded. There are large areas of dense forest in the Tanana Valley. Northward the wood- land is thinner and the trees small. In 1911 the timber cut from the forest reserves amounted to 28,248,000 feet. Fisheries and Furs. — The fisheries of Alaska are exceed- ingly rich. Cod, halibut, her- ring, and many small food fishes abound off the coast. There are said to be 125,000 square miles of cod-fishing banks. Several im- portant species ascend the rivers to spawn, the most valuable of which is salmon. Throughout the southern archipelago many establishments for catching and preserving salmon have long existed. During 1909 the number of persons employed in the fisheries was 12,588; the value of appa- ratus and vessels, with shore property, $9,881,682. The prod- uct was 201,983,238 pounds, valued at $11,181,388. Of this total, 175,028,594 pounds was salmon, representing 34,692,608 fish. The seven Alaska salmon hatcheries liberated 162,228,620 fry. In 1911 the shipment of canned salmon was 2,820,066 cases (of 48 one-pound cans). Alaska has always been a valu- able source of furs, which have Alaska 128 Alaska been collected there by Russian and American agencies for over one hundred and fifty years. The most important of these have been the pelts of the fur seals of Bering Sea, and the sea otters, formerly common along the southern and Aleutian coasts. These have now become so re- duced, however, as to be very scarce and high priced. The re- ceipt of all other commercial pelts from the interior has also been greatly lessened. / The leasing system under which sealing has been conducted was abolished in 1910, the U. S. Government purchasing the property of the North American Commercial Company. Under the present laws the Secretary of Commerce and Labor may authorize, with proper restric- tions, the taking of seal-skins on the Pribylov Islands. These laws also prohibit the killing of any fur-bearing animal in the Terri- tory, except by permit from the Secretary of Commerce and Labor. An open season is desig- nated for mink, muskrat, and other small animals, and also for the fox, lynx, and black bear. The seal herds in 1910 were estimated to contain 145,195 in- dividuals, an apparent decrease of 13,293 in one year alone. In 1911 the catch of fur-seal skins was valued at $432,913; other aquatic furs, $39,733; furs of land animals, $313,730; walrus and whalebone products, $114,- 877. Agriculture. — The agricul- tural capacity of Alaska is sur- prisingly large. The Alaskan Agricultural Bureau, after a careful examination into the area of arable soil, has announced that there is more agricultural land in the Tanana Valley than is now under cultivation in the corresponding region of Norway, Sweden, Finland, and the three northern provinces of Russia. In 1910 it was estimated that the agricultural and grazing lands of that valley, and the small val- leys leading from it, amount to 9,700,000 acres. The total till- able and pasture land of Alaska is estimat-d at 64,000,000 acres. All the crops which can be raised in Norway, Sweden, Finland, and the northern provinces of Russia — potatoes, root crops, barley, oats, carrots, beets, tur- nips, celery — can be produced in Alaska. In 1910 there were 222 farms, containing 44,544 acres. Pota- toes took the lead in value of crop products, with $96,815; hay and forage, $94,933; other vegetables — turnips, tomatoes, lettuce, cucumbers, carrots, cel- ery, etc. — $62,807; cabbages, $20,512. Stock Raising. — Cattle on farms in Alaska in 1910 num- bered 811; in stables, 356. Horses on farms, 206; in stables, 2,106. On the ranges were 16,565 rein- deer, in stables 5,541, valued at $525,052. There were 19,795 dogs used as work animals, valued at $543,134. Manufactures. — In 1909 the Territory of Alaska had 152 man- ufacturing establishments, which gave employment to an average of 3,479 persons during the year, and paid out $2,328,000 in sal- aries and wages. These establish- ments turned out products to the value of $11,340,000, in the manufacture of which materials costing $5,120,000 were utilized. Alaska leads all the States and Territories in the production of canned and preserved fish. In 1909, 46 establishments, with products valued at $9,190,000, were reported for this industry; while in 1899 there were 36 establishments, with products valued at $3,821,000. The value of products (1909) for the lumber industry was $400,000. and for printing and publishing, $228,000. Transportation and Com- munication. — A constant ser- vice of steamships is maintained between Seattle or Vancouver and Alaskan ports; but Nome can be reached only between July and September, From Skagway the White Pass and Yukon Railroad (an excellent narrow-gauge road) extends 20 miles to the Canadian boundary, thence 90 miles to White Horse Rapids. Here, in summer, steam- boats run to and from Dawson, and connect with boats down the lower Yukon; in winter, the travel is by stages (sleighs), the time between the railroad and Dawson being ZJA days. The Alaska Central Railroad, now (1912) under construction, runs from Resurrection Bay toward the Yukon country. The Copper River and Northwestern Rail- road is completed (1912) as far as Chitina on its way from Cordova to the mines on Copper River and beyond. In the Tanana country a narrow-gauge railroad (45 miles) connects Fairbanks with the principal placer mines. The Seward Peninsula Railroad runs from Nome to Sheldon (85 miles) ; and its extension into the Kougarok country (22 miles) is projected. Several short lines of railway connect Nome with neighboring mining centres. Other railroads are the Council City and Solomon River (33 miles); Yakutat Southern (12 miles); Golovin Bay (6 miles); Cook Inlet and Coalfields (8 miles). The most important event of 1911 was the opening of the Copper River region by the completion of the railway into it. The needs for cheap fuel are being met by the use of oil-burning engines, and the importation of California crude oil is increasing with a corresponding decrease in the use of coal. The Board of Road Commis- sioners, under the direction of the U. S. Secretary of War, con- structs and keeps in repair wagon and sled roads and trails. The most important line of travel is the road from Valdez, the most northerly open port, 385 miles to Fairbanks in the Tanana country, which is the centre for several other roads and trails. Postal service is sustained throughout the interior all the year round. Telegraph cables run from Seattle to Skagway, Juneau, Sitka, and Valdez, and from the latter port overland to the towns and military posts on the Yukon; and land lines or wireless tele- graphs connect these with Nome and Saint Michael. These lines were built and are maintained by the Signal Service of the United States army, which keeps several garrisons in Alaska. The receipts are more than $200,000 a year. Commerce. — For the fiscal year ending June 30, 1911, the total exports, excluding gold and silver, amounted to $15,192,074, and imports to $16,911,901. Of these sums, only $1,136,745 and $706,171, respectively, represent trade with countries other than the United States. The commerce with countries other than the United States is confined almost entirely to Canada. The exports for 1905 amounted to $11,889,- 611, and the imports to $12,955,- 165. The exports of gold and silver in 1911 amounted to $18,899,419, compared with $19,801,160 in 1905. The most important exports for 1911 were: salmon, $10,751,- 057; other fish, $424,655; furs, $487,333; copper ore, $809,160; whalebone, $213,040. The lead- ing imports of domestic products from the United States were: manufactures of iron and steel, $3,759,029; meat and meat prod- ucts, $1,910,957-, mineral oils, $818,165; manufactures of wood, $705,093; woollen goods, $587,- 576; spirits, wines, and liquors, $604,329; breadstuffs, $603,974; explosives, $470,687; fruits and nuts, $379,448; eggs, $378,923; tin manufactures, $395,279; to- bacco manufactures, $478,342; leather manufactures, $311,029. Finance. — Alaska has pro- Alamos 127 Alarm Alamos, a'la-m5s ('poplar trees'), mining town, Sonora, Mexico, at the northern end of Sierra de Alamos. The city is about 200 years old, and the mines of the vicinity (gold, sil- ver, and lead) were famous in Spanish days. Pop. about 10,000. Alamo'sa, town, county seat of Alamosa county, Colorado, 7,545 feet above sea level, on the Rio Grande River and on the Denver and Rio Grande Rail- road; 100 miles southwest of Pueblo. Gold and silver are mined in the neighborhood and farming and stock raising are of importance. Pop. (1910) 3,013. Aland Islands, o'lan or 6'lan, an archipelago including 300 isl- ands, of which 80 are inhabited, situated at the mouth of the Gulf of Bothnia, separated from the Finnish coast by the Skiftet Ca- nal and from Sweden by Aland Bay (25 miles wide). They cover a total area of about 550 square miles, the largest of the group being Aland Island (247 square miles). The inhabitants are chiefly of Swedish origin, and the principal occupations are hunt- ing, fishing, and agriculture. The strategic position of the islands constitutes their chief value. The capital iq Mariehamn. The Aland Islands belonged to Sweden until 1809, when they were ceded to Russia by the Treaty of Frederikshamn. Fol- lowing the destruction of the fortress of Bomarsund on Aland Island by the allied fleets of Great Britain and France during the Crimean War (1854), Russia, England, and France entered into a convention forbidding the maintenance of any military or naval establishment on the isl- ands. They were fortified, how- ever, by R ussia at the time of the Great World War (1914-18), and the removal of the fortifications was made one of the conditions of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (q. v..). A/!ter Finland's declara- tion of independence (1917) a movement for the separation of the islands from that country and their reunion with Sweden gained a large following. They were seized by Sweden Feb. 19, 1918, and by Germany March 3, 1918; on March 15 they appealed to the Finnish, German, and Swedish governments for a voice in the matter of their final disposition, which is 'still (March, 1919) unde- termin d. Pop. (est. 1910) 25,000. Alans, Alani, a Sarmatian people who inhabited the steppes north of the Caucasus Moun- tains and the Black Sea during the first three centuries of the Christian era. A large section of them were subdued and incor- porated by the Huns in 370. Subsequently they settled in Pannonia, Lusitania (411), and Africa (429). They disappeared Vol. I. — Mar. '19 as a distinct race after the fifth century. Al Araf. See Araf. Alarcon, a-lar-kon', Hernan- do DE, Spanish navigator, sailed from Acapulco in 1540, and dis- proved the idea that California was an island. He was the first European to explore the Colorado River, the lower course of which, with the Gulf of California, was accurately mapped by a member of his expedition. Alarcon, Pedro Antonio de (1833-91), Spanish author, was a native of Guadix in Granada. He entered upon the study of law and then of theology, but de- serted these for the journalistic field. His first and only play — • Rl hijo prodigo — was produced in 1857, and in that year he enlisted in the Spanish army and saw service in Morocco, where he gathered the material for his brilliant Diario de un testigo de la guerra de Africa (1860), fifty thousand copies of which were sold within two weeks. After his return to Spain he engaged ac- tively in political affairs, serving several terms as member of the Cortes. He was appointed a Councillor of State in 1875, and in the same year was elected to the Spanish Academy. His lit- erary work is notable for its freshness and vigor, its national spirit, and its humorous yet sin- cere tone. In addition to the works al- ready mentioned Alarcon pub- lished four long novels. El escdn- dalo (1875), La prodiga (1882), El final de Norma, and El nino de la bola (1880); two shorter nov- els. El Capitdn Veneno and El sombrero de tres picos (1874; Eng. trans., The Three-Cornered Hat, 1918); and a number of volumes of short stories, travel, essays, and verse. Alarcon y Mendoza, a-lar-kon' e men-do'tha, Juan Ruiz de (1581-1639), Spanish dramatist, was born in Mexico. He went to Europe in 1600, returned to Mexico in 1608, and in 1611 went again to Spain, where he re- mained until his death. His first volume of Comedias appeared at Madrid in 1628; his second, at Barcelona, in 1634. Throughout his lifetime, he was assailed in venomous lampoons by contem- porary poets and dramatists, but he is now admitted to rank after Calderon and Lope de Vega, as a dramatist. He excelled in the heroic drama, his best specimen of this kind being El tejedor de Segovia; while his mastery in de- lineating character is shown in his character comedies, of which the best known are La verdad sospechosa (imitated by Cor- neille in his Menteur) and Las paredes oyen. Of his comedies of intrigue, the best is Todo es Ven- tura. Editions of his works have been published at Madrid by Hartzenbusch (1848-52), and by Garcia Ramon (2 vols., 1884). Al'aric I. (c. 375-410), king of the Visigoths or Western Goths, was a scion of the noble family of the Balthings. During his mi- nority the Visigoths were in vassalage to the Romans; but on the death of the Emperor Theodosius, in 395, Alaric led the great revolt of the Visigoths, and was elected as their king. He overran Greece, and exacted a heavy ransom from Athens itself. As a result, he was able to con- clude a treaty with the Emperor of the East (Arcadius), by which he became vicegerent of the greater part of the Balkan Penin- sula. His growing power and ambition led him (in 400) to in- vade Italv, the northern prov- inces remaining in his power for eighteen months, until his defeat at Pollentia by Stilicho. In 409, however, Alaric once more in- vaded Italy, and this time laid siege to Rome. He spared the city, contenting himself with a heavy ransom; but in the follow- ing year, on Aug. 24, 410, the imperial city was entered and plundered. The Empire of the West was almost within his grasp, when he died suddenly at Cosenza. See Goths. Consult Hodgkins' Italy and Her In- vaders. Alaric II. {c. 484-507), eighth of the Visigothic kings of Spain, succeeded to the throne in in- fancy on the death of his father, Evaric or Euric, in 485. At that period the Visigothic kingdom included almost the whole of Spain, together with the greater part of Central and Southern France. Nearly all his French possessions, however, were wrest- ed from him by Clovis (q. v.), king of the Franks, who inflicted a crushing defeat on the Visi- goths at Vouille, near Poitiers, in 507, when Alaric was among the slain. Although a zealous Arian, Alaric showed great tolerance in religious matters. He enacted several useful statutes, and com- piled a code of laws, The Brevi- ary of Alaric II. See Goths. Alarm, or Alarum (from Ital. alV arme, 'to arms'), originally a call to arms, or the signal for this purpose, as the loud and hurried peal of an alarm bell; as now commonly used, a mechanical or electrical device for arousing per- sons from sleep or for calling the attention in case of accident or danger. The most familiar example of an alarm is probably to be found in the common alarm clock, in which the alarm mechanism con- sists of a hammer and bell with an escapement that lets it free at any hour arranged, when a spring or descending weight brings the hammer to bear on the bell. Alarodlan Languages 127 A Alaska Other examples are the bell and whistling buoy (see Buoy) to warn vessels of danger; the alarm whistle attached to a boiler to give warning when the water sinks below the safety level ; auto- matic fire alarms, as that consist- ing of a weight which, when the supporting string has burned through, falls and thus sets in motion a bell mechanism; the alarm funnel attached to a cask which, is being filled and so ar- ranged as to ring a bell when the liquid has reached a given level; and certain types of burglar alarm. For the numerous varieties of electric alarms, see Electric Bells and Alarms. Alaro'dian Languages, a term sometimes applied to the Cauca- sian languages, of which Geor- gian is the chief division. The group is in the main agglutina- tive, although it frequently ap- proximates inflection. It is not impossible that the cuneiforni inscriptions of Van represent an extinct form of Alarodian speech. Consult Sayce's Introduction to the Science of Language. A Lasco, Johannes. See Lasco. Ala- Shan, province. Southern Mongolia, lying between the Desert of Gobi (Golbiin-Gobi) to the north, the province of Kan- su and the Great Wall to the south, and the Hoang-ho and Ala-Shan range, or Khara-Na- rim (11,000 ft.), to the east. The extreme length is about 800 miles, the mean breadth about 480 miles. It is mostly a vast plain of sand, broken by grassy steppes, chalk downs covered with saline deposits, and low, unstable, sandy hills rising to 80 feet or so. Vegetation is almost absent; and the fauna is poor — the wolf, fox, hare, crow, crane, lizard, and serpent. The popu- lation is mostly composed of the Kalmuck stock, near relatives of the Kalmucks of the Lower Volga basin. Their live stock are mainly goats and yaks. Kirghiz and Chinese compose the rest of the inhabitants. Chinese and Mongol caravans traverse Ala-Shan on their way to and from Tibet. The prov- ince was annexed to the empire of China in 1636. Pop. 25,000. Alashehr, a-la-she'h'r (ancient Philadelphia), walled city, Asia Minor, on the Smyrna and Kas- saba Railroad; 83 miles east of Smyrna. Mineral springs in the vicinity attract many visitors, and the waters are also bottled and shipped to Smyrna. There is a considerable trade. The town is the seat of a Greek arch- bishop. Pop. 25,000. Philadelphia was founded by Attains Philadelphus (c. 150 B. c.) on the site of the Lydian village Callatebus, and is said to have Vol. I. — Mar. '19 been one of the Seven Churches of Asia referred to in Revelation. It was destroyed by an earth- quake at the time of Tiberius, but became again an important city in the early Middle Ages. It was sacked by Tamerlane (1402). There are ruins of the ancient stadium, temples, and theatre, and of the mediaeval walls and castle. Alas'ka, a ' territory of the United States, comprises the northwestern extremity of North America, west of the 141st meri- dian, together with a strip of coast extending south to 56° n. lat. and the adjacent islands, and the Aleutian Archipelago with the exception of Bering and Cop- per Islands. It is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean; on the east by the Northwest Territories of Canada and by British Columbia; on the south- west by the Pacific Ocean; and on the west by Bering Sea and the Arctic Ocean. Its area is 590,884 square miles, including both land and water, exceeding in extent the combined area of Norway, Sweden, Finland, Eng- land, Scotland, and Ireland. The coast is about 26,000 miles long, inlets and island outlines includ- ed. Point Barrow, the most northerly land of Alaska, lies more than 300 miles north of the Arctic Circle, and is without the sun for forty days during the winter season. Topography . — The shores of the Arctic Ocean and Bering Sea are comparatively low and flat — marshy plains or tundras — with a broad offing of shallow water and outlying shoals, and few places where a ship may closely approach the shore. The Pacific Coast, however, is ex- tremely mountainous. In the southeast the Coast range, a con- tinuation of the littoral ranges of British Columbia, forms the sea- front and the islands (about 1,000) of the Alexander Archi- pelago (q. v.). These islands rise from 3,000 to 5,000 feet above the sea, and are separated by narrow and deep channels and 'sounds' affording a protected waterway for ocean steamers al- most continuously from Puget Sound to Cross Sound, with many excellent harbors. The precipitous coast is deeply in- dented with fiords, at the head of which glaciers come down to the water, and continually give off' small bergs. West of Cross Sound and Glacier Bay rise the Saint Elias Alps, bordering the coast for some 300 miles, and containing many peaks exceed- ing 15,000 feet in altitude, cloth- ed with ice and snow almost to their bases; the highest are Mt. Logan, 19,539 feet, in Canada, and vSaint Elias (q. v.), 18,024 feet. Yakutat Bay (q. v.) in this region has been the scene of some of the greatest earthquakes in history, tremors in September, 1899, reaching over an area of 1,500,000 square miles. West of the 141st meridian, which forms the Canadian boun- dary, the St. Elias range is di- vided by the Chitina River Val- ley into the Chugach mountains, which follow the coast, and the Nutzotin mountains, which fol- low a northwesterly direction and form a connecting link with Alaskan Coast, and Alexander Archipelago. the Alaska range. Between these two divisions are the Wran- gell mountains, a group of vol- canic origin, reaching an eleva- tion of 10,000 ft. Mount Wran- gell (14,005 ft.) is the only peak still active. The Alaska range roughly describes the arc of a circle, approaching the coast west of Cook Inlet and the Kenai Peninsula. It contains Mount McKinley (q. v.), the highest peak in the North American con- tinent (20,464 ft.). Southwest from Cook Inlet stretch the Alas- ka Peninsula and Aleutian Isl- ands (q. v.), or Catherine Archi- pelago, extending almost to the Asiatic coast, and consisting of a Alaska 127 B Alaska line of half-submerged, treeless mountain summits, mostly vol- canic. The interior of Alaska includes a great central plateau, to the north of which is the Endicott range, a continuation of the Rocky Mountain system, vary- ing in altitude from 8,000 feet toward the Canadian boundary to 1,000 feet as it approaches the western coast. Beyond this lie the Arctic slope and the fiat coastal plain. About one-fifth of the drain- age of Alaska is toward the Pa- cific, nearly one-half to Bering Sea, and the remainder toward the Arctic Ocean. The great Yukon River (q. v.) is the prin- cipal stream, and has a course of about 2,300 miles in Alaska and Canada. It rises in British Co- lumbia, far to the east of Alaska, and flows westward across the middle of the Territory, in a shallow, winding, island-studded channel, for 1,200 miles. The Yukon is the natural highway of Alaska, its waters being navigable in summer, and its smooth ice coating in winter af- fording an unequalled sled road. Its principal tributaries are the Tanana, Porcupine, White, and Koyukuk. The Kuskokwim (or Kuskoquim) River, emptying in- to Bering Sea, is the second in size, having 1,000 miles of navi- gable waters. Lying west of the Alaskan range, it is wholly with- in the plateau country. In the Pacific system are the Susitna and Copper Rivers, also the smaller Alsek, Taku, and Stik- ine. In the Arctic Ocean system are the Noatak, Kobuk, and Colville Rivers. Glaciers. — The largest glaciers outside of the Polar regions are in Alaska, 170 being of sufficient importance to have names. They are located principally on the southern coast, in a region of heavy precipitation, and on the flanks of the higher mountain ranges. The great Malaspina Glacier on the northwest shore of Yakutat Bay covers 1,500 square miles — more than the whole State of Rhode Island. The Hubbard Glacier extends in- land 28 miles, with many branch- es or feeders. It discharges ice- bergs continually from a cliff-like front 5 miles long, 280 feet high above the water, and reaching far below the surface. The Muir Glacier has a front of 3 miles, 300 feet in height, and moves forward at the rate of about 6 feet per day, tumbling its bergs into the sea with an almost continuous roar. This glacier is said to have retreated over three miles in the past fifteen years. The Colum- bia Glacier is 4 miles in width and 300 to 400 feet high. Climate — With its lofty moun- tains, snow fields, and glaciers, its broad expanses of mossy tundra, and wide areas of valley lands, Alaska presents a great variety of climate, controlled largely by the principal moun- tain ranges and the modifying effect of the Japan current. The Territory is divided into a num- ber of natural subdivisions by conditions of rainfall, tempera- ture, and latitude. Southeast Alaska, including the Alexander Archipelago and the coastal region as far west as Cook Inlet, is marked by heavy rainfall and moderate tempera- ture, the average temperature for the three winter months being much like that of New York and Boston. The ports of this region are open to commerce through- out the year. Along the south average winter temperature 10°. Conditions in the Kenai-Susitna district, adjoining the Copper River Valley on the west, are be- tween those in the latter region and Southeastern Alaska. The average summer temperature is about 54°, and the rainfall is moderate. The great valleys of the Ta- nana and the Yukon comprise still another division, protected on the south by the lofty range of the Alaska Mountains. The average precipitation here varies from 13 to 20 inches. The aver- age temperature in summer is approximately 58° (a little higher than in any of the other five re- gions), and the thermometer sometimes reaches 90°. The low summer temperature averages Photo by Burton Holmes, from Ewing Galloway, N. Y. Cantilever Bridge on the White Pass and Yukon Railway, Alaska coast of the Alaska Peninsula, rainfall and temperature are moderate and here, also, the harbors are navigable the year around. In the Bering Sea coast region from Bristol Bay to be- yond Point Barrow, with its wide areas of tundra and treeless plains, the rainfall and the tem- perature vary considerably, both diminishing toward the north. The total annual precipitation — including the snowfall — ranges from 7 inches, at Point Barrow, to 84 inches at Unalaska. The average temperature at Nome is similar to that of Montreal and Manitoba. The Copper River Valley forms a distinct climatic division with a comparatively dry climate, owing to the protection afforded by the high Chugach Mountains, which ward off the heavy coast rains. The average summer tempera- ture at Copper Centre is 54°, the only a little less than in South- eastern Alaska. Flora and Fauna. — The Alas- kan flora includes a considerable number of timber trees, both in the Pacific coastal region and in- land (see section on Forestry). Flowering plants and shrubs are abundant in the valleys, and gen- tians, saxifrage, lady slippers, cyclamines, asters, etc., cover the lower mountain slopes, merging into mosses and lichens in the loftier altitudes. There are broad areas of grass land in Southwest- ern Alaska and in the Copper and Yukon River valleys. Alaska is a vast natural game park. On its barren northern shores are found walrus and polar bears; the flat, open tundras and treeless plateaus are the haunts of the caribou herds; in the in- terior forests ranges the Alaskan or giant moose, the largest of the moose family, with horns spread- VoL. I.— Mar. '26 Alaska 128 Alaska ing 5 to 6 feet; on the sncvv-clad mountains are the mountain sheep and the so-called mountain goat; and in the southern coastal forests roam the Sitka deer. Fur seals and sea lions inhabit the islands; brown, black, glacier, and grizzly bears in a dozen va- rieties are abundant — the Kodi- ak bear (q. v.) being the largest of all bears. Ducks, geese, swans, and sand hill cranes breed in the numberless ponds, and there are myriads of shore birds — plovers, snipe, curlews, and sandpipers; the ptarmigan is everywhere; and there are five species of grouse. Among the valuable food fishes are the cod, herring, halibut, and salmon of several species. Alas- ka's game is protected by strict game laws, a substantial revenue being received from the sale of hunting licenses. Mining. — Signs of gold and deposits of coal were long ago found in various places in Alaska; but until recent years the only considerable mining was at the Treadwell mine, near Juneau, where gold ore of low grade was so easily and cheaply worked that one of the most productive mines in the world resulted. In 1896-7 the discovery of rich gold placers in the Klondike region of the upper Yukon Valley was fol- lowed by a rush of immigration, which led to the discovery of pro- ductive workings all along the upper Yukon, in the Tanana Hills, south of the river, along the Canadian boundary, and else- where. This was followed in 1898-9 by the finding of gold in the beach sands of the north shore of Norton Sound, and the establishment of the town of Nome (q. v.). The Fairbanks district was discovered in 1902, Bonnifield in 1903, the Kantishna in 1906, and the Innoko and Iditarod in 1906-07. In addition to placer mining, a large number of lode mines are worked. The output of gold in 1922 was 380,769 fine ounces, valued at $7,730,000. Silver production reached 730,000 fine ounces, valued at $730,000. Copper mining dates from 1901 but has been carried on on a large scale only since 1911. The principal districts are the Ketchikan in Southeast Alaska, the Copper River basin, and Prince William Sound. Because of the low price of copper in recent years, the amount mined in Alaska has shown a decrease. In 1923 the output was valued at $12,630,335. There are three chief areas of high-grade coal in Alaska: the Bering River field, in the Con- troller Bay region; the Matanus- ka field, north of Cook Inlet; and the Nenana field, the two latter being served by the Alaska Railroad. The Bering Vol. I.— Mar. '26 River field is 25 miles from tide water at Controller Bay, and so far as surveyed shows 26.4 square miles of anthracite and 20.2 square miles of bitumi- nous coal. The Matanuska field is about 25 miles from tide water at Knik Arm (Cook Inlet); but as this is frozen in winter, the nearest open sea port at that season is Resurrection Bay (150 miles). The Matanuska coal is sub-bituminous to semi-bitumi- nous, with some anthracite. The bed mined is from 5 to 6 feet in thickness. As railroad construc- tion makes the coal mines more accessible, production shows a steady increase. In 1924 Alaska produced, from twelve mines, 120,000 tons of coal, the largest annual output in the history of the Territory. There are also great fields of lignite, and peat is widely distributed, the climate favoring its production, and the great tundras appearing to be underlaid with peat deposits. Petroleum has been developed in the Cook Inlet and Controller Bay districts. The total mineral production of Alaska for the year 1923 was valued at about $20,330,643, as compared with $19,506,365 in 1922. The total production of petroleum, marble, gypsum, plat- inum, tin, and antimony in 1924 was valued at $234,113. Lead valued at $57,400 was mined. Forestry, — The forests and woodlands of Alaska cover an area estimated at about 156,- 250 square miles, of which some 31,250 square miles are believed to contain timber suitable for manufacturing purposes. The most valuable trees are the west- ern hemlock, Sitka spruce, west- ern red cedar, and yellow cedar in the coast forests, and the white spruce, white birch, poplar, bal- sam poplar, black cottonwood, and aspen in the interior. The two great national forests, the Tongass National Forest and the Chugach Reserve, cover about 32,000 square miles, the total stand of timber being estimated at 75,000,000,000 board feet, which includes the great bulk of merchantable lumber in Alaska. In the fiscal year 1922 a total of 23,942,000 feet of timber, yieldi'ig $41,400, was cut from the national forests for com- mercial purposes. In the same year, 106,000 feet were cut for use by the government railway. During 1923, a total of 31,171,000 feet were cut, and sold at $53,- 050. The merits of Sitka spruce for aeroplane construction having been proved by investigation, a number of large contracts were let for that purpose. Fisheries and Furs — The fish- eries of Alaska are exceedingly rich. Salmon fisheries extend from Ketchikan in Southeast Alaska along some 2,000 miles of shore, to Bristol Bay and beyond, and are extremely im- portant, the annual catch being approximately 390,460,000 lbs. Halibut fishing is carried on off the shores of Southeastern Alaska; codfish banks, said to be the most extensive in the world, are located along both shores of the Alaska Peninsula, and her- ring abound. Whales are also caught, these and herring being used for the manufacture of oil and fertilizer. In 1923 fisheries gave employment to 25,246 persons, represented an invest- ment of $60,039,677, and yielded products worth $38,678,825; 84 per cent, of the total investment was represented by the salmon industry. Alaska has long been an im- portant source of furs, which have been collected by Russian and American agencies for over one hundred and fifty years. The most important of these have been the pelts of the fur seals of the Pribylov Islands in Bering Sea. Open sea or pelagic sealing and indiscriminate killing did much to reduce the seal herds, but in recent years government protective measures have brought about a gradual increase in their numbers. The leasing system under which sealing was formerly conducted was aboUshed in 1910, and under the present laws all sealing is carried on under the authority of the Secretary of Commerce. In 1923 the Priby- lov seal herd contained 653,008 animals of all ages — an increase of 48,036 over 1922. An ar- rangement exists whereby Japan and Great Britain are each en- titled to 15 per cent, of the skins obtained each year. (See Seal Fisheries.) Other valuable Alaskan furs are fox, bear, ermine, muskrat, mink, lynx, marten, and otter. Fur farming is now considered to be upon a permanent basis in Alaska. In 1925 there were more than 400 fur farms in the Territory, employing about 2,500 persons. The estimated number of animals was 43,000. The kill- ing of all fur-bearing animals is under strict government regula- tion. Agriculture and Stock Raising. — The agricultural capacity of Alaska is surprisingly large, the total area suitable for cultiva- tion or grazing, when cleared, being estimated at about 100,000 square miles. In 1920 (the latest official census) there were 364 farms, containing 90,652 acres; all farm property was valued at $1,808,641. In 1919 hay and forage was the leading agricultural product, being valued at $219,075; potatoes were valued at $97,556; other Alaska 129 Alaska vegetables — cabbage, turnips, carrots, celery, tomatoes, etc. — at $53,211; cereals at $21,441. Cattle on the farms in Alaska in 1920 numbered 640; in stables, 445; horses on farms, 385; in stables, 1,063. The reindeer in- dustry was established by the government in 1897-1902, and is carried on under the direction of the U. S, Department of the Interior, the reindeer being dis- tributed among the natives under a system of apprenticeship. The total number of reindeer in 1923 was estimated at 300,000, valued in 1919, 104 establishments, with products valued at $39,161,000. The value of lumber products (1919) was $950,000, of all other manufactures $1,384,000. Transportation and Communi- cation. — The development of Alaska has been greatly hamper- ed by inadequate transportation facilities. There are (1924) about 818 miles of railroad, of which the principal lines are the White Pass and Yukon, which extends from Skagway to the Canadian boundary and thence to White Horse, Canada; the Fairbanks (275 miles) and for 200 miles further for vessels of hght draft; and the Kuskokwim for 800 miles, while lesser streams are navigable for shorter dis- tances. Roads and trails are under the supervision of the Alaska Road Commission and the Territorial Road Supervisors. The Com- mission, up to June 1924, had constructed 1,498 miles of wagon roads, 1,088 miles of sled roads, 6,326 miles of permanent trails, and 712 miles of temporary flagged trails. Copyright by Brown Brotlicrs, Mew Yurn. Shipping Supplies through the Rapids of the Tanana River, Alaska at $7,500,000, or $300,000 more than the sum paid by the United States for the Territory. Manufactures. — In 1919 Alas- ka had 147 manufacturing estab- lishments, which gave employ- ment to an average of 7,316 persons during the year, and paid out $10,896,000 in salaries and wages. These establishments turned out products to the value of $41,495,000, in the manufac- ture of which, materials costing $19,482,000 were utilized. Alaska leads all the States and Terri- tories in the production of canned and preserved fish. In 1909 there were 46 establishments devoted to the industry, with products valued at $9,190,000; Copper River and Northwestern (197 miles), from Cordova on the coast to the Kennecott-Bonanza copper mine in the Chitina Valley; the Alaska Railroad with its branches (509 miles), officially completed on July 15, 1923. Improved railway facilities are not only rapidly increasing min- eral production and trade, but have stimulated tourist travel to a marked degree. River steamers and wagon roads, sled roads, and trails, are also important factors in Alas- kan transportation. During a portion of the year the Yukon is navigable, as far as White Horse in Canada (2,200 miles); the Tanana River from Tanana to There are about 140 post offices, and postal service is maintained throughout the in- terior the year round. Telegraph cables run from Seattle to Skag- way, Juneau, Sitka, and Valdez. and from the last-named port overland to the towns and mili- tary posts on the Yukon; and land lines or wireless telegraphs connect these with Nome and St. Michael. These lines were built and are maintained by the Signal Service of the U. vS. Army. There is also telegraph connec- tion between Alaskan towns and with the United States and Canada. The Navy radio serv- ice renders valuable assistance during unavoidable cable inter- VoL. I. — Mar. '26 Alaska 130 Alaska ruptions. The Washington-Alas- ka military cable facilitates government and commercial communication. A constant service of steam- ships is maintained between the Puget Sound ports and Southern Alaska; but Nome, St. Michael, and the Kuskokwim River ports can be reached only between July and September. Commerce. — The commerce of Alaska is confined principally to the United States and Canada. Within the fiscal year 1923 the value of the merchandise re- ceived from the United States was $30,781,206; exports to the United States were valued at $54,878,426, including fish, valued at $35,829,422 and cop- per, at $13,347,740. Finance. — Alaska has no pro- vision for taxing real or personal property, except in municipali- ties, where personal property and real estate may be taxed 2 per cent, for municipal purposes only. The revenues come from licenses to conduct various busi- nesses. The Territory has no funded debt. Banks. — Alaska has 14 terri- torial banks and 3 national banks, under the supervision of a Territorial Banking Board, created by act of the territorial legislature in 1913, and consist- ing of the governor, the terri- torial treasurer, and the secre- tary of the Territory. Inspection of the banks takes place at least once each year, and banks must report their condition to the banking board at least four times a year upon call, or oftener, according to the discretion of the board. The report for the fiscal vear 1924 showed aggregate deposits of $6,609,427 in the territorial banks, a combined capital of $605,000, and a total surplus and profits of $417,609. Population. — In 1920 the popu- lation of Alaska was 55,036, apportioned as follows: white, 27,883; Indian, 26,558; Chinese, 56; Japanese, 312; Negro, 128; all others, 99. In 1920 males numbered 34,539, and females 20,497. Of the Indians, 13,698 were Eskimos, 4,657 Athapas- cans, 3,895 Tlingits, and 2,942 Aleuts. In 1910 the population numbered 64,356. Some 20,000 persons not included in the census enumeration spend a few months each year in Alaska, em- ployed in railroad construction, canneries, and mines. The Indian population is near- ly all native. The Eskimos, who are slowly decreasing in num- bers, inhabit the northern coasts. They are skilled boatmen and hunters; many of them are em- ployed in the Nome region. (vSee Eskimos.) The Aleuts, an allied tribe, inhaliit the Aleutian Isl- ands and the Alaskan Peninsula Vol. I.— Mar. '26 (see Aleuts); the Tlingits and Haidas are found in Southeast- ern Alaska (see Tlingit); the Athapascans (q. v.) dwell princi- pally in the interior. Many of these tribes are employed in the fisheries, and as helpers in mines, mills, and on steamboats; while in winter they do a large part of the local transportation by dog train. There are 17 incorporated towns in the Territory. In 1920 the largest towns, with their population, were: Juneau (capi- tal), 3,058; Ketchikan, 2,458; Anchorage, 1,856; Sitka, 1,175; Fairbanks, 1,155; Cordova, 955; Douglas, 919; Petersburg, 879; Nome, 852; Wrangell, 821; and Seward, 652. Education. — Schools are main- tained in all the incorporated towns. They are supported by local license fees and appropri- ation from the territorial treas- ury, augmented by approxi- mately $50,000 from the Alaska fund. Provision is made in these schools for industrial training. The Presbyterian, Roman Catho- lic, Methodist, Episcopal, Rus- sian Orthodox, and other churches provide additional educational facilities. By an act of Congress ap- proved March 3, 1917, the con- trol of the public schools of Alaska was transferred to the Territory, and immediately after- wards certain laws regarding schools were enacted by the legislature, the act instituting citizenship night schools being a step toward the Americanization of the foreign-language peoples. During 1923-4, in the 56 schools outside incorporated towns, there were 1,186 pupils and 70 teachers. The 17 schools in incorporated towns reported 2,744 pupils and 120 teachers. The total cost of instruction for the year ending June 30, 1923, was $387,679. In 1920, 24.8 per cent, of the popu- lation were illiterate. The Alaska Agricultural College and School of Mines was opened in Sep- tember 1922, and in 1924 re- ported an enrollment of 84 students, with a faculty of 12 professors. Government. — By Act of Con- gress of August 24, 1912, organ- ized territorial government was granted to Alaska. The legis- lature consists of a Senate of 8 members, two from each judicial district, and a House of Repre- sentatives of 16 members, four from each judicial district. The first session of the legislature convened at Juneau, the capital, on March 3, 1913. Regular sessions are held biennially, and special .sessions may be called by the governor. Inasmuch as Con- gress has reserved the right to legislate on certain subjects, the Territory may be said to be governed jointly by the local legislature and Congress at Washington. The governor is appointed by the President, and has the power of veto, which may be over-ridden by a two- thirds vote of both houses. Alaska is constituted, for the administration of justice, as a judicial district having four sub- divisions, with centres at Juneau, Nome, Valdez, and Fairbanks, and with four courts. The Terri- tory is represented in Congress by one delegate, who has no vote. History. — The earliest histori- cal date connected with Alaska is 1648, when Deshneff, rounding Asia, navigated Bering Strait. In 1731 GwosdefT, a Russian, visited the Alaskan Coast. But the discovery of Alaska is gen- erally accredited to Vitrus Bering (q. v.), a Danish navigator in the employ of Russia, who with Chirikoflf reached the Alaskan Coast at Controller Bay near Mount Saint Elias in 1741. In 1778 the English navigator. Cap- tain James Cook (q. v.), explored the Alaskan Coas. as far as Ber- ing vStrait. Vancouver conducted explorations along the coast in 1793-4, and Franklin and Beech- ey in 1826. The first permanent settle- ment was made at Three Saints' Bay, on Kodiak Island, by a Russian trading company in 1783. In 1799 the Russian- American Company was granted a monopoly of the fur trade by royal charter; and the company established posts at Kodiak (1792), Sitka (1804), and other points. This company main- tained full control of Alaska un- til 1862, when owing to abuses its charter was revoked. The Rus- sian Government, however, took no steps to abolish the company, and it remained in control. In May 1867 a treaty was signed between the United States and Russia, whereby Alaska was ceded to the United States for $7,200,000 in gold; and on Oct. 18, 1867, the formal transfer took place at Sitka. For a number of years the country was governed by an officer of the U. S. Array or Navy stationed at Sitka; and it was not until 1884 that Congress made provision for a civil gov- ernment. In 1883 and 1885 two U. S. Army officers, Lieuts. Frederick Schwatka and Henry T. Allen, made extensive explorations of the interior. The discovery of gold in the Klondike (see Yukon Gold Fields) in 1896 and at Nome (q. v.) in 1899 attracted large numbers of prospectors to Alaska, and led to systematic explorations by the U. S. Geo- logical Survey. In 1901 a survey party traversed Alaska from the southerly limits to Point Barrow. Alaska 131 Alatrl Much of the Territory, how- ever, is still unmapped and un- known geologically. When Alaska was acquired by the United States, its eastern boundary with Canada was in dispute. In 1903 a commission composed of representatives of the United States, Canada, and Great Britain met at London and decided the principal points in favor of the United States (see Alaska Boundary Dispute). The government has aided in the development of the Territory by conduct' ng experiment sta- tions, under the direction of the Department of Agriculture, for the testing of grains and other seeds suitable to the climate; by establishing breeding stations for cattle; and by encouraging the reindeer industry among the na- tives. The Coast, Geological, and Geodetic Surveys have also done valuable work, including the extension of the lighthouse system and important explora- tions. The first territorial legislature convened in 1913 and passed measures for the creation of a territorial treasury, the extension of the elective franchise to wom- en, and laws for the protection of labor. More recent legislation includes a direct primary act; an act appropriating $100,000 for defense; an act to establish a uniform school system and creat- ing a Territorial Board of Edu- cation and the office of Commis- sioner of Education; and an act to provide night schools to fit adult aliens for United States citizenship. Following a general election of Nov. 7, 1916, at which a prohibition referendum was carried by a large majority. Congress in February 1917 passed a law making Alaska 'bone-dry.' Alaska Coal Lands Dispute. — Considering its abundant re- sources, the growth of Alaska has been somewhat disappointing. One of the principal causes has been the lack of transportation facilities (see section on Trans- portation, above), the other the restrictions placed on the devel- opment of the coal lands and other great natural resources. After the discovery of the great coal fields of Alaska (see section on Mining, above), the U. S. Government passed regulations (1904) which permitted individ- uals to enter claims of 160 acres each, and between 1904 and 1906 about 1,000 such entries were made, covering nearly all the de- posits of the Bering River field. Most of the claims were entered by agents in the names of men who had never seen the lands, and these claims passed into the hands of a few large groups or syndicates, so that grave fears of a monopoly were entertained. In view of this contingency. Presi- dent Roosevelt in 1906 withdrew all coal lands from further entry, and withheld the patents on those claims already filed. In particular the claims of one of the largest syndicates, known as the 'Cunningham Group,' be- came the subject of an investiga- tion which covered a period of seven years. In December 1907, after a series of inquiries, Richard Ballinger (q. v.). Commissioner of the U. S. Land Office, clear- listed those claims; but a few weeks later revoked his order upon protest by Louis R. Glavis, chief of the Field Division at Portland. In March 1909 Bal- linger became Secretary of the Interior, and in September Glavis openly charged him and other officials of the Interior Depart- ment with unduly favoring the Cunningham claims. Glavis was dismissed, and Gifi"ord Pinchot (q. v.). Chief Forester, who had espoused his cause, was removed by President Taft. A Congres- sional Committee thereupon in- vestigated the afi'air, and by a party vote exonerated Ballinger (see Conservation). On June 26, 1911, the Cunningham claims were finally cancelled, and the cancellation of nearly all the other claims followed, thus clos- ing the lands to private enter- prise. The disposition of these lands was the subject of much discussion, three plans for their development being suggested— sale of the lands, operation under lease hy private companies, and government operation. An act providing for lease of the lands, under heavy restrictions, was passed in 1914. See Alaska Boundary Dispute; Aleuts; Eskimos; Seal Fisheries; Tlingit; Yukon Gold Fields. Bibliography. — Consult Ban- croft's History of Alaska; Bur- roughs' Harriman Alaska Expe- dition (6 vols.) ; Foster's The Alaskan Boundary; Baker's Geo- graphic Dictionary of Alaska; Brooks' Geography and Geology of Alaska; Higginson's Alaska, the Great Country (1909); Under- wood's Alaska: An Empire in the Making (1913); Greely's Hand- book of Alaska (new ed., 1914); Tuttle's Alaska: Its Meaning to the World, Its Resources, Its Op- portunities (1914); Alaska, Our Frontier Wonderland (1917), is- sued by the Alaska Bureau of the vSeattle Chamber of Commerce; publications of the U. S. Govern- ment (Geological Survey, Bureau of Fisheries, War Department, Bureau of Education, and Thir- teenth Census) ; Reports of the Governor of Alaska. Alaska Iloundary Dispute, a dispute involving the interpreta- tion of certain words in the Anglo-Russian treaty of 182,5 de- fining the respective boundaries of Alaska and Canada between Mt. St. Elias and the Portland Canal. According to the terms of the treaty this section of the boundary line ran from the southern extremity of Prince of Wales Island along Portland Canal to the 56th parallel, and thence along the summit of the mountains parallel with the coast to the 141st meridian, or, where the summit of the mountains was more than 10 marine leagues from the ocean, along a line par- allel with the coast and 10 marine leagues therefrom. This line was accepted as the boundary by the United States upon its purchase of the Territory in 1867, and the matter was not called in question till about 1888, when Canada claimed that the ten marine leagues specified should be meas- ured not from the actual shore line but from a fine drawn from headland to headland directly across such arms of the sea as Glacier Bay and Lynn Canal. This claim was disputed by the United States, and in 1903 a tri- bunal of three British (including two Canadians) and three Amer- ican jurists sat in London to settle the meaning of the treaty. The decision, which was arrived at by a vote of four to two. Lord Alverstone, the English repre- sentative, voting with the Amer- icans, was based on the motive of the treaty, rather than upon a literal interpretation, and the award was made in October, practically sustaining the United States claims. Canada lost the sea coast north of 54° 40', but was awarded the main entrance to Portland Canal. Consult Report of the Alaskan Boundary Commission. Alaska Sable, the name given to the fur of the skunk when dyed. Alaska- Yukon-Pacific Exposi- tion. See Exhibitions; Seattle. Alassio, a-las'se-6, commune, Liguria, Italy, on the Gulf of Genoa; 58 miles southwest of Genoa. It is much frequented as a health resort. Pop. (1921) 5,600. Alas'tor, the name given to Zeus as the avenging deity, to the Furies, and to one of Satan's ministers. Ala-tau, ii-la-tou' ('mottled'), a range of lofty mountains form- ing the boundary between Turk- estan and Mongolia, and the northerly limit of the great tableland of Central Asia. The five sierra-like granite sub-range-^ are grouped around Lake Issik- kul (elevation, 5,300 feet) as a central point. Their elevation is from 10,000 to 15,000 feet; the loftiest peak, Khan Tengri, is 24,000 feet. Alatri, ii-la'tre, town, Italy, in the province of Rome, on the River Cosa; 45 miles southeast of Rome. It is located on the 'Vol. I.— Mar. '26 Alatyr 132 Albanl site of the ancient Aletrium and contains well preserved fortifi- cations of an ancient city. It is also remarkable for its remains of Cyclopean walls, and for the church of Santa Maria Maggiore, which contains specimens of wood carving of the. twelfth century. The chief industry is the manufacture of cloth and tapestry. Pop. 7,000. Alatyr, a-la-ter', or Alatuir, town, Russia, in the government of Simbirsk, on the River Sura; 102 miles northwest of vSim- birsk. Industries include mill- ing, brewing, and brick making. The town was founded bv Ivan the Terrible in 1552. Pop. 25,600. Alatyr River, in East Russia CVolga basin), rises in the Penza hills, flows east across Nijni- Novgorod government, and falls into the Sura at Alatyi. Alausi, a-lou-se', town, Ecua- dor, Chimborazo province, on the Alausi River, and on the Guay- aquil and Quito railway; 89 miles east of Guayaquil, at an elevation of 7,500 feet. Sulphur is mined near by, and the valley produces corn, wheat, and fruit. Cotton cloth is manufactured. Pop. (est. 1922) 2,500. Alava, a'la-va, the southern and largest, but most sparsely populated, of the three Basque provinces of Spain. The surface is extremely mountainous, form- ing a series of terraces of the Cantabrian Range, trending south to the River Ebro. The climate is mild in summer, but the winter cold is extreme. The soil is fertile, and the inhabitants, who are chiefly Basques, are en- gaged in agriculture. Along the Ebro fruits and wine are pro- duced, while the other valleys yield good crops of maize and hemp. Cattle and sheep are grazed on the uplands; iron, cop- per, and lead are mined. The capital is Vitoria. Area, 1,175 sq. mi. Pop. (est. 1922) 99,426. Alava, Don Miguel Ricardo DE (1771-1843), Spanish general, was born of a noble family at Vitoria. At first a supporter of Joseph Bonaparte, he deserted to the winning side in 1811, and at- tracted the favorable notice of Wellington, who made him a general of brigade. Upon the res- toration of Ferdinand vii. he was imprisoned, but was soon after- ward released and was appointed ambassador to The Hague. He returned to vSpain, and in 1820, after the revolution, was sent as a deputy to the Cortes, and be- came a leader in the party of the Exaltados. He was instrumen- tal in securing the restoration of Ferdinand, and was subsequent- ly a refugee in (ireat Britain, but was recalled by the regent Maria Christina (1833), and appointed ambassador to London (1834) and Paris (1835). Vol. I. — Mar. '26 Alb, or Albe (Latin albus, 'white'), a white linen vestment worn by the priest and his assist- ants at the Holy Communion. It has narrower sleeves than the surplice, and is bound about the waist by a cincture. In the an- cient church, newly baptized per- sons were obliged to wear a sim- ilar garment for eight days — hence catechumens were called albati; and the Sunday after Easter, on which they usually received baptism, came to be called Dominica in Albis. Al'ba (ancient Alba Pompeia), town and episcopal see, Italy, in the province of Cuneo, on the River Tanaro; 42 miles south- west of Alessandria. It is a wine-growing town, and the birthplace of Macrino d'Alba, the painter. The Cathedral dates from 1486. Pop. 9,000. Alba, Duke of. See Alva. Albacete, al-ba-tha'te, prov- ince. Southeastern Spain. The northern part consists of high plains, the southern part is moun- tainous; the climate is generally healthful. Cereals, especially wheat, many kinds of fruit, ol- ives, and the grape are culti- vated; and stock raising is car- ried on. Silver, iron, copper, sul- phur, and coal are mined. Man- ufactures include hemp spinning, cloth making, and the manufac- ture of porcelain, earthenware, and cutlery. Area, 5,737 square miles. Pop. (1920) 299,446. Albacete, town, Spain, capital of the province of Albacete, on the railway from Madrid to Murcia; 138 miles southeast of Madrid, at an altitude of 2,250 feet. It is famous for its cutlery, especially its daggers, the blades of which are engraved with sug- gestive inscriptions. There is trade in agricultural products. Pop. (1921) 31,960. Al'bacore. See Tunny. Al'ba Lon'ga, the most ancient city of Latium, situated on a rocky ridge that runs along the shore of the Alban Lake; about 20 miles east of Rome. Accord- ing to legendary history, it was built by Ascanius, the son of ^neas, about 300 years before the foundation of Rome, which is represented as a colony of Alba Longa. It was destroyed during the reign of Tullus Hostilius, and its inhabitants were removed to Rome. Good reasons have been advanced for placing the site of the ancient city on the south of the lake, near Castel Gandolfo, where remains of a remarkable archaic necropolis were unearthed in 1817. Alban, 61'bcn, St., according to legend the first British martyr, was born at Vcrulamium in the third century. After a jc^urncy to Rome, in company with Amphi- balus, he adopted the Christian religion, and suffered martyrdom between 286 and 303, during the reign of Diocletian. Offa, king of the Mercians, erected in his memory a monastery near Veru- lamium, and around it grew up the modern St. Albans (q. v.). Alban Hills, or Mountains, in Italy, a volcanic range which overlooks the Campagna, 15 to 20 miles east of Rome. The slopes of the hills (2,500 feet) are for the most part covered with woods, groves, and orchards, and the summits are crowned with numerous small towns — e.g., Al- bano, Ariccia, Frascati, Castel Gandolfo, Genzano. On the south edge of the girdle are the crater lakes of Albano and Nemi (qq. v.). Albani, ol'ba-ni, Roman family which in the fifteenth century was driven by the Turks from Albania, and took refuge in Italy. It produced a Pope, Clement XI. (q. v.), and five cardinals: Giovanni Gerolamo (1504-91), author of several works on juris- prudence; Annibale (1682- 1751), author of Memorie sopra la citta d'Urbino; Alessandro (1692-1779), who formed the famous collection of objects of art in the Villa Albani, at Rome; Giovanni Francesco (1727- 1803), bishop of Ostia, and car- dinal when only twenty-seven; Giuseppe (1750-1834), a patron of music. Albani, Madame (nee Marie Louise Emma Cecile Lajeu- nesse) (1852- ), soprano vo- calist, was born in Chambly, near Montreal, Canada. She was trained in music by her father, Joseph Lajeunesse, and at the age of twelve made her debut in Albany, N. Y., from which she assumed the profes- sional name of 'Albani.' She studied later in Paris and Milan, and in 1870 sang in Messina with a success that was after- ward repeated in London and Paris, the United States, Russia, and elsewhere. She retired from public singing in 1911 and de- voted herself to teaching. She published • Fforty Years of Song Albani, or Akban6, Frances- co (1578-1660), Bolognese paint- er; studied under Calvaert and Ludovico Carracci. He painted about forty-five altar-pieces; but preferred idyllic scenes from an- cient mythology or from contem- porary pastoral poetry. His twelve children were of extraor- dinary beauty, and served him as models for his Venuses, Galateas, and angels' heads. His works are in the Louvre, and in Flor- ence, Dresden, London, Milan, Turin, and Petrograd (Lenin- grad). Albani, Matthias (1621-73). celebrated Tyrolese violin maker, a native of Bozen, was trained by Staincr. The tone of his instru- Copyright, iqiq, by Brown Brothers. Copper River Bridge on the Copper River and Northwestern Railroad. Copyright, 191Q, by Brown Brothers. Lake Kenai on the U. S. Government Railroad. VIEWS OF ALASKA. Vol. L— Mar. '19. Vol. L— at Page 130. V Albania 133 Albany merits is more remarkable for power than for quality. His son, Matthias, gained experience un- der the great violin makers of Cremona, and finally settled at Rome. His best violins arejhardly inferior to those of the Amatis. Albania, al-ba'ni-a, an inde- pendent country of Southern Eu- rope, stretching along the west shore of the Balkan Peninsula (q.v.); area, about 11,000 square miles. It is bounded on the north and east by provinces of the Serb-Croat-Slovene State (Montenegro on the north and Serbia on the east); on the east and the south by Greece; and on the west by Montenegro and the Adriatic Sea. The country is traversed by a number of mountain ranges, and is high and rugged in the interior, although low and swampy toward the coast. The climate is temper- ate and healthful in the high- lands, and the soil is generally fertile. The principal rivers are the Drin, Semeni, and the Viosa; the largest lake is the Lake of Ohrida. The principal industries are agriculture and stock raising, the chief products of the country be- ing tobacco, wool, olive oil, timber and cattle. The small areas now under cultivation are worked in primitive fashion, al- though the regions along the Adriatic and the Korytza Basin are capable of great agricultural development. The country is said to possess rich mineral de- posits, notably copper, coal, silver, gold, and lead, but these resources are undeveloped. Ow- ing to the unsettled state of the country, commerce is at a stand- still. Albania occupies the unique position among the nations of Europe of having no national debt and of possessing a gold currency. The population of Albania is estimated between 800,000 and 850,000. The inhabitants (called by themselves Shkipetars and by the Turks Arnauts) are for the most part mountaineers who, until recent years, were given to intertribal feuds and brigandage. Formerly Christian, fully two- thirds of them have become Mo- hammedan. The Christians are about equally divided between the Roman Catholic and Greek Churches. Little advance has been made along educational lines. The chief towns, with their population, are Koritza, 25,598; Durazzo, 4,785; Scutari, 21,580; Elbasan, 10,400; Tirana, the capital, 10,845; and Argyro- castro, 12,400. The Albanian language is an ancient tongue, belonging to the Indo-European family of lan- guages, with a comparatively recent intermixture of Slavonic words. There is no Albanian alphabet, Latin, Greek, and sometimes even Turkish char- acters being employed. Governmental authority is vested in three distinct bodies — the Regency Council, which Is made up of two Christians and two Moslems, and which plays the part of a Chief Executive; the Council of Ministers com- posed of the heads of depart- ments of the Government; and the Parliament, an elective body consisting of seventy-two mem- bers. History. — In antiquity Albania was a part of Illyria (q.v.), which in the second century B.C. be- came a Roman province. At the end of the sixth century a.d., the invading Slavs seized and settled what later became Servia, Monte- negro, Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Dalmatia, but were unable to conquer the Shkipetars, who fled to the mountains. When the Turks invaded Europe these mountain tribes fought stub- bornly for their independence, and, under the leadership of the heroic Scanderbeg (q.v.), suc- cessfully withstood the invaders from 1443 to 1467. In 1478, how- ever, the country became a Turk- ish province, although the inhab- itants remained semi-independ- ent. The long period of Turkish rule was marked by frequent re- volts, and from 1807 to 1822 Southern Albania was practically independent under Ali Pasha (q.v.). The nationalist policy adopted by the Young Turks after the Turkish Revolution of 1908 was most unpopular in Albania, and a general uprising took place. While Turkey was in the midst of the Balkan War (q.v.), Ismail Kemal proclaimed Albanian in- dependence (Nov. 28, 1912), and set up a provisional government at Valona. In April, 1913, Essad Pasha, an influential Albanian, erected an opposition govern- ment at Durazzo. The formation of an autonomous principality having been agreed upon by the European Powers, an Interna- tional Commission of Control was appointed by them to assume responsibility for its civil and financial administration. Early in 1914 the two rivals to the throne were persuaded to resign their claims, and Prince William of Wied assumed the crown for a brief period. After the outbreak of the Great War the Prince left Al- bania which, although remaining neutral, nevertheless served as a battleground for Serbians, Ital- ians, Greeks, and Austrians. In 1917 Albania was proclaimed an independent country and a pro- visional government was set up at Durazzo, but it was practically occupied by the Italian army until 1920. The disposition of Albania having come up before the Peace Conference, it was decided in January, 1920, to partition the country. The Albanians there- upon met in convention at Lushnja, formed a new Govern- ment, and organized for resist- ance. The Italians in Tepelen and Valona received the Alba- nian attack and peace was only established in August, 1920, by the signing of the Treaty of Tir- ana and the withdrawal of Italian troops from Albania. Albania's request for admis- sion to the League of Nations was granted in December, 1920, but her status was not fixed until November, 1921, when the Coun- cil of Ambassadors set the boun- daries of the country, assigning to Albania the disputed provinces of Scutari, Koritza, and Arghyro- castro. At the same time the Supreme Council recognized the government as centred at Tir- ana. The years 1921-24 were exceedingly unsettled and dis- turbed by internal troubles and governments rapidly rose and fell. In 1925 Ahmed Bey Zogu, a native Albanian, was elected president of the new republic for a period of 7 years, but in Sep- tember, 1928, he was proclaimed king of the Albanians under the title Scanderbeg iii. but generally known as Zogu I. Bibliography. — Consult Da- ko's Albania, the Master Key to the Near East (1919); Chekrezi's Albania Past and Present (1919). Albano, or Albano Laziale, al-ba'no lat-sya'la, town of Italy, on the south slope of the Alban Hills, 1,230 feet above sea level, 15 miles southeast of Rome. It is an episcopal see and a favorite summer resort of the wealthy inhabitants of Rome. Excellent wine is made in the vicinity. Pop. 9,400. Albano, Lalecf5, —Economi- cally alcoholism has been held responsible for a large proportion of want and pauperism, vice, and crime. It is an important cause of insanity and is often expressed in the second generation as epilepsy and weak-mindedness. These far-reaching social and economic aspects have con- stituted it a public problem, for which various remedies have been proposed. (See Prohibi- tion; Temperance; Local Op- tion.) See Alcohol; Drunkenness; Intoxication. Al'coholom'etry, the determi- nation of the percentage of alco- hol in a liquid. When the alcohol is mixed with water only, the proportion is estimated from the specific gravity, which is found by means of the specific gravity bottle or by a hydrometer (q.v.). Tables are published showing the percentage of alcohol (by volume and weight) and of proof spirit (q.v.), corresponding to the specific gravity. The hydrometer used by the U. S. Internal Revenue officers is of glass graduated to read the volume of proof spirit, which is equivalent to the volume of the given liquor at 60° f. In liquors con- taining substances other than alcohol, such as beer, the strength can.be determined only after the alcohol and water have been separated by distillation. Alcohols, any one of a large class of compounrls in organic chemistry which are formed by the substitution of one or more hydroxyl radicals for an equal number of hydrogen atoms in the original hydrocarbon. The hydrocarbon methane, for ex- ample, has the formula CH4; by substituting the hydroxyl radical OH for one of the hydro- gen atoms, there is obtained CH3.OH, or methyl alcohol. Sim- ilarly the formula C2H6 repre- sents ethane, which when one of its hydrogen atoms is replaced by hydroxyl yields C^Hs.QH, or ethyl alcohol. Alcohols are classed chemically according to the number of hydroxyl groups they contain. Thus there are monatomic or monohydric alcohols, as methyl and ethyl alcohols; diatomic or dihydric alcohols, as ethylene and propylene gycols; triatomic or trihydric alcohols, as glycerol — containing one, two, and three hydroxyl groups respectively. Alcohols containing a greater number of hydroxyl groups are classified as polyhydric. The monohydric alcohols may be further classified, according to the products obtained by oxidation, as primary, secondary, and tertiary. On oxidation the primary alcohols yield first alde- hydes and finally acids contain- ing the same number of carbon atoms in the molecule as the original alcohol. Secondary alcohols yield first a ketone of the same number of carbon atoms and on further oxidation an acid of fewer carbon atoms. Tertiary alcohols are oxidized direct to acids of fewer carbon atoms. Ethyl alcohol (C2H5.OH), yielding acetaldehyde (CH3.- CHO) and acetic acid (CH3.- COOH), is a characteristic pri- mary alcohol; iso-propyl alcohol ( (CH3)2CHOH), yielding di- methyl ketone ( (CH3)2CO) and acetic acid (CH3.COOH), a typical secondary alcohol; ter- tiary butyl alcohol ( (CH3)3 COH), yielding dimethyl ketone and acetic acid, a typical ter- tiary alcohol. The alcohols so far discussed belong to the so-called aliphatic series. The alcohols of the aromatic series which have the hydroxyl group joined directly to six carbon nucleus are called phenols and behave somewhat differently. For example, car- bolic acid, ordinarily called phenol (CeHsOH), possesses weakly acid properties and com- bines with metals to form salts, such as sodium phenylate or carbolate (CeHsONa). The aromatic alcohols properly so- called have the hydroxyl group in an aliphatic side chain, as benzyl alcohol (C6H5CH2OH), and behave like aliphatic alco- hols. Alcoran. See Koran. Alcorn, al'kern, James LysK (1816-94). American legislator, was born in Golconda, 111., and was educated in Kentucky, where he served in the legislature. In 1844 he removed to Missis- sippi, and there practised law for many years. He was a member of the Mississippi legislature, 1846- 65; governor of the State, 1868- 71, and U. S. Senator, 1871-7. He was the founder of the Missis- sippi levee system, and helped to establish the State Agricultural and Mechanical College for Colored Youth. ij^lcott, orkut, Amos Bronson (1799-1888), American trans- cendentalist, writer, and teacher, was born in Wolcott, Conn., and was educated in the rural schools in his neighborhood. In 1825, he became teacher of a school in Cheshire, Conn., where he intro- duced educational methods con- siderably in advance of his time. Opening the Temple School in Boston in 1834, he made use of similar methods, and won the hearty approval of many of the leaders of educational thought, but conservative and traditional schoolmen opposed his innova- tions and caused his removal to Concord. There he became the friend of Emerson, Thoreau, Hawthorne, and Channing, and was made dean of the Concord School of Philosophy. In 1842 he visited England, and upon his return unsuccessfully attempted to es- tablish an community, 'Fruit- lands,' near Harvard, Mass. Thereafter he lectured on educa- tion, theology, and allied sub- jects, in most of the principal cities of the United States. His chief works are: Conversations with Children on the Gospels (1837); Orphic Sayings (1840); Spiritual Culture (1841); Tablets (1868); Concord Days (1872); Table Talk (1877); New Con- necticut, an A utobio graphical Poem (1881, 1877); Ralph W. Emerson and Sonnets and Can- zonets (1822). Consult Sanborn's Life (with W. T. Harris.) Alcott, Louisa May (1832- 88), American writer for the young, was born in Germantown, Pa., daughter of A. B. Alcott (q.v.). She engaged in school teaching and writing for peri- odicals, and in 1855 published her first book. Flower Fables. Her life as a volunteer hospital nurse during the Civil War furnished material for her Hos- pital Sketches (1865), and sup- plied a background for several of her tales. She wrote for The Atlantic Monthly, and pub- lished several other works before her first and greatest success, Little Women (1868; second part, 1869), which was followed by Little Men (1871), with its sequel, Jos Boys (1886). Other works are: Moods (1864, 1881); An Old Fashioned Girl (1869); Aunt Jo's Scrap Bag (1871, 1882); Work (1873); Eight Cousins (1874); Rose in Bloom (1876); Under the Lilacs (1878); Jack and Jill (1880) ; An Old Fashioned Thanksgiving (1882); Proverb Stories (1882); 5 pinning- Wheel Stories (1884); Lulu's Library (1885). Consult Lives by Cheney and Moses. Alcoy, ill-koi', town, Spain, in the i)rovince of Alicante, 34 miles north of Alicante. It is one of the most prosperous towns in Spain; the Molinar and Barchel Rivers supplying power Vol. L— March. '27 Alcudia 144 Aldebaran for paper, woollen, linen, and cotton mills, and match factories. Its cigarette paper 'papel de Alcoy,' has a far-reaching reputa- tion. Pop. (1920)^36.463. Alcudia, al-koo'xHe-a, Duke OF. See GoDOY. Alculn, al'kwin, or Albinus (735-804), surnamed Flaccus, whose name in English was Ealhwine, a noted scholar of the eighth century, confidant and adviser of Charlemagne, was born in York. Educated there under Archbishop Egbert and the teacher Ethelbert, he succeeeded the latter on his pro- motion to the archbishopric in 767, and with Ethelbert's resig- nation (778) became head of both school and library. In 781, returning from Rome with the pallium for Eanbald, Ethel- bert's successor in the arch- bishopric of York, Alcuin met Charlemagne at Parma, and was persuaded by the Emperor to settle in France, where he re- ceived the abbeys of Ferrieres in Gatinais, St. Loup at Troyes, and St. Martin at Tours. In the court at Aachen Alcuin had among his pupils the Emperor and his sons, imperial counsellors such as Adalhard, the archbishops of Mayence and Treves, Charlemagne's sister and daughter, the nuns of the dio- ceses, and Adalhard 's sister Gundrade, to whom Alcuin dedicated his philosophical es- say, De Ralione Animce. Alcuin's plan of instruction embraced the stages of the trivium and quadrivium, in the usual lines of such rhetoricians and grammarians as Martianis Capella, Isidore, and Priscian; but even in these it found methods and symbols allying it with that of later periods of renaissance. The dialogue, and especially the dialogue in alle- gorical character, was a favorite device. In his letters, too, Alcuin conveyed instruction; of the 232 that have come down to us, 30 are addressed to Charlemagne. In these he congratulates the Emperor on victories over the Huns, advises clemency, outlines missionary schemes, expounds astronomy, and touches on ec- clesiastical events and heresies of the day. Manners and the state of society are also recorded, together with the surroundings of his earlier manhood, in the most notable of his poems. Carmen de Pontificibus et Sanctis Ecclesice Eboracensis. Alcuin revisited England (790- 2) in connection with the renewal of a treaty between the Emperor and Offa, king of Mercia, but was recalled to France and in 796 settled in Tours as abbot and head of the great school. There he died in 804. Alcuin's theological writings are not of the first importance, You I. — March '27 nor are any of his 280 poems re- markable. What interest his remains possess lies almost whol- ly in scholastic and historical work. The former includes treatises on grammar, orthog- raphy, rhetoric, and dialectic, and the discourse De Virtulibus el Viliis — the latter the four lives of St. Waast, St. Martin, St. Riquier (or Richarius), and St. Willibrord. The best edition of Alcuin's works is that of Frobenius. Consult Lorenz' Life (Eng. trans.); West's Alcuin and the Rise of the Christian Schools; Gaskoin's Alcuin, His Life and Work; Bishop Browne's Alcuin of York; Page's The Letters of Alcuin (1911). Alcyonaria Al'cyona'ria, a subdivision of the Anthozoa, including Alcyoni- um (q. V.) or Dead Men's Fin- gers, Sea- Pens (Pennalula), Red Corals (Corallium), and numer- ous other beautiful forms. The Alcyonarians are mostly colonial; the polyps, or single members of the colony, differ from sea anem- ones and reef corals in having eight branched tentacles, instead of simple tentacles, in multiples of six. See Corals. Alcyone, al-si'o-ne, or Halcy- ONE (Halcyon), in Greek legend the daughter of ^olus and Enarete or Aegiale, and the wife of Ceyx. The pair led such a blissful married existence that they compared themselves to Zeus and Hera, and Zeus in revenge turned them into king- fishers. According to a later legend, Alcyone, through grief at the loss of her husband at sea, drowned herself. The gods, in pity, then turned the pair into kingfishers, and gave them calm weather for their breeding season. The kingfisher, or halcyon, as a matter of fact, breeds very early, and its breeding season is supposed to bring fine weather. Hence, the expression halcyon days. Alcyone, the brightest star in the Pleiades (q.v.). Alcyo'niuin, or Dead Men's Fingers, a common ccelenterate of the sub-class Anthozoa (Ac- tinozoa), subdivision Alcyonaria. It is found on the coast, in some- what deep water, as an irregular- ly lobed mass of a white, creamy, or orange color, attached to stones and shells. The mass, which is frequently about the size of a man's hand, is not one animal, but a myriad colony. When undisturbed, the countless individual polyps may be seen projecting from the surface like miniature sea anemones, about the size of a snail's horns. Each polyp consists of a contractile tube, with a crown of eight tentacles round a slit-like mouth, and with the margin of the latter prolonged inward to form an inner stomach tube, connected with the outer wall by radial partitions or mesenteries. The expanded tentacles are seen to be irregularly pinnate, and bear the usual stinging cells. The neck region, below the base of the tentacles, is strengthened by the formation of knotted spicules. The common species is digita- tum, and of this several varieties occur. A giant species {A. pocu- lum), found on the coral reefs of Sumatra and in the neighbor- hood of Singapore, attains nearly 3 feet in height and 18 inches in diameter. See Ccelenterata; Coral. Al'da, Frances (1883- ), operatic soprano, was born in Christchurch, New Zealand, and was educated in Melbourne, Australia. She studied voice culture under Mme. Marchesi in Paris, where she made her first appearance at the Opera Com- ique in 1905. She sang the part of Marguerite in Faust at Brussels, and Louise in Char- pentier's opera of that name at Parma and Milan. In 1908 she made her debut in the United States at the Metropolitan Opera House, New York City, in the role of Gilda in Rigoletto. In 1911 she was married to Giulio Gatti-Casazza. Aldan, al-dan', river, Yakutsk government, Siberia, rises in the Aldan Mountains, and flows northeast, then west, to its junc- tion with the Lena. Length, 1,370 miles. Aid borough, 6ld'bur-o; collo- quially, 6'bro, village, England, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, near the confluence of the Swale and Ure, on Watling Street; 16 miles northwest of York. Near it was Isurium, the ancient capital of the Brigantes, and a Roman station. Pop. 500. Aldeb'aran = a Tauri, a standard first magnitude star of a light red color, showing a spectrum of type k5. The name signifies the 'follower' (of the Pleiades), and an alternative Ar- abic appellation, Ain-at-Thaur, means the 'eye of the bull.' Its parallax of 0.057" corresponds to a light journey of fifty-seven Aldegrever 145 Alder years, and involves the conse- quence that Aldebaran shines with a total brilliancy one hindred times that of the sun. It is retreating from the earth with a velocity of 35 miles a second. It is one of the relatively few stars which are both near enough and large enough to be measur- able with the Mt. Wilson inter- ferometer. The apparent diam- eter is 0.020", which corres- ponds, at the distance of Aldeb- aran, to a linear diameter of 32 million miles, or nearly one half the diameter of Mercury's orbit. Aldebaran is one of the large stars of low density, known as 'giants,' which presumably is in an early stage of stellar evolution. Aldegrever, al'de-gra-ver, or Aldegrave, Heinrich, whose real name was Trippenmaker (1502-60), German painter and engraver, whose work was prob- ably influenced by Diirer, Be- ham, and Pencz. His few known paintings are in Breslau, Bruns- wick, and Vienna. Later he gave himself wholly to engraving, and his plates are finished with pre- cision and delicacy. Al'dehydes, a generic term applied to a class of organic com- pounds which are produced by the partial oxidation of the pri- mary alcohols, and which con- tain a group CHO. They are intermediate compounds between the alcohols and acids; by reduc- ing agents they are converted into alcohols, and by oxidizing agents into acids. The first member of the series is formal- dehyde, which is made by the oxidation of methyl alcohol. It is a gas with a pungent smell, and is sold in a 40 per cent, solution under the name of for- malin. It is largely used as an antiseptic and in the manufac- ture of phenol-formaldehyde res- ins, such as bakelite (q.v.). Acetaldehyde is made by oxidiz- ing ordinary alcohol. All aldehydes are easily oxi- dized to acids — e.g., on oxidiza- tion, formaldehyde yields formic acid and acetaldehyde, acetic acid. They may be reduced to the corresponding alcohols. The aldehydes unite chemically with ammonia, with the acid sulphites of the alkalies, and with hydro- cyanic acid. They also precipi- tate metallic silver from ammoniacal solutions of its salts, a property utilized in the manufacture of mirrors. Aldehydes are characterized by a penetrating odor. In formaldehyde and acetaldehyde, as in other members of the aliphatic series, this is disagree- able, but aldehydes of the aromatic series frequently have very pleasant odors, being found in perfumes and flower oils. Benzaldehyde imparts the char* acteristic odor to oil of bitter almonds, cumic aldehyde to oil of cumin, and cinnamic aldehyde to oil of cinnamon. See Acetal- dehyde; Acrolein; Almonds, Oil of; Formaldehyde. Alden, ol'den, Bradford R. (1800-70), American soldier, was born in Meadville, Pa., and was graduated from West Point in 1831. He was afterward com- mandant of cadets there (1845- 52); and in 1853 was severely wounded near Jacksonville, Ore., in an expedition he led against the Rogue River Indians. Alden, Cynthia May West- over (1862- ), American author, was born in Afton, la., was graduated from the Univer- sity of Colorado, and received the degree of Master of Literature from Alfred University. She served on the editorial staffs of the New York Recorder, New York Tribune, and the Ladies' Home Journal, but is best known as the founder of the Inter- national Sunshine Society, and for her work for blind babies, in whose behalf she has secured legislation in several States. She published Bushy, or Child Life in the Far West; Manhattan (1898); Women's Ways of Earn- ing Money (1904); The Baby Blind (191.5). She has edited The International Sunshine Bul- letin, a monthly publication, for more than twenty-five years. Alden, Henry Mills (1836- 1919), American author and edi- tor, a descendant of John Alden (q.v.), was born in Mount Tabor, Vt. He was graduated from Wil- liams College (1857), and from Andover Theological Seminary (1860). In 1863-9 he was man- aging editor of Harper's Weekly, and from 1859 until his death was editor-in-chief of Harper's Magazine. He was a member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters and a distinguished classical student. His published works include: The Ancient Lady of Sorrow (1872); God in His World (1899); A Study of Death (189.5); Magazine Writing and the New Literature (1908). In collaboration with A. H. Guernsey, he wrote Harper's Pic- torial History of the Civil War (2 vols., 1894-6). ^ Alden, Isabella Macdonald (^Pansy') (1841- ), American author, was born in Rochester, N. Y. and was educated at Ovid and Auburn, N. Y. She edited the juvenile periodical Pansy (1873-96), and is the author of about 75 books for young people and of a number of volumes of fiction for older readers, besides a life of Christ under the title The Prince of Peace. Alden, James (1810-77), American naval officer, was born in Portland, Me. He served in the Wilkes expedition to the Antarctic (1838-42), and later as lieutenant in the Mexican War. In the Civil War he was succes- sively in command of the South Carolina, the Richmond, and the Brooklyn. He took part in the capture of New Orleans (April 24, 1862), and in the engagement at Mobile Bay (Aug. 5, 1864). In 1863 he was made captain; in 1866, commodore; and in 1871, rear admiral commanding the European squadron. Alden, John (1599-1687), one of the Pilgrim fathers who signed the compact in the cabin of the Mayflower. His wooing of Priscilla Mullens is the subject of Longfellow's Courtship of Miles Standish. He lived at Duxbury, Mass., after his marriage; was a magistrate for fifty years; and was active in public affairs. Alden, Raymond Macdonald (1873-1924), American educator, was born in New Hartford, N. Y. He was graduated from the University of Pennsylvania(1894; PH.D., 1898), and was instructor (1899-1901), assistant professor of English literature and rhetoric (1901-9), and associate professor of English (1909-11), in Leland Stanford University. In 1911 he became professor of English in the University of Illinois, but in 1914 returned to Leland Stan- ford, where he remained until his death, as professor of English. His writings include: Rise of Formal Satire in England (1899); The Art of Debate (1900); On Seeing an Elizabethan Play (1903) ; English Verse (1903); Consolatio, an Ode (1903); Knights of the Silver Shield (1906); Why the Chimes Rang (1909); Introduc- tion to Poetry (1909). He edited Shakespeare's Julius Coe- sar (1902) and Sonnets (1913, 1916); Scott's Lady of the Lake (1904); Thoreau's Walden (1910); Readings in English Prose in the Eighteenth Century (1911); Es- says, English and American (1918); Critical Essays of the igth Century (1921); Poems of the English Race (1921). Alden, William Livingston (1837-1908), American editor and humorist, was born in Williamstown, Mass., and was graduated from Jefferson Col- lege, Pa. (1858). He was admit- ted to the New York bar in 1860; served on the editorial stafT of the New York Times (1865-85); as U.S. consul-general at Rome (1885-9); and on the staff of the Paris Herald (1890-3). After 1893 he resided in London as literary correspondent of the New York Times. His published works include: Domestic Explo- sives (1878); Shooting Stars (1879); Moral Pirates (1881); Cruise of the Canoe Club (1883); A Lost Soul (1892); Among the Freaks (1896); Drewitt's Dream (1902); Ca/ Tales. Alder, ol'd^r, any shrub or tree of the genus Alnus, of the Vol. L— March '27 Alderman 146 AldobrandinI order Betulacece. (the Birch fam- ily). The alders are natives of cold and temperate climates; the flowers grow in terminal, Im- bricated catkins, the male and female flowers in separate cat- kins on the same plant; the fruit is a compressed nut without wings. The Common European Alder, or Black Alder {A. glutinosa), is found in North America, Great Britain, and the northern parts of Asia, attaining a height of 30 to 60 feet. It has roundish, wedge- shaped leaves, lobed at the mar- gin, and irregularly toothed. The bark, except in very young trees, is nearly black. The flowers yield green dyes; the twigs, Alder Tree; leaf, twig, male (b) and female (a) catkins, and flower pale brown; and the rough bark, dark red dyes. The wood is particularly valuable on ac- count of its property of remaining for a long time under water with- out decay, and is used for the piles of bridges, pumps, sluices, pipes, cogs of mill wheels, and similar purposes. Several varie- ties of the common alder are em- ployed in ornamental planting, especially the Golden Alder, with leaves of bright golden yellow, and the Cut-Leaved Alder, with narrow, deeply incised leaves and graceful habit. The Gray Alder or Speckled Alder (A. incana), a native of North America, and of many parts of Continental Europe and Kamchatka, differs from the com- mon European alder in having acute leaves, downy beneath. It attains a rather greater height; but in very cold climates and un- favorable situations appears as a shrub. The wood is white and fine grained, but soft, and readily rots under water. The bark is used in dyeing. A. maritima is the Seaside Alder; A. serrulata, the Smooth Alder. The name Alder is also be- stowed on various trees and shrubs that do not belong to the genus Alnus. Of these may be mentioned the North American Black Alder or Winterberry {Ilex Vol. I. — March '27 verlicillata) , one of the Holly family; the Dwarf Alder or Alder Buckthorn (Rhamnus), of the Buckthorn family; and the Amer- ican White Alder, of the Heath family. Alderman, 61'der-mon, a title derived from the Anglo-Saxon ealdorman, compounded of ealdor ('older') and man. The term, originally applied to a Teutonic head of a privileged family, seems to refer to a primitive constitu- tion, in which the chief authority was held by the oldest member of a tribe. In Egbert's time the title denoted a magistrate ap- pointed by the king and Witan. When the Danish jarl (earl) superseded the ealdorman, in the eleventh century, the latter title declined in dignity. It came to be used for the heads of the guilds; and as the guilds grew in political power, their aldermen became the municipal authorities. The term is now used in Great Britain to denote the municipal magistrate immediately below the mayor in rank; it is also given to superior county councillors. In cities of the United States the aldermen, forming the city council, usually constitute a legislative body with limited powers, as in matters of local ordinances and appropriations, police regulation, the care of streets and sewers, etc. In some cities, however, they hold sep- arate courts, and possess a cer- tain measure of magisterial pow- ers. See Local Government. Alderman, Edwin Anderson (1861- ), American educator, was born in Wilmington, N. C. He was graduated from the Uni- versity of North Carolina (1882), was assistant State superinten- dent of schools (1889-92); pro- fessor of education. University of North Carolina (1893-6); president of the University of North Carolina (1896-9) and of Tulane University (1899-1904). In 1904 he became president of the University of Virginia, He is a member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters. His publications include: Life of William Hooper; School History of North Carolina; Life of J. L. M. Curry; Obligations -.and Oppor- tunities of Citizenship; Southern Idealism; The Spirit of the South; Sectionalism and Nationality; The Growing South; Virginia — A Tribute; Can Democracy Be Or- ganized? Causes of the European War; Some Tests of an Educated Man; Functions and Needs of Schools of Education in Uni- versities and Colleges; The Growth of Public Education in America; Memorial Address on Woodrow Wilson; The Nation Exalts Jef- ferson; Edgar Allan Poe and the University of Virginia; Mag- nanimitas. He was editor-in- chief of the Library of Southern Literature. Alderney, ol'der-ni (French Aurigny; ancient Riduna), the most northerly of the Channel Islands (q.v.), 10 miles west of Cape La Hague; area, 1,962 acres. It is separated from the coast of Normandy by the Race of Alderney; the treacherous Casket Rocks, marked by three lighthouses, lie to the south- west. Agriculture and grazing are the leading industries, Alder- ney cattle (see Cattle), a small but handsome breed, having long been celebrated. The cap- ital is St. Anne. Pop. (1921) 1,598. Alders hot, ol'der-shot, town, England, in Hampshire; on the London and Southwestern and the Southeastern and Chatham Railways; 35 miles southwest of London. Pop. (1921) 28,756. Alder shot Camp, the largest permanent military camp in England, is situated near the town. Aldhelm, ald'helm (Eald- helm), St. (c. 640-709), Saxon ecclesiastic, was educated at Malmesbury and Canterbury; became abbot of Malmesbury about 673, and bishop of Sher- borne in 705. He built the little church still standing at Brad- ford in Wiltshire. He wrote Latin treatises, letters, and verses, besides English poems that have perished. Aldine Editions, al'din or 61'- din, the name .given to the works that issued (1490-1597) from the press of Aldus Manutius (q. v.) and his family in Venice. They are distinguished for their beau- tiful and accurate typography, and are highly prized by book col- lectors. Many of them are the first editions of Greek and Roman classics; others contain corrected texts of modern classic writers, as of Petrarch, Dante, and Boc- caccio. Aldus invented the type called italics, once called Aldine, and used it in printing his edition of Virgil (1501) — the first octavo book ever issued. He was also the first printer to introduce the custom of taking some impres- sions on finer or stronger paper than the rest of the edition, and the first to use small capitals. The Aldine Press continued for 100 years, and printed 908 different works. The distinguishing mark is an anchor, entwined by a dol- phin, with the motto either of Festina lente or of Sudavit et alsit. Among rare Aldine works are the Horce Beatce Marice Vir- ginis of 1497, the Virgil of 1501, and the Rhetores Gralci. AldobrandinI, iil-do-bran-de'- ne, a celebrated Tuscan family, .settled in Florence about the end of the twelfth century. Among its chief members are: Silvestro ALDOBRANDINI (1499-1558), juris- consult, banished from Florence for opposing the Medici, entered the service of the papal court. — Aldred 147 Alectti Ippolito Aldobrandini, son of Silvestro, became pope under the title of Clement viii. (1592- 1605). — Giovanni Aldobran- dini, son of Silvestro, became a cardinal (1570). — Pietro Aldo- brandini (1572-1621), nephew of Ippolito, was made cardinal in 1590, and was chief minister dur- ing the pontificate of his uncle; he was also archbishop of Raven- na. — ToMMASO Aldobrandini, another son of Silvestro, author of a Latin translation of Diogenes Laertius. — Cinzio Passero Al- dobrandini, cardinal, a grandson of Silvestro Aldobrandini. The principal family died out in 1681. Al'dred (Ealdred) (d. 1069), was the first English bishop (of Worcester) to visit Jerusalem (1058) ; and in 1060 was elected archbishop of York. His archi- episcopate is noteworthy for the pope's refusal to grant him the pallium; for his reform of the ex- ternal life of the clergy, and the modelling of his diocese after the splendor of the German Church; and for his loyal yet independent attitude to William the Conquer- or, whom he crowned. Aldrich, 61'drich or 61'drij, Chester Hardy (1862), Ameri- can public official, was born in Pierpont, Ohio. He was gradu- ated from the Ohio State Univer- sity (1888); admitted to the bar (1891); and practised law in Da- vid City, Neb. In 1907-10 he was a member of the State Sen- ate, and in 1911-13 governor of Nebraska. Aldrich, Nelson Wilmarth (1841-1915), American public official, was born in Foster, R. I. He was president of the Provi- dence common council (1871-3), and a member of the Rhode Isl- and General Assembly (1875-6). From 1878 to 1881 he was a Member of Congress; and for thirty years (1881-1911) he was U. S. Senator from Rhode Island. During his long period of service in the Senate he was a member of many important committees, in- cluding those on rules, interstate commerce, tariff, and finance (from 1899 to 1911, chairman of the last-named committee) . The Aldrich-Vreeland Currency Law of 1908 was largely his creation (see Banking in the U. S.) ; and on the organization of the Na- tional Monetary Commission (q. V.) in 1908 he was made its chairman. His name is also given to the Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act of 1909 (see Tariff). Aldrich, Thomas Bailey (1836-1907), American poet, ed- itor, and author, was born in Portsmouth, N. H. He prepared for Harvard, but the death of his father prevented him from taking a college course. In 1852-5 he was employed in a banking house in New York City ; and afterward held editorial positions with the Vol. I.— Mar. '16 New York Evening Mirror, N. P. Willis' Home Journal, and the New York Illustrated News. He removed to Boston in 1866, and edited Every Saturday until 1874. He was editor of The Atlantic Monthly from 1881 to 1890, and after that year devoted himself to literary work. T. B. Aldrich is best known for his graceful and artistic po- etry. Notable examples are: The Bells (1855); Ballad of Babie Bell (1856); Pampinea (1861); Cloth of Gold (1874); Friar Je- romes Beautiful Book (1881); Mercedes and Later Lyrics (1883) ; Wyndham Towers (1889); Un- guarded Gates (1895). Among his prose works are: The Story of a Bad Boy (1870); Marjorie Daw (1873) , one of the best American short stories; Prudence Palfrey (1874) ; Queen of Sheba (1877); Stillwater Tragedy (1880); Two Bites at a Cherry (1893); Sea Turn, and Other Matters (1902) ; Ponkapog Papers ( 1 903) . He also wrote Judith and Holofernes (1896), a narrative poem, and its dramatization, Judith of Bethulia, which was presented in Boston and New York City in 1904-05. His Writings (8 vols.), published in 1897, were reissued in 1907 (9 vols.). Consult E. C. Stedman's Poets of America; F. Greenslet's Life (1908). Aldrich, William Sleeper (1863), American educator, was born in Philadelphia, Pa., and was graduated from the U. S. Naval Academy (1883) and from Stevens Institute of Technology (1884). He was professor of me- chanical engineering at the Uni- versity of West Virginia (1893- 9), and of electrical engineering, at the University of Illinois (1899-1901). From 1901 to 1911 he was director of the Thomas S. Clarkson Memorial School of Technology. During the Span- ish-American War (1898) he saw active service with Admiral Sampson's fleet. In 1911-13 he was a member of the U. S. Recla- mation Service; in 1913-14 acting professor of mechanical and elec- trical engineering at the Univer- sity of Arizona; and in 1914-16 associate professor of electrical engineeiing at Colorado Agricul- tural College. Aldridge, ol'drij, Ira (1805- 67), negro tragedian, was born in Senegambia. In 1825 he mi- grated to Glasgow from New York in order to study for a mis- sionary career; but forsaking the pulpit for the stage, he made his debut as Othello in a small London theatre in 1826. He played in English towns till 1852, and won a high reputation in Europe; which, however, London refused to indorse (1857), Aldringen, iilt'ring-m (Al- dringer, Altringer), Johann, Count (1588-1634), German gen- eral in the Thirty Years' War. He was a friend of Wallenstein; served under Collalto at Mantua; aided and succeeded Tillv (1632) ; and successfully campaigned in Wurtemberg (1631), Bavaria, and Swabia. Aldrovandi, al-dro-van'de, Ulysses (1522-1605), Italian naturalist, was born in Bologna. He studied law, philosophy, and medicine there, and later at Padua. In 1549-50 he was im- prisoned at Rome for heresy. Thereafter he took a medical de- gree at Bologna (1553), and held successively the botany and nat- ural history chairs in that uni- versity. He established the Bo- tanical Garden at Bologna in 1567, and formed a museum of natural history. The first vol- ume of his great work on natural history appeared in 1599. Six others appeared during his life- time, seven after his death. Aldus Manutius. See Manu- tius. Ale, the current name in Eng- land for all malt liquor before the introduction of hops from the Netherlands (1524). The names ale and beer are both Teutonic, and seem originally to have been synonymous; and ale is still the name for malt liquor in the Scandinavian tongues (Swedish, Danish, and Icelandic, 61). As now used, ale is distinguished from beer chiefly by the greater percentage of alcohol and sugar. See Brewing. Al'eander, Hieronymus (1480- 1542), Italian cardinal, was born near Venice. He was a strong opponent of Luther at the Diet of Worms (1521), and a persecu- tor of those who held the Re- formed faith, notably in the Netherlands. He was author of a Lexicon Grceco-Latinium (1512). Aleardi, a-la-ar'de, Aleardo (1812-78), Italian poet and pa- triot, was born in Verona. He was professor (1864) of esthetics in the Academy of Fine Arts at Florence; and later a member of the Senate. He was frequently imprisoned for revolutionary ten- dencies. His Canti are elegant and patriotically inspired, though somewhat sentimental. He also wrote Epistolario. Aleatory Contract, a'le-a-to-ri, an agreement 'depending or not depending on an uncertain event' — z.^., a gambling contract. Some agreements of this character are valid and favored by law — as contracts of insurance, bottomry and respondentia obligations in maritime law. Others, like pure gambling contracts, are now gen- erally held illegal. See Gam- bling. Alec'to, in Greek mythology, one of the three Furies (Alecto, Mega^ra, and Tisiphone), denot- ing hatred, jealousy, and revenge. See Eumenides. Aledo 148 Alessandria Aledo, a-le'do, city, Illinois, county seat of Mercer county, on the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad; 180 miles southwest of Chicago, and 14 miles east of the' Mississippi Riv- er. It has manufactures of tile and brick. Pop. (1900) 2,081; (1910) 2,144. Alegria, a-la'gre-a, town, west coast of Cebu Island, Philippines; 55 miles southwest of Cebu town. Petroleum wells are in the neigh- borhood. Pop. 11,000. Aleman, al'e-man, Spanish, a- le-miin', Mateo (c. 1550-1610), Spanish novelist, was born in Se- ville. He was the author of the popular story of roguery. La Vida del Picaro Guzman de Alfarache (1599; Eng. trans.), and of Orto- grafia Castellana (1608). He was for twenty years in the service of the king of Spain. He died in Mexico. Aieman'ni, or Alamans, a fu- sion rather than a confederation of Teutonic tribes who rose into prominence during the later years of the Roman Empire, with which they were almost constantly at war during the third, fourth, and fifth centuries. Caracalla (211 A.D.) and Alexander Severus fought against them, and Maxi- minus drove them beyond the Rhine. 'From the source of the Rhine to its conflux with the Main and the Moselle the formid- able swarms of the Alemanni commanded either side of the river, by the right of ancient possession or recent victory,' says Gibbon, in describing their situa- tion on the eve of the Battle of Tolbiac, 24 miles from Cologne, where they suffered a crushing de- feat at the hands of the Franks under Clovis, in 496. Thereafter they were allowed by the Em- peror Theodoric to settle in what is now vSouthern Bavaria. They were the ancestors of the modern Swabians. From their name comes the French Allemand and Allemagne, applied to the whole of Germany. Alembert. See D'Alembert. Alem'bic, an apparatus for dis- tillation used by the alchemists; now superseded by retorts and flasks cf)nnccted to a condenser. See Retort. Alcmtcjo, a-lan-ta'zhoo, the largest province of Portugal, lies north of Algarve, and stretches from the Atlantic to the Spanish frontier. It is drained by the Tagus, the Guadiana, and the Sado. There are detached moun- tain ranges in the east, with cork trees, oaks, and chestnuts; to- ward the west are treelcvss plains, where sheep are pastured; the coast is swampy. Cereals are grown, and there are copper and iron mines, and mineral springs, but very little manufacture. Chief town, Evora. Area, 9,220 square miles. Pop. 440,000. Vol. I.— Mar. "16 Alencon, a-liin-son', capital of department Orne, France, on the Sarthe; 110 miles southwest of Paris. The Cathedral of Notre Dame (1.55,3-1617) is a Gothic edifice, with the remains of the tombs of the Alengon family, which were almost completely destroyed at the Revolution. There are woollen and linen man- ufactures. The manufacture of the famous Alengon point lace (point d' AlenQon) employs barely a tenth part of the 20,000 hands that once engaged in it (see Lace). The town was held by the English during the Hundred Years' War from 1415 to 1449. Pop. (1911) 17,378. Alenc?on, Dukes of, a branch of the royal family of Valois, descended from Charles of Valois, who perished at the Battle of Cregy in 1346. His grandson, John I., fell at Agincourt in 1415. Rene, son of John ii., was con- fined by Louis xi. for three months in an iron cage at Chinon. Rene's son, who had married the sister of Francis i., commanded the left wing at the Battle of Pavia. With him expired the old House of Alengon. The duchy was then given to the Duke of Anjou, brother of King Charles IX. Louis XIV. conferred it upon his grandson, the Due de Berri, and Louis xvi. on his brother, the Comte de Provence. More re- cently the title has been borne by the son of the Due de Nemours, who was son of Louis-Philippe. Alep'po, vilayet. North Syria, Turkey, extending from the Med- iterranean to the Euphrates. Area, 33,400 square miles. Pop. 1,500,000. Aleppo (Turkish Haleb-es- Shabba; ancient Bercea), city of Northern Syria, capital of Aleppo vilayet; 70 miles east of the Med- iterranean Sea. It stands in a fertile plain in the valley of the Koeik (Kuwek), which flows through its northwestern quar- ter. The streets are well paved and clean, and the houses one- story structure's built around at- tractive courts. Enclosing the older sections of the city are the remnants of a .Saracenic wall with seven gates; and in the centre stands the ancient Citadel, sur- rounded by a deep moat. Among its many mosques the most note- worthy is the Great Mosque, oc- cupying the site of a church avscribed to the Empress Helena, and said to contain the tomb of Zacharias, father of John the Baptist. European schools and churches have been established by various religious orders. Aleppo was formerly the prin- cipal emporium of trade between Europe and Asia, and supplied a large part of the East with fab- rics of silk, cotton, and wool, gold and silver stuffs. Its trade is still extensive: textiles, hides, grain, wool, oil, dried fruits, lico- rice root, gall nuts, and butter are exported; and European mer- chandise is imported in increasing quantity. The chief port is Alex- andretta (q. v.). Cotton and silk goods, embroideries, and leather goods are manufactured; and cereals, fruits, and pistachio nuts are raised in the vicinity. The climate is dry, and not unhealthy. The city is one of great antiq- uity, Egyptian monuments tes- tifying to its existence 2,000 years B.C. The present name com- memorates its trade connection with Venice, active to the close of the fifteenth century, when the Cape route to India robbed Alep- po of its importance. It was con- quered by the Saracens (636 a.d.) ; sacked by Tamerlane (1402) ; cap- tured by the Turks (1517) ; devas- tated by earthquakes (1170 and 1822) ; and ravaged by plague (1827) and cholera (1832). Up- risings and massacres of Chris- tians occurred in 1850 and 1862. Pop. 250,000, of whom 30,000 are Christians and 8,000 Jews. Aleshki, a-lesh'ke, formerly Dnieprovsk, town, government Taurida, Russia, on the Dnieper. It has fisheries, fruit culture, and an active trade. Pop. 10,000. Alesia, a-le'shi-a, or Alexia (modern Alise), fortified town, ancient Gaul, near the source of the Seine, where Caesar besieged Vercingetorix. The latter had shut himself up with 80,000 Gauls in Alesia on a lofty hill. Caesar, with his army of 60,000 men, completely surrounded and took the place. Alesia was destroyed by the Normans in 864. On the hill Napoleon iii. erected in 1864 a colossal statue of Vercingetorix. Alesius, a-le'shi-us (Latin of i7a/ vis- count of Canada in 1633, and earl of Dovan in 1639. Consult Slaf- ter's Memoir. Alexander, William (1726- 83), American Revolutionary sol- dier, known as Lord Stirling, was born in New York City. He served in the P'rench and Indian War. In 1760 he went to Eng- land to claim the title of the Scot- tish earldom of Stirling, but his claim was disallowed by the House of Lords. On his return to America he was surveyor-general of New York and a member of the provincial council; and in October, 1775, he entered the Continental Army as colonel of a New Jersey regiment. He cap- tured a British transport ship at vSandy Hook in January, 1776, for which exploit he was made a brigadier-general. In the Battle of Long Island (Aug. 27, 1776) his division met the first British ad- vance; but ultimately attacked in the rear by Lord Cornwallis, it was almost destroyed, and Alex- ander himself was captured. Subsequently exchanged, he be- came a major-general in Febru- ary, 1777, and afterward took part in the Battles of Brandy- wine, Germantown, and Mon- mouth. Consult W. A. Duer's Life; C. Rogers' Memorials. Alexander, William (1824- 1911), Irish prelate, was born in Londonderry, and was graduated from Oxford University (1847). After holding various benefices he served as bishop of Derry and Raphoe from 1867 to 1896, and attained wide recognition as an eloquent preacher. In 1893 he lectured at Harvard University. In 1896 he was chosen archbishop of Armagh and primate of all Ireland. He published: Witness of the Psalms (Bampton Lectures, 1874) ; Primary Convictions; What Think Ye of Christ? St. Augus- tine's Holiday, and Other Poems (1887). In 1896 he published the collected poems and hymns of his wife, Cecil Frances Alexan- der. He wrote the Thanksgiving Hymn (1897), set to music by Sir Arthur Sullivan. Alexander Archiperago, or Alexander Islands, a group of over 1,000 islands off the west coast of Alaska; in lat. 54° 40' and 58° 25' N. They are inhabited by various tribes of Thiinket Indi- ans. The most important islands are Baranov (q. v.), on which is located the town of Sitka (q. v.), and Prince of Wales (q. v.). Alexander Jannse'us (d. 78 B.C.) succeeded his brother Aris- tobulus as king of the Jews in 104 B.C. With the help ot Cleopatra he ultimately repelled Ptolemy Lathyrus from Palestine; but throughout his reign he was en- gaged in constant strife with the surrounding tribes. In the civil conflicts of the Pharisees and the Sadducees, with the latter of whom he sided, Alexander exhib- ited unusual cruelty. An account of him is given by Josephus. Alexander John I. (Cusa), prince of Roumania (1820-73). was born at Husshi. He joined the patriotic party in 1848; and in 1859 was elected Hospodar of Moldavia and Wallachia, but was not recognized by the Porte till 1861. Though justly popular, his absolutist tendencies and in- ability to cope with the financial difficulties of the country united all parties against him. On Feb. 22, 1866, he was forced to abdi- cate. Alexander Karageorgevitch, kii'ra-ga-or'ga-vich (180() - 85), prince of Servia, was born in Topola. He served in the Rus- sian army, and in 1842 was cho- sen prince; but he was deposed in 1858. In 1868 he was sentenced to prison for twenty years as one Alexander Land 153 Alexander the Great of the conspirators in the murder of Prince Michael. Alexander Land, in the Ant- arctic Ocean, in lat. 68° 43' s. and long. 73° 10' w., was discovered by Bellingshausen in 1821. Alexander, Legends of. See Alexander the Great. Alexander Nevski, nyef'ske (1219-63), second son of Grand Duke Jaroslav ii., became prince of Novgorod (1239) . The Tartars having raided the south of Russia, the Swedes, Danes, and Livoni- ans invaded the north, but were routed (1240) by Alexander near the Neva, whence the name Nevski. He succeeded his father (1247); and opposed Innocent IV. 's attempt to reunite the East- ern and Western Churches. Rev- erenced in life, he was canonized after death. In his honor Peter the Great founded (1710) a mon- astery near the scene of his fa- mous victory, and created (1722) the Order of Alexander Nevski. Alexander of Aph'rodis'ias (c. 200 A.D.), so called from his birth- place in Caria, was styled the 'Second Aristotle' as being the greatest expositor of the peripa- tetic school. He was the head of the Lyceum at Athens, and au- thor of numerous commentaries on the philosophy of Aristotle, some of which still exist, as well as of original contributions to philosophy. Of the former, the most important is his commen- tary on the Metaphysica; of the latter, De Fato and De Animo. Alexander of Hales, halz (d. 1245), English scholastic theolo- gian {Doctor Irrefragabilis), hav- ing resigned his benefice in Gloucestershire, went to Paris to study, and was there appointed professor in the schools. Having resigned this position, he entered the Franciscan order (1222). He was a strenuous supporter of the papacy, and gave new authority to the teaching of the orders. His chief and only authentic work is the ponderous Summa U niversa TheologicE, written at the com- mand of Pope Innocent iv., and enjoined by his successor, Alex- ander IV., to be used by all pro- fessors and students of theology in Christendom. Alexander Pol'yhis'tor, a na- tive of Cotyacum, in Lower Phrygia, was brought to Rome as a slave in the time of Sulla. He became tutor to the children of Cornelius Lentulus, and was liberated by his master (82 B.C.). Subsequently he accompanied Croesus on his travels, and died at Laurentum. He was a volumin- ous compiler of books on histori- cal and geographical subjects, now only surviving in fragments. His works were largely quoted by Pliny, Eusebius, Clement of Alex- andria, and others. Alexander Seve'rus, Roman emperor (208-235), was born in Vol. I. — Mar. '16 Area, Syria. He was adopted by his cousin, Heliogabalus; and on the murder of the latter was pro- claimed emperor by the Praeto- rians (222). He sought the so- ciety of the learned; Paulus and Ulpianus were his counsellors; Plato and Cicero were, next to Horace and Virgil, his favorite authors. Although a pagan, he reverenced the doctrines of Chris- tianity, and often quoted the saying: ' Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them.' His first ex- pedition (231-33) against Arta- xerxes, king of Persia, was success- ful; but he was murdered (235) by Maximinus on the Rhine. Alexander the Great (356-323 B.C.), son of Philip ii. (q.v.) of Macedon and Olympias (q.v.), daughter of Neoptolemus of Epirus, was born at Pella. He was educated in the best culture of the day; from about 343 b.c. for several years — possibly until 335 — Aristotle was his tutor. It was at the Battle of Chaeronea, in 338 B.C., that Alexander obtained his first military distinction, the cavalry under his command being the main factor in Philip's vic- tory. In the last year of Philip's life Alexander was estranged from his father, owing to the latter's divorce of Olympias and marriage with Cleopatra, niece of his gen- eral Attains; even Alexander's legitimacy was suspected. When Cleopatra bore a son, an assassin was found — probably by Olym- pias — who murdered Philip. Al- exander was the gainer by the crime; and though there is no evidence against him, it cannot be asserted that his innocence is incontestable. It was in 336 b.c. that Alex- ander ascended the throne, and found himself surrounded by enemies — the Greeks, the Thra- cians, the Illyrians, and Attains — who supported the claims of Cleopatra's infant son. With marvellous rapidity he met and conquered his foes in turn; the Greeks, overawed by his energy, gave in without striking a blow; and he was elected commander- in-chief of the Greek forces, for the expedition against Persia. Meanwhile Cleopatra and her son had been murdered by Olympias' command, and Attains by that of the king. Next year he crushed the Thracians, advancing as far north as the Danube. In his absence a report of his death reached Greece. vScveral states became restless, and Thebes took up arms, blockading the Macedonian garrison in the cita- del. But in a fortnight Alexan- der marched from Thrace to Boeotia, outstripi)ing even the news that he was alive; and as the city would not surrender, he took it and razed it to the ground, sparing only the house of Pindar the poet. Nearly all the inhabit- ants were enslaved. The other disaffected states, particularly Athens, submitted, and were par- doned (335 B.C.). Alexander then prepared for his conquest of Asia, and in the spring of 334 set out with but 30,000 foot and 5,000 horse. In May he utterly defeated the Persians on the banks of the River Granicus in Mysia. He then advanced along the coast, through Lycia and Pamphylia, to Gordium in Phrygia, where he cut the famous Gordian knot; and thence into Cappadocia, and through the pass called the Cili- cian Gates, which the Persians did not defend, to Tarsus in Cilicia. There he fell ill of a fever, and while ill received a letter from Parmenio warning hirh that his doctor was bribed by Darius to poison him. He drank the doctor's medicine, and then gave him the letter; his confi- dence was rewarded by a speedy recovery. In October he defeated the Persian forces under Darius at Issus in Cilicia. Next year (332) Alexander sub- dued the cities of Phoenicia — Tyre only after a seven months' siege. The fall of Gaza opened the road to Egypt, which he entered in November, 332. The country at once submitted, and Alexander was crowned king, for which purpose — as the Pharaohs were held to be sons of the god Ammon — he visited the oracle Ammon in the Libyan desert, and was acknowledged son of the god. The conquest of Syria and Egypt destroyed the 3ea power of Darius, and left Alexander free to ad- vance against Persia. He did so in 331, and in September of that year gained the decisive victory of Gaugamela (generally known as Arbela). His foes are said to have numbered a million of men. As a result of the victory, Baby- lon and Susa submitted. At once Alexander pressed on, forcing the pass known as the Persian Gates, to Persepolis, the old capital of the Persian king- dom, which he took — with, it is said, $150,000,000 of treasure. His next object was to secure the person of Darius, whom he pur- sued through Media into Parthia. Bessus, satrap of Bactria, seized the king and murdered him; Alex- ander found him dying (?May,330 B.C.). Alexander then subdued Hyrcania (Tabaristan). A revolt in Areia called him back. He put it down, founded a city, Alexan- dria Areia (probably the site of the modern Herat), and conquered Drangiana (Eastern Afghanistan). There he discovered that Philo- tas, son of his general Parmenio, was conspiring against him. Philotas was condemned and slain by the Macedonians, and Parmenio was executed by Alex- Alexander the Great 154 Alexander the Great ander's orders as an act of pre- caution. Alexander then advanced southward through Gedrosia (Se- istan and Southwest Baluchistan), and in the spring of 329 reached Kandahar — probably a corrup- tion of Alexandria. Then he crossed the Paropamisus (Hindu- Kush) into Bactria; thence, in pursuit of Bessus, into Sogdiana, the country between the Rivers Oxus and Jaxartes. He seized Maracanda (Samarkand), cap- tured Bessus, and founded Alex- andria Eschata ('farthest'), where he fixed the frontier of his em- pire at the pass over the Tian- Shan Mountains. The year 328 was spent in se- curing the recent conquests. It was at Samarkand that, in a more than half his force.. Upon getting back to Susa he married Statira, daughter of Darius, and Parysatis, daughter of Ochus, to set his soldiers and officers an ex- ample in the fusion of the races, which was the great object of his policy. In the spring of 324 Alexander went to Ecbatana, and in that year his bosom friend Hephaes- tion died. At the end of the year he returned to Babylon, where he met embassies from the Bruttians, Lucanians, and Etrus- cans in Italy, the Carthaginians, Celts, Scythians, Libyans, and Ethiopians — a wonderful testi- mony to his renown. His next purpose was to conquer Arabia, for which he began to make prep- arations (323 B.C.). When all thian empire, even the Parthian conquerors retained some tinc- ture of Hellenism, which was destroyed only by the Saracen conquests in the seventh and eighth centuries. It is not the least of Alexander's claims to greatness that, truly Greek as he was, he was able to disregard the distinction of Greek and bar- barian, and to attempt to unite all races in a cosmopolitan em- pire. As soldier and statesman, in brilliancy of strategy, rapidity of movement, grasp of detail, and breadth of organization. Napo- leon alone among men can com- pare with him; and Napoleon's work perished almost entirely before he died. As a man, Alex- ander displayed a singularly lov- Sketch Map Showing Campaigns of Alexander the Great. drunken bout, he killed, to his great remorse, his foster-brother Clitus. In the same year he married Roxana (q. v.), daughter of a vSogdian prince. In 327 he returned to Afghanistan, and prepared to invade India, which he reached through the Khyber Pass. In 326 he crossed the In- dus, and advanced to the Hy- daspes (Sutlej), where Porus, an Indian king, resisted stoutly, but was finally defeated after the third of Alexander's three great battles. Porus received his king- dom back from Alexander. He thenreached the Hyphasis (Beas), which was the limit of his ad- vance; his soldiers absolutely re- fused to go farther, and the king had to yield (326). After nearly losing his life at the vsiege of Mui- tan, he made his way to the mouth of the Indus. Thence he marched across Baluchistan (August, 325 B.C.) to Pura, losing, it is said, Vol. I. — Mar. '16 was in readiness for the expedi- tion, after a banquet to Nearchus followed by two nights of carou- sal, he was attacked by a fever. The report spread among the Macedonians that he was dead, and they forced their way into the palace, and passed his couch in single file; he was able to greet them with a movement of his head and by signs. He died a few days later, in the thirty- second year of his age and the thirteenth of his reign. In twelve years Alexander made himself master of Western Asia, and left a mark upon it which centuries could not efface. That he spread Greek civiliza- tion even beyond the Euphrates was the most enduring monu- ment of his fame; for though the remoter provinces soon relapsed into barbarism, yet when Meso- potamia was lost to the Seleucids by the establishment of the Par- able character; he was generous, warm hearted, chivalrous, brave even to a fault; certainly not naturally cruel, though capable of severity on occasion. For his age and position, his morality was remarkable. He never stooped to intrigue. His marriage with Roxana was one of affection, his others of state policy. His great fault was excess in drinking, which more than once led him to acts, such as the murder of Clitus, quite inconsistent with his na- ture; and it was this vice, to- gether with the labors he imposed upon himself, and the many wounds that he received, ever fighting among the first of his men, that caused his premature death. Legends of Alexander. — It is not surprising that this illustrious figure has given rise to many legends. After the death of Alexander, the Egyptians claimed Alexandra 155 Alexandria him to be the son of their last native king, Nectanebus ii. A later version, from the same country' {c. a.d. 200), extant in Greek us., was falsely ascribed to Pseudo-Callisthenes. We meet with versions in Latin (third century), Armenian (fifth cen- tury), and Syriac (seventh cen- tury), the last of which, having originated in a Persian source, makes Alexander a Persian prince. The Ethiopic hero and his coun- sellor, Aristotle, are both trini- tarian Christians; the Hebrew Alexander is a student of the Book of Daniel; he has been identified with the 'two-horned' of the Arabic Koran. A portion of a French poem by Alberic de Besangon (twelfth century) is still extant, and the library of Venice holds the MS. of a later French epic in decasyl- labics. These were followed by the most popular French version from the old romance composed (c. 1180) by Lambert h Court and Alexandre de Bernay (Li Romans d' Alexandre). There are Ger- man versions (1130) by Lam- precht; by Rudolf von Ems, who took the story from Walter of Chatillon's Latin epic; and by Seifried (1352). A Norman- French metrical poem by Thomas of Kent is translated in the Eng- lish King Alisaunder. Bibliography. — There are no contemporary authorities for the history of Alexander; we have to depend on Arrianus (Expedition of Alexander), Quintus Curtius, Plutarch, Justin, and Diodorus, who all make use of earlier writers whose works are lost. Dr. Budge has edited Syriac and Ethiopic Lives of Alexander. Consult D. S. Hogarth's Philip and Alexan- der of Macedon; B. L Wheeler's Alexander the Great; J. W. M'- Crindle's The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great; J. P. Ma- hafify's Progress of Hellenism in Alexander s Empire; W. L. Bev- an's World's Leading Conquerors (1913); Prose Life of Alexander (ed. by Westlake, 1913). Al'exan'dra, Caroline Marie Charlotte Louise Julie (1844- ), queen-mother of Eng- land, was born in Copenhagen, the eldest daughter of Christian IX. of Denmark. Her marriage to Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, was solemnized on March 10, 1863. On her husband's acces- sion as Edward vn. (q. v.), in 1901, she became queen of Eng- land. Both as Princess of Wales and as Queen. Alexandra dis- played deep interest in philan- thropic agencies, especially in the London hospitals, and par- ticipated actively m efforts on be- half of wounded soldiers and the widows and orphans of those who had fallen in war. On the death of Edward vii. (1910), she took the title of Queen Mother. Alexandra, magisterial division. Natal, on the southeast coast, be- tween the Unzimkulu and Unko- mansi Rivers. Area, 670 square miles. Pop. 42,500, including 1,000 whites and 6,000 Asiatics. Alexandra Nile. See Kagera. Alexandrescu, Grigorie (1812-86), Roumanian author and statesman, who won great popularity by his political sa- tires, and was Minister of Edu- cation under Alexander Cuza. He published: Original Poetry, Elegies, and Fables (1838); The Year 1840, Old and New Poems (1842); Memories and Impres- sions (1847); Meditations (1843). Al'exandret'ta, Iskanderun, or Scanderoon, seaport town, North Syria, on the gulf of the same name; 23 miles north of Antioch. It is the port of that city and of Aleppo, having a fine sheltered harbor, the best on the Syrian coast. Imports in- clude silic, silk goods, and manu- factures; exports wool, butter, leather, liquorice, and nut-galls. In the Great War, Alexandretta was occupied by the French in November, 1918. Pop. 15,000. Alexandri, a-leks-an'dre, or Alecsandri, Vasile (1821-90), Roumanian author and states- man. He wrote numerous plays for the theatre at Jassy (1844-8); took part in the Roumanian ris- ing of 1848; was Minister of For- eign Affairs (1859-60); and founded, with Negruzzi, the re- view Convorbiri Liter are. In 1873 his famous drama, Boierii si Ciocoii, was written and acted. His martial songs, written during the Russo-Turkish War (1877-8), were received with enthusiasm, and his collection of Roumanian folk songs is meritorious. In 1874, with his Cantecul Gintei Latine, he won the prize given by the Society of Romance Languages at Montpellier for the best poem. Al'exan'dria, one of the most famous cities of antiquity, was founded in 332 B.C., by com- mand of Alexander the Great (q. v.). Situated about 14 miles west of the Canopic mouth of the Nile, on the coast of Egypt, and on the narrow strip of land sepa- rating Lake Mareotis from the Mediterranean, the city was admirably placed to become a great emporium. Nearly a mile off lay the little rocky island of Pharos, afterward the scene of the labors of the translators of the Septuagint. By order of Alexander, a mole, the Hepta- stadium, 600 feet broad — now twice that width — was run out from the mainland to the island, thus converting the open channel inside Pharos into two splendid harbors, the Northeast or Great Harbor, and the Southeast or Eunostos, from which a canal ran into Lake Mareotis. On the northeast corner of Pharos, Ptolemy 11. (Philadelphus) built (B.C. 283) the first lighthouse (see Pharos) . The plan of the city was the work of the architect Dinocrates. At the east end, in the quarter called the Brucheion or Basileia, stood the royal buildings, the Museum, for centuries the focus of the intellectual life of the world, and the famous Library (see Alexandrian Library). Here also stood the two Cleo- patra needles (sixteenth century B.C.), one of which is now in London (since 1878), and the other (the Obelisk) in New York City (since 1880); the Temple of Poseidon; the palaces of the Ptolemies; the mausoleum of Alexander the Great and of the Ptolemies. To the south were the Gymnasium and the Hippo- drome. In the Egyptian quarter (Rhacotis) stood the Serapeum, or Temple of Serapis, containing a second library and the Pillar of Pompey, and at the extreme west was the Necropolis. To the east were the race course and suburb of Nicopolis. Much of the space under the houses was occupied by vaulted subterranean cisterns, which were capable of containing a sufficient quantity of water to supply the city for a year. From the time of its founda- tion, Alexandria was the Greek capital of Egypt. After the death of Alexander the Great it became the residence of the Ptolemies, who made it, next to Rome and Antioch, the most magnificent city of antiquity, as well as the chief seat of Greek learning and literature (see Alex*andrian School). It also rose to be a mighty trading centre, with a mixed population of about 750,- 000, consisting of Greeks, Egyp- tians, Jews, Romans, and a sprinkling of other nationalities. It was famous for its glass, paper, and fine textiles, and was the emporium of the world's com- merce, especially for wheat. Even when Egypt became a Roman province, after its con- quest by Caesar (b.c. 48), Alex- andria continued to be the greatest seaport of the empire. It survived the cruelties of Caracalla (a.d. 215), the internal struggles between Christian and pagan factions in the third cen- tury, and the Jewish persecutions carried on by the patriarch Cyril in the fifth century; but it sus- tained a severe blow when cap- tured by the fanatical Arabs un- der Amru (641). The misrule of the Turks (who took the city in 1517), the discovery of America and of the sea route to India and the East, completed the tempo- rary ruin of Alexandria, until toward the end of the eighteenth century it had only about 6,000 inhabitants. In 1806 Alexandria began to Vol. I. — March '24 Alexandria 156 Alexandria revive under Mehemet Ali; and with the returning prosperity of Egypt, in modern times, it has acquired fresh importance. In 1798 the city was taken by storm by Napoleon; but in 1801 it was wrested from him by the British. In 1882, during the rebeUion of Arabi Pasha, the British fleet un- der Admiral Seymour bombarded and destroyed the harbor forts. Modern Alexandria (Turkish Iskanderieh or Skanderieh) is the chief port and second town of Egypt, and is the station of the Egyptian fleet. There are two principal quarters — the Moham- medan, in the northern and west- ern sections of the city; and the European, in the eastern section. The latter centres in the Place Mehemet Ali, with a statue of Mohammed Ali, the public build- ings, and many handsome resi- dences. Features of the Arab quarter are the Palace of Ras-et- Tin, the Barracks, and the Arse- nal. Prominent among the few remaining objects of anticiuity are a monument of red granite, 88 feet in height, erroneously called Pompey's Pillar, and the Catacombs of Kom es-Shiigafa, dating from the second century A.D., and unearthed in 1900. The Museum of Graeco-Roman Antiquities contains an impor- tant historical collection. Alexandria has two harbors. The eastern or Great Harbor is now accessible only for fishing craft; the western harbor, cover- ing more than 2,000 acres, and protected by a two-mile head- water, is the chief shipping cen- tre. About nine-tenths of the entire trade of Egypt passes through Alexandria. The net Vol. I. — March '24 registered tonnage of steamers arriving in 1921, exclusive of sup- plies and military transports, was 2,776,193; of those depart- ing, 2,759,496. Exports include grain, cotton, beans, sugar, and rice. The city is joined to the Rosetta branch of the Nile by canal, and has rail connection with Cairo. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop. Pop. (1917) 444,617, including about 50,000 Europeans, chiefly Greeks and Italians. Alexandria, city, Indiana, Madison county, on Pipe Creek, and on the Lake Erie and West- ern, and the Cleveland, Cin- cinnati, Chicago, and St. Louis Railroads; 48 miles northeast of Indianapolis. It is the centre of a rich fruit, vegetable and grain region. Manufactures include glass, wire fencing, paper, and mineral wool. Pop. (1910) 5,096; (1920) 4.172. Al'exan'dria, city, Louisiana, capital of Rapides parish, on the Red River, and on the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific, the Louisiana and Arkansas, the Alexandria and Western, the Missouri Pacific, the Southern Pacific, and the Texas and Pacific Railroads, and the Louisiana Railway and Navigation Com- pany line; 193 miles northwest of New Orleans. It has a public library, Elks' Home, Masonic Temple, and government build- ing. According to the Federal Census for 1919, industrial estab- lishments number 52, with prod- ucts valued at $4,349,790. They include foundries, machine shops, oil refineries, cotton-oil mills, a creamery and packing plant, and manufactures of mattresses, brooms, and lumber. Cotton, cane, corn, alfalfa, sweet pota- toes, and garden truck are grown in the surrounding region. Pop. (1900) 5,648; (1910) 11,213; (1920) 17,510. Alexandria, city, Minnesota, county seat of Douglas county, on the Great Northern, and the Minneapolis, St. Paul, and Sault Ste. Marie Railroads, and on the National Parks Highway; 130 miles northwest of Minneapolis. The region contains many lakes, and the town is a summer resort, The principal industries are stock raising, flour milling, boat building, the manufacture and packing of poultry and dairy products, and the shipping of mineral water. Pop. (1910) 3,001; (1920) 3,388. Alexandria, city, Virginia, Ar- lington county, on the Potomac River, and on the Chesapeake and Ohio, the Southern, the Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac, and the Washington and Old Dominion Railroads; 6 miles below Washington, with which it is connected by steam and electric lines. It is the seat of the Protestant Episcopal Theological Seminary in Virginia. Among the prominent buildings are the Masonic Lodge, where the congress of governors met (April 13, 1775) before the de- parture of Braddock's expedi- tion, and Christ Church, of which Washington was a vestry- man. The Potomac River here is a mile wide, and deep enough to accommodate large ships; and the city has important commerce both by land and water. Accord- ing to the Federal Census for 1919, manufacturing establish- ments number 35, with $19,237,- 830 capital, and products valued at $16,908,023. They include glass works, silk mills, machine shops, refrigerator car shops, and chemical laboratories. Alexan- dria was first settled in 1695, and was formerly called Bellehaven. Here in 1775 Braddock estab- lished his headquarters. During the Civil War it was the capital of the loyal section of Virginia. On Nov. 2, 1923, the cornerstone was laid here of a great national memorial erected by the Masons of America to George Washing- ton, a fellow craftsman. Pop. (1900) 14,528; (1910) 15,329; (1920) 18,060. Alexandria, town, Ontario, Canada, in Glengarry county, on the Canadian National Railway; 55 miles southeast of Ottawa. It has manufactures of cheese boxes, flour, office fixtures, butter, car- riage and automobile bodies, and lumber products. Pop. (1911) 2,323; (1921) 2,195. Alexandria, town, Scotland, in Dumbartonshire, on the river Leven; 3 miles north of Dumbar- ton. It has bleaching and dye works. Pop. 12.500. Englisli Milef 1 — — 6 5 lO f M E D I T ER B A N j Gez E Ah i ^EXA-VDRIA^^^^ -- - Iskenclei'iyaj /^^^^^^"^ ^ = El-Buricheld.y \ ^^to^^/S ■ yyMfi I t&r^^,^^.^..^^ .^^^^L^ - BoJbilimc Mouth n^^^ E A N ^ E A ^'^'-^"^T^^^^ RosettcLi) "]\ . (Rajfehid™ M A R Y 0 T 0\ ErRiyashatf\ Alexandria and Lake Mareotis Alexandria 157 Alexandrine Verse Alexandria, district and village in the southeast of Cape Colony. The district reaches from the sea totheZuurberg Mountains. Area, 947 square miles. Pop. 10,000. Alexandria, town, government Teleorman, Roumania, on the Vede River; 60 miles southwest of Bucharest. It has trade in grain. Pop. 15,000. Al'exan'drian Co'dex {Codex A), one of the authoritative Greek texts of the Holy Scrip- tures, dating probably from about 450 A.D. It was presented to Charles i. of England in 1628, through Sir Thomas Rowe, am- bassador at Constantinople, by Cyrillus Lucaris, patriarch of that city, who had taken it thither on his removal from Al- exandria. Since 1753 it has been in the British Museum. Alexandrian Library. This re- markable collection of books, the largest of the ancient world, was founded by the first Ptolemy {c. 300 B.C.), and fostered by his son. There were two libraries — the 'Great' in the Museum, and the 'Daughter' in the Serapeum. In the former were close upon 700,- 000 volumes. Under a succession of great librarians — Zenodotus, Aristarchus of Byzantium, Cal- limachus, Apollonius Rhodius — it became a famous centre of learn- ing, to which also the observato- ries, the zoological and botanical gardens, and the collections of the Museum contributed. The Great Library and Museum were de- stroyed during Caesar's wars (B.C. 48-47) ; but was partly re- placed by the collection of Per- gamum, which was presented to Cleopatra by Mark Antony. The Daughter Library and Sera- peum were destroyed by com- mand of Theodosius (a.d. 389). The story of the destruction cl the Alexandrian Library by Amru is discredited by the best authori- ties, although to his calif Omar is ascribed the saying that if the books in it agreed with the Koran they were useless, if they did not they were pernicious, and in either case should be destroyed. Alexandrian School. After liberty and intellectual cultiva- tion had declined' in Greece, Al- exandria in Egypt became the home and centre of science and literature. The thousand years over which the influence of the Vol. I.— Mar. '16 Alexandrian School extended falls into two periods, the Grecian (B.C. 332-30), and the Neo-Pla- tonist, merging into the Christian (B.C. 30-A.D. 641). Ptolemy Soter, the first ruler who introduced and patronized Greek science and literature in Alexandria, was followed by that even more munificent patron Ptolemy ii. (Philadelphus), who regularly established the cele- brated Alexandrian Library and Museum, which had been begun by his father. This Museum was somewhat like a modern univer- sity, and within its walls learned scholars both lived and taught. They studied grammar, prosody, mythology, astronomy, and med- icine, and unfolded their informa- tion in long didactic poems in epic form, full of learning, and marked by perfect mastery of verse, but often dull to a degree, and marred by numerous obscure and recon- dite allusions. Examples of these are the Argonaulica of Apollonius Rhodius, and the Alexandra or Cassandra of Lycophron. Other writers of epics were Euphorion, Nicander of Colophon, Dionysius, Dicaearchus, Rhianus, and Oppi- anus. The earliest of the elegiac poets was Philetas of Cos; the greatest, perhaps, Callimachus. Among the lyric poets were Phan- ocles, Hermesianax, Alexander of ^tolia, and Lycophron. Out of the amoebean verse or bucolic mime — a rudimentary kind of drama — grew the best product of Alexandrian poetry, the Idylls of Theocritus. The influence of the Alexandrian school upon Latin literature- in the Augustan Age must not be forgotten. We find it in all the contemporary poets, notably in Virgil, the greatest of the group. vStill more active than the poets were the grammarians, to whom it is mainly due that we now possess the masterpieces of Greek literature. Among these the greatest were Zenodotus of Ephesus, Aristophanes of Byzan- tium, and Aristarchus of Samo- thrace; only less eminent were Alexander of ^tolia, Lycophron, Callimachus, and Eratosthenes. Their chief service consists in having collected the writings then existing, prepeired corrected texts, and preserved them for future generations. In science also we are their debtors. Euclid the geometri- cian, Eratosthenes and Ptolemy the geographers, and Hipparchus the astronomer here laid the foundations and extended the borders of their respective sciences. Alexandria was also the seat of Jewish learning, a school of thought which came under the influence of Greek ideas, and of which the most illustrious teacher was Philo. Alexandria, the last fortress of paganism, became in turn the stronghold of orthodox Chris- tianity through its famous ex- ponents, Clement and Origen, the great teachers, and Athana- sius, the steadfast patriarch of the city. It was in Alexandria, too, that the Septuagint trans- lation of the Old Testament (from Hebrew into Greek) was made. Alexandrian Philosophy is characterized by a blending of the philosophies of the East and of the West, and by a general tendency to eclecticism, as it is called, or an endeavor to recon- cile conflicting systems of specu- lation, by bringing together what seemed true in each. The most famous representatives of this school were the Neo-Platonists. Uniting the religious notions of the East with Greek dialectics, they represent the struggle of an- cient civilization with Christian- ity; and thus their system was not without influence on the form that Christian dogmas took in Egypt. The amalgamation of Eastern ideas with Christian gave rise to the system of the Gnostics, which was elaborated chiefly in Alexandria. Alexandrina, Lake. See Mur- ray River. Alexandrine Liturgy, called also the Liturgy of St. Mark, who is said to have composed it for the use of Egyptian Chris- tians. Still used in .the church of Alexandria. Alexandrine Verse is an iambic metre consisting of twelve syl- lables. The name is derived from the old French romance of Alexandre le Grand, composed about 1180 by Lambert li Court and Alexandre de Bernay, in which the measure is first used. It is the standard measure in French epic and heroic poetry. According to the rules of scan- sion in French, the ca?sura must always fall after the sixth sylla- ble; but this rule has been neg- lected by most English i)octs who have employed the metre. Eng- lish poets use the Alexandrine oc- casionally for the sake of variety. The .Spenserian stanza regularly ends in one, and Dryden and Cowley use it rather freely among their decasyllabics. Pope's lines in the Essay oti Criticism are fa- miliar: ^ vI7NApx*hiHNdxqroCKAroXonjcH ^ ^Ti |^ocnroNia"N'K3.iecHNoxorac«^ apx'J 0 ^oyo£ jfcu o \oyog rj [ itpoQ tov^IioIv ' nai ^[to]^ r]v o \oyoQ. John i. I, as Given'in the Alexandrian Codex and in Modern Greek Characters. 'In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.' Alexandrite 157 A Alfalfa A needless Alexandrine ends the song. That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along. The only long English poem in which this metre is exclusively employed is Drayton's Polyolhion (1612-22), and the result shows how little it is adapted to the genius of our language. This metre has been employed in Ger- many by Opitz, Riickert, Frei- ligrath, Geibel, and others. Alexandrite. See Chryso- BERYL. Alexandriya, or Alexandria, town, Kherson government, Rus- sia, on the Kremenchug-Elisa- bethgrad Railway; 150 miles northeast of Kherson city. Its chief industries are tanning, soap and candle making. There is cattle raising. Pop. 14,000. Alexandre pol, a'leks-an-dro- pol (formerly Gumri), fortified town, government Erivan, Trans- caucasia, Russia; 80 miles south- west of Tiflis. There is trade in silk. Pop. 34,000. Alexandrov, a'leks-an-drof, town, Vladimir government, Rus- sia; 70 miles west of Vladimir city. There are iron and steel foundries. Pop. 7,000. Alexandrovsk,a-leks-an'drofsk, fortified town, Ekaterinoslav gov- ernment, on the Dnieper; 75 miles by rail south of Ekaterinoslav city. It is a shipping point for grain. Pop. 20,000. Alexandrovsk, town, Siberia, the centre of government in Rus- sian Sakhalin and of the Alexan- drovsk district in the northwest of the island. It has flour and saw mills. Alexandrovsk-Grushevski, groo-shef'ske, town, province Don Cossacks, Russia, on the Novocherkask; 15 miles north- east of Novocherkask. It is the centre of a rich coal region. Pop. 17,000. Alexei, a-leks-a' (Alexis), called MiCHAiLOVITCH (1629-76), tsar of Russia, succeeded his fa- ther, Michael Feodorovitch, in 1645. He extended his domin- ions after a successful war against Poland (1654-67); waged war with Sweden; extended his power to the east of Siberia; and put down (1672) a revolt of the Don Cossacks. He codified the laws, and opened up communication with Western Europe. By his second wife he was the father of Peter the Great. Alexei (Alexius), called Pet- ROViTCH (1690-1718), eldest son of Peter the Great, was excluded from the Russian succession be- cause of his opposition to his fa- ther's reforms. He fled to Vien- na, and thence to Naples. Hav- ing returned to Russia, he was imprisoned, condemned to death, and then pardoned, but died (or was executed) in piison a few days later. His son became Peter ii. Vol. I.— Mar. '16 Alexeleff, a-leks-a'yef, Erghe- NYi IvANOViTCH (1843), Russian naval officer, the son of an Arme- nian father and a Russian moth- er. He commanded the Pacific squadron (1899); governor of the province of Kwantung; and adju- tant-general (1901). He was the Tsar's viceroy in the Far East when the Russo-Japanese War broke out (1904); and his strong character and obstinate policy helped to precipitate that war. He is aide-de-camp to the Tsar. Alexeievka, a-lex-a-iev'ka, town, government Veronezh, Rus- sia; 75 miles south of Veronezh. There is sunflower culture. Pop. 14,000. Alexinatz, a-lex'e-natz, or Aleksinac, town, Servia, capital of the province of same name, on the Morava; 102 miles southeast of Belgrade. It was captured by the Turks during the Russo- Turkish War (1877-8). It is the centre of a tobacco-growing dis- trict. Pop. 5,500. Alex'is, Nord (c. 1820-1910), Haitian soldier, was born in Cape Haitien. He entered the army, and rose to the rank of general. He was governor of the North- ern Haitien provinces (1867), and during the revolutions of 1868, 1888, 1896, and 1902 served as minister of war of the provincial government. He was elected president of Haiti in 1903, but a revolutionin March, 1908, obliged him to flee the country, and he took refuge in Kingston, Jamaica. See Haiti, History. Alexis, WiLLiBALD. See Ha- ring, Georg. Alex'ius Comnenus (1048- 1118), nephew of the Emperor Isaac Comnenus, and one of the ablest of the Byzantine emperors, supplanted (1081) the Emperor Nicephorus. From the north and east his empire was assailed by the Pechnegs and the Turks, from the west by the Normans ; and in 1096 the warriors of the First Crusade encamped before Con- stantinople. But by wisdom and courage he contrived, during thirty-seven years, to organize his empire — to put in order the finances, and reform the army. His career is fully recorded in the Alexiad, a prolix chronicle writ- ten by his daughter, Anna Com- nena, and her husband, Niceph- orus Bryennius. It extends from 1069 to 1118 A.D., and consists of 15 volumes. Alfa, al'fa, or Halfa, the Ar- abic name, now naturalized in French, for esparto grass, partic- ularly for the varieties Stipa tenacissima and Stipa arenaria. Alfadir, al'fa-dir {i.e., 'All- Father'), in ancient Scandinavian mythology, a favorite name for Odin (q. v.). Alfalfa, al-fal'fa, the Spanish name for the Medicago saliva, or lucerne, a leguminous plant high- ly valued for pasture and forage. Its original home was in South- western Asia, whence it has been carried to all parts of the world. In the sixteenth century it was introduced by the Spaniards into Mexico and South America; in 1854 was brought from Chile to San Francisco; and has since be- come the principal forage crop of the Western United States. In Alfalfa or Lucerne the Eastern United States it is largely limited to areas of lime- stone soil. Alfalfa is a deep-rooted, long- lived plant of the clover family, bearing violet clover-shaped flow- ers in oblong racemes, and small, slightly hairy pods, coiled spiral- ly, enclosing several kidney- shaped seeds. Its most charac- teristic feature is the long tap root extending fifteen feet or more into the soil, enabling the plant to draw upon food stores beyond the reach of most field crops, and to withstand extremes of drought. Alfalfa is remarkably adapt- able to climatic conditions, but thrives best where the rainfall does not exceed 36 inches. It re- quires a deep, fertile soil, well drained, rich in lime, and reason- ably free from weeds. Where the soil lacks the bacteria necessary for forming the root tubercles, it may be inoculated by the trans- fer of soil from a successful field or by artificial cultures. The time for seeding varies. Late summer is preferred in the East- ern and Southern States, thus avoiding the weeds of midsum- mer, and enabling the plants to attain sufficient growth to resist winter killing. In the West, spring planting is the common practice. The seed may be sowed with a drill or scattered broad- cast, but should be planted from inch to 1 M inches deep, de- pending on the character of the soil. The crop should be cut just as it is beginning to bloom, as it rapidly deteriorates in value after the flowering period. The num- ber of cuttings in a season ranges from two or three in the North to as many as ten in the irrigated Alfarabi 157 B Alfonso X districts along the Southern bor- der of the United States. Alfalfa is one of the most high- ly nutritive and palatable of feeding stuffs (q. v.). It is easily cured, and the great bulk of the crop in the United States is used as hay. It is also an ideal soiling plant, and furnishes excellent pas- turage for cattle, sheep, horses, and hogs — though it may cause bloat in cattle and sheep. Al- falfa increases the fertility of the soil by the addition of nitrates, and may be used to advantage in rotation of crops. Two classes of disease attack the plant: those affecting the root, of which root rot is the most common; and those affecting the leaves and stems, as leaf spot dis- ease, leaf rust, powdery and downy mildew, and the anthracnose dis- ease. According to the U. S. Census for 1910, 4,707,146 acres in the United States were devoted to the raising of alfalfa, with a total production of 11,859,881 tons, valued at $93,103,998. See Feed- ing Stuffs; Hay. Consult F. D. Coburn's Book of Alfalfa (1906); J. M. Westgate's Alfalfa (U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. jjq, 1908) ; J. E. Wing's Alfalfa in America (1910). Alfarabi, al-fa-ra'be, or Fara- Bi (d. c. 950), Arabian philoso- pher, was born in Farab, beyond the Oxus. He studied at Bagdad and settled at Damascus, where the calif assigned him a pension till his death. He led a life almost ascetic. In his encyclopaedia he recognized six orders of sciences — language, logic, mathematics, natural sciences, civil science, di- vine science. He popularized among the Arabs the theories of Aristotle, and was the master of Avicenna. The subjects of his writings embrace almost every known science. He was the first to attempt the compilation of an encyclopaedia, the ms. of which is in the Escurial. Alfieri, al-fi-a're, Vittorio, Count (1749-1803), Italian poet and dramatist, was born in Asti, Piedmont. At fourteen he suc- ceeded to a large inheritance; and from 1767 to 1772 he travelled widely in Europe; after which he returned to Turin and devoted himself to literary pursuits. His first work was a tragedy on Cleo- patra, staged at Turin in 1775. In 1777 he became deeply at- tached to Louise von Stolberg, countess of Albany, wife of Prince Charles Edward, and settled with her first in Alsace, and later in Paris, whence he was driven by the Revolution. He returned with Louise to Florence, where the last ten years of his life were spent. In the Church of Santa Croce, in Florence, he has a beau- tiful monument by Canova, be- VoL. I.— Mar. '16 tween the tombs of Michelangelo and Machiavelli. Alfieri's own Memoirs (Eng. trans.) give an excellent picture of his character. Alfieri published twenty-one tragedies, six comedies, and one 'tramelogedia' — a name invented by himself. His works are cold and stiff, his plots simple even to poverty, his verse hard and un- pleasing; but in spite of this, he did good service to Italian trag- edy. He corrected the effeminate taste which had before prevailed, as well as the pedantry of an af- fected imitation of Attic models. The most successful of his dra- matic works isAbele, a mixture of tragedy and opera. Besides his dramatic works, he left an epic poem in four cantos, an autobiog- raphy, many lyrical poems, six- teen satires, and poetical trans- lations of Terence, Virgil, and portions of ^schylus, Sophocles, Euripides and Aristophanes. Af- ter his death appeared his Miso- gallo, a memorial of his hatred of French anarchy. Consult Vernon Lee's Countess of Albany; Ber- tana's Vittorio Alfieri; Porena's Vita di V. Alfieri (1904). Alfold, or PuszTAS, the great central plain of Hungary, extend- ing from the Danube to the Car- pathians. See Hungary. Alfonsine Tables. See Al- PHONsiNE Tables. Alfon'so I. {El Conquistador, 'the Conqueror') (1110-85), ear- liest king of Portugal, was the son of Henry of Burgundy, con- queror and first count of Portu- gal. He was two years of age at his father's death. His mother, Theresa of Castile, acted as re- gent till 1128. He defeated the Moors at Ourique(July 25, 1139), proclaiming himself king of Port- ugal on the field of battle. The title was confirmed by the pope three years later. He took Lis- bon (1147), and later the whole of Galicia, Estremadura, and Elvas. He died at Coimbra. Alfonso V. (1432-81), king of Portugal, called 'the African,' was six years old when his father died. His uncle Pedro acted as regent until 1448, when Alfonso declared him a rebel, and defeated him. After an unsuccessful campaign against Castile he signed the Treaty of Alcantara (1479). Alfonso VI. (1643-83), king of Portugal, succeeded his father, John IV., in 1656; but the govern- ment was in the hands of his mother, Luise de Guzman, until 1662. In 1666 he married a prin- cess of Savoy, who conspired with his brother Pedro against him; and he was forced to surrender to the latter his crown. Alfonso III. (848-910), sur- named 'the Great,' king of Leon, Galicia, and the Asturias, an in- trepid champion of Christendom against the Moors in Spain, suc- ceeded Ordonoi., his father, in 866. In a succession of hard-fought campaigns he extended his rule over Old Castile and part of Port- ugal. Popular discontent, repre- sented by his son Garcias in 888, and later by his queen, forced him to abdicate in favor of his three sons; but a Moorish invasion re- called him to power. Alfonso I. (d. 1134), surnamed 'the Victorious,' king of Aragon and Navarre, succeeded his broth- er Pedro I. in 1105. The opposi- tion of his wife, Urraca of Castile, from whom he was separated, frustrated him in his attempt to annex Castile on the death of his father-in-law, Alfonso vi. In his successful warfare against the Moors he seized Saragossa and Tarragona, and inflicted a severe defeat upon them in the moun- tains of Valencia (1126). The victor in twenty-nine engage- ments, he was mortally wounded during the siege of Braga. Alfonso I. OF Castile and vi. OF Leon (1030-1109), son of Fer- dinand of Castile and Leon, as- cended the throne of Leon in 1065. He carried on, with vary- ing fortunes, a long and sanguin- ary warfare with his brother San- cho, king of Castile; and on the assassination of the latter, in 1072, obtained his kingdom. He imprisoned his younger brother Garcia until the latter's death. He won New Castile from the Moors, but ultimately sustained a crushing defeat at their hands in 1108. Alfonso V. OF Aragon and i. OF Sicily and Sardinia (1385- 1458), 'the Magnanimous,' was the son of Ferdinand the Just, whom he succeeded in 1416. In 1420 Joanna i. of Naples made him her heir, but revoked the gift in 1423. At her death, in 1435, Alfonso claimed the kingdom, but was opposed by Duke Rene of Lorraine, whom Joanna had ap- pointed her successor. Rome and Genoa sided with Rene, and the Genoese fleet attacked and de- feated that of Alfonso, who was taken prisoner. Duke Philip of Milan set him at liberty, and formed an alliance with him. After five years' warfare Alfonso entered Naples in triumph, and was recognized as its king by the pope. He was an enlightened ruler, and gave asylum to many scholars who fled from Constan- tinople when it was captured by the Turks. Alfonso X., king of Leon and Castile (1226-84), surnamed 'the Wise,' or 'the Astronomer,' suc- ceeded Ferdinand iii., his father (1252). In 1257 he was chosen king by some of the German princes; but he had to be content with the empty honor. He was more successful in his wars with the Moors, and his victories over them enabled him to unite Mur- cia with Castile. He repressed Alfonso Xn 158 Alfred the Great the rebellion promoted by his .son Philip (1271), but was diiven from the throne by Sancho, his second son (1282). He was a patron of literature; completed the codification of the laws, Leyes de las Partidas, which in 1501 be- came the universal law of the land; and was himself poet and Amadeus of Aosta in 1874. He defeated the Carlists (1876); re- pressed rebellions in Cuba; sub- stituted a less democratic consti- tution for that of 1845; and paci- fied the country. Alfonso XIII. (1886), king of Spain, posthumous son of Alfonso XII., was proclaimed king on the struggle between the clerical and anti-clerical parties; and frequent uprisings in Morocco (q. v.). In 1906 Alfonso married Princess Ena of Battenberg, the niece of Edward vii. of Great Britain. This marriage caused much dis- content, the Spanish clericals fearing the undue influence of an English princess, even though she had adopted the Roman Catholic faith, and a large section of the British people resenting her ab- juration of Protestantism. Six children have been born of the marriage. A number of attempts have been made on Alfonso's life, notably during the marriage pro- cession in Madrid (May 31, 1906), when the king and his bride narrowly escaped being killed by a bomb; and on April 13, 1913, when an anarchist fired three shots at him. See Spain, History. Alford, ol'ferd, Henry (1810- 71), English scholar and poet, was born in London. He was vicar of Wymeswold; rector of Quebec Chapel, London (1853); and dean of Canterbury (1857). He is remembered chiefly for his Greek Testament (1849-61); and he was the first editor of The Contemporary Review (1866-70). He published : Poems and Poeticah Fragments (1831); The School of the Heart, and Other Poems (1835) ; Chapters on the Greek Poets (1841); A Plea for the Queen's English (1863); also author of several hymns. Consult Life by his widow. Al'fred, town, Allegheny coun- ty, New York, on the Erie Rail- road; 9 miles southwest of Hor- nell. It is the vseat of Alfred University (q. v.). Pop. (1900) 1,615; (1910) 1,590. Alfred the Great (849-901), king of the West Saxons in Eng- land, was born at Wantage in Berkshire. He was the youngest son of King Ethel wulf; but when his brother Ethelred died, in 871, Alfred was declared king by uni- versal consent. The young king fought eight or nine battles with the Danes in the first year of his rule, winning, among others, the Battle of Ashdown. A period of rest followed; but in 878, Guth- rum. king of the Danes in East Anglia, invaded Wessex, and Al- fred retired for a time to Athel- ney, in Somersetshire, where tra- dition says that he burned the cakes. Shortly afterward he gathered levies from three shires, and inflicted a severe defeat upon the Danes at Edington, in Wilt- shire. The Peace of Wedmore was concluded, under which Guthrum consented to become Christian and to withdraw from Wessex, while the supremacy of Alfred was acknowledged over the whole country south of the Thames, and over the greater part of Mercia. Alfonso XIII. of Spain. author. To improve the Ptole- maic tables he assembled at To- ledo upward of fifty of the most celebrated astronomers of that age, who prepared the Alfonsine Tables (q. v.). By his command the first complete history of vSpain was written in the Castilian tongue, and the Old Testament was translated into Spanish. Alfonso XII. (1857-8.5), king of Sjjain, son of the exiled Queen Isabella, was chosen by the pro- visional government to succeed Vol. I.— Mar. '16 ' day of his birth (May 17). His mother, Queen Maria Christina, with the help of Canovas and Sagasta, ruled during his minor- ity (1886-1902), the chief event of which was the loss of Cuba and the Philippines to the United States. Since Alfonso's accession Spain has had many internal troubles, notably the Barcelona rising of June, 1909, owing partly to the Morocco War; the arrest and execution of Francisco Ferrer (q. v.), which was due to the Alfred the Great 159 Algae From 878 to 893 the land en- joyed comparative peace, which was utilized by this enlightened king in the consolidation of Eng- land. He practically founded the British navy; reorganized the na- tional defences; raised public r ■ r buildings and reclaimed waste lands; and revised all existing laws, combining those which he found good into a single code. He established schools, encouraged literature in the native tongue, and improved the services of the church. This work was again inter- rupted by war. A new Danish Vol. I.— Mar. '16 army appeared under Hastings, who for four years kept Alfred and his forces incessantly occupied. Having once more saved his coun- try, the great king died (Oct. 27, 901), at the age of fifty- two. The thousandth anniversary of his death was fittingly celebrated in 1901 in Winchester, the ancient capital of England. Alfred's principal writings are as follows: A translation of the Universal History of Orosius, containing three original inser- tions by the king — a brief descrip- tion of North Central Europe, and the account of two voyages of discovery by the explorers Othere and Wulfstan; a translation of Bede's Ecclesiastical History, which may be due to Alfred's in- stigation rather than to his own execution; a translation of the De Consolatione Philosophies of Boetius; a close translation of Gregory's Cur a Pastor alis and Dialogues; Blooms, a common- place book of 'sayings which King Alfred collected.' The Saxon Chronicle is due to his fostering interest and care. There are Lives of Alfred by Asser, Reinhold Pauli, Thomas Hughes, Plummer, and Draper. Consult also Turk's Legal Code of Alfred the Great; Bowker's Stud- ies; Conybeare's Alfred in the Chroniclers; Harrison's Writings of King Alfred; Snell's Age of Al- fred (1912). Alfred University, a non-sec- tarian and co-educational institu- tion at Alfred, N. Y., established in 1836, and chartered as a uni- versity in 1857. It comprises the College of Arts and Sciences, the State School of Clay Working and Ceramics, the State School of Agriculture. The Alfred Theo- logical Seminary is affiliated. A summer school is conducted an- nually. In 1916 the University had 360 students, and a faculty of 42. The library contained 28,000 volumes. The buildings and grounds were valued at S500.000, and the income for 1914-15 was $100,000. Alfreton, ol'f^r-tun; colloq. of- gr-tun, market town, Derbyshire England, on the Midland Rail- way; 14 miles northeast of Derby. Pop. (1911) 19,049. Alfuras, al-foo'ras, or Hara- FURAS, the original inhabitants of Celebes, but found also in Burn, Ceram, Jilolo, the Sula Islands, and Northwest New Guinea. They are apparently of Malay descent, greatly modified by Pap- uan blood. Algae, al'je, a large group of sim- ple cryptogamous plants, includ- ing Seaweeds (q. v.), and the fila- mentous and microscopic forms which are found in stagnant pools and on moist surfaces exposed to the air, such as damp soils, stones, and the bark of trees. Though they vary greatly in complexity — from a single nucleated speck of protoplasm at one end of the scale, to the gigantic Macrocystis of Southern seas with its fronds 600 to 800 feet in length at the other end — algae never possess true roots, stems, or leaves, how- ever closely these structures may be simulated. They come, there- fore, under the general division of the Cryptogamia known as Thallophytcs. They are distin- guished from the Fungi (q. v.), which are also Thallophytcs, by the possession of chlorophyll (q. v.), the substance by means of Algae 160 Algarre which new material is assimilat- ed under the influence of sunlight; and by their power of building up their organic materials out of elementary inorganic substances. They are also distinguished from Lichens (q. v.). which consist of algae and fungi living together in an intimate nutritive relation — a high form of Symbiosis (q. v.). Algae are the simplest in organ- ization of all plants, being com- posed of but one class of cells. The vegetative body is the thal- lus (q. v.). and the plant derives its nourishment from the sub- stances held in solution by the water or moisture surrounding it. The great majority of algae are attached plants, and are provided with holdfasts or rhizoids corre- sponding somewhat to the roots of flowering plants, though with- out their absorptive function. The holdfast is in some cases a single flattened disc or conical expansion of the base of the plant ; in others, a tuft of filaments; and in still others it resembles the fibrous roots of land plants, pene- trating deep into the sand or coral upon which it fastens. In addition to these attached forms, there is a considerable body of free-floating or pelagic algae, with- out holdfasts and unattached to any substratum. The Diatoms (q. V.) and the Gulf Weed of the Sargasso Sea (q. v.) are of the latter class. The simpler forms of algae are unicellular and colonial; the high- er forms comprise branched or unbranched chains or filaments of cells, flat plates of cells, and more complex organisms, which may even approach the higher plants in external morphology. The reproductive process varies as greatly as the external appear- ance — from simple cell division in the lower algae to highly special- ized sexual processes in the more complex forms. Algae are usually classified in three orders, based on the color- ing matters present: (1) Chloro- PHYCE^ (green) ; (2) Ph^ophy- CEJE (brown); and (3) Rhodo- PHYCE^ or Floride^ (red); to which some authorities add a fourth, Cyanophyce^ (blue- green). (1) The Chlorophyce^e, or Green Algae, include all those forms in which the green coloring matter or chlorophyll is not masked by some other pigment. They are among the most widely diffused of plant forms, occurring in great variety in both fresh and salt water. One of the simplest forms of Chlorophyceae is Pleurococcus , a fresh-water alga, which is abun- dant on damp surfaces, and to which the green covering of tree trunks, etc., is often due. It is a simple cell, or nucleated mass of protoplasm, tinged green by Vol. I. — Mar. '16 chlorophyll, and covered by a cellulose wall, multiplying by transverse division into two or four cells, which soon separate Closely allied forms occur in wa- ter, the protoplasm escaping through a rupture in the cell wall, developing a couple of delicate contractile filaments or cilia, and thus entering an actively motile stage of existence. After a time the resting phase is resumed, the cilia being withdrawn, and a cell wall redeveloped. In more complex forms of Chlor- ophyceae the individuals resulting from fission may not wholly sep- arate, but may remain embedded in a common envelope. A high- ly developed example of such a colony may be seen in Volvox (q. v.), a constantly moving sphere of many hundreds of cili- ated individuals, connected by threads of protoplasm through the envelope, some of which are purely nutritive in function, while others become female reproduc- tive cells, destined to form new colonies; and others, again, divide into numerous minute and active male elements, which are set free to fertilize the ova. The Filamentous Green Algae are higher forms, in which con- tinued division results in single rows of cells separated from each other by transverse walls (Con- fervoideae), as in Ulothrix, a long, dark green, hairlike plant very common on stones in running water, which propagates by means of motile zoospores formed in cer- tain cells, and set free to swim to a new site for a new plant, and also reproduces itself by means of the fusion of two free motile sex- ual cells {gametes). Branching occurs at various points in the filamentous series, and this readily leads to the for- mation of bidimensional (flat) cell aggregates, such as the com- mon green Ulva or sea lettuce of every seashore. Here we start afresh with rejuvenescence by swarm spores, capable of repro- ducing the parent plant without conjugation; in higher genera, at least (Enter omorpha), conjuga- tion occurs, and macrospore and microspore are distinguishable; while the change from a plane to a tubular arrangement of cells in Enteromorpha leads us to solid or tridimensional forms. An inter- esting example of a filament con- sisting of a single tube is Vauche- ria, common in moist soil in greenhouses. It has a highly de- veloped form of sexual reproduc- tion, as shown by the large quies- cent female cell {oogonium) and the minute active male {anthero- zoid). (2) The PH/Eophyce^, or Brown Algae, are characterized by the presence of a brown coloring matter — phycophaein — in addi- tion to the chlorophyll. Nearly all of them are marine forms, and they include the most highly dif- ferentiated of the algae. For fur- ther information concerning them, see the article Seaweed. (3) In the Rhodophyce/E or Floride^, Red Algae, the chloro- phyll is obscured by a red pig- ment — phycoerythrin. These plants are almost wholly marine, and represent the highest type of reproductive development in the algae. For further information, see Seaweed. (4) The Cyanophyce^, the so- called Blue or Blue-Green Algae, are inconspicuous and degenerate plants, found in fresh waters. A common example is Anabcena, which often makes the water of a pond opaque and dirty green in color, and gives it a foul odor. Consult A. F. Arnold's The Sea Beach at Ebb Tide; G. Mur- ray's An Introduction to the Study of Seaweeds; WoUe's Fresh-Water Algce of the United States. Algardi, al-gar'de, Alessan- DRO (1602-1654), born at Bo- logna, ranks next to Bernini among Italian sculptors of the seventeenth century. He ex- celled in the representation of the nude. His most important work is a colossal relievo, in St. Peter's, Rome, of Pope Leo Restraining Attilafrom Marching on Rome. Al'garo'ba, a Spanish name for the pods of several leguminous plants, principally those of the mesquite tree, found from Colo- rado westward to California, and southward through Central Amer- ica to the Argentine Republic. The pods form excellent food for cattle and horses, and are used commercially in tanning and dye- ing. See Mesquite. Algarotti, al-ga-rot'te. Count Francesco (1712-64), Italian scholar and critic, was born in Venice. His works popularized abstruse subjects. His Neutoni- anismo per le Donne (1732; trans- lated into several languages) was praised by Voltaire. He travel- led through Europe, staying at Paris, Berlin, Dresden, and St. Petersburg, and was especially honored by Frederick the Great. His poetry was mediocre, but his Saggi (essays) on art (1769) were influential in Italian literature. Algarve, al-giir'va, the smallest and southernmost province of Portugal, between Alemtejo and the Atlantic Ocean, corresponds with the administrative district of Faro (q. v.). It is mountain- ous in the north, but with a fertile coast belt on the south. Prin- cipal river, the Guadiana. Figs, almonds, olives, oranges, and vines are grown in the lowlands; cereals on the higher ground. There are tunny, herring, and sardine fisheries. The Algarves are noted sailors and fishermen. Capital, Faro. Area, 1,920 square miles. Pop. 280,000. ALG>E ARE PLANTS OF A SIMPLE TYPE, SUCH AS SEAWEEDS AND MICROSCOPIC FORMS FOUND IN STAGNANT POOLS. ALG>C — (A) Pleurococcus vulgaris: details magnified; (B) Volvox globator; (C) Ulothrix parietina; (D) Vaucheria terrestris, showing fructification (E) Anabaena variabilis; (F) Laminaria saccharina; (G) Fucus vesiculosus; (H) Ulva latissima; (J) Rhodynnenia laciniata; (K) Cladophora; (L) Polydes rotundus; (M) Griffithsia simplicif ilum. {A, B, C, D, and E enormously enlarged; F, G, and H much reduced.) Vol. I —Mar. '16 Vol. I.— at Page 160 Algebra 161 Algeciras Al'gebra, that branch of pure mathematics which makes it pos- sible, by means of letters and other symbols (see Symbols), to simplify and generalize the solu- tion of arithmetical questions. Algebra is an outgrowth of arith- metic (q. v.), and is governed by the same fundamental laws, but differs from that branch of math- ematics in a number of important points. In the first place, the operations of algebra and their results are more general than those of arithmetic. In arith- metic, quantities are represented by particular numbers, which do not vary in value, and the results obtained apply only to particular questions. Thus, (5-2) X (5 + 2) = 21. In algebra the substitution of letters, to which any value may be given, for the particular num- bers of arithmetic makes it pos- sible to obtain results which are equally applicable to all questions of a given class. Thus, substitut- ing a for 5 and b for 2, (a -h) (a -f &) = a2 - &2. Instead of the solution of a single problem we have the general principle that the product of the difference and sum of any two numbers equals the difference of their squares, a theorem which holds true regardless of the values of those numbers. Algebra has a second advan- tage over arithmetic in that its operations are often much more concise, so that many problems which might be solved arithmet- ically are more easily and more quickly solved by algebra. This advantage is due partly to the use of letters by which unknown quantities may be expressed, and partly to the fact that addition, subtraction, multiplication, etc., are not actually performed until the problem has been reduced to its simplest terms. Thus, in the problem, 'Find two numbers whose sum is 8 and whose differ- ence is 2,' we let x represent one of the numbers and 8 — x the other. Employing these symbols, we then proceed to perform the same operations which would be neces- sary to verify their values were they already known. The use of symbols enables us, further, to derive formulae in which the operations are indi- cated rather than actually per- formed. Simple inspection of the result of an arithmetical problem does not reveal the method of its solution; a general algebraic solu- tion, on the other hand, vshows at once how all the data of the prob- lem are combined in the result. Thus, (a -I- 6)2 = a2-l- 2ah-\- 62 as contrasted with (2 + 3)2 = 25. The most striking difference between algebra and arithmetic Vol. I. — Mar. '16 is the use, in the former, of nega- tive and imaginary numbers, which cannot be entertained in arithmetic. Every quantity and every step in the working of an arithmetical problem are capable of intelligible conception; but algebra admits of unthinkable quantities a nd o perations, as, for example, \/_ i. The scope of algebra is not def- initely fixed, various opinions being held as to its limitations. In its widest sense it may be said to include the theory of num- bers (see Numbers), the theory of equations (see Equation and Quadratic Equation), infinites- imal calculus and the calculus of variations (see Calculus, and Variations, Calculus of), the theory of functions (see Func- tion), and multiple algebras, in- cluding quaternions (q. v.) and other vector analyses (see Vec- tor). Historical. — The earliest treat- ment of algebra is found in an Egyptian MS. of 1 700 B.c . , in which this simple equation occurs: 'Hau (heap), its seventh, its whole, it makes 19,' that is, -y- -f- x = 19. Egyptian algebra, however, was undoubtedly rudimentary, and no trace of it has been discovered among the ancient Greeks, who seem to have been acquainted with the solution of equations in geometrical form only. The oldest work in the West on algebra is that of Diophantus (q. V.) of Alexandria, who lived in the fourth century a.d., and whose Arithmetica presents some methods of simplifying equations which are still in use. He ex- plained the generation of powers, gave rules for the multiplication and division of simple quantities, and devoted special attention to indeterminate equations, which are sometimes known as Diophan- tine problems. The development of algebra among the Hindus and the Arabs seems to have preceded any fur- ther advances in European coun- tries. The work of Aryabhatta, an Indian mathematician of the sixth century, probably extended to determinate quadratic equa- tions and indeterminate equa- tions of the first and second de- grees. The first notable Arabian algebraist was Mohammed ben Musa al-Khwarizmi, whose trea- tise on algebra, in the ninth cen- tury, bore the title Ilm al-jebr wal-muqabala, from which the name algebra is presumed to be derived. The Italian mathematicians led in the renaissance of mathe- matics in Europe. In 1494 Lucas Paciolus, a Minorite friar, pub- lished the first important work on the subject, and in 1505 Scipio Ferro discovered the solution of one case of quadratic equations (rc3 + ax = b). Tartalea of Brescia (died 1557) carried cubic equa- tions still further, and imparted his discoveries to Cardanus (q. v.) of Milan, who extended the dis- covery, and published, in 1545, the solution known as 'Cardan's Rule.' In 1579 Ludovico Ferrari and Rafael Bombelli gave the solution of biquadratic equa- tions. In the meantime, algebra was gaining ground in other European countries. It was first cultivated in Germany by Christian Rudolf, 1524; and Stifel followed with his Arithmetica Integra in 1544. Robert Recorde in England, and Pelletier in France, wrote about 1550. An important epoch is marked by the work of Vieta (q. V.) of France (1540-1603), who first used letters for all quan- tities, known and unknown. Har- riot, in England (1631), and Gi- rard, in Holland (1629), carried this work still further. Descartes (1596-1650) used the first letters of the alphabet for known quan- tities, and the last for unknown, and substituted x^ and x^ for such expressions as xxx and xxxx. He was the first to apply algebra to geometry, and to represent the nature of curves by means of equations. Other important sub- jects developed in the seventeenth century were the infinitesimal calculus, the binomial theory, continued fractions, the modern theory of numbers, the theory of probability, and the theory of determinants; and among the outstanding names are those of Newton, Leibniz, Wallis, Euler, Lagrange, Fermat, De Moivre, the Bernoullis, and Pascal. In more recent years the de- velopment of algebra has been largely along special lines, and algebras have been formulated with different fundamental laws, of which quaternions is an ex- ample. In connection with this article, see the various mathematical ar- ticles in this work, including: Analysis, Binomial. Biquadratic. Calculus. Complex Number. Determinants. Differences. Equation. Fraction. Function. Groups, Theory of. Indeterminate Form. Index. Involution. Logarithms. Mathematics. . Numbers. Permutations and Combinations. Probabilities. Quadratic Equation. Quaternions. Series. Squares, Method of Least. Substitutions. Symbols. Variations, Calculus of. Vector. Consult Merriman and Wood- ward's Higher Mathematics; K. Fink's History of Mathematics; Smith's Teaching of Elementary Mathematics. Algeciras,';^al-ha-the'ras, or Al- GEZiRAS, town, province Cadiz, Spain, the port on the bay oppo- Alger 162 Algeria site Gibraltar (5 miles). It is a well-built industrial town, with busy export trade in leather, charcoal, cork, and grain. The bay was the scene of a naval bat- tle between French and English fleets in 1801. Here, on April 7, 190G, the Algeciras Convention, an international agreement con- cerning Morocco, was concluded by the European Powers (see Morocco, //w/o^y). Pop. 17,000. ATger, Horatio (1834-99), American author, was born in Revere, Mass., and was gradu- ated from Harvard (1862). He studied at the Harvard Divinity School; was ordained to the pas- torate of the Unitarian Church at Brewster, Mass. (1864); and afterward removed to New York (1897-9); and U, S. Senator (1902-07). He was the author of The Spanish American War (1901). Alger, William Rounseville (1822-1905), American clergy- man, was born in Freetown, Mass.. and was graduated from Harvard Theological School. He held pastorates at Roxbury (Mass.), Boston, New York, Den- ver, Chicago, Portland, and again at Boston. He published: The Poetry of the Orient (2d ed. 1861) ; A Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life (1861); Friend- ships of Women (1867); Life of Edwin Forrest (1877); The School of Life (1881). Algeria, al-je'ri-a, or L'Alge- RiE, French colony in North Af- leys; in the middle, the region of Steppes — mountainous plateaus, traversed from west to east by a chain of brackish lakes or marshes called shotts; farther south the Algerian Sahara, a rocky table land with cultivated tracts or oases. Two series of mountain chains of the Atlas system cross Algeria from east to west. The Lesser or Tell Atlas follows the coast, and is intersected by rocky canyons and fertile valleys. It includes the Tlemcen, Warsenis, Titeri, Jurjura, Biban, Dahra, and Me- jerda ranges — Lalla Kedija, in the Jurjura range, reaching a height of 7,542 feet. To the south, form- ing the southern limit of the middle table lands, are the moun- City. He is well known as the writer of about seventy books of juvenile fiction, which still maintain their popularity — most of them included in the Ragged Dick, Tattered Tom, and Luck and Pluck series. Alger, Russell Alexander (18,36-1907), American soldier and lawyer, was born in Lafay- ette, O. In early youth he worked on a farm, and attended Richfield Academy during the winters. He taught school, stud- ied law, and was admitted to the bar (1859); and after practising a year in Cleveland, removed to Michigan. He served in the Union Army throughout the Civil War, and rose from captain to be major-general of volunteers. After the war he engaged in the lumber business at Detroit, Mich. He served as governor of the State (188.5-6) ; Secretary of War in President McKinley's Cabinet Vol. I.— Mar. '16 rica, occupies the central portion of the former Barbary States, between lat. 30° and 37° N. and long. 2° 10' w. and 8° .50' e. It is bounded by the Mediterranean on the north, and by the vSahara Desert on the south, and is sep- arated by conventional bounda- ries from Tunis on the east and Morocco on the west. Stretching along the coast for about 550 miles, and inland for about 400 miles, Algeria covers an area of 343,500 square miles, of which some 159,000 square miles in the south have been acquired by France since 1901. Physical Features. — The coast line is steep and rocky, for the most part, and though it has nu- merous indentations, affords few good harbors. F"rom the coast inward the country is marked off into three distinct regions: in the north, the Tell — mountainous, cultivated land, with fruitful val- tains of the Greater Atlas, culmi- nating in Sheliah (7,585 feet), the highest point in the country. Algeria has no navigable rivers, though there are numerous streams, some of which are valu- able for irrigation. The largest are the Sheliff (430 miles), Sey- bouse (150 miles), Kebir or Rum- mel (140 miles), and Sahel (100 miles). Two remarkable dried- up river courses in the Algerian Sahara are the Wadi Igharghar, a channel 750 miles long, running from south to north, and its trib- utary, the Wadi Miya. There are many lakes, most of them im- pregnated with salt, and exten- sive salt marshes. The climate of Algeria belongs to the Mediterranean zone, char- acterized by the division of the year into two seasons — the rainy or cold season (autumn, winter, spring), and the dry and hot sea- son (summer). The climate flue- Algeria 163 Algeria tuates between the humidity of the Mediterranean and the arid- ity of the Sahara: on the coast, the temperature is very equable (see Algiers), while the interior and Sahara are subject to great and sudden changes. The flora and the fauna, like the climate, are Mediterranean. The trees and shrubs are chiefly evergreens, the olive being char- acteristic. The forests are com- posed mainly of cork trees, ever- green oaks, Aleppo pines, cedars, elms, ashes, maples, and cypress- es; the steppes are covered with alfa or esparto grass and salt- loving plants; the date palm is the characteristic tree of the Sahara. Jackals, hyenas, Algerian apes, wild boars, antelope, red deer, and wild goats are found. Birds are numerous, and scorpions abound in the arid regions. The country's mineral wealth is considerable. There are cop- per, zinc, iron, lead, antimony, and mercury mines, and petro- leum springs. Minerals of eco- nomic importance are iron ore at Ain Mokra and Beni-Saf, and extensive deposits of phosphate of lime, chiefly in the Tebessa dis- trict. There are numerous hot mineral springs, as at Constantine, and salt is a valuable product. Industry and Trade. — Al- geria is essentially an agricultural country. The soil is highly fertile, especially in the neighbor- hood of the coast, and the sinking of artesian wells has made possi- ble the cultivation of large tracts of desert land. The principal products are cereals and wines. In 1926, 3,7.53,121 acres were devoted to wheat, 3,522,862 to barley, and 628,672 to oats; and the production was as follows: wheat, 638,488 tons; barley 493,- 338 tons; oats 126,170 tons. The yield of wine for 1926 was 184,- 857,596 gallons. Olives are cul- tivated extensively, and the pro- duction of olive oil is an impor- tant industry. Cotton, tobacco, flax, silk, maize, potatoes, beans, dira, and a great variety of fruit, including the orange, date, man- darin, citron, banana, pome- granate, almond, and fig, are also grown. Forests cover over 6,500,000 acres, mostly under state or communal protection. The chief items of economic importance are the cork trees, which in 1926 covered 1,099,150 acres, and the soap trees of the coast region. Much of the mountain land un- suited to cultivation is devoted to grazing, and large tracts of forest land are leased for that purpose. The principal domestic animals are mules, asses, horses, sheep, camels, and goats. Fishing is of importance, 5,534 persons having been engaged in that industry in 1926. Sardines, allaches, anchovies, sprats, and tunny are caught. Mining is poorly developed. In 1926 the mineral output was 1,136,929 tons of iron ore, 64,748 tons of zinc ore, 23,569 tons of lead, 857,247 tons of phosphate rock, 10,000 tons of coal, and 1,800 tons of petroleum. Manufactures are negligible. The native industry (carpets, leather work, arms) is on the de- crease; while that of the Euro- peans is limited to the prepara- tion of agricultural produce (flour mills and distilleries). The trade of Algeria has in- creased steadily since the French occupation. The total foreign trade of 1927 amounted to 4,835,- 868,000 francs, imports, and 3,520,948 francs, exports. The greater part of the country's commerce is with France, fol- lowed in order by Great Britain, Morocco, Spain, Germany, and the United States. The principal exports and their values for 1926 were: wine 1,315,730,000 francs; wheat, 108,164,000 francs; sheep, 112,450,000 francs; tobacco 67,- 686,000 francs; cigarettes, 48,- 599,000 francs; figs, 229,997,000 francs; phosphates, 65,723,000 francs; eggs, 35,192,000 francs. Hides and skins, wool, olive oil, zinc ore, and esparto grass are other important items of export. Imports are largely made up of manufactured goods, and include textiles, clothing, machinery, fur- niture, paper, coffee, sugar, and vegetable oil. The railway system consists of one long line, parallel to the coast, joining the large towns of the Tell, and extending as far as Tunis, with branch lines to the seaport towns, and southward toward the Sahara. In 1926 there were 2,700 miles of railway open for traffic. There were 3,500 miles of national roads, 8,121 miles of telegraph lines, and 15,007 miles of urban and interurban telephone lines. There is regular air service between Oran and Morocco, and -Oran and Spain. Peoples. — The population of Algeria in 1926 was 6,064.865, of whom more than 872,000 were Europeans. Of the native in- habitants, the Berbers (q.v.) pre- dominate. They occupy prin- cipally the mountain ranges and the southern oases; are industri- ous and independent; Moham- medan in religion, but not prac- tising polygamy. The Arabs inhabit the plains and steppes, principally in the western portion of the country; are mostly nomadic or semi-nomadic; Mo- hammedan, and polygamous. There are some Turks, Negroes, and Moors, and about 65,000 Algerian Jews. The principal towns, with their population in 1926, are: Algiers, the capital, 226,218; Oran, 150,- 301; Constantine, 93,733; Bona, 51,895; Sidibel-Abbes, 43,148; Tlemcen, 26,758; Blida, 24,758; Philippeville, 29,242; Setif, 26,- 677; Mascara, 28,033; Mostaga- nem, 26,355. Government, etc. — The govern- ment and administration of Al- geria are centralized at Algiers under the authority of the Gov- ernor-General, who directs all de- partments except the non-Mus- sulman services of Justice, Public Instruction and Worship, and the Treasury. He prepares the bud- get for Algeria, grants concessions for works, and contracts loans in the name of the colony. Since 1901 the budget has been distinct from that of France. It is voted by the three financial delegations — representing respectively the French colonists, the French tax payers other than colonists, and the Mussulman natives — and by the Superior Council, composed of elected members and of high officials. Associated with the Governor-General is the Council of Government, an advisory body of high officials. The French chambers alone have the right of legislating for Algeria. The Algerian Sahara, compris- ing the four territories of Ain Sefra, Ghardaia, Touggourt, and the Saharan Oases, is adminis- tered separately, and has a sep- arate budget, but is under the Governor- General, who repre- sents it in civil affairs. Northern Algeria is divided into the three departments of Oran, Algiers, and Constantine, each sending one senator and two deputies to the French National Assembly. Each department is presided over by a prefect, as- sisted by a genera! council repre- senting both the citizens and the Mohammedan population. There are seventeen courts of first instance, commercial courts, and a court of appeals at Algiers. Among the Mohammedans, jus- tice is administered by the cadis (see Cadi), with appeal to the French courts. Education is supported by the state. In 1926 there were 1,302 primary and infant schools, with 110,031 pupils; 17 secondary schools, with 9,773 pupils; and 5 normal schools. There is a university at Algiers with facul- ties of law, medicine, pharmacy, science, and letters; and Moham- medan schools for higher learning at Algiers, Tlemcen, and Con- stantine. The military troops in Algeria consist of one French army corps, numbering about 70,000. History. — The history of Al- geria, the ancient Numidia, is one of successive conquests forced in turn upon the old Berber stock. Vol, I.— March '29 Algeria 164 Algol always persisting and resisting. In ancient times we find the Nu- midians settled in the eastern part, and the Moors or Mauri in the western. Passing under Ro- man sway at the close of the Punic Wars (145 B.C.), the coun- try attained a high degree of prosperity and civilization. But its conquest by the Vandals (about 440 A.D,) threw it back into a state of barbarism, from which it only partially recovered after the Mohammedan immi- grants had established their dominion (about 650 a.d.). In 1492 the Moors and Jews who had been driven out of Spain settled in Algeria, and revenged themselves on their persecutors by acts of piracy. Ferdinand, the Spanish monarch, attacked them, and took the city of Algiers in 1509. In 1515 Horuk Bar- barossa (q.v.), who had made himself famous as a Turkish pi- rate chief, drove the Spaniards out of the country, and estab- lished that system of military despotism and piracy which ter- rorized the Christian natives of the world for many years (see Barbary Pirates). Various at- tempts of the European powers to check the operations of the pirates failed, and no effective action was taken until 1815, when a United States fleet under Ste- phen Decatur (q.v.) compelled them to cease depredations upon American vessels. Subsequently a British fleet bombarded Al- giers, and put an end to the slave trade; but piracy still persisted until 1830. In that year the town of Algiers capitulated to a French fleet, and the French took possession first of Algiers, and then of Algeria. The conquest was long, diffi- cult, and attended by numerous insurrections. For seventeen years the Arabs maintained a vigorous resistance, and after that the Berbers continued the struggle. The important stages in the conquest were the conflicts between Marshal Bugeaud and Abd-el-Kader, ending in the sub- mission of the latter in 1847; the conquest of Great Kabylia in 1851 and 1856 -7; and the rising of 1871. In that year the present civil government was organized. In 1901 the conquest of the French Algerine Sahara was com- pleted. Since that time Algeria has developed and prospered as a general thing. Trade has in- creased, railroads have been built and conditions generally have im- proved. During the Great War although German and Turkish propaganda was widespread, nev- ertheless the mass of the natives were loyal to France and gave generously of men and food stuffs, nearly 300,000 Algerian natives having aided in the War. Vol. I. — March '29 Bibliography. — Consult Shoe- maker's Islam Lands (1910) ; J. F. Fraser's Land of Veiled Women (1911); J. C. Hyam's Illustrated Guide to Algiers and Algeria (1911) ; R. Humphreys' Algiers, the Sahara, and the Nile (1912); D. Pember's Aspects of Algeria (1912) ; C. Thomas-Stanford's About Algeria, Algiers, Tlemcen, Constantine, Biskra, Timgad (1912); M. D. Stott's Real Al- geria (1914). Algerine War. See Barbary Pirates. Alghero, al-ga'ro, seaport and episcopal see, on the northwest- ern coast of Sardinia; 22 miles southwest of Sassari. It has a cathedral and many old houses. Coral fishing is carried on; and wine and olives are produced. Pop. 10,500. Algiers, al-jerz' (French Alger; Arabian, Al-jez-air, 'the islands'), capital and chief port of Algeria, is situated on the Mediterranean coast, 500 miles from Marseilles, France. It stands on the seaward slope of high hills, and on the shores of a large semi-circular bay. The apex is formed by the Kasbah, the ancient fortress of the deys of Algiers, which is 500 feet above the sea level, and com- mands a view of the whole town. The present city is divided into two parts — the Old or High Town and the New or Low Town. The latter differs but little from Euro- pean cities, and consists almost entirely of wharfs, warehouses, government houses, squares, and streets, principally built and in- habited by the French. The streets are regular, spacious, and elegant, the buildings of modern design and construction. The Old Town is almost wholly Moor- ish. The streets are narrow and irregular, and the houses flat- roofed, whitewashed structures crowded together. Algiers is the military and civil headquarters of Algeria, and con- tains the supreme court of justice, chamber and tribunal of com- merce, Library, MuvSeum of Mus- sulman art. College (with courses in law, medicine, pharmacy, sci- ence, and letters'), and a number of mosques. With its excellent climate — mean temperature, 64.3° f. ; Jan- uary, 54.6° F.; August, 78° F.— Algiers has become a favorite winter resort for Europeans, es- pecially those afflicted with chest diseases. The city has two large suburbs, St. Eugene in the north and Mustapha in the south. Mustapha Superieur is the resi- dential quarter for Europeans. Algiers has railway connection with Oran, Constantine, Tunis, and other cities; the port has been greatly improved by the French, and is safe and spacious. With these facilities the city is an important trade centre and coal- ing station, its annual shipping amounting to 7,000,000 tons — chiefly with France. Pop. (1926) 226,218. During the Turkish period Al- giers was the headquarters of piracy and slave dealing. It was bombarded by Duquesne in 1682, by Lord Exmouth in 1816, and captured by the French in 1830. See Algeria. Consult Cook's Practical Guide to Algiers, Algeria, and Tunis. Algin, al'jin, or Alginic Acid, a substance resembling albumin, but not coagulated by heat, is ob- tained from seaweed, chiefly the genera Fucus and Laminaria, as a precipitate after boiling with sodium carbonate and adding hy- drochloric acid. It is used as a dressing for fabrics, and as a thickening for soups and jellies. Algoa Bay, al-go'a, an open bay or roadstead at the eastern extremity of the southern coast of Africa, southeast of Cape Colony, with a sheltered anchorage except toward the southeast. Port Eliz- abeth (q.v.) lies in the southwest angle of the bay, the western horn of which is Cape Recife (q.v.). AFgol, (S Persei,was catalogued by Ptolemy as the Lucida of the Gorgon. It is the model 'eclipse star,' varying in brightness from 2.3 to 3.5 magnitude in a period Algol of 2 days 20 hours 49 minutes, through the interpositions of a re- volving dark satellite. The light changes of Algol, noticed by Montanari in 1669, were method- ically observed and explained by Goodricke in 1783; and his occul- tation hypothesis, discussed by Pickering in 1880, was spectro- scopically verified by Vogel in 1889. An inequality in the time- keeping of the pair, compensated after about 140 years, is attrib- uted by Dr. Chandler to its revo- lution round an obscure primary in an orbit crossed by light in 152 minutes. The opposite devia- tions of the eclipses from their calculated times would, on this supposition, be due to periodical alterations in the distance from the earth of the eclipsed body. M. Tisserand, on the other hand, Algoma 165 Alhambra accounted for the disturbance by the spheroidal shape of both the bright star and its companion — the diameter of the first named fieing about 1,000,000 miles, and the latter 830,000 miles; and their joint mass seems to be just two- thirds that of the sun. Yet Algol must possess far more than the solar luminosity. It gives a heli- um spectrum, and is now purely white. Al-Sufi classed it in the tenth century as a red star. It is approaching the sun at a rate of 1 mile a second. Algo'ma, mining district. Northwest Ontario, Canada, fronting Lakes Huron and Supe- rior. Copper, silver, and nickel abound. It is traversed by the Canadian Pacific Railway along its southern margin. The district is now divided into the provinces of East Algoma — area, 49,115 square miles; pop. (1911) 44,628 — and West Algoma — area, 22,263 square miles; pop. (1911) 28,752. Algoma, city, Kewaunee coun- ty, Wisconsin, on Lake Michigan, and the Ahnapee and Western Railroad; 35 miles east of Green Bay. It was formerly called Ah- napee. Pop. (1900) 1,738; (1910) 2,082. Algo'na, city, Iowa, county seat of Kossuth county, on the Des Moines River, and the Chi- cago and Northwestern, the Chi- cago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul, and the Minneapolis and St. Louis Railroads; 105 miles north- west of Des Moines. Industries are machine shops, foundries, and the manufacture of bricks, tiles, wagons, and creamery supplies. Pop. (1900) 2,911; (1910) 2,908. Algon'kian Sys'tem, in geol- ogy, comprising the earliest of the sedimentary rocks, lies below the Cambrian formation and above the Archaean System (q. v.) . With the latter it is sometimes classi- fied as the pre-Cambrian. TheAl- gonkian consists of slates, quartz- ites, gneisses, and other rocks. This stratum is often scarcely sep- arable from that below it, owing to the degree to which metamorph- ism has proceeded. Near the Great Lakes of North America the Algonkian has been still .further metamorphized through the in- trusion of great masses of igneous rocks, and here occur some of the greatest iron and copper deposits of the world. See Geology. Algonquin, a prehistoric (Ple- istocene) basin in North America, which occupied the area of the present Great Lakes north of Lake Erie. Algon'quins, a name applied originally to a small tribe of American Indians in the province of Quebec; later used to include other tribes speaking the same language; and now used also to indicate one of the main linguistic divisions of the North American Indians. Vol. I.— Mar. '16 The Algonquin tribes at one time extended from Newfound- land to the Rocky Mountains, and from Hudson Bay to the Car- olinas — with the exception of the area occupied by the Iroquois. The Eastern tribes early came into conflict with the European set- tlers on the Atlantic Coast, and after a long struggle were van- quished, and their tribal organi- zation broken up. Some fled to Canada, where they allied them- selves with the French; others retired to the Ohio Valley, where they made a last desperate stand against the encroachments of the white settlers (1780-95). After a decisive defeat by Gen. An- thony Wayne (q. V.) in 1794, they ceded the first land west of the Ohio to the U. S. Government (1795). Subsequent treaties de- prived them of the remainder of the region, and forced them still farther west. In 1910 the remain- ing Indians of Algonquin stock numbered about 82,000, of whom 43,000 were in the United States, and the rest in Canada. Linguistically, the Algonquins fall into four main divisions: the Blackfeet, the Arapahoes, the Cheyennes, and the Eastern-Cen- tral tribes, including Crees, Mon- tagnais, Sauks, Foxes, Kickapoos, Shawnees, Ojibways, Pottawata- mies, Ottawas, Algonquins, Peo- rias, Naticks, Delawares, Mic- macs, Malecites, Passamaquod- dies, Penobscots, and Abenakis. See separate articles on the va- rious tribes. Consult T. Michel- son's 'Classification of Algonquin Tribes' (Twenty-Eighth Annual Report of the American Bureau of Ethnology) ; Hodge's Handbook of American Indians (1907). Al'gorism, or Algorithm, the Arabic system of numbers; a name derived from 'Al-Kharizmi,' the agnomen of Abu Jafar Mo- hammed, a mathematician of the ninth century a.d. Alguazil, al-gwa-thel' (Sp. al- guacil), an inferior officer of jus- tice in Spain, intrusted with the duty of seeing the decision of a judge put into execution. A spe- cial class, called alguaciles may- ores, is in different municipalities either hereditary or elective; while the alguaciles menores are ordinary officers attached to a court of justice. Alhagt, al-ha'ji, Arabic for a ge- nus of trees from which a species of manna (q. v.) exudes. Al- Hakim II., al-ha'kim, suc- ceeded his father Abdur-Rahman III. as calif of Cordova (901-70). During his reign the Moors in Spain were at the height of their power, and Al-Hakim is remem- bered for his encouragement of the arts and sciences. His library is said to have contained 600,000 volumes, afterward partitioned among various colleges and the Academy of Cordova. Al-Hakim Ibn Ot'to (died c. 780), a false prophet who came to Merv, the capital of Khorassan, in 774. He was surnamed Al- Mokanna, 'the Veiled One,' be- cause he always wore a mask in public. Moore made him the subject of his poem, Mokanna, or the Veiled Prophet of Khorassan. Alhama, al-a'ma (Arabic 'bath'), town, province Murcia, Spain; 19 miles southwest of Murcia. The town lies at the foot of a cliff crowned by a Moorish castle. It has famous sulphur springs, fre- quented from ancient times. Pop. 9,000. Alhama (Arabic, Al Ham- mam), town, province Granada, Spain; 22 miles southwest of Granada. It is attractively sit- uated; is a resort for invalids; and has been famed for its medic- inal springs since Roman times. The upper town was damaged by an earthquake in 1884. Pop. 8,000. Alham'bra (Arabic, Kilaat el- Hamara, 'Red Castle'), the pal- ace of the Moorish kings of Granada, was erected between the years 1248 and 1350. TheEmper- or Charles v. (1515-56) destroyed part of it, in order to build a newer palace, and PhiHp v. (1700- 46) further defaced it. In 1812 the French under Sebastiani blew up eight of the towers, and an earthquake in 1821 did seri- ous damage. Its restoration was commenced by Queen Isabella in 1862, but it was again damaged by fire in 1890, and a landslide in September, 1915, caused its sup- porting wall to collapse. Even in its present condition, it is the most characteristic example of Moorish architecture and ornamentation in Spain. The Alhambra stands on a lofty terrace, enclosed by a strong wall of red brick, flanked by thirteen towers. The parts of the palace still standing lie round two rect- angular courts — the Court of the Myrtles or of the Fishpond, and the Court of the Lions; in the centre of the latter being the celebrated Fountain of the Lions, a magnificent alabaster basin sup- ported by twelve lions in white marble. The Court of the Lions is surrounded by arcades resting on white marble pillars. The portieres, halls, and small gar- dens are of great beauty. The characteristic gloomy Moorish exterior gives place in the interior to gorgeous coloring, to the finest carving in stone, to palm-like marble pillars, and to elaborate arabesque scroll work. The other chief buildings are the ruined Alcazaba {i.e., the Citadel), which is entirely sep- arate from the palace proper; the Hall of the Ambassadors, the Hall of the Abencerrages, and the Hall of the Two Sisters, which is connected with the baths. The Alhambra 166 Ali Baba South Kensington Museum con- tains a complete series of mod- els of the Alhambra. See Ara- besque. Consult Washington Irving's Alhambra; Jones' Plans, Elevations, and Details of the Al- hambra; Murphy's Arabian An- tiquities of Spain; Calvert's The Alhambra (1907). Alhambra, city, Los Angeles county, California, on the South- ern Pacific Railroad; 7 miles northeast of Los Angeles city. It contains the mission church of and he is credited with the first suggestion of spectacles. Kepler made considerable use of his writ- ings. Alhondiga de Granaditas, form- erly a fortified storehouse, now the local prison at Guanajuato, Mex- ico, was the scene of the first bat- tle of the revolution against Spain (1810). Here the local govern- ment officials took refuge, and were captured, after a vigorous defence, by Hidalgo y Costilla (q. v.), leader of the insurgents. schism between the Shiites and the vSunnites (qq. v.). He was succeeded, on his assassination, by his son Hassan. Aliaga, a-le-a'ga, pueblo, Nue- va Ecija province, Luzon, Philip- pines; 15 miles north of San Isi- dro. Five important roads con- verge here. Pop. 13,000. A'lias, in common usage, that part of an indictment describing a prisoner who goes under one or more feigned names, from the Latin words formerly UvSed in the ^^^^ Alhambra. — The Famous Court of the Lions. The main court of ihc Alhambra takes its name from the twelve lions that surround the fountain in its centre. The basin of the fountain is of alabaster, and the lions are of white marble. The Court of the Lions is 116 by 66 feet, and is surrounded by arcades resting on white marble pillars. San Gabriel (founded 1771). The city is a residential place. Pop. (1900) 808; (1910) 5,021. Alhaurin el Grande, al-ow- ren' el griin'da, town, Andalusia, Spain; 14 miles southwest of Malaga. It has sulphur baths. There are ruins of Arab fortifica- tions and of a Roman aqueduct. Pop. 8,000. Al-Hazan, al-ha'zen, or Al- HAZEN (905-1039), Arab astron- omer and optician, was a native of Bassora, but afterward settled in Cairo. He wrote a treatise on optics, which was translated into Latin, and published at Basel in 1572, under the title Oplicce The- saurus. His account of the power of lenses is the earliest known, Vol. I.— Mar. '16 Alhuccmas, al-oo-tha'mas, a small island belonging to Spain, ^ in the Mediterranean Sea, 5 miles' southeast of Cape Morro, on the Moroccan coast; lat. 35° 15' N., long. 3° 54' w. It is fortified and contains a prison. Ali, ii'le (d. 661), cousin and son-in-law of Mohammed, was the first to believe in the mission of the Prophet, whom he served as an intrepid soldier and able vicegerent. He married Fati- ma, Mohammed's daughter, and became the fourth calif (q. v.), succeeding Othman (656). His succession was bitterly opposed by Ayeshah, the young widow of Mohammed, and her follow- ers, and was the occasion of the indictment, alias dictus ('other- wise called'). All Baba, a'le ba'ba, the hero of the story of 'Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves' in the Arabian Nights Entertainments (q. v.). A poor woodcutter, hiding in a tree from a band of robbers, he over- hears the magic formula, 'Open, Sesame!' which opens the door of their cave. In the absence of the robbers he repeats the words, en- ters the cave, loads his asses with treasure, and returns home. His brother Cassim, learning of his good fortune, makes a similar venture. He gains admission to the cave ; but, forgetting the magic spell, is discovered and killed by the thieves. Learning that Ali ONE OF THE TOWER GATEWAYS OF THE ALHAMBRA. La Puerta Judiciaria, or 'The Gate of the Law,' Built in 1348. Vol. L— Mar. '16 Vol. L— at Page 166 AU Bey 166 A Allen Baba knows their secret, they at- tempt to destroy him also, but are outwitted and themselves slain by Morgiana, a slave in Ali Baba's household. Ali Bey, a'le ba (1728-73), a freed Caucasian slave in Egypt, who gained a large following among the Mamelukes (q.v.). Having destroyed his rivals, he assumed the title of sultan and renounced the suzerainty of the Porte (1768). He reduced Syria and the west of Arabia to his rule; but he was defeated and wounded in battle near Cairo, and died shortly afterward (April, 1773). Al'ibi (Latin 'elsewhere'), a defence resorted to in criminal prosecutions when the accused tenders evidence that he was else- where at the time the offence was committed. Alicante, a-li-kan'ta, province. Southeastern Spain, part of the ancient kingdom of Valencia, area, 2,185 square miles. It is one of the most fertile districts of Spain, producing esparto grass, rice, sugar cane, and fruits. The wine of Alicante is highly es- teemed. Lead is mined. Pop. (est. 1926) 529,934. Alicante, capital and chief city of Alicante province, Spain, on a small bay of the Mediterranean. It lies partly on the side of a hill, which is crowned by the Castle of Santa Barbara. The lower part of the city is modern and well built, and has fine squares, public gardens, and promenades. Among the notable buildings are the Bishop's Palace, two nun- neries, a number of churches, and the City Library and Picture Gallery. The streets of the upper section are narrow and crowded. Alicante is strongly fortified, and has an excellent harbor, pro- tected by two moles. It ranks third among the seaports of Spain, with export trade in wines, raisins, tropical fruits, vegetables, oil, licorice, and esparto grass. It has large tobacco manufac- tures. The climate is hot in sum- mer and mild in winter, and the city has become a popular resort for invalids. Alicante was the Roman Lu- cenlum. In 718 it was occupied by the Moors, who were expelled in 1304. It suffered a siege by the French in 1709, and by the Federalists of Cartagena in 1873. Pop. (est. 1926) 67,775. Alicata, a'le-ka'ta. See Li- CATA. Al'ice, city, Texas, county seat of Jim Wells County, on San Fer- nando Creek, and the Southern Pacific and the Texas Mexican Railroads; 40 miles west of Cor- pus Christi. It has cotton gins and bottling works. Pop. (1910) 2,136; (1920) 1,880. Alice Maude Mary, Princess (1843-78). grand duchess of Hesse-Darmstadt, the third child of Queen Victoria (q.v.). In 1862 she married Prince Louis of Hesse. She took a great interest in art, literature, and philan- thropy and was much beloved by the English people. Alicudi, a-li-koo'de, or Ali- CURI (ancient Ericusa), the most westerly of the Lipari Islands (q.v.). Aliculuf, ii'le-koo-loof, or Ali- KULUF, a South American tribe, inhabiting the central part of Ti- erra del Fuego. They are of rude and primitive habits, but they have considerable ingenuity in making various weapons and utensils used in hunting and fish- ing. Alien, al'y^n, a person resident in a country to which he does not owe allegiance (q.v.) as a subject or citizen. Aliens were formerly subject to many legal disabilities, but the tendency of modern times is to place them on the same foot- ing as citizens of the state in which they are domiciled, except in the exercise of political rights. The status of the alien is usu- ally fixed by treaties and inter- national custom and by the law of the land in which he is a resi- dent. In the United States, his standing is regulated by statutes of the various States, subject to treaties of the Federal Govern- ment with foreign powers. In Great Britain his status is laid down by the Nationality and Sta- tus of Aliens Act of 1914. Practically all civilized nations grant the right of residence and travel to unobjectionable for- eigners, and accord to them a wide range of public and private rights. In no case, however, is a country bound to extend its hospitality to an alien, and he may at any time be deported or refused admission, the grounds for his exclusion or deportation being regulated by the public in- terests of the nation concerned. When an alien is deported, the state to which he belongs is bound to receive him. The public rights usually grant- ed to aliens include: individual liberty; security of person and property; liberty of conscience and worship; freedom of the press, within certain limits; free- dom of association and assembly, though this may be denied if for political purposes; liberty to car- ry on commerce and trade, with certain exceptions; instruction in the public schools. The private rights of aliens include, as a rule, the ownership of real property, but this is denied in some States of the United States. The right to the ownership and disposal of personal property is practically never denied; and rights in indus- trial and literary property are protected by international trea- ties or conventions (see Patent; Trade Marks). Aliens may not, as a rule, ex- ercise the franchise, occupy pub- lic office, or practise professions requiring an oath of allegiance, such as that of judge or attorney- at-law; and in some States of the United States their employ- ment on public works is restrict- ed. They are not usually subject to military duty, or to extraor- dinary taxes and military bur- dens. They owe local allegiance to the country wherein they re- side, are liable to ordinary taxa- tion, and are fully subject to the jurisdiction of the civil and crimi- nal courts. An alien becomes a citizen or subject by Naturaliza- tion (see Naturalization). Alien Enemies. — When a state of war exists between the country in which an alien resides and that to which he owes allegiance, he becomes an alien enemy, and his rights and privileges are greatly restricted, though, generally speaking, he is allowed to remain in the country as long as he con- ducts himself as a friend. Following the entrance of the United States into the Great World War in April, 1917, meas- ures were taken by the Federal Government to regulate the ac- tivities of alien enemies within its jurisdiction. By presidential proc- lamation of April 6, alien ene- mies were forbidden to have in their possession any firearms, ammunition, explosives, wireless apparatus or parts thereof; to approach within one-half mile of any fort, camp, arsenal, aircraft station, naval vessel, navy yard, or munitions factory; to write, print, or publish any attack upon the Government of the United States, Congress, or any person in the service of the United States, or upon any measure of the Gov- ernment; to abet any hostile acts against the United States, or to give its enemies information, aid or comfort, or to leave or enter the United States except under restrictions to be prescribed by the President. A supplementary proclamation of Nov. 16, 1917, set forth in detail further restric- tions among which it was re- quired of them that they be regis- tered, that they report at certain intervals to specified authorities, and that they obtain Government consent to travel or change their occupations. During the week of February 4, 1918, the registra- tion of unnaturalized German men in the United States was carried on under the supervision of the Department of Justice, the penalty for wilful disobedience of regulations being internment for the period of the war. On April 19, 1918, following an Act of Congress extending the President's authority in the case of aliens resident in the United States, the President issued a proclamation relating to 'all na- VOL. I. — March '29 Alien 166 B Alien .tives, citizens, denizens, or sub- jects, of Germany or Austria- Hungary, of the age of fourteen years and upwards,' making women, as well as men, subject to the regulations of the proclama- tion of November, 1917. Regis- tration of women enemy aliens took place during the week of June 10, 1918. With respect to both men and women it was re- quired that they should preserve the peace towards the United States, refrain from crime against the public safety, from actual hos- tility, and from giving informa- tion, aid, or comfort to the enemies of the United States; and that they should comply with all regulations promulgated by the President. As long as they so conducted themselves, 'they should be undisturbed in the peaceful pursuit of their lives and occupations, and should be ac- corded the consideration due to all peaceful and law-abiding per- sons, except in so far as restric- tions might be necessary for their own protection and for the safety of the United States.' Any German or Austrian sub- jects, however, not conducting themselves as prescribed, were- li- able in addition to all other pen- alties under the law, to restraint, or to give security, or. to remove and depart from the United States as prescribed in the Re- vised Statutes and in regulations, promulgated by the President. No alien (enemy alien or other) in the United States could be- come naturalized while the war continued, even though he had taken out first papers in this country, or though he had be- come partially or completely naturalized in some country other than the United States. Internment of Enemy Aliens. — Undesirable aliens might be in- terned for the period of the war. These included prisoners of war — including members of the enemy military and naval forces, and officers and seamen of enemy merchant vessels — and civilians suspected or found guilty of se- ditious activities, as interference with the military preparations of the Government or the circula- tion of pro-German propaganda. The treatment of such prisoners was governed by the terms of the Hague agreement. They might not be compelled to work at any- thing contributing to the Gov- ernment's military activities; they were permitted to communi- cate with their friends; and if they worked they were paid wages as officers and soldiers of the same grade. There were three principal in- ternment camps located at Hot Springs, N. C., and at F'orts Mc- Pherson and Oglethorpe, Ga. The first of these was a large hotel taken over by the Government, while the others were similar to the cantonments (q.v.) occupied by the U. S. troops in training. The prisoners were allowed con- siderable liberty in developing their own mode of life and were provided with everything re- quired for their general comfort and amusement. Up to August, 1918, between 3,500 and 4,000 enemy aliens had been interned in the United States. Alien Property. — In order to prevent the property of alien ene- mies from being used in the ser- vice of the enemy or in any way detrimental to the best interests of the United States, the Trading with the Enemy Act (q.v.), approved Oct. 6, 1917, provided for the appointment of an Alien Property Custodian with power to receive all money and property in the United States due or be- longing to any enemy or ally of the enemy, as defined by the act, and 'to hold, administer, and ac- count for the same under the general direction of the President. Under subsequent proclama- tions the authority of the Cus- todian was defined as applied to the property of all interned or imprisoned subjects of enemy nations, whether interned or im- prisoned by the United States or its allies; to the property in the United States of persons resi- dent within enemy or ally of enemy countries, or in territory occupied by the military or naval forces of enemy or ally of enemy nations; to the property of per- sons resident outside the United States and doing business with- in enemy or ally of enemy ter- ritory; to the property of officials and agents of enemy and ally of enemy nations; to the property of wives of officers, officials, or agents of enemy nations, wives of persons resident within the territory of Germany or Austria- Hungary, and wives of persons resident outside the United States and doing business within enemy territory; to the property of per- sons who after April 6, 1917, disseminated propaganda calcu- lated to aid any nation at war with the United States or to in- jure the cause of the United States, or its allies, or who assist- ed in plotting or intrigue against the United States or any of its allies; to the property of persons and firms included in the Enemy Trading List, and of persons who at any time after Aug. 4, 1914, were resident within enemy ter- ritory; and to the property of corporations incorporated in en- emy or ally of enemy territory or incorporated outside the Unit- ed States, and doing business in such country. Under the terms of the Act and supplementary proclamations and orders, all persons holding enemy property, or any interest therein, were required to report such fact to the Custodian, and the penalties for failure to re- port were severe. In certain cases licenses might be granted permit- ting enemy property to be re- tained or enemy business to be carried on, but all such licenses were subject to an accounting with the Custodian. For all property which came into his hands the Custodian had all the powers of a Common Law trustee except in the case of money, which was deposited with the Secretary of the Treasury and invested by the latter in Government bonds or certificates of indebtedness. All property other than money was deposited with banks and trust companies as depositaries for the Alien Property Custodian. Ordinary investments of the small enemy investor might be held during the war, and disposed of after the war in such manner as Congress might direct; but business enter- prises in which there was a sub- stantial enemy ownership, and which were outposts of German and Austrian industrial and com- mercial aggression in the United States, might be sold to American citizens at public sale unless the President for good cause should determine otherwise. The pro- ceeds of property or rights thus sold must be deposited in the United States Treasury, and the money might be invested and re- invested by the Secretary of the Treasury in United States bonds or in United States certificates of indebtedness. To the end of July, 1918, over 25,000 reports of enemy property had been received containing 22,- 500 trusts; 13,000 active trust accounts had been opened on the books of the Custodian; and $430,000,000 in money and prop- erty had been taken over by the Custodian. Among the properties thus taken over were: six large Ger- man-owned New Jersey woollen mills of more than $70,000,000 total valuation; a large cement company in New York State, en- tirely enemy-owned, with a capi- tal stock of $2,400,000; a group of corporations in Hawaii with as- sets of more than $15,000,000; a large lumber company in Florida, with a total value of $3,000,000, the president of which was in- terned for the period of the war; a New York corporation engaged in the operation of sugar planta- tions in Porto Rico, with capaal stock of par value of $.500,000; a number of large cotton corpora- tions, with holdings valued at more than $5,000,000; and two great metal corporations, one of which was said to have a business of some $70,000,000 a year. Alien property in patents was also governed by the Trading Vol. I. — March '29 Alien and Sedition Acts 167 Alimentary Canal with the Enemy Act. By its terms any American citizen or corporation might make applica- tion to the President of the United States for a, license to use a 'patented invention, trade mark, print, label, or copyrighted matter' owned by an enemy (or ally of enemy) , and the President had authority to grant such license (exclusive or non-exclu- sive) if he deemed that the re- quest was a bona fide one and that the granting of a license would be conducive to the public welfare. When the war ended and until one year thereafter, the original owner might file a bill in equity against the licensee for recovery from the license, 'for all use and enjoyment,' of the pat- ent, copyright, or other such property. It was estimated that these regulations affected some 20,000 patents, many of them of great importance to American in- dustry. In March, 1928, Presi- dent Coolidge signed the bill in- troduced into Congress to restore German property seized during the War. The bill authorized the expenditure of not more than $100,000,000 for this purpose. See Allegiance; Citizen; Extradition; Immigration; Naturalization. Consult E. M. Borchard's The Diplomatic Pro- tection of Citizens Abroad (1915). Alien and Sedi'tion Acts, four acts passed by the U. S. Con- gress and signed by President John Adams in June and July, 1798. (1) The first of these, the Naturalization Act of June 18, 1798, raised the period of resi- dence in the United States from five to fourteen years in the case of alien immigrants seeking citi- zenship. This act was repealed in 1802. (2) The Alien Act of June 2.5, 1798, empowered the President to order out of the country all such aliens as he should judge dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States; to remove forcibly any aliens who might disregard his order, or to cause their imprison- ment. This act expired in 1804. (3) The Alien Enemies Act of July 6, 1798, empowered the President, in case of war, to re- move or detain as alien enemies all male subjects of a hostile na- tion. This act is still substan- tially in force. (4) The Sedition Act of July 14, 1798, provided for the punishment by fine and im- prisonment of any persons con- spiring against any measure of the government of the United States, impeding the operation of any U. S. law, or uttering any malicious statement against U. S. officials. This act expired in 1801. The Alien and Sedition Acts were passed at a time when war with France seemed imminent, and when the Federalist admin- istration was being denounced in the Republican press. Though President Adams did little to en- force these acts, they were at- tacked with great bitterness by the Republicans. They, led to the passage of the Virginia Reso- lutions (q.v.) and Kentucky Resolutions (q.v.) ; and hastened the downfall of the Federalist Party (q.v.). See United States, History. Aliena'tion, in law, a transfer of the title to property from one person to another, by convey- ance, and not by inheritance. The transfer may be voluntary, as by conveyance or devise, or involuntary, as by bankruptcy, execution, or other creditor's process. The right of free aliena- tion of freehold lands was first secured to the English landowner by the statute Quia Emptores (1290). It has always formed a part of the American law of real property, restrained only in case of persons under legal disability. See Real Property. Alienation of Affections, the act of making one of a married couple averse to the love and affection of the other. In the case of such estrangement by a third party, the following points have been established at law. A husband is entitled to compen- sation for the enticing away of his wife, even if they had not lived happily together, that fact con- stituting no defence, although the damages collected may sometimes be less if such is the case. It has been claimed, however, that a woman has no right, either at common law or under the stat- utes that grant her the right to sue, to take action against one who entices her husband away from her. The defendant's rank and condition may not be con- sidered in the assessment of damages, and it has been held that evidence as to the financial condition of the defendant is not permissible, although in certain cases such evidence has been said to be admissible in order that the extent of injury might be shown the more clearly. See Husband AND Wife. Alien Immigra'tion. See Im- migration; Chinese Immigra- tion; Japanese Question; Con- tract Labor. Alien Property. See Alien. Alif, the first letter of the Ara- bic alphabet and of the word Allah, is used by Mohammedans as a symbol of the one God or of the unity of the Godhead, and is set as a monogram at the head of letters and other writings. Aligarh, a-li-gur', or Alighur, district, Meerut division, United Provinces, India, between the Ganges and the Jumna. Pop. (1921) 1,061,745. Aligarh, or Alighur, town, India, capital of Aligarh district; 47 miles north of Agra. It ad- joins the town of Koil, which has a fort captured by Lord Lake in 1803. Here is a Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental college, affiliated with the University of Allaha- bad. Pop., including Koil (1921), 66,963. Align'ment, in general, im- plies arrangement in or adjust- ment to a straight line. In mili- tary tactics it is applied to the formation of troops or of a camp; in typography, to the placing of types in such a way that their impressions shall be exactly in line; in archaeology, to the ar- rangement of menhirs or mono- liths in rows. In engineering, alignment denotes the ground plan of a railroad, fort, or field work, as distinguished from the gradient (q.v.). Alikhanoff, a-li-Ka'nof, Gen- eral (1846-1907), Russian sol- dier, whose real name was ALi Khan Avaski, was born in Baku. He was educated in Tifiis and entered the Russian army as cor- net in 1862, was promoted to the rank of major (1873), and became aide-de-camp to the Grand Duke Michael, viceroy of the Caucasus. After being reduced to the ranks because of a quarrel with a supe- rior oiificer (1877), he served as a private in the Turkoman cam- paign (1879), and in 1882 was pro- moted to lieutenant. He gained the submission of the Turkoman chiefs, and was made first gov- ernor of the new territory. In 1901 he was made major general. His severe treatment of the Ar- menians is believed to have been the cause of his assassination in 1907 at Alexandropol. Alikuluf. See Aliculuf. All ma, a-le'ma (Kunja), river, French Congo, Africa; rises near the source of the Ogowe, and flows northeast, east, and south- east for 400 miles to join the Congo, 220 miles northeast of Brazzaville. Its course was first traced by Balloy in 1878. Al'imentary Canal, or Ali- mentary Tract, the principal part of the digestive apparatus, extends from the mouth to the anus, having, in man, an average length of about thirty feet. It consists of certain distinct and important divisions, as follows: mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine; the entire passage being lined with a mucous mem- brane, on a foundation layer of muscles and fibres. In verte- brates, the canal is never in the form of a straight and sim.ple tube, but always has its regional differentiations, each region, or division, having its particular physiological function, mechani- cal or chemical, and differing from the others, also, in size and shape. Some of the parts are long, narrow tubes, and others are short sacs, but in some in- VoL. I. — March '29 Ali Mirza 167 A AUscans stances different regions blend into one another with very httle in the way of boundaries to mark them. The whole digestive sj^s- tem, except for a few auxiUary organs (teeth, tongue, jaws, etc.), develops from a simple embryonic tube, by means of a process of lengthening, enlargement, fold- ing, etc. From the upper or for- ward part of the canal, in the embryo, develops the respiratory system, closely related to the digestive system. The mouth, containing the teeth and the salivary glands, is partially separated from the pharynx, in mammals, by the soft palate. Next below the pharynx comes the oesophagus, formed by a narrowing of the alimentary passage. Through this the food is carried by means of the contraction (peristalsis) of the muscles forming the walls. The length of this tube, or pas- sage, varies in different animals with the length of the neck, two extremes being represented by the frog and the heron. The oesophagus, in turn, opens out into the large pear-shaped pouch called the stomach, the longi- tudinal axis of which is across the body. The right - (pyloric) end of this organ narrows down to lead into the duodenum which is the first or proximal portion of the small intestine, and the left (cardiac) end is a blind wall. In the embryo the pylorus, or re- striction, forms a closed valve, so that the stomach, at that stage, is a sac with no opening into the intestine. As the em- bryo develops, however, this re- striction disappears and the py- loric opening takes its place. Just below the cardiac opening (from the stomach into the oesophagus) the stomach has a large lateral bulge (fundus), and at about the middle the organ begins to taper toward the pyloric end. The stomach is concave at the top and convex at the bottom, the greater curvature being along the bottom edge. A parietal layer of peri- toneum, or thick mucous mem- brane, lines this organ. Below the pylorus comes the intestine — often specified as the small and the large intestine. The small intestine is some 22 feet long, and arranged in folds, or layers, one on another. Subdivisions of the small intestine are marked by the entrance of the pancreatic and bile ducts into the duodenum, that part of the intestine imme- diately below the pylorus. The large intestine, which is a con- tinuation of the small intestine, is in the form of an inverted letter 'U,' enclosing the small intestine. From the right side of this loop depends the coecum, an intestinal divcrticulation, which narrows down into the appendix in man. The left side of the loop leads Vol. I. — March '29 into the rectum. The right, top, and left of the large intestine are known respectively as ascending colon, transverse colon, and descending colon. See Diges- tion; Mouth; CEsophagus; Stomach; Intestines. Ali Mirza, Mohammed, a'le mer'za, mo-ham'ed (1872- ), shah of Persia, son of Muzaffar- u'ddin, was educated in Europe. He was governor-general of Azer- baijan until he succeeded his father on the throne in 1907. He confirmed the grant of a constitu- tion made by his father, but later undertook to set it aside, an at- tempt which led to a popular up- rising. In July, 1909, he was deposed by the new Nationalist Assembly, which chose his eleven- year-old son, Ahmed Mirza (q.v.), to be his successor. Ali Mirza fled to Russia, where he sought support to regain the throne. In July, 1911, with a band of Cossacks, he landed in Persia, but his forces were de- feated and he was obliged to re- turn to Russia. (See Persia, History.) Al'imony, in the law of the United States and England, is the allowance which a wife is entitled to receive out of the estate of her husband during divorce proceed- ings, or upon a judicial decree *of separation or divorce. The grant- ing of alimony to the husband out of the wife's estate is also allow- able, but instances of it are rare. The obligation is created by order of the court, usually as an inci- dent of the proceedings for di- vorce. Alimony for the mainte- nance and support of the wife during the divorce suit, known as alimony pendente lite, is usually awarded in a lump sum; and in addition, an allowance is gener- ally made to meet expenses rea- sonably incurred by the wife dur- ing the course of the trial, in cases in which she is unable to conduct the litigation without such aid. Permanent alimony is the allow- ance made to the wife when the decree is in her favor, and is usu- ally granted as an annuity or se- ries of payments to be made at regular intervals indefinitely. There is no rule as to the amount of alimony which may be awarded. As much as one-third or one-half of the defendant's an- nual income may thus be appro- priated to the plaintiff's estate. The payment of alimony may be enforced by contempt proceed- ings and imprisonment. In some States the decree of alimony may be declared a lien upon real es- tate, or a mortgage upon real estate may be required as se- curity. Alimony terminates with the death of either party. Remar- riage on the part of the wife does not of itself release the husband from payment, though he may in such case apply to the court for an order vacating the original decree. In England permanent alimony is due not after divorce, but when the parties are judi- cially separated. See Divorce. Ali Pasha, a'le pasha' (1741- 1822), Turkish leader surnamed Arslan, 'the Lion,' was born in Tepeleni, a village of Albania. In his youth he suffered great hardships and was forced to be- take himself to the mountains, but it is said that he accidentally discovered a chest of gold, with which he raised an army of 2,000 men, and entered Tepeleni in triumph. He reconciled him- self to the Porte by helping to subdue the rebellious Vizier of Scutari. Appointed lieutenant to the Derwend Pasha, an officer charged with the suppression of brigandage, he rendered the high- roads more insecure than ever, sharing in the plunder of the klephls (robbers). The result was his temporary deposition by the Porte; but he speedily bought back its favor. Shortly after this, he did such good ser- vice to the Turks in their Austro- Russian war of 1787, that he was named pasha of Trikala in Thes- saly. In 1797 he entered into a brief alliance with Napoleon. After a three years' war, he subdued the Suliots, for which the Porte pro- moted him to be governor of Rumili. From 1807, when he once more formed an alliance with Napoleon, All's dependence on the Porte was merely nominal. Having failed, however, at the peace of Tilsit, to obtain Parga, on the coast of Albania, and the Ionian Islands, he entered into an alliance with the English. As he now deemed his power securely established, he caused the com- manders of the Greek Armatoles (or militia), who had hitherto aided him, to be assassinated. The Porte resolved at length to end the power of this daring rebel; and in 1820, Sultan Mahmoud sentenced him to be deposed. He was put to death, February 5, 1822. Consult Da- venport's Life. Aliquippa, borough, Pennsyl- vania, in Beaver County, on the Aliquippa and Southern and the Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Rail- roads; 20 miles northwest of Pittsburgh. Pop. (1920) 2,931. Al'iquot Part, a number which divides another exactly without remainder. Thus IV2. 2, 3, 4, 6 are aliquot parts of 12, being contained therein respec- tively 8, 6, 4, 3 and 2 times. Aliscans, a-los-kiin', or Ales- chans, a twelfth-century chanson de geste of the Carlovingian cycle. It deals with the battles of Guil- laume au Court Ncz against the Saracens and their emir Abde- rame (Abdur- Rahman). Alison 167 B Alkali Manufacture Arisen, Sir Archibald (1792- 1867), British lawyer and histo- rian, was born at Kenley, Shrop- shire, and in 1814 was called to the Scottish bar. In 1822 he be- came advocate-depute, and in 1834 sheriff of Lanarkshire, which post he held until his death. His History of Europe from the Com- mencement of the French Revolu- tion to the Restoration of the Bour- bons (14 vols., 1833-42) passed through numerous editions, and was translated into several lan- guages. He wrote a continuation under the title, The History of Eu- rope from the Fall of Napoleon to the Accession of Louis Napoleon (9 vols., 1852-59) ; also Principles of the Criminal Law of Scotland (2 vols., 1832-33) ; The Principles of Population; Free Trade and Protection; England in 1815 and 1845; Lives of Marlborough, Cas- tlereagh, and Sir Charles Stewart. Consult his Autobiography. Alison, Sir Archibald (1826- 1907), British soldier, the son of Sir A. Alison (q. v.), was born in Edinburgh. He served in the Crimean War; in the Indian mu- tiny as military secretary to Sir Colin Campbell, losing his left arm at the relief of Lucknow; commanded the European Bri- gade in the Ashanti expedition (1873-4); was in command 'at Alexandria (1882) during the bombardment, before Wolseley's arrival; led the Highland Brigade at Tell-el-Kebir (1882); com- mander-in-chief in Egypt (1882) ; commanded the Aldershot Divi- sion (1883-9) ; and was adjutant- general (1888). Aliwal, al-e-wal', village, Pun- jab, India, on the left bank of the Sutlej; 9 miles west of Ludhiana. It was the scene of the great bat- tle of the first Sikh war, in which Ranjit Singh was defeated by Sir Harry Smith (Jan. 28, 1846). Aliwal North, capital of the district of same name. Cape Col- ony, South Africa, on the Orange River; 160 miles northwest of East London, with which it has rail connection. Nearby are the Aliwal sulphur springs. Pop. 5,600 (1,800 whites). Aliwal South. See Mossel Bay. Alizarin, a-liz'a-rin, or Dioxy- anthraquinone, Ci4H602(OH)2, is the principal coloring matter of the madder root, but is now al- most entirely prepared synthet- ically by the following series of reactions: Anthracene (q. v.) from coal tar is first oxidized to an- thraquinone, which, after purifi- cation, is converted by fuming sulphuric acid into sulphonic acids. The latter are neutralized by vsodium carbonate, and then heated under pressure with sodi- um hydroxide and sodium chlo- rate, alizarin being precipitated from the product by hydrochloric acid. Vol. I.— Mar. '16 Alizarin is a red crystalline solid, which owes its dyeing value to its power of forming 'lakes' with metallic hydroxides of vari- ous and permanent colors, ac- cording to the metal employed. The hydroxides in question, or mordants (q. v.), are prepared in the fibres of the material to be dyed from appropriate salts, which are of aluminum for red (Turkey red), iron for purple, violet, or black. Chromium mor- dants a dull purple, and with tin chloride a bright yellowish or- ange. The artificial alizarin is the basis of an extensive series of brilliant colors that are used in dyeing, including alizarin black, blue, green, maroon, orange, red, etc. See Dyeing. Al'kahest, or Alcahest, the universal solvent of the alchem- ists. See Alchemy. Al'kalies. The term Alkali (Arabian) was originally applied to the soluble salt obtained from the ashes of a sea plant {Kali or saltwort), but was afterward ex- tended to include a class of sub- stances having similar properties. When sodium carbonate (soda) was made by Duhamel, in 1736, from common salt, it was named 'mineral alkali'; and the potas- sium carbonate (potash) made from plant ashes 'vegetable al- kali.' The term alkali is now chiefly applied to the hydroxides of the 'alkali metals' — i.e., sodium, po- tassium, and the rarer elements Hthium, rubidium and caesium, and the radical ammonium; but the carbonates of these elements, as well as ammonia and the com- pound ammonias, or amines, are included. The hydroxides are deliquescent, and very soluble in water. The solutions neutralize acids, forming salts in which the peculiar properties of both acid and alkali are generally destroyed ; act corrosively on animal and vegetable substances {i.e., are caustic and poisonous) ; and change the tint of vegetable col- oring matters, or are said to have an alkaline reaction. Exposed to the air they absorb carbon diox- ide, forming carbonates. Bari- um, calcium, magnesium, and strontium, which are known as the metals of the alkaline earths, form a group of substances close- ly allied to the alkalies. (See Alkali Manufacture.) Alk.aliQS in Medicine. — In solu- tion, alkalies are used externally as rubefacients, and as caustics in their undiluted form. Dilute solutions of potassium and sodi- um carbonate relieve itching in skin diseases; caustic potash de- stroys warts and corns; ammonia relieves the pain of stings by bees, ants, and mosquitoes, by neutral- izing the anirnal acid. Internal- ly, ammonia is inhaled to relieve headache, as a restorative in shock, and, taken in solution, aids expectoration in bronchitis. Al- kalies taken before meals stimu- late the secretion of gastric juire; taken after meals, they act as antacids. They are given to in- crease the alkalinity of the blood and to diminish the acidity of urine, with the object of prevent- ing' or removing acid deposits in the joints and urinary system. The symptoms of Poisoning by alkalies are generally like those of acids, but the vomit is alkaline, and there is no characteristic stain on the clothes. Ammonia acts locally like caustic potash or caustic soda, but may cause suffocation by its pungent va- pors. The treatment in cases of poisoning by alkalies is to give diluted vinegar, lemon juice in water, or any other highly diluted acid drink, in small, frequent doses; and later, when the alkali is neutralized, milk, olive oil, and demulcent drinks. In the case of ammonia, special attention must be paid to relieving the respira- tory symptoms, as by placing the patient in a tent the air of which is rendered moist by steam. The stomach tube must not be used. Alkali Lands. See Alkali Soils. Alkali Manufac'ture. The principal alkali is Sodium Carbo- nate (see Sodium), and the his- tory of its manufacture from com- mon salt is in itself an account of the rise and progress of chemical manufacture; for this industry is closely involved with that of sul- phuric and hydrochloric acid, of chlorine and bleaching powder — all being essentially connected. The increased production and the lowering in price of sulphuric acid led to its general use, and to the rapid growth of other industries, notably the manufacture of alum, and of calcium superphosphate for fertilizers. Cheap alkali made soap and glass cheap; and the economical production of bleach- ing powder, a by-product of the soda industry, encouraged the cotton and linen industries and the production of paper, in which it is largely used as a decolorizer and purifier. Sodium carbonate is manufactured in the United States by four processes: the Le- blanc or Black Ash, the Solvay or Ammonia Soda, the CryoHte (only to a slight extent), and the Electrolytic. Leblanc Process. — The older, or Leblanc, process of manu- facture is divided into three stages: 1. The preparation of salt cake, in which sulphuric acid is heated in iron pots with com- mon salt. Hydrochloric acid is evolved, and collected in 'scrub- bers,' or condensing towers, in which a descending stream of wa- ter absorbs the ascending gas. The mixture is then heated more strongly in a reverberatory fur- Alkali Manufacture 168 Alkali Manufacture nace, from which the product, salt cake, containing 95 to 98 per cent, of sodium sulphate, is with- drawn. 2. The preparation of black ash, in which chalk or lime- stone (30 cwt.), slack or powdered coal (20 cwt.), and salt cake (30 cwt.) are mixed and introduced into a large revolving iron cylin- der. The cylinder is heated by a furnace, or by a Siemens gas pro- ducer; the mass fuses, and then is emptied into iron trucks. In the- ory the reactions taking place are simple; but owing to impurities in the materials, many by-products are obtained, and black ash is a very complex mixture, containing 1 Solvay Tower^ The Solvay Tower used in the Ammonia- Soda Process is built up of cast-iron cylin- ders (from 15 to 2.5), each 6 feet 8 inches in diameter, arid 3 feet .3 inches high. The bottom of each cylinder has a central open- ing 1 foot 4 inches in diameter, over which is placed a concave perforated plate supported on light stays. Brine saturated with am- monia is forced in at a; lime-kiln gas enters at h, and as it ascends through the various stages of the tower is brought into contact with all parts of the descending stream of brine. The liquid, now full of crystals of sodium bicarbonate, is drawn off at c. sodium carbonate, soluble in wa- ter, and calcium sulphide, which is insoluble. 3. The Uxivialion of the black ash, or solution of the sodium carbonate, which is ef- VOL. I —Mar. '16 fected in vats, fresh water being used to wash the nearly exhaust- ed ash, afterward passing on to fresh ash; in this way all the sodium carbonate is extracted with a minimum quantity of water, and a strong liquor is ob- tained. The tank liquor is boiled down to obtain sodium carbonate, which is sold in three strengths — (1) vsoda crystals or washing soda (Na2CO3.10H2O), containing 37 per cent, of sodium carbonate, equal to 21.6 per cent, of real al- kali (Na20); (2) 48 per cent, al- kali, crystal carbonate, or refined soda ash, containing about 80 to 85 per cent, of vSodium carbonate; (3) alkali or soda ash — 99 per cent, of carbonate and 58 per cent, of real alkali (Na20). The first two are preferred for scour- ing wool and for domestic use; but the 58-per-ccnt. alkali has now largely superseded them for all other purposes. Caustic soda (NaOH) is pre- pared from the tank liquor by boiling it with slaked lime. Tank liquor which is to be 'causticized' is freed from sulphide by blowing air through it, and then diluting it to a sp. gr. 1.10. After boiling with the lime, the liquor is filtered from the chalk sludge and evap- orated. Finally, the hot caustic Salt-Cake Furnace. (a) Iron vessel containing sulphuric acid and common salt; (6) condensing tower to collect the hydrochloric acid gases; (c) balling hearth of the reverberatory furnace. Black- Ash Furnace. id) Revolving cylinder containing chalk or limestone, slack or powdered coal, and salt cake; (e) fireplace. Alkali Manufacture. — Leblanc Process. Alkali Manufacture 169 Alkali Soils liquor is ladled into iron drums, in which it solidifies, and is dis- tributed. Caustic soda is sold as 60 per cent., 70 per cent., and 77 per cent, of real soda (Na20), re- spectively equivalent to 80, 90, and 99.5 per cent, of sodium hy- droxide (caustic soda) (NaOH). SoLVAY Process. — In this process water is first saturated with common salt and then with ammonia; the resulting ammoni- acal brine is filtered, cooled, and pumped into tall iron cylinders, divided into a number of com- partments by perforated hori- zontal shelves. Up this tower a stream of carbon dioxide is forced, bubbling through the liquid in numerous streams through the holes in the shelves, with the result that it is absorbed, and sodium hydrogen carbonate formed, NaCl + NHs + H2O + CO2 = NaHCOa + NH4CI. The and sodium aluminate form. On passing carbon dioxide into the solution of the latter, sodium carbonate is formed and alumina is deposited. From the latter, common alum is made. This process is gradually giving way to other methods, owing to the difficulty in securing cryolite. Electrolytic Processes. — In these, common salt, either in solution or fused, is decomposed by an electric current, 2NaCl = 2Na + CI2, and the resulting so- dium is converted, as a rule si- multaneously, into caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) by water, 2Na + 2H2O = 2NaOH + H2, or into sodium carbonate by water and carbon dioxide, 2Na + H2O + C02=Na2C03+H2. All of the electrolytic processes are repre- sented by two general types: (1) Castner-Kellner, Rhodin, and Har greaves- Bird, in whch a solu- $10,362,656; sal soda (crystal- lized and hydrated sodium car- bonate), 87,107 tons, valued at $1,162,009; sodium bicarbonate 82,800 tons, valued at $1,515,031; and caustic soda (sodium hydrox- ide), 131,612 tons, valued at $5,264,887. See Sodium. Consult Lomas' Manual of the Alkali Trade; A. W. Stewart's Recent Advances in Organic Chemistry (1908); G. Lunge's Manufacture of Sulphur- ic Acid and Alkali, with Collat- eral Branches (new ed., 1909-11); F. H. Thorp's Outlines of Indus- trial Chemistry (new ed., 1909). Alkalim'etry, the quantitative estimation of the amount of alkali, is usually carried out by adding an acid solution of known strength to a given weight of the substance, until the color of litmus, or some other indicator, shows the solution to be neutral. EXIT PIPE FOR CHLORINE 'BUS BAR OVERFLOW PIPE FOR CAUSTIC FUSED SALT ANODES Diagram of Aussig BellTrocess. Diagram Showing Acker Process. Alkali Manufacture. — Aussig Bell and Acker Processes. sodium hydrogen carbonate sepa- rates in the form of fine crystals, so that, when the resulting sludge is drawn off through filters, the crystals are retained and the solution of ammonium chloride passes on. The crystals are dried and heated, by which they are converted into sodium car- bonate, 2NaHC03 = Na2C03 + H2O + CO2. The ammonium chloride is heated with lime, re- forming ammonia to be used again, 2NH4CI + CaO = CaClz + 2NH3 + H2O; while the car- bon dioxide from the lime kilns provides the necessary carbon dioxide for the main reaction of the process. The principal de- fect of the method is the waste of the chlorine of the salt, which be- comes locked up in the almost useless calcium chloride. In the Cryolite Process, cryolite, a double sodium and aluminum fluoride, is heated with lime, whereby calcium fluoride Vol. I.— Mar. '16 tion of salt is electrolyzed in a cell divided by a porous dia- phragm to separate the products formed (in this class also is the Aussig Bell Process, in which the separation of the products is ac- complished by gravity instead of a diaphragm) ; (2) those in which the sodium set free is collected in a metallic solvent, such as mer- cury for a solution of salt, or molten lead (Acker Process) if fused salt is employed, this being subsequently removed as caustic soda by the action of steam. The advantage of these processes is that valuable chlorine gas is obtained simultaneously. For a detailed description of the electro- lytic processes, see Electro- chemistry. Statistics. — According to the IT. S. Census for 1910, the output and value of the principal prod- ucts of alkali manufacture during 1909 were: soda ash (sodium car- bonate), 646,057 tons, valued at when from the measured amount of acid that has been required the amount of alkali can be cal- culated. The alkalimeter is used for this purpose. It consists of a graduated glass tube, filled with dilute sulphuric acid, and con- taining as much absolute sul- phuric acid as would neutralize a given weight — say 10 grams of potassium carbonate. Then 10 grams of the article to be judged of is dissolved in water, and sufficient acid is gradually added to it from the tube to neutralize the solution — i.e., take up all the alkali. The purer the article, the more of the acid will be required; and if the tube, which is divided into 100 degrees, has been emptied to the 80° mark, the imi)ure article contains 80 per cent, of pure potassium carbonate. Alkali Soils, or soils containing an excess of soluble salts, are the Alkaloids 170 Alkaloids natural result of a rainfall in- sufficient to leach out of the land the salts formed in it by the con- stant weathering of the rock powder of which all soils are largely composed. The alkali content of such soils consists, in the main, of sodium chloride, sodium sulphate, and sodium carbonate. Evaporation of the soil moisture holding these salts in solution brings them to the surface, where they accumulate in alkali spots, or more extensive tracts known as alkali deserts: the white incrustations due to the presence of the sulphates and chlorates being known as 'white alkali,' and the dark incrustations due to the carbonate as 'black alkali.' The application of a large quan- tity of water by irrigation, with- out provision for under-drainage, is a frequent cause for the appear- ance of alkali in lands previously thought to be alkali-free. In such cases, the water, penetrating to the subsoil, dissolves the salts contained therein, and on evap- orating deposits them at or near the surface. Any considerable quantity of alkali in the soil retards germina- tion, exerts a toxic influence on the crops, and except in the case of specially resistant plants, often renders vegetation impossible. Alkali soils are rich in plant food, however, especially lime and potash, and for that reason their reclamation is of great economic importance. This may be ac- complished in various ways: by counteracting evaporation through shading, mulching, or maintain- ing loose tilth in the surface soil; using chemical antidotes; remov- ing the salts from the soil by scraping; supplementing the in- sufficient rainfall by adequate under-drainage. The lands may also be utilized for the production of alkali-resistant crops, such as salt-bush, sorghum, certain varie- ties of barley and oats, and sugar beets. The alkali lands of the United States lie west of the 100th meridian, and cover some 850,000 acres, or about one-tenth of the irrigated land of that section. See Soils. Consult C. W. Dorsey's Reclamation of Alkali Soils, and Alkali Soils of the United States (U. S. Bureau of Soils, Bulletins Nos. 34 and 35, 1906); E. W. Hilgard's Soils; T. H. Kearney's The Choice of Crops for Alkali Lands (U. S. De- partment of Agriculture, Farm- ers' Bulletin No. 446, 1911). Arkalolds, or Plant Bases, form an important claims of sub- stances discovered by modern chemistry. They may be di- vided into two classes — natural and artificial. The natural al- kaloids are found in plants and animals, and are often designated Vol. I.— Mar. '16 organic bases. Those obtained from plants are frequently their active principles; but it must not therefore be assumed that when a plant contains an alkaloid it is of necessity the active principle, which may rather be a resin, glucoside, volatile oil, or vegeta- ble acid. Examples of artificial alkaloids are antipyrine, kairine, thalline, and acetaniUde or anti- febrine. Most of the natural alkaloids consist of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, and are solid bodies at ordinary tempera- ture. A few, however, contain only carbon, hydrogen, and nitro- gen, and these are for the most part liquids which can be dis- tilled without decomposition. The more important of this class are confine and nicotine. Most of the alkaloids show characteristic absorption spectra, and this property is used in determining the composition of some of the more complex alkaloids. There is one property com- mon to all alkaloids, natural and artificial — namely, that they com- bine directly with acids to form more or less stable salts, capable of undergoing double decomposi- tion; e.g., quinine sulphate, mor- phine, hydrochloride, etc. The alkaloids are precipitated from the aqueous solutions of their salts by alkalies, solutions of iodine, tannin, potassio-mercuric iodide (Mayer's Reagent), chlo- rides of gold and platinum. Most of the alkaloids give an alkaline reaction, have an acrid, bitter taste, and are sparingly soluble in water, more freely so in alcohol. The following list con- tains the names of the chief alka- loids, with the plants from which they are obtained: Alkaloid. Source. Aconitine Aconite. BellSnine} belladonna, Beberine Greenheart. Berberine j Caffeine or Theine . . . { go'^^'^^ ] Coca Leaf. hiCgonine J Colchicine Colchicum Root. Conine Hemlock. Curarine Curare. Cytisine Cytisus. Delphinine Stavesacre. cSXe} Ergotine Ergot. Escrine or Physostig- mine Calabar Bean. Hyoscyamine Henbane. Jervine Hellebore. Laburnine Broom. LupuHne Hops. Morphine ] Codeine Narcotine [ Opium. Thcbaine or Paramorphine J Muscarine Amanita Muscaria. Nicotine Tobacco. Pilocarpine Jaborandi. Piperine Black Pepper. Alkaloid. Source. Quinine 1 Quinidine... I Cinchona. Cinchoninc. . Cinchonidine J Sinapine Mustard. Solanine Bittersweet. ISr} N„. Vomica. Theobromine Cocoa Bean. Veratrine Veratrum. There are a number of animal compounds, such as urea, found in the urine of the mammalia, and kreatine and kreatinine, two con- stituents of flesh, that answer certain of the tests of alkaloids, and therefore by some have been classed as alkaloids; but they do not strictly belong to that class. Also, there are some substances, answering to the alkaloidal tests, which are found in flesh, both in the fresh and putrefied state, and which are classed under the title Ptomaines (q. v.). The following remarks on the artificial alkaloids refer (1) to the classification of organic bases, and (2) to their formation. (1) From the fact that nearly all artificial organic bases are actually constructed from am- monia, and that, whether artifi- cially or naturally formed, they exhibit the property of basicity, which is a leading characteristic of ammonia, chemists have been led to refer organic bases gen- erally to the typical body am- monia, and to regard them as being constructed upon or de- rived from the simple type NH3. Berzelius believed that all the alkaloids actually contained am- monia as an ingredient of their composition, a view later proven untenable; and it is to Liebig that we are indebted for the idea that they are derivatives of am- monia, or, in other words, amido- gen bases or ammonia in which an equivalent of hydrogen is re- placed by an organic radical. These bases are classified under the general term amines, applied to all organic bases that are derived from ammonia, NH3. (See Amines.) (2) Although all attempts at forming in the laboratory those alkaloids that naturally exist in plants, such as morphine, quin- ine, and strychnine, have hith- erto failed, a large number of organic bases have been pre- pared by artificial means, such as: (a) By the destructive dis- tillation of organic bodies con- taining nitrogen. Thus, in the preparation of coal gas, four at least of these compounds are ob- tained — viz., aniline, picoline, quinoline (or leukol), and pyri- dine, {b) By the distillation of certain nitrogenous compounds with potassium hydroxide; in this way aniline is obtained from indigo, (c) By the combination of ammonia with the aldehydes Alkanet 171 Allan and with certain volatile oils which possess the properties of aldehydes. Thus, acetic alde- hyde yields dinaethyl-amine, and oil of mustard yields thiosin- amine. (d) By the substitution — by the action of strong nitric acid — of one molecule of nitrogen dioxide, NO2, for one atom of hy- drogen in certain hydrocarbons. (e) By the processes of fermen- tation and putrefaction. Thus, wheat flour yields by putrefac- tion trimethyl-amine, ethyl-am- ine, and amyl-amine. Most of the alkaloids are pow- erful poisons; and in cases of poisoning, there is no general antidote. The stomach pump or emetics, with copious draughts of strong tea, are indicated, if ap- plied quickly after ingestion of the alkaloid; otherwise, physi- ologic antidotes are administered under direction of a physician. Some of the alkaloids are an- tagonistic in their action — e.g., strychnine and physostigmine, atropine and morphine; thus one may become an antidote for another. The isolation and de- tection of alkaloids from organic materials, as the contents of the stomach or cadavers, is exceed- ingly difficult and frequently questionable, owing to the pres- ence of ptomaines, which possess all the general characteristics of alkaloids. See separate articles on the principal alkaloids. Consult Stewart's Recent Advances in Or- ganic Chemistry (1908); T. A. Henry's The Plant Alkaloids (1913). Al'kanet, a genus of plants of the family Boraginaceae, native to Europe and the Levant. It includes the Common Alkanet {Anchusa officinalis), the Ever- green Alkanet {A. sempervirens) , and A. tinctoria, to which the name Alkanet or Alkanna is com- monly applied. The name is also given to the root of the last- named species, sometimes known as Alkanna Root, and to the red coloring matter which is extract- ed from it in the form of a paste. This is readily soluble in oils and alcohol, and is used by perfumers and in the composition of stains and varnishes. Al-Khwarizmi, al-Ku'wa-riz'- me, or Al-Khowarezmi, Arab mathematician, born in Khoras- san, who lived at the beginning of the ninth century. He was libra- rian to the Calif Al-Mamun at Bagdad. After composing two astronomical tables called Sind Hind, based on the Indian system Sindhanta, he wrote an algebra (founded on that of Brahmagup- ta) which was the source of all subsequent mediaeval works on the subject. He was also author of the first book of arithmetic show- ing the Indian system of nota- tion. Vol. I.— Mar. '16 AI-Kindi, al-kin'di, Abu Yu- SUF, mathematician and philoso- pher, was born at Basra in the ninth century. The Arabs, who call him the philosopher, look upon him as the founder of their philosophy. He wrote on almost all the sciences known in his day, and is especially distinguished as a writer on logic and on mathe- matics, and as a commentator on Aristotle. Alkmaar, alk-mar', town, prov- ince North Holland, Netherlands; 20 miles northwest of Amster- dam, on the North Holland Canal (16^ feet deep). The Town House and the Church of St. Laurence (fifteenth century) are notable, Lt manufactures sail cloth, sea salt, soap, vinegar, and leather, and has an important trade in excellent cheese, also cat- tle, grain, and butter. Alkmaar held out against the Duke of Alva, who besieged it in 1573. Here, on Oct. 18, 1799, the Duke of York signed a capitulation. Pop. 22,000. Alkoran. See Koran. Allada, al-la'da, town, Daho- mey, French West Africa; 25 miles west of Whydah. Pop. 10,000. Allagash. See Alleguash. Al'Iah (from Ar. al, 'the'; and ilah, 'worthy to be adored'; cf. Hebrew Eloah) , the word used by the heathen Arabs to denote their chief god, and adopted by Mo- hammed as the name of the one true God. The word forms the substance of the battle cry of Mo- hammedans — 'La Ilaha Illallah!' ('There is no God save Allah'). See Mohammedanism. Allahabad, al'la-ha-bad', dis- trict. United Provinces, India. It is well watered, and is mainly ag- ricultural. Chief city, Allahabad (q. v.). Area, 2,810 square miles. Pop. 1,500,000. Allahabad ('city of God'), city and capital of the United Prov- inces, India, occupies the fork of the Rivers Ganges and Jumna; 390 miles southeast of Delhi. The nucleus of the city seems to have been the native fort, which rises directly from the banks of both rivers with artificial defences of great strength toward the land side. On the west and northwest lie the civil station, cantonments, and city proper. The fort, which dates from 1575, is of red stone, and is approached by a handsome domed gateway. Within are the ancient Palace of Akbar, part of which is now the Arsenal, and the famous Pillar of Asoka (240 B.C.). With the exception of a few ancient monuments of elaborate workmanship, the native part of the city consists of mean houses and narrow streets. The Euro- pean quarter is much superior, with handsome residences and broad avenues of trees. The Khusru Bagh, with the mausole- ums of Prince Khusru and his mother and sister, and the Great Mosque are the most noteworthy features of the native town. In the European city are the govern- ment offices and courts, the Roman Catholic and Anglican Cathedrals, Mayo Memorial and Town Hall, Muir Central Col- lege, the University, free public library, hospital, theatres, ba- zaars, and other public buildings. The position of Allahabad ren- ders it naturally a centre of com- merce and civilization. It com- mands the navigation of the Ganges and of the Jumna, both of which are crossed by bridges at this point. It is on the direct wa- ter route between Calcutta and the Upper Provinces; and is a main station on the Grand Trunk and East Indian Railways. The cotton, sugar, and indigo prod- ucts of the fertile district of Alla- habad are brought in large quan- tities into the city; and there is a brisk local trade in gold and silver ornaments and European furni- ture. The situation of Allahabad, at the confluence of the holy streams of India, renders it a much-fre- quented place of pilgrimage for the purposes of religious ablution. Every year the Magh-mela, a re- ligious fair of great antiquity, at- tracts some 250,000 pilgrims to the city, while the Kmnbh-mela, held every twelfth j^ear, has been attended by a million people. Pop. (1901) 172,082; (1911) 171,- 697. The modern city was founded by Akbar in 1575, although the Aryans possessed an ancient city on this site called Prayag or Prag ('place of sacrifice'), a name still retained by the Hindus. It was ceded to the British in 1801; and during the Indian Mutiny of 1857 was the scene of a massacre of British officers by mutinous se- poys. Al'laman'da, a tropical Ameri- can genus of the Apocynaceae (q. v.), cultivated in hothouses for the sake of its large beautiful yellow flowers. A. calhartica, a. native of the West Indies, has violently emetic and purgative properties. Allan, David (1744-96), Scot- tish painter, known as the 'Scot- tish Hogarth,' was born in Alloa. He settled in Edinburgh in 1780. He anticipated Wilkie in Scottish character painting, as in his Scotch Wedding, Highland Dame, and Repentance Stool. He illus- trated Ramsay's Gentle Shepherd. Allan, Sir Hugh (1810-82), Canadian ship owner, was born at Saltcoats, Ayrshire, Scotland. He emigrated to Canada in 1826, and by 1835 had become junior partner in the chief shipping firm of Montreal. In 1853 he organ- ized the Allan Line of steamships, and was knighted in 1871. In Allan 172 Allegheny College 1872-3 he obtained a charter from the Canadian Government for building the Canadian Pacific Raihoad, but the Pacific scandal which resulted led to the dissolu- tion of the company. AUan, Maud (1879), Cana- dian-American dancer, was born in Toronto, and removed with her parents to San Francisco. She early began the study of music, performing in public as a pianist at twelve years of age; continued her musical education in Berlin and Vienna; but after- ward adopted classical dancing as a profession. She made her debut as a dancer at the Vienna Con- servatory of Music (1902) ; subse- quently appeared at Brussels and other Continental cities; in Lon- don at the Palace Theatre in The Vision of Salome (1908); and in New York City in 1910. Allan, Sir William (1782- 1850), Scottish historical painter, was born in Edinburgh. He stud- ied at the Trustees' Academy with Wilkie for a fellow pupil; and later entered the schools of the Royal Academy of London. After nine years of travel in Russia and Turkey, he settled in Edinburgh (1814); was elected R.A. (1835); succeeded Wilkie as Limner to the Queen for Scot- land (1841) ; and was knighted in 1842. Among his works are: Peter the Great Teaching His Sub- jects Shipbuilding (painted for the Tsar) ; The Stirrup Cup (Na- tional Gallery, Edinburgh) ; John Knox Admonishing Mary Queen of Scots. Allantoin, a-lan'to-in, C4H6N4- O3, a crystalline substance oc- curring in the allantoic fluid, in foetal urine, and in the urine of many animals shortly after birth. It may be obtained chemically by the oxidation of uric acid or by heating urea with glyoxylic acid for a prolonged period. It was discovered by Vauquelin in 1790, and has been employed to en- courage epithelial formation in wounds and ulcers. Allantois, a-lan'to-is, an im- portant foetal membrane by means of which the embryos of reptiles and birds breathe, while in most mammals it is converted into the Placenta (q. v.), the or- gan by which the developing young both feed and breathe. At a very early stage in the embryo of reptile, bird, and mammal, the allantois appears as a bud from the posterior part of the food canal; and rapidly increasing in size, grows out of the embryo into a space provided for it by the amnion. It becomes richly supplied with blood vessels, and in birds and reptiles comes to lie close beneath theeggshell, through whose pores the respiratory inter- change occurs. The early stages of develop- ment are the same in mammals; Vol. I.— Mar. '16 but in all except monotremes and marsupials, the allantois and its blood vessels later form a connec- tion with the maternal blood ves- sels of the uterine wall, thus con- stituting the placenta. At birth or hatching, when the lungs come into play, the extra-embryonic portion of the allantois becomes functionless, and is cast off; but the internal portion may persist in the lower animals as the uri- nary bladder. In the human being the allan- tois diminishes as the lungs begin to functionate, and it ultimately contracts and becomes a ligamen- tous remnant. This last fact is a link in the evolutionist's chain of proof that the allantois has been developed from the urinary blad- der of amphibians. See Embry- ology. Allegan, al'e-gan, city, Michi- gan, county seat of Allegan coun- ty, on the Kalamazoo River, and the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern, the Pere Marquette, and the Michigan Central Rail- roads; 32 miles south of Grand Rapids. Industries include plan- ing, paper, and flour mills, and carriage, furniture, and casket factories. The adjacent river fur- nishes valuable water power. Pop. (1900) 2,667; (1910) 3,419. Allega'tion, in law, the formal declaration or statement, by a party to a suit, of the issue which he undertakes to prove. If the claim or defence would be insuffi- cient without it, it is known as a material allegation. In ecclesias- tical law the term is used of the statement of all the facts in sup- port of a contested suit. The allegation of faculties is the state- ment, by a wife seeking alimony, of her husband's property. See Pleadings. Alleghany Mountains, al'i-ga- ni, a range of the Appalachian system, traversing Pennsylvania, Maryland, West Virginia, and Virginia in a southwesterly direc- tion, and forming the watershed between the Atlantic and the Mississippi. In the northern por- tion the AUeghanies have an ele- vation of about 2,000 feet; gradu- ally increase toward the south; and reach a height of 4,500 feet in Virginia. They are composed of stratified rocks of the Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous ages, and are rich in timber and minerals, especially coal and iron. The name AUeghanies is some- times applied to the entire Appa- lachian system. See Appala- chians. Alleghany Plateau, the west- ernmost division of the Atlantic highlands, including several of the Eastern and Middle States, and extending from the centre of New York southward into Ala- bama and westward into Ohio and Kentucky. On the east it slopes abruptly into the valleys of the AUeghanies, but on the west falls away gradually toward the prairies of the Ohio basin. Alti- tudes range from 2,000 to 4,000 feet. The nprthernmost portion of the Plateau, in New York, is known as the Catskill Mountains (q. V.) ; the southern portion, in Tennessee and Alabama, as the Cumberland Tableland (see Cum- berland Mountains) ; while be- tween lie the mountains of East- ern Kentucky, W^est Virginia, and Western Pennsylvania, inter- sected by repeatedly branching valleys. The Plateau is well wooded, and is rich in bituminous coal, oil, and natural gas. Al'leghen'y, former city of Pennsylvania, since 1907 a part of the city of Pittsburgh (q. v.), is situated on the right bank of the Allegheny River, at its junc- tion with the Monongahela to form the Ohio. It is on the Pitts- burgh, Fort Wayne, and Chicago, the Cleveland and Pittsburgh, the Pittsburgh and Newcastle, and the Pittsburgh and Erie Rail- roads (Pennsylvania System), and is the terminus of the West- ern Pennsylvania, the Pittsburgh and Western, and the Buffalo, Rochester, and Pittsburgh Rail- roads. Allegheny now forms the North Side of Pittsburgh, to which it is joined by eight bridges across the Allegheny River. Allegheny is an important resi- dential and manufacturing cen- tre, and is the seat of numerous educational and philanthropic in- stitutions. The latter include the Western Theological Seminary (q. v.), the Theological Semina- ries of the United and Reformed Presbyterian Churches, the Al- legheny Observatory (q. v.), and the Carnegie Library, with music hall and art gallery. Here also are located the Western vState Penitentiary, three hospitals, and several industrial schools. Prin- cipal parks are City Park (100 acres) and Riverview Park (217 acres). The leading industries are iron and steel rolling mills and car and locomotive works. Paint, plumbing supplies, salt, leather, and stoves and ranges are also manufactured. Allegheny was laid out in 1788, was incorporated as a city in 1840, and was consolidated with Pittsburgh in 1907. Pop. (1900) 129,896; (1910) 132,283. See Pittsburgh. Allegheny College, a co-edu- cational institution located at Mcadville, Pa., founded under Presbyterian auspices in 1815, and controlled by the Methodist Episcopal Church since 1832. Its curriculum comprises courses in the arts and sciences, with post- graduate work leading to the de- gree of m.a. In 1915 there were 24 instructors and 400 students; and the library contained 31,000 volumes. The buildings and Allegheny Observatory 173 Allegory grounds were valued at $650,000; the income for 1915 was S85,000. Allegheny Observatory, one of the principal astronomical ob- servatories in the United States, was founded in 1859 by the Al- legheny Observatory Society, in Allegheny, Pa. In 1867 it was transferred to the Western Uni- versity of Pennsylvania, now the University of Pittsburgh (q. v.), and in 1905 its site was removed from Observatory Hill to River- view Park, Pittsburgh. It pos- sesses a 30-inch photographic re- fractor, the most efficient instru- ment of its kind in the world; a 13-inch refractor, objective by Alvan Clark; and other valuable instruments; and a well-supplied library. It was one of the first observatories in the United States to establish and maintain a pub- lic time service. Director, Frank Schlesinger, ph.d. Allegheny River, one of the head streams of the Ohio River (q. v.), rises in Potter county. Pa., nearly 2,000 feet above sea level. It follows a general south- westerly course for about 325 miles, and unites with the Mo- nongahela (q. v.) at Pittsburgh to form the Ohio. It is navigable for nearly 200 miles above that city, whence by the Ohio and the Mississippi navigation reaches the Gulf of Mexico. Drainage area, 11,000 square miles. Alle'giance, in the strict legal sense, is the duty of every subject to submit to the authority of the government under which he lives, or of his sovereign, in return for the protection which he receives. In a free state it may be defined as the obligation of every citizen to support the constitution and laws, and to perform the duties of citizenship (q. v.) both in peace and war. The obligations em- braced in allegiance include those of bearing arms in defence of the state, of contributing to its main- tenance, of revealing any conspir- acy against it, and generally per- forming the public duties of a good citizen. The present con- ception of allegiance is the result of a long process of development from the notion of the fealty due from a vassal to his feudal lord, based on an oath of fealty; and this survives in the oath of alle- giance exacted of aliens on natu- ralization, of public officers, mem- bers of the bar, etc. Allegiance may be an absolute and permanent obligation, such as that which the citizen or sub- ject owes to his government or sovereign; or it may be local and temporary, such as that of an alien to the government under which he is resident (see Alien). Again, it may be natural, such as is due from every native subject from his birth, or it may be ac- quired by naturalization. Alle- giance is due quite independently Vol. I. — Mar. '10 of any express promise to be faithful, and all subjects or citi- zens, whether they became such by birth or by naturalization, are bound! to the duty of allegiance so long as that status continues. It was formerly held by all the nations of Europe that the tie of allegiance, once formed, could not be severed by the voluntary- act of a subject; but the contrary view, maintained by the Govern- ment of the United States, has now been generally accepted, and the right of a person to change his allegiance at will is admitted by England and the leading Euro- pean states, though still disputed by Russia and Turkey (see Nat- uralization). Under the present law of Ger- many, subjects of that country are expressly permitted to pre- serve their native citizenship, al- though they have become natu- ralized citizens of another coun- try. Such a dual allegiance, how- ever, is incompatible with the law of the United States, since every applicant for naturalization must declare on oath that he absolutely and entirely renounces 'all alle- giance and fidelity to any foreign prince, potentate, state, or sov- ereignty, and particularly by name to that prince, potentate, state, or sovereign of which he was beiore a citizen or subject.' See Alien; Citizenship; Nat- uralization. Al'legory (Greek alios, 'other'; agoreuo, T speak'), a form oi com- position in which one series of events or qualities is treated as typical of anothei series of events or qualities expressed or under- stood. Allegory is a representa- tion oi hfe, and is valued in pro- portion as its details correspond with the details of actual exist- ence; while Its chief interest con- sists in the orderly development of the analogies between the type and the thing typified. As a rule, allegory is used in order to impart some human in- terest to metaphysical and ab- stract subjects. Hence religious or moral teaching has been its usual theme in all ages; but this connection is not a necessary one. Nor is its use confined to litera- ture, for such pictures as Holman Hunt's Light of the World are as much allegories as Bunyan's Holy War. The allegorical reference may, moreover, be double as well as single, though only at the risk of its effectiveness. Thus, in Spenser's Faerie Queene, Arthur stands for the virtue Magnificence in general, with a particular refer- ence at times to Leicester, and at other times to Sidney; while Brit- omart signifies both Chastity and Queen Elizabeth. Some of the parables of Christ are allegories of the highest type, as that of the Prodigal Son; but others, such as the picture of the Pharisee and the publican who went up to the Temple to pray, are merely vivid transcripts of contemporary or universal life and character. A good example of the allegorical method is con- tained in St. Paul's reference to the armor of faith (Eph. vi. 13- 17). (See Parable.) The origins of allegory may be found in the writings of Plato, who used it in its simpler forms in order to provide his pupils with a convenient means of pas- sage from the world of appear- ance to the world of ideas or of reality. From him the method descends through Philo Judaeus (B.C. 20-54 A.D.), who applied it to the interpretation of the He- brew Scriptures; to Origen (a.d. 185-254), who popularized it in connection with Christian the- ology; while its employment by Pope Gregory the Great in his commentary on Job stamped it with the approval of authority. A further stage is indicated by Martianus Capella's Marriage of Mercury with Philology (439 a.d.), where it is employed to illustrate the mediaeval scheme of educa- tion. But the real flourishing of alle- gory dates from the time of the Romaunt of the Rose. This cele- brated work consists of two parts, the first of which, written by William de Lorris (c. 1240), is an elaborate exposition of the chival- ric idea of love; the second, by Jean de Meung (1260-1320), is an ironical travesty of the whole sys- tem. It was translated and imi- tated by Chaucer, and influenced through him the course of Eng- lish poetry for two centuries. Meanwhile, however, Lang- land, in his Vision of Piers Plow- man (1362), had adapted allegory to the purpose of moral and social satire. The form next passed under the hands of Spenser, who, in his Faerie Queene (1590), ap- plied it to the description of Aris- totle's twelve virtues. A new school branches off from Spenser, the most prominent productions of which were Giles Fletcher's Christ's Victory and Triumph (1610), and Phineas Fletcher's Purple Island (1633), the latter being an elaborate description of the human body. Allegory had meantime run its course in the drama. Allegorical figures had always appeared in the miracle play (q. v.), and the separation of the allegorical from the historical elements in these re- sulted in the morality play (q. v.) of the early Elizabethan era, which discusses problems of human life by means of such highly general- ized figures as J uventus, Mundus, Freewill, etc. The morality in turn, when its brief course was run, handed over its allegorical machinery to the masque (q. v.), with such changes as the transi- Allegretto 174 AUen tion from moral teaching to court compliment rendered indis- pensable. Since the decay of the Spense- rian school there has been no regular English school of allegory; but numerous independent works have appeared, embracing some of the finest compositions of this class. We have the allegory of religious experience in Bun- yan's Pilgrim's Progress (1678), and his Holy War (1682); the allegory of political satire in Dryden's Absalom and Achitophel (1681), and of religious debate in his Hind and Panther (1687) ; and the allegory of scholastic and ecclesiastical satire, respectively, in Swift's Battle of the Books and The Tale of a Tub (1704). Later examples are Addison's Vision of Mirza {Spectator, No. 159), and Thomson's Castle of Indolence (1748); while, in our own day, Tennyson's Idylls of the King is meant to contain beneath its ap- pearance of a heroic poem a rep- resentation of the eternal war be- tween flesh and spirit in human life. Maeterlinck's fairy play, L'Oiseau Bleu ('The Blue Bird') (1909), which represents man in his search for human happiness, assisted by the material neces- saries of Hfe, such as bread, sugar, milk, etc., who take an active part in the play — as opposed to the elemental forces of nature, who hinder him in his quest — is one of the most beautiful ex- amples of the allegory in modern literature. Consult Courthope's History of English Poetry (vol. i.) ; Saintsbury's Flourishing of Ro- mance and Rise of Allegory. Allegretto, al-la-gret'to, a mu- sical term indicating a tempo slower than allegro (q. v.), but not so slow as andante (q. v.). Allegri, Antonio. See Cor- REGGIO. Allegro, al-la'gro (Italian, 'live- ly'), the fourth of the five princi- pal degrees of movement in music, implying that the piece is to be performed in a quick or lively style, nearly intermediate between andante and presto (qq. v.). Allegro, like all the other degrees of movement, is often modified by additional terms, such as allegro non tanto, allegro ma non troppo, allegro moderato, maestoso, giusto, commodo, vivace, assai, di molto, con brio, etc. As a substantive, allegro is used as the name of a complete piece of music, or a movement (usually the first) of a symphony, sonata, or quartette. Al'leguash River, or Allagash, in Northern Maine, is a branch of the St. John River (q. v.). Length, 200 miles. Allelne, al'en, Joseph (1634- 68), English nonconformist di- vine, was born in Devizes, and ministered at Taunton until his ejection with the two thousand Vol. I— Mar. '16 in 1662, Together with the grandfather of the Wesleys, he became an itinerant preacher, and was frequently fined and imprisoned. He wrote Alarm to the Unconverted, of which 20,000 copies were sold at once (1672), and 50,000 on its republication. His literary Remains were pub- lished in 1674. Alleine, Richard (1611-81), English Puritan clergyman, was born in Ditcheat, Somerset. He was for twenty years rector of Batcombe, and after being eject- ed in 1662, faithfully preached as occasion offered. His chief work is VindicicB Pietatis (1660). Alleluia. See Hallelujah. Allemande, al-i-mand', a Ger- man national dance (hence the French name, meaning 'Ger- man'), originally Swabian, in various kinds of waltz tempo, in- troduced into France in the time of Louis XIV., and popular on the stage under Napoleon i. The name has also been used for an orchestral composition in slow and measured time. Allen, Alexander Viets Gris- WOLD (1841-1908), American the- ologian, was born in Otis, Mass., and was graduated from Kenyon College (1862) and Andover The- ological Seminary (1865). Forfor- ty years (1867-1908) he was pro- fessor of church history in the Episcopal Theological Seminary, Cambridge, Mass. He published: Continuity of Christian Thought (1884) ; Life of Jonathan Edwards (1889) ; Religious Progress (1894) ; Christian Institutions (1897); Life and Letters of Phillips Brooks (1900); Freedom in the Church (1907). .Consult Slattery's Life (1911). Allen, Charles Grant Blair- FiNDiE (1848-99), EngHsh au- thor, better known as Grant Allen, was born in Alwington, near Kingston, Ontario, Canada, and was graduated from Oxford University (1871). He was prin- cipal of Queen's College, Spanish Town, Jamaica (1874-7), after which he resided in London, Eng- land, and devoted himself to literature. He wrote a number of works intended to convey scientific instruction in a popular style, inclxxding: PhysiologiccLl Aes- thetics (1877); Color Sense (1879); The Evolutionist at Large, and Vi- gnettes from Nature (1881); Colin Clout's Calendar (1883); Flowers and Their Pedigrees (1884); Story of the Plants (1895); Evolution of the Idea of God (1897). He also pub- lished more than thirty novels, which include: Philistia (1884); Babylon and In All Shades (1S86) ; The Devil's Die (1888) ; The Wom- an Who Did (1895); Bride of the Desert (1896). Consult E. Clodd's Life. Allen, Edward Patrick (1853), American Roman Cath- olic prelate, was born in Lowell, Mass. He was educated at Mount St. Mary's College, Em- mitsburg, Md., and was ordained to the priesthood (1881). He served as professor of English and Greek at Mount St. Mary's College (1881-2), and as presi- dent (1884-97) ; and held charges at the Cathedral of Boston (1882) andatFramingham, Mass. (1883- 4). In 1897 he became bishop of Mobile, Ala. AUen, Elisha Hunt (1804- 83), American diplomat, was born in New Salem, Mass., and was graduated from Williams College (1823). He studied law, and was admitted to the Massa- chusetts bar. He served in the Maine legislature ( 1 836-4 1,1846); in the U. S. House of Representa- tives (1842-5) ; and in the Massa- chusetts legislature (1849). He was U. S. consul at Honolulu (1852-6); chief justice of the Hawaiian Islands (1857-76); and minister from Hawaii to the Unit- ed States. Allen, Elizabeth Chase Akers (1832-1912), American writer of verse, was born in Strong, Me. Her first literary work was issued under the pseudonym 'Florence Percy.' Her familiar poem, Rock Me to Sleep, Mother (1859), first appeared in The Saturday Even- ing Post, and was later included in a volume of Poems (1866-9). She also published: Queen Cath- arine's Rose, and The Silver Bridge (1885) ; Two Saints (1888) ; Proud Lady of Stavoren (1897); Ballad of the Bronx (1901); Sun- set Song . Allen, Ethan (1739-89), Ameri- can Revolutionary patriot and soldier, was born in Litchfield, Conn. About 1769 he moved to the region known as the 'New Hampshire Grants.' When the governor of New York claimed ju- risdiction over that territory, and issued new grants to the land, Allen became the leader of those who resisted the encroachments of the New York claimants. De- feated in a land suit at Albany (1771), the original settlers de- termined to defend their claims by force, and organized the 'Green Mountain Boys' (q. v.), with Allen as commander. Hos- tilities resulted, the New York governor declared him to be a felon and an outlaw, and a price was set for his arrest. (See Ver- mont, History.) At the beginning of the Revo- lution Ethan Allen offered his services to the American cause, and on May 10, 1775, at the head of the Green Mountain Boys, surprised and captured Fort Ticonderoga, forcing the commander to surrender 'in the name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress' (see Ticonderoga). Subsequently he served under General Schuyler. He joined Montgomery's expedi- Allen 175 AUen tion to Canada; was captured by the British near Montreal (Sept. 25, 1775); was sent a prisoner successively to England, Halifax, and New York; and was not ex- changed until May, 1778. Upon Allen's release the Con- tinental Congress brevetted him lieutenant-general, and later brig- adier-general. Meanwhile, in a renewed controversy with New York, Allen devoted himself to establishing the freedom of Ver- mont. Between 1779 and 1783 he carried on a correspondence with General Haldimand, British governor of Canada, resulting in a charge of treason, but the alle- gations were not substantiated. In 1787 he removed to Burling- ton, Vt., where he died in 1789. He published: The Narrative of Colonel Ethan Allen's Captivity; A Vindication of the Opposition of the Inhabitants of Vermont to the Government of New York (1779); Reason the Only Oracle of Man (1784). Consult Lives by H. Hall and Jared Sparks. Allen, Fred Hovey (1845- ), American author, was born in Lyme, N. H. He was graduated from the Hartford Theological Seminary (1875), studied abroad, was ordained to the Congregational ministry, and held various pastorates in and near Boston (1875-1902). He brought to America the art of ar- tistic reproduction of paintings, produced the first photogravure plates made in America, and wrote the first book — Master- pieces of Modern German Art (1884) — illustrated by American- made photogravure plates. He invented a process for steel facing copper plates and a press for printing photogravure plates. Among his published books are Glimpses of Parisian Art (1882); Recent German Art (1885); Great Cathedrals of the World (1886); Popular History of the Reforma- tion (1887); Famous Paintings (1887) ; Grand Modern Paintings (1888) . Allen, Grant. See Allen, Charles Grant. Allen, Harrison (1841-97), American anatomist, was born in Philadelphia, and was graduated in medicine from the University of Pennsylvania (1861). He served as a surgeon in the U. S. Army (1862-5); was professor of comparative anatomy and physi- ology in the University of Penn- sylvania (1865-95); surgeon in the Philadelphia Hospital; and professor of anatomy and surgery in the Philadelphia Dental Col- lege. He wrote: Outlines of Com- parative Anatomy and Medical Zoology (1867); Studies in the Facial Region (1874); Analysis of the Life Form in Art (1875); Sys- tem of Human Anatomy (1880). Allen, Henry Watkins (1820- 66), American soldier and public Vol. I. — Mar. '23 official, was born in Prince Ed- ward county, Va. He was edu- cated at Marion College, Mis- souri, studied law, and practised in Grand Gulf, Miss. He served in the Texan War against Mexico (1842), and was a member of the Mississippi (1846) and of the Louisiana (1853) legislature. During the Civil War he fought in the Confederate Army; was wounded at Shiloh and Baton Rouge; and rose to the rank of brigadier-general. In 1864 he was elected governor of Louis- iana; and afterward founded and edited The Mexican Times. He published Travels of a Sugar Planter (1861). Allen, Horace Newton (1858- ), American diplomat, was born in Delaware, O., and was graduated from Ohio Wesleyan University (1881) and Miami Medical College (1883) . He was sent as a Presbyterian missionary to China, and in 1884 went to Korea, where he saved the life of one of the princes, and was ap- pointed medical officer to the Korean court. He was a mem- ber of the first Korean legation to the United States (1888); secre- tary of the U. S. legation in Korea (1890); and U. S. consul- general, minister resident, and plenipotentiary in Korea (1897- 1905). His published works in- clude Korean Tales (1889) ; Chron- ological Index of the Foreign Re- lations of Korea (1900-03); Ko- rea: Fact and Fancy (1904); Things Korean (1908). Allen, Horatio (1802-89), American civil engineer, was born in Schenectady, N. Y., and was graduated from Columbia University (1823). He entered the service of the Delaware and Hudson Canal Co., and in 1829, at Honesdale, Pa., ran the first locomotive ('Stourbridge Lion') in America. He was chief engi- neer of the South Carolina Rail- road (1829-34); president of the Erie Railroad; assistant engineer of the Croton aqueduct (1838- 42) ; and consulting engineer for the Brooklyn Bridge and the Panama Railway. He invented the swiveling truck. Allen, Ira (1751-1814), Amer- ican Revolutionary soldier and patriot, was born in Cornwall, Conn. He was one of the found- ers of Vermont and was associ- ated with his brother Ethan Al- len (q. V.) in the land grant dis- putes between New Hampshire and New York (see Vermont, History). During the Revolu- tion he vServed as colonel of militia and major-general of the Ver- mont troops; member of the Ver- mont legislature (1776-7); State treasurer and surveyor-general; and State commissioner to Con- gress (1780-1). He was the founder of the University of Vermont (1789), and delegate to the State constitutional conven- tion in 1791. From 1795 to 1801 he was imprisoned in London and in Paris on the charge of furnish- ing arms to Irish rebels. Allen, James Lane (1849- ), American author, was born near Lexington, Ky., and was gradu- ated from Transylvania Univer- sity. After serving as professor of Latin and higher English in Bethany College, W. Va., he re- moved to New York City in 1886, and devoted himself to lit- erature. He is a member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters. Among his many works, which deal chiefly with Kentucky life, are: Flute and Vio- lin (1891) ; The Blue Grass Region of Kentucky (1892) ; The Kentucky Cardinal ( 1 895) ; Aftermath ( 1 896) ; A Summer in Arcady (1896); The Choir Invisible (1897); The Reign of Law (1900); The Mettle of the Pasture (1903); The Bride of the Mistletoe (1909); The Doctor's Christmas Eve (1910); The Hero- ine in Bronze (1912); The Last Christmas Tree (1914) ; The Sword of Youth (1915); The Kentucky Warbler (1918); The Emblems of Fidelity (1919). Allen, Joel Asaph (1838- ), American naturalist, was born in Springfield, Mass., and studied under Louis Agassiz at the Law- rence Scientific School, Harvard. In 1865, 1869, and 1873 he ac- companied scientific expeditions to Brazil, the Rocky Mountains, and Florida; in 1871 he became assistant in ornithology, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Har- vard; and in 1885 a curator in the American Museum of Nat- ural History, New York. His numerous scientific works in- clude : On the Mammals and Win- ter Birds of Eastern Florida (1871); American Bisons (1876); Monographs of North American Rodentia (with E. Coues, 1877); History of North American Pin- nipeds (1880); Mammalia of Southern Patagonia, . and Influ- ence of Physical Conditions in the Genesis of Species (1905); Onto- genetic and Other Variations in Musk-Oxen (1913). Allen, Joseph Henry (1820- 98), American scholar, was born in Northborough, Mass. He was graduated from Harvard (1840) and Harvard Divinity School (1843), and served various pas- torates until 1878. He con- ducted a boys' school in North- borough for ten years; was lecturer on church history at Harvard (1878-82); and edited The Unitarian Review (1887-98). He published: Hebrew Men and Times (1861); Our Liberal Move- ment in Theology (1882); Chris- tian History in Its Three Great Periods (3 vols., 1882-3); Uni- tarianism Since the Reformation (1894). With J. B. Greenoughhe edited several Latin text books^ Allier River 170 Alliteration well; there are rich meadows, large forests, and good fishing. Coal is mined at Commentry, Doyet, and other places; iron, manganese, antimony, and cop- per in other parts. The cele- brated mineral waters of Vichy come from this department. Capital, Moulins. Area, 2,850 square miles. Pop. (1921) 370,- 950. Allier River, in France, rises among the mountains of Lozere, flows north, and joins the River Loire (q. v.). Length, 233 miles. Al'ligator, a member of the reptilian sub-class Crocodilia, which includes also the true croc- odile and the gavial (qq. v.). the female constructs a compact conical or rounded nest of sand and flags or marsh grass, in which she lays between 100 and 200 eggs. The heat of the sun and the warmth and moisture gener- ated by the decaying vegetation complete the process of incuba- tion in about sixty days. Alligators are hunted chiefly for their hides, which are used extensively for bags, portfolios, etc., and also for their teeth, which are of fine ivory. Many live and stuffed animals are sold to tourists, and thousands have been destroyed merely for sport. The eggs are eaten, and the flesh is sometimes used as food. Chinese Alligator The alligator family comprises three genera — the Alligator, the Caiman, and the Jacare — that differ from crocodiles in their shorter and broader head; the presence of pits on the upper jaw, which receive the first and fourth lower-jaw teeth; the limited ex- tent of the union between the two lower jaws; and the separation between the scales of neck and back. Generally, however, they resemble crocodiles both in habit and structure — e.g., in the lizard- like body, with powerful tail and short legs; the body armature of the skin; the abundant teeth fixed in sockets; the large head, with very solid skull and nostrils at the end of the snout; the double ventricle of the heart. Their feet are less webbed and their habits less perfectly aquatic, though they are powerful swim- mers. Of the true alligators there are only two species — the American or Florida alligator (A . mississip- piensis), iound in the rivers and swamps from Southern North Carolina to the Rio Grande, and a little known Chinese species {A. sinensis). At birth the alligator is about 8 inches long, glossy black or dark brown, with orange stripes ring- ing the tail and body. Under favorable conditions the rate of growth averages about one foot a year for the first ten years, the male reaching a length of 12 or 13 feet, the female seldom exceed- ing 7 or 8 feet. The brightly col- ored rings disappear with age, and the color becomes a dull, greenish black. Alligators feed on fishes, birds, mammals, and sometimes on their own young. They are exceedingly shy, and seldom attack man except in self- defence. After the mating season Vol. I. — March '24 Their numbers have thus been greatly reduced, although the State of Florida has enacted laws for their protection. See Cai- man; Jacare. Consult A. M. Reese's The Alligator and Its Allies (1915). Alligator Apple. See Custard Apples. Alligator Fish (Podothecus aci- penserinus), a species of fish be- longing to the order Agonidae, found in the Strait of Fuca, Puget Sound, and other inlets along the Northeast Pacific Coast. It is about a foot long, its body being encased in a coat of mail formed by a series of overlapping plates. Alligator Gar {Lepidosteus tristcechus) , a species of gar-pike found in the waters of Central America, Mexico, Cuba, and the Gulf States of the United States. It is of a greenish color, and at- tains a large size — from 6 to 10 feet. It is not edible. See Gar-Pike. Alligator Lizard, any species of the genus Sceloporus, family Iguanidae, which includes a num- ber of small forms common in the warmer parts of America. They Alligator Lizard are brightly colored below, chief- ly on the throat; the back is usually dull in color, with a few markings; the head lacks spines, the scales are flat, and there is no gular fold. They are exceedingly quick, and are quite harmless. The striped 'Fence Lizard' of the Eastern and Central States is a familiar species. Alligator Pear, or Avocado, known also as Midshipman's But- ter and Vegetable Marrow, is a juicy, edible fruit obtained from a small tree of the order Lauraceae, native to subtropical America. It varies in shape and size, but resembles a large pear. The outer covering, which may be soft and pliable or hard and granular, is green in some varie- ties, and brown, yellow, or purple in others. The pulp has a fine creamy texture, and a delicate flavor. Alligator Tree. See Liquid- AMBAR. Alligator Turtle, or Terrapin. See Snapping Turtle. Alligator Wood, the timber of the West Indian tree, Guarea grandifolia. I ' Al'lingham, William (1824- 89), Irish poet, was first a bank clerk and then an officer of the customs. In 1870 he retired from the civil service to become sub-editor of Eraser's Magazine under Froude, whom he suc- ceeded as editor in 1874. His first volume of verse appeared in 1850, under the title Poems, and was followed in 1854 by Day and Night Songs, in which his lyric talent is best seen. His longest poem was Laurence Bloomfield, or Rich and Poor in Ireland (1864). AUingham had early and close associations with most of the pre-Raphaelite Brother- hood, with Browning, Clough, Carlyle, and other literary fig- ures. Consult Letters of D. G. Rossetti to William AUingham (ed. by Birkbeck Hill) ; Diary (ed. by H. AUingham and D. Radford). Al'lison, William Boyd (1829- 1908), American public official, was born in Perry, Ohio. He was educated at Allegheny and West- ern Reserve Colleges, studied law and was admitted to the Ohio bar (1850). In 1857 he re- moved to Dubuque, la.; was a member of Congress (1863-71); and for thirty-five years U. S. Senator (1873-1908). His name was given to the Monetary Act of 1878, and he was U. S. repre- sentative at the Brussels Mone- tary Conference of 1892. Allit'era'tion is the recurrence of the same letter at the begin- ning of several words in a com- position. As a method of procur- ing emphasis it has been much favored among Teutonic and Finno-Ugrian peoples, and con- stantly recurs in English popular phrases like 'kith and kin,' 'bed and board,' etc. In all old Teu- tonic poetry alliteration is the prevailing metrical distinction, as in ancient Gaelic poetry it is combined with assonance. The normal Anglo-Saxon verse, which may be taken as a type of Allium 177 Allotropy purely alliterative measures, con- sists of two hemistichs, each con- taining two accents. The first laemistich generally contains two alliterating words, and the second one — e.g.: 'Fyrst forth gewat; Flota waes on ythum.' 'Time went by; the ship was on the waves' (Beowulf, 210). In the case of vowels, alliteration was made by the recurrence of different letters. Outside of Anglo-Saxon times, the only work of first-rate import- ance in which this measure is em- ployed in English is the Piers Plowman of Langland; and his use of it is, from a metrical point of view, very licentious. In pop- ular estimation, however, both in romances, such as Gawain and the Green Knight, where it is com- bined with an elaborate stanzaic arrangement, and in popular char- acter sketches, such as Dunbar's Twa Marriit Wemen and the Wedo, it survived even into Eliza- bethan times. Most of the Elizabethan crit- ics, and many of the greatest writers, such as Sidney and Shakespeare (in Love's Labor's Lost), ridicule its indiscriminate employment. 'E. K.,' the first editor of Spenser's Shepherd's Calendar, speaks with contempt of the 'ragged rake-helly rout that hunt the letter' ; but his own master makes frequent use of the device — e.g.: - 'In woods, in waves, in wars she wonts to dwell, And will be found with peril and with pain' (Faerie Queene, bk. ii. canto iii. line 41). And perhaps no more perfect example of its use can be produced than Shakespeare's 'Full fathom five thy father lies.' A fine example of its effect occurs in the lines of Coleridge: 'The fair 6reeze Wew, the white /oam /lew, The /urrow /ollowed free.' The use of alliteration is not confined to poetry, however. In Anglo-Saxon prose, the homilies of ^Ifric contain long passages where alliteration is consistently employed. It was also one of the distinctive features of the euphu- ism which Lyly (q. v.) made fash- ionable at the court of Elizabeth, but it has never been extensively employed in English prose. Alliteration in rhyme and folk sayings is also a strong character- istic of Finno-Ugrian speech. In modern German literature it has been used with good effect by Goethe, Heine, W. Jordan, and Richard Wagner. Consult Guest's English Rhythms (ed. by W. W. Skeat) ; Saintsbury's History of English Prosody from the Twelfth Century to the Present Day (1907). Ariium, a genus of Lihaceae, including about 250 species, na- tives chiefly of the temperate and colder regions of the Northern Vol. I. —Mar. '16 Hemisphere. They are peren- nial, or more rarely biennial, her- baceous plants, with bulbous roots, flat linear or cylindrical leaves, and flowers on a central stem — sometimes accompanied Allium. 1, Floret; 2, bulb. by bulbils, arranged in dense heads or umbels, which may fall off and develop new plants. Gar- lic, Onion, Leek, Shallot, Chive, and Rocambole (qq. v.) are spe- cies of this genus in common cul- tivation. They possess a sul- phurous volatile oil, to which the acrid taste and characteristic odor of the genus are due. Allman, 61'man, George James (1812-98), Scottish zoologist; re- gius professor of botany in Dub- lin University (1844-55); regius professor of natural history and keeper of Natural History Muse- um, Edinburgh (1855-70); presi- dent of the British Association (1879); was a learned student of the lower forms of animal life. He wrote : Monograph of the Fresh- water Polyzoa (1856); Monograph of the Gymnoblastic Hydroids (1871-2). All-mouth, a fish. See An- gler. Alloa^ al'o-a, seaport on the River Forth, in county Clack- mannan, Scotland; 35 miles northwest of Edinburgh. It has a good harbor; and shipbuilding is carried on. There are brew- eries, distilleries, worsted facto- ries, pottery works, and glass and iron manufactures. Coal is ex- ported. Pop. (1911) 1L893. Allobroges, a-lob'ro-jez, a tribe of ancient Gaul who dwelt be- tween the Rhodanus (Rhone) and the Isara (Isere), as far north as the Lacus Lemannus (Lake of Geneva). Their chief town was Vienna (Viennc). They were conciuered in 121 B.C., but not finally pacified until Julius Caesar settled the country. In 63 B.C. Catiline intrigued with their em- bassy, and was betrayed by them to Cicero. Al'locu'tton, the formal ad- dress or exhortation by a Roman general to his soldiers; hence the public addresses of the pope to his clergy or to the Church gener- ally. The papal court makes use of this method of address when it desires to guard a principle which it is compelled to give up in a par- ticular case, or to reserve a claim for the future which has no chance of recognition in the pres- ent. The Pope's allocutions are affixed to the door of the Vatican. Allodial, a-16'di-al, a legal term denoting strictly the independent ownership of land as distin- guished from feudal tenure. Prior to the establishment of Feudal- ism (q. V.) all lands were allodial. That system, however, converted all holdings by a subject into tenancies or estates, the land be- ing held of a superior lord, and all lands in the state being held, mediately or immediately, of the king as lord paramount. Thus in England the crown is considered as the only allodial or indepen- dent land owner, all others hold- ing their lands in subordination. In the United States, the title to land is essentially allod al, ev- ery tenant in fee simple having unqualified dominion over it; and though technically the land is said to be in fee, implying a feud- al relation, actually no such rela- tion exists. In some States the lands have been formally declared to be allodial. See Property; Real Property; Tenure. Allogamy, a-log'a-mi, cross fer- tilization in plan ts. See Flower ; Sex. Allop'athy (Greek, alios, 'oth- er,' pathos, 'disease'), a mode of curing diseases by producing a condition of the system opposite to that characteristic of the dis- ease; a name invented by Hahne- mann to indicate the standard system of medical treatment, as opposed to homoeopathy (q. v.). Allori, al-lo're, Cristofano (1577-1621), Florentine painter; studied under his father, Alessan- dro Allori (1535-1607), and under Santo di Tito. His chief work, Judith with the Head of Holo- f ernes, in which the beautiful Judith is the portrait of his mis- tress, and the head of Holofernes that of himself, is in the Pitti Gallery, Florence. He also paint- ed admirable portraits of distin- guished contemporaries. Allotment, the distribution among subscribers of the shares of stock of a corporation or of corporate or other bonds (see Stock). In England the term is more commonly employed to de- note the distribution among cot- tagers or small farmers of waste lands to be devoted to agricul- ture, under the Allotments Acts. Allot'ropy, the faculty pos- sessed by certain chemical ele- ments of existing in forms that ^lowance 178 Alloys possess entirely different proper- ties while still being composed of the same kind of atoms. Phos- phorus, sulphur, carbon, silicon, and oxygen exhibit this property in a striking degree. Two kinds of phosphorus are well known — one a colorless, wax-like solid, ex- ceedingly poisonous and sponta- neously inflammable; the other a red powder, neither poisonous nor spontaneously inflammable. Each can be converted into the other without adding to or taking from it; they are both composed only of phosphorus; and when burned, equal weights of them yield the same weight of phos- phorus pentoxide. Lampblack, graphite, and diamonds consist solely of carbon; yet they all ap- pear very different. Allotropy is believed to be due to a difference in the arrange- ment of the atoms in the mole- cule; this is known to be the case in the intimately related oxygen and ozone, of which the former molecule contains two atoms (O2) , the latter three (O3). There is also a varying energy content, as different forms give out a differ- ent amount of heat when burned. Similar phenomena in com- pound substances are known as Polymerism (q. v.) and Isomer- ism (q. v.). Allow'ance, in a military sense, is additional money allowed an officer, soldier, or regiment for a particular purpose or expense, in lieu of provisions, clothing, horses, or barracks. In the U. S. Army, the term is also used for the sup- plies themselves, or for the quan- tity allowed. Al'loway, village, near the mouth of the River Doon, parish of Ayr, Ayrshire, Scotland. It contains the cottage, now con- verted into a museum, in which Robert Burns was born. The 'haunted kirk,' now in ruins, where Tam o' Shanter saw the dance of the witches, stands a quarter of a mile from the poet's birthplace. Alloys. An alloy is usually a mixture or compound of two or more metals (see Metals); al- though in some cases the mixture of a metal and a non-metal — e.g., steel and carbon — is also called an alloy. Some alloys, especially of the precious metals, occur in nature — as gold, which is never found pure, but contains silver or copper; and platinum, which al- ways occurs with one of its asso- ciated elements, as iridium. Al- loys are usually prepared artifi- cially, by fusing the components together in order to impart spe- cial properties, such as to in- crease hardness, fusibility, or toughness, to alter color, or to give a definite electrical resist- ance. Thus, carbon and man- ganese harden iron; tin and bis- muth lower the melting point of Vol. I.— Mar. '16 lead; arsenic toughens copper, and aluminum increases its te- nacity. Sometimes a second met- al makes the first cast sounder; thus, aluminum is added to steel, and phosphorus to copper. Alloys are either (1) mechani- cal mixtures which may be con- sidered to be solidified solutions of one or more components in each other; (2) definite chemical compounds; or (3) mixtures of these two classes. Some metals unite with evolution of heat, oth- ers with absorption: aluminum- copper, platinum-tin, and bis- muth-lead belong to the former class; lead-tin to the latter. When mercury is mixed with an- other metal, the compound is termed an amalgam (q. v.). Alloys retain the essential properties of metals — e.g., they possess metallic lustre, and con- duct heat and electricity well. But when the metals form com- pounds with certain non-metallic elements, as sulphur or chlorine, their general properties are quite changed. In an alloy the specific heat and the coefficient of expansion are always the means of those of its component metals. But in other physical properties a varia- tion takes place. This is the case with specific gravity, which may be the mean of the constituent metals, or greater or less than the mean. Increase in density indi- cates that the metals have con- tracted — i.e., that the metallic molecules have approached each other more closely ; while decreavse in density denotes a separation of the molecules to greater distances from each other. The strength of cohesion ot an alloy is generally greater than that of the mean co- hesion of the metals contained therein, or even of that of the most cohesive of its constituents, A curious fact may be men- tioned in regard to the solubility of alloys. Platinum by itself is quite insoluble in nitric acid, but if it be alloyed with silver the compound may be completely dis- solved. Silver, on the other hand, readily dissolves in nitric acid, but it will not do so when mixed with a large quantity of gold. Important Alloys. — The most useful alloy in the arts is brass. Several kinds are made, varying in composition from equal parts of copper and zinc, to 5 parts of copper with 1 of zinc. (See Brass.) Copper and tin form a number of well-known alloys, among them bronze, gun metal, bell metal, and speculum metal (qq. v.). In these the propor- tions vary from equal parts of copper and tin, to 10 parts copper with 1 of tin. Aluminum bronze (q. v.), an alloy resembling gold in appearance, varies in composition from 95 of copper and 5 of aluminum to 90 of cop- per and 10 of aluminum. Man- ganese bronze is brass with a small percentage of manganese. German silver (q. v.) is an alloy composed, in its best quality, of 2 parts of zinc, 4 of copper, and 1 of nickel. Cupro-nickel for bullets is 80 copper and 20 nickel. Bab- bitt metal for machinery bearings contains 70 to 85 copper, 5 to 20 tin, and the rest antimony or zinc; white beaj-ing metal is 76 lead, 18 antimony, 6 tin. Britan- nia metal (q. v.) generally con- sists of about 90 parts of tin, 8 of antimony, and 2 of copper. Nickel-copper alloys are used in the United States. Belgium, and Germany for coins. Pewter (q. v.) is a tin alloy which was more used formerly than now, and common- ly consists of 4 parts of tin to 1 of lead. Type metal (q. v.) is a com- pound of lead, antimony, and tin; fusible metal (q. v.) is an alloy of variable composition that melts at low temperatures. Soft solder is a mixture of tin and lead; hard solder, of copper, zinc, and other metals (see Soldering and Braz- ing). An alloy formed of 9 parts of platinum and 1 of iridium is em- ployed for the standard metre measures by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, as well as for the standard metre itself, deposited in the Bureau des Archives of France in Paris. A copy of the latter is also pre- served in the office -of the U. S. Geodetic and Coast Survey at Washington, D. C. Iron and Steel Alloys. — Iron and manganese unite in all pro- portions: steel with 14 per cent, manganese is very hard, tena- cious, and ductile; ferro- man- ganese is cast iron with 30 to 85 per cent, manganese. Up to 7 per cent, nickel increases the te- nacity of steel; from 8 to 15 per cent, the alloys are brittle; from 20 per cent, upward the alloys are tough, malleable, and almost non- corrodible. Steel with 2 per cent, chromium is hard, and re- sists penetration to a high degree; ferro-chrome may contain 80 per cent, chromium and 11 percent, carbon. From 1 to 2 per cent, aluminum hardens steel; in pig iron it causes separation of graph- ite; in steel it helps to produce good castings; ferro-aluminum generally has 10 per cent, of the latter. For these and other steel alloys, see the article Steel, Al- loy Steels. Gold and Silver Alloys. — The proportion of alloy in gold and sterling silver coin and plate is regulated by law. Sterling silver consists of 11 oz. 2 dwt. of silver and IS dwt. of copper in the troy pound — i.e., it contains 7.5 per cent, of copper. When gold is to be used for coins, jewelry, or plate, it requires to be alloyed with copper or silver, or with AU Saints Bay 179 Alma College both, in order to harden it. There are five legal standards for articles made of gold — i.e., al- loyed gold, apart from coin. These are commonly 22, 18, 14, 12, and 10 carat gold. These figures represent the number of parts of pure gold in every 24 parts of the alloy used by the goldsmith or jeweller. English sovereigns are made of a mixture of 22 parts gold to 2 of copper, and this is called 22-carat or standard gold. In Germany, Italy, and the United States, standard gold for the coin- age is 21.6 carats. In the United States, it is de- clared by law that the standard for both gold and silver coins shall be such, that of 1,000 parts by weight, 900 shall be of pure metal, and 100 of alloy. That is to say, the gold coins and the silver coins consist respectively of 900 parts of either gold or silver, with 100 parts of copper alloy, which may contain a certain neg- ligible amount of silver. See Metallurgy; Electro- Metallurgy; Soldering and Brazing. Consult Hiorns' Mixed Metals; Roberts-Austen's Introduction to Metallurgy; Thurston's Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys; Howe's Iron, Steel, and Other Alloys; Brannt's Metallic Alloys (3d ed. 1908). All Saints Bay, province of Bahia, Brazil; 37 miles long, and 27 miles wide. It is an excellent harbor, guarded by the island of Itapasica (18 miles long, 3 wide). The town of Bahia (q. v.) is on the northern side. All Saints Day (Nov. 1), All- Hallows-Tide, All Hallows, or Hallowmas, a church festival, dedicated to all the saints collec- tively, which originated in the seventh century when the Pan- theon at Rome was consecrated as the Church of the Blessed Vir- gin Mary and All Martyrs (608). The festival was finally author- ized by Gregory iv. in 835. See Halloween. All Souls College. See Ox- ford. All Souls* Day (Nov. 2) , a fes- tival of the Roman Catholic Church, that has for its object to assist souls in purgatory by pray- ers and almsgiving. It was first instituted in 993 at the monas- tery of Cluny, from which the observance quickly spread every- where. All'spice, the dried, unripe berry of a species of Pimento (q. v.), an evergreen tree of the order Myrtacese, native to the West Indies, and chiefly culti- vated in Jamaica. It is about the size of a small pea, and has a warm, aromatic flavor suggestive of cinnamon, clove, and nutmeg, a characteristic from which it de- rives its name. The name is sometimes applied to other aro- VOL. I. — Mar. '10 matic plants, such as the Caly- canthus (q. v.). All'ston, Washington (1779- 1843), American painter and au- thor, was born in Waccamaw, S. C, and was graduated from Allspice, with Flower and Fruit. Harvard (1800). He studied art under Benjamin West at the Royal Academy, London, at Paris, and at Rome. In 1811 he established a studio in London, where he worked until his return to Ameri- ca in 1818. He passed the re- mainder of his life in seclusion at Cambridge, Mass. He was a man of lofty aspirations, but a poet rather than a painter; and his art, though often admirable as a dec- oration, was too little bavsed upon nature to be of the highest rank. Among his important canvases are: Dead Man Revived (1810, Academy of Fine Arts, Philadel- phia) ; St. Peter Liberated by the Angel; The Prophet Jeremiah (Yale College) ; Belshazzar s Feast (Boston, unfinished) ; Spalatro's Vision of the Bloody Hand; The Flood, and A Spanish Girl (Met- ropolitan Museum, New York City) ; portraits of Benjamin West (Boston) and S. T. Coleridge (National Portrait Gallery, Lon- don) . His literary work includes : The Sylphs of the Seasons (poem, 1813); Monaldi (novel, 1841); Lectures on Art (1850). Consult J. B. Flagg's Life and Letters. All the Talents Ministry. See Grenville, Lord. Allu'vion takes place where land is gained from the sea by the washing up of sand and earth. By the law of England, if the addition to the soil thus made be by small and imperceptible de- grees, it goes to the owner of the land immediatel}^ behind; but if the alluvion be a sudden and con- siderable acquisition from the shore, the ground acquired shall belong to the crown. In the Unit- ed wStates, alluvion signifies the increase of the earth on a shore or the bank of a river by the force of the water, gradually and imper- ceptibly made. The proprietor of the bank is the gainer, as in England. Where an open space by the water's edge is public, the public is entitled to the alluvion. See Accretion. Allu'vium, in Geology, depos- its which were supposed to have been formed subsequent to the Flood, while diluvium included the strata produced by it. In modern geological classification, these two terms have ceased to be used in this sense. By alluvium is now meant any earthy material deposited by the ordinary opera- tion of water. It includes all stream deposits, such as accumu- lations of sand, mud, gravel, boulders, etc., in river beds and at the foot of mountain slopes; deposits left by inundation of flood plains, lacustrine deposits, river bars, river deltas. See Delta; Denudation. Allward, Walter Seymour (1875), Canadian sculptor, was born in Toronto. When nineteen years old he was commissioned to execute the figure of Peace that surmounts the Northwest Rebel- lion Monument in Queen's Park, Toronto. Other works by him, all in Toronto, include busts of Lord Tennyson and Sir Wilfrid Lau- rier; heroic statues of Gen. J. G. Simcoe and Sir Oliver Mowat; the South African Monument, commemorating the Canadian heroes in the Boer War; and the monument of J. Sandfield Mac- donald (1908). Al'ma, city, Gratiot county, Michigan, on Pine River, and the Ann Arbor and Pere Marquette Railroads; 90 miles northwest of Grand Rapids. It is the seat of Alma College (q. v.). Chief in- dustries are flour mills, beet sugar factories, and the manufacture of furnaces, auto trucks, gas en- gines, and lumber products. Pop. (1900) 2,047; (1910) 2,757. Alma, al'ma, river in Russia, rises in the Chatyr-dagh, flows west, and falls into the Black Sea near Cape Lukul, 17 miles north of Sebastopol harbor. This river was forced in a brilliant engage- ment by the Anglo-French army on Sept. 20, 1854, during the Crimean War (q. v.). Almacantar. See Almucan- TAR. Almack*s, ol'maks. About the year 1763 a Scotsman named M'Caul opened a gaming club in Pall Mall, London, known as Almack's Club. It was famed for high play, and included among its members the Duke of Port- land, C. J. Fox, Gibbon, and W. Pitt. In 1765 M'Caul opened large Assembly Rooms in King Street, St. James's, London, where fashionable subscription balls were held during more than seventy years. He died wealthy in 1781, bequeathing the rooms to his niece, after whom they were called 'Willis'.' They were closed in 1890, but were later re- opened as a restaurant. Alma College, a coeducational institution located at Alma, Mich., established in 1887 under Almada 180 Almanac the auspices of the Presbyterian Church. It specializes in the liberal arts course, granting the degrees of a.b. and b.s. In 1915 there were 23 instructors and 285 students; the library contained 25,750 volumes. The buildings and grounds were valued at $172,823; the endowment funds totalled $401,000; and the budget was $37,000. Its largest bene- factor was Am mi W. Wright, whose gifts amounted to more than $400,000. Almada, al-mii'da, town, Es- tremadura province, Portugal, on the Tagus River, opposite Lis- bon. The fortress of San Sebas- tian occupies the heights above the town. It is an important wine centre. The Adissa gold mines are in the vicinity. Pop. 8,000. Almaden, al-ma-dan', town, province Ciudad Real, Spain; 48 miles southwest of Ciudad Real. It is noted for its rich quicksilver mines, yielding an annual output of 2,500,000 pounds. Pop. 8,500. Almagest, al'ma-jest, the Arab title of the principal work of Ptolemy (q. v.), the Alexandrian astronomer. This monumental treatise, composed between 140 and 150 a.d., is divided into thir- teen books. The first two con- tain introductory matter, and lay down as postulates the sphericity of the earth, and its immobility at the centre of the revolving stellar sphere. The third treats of the length of the year, and of solar theory. The fourth deals with the theory of the moon, and an- nounces the discovery of an in- equality in its motion. The fifth book explains the construction and use of the astrolabe, and the method of determining lunar parallax. The sixth discusses solar and lunar eclipses. The seventh and eighth include an ex- position of precession, and a cata- logue of 1,028 stars. The con- cluding five books are occupied with the theories of the several planets, and give the improve- ments in epicyclical machinery by which the Ptolemiac system was laboriously perfected. The Almagest is the great codex of Greek astronomy. It embodies nearly all that was worth pre- serving, and maintained its au- thority during fourteen centuries. Almagra, al-ma'gra, the Arabic name of an ochreous earth of a fine deep red color, used in India for staining the skin, in Spain for coloring tobacco, and generally, under the name of Indian red, as a paint, and as a powder for pol- ishing silver. Almagro, al-mii'gro, town, Ciu- dad Real province, Spain; 12 miles vsoutheast of Ciudad Real city. It has important lace man- ufacture. Pop. 8,000. Almagro, Diego de (?1475- 1538) , S pa n i s h conq uistador, Vol. I.— Mar. "10 whose name is derived from the town near which he was discov- ered as a foundling. He emi- grated to America in 1514, and lived in turn at Darien and Pan- ama. He accompanied Pizarro on his successful expedition to Peru (1526-33), when the wealth of the Incas was won (see Pizar- ro, Francisco); but Pizarro withheld, from him his portion of the spoils. In 1535 the Emperor Charles v. made Almagro gov- ernor of the region which is now occupied by Chile, then called New Toledo. Pizarro had re- ceived a grant of the adjoining territory, and boundary disputes soon arose between the two. In the factional war that ensued, Almagro was finally defeated at Las Salinas (April 26, 1538), and shortly af terward executed . Con- sult Prescott's Conquest of Peru. Al'ma Ma'ter (Latin 'nourish- ing mother') is a name given to a university or higher school by those who have derived instruc- tion from it. Al-mamun, al-ma-moon', or Mamoun, called also Abdallah (786-833), one of the Abbaside dynasty of califs, son of Haroun al-Raschid, attained the throne of Bagdad after a war with his elder brother, Al-Almin, in 813. He continued the illustrious tradi- tions of his father; patronized learning; procured Arabic trans- lations of numerous Greek works on philosophy, astronomy, and medicine; and encouraged prac- tical science, especially astron- omy. He died in Cilicia during a campaign against the Greek Em- peror Theophilu:^. Al'manac, a word probably de- rived from the Arabic al-manah, 'the sun dial,' was originally ap- plied by Roger Bacon in 1267 to permanent tables showing the apparent movements of the heav- enly bodies. In general usage, Almanac refers to a year book of dates and tables giving a calendar of days and months, and usually including ecclesiastical fasts and feasts, the age of the moon, the tides, the exact time of the sun's rising and setting, dates of eclipses, and the position of the planets throughout the year. The earlier almanacs included numerous astrological predic- tions, brief treatises on theology, proverbs, poetry, and morals; the modern almanac partakes more of the nature of an encyclo- paedia, and in many cases is a storehouse of useful information and statistics. The oldest known copy of such a work, preserved in the British Museum, dates back to the times of Ramesos the Great of Egypt (1200 B. c). It is written on papyrus, in red ink, and covers a period of six years. The entries relate to religious ceremonies, to the fates of children born on given days, and to the regulation of business enterprises in accordance with planetary influences. Tables of this kind were un- doubtedly used by other ancient peoples, and the Roman fasti (q. V.) were in many respects akin to the almanac of to-day. Of a similar nature were the 'clog al- manacs,' squares of wood, brass, or bone notched to indicate Sun- days and other fixed festivals, which were introduced into Eng- land at the time of the Norman Conquest. From the thirteenth to the fifteenth century almanacs were written on vellum and parch- ment; and manuscripts of that period are preserved in the libra- ries of the British Museum and British universities. The first printed almanac was published in Vienna in 1457 by Purbach, and this was followed in 1473 by the almanac of Regio- montanus, covering the years 1475-1506. Engel of Vienna com- menced the publication of an almanac in 1491; Stbfier of Tu- bingen in 1524. In 1533 Rab- elais published, at Lyons, his al- manac for that year, and renewed the publication in 1535, 1548, and 1550. The first almanac printed in England was Richard Pynson's Kalendar of Shepardes (1497), translated from the French. It was soon followed by others, and in the later years of Henry viii. almanacs were in common use. Elizabeth and James i. granted a monopoly of the trade to Oxford and Cambridge and the Station- ers' Company, under whose pat- ronage flourished such produc- tions as Lilly's Merlini Ephem- eris (1644-81), Poor Robin's Al- manac (1664-1824) , and Moore's Almanac — the last named reach- ing an annual sale of more than half a million (1743-1820). In 1828 the British Almanac was first issued by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. Since 1870 the British Almanac and Companion have been the principal almanacs published by the Stationers' Company. Whit- aker's Almanack, started in 1869, has acquired a high reputation, and since 1913 has been sup- plemented by The International Whilaker. In France, prophetic almanacs were especially popular, particu- larly after the prediction of the death of Henry ii. in the alma- nac of Nostradamus. Henry ill. prohibited the insertion of any political prophecies, and the pro- hibition was renewed by Louis XIII. in 1628. In 1852 almanacs, among other national chapbooks, were pronounced so deleterious that their circulation was greatly restricted. At the present day, the most important French alma-, nac is the Almanack National (formerly Almanack Royal), be- Almanac 181 Almeida gun in 1679; the most popular is the Almanack Hachette. In Germany, the Almanack de Gotka, published annually at Gotha by the great geographical house of Perthes, has a cosmopol- itan character. It was begun in 1764, in the German language, in which it was continued until Na- poleon I. became emperor, when it was changed to the French lan- guage. Since the Franco-Ger- man War (1871) it has been pub- lished in both tongues. United States. — The first alma- nac printed in the United States was that of Captain William Pierce, issued in 1639; while the oldest almanac of which there is a copy extant was Samuel Dan- forth's, printed by Matthew Day in 1646. Another early almanac was the Kalendarum Pennsilvani- ense of Samuel Atkins, printed in 1685 by William Bradford. In 1732 Benjamin Franklin (q. v.) published the first issue of Poor Rickard's Almanac, which was continued for twenty-five years, and which was justly celebrated for its wit and wisdom. Ames' Astronomical Diary and Almanac, an annual cyclopaedia of informa- tion and amusement (1726-64), won much popularity. Nathaniel Low began his series of almanacs in 1762; Isaiah Thomas in 1774; Nathan Daboll in 1773; Charles R. Webster in 1758; Robert B. Thomas his Old Farmer' s A Imanac in 1793; and Dudley Leavitt his almanac in 1794. The last four of these are still issued annually. Since the beginning of the nine- teenth century the number of al- manacs has increased rapidly. Their constant use makes them valuable advertising mediums, and for this reason they are issued by various commercial enter- prises, especially patent medicine concerns, and distributed gratis. The various religious denomina- tions also publish almanacs or year books devoted to their in- terests, as do many of the trades and professions. The most im- portant and comprehensive pres- ent-day almanacs are issued by the large newspapers; these in- clude the New York World Al- manac and Encyclopcedia, Brook- lyn Daily Eagle Almanac, Chi- cago Daily News Almanac and Year Book, New York Globe Al- manac and Year Book, and New York Tribune Almanac and Polit- ical Register. In 1915 appeared the first number of the American Wkitaker Almanac and Encyclo- pcedia. Nautical Almanacs. — Of great scientific importance and indis- pensable information in astron- omy and navigation are the offi- cial almanacs published by many of the national governments. They contain full details of as- tronomical phenomena, especial- ly the elements used in finding a Vol. I.— Mar. '16 ship's latitude and longitude, the predicted positions of sun, moon, planets, and such stars as are use- ful to the navigator, etc. In the United States, the American Epkemeris and Nautical Almanac was first published in 1853, and is issued from the offices of the Navy Department at Washing- ton. It is printed three years in advance, for use on long voyages. In Great Britain, the Britisk Nautical Almanac (first projected in 1767) is published by the Ad- miralty. In France the corre- sponding astronomical almanac is the Connaissance des Temps (be- gun 1679), now published by the Bureau des Longitudes; in Ger- many, the Berliner Astronom- isches Jahrbuck. Almansa, al-man'sa, city, prov- ince Albacete, Spain; 40 miles southeast of Albacete. It pro- duces grain, saffron, and sheep, and has textile industries. Here was fought the great battle (April 25, 1707) which practically de- cided the war of the Spanish Suc- cession in favor of Philip v., duke of Anjou. Pop. 12,000. _ Al-Mansur, al-man-soor' ('the Victorious'), title assumed by Abu- J AFAR (c. 707-775), second calif (754) of the dynasty of the Abbasides. He was a cruel and treacherous prince, and perse- cuted the Christians in Syria and Egypt. In war he had but little success, Spain and Africa falling away from the eastern califate. He removed the seat of govern- ment to Bagdad, which he built (764) at immense cost. He caused the Elements of Euclid to be translated from the Syriac, and the fables of Bidpai from the Persian. Alma - Tadema, al-ma-ta'de- ma, Sir Lawrence (Laurens) (1836 - 1912), English painter, was born near Leeuwarden, Neth- erlands. He began the study of art at the Antwerp Academy un- der Gustav Wappers, and later entered the studio of Baron Henri Leys in Brussels. His early pictures were mainly illus- trative of Frankish life, and his first important works were Clo- tilde at the Tomb of Her Grand- children (1858) and The Educa- tion of the Children of Clovis (1861). In 1863 he turned to Egyptian subjects; and a few years later devoted himself to de- picting ancient Greek and Roman life. In 1870 he removed to Lon- don; became a naturalized British subject (1873); was elected a member of the Royal Academy (1879); and was knighted (1899). lie was also honored by many British and foreign art associa- tions and educational institu- tions. His work is characterized by tliorough knowledge of arcluc- ology, enabling him to depict with great fidelity the ancient civilization of the Franks, Egyp- tians, and Greeks; by scholarly composition; and particularly by effective painting of marble and bronze. Prominent among his canvases are the following: How They Amused Tkemselves in Egypt 3,000 Years Ago (1863) ; Fredegonda and Pretextatus (1864); An Egyptian at His Doorway (1865); Entrance to a Roman Tkeatre (1866); Pyr- rhic Dance (1869); The Vintage Festival (1870); A Reading from Homer; A Roman Emperor (1871) ; TheDeatk oftke First Born (1873) ; A Picture Gallery, and A Sculp- ture Galley (1874); Four Seasons (1877); Fredegonda (1878); On the Way to the Temple (1879); Sappko (1881); Hadrian in Brit- ain (1884); The Apodyterium (1886) ; The Woman of Ampkissa (1887) ; Tke Roses of Heliogabalus (1888) ; Caracalla and Geta; Spring (1894); Gold Fisk (1900); Tke Finding of Moses (1905) ; A Fam- ily Custom (1909); Voices of Spring (1910). Consult Lives by G. M. Ebers, P. C. Standing, and Zimmern; W. C. Monkhouse's Britisk Contemporary Artists; R. Dircks' Tke Later Work of Alma Tadema (1910). Alma - Tadema, Laurence, English author, daughter of Sir L. Alma-Tadema (q. v.), was born in Brussels, Belgium. Since 1870 she has lived in London. In 1907-8 she gave a series of public readings in the United States. She has published: Tke Crucifix; Loves Martyr; Realms of tke Un- known King; Wings of Icarus; Fate Spinners (1900); Herb o' Grace (1901); Songs of Woman- kood (1903); Four Plays (1905); Tales from My Garden (1906); Meaning of Happiness, and A Few Lyrics (1909); Poland, Rus- sia, and tke War (1915). Almeh, al'me, Alme, or Almai (Arabic dlim, 'wise,' 'learned'), a class of Egyptian singing girls in attendance at festivals, entertain- ments, or funerals. The Ghawa- zee, or dancing girls, are of a lower order. See Nautch Girls. Almeida, al-ma'i-da, fortress, province Beira, Portugal, be- tween the River Coa and the Spanish frontier. It was taken by the Spaniards in 1762, and by the French in 1810. Pop. 2,300. Almeida, town, Espirito Santo, Brazil, on the Reis Magos River; 20 miles north of Victoria. The Jesuits formed the first settle- ment here in 1580. Pop. 5,000. Almeida, Francesco d' (d. 1510), famous Portuguese soldier, son of the second count of Abran- tes. For his services against the Moors he was made (1.505) vice- roy of the Portuguese possessions in the East Indies. He fortified existing factories, or established new ones, at Cannanore, Cochin, and Quilon, and in Ceylon and Mauritius. Important events of his administration were the con- Almeida- Garrett 182 Almond elusion of a commercial treaty with Malacca, and the discovery of Madagascar and the Maldive Islands by his son. In 1507 he ravaged Goa and other seaports on the coast of Hindustan, and destroyed the Moslem fleet at Diu. When Albuquerque arrived from Portugal with orders to su- persede him, Almeida refused at first to give way; but in 1509 he sailed for Europe, and was slain in an engagement in Saldanha Bay, South Africa. Almeida-Garrett, al-ma'i-da- gar-ret', Joao Baptista da Silva Leitao d' (1799-1854), Portu- guese poet, was born in Oporto. He played an active part in the liberal movement of 1820, and subsequently devoted himself to the high task of founding a na- tional and romantic drama. He is the author of some of the best dramas of modern Portuguese literature — e.g., Auto de Gil Vi- cente (1838); Dona Filippa de Vilhena (1840) ; Alfageme de San- tarem (1841); Frei Luiz de Sousa (1844) ; Camoens (1825), a poem in which he sings the praises of the famous poet of his fatherland ; the epic Dona Branca (1826) ; the poems Bernal-Francez (1829) and Lirica de Joao Minimo (1829); Romanceiro (3 vols., 1851-3), a collection of Portuguese folk tales; Folhas Cahidas (1852), a volume of lyrics, and his finest production. Almeirim, al-ma-ren', town, district Santarem, Portugal; 42 miles northeast of Lisbon; for- merly the summer residence of the kings of Portugal. Pop. 6,000. Almelo, al-ma-16', town, prov- ince Overyssel, Netherlands; 21 miles by rail northeast of Deven- ter. There is linen manufacture. Pop. 10,500. Almendralejo, al-men-dra-la'- ho, town, province Badajoz, Spain; 31 miles southeast of Bad- ajoz city. Grain, oil, and wine are produced. Pop. 13,000. Almeria, al-ma-re'a, province of Southeast Spain, extends from the slopes of the Alpujarras range to the Mediterranean. It ^s inter- sected by the Rivers Almeria and Almanzora. Prod uces f ruit , wine, and olives. Almeria province consists of the eastern portion of the ancient kingdom of Granada. Area, 3,300 square miles. Pop. 355,000. Almeria, capital of Almeria province, Spain, and an impor- tant Mediterranean port, is situ- ated on the Gulf of Almeria; 120 miles east of Malaga. It is a bishop's see, and has a Gothic cathedral built in 1524. On the hills to the west of the city are the ancient castle of San Cristo- bal and the old Moorish alcazaba. The harbor is large (177 acres) and well fortified, and is sheltered by two long piers. There is ex- VoL. I.— Mar. '16 port trade in fruits, especially grapes, for which the city is fa- mous; iron, lead, copper, zinc, and esparto grass. Sugar, white lead, and macaroni are manufac- tured. Almeria, founded by the Phoe- nicians, was known to the Ro- mans as Urci. It reached its highest prosperity under Moorish dominion in the Middle Ages. At that time it had about 150,000 inhabitants, and flourished alike in arts, industry, and commerce, being the great port of traffic with Italy and the East. It was captured by Alfonso vii. of Cas- tile in 1147; recaptured by the Moors; and came into the perma- nent possession of Spain in 1489. Pop. (1900) 47,326; (1910) 45,198. ! Almiqui, iil-me'ke, a small in- sectivore of Cuba, which, with its closely related species, the Agou- ta (q. V.) of Haiti, constitutes the family Solenodon. They are about the size and appearance of large rats, but with shrew-like head and teeth, and a long, naked tail. They dwell in moun- tainous country, remaining hid- den by day and seeking their food at night. Almissa, al-me'sa (Slav. 01- mis), town, Austria, on the Dal- matian coast; 13 miles southeast of Spalato. It has vineyards and wine industry. Pop. 16,000. Alraodovar del Campo, al-mo- do'var del kam'po, town, prov- ince Ciudad Real, Spain; 22 miles southwest of Ciudad Real city. It is in an important mining dis- trict. Pop. 13,000^ Almogia, al-mo-he'ii, town, province Malaga. Spain; 10 miles northwest of Malaga. Wine, figs, almonds, and raisins are pro- duced. Pop. 6,500. Almohades, al'mo-hadz, or Muwahhadis, a dynasty of Ber- ber princes who expelled the Al- moravides (q. v.) , and who reigned over a large part of Northwest Africa and the southern half of Spain during the twelfth and thir- teenth centuries. Founded as a Moslem sect by Mohammed-ibn- Tumart, the Almohades con- quered Morocco under Abd-ul- Mumen, and extended their power to Spain, transferring their capital to Seville in 1170 under Abu Yakub (1163-84). Yakubi., or El Mansur ( 1 184-99) , inflicted a defeat upon the Castilians at Al- arcos in 1195; but his successor. En Nasir (1199-1214), was de- feated by the kings of Aragon, Castile, and Navarre at the Bat- tle of Navas de Tolosa (1212). The Almohades lost all power in Spain during the next few years; but they continued in Morocco until 1269, when the revolt of the nomad tribes put an end to their rule. Consult Ibn-Khaldun'sf/w- toire de Berberes (French transla- tion); Dozy' s Histoire des Almo- hades (French translation). Almon, al'mon, John (1737- 1805), London bookseller and journalist, was born in Liverpool. Establishing himself in Piccadilly as a book and pamphlet seller, he edited and issued numerous mis- cellaneous publications, among which were the Parliamentary Register (1774) and the General Advertiser (1784). In 1770 he was fined $50 for selling a paper containing a reprint of Junius' Letter to the King. He was a friend of John Wilkes (q. v.) for thirty years, and issued his Cor- respondence (5 vols., 1805). Almond, a'mund, the name ap- plied both to the tree and the fruit of a genus (Prunus amygda- lus) of the order Rosaceae, native to Western Asia and Northern Almond. a, Flower; h, fruit. Africa, but now found growing throughout Southern Europe. The almond tree, which is similar to the peach tree, is from 20 to 30 feet high; its flowers are similar to peach blossoms; its leaves lan- ceolate with serrated edges; and it has a peach-like fruit. The outer part of this fruit is a dry, fibrous husk, which gradually shrinks up and splits at maturity; the pit or stone is the almond of commerce. The wood of the al- mond tree is hard and of a red- dish color, and is used by cabinet makers. Almonds are of two kinds, Sweet and Bitter. Sweet almonds are hard, soft, and paper shell. They contain a large quantity of a bland fixed oil, emulsin, gum, and mucilage sugar; are of an agreeable taste, and very nutri- tious; and are used for desserts, in confectionery, and medicinally in an emulsion, which forms a pleasant, cooling, diluent drink. In commerce, the long almonds of Malaga, known as Jordan al- monds, and the broad almonds of Valencia are most valued. Bitter almonds contain the .same sub- stances as sweet almonds, and in addition amygdalin (q. v.), from which is obtained a peculiar volatile oil (see Almonds, Oil of). In the United States, almonds are cultivated chiefly in Califor- Almonds, Oil of 183 Alnwick nia, where they are grown by- budding into seedlings of either the bitter or sweet variety. They require a hght, well-drained soil, and are exceedingly resistant to drought. According to the U. S. Census, the production for 1909 was 6,793,539 pojinds, valued at $711,970. Large quantities are also imported from France, Spain, Italy, and the Levant. The Dwarf Almond {A. nana) is a low shrub (2-3 feet) similar to the common almond. Its fruit is also similar, but much small- er. It is used as an ornamental shrub. Almonds, OU of. The fixed oil of almonds is prepared from either bitter or sweet almonds by crush- ing and pressing. It is a glyceryl oleate with a mild, nutty taste, and a specific gravity of .910 to .915 at 25° c. (77° F.) . It does not solidify above 14° f. That pre- pared from sweet almonds is sim- ilar to olive oil, and is used as a substitute. The essential oil of almonds, or Benzaldehyde (CeHsCHO), is prepared from the cake that is left after the expression of the fixed oil from bitter almonds. The amygdalin (q. v.) of the bit- ter almond (see Almond) is bro- ken up by the emulsin, in the presence of water, into the vola- tile oil of almonds, prussic or hy- drocyanic acid (see Hydrocyanic Acid) and glucose. On distilla- tion the oil and prussic acid unite to form the crude essential oil of almonds. This is poisonous from the presence of prussic acid, but may be purified bj^ means of sul- phate of iron and lime. The yield of crude essential oil is variable, ranging from 4 to 9K lbs. from 1,000 lbs. of bitter al- monds; and this is again reduced by about 10 per cent, during its purification from prussic acid. It is employed as a flavoring agent, and in the manufacture of perfumes and dyes. A large pro- portion of the oil of bitter al- monds now used in commerce is prepared artificially from toluene, obtained from coal tar, which is chlorinated, and the product heated with lime and water under pressure. Al'moner, an official charged with the dispensing of gifts and alms. Of monastic origin, the office afterward extended to the households of sovereigns, feudal lords, etc., and to public institu- tions such as hospitals. The Grand Almoner of France was one of the principal officers of the court and of the kingdom, usually a cardinal. Almonte, al-mon'ta, town, Lanark district, Ontario, Canada, on the Canadian Pacific Railway; 35 miles southwest of Ottawa. It has machine shops and woollen and knit goods factories. Pop. (1901) 3,023; (1911) 2,452. Vol. I.— Mar. '16 Almonte, town, Huelva prov- ince, Spain; 35 miles southwest of Seville. Pop. 7,000. Almonte, Juan Nepomuceno (1803-69), Mexican general and diplomat, was born in Valladolid, and was educated in the United States. He served in the Texan War of 1836 on the staff of Santa Anna, and was captured at the Battle of San Jacinto. He subse- quently acted as minister of war under Bustamente, as minister to the United States (1841-6, 1853), and as minister to France (1857). In the Mexican War he took part in the Battles of Buena Vista, Cerro Gordo, and Churubusco. He became a partisan of Maxi- milian in the latter's invasion of Mexico; was made dictator of Mexico (1862); was appointed re- gent and grand marshal by Max- imilian (1864); and was again minister to France (1866-9). Almora, al-mo'ra, chief town, Kumaun division, Northwest Provinces, India, on a ridge in the Almora Hills, 5,450 feet above sea level. For centuries it was the stronghold of native rulers. Dur- ing the Gurkha War of 1815 it came into the possession of the British. Ramsay College is lo- cated here. Pop. 11,000. Almoravides, al-mo'ra-vidz, or MuRABTis, a Berber dynasty which reigned over North Africa and Southern Spain during the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Originating in a sect founded by Abdallah-ibn-Yasin, the Almora- vides began in 1053 to subjugate the Berber tribes of the desert. Led by Abu-Bekr, they extended their power to Morocco, which was completely conquered under Yusuf-ibn-Tashfyn. In 1080 this ruler also conquered the kingdom of Tlemcen, and in 1086 he crossed to Algeciras and defeated Alfonso VI. at Zalaca. When Yusuf died (1106), after a reign of forty years, his son Ali iii. suc- ceeded to a kingdom stretching from the Sahara to the Ebro. Madrid, Lisbon, and Oporfo were added to these dominions by Ali; but the ceaseless attacks by Christian armies, and the grow- ing power of the rival Almohades (q. v.). broke the dynasty of the Almoravides, which came to an end with All's son Tashfyn. Consult Ibn-Khaldun's Histoire des Berberes (French translation by vSlane) ; Dozy's Histoire des Musulmans d'Espagne (English translation by F. G. Stokes as Spanish Islam, 1913). Aim q vis t, alm'kvist, Karl Jonas LuDwiG (1793-1866), Swe- dish author, was born in .Stock- holm. In 1829 he became rector of a large school there, and sub- sequently devoted himself to lit- erature. He fled to America in 1851, having been charged with murder and forgery; returned in 1865, and lived at Bremen as Professor Westermann. He pub- lished: The Book of the Thorn Rose, a collection of romances; The Palace; It's All Right; The Mill at Skdllnora; Araminta May; Grimstahama' s Settlement. Almshouse, an institution for the charitable support of persons suffering from old age or poverty. See Poor Law. Almucantar, al'mu-kan'ter, or Almacantar, an astronomical instrument consisting of a small telescope carried by a float swim- ming in a tank of mercury, and revolving round an imaginary perpendicular axis, so as to de- scribe a small horizontal circle passing through the pole of the heavens. The transits of stars cutting this circle in different azi- muths give the means of deter- mining instrumental and clock corrections, the right ascensions and declinations of the stars, as well as the latitude of the place of observation. The method is com- promised by fewer risks of error than that of meridian determina- tions, to which it serves^as an al- ternative. An improved instru- ment of this type was invented and perfected between 1879 and 1884 by Dr. S. C. Chandler (q. V.) . Similar instruments have been erected at Durham Univer- sity, England, and at Case School of Applied Science, Cleveland, Ohio. In both a plane mirror is employed as an auxiliary to a horizontal telescope six inches in aperture. Almunecar, al-moon-ya'kar, seaport, Andalusia, Spain; 33 miles south of Granada. It has trade in cotton, sugar, and fruit. Pop. 8,000. Al'my, John Jay (1815-95), American naval officer, was born in Newport, R. 1. He entered the U. S. Navy as a midshipman (1829), was commissioned lieu- tenant (1841), and was active on the African coast in the suppres- sion of the slave trade (1843-5). He served in the Mexican War, assisting in the capture of Vera Cruz (1847). During the Civil War he was commander of the South Atlantic squadron, en- gaged in blockade service. Sub- sequently he was on duty in the Brooklyn Navy Yard, and was commander of the Pacific squad- ron. He was promoted commo- dore (1869) and rear-admiral (1873), retiring in 1877. Al'nus. See Alder. Alnwick, an'ik, town, North- umberland, England; 32 miles north of Newcastle. It was fre- quently besieged by the Scots be- tween 1083 and 1448. On the south bank of the river stands the castle of Alnwick, the residence of the dukes of Northumberland; al)()ut a mile to the west is Aln- wick Abbey, supposed to have been founded in 1147 by Eustace Fitz-John. Pop. (1911) 7,041. Aloe 184 Alp Arslan Aloe, al'S, a genus of Liliaceae, of about 100 species, native to the Mediterranean region, Western Asia, and South Africa, and ex- tensively naturalized in all warm countries. The species vary in height from a few inches to 30 feet; the leaves, arranged in -the form of a rosette, are permanent, thick and fleshy, lanceolate in African Aloe, Showing Inflores- cence and Section of Flower. shape, and with spiny margins; the flowers are small yellow or red tubular blossoms growing in clus- ters on simple or branched stems. Aloes are much cultivated as decorative plants, especially in public grounds and gardens. Their chief value, however, lies in their medicinal properties, the drug aloes (q. v.) being prepared from the juice of the leaves of certain species. A beautiful vio- let color, obtained from the leaves of the Socotrine aloe, affords a fine transparent medium for min- iature painting. The so-called American Aloe is a totally different plant (see Agave) . Aloes, the inspissated juice of the leaves of various species of aloe (q. v.), especially A. soco- Irina, perryi, purpurascens, spi- cata, arborescens, vera, arahica, linguiformis, and mitriformis. It is a stimulating, purgative drug with an intensely bitter tavSte, and owes its chief properties to active principles known as aloins. The chief commercial varieties are Socotrine, Barbadoes, Cape, East Indian, Clear, and Caballine aloes. Of these, only Barbadoes aloes (active principle, C17H20O7) and Socotrine aloes (active prin- ciple, CifiHieO?) are recognized by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. In the mouth and stomach, aloes in medicinal doses stimu- lates the secretions and acts as a bitter tonic. Its cathartic action is on the colon and rectum, and it also stimulates the flow of bile and tends to increase the men- 'Strual flow. Excessive doses of aloes may produce hemorrhoids through congestion of the pelvic vessels. Vol. I.— Mar. '10 Aloes Wood, Agila Wood, or Eagle Wood, called also Lign (Lignum) Aloes, is the heart- wood of certain species of Aqui- laria — trees related to the laurel, and native to Eastern Asia. It contains a dark-colored, fragrant, resinous substance, and when burned diffuses a sweet aromatic odor for which it is highly valued. As this wood admits of a high polish, and exhibits a beautiful graining, precious gems were for- merly set in it; and it was cut into fantastic forms and worn in head dresses, etc. Many medicinal virtues have been ascribed to it. Aloidse, al-o-i'de, Alceid^, or Aload^, in Greek mythology, Ephialtes and Otus, the gigantic sons of Iphimedia and Poseidon. They made war on the gods, and attempted to pile Mount Ossa upon Olympus and Pelion upon Ossa. Al'oins. See Aloes. Along, Allong, or Halong, a bay of the Gulf of Tong-king, to the northeast of the Red River delta. It has a fine sheltered road- stead. Alopecia, al-o-pe'shi-a or -si-a (Greek 'fox mange'), the tech- nical term for baldness. See Hair, Diseases of. Alopecurus. See Foxtail Grass. Alora, a'lo-ra, town, province Malaga, Spain; 20 miles north- west of Malaga. It is pictur- esquely situated on the River Guadalhorce, and has interesting mediaeval ruins. A fruit centre, especially famed for its Manza- nilla olives. Its mineral springs are highly valued. Pop. 11,000. Alo'sa. See Shad. Alost, a'lost (Flemish Aalst), fortified town, province of East Flanders, Belgium; 16 miles by rail southeast of Ghent. It con- tains the fine Church of St. Mar- tin. Linen, silk, and cloth are woven, and there is trade in hops. Pop. (1910) 33,895. Aloy'sia. See Verbena. Aloysius, St. See Gonzaga, LUIGI. Alpac'a {Lama pacos or Au- chenia pacos), a South American animal, a semi-domesticated rel- ative of the llama (q. v.), but smaller than the latter. The al- paca is a native of the Andes, from the Equator to Tierra del Fuego, but is most frequent in the high mountains of Peru and Chile, almost on the borders of perpetual snow, where it is kept in flocks by the Peruvian In- dians. In form it somewhat re- sembles the sheep, but differs from that animal in its longer neck and the erect carriage of the head. Its motions are free and active, its ordinary pace a rapid bounding canter. The eyes are large and beautiful. Although occasionally used as a beast of burden, the alpaca is chiefly prized for its long, fine fleece, which is of a silken texture, and of an uncommonly lustrous, almost metallic appearance. The wool, if regularly shorn, grows about 6 or 8 inches in a year; but if allowed to remain upon the an- imal for several years, attains a much greater length. Its color The Alpaca. varies from black to yellowish brown or almost white. The alpaca furnished the Peru- vian aborigines with material for blankets and ponchos; and about 1836 the wool began to be ex- ported to Europe through the efforts of Sir Titus Salt, whose mills at Saltaire are still the fore- most in Great Britain. The fab- ric manufactured is cool, light, and durable, ^yith a dull shine, and is used for fine clothing and for covering umbrellas. Much, however, of the ' so-called alpaca is a mixture of silk and wool, woven to resemble the texture ot true alpaca cloth. Attempts to accHmatize the alpaca in other countries have failed. Al'parga'ta, a kind of footwear used by the laboring classes of Spain and Central America. It has a sole of jute or hemp rope, with a low upper part of canvas, and is fastened by means of tapes sewed at the back, and tied around the ankle. Machinery has recently been invented for braiding the rope and forming the soles. In 1914 vSpain exported 637,242 dozen pairs, valued at $974,980. Alp Arslan, alp' iir-slan, 'Val- iant Lion' (1029-72), second sul- tan of the Seljuk dynasty of Per- sia, whose name, Mohammed- ibn-Daoud, was assumed on his conversion to Islam. He became ruler of Khorassan (1059), and of Persia (1063), his kingdom ex- tending from the Tigris to the Oxus. He captured Ca^sarea in Cappadocia (1067-8). and con- quered Georgia and Armenia. In his attempts against the Byzan- tine empire he was thrice defeat- ed by the Emperor Romanus Diogenes; but obtained a decisive victory in 1071, and captured the Emperor. Alp Arslan then marched upon Turkestan, but was killed by a prisoner whom he had condemned to death. Alpena 185 Alphabet Alpe'na, city, Michigan, coun- ty seat of Alpena county, on Lake Huron, and the Detroit and Mackinaw Railroad; 200 miles north of Detroit. Manufactures include saw, shingle, and veneer mills, machine shops, cement and paper factories, and tanneries. Lumber and mineral products are exported in large quantities. According to the U. S. Census for 1910, there were 58 industrial estabUshments, with $5,798,000 capital, and products valued at $3,964,000. Pop. (1900) 11,802; (1910) 12,706. Al'penhorn, or Alphorn, a long bugle horn made of wood, used by Swiss peasants, who by this means communicate with each other over long distances. Alpes-Basses. See Basses- Alpes. Alpes-Hautes. See Hautes- Alpes. Alpes Maritimes, alp ma-re- tem', the most southeasterly de- partment of France, on the shores of the Mediterranean and the confines of Italy; known as the French Riviera. It surrounds the independent state of Monaco. The department is roughly trian- gular in shape; its most northerly and highest point is the Cime de Tinibras. One of the most mountainous districts of France, its climate varies according to lo- cality, the genial winter of the coast contrasting greatly with the severity of the highlands a few miles inland. The mistral, which prevails in the winter months, brings intense cold, except to sheltered places. Large herds of sheep are pastured in the Alps in summer; olives, vines, and fruits are cultivated on the littoral; in the Plaine de Grasse large quan- tities of flowers are grown for the manufacture of perfumes. The silkworm is reared, and honey is largely produced and exported. The tunny, anchovy, and sardine fisheries are important. Capital, Nice. The department was cre- ated in 1860, when the left bank of the Var was ceded to France. Area, 1,482 square miles. Pop. (1901) 293,213; (1911) 356,338. Alph, 'the sacred river' of Coleridge's Kubla Khan, is an imaginary stream, althoughplaced by the poet in a real locality, the 'Xanadu' mentioned in Purchas his Pilgrimage as the site of the summer palace erected by Kublai Khan in the thirteenth century. Alpha and Omega, al'fa, o-me'- ga or o'mi-ga, the first and the last character of the Greek alpha- bet, a name applied to the Deity, who is the 'beginning and the ending' (Rev. i. 8). Alphabet (so called from alpha and beta, the first two Greek let- ters) means a set of graphic signs, denoting vSounds by whose com- bination words can be visibly represented. It is distinguished Vol. I.— Mar. '16 from other systems with such signs by having no pictures or ideograms (see Hieroglyphics) intermixed; from a syllabary by having no character express a consonant and vowel at once. Ideally, no letter should denote more than one sound, and these should be elementary; actually, some letters in all do double duty or even more, and some represent compound ones as well. Introductory. — Pure alphabetic writing is used by all leading modern peoples except Chinese and Japanese, and has a known history of nearly 3,000 years in about 200 forms, of which about 50 are now in use. Yet prob- ably only one was invented first hand, and the symbols even of that were not coined outright, but were selected from existent forms. This common parent — certainly of all living ones — is Semitic, which as Phoenician is found so well developed by about 900 ]g.c. as to prove a much ear- lier birth — although probably not before 1200 to 1000 B.C. Each new step in research reduces the number of alphabets supposedly independent of this one. The genesis of the alphabet was humbler, and therefore more practical, than that of our pro- jected 'universal languages' — Volapiik, Esperanto, Ido, etc. It was designed, not to supplant other languages, or even to be a key for understanding them, but only to simplify writing the in- ventors' own. Several peoples had systems for so doing, but these were - cumbersome and in- efficient; and when a much sim- pler one was found in use by sea traders, their customers eagerly adopted it. These systems all began as pictures: first as such only, to be understood as the objects them- selves (soldiers, boats, cattle, totems, etc.) ; then as ideograms, symbols of objects or ideas (hand to mouth for 'food' or 'hunger,' hand for 'five,' eye between two doors for 'to listen,' etc.); then as rebuses, implying not the thing, but its name. This last had three stages: first, the whole word, as if a cow and a cat for 'Cow-per' ; secondly, syllabic, as a Chinaman, a carpet, and a gopher for 'Chi-ca-go'; thirdly, that of initials only, but always mixed with the others, as a lion, an ass, and a sofa for 'lasso.' This series — pictorial, ideo- graphic, phonetic — is found to- gether before history begins, but conventionalized into rough sym- bols easier to make; sometimes still recognizable, oftener not. Several scripts by about 1500 B.C. had advanced to a mi.xed ideographic and phonetic like the Egyptian, or a syllabary like the Babylonian and Hittite, Cretan and Cypriote; these were clumsy, but not beyond practical use as business then was. Some Semitic people hit on the shorthand idea of dropping ideographs and vow- els alike; selected a set of conso- nants and semi-vowels to express the remaining sounds, and use as a counting system; and thus started on its course the greatest tool of civilization. This much seems certain: the alphabet is a Semitic invention (but see section Semitic Alphabets, further on). The order, forms, and names of letters confirm it, and the very name 'alphabet' wit- nesses it. Alpha and beta mean nothing in Greek, while their Se- mitic analogues mean 'ox' and 'house.' The oldest fairly dat- able alphabetic monument is the Moabite Stone (q. v.), 900-850 B.C.; older by perhaps a century are fragments of three bowls found in Cyprus, dedicated to Baal of Lebanon, with Phoenician inscriptions; from Sinjirli (Zen- jirli) are like Aramaic inscriptions of some 800 B.C.; while the Sabae- an script of South Arabia dates to 715 B.C., but began much earlier. All are written from right to left; contain consonants only (the characters given later vowel val- ues in the tables being consonants here), 22 in the first ones; and while differing so greatly in forms, values, and number of let- ters as to show that no one was copied from the other, were evi- dently all derived from a much older common source — as was the Greek, which has some forms an- tedating even the Cyprus bowls. Which Semitic stock framed the prototype is not provable; but few question the voice of anti- quity connecting it solely with the Phoenicians. Greek tradition is unanimous that Greece had its alphabet thence, and from the Greek spring the Latin and ours and the Slavonic. Sources of the Alphabet. — This provenance is often confuvsed with a totally different question: Where did they find their mate- rial? Did they simplify any one system, make an eclectic one, or invent the characters outright? The latter may be dismissed: they wrote things to read, not puzzles. Eight ideographic sys- tems are specially noted, of which three do not concern us — the Chinese, which also begot the Japanese syllabaries, and the Mexican and Easter Island pic- ture writing. The alphabet mak- ers' possible quarries are, there- fore: (1) the Egyptian hieratic, a script modification of the hiero- glyphics; (2) the Euphrates Val- ley cuneiform, whence sprang the Acha?monid Persian syllabary; (3) the Hittite, perhaps the ancestor of (4) the Cretan and (5) the Cypriote syllabaries; with (6) an imagined 'signary' apart from, and possibly independent in ori- Alphabet 185 A Alphabet gin of, all these, used in common by the Mediterranean peoples from 5000 B.C. onward (Professor Petrie's theory) ; and (7) an im- agined Semitic ideographic sys- tem from which the Phoenician letters were directly taken. The quest is along three lines — (1) history, (2) forms, (3) names. (1) History. — This leads no- where, with one significant excep- tion. The Phoenicians were close neighbors and trading partners of all these peoples. They formed the western and southern border, and were part of the natural sea- board of the Assyrian and Hittite empires; they had trading colo- nies in the Egyptian capitals, and borrowed art objects and designs from them; they lay across a nar- row sea from Cyprus, and were next the Philistines, themselves a refugee colony from Crete or the near Asian mainland after the Doric invasion. They might well use and remodel the system of any. But it is certain that what they did use about 1400 b.c. was the Assyro- Babylonian cunei- form, in which they sent all offi- cial and private correspondence to Egypt, and were answered in the same, not in Egyptian (the letters found at Tell-el-Amarna) . The new alphabet is the only system they are found using when the next later records appear; and though some centuries had elapsed, at no time would they have de- moralized business and displeased customers and officials by setting them to learn a cryptic system. On the other hand, there is no proof that they intended it for outside use; while the facts that every other country adopting it remodelled it to its own needs, and that Babylonia, its supposed mother, refused to adopt it at all, and simplified its own syllabary instead, evince that it was only for home. Historically, then, the choice lies between Babylonian and native Semite, leaning to the latter. (2) Names. — In this regard the facts are still stronger to the same effect. Twelve of the Phoenician letter names have familiar North Semitic meanings, six being from two parts of the body (hand, palm, eye, mouth, head, tooth, in this order), and the rest com- mon objects (ox, house, door, water, fish, 'his mark'; so J. P. Peters) ; in each set grouped in sequence by meaning (hand and part, head-parts, house and part, water and fish), whence the for- mer idea of phonetic sequence is wrong. Four more, as vSemitic consonant triliterals, are prob- ably unrecorded words; the other six are meaningless syllables. Of the twelve, eleven are found in the Babylonian syllabary, and Zimmern says eight belong to its shortened form, in the same order as in Phoenician. None of the Vol. I.— Mar. '16 names have any meaning in other languages. (3) Forms. — Here there is no outlet on any existent theory. Despite the above, cuneiform has no characters at all like the al- phabetic, though some scholars have forced a resemblance; others have called in the Babylonian nician, and the names none; the chronological bar is the same as above; and when Egypt did frame an alphabet, it seems to have been modelled on the Phoe- nician, not the reverse. The Cretan linear script divscovered by Arthur Evans and the Cypriote syllabary both have much greater Egyp- tian Hieratic. Semitic Greek Cyril- Latin Phce- nician Cyprus. Other North Semitic. Of Thera. Old Eastern. Old Western. lic I'D,, a sian). Oldest. Un- cial. V 4A 1 a A/1 Ci Q / 8 B i D D L D ■ m S -9 1 r 1 1 a r A LI f u r A 3c < D Q C d m 1 1 1 t — FY L V E e t -Jim -i- -r I -T- X Q 0 3 z B H B H W z BH CP ® 0ffiO 0 't' SSI 1 1 \ 1 V ^1 K K 1\ > K a' h/\ A l\ L X r M r I Y m. r N / f f 1 = + X X 0 ? o 0 V-v- 0 0 0 Go ■h- 7 P9 r n P n IP 9 9Q \ p n P SDH r w c r xjf. T T T T f Development Based on Phoenician 22-Letter Alphabet. hieroglyphics from which they sprang; but the Phoenicians would hardly have taken for a new commercial improvement a system many centuries disused. De Rouge's theory of a simplifi- cation of the Egyptian hieratic (of c. 2000 B.C.) long held sway, and still has some prestige, chiefly because Egyptian was studied first. But few of the forms really bear much likeness to the Phoe- resemblances to the alphabet, but less than some enthusiasts claim. Both names and forms were quite certainly taken from some one universally familiar source, that no one might be puzzled or hindeted; and it is absurd to sup- pose that in this new system the forms were not imderstood as rough pictures of the names. This suggests the true explana- tion, close to the oldest and obvi- Alphabet 185 B Alphabet ous one of the ideographic system, and kin to the 'signary,' both un- traceable : namely, that they were part of a common Semitic if not general Levant set of drawing symbols, used in schools and out- side, and their initial value recog- nized by all — like our 'A was an archer,' etc. (Clodd), where the pictures alone convey the alpha- bet to all adults, only in the East long conventionalized into popu- lar outlines. Several of them tell their own story even yet, the shapes being too pictograptaic to scout or mistake; e.g., the horns of aleph (ox), the fingers of yod (hand) and kaph (palm), the wave of mem (water), reduced for nun (fish), the round eye 'am, the notched tooth sin, and the 'mark' tau; the original square form of beth must have been what is still a child's picture of a house. Some show it to this day in the English alphabet, as Aa, B, Kk, Mm inverted, Oo, Tt. Both ob- jects and outlines were special to no country, were familiar from babyhood, and their values equal- ly so in all Semitic lands. The unfamiliar and now lost words probably had to be used because no familiar objects began with these letters; the mere syllables probably began none picturable, but the 'primers' most likely in- cluded sound signs also. It is very significant that never more than two picturable words come in succession without one of these apparently arbitrary signs be- tween; and that three of the syl- lables and two lost words are 'bunched' in one spot between daleth and yod. Did the primers thus insert hard signs between easy ones to make them easier for children to learn? That the alphabet was based on such direct picture forms was seen by the first speculators on its origin, and is now pityingly ig- nored as folk science. It is not the only case where rough com- mon sense has hit right, and over- subtle scholarship has wandered. The Semitic Alphabets. — The absence of vowels leads F. Pra- torius to deny that they were alphabets at all; merely sylla- baries with vowels understood, the Greeks really inventing the alphabet proper. But this seems fantastic; the number of vowels currently syllabizing the conso- nants in the cuneiform shows that they could not all have been understood, and the later device of adding them by points is equal evidence that they were needed. The facts seem rather to be, that vowels are less vital in vSemitic than Aryan tongues; that even so, as common with devices for brevity, it was at first overdone and afterward relaxed; and that even in Aryan they are conve- nient, but not indispensable. Take any sentence in this paragraph and Vol. I.— Mar. '16 devowelize it, and no one will have difficulty in understanding it. Phoenician script was also used by the Carthaginians, and by the Hebrews before the Exile (Siloam inscription), while the Maccabean princes revived it on their coins. The Samaritan alphabet is its most direct descendant. The Aramaic alphabet is of fundamental importance, because of its numerous descendants. It gradually assumes a distinctive character; by the fifth century B.C. the transformation is com- plete (inscription of Tema). Af- ter the Exile the Jews adopted this alphabet, and a distinctive Hebrew variety exists from the Christian era onward. The latter is marked by a tendency to bend final strokes round to the left (^ is the same letter as L). This was a step toward cursive writ- ing, which at last comes into use, although never in Bible Mss. The Syriac is another descendant of the Aramaic alphabet. As in He- brew, aspirated consonants were indicated by dots, and points or modifications of Greek vowels were used to indicate vocaliza- tion. From it, through the ac- tivity of Nestorian missionaries, was developed the Tibetan alpha- bet; and it is also the parent of the Iranian alphabets on the one hand, and of the Indian on the other. The former group in- cludes the Avestan script with the closely related Pahlavi alpha- bet, as well as Armenian and Georgian; while the Indian com- prises the Sanskrit characters with all their modifications, such as Pali, Gujarati, and Bengali. The Hebrew vowels date from the sixth or seventh century a.d., and the innovation may have fol- lowed a Syriac model. From a Nabatean variety of the Aramaic alphabet comes the Arabic. It has profoundly altered the characters of the parent al- phabet, and so confused seven of them that diacritical marks are required to distinguish them. There are now twenty-eight con- sonants. The numerical order of the alphabet is the old one, the six new consonants being at the end. The grammatical order is a rearrangement according to the present resemblance of the signs. The vowels are indicated only meagrely. The Sabaean or Himyaritic al- phabet of Southern Arabia seems to be a development of the primi- tive Semitic alphabet: Hommel thinks it the original, but is not followed. The dialect is usually divided into Sabaean proper and Minaean, with much the same al- phabet. The Ethiopian syllabary is an offshoot from it. Causes of Change. — Many causes have transformed the Se- mitic alphabet into offshoots al- most unrecognizable of kinship. Their divergences are : (1) innum- ber of letters, (2) in forms, (3) in values or pronunciation. (1) Number. — Quite the most peculiar feature in their history, significant of a single parentage and the unique conjunction that led to the birth of that, is their clinging near its scanty numerical limitation; though it fell far be- low representing even its own sounds, much less others'. Of course, in each case some new letters have had to be added, and old ones dropped or put to new uses, or the system would be un- serviceable; but to this day none has ever been made a full vehicle for the sounds of a language — sometimes scarce half; and none, left to natural growth, have gone very much beyond the original number of 22. Greek has 24; English, 26; Hebrew, 22, helped out with vowel points; Arabic, 28. Only those deliberately remade by scholars, as the Cyrillic (Rus- sian)- and Sequoyah's Cherokee alphabet, come near thorough- ness. (2) Forms. — Wholly new forms are rare, though not unknown. Its very nature, which must not be a cryptogram, but widely in- telligible, greatly restricts such inventions. Hence letters needed for extra sounds are usually va- ried by a slight 'lip,' or an exten- sion from old ones phonetically related: e.g., C G, I J, (/ c/, 2 2. Still, Anglo-Saxon added to the Latin alphabet the runic 'thorn' (p) ; and Cyril, having a free hand, extended the Greek script for Slavonic by new letters of un- known origin, such as K (zh) and 0) (sh), the latter still further differentiated in Russian to lu, (shch). Changes in form of letters re- taining their old relative place and value are sometimes made for ornament's sake by a class of scribes, but result far more from unpurposed variation through two great causes: (1) ease and speed gained by first simplifying them, then connecting them by ligatures not to lift the pen, the whole making havoc of old shapes ; (2) character of writing materials and instruments, the latter most- ly dictated by the former. Wood is cut with a sharp knife; wax and clay graven with a point or a blunt stylus; leaves, skin, and paper daubed with a brush or written on with a pen. Thus, runes are angular, not to split the wooden tablet; clay characters are wedge shaped ('cuneiform'), from the broad stroke narrowing as it closes; and writing on palm leaves, as in Ceylon, is round. With our own quill pens, the in- strument dictates the unshaded, blotty form, since if pressed hard it makes no mark at all; and va- rious shapes are made to favor it. Convenience also may change the Alphabet 186 Alphabet point of beginning a letter, and speedily transform it altogether. One great cause of change, hith- erto unnoticed, is that a scribe's eyes may see the image inverted vertically or sidewise (children often do this till trained), and the hand so draws it. This was greatly helped on, at first, by writ- ing i3ovo-Tpol C\)0 besides vertical inversions like w for 12, and half turns as M into 2, Phoenician aleph into A, etc. — parallelled in other systems and other characters. Of course, all these influences acted much more rapidly when an alphabet was 'edited' for a new people, who had no need of adhering to ac- cepted forms in fear of puzzling their correspondents. In modern times, printing has fixed the gen- eral forms beyond change. (3) Values. — Change in pho- netic values on a great scale takes place whenever an alphabet is applied to a new language, since in few cases do its sounds coincide exactly with the old. Signs thus useless may be utilized for quite alien sounds, or be mod- ified a little, and given ratably modified values. Both are con- stantly exemplified in the reduc- tion to script of languages previ- ously unwritten : the transcription, usually now in Roman letters, requires always numerous dia- critical marks (separate or at- tached), and some brand-new characters or the use of current ones for new purposes. Inverted Roman letters, Greek letters, fig- ures (especially 8), are a few of the devices to avoid cutting wholly new types. Values also change greatly inside national usage, which, besides, never is or was at all uniform. The former arises from its being utterly im- possible and undesirable to keep spelling abreast of the endless change in sonancy — a leading ar- gument used against 'scientific' spelling; and from almost no vowels and not all consonants being ever pronounced alike by all classes or in all districts at any time. Vol. I.— Mar. '16 Genealogy of the English AU phabet. — The Greeks must have learned the alphabetic system from Phoenician traders in the ^gean as early as the ninth cen- tury B.C. The forms underwent little change at first, and writing was probably right to left; some- what later it became boustrophe- don, already explained; and before 600 B.C. the more natural left-to- right was adopted. Between the ninth and seventh centuries the minuscules — the small letters of our Greek books — were evolved. By 550 B.C. the Greek alphabet, in all essential respects, had at- tained its final development. But it early began to separate into two types: the Eastern or Ionic, adopted as the official alphabet of Athens in 403 B.C., when the Thirty Tyrants were driven out; and the Western or Chal- Wie- land, and Schiller. Amalthsea, am-al-the'a, in Greek mythology, the nurse of Zeus, most frequently represent- ed as a goat. The legend runs that Zeus broke off one of the horns and endowed it with power to become filled with whatever its possessor desired. It thus became a symbol of prosperity and riches. Amana Community. See Communism. Amani'ta, a genus of fungi, nearly allied to the mushrooms (Agaricus). Several of the species are edible, notably the delicious Orange (A . Ccesarea) , but the ma- jority are poisonous. A. mus- caria, common in British woods, and found also in the United States, is one of the most dan- gerous fungi. It is sometimes called fly agaric. The cap is of an orange-red color, with white warts, the gills white, and the stem bulbous. It contains a bit- ter and narcotic principle, resem- bling in its physiological action that of Indian hemp (hashish), and is used by the natives of Kamchatka to produce intoxica- tion. Aman-Jean, a-man' jan', Ei> MOND Francois (1860- ), French portrait painter, was born in Chevry-Cossigny . He is essen- tially a decorative designer and portrait painter, his chief paint- ings including portraits of Jules Case and of Paul Verlaine, and the Jeune fille au Paon. In the Luxembourg there are two car- toons or tapestries — La beaute and Le regret du passe. The Carnegie Institute of Pittsburgh has his decorative panel La Vasque. He excels in pastel work. Amapala, a-ma'pa-la, town, Honduras, on the northern shore of Tigre Island, in the Gulf of Fonseca; about 950 miles north- west of Panama. It is the largest Pacific port of Honduras, and is also an important commercial out- let for Nicaragua and Salvador. Silver, hides, timber, coffee, and indigo are exported. Pop. 3,000. Amara, a-ma'ra, town, Tur- key, in Basra province, on the River Tigris; 180 miles south- east of Bagdad. Pop. 10,000. Am'aranth (Amaranthus) ,the leading genus of Amaranthaceae, an order differing from Cheno- podiaceae (q.v.) in the possession of a crowded bracteate inflores- cence and membranous perianth. A. caudatus ('Love-Lies-Bleed- ing') whose spikes are sometimes several feet in length. A. specio- sus, A . hypochondriacus ('Prince's Feather'), and other species, are common annuals. A. tricolor, from China, is cultivated in the Southern United States, and is popularly known as 'Joseph's Coat.' The dry red bracts which surround the flower of A. caudatus retain their freshness for a long time after being gathered, for which reason the plant has been employed from early times as an emblem of im- mortality. _ Amarapura, um-a-ra-poo'ra ' ('city of the gods') , a former cap- ital of Upper Burma, on the River Irawadi; 9 miles northeast of Ava. The greater part of the city was destroyed by a fire in 1810, and again by an earth- quake in 1839. In 1859 the court removed to Mandalay. A colossal bronze statue of Buddha is its chief feature. Little remains of the old city but some rows of beautiful trees and ruins of many famous pagodas. Pop. (1810) 170,000; now about 8,500. Am'ara-Sin'ha, or Amara- SiMHA, Sanskrit grammarian, who flourished, according to various authorities, in 56 B.C., the fifth century a.d., and the eleventh century, the second date being the most generally accepted. He was a Buddhist and his only surviving work is the Amara-Kosha, a Sanskrit vocabu- lary of about 10,000 words metrically arranged. Amargo'sa River, river of Nevada and Southern Cali- fornia, which flows into a deso- late region, below sea level, known as Death Valley or Amargosa Desert, lying between 36° and 37° n. lat. See Death Valley. Amari, a-ma're, Michele (1806-89), Italian historian. Ori- entalist, and statesman, was born in Palermo. In 1834 he published Fondazione della Mon- archia dei Normanni in Sicilia, and in 1841 Un Periodo delle Istorie Siciliane del Secolo XIII, a study of the Sicilian Vespers, which was quickly prohibited and he fled to France. He re- turned to Italy on the outbreak of the Sicilian insurrection of 1848, on its conclusion going to Paris, where he devoted himself to literary pursuits, and in 1859 returning to Italy to join Gari- baldi. He was made senator (1861), and was minister of public instruction (1862-4). He was professor of Arabic at Pisa, and afterward at Florence till his retirement in 1878. Other works are La Sidle et les Bour- bond (1849); Storia dei Musul- manni di Sicilia (1853-73); AUre Narrazioni del Vespro Siciliano (1886). Amaril'lo, city, Texas, county seat of Potter County, on the Fort Worth and Denver City, the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe, and Chicago, Rock Island, and Gulf Railroads; 300 miles northwest of Fort Worth. The city is in a rich agricultural and stock-raising district, and in the midst of rich oil and natural gas fields, and due to the com- mercial development of the whole region has had a remarkable growth in the past two decades. The leading industries are oil refining, grain elevators, zinc smelting, dairying, structural steel works, flour mills, helium gas plant, carbon black plants, and railway shops. Pop. (1910) 9,957; (1920) 15,994; (1930) 45,383. Amarna Tablets. See Tell- el-Amarna. A maryllidaceae, am-a-ril-i-da'- se-e, or Amaryllide^, a natural order of petaloid monocotyle- dons, essentially distinguished from Liliaceae by their inferior ovary, and including many spe- cies distinguished by the beauty of their flowers. There are nearly 1,000 known species, natives of tropical or sub-tropical, and more sparingly of temperate regions. Among these are different species of Narcissus, Amaryllis, Alstroe- meria. Pancratium, etc.; and to this order belong the Snowdrop, Snowflake, and American Aloe {Agave). See Agave; Amaryllis; Alstrcemeria; Blood Flower; Narcissus; Polianthes. A maryriis, a genus of bulbous- rooted plants of the order Am- aryllidacea?, formerly including many species now assigned to Vol. I.— 030 Amasa 200 Amazon other genera. A. belladonna, or the Belladonna Lily (q.v.). a native of South Africa, is the best known species. Others are A. formosissima, extensively cul- tivated as a garden flower, and bearing beautiful red blossoms; A. sarniensis, a hardy species commonly known as the Guern- sey Lily (q.v.); A. amahilis, A. josephincB, and A. vitlata. Amasa. See Joab. Amasia, a-ma'se-a, town, vila- yet of Sivas, Asia Minor, on the Yeshil Irmak; 100 miles south- east of Sinope. It has an excel- lent bazaar, a number of Moham- medan institutions for higher learning, and several missionary schools for the Armenian popula- tion. It is a centre of the silk industry, and exports silk, flour, and wheat. Pop. 60,000. Amasis, a-mc'sis, or Aahmes, the name of two ancient Egyp- tian kings, the first of whom reigned about 1600 B.C. Amasis II. (570-526 B.C.), under whose reign Egypt prospered greatly, opened the country to commercial relations with Greece, is said to have married a Greek wife, and was visited by Solon, Thales, and Pythagoras. In legendary lore it was he who advised Poly- crates to fling his ring into the sea. Amateur, in sports, according to the Intercollegiate Association of Amateur Athletics of America, 'one who engages in sport solely for the pleasure and physical benefits he derives therefrom, and to whom sport is nothing more than an avocation.' Dis- qualifications are declared to be: Competition for a reward di- rectly or indirectly; the use of a false name; unsportsman- like conduct; the granting of per- mission to use one's name to pro- mote the sale of articles used in sport; acting as a solicitor or salesman in the sale of such arti- cles; and engaging in business where reputation as an athlete is the prime asset. Basketball, billiards, boxing, fencing, gymnastics, handball, hurdle racing, jumping, lacrosse, pole vaulting, putting the shot, throwing the discus and weights, running, swimming, tugs of war, walking, and wrestling in the United States are under the jurisdiction of the Amateur Athletic Union, which lays down the following conditions of com- petition: 'No person shall be eligible to compete in any athletic meeting, game, or enter- tainment given or sanctioned by this Union who has (a) received or competed for compensation or reward, in any form, for the display, exercise, or example of his skill in or knowledge of any athletic exercise, or for rendering personal service of any kind to any athletic organization, or for becoming or continuing a member of any athletic organiza- tion; or (b) has entered any com- petition under a name other than his own, or from a club of which he was not at that time a member in good standing; or (c) has know- ingly entered any competition open to any professional or pro- fessionals, or has knowingly com- peted with any professional for any prize or token; or (d) has issued or allowed to be issued in his behalf any challenge to com- pete against any professional, or for money; or (e) has pawned, bartered, or sold any prize won in athletic competition; or (/) is not a registered athlete. ' Certain conditions of residence and membership are also speci- fied, and it is provided that no prizes shall be given, competed for, or accepted other than 'suit- ably inscribed wreaths, diplomas, banners, badges, medals, time- pieces and mantel ornaments, or articles of jewelry, silverware, ta- ble or toilet service, unless author- ized by the Registration Com- mittee.' Into such sports as tennis, curling, quoits, polo, canoeing, and American football, the spirit of professionalism seldom enters. Others, such as bicycle racing in America and football in England, are dominated by professional in- terests. Amati, a-ma'te, a famous family of violin makers, who re- sided in Cremona. Andrea (c. 1520-1611), found- er of the Cremona school of violin making, built violins, tenors and basses, now very rare; the violins mostly small, of high model; the sound holes Brescian in charac- ter; the tone small, but very sweet. Antonio (1550-1635) and Ge- RONiMO (1556-1630), sons of An- drea, worked together for many years, and produced a large num- ber of beautiful and highly prized instruments. Though signing their instruments conjointly, 'each usually made his own. Antonio retained his father's Brescian type of sound hole, but lowered the arching considerably; his workmanship is fine in every re- spect. Geronimo discarded the wide and pointed form of the Brescian sound hole and substi- tuted a much more graceful form, which was reproduced and im- proved by his son Nicola. The tone, though not seeming very powerful, carries remarkably well and is rich, sweet, and flexible. Nicola (1596-1684), the great man of the family, son of Geroni- mo, followed his father's model until about 1625, when he de- signed a model — since known as the 'grand Amati' — which has not been excelled in grace and ele- gance of form, exquisite work- manship, and sweet and respon- sive tone. He had many pupils, of whom Antonius Stradivari was the most famous. • Amatitlan, a-ma-te-tlan', de- partment, Guatemala, Central America, contains Lake Ama- titlan (area, 20 miles), on which the capital Amatitlan, 15 miles southwest of the city of Guate- mala, is situated. The town is known also as St. Juan de Ama- titlan, and was founded by the Jesuits. The chief industry is the production of cochineal, and there are hot springs in the neighborhood and a trade in salt, raw silk, and fruit. Pop. 37,000. A ma to, a-ma'to, Pasquale (1878- ), Italian baritone, was born in Naples, and was educated as a civil engineer. He studied music in the Naples Conservatory (1897-1900), and in 1900 made his debut at the Teatro Bellini, Naples, as Ger- mont in Traviata. He toured Italy, Germany, England, Egypt, and South America, and was at one time leading baritone at La Scala, Milan. In 1909-14 he was a member of the Metropolitan Opera Company, New York City, and since that time has been engaged in concert work. Am'aton'galand, or Tonga- land, an undulating strip of na- tive territory on the east coast of South Africa, in the extreme north of Natal, extending along the coast for about 60 miles, and from the Swaziland border to the sea. The Kosi River forms the boundary between Zululand and Amatongaland. The Tongas are a branch of the great Bantu race, not so warlike as their neighbors, but good workers in the South African labor market. Amaton- galand was annexed to Natal (q.v.) in 1897. Amauro'sis (Greek 'a darken- ing') is total loss of vision caused by diseases not directly involving the eye. The term amblyopia is more frequently used. See Am- blyopia. Amazl'ah, eighth king of Ju- aah, who succeeded Joash his father. He fought against Edom and Israel, but in the latter in- stance he was defeated (2 Kings xiv. 12), held in captivity, and killed by conspirators fifteen years later (2 Kings xiv. 19). Am'azon, the largest river of South America, and in the volume of its waters and the extent of its basin the greatest in the world. It rises in the Peruvian Andes, crosses the continent in a northeasterly di- rection, and empties into the At- lantic Ocean after a course of about 3,300 miles. The main stream is seldom more than three or four degrees from the Equator, which it reaches at its mouth. For a considerable distance it forms the boundary between Vol. I.— 030 Amazon 201 Amazon Peru and Ecuador, but its course lies chiefly in the northern half of Brazil. The drainage area of the Amazon is estimated at 2,500,000 square miles, and with its tribu- taries it is said to afford over 25,000 miles of waterway suitable for steam navigation. Many of the narrow side channels so char- acteristic of* the adjacent forest plains are navigable also, either by steamboat or smaller craft, so that the length of navigable waters in the entire Amazonian system is probably not less than 50,000 miles. The Upper Maranon, which is generally regarded as the upper course of the Amazon, rises in Lake Lauricocha, in lat. 10° 30' s. and long. 76° 30' w., at an alti- tude of 11,980 feet. Obstructed here and there by rapids in its upper course, it becomes naviga- ble below the Pongo de Manser- iche, only 250 miles from the Pa- cific coast, at Payta, and thence to the sea affords a clear water- way of 2,700 miles. It is soon joined by the Huallaga and Uca- yali on the right bank, and the Napo on the left bank, below the town of Iquitos. From this point the distances navigable by steam- ers at all seasons are : on the Hual- laga, 500 miles (to Yurimaguas) ; on the Ucayali, 770 miles; on the Napo, 350 miles; and on the Maranon, to Barja, 450 miles. From Tabatinga, on the Bra- zilian frontier, to Manaos the river is known as the Solimoes, and in this section receives the tributaries Javary, Judahy, Ju- rua, and Purus on the right bank, and the Iga or Putumayo and Yapura on the left bank, all navi- gable for considerable distances. At Manaos the Rio Negro, which is connected by the Cassiquiare with the Orinoco, and has a large navigable tributary, the Rio Branco, enters on the left bank; and 100 miles farther down is the confluence with the Madeira, the greatest of all the tributaries. This river has its headwaters in the highlands of Bolivia. The Mamore, known in its upper course as the Guapay, rises near Cochabamba, at a height of 13,- 000 feet, traverses Bolivia, and receives the Guapore from Mat- to Grosso, and the Beni, swollen by the waters of the Madre de Dios, then takes the name of Ma- deira, and enters the Amazon after a course of more than 2,000 miles. Above and below the mouth of the Beni the bed is obstructed by rapids for 230 miles. From Manaos steamers ply regularly up the Solimoes to Iquitos, 1,150 miles; up the Jurua to Marary, 1,090 miles; along the Purus to Anajaz, 1,400 miles, with change of steamers at Hyu- tanaham; on the Madeira to San- to Antonio, 700 miles; and on the Vol. I.— Oct. '16 Negro to Santa Izabel, 420 miles. Ocean steamers ascend to Ma- naos, more than 1,000 miles from Belem (Para), and some to Iqui- tos. Of the lower tributaries of the Amazon, the Tapajos (1,100 miles) and Xingu are navigable only for short distances — the for- mer to Itaituba, 200 miles, and the latter to Souzel. At its mouth the Amazon is joined by the Tocantins (q. v.), the great central waterway which traverses Brazil for about 1,500 miles from south to north. The Tocantins is navigable below Porte Nacional; and the Ara- guaya, its chief tributary (1,700 miles), is navigable in its upper course from Itacaiu to the rapids of Santa Maria, a distance of 740 miles. The fall of the Amazon after it emerges from the Andes is slight, amounting approximately to one foot in eight miles, from the Brazilian frontier to the sea, a distance of about 2,000 miles. The current is generally placid, averaging about 2M miles an hour, though it varies somewhat with the incline, and may be as much as 5 miles an hour in the more contracted channels during times of flood. Between Taba- tinga and Manaos the river has a breadth of 2K to 4 miles, and it gradually widens as it approaches the sea, until at its mouth it is 50 miles across. In places through- out its course it expands to the dimensions of a lake, as at the confluence of the Jurua, where it measures from 10 to 16 miles in full flow. The waters of the Amazon are discharged through a single chan- nel, sweeping around to the north of the island of Marajo (q. v.) at the rate of 4,000,000 to 5,000,- 000 cubic feet per second. The principal entrance to the river, however, is to the south of this island, by the Rio Para, through which the Tocantins pours its waters into the sea. The two estuaries are connected by an in- tricate network of narrow pas- sages and channels. The Atlan- tic tides ascend the Amazon for a distance of more than 400 miles, and in the more shallow waters of the estuary produce a formidable bore (pororoca), rising from 5 to 12 feet, and forming a barrier from shore to shore (see Tides). The fresh water of the river is perceptible 180 miles out into the Atlantic. For the greater part of its course the Amazon flows through level, densely wooded lowlands. which are intersected in all direc- tions by stagnant backwaters, narrow side channels, or furos, and shallow lagoons. Islands are numerous, especially in the lower river, where they are formed by narrow cross streams connecting the tributary rivers. Many of these islands are thickly wood- ed. The river begins to rise in No- vember, and, swollen by heavy tropical rains, continues to in- crease in volume until June, when it reaches an average maximum depth of 120 feet. During this period the adjoining country is inundated, many of the islands disappear completely, and the scattered lagoons and sluggish furos are united in a great inland sea. In its lower course the river is seldom less than 150 feet deep, even in periods of low water. The climate of the Amazon basin, though hot and very damp, is greatly mitigated by trade winds which blow from the east with little interruption through- out the dry season. The average temperature is 84° f., and the average annual rainfall is about 100 inches. Dense forests, al- most impenetrable on account of the enormous growth of lianas, or woody vines, of countless spe- cies, cover the greater part of the valley. Tall grasses, willows, and trumpet trees abound on the more recent alluvial tracts at the Amazon Ant 202 Ambassador river borders, and rubber trees, palms, dyewoods, and valuable timber trees grow in profusion beyond. The western part of the valley is more elevated than the rest of the great forest; and be- tween its tributary streams there are occasionally found lofty mountain spurs, connected with the grand range of the East An- des. This region affords qui- nine-yielding barks, coca, cocoa, sugar, coffee, palm wax, ipecac- uanha, copaiba, sarsaparilla, va- nilla, and other valuable vegeta- ble products. The Amazonian fauna is ex- ceedingly rich. In the river and its tributaries are fish of many species, alligators, turtles, and manatees. The forests abound in insects and birds, and in mam- mals of arboreal habits, notably tapirs, monkeys, ant-eaters, and sloths. Boa constrictors and an- acondas are among the poisonous reptiles, and there are several varieties of lizards, chief among which is the iguana. The mouth of the Amazon was discovered in 1500 by Vicente Yafiez Pinzon (q. v.), who as- cended the river for a distance of about 50 miles; and its upper reaches, as far as the Pongo de Manseriche, were explored in 1538 by Alonzo de Mercadillo. The first descent of the river from the Upper Maranon to the At- lantic was made in 1540 by Fran- cisco de Orellana (q. v.), who gave it its present name because of the Amazons or female war- riors he encountered on his jour- ney. Steam navigation was be- gun in 1853, and the river was opened to the commerce of all na- tions, with certain restrictions, in 1867. The principal exports of the valley are India rubber, cocoa, and Brazil nuts. The chief ports are Macapa, Santarem, Obidos, Manaos, Teffe, and Tabatinga. See Brazil; South America. Consult Agassiz' A Journey in Brazil; Wallace's Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro; Bates' A Naturalist on the River Amazon (1910); Mozans' Along the Andes and Down the Amazon (1911); Pearson's Rubber Country of the Amazon (191 1) ; A. Lange's In the Amazon Jungle (1912), and The Lower Amazon (1914); Wood- roffe's The Upper Reaches of the Amazon (1914); P. Fountain's The River Amazon from its Sources to the Sea (1914). Amazon Ant. See Ant. Amazonas, a-mii-zo'nas, the northernmost and largest of the states of Brazil, occupying a large part of the basin of the Amazon River. The greater part of the state, particularly south of the river, is covered with forests (selvas) containing a variety of timber and other natural prod- ucts, chief among which is India rubber, extracted from the Hevea. Vol. I.— Oct. '16 Along the Rio Negro and Rio Branco are vast plains where cat- tle are fed. The climate is hot, and the soil extremely fertile. Coffee, rubber, Brazil nuts, salted fish, and turtle oil are exported. Capital, Manaos. Area, 732,250 square miles. Pop. 275,000. Amazonas, a department of Peru, in the Amazon basin, bounded by Ecuador on the north, and the departments of Loreto, Libertad, and Cajamarca on the east, south, and west. It consists mainly of virgin forest, but its soil is fertile. Tobacco and sugar cane are produced, and gold is mined. Capital, Chacha- poyas. Area, 14,130 square miles. Pop. 60,000. Amazonas, territory of Ven- ezuela, in the south, having Bra- zil on the south and east, and Colombia on the west. Area, 20,000 square miles. Pop. 50,000. Am'azons, according to Greek legend, a warlike race of women, who lived in the neighborhood of the Caucasus, and invaded Asia Minor, Thrace, Greece, Egj'^pt, and other countries. They were governed by a queen, and once every year met a neighboring race of men, the Gargareans, to propagate their race; they re- tained only female children, the males being killed, or handed over to the Gargareans. They are said to have cut or burned off their right breasts to give them free- dom in using weapons, especially the bow. Probably the legend is a remi- niscence of the conquests of the Hittites, who descended from the Caucasian direction and overran all Asia Minor, founding Ephesus and other cities, and whose great nature goddess, the Artemis or Diana of the Ephesians, was at- tended by multitudes of armed priestesses. In ancient art the Amazons are represented in the Hittite tunic, and wielding the Hittite double-headed axe. There are tales of Amazons also in South America, whence the name of the great river; and women were until recently armed and drilled in Dahomey, West Africa. Consult F. M. Bennett's Religious Cults Associated with the Amazons (1912). Ama-Zulus. See Zulus. Ambaca, iim-ba'ka, chief vil- lage of Loanda, Angola, and the centre of a coffee-growing dis- trict. It is connected by a nar- row-gauge railway, 220 miles long, with Loanda. Ambala. See Umballa. Ambalema, am-ba-la'ma, city, department of Tolima, Colombia, on the Magdalena River; 60 miles west of Bogota. It is a thriving city, and the centre of a tobacco- growing region. Pop. 10,000. Ambas'sador, the highest rank of diplomatic agents between states. Their grades were offi- cially settled by the Congresses of Vienna in 1815 and Aix-la- Chapelle in 1818, as (1) ambassa- dors, including the papal nuncio; (2) envoys extraordinary or min- isters plenipotentiary; (3) charges d'affaires. Above the last named have since been placed ministers resident. The first two were accred- ited by sealed letters of plenary powers from and to the respec- tive sovereignties, and had the right of personal audience with the sovereigns sent to. The chief distinctions were that the first were resident, and the second special; the second were a choice of the government, but not neces- sarily of the sovereign, and the first therefore might enjoy more confidential intimacy. The charges were accredited only to the ministers of foreign affairs. The ambassador by old use and need was his sovereign pro tern., with like powers and rank. He went out in royal state — from Great Britain in a warship; was so received, and so travelled; his splendor gauged his country's po- sition, till Prussia financed home armies by saving foreign show. He stood covered in the foreign royal presence, and took prece- dence of all but princes of the blood. Precedence over other ambassadors stood for recogni- tion of national lead, and des- perate fights for it often menaced the very objects of the embassy; the Vienna Congress ended them by the rule of seniority of arrival. The senior ambassador is still called the dean of the diplomatic body, where old forms are pre- served. In the nineteenth cen- tury the rank was dropped for a while because Nicholas i. would not send ambassadors to France. The telegraph has left them little of the old power, and their dis- tinction depends mainly on the persons; but ceremonial dignities are implied, including the title of Excellency. The name ambassa- dor is still withheld from envoys to any but important states. The United States never used it till 1893, when Congress authorized the President to accredit ambassa- dors to any state represented by that grade at Washington. The rank is now given its ministers to Mexico, Brazil, Argentine Repub- lic, and Chile on this side, and Great Britain, France, Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary, It- aly, and Japan on the other. By international law, an am- bassador, and his suite and house- hold, are exempt from allegiance to the foreign state and the juris- diction of its tribunals. By the le- gal fiction of Extra-Territoriality (q. V.) the ambassador's residence is regarded as an extension of his country's territory. Ambassa- dors are allowed free exercise of their religion, without regard to local law; are exempt from taxa- Ambato 203 Ambleside tion; and have usually a limited right of free import. But they must respect the country's laws and customs, and it is a high of- fence to interfere in its internal affairs. From the nature of his usefulness the ambassador's ac- ceptability is purely personal; and no state is bound to receive a persona non grata, or give rea- sons for his being such, unless it chooses. It may complain to his sovereign, demand his recall, can- cel his privileges, or eject him peremptorily if thought danger- ous, at its own peril of arousing ill will. Before declaring war, a state usually 'severs diplomatic rela- tions' by recalling its own ambas- sador and dismissing the other state's ambassador; but the sev- ering of diplomatic relations is not always followed by war. In both cases, the interests of ci- ther's subjects in the other state are entrusted to the ambassador of a neutral power. Ambassadors extraordinary are special envoys, usually to make some treaty. See Diplomacy; Diplomatic Service. Ambato, am-ba'to, town, Leon province, Ecuador; 80 miles south of Quito, and 8,850 feet above sea level. It has shoe factories, and trade in sugar, cochineal, and grain. In 1913 the construction of a railway from Ambato to Curaray was begun. An erup- tion of Cotopaxi destroyed the town in 1698. Pop. 10,000. Amber, a fossil resin, arises from the exudation of coniferous trees, as is shown by its composi- tion and physical properties, by its occurring in drops and glob- ular masses which resemble the resin seen exuding from the bark of pine trees, and by its common association with fossil wood. It is of a clear brownish-yellow color, varying in shade, and is often clouded with irregular streaks. It has a perfectly con- choidal fracture, is slightly brit- tle, emits an agreeable odor when rubbed, melts at about 536° f. (280° c), and burns with a bright flame and pleasant smell. It has a hardness of only 2 to 2M, and a specific gravity of 1.065 to 1.070. When rubbed it is negatively electrified, and from this prop- erty, which was well known to the ancients, the word 'electric- ity' has been derived (Greek elek- tron, 'amber'). Amber is used principally in the manufacture of mouthpieces for pipes and cigar holders, beads, necklaces, and ornaments. It is soluble in alcohol, and forms the basis of certain varnishes. When distilled it yields succinic acid and a fine lampblack. Amber orna- ments which have been worn for a considerable time gradually as- sume a rich, dark, ruddy color, which is much prized. Amber Vol. I.— Oct. '16 had formerly a high reputation as a medicine, but the virtues ascribed to it were almost en- tirely imaginary. It is regarded as a charm against disease and witchcraft. A large part of the amber of commerce is artificial, being made from copal, camphor, and turpentine, or is prepared from chips of natural amber fused under pressure. It may be distinguished from amber by its lower melting point, and by its readily softening in cold ether, which leaves real amber unaf- fected. Amber is found chiefly on the shores of the Baltic, between the Frisches Haff and the Kurisches Haff in East Prussia, and on the shores of Pomerania, West Prus- sia, Schleswig-Holstein, and Den- mark. Small quantities are also obtained from the coasts of Sicily and the Adriatic, in different parts of Europe, in Siberia, Green- land, Kamchatka, Australia, the United States, and elsewhere. It occurs in certain dark sands and clays, from which it is washed out by the action of the sea, and in beds of carbonized wood. Natural amber usually contains flaws and impurities; fragments of bark, leaves, ants, flies, etc., which adhered to the sticky sur- face and were enveloped by the exudation, being the most fre- quent enclosures. Amber beads have been found in the royal tombs of Mycenae in Greece, in Scandinavian relics of the Stone Age, in the ancient pile dwellings of Switzerland, and in Etruscan ruins. Amber was well known to the Romans, and is de- scribed by Pliny. Between 1837 and 1899 it was partly mined, partly gathered after storms by private monopolists; but in the last-mentioned year the Prussian mines were bought by the gov- ernment. ' Amber-fish, any of several carangoid fishes (genus Seriola), allied to the pompano (q. v.), and of graceful form and a color sug- gesting amber. The best-known species on the Atlantic Coast is the Great Amberjack {Seriola lalandi) ; and on the Pacific Coast, the highly valued Yellowtail (5. dorsalis) . Amberg, am'bercA, ancient capital of the Upper Palatinate, Bavaria, on the River Vils; 35 miles east of Nuremberg. It is still surrounded with walls and moats, which have been trans- formed into parkways. Notable edifices are the Church of St. Martin, Library, Agricultural and Industrial School, and Muni- cipal Hospital. It has iron mines and iron works, and manufac- tures of earthenware, ironware, and firearms (state factory). Nearby the French army under Jourdan was defeated by Arch- duke Charles, Aug. 24, 1796. Pop. (1900), 22,039; (1910) 25,- 222. Ambergris, am'ber-gres, a fat- ty substance often found floating in the sea, or cast up on tropical beaches in lumps of from half an ounce to a hundred pounds in weight, and highly valued for making perfumes. Its nature and origin were formerly uncer- tain, but it is now known to be a concretion, similar to bezoar (q. v.), formed in the stomach and intestines of sperm whales, from whose bodies it has frequently been saved. When taken directly from the whale, ambergris is of a deep gray color, a waxy consistency, and a disagreeable odor, which gradu- ally becomes sweet and earthy on exposure to the air. It has a spe- cific gravity of .780 to .920, melts at about 145° F. into a fatty res- inous liquid, and is soluble in oils. It is readily dissolved in hot al- cohol, producing a peculiar bril- liant white crystalline substance called Amhrein, believed to be identical with cholesterin (q. v.). When treated by the perfumer, ambergris becomes one of the most useful of his natural bases. Ambert, ah-bar', ancient town, department Puy-de-D6me, France, in the fertile valley of the Don; 35 miles southeast of Cler- mont. It has manufactures of lace, paper, ribbon, and cheese. Pop. (1911) 7,863. Ambidexterity. See Right- Handedness. Am 'bier, borough, Montgom- ery county, Pennsylvania, on the Philadelphia and Reading Rail- road; 17 miles north of Philadel- phia. It is in a rich agricultural district, and has a large chemical factory and an asbestos, shingle, slate, and sheathing plant. There are numerous points of historic interest nearby, and the town is a popular summer resort. Pop. (1910) 2,649. Ambler, James Markham Marshall (1848-81), American surgeon, was born in Fauquier county, Va., and was educated at the Medical School of tlje Uni- versity of Maryland. In 1879 he accompanied G. W. De Long (q. V.) as surgeon to the Jeannette Arctic Expedition. When the Jeannette was crushed in the ice floes of Siberia, the explorers took to the ice on sledges for the Lena River, arid the whole party suc- cumbed to starvation. Ambler's body was afterward found (1882) and was buried at Monument Hill, in the Lena Delta. Am'bleside, . market town, Westmoreland, England, beauti- fully situated near the northern end of Lake Windermere. Rydal Mount, for many years the resi- dence of Wordsworth; Fox How. a summer retreat of Dr. Arnold; and the Knoll, where Miss Mar- tineau lived and died, are all in Amblyopia 204 Ambrose the neighborhood. It is a favor- ite tourist resort. Woollen cloth is manufactured. Pop. (1911) 2.553. Amblyo'pia (Greek 'dim sight- edness'), defective or diminished vision. Scientifically, the term is supposed to apply only to those cases which cannot be more strictly classified after ophthal- moscopic examination. It is therefore more seldom used as ex- act knowledge extends. The prob- able causes of amblyopia may be arranged as follows: (1) toxic; (2) functional, without retinal changes; (3) changes in the optic nerve; (4) cerebral changes; (5) defective development. The first includes tobacco amblyopia, which is very common; heavy smokers are often affected. The defect is at first limited to the central field of vision, and occurs in both eyes, there being often a blind spot for red and green. Sometimes a misty sensation is complained of. It sometimes leads to total blind- ness, unless tobacco is discon- tinued. In functional amblyopia there is transient loss of sight, complete or partial, which comes on suddenly and lasts from a few minutes to an hour; one form of this is hysterical, which is usually unilateral. Amblyopia is most frequently seen with congenital squint; it usually occurs with long-sightedness. Amblyop'sis, a bony fish, found in the Mammoth Cave _(q. V.) of Kentucky, and interest- ing as illustrating in the rudimen- tary condition of its eyes the ef- fects of darkness and consequent disuse. It measures only a few inches in length, is colorless, and has its small eyes covered by the skin. It seems able, however, to hear acutely, and the wrinkles of skin on its head are regarded as special feeling organs. See Blind Fish. Amblyp'oda, an order of ex- tinct ungulate mammals which flourished in the Eocene (q. v.) period, but which left no descend- ants. Many were as large as an elepha^, but in their general ap- pearance must have more resem- bled the hippopotamus. The most perfect specimens have been obtained from the Eocene beds of the Western United States. Amblystoma. See Axolotl. Am 'bo, in early Christian churches, a reading desk or pul- pit from which the lessons were read or the sermon preached at the regular services. Amboise, an-bwaz' (ancient Ambalia), town, France, depart- ment Indre-et-Loire, on the River Loire; 16 miles east of Tours. It has manufactures of steel and woollen, and trade in wine, leath- er, and cloth. The town possesses an ancient castle, in which Charles viii. was born and died, and Abd-el-Kader, the Algerian Vol. I.~Oct. '17 Arab chief, was imprisoned (1848-52). In the Castle of Clos- Luce, near Amboise, Leonardo da Vinci died (1519). Amboise ac- quired ill fame through its oubli- ettes, or subterranean cells, con- structed for political prisoners by Louis XI. Pop. (1911) 4,660. The town is noted for the Con- spiracy of Amboise, formed by the Huguenots against Francis ii. in 1560, and the Treaty of Amboise (1563), between Catharine de' Medici and the Prince of Conde, by which the Protestants of France were granted the free ex- ercise of their worship in the feudal dominions of the king, and received an indemnification for the losses they had suffered. Amboise, am'bwaz, Georges d' (1460-1510), cardinal, and Prime Minister of Louis xii. of France, was born near Amboise. He was made bishop of Montau- ban in his fourteenth year, and archbishop of Rouen in 1493, be- coming Prime Minister in 1498. He was made cardinal by Pope Alexander vi., after whose death he aimed at the popedom, and, failing to secure it (1503), be- came strongly opposed to the Popes. He died at Lyons, leav- ing a large fortune accumulated by not over-scrupulous means. Amboy'na, or Amboina, an island in the Dutch East Indies, one of the smallest, but one of the most important, and though hot, the most healthy of the Moluccas group. It consists of two penin- sulas, connected by a narrow isth- mus, and is a hilly island (4,020 feet). Until 1873 the cultivation of cloves was jealously restricted to this island. The soil is abun- dantly fertile, and the island is clothfd with vegetation. The Netherlanders took Amboyna from the Portuguese in 1605, and in 1623 destroyed the British set- tlement in the Amboyna massa- cre. Great Britain held the is- land in 1796-1802, but it passed again to the Netherlands in 1814. Including the adjacent Uliasser group, the area is 300 square miles, and the population about 40,000. The town of Amboyna — pop. 8,000 — has a good harbor; it is the principal fortified post of the Dutch in this part of the East Indies. The rcvsidency of Amboyna — pop. 300,000 — embraces the is- lands of Amboyna, Buru, Ceram, and the island groups of Aru, Banda, Kei, Tenimber, and the Southwest Islands. Their chief products are sago, rice, maize, sweet potatoes, timber, cloves and other spices, cocoanuts, caje- put oil, trepang, cocoa, and nut- megs. See Moluccas. Ambracia, am-bra'shi-a, an- cient town of Greece, on the north of the Ambracian Gulf (Gulf of Arta), in Epirus. Col- onized by the Corinthians about 630 B. c, it soon attained to great wealth and importance. Pyrrhus made it his capital; later it joined the ^tolian League, and was taken by the Romans in 189 B. c. Ambrldge, borough, Beaver county, Pennsylvania, on the Ohio River and the Pennsylvania Railroad; 16 miles northwest of Pittsburgh. Industries are metal moulding, bridge building, and the manufacture of tubes. Pop. (1910) 5,205. Ambrine, a preparation of wax, paraffin, and resin for the treatment of burns and wounds, was discovered by Barthe de Sandfort, a French surgeon, about 1900, and came into extended use during the Great War, The mix- ture is heated to a temperature of 150° F., and applied to the in- jured surface with a brush or atomizer; a layer of cotton dress- ing is then put on, followed by a second application. The ambrine hardens, excluding all air and moisture from the wound, new flesh begins to form, and after a month or two healing is complete. The crust of ambrine is easily re- moved, leaving the skin smooth and white. Ambrose, St. (c. 340-397), pa- tron saint of Milan, and one of the most famous of the ancient fathers of the Christian Church. He was born in Gaul, but went when young to Rome. Having devoted himself chiefly to the study of law, he was appointed prefect of Liguria and .^Emilia, with Milan as his centre. In this office, his gentleness and wisdom won for him the esteem and love of the people. On the death of Bishop Auxentius in 374, Ambrose, though a layman, was elected to the vacant see of Milan. Having sold his goods, and distributed the proceeds among the poor, Ambrose pro- ceeded to fit himself for his new ofiice by a course of theological study, under Simplician, a pres- byter of Rome. In the theologi- cal conflicts that raged over the question of Christ's divinity, Am- brose took up a resolute position against Arianism. When the Emperor Valentinian and his mother Justina sought the use of two churches in the diocese of Milan for the Arians, the bishop stoutly resisted their requests (384). Six years later he admin- istered a severe reproof to the Eastern Emperor Theodosius for having permitted the massacre of 7,000 inhabitants of Thessalon- ica; and the Emperor underwent eight months of penance. On the assassination of Valentinian and the usurpation of Eugenius in 392, Ambrose fled; but when Theodosius defeated the usurper he returned to Milan, and contin- ued there till his death, in 397. The life of Ambrose was written Ambrose Channel 205 Ambulance by Paulinus, and dedicated to Augustine. Though ambitious, Ambrose was amiable and generous. As a statesman he was vigorous and indomitable; as a theologian he was both a scholar and a philos- opher, his knowledge of Greek enabling him to bring the East and the West closer together. His most valuable legacy to the church is his hymns, and the im- provements he introduced into the service. (See Ambrosian Chant.) Am'brose Channel, the main ship channel entering New York harbor, is 40 feet deep, miles long, and from 1,850 to 2,000 feet wide. It is easily navigable for ships of 37 feet draught travelling at moderate speed, and has a maximum high water capacity of 44 feet. The dredging of the Channel was authorized by the river and harbor act of 1899, and the work was completed in 1913, 70,000,000 cubic yards of earth and sand having been removed from the ocean floor. The chan- nel was opened to vessels of 29 feet draught and over, or 600 feet or more in length, in 1907, and to all steamers not having tows, in 1909. Two lighthouses — one on Staten Island, 2K miles inshore, and the West Bank Light, dVs miles out — safeguard the Chan- nel at night. After the United States entered the Great War (1917) it became of prime importance to guard this main channel to New York har- bor, in the event of submarine attack. A submarine net of heavy wire was theref ore stretched across 'The Narrows,' with a small 'gate' left open by day for the passage of vessels, but closed at night. Ambro'sia, in Greek mythol- ogy the food of the gods, which bestowed immortal youth and beauty upon all who partook of it. The Sanskrit amrila, the elix- ir of the gods, corresponds to the Greek ambrosia. Ambrosia Beetles, a name ap- plied to the timber-boring beetles of several genera and a large num- ber of species, common through- out North America. They are small, elongate insects, dull brown in color, with compact cylindrical bodies and short legs, and differ from the bark beetles (q. v.) in that they penetrate deeply into the wood of forest and fruit trees and feed upon ambrosia, a coat- ing of certain minute fungi propa- gated on the walls of their bor- ings. These borings are a tenth of an inch or less in diameter, ramifying widely, and having numerous short branches which may serve as brood chambers. The fungus that coats the walls of the galleries, producing a dark characteristic stain, is planted and cultivated by the females, Vol. I.— Oct. '18. and furnishes food for both larvae and adults. As a rule, dying and diseased trees and shrubs are at- tacked, but some species pene- trate only healthy plants. In many cases the vitality of the tree is not affected, although the value of the wood as timber is consider- ably diminished. The most destructive of the Ambrosia Beetles are those of the genus Platypus. Other varieties are Corthylus punctatissimus and columbianus, and various species of Xyleborus, Monarthrum, Xy- loterus, and Gnathotrichus. Con- sult Bulletin No. y, U. S. Bureau of Entomology. Ambrosian Chant, the choral music introduced from the East- ern to the Western Church by St. Ambrose (q. v.), bishop of Milan, in the fourth century. It was used till Gregory changed it, in the sixth century, for the less monotonous Gregorian chant. The Ambrosian Chant continued to be sung in Milan Cathedral long after Gregory's reformation. Ambrosian Library, a cele- brated collection in Milan, made possible by the munificence of Cardinal Borromeo, archbishop of that city. Founded at the be- ginning of the seventeenth cen- tury, the library was afterward enriched by the acquisition of the manuscripts of the Pinelli Col- lection. It contains about 230,000 printed books and 15,000 manu- scripts. Among its treasures are numerous palimpsests, a Greek Pentateuch of the fifth century, fragments of Ulfilas' Bible, and a Virgil in which Petrarch wrote an account of his first meeting with Laura. Am 'balance, a vehicle or other means of transport used for the conveyance of the sick and wounded. Ambulances are built to be easy-running and durable, and are usually provided with stretchers, medicine chests, sur- gical appliances, and other con- veniences. Electric motor car ambulances have been adopted in the larger cities of the United States. Army ambulances are fully equipped for the care and trans- portation of sick and wounded soldiers; and in the U. S. Army are organized into a corps for each division, under specially designated ambulance officers. Railway cars are sometimes used as ambulances; and horse and hand litters are employed in rough country. In the Great War (1914-) the Motor Ambulance has been used with marked success, under in- numerable difficulties, to carry the wounded from the front to the rear, where they may receive the careful attention their con- dition demands. At the begin- ning of the war, the ambulance service was for a time necessarily more or less improvised, the wounded often being transported by horse and wagon, or by motor lorries that were going to the rear for fresh supplies. During the first few weeks of the war the military authorities allowed some English volunteers to do ambulance work with pri- vate touring cars along the roads near Boulogne. Many such cars were given to the cause, and later, when ambulance bodies had been hastily substituted for the ton- neaus, they filled a great need. Later still a type of ambulance well suited to stand the exact- ing conditions was evolved, and it was not long before the entire service was on a most efficient basis. The typical and durable Amer- ican military ambulance used in the war established a remarkable record for itself, being successful in the mud of Flanders, as well as in the mountains of the Vosges, where it replaced the mule in the transportation of the wounded. This type of car has a light body, constructed of canvas and tough wood, and is capable of accommo- dating several stretchers, on the floor and suspended from the roof. Ambulance camps are main- tained, at various points, some miles behind the lines, and at these places ambulances may always be summoned for emer- gency duty. Generally, how- ever, in the routine work on the French front, the ambulances leave these camps about dark and go up to the stations at the front (pastes de secours) where the wounded are cared for tem- porarily. If the ambulance camp is at all near the front, the am- bulance must be driven most of the way without lights, and often on a road crowded with war traffic and packed with shell holes. The wounded are brought in by hrancar diets from the battle- field directly to one of the pastes de secours maintained in villages behind the trenches, where a doctor gives whatever aid is im- mediately necessary. At these pastes the ambulances wait, dur- ing an action, until the wounded have been brought in by the stretcher bearers and the doctor has attended them, whereupon the cars receive the patients and hurry them to base hospitals in the rear, out of the range of shells. This work is often done while the shell fire is intense. Not infrequently, too, ambu- lance work has been carried on in broad daylight under the eyes of the enemy, and the ambulances themselves have been made tar- gets. Under such circumstances speed in the open, and the use of whatever cover may be available, must be depended upon for safety. Many drivers have been cited and awarded military medals for Ambulance 205 A Ambush exceptional bravery under fire. Another phase of the ambu- lance work is transportation of the seriously wounded from the base hospitals to railroad stations where they embark for permanent hospitals, for further treatment and care, or for their homes. In this service, which is called evacu- ation, the trips are much longer, being from thirty to ninety miles. The American Ambulance, which has rendered invaluable aid in the war, did not at first include a field service for the Allied armies, but did most effi- cient hospital work at the bases end of April, 1915, then, saw the American Ambulance Field Ser- vice well under way. Since that time it has rendered distinguished service, many of its drivers being awarded the Croix de Guerre. An arrangement exists with the American Fund for French Wounded whereby the American ambulances, on their trip from Paris to the front, carry medical and surgical supplies to the va- rious hospitals en route, as well as comfort kits for the wounded soldiers. See Hospitals; Medi- cal Department; Red Cross. Ambur, town, Madras, India, ity. A convoy of wagons or a long column of troops may be confined to a single track through country that it would be difficult to search efi"ectively in a reason- able time; in such cases an am- buscade may be successfully laid. This was a favorite mode of attack with the American Indians, the death of the famous Custer and the annihilation of most of his band being the result of a clever and treacherous ambush. Even now, owing to the range of modern firearms, a well-planned attack of this kind may result in the destruction or capture of a Copyright by Broivn Brothers, New York Interior of American War Ambulance. April, on the Palar River, 100 miles southwest of Madras; with fort commanding an important pass into the Carnatic. Pop. 16,000. Am 'bush, or Ambuscade, the disposition of troops who con- ceal themselves in a suitable local- ity with the object of lying in wait for an enemy and falling upon him unawares. The column of march of a force is generally protected from surprise by scouts or cavalry. In many cases, how- ever, especially in guerilla and savage warfare, the difficult na- ture of a country or the paucity of available troops makes it im- possible to obtain absolute secur- and in Paris itself. In 1915, however, the French gave American Ambulance sections a trial at the front, A squad of ambulances was sent to the Vosges, to be increased a little later, at the request of the French, by ten or more cars. The section thus formed, which was called Section Sanitaire Americaine, was at once stationed with a French section on an important part of the Alsace front. A second sec- tion took up work with the French at Pont-a-Mousson, and a third section, which had been on duty at Dunkirk, was trans- ferred to the Belgian front. The Vol. I.— Oct. '18. hostile force, because the element of surprise favors the attacking force, and they are often able to cause a confusion that is equiva- lent in eff'ect to an additional number of men on their side. A formation that is eff'ective in the advance of an infantry column through country where an ambuscade is a possibility, involves the sending forward of a number of men (the 'point') from the head of the column, under command of a sergeant, and the deploying of other men as 'connecting links' between the 'point' and the advance body. More 'connecting links' are sent Ameer 205 B Amenhotep out between the advance guard and the main body, and still more between the main column and the rear guard. If the country per- mits, scouts are also thrown out on' the wings, and more scouts guard the rear. It is dififiicult for an enemy to take entirely by surprise a column advancing in this order. The 'point' is designed to uncover a lurking foe and to draw their fire; the 'connecting links' rush backward for rein- forcements when there is an attack; the scouts guard against attacks on the flank or wings. Ameer. See Emir. Amelan'chier, a genus of small, hardy trees of the Rosa- ceae. They have simple leaves, racemes of white flowers, and small, juicy fruit. A. botryapium, an American variety, is some- times called June Berry, from its early ripening. Other popular names for different species are Service Berry, Shad Bush, and Sand Cherry. Amelia, a-ma'le-a (ancient Ameria), town and episcopal see, province Perugia, Italy; 12 miles west of Terni, with remains of ancient cyclopean walls. It has been a bishop's see since the fifth century. Important trade in raisins. Pop. (1911) 10,124. Ame'lia Island, off the coast of Florida, and opposite the estuary of St. Mary's River. The light- house, near the northerly end of the island, carries a white flash- light 107 feet above sea level. The island was settled by General Oglethorpe (1736), and saw the first struggle of the English war with Spain (1739-48). After 1808 it became a favorite rendezvous of slave traders and buccaneers, and after being in the hands of Spanish rebels and filibusters it was acquired by the United States (1819). Am^lle les- Bains, a-ma-le'-la- bah', watering place, France, de- partment Pyrenees - Orientales; 7 miles southwest of Ceret. It has hot mineral springs, known since the time of the Romans. Until 1840 it was known as Bains d'Arles. Pop. (1911), 1,383. Amelot de la Houssaye, am-l5' de la oo-sa', Abraham Nicolas (1634-1706), French historian, was born in Orleans, France, and was educated at Paris. While secretary to the French embassy at Venice he gathered important material which enabled him to publish a History of the Govern- ment of Venice (1676). Its ex- posure of the corruption then existing in the Italian republic roused the ire of the ambassador of that state, and the writer was sentenced to spend six weeks in the Bastiie. He also translated the Prince of Machiavelli, Sarpi's History of the Council of Trent, and the Annals of Tacitus. Vol. I.— Oct. '18. Amen, a'men', a Hebrew word signifying 'firmly' or 'surely,' from aman, 'to prop or support.' It is used in Scripture — (1) to in- dorse the assertion of another — i.e., 'so is it' (1 Kings i. 36) ; (2) to confirm one's own statement, either at the close (Rev. i. 7), or initially (the 'verily' of Jesus, often double — Mark x. 15, John i. 51); (3) as a confirmation of prayer (Rom. xi. 36, Neh. v. 13) ; and (4) as a name of God or Christ (Rev. iii. 14). The use of the word, especially in the sense of (3) above, has become a char- acteristic of Christian worship, and has passed into the liturgical diction of Mohammedanism. Amen. See Ammon. Amende Honorable, a-mand' 6-no-ra'bl (French 'honorable compensation'), in France in the ninth century was a public and humiliating confession made by traitors and other offenders in court, kneeling, and with a rope around their neck. The phrase is now used figuratively of a full and open apology. Amend 'ment. In parliamen- tary procedure, the object of an amendment is to effect such an alteration in a proposal or motion as will render it more acceptable to a certain party or group. The power of amendment may reside in a body which has not the in- itiative. Thus the U. S. Senate may amend money bills, though it may not originate them. The right of making amendments is necessary to every deliberative assembly, as otherwise it would be obliged to affirm or reject in toto the whole question as orig- inally put. There is nothing to prevent an amendment being pro- posed which may entirely de- feat the end of the original ques- tion, but it is a cardinal rule in all properly conducted bodies that amendments must be strict- ly relevant. (See Parliamen- tary Law.) Amendment in legislation is the alteration or modification, by legislative action, of laws already on the statute books. In the United States, Congress has power to repeal or amend the laws of the country without re- striction, although it may not amend the Constitution. The amendment of State laws is reg- ulated by the constitutions of the various States, subject to the single restriction that 'no vState shall pass any laws impairing the obligation of contract.' In particular, the changes and additions made to the Federal and State constitutions in Amer- ica are technically called amend- ments. Federal amendments are subject to ratification by three- fourths of the vStatos. The first ten amendments duly ratified Dec. 15, 1791, practically consti- tute a bill of rights; the eleventh, passed in 1793, and declared in force in 1798, provided that the judicial power of the United States should not extend to actions brought against one of the United States by citizens of another State or of a foreign state; the twelfth, added in 1803, revised the method of election of the President and Vice President. Since 1803 only five amendments have been adopted. Those pro- vide for the abolition of slavery (1865), deny the power of the State to abridge the privileges or immunities of United States citizens or to deprive any person of life, liberty, or property with- out due process of law (1868); forbid any State to abridge the right of citizens to vote because of race, color, or previous condi- tion of servitude (1870); provide for the levying of an income tax (1913), and for the direct election of senators (1913). (See Con- stitution.) Amendments to the State con- stitutions are passed upon by the State legislatures, and referred to the electorate for adoption (see Referendum). Amendment of a party's own pleadings in a judicial process, for the correction of errors or de- fects, is generally permitted. In the United States, amendments were authorized to be made by courts of general jurisdiction at common law. By acts of Con- gress the equitable power of amendment of judicial pleadings and proceedings in every step of a law suit has been conferred on all Federal courts. A'menem'hat, the surname of four kings of Egypt who ruled during the twelfth dynasty. (1.) Amenemhat i., king from about 2130 B.C. to about 2100 B.C., brought order out of chaos. He subjected the powerful nobles and administered affairs wisely and beneficently, giving most of his time to internal affairs, although he conducted wars in Nubia and on the Egyptian frontier. He built many monuments and erected a large dam, reclaiming land from Lake Merjo. (2.) Amenemhat ii. ruled from about 2066 B.C., for 35 years. About 2038 B.C., he sent forces to the Somali coast. For a few years before his death, he and his son, Usertesen i., reigned together. (3.) Amenemhat iii. held power from about 1986 to 1942 B.C., He did important reclamation work, extending the enterprizes of Amenemhat i.. and making of Lake Mceris a great reservoir which served until the fifth cen- tury B.C., when it became dry. (4.) Son of Amenemhat nr.. reigned from about 1940 to 1932 B.C. He accomplished nothing of special note. A'menho'tep (Amenophis), the name of four Pharaohs of Amenorrhcea 206 America Egypt of the eighteenth dynasty. (1.) Son of Amasis i., reigned for about ten years (c. 1570 B.C.). His mummy is in the Ghizeh museum. (2.) Son of Thothmes III., reigned twenty-five years, from about 1450 B.C. (3.) Son of Thothmes iv., reigned thirty-six years, from about 1410 B.C.; he is famous for his buildings. He erected the great temples at Thebes, of which only the ruins of the Temple of Luxor, and the two colossi, one of which was known in classical times as 'the Vocal Memnon,' now remain. (4.) Son of the last named, reigned eighteen years, from about 1375 B.C. He was the son of a foreign mother, and married a foreign princess, probably of Indian (Aryan) race. He endeavored to introduce the worship of the sun, calling him Aten, not by the Egyptian word Ra. See Egypt. Amenorrhcea. See Menstru- ation. A'ment, William Scott (1851-1909), American mission- ary, was born in Owosso, Mich. He studied at Oberlin and at Union and Andover Theological Seminaries, and in 1900 was sent by the American Board to China. He was in Peking at the time of the Boxer revolt and following the raising of the siege of that city took an important part in the reorganization of the native Chris- tian population. Amentacese, am-en-ta'se-e, or Amentalos, a collection of orders of dictoyledonous plants whose flowers, devoid of corolla, and often of calyx, are grouped into unisexual inflorescences, called aments (amentums) or catkins. Sometimes both kinds of inflores- cfence are on one plant, as in birch ; sometimes on different plants, as in willow. Other examples are bog myrtle, poplar, alder, beech, oak, hazel, and hornbeam. Amenthes, a-men'thez, the name for the unseen world of the ancient Egyptians, the Hades of the Greeks, who borrowed their ideas about the lower world from Egypt. The passage across the river, the islands of the blessed, Cerberus, and the judgment of the dead, all have their original in Amenthes, the localities of which, and the account of whose divini- ties, are described in the famous Book of the Dead, as well as in pictorial representations. The principal scene is the judgment seat of Osiris, the judge of the dead, before whom the dead are carried by the goddess Ma ('righteousness'), while Horusand Anubis weigh out their deeds. See Egypt. Amentum. See Catkin. Amerce'ment, in early English law a pecuniary penalty imposed for any offence which involved forfeiture of lands or goods. The judgment placed the convicted Vol. I.—Oct. '18. offender 'at the mercy' of the king or sheriff, and the amerce- ment was the sum fixed by the court as the commutation of a sentence of forfeiture. It differed from a fine in the fact that the latter was the commutation of a sentence of imprisonment. When the penalty of forfeiture ceased to be imposed, amercement natu- rally disappeared. America, or the New World, is the second largest continent on the globe. The New World and the Old World are separated by Bering Strait, about 50 miles wide. The mainland lies between 71°N. and 54° s. lat., and between 35° and 168° w. long. The merid- ian of 80° w. divides it approx- imately into a west and north and an east and south mass, which are connected by the narrow Isthmus of Panama. These two masses of North and South America have several com- mon characteristics. They are broad at the north and taper toward the south; the western part consists of a belt of lofty mountain chains enclosing exten- sive plateaus; the centre is a great lowland, continuous from north to south, and drained by great rivers, the Mackenzie and Mis- sissippi in the north, and the Orinoco, Amazon, and Rio de la Plata in the south. The east is a highland broken by the St. Lawrence in the north and the Amazon in the south. The coast lines of the two continents, how- ever, present a striking contrast. North America, with its irregular coast line and great peninsulas, may be compared with Europe and Asia; while South America, with its regular, unbroken coast, is the counterpart of Africa. The chain of West India Islands, which extend between the Tropic of Cancer and 10° N., are usually reckoned with North America, notwithstanding that both their physical and biological conditions resemble rather those of South America. Other impor- tant American islands in the Atlantic are Newfoundland, Cape Breton, Anticosti, Prince Ed- ward Island, Long Island, the Bermudas, Marajo or Joannes, the Falkland Islands, Staten Island, and South Georgia. At the southern extremity of Amer- ica lies the archipelago of Fuegia (Tierra del Fuego). In the Pa^^'^c are the Aleutian Islands, Kadiak, the Alexander and Queen Char- lotte groups, Vancouver and other British-Columbian Islands; the Santa Barbara group, Revilla- gigedo Islands, Pearl Island, and others in the Gulf of Panama; the Galapagos, Juan Fernandez and the associated islets, the Chiloe Islands, and the Chonos Archi- pelago. In the Arctic Ocean there are many large but unimportant islands. The total area of America is estimated to be about 14,500,000 square miles, with adjacent is- lands, about 16,125,000 square miles. The population of the New World in 1916 was esti- mated at 195,000,000. The native peoples of North and South America alike would ap- pear to have been all of one race, although the Eskimos (q.v.) of the far north resemble the 'Indian,' or copper-colored native races, not so much in appearance and in physical features, as in the poly- synthetic or incorporative char- acter of their system of word- building. Further notice of the red men and of their ancient centres of semi-civilization is con- tained in the article American Indians. The present population of North America contains a copious element of the Indian stock, chiefly found in the remoter parts of Canada and in Mexico and Central America. In Spanish America and in Manitoba (Can- ada) there are many persons of mixed white and Indian origin. The Spanish language is spoken in Central America, Mexico, Cuba, and Porto Rico; French prevails in parts of Canada and Louisiana, and in some of the West Indies; and a German dia- lect prevails locally in Pennsyl- vania. But by far the largest share of the North American people are English in language, if not in descent. The aboriginal population of South America is noticed in the article American Indians. The white population is largely Spanish in language and descent, except in Brazil, where Portuguese is spoken. The common people of Chile are largely of Gallician (Spanish) descent; while Basque blood is said to prevail in Peru. The Brazilian whites are to a considerable extent of Azorean and Madeira stock. There are numbers of German colonists in Brazil, the La Plata countries, and Chile; and also many Italians, Basques, and other Europeans in the Argentine Republic and Uru- guay. The English language is spoken in the Falklands and in Guiana; French and Dutch pre- vail in parts of Guiana. The negro clement is strong in Brazil, in parts of Peru, and in Guiana; and there are many persons of mixed descent. For detailed information, see the separate articles on North America and South America; Central America; West Indies. America, a national hymn for patriotic ceremonies, composed by the Rev. Samuel F. Smith in 1832, and set to an eighteenth century tune ascribed to Henry Carey (1742), which is also adopt- ed in 'God save the King,' the national anthem of Great Britain. Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N. V. AMERICA CUP RACE Shamrock IV. and Resolute just after the Start of the Fifth Race for the America Cup. July 26, 1920, Shamrock IV. Leadmg. The Cup is shown in the upper right-hand corner. Vol. I.— Oct. '20 Vol. I.— at Page 206 ♦ « America Cup ' Amer'ica Cup, or merica's Cup, an international yachting trophy. The competition for this cup is of British origin, hav- ing arisen out of a Royal Yacht Squadron contest, for which a prize, called the Queen's Cup, was offered, the course being around the Isle of Wight. The cup having been carried off by the U. S. schooner America (1851), the winners conveyed it by deed' of gift in 1857 to the New York Yacht Club, to be held by that club against all chal- lengers as an international trophy. According to the terms of the conveyance, any organized yacht club of any foreign country can claim the right to sail, a match for the cup with a yacht or vessel propelled by sails only and constructed i« the country to which the challenging club belongs, against any one yacht or vessel constructed in the country of the club holding the cup, but it must give ten months' notice, in writing, of the day on which it wishes to start the race, and no race shall vbe sailed between November 1 and May 1. The conditions governing the cup races are decided upon by a committee from 'the New York Yacht Club and the challenging club, who agree as to the date, number of races to be sailed, the length of course, start, signals, and time limit. The system of measut-ements, time allowance, and racing rules of the New York Yacht Club are observed. In 1870 and 1871, Great Britain challenged with the Cambria and Livonia, both of which were defeated. A similar fate befell Canadian challengers in 1875 and '1881, and further British challengers in 1885, 1887, 1893, and 1895. In the two last cases Lord Dunraven challenged with Valkyrie II. and Valkyrie III. respectively. Among all the British chal- lengers the most notable and the most persevering has been Sir Thomas Lipton (q. v.). In 1899 his Clyde-built Shamrock was pitted against the Columbia, de- signed by N. G. Herreshoflf, and the property of J. Pierpont Mor- gan and C. Oliver Iselin. Three races only were run, although five had been arranged for; the Columbia winning the first and third, and the Shamrock being disabled in the second by the snapping of her topmast. In 1901 Sir Thomas was again de- feated, when his yacht, Shamrock II., built on the Clyde from the designs of G. L. Watson, proved no match for the Columbia, which won in three consecutive races — the first by only about 200 yards, and the second by only about one minute. In 1903 Sir Thomas made a third un- successful attempt with the Vol. I.— Oct. '20 207 / Shamrock III., which failed to win a sifigle race against the American Reliance. In 1913 he again challenged. The races were" scheduled for September, 1914, but were postponed on the outbreak of the Great* War. They were eventually held in July, 1920, between Shamrock IV., designed by Charles E. Nicholson and built in Gosport, England, aijd tho Resolute, de- signed by N. G. Herreshoflf and built in Bristol, R. I. Five races were run; Shamrock IV. won the first two, but the last tiiree went to the- American Resolute. In the first race the Resolute suffered a broken hal- yard and was obliged to with- draw. See Yacht. Consult Stone's The America's Cup Races (1914). American. For articles on organizations whose title begins with the word American, see un- der other headings — as Ad- VANCEMlfNT OF SCIENCE, AMERI- CAN Association for, the. American Aloe. See Agave. American Baptist Mission- ary Union. See Missions: American Bliglit. See Blight, American, American Board of Foreign Missions. See Missions. American Colonization Soci- ety. See Colonization Soci- ety. National: American Expeditionary Forces, the official name of that portion of the U. S. Army which was shipped overseas Sov ser- vice during the Great War .(q. v.). - On April 6, 1917. when the United States issued its decla- ration of war on Germany, the U. S. Army numbered about 200,000 men, two-thirds of that number belonging to the Regular Army and one-third to the Federalized National Guard (see Army of the United States). During the course of the War this number was increased to 4,000,000 men, fifty per cent, of whom were in overseas service. Of the total, more than 500,000, or 13 per cent., came in through the Regular Army; almost 400,000, or 10 per cent., through the National Guard; and the rest, constituting 77 per cent., through conscription or enlist- ment in the National Army (see Conscription). The average member of the American Expeditionary Forces, or the A. E. F., as it is generally known, received six months of training in camps and canton- ments in United States and two months overseas training (see Military Training Camps; Camps; Cantonments) before entering the battle line, with an additional month in a quiet sector before going into heavy fighting. Training was for the 'American Expeditionary Forces most part in the division (q. v.), . which was the typical com oat unit, consisting of about 1,000' officers and 27,000 men. The First and Second Divisions, composed almost wholly of. Regular Army men, were organ- ized in France; the Twenty- sixth. Forty-second, and Forty- first reached France within' • three months, , or less, of the date oi organization; while the remaining divisions underwent comparatively extended periods of training in the United States. A list of the divisions constitut- ing the A. E. F., together with the place of organization, and the composition, is given in the table on page 207 B. Transportation— T he fi r s t .troops were shipped within a few weeks of the entrance of the United States into the War, At first the movement was not rapid, • the only available means for transportation being a few American and British troop ships which had been chartered directly from their .owners. D'lring the early winter, as the interned German liners came into service, em- ,barkations increased to a rate of nearly 50,000 per month, and by the end of 1917 had reached a total of 191,000. Early in 1-918 negotiations were entered into with the British Government by which three of its big liners and four of its smaller troop ' ships were definitely assigned to the service of the U. S. Army. The results of this are shown in increased troop movements for March. It was in that month that the great German spring drive took place in Picardy, with a success that threatened to result in German victory. Every ship that could be secured was pressed into service, while the aid furnished by the British was greatly increased. The number of men carried in May was more than twice as great as the number for April. The June record was greater than that of May, and before the first of July 1,000,000 men had been embarked. The record for July exceeded all previous monthly totals, the number of troops carried being more than 306,000. Before the end of October the second million men had sailed from our shores. During many weeks in the summer the number carried was more than 10,000 men a day, and in July the total landed averaged more than 10,000 for every day of the month. No such troop movement as that of the summer of 1918 had ever been contemplated, and no movement of any such number of persons by water for American Expeditionary Forces 207 A American Expeditionary Forces such a distance and such a time had ever previously oc- curred. The record has been excelled only by the achieve- ment in bringing the same men back to the shores of the United States. Beginning with December, 1917, the monthly shipments to France were as follows: after the signing of the Armistice (Nov. 11, 1918). The British ships being needed for the return of British colonial troops to Canada, Australia, and South Africa, the work of transporta- tion devolved upon the Army Transport Service, which im- mediately began the conversion of large cargo ships into troop Large quantities of food and equipment had also to be trans- ported to support the forces abroad. The first shipment of cargo was made in June, 1917, and amounted to 16,000 tons. After the first two months the shipments grew rapidly and steadily until they were in excess of 800,000 tons in the last month m U49 iLLLiil in umTD}5TATE5 AND possessions 200 290 390 SOO »91 691 948 1100 1169 XZZS I4SS \6Zi iTIS 1353 iUi 8380 2656 3001 3433 3(34 36^ 3000 2624 2733 20S4 1764 APR mv jun. JUL AU6 sen: OCT m dec jw. fib mar apr may jun Jut aug 5£pt oct nov ozc jam feb mar apr may 1917 1918 1919 Thousands of Soldiers in the A merican A rmy on the First of Each Month. December. 1917 49,515 January, 1918 47,853 February 49,110 March 84,889 April 118,642 May 245,945 June 278,664 July 306,350 August 285,974 September 257,457 October 180,326 November 30,201 The number of men sailing from the various embarkation ports and their distribution at the ports of landing are shown in the accompanying map. The return of troops to the United States was begun shortly Vol.. I— Oct. '19 ships. By means of these and by the assignment of German liners, and the great aid rendered by the Navy, which put at their disposal cruisers and battle- ships, the Army was brought back home even more rapidly than it was taken to France. Following the signing of the armistice, the homeward ship- ment was as follows: NovPiflber 26,245 December 99,111 January, 1919 115,382 February 181,751 March 212,899 April 290,377 May 333,333 June , 358,315 of the war. Altogether, from America's entrance into the War through April, 1919, the Army shipped from this side of the Atlantic nearly seven and a half million tons of cargo. This con- sisted of thousands of dififerent articles of the most varied sort. Nearly one-half of all consisted of quartermaster material, large- ly composed of food and clothing. The next largest elements were engineering and ordnance sup- plies. During the whole period of active hostilities the Army lost at sea only 200,000 deadweight tons of transports. Of this total American Expeditionary Forces 207 B American Expeditionary Forces 142,000 tons were sunk by tor- pedoes. No American troop transport was lost on its east- ward voyage. service, while the others were used for replacements or were just arriving during the last month of hostilities. The battle record A merican Expeditionary Forces. them were Regular Army divi- sions, (1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th); 11 were organized from the National Guard (26th, Division. Camp. States from Which Drawn. Regulars: 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th National Guard 26th 27th 28th 29th 30th 31st 32nd 33rd 34th 35th 36th 37th 38th 39th 40th 41st 42nd National Army: 76th 77th 78th 79th 80th 81st 82nd 83rd 84th 85th 86th 87th SSth 89th 90th 91st 92nd 93rd France France Greene, N, C Greene. N. C Logan, Tex McClellan, Ala MacArthur, Tex Fremont, Cal Devens, Mass Wadsworth, S. C. . . Hancock, Ga McClellan, Ala Sevier, S. C Wheeler, Ga MacArthur, Tex Logan, Tex Cody, N. Mex Doniphan, Okla . . . . Bowie, Tex Sheridan, Ohio Shelby, Miss Beauregard, La. . . . Kearny, Cal Fremont, Cal Mills, N. Y Devens, Mass Upton. N. Y Dix, N.J Meade, Md Lee, Va Jackson, S. C Gordon, Ga Sherman, Ohio Zachary Taylor, Ky Custer, Mich Grant, 111 Pike, Ark Dodge, Iowa Funston, Kans Travis, Tex Lewis, Wash Funston, Kans Stuart, Va Regulars. Regulars and two regiments of Marines, Regulars. Regulars. Regulars. Regulars. Regulars. Regulars. New England. New York. Pennsylvania. New Jersey, Delaware, Virginia, District of Columbia. Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina, Maryland, District of Columbia. Georgia, Alabama. Florida. Michigan, Wisconsin. Illinois. Nebraska, Iowa, South Dakota, Minnesota. Missouri, Kansas. Texas, Oklahoma. Ohio. Indiana, Kentucky, West Virginia. Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana. California, Colorado, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico. Washington, Oregon, Montana, Idaho, Wyoming. Various States. New England, New York. New York City. Western New York, New Jersey, Delaware. Northeastern Pennsylvania, Maryland, District of Columbia. Virginia, West Virginia, Western Pennsylvania. North Carolina, South Carolina, Florida, Porto Rico. Georgia, Alabama, Tennessee. Ohio, Western Pennsylvania. Kentucky, Indiana, Southern Illinois. Michigan, Eastern Wisconsin. Chicago, Northern Illinois. Arkansas. Louisiana, Mississippi, Southern Alabama. North Dakota, Minnesota. Iowa, Western Illinois. Kansas. Missouri, South Dakota, Nebraska. Texas, Oklahoma. Alaska, Washington, Oregon, California, Idaho, Nebraska, Montana, Wyo- ming, Utah. Colored, various States. Colored, various States. Active Service. — Of the 42 divisions that reached France, 29 took part in active combat of the U. S. Army in the War is largely the history of these 29 combat divisions. Seven of 27th, 28th, 29th, 30th, 32d, 33d, 35th, 36th, 37th, 42d), and 11 were made up of National Army GLASGOW 45000 IANCHESTCR 4O00 VERPOOU SMOOO RISTOL PORTS 11000 ALMOUTM lOOO Ly MOUTH 1000 SOimiAMPTON 57000 /^ONOON 68,000 aUEBEC noNTReAL sr. JOHNS PORrLANO BOSTCN NEW YORK PHlLA. SALTiMOrte: Vol. Troops Sailing from American Ports and Landing in Prance and England. I. — Oct. '19 American Flag 207 C American Indians troops (77th, 78th, 79th, 80th, 81st, 82d. 88th, 89th, 90th, 91st, 92d). The 93d division, while not listed as a combat division, because it was at no time complete as a division, was brigaded with the French, with whom it also saw active service. American combat divisions were in battle for 200 days, from the 25th of April, 1918, when the first Regular division, after long training in quiet sectors, entered an active sector on the Picardy front, until the signing of the armist ce. During these 200 days they were engaged in 13 major operations, of which 11 were joint enterprises with the French, British, and Italians, and 2 were distinctively American. The t 8t major operation was the Cambrai battle at the end of the campaign of 1917, Scattering medical and engineer- ing detachments, serving with the Bri'^'^h, were present dviring the action, but sustained no serious casualties. The other major operations were the five great German offensives (Somme, Lys, Oise, Noyon-Montdidier, and Champagne- Marne) from March 21 to July 18, 1918; the Allied offensives (Aisne- Marne, Somme, Oise-Aisne, Yp- res-Lys, St. Mihiel, and Meuse- Argonne from July 18 to Nov. 11; and the Battle of Vittoria- Veneto (Oct. 24-Nov. 4, 1918) on the Italian front. The two dis- tinctively American actions were the Battle of St. Mihiel (q.v.) and the Battle of the Meuse-Ar- gonne (see Argonne) . The divi- sions engaged in the actions on the western front are indicated on the accompanying maps. For further details, see the article Europe, Great War of, and on the individual actions. Cas ualtie s. — Battle Casu- alties in the A. E. F. were as follows: Killed in action, 34,180; died of wounds, 14,729; severely wounded, 80,130; slightly wounded, 110,544; wounded, degree undetermined, 39,400; missing in action, 2,913; taken prisoner, 4,434; making a total of 286,330 battle casualties, of which 48,909 were deaths either in action or from wounds. In addition to this number, there were 27.790 deaths from disease and other causes. For an excellent statistical account of the American Expedi- tionary Forces, consult The War with Germany; A Statis- tical Summary, by Leonard P. Ayres. issued by the War De- partment, from which much of the material for this article is taken. Consult also the History of the A. E. F. now (1919) in preparation by the War Depart- ment. American Flag, — See Flag, United States. Vol. I.— Oct. '19 American Forlc, city, Utah county, Utah, on the Denver and Rio Grande and the San Pedro, Los Angeles, and Salt Lake Railroads; 32 miles south of Salt Lake City. Pop. (1900) 2,732; (1910) 2,797. American Indians, the abo- rigines of the New World, so called from the original delusion of Columbus, who supposed that the land discovered by him was India, and its inhabitants the Indians, of the Eastern Hemi- sphere. Hence these came later to be distinguished as East In- dians, and those of America as West or American Indians, for which the contracted form Amer- inds (q. V.) has been proposed by some writers. While great un- certainty exists as to the time of man's appearance in America, it is considered safe to assume that it was some tens of thousands of years ago. Granting this inter- val, it is not improbable that the Americas were peopled from Asia, Europe, and perhaps the islands of the Pacific Ocean by people living in a stone age_; after which no other large bodies of people reached those shores until the time of Columbus. Physical and Mental Charac- teristics . — These are much the same, from the Arctic Ocean to Fuegia. The Eskimo of the far North alone differs widely in appearance and habits from the so-called ' Red Indian' ; but they both agree in having a polysynthetic language. Indeed, the real Indian tribes and the Eskimos alike possess languages which, while they may differ greatly in sound and in vocabu- lary, are almost identical in structure. This unity of the American language type is matched by the essential unity and sameness of the mental, moral, and physical types of the red man. True, some tribes are warlike, and others cowardly; some live by the chase, others by agriculture or horticulture; some are fish eaters, others huntsmen; but they are essentially one and the same people throughout, the Eskimos alone excepted. Their physical characters are a certain tallness and robustness, with an erect posture of the body; a skull narrowing from the eyebrows upward; promi- nence of the cheek bones; the eyes black and deep set; the hair coarse, very black, and perfectly straight; the nose prominent or even aquiline; the complexion usually of a red- dish, coppery, or cinnamon color, but with considerable variations in this respect. They have seldom much beard. There is also a certain feebleness of consti- tution, combined, it may be, with vigor, suppleness, and strength of body. At least, the aboriginal races do not resist well the epidemics introduced by the whites; and many tribes have been exterminated by the effects of the ' firewater ' and the vicious habits brought in by more civilized men. The red man is usually proud and reserved; serious, if not gloomy, in his views of life ; com- paratively indifferent to wit or pleasantry; vain of personal en- dowments; brave and fond of war, yet extremely cautious and taking no needless risks; fond of gambling and drinking; seem- ingly indifferent to pain; kind and hospitable to strangers, yet revengeful and cruel to those who have given offence. The men are usually expert in war and the chase, but inactive in other pur- suits. In many tribes, both sexes take part in athletic games. They often excel in horseman- ship, and, as a rule, sight and hearing are wonderfully acute. The old-time Indian had courage, dignity, self-respect, and hospi- tality, and not one of these quali- ties has entirely disappeared from the Indian of the present day. Eloquence and fondness for oratory, formerly so conspicuous among some of the North Ameri- can tribes, were equally charac- teristic of the Araucanian in the far South, Native Civilization. — In Peru, Colombia, Central America, Yucatan, and Mexico, there were tribes five hundred years ago who had attained a relatively high degree of native civilization. In New Mexico and Arizona, the rather numer- ous pueblos or native Indian towns are the reHcs of what may have been a northern extension of the Mexican civilization. The relics of the prehistoric Mound Builders found throughout a large part of Central North America, and the great numbers of the nameless ruined towns of the CUff Dwellers and other extinct peoples of the South- western United States would seem to show, however, that in remote ages the native civili- zation had a far wider extent than in recent times. The Mexi- cans and Peruvians excelled in architecture. Neither of them had iron; both had native or other copper and gold, and the Peruvians seem to have had cutting tools of bronze. The Mexicans had no domestic ani- mals but the dog; the Peruvians had also the llama and alpaca. Both grew cotton as well as maize; both could spin and weave. Yet nowhere have the Indians, except on compulsion, adopted very readily the civili- zation of Europe. In the United States, the In- dians waged many bitter wars against the whites, who have lit- American Indiand 207 E American Indians tie by little dispossessed them of their lands. Very little trouble of this kind has ever been experi- enced in Canada; and still less, in recent years, in Spanish America, where the Indian population would appear to be gaining on the white. The greater spirit and vindictiveness of the Northern Indians have involved them in ruin; but the Mexican Indians, contented to belong to a subject race, have multiplied more rapidly than the conquering people. In Mexico, the Indians con- sider themselves a gente sin razon, 'people without reason,' while the Spanish Americans constitute a superior gente de razon, or 'people of reason.' Yet in that country the mingling of the two races is very common; and among the best soldiers and statesmen of the republic some have been Indians of pure blood. In Peru, many of the priests and monks are of Indian race. In Brazil, where the Portuguese language prevails in towns, the speech of the Tupi-Guarani tribes has been adopted as a kind of lingua franca through- out the interior. In Paragtiay, the same language has nearly dis- placed the Spanish, even among the whites. Each one of the countless tribes of America has its own language. These tribes are grouped together by ethnolo- gists, chiefly with reference to the common elements of their lan- guages. In many cases, the vari- ous tribes of a group recognize a certain kind of kinship among themselves, but in not a few in- stances it is very hard to prove any near relationship either by language or by blood; while, in a few cases, tribes speaking the same language differ widely in character, habits, and appear- ance. Classification. — Rejecting the Aleuts and Eskimos from the category of ' Indian ' peoples, the principal stocks or recog- nized families of North America are as follows: (1) The Atha- bascans (Tinne). including many tribes of Alaska and North Canada, as well as the Apaches, Navahoes, and others in the United States. (2) The Algon- quins, a great and clearly marked race which once covered a large part of the Atlantic slope from Labrador to Virginia, and reached westward to the Rocky Mountains. Here belong the Abnaki, the Delawares, the Crees, the Chippeways, and many nov/ historic tribes. Some authors assign the Cheyennes, the Arapahoes, and even the Blackfeet to this stock. (.3) The Iroquois, a once powerful and warlike race, formerly dwelHng for the most part in the St. Law- rence Valley and what is now Vol. I.— Oct. '19 New York State. This v/as one of the most clearly defined fam- ilies of North America. It in- cludes the Cherokees, Mohawks, Senecas, and numerous others. (4) The important Siouan family, including the great Dakota group, and the Omahas, Osages, Winnebagoes, Crows, Catawbas, and others. (5) The Muskho- geans, including the now extinct Alibamas, Apalachis, Choctaws, Creeks, Chickasaws, and Semi- noles. In point of intelligence and adaptiveness to civilization, these tribes take a high rank. (6) The Caddoan family, including the Pawnees, Arickarees, Wichi- tas, Caddos, and others. All were plainsmen, and many of them have excelled as horsemen and warriors. (7) The tribes of the Northern Pacific Coast, among which are the Tlingit of Alaska, and many tribes of West- ern Canada and the United States. (8) The Yuman family, in the valley of the Colorado River and California, including the Maricopa and other tribes. (9) The Shoshones, with whom are classed the Utes. the warlike Comanches and the half-civilized Moquis, and many of the de- graded Diggers. They live mostly among or near the Rocky Mountains. (10) The Pueblo Indians of New Mexico and Ari- zona, a composite division, in- cluding the Zuni and the Keresan family. (11) The Mexican tribes, of which the number is very great and the family unity question- able. Here are placed the cele- brated Aztecs, the half-mythical Toltecs, the interesting and semi- civihzed Nicaraguans, and many others. (12) The Maya stock of Mexico and Central America, and (1.3) a number of independent Central American and Isthmian stocks. A comprehensive classification of the South American tribes is much more difficult. In the mountainous district of the northwest belong the Chocos, Chibchas, Paniquitas, and Pae- zes, the tribes of Cauca and Antioquia, and the Coconuca, Barbacoa, and Mocoa stocks. The linguistic stocks of the Peruvian region include the Quichuas, Aymaras, Puquinas, Yuncas, Atacamenos, and Chan- gos. The Amazonian Indians are grouped in a great number of bands or tribes, and have, as a rule, a very low intellectual position. Most of these tribes would appear to have few linguistic or other characters in common. They include the Tupi-Guarani stock, the Tapu- yas, the Arawaks, the Caribs and Orinoco Indians of many tribes, and the Indians of the Upper Amazonian basin and the Boliv- ian highlands. In the Pampean region are the linguistic stocks of the Gran Chaco, the Charruas, the nomadic Pampean tribes, the Araucanians, the Pata- gonians, and the degraded tribes of the Fuegian family. In North America, at least, the forcible expatriation and deport- ation of tribes is a thing of the past. Since the Indians are now increasing in number, it is ap- parent that the race is not des- tined to die out, and it may be as- sumed that a gradual assimila- tion of the red and white races will take place in the United States, where, indeed, the amal- gamation is already going on. The ordinary operations of mis- sionary work have not always borne the best fruit among the Indians. The best results have followed where industrial train- ing has been joined to missionary instruction. Even the degraded Fuegians have begun to respond hopefully to this kind of training. The plan adopted years ago, in the United States, of paying an- nuities to the deported tribes, no doubt took its rise in the desire to deal equitably with them; but the result, in many cases, has been the pauperization and consequent moral degradation of the beneficiary tribes. In Canada the case is different. The French character and meth- ods of dealing suited the ideas of the aborigines, and the two races amalgamated to a surprising ex- tent under French rule. In later years, the French-speaking sec- tion of the Canadians seems to have exercised a tacit protecto- rate over the Indians. The Brit- ish and colonial authorities of Canada, however, have always endeavored to deal fairly and generously with the Indians, and have made the local French tra- dition fully their own. Canada never had a real Indian war. Under the Hudson's Bay Com- pany's rule in the Northwest no Indian ever had cause to com- plain of injustice, and as a con- sequence the Indians committed few crimes. But it must be remembered that the Indian population of Canada was never nearly so dense as farther south, nor so hard pressed by the influx of white settlers as it has been in the United States from the first. Nothing but the absolute prohi- bition of immigration could have prevented Indian wars in the United States. The influx of settlers has been incessant; and as a consequence, Indian wars were formerly almost continually waged. From the outset, many public men in the United States have interested themselves in the red man and his fortunes; but until recent years legislation has been of little avail. According to the Federal Cen- sus for 1910, there were 291,014 American Ipecac 207 F Americanisms Indians in the United States and Alaska, representing 301 tribes. The reports of the Indian Super- intendent for 1918 placed the In- dian population at 336.243. The number of Indians in Canada is estimated at 115.000, making a total north of Mexico of nearly 450,000. Languages. — The Arnerican Indian languages are differen- tiated into at least a hundred different stocks, of which fifty- five, each with its own variety of dialects, are distinguished north of Mexico. When it is understood that nearly all the languages of Europe taken together constitute but a part of a single linguistic stock, this great diversity can be better appreciated. While it is difficult to general- ize with regard to so large and varied a group, there are certain tendencies which are characteris- tic of at least a large number of the Indian languages — notably the high development of pro- nominal forms; polysynthesis. or the running of several words into one, dropping parts of them and retaining only the signifi- cant syllables; incorporation, or the inclusion in the verb or verbal expression of both the object and manner of the action; the tendency to divide the verb sharply into an active and a neutral class one of which is closely related to the possessive form of the noun, while the other is treated as a true verb; and, phonetically, the slurring of the ends of the words. Noted Indians. — Among noted American Indians may be men- tioned Tecumseh and Pon- tiac (qq. v.), famous warriors: Logan (q. v.), celebrated for his valor and eloquence; Brant and Red Jacket (qq. v.), noted leaders of the Iroquois; Osceola (q. v.), the heroic half-breed chief of the Seminoles; Sequoya (q. v.), the half-breed son of a German father, the inventor of the Cherokee syllabary (his name is perpetuated in that of Sequoia, a genus of gigantic California trees); Black Hawk, the great warrior of the Sacs and Foxes (see Black Hawk War); and Joseph, a noble- minded and heroic leader of the Nez Perces (q. v.). Among the Mexican Indians of distinc- tion have been Benito Juarez (1806-72), once president and twice 'anti-president' of the re- public; and Thomas Mejia (d. 1867), a valorous general. Rafael Carrera (1814-65), president of Guatemala, was of mixed Indian and negro descent; Jesse Bushy- head (d.l844) was an able Chero- kee jurist; Samson Occum (1723- 92), an Indian preacher of New England, was the author of hymns in English. Cornplanter Vol. I.— Oct. '19 (d. 1836), an Iroquois chief, is said to have been the earliest temperance lecturer in America. George Copway (born 1820) was well known as a journalist and author. In South America, Co- paiio (1511-48) was a brave and able warrior of Chile, as also was the giant Colli pule (d. 1576). The Araucanian soldier Calaf- quin (d. 1602) is also a great name. For a detailed account of the History, Population, and Cus- toms of the Indians in the United States, see the article United States, section on Amer- ican Indians. See also the sep- arate articles on the principal Indian tribes, as Algonquins; Dakotas; Fuegians; Iroquois; Pueblos, etc. Bibliography. — Consult Bulle- tins of U. S. Office of Indian Affairs; Annual Reports of the Bureau of American Ethnology; Journal of American Folklore; G. Catlin's Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs, and Condition of the North American Indians; H.R. Schoolcraft's Historical and Statistical Information Respecting the Indian Tribes of the United States (3 vols.), and Ethnological Researches Respecting the Red Men of America (5 vols.); J. L. McKenney and J. Hall's History of the Indian Tribes of North America; S. G. Drake's Aborigi- nal Races of North America; H.H. Bancroft's The Native Races of the Pacific States (5 vols.) ; D. G. Brinton's The American Race, and On Various Supposed Rela- tions between the Americans and Asian Races, and Myths of the New World; A. Gallatin's A Syn- opsis of the Indian Tribes within the United States (2 vols.); F. Boas' Anthropology of the North American Indians; L. Farrand's Basis of American History; G. B. Grinnell's Story of the American Indian; F. S. Dellenbaugh's North Americans of Yesterday; F. W. Hodge's Handbook of American Indians (2 vols., 1907- 10); F. E. Leupp's The Indian and His Problem (1910); G. E. Church's Aborigines of South America (1912); E. S. Curtis' History of the North American In- dian (9 vols., 1913); G. A. Dor- sev's Indians of the Southwest (1913); J. K. Dixon's The Van- ishing Race (1913); W. K. Moor- head's The American Indian in the United States (1914); C. A. Eastman's The Indian To-day (1915). For Indian linguistics, consult J. W. Powell's Indian Linguistic Families of America', F. Boas' Handbook of American Indian Languages (1911). American Ipecac. See Gil- LENIA. Americanisms, a term ap- plied by the members of other English-speaking communities to certain words or locutions pecu- liar to the English speech of the United States. These are mainly of three sorts. The first consists of absolutely new words intro- duced into the English language in the United States. Instances are caucus, ranch, boss, and drum- mer. The second consists of words or phrases current also in the British Isles, but to which a new meaning has been attached on this side of the Atlantic. Such are clever, in the sense of amiable; smart for clever; store for shop; ugly for ill natured; saloon for bar room ; and creek for small stream or river. The third consists of obsolete words, or words used in senses once more or less familiar in the British Isles, but now dis- continued there. Some Ameri- canisms have been borrowed from the languages of other European nations settled in parts of the United States — as from the Dutch in New York and Pennsyl- vania (boss, loafer), the Span- iards in California (ranch, can- yon), and to a less extent the French in Louisiana (bayou, levee). The vast mass of so-called Americanisms consists of slang usages applied to combinations of existing English words. Some of them are Americanisms only by virtue of the relatively greater frequency with which they are employed. Such as / guess, I reckon, I presume, I calculate, originally Puritan attempts to avoid the possibility of too defi- nite a misstatement. To this class also belong to fix as the verb universal (fix a meeting — arrange, fix myself up for dinner — dress); to run, in the sense of to manage ('run a hotel,' 'run a railroad,' etc.) ; right in the sense of quite or just ('right comfortable,' 'right here'); and pretty used for 'rather,' as pretty bad, pretty nice, and even sometimes pretty ugly. 'Is that so!' in the sense of 'In- deed!' also originated in the United States. ' Not a red cent,' 'you bet your bottom dollar,' 'prospecting around, ' ' toting a derringer,' and so forth, are also described as Americanisms. 'You bet,' as a strong affirmation, recalls the common gambling habits of the West. 'To pass in one's checks,' 'to go one's pile,' 'to hold the right bower.' belong also to the Western gaming phraseology. To say that a business speculation ' pans out well ' or ' strikes it rich ' is obviously derived from the mining slang of California. A large number of what are called Americanisms are as little used in the Middle and Eastern States as in Europe. Others, however, are more widespread. Candy for every kind of sweet- meat is common to the entire Union. Rooster for cock, lumber for timber, back of for behind, lot Americanists 208 Americanization for field or paddock, form similar elements of the general language. Cracker is applied to a biscuit, while biscuit is the name of a light roll. Many phrases are evidently due to the direct influence of French ideas. Bag- gage for luggage, valise for small trunk, depot for railway station, bureau for office (and domesti- cally for chest of drawers), ex- position for exhibition, are cases in point. In many instances American- isms proceed from the desire for brevity, as pants for trousers (pantaloons), cars for railway carriages, and to wire or to phone for to telegraph or to telephone. Many words of Latin origin form part of the current vocabulary of American everyday life to a greater degree than among Brit- ish people. Such are to operate for to work, to locate for to place; institution, lyceum, or academy for school or college; recitation for lesson, proclivities for tastes, section for district. eminence for hill, residence for house, elegant for pretty, vaca- tion for holidays, and promi- nent citizens for well-known men. On the other hand, our British cousins call a baby carriage a perambulator, and a morning- glory a convolvulus. Many of the terms cited as Americanisms are merely ephem- eral slang, never used, even when known, by Americans of good breeding. See Slang. Consult Farmer's American- isms Old and New; De Vere's Americanisms; Clapin's New Dic- tionary of Americanisms. Americanists, a name ap- plied to persons making a special study of American eth- nology, archaeology, etc. The International Congress of Ameri- canists was organized in Europe in 1875, and was reorganized to include American countries in 1900. Biennial meetings are held alternately in Europe and America, and are attended by officials appointed by the various governments, as well as by the members. The session of 1914 was held in Philadelphia. Americaniza'tion is the join- ing of the native and foreign born in America 'to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tran- quillity, provide for the common defence, promote the general wel- fare, and secure the blessings of liberty'; in short, to take part democratically in promoting the common-weal of Americans. The democratic or co-operative character of this fusion process is its most distinctively American feature and may be more fully described as follows: American- ization is the uniting of new with native horn Americans in fuller common understanding and ap- VOL. I.— Oct. '19 preciation to secure by means of self-government and self-direc- tion the highest welfare of all. Such Americanization shoixld perpetuate no unchangeable poli- tical, domestic, and economic regime delivered once for all to the fathers, but a growing and broadening national life, inclu- sive of the best wherever found. "With all America s rich heritage, Americanism will develop best through a mutual giving and taking of contributions from both newer and older Americans in the interest of the common weal. Americanization of the immigrant involves, therefore, merely the application to him of the principles of American de- mocracy. He should have those things which Americans also want, and to this end he should be invited to participate in his own Americanization. In the last analysis we mean by democracy taking part, practically and imaginatively, in the common life of the commu- nity. Actually the critical prob- lem of modern American democ- racy is the lack of participation of its individual members. It is in response to this situation that a new interest is manifest- ing itself in the revival of the local community. This move- ment is an effort to reverse the process which has been working to reduce society to individual atoms. It seeks to make the neighborhood again an effective political and social agency, and to find in spontaneovis organi- zations of various types forms of association adapted to preserve the integrity of the common man and society as a whole; for it is only in an organized group — in the home, the neighborhood, the trade union, the co-operative society — where he is a power and an influence, in some region where he has status and repre- sents something, that man can both maintain a personality and take an efi^ective part in affairs common to himself and his fellows. If we wish to understand how the foreigner is attempting to Americanize himself and also get a better understanding of the revival of our own interest in the local community, we have only to study the institutions which the foreign-language groups have created in this country. In every case these institutions have sprung up to meet some practical or sentimental need, temporary or permanent, for which there was no adequate provision in our own institutions. These institutions are: 1. The foreign language colo- nies — the 'ghettos' of our great cities; 2. Foreign language churches, schools, and other cultural institutions; 3. Mutual aid, fraternal, -and benefit and insurance organizations; 4. The foreign language press and theatre; 5. Labor organizations and socialist societies; 6. Na tionalist organizations. These organizations reveal the needs and wishes of the foreign- language groups as they under- stand them. The way to Ameri- canize the immigrant is first to study these institutions and then see how they can be brought into co-operation with native institutions and organizations, and used in peace, as they have already been used in war, to create national sentiment and support. Americanization involves, briefly: 1. Understanding what group- ings of persons do and may con- trol the various fields of activity in America — e.g., the group consisting of the nation as a whole directs such matters as naturalization, interstate trans- portation, and war: the State con- trols health and education; the city regulates conditions of streets and local trade; the industrial group determines most working conditions; the neighbor- hood prescribes manners and dress. 2. Acquiring the means of group action, as a common language and identification with, and incorporation in various groups: e.g., forming neighbor- hood ties, joining a political party, allegiance to the nation. 3. A mutual understanding by the native and foreign-born of each other's habits of life and thought, the necessary basis for co-operation of any diverse ele- ments. 4. Modification of the scope, purpose, and nature of the activi- ties of the various groups and the make-up of the groups themselves as the new and old elements together may deter- mine: e.g., certain activities may pass from voluntary to governmental action, as insur- ance; from State to national control, as suff"rage; from the purpose of private to that of public profit, as dance halls: from the unsanitary to the healthful, as tenement house conditions; from the ugly to the beautiful, as American musical development. 5. The development of a governmental and social system which allows and requires the maximum of voluntary co-opera- tion. Historically and tempera- mentally Americans, whether old or new, have exercised self- determination in such a way as to leave the largest possible place for private initiative, in- genuity, and enterprise. The newest American settlers are exactly like the original settlers American Knights, Order of 209 American Merchant Marine in this spirit of the pioneer and the explorer — the spirit of will- ingness and desire to try the unknown, to sail the uncharted sea. In this common spirit lie the essence and secret of America's remarkable power of assimilation. Americans will continue their unique contribution to the world only as they preserve this oppor- tunity for variation of individual activity while under the necessity of caring for more and more exi- gencies of life through centralized government. The struggle to maintain such freedom along with the widening scope of gov- ernment, is a fight not yet won between liberty and autocracy. The practical aspects of Ameri- canization include the teaching of English, without which the alien cannot truly absorb the atmos- phere of America but will remain a stranger in a strange land; naturalization (q. v.); lectures and entertainments, designed to set forth the institutions, govern- ment, and aims of the Republic, and to demonstrate the necessity of readjustment to the new con- dition encountered in a new country; recreational activities, under wise direction; advisory councils, made up of a few up- right citizens who are willing to give free advice to the alien in trouble, thus saving him often- times from unscrupulous men who would profit by his ignorance. The new emphasis upon Ameri- canization had its origin with the inception of the Great War, 1914, and the accompanying renais- sance of nationalism. In 1915 the National Americanization Committee was organized for the purpose of furthering a national- ization movement that would unify the various peoples in the United States, and in 1918 the Federal Government undertook specific Americanization work. This was organized under the Bureau of Education in the De- partment of the Interior and resulted in the appointment of county councils and regional directors under the supervision of the Division of Americaniza- tion of the Bureau of Educa- tion. More recently with the restora- tion of peace-time conditions and the restriction of immigration, the Americanization movement has undergone certain definite changes, losing in part its identity as a separate movement and becoming merged in the greater program for adult education. Special emphasis is placed on preparation for citizenship and on the adaptation of courses of study to the type of immigrant now coming into the country. In ac- cordance with the new tendency, the position of Director of Ameri- canization in the Bureau of Education has been discontinued, and the position of Specialist in Adult Education has taken its place. (See also Adult Educa- tion). The need of trained workers in the field has now become so great that many leading universities have established courses of study designed to train men and women for the work of immigrant educa- tion, and courses in summer schools are offered to public school teachers, social workers and welfare workers. In some States, particularly those having large foreign populations, a defi- nite program of immigrant edu- cation is carried out, with State aid to local communities for the support of classes in English and the principles of citizenship. Various religious and philan- thropic agencies are also under- taking the work. Consult Dixon's Americaniza- tion (1916); Bogardus' Essentials of Americanization (1919); Tal- bot's Americanization (1920); Berkson's Theories of Americani- zation (1920); Roberts' The Prob- lem of Americanization (1920); Jackson's What America Means to Me (1920); Grace's Immigra- tion and Community Americaniza- tion (1921); Bierstadt's Aspects of Americanization (1922); Spe- ranza's Race or Nation (1925). American Knights, Order of. See Knights of the Golden Circle. American Legion, The, a national organization of Ameri- can veterans of the Great War, originated in a caucus, in Paris, of one thousand officers and men of the American Expeditionary Forces, March 15 and 16, 1919, at an organization meeting which adopted tentative aims and pur- poses, a temporary constitution, and the name. The action of the Paris meeting was confirmed and endorsed by a similar meeting held in St. Louis, May 8 and 10, 1919, when machinery was cre- ated to effect a permanent or- ganization. The American Le- gion was incorporated by Act of Congress, Sept. 16, 1919, and the charter convention was held in Minneapolis Nov. 10, 11, and 12, 1919. The Minneapolis convention approved the acts of the tem- porary organization and adopted a permanent constitution, in the preamble of which the purposes of the Legion and the principles for which it stands are outlined as follows: 'For God and Country: To uphold and defend the Constitu- tion of the United States; to maintain law and order; to foster and perpetuate a 100 per cent. Americanism; to preserve the memories and incidents of our association in the Great War; to inculcate a sense of individual obligation to the community, State, and nation; to combat the autocracy of both the classes and the masses; to make Right the master of Might; to promote peace and good will on earth; to safeguard and transmit to pos- terity the principles of justice, freedom, and democracy; to consecrate and sanctify our com- radeship by our devotion to mutual helpfulness.' The American Legion is non- partisan and non-political, a civilian organization, neither mili- tary nor militaristic, composed principally of men and women who were civilians before the Great War and returned to civilian life at its close. The organization makes no distinction of rank and no distinction be- tween overseas service and ser- vice in the United States. Any soldier, sailor, or marine who served honorably between April 6, 1917, and November 11, 1918, is eligible for membership, as are women who were regularly en- listed, enrolled, or commissioned for active duty in any of the branches of the American forces. The veterans who elected to stay in the service are also eligible. The American Legion is or- ganized into departments and posts, with one department in each State, the District of Co- lumbia, Alaska, Hawaii, the Philippines, Canada, France, Mexico, Panama, and Italy. Posts are organized in various foreign countries where there are no departments. Headquarters are in Indianapolis, Ind. At the eighth annual national convention held in Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 11 to 15, 1926, inclusive, the membership of the Legion was 673,229, enrolled in 10,258 posts. The American Legion Auxiliary, membership in which is limited to mothers, wives, sisters, and daughters of members of the Legion or those eligible to membership, was in excess of 246,000 at the time of the Phila- delphia convention, there being more than 5,900 units attached to Legion posts. American Line, a line of Atlantic steamers growing out of the International Navigation Company, a Pennsylvania under- taking, formed in 1871, which gradually enlarged its operations until it embraced the Red Star Line, running from 1873 between Antwerp and Philadelphia, and the Inman Line (acquired in 1886), running between Liverpool and New York. In 1893 all the undertakings were merged in the American Line, running weekly between Southampton via Cher- bourg and New York, and be- tween Liverpool and Philadel- phia. It now forms part of the International Mercantile Marine Company. American Literature. See United States, Literature of. American Merchant Ma- rine. See Shipping, Merchant. Vol. I.— March '27 American Mnseum of Natural History 210 Ames American Museum of Natural History. See Museums. American Party, the name given at different times to three pohtical parties which flourished for a brief term and disappeared. The first came into being about 1856 and represented a move- ment in opposition to ahens and Roman Catholics (see Know- NoTHiNG Party). Its strength lay chiefly in the Middle and Southern States and after a few years it ceased to exist. The second American Party was founded in 1872 in opposition to secret societies, with a platform demanding prohibition of the sale of liquor, Sabbath observ- ance, the introduction of the Bible into schools, and other reforms. It gradually became absorbed in the Prohibition Party. The third party of the name was organized in 1887. It sought reform of the immigration laws, complete separation of Church and State, adequate preparedness to maintain Ameri- can rights and ensure safety, and the enforcement of the Monroe Doctrine. It was also short- lived. American Revolution See Revolution, American. American River, California, is a tributary of the Sacramento River, into which it falls near the city of Sacramento. It is formed by the union of the North, South, and Middle Forks, which rise in the Sierra Nevada, and flow through picturesque canyons (some of them 2,000 feet deep). It is about 30 miles long. American University, a co- educational institution for higher learning in Washington, D. C, chartered in 1893 under the auspices of the Methodist Epis- copal Church. It includes a graduate school, a school of arts and sciences (est. 1925), and a school of political sciences. A bachelor's degree or its equiva- lent is required for admission to the graduate school. For recent statistics see Table under the heading College. American University of Trade and Applied Com- merce, an educational institu- tion in Philadelphia, Pa., was opened in 1916. It embraces the existing educational activities of the John Wanamaker Store, and is adding to these gradually until it will offer to all the employees of that business wide opportunities for completing their interrupted educations. For many years the John Wanamaker Commercial Institute has given to the em- ployees a common-school educa- tion, with special preparation for business life; the classes being conducted during business hours, with no loss of pay. To this lower school is now added a higher, the former being related to the latter as is the academy to the college. Vol. I. — March '27 Both schools are open to all employees, and embrace practical and cultural branches. Approximately two 9^cres of floor space in the Philadelphia Wanamaker store are devoted to educational activities. The Com- mercial Institute has its class rooms, gymnasium, and armory on the ninth floor. The Univer- sity quarters, on the eighth floor, include University Hall, seating 1,200, Princeton Hall, and class rooms and offices. Amerlcus, city, Georgia, coun- ty seat of Sumter county, at the junction of the Central of Geor- gia and the Seaboard Air Line Railroads; 71 miles southwest of Macon. Cotton oil and fer- tilizers are manufactured, and there are important metal and monument works. The city is located in a productive agricul- tural region, and is the seat of the State Agricultural College. Pop. (1910) 8,063; (1920) 9,010. Amerighl, Michelangelo. See Caravaggio. Amerigo Vespucci. See VeS' PUCCI. Am'erind, and Amerindian or Amerindic, terms invented by members of the Anthropological Society of Washington, D. C, to denote, in scientific treatises, the aboriginal tribes of the American continent and adjacent islands, including the Eskimos. Amerling, a'mer-ling, Fried- rich (1803-87), Austrian painter, was born in Vienna. He studied in London and in Italy and on his return to Vienna devoted himself to portraiture. A portrait of the Emperor Francis I. (1836) won him such praise that he became the favorite portrait painter of the court and the aristocracy. He executed about a thousand por- traits, and a number of historical pictures, including Moses in the Desert and Dido on the Funeral Pyre. Consult Frankl's Life. Amersfoort, a,'mers-f6rt,town, Netherlands, in the province of Utrecht; 14 miles by rail north- east of Utrecht. The tower of the Church of St. Mary (four- teenth century) has a fine set of chimes. There is a large trade in grain; tobacco is grown in the district; and brandy, cotton and woollen goods, leather, soap, and beer are manufactured. Amers- foort was one of the chief seats of the Jansenists and has a Jan- senist college. Pop. (1920) 31,435. Am'ersham, market town, England, in Buckinghamshire; 24 miles northwest of London. Features of interest are the Church of St. Mary, a fine ex- ample of Perpendicular architec- ture, and a town hall built by vSir William Drake (1642). In- dustries of the town are straw plaiting, chair and lace making. Pop. (1921) 3,392. Amery, Leopold Charles Maurice Stennett (1873- ), British statesman and author, was born in Gorakhpur, India, and was educated at Harrow and at Balliol College, Oxford. He was on the Times editorial stafif (1899-1909) and organized the Times war correspondence in South Africa (1899-1900). Dur- ing the Great War he served in Flanders and the Near East and in 1917 became Assistant Secre- tary of the War Cabinet and Imperial War Cabinet. He was Under-Secretary of State and Colonies (1919-1921), Parliamen- tary and Financial Secretary to the Admiralty (1921-2), and First Lord of the Admiralty (1922-4), and in 1924 became Secretary of State for the Colo- nies, and in 1925 Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs. His publications include The Times History of the South African War (1909); The Problem of the Army (1903); Fundamental Fallacies of Free Trade (1906); The Great Question (1909); Union and Strength (1912). Ames, city, Iowa, Story coun- ty, on the Chicago and North- western Railroad; 37 miles north of Des Moines. It is the seat of the Iowa State College of Agri- culture and Mechanic Arts (q. v.) . Banners and pennants are manu- factured. Pop. (1910) 4,223; (1920) 6,270. Ames, Adelbert (1835- ). American soldier, was born in Rockland, Me., and was grad- uated from West Point (1861). He served with distinction in the Civil War; was bre vetted major-general of volunteers; and became a lieutenant-colonel in the regular army. He was U. S. Senator from Mississippi (1870- 73), and was elected governor of that State in 1873. His admin- istration caused him to be ac- cused of favoritism toward the negro element, and led to the riot at Vicksburg in December, 1873. In 1876 he was impeached by the legislature, and resigned when the charges against him were withdrawn. He was brig- adier-general of volunteers in the Spanish-American War. Ames, Fisher (1758-1808), American public official and or- ator, was born in Dedham, Mass. He was graduated from Harvard (1774), and was admitted to the bar in 1781. His advocacy of a strong government won him rec- ognition, and by his practical wisdom and commanding elo- quence he rose to a position of eminence in the Federalist Party. In 1789 he was elected to Con- gress, where he served four terms, supporting Washington's admin- istration, and winning a high reputation for his eloquence and patriotism. He recognized the supreme importance of the British navy during the American war, Ames 211 Amethyst denounced American indifference to French aggression, and after Washington's death steadily op- posed the foreign poHcy of Jef- ferson. Consult Works, edited by his son, Seth Ames. Ames, Herman Vandenburg (1865- ), American educator, was born in Lancaster, Mass. He was graduated from Amherst College (1888), and studied at Columbia, Harvard (ph. d., 1891), and the Universities of Leipzig and Heidelberg. He was in- structor in American constitu- tional history (1897-1903), as- sistant professor of American history (1903-8), and in 1907 became dean of the Graduate School of Princeton University. In 1908 he accepted the chair of American constitutional history at the same university. He was chairman of the Public Archives Commission of the American Historical Association (1902-12), member of the Council (1911— 14), chairman of the committee on international educational re- lations (1919-24), and has held other important positions. He is the author of The Proposed Amendments to the Constitution of the United States, which was awarded the prize of the Ameri- can Historical Association in 1897; Outline of Lectures on American Political and Institu- tional History during the Colonial and Revolutionary Periods (3d ed., 1908) ; Syllabus of American Colo- nial History (with W. T. Root, 1912) ; and a number of historical monographs and papers. Ames, James Barr (1846- 1910), American educator, was born in Boston, Mass. He was graduated from Harvard Univer- sity (1868; A.M., 1871) and from the Harvard Law School (1872), and was instructor in history (1872-3), associate professor of law (1873-7), professor of law (1877-1910), and dean of the Law School (189.5-1910) at Har- vard. Besides his articles in legal periodicals, he published a num- ber of compilations of cases con- nected with various branches of the law. Ames, Joseph Alexander (1816-72), American portrait painter, was born in Roxbury, N. H. After some success as an artist in his native State, he re- moved to Boston, where he stud- ied with Washington Allston, and in 1848 went to Rome, where he not only studied, but achieved sufficient prominence to paint the portrait of Pope Pius ix. Re- turning to the United States, he lived in Boston, Baltimore, and New York, and was elected to the National Academy of Design in 1870. Among his well known portraits are those of Rachel, Rufus Choate, Seward, Webster, and Emerson. Other works are the Death of Webster, Night, Morning, and Miranda. Ames, Joseph Sweetman (1864- ), American physicist, and university administrator, was born in Manchester, Vt. He was graduated from Johns Hop- kins University (1886; PH.D., 1890), where he was assistant (1888-91), associate (1891-3), associate professor (1893-9), and professor (1899-1926) of physics, and director of the physical labo- ratory (1901-26) and since 1926 Provost of the University. He is chairman of the National Advisory Committee on Aero- nautics, a member of many scien- tific societies and treasurer of the National Academy of Sciences. He is a past president of the American Physical Society, and the author of numerous articles and books dealing with Physics. Ames, Mary Clemmer (1839- 84), American author, was born in Utica, N. Y., and married the Rev. Daniel Ames, from whom she was divorced in 1874. She was associated with the Spring- field Republican, New York Press (1865), and Brooklyn Daily Un- ion (1869-71), and for many years was Washington corre- spondent of the New York Inde- pendent. At her home in Wash- ington she established a salon much frequented by literary peo- ple, and in 1883 she married Ed- mund Hudson. She prepared biographies of her friends, Alice and Phoebe Gary, and published several novels, Ten Years in Washington (1871), and a volume of Poems (1882). Consult Life by Edmund Hudson. A mes, Oakes (1804-73) , Amer- ican legislator and manufacturer, was born in Easton, Mass. He was connected with the house of Oliver Ames & Sons, which made a fortune in the manufacture of picks and shovels during the era of gold discovery in California. He was one of the capitalists who built the Union Pacific Railroad, investing over SI, 000, 000 in the enterprise. From 1862 to 1873 he represented Massachusetts in Congress, having previously been a member of the State executive council. A monument to his memory was erected by the Union Pacific Railroad at Sher- man, Wyo. Ames, William (1576-1633), known also as Amesius, English Puritan divine, was born in Ips- wich. Persecuted for noncon- formity, he sought refuge in Holland, where he engaged in controversy with Grevinchovius and Bcllarmine. He was ap- pointed professor of theology at Franeker in 1622, and at Rotter- dam in 1632. His works include Medulla Theologice, a student's handbook; the famous Coronis ad Collationem Hagiensem; De Conscientia, Ejus Jure et Casibus; and Bellarminus Enervatus. Con- sult Life by Nethenus. Ames, WiNTHROP (1871- ), American theatrical manager, was born in North Easton, Mass. He was graduated from Harvard University (1895), and engaged in editorial work until 1904, when he became manager of the Castle Square Theatre, Boston. From 1908 to 1911 he was director of the New Theatre, New York City. He has also built and managed the Little Theatre (1912) and the Booth Theatre (1913), both in New York City. Amesbury, town, Massachu- setts, in Essex County, on the Merrimac River and the Boston and Maine Railroad; 42 miles northeast of Boston. Automo- biles, hats, boots and shoes, and brass castings are manufactured. According to the U. S. Census for 1925, the city had 40 industrial establishments, with products valued at $25,982,792. It is an old historic town, the birthplace of Josiah Bartlett, and for many years the residence of John Whittier. Pop. (1910) 9,894; (1920) 10,036. Amesbury, village, England, in Wiltshire, on the Avon; 8 miles north of Salisbury. About a mile to the west is a large entrench- ment, covering an area of 39 acres, called Vespasian's Camp, but supposed to be of British or- igin; and a little farther west is Stonehenge. Elfrida, widow of Edgar, founded here, in 980, a Benedictine nunnery. At Mil- ston, near Amesbury, Joseph Ad- dison was born in 1672. Pop. rural district (1921), 15,138. Ame'sha Spen'ta (modern Amshaspends) , the 'immortal holy ones' of the later Avesta, are the principal spirits who assist Ormuzd in his work of creation. They are seven, including Or- muzd. The affinities between the Zoroastrian and Jewish theogo- nies, manifest in Ormuzd (the Creator) and Ahriman (Satan), are further illustrated by Amesha Spenta, who have been compared to 'the seven Spirits that are before his throne' (Rev. i. 4). See Zend-Avesta. Am'ethyst, a variety of quartz distinguished by its beautiful violet-blue or deep purple color. The presence of a small amount of manganese has been regarded as the origin of the characteristic color, which may vary consider- ably in the same specimen, and is readily destroyed by heating. Amethyst is most often found lining the interior of balls or geodes of agate, and in veins and cavities in basalt, diabase, and other igneous rocks. It is one of the most esteemed varie- ties of quartz, and is much em- ployed for pins, rings, and neck- VOL. I.— Oct. '29 Amfortas 212 Amherst College laces; although, being compara- tively abundant, it is inferior in value to the true gems. The fin- est specimens are found in India, Ceylon, and Brazil. It is, how- ever, a common mineral in Eu- rope, and occurs in the United States in Maine, Pennsylvania, Delaware, North Carolina, and at Thunder Bay, Lake Superior. Not to be confounded with this mineral is that sometimes called the Oriental amethyst, which is a variety of spinel. It has an ame- thystine color, and is a valuable gem. Amfortas, am-for'tas, or An- FORTAS, king of the Holy Grail, in Wolfram von Eschenbach's Parzival and Wagner's opera of Parsifal. Amga, am-ga', a river in Si- beria, in the Yakutsk district. It is a tributary of the Aldan (q. v.), which falls into the Lena. It is about 500 miles long and has its source in the Yablonoi Moun- tains. Amhara, am-ha'ra ('high- lands'), the central division of Abyssinia (q.v.). The name is also given to the 'happy valley' in Dr. Johnson's Rasselas. Amharic Language, am-ha'- rik, the official language of Abys- sinia spoken in its central prov- ince of Amhara. It has taken the place of Ethiopic or Geez (still the literary language), and differs in several features from the dialects of the provinces of Tigre and Shoa. Like Ethiopic, it is a Semitic tongue, and is written from right to left. Am'herst, town, Massachu- setts, in Hampshire County, on the Boston and Maine and the Central Vermont Railroads; 16 miles north of Springfield. It is the seat of Amherst College and of Massachusetts Agricultural College (qq.v.). The manufac- ture of straw hats is the principal industry. The town was settled early in the eighteenth century, and is rich in historic associa- tions. Pop. (1910) 5,112; (1920) 5,550. Amherst, town, Nova Scotia, capital of Cumberland County, on Cumberland Basin, and on the Canadian National Railroad; 138 miles northwest of Halifax. It has a large lumber and coal trade, car shops, iron foundries, engine and boiler works, woollen mills, tanneries, boot and shoe fac- tories, piano works, trunk and bag factory, and creameries. Pop. (1911) 8,973; (1921) 9,998. Amherst, village. Ohio, in Lorain County; 30 miles south- west of C'leveland. Sandstone is ciuarried, and grindstones are manufactured. Pop. (1910) 2, 10(); ( 1920) 2.485. Amherst, Jkki-rky (1717-97), created Hakon AMUicKsr (177r)), British soldier, was born in River- head, Kent. He entered the Brit- VoL. L— Oct. '29 ish army in 1731, and served in the war of the Austrian Succes- sion and the Seven Years' War. In 1758 he was made a major general, and was placed in com- mand of the expedition which re- sulted in the capture of Louis- burg (July 27, 1758). He direct- ed the final operations of the French and Indian War, and in September, 1760, forced Gov- ernor Vaudreuil to surrender Canada and its dependencies to the British crown. He was soon afterward made governor- general of the British provinces in North America, but he proved unable to deal eflfectively with the conspiracy of Pontiac (q.v.), and in 1763 returned to Great Britain. breweries and distilleries. One of the oldest settlements in Upper Canada, Amherstburg was for- merly a garrison town. It was destroyed in 1813 by the U. S. army under General Harrison. Pop. (1911) 2,560; (1921) 2.222. Amherst College, one of the leading men's colleges in the United States, was founded in 1821 at Amherst, Mass., and was incorporated by the State in 1825. It has confined its work to purely collegiate instruction, and has no technical or profes- sional schools. Its courses for- merly led to the degrees of b.a., M.A., and B.S., but since 1917 only the degrees of b.a. and m.a. have been conferred. A modi- Walker Hall, Amherst College He was nominally governor-in- chief of Virginia (1763-8), but never went to that colony. In 1772-82 and 1783-93 he was act- ing commander-in-chief of the British army; in 1793-5, com- mander-in-chief; and in 1796 was made a field marshal. Consult Mayo's Jeffrey Amherst (1916). Amherst, William Pitt (1773-1857), created Earl Am- herst OF Arakan (1826), British diplomat, nephew of Jeffrey Amherst, was sent in 1816 as envoy to the emperor of China. He failed in his mission, however, because he refused to perform the traditional 'kotow' to the em- peror. After a brilliant diplo- matic career he became governor- general of India, and carried the first Burmese war to a successful conclusion. Amherstburg, town, Ontario, in Essex County, on the Detroit River, 6 miles above its junction with Lake Erie, on the Micliigan ('entral Railroad, and connet ted by steamer with Detroit. In- dustries include saw and flour mills, cement and iron works, fied elective system is in force. Admission is by examination or certificate. Beautifully situated in the Connecticut valley, the college controls 289 acres of land. The principal buildings are the Con- verse Memorial Library of 160,- 000 volumes, the college church and chapel. College Hall, Apple- ton Hall, Williston Hall. Walker Hall, Morris Pratt Memorial Dormitory, Morrow Dormitory, North and South Colleges, the Geological and Biological Labo- ratories, Fayerweather Labora- tories, the William H. Moore Chemical Laboratory, the ob- servatory, the music building, and an infirmary. Athletic activ- ities are provided for by the Pratt Gvmnasium (and swim- ming pool), Pratt Field (13 acres), and Hitchcock Field (40 acres). The college has a num- ber of valuable scientific collec- tions, notably the Adams collec- tion of shells, a part of Audubon's celebrated bird collection, the Shepard meteorite collection, the Hitchcock ichnological collection, Amice 213 Amiens and a mineralogical collection of about 25,000 specimens. Nine fellowships are main- tained. For recent statistics see Table under the heading Col- lege. Amice, am 'is, a flowing cloak formerly worn by priests and pil- grims. Also a strip of fine linen, with a piece of embroidered cloth sewn upon it, worn upon the shoulders by priests of the Ro- man Catholic Church in the ser- vice of the Mass. Amicis, a-me'ches, Edmondo DE (1846-1908), Italian writer, was born in Oneglia. He attend- ed the military school at Modena, and in 1866 took part in the struggle for Italian unity. In 1867 he became editor of the Florentine paper U Italia Mili- tare, for which he wrote a series of bright and natural tales, Boz- zetli della Vita Militare. He wrote a series of books of travel, remarkable for great charm of style and power of description — La Spagna (1873), Ricordi di Londra (1874), L'Olanda (1874), Marocco (1876), Constantinopoli (1877), Ricordi di Parigi (1879), SuW Oceano (1889). In fiction De Amicis' greatest success was the sentimental II Cuore ('The Heart of a Boy'), primarily in- tended for young people, which has passed through 300 editions, and has been translated into many languages. In his later efforts — II Romanzo d'un McBstro (1895), and // Primo Maggio — he essayed social themes, bordering even on social democracy. Opin- ion is divided as to the value of the Poesie (1880). His later works include La Carozza di Tutti (1899); Memorie (1899); Speranza e Glorie (1900); Lotte Civili (1901) ; Capo d' Anno (1901) ; Nel Giardano della Follia (1902); Una Tempesta in Faiglia (1904) ; Nel Regno del Cervino (1905) ; Ultime Pagine (3 vols., 1908). Amicus Curiae, a-mi'kus ku'- ri-e (Latin, 'friend of the court'), refers to one present in court, usually, though not necessarily, a lawyer, who intervenes and vol- unteers information during the conduct of a case concerning some doubtful issue or matter of fact. This right, though ancient, is now only used when a judge asks some counsel present, but not engaged in the case, to give advice. Am'idavad', or Strawberry Finch (Kstrilda or Sporceginthus amandava), a small weaver bird of India, having brilliant red, yellow, and black plumage. It has a pleasing song, and is pop- ular as a cage bird. Am'ides, compounds derived from ammonia (NHs) by the substitution for one or more atoms of hydrogen of a corre- sponding number of atoms of a metal or a compound radical. More recently, the term Amide, as distinct from Amine (q.v.), has been restricted to those com- pounds derived from ammonia in which one or more atoms of hy- drogen are replaced by an acid radical. The amides are classed as Primary, Secondary, or Ter- tiary, according as one, two, or all three of the atoms of hydrogen are replaced by an acid radical. The primary amides may be obtained in various ways, of which two may be mentioned: (1) If an ammoniacal salt is heated, two atoms of water are given off, and the amide corre- sponding to the acid is left; thus, acetate of ammonia (NH4O.C2H3O)— water (H2O) = acetamide (C2H3ONH2). (2) If an anhydride is submitted to the action of ammonia, there are simultaneously formed an amide and an ammoniacal salt. Amidogen, a-mid'6-jen, or DiAMiDE, NH2 — NH2, was till lately looked upon as a hypo- thetical body, to which the for- mula NH2 was assigned. Curtius has, however, recently produced the sulphate of amidogen, from which amidogen itself is obtained by the action of an alkali. It is a gas, posvsessing (when concen- trated) a peculiar odor somewhat similar to that of ammonia, and when inhaled it strongly affects the nose and fauces. Amiel, a-me-el', Henri Fre- deric (1821-81), Swiss author, was born in Geneva. After trav- elling in Italy, he studied at Ber- lin (1844-8). In 1849 he was ap- pointed professor of aesthetics and French literature at the Univer- sity of Geneva, where in 1853 he became professor of moral phi- losophy. He published many po- etical and literary works, but is best known by his diary. Frag- ments d'un journal iniime (Eng. trans, by Mrs. Humphry Ward). Amiens, a-mi-an'; F.ng. am'i- enz, city, France, capital of the department of Scmme, on the River Somme; 81 miles by rail north of Paris. The old town is separated from the new by eight boulevards on the site of the ancient fortifications, and a sec- ond line of boulevards divides the city from the suburbs. To the west is the Promenade de la Hotoie, an extensive park de- voted to public concerts and fes- tivals. The Cathedral (1220-88) is one of the finest examples of pure Gothic architecture in Eu- rope. Two square towers with- out spires flank the fagade, and there are three portals, richly sculptured. A slender spire, 360 feet in height, rises above the transept. The total length is 469 feet, and the breadth 216 feet; the nave is 147 feet high and 144 feet wide; and the transept is 237 feet long. Other notable build- ings are the Church of St. Ger- main, dating from the fifteenth century, the Town Hall, where the Treaty of Amiens was signed in 1802. the citadel, and the Mu- vseum of Picardy, with its exten- sive collection of antiquities, paintings, and sculptures. Amiens is one of the principal manufacturing centres of France, and has long been famous for its textile products, which include linens, woollens, silks, and vel- vets. Other industries are the making of chemicals, shoes, and machinery, dyeing, and iron founding. The population of the city in 1911 was 93,207; in 1926, 91,576. Previous to the Roman occu- pation Amiens was known as Samarohriva. It was taken by the Franks in the fifth century, and was ceded to the French crown in 1185. It was held by the dukes of Burgundy from 1435 to 1477 ; captured by the Span- iards in 1597; and recaptured by Henry iv. Until 1790 the city was the capital of Picardy. During the Franco-German War it was taken by the Prussians (1870), During the Great War of Eu- rope (q.v.), Amiens was of spe- cial importance because of its strategical position. In the Ger- man advance of August, 1914, as Von Kluck's army swung southwards from Brussels, the force on his extreme right, made up of four highly mobile divisions of cavalry, with their batteries of horse artillery equipped with machine guns, and light quick- firers mounted on motor cars and supported by infantry of the German Second Corps trans- ported on motor trucks, de- scended on Northern France. Their line of advance was on Amiens by way of Arras, their object being to cut the British lines of communication with the base ports. The Allied ar- mies being in full retreat, the enemy met with little serious resistance, and, after a number of detached skirmishes, occupied the town Aug. 30, 1914. It was evacuated a few days later as Von Kluck drew in his right to the junction of the Ourcq and Marne to form a battle line. (See Arras, Battles of.) Amiens was again the German objective in March, 1918, in the course of the Second Battle of the Somme (see Somme, Battles of), the purpose on that occa- sion being to drive a wedge be- tween the Allied armies — the British in the north and the French in the south. The main attack was delivered along the high ground to the southwest, split into shallow valleys by the streams of the Doms, Avre, and Luce, which, with the Somme and the Ancre, make up the five rivers of Picardy. Defensive Vol, I.— Oct. '29 Amiens 213 A Ammanati warfare in such a country is extremely difficult. The narrows between the Luce and the Avre formed a trap which might prove fatal to a weak army. Ten miles west of the Avre ran the great Calais- Paris railway, the main route for the lateral communica- tion of the Allies. Beyond it there was nothing but a single line until Beauvais was reached. If the Germans won the heights beyond the Avre, they could at once put the trunk railway out of use. This advance would put them within twelve miles of the centre of Amiens; and if the railway could be taken before the French reinforcements detrained they would have a free road into the city. The drive for the possession of the city began on the morning of March 28, 1918. It closed on April 8, marking the end of the Second Battle of the Somme. The Allies had established a new front, while the enemy had failed to attain their objective, had ex- hausted their strength, and had lengthened their front by thirty- five miles. The German High Command now planned to achieve its main purpose by ablow in another quarter. But the next blows, instead of being diversions, became major opera- tions which in no way aided the central thrust at Amiens. They were Ludendorff 's fatal blunders which gave the gauge of victory to the Allies. For a more detailed account of the operations against Amiens, and for later action (August, 1919), see Somme, Battles of. See also Aisne, Battles of; Europe, Great War of. The Mise of Amiens, or 'Award of St. Louis' at the Council of Amiens, Jan. 23, 1264, marks an epoch in the Barons' War under De Montfort against Henry iii. of England. The questions in dispute between king and barons were referred to Louis ix. of France as arbiter. The decision was in Henry's favor, but he was to observe established liberties. De Montfort rejected the Mise, and fighting began. The quarrel was at last adjusted at the 'Mise of Lewes' in the same year. The Treaty of Amiens (March 27, 1802), between Great Britain and France (with Spain and the Batavian Republic), brought a truce in the Napoleonic struggle. Its chief terms were as follows: Great Britain to restore con- quests except Trinidad and Ceylon; Malta to be restored to the Knights of St. John, under guarantee of a European power; France to evacuate the Two Sici- lies and Papal States; Egypt to revert to the Porte; integrity of Portugal recognized by France; republic of Ionian Islands recog- nized. Malta was not sur- rendered by Britain, and war was renewed in May, 1803. Am'ines, or Ammonia Bases, are organic compounds derived from ammonia (NHs) by the substitution of hydrocarbon rad- icals — for example, ethyl (C2H5) — for hydrogen in the ammonia, as d%/cm?Mg (NH2.C2H5). They are called Primary, Secondary, or Tertiary, according as one, two, or three of the hydrogen atoms of the ammonia have been re- placed by hydrocarbons or alkyl groups. Hence the general for- mula for the primary amines is NH2R (radical), of the secondary amines, NHR.R', and of the ter- tiary amines, N.R.R'.R", where R.R' and R" may be identical or represent different alkyl groups. The reactions of the amines dif- fer to some extent according to the nature of the substituting alkyl groups, so that they may be further classed as follows: (1) pure aliphatic amines; (2) mixed aliphatic and aromatic amines — (a) with the nitrogen attached to the aliphatic residue, as in ben- zjdamine, and (b) with the nitro- gen attached to a carbon atom of the benzene ring, as in methyl aniline; and (3) pure aromatic am- ines, as aniline and its homo- logues. With the exception of the vege- table alkaloids, amines seldom occur in nature, but are found as decomposition products of animal and vegetable organisms, and of mineral substances. They may be prepared in various ways — for instance, by the action of am- monia or its alkyl derivatives on substitution products (generally haloid or hydroxyl derivatives) of hydrocarbons. As to the properties of the amines, those of the aliphatic series are volatile, inflammable substances, the lower members being either gaseous or liquid with low boiling points and very soluble in water. They have an ammoniacal and fishy odor, and a basicity considerably greater than that of ammonia. The higher members are solids. The aromatic amines have similar properties, but are less basic in character, while the aromatic amino-compounds are even less basic than ammonia. Diamines are derived from two molecules of ammonia by replace- ment of two hydrogen atoms, one from each molecule, by a hydro- carbon residue, or from hydro- carbons by replacement of two hydrogen atoms by two amino groups. Some of these occur as decomposition products of the animal organism, as pulrescine, which is a tetramethylene dia- mine, and cadaverine, which is a pentamethylene diamine. Simi- larly, there are triamines, tetra- mines, and pentamines, which are, however, but little known. Di- ethylene diamine is used as a diuretic under the name of Piper- azine. See Alkaloids; Diazo- COMPOUNDS. Amir. See Emir. Amirante Islands, am-i-rant', or Admiral Islands, a group of small coral islands in the Indian Ocean. They belong to Great Britain, and are dependencies of the Seychelles. See Seychelles. Amish Churcli. See Men- NONITES. Amistad Case. See Supreme Court, Famous Decisions of. Am'ityville, village and popu- lar summer resort, New York, in Suffolk County, Long Island, on Great South Bay, and on the Long Island Railroad; 30 miles east of New York City. Pop. (1910) 2,517; (1920) 3,265. Am'leth, or Amlet, king of Jutland about the second century B.C. The Danish historian, Saxo Grammaticus, says he was the son of Haardenengel and Ge- ruthe and that his father killed King Kotler of Norway and was himself killed by his brother Fenge, who married his widow. Amleth, from fear of his uncle, feigned madness and, according to Saxo, so subtly concealed his wisdom under a cloak of foolish- ness that he avenged his father's death and saved his own life. He made his uncle's couriers drunk, set fire to the king's hall, and killed Fenge with his own sword. He married a daughter of the king of England and was made king of Jutland. Saxo does not tell his manner of death, but his grave is shown in the vicinity of Elsinore and many pilgrimages are made thereto. Shakespeare's tragedy of Ham- let is founded on this story, thus lending it increasing interest, al- though its authenticity is not credited by later Danish his- torians. A ml well, am'look, small sea- port of Anglesey, North Wales, on the northern coast of the is- land; 21 miles northwest of the Menai Bridge. It derives its importance almost entirely from the rich copper mines in the vicinity. Pop. (1921), 2,694. Am'man, Jost (1539-91), Swiss wood engraver and artist, was born in Zurich. He took up his residence at Nuremberg, where he painted a series of por- traits of the French kings and designed many wood cuts for illustrations. His published works include Stdnde und Hand- werker, Wappenbuck und Stamm- buch, and Frauenentrachbuch, all of them edited by G. Hirth. He also wrote Panoplia (1564), and Charta Lusoria (1588). Ammanati, iim-ma-na'te, Bartolomeo (1511-92), Italian architect and sculptor, was born in Settignano, near P'lorence. He was the architect of Cosimo de Vol. I.— Oct. '29 AMIENS CATHEDRAL, THE FINEST EXAMPLE OF GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. Vol. I.— Oct. '19 Ammen 214 Ammon Medici in Florence, and did much to embellish that city. His most noted works are the Ponte della Trinila (Bridge of the Trinity) and the Leda at Florence; a gigantic Hercules at Padua; and the courts of the Pitti Palace and of the Col- legio Romano at Rome. Am'men, Daniel (1820-98), American naval officer, was born in Brown County, Ohio, and en- tered the naval service as mid- shipman in 1836. During the Civil War he saw service in Ad- miral Dupont's blockading squadron; and as commander successively of the gunboats Seneca, Patapsco, and Mohican he took part in operations before Port Royal, and Forts McAllis- ter, Sumter, and Fisher. He was chief of the Bureau of Yards and Docks (1869-71) and of the Bu- reau of Navigation (1871-8), and in 1877 was promoted to the rank of rear-admiral. He was the de- signer of the ram Katahdin, and the Ammen life raft. He pub- lished: The American Inter- Oceanic Ship Canal Question (1880); The Atlantic Coast (1883); The Old Navy and the New (1891). Ammergau. See Ober-Am- MERGAu; Miracle Play. Am'meter, or Ampere Meter, a commercial instntment for measuring, electric current in terms of amperes (see Ampere) . The simplest ammeters have a piece of soft iron moved by the magnetic effect of current in a coil. In an early form a soft iron rod was suspended by a spring or balanced lever inside the coil. The plunger movement was pro- portional to the current, and was shown by a pointer moving over a calibrated scale. In the Thom- son ammeter a light iron vane was mounted on a vertical shaft hav- ing jewel bearings and passing obliquely through a short wide coil. The vane rotated accord- ing to the current, and the move- ment was shown by a pointer attached to the shaft. The Wes- ton, the best-known American type, has a light pivoted coil, moving between the arms of a C-shaped permanent magnet. Movement of the coil is opposed by two light spiral springs, which also lead in the current. This type can be used for direct cur- rent only. Another form has a coil in place of the permanent magnets. Fixed and moving coils are electrically in series, so that when current flows the mov- ing coil tends to become parallel with the fixed. The induction ammeter has a light metal disc, pivoted between the ends of a C- shaped electromagnet which is excited by the alternating cur- rent to be measured. By having a small copper 'damper' on one pole of this magnet, unsym- VoL. I.— Oct. '19 metrical eddy currents are in- duced in the disc, and their reac- tion with the main magnetic field tends to rotate the disc and its attached needle. Hot wire ammeters are occasionally seen, in which the thermal ex- tension of a wire carrying cur- rent is made to move a pointer indirectly. In the moving coil and hot wire types, for measuring more than small currents a thick strip of special alloy metal is used as a shunt across the terminals, so that only a definite small fraction of the current traverses the coil or hot wire. With heavy alternating cur- rent it is common, especially at switchboards, to send the whole current through a small series transformer the secondary of which is connected to an amme- ter. The small current in the latter is proportional to the main current, and the scale may be calibrated to show this. By using standard resistances and a galvanometer or voltmeter that has been carefully cali- brated it is possible to calibrate an ammeter. They may also be calibrated by causing the current to deposit copper or silver from a solution (see Electrolysis). It is more convenient, however, to use the Kelvin balance, in which the force of attraction or repulsion between two coils carrying an electric current is balanced against a weight on a sliding arm. Ammia'nus Marcelli'nus {c. 330-400 A.D.), Roman historian, was born of Greek parents at Antioch in Syria. After serv- ing several campaigns in Gaul, Germany, and the East, he set- tled at Rome, devoted himself to literature, and was alive as late as 390. He wrote in Latin a history of the Roman Empire from 96 to 378 A.D., in 31 books, of which only 18 are extant, comprising the years 353 to 378. This part o/ the work, how- ever, is the most valuable, as it treats of affairs with which the author was an actual contempo- rary. Ammirato, am-me-ra'to, Scip- lONE (1531-1601), Italian pub- licist, also styled II Vecchio the Elder, was born in Lecce, stud- ied law at Naples, and became canon of the cathedral at Flor- ence, where he was patronized by the Medici. He wrote many ex- cellent and accurate historical works, the chief, Istorie Fioren- tine (1660 and 1641), commis- sioned by Cosimo I., bringing the history of Florence to the year 1574, and two works on the families of Naples and Flor- ence. Am'mon, Amun, or Amen ('the Unrevealed'), a deity of the ancient Egyptians, worshipped especially in Thebes (No- Am- mon), and represented as a ram with downward-branching horns, the symbols of power; as a man with a ram's head; and as a com- plete man with two high feathers on his head, bearded, sitting on a throne, and holding in his right hand the scepter of the gods, in his left the handled cross, the symbol of divine life. After the eighteenth dynasty we find in hieroglyphics the name Amun-Ra frequently inscribed, indicating a blending of Ammon with the sun-god Ra. Similarly, III 1 \ Statue of Ammon. the representation of Ammon with a ram's head shows the blending of him with Kneph. From about the twenty-first dynasty, he came to be consid- ered the god of oracles, and as such was worshipped in Ethiopia and in the Libyan Desert. Twelve days' journey west of Memphis, in the desert was a green oasis fringed with a belt of palm trees, on which rose the temple of Ammon, and whither pilgrimages were made. The worship of Ammon spread at an early period to Greece, and afterwards to Rome, where he was identified with Zeus and Jupiter. The colossal ruins of his temple still stand at Karnak (q.v.). Am'mon, Otto (1842), Ger- man anthropologist, was born in Karlsruhe, and was successive- ly civil engineer, publisher, and editor (1863-68), He is the au- thor of Ammon' s law, that the immigrants from country to town tend to group themselves in two divisions — a 'round- headed' division following com- mercial and industrial pursuits, Ammonia 215 Ammonia and a 'long-headed' division re- cruiting the ranks of the learned and official classes. The law rests upon anthropometric measure- ments, and is expounded in Die Natiiraliche Auslese beim Men- schen (1893), Die Gesellschaft- sordnung und ihre Naturalichen Grundlagen (1896), and Zur An- thropologie der Badener (1899). Ammo'nia, NHs, an impor- tant gaseous compound of nitro- gen and hydrogen, takes its name from a related compound, sal ammoniacum, which was pre- pared in ancient times in Egypt, in the neighborhood of the tem- ple of the sun god Ra Ammon. The term Ammonia, or Ammonia Water, is also applied to a water solution of this gas. In modern times ammonia was obtained by Priestley in 1774, while its exact composition was demonstrated by Berthollet in 1785. Ammonia, under normal at- mospheric pressure, is a colorless gas above —32.5° c, a liquid between the temperatures — 32.5° and — 77° c, and a white crystal- line solid below the latter tem- perature. The critical tempera- ture — that above which no pres- sure, however great, can produce hquefaction — is 131° C; at 20° c. a pressure of 8.4 atmospheres is required for liquefaction. In minute quantities, diluted with air, it has an agreeable odor; in moderate quantities, pungent; in larger quantities, irritating to nose and eyes, and suffocating when inhaled. Ammonia is noticeable in the air about stables, being formed by the action of putrefying bac- teria in the decay of animal and vegetable matter. Small amounts of ammonia are dissolved in rain water; natural waters contain minute variable amounts — e. g., six parts per hundred million. There are several methods of preparing ammonia. (1) It may be prepared by heating organic substances containing nitrogen, as bones, hoofs, horns, etc., an old custom which gave the water solution the name Spirits of Hartshorn. It is conveniently prepared in small quantities (2) by heating ammonium hydrox- ide, which yields the gas readily, or (3) by heating a mixture of ammonium chloride (sal am- moniac) and calcium hydroxide (slaked lime), in about the ratio 53:37 by weight, which should yield about 17 parts of ammonia gas. A copper flask is preferable, as a glass one is likely to be cracked by the water which is also formed in the reaction. The gas may be dried by passing it through a column of quicklime, and collected by air displacement simply, or over mercury. (4) Nearly all the ammonia of com- merce comes from the ammonia- , cal liquors obtained from the destructive distillation of coal in the manufacture of illuminating gas or coke. Coal often contains as much as 2 per cent, of com- bined nitrogen thus available. Other sources are the residues from the beet sugar industries, slaughter houses, and tanneries. (5) Ammonia is synthesized on a commercial scale by the direct combination of hydrogen and nitrogen at high pressures and temperatures, in the presence of a catalyst. The so-called Haber process, developed by Dr. Fritz Haber and owned by the Bad- ische Anilin und Soda Fabrik of Germany, uses a mixture of one part of very pure nitrogen and monia by simple cooling. The original gas mixture always con- sists of one volume of nitrogen to three of hydrogen, and since this is the theoretical composition of ammonia, the gases combined are replaced in the same propor- tion. Still other reactions for obtain- ing ammonia are (6) the action of steam and cyanamide, which gives a very large yield, and has commercial possibilities, and (7) the reaction of water and a me- tallic nitride, as magnesium nitride. Ammonia is extremely soluble in water, which takes up about 800 times its volume at ordinary Water wmwmm//wmm//immimmm/A I 3-B-Qrme m/mimwmmmimwmmmmmmh Ice Making with Liquid Ammonia three parts of hydrogen by vol- ume, a temperature of 550° c, a pressure of 150 atmospheres, and a catalyst of iron, uranium, manganese or other metal or mixture. The Claude process, developed in France, utilizes a temperature of 500-600° c, as in the Haber process, but is carried out at pressures of 1,000 atmospheres (14,700 pounds per square inch). Other modifica- tions involving changes in pres- sure, temperature, and the com- position of the catalyst are em- ployed in the application of this synthetic reaction. It is possible to obtain as much as 14 per cent, of ammonia in the gas mixture after passing over the catalyst. The nitrogen used in this syn- thesis may be prepared by burn- ing the oxygen out of air with a metal, such as iron or copper, by the fractionation of liquid air, or by the absorption of carbon di- oxide from the flue gas from burning coke, by water, under pressure, or by alkali. The hy- drogen used may be obtained by the electrolysis of water or from other electrolytic processes yield- ing it as a by-product, or by the purification of water gas. At the pressures employed, the am- monia may be separated from the gas mixture as liquid am- temperatures, and more at lower temperatures, following Henry's Law, approximately. The solu- bility varies considerably with the temperature, so that when the temperature rises, some of the ammonia leaves the solution and accumulates in the upper part of the container if closed — a fact to be borne in mind when opening it. It is completely ex- pelled from solution by boiling or by bubbling another gas, as air, through the solution. It has been shown, largely through the work of E. C. Franklin (q.v.), that liquid am- monia is strikingly analogous to water in physico-chemical prop- erties. Salts dissolved in it, as salt in water solution, are disso- ciated into ions, according to the theory of electrolytic dissocia- tion; and anhydrous copper sul- phate, for example, will crystal- lize with 'ammonia of crystalliza- tion' analogous to water of crys- tallization. Ammonia may be decomposed into its constituents, two volumes yielding one volume of nitrogen and three of hydrogen. The ve- locity of combustion is too small for a current of the gas to burn in air; but it burns ia an atmos- phere of oxygen with a yellow flame. When ammonia dissolves Vol. I. —March '27 Ammonia 216 Ammonius in water, some ammonium hy- droxide (NH4OH) forms, which is a base, and turns pink litmus blue. Moist litmus paper may therefore be used as a test for ammonia. Extremely minute quantities, as 1:1,000,000,000, may be detected by Nessler's reagent (q.v.). Ammonia combines with acids to form salts: thus, with hydro- chloric acid to form Ammonium Chloride or Sal Ammoniac, NH4- Cl (see Sal Ammoniac); with sulphuric acid to form Ammo- nium Sulphate; etc. Ammonia reacts with magnesium to form magnesium nitride and hydrogen, and with sodium to form soda- mide and hydrogen. Uses: Refrigeration, etc. — When one gram of gaseous am- monia is condensed to liquid ammonia, 316 calories of heat are liberated. Conversely, when one gram of liquid ammonia passes into the gaseous state, an equal quantity of heat is taken in. In the ammonia process for manufacturing artificial ice, gase- ous ammonia is compressed by a pump in a system of iron pipes until it liquefies, and the liber- ated heat is removed by streams of water pouring over the pipes. In a tank of brine (a water solu- tion of calcium chloride) are immersed cans of the shape of the blocks of ice desired, filled with distilled water (about 200 lbs.), and surrounded by a second system of pipes, called an ex- pansion coil. The liquid ammo- nia is allowed to escape into the expansion coil; and the pressure being reduced, the ammonia passes into the gaseous state, taking in heat, which is given up by the nearest body at a higher temperature — namely, the brine on the outside of the ex- pansion coil. The brine being cooled below the freezing point of water, heat passes to it from the water in the cans, which then freezes. Thus, in effect, the heat of the water to be frozen is" trans- ferred to the water which cools the compressed ammonia, and is thus dissipated. But to transfer heat from a lower to a higher temperaturerequires work, which, together with enough extra to compensate losses, is supplied by the energy used to run the pump. If a chamber is to be cooled as in cold storage, the cold brine is circulated through a third system of pipes with refrigerating coils (corresponding to radiators in a heating system), located in the upper part of the space, so as to be in contact with the warmer air, which, being lighter than the cooled air, rises. (See Refrig- eration.) Ammonia is used also for re- frigeration in breweries, packing houses, sugar refineries, etc.; in Vol. I. — March '27 the manufacture of soda (Solvay process); in the preparation of ammonium hydroxide, and am- monia water, much used as a cleansing agent; and to make ammonium salts, some of which, as the sulphate and chloride, are valuable fertilizers. Aromatic Spirits of Ammonia (see Sal Volatile), is used medi- cally as a stimulant in cases of fainting, for the relief of dyspep- sia, and as an expectorant. Household Ammonia, a dilute solution of the gas, is supposed to contain 8 per cent., but some- times as little as 2 per cent, is present. Liquid ammonia is brought into the market in steel cyUnders. Statistics. — Census figures for 1923 show that the United States produced 67,425,904 pounds of aquaammonia, 23,966,005 pounds of anhydrous ammonia, 31,936,- 691 pounds of ammonium chlo- ride, and 1,424,448 pounds of ammonium sulphate that year; Bibliograph y. — C o n s u 1 1 Lunge's Coal Tar and Ammonia (1909); Calvert's The Manufac- ture of Sulphate of Ammonia and Crude Ammonia (1911); Gross- man's Ammonia and Its Com- pounds (1913); Lange's By-Prod- ucts of Coal Gas Manufacture (1915); Maxted's Ammonia and the Nitrides (1921). Ammoniacum, am-o-ni'a- kum, or Gum-Ammoniac, a gum resin obtained from Dorema am- moniacum (Umbelliferae), a per- ennial about seven feet high, with large, doubly pinnate leaves about two feet long, found in Persia and Turkestan. Originally white, it becomes yellow on ex- posure to the atmosphere; is softened by the heat of the hand ; and has a heavy, unpleasant odor. It is used medicinally as an expectorant and disinfectant in cases of chronic bronchitis and asthma, and externally as a counter-irritant in pleurisy and rheumatism. A m' monite, an explosive com- posed of pure ammonium nitrate and nitro-naphthalene. See Ex- plosives. Ammonites, am'mon-Its, a Semitic race occupying the region to the east of the lower Jordan north of Moab. With the Moab- ites they hired Balaam to curse Israel, and otherwise obstructed the migration into Canaan. Though there was kinship be- tween Ammon and Israel (see Gen. xix. 38), the two peoples were almost constantly at war — e. g., under Jephthah; Saul, by whom, as also by David, they were defeated (1 Sam. xi. 11; 2 Sam. x. 6-14); under Jehosha- phat, Jotham, Nehemiah, and Judas Maccaba?us. After the fall of the kingdom of Israel (721 B.C.) they spread themselves in the districts east of the Jordan, They sometimes secured the alli- ance of Syria, of Nebuchadnez- zar, and of Arabian tribes in their wars with the Jews. They were finally conquered by Judas Maccabaeus. Their language was apparently akin to Hebrew. Their chief city was Rabbath- Ammon; their national deity was Milcom (Moloch). Ammonites, am-6-m'tez, a group of animals belonging to the Cephalopoda, now extinct. The name Cornua ammonis is derived from their resemblance to the coiled rams' horns which deco- rated the statues of Jupiter Am- mon. The shells vary from a fraction of an inch to nine or ten feet in diameter. The earliest ammonites are found in the Permian of Sicily; they became extinct at the close of Cretaceous times. In Jurassic and Creta- ceous seas they abounded; and their shells are among the most characteristic ingredients of the calcareous rocks of those periods. They were not only individually numerous, but developed a great variety of genera and species. Their spirally coiled shells, like the shell of the living nautilus (q.v.), were divided into a series of separate chambers by trans- verse partitions. The outermost chamber was open in front, and was inhabited by the animal; the posterior chambers contained only gases. The mouth of the 'living chamber' was often orna- mented with projecting processes or horns. By an aperture in its posterior wall this chamber com- municated with a tube, the siphuncle, which ran backward through all the empty chambers, and ended in the centre of the coil. Lying in the living cham- ber a calcareous plate is some- times found, the aptychus, which is believed to have served as an operculum, with which the mouth of the shell could be closed. The external surface was sometimes smooth, but more usually orna- mented with projections, ribs, and furrows. See Cephalopoda. Ammo'nium is the name given to the group NH4 present in the salts formed by the union of ammonia (q.v.) with acids. This group has not been isolated, but behaves very like the element potassium in its compounds, and is often classed with it. Ammonium, the site of the famous temple of Ammon in the Libyan Desert, the modern oasis of Siwah (q.v.) Ammo'nius, surnamed Sac- CAS ('sack-carrier') (d. 243 A.D.), Greek philosopher, founder of the Neo-Platonic School. In his earlier days he was a porter in Alexandria; hence his surname. His most distinguished pui)ils were Origen, Plotinus, Longinus, and Herennius. He left no writings. Ammonius 217 Ammunition Ammonius son of Hermias (fifth century), studied at Athens under Proclus, and was afterward the master of Simplicius, Ascle- pius Trallianus, John Philoponus, and Damascius. His extant commentaries are : On the Isagoge of Porphyry, On the Categories of Aristotle, De Inter pretatione. Ammonius of Alexandria (b. 458), presbyter and oecono- mus of the church in that city, was an Egyptian. His extant works are: Exposition on the Book of Acts; Commentary on the Psalms; On St. John's Gospel. Ammonoi'dea, a totally ex- tinct group of mollusca, of which no less than 5,000 fossil species have been discovered. The so- called sutural line, which marks the union of the partitions with the inner walls, is used in classi- fying the species into 500 gen- era and 98 families. This sub- division of the cephalopods is generally distributed in the ma- rine rocic formations of the three geologic periods, Devonian, Car- boniferous, and Mesozoic. A record of the development of the ammonoid is preserved in its shell, which, like that of the nautilus (q.v.), is constructed by natural vSecretions into chambers, the living animal moving forward as each portion is outgrown. The shells of the ammonoid vary in shape from the flat and closely coiled to a conical form in the uncoiling. The order of ammonoidea is of peculiar interest in the study of bioplastology, and to the palaeon- tologist it illustrates the evolu- tion of races of animals through the various stages followed by their ancestors. A monograph of the U. S. Geological Survey, The Carboniferous Ammonoids of America (1903), by James P. Smith, lists, describes, and illus- trates, where possible, the Car- boniferous ammonoid genera and species; it contains an extensive bibliography. Ammonoo'suc, Lower, a river of New Hampshire, rising in the western slopes of the Presidential Range, Coos county, and flowing west, then southwest, until it en- ters the Connecticut River below Groveton, Vermont. Length, 95 miles. Ammonoosuc, Upper, a river of New Hampshire, rising in the Randolph Range, Coos county, and flowing north and then west for some 40 miles until it joins the Connecticut River above Northumberland. Ammopli'ila, a genus of peren- nial grasses common to sandy beaches, with interlacing root stocks, whitish leaves, and spike- like panicles. The most impor- tant species, A. arenaria — pop- ularly known as 'Sea Reed,' 'Sand Reed,' 'Beach Grass,' or 'Mat Grass' — has a rigid stem Vol. I.— Oct. '15 two to four feet long, involute leaves ribbed on the interior sur- face, cylindrical panicles, and flowers with white anthers. It is extensively employed in the United States, Great Britain, and on the Continent as a binder of sand banks built to resist the encroachments of the sea. The smaller leaves furnish food for cattle; and in the Hebrides the fibres are used for ropes and mats. Ammuni'tion, a term formerly including all the military stores of an army in the field, but now confined to projectiles (q.v.), and the various agents necessary for their effective employment. The term includes the missile (bullet or projectile); the propelling charge and its container, for pro- jecting the missile from the can- non; the primer, for igniting the propelling charge; the bursting charge, for breaking the missile into fragments; the fuse, for ig- niting or detonating the bursting charge; and grenades and bombs thrown by hand or other means. Ammunition for cannon is classified as fixed or separate load- ing, depending upon whether or not the projectile is attached to the cartridge case. Projectiles are classified as Shot, Shell, and Case Shot. A shot is either a solid projectile, or one having a relatively small cavity for a bursting charge. A shell has a large cavity for a bursting charge and thin exterior walls. A case shot consists of a number of round balls held to- gether by an enclosing envelope, which may be ruptured either by shock of discharge of the cannon or by a bursting charge during flight. The only form of case shot used by modern artillery is the shrapnel, which is designed to be ruptured by a bursting charge during flight. The earliest projectiles were round stones, which were dis- charged from the smooth-bore guns of the period by loose pow- der put into the gun by ladles. When the use of cast iron became general, the stone shot was superseded by round cast-iron solid shot and hollow shell of diameter slightly less than the calibre of the gun. The intro- duction of rifled guns brought elongated projectiles, giving in- creased weight, range, and accu- racy, higher velocity, and greater striking energy. Various devices were used to cause the projectiles to take the rifling of muzzle- loading rifled guns, and give to the elongated projectiles rotation necessary to insure steadiness and accuracy in flight. The in- troduction of breech-loading guns simplified the problem of giving rotation. All modern projectiles are of the same general shape — viz., a cylindrical body with ogival head. They vary in length be- tween two and one-half and five times the calibre. The rear part of the ogive is turned down to a diameter .01 inch less than the gun to make a true bearing sur- face (called the bourrelet) for the projectile against the interior walls of the gun. The remainder of the cylindrical part of the projectile is made of smaller diameter for a loose fit in the gun. Rotation is given by means of a copper rotating band, one-third to one-eighth calibre wide, hav- ing an exterior diameter .1 to .3 inch greater than the calibre of the projectile. To attach it to the projectile, the rotating band is forced by hydraulic pressure into an undercut groove ma- chined around the projectile about two inches in front of the base. When the gun is fired, the rotating band is forced through the rifling, the lands cutting into the band and forcing the excess metal into the grooves. The rotating band serves three pur- poses: to give the projectile rota- tion, to prevent the escape of powder gas around the projec- tile, and to give a bearing to the rear end of the projectile in the same manner that the bourrelet furnishes a support to the front end. Modern projectiles for cannon, according to their use, are classi- fied into: (1) armor-piercing shot; (2) armor-piercing and deck- piercing shell; (3) common shell; and (4) shrapnel. The armor-piercing projectiles are used mainly in coast fortifica- tions and in navies where penetra- tion of hardened steel armor is required. In the U. S. Coast Artillery the shot is used against the heaviest armor at short ranges, and the shell against light armor, decks, or unarmored parts of ships; but the general practice of other services is a single armor-piercing projectile intermediate between the shot and shell, and called a shell. In material and methods of manufacture, the armor-piercing shot and shell are identical. The shell is about one calibre longer than the shot, and has thinner side walls, giving an interior cavity for bursting charge about twice the size of the cavity of the shot. An armor-piercing projectile is made of very high grade steel, forged and machined to the proper exterior dimensions, and the interior cavity bored out. It is then subjected to a secret process of treatment to produce the necessary hardness of head. The base is closed by a base plug screwed into place. After the projectile is treated, a soft steel cap is fastened over the point. The cap has a double function: it facilitates flight by presenting Ammunition 217 A Ammunition a long, thin point to the resist- ance of the air; and it facilitates penetration by protecting and supporting the blunt, hard point of the projectile, and preventing it from being shattered until it bites into the armor plate. In the U. S. service both shot and shell carry a bursting charge of high explosive. The common shell is made usually of cast iron or cast steel, but often of forged steel. For U. S. coast guns the common shell is of the same shape as the armor-piercing projectile, and, except in guns of small calibre, is used only for target practice. For field artillery the shell has a short point, and when prepared for service carries a bursting charge of high explosive. It is thus designed for the destruction of material objects, artillery, buildings, walls, and trenches, rather than of personnel, for which shrapnel is specially de- signed. For target practice, sand is substituted for the high-explo- sive bursting charge. Shrapnel is similar in external form to other modern projec- tiles, but is shorter than the common shell. The shrapnel for a three-inch field gun consists of a steel tube drawn in one piece, with a solid base. The head con- taining the fuse is screwed into the tube. The bursting charge is contained in a chamber in the base, which is connected to the fuse in the head by a small tube in the centre of the shrapnel case. About 250 lead balls, each about one-half inch in diameter, are packed inside the case in a smoke- producing matrix. The weakest part of the outer case is at the point where the head is screwed in; and the tendency, when the bursting charge acts, is to rup- ture the outer case at that point. The balls are projected forward from the front end of the case with an added velocity due to the bursting charge, like a charge of shot from a shotgun. The fragments of a shell fly in every direction. A smoke-producing matrix is employed to enable the fire to be observed from a dis- tance. A combination fuse is Uvsed, so arranged that the shrapnel may be burst either a given number of seconds after it leaves the muzzle of the gun, or upon impact with any solid ob- ject. The shrapnel, ordinarily, is the principal projectile for the light field gun. A universal shrapnel has been adopted in the U. S. Field Artillery which is designed to serve either as shell or shrapnel. The balls are em- bedded in a high-explosive matrix which detonates when the per- cussion part of the fuse acts, but simply burns when the time fuse acts. vShrapnel for field, siege, and seacoast cannon of all na- VoL. I.— Oct. '15 tions is similar to that for the field gun. Propelling Charges for cannon of most of the Great Powers con- sist of some form of nitro-cellu- lose smokeless powder; but some use nitro-glycerine powder. The powder is made up into grains or sticks, which increase in size with the calibre of the gun, on the theory that all the powder should not be consumed until just before the projectile leaves the muzzle. (See Explosives.) For convenience and safety in handling and rapidity in loading, powder charges are put up in containers. For rifles and small cannon these are brass cases drawn out of single brass discs. The containers of charges for cannon of 3 inches and upward in the U. S. land services are bags of raw silk of such diameter that when filled the charge will fit the powder chamber. The pow- der charges for rapid-fire guns of 3-inch calibre and upward, after being made up in the bags, are then put into brass cartridge cases. In loading cartridges, the small-grain powders are put in loose; but cordite and stick pow- ders are laid lengthwise of the charge, like a bundle of sticks. Brass cartridge cases must be of the same length as the powder chamber of the gun; while the powder charge, as a rule, is never more than nine-tenths of that length. In order to keep the powder firmly in place, and in contact with the primer, pieces of cardboard are placed in the case between the base of the projectile and the cartridge bag, where the powder is encased in a bag, and between the base of the projectile and a wad over the powder, where it is loose in the case. An igniting charge of black powder is quilted into the bag of all smokeless-powder charges for large guns, to assist the primer in the ignition of the smokeless powder. In addition thereto, the charges for the largest seacoast cannon have central cores of black powder lengthwise of the charge. The percussion primer is used in modern field artillery cannon, and in seacoast cannon using me- tallic cartridge cases; the electric primer, in seacoast cannon of cali- bre of 5 inches and upward using separate ammunition. The fric- tion primer is still used in the older models of field and siege cannon, such as the 3.2-inch and 5-inch guns and 7-inch howitzer; and in seacoast cannon for drill and for emergency when the elec- tric firing circuit fails. (See Fuses and Primers.) Bursting Charges for most modern projectiles are some form of high explosive. In the United States, Explosive D is used for shot and shell for seacoast can- non. Black powder is still em- ployed in the shrapnel, but tri- nitrotoluol, or 'trotyl,' is coming into use for field artillery shells and the new universal shrapnel. In foreign services, various high explosives are used — lyddite, mel- inite, shimose, and trotyl. Fuses may be classified: as to their positions in the projectile, as Base or Point; as to their methods of action, as Percussion, Time, or Combination Time and Percussion; and as to their times of action, as Delay or Non-Delay. The fuses used by the various nations differ in mechanical de- tails, but the general features of all are similar. (See Fuses and Primers.) The ammunition for small arms rifles is fixed. The bullet in use by all the Great Powers has a lead core, an outer jacket of nickel or cupro-nickel, and a sharp point to reduce the resist- ance of the air. The powder is fine-grained smokeless. During the sixteenth and sev- enteenth centuries, when the range of muskets was short, the use of hand grenades, particularly in siege warfare, was general. The explosive was gunpowder, and was set off by a burning fuse which was lighted before the grenade was thrown. When the range of small arms was increased beyond the distance to which hand grenades could be thrown, their use was discontinued. Dur- ing the Russo-Japanese War they came into use again in the trench warfare, but charged with high explosive and set off by a per- cussion fuse. Since that time the hand grenade has been developed into a very powerful short-range instrument of destruction. It is made of forged steel, as a rule, and filled with high explosive. It is set off upon impact by a per- cussion fuse, and usually carries some form of vane or tail to in- sure that the fuse shall be struck. Most of the European Powers engaged in the present European War are training men regularly as grenade throwers, and attach a small number of throwers to each battalion in the trenches. A safety device is provided, to make the grenade safe to handle and transport; this device is re- moved just before the grenade is thrown. The aeroplane bombs developed during the present European War are similar in principle of action and construction to the hand grenades; but they are much larger and more powerful. Sev- eral kinds appear to be in use: the explosive bomb, depending upon the explosive effect of a heavy charge; the incendiary bomb, which upon bursting scat- ters inflammable material about; and the gas bomb, containing Ammunition 217 B Amceba some substance which develops poisonous fumes upon explosion. Naval Ammunition. — The am- munition for naval guns is either fixed or separate. Fixed ammu- nition is used in all guns of a calibre of 4 inches or less, and in some of 5 inches. It consists of a heavy drawn-brass cartridge case in which the shell is firmly- crimped, so that the whole re- sembles a small-arms cartridge in which the case has only a slight bottle neck or no bottle neck at all. In the larger calibres (4 and 5 inches) the cartridge cases have primers arranged for electric or percussion firing. Some 3-inch ammunition has been fitted with combination primers; but nearly all of this calibre, and all smaller ammunition, have percussion primers only. The powder is smokeless, ex- cept a small priming or ignition charge of blafck powder, and is contained in a silk bag which is inserted in the cartridge case with the tied end next to the projec- tile. The ignition charge is sewed in a pocket at the other end of the bag, and is therefore in close contact with the primer seated in the case. In the U. S. Navy a pure nitro-cellulose pow- der is used (see Gunpowder). Similar powders are in use in the French and Russian navies. The British, Austrian, and Ital- ian navies use a powder contain- ing 15 to 35 per cent, of nitro- glycerin. The U. S. Navy uses the same rifle as the U. S. Army, so that the ammunition is the same; as is also that for the navy machine guns. Guns of more than 5-inch cali- bre have the projectile and charge separate. The projectiles used (see Projectiles) are common shell and shrapnel for the 5 and 6 inch, and common shell and armor-piercing shell for the larger pieces. All large shell, and some for 5 and 6 inch guns, have burst- ing charges of high explosive. The others contain black powder which is sufficiently powerful to burst common shell up to a size of 8 inches. High explosives (in the United States, chiefly 'Ex- plosive D'; in foreign services, picric acid or trinitrotoluol) are used in armor-piercing projec- tiles above 6 inches calibre, and in all shell where great fragmen- tation is desired. The powder charge used in separate loading is put up in silk bags. The bags are of cylindrical form, and are strapped and tied to preserve that shape. In guns of 8-inch calibre and larger, the charge is put up in more than one bag: the 8-inch having 2, the 10- inch 3, the 12-inch 4, the 14-inch 5. Each bag or section of the charge has a small ignition charge of black powder, and the end of Vol. I.— Oct. '15 the section containing it is al- ways turned to the rear. The primers used in guns hav- ing the charge in bags loaded separately are combination elec- tric and percussion. The foregoing description of naval ammunition applies in all details, except as noted, to the U. S. Navy only. But with some slight changes as to calibres, dif- ferences due to powders, projec- tiles, etc., it is equally true of the ammunition in all naval services. See Projectiles; Cartridges; Explosives; Gunpowder; Gun- nery; Guns; Arsenal; Ord- nance Department, U. S. Consult Weaver, Guttman, Marshall, and Abbott on Explo- sives; Lissak's Ordnance and Gun- nery; Spaulding's Notes on Field Artillery; publications of the U. S. Navy Department; pam- phlets of the U. S. Ordnance De- partment. Amnesia, am-ne'zi-a or -si-a, (Greek 'forgetfulness'), loss or defect of memory; now restricted to the loss of memory of spoken words. Show an amnesic patient common objects — a match box, pencil, penknife, etc. — and ask him to name them; if he cannot do this, he has word forgetful- ness (amnesia verbalis). Some- times the patient has a vague idea of the word he wants, but cannot pronounce it properly, al- though he may be able to write it. This has been called Articu- lative Amnesia or Amnesic Apha- sia. Amnesia is due to cerebral conditions which may be tempo- rary or permanent. Most people experience a certain degree of amnesia when exhausted by fa- tigue or disease. See Aphasia; Memory. Am'nesty is a general pardon or act of oblivion, the effect of which is that the offences of the guilty parties who are included within it are so wiped out that they can never again form the basis of a criminal charge. The essence of an amnesty is that it is general, applying to a whole class of offenders, whereas an ordinary pardon (q.v.) is special. In England amnesties used to be granted on great state occasions such as coronations, either by the Crown alone or by act of Parliament. An amnesty is generally of- fered at the conclusion of a war — for example, in the United States in 1872 to all who had taken part in the Civil War. It may be ab- solute or qualified in some way. Thus in England at the Restora- tion the persons actually con- cerned in the execution of Charles I. were excluded from the am- nesty granted. The amnesty at the end of the American Civil War was qualified to the effect that one whose property had been sold under the Confiscation Act of 1862 should not be entitled to reclaim the proceeds after they had been paid into the treasury of the United States. Amnesty clauses in a treaty of peace are those which confirm what one belligerent has done with the property of the other during the progress of the war. In the United States the power to grant amnesty for past of- fences against the Government and its laws is vested by the Constitution in the President, though it has been held by the Supreme Court that the power resides also in Congress. Am'nion, a foetal membrane which surrounds the embryo in mammals, birds, and reptiles, but not in amphibia, fishes, or lower vertebrates. Double folds grow round the embryo early in the development, arching over it on all sides, and uniting in a central point. The inner layer of this double fold becomes sep- arate from the outer, and forms the amnion. As gestation pro- ceeds, this membrane secretes from its inner surface a fluid which distends the amnion, with- in which the foetus floats sus- pended by the umbilical cord. This fluid, the liquor amnii, con- sists of water, containing epithe- » lium, hairs, and % to 2 per cent, of fixed solids. Its specific grav- ity varies from 1.007 to 1.011, The fluid preserves the foetus from injury and pressure, per- mits of the free movement of its limbs, and prevents them from growing together. When gesta- tion is completed, and labor commences, the amniotic fluid is the chief mechanical agent in dilating the os uteri, and so open- ing the way for the foetus. At birth, or hatching, the amnion is ruptured and cast off. Those vertebrates in which the amnion is present are classed as Am- niota. See Allantois; Caul; Embryology. Amoeba, a-me'ba (Greek 'changing'), a genus of Protozoa (q.v.), or simple unicellular ani- mals; but the term is also used in a more general sense to desig- nate any protozoon which struc- turally resembles a true amoeba. Thus, many Protozoa are said to pass through an amoeba stage; and the term amosboid is also ap- plied to cells, such as the white blood corpuscles of man, which have the power of protruding and retracting blunt processes or pseudopodia. Amoeba? are found in fresh water or in mud, and occasionally in damp earth {A. terricola). One of the commonest was first described in 1755 by an early microscopist, Rosel von Rosen- hof, and the name he gave it — ; Proteus animalcule — still survives in popular language. A typical amoeba consists of a naked mass Amoeba 218 Amory of protoplasm, is without definite shape, and movies by pushing out pseudopodia in the anterior re- gion and contracting the cell mass in the posterior region. As to size, a diameter of a hundredth of an inch is not uncommon, but some amoebae are much larger than this. The outer layer of the protoplasm is usually firmer than the interior, and in reference to this physical difference the terms ectosarc and endosarc are often used. There is no perma- nent distinction between outer and inner layers in the proto- Typical Forms of Amoeba, show- ing Pseudopodia. {Greatly mag- nified.) . plasm, but the marginal layer contains fewer granules than the central. Within the central pro- toplasm a denser patch forms the usually single nucleus. The cen- tral protoplasm contains also one or more pulsating bubbles of fluid — the so-called contractile vacuoles, whose function is appar- ently excretory. Also included in the protoplasm are the food vacuoles, consisting of a food par- ticle — e.g., a diatom, which has been taken in by simply flowing about it — surrounded by a film of water ingested with it. Ac- cording to some authorities, a ferment is poured by the sur- rounding protoplasm into the food vacuole, and the food sub- stance is digested and absorbed, while the indigestible residue is got rid of at the surface. Al- though, for various reasons, the amoeba has become the most fa- miliar member of the Protozoa to the general public, it has not been the object of so many exper- iments as some other members of the group, and many points in regard to its physiology are con- jectural only. The life history of amoeba is very simple. It grows until the limit of advantageous size is reached, and then divides through the nucleus to form two amoebae. Under unfavorable conditions it is capable of rounding itself off and forming a protective invest- ment or cyst, within which it may lie passive until the environ- ment again becomes favorable to the resumption of active exist- ence. The formation of spores is also stated to occur. Two amoe- bae sometimes flow together Vol. I.— Oct. '15 and fuse in a manner which may be fairly regarded as an incipient form of sexual union (see Con- jugation). This simple organ- ism thus exhibits within small compass all the usual animal functions. It is contractile, irri- table, and automatic; it feeds, assimilates, secretes, grows, and .reproduces; and the intimate changes within the unit mass of protoplasm, in which there is no division of labor, must therefore be exceedingly complex (see Protoplasm). The general in- terest of amoeba, as indicated above, is that it retains through- out life a type of cell structure which tends to recur, permanent- ly or temporarily, among the cells of many higher animals, and in the life cycle of many other Protozoa. See Cell. Consult Lankester's Treatise on Zoology (1903); and for amoeboid cells in higher animals, Metchnikoff's Lectures on the Comparative Path- ology of Inflammation (Eng. trans.). Amok. See Amuck. Amol, a-mol', town, province Mazanderan, Persia, on the Heraz River; 75 miles northeast of Teheran. It has good ba- zaars, and is a place of consid- erable prosperity and wealth. Pop. 10,000 to 20,000 (varying with the season). Amo'mum, a genus of Zingi-' beraceae, to which belong the plants yielding cardamoms and grains of paradise (qq.v.). Amontillado, a-mon-til-ya'do, a favorite variety of Spanish sherry, light in body and in color. See Sherry. Amor, a'mor, among the Ro- mans the god of love and har- mony, equivalent to the Greek Eros. He had no place in their national religion. The cult was derived from the Greeks. Am'orites, a name applied generally to the primitive inhab- itants of Canaan, sometimes also to the Canaanites (q.v.), al- though the two peoples were probably not identical. The Amorites seem originally to have been a dominant tribe or group of tribes occupying the district of Anti-Lebanon, who, over- running most of Canaan, were in turn conquered by the Hittites. They were still strong enough, however, to make some resistance to the Israelites in the time of the Exodus, at which period they had settlements in the south and east of Palestine; but their chief kings, Sihon of Heshbon and Og of Bashan, were overthrown by Moses, while Joshua utterly dis- comfited five Amorite kings at Gibeon. Amos speaks of the Amorites as being 'like the height of the cedars' (Amos ii. 0), prob- ably a figurative suggestion of their powerfulness. Notwith- standing their strength as a sep- arate people, the Amorites be- came a part of Israel and Judah. By the Babylonians, Syria was known as 'the land of the Am- orites.' The famous Babylonian king Khammurabi (q.v.) was of the Amorites, and it is claimed that the latter contributed to the civilization and culture of Baby- lon. Until recently, the Amorites were known only by references to them in the Old Testament; but archaeological researches have now revealed the important part played by them. The chief deity of the Amorites was Amur or Amar, meaning the sun. Con- sult A. H. Sayce's Races of the Old Testament; A. T. Clay's Amur^u, the Home of the Northern Semites (1909). Amoro'so, in musical score, indicates a tender, delicate stvle. Amor'phous, a term applied to substances devoid of character- istic shape, or of different prop- erties in different directions, in contradistinction to crystalline bodies. Glass, glue, opal, obsid- ian may be cited as examples. The faculty of solidifying in the amorphous form is well marked in the borates, phosphates, and silicates, which readily cool from fusion in the glassy form. Very often, however, the amorphous state is unstable, and tends to pass into the cryptocrystalline, or minutely crystalline; this change is known as Devitrification. Amortiza'tion, the reduction or extinction of a debt; also the payments made for that purpose. In the case of private corpora- tions, particularly those engaged in mining, lumbering, and similar activities of limited duration, amortization is usually accom- plished by means of a sinking fund (q.v.). Public corporations, as municipalities, frequently use the serial bond method of amor- tization, whereby a certain pro- portion of the loan is paid off periodically. With national governments, the sinking fund method of payment is now used principally by those of limited credit, other nations preferring to refund their debt by new issues of bonds. (See National Debt.) Amortization, in law, is the act of conveying lands or tene- ments to a corporation in mort- main (q.v.). A'mory, city, Monroe county, Mississippi, on the St. Louis and vSan Francisco Railroad; 80 miles southwest of Holly Springs. It has hardware manufactures. Pop. (1900) 1,211; (1910) 2,122. Amory, Robert (1842), Amer- ican physician, was born in Bos- ton, and studied medicine at Har- vard University and in Paris. After practising in Brookline, Mass., in 1 869 he was made lectur- er on physiology and the action of drugs at Harvard. Later he Amory 219 Amphiaraus became lecturer at the Bowdoin Medical School. He wrote the volume on poisons in Wharton and Stille's Medical Jurispru- dence, and many treatises on physiology and therapeutics. Amory, Thomas (?1691-1788), an eccentric writer of disordered intellect, Irish by descent; lived a secluded life in Dublin, Westmin- ster, and Hounslow. His books, of which the chief were Memoirs Containing the Lives of Several Ladies of Great Britain (1755) and its sequel, The Life of John Buncle, Esq. (1756-66), are a medley of rhapsodies, descriptions of scen- ery, theological disquisitions, and autobiography. Amory, Thomas Coffin (1812- 89), American lawyer and writer, was born in Boston, and was graduated from Harvard (1830). His works include: Life of James Sullivan (1859); Life of Sir Isaac Coffin (1866); Military Services and Public Life of Major-General John Sullivan (1868). Amos, one of the twelve Minor Prophets, and the earliest of the prophets whose writings are ex- tant, was a herdsman of Tekoa, in the neighborhood of Bethle- hem. He prophesied in the reign of Uzziah of Judah, the contem- porary of Jeroboam ii. of Israel (Amosi. 1; vii. 10#.), c. 765-745 B.C. He impeaches the nations of Syria and Palestine (i. 2) ; de- nounces the luxury and cruelty of Israel, but specially the insincere though elaborate and punctilious worship maintained at Beth-el and elsewhere; and predicts dis- aster (iii.-vi.). Chapters vii.-ix. contain a series of five visions intended to reinforce the fore- going indictments, but close with a promise of ultimate restora- tion. Though a rustic, Amos wields a style of remarkable refinement; his writings are singularly vivid and orderly, illuminated by many apt images borrowed from rural life. His book is of importance as affording contemporary evidence of religious belief and practice in Israel during the eighth century B.C. He traverses the popular notion of the 'day of Jahweh,' showing that it will be a day not of national triumph, but of cata.s- trophe; inveighs against the false trust in sacrifice and ritual as sub- stitutes for righteousness; pro- claims that Jahweh is no mere national Deity, but the God of the whole earth ; and declares that His special covenant with Israel, far from justifying national pride and forsvardness, will count as a reason for the more exemplary punishment of an unfaithful peo- ple. Consult Commentaries by Driver, G. A. Smith, and W. R. Harper. Amoskcag. See Manchester, N. H. Vol. I.— Oct. '16 Amoy, city and treaty port, province of Fu-kien, China, is sit- uated on the island of Amoy or Haimun, at the mouth of the Lung-kiang (Dragon River). It is in almost daily steamship com- munication with Hong-kong, and is connected by rail with Chang- chow, whose port it is. It is di- vided into an inner and an outer town, each having its own harbor. The outer harbor affords good anchorage, but is exposed to the southwest. The inner harbor, which is from a third to a half a mile in width, is more sheltered, lying between the city proper and the island of Kulangsu, the foreign residential district. It is provided with a graving dock 300 feet long and 60 feet wide. There are coal and iron deposits within 40 miles of Amoy; coolie oranges and grape fruit are raised in the vicin- ity; and the city has long been noted for its excellent fish and oysters. Amoy was formerly one of the great tea centres of China, ex- porting annually large quantities of Amoy oolong, which was grown on neighboring plantations. As the demand for Chinese tea de- creased, Formosa oolong took its place, being shipped to Amoy and there blended, packed, matted, and reshipped. But with the im- provement of shipping facilities on the island of Formosa, this trade is also diminishing. Other exports are bricks and tiles, pa- per, tobacco, hemp bags and sacking, chinaware, paper um- brellas, vermicelli, and macaroni. The principal imports are cotton goods, rice, flour, matches, and bean cake. In 1914 exports were valued at $1,940,000 as compared with $2,560,000 in 1913; and net foreign imports at $6,455,000 as compared with $8,000,000 in 1913, The total number of vessels en- tered and cleared at the port was 1,595, with a tonnage of 2,073,- 847. Emigration by way of Amoy is exceedingly heavy, about 100,- 000 laborers annually leaving that port for Singapore. The Portuguese began trading in Amoy in 1544, but were forc- ibly expelled by the authorities for their ill treatment of the na- tive traders and country people. The English had commercial set- tlements there, and sent their ships thither until 1730, when the Chinese government centred all foreign trade in Canton. In 1841 Amoy was captured by the Brit- ish, and was thrown open to British trade by the treaty of Nanking (1842). The port is now open to all nations. It is the centre of missionary activity in Fu-kien. Pop. (1915) 120,000. Ampelopsis,a genus of the vine family {Vitaceoe) that includes the Virginia Creeper (q. v.) and the Japanese Creeper. Ampere, the practical unit of electric current, is theoretically defined as equal to 10-^ c.G.s. electro-magnetic units of current. It is practically defined as the amount of a constant current which deposits 1.118 milligrams of silver per second out of a spe- cific solution of silver nitrate. The milliampere is one-thousandth of an ampere. For measuring cur- rents, various types of ammeters (ampere meters), galvanometers, and current meters are used. See Ammeter. Ampere, Andre Marie (1775- 1836) , French physicist and math- ematician, was born in Lyons. In 1801 he became professor of physics at Bourg, and a few years later professor of mathematics at Lyons. In 1805 he removed to the Polytechnic School at Paris, where he was appointed profes- sor of analysis in 1809, and be- came professor of physics at the College de France in 1824. His fame rests on his physical re- searches, especially on his devel- opment of electro-dynamics and his original demonstration of the relations between magnetism and electricity. He was the inventor of the astatic needle, and he first propounded the theory that cur- rents of electricity in the earth attracted the magnetic needle. The measure of electricity called the ampere (q. v.) was named for him. His chief works are: Re- cueil d' Observations Electro-Dyna- miques (1822); Theorie des Pheno- menes Electro-Dynamiques (1830) ; Essai sur la Philosophic des Sci- ences {2 vols., 1834, 1843). Most of his scientific papers appeared in the Annales de Physique et de Che- mie. Consult his Joi^nal et Cor- respondance; Saint-Hilaire's Phil- osophie des Deux A mperes. Ampere, Jean JacqueS' An- TOINE (1800-64), French philolo- ger, archaeologist, and historian, son of A. M. Ampere (q. v.), was born in Lyons. Assistant of Fau- riel and Villemain at the Sorbon- ne (1831-2), he became in 1833 professor of French literature and history at the College de France, and in 1847 was elected to the Academy. His chief work, L'His- toire Romaine a Rome (1858), first appeared in the Revue des Deux Mondes. His other works include: Litter ature et Voyages (1834) ; His- toire Litteraire de la France avant le XI Siecle (1840); Histoire de la Litterature Francaise au Moyen Age comparee aux Litter atures Et- r anger es (1841) ; La Grece, Rome, et Dante {\84t8) ; Promenade en Ame- rique (1855). Amphiaraus, son of Oicles and Hypermnestra, a legendary hero and prophet of Argos in ancient Greece. He was married to Eri- phyle, and their children were Alc- maeon, Amphilochus, Eurydice, and Demonassa. Polynices, by Amphibia 220 Amphibia the gift of the necklace of Harmo- nia, won Eriphyle to persuade her husband to join him in the first expedition of Seven against The- bes. This he did, though he fore- saw its failure, and on leaving Argos charged his sons to punish their mother for his death. At Thebes, after a brave resistance. he fled, and was swallowed up by the earth. He became immor- tal, was worshipped as a hero, and had an oracle between Potniae and Thebes. ^Eschylus' Seven Against Thebes tells much of the story. Amphibia (Greek 'double-lifed,' as living on both land and water), or Batrachia, a class of verte- brates between fishes and reptiles. The term was used by Linnaeus to include reptiles, amphibians, and Vol. I. —Oct. '16 some fishes, but the content of the term was later narrowed, and the amphibia were separated on the one hand from the reptiles, which never breathe by gills, and on the other from the fishes, which, with the exception of the Dipnoi, never breathe by lungs. Classification. — T h e amphibia include four orders, three of which are represented by the newt, the frog, and the vermiform Caecilia; while the fourth embraces the Labyrinthodonts or Stegocephali, now wholly extinct. These four orders are: (1) Forms like the newt and salamander, with long smooth bodies and persisting tails, termed Urodela (Greek 'tail distinct') or Caudala. They have one or two pairs of limbs, and the bones of the forearm and of the lower leg are not fused as in the frog. The lower jaw is toothed, and with one ex- ception the larva? never have a horny beak. The young form has external gills, and these disappear more or less completely. In one section (Perennibranchiate), the gills persist throughout life — e.g., in Proteus and Menohranchus; in a higher division (Caducibranchi- ate) the gills disappear, but the clefts remain — e.g., in Amphiuma and Menopoma; while in the high- est set the gills are lost and the clefts closed — e.g., in Salamandra and Triton. (2) Forms like the frog and toad, with short, broad, naked bodies, and without tails in adult life, are included in the order Anura (Greek ' without tail '). There are never more than nine distinct vertebrae, the lower jaw is almost alwaj^s toothless, and there are always two pairs of limbs- in which the bones of the forearm and of lower leg fuse at an early stage. Two bones of the ankle are unusually elongated, and the hand, which in the newt order had never more than four fingers, has here a rudiment of a fifth. The tadpole larvae have first external, and then internal gills, which in the adult forms are wholly replaced by lungs. The common frog (Rana), the Suri- nam toad (Pipa), the common toad (Bufo), and the tree frog' (Hyla) are familiar representa- tives of Anura. (3) The third order of amphib- ia includes the few snake-like, limbless forms technically known as Gymnophiona or Apoda. The skin is usually provided with cross rows of embedded scales, the ver- tebrae are very numerous, the lower jaw is toothed. The small but well developed eyes are cov- ered with skin, in adaptation to the subterranean life of these animals. They must not be con- fused with the blind or slow worms, which are lizards. The four known genera are Ccecilia, Epicrium, Siphonops, and Rhin- atrema. The latter two, and most of the Ccecilia, are confined to the warmer parts of the American continent south of Mexico; the other Ccecilia are East Indian; and Epicrium occurs in Java and Ceylon. Some fossil amphibians have a striking resemblance to these Gymnophiona. (4) The numerous extinct Lafty- rinthodonts (q. v.) or Stegocephali of the Trias, Permian, and Car- boniferous periods mOvStly resem- bled the Urodela in form, but some were snake like. They were well provided with skin armor on the breast and ventral surface, and sometimes attained a large crocodile -like size. Compared with thcvse, the modern amphibia are a diminutive race. Aml^hihia. Anura: 1. Surinam toad; 2. Green frog. Urodela: 3. Proteus; 4. European spotted salamander. Gymnophiona: 5. Siphonops; 6. Caecilia. Amphibia 221 Ampliibole General Characters. — The am- phibia, such as the common newts and frogs, are readily distin- guished from higher vertebrates by the gills borne by the embryo, and sometimespersisting through- out life; by the absence of an am- nion, and of an allantois save in so far as this is represented by the urinary bladder; by the two con- dyles of the skull; and by other peculiarities in the skeleton. On the other hand, they closely ap- proach the double breathing fishes (see Dipnoi), and are strictly dis- tinguishable from the fish class only in the absence of fin rays, and in the general possession of fin- gered limbs as in higher animals. The skin is smooth and viscid, except in the scaled Caeciliae. Some of the blood is distributed in the skin, which thus discharges an important respiratory func- tion. An axolotl can live after both lungs and gills have been re- moved, and many amphibians can survive in very unfavorable con- ditions. There are numerous glands in the skin, and the se- creted fluid is irritating and poi- sonous. The inner skin contains color cells, by the contraction or expansion of which the animal may in some cases (e.g., frog) very considerably change its color. The influence of surrounding color af- fects the eye, then the sympa- thetic nervous system, then the peripheral nerves, and through them the color cells. The outer skin is continually being renewed, and is sometimes shed in large patches. The skeleton consists of backbone, skull, limb girdles, limbs, breast bone, etc., and is generally comparable to that of higher animals, while its peculiari- ties involve a number of details. The nervous system is repre- sented by brain nerves, by spinal cord and spinal nerves, by a chain of sympathetic ganglia lying be- side the backbone on each side, by the usual three sense organs, and by sensory cells. The small brain is remarkable for the re- duction of the hind portion, or cerebellum, to a mere band. In the higher Anura, the ear is pro- vided with a tympanum, with Eustachian tubes, and a colu- mella or rod between the external drum behind the eye and the in- ternal ear. In the alimentary sys- tem, teeth and tongue vary great- ly in form and occurrence, and are sometimes altogether absent; in most Anura, the insect-catch- ing tongue is fixed in front and free behind; in the males of the same order, the lining of the mouth is often pushed outward into a pair of resonating sacs. The nature of the gut is quite nor- mal. The adult heart consists of a muscufar ventricle and two auri- cles; but during the gill-breathing stage, the circulation resembles Vol. I.— Oct. '10 that of fishes, and there is only one auricle. The temperature of the blood is low, little above that of the water with which the majority are surrounded. The lungs are two comparatively small sacs, on the walls of which the capillaries are spread out. In the Anura, the larynx forms a power- ful croaking organ. In the Uro- dela, with both gills and lungs, the latter may predominate, if the conditions dem^and aerial res- piration. The males and females often differ in size and color. The males may be distinguished in some cases by their vocal sacs, swollen thumbs, and skin frills. The axolotl and Triton alpestre become sexually mature in the prolonged larval stage. Habii of Life. — The majority of amphibia are much more at home in water than on land, though in some cases the adaptation to ter- restrial life is complete, and has even modified the ordinary course of development. For while the larval form which escapes from the egg is usually aquatic and gill breathing, in Salamandra atra of the Alps two fertilized eggs de- velop within the body of the mother, nourish themselves on the remaining unfertilized ova, and in the absence of damp surroundings are born as air-breathing forms. If they are prematurely remoVed from the body of the mother and put into water, they develop a fresh set of gills, and are normal tadpoles. Even among exclusively lung-breathing forms, the major- ity prefer to remain in the vicinity of water. Both in their love and hunger they are especially active in the twilight. The food of the adults consists mostly of insects, slugs, and worms, but the larval forms are mainly vegetarian, though not despising animal food, even in the shape of the weaker members of its own family. Their life is gen- erally at a comparatively low po- tential, and they save themselves from cold of winter or heat of the dry season by falling into a leth- argic state. Amphibia have con- siderable power of regenerating lost parts. Development — The life history of a form like the frog is of con- siderable interest as an abbrevi- ated recapitulation of the history of the race, and may be briefly noted. In the Anura, the eggs are fertilized by the male as they leave the oviduct; while in others, such as salamanders, the fertili- zation is internal. They are laid in gelatinous masses in water. The total but unequal division of the ovum, and the subsequent changes by which backbone, spinal cord, gut, etc., appear, are discussed elsewhere (see Embry- olo(;y). When the tadpole is hatched, it is at first enclosed in the gelatinous debris of the egg case. It grows for a short while longer at the expense of the yolk, which in a few forms is seen as a distinct external sac. Soon, however, the tadpole acquires a mouth and arms, and begins to feed. There are a pair of sucking discs behind the mouth. Shortly after hatching, the ex- ternal gills are covered over by a fold of skin, leavin'g a pos- terior aperture for the exit of the water which enters by the mouth. The mouth is armed with horny beak and teeth, and is not unlike that of the lamprey. As the tad- pole grows, the suckers behind the mouth disappear, the gut be- comes much longer, and the lungs appear as outgrowths from the oesophagus. The limbs appear as minute buds, but the front pair become free first. A skin casting occurs, during which the gills, the beak, and the suctorial form of the mouth wholly disappear, while the eyes are uncovered, and the circulation becomes modified in association with the increasing importance of the lungs. The tail is absorbed, and the mainly veg- etarian tadpole gradually assumes all the characters of the carnivo- rous frog. Consult H. Gadow's Amphibia and Reptiles, and his treatise on 'Amphibia' in the Cambridge Natural History (vol. viii.). Ampliibole, a name applied to a large group of minerals which are essentially silicates of lime and magnesia, though these bases are often partly replaced by alumina and oxides of iron and manganese. They occur, like the pyroxenes (see Pyroxene), to which they are closely allied, in igneous and sedimentary rocks, as the fillings of veins, and as components of schists and other metamorphic rocks. While crystallizing in three different systems — orthorhombic, triclinic, and monoclinic — they agree in general form, having a prismatic cleavage of about 56°, which serves to differentiate them from members of the pyroxene group; in optical properties, and in chemical composition. They occur generally in black, dark green, or gray to white crystals, usually long, narrow, and blade- like, with smooth, bright surfaces. Orthorhombic amphilDole in- cludes but two varieties — Antho- P^yllite and Gedrite. The only triclinic species is iEnigmatite. Monoclinic forms are numerous. The commoner varieties are Horn- blende (q. v.), an aluminous am- phibole which occurs in acicular or platy crystals and in irregular, granular masses, black or dark green in color; Tremolite, a calci- um-magnesium ampliibole, white or light green in color, occurring in metamorphic limestone, in dis- tinct crystals or thin flattened Ampblbollte 221 A Amphloxus blades; Actinolite (q. v.). a cal- cium-magnesium-iron variety, light or dark green in color, which is especially abundant in schists, where it is found in needle-like crystals, or in fibrous or granular aggregates; and Glaucophane, us- ually occurring in the form of grains or plates, blue, purple, or bluish black. Certain varieties of amphibole, notably tremolite and actinolite, may pass into fi- brous varieties, known as Asbes- tos (q. v.), or may occur in the form of Nephrite (q. v.) or jade. Consult J. D. Dana's System of Mineralogy (6th ed., 1914). Amphibolite, a name applied to a group of metamorphic rocks having some member of the am- phibole group as the sole essen- tial constituent, and containing such accessory minerals as feld- spar, mica, garnet, augite, quartz, pyrite, etc. They are hard, tough rocks, varying in texture from coarse to fine, the amphibole oc- curring, as a rule, in the form of elongated blades or prisms in parallel arrangement. Amphibo- lites are developed from certain igneous rocks, such as dolerites, gabbros, diabases, pyroxenites, and peridotites; by the pressure and interstitial movements in- cident to earth folding; and from sedimentary strata subject to re- gional metamorphic influences. They are widely distributed in all regions of crystalline schists and gneisses, where they may cover large circular or elliptical areas, or may take the form of long nar- row strips associated with other metamorphic rocks. In the United States amphibo- litcs occur in the Lake Superior region, in the Adirondacks, and the Appalachians. A number of varieties are distinguished ac- cording to the predominant form of amphibole — e.g., tremolite schist, actinolite schist, and horn- blende schist, the last name some- times being applied to the entire group. Other species derive their names from the chief accessory mineral present — e.g., garnet am- phibolite, e pi dote amphibolite, etc. Amphibrach, a metrical foot of three syllables, the first and the last short or unaccented ("), and the middle one long or accent- ed ("). The Greek ameinon is a quantitative amphibrach. Com- pare the following accentual am- phibrachic measure: There came to | the shore a I poor exile I of Erin; The dew on | his thin robe 1 was heavy land chill. Amphictyonlc Council, a cele- brated council of the states of ancient Greece. An amphictyony was an assemblage of deputies of tribes (not cities) dwelling around any important temple, gathered Vol. I.— Oct. '16 together to manage the affairs of that sanctuary. Of numerous ex- amples throughout Greece, the most celebrated was that which took its name first from the Tem- ple of Demeter at Anthela, near Pylae, and afterward from the Temple of the Pythian Apollo at Delphi. Twelve tribes, with their colonies, composed the Amphic- tyony of Delphi — Malians, Phthi- ans, CEtaeans (^nianes), Dolopes, Magnetians, Perrhaebians, Thes- salians, Locrians, Dorians, Pho- cians, Boeotians, lonians. To the two annual meetings, in spring and autumn, each tribe sent two 'wardens' with voting powers, and several 'deputies' who might speak but could not vote. They bound themselves to observe cer- tain intertribal principles of right, and thus the amphictyony be- came a political force. They agreed not to destroy any city of the League, nor wholly cut off its supply of running water, during war; but they would unite to pun- ish those who had broken the compact, or had injured the Tem- ple of Delphi. The League fought three sacred wars. The first was declared against the Phocian city of Crissa (594-585 B.C.) ; in the second (355-346 B.C.), the Pho- cians were temporarily expelled from the League; and from the third (339 B.C.), against Amphis- sa, followed the destruction of Greek liberty by Philip of Mace- don. The amphictyonlc council continued, with limited powers, under Roman sway, the last men- tion of it occurring in the second century a.d. See Delphi. Amphicyon, a genus of large fossil Carnivores, found in the Lower and Middle Miocene rocks of Europe and India. It combines the characteristics of dogs and bears, and to it are traceable the modern bears. The largest spe- cies {A. gigas) was equal in size to a small grizzly. Aitiphilestes, one of the prim- itive mammals of the Jurassic epoch. Little is known oi its anat- omy, the remains which have been found being only lower jaws with teeth; it was probably re- lated to the existing monotremes. Amphimacer, a metrical foot consisting of three sj^llables, the first and last long ("), and the middle one short C) — e.g., Oidi- pous. Amphtneura, an order of ma- rine molluscs including a number of primitive forms, of which Chiton (q. v.) is the most famil- iar. Its members are character- ized by the possession of a pair each of lateral and ventral nerve trunks passing into the cerebral ganglion, bound together by nu- merous commissures, and provid- ed throughout their length with ganglion cells. They are bilater- ally symmetrical. Some forms have eight dorsal shell plates; in others, the shell is entirely lack- ing. See MoLLUSCA. Amphion, son of Zeus and An- tiope, and twin brother of Zethus. Their family was connected with Thebes. Lycus, Antiope's hus- band, maltreated her on finding her with child by Zeus; and the children, Amphion and Zethus, were exposed, but were brought up by shepherds. When they grew up their mother escaped to them, and told them her wrongs; whereupon they killed Lycus and Dirce, his second wife, torturing her by fastening her to a bull (represented by the famous Far- nese bull in the Naples Museum), and took possession of Thebes. They then fortified it — the stones uniting of their own accord to form the wall, moved by the strains of a lyre given to Amphion by Hermes. Amphion married Niobe, and after the death of his children, slew himself. His story is told in Ovid's Metamorphoses, and by Apollodorus. Amphioxus, or Lancelet (Amphioxus lavceolatus), is a small, pointed creature (length, 1% to 2 inches), interesting as being one of the most primitive of vertebrates. It is a marine ani- mal, widely distributed in shallow water off sandy shores, and differ- ing in many striking ways from fishes. The body is scaleless, and tolerably transparent, and the transverse muscle segments are beautifully seen. There is no bony vskeleton, but the backbone is represented by a simple cellular rod — the notoehord — running from tip to tip, and bearing dorsal car- tilaginous rods which suggest ver- tebral spines. There is no hint of skull or limbs. The spinal cord, which lies as usual above the rudi- mentary backbone, has a slight anterior swelling, faintly suggest- ing a brain. The sensitiveness of the animal to light and sound is due to the abundant presence of sense-cells throughout the skin. The mouth cavity is separated by a movable flap from the wide an- terior half of the alimentary cartal, which forms a respiratory phar- ynx comparable to that of Ascid- ians. The heart is a simple tube — in fact, only the largest of many Amphioxus (diagrammatic section). Amphipoda 221 B Amphitheatre contractile regions on the prin- cipal vessels. The blood is color- less. The sexes are separate, and the reproductive organs form a row of cell clumps on the wall of the body cavity. These open separately into the outer chamber above mentioned, and thence the elements find their way out by the abdominal pore. Though exceedingly simple in structure as compared with high- er vertebrates, amphioxus is in some respects specialized, pos- sessing characters not represented in higher forms. It appears to be most nearly related to the degen- erate tunicates; but this fact is not of great assistance in bridging the gulf between vertebrates and invertebrates, for the relation of the tunicates to the invertebrates is still obscure. Consult Willey's Amphioxus and the Ancestry of the Vertebrates. Amphipoda, an order of dimin- utive Crustacea characterized by greatly compressed bodies, and the fact that, of the seven pairs of legs, the anterior four point for- Amphipod (Gammarus). ward and are used in swimming, and the posterior three are di- rected backward and are used in jumping, assisted by the 'tail.' Many species are known, usually plainly colored, including the fa- miliar Sandhopper (q. v.); the Orchestia, sometimes much more terrestrial than the former; the Gammarus of running water; the wood-boring Limnoria and Chel- ura; and the quaint Spectra or Skeleton Shrimp (Caprella). See Crustacea. Amphipolis, ancient city, Mac- edonia, on the River Strymon, near to its port Eion. It was an important commercial city, and the centre of a region rich in gold, silver, and timber. Originally in the possession of the Edonians, a Thracian people, it was colonized in 437 B.C. by the Athenians un- der Hagnon, who expelled the Thracians and erected a new city. In 422 B.C. it was the scene of a battle in which both the Spartan genera! Brasidas and the Athe- nian General Cleon were killed; and it was restored to Athens by the peace of Nicias in 421 B.C. Philip of Macedon occupied it in 3.57 B.C., and it became the seat of the chief mint of ^he Macedo- nian kings. Under the Romans Amjihipolis was the capital of one of the four districts into which the province was divided in B.C. 167. It is mentioned (Acts xvii. Vol. I.— Oct. '16 1) as a stage in St. Paul's second missionary journey. A Turkish town now occupies the site. Amphisbsena, one of a family of serpentiform lizards, found for the most part in subtropical America. They are from 18 inches to 2 feet long, with a body of equal thickness throughout, head and eyes small, tail very short, and no legs. These animals live underground, feed on insects and worms, and move forward or backward with equal ease, whence some quaint superstitions have arivscn regarding them. Amphissa (formerly Salona), town, Greece, to the west of Mount Lyakura (Parnassus); 31 miles northeast of Lepanto. It is connected with Itea, which serves as its port. In antiquity it was the capital of the Locri Ozola?. In 330 B.C. the town was captured and destroyed by Philip of Mace- don. Pop. 5,000. Amphitheatre, the structure, usually oval in its ground plan, surrounding the arena which, in ancient Rome, was the scene of gladiatorial and other combats. The term is often held to include the arena also, but the amphi- theatre proper was occupied sole- ly by the spectators. At first these erections were of wood, and mere- ly temporary, like a modern race stand. Some of them seem, how- ever, to have been of enormous size, as Tacitus mentions one at Fidenae, during the reign of Ti- berius, whose collapse is said to have caused the death or injury of 50,000 spectators. The finest specimen of all, the Flavian Am- phitheatre at Rome, known as the Colosseum from its colossal size, was begun by Vespasian and finished by Titus 80 a.d. On the occasion of its dedication by Ti- tus, 5,000 wild beasts were slain in the arena, the games lasting nearly a hundred days. Besides the podium, there were three tiers or stories of seats, corresponding to the external stories. The po- Amphitrite 222 Amputation dium was a gallery surrounding the arena, in which the emperor, the senators, and vestal virgins had their seats. The building was covered by a temporary awning or wooden roof, the velarium. The open space in the centre of the amphitheatre was called arena, the Latin word for sand, because it was covered with sand or saw- dust during the, performances. (See Colosseum.) Many large amphitheatres were erected not only in the provincial towns of Italy, as at Capua, Vero- na, Pompeii, Pozzuoli, etc., but in niany parts of the Empire — e.g., at Aries, Nimes, and Frejus, in France; at Italica near Seville, in Spain; and in Britain, at Ciren- cester, Silchester, and Dorchester, Next in size to the Colosseum is the Amphitheatre at Capua, 558 by 460 feet; while that at Nimes is next in age. Verona possesses a beautiful example of the amphi- theatre, which is in admirable preservation owing to the care be- stowed on it during the Middle Ages. The Amphitheatre at Pola, in Istria, had an arena of wood, which has disappeared, while the walls stand. The first of the buildings erect- ed in stone dates from about 31 B.C., in the reign of Augustus; and they ceased to be built only with the decadence of the Em- pire. But visitors to the modern Spanish bull-ring never fail to be struck with the fact that this is, in all essentials, the lineal de- scendant of the Roman amphi- theatre; and the preliminary sa- lute given by the performers to the 'president' recalls at once the emperor and the 'Ave, Ccesar!' of the gladiators. Consult Lan- ciani's Pagan and Christian Rome; J. H. Parker's Historical Photo- graphs of the Colosseum. Amphitrite, a sea goddess in Greek mythology, daughter of Nereus, or of Oceanus, and wife Vol. I.— Oct. '16 of Poseidon (Neptune). In sculp- ture, she is often represented sit- ting next to Poseidon, or drawn by Triton^. Ampliitryon, in Greek myth- ology, a king of Tiryns, son of Alcaeus, and husband of Alcmene. During his absence from home in order to punish the murderers of his wife's brothers, Alcmene was visited by Zeus in the disguise of Amphitryon, who himself re- turned home next day. She be- came the mother of Hercules by Zeus, and of Iphicles by Amphi- tryon. The story has been treated by Plautus in his Amphitruo, and after him by Moliere in his Am- phitryon. Ampliiuma, a genus of Amer- ican tailed amphibians, including long, eel-like forms, with minute, two or three toed, widely sepa- rated limbs. Though gills are ab- sent in the adult, the branchial aperture persists throughout life. One species, A . means, is found in the vSouthern and Southwestern States burrowing in the mud — e.g., in the ditches of the rice fields. It feeds on small fish, mol- luscs, and insects. The negroes call it the Congo Snake, and er- roneously regard it as venomous. Amptiora, among the Greeks and Romans, a large vessel, usu- ally made of clay, with a narrow neck and two handles, chiefly used for preserving various liquids, es- pecially wine, and frequently dec- orated with paintings. The Greek amphora contained about nine gallons; the Roman, about six. vSimilar vessels were used to con- tain the ashes of the dead. Amplification, in rhetoric, the elaboration of a statement or dis- course, usually by particularizing, repetition, illustration, or quota- tion. Its object is to heighten the impression on the reader or hear- er, and it finds special application in appeals to juries and addresses to popular assemblies. Amplitude, in astronomy, is the distance of a heavenly body, at the time of its rising or setting, from the east or the west point of the horizon. When the sun is in the Equator (i.e., at the time of either equinox), he rises exactly east, and sets exactly west, and therefore has no amplitude. His amplitude is at its maximum at midsummer, and again at mid- winter; and that maximum de- pends upon the latitude of the place, being 23K° at the Equator, and increasing to the Arctic Cir- cle, where it becomes 90°. The amplitude of a fixed star remains constant all the year round. Ampthill, Odo William Leopold Russell, first Baron (1829-84), British diplomat, was born in Florence. In 1850-2 he was employed at the Foreign Of- fice, whence he passed succes- sively to the embassies at Paris, Vienna, Constantinople, and Washington. In 1858-70 he was secretary of legation at Florence, and the official representative of Great Britain at the Vatican. In 1871 he was sent as ambassador to Berlin, where he remained un- til his death. Ampulia, a kind of bottle used by the Romans for the preserva- tion of liquids. It was made either of earthenware or glass, and rarely of costlier materials. Ampullae have generally a globu- lar body, narrowing toward the mouth, and provided with two handles. The ampulla Remensis (French la sainte ampoule) was the famous vessel containing the unguent with which the French kings were anointed at their cor- onation at Rheims. Amputation is the operation of cutting away a portion of the body, generally a limb, for the safety of the patient or to prevent the spread of disease. The aim is to remove all diseased, dead, or useless tissue, at the same time saving as much as possible, and, in the case of a limb, leaving a useful stump, which will be serv- iceable alone, or which can have an artificial limb fitted to it. (See Artificial Limb.) Amputations of limbs are broadly divided into the 'flap* and the 'circular' operation, mod- ified to meet the necessities of the case. The flap operation is the most favored, but choice depends upon the site of opera- tion. Both have for their object the provision of a serviceable pad for the end of the stump, and it is obvious that more is needed in the case of a leg than in that of a finger or an arm. The circular amputation is ac- complished with the help of an as- sistant, who grasps and retracts the soft parts as far as possible before the surgeon makes his circular sweeping incision. Thus Roman Amphitheatre, Verona. Amraoti 223 Amsterdam the soft parts are left longer than the bone. In the flap operation the knife transfixes the soft parts close to the bone, and is then brought downward and outward, thus separating flesh from bone in a flap of the necessary length. The knife then transfixes the limb on the opposite side of the bone, and a second flap is formed. The bone is sawed through on a level with the base of the flaps, which can be easily joined over the end. Care is taken to make the flaps of a size which fully allows for shrinkage and for muscular con- traction, and that no splinter of bone is left to irritate the cover- ing tissues. All ends of vessels are then tied with ligatures, the flaps stitched together, and the dressing applied over the stump. The question when amputation of a limb is necessary is often one of the most difficult in surgery. The chief indications for it in these cases are very extensive destruction or laceration of the skin; injury to the large vessels or nerves; severe splintering of the bones. The diseases most commonly requiring it are dis- ease of bones or joints; tumors, especially cancer and sarcoma, which cannot otherwise be re- moved; gangrene. See Surgery. Amraoti, um-ra-wut'i {Oom- rawuttee), town, India, capital of Amraoti district; 100 miles south- west of Nagpur. It is an impor- tant centre of the cotton trade, and is celebrated for its temples — one of them, the Temple of Bhawani, built a thousand years ago. Pop. 36,000. Amravati, or Amaravati {Amara Ishwara), town, Madras, India, in Kistna district; 20 miles northwest of Guntur. It was one of the centres of the Buddhist kingdom of Vengi, and has ruins of a great Buddhist tope. Amrlli, am-re'li, or Umrili, town, Gujarat, India, on the Kathiawar peninsula; 140 miles southwest of Ahmedabad. Pop. 14,000. Amritsar, um-rit'sur, or Um- RiTSAR, town, India, capital of Amritsar district, in the Punjab, 32 miles east of Lahore. The island on which it stands is reached by a marble causeway, leading from the marble terraces and balustrades surrounding the lake. The town is noted for the manufacture of cashmere shawls, silks, and carpets. It is the re- ligious capital of the Sikhs and was founded in 1574 by Guru Ram Das, who excavated a sa- cred tank which gives the city its name ('pool of immortality'), and in the midst of which is the chief temple of the Sikhs, known as the Golden Temple, from its brilliant dome of copper covered with gold foil. Serious riots oc- curred here in 1919. Pop. (1921) 160,218; of the district, 929,374. Amru, am'rob, Ibn el-Aas (?600-663 A.D.), Arab general, who at first opposed Mohammed, but later became a convert, join- ing the prophet in his refuge at Medina. Under Abu-Bekr he conquered Syria (634), and in the caliphate of Omar served in Palestine, capturing Caesarea in 638. In 639 he invaded Egypt, took Misrah (the ancient Mem- phis), and Alexandria (641). Amrua, or Umrohah, town. United Provinces, India; 80 miles northeast of Delhi. Pop. (1921) 40,448. Amrulcais, or Imru al-Kais, Arabian poet, son of Hodshr, chief of the Benu-Asad tribe, was a contemporary of Mohammed, against whom he wrote satiric verses. His Moallaka is rich in imagination, and seems to have served as a model for the Arabian poets of the following centuries. Amsterdam (earlier Amstelle- dame, 'dike of the Amstel'), chief seaport and largest citj^ of the Netherlands, in the province of North Holland, is situated at the influx of the Amstel River into the Ij or Y, an arm of the Zuider Zee; 38 miles northeast of Rotter- dam. It is intersected by the Amstel and numerous canals, which divide it into 90 small is- lands connected by more than 300 bridges. The four chief canals — the Heerengracht, Sing- elgracht, Keizersgracht, and Prinsengracht — run in semicircles within each other, and are from 2 to 7 miles long. The city is laid out in the form of a crescent, and is built on piles driven into the firm clay below a deep layer of peat. Amsterdam presents a fine ap- pearance when seen from the har- bor, or from the high bridge over the Amstel. Church towers and spires, and a forest of masts, re- lieve the flatness of the prospect. The old ramparts have been lev- elled, planted with trees, and formed into promenades. In the older central parts the more con- spicuous buildings are constructed of brick, in the Dutch style of the sixteenth and seventeenth cen- turies. On the southern bank of the Ij are the docks and quays, and in the midst of these the Central Railway Station (1889). Southward from the central har- bor are the Church of St. Nicho- las (1885-6); the Nieuwe Kerk (1408), where the sovereigns of Holland are crowned; the Oude Kerk (c. 1300), containing fine stained glass and carvings, and the tombs of naval heroes; the New Exchange (1900); the Royal Palace (1648-55), originally built as the Town Hall, and in 1808 converted into a royal residence; the University (1754), attended by about 1,000 students; the Royal Academy of Sciences; the Arsenal; and the Jewish Quarter, containing several handsome synagogues. Farther south are three large museums. One of these, the Rijks Museum, erected 1877-85, is the most important art depositary in the Netherlands. It includes a valuable picture gallery, contain- ing works by the most famous Dutch artists of all periods; also antiquarian collections, a library, engravings, porcelain, glass, in- dustrial art, ecclesiastical shrines, a marine museum, armory, and a colonial collection. The others are the Museum Fodor (1860) and the Municipal Museum (1892-5), both containing paint- ings by modern Dutch artists. The House of Baron vSix contains a small but valuable private col- lection of Dutch paintings. In the same quarter is the Vondel Park and the Palace for National Industry (1855-64). The city also has zoological and botanical gardens of high reputation. The defences of Amsterdam are comprised in a row of de- tached forts, and in the sluices, several miles distant from the city, which, in a few hours, can flood the surrounding land. Amsterdam is connected with the North Sea, 15 miles to the west, by the North Sea Canal, which gives access to the largest vessels. Although its shipping trade is less than that of Rotter- dam, it is the commercial capital of the Netherlands, owing in great part to the foundation of the Dutch East India Company (1602) and the Bank of Amster- dam (1609-1796). It is the head- quarters of Dutch finance and of the ship-owning interest, and the principal market for the produce of the Dutch East Indies, espe- cially rice, coffee, sugar, tobacco, and spices. Prominent industries are dia- mond cutting and polishing, sugar refining, the manufacture of to- bacco and cigars, rice husking, sawmills, shipbuilding, brewing, engineering, the preparation of cobalt, borax, and camphor, and the manufacture of chocolate, glass, porcelain, jewelry, cottons, woollens, leather, liqueurs, and stearine candles. In addition to the East Indian goods already mentioned, Amsterdam imports tea, indigo, cocoa, hides and skins, cereals, timber, petroleum, rape- vseed, linseed and other oil seeds, and coal; and exports butter, cheese, margarine, and pork. Pop. (1912) 587,872; (1920) 647,427. History. — The origin of the city is ascribed to Giesebrecht ii. of Amstel, who built a castle there in 1204. In 1300 the castle and the village which had grown up about it passed to Guy of Hai- nault, who granted it a charter. It became a walled town in 1482; and during the religious wars of the sixteenth century prospered Vol. I. — Oct. '29 Amsterdam because of the influx of cmigrantvS from Antwerp and Belgium. Its greatest development was due to the Treaty of Westphalia (M)4.S), which closed the Scheldt to the rival port of Antwerp. In 1S()8 the city was chosen as the capital of the Netherlands by Louis Bonaparte. The present epoch of prosperity dates from the open- ing of the North Sea Canal in 1876. Distinguished natives are Spinoza (1632), Swammerdam (1637), and the poet Bilderdijk (1750). Amsterdam, cit3^ New York, in Montgomery County, on the Mohawk River, the New York State Barge Canal, and the New York Central and West Shore Railroads; 33 miles northwest of Albany. Interurban electric lines connect with neighboring towns and the Adirondack re- gion. According to the Federal Census of Manufactures for 1925, the city has 68 industrial es- tablishments, with 10,536 wage earners, and products valued at $56,418,375. Manufactures in- clud2 woollen and knit goods, car- pets and rugs, brooms, pearl but- tons, paper and paper boxes, silk gloves, hosiery and sweaters, ma- chinery, boilers, ice cream and candies. The place was settled in 1775, and was first called Vee- dersburg. Pop. (1900) 20.929; (1910) 31,267; (1920) 33,524. Amsterdam, or New^ Amster- dam, a volcanic, wooded islet, 25 square miles in area, in the Indi- an Ocean, midway between the Cape of Good Hope and Tas- mania. It is under French control. Amuck, a-muk', or Amok (also called mataglap), a Malay term denoting a sudden frenzy which seizes an individual, caus- ing him to rush about armed. It is usually due to drugs or in- toxicants. Amu Daria, a-moo'dar'ya. Ox us, or JiHUN, one of the larg- est rivers in Russian Central Asia, formed by two streams which rise on the Little Pamir near the Indian frontier — (1) the Ak-su ('white water'), from which, per- haps, the ancient name Oxus is derived, which issues from the Gaz Kul, and is called lower down the Ak-tash and then the Murg- hab; and (2) the Panj, the sources of which flow from the glaciers of the Hindu-Kush, northwest of the Kitik Pass. After the con- fluence of these, the river emerges into the Aralo-Caspian plain. It then flows northwest. At Charjui it is lyi miles broad and 7 to 10 feet deep, with a current of 3 miles an hour; in some places it expands to 4 miles, and forms islands. Having skirted the northern boundary of the Khiva khanate, after a course of some 1,400 miles, it enters the Sea of Aral by a large delta 327 feet above sea level. It is useful for Vol. I.— Oct. '29 224 irrigation purposes; Khiva (q.v.) owes its prosperity to its waters. Steam navigation extends from Charjui up to Faizabad-kala (370 miles), and down to Kungrad in the delta (3.50 miles). Amulet. (1.) In architecture, a ringlike moulding on a column. (2.) In decorative art, a band painted in relief around a vase or similar object. (3.) In heraldry, a ring borne as a charge, being a mark of cadency. Amulet, any object worn as a charm. It is often a stone, or a piece of metal, with an inscrip- tion or figures engraved on it, and is generally suspended from the neck, and worn as a protec- tion against sickness or witch- craft. The ancient Chaldaean and Egyptian amulets were in- scribed with magic letters or signs, and sometimes formed necklaces. Among the Greeks, such a protective charm was styled phylacierion. The phj^lac- teries of the Jews (Matt, xxiii. 5), slips of parchment on which pass- ages of the Law were written, were evidently worn as badges of piety by the Pharisees; but they were also regarded as a wholesome protection from evil spirits, and from all manner of harm. The use of amulets passed into the Christian Church, the usual in- scription on them being ichlhus (the Greek word for a fish), be- cause it contained the initials of the Greek words for Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour. Among the Gnostic sects. Abraxas stones were much used. Amulets be- came so common among Chris- tians that in the fourth century the clergy were interdicted from making and selling them on pain of deprivation of holy orders; and in 721 the wearing of amulets was solemnly condemned by the Church. With the spread of Arabian astronomy, the astrolog- ical amulet or talisman of the Arabs found its way to Europe. Curative amulets, often con- sisting of texts from the Koran written on strips of paper, are worn by Mussulmans. The old Norsemen were fond of wearing an image of Thor as an amulet. In ancient Etruria special heed was given to waxen phalli. Ital- ian peasants carry amulets in the form of pigs, mice, bulls, and crosses of oak twigs. Lamaists carry an image of Buddha {burk- han), generally of terra cotta, worn in a case (gavo) around the neck. The serpent amulet is all but universal; nails symbolically inscribed have been widely used; while pebbles, certain seeds, and crystal balls were once common in Britain. Consult J. C. Law- son's Modern Creek Folklore. Amun, an ancient Egyptian deity. See Ammon. Amundsen, ii'mun-s^n.RoALD (1872-1928), Norwegian explorer, the discoverer of the South Pole, was born in Borges. He received a private school education, stud- ied medicine for two years, and became a sailor at the age of twenty-one. He was a member of the Belgica Antarctic Expedi- tion in 1897-9, and upon his re- turn he planned an expedition for the discovery of the Northwest Passage and the location of the magnetic pole. For this expedi- tion he purchased and fitted out the schooner Gjda, in which he sailed from Christiania on June 16, 1903. He located the mag- netic pole near Boothia Felix, the extreme north end of the North American continent; was the first to make the passage from Europe to Alaska, and reached Fort Egbert, Alaska, early in December, 1905. (See North- west Passage.) In 1910 Amundsen sailed for the Antarctic, and on Oct. 19, 1911 with four others, he started on a dash for the South Pole, which was reached on Dec. 14, 1911 (see Antarctic Explora- tion). In 1918-20 he made the Northeast Passage (q.v.) in the Maud. In 1922 he organized a Polar expedition, intending to drift across the top of the world from a point near Wrangell Is- land, across the North Pole, to the Greenland Sea, and, also, to make an aeroplane flight over the Pole. He spent the winter of 1922-3 in Nome and went from there to Wainwright, but after a trial airplane test the flight was abandoned. In 1925, with Lincoln Ells- worth, an American, he made an aeroplane flight over the North Pole, and the following year they two, accompanied by Umberto Nobile, an Italian, made a second flight in a semi-rigid airship over the Pole (see Arctic Explora- tion). In June, 1928, on the report that Nobile's expedition to the Arctic had met with disaster. Amundsen set forth from Tromso to rescue him and was never heard from again. Captain Amundsen is the author of The Northwest Passage (1908); The South Pole (1913); The Northeast Passage (1921); My Life as an Explorer (1927). Amur, ii-moor', a province of Eastern Siberia, lying between the Amur River and the Stanovoi range on the north. The coun- try slopes southeast to the Mari- time Province from a height of nearly 1,500 feet, and is crossed by spurs of the Stanovoi range and by the Great and Little Khingan. The greater part of the country is mountainous and covered with forest, especially in the west, and the broader valleys are marshy. The wet summer and the cold winter, with no snowfall, are unfavorable to farming. The mean winter tern- Amurath 225 Amygdaloid perature is -9° F., and the summer 66° F. Gold is extracted, chiefly by convicts, on the JaUnda and other rivers in the basin of the Upper Amur, in the basins of the Zeya, Silinja, and Bureya, and in the Little Khingan. Coal exists on the Oldoi, Zeya, and Bureya. Immense tracts are uninhabited. Of the inhabitants, 88 per cent, are Russians; the remainder is made up of Manchus and of Tun- gus nomads who live by the chase. The conquest of the Amur was commenced in 1650 by the Cos- sack Khabarov; but the country was ceded by China to Russia only in 1858, by the treaty of Aigun. It is a province admin- istered by a military governor at Blagoveshchensk, subordinate to the governor-general of the Amur region. Area, 154,795 square miles. Pop. (1911) 230,200. The governor-generalship of Amur includes this province and the Maritime Province (q.v.). Amurath, or Murad, the name of five sultans of Turkey: Amurath i. (1319-89), son of Orkhan, succeeded his father in 1359, after ruling a distant prov- ince of Asia. He was the first Turkish sultan to make great headway in Europe, and the chief events of his reign centre round his invasions of the Balkan penin- sula. The capture of Adrianople stirred up the king of Hungary against him; but, along with his allies, he was defeated at Maritza (1363). In 1383 Amurath took Sophia, and defeated another al- liance against him at Kossovo (1389). He was assassinated the same year by a Servian. The Turkish capital was removed, during his reign, from Brussa to Adrianople. Amurath ii. (1403-51), who succeeded his father Mohammed I. in 1421, made an unsuccessful attempt against Constantinople in 1422. He is chiefly noted, how- ever, for his wars with Janos Hunyadi, the Hungarian hero, whom he finally defeated at Kos- sovo (1448). Amurath in. (1546-95), eldest son of Selim ii., succeeded to the throne in 1574. A weak ruler, fonder of the fine arts and the harem than of governing, his reign marks the first deterioration of the powers of the sultans. Yet the Ottoman arms still triumphed in Georgia, the Crimea Yemen, and Persia. The Janizaries, roused by the debasing of the coinage, invaded in 1589, for the first time, the sultan's palace, de- manding the heads of the bey of Rumelia and the minister of finance. Amurath iv. (1611-40), son of Sultan Ahmed i., succeeded his uncle Mustapha i. in 1623. He was noted for his severity, which was developed by the anarchy which existed during the first years of his reign, when he was too young to rule. But at the age of twenty, after putting to death his rebellious vizier, Khos- sev (1632), and gaining over the allegiance of his Janizaries, he was able to rule with absolute power, and began to inflict on his people those cruelties that made his reign detested. More than 100,000 victims are said to have perished through his orders. He was a man of gigantic strength, and insisted on leading his own armies, in spite of an ancient cus- tom which forbade the sultan to do so. He had a war with Persia, in which he took Bagdad (1638- 39). Amurath v. (1840-1904), the eldest son of Sultan Abdul Med- jid, and brother of Abdul Hamid II., was proclaimed sultan in 1876 upon the deposition of his uncle, Abdul-Aziz. But long imprison- ments had ruined his health, and after ruling for three months he had to make way for his younger brother, Abdul Hamid. He was kept in prison in the Cheragan Palace until his death. Amurnath, or Hamarnath, a cave in the mountains of North- eastern Kashmir, is the reputed abode of the god Siva, and a re- sort of Hindu pilgrims. Amur Petroglyphs, ancient conventionalized etchings of ani- mals and human beings on a series of boulders at the mouth of the River Orda, a tributary of the Amur. Most of the drawings rep- resent the human face and the form of animals by means of wavy and spiral lines. The petro- glyphs were discovered by the Jesup North Pacific Expedition. Amur River, one of the most important rivers of Asia; also named the He-lung-Kiang, or 'black dragon,' by the Chinese, and the Sakhalinula, or 'black water,' by the Manchus. It is formed by the union of the Shilka and the Argun (about 53° n. lat. and 121° E. long.), the former ris- ing on the north flank, and the latter on the south side, of the Khan-ula range. The total length is about 2,760 miles. On its course the Amur breaks through the Great Khingan and Little Khin- gan ranges, and from the mouth of the Ussuri is forced northward by the Sikhota-alin Mountains, entering the Sea of Ohkotsk at Nikolaievsk, not far from the northern end of Sakhalin Island. The fall is slight and the current moderate, but the river is wide and full of islands, except where it crosses the Little Khingan. At its mouth there is a bar with shal- low water outside, and the lower section is much encumbered with sand banks, so that the traffic from the interior is diverted along the Ussuri, and so to the coast at Vladivostok. Steamers ply regu- larly during the season of naviga- tion, May to October, up to Strietensk on the Shilka, the depth of water in this river being on an average 4 to 5 feet. Occa- sionally barges are towed 100 miles farther up. The great tributary, the Sun- gari, rising in the Chang-pai-shan, or Ever-white Mountain, drains with its affluents the greater part of Manchuria, and affords navi- gable waterways 1,300 miles in length. The Ussuri gives access also by the Sungacha to Lake Khanka, 3,070 square miles in area; and other tributaries of the Amur, the Zeya, Bureya, and Amgun, are navigable for short distances. The total length of navigable waterways is nearly 8,400 miles. Consult Holmes' Down the Amur. Amyclae, ancient Greek town, on the River Eurotas, 2}/2 miles southeast of Sparta; the chief town of the Achaeans. It re- mained unsubdued long after the Dorian conquest. It was said to be the birthplace of Castor and Pollux. Its early prosperity is in- dicated by the discovery of a splendid tomb belonging to its princes, which contained, among other treasures, two magnificent gold cups, the finest specimens of Mycenaean art. Amyclae, an ancient town of Latium, which claimed to have been built by a colony from the Greek Amyclae. Amygdalin, C20H27NO113H2O, is a crystalline principle existing in the kernel of bitter almonds, the leaves of the Prunus lauro- cerasus, and various other plants, which, by distillation, yield hy- drocyanic acid. When obtained pure, it has a sweetish, somewhat bitter taste, and is not poisonous; and when treated with alkaline solvents, ammonia is expelled, and amygdalic acid, C20H26O12, is then produced. Its most remark- able change, however, is that oc- curring in the volatile oil of al- monds. When the bruised almond kernel, or almond paste, is brought in contact with water, the peculiar odor of bitter almonds is almost immediately evolved; and in twenty-four hours all the amyg- dalin will have disappeared, its place being taken by essential oil of almonds, hydrocyanic acid, sugar, and formic acid. See Al- monds, Oil of. Amygdaloid, a name given to igneous rocks, usually old lava Amyl 225 A Anabaptists flows, full of almond-shaped cav- ities which have been filled up with secondary minerals, such as calcite, agate, or the zeolites. These cavities vary in size up to several inches across, and were formed by the expanding of steam bubbles while the rock was still fluid and in motion. Amygdaloi- dal rocks are chiefly noted in America for their occurrence at Keweenaw Point, Lake Superior, where the cavities are filled with native copper, and are important as a source of that metal. Amyl, C5H11, is the fifth in the series of alcohol radicals whose general formula is CnH2n+i, and of which methyl and ethyl are the first two members. It is obtained by heating amyl iodide with an amalgam of zinc in a closed tube at a temperature of about 177° c, and is one of the natural prod- ucts of the distillation of coal. As thus obtained, it represents two molecules of the radical united together, and usually goes by the name diamyl (C5Hii)2. The single molecule, C5H11, has not been produced. Diamyl is a colorless liquid, with a specific gravity of .770 (11° c), and a boiling point of about 158° c. It has an agreeable smell and burn- ing taste. It enters into a large number of chemical compounds, most of which — e.g. bromide, chloride, etc. — are derived from amylic alcohol, which bears the same relation to amyl that ordi- nary alcohol bears to ethyl, C2H5. See Fusel Oil. Amyl Nitrite, C5H11NO2, a valuable drug which may be pre- pared by the action of nitric acid on fusel oil (amyl alcohol). It is a pale yellowish liquid, with an ethereal, fruity odor, the vapor of which, when inhaled, even in V3ry small quantity, causes vio- lent flushing of the face and a feUing as if the head would burst. It is a powerful remedy in all convulsive diseases, and is of sp<;cial value in angina pectoris, as well as in asthma. Toxic doses cause irregular breathing, pallor, muscular relaxation, and death. It should be kept in small, dark- colored, glass-stoppered vials, in a cool, dark place, in order to prevent deterioration, and re- mote from fire, as it is inflam- mable. Amyloid Disease. See Waxy OR Amyloid Disease. Amyloids. See Carbohy- drates. Amylopsin, the diastatic fer- ment in the pancreatic secretion. See Pancreas; Digestion. Amyntor, Gerhard von. See Gerhardt. Amyot, Jacques (1513-9.3), French scholar, was the friend of Marguerite of Valois, who made him professor of ancient lan- guages at Bourges University. He became afterward bishop of Auxerre (1570), and is celebrated as the French translator of Plu- tarch's Lives. His translation (1559, 1572) is not only great as a translation, but marks an epoch in the history of French style. North translated it into English, and so came to give materials for the Roman plays of Shakespeare. Consult Sainte-Beuve's Causeries du Lundi (vol. iv.). Amyraut, or Amyraldus, Moses (1596-1664), French Prot- estant theologian, and a pupil of Calvin, was born in Bourgueil, and was educated at Orleans and Poitiers. He gave up law for theology, and settled at Saumur, becoming professor of theology there in 1633. He made its uni- versity the chief school of Prot- estantism in France. His works include Traite de la Predestination (1634) ,• Traite des Religions (1631). Ana, a termination added to proper names to designate collec- tions of sayings, 'table talk,' anecdotes, items of gossip, as Johnsoniana, Boswelliana; as well as notes or publications about some person, as Shakespeariana, Burnsiana. Anabaptists (from Greek ana- baptizein, 'to baptize again'), a term often applied to those Chris- tians who reject infant baptism and administer the rite only to adults; so that when a new mem- ber joins them, he or she, if bap- tized in infancy, is baptized a second time. It is properly ap- plied to the adherents of a move- ment which appeared in many parts of Europe, particularly in Germany, Switzerland, and the Netherlands, during the Refor- mation. They not only denied the validity of infant baptism, but pretended to new revelations, dreamed of the establishment of the kingdom of heaven on earth, and summoned princes to join them, on pain of losing their tem- poral power. They proclaimed the community of goods and the equality of all Christians. The history of the Anabaptists was brief but eventful. They first came prominently forward in 1521 at Zwickau, in Saxony, un- der Thomas Munzer and others, who styled themselves the Proph- ets of Zwickau. Luther spoke strongly against them, urging the princes in whose states they ap- peared to suppress them. Munzer travelled through Bohemia, Thu- ringia, Switzerland, etc., preach- ing his theories with great suc- cess. In 1525headroitlyfomented the deep dissatisfaction of the peasants of the south and middle of Germany, who were in revolt against their lords in what is known as the Peasants' War. The peasants were completely de- feated at Frankenhausen (May 15, 1525), and Munzer and other leaders were executed. (See Peas- ants' War.) Nevertheless, scattered adher- ents of the doctrines continued. Melchior Hoffmann, a furrier of Swabia, who appeared as a vision- ary preacher in Emden in 1528, installed a baker, John Matthie- sen, of Haarlem, as bishop. Mat- thiesen began to send out apostles of the new doctrine. Two of these went to Miinster, where they were joined by Rothmann, Knip- perdolling, Bockhold, and others, and made themselves masters of the city; Matthiesen, who set up as a prophet, lost his life in a mad sally, with only thirty followers, against Count Waldeck, the prince bishop of Munster, who was besieging the town. The churches were now destroyed, and twelve judges were appointed over the tribes, as among the Israelites; and Bockhold (1534) was crowned king of the 'New Zion,' under the name of John of Leyden. Munster became the scene of the wildest licentious- ness, until several Protestant princes, uniting with the bishop, took the city, and by executing the leaders after the cruellest tortures, put an end to the new kingdom (1535). In Amsterdam the doctrine also took root and spread. The dis- ciples of Bockhold abandoned the community of goods and women, and preached a new kingdom of pure Christians. David Joris, a glass painter of Delft (1501-56), devoted himself to mystic theolo- gy, and sought to effect a union of parties. He acquired many ad- herents, who studied his Book of Miracles (Wunderbuch) , which appeared at Deventer in 1542. and looked upon him as a Mes- siah. Being persecuted he with- drew from leadership, and lived at Basel, under the name of John of Bruges, where he died in the Communion of the Reformed Church. The rude and fanatical period of the history of Anabaptism closes with the scandal of Miin- ster. A new era begins with Menno Simons (see Mennon- ITES), who founded congregations in the Netherlands and in Ger- many. His followers, however, expressly repudiated the distinc- tive doctrines of the Munster fanatics; and so little had their sober and moderate life in com- mon with the excesses of the lat- ter, that the application of the term Anabaptists to them is mis- Anabasis 225 B Anacreon leading. Consult Heath's Ana- baptism from Its Rise at Zwickau to Its Fall at Miinster; Belfort Bax's Rise and Fall of the Ana- baptists (1903). Anabasis, a-nab'a-sis, the name of two historical works: (1) The Anabasis of Cyrus, written by Xenophon, which gives a nar- rative of the unfortunate expedi- tion of the younger Cyrus against his brother, the Persian king Artaxerxes, and of the retreat of his 10,000 Greek allies under the command of Xenophon, after the Battle of Cunaxa (401 B.C.). (2) The Anabasis of Alexander, writ- ten by Arrian, and giving an ac- count of the campaigns of Alex- ander the Great. An'ableps (Greek anablepsis, 'looking up'), a genus in Agas- siz' cyprinodont family of bony fishes with open-air bladders. They are specially noteworthy for their projecting eyes, which are divided into an upper and a lower portion. The outer cover- ing or cornea is crossed by a dark band, and the inner iris is simi- larly divided, so that there are really two pupils instead of one. This unique structure is supposed to be associated with a habit which these fishes are said to have of swimming with the eyes partly out of the water. A. tctropthalmus inhabits the rivers of Guiana and Surinam. Anab'olism, the constructive processes within the protoplasm, by which food or other material, at a relatively low level, passes through an ascending series of ever more complex and unstable combinations, till it is finally worked up into living matter. See Metabolism. Anacardiacese. See Cashew Nut; Pistacia; Mango; Sumach. Anacardium. See Cashew Nut. Anacharis, a-nak'a-ris, an old genus of plants now known as Elodea. belonging to the natural order Hydrocharideae. The best- known species is A. alsinastrum or E. canadensis, a slender wholly submerged plant bearing small oblong leaves and small white flowers. See Canadian Pond- weed. Anacharsis, a Scythian prince who is said to have travelled widely in quest of knowledge, and visited Athens in the time of Solon. He was received with great respect for his remarkable wisdom, and was admitted to the Athenian franchise. The letters which bear his name were written long after his time. J. J. Bar- tht'lemy made him the prototype for the hero of his Voyaf^e du jeune Anacharsis en Grece (1788). Anachronism, an-ak'ro-niz'm (Greek ana, 'backward,' chronos, 'time'), the erroneous reference of a circumstance or custom to a wrong date. Anachronisms may be made in regard to mode of thought and style of writing, as well as in regard to mere events. It is difficult for a writer to pro- ject himself so completely into a past age as to avoid anachro- nisms. There is hardly a novel of its class that contains more study than Thackeray's Esmond, yet here a book is spoken of in 1712 which was not published until 1750. The anachronism is more offensive when, in a work which pedantically adheres to the cos- tumes and other external features of old times, we find a modern style of thought and language, as in the old French dramas of Cor- neille and Racine. In popular epic poetry it is a common fea- ture. Achilles is always young, Helena always beautiful. In their versions of old classic tradi- tions, the writers of the Middle Ages converted Alexander, ^ne- as, and other ancient heroes into good Christian knights of the twelfth century. In the Niebe- lungenlied, Attila and Theodoric are good friends and allies, though the latter began to reign some forty years after the former. The English and Spanish dram- atists are full of anachronisms; but as they make no pretence of preserving local color or historic truth, these errors can scarcely be counted as artistic faults. Calde- ron, in his Virgin del Sagrario, introduces a bishop who is sup- posed to live three hundred years before the discovery of the New World, yet who quotes Herodo- tus as an authority on America; while it is laot uncommon in Span- ish religious plays to find Adam, the prophets, and Christ all on the stage at once. Shakespeare's own liberties in the same direc- tion are well known. He trans- ports all our modern customs and usages, the observance of May Day, and the institution of nun- neries, to the court of Duke Theseus (Midsummer-Night's Dream) . So, too, in Julius Caesar we have a reference to clocks striking the hour. These slips are of little consequence, how- ever, for the avoidance of them is no part of the author's artistic theory. But when Agamemnon, in Troilus and Cressida, quotes Aristotle, the anachronism be- comes a positive fault, because the poet is evidently trying to produce an effect by an appeal to the liistoric sense. In the case of historical novel- ists it is almost impossible to avoid an occasional transposition of events — as where Scott quotes in Kenilworth from the Midsum- mer-Night's Dream, in a scene dated several years before the writing of that drama. Such an error as this, however, is im- material so long as the general effect is true to the spirit of the age, and is much less serious than the procedure of the modern French romantic dramatists, with Victor Hugo at their head, who have elevated historic truth of fact into an absolute law of the drama, but who do not scruple to commit the graver anachro- nism of attributing to their char- acters sentiments and ideas ut- terly foreign to the age they lived in. Anachronisms have in almost all ages been perpetrated by painters of sacred Christian sub- jects — Dutch, German, and Ital- ian peasants being depicted as disciples of Jesus. Anacolutbon, an-a-ko-lu'- thon, a term employed both in grammar and rhetoric, to denote the absence of strict logical se- quence in the grammatical con- struction — e.g., 'Whoso desireth to live happily — let him make virtue his friend.' Good writers are sometimes willing to sacrifice the logical sequence for the sake of emphasis, or clearness. Anacon'da (Eunectes muri- nus), a large South American water snake of the Python family, closely related to the boa con- strictor. The upper part of the front of the head is armed with shield-like plates, replaced by scales farther back. The minute vertical nostrils at the end of the snout can be entirely closed, a fact in association with the aquat- ic habit of the animal. Some specimens have measured from 25 to 30 feet in length. The gen- eral color of the adult is blackish green, with rows of spots along the back and sides. The anaconda is ovo- viviparous. It is found in the rivers of Guiana and Brazil, swimming like an eel, or floating with the stream, or lying in wait by the bank for the agoutis, capybaras, iguanas, etc., on which it feeds. The skin is used for making boots and bags, and the flesh is sometimes eaten. See Boa; Python. Anaconda, city, Montana, county seat of Deer Lodge Coun- ty, on the Butte, Anaconda, and Pacific Railroad; 26 miles north- west of Butte. It has great copper-smelting and refining works, railroad and machine shops, and makes bricks and cigars. At Butte is the Ana- conda copper and silver mines. Pop. (1910) 10,134; (1920) 12,- 537. Anacor'tes, city, Washington, in Skagit County, on the Great Northern Railroad; 80 miles north of Seattle. It has fishing, wood working, canning, and saw- mill industries. Pop. (1910) 4,168; (1920) 5,284. Anacreon, a-nak're-on, one of the most esteemed lyric poets of Greece, was born about 560 B.C. at Teos, an Ionian city in Asia Minor. With his fellow towns- men he emigrated to Abdera, in Thrace, on the approach of the Vol. I. — March '29 Anadarko 225 C Anaesthesia Persians. Thence he was invited to the court of Polycrates, the ruler of Samos; and here he sang, in light and flowing strains, the praise of wine and beauty. After the death of Polycrates he went to Athens, and was received with distinguished honor by Hippar- chus. Great honors were paid to him after his death; Teos put his likeness upon its coins, and a statue was raised to him on the Acropolis of Athens, which repre- sented him in a state of vinous hilarity. Of his poems, only a few genuine fragments have been preserved. The Odes attributed to him are now admitted to be spurious. Anadarko, city, Oklahoma, in Caddo County, on the Washita River, and the Chicago, Rock Island, and Pacific Railroad; 35 miles southwest of Oklahoma City. It has cotton mills, grain elevators and flour mills. Pop. (1910) 3,439; (1920) 3,116. An'adiplo'sis (Greek), the rhetorical figure of simple repeti- tion — e.g., 'O earth, earth, earth!' Anadyomene, an-a-di-om'g- ne, ('emerging'), the goddess ris- ing out of the sea, a name given to Aphrodite from her being born of the foam of the sea. The name gained fame from Apelles' masterpiece, a painting of the goddess in the moment of rising from the sea. See Aphrodite. Anadyr, a-na-der', or Ana- dir, a gulf of Northeast Siberia, and a resort of whalers. The Anadyr River flows into the Gulf of Anadyr, after a course of about 460 miles from the Stanovoi Mountains. Anse'mia (Greek, 'bloodless- ness') is a comprehensive term commonly employed to denote a deficient quantity or quality of the blood. Deficiency in quan- tity is evidenced by an absolute reduction in the amount of blood in the body; in qualitative de- ficiency there is a reduction in the number of the red corpuscles, or their contained haemoglobin. In the more restricted sense anaemia may be defined as a reduction in the amount of circulating oxygen- carrying constituent — hemoglo- bin. Symptoms. — The symptoms present in anaemia are weakness and languor; tendency to head- aches, especially at the top of the head, and to neuralgias in various situations; singing in the ears, and visual disturbances; palpita- tion; breathlessness; sleeplessness and irritability; poor appetite and weak digestion, with constipa- tion, and, in women, disorders of the catamenial functions. The patient presents a blanched ap- pearance, the skin being pale, and the lips, gums, and mucous mem- brane of the eyelids bloodless. In many of the cases there may be no emaciation — rather, a tend- ency to plumpness; but the muscles are flabby, and there is frequently also dropsy about the ankles. Cardiac dilatation is generally present. In some cases even of ordinary anaemia there is enlargement of the spleen, and, more rarely, of the liver. Occa- sionally there is albumin in the urine. The blood in health should contain 5,000,000 red corpuscles per cubic millimeter, but on estimating it in "anaemia there may be a great reduction in the number. The white cor- puscles are estimated to be present in health in the ratio of 1 to 300 or 500, but this ratio may be altered by a relative or an absolute increase of the white cells. Causes. — The causes of anae- mia, following Osier, may be divided into two groups, accord- ing as they act upon the blood directly, or upon the blood-form- ing structures. Under the first division must be placed me- chanical blood losses (haemor- rhage) in which the quantity of the blood is diminished with a corresponding reduction of its constituents; losses produced by a drain on the albuminous ele- ments of the blood by pus forma- tion, albuminuria, or lactation; diminished blood formation by want of food, or conditions pre- venting assimilation by the or- ganism, as in diseases of the gullet and stomach; and, lastly, the effects of certain poisons which interfere with blood for- mation, such as metals like mer- cury, and organic agents like malaria and intestinal parasites. In the second group are to be considered causes which act by disturbing the functions of the blood-making organs — to wit, the spleen, the bone marrow, and the general lymphatic tissues of the body. Thus, changes in the bone marrow and spleen are often associated with the form of anaemia known as idiopathic, or progressive pernicious anaemia; and affections of the general lymph glands throughout the body are associated with anaemia in leukosarcomatosis and Hodg- kin's Disease. In all these affec- tions there is no increase in the number of the white cells; but there is another analogous dis- ease characterized by changes in the spleen, marrow, and glands, associated with an increase in the white cells and a reduction of the red corpuscles. This is the affec- tion known as Leukemia or Leu- cocythcemia (q.v.). Treatment. — Since secondary anaemia is only a symptom, its treatment depends upon the underlying cause. In all ca.ses. treatment includes physical and mental rest, healthy and cheerful surroundings, attention to the state of the mouth and teeth, regulation of the bowels, and careful attention to diet. In the latter measure great advances have recently been made, the diet employed consisting largely of mammalian liver, which stim- ulates the formation of red blood cells to a striking degree, with beef kidney next in order of efficiency. Among other food- stuffs stimulating red cell forma- tion are other animal organs such as heart, pancreas, stomach, etc., the fruits, apricots, prunes, and peaches especially, and raisins and fresh grapes. It has also been found that while whole milk is excellent for most dietary re- quirements it is conspicuously lacking in hemoglobin-producing substances. Blood transfusion is resorted to in dangerous cases. Arsenic, iron, and manganese are the most reliable drugs. See also Chlorosis. Anaesthesia (Greek 'absence of sensation'), loss of sensation, local or general, due to disease or induced by artificial means chief- ly as an adjunct to surgical pro- cedures. The term is commonly used as synonymous with anal- gesia, which refers to absence of sensibility to pain only, with re- tention of consciousness. References to attempts at anaesthesia and analgesia coexist with human history. Ancient Egyptian carvings illustrate the production of analgesia by pres- sure, and the analgesic properties of the coca plant have been known from time immemorial. The more familiar production of anaesthesia by the inhalation of gases belongs only to the last century. Henry Hill Hickman, an English practitioner, carried out successful experiments on animals between 1820 and 1828, but the honor of being the first successfully to use ether in con- nection with an operative pro- cedure belongs to an American, Crawford W. Long, a country practitioner of Georgia, who re- sected a tumor under ether anaesthesia in 1842. Independent investigations were being carried on at about the same time by Horace Wells, a dentist of Hart- ford. Conn., and by Wm. T. G. Morton, who, in 1846, success- fully demonstrated the value of ether in abolishing pain before the staff and students of Harvard Medical College, in the Massa- chusetts General Hospital. The name anaesthesia was proposed in the same year by Oliver Wendell Holmes. In 1847, Flourens, a French- man, pointed out the anaesthetic properties of chloroform and ethyl chloride, and in the v^ame year Sir James Simpson of Edin- burgh presented a paper on the anaesthetic properties of chloro- form. In 1853 Alexander Wood, also of Edinburgh, introduced the Vol. I. — March '29 Anaesthesia 225 D Anahuac hypodermic s^Tinge, making pos- sible local, regional, spinal, and paravertebral analgesia. Albert Niemann discovered the alkaloid of coca leaves in 1858, and its analgesic and anaesthetic proper- ties were subsequently demon- strated. Bier of Kiel first placed spinal analgesia (suggested by the American neurologist, J. Leonard Corning) on a practical basis (1899); novocaine was dis- covered by Alfred Einhorn in 1904 and first tested clinically by H. Braun of Gerniany in 1905. Colonic anaesthesia with oil ether was perfected in 1913 by an American, James T. Gwathmey. General Anaesthesia is in- duced by the inhalation or intra- venous administration of certain drugs, chief among which are ether, chloroform, ethyl chloride, and nitrous oxide (qq.v.). Ether is given, also, in an oil medium by rectal injection. Other less common anaesthetics are ethyl- ene, acetylene, and carbon di- oxide. All these drugs act by producing a progressive paralysis of the central nervous system with suspension of the vital func- tions except respiration and cir- culation. The anaesthetic prop- erties of the various agents are im- proved by combination with oxygen. Preliminary medication with morphine, magnesium sul- phate, and chloretone is also a useful adjunct. Each drug has its special indications and con- traindications and methods of administration, which cannot be presented in detail here. General anaesthesia has been used thera- peutically to control epileptic attacks. Regional (Local) Anaesthesia is the production of insensi- bility in any given region of the body. There are two distinct procedures by which this is ac- complished: (1) Field block con- sists in making fanwise injections of the anaesthetic drug in certain definite planes of the body, so as to soak all the nerves supplying the operative field, thus creating a wall of anaesthesia which blocks pain transmission. (2) Nerve block consists in injecting the nerves individually or reaching them en bloc by a single injection. Spinal ancBsthesia is in reality an extensive nerve block resulting from the injection of the roots of the spinal nerves in the subarach- noid space. Local analgesia is produced by the use of various freezing mixtures, such as ethyl chloride, in the form of a spray. The drug of choice for inducing regional anaesthesia is novocaine (para -amino -benzoyldiethyl^imi- no-ethanol hydrochlorid). Co- caine, formerly much used, has been practically discarded except for contact anaesthesia of the mucous membranes. Stovaine and tropacocaine are used to some extent. Preliminary medi- cation with morphine and scopol- amine is useful to relieve the psychic strain incidental to con- sciousness during the operative procedure. Regional anaesthesia has been used in a wide variety of condi- tions. It is especially applicable in operations on the head, on the lateral and anterior aspects of the neck, and on the upper and lower extremities, for certain proce- dures* on the thorax and in the upper abdomen, and for surgery of the lower abdomen and pelvis, especially urological procedures. It is particularly useful in poor surgical risks in whom, because of lowered physical resistance, gen- eral anaesthesia is contraindicat- ed. As its successful employ- ment is dependent in large part upon the cooperation of the patient, it is contraindicated in such subjects as cannot intelli- gently cooperate with the sur- geon and anaesthetist. It is difficult of accomplishment in obese patients, in whom the superficial anatomical landmarks are ill-defined. Spinal anaesthe- sia is contraindicated in the pres- ence of gastro-intestinal perfora- tion, localized peritonitis, and, in general, in syphilitic and epileptic patients. Symptomatic Anaesthesia. — Loss of sensibility occurs natu- rally as the result of disease or injury of the nervous system in- volving the sensory end organs, by which sensation is received, the conduction paths, by which they are transferred to the brain, or the sensory areas of the brain. It is seen in such conditions as spinal cord tumors, tabes dorsalis (locomotor ataxia), some forms of neuritis, and leprosy. It oc- curs also in hysterical conditions in which no organic lesions can be demonstrated. See the articles on the various anaesthetic drugs. For obstetrical analgesia (twilight sleep) see Obstetrics. Consult J. T. Gwathmey's Anesthesia (1925); also chapters on General and Regional Anaesthesia in Volume I of Nelson Loose-Leaf Surgery (1927). Anagallis. See Pimpernel. Anagni, a-na'nye, town, Italy, in the province of Rome, situated on a hill; 46 miles by rail south- east of Rome. The seat of a bishop since 487, it has an old but much modernized cathedral; and was the birthplace of four popes — Innocent iii., Gregory ix., Alexander iv., and Boniface viii. Pop. 10,000. Anagoge, an-a-go'je, or Ana- GOGV (Greek, 'a leaping up'), a raising of the mind to celestial things; a mystical interpretation of the plain narrative of Scrip- ture, as when Gregory the Great, in his Commentary on Job, ex- plains the Apostle Peter's warm- ing himself at a fire of coals dur- ing Christ's trial as being typical of the coldness of heart which would lead him presently to deny Christ. See Allegory. An'agram (Greek, ana, 'back- ward,' and gramma, 'a letter of the alphabet'), the transposition of the letters of a word, phrase, or short sentence, so as to form a new word or sentence. The Cab- alists attached great importance to anagrams, believing in some re- lation of them to the character or destiny of the persons from whose names they were formed. Plato entertained a similar notion, and the later Platonists rivalled the Cabalists in ascribing to them mysterious virtues. Although now classed among ingenious trifles, anagrams formerly em- ployed the most serious minds, and some of the Puritan writers commended the use of them. The best anagrams are such as have, in the new order of letters, some signification appropriate to that from which they are formed. It vvas a great triumph of the mediaeval anagrammatist to find in Pilate's question, 'Quid est Veritas?' (What is truth?) its own answer: 'Est vir qui adest' (It is the man who is here). With equal appropriateness, Horatio Nelson may read 'Honor est a Nilo' (Honor is from the Nile), and Florence Nightingale, 'Flit on, cheering angel.' Marie Tou- chet, the name of a favorite mis- tress of Charles ix. of France, was read 'le charme tout' (I charm every one); the flatterers of James i. of Great Britain found in his name, James Stuart, 'a just master,' and proved his right to the British monarchy, as the de- scendant of the mythical King Arthur, from his name Charles James Stuart, which becomes 'Claims Arthur's Seat.' Addison classes the anagram and the acrostic together as species of 'false wit,' adding trenchantly, 'It is impossible to decide whether the inventor of the one or the other were the greater blockhead. Anaheim, ii'na-him, town, California, in Orange County, on the Santa Ana River, and the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe and the Union Pacific Railroads; 27 miles southeast of Los Angeles. It is in a rich fruit-growing valley, which produces grapes, oranges, and other fruits, in abundance. Its chief industry is fruit canning. Pop. (1910) 2,028; (1920) 5,526. Anahuac, a-na'wiik (a term signifying, in the old Mexican language, 'near the water'), the original name of the ancient king- dom of Mexico. It is now used to designate either the whole of the tableland of Mexico, or cer- tain portions thereof, more or less extensive, with the capital as a common centre. This plateau Vol. I.— March '29 Anakim 226 Analysis has a height of from 6,000 to 8,000 feet above the sea, and is generally level, though the great volcanoes of Jorullo and Popo- catepetl rise out of it. TItie plateau, which comprises three- fifths of the republic of Mexico, is bounded east and west by the two great chains of the Cor- dilleras. Anakim, an'a-kim, or Sons of Anak, a race of giants mentioned in Scripture (Josh. xi. 21/.; Num. xiii. 33) who occupied the moun- tains about Hebron, and were also found to the north, near the Mediterranean. They were con- quered by Joshua and Caleb. Analcite, a mineral of the zeo- lite group; hardness, 5 to 51/2; specific gravity, 2.25. It is found, as a rule, lining amygdaloidal cavities in basic volcanic rocks, occurring chiefly as colorless and transparent or opaque, white or pinkish white crystals. It may also occur as a primary constitu- ent in certain igneous rocks. It is a hydrous silicate of aluminum and sodium, with the formula NaAlSisOs + H2O. Analec'ta, or Analect (Greek, 'things gathered'), a literary col- lection or anthology. Analgesics. See Anodynes. Analgesin. See Antipyrin. Anal Glands, pouches from the end of the intestine beside the anus. They occur especially in mammals, but also in snakes, lizards, and other reptiles, and consist of cells which exhibit a special development of the gener- al glandular properties so abun- dantly associated with the skin. The secretion of the glandular cells has usually a strong smell, and a fatty or oily composition. They are sometimes of protective advantage, and in other cases doubtless auxiliary to sexual at- traction. See Glands; Musk Glands; Beaver; Civet;Skunk. Anal'ogy, a term which signi- fies an agreement or correspon- dence in certain respects between things in other respects different. It makes a resemblance of rela- tions, as in the phrase, 'Knowl- edge is to the mind what light is to the eye.' Euclid employed it to signify proportion, or the equality of ratios, and it has re- tained this sense in mathematics; but it is a term little used in the exact sciences, and of very fre- quent use in every other depart- ment of knowledge and of human affairs. In grammar we speak of the analogy of language — i.e., the correspondence of a word or phrase with the genius of the language, as learned from the manner in which its words and phrases are ordinarily formed. Analogy, in fact, supposes a rule inferred from observation of in- stances, and upon the application of which, in other instances not precisely but in some respects Vol. I. — March '29 similar, we venture, with more or less confidence, according to the degree of ascertained similarity, and according to the extent of observation from which our knowledge of the rule has been derived. The opposite to anal- ogy is anomaly (Greek, 'irregu- larity') ; and this term is used not only in grammar, but with ref- erence to objects of natural his- tory which in any respect are exceptions to the ordinary rule of their class or kind. Here it strictly means the resemblance of function between organs which are essentially different. Reasoning from analogy has often served to guide inquiry and lead to discovery. Many of the most brilliant discoveries re- cently made in natural science were the result of investigations thus directed. Where the proper evidence of truth is of another kind, arguments from analogy are often of great use for the removal of objections. It is thus that they are employed by Bishop Butler in his Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the Con- stitution and Course of Nature. In law, reasoning from analogy must often, to a certain extent, be admitted in the application of statutes to particular cases. Upon similar reasoning the practice of medicine very much depends. To discover the meaning of any liter- ary work it is also often neces- sary; the sense of the author in a passage somewhat obscure being in some measure determined ac- cording to pasvsages in which he has expressed himself more clear- ly. The application of this rule to the interpretation of Scripture is a point of difference between Protestants and Roman Catho- lics — the latter insisting upon the interpretation of difficult pas- sages solely by ecclesiastical tra- dition and authority, while the former claim the right to apply analogy of interpretation. Analogy, in biology, is used to denote physiological, independ- ent of morphological resemblance. Organs are analogous to one an- other, or are analogs, when they perform the same function, though they may be altogether different in structure; as the wings of a bird, and the wings of an insect. Organs, again, are homologous, or homologs, when they are constructed on the same plan, undergo a similar develop- ment, and bear the same relative position, and this independent of either form or function. See Homology; Morphology. Anal'ysls (Greek. 'taking apart') and its converse Synthesis ('putting together') are now gen- erally used to designate two com- f)lementary processes, the corre- atives of each other, employed in chemistry, logic, mathematics, and philosophy. Analysis is the resolution of a whole into its component parts, the tracing of things to their source, and so dis- covering the general principles underlying individual phenom- ena; synthesis is the explana- tion of certain phenomena by means of principles which are for this purpose assumed as estab- lished. Analysis, as the resolu- tion of our experience into its original elements, is an artificial separation; while synthesis is an artificial reconstruction. We speak of an analytic method in science, and of a synthetic method. The analytic method proceeds from the examination of facts to the determination of principles, from the individual to the univer- sal; while the synthetic method proceeds to the determination of consequences from principles known or assumed, to the indi- vidual from the universal. It will thus be seen that they are really two parts of the same method; and that whereas the value of the synthesis depends on the accuracy of the analysis which has established the prin- ciple from which the synthesis sets out, so an analysis which does not aspire to a synthesis halts on the way. In Logic, analysis is the divi- sion of a concept into the qual- ities or attributes of which it is constituted (see Abstract) ; while synthesis is the reverse process of adding together the qualities or attributes which determine a par- ticular concrete. (See Induc- tion; Logic.) In Grammar, analysis is a term used for the school exercise of distinguishing the different ele- ments composing a sentence, or any part of it. It is allied to logi- cal analysis, being a systematic resolution of the sentence into elements, performing different functions in the expression of thought, with definite relations to the whole sentence and to each other, as subject and predicate, with their respective enlarge- ments. Mathematical analysis, in the modern sense of the term, is the method of treating all quantities as unknown numbers, and repre- senting them for this purpose by symbols, such as letters, the relations subsisting among them being thus stated and subjected to further investigation. It is therefore the same thing with algebra in the widest vsense of that term, although the term al- gebra is more strictly limited to what relates to equations, and thus denotes only the first part of analysis. The second part may be divided into the Analysis of Finite Quantities and the An- alysis of Infinite Quantities. To the former, also called the Theory of Functions, belong the subjects of Series, Logarithms, Curves, Analysis, Chemical 227 Analysis, Chemical etc. The Analysis of Infinites comprehends the Differential Cal- culus, the Integral Calculus, and the Calculus of Variations (see the several articles). To the dili- gent prosecution of mathemati- cal analysis by minds of the greatest acuteness is to be as- cribed the great progress both of pure and applied mathematics in the last two centuries. The analysis of the ancient mathematicians was entirely dif- ferent, and consisted simply in the application of the analytic method, as opposed to the syn- thetic, to the solution of geo- metrical questions. That which was to be proved being in the first place assumed, an inquiry was instituted into those things upon which it depended, and thus the investigation proceeded until something was reached which was already ascertained, and from which the new proposi- tion might be seen by necessary consequence to flow. A reversal of the steps of the inquiry now gave the synthetical proof of the proposition. The ancient analysis afforded opportunity for the ex- ercise of much acuteness, and was the chief instrument of the advancement of mathematical science until comparatively re- cent times. The invention of it is ascribed to Plato; but of the works of the ancients on geo- metrical analysis none are ex- tant, except some portions of those of Euclid, Apollonius of Perga, and Archimedes. Analysis, Chemical, is the term applied to that department of experimental science which has for its object the chemical disunion or separation of the constituents of a compound sub- stance, such as the resolution of water into its components hydro- gen and oxygen; of common salt into chlorine and sodium; of marble into lime and carbon di- oxide, etc. This department of chemistry, therefore, takes cog- nizance of the breaking down of the more complex or compound substances into their more simple and elementary constituents, and is the reverse of Chemical Syn- thesis, which treats of the union of the more simple or elementary bodies to produce the more com- plex or compound. Chemical analysis is of two kinds — qualitative analysis, which determines the quality or nature of the ingredients of a compound, without regard to the quantity of each which may be present; and quantitative analysis, which calls in the aid of the balance or bu- rette, and estimates the exact pro- portion, by weight or volume, in which the several constituents are united. Thus, qualitative analysis iriforms us of what wa- ter, marble, and common salt are composed; but it remains for quantitative analysis to tell us that water consists of 1 part of hydro- gen by weight united with 8 parts of oxygen, marble of 56 parts of lime and 44 of carbon dioxide ; and common salt of 35.46 parts of chlorine and 23 of sodium. Quan- titative methods are based on the laws of definite proportions (see Atomic Theory), and on the fact that all chemical com- pounds, however produced, have a fixed and definite composition. In qualitative analysis there are dry reactions, performed on the solid at a high temperature, and wet reactions, where the sub- stance is in solution. Compounds which have reactions in common are grouped together, and by systematic methods all the in- gredients of a complex mixture can be detected. Quantitative analysis is divided into many branches. Gravimetric methods are those in which the reaction forms an insoluble com- pound of definite, known compo- sition. By filtration, washing, and ignition these compounds are obtained pure, and are weighed. In volumetric methods, solutions of known strength are used, the end of the reaction being made known by the use of an indicator, such as litmus, etc. The micro- scope, spectroscope, and polari- scope are used in special cases; and some substances are decom- posed , and one or more of the in- gredients deposited on a weighed plate or evolved. Subsequent weighing or measurement of vol- ume gives basis for calculation of percentage with the aid of the electric current. (See Electro- chemistry.) The divisions of Inorganic and Organic Chemistry have led to a corresponding classification of chemical analysis into inorganic analysis, comprehending the proc- esses followed and the results ob- tained in the investigation of the atmosphere, water, soils, and rocks; and organic analysis, treat- ing of the modes of isolation, and the nature of the ingredients found in or derived from organ- ized structures — viz., plants and animals. Both these departments afford examples of what are called proximate and ultimate an- alysis. Proximate analysis is the resolution of a compound sub- stance into components which are themselves compound; while ultimate analysis comprehends the disunion of a compound into its elements or the simplest forms of matter. Organic chemistry affords still better examples of each class: thus, ordinary wheat flour, when subjected to proxi- mate analysis, yields, as its prox- imate components, gluten, albu- men, starch, sugar, gum, oil, and saline matter; but each of these proximate ingredients is in itself compound, and when they un- dergo ultimate analysis, the glu- ten and albumen yield, as their ultimate elements or constituents, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitro- gen, sulphur, and phosphorus; and the starch, sugar, gum, and oil are found built up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Several other terms are in use in chemical treatises: thus. Gas analysis is applied to the proc- esses employed in the separation by absorption of the various gases (see Gases) ; Metallurgic analysis includes the reduction of metallic ores (see Assaying) ; Agricultural analysis is restricted to the exam- ination of manures, feeding stuffs, and soils ; Medical or Physiological analysis, to the investigation of blood, urine, and other animal fluids and juices, and the exam- ination of medicinal compounds; Commercial analysis is the term used where great accuracy or nicety of detail is not required in an analysis, but where the com- mercially important constituents alone are determined (see Anal- ysis, Commercial). Crystallo Analysis, really a method of identification, not analysis in the strict sense, is in process of formulation by Prof. E. C. Fedoroff of St. Peters- burg. This method will be applicable to all crystalline sub- stances excepting the few which crystallize in the cubic system. Supplementary methods are be- ing devised for these latter. The method involves the usual goniometrical measurement of the angles of the crystal, and the making of a stereographical pro- jection. Proof of correct 'set- ting' is obtained by following Professor Fedoroff's method of calculating recticular density. If the best setting is not shown, it is easy to rotate the projec- tion and obtain one of a cor- rect setting. This much done, one may readily see by inspection of, and calculation from, the projection just what the 'For- mula of the Complex' is for the given crystal. It is to be under- stood that every crystal has its own formula of the complex, differing from every other crys- tal, even those in the same sys- tem of crystallization. There- fore if the formula has been es- tablished, it is only necessary to consult the reference book to de- termine the identity of the crys- tal under consideration. A typi- cal formula is j ^go \ , which is shown in the tables to be that for the substance carbamid. Professor Fedoroff expects to issue his Index in 1914, ayid jt Analysis, Commercial 228 Anamalaf will be called Das Kristallreich. It is a monumental work, however, and may be still further delayed. Over 10,000 substances are classi- fied in it. It takes Professor Fedoroff from two to three hours to identify an average crystal. See Assaying. Consult Frese- nius' Qualitative Analysis and Quantitative Analysis; Sutton's Volumetric Analysis; Hempel's Gas A nalysis; Bly th's Foods: Com- position and Analysis (4th ed.); Allen's Commercial Organic Anal- ysis (2 vols.); Liinge's Technical Methods of Chemical Analysis; Rockwood's Introduction to Chem- ical Analysis (1913); Treadwell's Analytical Chemistry (1913). Analysis, Commercial, or Pharmaceutical Analysis, dif- fers from inorganic or organic analysis, pure and simple, in deal- ing usually with complex mix- tures, to which it is impossible to apply tests having a definite value as to the information they afford. To such a mixture it is necessary to apply many physical processes, in the hope that these will so separate the constituents as to render it possible to recognize them either by appearance, odor, or specific test. Thus it comes about that a knowledge of ex- perimental physics, no less than of chemistry, is essential to the successful analyst. In the follow- ing paragraphs some of the most important physical processes are indicated. Distillation. — The mixture being placed in a glass flask fur- nished with a thermometer, heat is applied, and the boiling point noted. If this gradually rises, it indicates that the mixture con- tains more than one volatile liquid; and by separating the various portions of distillate, according to the temperature at which they pass over, it is often possible to obtain the samples sufficiently pure to be recognized. The term fractional distillation is also applied to this method. (See Distillation.) If a non-volatile residue remains in the flask, it must be examined in other ways. Solution. — This may be ap- plied in two ways. The solvent, be it alcohol, ether, water, or other liquid, is shaken with the substance under examination, and in many cases dissolves one ingredient, to the exclusion of others. The other way consists in shaking ether or chloroform with the watery solution of the sub- stance, when it will be found that some of the ingredients (more soluble in these liquids than in water) have been dissolved, and may be obtained on evaporation. (See Solutions.) Rotation of the Polarized Ray. — It is found that many substances, and even the solutions of opti- cally active compounds, have the power of rotating the plane of polarization of a ray of light, and in many cases the extent of this rotation is sufficient to detect not only the presence, but even the proportions of the substance to which it is due. Such bodies as sugar, turpentine, alkaloids, cam- phor, albumen, etc., exert this power. (See Polarization of Light.) Fluorescence is often of great assistance in commercial analysis. Thus, it is possible to pronounce the intense bitterness of a syrup to be due not to quinine, but to some other bitter, if no fluores- cence is apparent; while the green fluorescence often noted on pens is a clear indication that the ink which has been em- ployed contains some coloring matter other than indigo, proba- bly an aniline dye. (See Fluor- escence.) Melting Point. — The knowl- edge of this is of much impor- tance, as, for example, in a case where common or other resins had been mixed with small pieces of amber. In such a case the more fusible resin would melt and run away, leaving the bodies of higher melting point. In other cases where no separation takes place, as with various kinds of wax, it enables the presence of paraffin or other foreign bodies to be de- tected. Adulteration of essential and fixed oils. may frequently be exposed by this simple test. (See Melting.) Ignition on a piece of platinum or a porcelain dish is the simplest method of removing organic mat- ter from inorganic, the latter usu- ally remaining behind as a residue. The specific gravity, color, odor, taste, crystalline form, sol- vent powers, and inflammability are all important factors in com- mercial analysis; while even such an apparently simple property as the size of drop which falls from a vessel containing the liquid is in some cases the crucial test which decides as to the purity or other- wise. Sublimation. — When very care- fully heated under a watch glass, many alkaloids and other active principles yield sublimates hav- ing a characteristic crystalline form, which is easily recognized when examined under the micro- scope. (See Sublimation.) Microscopical Examination is a sine qua non when flour or any other organic powder is in quCvS- tion. Under the microscope, the different forms of starch are easily recognized, and by counting the granules of each variety in the visible field, one can arrive at the approximate proportions of each that are present. (See Micro- scope.) The Spectroscope is a valuable instrument, especially in pharma- ceutical analysis. When a glass vessel, containing a tincture of a drug, is examined through the spectroscope, absorption spectra are seen; and as these are char- acteristic of various herbs, they have been much used in recog- nizing their presence in mixtures. (See Spectrum and Spectro- scope.) In the examination of an un- known substance many or all of these methods must be tried, the ingenuity of the chemist having here unbounded scope. For in- stance, supposing a mixture con- tained olive oil, chloroform, gly- cerin, alcohol, and flour, the following course — capable of in- finite variation — would lead to the detection of its ingredients. The microscope would at once pronounce as to the name of the starch ; and after filtration through paper, the liquid being placed in a flask and heated, the chloroform and alcohol would pass over into the receiver. The residue of gly- cerin and olive oil being non- miscible, could be readily sepa- rated into its two constituents, each of which could be recognized by specific gravity, taste, or solu- bility, as well as other more chemical tests. The chloroform and alcohol, on being poured into water, would separate into two layers, the lower of chloroform with a trace of alcohol, the upper of water and alcohol with a trace of chloroform. Numerous pre- cautions are of course necessary to make sure that no substance remains undetected. Analysis, Spectrum. See Spec- trum. Analytical and Synthetical Judgments, in logic, a Kantian distinction which has been the subject of much controversy. The analytical or explicative judgment is one in which the predicate merely states explicitly some attribute already contained in the definition or notion of the subject — e.g., 'All bodies are ex- tended'; whereas the synthetical or ampliative judgment adds an attribute not so contained — e.g., 'All bodies are heavy.' Analytical Geometry. See Geometry. Anam. See Annam. Anamalai, or Annamally ('Elephant Mountains'), is the part of the Sahyadri range, or Western Ghats, which lies in the Coimbatore district, Madras Presidency, and the Travancore State, India. The lower range (2,000 ft.) is well wooded with teak, blackwood, and bamboo. The higher range (6,000 to 8,000 ft.) consists of open grassy hills. Here is the peak Anamudi (8,850 ft.), the highest in Southern In- Anambas Islands 229 Anarchism dia. The climate is healthy and the scenery grand. Tea and coffee plantations are scattered over the hills. The elephant, bison, and ibex are numerous. The hill tribes are keen hunters, and are called Kaders ('lords of the hills') and Malassers. Anambas Islands, a group of small islands in the Dutch East Indies, between Borneo and the Malay Peninsula, with an area of 200 square miles and 3,000 in- habitants. They belong to the residency of Riouw, and include the harbor of Clermont-Tonnerre. Anamirta. See Cocculus. Anamosa, town, county seat of Jones county, Iowa, on the Wapsipinicon and Buffalo Rivers, and the Chicago, Anamosa, and Northern, the Chicago, Milwau- kee, and St. Paul, and the Chicago and Northwestern Railroads; 55 miles southwest of Dubuque. It is the seat of a State penitentiary. Its industries include flour mills, foundries, and wagon and car- riage works. Pop. (1900) 2,891; (1910) 2,983. Ananas. See Pineapple. Ananchytes (Echinuscorys), 'irregular' or heart-shaped sea ur- chin, a common and character- istic fossil of the Upper Chalk. Its upper surface is strongly convex; its under side is flattened, with the mouth near the anterior edge. Ananias, the husband of Sap- phira (Acts v. 1-10). The pair, while pretending to surrender to the church treasury the whole pro- ceeds of a possession which they had sold, retained a part — i.e., were guilty of falsehood and hy- pocrisy. Being rebuked by Peter, both fell down dead. Ananias, a disciple at Damas- cus, who baptized Saul, and intro- duced him to the church (Acts ix. 10-18). He is said to have been one of the Seventy, and to have died a martyr. Ananias, the high priest be- fore whom Paul was brought by Claudius Lysias, and to whom the apostle applied the term, 'thou whited wall.' He was the son of Nebedaios, and was mur- dered at the siege of Jerusalem. Ananyev, or Ananiev, town, Kherson government, on the Black Sea, Russia; 95 miles north- west of Odessa. Grain is culti- vated. Pop. 18,000. Anapa, Russian port in the North Caucasus, on the Black Sea. Originally a Turkish fort- ress, it was three times (1791, 1807, 1828) captured by the Rus- sians, who destroyed its works in 1855. Pop. 7,500. Anapaest, a reversed dactyl; a metrical foot consisting of two short or unaccented (^) syllables, followed by one long or accented (-) syllable. Tyrtaeus used the anapaestic measure in his war songs; in later Greek the term became almost synonymous with satire. Swinburne employed the anapaest extensively and with ex- cellent effect in English — e.g., 'Ye are gods, and, behold, ye shall die, and the waves be upon you at last' {Hymn to Proserpine) . Anarchism (Greek, an, 'not,' and arche, 'rule') properly means the negation of government, and has a distinct meaning from Anarchy in the usual acceptation of the word. In its ordinary sense, anarchy is a state of soci- ety without any regular govern- ment, when social and political confusion prevails in its midst. Anarchism, on the other hand, is the name adopted by a phase of revolutionary socialism. The acknowledged father of anarch- ism, as a form of recent and con- temporary socialism, is Proudhon (q. v.). Government of man by man he considered to be oppres- sion, an interference with free- dom. He therefore regarded a form of society without govern- ment, in which every man should be a law to himself, as the goal of human evolution. After Proud- hon, the most prominent ex- pounders of the anarchist theory are the Russians Bakunin and Kropotkin. It is not easy to define the anarchist views, but the following are the leading points: They de- sire complete liberty for all men. They object to all authority — whether monarchic or republican, whether based on divine right or universal suffrage — for history teaches that all government tends to privilege and oppression. In all human relations their ideal is one of free contract, perpetually subject to revision and cancel- ment. But such an ideal of free- dom cannot be realized in a soci- ety where land and capital are the monopoly of a class. Land and capital must therefore be the common property of society, at the disposal of every one. They wish equality, equality of fact, as a corollary, or rather fundamen- tal condition, of liberty; that all men may have daily bread, knowledge and work, independ- ence and justice. As the essential means for bringing about this new evolution of society, they insist on the universal diffusion of knowledge. When natural laws shall have been understood, and the knowledge of them uni- versally diffused among men, there will be no need for external authority. Natural laws being recognized by every man for him- self, he cannot but obey them, for they are the laws also of his own nature; and the need for political organization and admin- istration will at once disappear. In the United States the doc- trines of anarchy are of compar- atively recent appearance, not only because the more severe economic conditions in Europe have been unknown here, but also on account of the lack of familiarity with such social units as the Russian mir, whose eco- nomic quasi-communism and par- tial want of government prepared thinkers like Kropotkin and Ba- kunin for the application of an- archistic principles to larger and more complex societies. The doc- trines of theoretical anarchy have been expounded in the United States by Benjamin R. Tucker, of Boston, who defended many of Proudhon's views and emphasized their individualistic aspect, which has appealed to American sym- pathies more strongly than the communistic anarchy of Kropot- kin. Johann Most, a former mem- ber of the German Reichstag, for some time published in New York city a newspaper. Die Freiheit, devoted to a radical programme. Anarchism has also come to have another aspect — that with which it is now usually identified — war on human society as at present constituted, hatred of the bourgeois and propertied classes as such, and a systematic effort to establish, especially by means of explosives, a terrorism such as was formerly associated with ex- treme Russian Nihilism and the Irish dynamiters' attempts. In the United States the principal advocate to-day is Emma Gold- man, and chief activity has cen- tred round the extension of the propaganda of the late Francisco Ferrer. The methods of terrorism, 'the propaganda of the deed,' have been the chief marks of anarch- ism in popular estimation. In most European countries severe repressive measures have been taken since 1883. In the United States, after the assassination of President McKinley (1901), the 'Anarchist Exclusion Act' was passed, providing that no person who disbelieves in or who is op- posed to all organized govern- ment, or who is affiliated with any organization opposed to or- ganized government, or who ad- vocates the killing of government officers, shall be permitted to en- ter the United States or any ter- ritory under its jurisdiction. Notable outbreaks have been those at Chicago in 1886; in Spain and in France in 1892 (especially those for which Rava- chol was responsible); the out- rage in the Barcelona theatre in 1893; the explosion in the French Chamber of Deputies (Vaillant, 1893) ; the explosion in a Parisian cafe (Henri, 1894); Bourdin de- stroyed by his own petard at Greenwich (1894). The follow- Anasarca 229 A Anatomical Preparations ing rulers have been assassinated : (1) President Carnot of France, by Caserio, at Lyons, on June 24, 1894; (2) Canovas del Castillo, premier of Spain, on Aug. 8, 1897; (3) Empress Elizabeth of Austria, by Luccheni, at Geneva, on Sept. 10, 1898; (4) King Humbert of Italy, by Bresci, at Monza, on July 29, 1900; (5) President McKinley, by Czolgosz, at Buf- falo, on Sept. 6, 1901. An attempt was made on the lives of the king and queen of Spain, May 31, 1906. The murder of the king and crown prince of Portugal, on Feb. 1, 1908, has not been traced to anarchism; but that of Stolypin, the Russian premier, in Septem- ber, 1911, was probably the result of an anarchistic plot. See Nihil- ism; Socialism. Consult Proudhon's What Is Property?; Reclus' Evolution et Revolution; Eltzbacher's Anarch- ismus; Nettlan's Bibliographie de V Anarchie; Lombroso's Anarch- ists: a Study in Criminal Psychol- ogy and Sociology; Zenker's An- archism (Eng. trans.); Kropot- kin's Anarchy and Memoirs of a Revolutionist. Anasarca, a general diffusion of serous fluid into the subcuta- neous connective tissues. See Dropsy. Anastasius, St., or Astric (954-1044), the 'Apostle of the Hungarians,' a monk of Rouen who was made bishop of Coloeza by Duke Stephen of Hungary, for whom he obtained from the Pope the title of king. Anastasius I. (430-518 A.D.), Emperor of Constantinople. His reign was troubled with Hun and Slav invasions. He was an active and enlightened prince, but pro- voked papal censure by his pat- ronage of Eutychian and Mani- chaean heresies. Anastasius I. (d. 401), Pope, held the supreme office from 398. He was a strenuous opponent of the Manichaean heresy and of the doctrines of Origen. There were three other Popes of this name — Anastasius ii. (496-8), Anas- tasius III. (911-13), Anastasius IV. (1153-4) Anastasius II., Emperor of Constantinople, was raised to the throne on the deposition of Philippicus (713), but deposed (715) in favor of Theodosius. With the assistance of Bulgaria he attempted to regain the em- pire, but was taken by the Em- peror Leo and put to death (719). Anastasius Griin. See AUERSPERG. Anastomosis, the union of the vessels which carry blood or other fluids; also the junction of nerves. The veins and absorbents anas- tomose to form large single trunks, they approach their ultimate destinations. The ar- teries break up into small branches for the supply of the tissues, and each small vessel, again, commu- nicates with others given off above and below. Round each large joint there is free anas- tomosis, so that the safety of the limb beyond may not be entirely dependent on the single arterial trunk passing into it, exposed as it is to all the obstructive influ- ences of the different movements of the joint. After the main ar- tery has been permanently ob- structed, the anastomosing ves- sels enlarge, so as to compensate for the loss; but after a time, only those whose course most resem- bles the parent trunk continue enlarged, and the others gradu- ally regain their ordinary dimen- sions. Anata (ancient Anathoth), vil- lage, Palestine; 3 miles northeast of Jerusalem. In Bible times one of the cities of refuge, in the tribe of Benjamin; birthplace of Jehu (1 Chron. xii. 3) and of Jeremiah (Jer. i. 1; xi. 21-23, etc.). Anatase, also known as octa- hedrite, a mineral form of titan- ium dioxide; hardness, 53^ to 6; specific gravity, 3.9. It occurs in small, isolated crystals of two types: (1) simple acute double pyramids, lustrous and indigo blue to black in color, found in association with rock crystal, feldspar, and axinite in crevices in granite and mica schist; also in sedimentary rocks, such as sand- stone and slate; (2) crystals show- ing numerous rather flat pyra- midal faces, honey color to brown, found in crevices in the Alpine gneisses. Anatliema (Gr., 'a thing set up or hung up'), a word originally signifying some offering or gift to the gods, generally suspended in the temple. It also signifies a thing devoted to destruction, and is used in its strongest sense, im- plying perdition, in the Scrip- tures (Rom. ix. 3; Gal. i. 8, 9). In the Roman Catholic Church, from the ninth century, a distinc- tion has been made between ex- communication and anathema- tizing; the latter being the ex- treme form of denunciation against obstinate offenders. See Excommunication. Anatliema Maranatha (1 Cor. xvi. 22) is not, as commonly un- derstood, a more fearful kind of curse; the Syriac words. Mar an atha ('Our Lord cometh'), should, according to the best authorities, be read as a separate sentence, as in the Revised Versions. Anatidse, the family of birds which includes the swans, geese and ducks, the typical fresh- water ducks forming the sub- family Anatinae. This family is ch^re^cterized primarily by having a line of serrations along the mar- gins of the beak; it is coextensive with the suborder Anseres, and forms, with the Palamedeidae, or Screamers (q.v.), the order An- seriformes. Anatolia, a Greek name ap- plied to Asia Minor, See Asia Minor. Anatolian Railway, the chief railway in Asia Minor. It starts at Haidar Pasha, on the Bosporus over against Constantinople, and extends through Ismid and An- gora to Kaisarieh. The first sec- tion, Haidar Pasha to Ismid (58 miles), was opened in 1870; the second section, from Ismid to An- gora (301 miles), in 1892; the third section, from Angora to Kaisarieh (264 miles), was sanc- tioned in 1893; and a further con- cession, to Bagdad and Basra, was granted in 1899. A branch line was opened from Eskishehr (between Ismid and Angora) to Konieh (276 miles) in 1896. See Bagdad Railway. Anatomical Preparations. The various methods of preserving skins and of reproducing external anatomical features are dealt with in the article Taxidermy. As regards the deeper parts, it is often desirable, for teaching and other purposes, to have a more permanent preparation than an ordinary dissection. In the case of the skeleton this may easily be secured. Boiling bones will re- move nearly all their organic material, leaving only the earthy constituents. The bones may then be riveted or jointed with wire in their relative positions. The soft parts may be preserved in glass jars containing alcohol, weak formalin solution, bichro- mate of potash solution, or other transparent preservative fluid; or they may be dried, sterilized, and varnished. Both methods are open to objection. In the former, specimens become decolorized, and lose their characteristic fresh appearance. They cannot be handled, and they fail to impress the student so vividly as a recent dissection. Dried specimens soon decay, unless kept in glass cases sealed against air and moisture. Plaster of Paris casts (see Plaster Casting) may be taken; but it cannot be said that plaster lends itself to the representation of soft tissues, no matter how well it is painted. Much more useful and realistic is the result of casting in glycero-gelatin. In this process a mixture of 'No. 1' gelatin and clear glycerin, in the proportion of 1 oz. by weight of gelatin to 1 oz. by measure of glycerin, is employed. The gela- tin is soaked in water tHl soft. It is then slowly dried until just pliable, and melted in a v^'ater bath along with the glycerin. Anatomy 229 B Anatomy While still hot it may be made opaque by the addition of a thick paint of oxide of zinc rubbed up ■with glycerin. Other pigments, .such as calamine or vermilion, may be added to color it as de- sired. All the ingredients must be thoroughly mixed. A plaster mould of the speci- men is first taken. After this has been thoroughly dried by slow heat, hot glycero-gelatin is p,oured into it, the mould mean- while being gently rocked to get rid of air bubbles. The fluid runs into the concavities, and must be ladled up over the higher parts, to which it gradually ad- heres as it cools, so that the whole surface is almost evenly coated over. While still in the mould it should be covered with lint or cotton wool, and plaster of Paris is then spread over the lint. The plaster must fit the hollows and elevations of the back of the cast, and must be smoothed down on the surface which is uppermost during the casting. When it has set it is temporarily removed, and the glycero-gelatin is stripped gently out of the mould. This is now an elastic cast of the original, and when fitted to its plaster backing is ready for paint. When it is desired to represent a moist sur- face, oil colors should be used; when a dry appearance is wished, several coats of water color must be applied. Finally, an edging of velveteen or similar material hides the ragged edges, and throws the ca^t into relief. With a little practice and but slight artistic skill this method produces accurate results. Brains may be prepared by im- pregnating them with paraffin, and as but little shrinking follows, the results are satisfactory. Anatomy (Greek, 'a cutting up or dissecting') is the science of the form and structure of organ- ized bodies, and is practically ac- quired by separation of the parts of a body, so as to show their distinct formation, and their re- lations to each other. The science of structure, both in the animal and in the vegetable kingdom, is properly called morphology, and the word anatomy is usually re- stricted to the more special in- vestigations, particularly of the human subject. Comparative anatomy is the morphological comparison of different classes of animals or plants, revealing points of difference in structure, homologies of apparently differ- ent organs, and the supposed phylogenetic relationships of the various groups. Structural anat- omy relates to the structure of organs as explaining their several functions. Descriptive anatomy is the minute account, for purposes Vol. 1— 18. . of surgical and medical practice, of the organs of the body and their physical relations. Patho- logical or Morbid anatomy is the study of the structural changes consequent on disease. Micro- scopic anatomy is another name for histology, or the science of the minute structure of tissues. Sup- erficial anatomy is the location of internal parts by means of external landmarks. History of Anatomy. — It is difficult to determine the date at which this science began to be cultivated, but it is probable that from the earliest times some per- sons took advantage of favorable circumstances to acquaint them- selves with it. Alcmaeon of Cro- tona, a disciple of Pythagoras, and Democritus are said to have dissected animals with the view of obtaining comparative knowl- edge of human anatomy. Hip- pocrates (q.v.), born at Cos about 460 B.C., though the father of medicine, is less justly re- garded as the father of anatomy, as his views of the structure of the human body are very super- ficial and incorrect. Aristotle, born 384 B.C., is really the found- er of the science. He seems to have based his systematic views of comparative anatomy on the dissection of animals, but does not appear to have dissected men. He first gave the name aorta to the great artery. No real prog- ress in human anatomy was made, owing to the researches being confined to animals, till the time of Erasistratus (250 B.C.), who was the first to dissect human bodies — the bodies of criminals. Herophilus also is said to have dissected living subjects. Celsus (63 B.C.), in his De Medicina, wrote much on anatomy. Galen (131 a.d.) dissected apes, as being most like human sub- jects, though he occasionally ob- tained bodies of persons found murdered; and his writings show a knowledge of human anatomy. Soranus, Oribasius, Nemesius, Meletius, and Theophilus based their anatomical works mainly on Galen. Anatomy made small progress among the Arabs, as their religion prohibited contact with dead bodies. Avicenna (980 A.D.), born in the province of Khorassan, was a good osteolo- gist, and described some struc- tures not alluded to by Galen. The medical school at Bologna became famous in the thirteenth century, as did also those at Padua and Salerno; but no very material progress was made in anatomy. Mondino, born at Milan, 1315, professed anatomy there, and is considered the real restorer of anatomy in Italy. Then came Guy de Chauliac, Mathaeus de Gradibus (1480), Gabriel de Zerbis (1495), Achil- lini (1512), Berenger of Carpi (1578), Etienne, Massa, and Sylvius (1539). An epoch is made by Andrew Vesalius (q.v.), who published a great work on anat- omy before he was twenty-eight years of age. Thomas Vicary, in 1548, is said to be the first who wrote in Eng- lish on anatomy; he published The Englishman s Treasure, or the True Anatomy of Man's Body. Franco (1556), Valverda, and Columbus wrote works of great merit on anatomy. In 1561 Gabriel Fallopius (q.v.) taught with great distinction at Padua, and made many original dis- coveries. In the seventeenth century, progress was rapid. William Har- vey (q.v.), in 1619, discovered the circulation of the blood, and the microscope was employed to detect the structure of minute vessels. Aselli, in 1622, discov- ered and demonstrated the exist- ence of the lymph vessels. Willis (1622-75) gave the first system- atic description of the brain and its ventricles. The glandular or- gans were investigated by Whar- ton, while Malpighi, Swammer- dam, and Ruysch, by the use of injections and the aid of the microscope, gave a new impulse to research in the minute struc- tures. Eminent names in the history of anatomy are numerous in the eighteenth century. In Italy, which still retained its former pre-eminence, we find Pacchioni, Valsalva, Morgagni, Santorini, Mascagni, and Cotunni; in France, Winslow, D'Aubenton, Lieutaud, Vicq d'Azyr, and Bichat, the founder of general anatomy; in Germany, Haller and Meckel prepared the way for greater achievements in the nine- teenth century; in Great Britain, Cowper, Cheselden, Hunter, Cruikshank, Monro, and Charles Bell contributed to the progress of the science; while Holland was worthily represented by Boer- haave, Albinus, Camper, Sandi- fort, and Bonn. On the bound- aries of the two centuries we find the names of Sommering, Loder, Blumenbach, Hildebrand, Reil, Tiedemann, and Seller. In the United States, Reid, Horner, Wallace, Bigelow, Leidy, Ayers, Harrison Allen, Cope, and Marsh have been notable discoverers. Comparative Anatomy, the investigation and comparison of the structures of two or more ani- mals, was first treated systemati- cally as a distinct science by Cuvier and his pupil, Meckel the younger. Carus, Owen, Goodsir, Mailer, Bowman, Milne-Ed- wards, Von Baer, Gegenbaur, Kdlliker, Remak, Czermak, Ley- Anatomy 229 C Anaxagoras dig, Frey, Schwann, Haeckel, Agassiz, Van Beneden, Carpenter, Sharpley, Allen Thomson, Hux- ley, Turner, and Flower may be named as eminent contributors to this branch of science. (See Morphology.) General Anatomy, also styled Structural and Analytical Anatomy, gives a description of the elementary tissues of which the systems and organs of the body are composed, as prelimi- nary to an examination of them in their combined state in the various organs. It also investi- gates their laws of formation and combination, and the changes which they undergo in various stages of life. This branch of study has been largely developed in recent times, especially by Bichat (1801) and Beclard, who have been followed by J. Miiller, Goodsir, Henle, E. H. Weber, Schwann, Valentin, and many others. In our day, microscopic investigation has been success- fully applied to the study of ele- mentary textures (see Histol- ogy). Special Anatomy, or Descrip- tive Anatomy, treats of the sev- eral parts and organs of the body in respect to their form, structure, and systematic connection or re- lation with each other. The ar- rangement of the several parts and organs, in an order deduced from their similarity in structure or use, constitutes Systematic Anatomy. According to this mode of study, anatomy has been divided, though not with scien- tific precision, into six branches of study: (1) Osteology, which treats of the bones; (2) Arthrology, which describes the ligaments, or bands, that unite the bones of various joints; (3) Myology, which explains the system of the mus- cles; (4) Angeiology, which de- scribes the vessels or ducts, with their complex network and ramifications, divided into two great systems — the blood vessels and the lymphatics; (5) Neurol- ogy, or the doctrine of the nerves; (6) Splanchnology, which describes the viscera or organs formed by combination of the distinct sys- tems of veins, nerves, lymphatics, etc. Special anatomy may also be treated by an arrangement made in accordance with natural divi- sions, or by imaginary lines divid- ing the body into several regions — as the head, the trunk, and the extremities. Again, the trunk may be subdivided into neck, thorax, and abdomen; and in each of the main regions several sub- divisions may be made. This system of arrangement may be styled Topographical Anatomy, and is also known as Surgical Anatomy, on account of its im- portance as the basis of operative surgery. The necessity of a union of theory and practice has led to the study of Pathological or Mor- bid Anatomy (the dissection and study of structures as modified by disease). The origin of this branch of anatomy may be traced back to ancient times in Egypt; and among the Greeks some ana- tomico-pathological observations are found. During the general revival of science in the sixteenth century, many notices of patho- logical anatomy occur. Mor- gagni (1767) must, however, be regarded as its true founder. He was worthily followed by Lieu- taud, Sandifort, Hunter, Baillie, Meckel the younger, and others. The modern change of direction given to the study of Pathological Anatomy, which is now properly regarded as a means toward prac- tical improvements in medicine, must be ascribed to Bichat and the pupils of Broussais, among whom may be mentioned Laen- nec, Cruveilhier, Louis, Andral, Lobstein, Lebert, Virchow, and Bennett. Superficial or Artistic Anat- omy is studied with reference to the effects produced by internal structure on the external form, and describes the organs, espe- cially the muscles and tendons, not only in a state of rest, but also as modified by passion, ac- tion, and posture. Practical Anatomy includes Dissection and the making of Preparations. Preparation con- sists in dividing parts or organs, so that their respective forms and positions may be clearly shown. Organs or parts thus treated are styled Anatomical Preparations of bones, muscles, vessels, nerves, etc. For example, a bone prep- aration is made by clearing away all muscular and other adhesions; the whole structure of the bones, thus prepared and bleached, when connected by wires in its natural order forms an artificial skeleton. Preparations of the soft parts are either dried and varnished or preserved in spirit. A series of such specimens, ar- ranged in proper order, forms an Anatomical Museum. (See Ana- tomical Preparations.) The anatomy of the various parts and organs of the body will be found described under their appropriate titles. Some of the more important articles are: Abdomen. Joints. Arm. Kidneys. Artery, Knee. Bile. Larynx. Blood. Leg. Bone. Liver. Brain. Lungs. Capillaries. Lymphatics. Cartilage. Man. Circulation of (Esophagus. the Blood. Palate. Digestion. Pancreas. Ear. Pelvis. Eye. Pericardium. Foetus. Peritoneum. Foot. Placenta. Glands. Ribs. Hair. Shoulder. Hand. Skeleton. Heart. Skin. Hip-joint. Skull. Histology. Spinal Cord. Intestines. Spleen. Medicine. Stomach. Mouth. Teeth. Muscles. Tongue. Nervous Sys- Trachea. tem. Veins. Nose. See Biology; Embryology; Physiology; Teratology. For a resume of the history of anatomy, consult The Reference Handbook of the Medical Sciences (vol. i.) ; among the more recent general works on anatomy may be mentioned those of Quain, Gray, and Morris, in English; Testut and Poirier, in French; Bardeleben, Gegenbaur and Rau- ber, in German. Anaxagoras (500-428 B.C.), one of the most eminent Ionic philosophers, was born at Clazo- menae, in Ionia. He went to Athens in 480, where he became intimate with Pericles; was fined five talents and banished for im- piety (c. 430) — he asserted that 'the sun was a red-hot mass larger than the Peloponnesus'; and retired to Lampsacus, where he died. It is not easy to ascertain what were the opinions of Anaxagoras in philosophy. Fragments merely of his works have been preserved, and even these are sometimes contradictory. Of one thing we are certain, that he had a deeper knowledge of physical laws than any of his predecessors or con- temporaries. He also arrived at some tolerably accurate conclu- sions regarding the cause of the moon's light, of eclipses, earth- quakes, meteors, of the rainbow, of wind, and of sound. His great contribution to ancient philos- ophy, however, was his doctrine as to the origin of all things. He held that all matter existed orig- inally not in the form of the so- called elements, but in the condi- tion of atoms, or molecules, in modern terminology; that these atoms, infinitely numerous and infinitesimally small, had existed from all eternity; and that order was first produced out of this in- finite chaos of minutiae through the influence and operation of an eternal intelligence (Greek nous). He also maintained that all bodies were simply aggregations of these atoms, and that a bar of gold, or iron, or copper was com- Index I. ClBCULATOEY SYSTEM 1 T^eft ventricle 2 Right ventricle 3 Rig-ht auricle 4 Left auricle 5 Coronary vessels of the heart 6 Ascending portion of aorta 7 Descending portion of thoracic aorta 8 Diaphragm 9 Pulmonary artery 10 Descending vena cava 11 Ascending vena cava 12 Innominate artery 13 Common carotid artery 14 Subclavian artery 15 Axillary artery 16 Brachial artery 17 Radial artery 18 Ulnar artery 19 Interosseous artery 20 Abdominal aorta 21 Inferior diaphragmatic arteries 22 Superior mesenteric artery 23 Renal artery 24 Interior spermatic artery 25 Inferior mesenteric artery 26 Common iliac artery 27 Femoral arteries 28 Deep femoral artery 29 Internal iliac artery 30 Superiicial femoral artery 31 Innominate veins 32 Jugular vein 33 Subclavian veins 34 Axillary vein 35 Cephalic vein 36 Median basilic veins 37 Median and ulnar veins 38 Radial veins 39 Hepatic vein 40 Renal vein 41 Common iliac vein 42 Internal iliac vein 43 External iliac vein (For Circulation of the Head, see Plate V.) II. Muscular System 1 Frontalis 2 Temporalis 3 Orbicularis palpebrarum 4 Levator labii superioris 5 Zygomaticus major 6 Zygomaticus minor 7 Masseter 8 Orbicularis oris 9 Depressor anguli oris 10 Quadratus labii inferiorls 11 Stemo-mastoid 12 Sterno-hyoid 13 Scalenus 14 Trapezius 15 Pectoralis major 16 Pectoralis minor 17 Subclavius IS Serratus magnus 19 Obliquus extemus 20 Linea alba 21 Obliquus intemus 22 Rectus abdominis 23 Intercostales interni 24 Deltoid 25 Coracobrachialis 26 Biceps 27 Subscapularis 28 Triceps extensor 29 Pronator radii teres 30 Supinator longus to Model ot the Human 31 Radialis intemus 32 Palmaris longus 33 Flexor digitorum 34 Thenar 35 Extensor carpi radialis longus 36 Extensor carpi radialis brevis 37 Abductor pollicis longus 38 Extensor proprius indicis 39 Gluteus medius 40 Tensor vaginae femoris 41 Pectineus 42 Abductor longus 43 Rectus femoris 44 Rectus femoris (internal head) 45 Rectus femoris (external head) 46 Sartorius 47 Gracilis 48 Abductor magnus III. Skeleton 1 Frontal bone 2 Parietal bone 3 Temporal bone 4 Orbits 5 Zygoma 6 Nasal bone 7 Superior maxilla 8 Nasal cavity 9 Teeth 10 Inferior maxilla 11-14 Vertebrae 15 Clavicle 16 Manubrium of sternum 17 Gladiolus of sternum 18 Xyphoid appendix of sternum 19 Scapula (shoulder-blade) 20 Coracoid process of scapula 21 He9d of humerus 22 Humerus 23 Trochlea of humerus 24 Radius 25 Ulna 26 Carpal bones 27 Metacarpal bones 28 Phalanges 29-40 Ribs 41-46 Vertebrae 47 Sacrum 48 Coccyx 49 lUum 50 Crest of ilium 51 Obturator foramen .52 Os pubis 53 Ischium 54 Head of femur 55 Neck of femur 66 Greater trochanter 57 Lesser trochanter 58 Femur IV. Nervous System 1 Frontal nerve 2 Temporal nerve 3 Temporo-malar nerve 4 Facial nerve, with branches 5 Inferior maxillary nerves 6 Nasal nerves 7 Labial nerves 8 Cervical plexus 9 Median nerve 10 Brachial plexus 11 Ulnar nerve 12 Radial nerve 13 Internal cutaneous nerve of arm 14 Middle cutaneous nerve of arm 15 External cutaneous nerve of arm 16 Intercostal nerves 17 Spinal cord 18 Sympathetic nerves Body 19 Abdominal plexxis 20 Pelvic plexus 21 Lumbar nerve 22 Femoral nerve 23 Sacral nerves 24 Deep femoral nerves 25 Cutaneous femoral nerves V. Intestines and Circulation OF Head 1 External maxillary artery 2 Superficial temporal artery 3 Facial veins 4 Frontal veins 5 Temporal veins 6 Larynx 7 Trachea 8 Thyroid gland 9 Right lung 10 Left lung 11 Blood vessels in lung 12 Bronchial tubes and branches 13 Section of larynx 14 Section of trachea 15 Right bronchus 16 Left bronchus 17 Dorsal surface of right lung 18 Dorsal surface of left lung 19 Right ventricle 20 Left ventricle 21 Right auricle 22 Section of right ventricle 23 vSection of left ventricle 24 Section of right auricle 25 Left auricle 26 Superior vena cava 27 Right innominate vein 28 Left innominate vein 29 Aorta 30 Pulmonary artery 31 Posterior surface of heart 32 Anterior surface of liver 33 Cross section of liver 34 Dorsal surface of liver 35 Gall bladder 36 Oesophagus 37 Anterior surface of stomach 38 Cross section of stomach (in- terior) 39 Posterior surface of stomach 40 Pancreas, anterior surface 41 Spleen 42 Posterior surface of pancreas, with excretory duct 43 Duodenum 44 Small intestine 45 Caecum, with vermiform appen- dix 46 Ascending colon 47 Transverse colon 48 Descending colon 49 Rectum 50 Bladder 51 Interior of bladder 52 Posterior of bladder 53 Right kidney 54 Section of right kidney, with efferent vessels 55 Left kidney 56 Section of left kidney, f^howing renal pyramids and renal pelvis 57 Ureter 58 Right renal vein 59 Left renal vein 60 Abdominal aorta 61 Right suprarenal capsule 62 Left suprarenal capsule 63 Psoas muscle C4 Diaphragm 65 Obturator internus 66 Oblique abdominal muscle ♦ Anaxlmander 229 D Ancestor Worship posed of inconceivably minute particles of the same material; but he did not allow that objects had taken their shape through accident or blind fate, but through the agency of this 'shap- ing spirit' or Nous, which he de- scribed as infinite, self-potent, and unmixed with anything else. 'Nous,' he again says, 'is the most pure and subtle of all things, and has all knowledge about all things, and infinite power.' His theory of the Nous was vague, but makes a great advance in the direction of theism, though personality is not attributed to the Nous. Anaxagoras marks a great turn- ing point in the history of specu- lation. His doctrine of the Nous passed to Aristotle, while his doc- trine of atoms prepared the way for Democritus and the Atomic school. His most notable work. On Nature, has survived only in fragments. Anaximander (611-547 B.C.), a Greek mathematician and phi- losopher, successor of Thales as head of the physical school of philosophy, was born in Miletus. He is said to have discovered the obliquity of the ecliptic, and he certainly taught it. He appears to have applied the gnomon, or style set on a horizontal plane, to determine the solstices and equinoxes. The invention of geo- graphical maps is also ascribed to him. As a philosopher, he speculated on the origin (arche) of the phenomenal world. Anaximenes (c. 570-480 B.C.), third of the Ionic school of Greek philosophy, pupil of Anaximan- der and master of Anaxagoras; found the arche, or eternal and original element of the world, in air, of which all substances were formed by compression or expan- sion — even the soul, he said, was composed of air. Anaximenes of Lampsacus, Greek historian and rhetorician, tutor of Alexander the Great; wrote a history of Philip and of Alexander, and a history of Greece. Ancachs, Peruvian department on the Pacific slope, to the north of Lima department. It has val- uable mineral deposits. Capital, Huaraz. Area, 16,560 square miles. Pop. 450,000. Ancelot, Jacques -Arsene- Polycarpe-Francois (1794- 1854), French dramatic poet, was born in Havre. His first success was the tragedy of Louis XI. (1819), which procured him the post of librarian at the Ar- senal, and a pension from the king. His tragedy Maria Padilla opened to him, in 1841, the doors of the French Academy. His non-dramatic works include Les Familieres: EpUres (1842) and Poesies (1853). Ancenis, town, department Loire-Inferieure, France, on the River Loire; 24 miles northeast of Nantes. It has trade in cattle, spirits, and timber. Pop. (1911) 5,013. Ancestor Worship is of very ancient origin, and so widespread that it may be traced throughout the world. It arises naturally from the primitive conception of a soul during life animating the body and exercising influence over it, and after death retaining its power, continuing into the un- seen world the life and social re- lations of the living world. The dead chief goes on protecting his clan and receiving service from Imperial Tablet, which reads, Huang H wan sui, wan sui, wan, wan sui — Em- peror 10,000 years 10,000 years 10,000 10,000 years. them, and continues to keep the same temper as in mortal life. So that it is not mere family affection, but actual fear, that impels this reverence among the North American Indians, the ancient Aztecs, the negroes in Guinea, the natives of Polynesia, the Zulus, and other races. The primitive mind, it would seem, makes no essential distinction between the divine nature, the human nature, and the animal nature, and freely worships visi- ble natural objects for the sake of the spirits resident in them. The conception is due to Anim- ism, and develops into a more spiritual point of view, in which the indwelling spirit is considered as having an independent exist- ence detached from the object with which it was confounded. Where direct worship of the objects of nature unfolds itself into a rich dramatized mythology — that is to say, among the races most endowed with the specula- tive and a?sthetic faculties, such as the ancient Greeks — animism and the worship of ancestors de- velop but feebly. But where, as in China, mythology remains in- fertile; or where, as among many savage races, it never gets beyond its embryonic stage, animism be- comes preponderant, and often, by it and along with it, the wor- ship of ancestors. In China it is the dominant religion. Ances- tors still have their temples and their offerings, and remain so present that the virtues or the crimes of their descendants are always considered in relation to them, as covering them with honor or infamy. The Hindu pays his offerings to the pitris (patres) or divine manes, and looks to them for success and happiness. In Europe, the most conspicuous example was the usage of the ancient Romans. Their manes or ancestral deities were embodied as images, set up as household patrons, and ap- peased with offerings. They were counted among the gods of the lower world, and tombs were in- scribed D.M., 'Diis Manibus.' The universality of ancestor worship led Llerbert Spencer to the opinion that it was the origin of religion everywhere. He argued that all religious be- liefs arose originally out of the conclusions drawn by primitive man from the ill-understood facts of his own nature, especially in the phenomena of sleep and dreams. This primitive concep- tion finds further support in the facts of syncope, apoplexy, cata- lepsy, and other forms of tem- porary insensibility. During these his 'double,' the soul, has, he be- lieved, been actually absent from the body. These ideas applied to death — which is only a length- ened sleep or prolonged absence — have engendered the idea of an awakening following regularly after death. Hence primitive funeral rites assume that the dead can eat, drink, and fight anew, and act in everything like a living man. Upon this conception of the state of the dead, in Spencer's view, the savage man's idea of another life is grafted, confirmed as its reality is by the apparition of the dead in dreams. A future life assumes another world — a region of souls, located at first near the place of burial, after- ward above, below, and around the living world. These disem- bodied souls, constantly increas- ing in number, are ordinarily in- visible, but are able to manifest themselves from time to time, and to particular individuals. Hence arises naturally the idea that things astonishing, extraor- dinary, or exceptional have for their causes the action of the dead Anchlses 230 Anchovy Pear spirits — invisible and in one sense supernatural agents. Since these disembodied spirits still continue influential for good or evil, it is wise to conduct ourselves in such a way as to conciliate their good- will and to deprecate their wrath. This argument fails to account for many of the facts, and at the outset its fundamental negative may be questioned, that primi- tive man is incapable of an il- lusion which consists in taking the inanimate and impersonal for the animate and the personal. Personification remains long after the primitive stage is past. In the Graeco-Roman society it was the last impress of the old poly- theism, and the stars were still animate beings to the eyes of the Stoics and Alexandrians, to a Jew like Philo, and a Christian like Origen. See Animism; Religion. Con- sult Tylor's Primitive Culture; Spencer's Principles of Sociology; Brinton's Religions of Primitive Peoples. Anchises, king of Dardanus on Mount Ida, to whom Aphrodite bore the illustrious ^neas. He was blinded by Zeus for revealing the child's maternity. After the fall of Troy his son took him on his wanderings, until the old man died in Sicily. A shrine was built to him at Egesta. Homer's Iliad, the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, and Virgil's yEneid give his story. Anchitherium, a small extinct ungulate, which inhabited Europe and North America during Up- per Eocene and Miocene times. It is regarded as the ancestor of the horse, and in size was as large as a small pony. On each foot it had three toes reaching to the ground. Its jaws were provided with a full set of forty- four teeth. Anchor, the iron or steel instru- ment by which ships hold fast to the bottom of the sea. A common anchor has a 'shank,' 'stock,' 'ring,' and two 'arms,' at the ex- tremities of which are 'flukes' or 'palms.' A ship 'rides' at anchor when it is secured at its moorings. To 'weigh' anchor is to heave it up, in order to get the ship under way. To 'cat' the anchor is to hoist it up to the cathead. To 'fish' an anchor means to draw up its flukes to the top of the bows by a 'fish tackle,' in order to stow it after it has been 'catted.' All large ships carry several anchors. When an an- chor of ordinary type is holding properly, one of the flukes is im- bedded in the mud and the other sticks up. As the ship swings around, the chain may catch on the upper fluke, pulling the an- chor out of the mud and letting the ship drag — perhaps into dan- ger or disaster. To avoid this difficulty many patent anchors have been invented in the past fifty years. These are so con- structed as to lie close to the bottom and allow the chain to sweep over them. They have movable arms and flukes, and nearly all are stockless. The stockless anchors are quite gener- ally stowed on board ship by being hauled directly into the hawse-pipe as far as the arms will permit, thus doing away with the necessity for 'catting' and 'fishing.' Anchors of various forms are also used for keeping buoys and moorings in position. Of these the Mushroom and the Screw anchor are well-known types. Many forms of anchor were made by the ancients; some were merely large stones; others, crooked pieces of wood, weighted to make them sink in water, the earlier ones acting mainly as weights, and holding the vessel by their own inertia instead of hooking into the ground. The first iron anchors are supposed to have been used by the Greeks. As originally made, the anchor had only one fluke or arm for pen- etrating the ground, and no stock. Anchorage. (1.) A sheltered position in which vessels may an- chor. In its legal sense the word denotes the charge laid upon ships for coming to or lying in certain roads or anchoring grounds. (2.) Also applied to the terminal structure (natural rock or heavy masonry) to which the cables or supports of a suspension bridge or similar structure are made fast. See Moorings. Anchor Ice, or Ground Ice, ice formed (rarely) at the bottom of rivers. The current is too great for the formation of ice at the surface, but the water, re- tarded in the bed of the river, is congealed. When much ice has been formed round a stone, it lifts it to the surface; in some in- stances even iron chains and an- chors have floated in this way. See Ice. Anchorite, a recluse or her- mit; one who seeks to live in solitude, and with as little inter- course as possible with his fellow men. The term is specifically applied to the Christian ascetics of the third century, who estab- lished themselves in caves and lonely places in Egypt and in the adjacent deserts. St. Antony was the most illustrious. See Hermit. Anchovy (Engraulis enchrasi- cholus), a small bony fish of the herring family (Clupeidae), of some importance as a food luxury. It may attain a length of 8 inches, but usually measures only about a finger's length. The snout of the pointed head projects considerably beyond the lower jaw, the abdomen and sides are covered with large silvery scales, the back has a greenish- blue color, the tail is deeply forked. The species occurs abundantly round the American and European coasts, especially in the south and Mediterranean region, while the genus is repre- sented in all the warmer waters. In spring, shoals of anchovies leave the deep seas and approach the shore for spawning purposes. They are fished at night; at- tracted by lights, and captured by the seine net. They are salted, and used for sauces, etc. See Sardine. Anchovy Pear, the fruit of a tree of the myrtle order, native of the West Indies. The leaves, from two to four feet long and about one foot broad, are the Anchors. a, Common pattern: 6, Trotman's; c, Smith's stockless; d, Martin's; e, Inglefield's; /, Mushroom anchor. Ancient Demesne 231 Andalusia largest of all dicotyledonous leaves. The fruit is edible, with a flavor like that of mango; it is often pickled. Ancient Demesne. Lands which formed a part of the royal estates of the English crown un- der William the Conqueror and are enumerated as tcrrce regis in Domesday Book. The tenure of these lands was free from many of the burdens of ordinary feudal tenure and was attended vi^ith cer- tain extraordinary privileges. Most of the lands have long since passed into private hands, but they retain some of the charac- teristics which attached to them while still the demesne lands of the crown. The tenure by which they are held is still known as tenure in ancient demesne. See Customary Freehold. Ancient Lights. See Light and Air. Ancient Mariner, poem by S. T. Coleridge, published in Lyrical Ballads (1798). The idea appears to have been taken from Captain G. Shelvocke's Voyage Round the World (1757). Ancillon, Johann Peter Friedrich (1767 -1837), Prus- sian statesman and author; born at BerHn; filled (1792) the chair of history in the military academy at BerHn; was elected (1803) a member of the Academy of Sci- ences, and appointed historio- grapher royal; rose to be (1832) Minister of Foreign Afifairs. In 1810 the education of the Crown Prince (afterwards King Fried- rich_ Wilhelm iv.) was entrusted to him. He wrote on philosophy, history, and politics — e. g. Revo- lutions du Systeme Politique de V Europe depuis le XV^Siecle (4 vols., 1803). Ancona. (1.) Province, Italy, in the Marches, between the Central Apennines and the Adriatic, with an area of 756 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 302,460. The people grow grain and fruit, breed silkworms, manu- facture _ silk, paper, iron, sugar, flour, lime, bricks, and leather, and mine sulphur. Chief towns, Ancona, Jesi, and Senigallia. The railway from Bologna to Brindisi skirts the shore. (2.) Town and episc. see, cap. of above province, situated on the Adriatic, is the only good port between Venice and Brindisi. The harbor is en- closed by two fine piers, one of which was built by Trajan in 115 A.D. Extensions to the moles were agreed upon in 1903. The town is strongly fortified, and has a naval arsenal. Sulphur, silk, and eggs are exported. Iron and ship building works, and factories of sugar, soap, and tallow, repre- sent the chief industries. There is a U. S. consular agency here. Pop. (1901) 55.408. Founded by Greeks from Syracuse (380 r.c), Ancona was destroyed succes- sively by the Goths and the Longo- bards; later, it asserted its posi- tion as an independent republic, until it fell into the hands of Pope Clement vii. in 1532. In 1849 the Austrians captured it; and again in 1860 its papal de- fender. General Lamoriciere, was compelled to capitulate to the Piedmontese. Ancona, A lessandro d' (1835), Italian man of letters and philol- ogist; born at Pisa. He became one of the chief intermediaries between the Tuscan Liberals and Cavour. In 1859 he edited the newly founded journal. La Na~ zione; but having in the following year been elected to the chair of Italian literature in the Univer- sity of Pisa, he devoted himself until 1900 to academic teaching and literary work. He has edited a number of early and rare Ital- ian texts, written studies on the Italian drama — Sacre Rappre- sentazioni dei Secoli XIV., XV., et XVL (1872) ; Origini del Teatro in Italia (2nd ed., 1891); and has treated of several sub- jects connected with Italian lit- erature — / Preciirsori di Dante (1874) ; La Poesia Popolare Italiana (1878). Two collections of Studii appeared in 1880 and 1884. Ancre, Baron de Lussigny, Marquis d' (d. 1617), whose real name was Concino Concini, a Florentine adventurer, accompa- nied Maria de' Medici to France in 1600, and rose to be marshal and chief minister of state, and acquired vast wealth. He was assassinated in April, 1617, at the instigation of Louis xiii. His corpse was treated with great in- dignity, and his wife was after- wards burned at the stake as a sorceress. Ancren Riwle, or The Rule OF Nuns, a manual of religious instruction and observance writ- ten about 1210 for a small so- ciety of three pious ladies and their lay sisters, established at Tarente (Tarrant - Kaines or Kingston) in Dorsetshire. The authorship has been attributed to Richard Poor, a native of Ta- rente, who was successively bishop of (Chichester, Salisbury, and Durham. See Ancren Riwle, ed. Morton (Camden Society, 1853). Ancrum, vil. and par., Rox- burgshire, Scotland, 3^ m. n.n.w. of Jedburgh; 2 m. from Ancrum Moor, where (Feb. 17. 1545) 5,- 000 English under Sir Ralph Evers and Sir Brian Latour were defeated by the Scots under the Earl of Angus and_ Scott of Buc- cleuch. ^ The exploits of the Scot- tish maiden Lilliard (Lillyard) in this^ battle are commemorated by an inscribed monument. Ancus Marciiis, fourth kinp; of Rome, said to have reigned 640-616 B.r and to have con- quered many Latin towns and transplanted their inhabitants to Rome. He is also the reputed founder of Ostia. Ancylopoda, a suborder of primitive ungulate marnmals, of large size and clumsy build, whose remains are found widely spread in the Miocene and earlier for- mations. Not much is known of their character or relationships; but they were shaped somewhat like hyenas, and had curiously clawed feet, upon the side of which they walked like an ant- eater, and teeth resembling those of the rhinoceros. See Osborn, Am. Naturalist, 1893. Ancyra, anc. city of Galatia, Asia Minor; remembered chiefly for the fact that, when Augustus set up a record of the chief events of his life at Rome, its citizens had a copy of the inscription made, which still exists. The in- scription ^ (Monumentum Ancy- ranum) is in Greek and Latin, and has been edited by Mommsen (1883). See (modern) Angora. Andalusia, or Andalucia (cor- ruption of Vandalusia, so called from the Vandal invasion), the largest of the ancient divisions of the s. of Spain, comprises the provinces of Almeria, Cadiz, Cor- dova, Granada, Huelva, Jaen, Malaga, and Seville, and is phys- ically divided into Upper and Lower Andalusia. Its chief towns are Cordova, Seville, and Cadiz. It is one of the most fertile por- tions of Spain. _ It is drained by the Guadalquivir. Some of the highest mountains are above the snow-line, and from these to the low-lying valleys, which are ex- tremely hot in summer, all vari- eties of climate are found. There are numerous gypsies (gitanos), scattered throughout the prov- ince, and a few descendants of the Moors still survive. The at- tire of the people is very pic- turesque, and the women are renowned for their grace^ and beauty. This province was visited in antiquity by the Phoenicians, who founded the colonies of His- palis (Seville), Gades (Cadiz), 6tc._; afterwards by the Cartha- ginians; and after the second Punic war it became a Roman province. Here were born the poet Lucan, the emperor Trajan, the philosopher Seneca. In the 5th century it was invaded by the Alans, Vandals, and Visigoths, who^ conquered the whole of Spain. In 711 it was subdued by the Moors, after the battle of Xeres de la Frontera. Here they founded the caliphate of Cordova, which reached the height of its power under the Ommiades. Dur- ing this period Andalusia was 9 flourishing and thickly-populated province. Cordova was one of the chief centres in Europe for the arts and sciences. But after Andaiusite the extinction of the Ommiade^ (1031) it was divided between Seville, Cordova, and Jaen, which were conquered (1238-48) by Ferdinand ill. of Castile. Area, 33,663 sq. m. Pop. (1900) 3,- 562,606. See Spain. Andalusite, a mineral consist- ing of silicate of alumina, crystal- lizing in gray or pink rhombic prisms, usually coarse and nearly square in form. A variety known as chiastrolite is characterized by carbonaceous inclusions arranged along the axis of the crystal in structural Hues, exhibiting a col- ored cross or tesselated-shaped figure in sectipn. Some of the colored varieties show strong 232 Only a small proportloA of the aborigines are civilized, and on many of the islands, especially the Nicobars, the inhabitants are still hostile to strangers. The natives of these two groups are quite distinct. Andamanese are typical negritoes; Nicobarese are mongoloid. The average height of the Andamanese men is 4 ft. 1 1 in. ; of the women, 4 ft. 7\ in. The Nicobarese men have an average height of 5 ft. 4 in.; the women, 5 ft. See E. Horace Man's Abo- rigines of the Andaman Is. (1885); A. de Quatrefages' Les Pygmees (Prof. Starr's Eng. trans. 1895); Dr. Mouatt's Andaman Islanders (1863); C. Boden Kloss's In the Andersen ought to indicate a slower degree of tempo; but the term is some- times used to signify a degree of movement less slow than an- dante. Andaqui, an Indian tribe in S. Colombia, almost extinct. Anderlecht, tn., Belgium, prov. Brabant, 2 m. s.w. of Brus- sels. Large cotton mills. Pop. (1900) 47,929. Andermatt, vil. in upper valley of the Reuss, canton Uri, Swit- zerland; alt. 4,738 ft.; at the junc- tion of the roads over Furka, Oberalp, and St. Gothard passes; 3+ m. from Goeschenen. Pop. (1900) 818. Andernach (anc. Antunnacum), pleochroism. It is a character- istic ingredient of metamorphic rocks, and is often found in ar- gillaceous slates into which a granite has been injected in a greatly-heated condition, altering the surrounding masses, and de- veloping new minerals in them. Andalusite is rarely transparent and well colored, but fine speci- mens come from Brazil, and are polished and used as gems. It is also found at Standish, Maine, and at Litchfield, Conn. Andamans and Nicobars, two groups of British islands in the Bay of Bengal, about 400 m. E. of India. The area is estimated at 3,100 sq. m. Total pop. (1901) of Andamans, 18,000; of Nico- bars, about 6,500. The capital, Port Blair, on S. Andaman, has A fine, well-sheltered harbor. Andamans and Nicobars (1903); and The Indian Antiquary (vols, xxviii. and xxx.). In 1789 the East India Co. established a penal settlement for ' life ' convicts at Port Blair. In 1901 these num- bered, 11,947. Tea, coffee, cocoa, sugar-cane, rice, and oil seeds are grown, and a trade in timber is being developed. Lord Mayo, viceroy of India, was assassinated at Hopetown, on the main island, by a Punjabi fanatic, in 1872, while on an official tour of inspec- tion. Andante (It. 'going '), in musi- cal score, the name of an in- dividual composition or of a movement; also used as a time indication signifying a slow de- gree of tempo, out not so slow as lar ghetto. Andantino, be- ing a diminutive of andante, tn., prov. Rhineland, Prussia, on 1. bk. of the Rhine, 11 m. N.w. of Coblenz; has Roman and mediaeval remains. Cigars and malt manufactured; trade in emery and lava. Pop. (1900) 7,889. Andersen, Hans Christian (1805-75), Danish author, son of a shoemaker at Odense, was sent to school and university by gener- ous patrons. He then undertook, at the expense of the state, sev- eral continental tours, resulting in his brilliant travel-books — ^viz., Skyggebilder (1831); En Digters Bazar (1842), after a tour to Greccej / Sverrig (1849), after his visit to Sweden; I Spanien (1863), a book about Spain. His first novels, all of which have been translated into English, were Improvisatoren (1835), O. T. Anderson 233 Anderson (1835), and Kun en Spillemand (1837). The first portion of the immortal Fairy Tales {Eventyr) came out in 1835, the second series appeared in 1838-42, the third in 1845; and so they con- tinued to appear, at irregular in- tervals, until the last were pub- lished in 1871-2, by which time they had won a world wide rep- utation. Among the best known of the Tales are 'The Fir-Tree,' 'The Ugly Duckling.' 'The Tin- der-Box,' 'The Red Shoes,' 'The Snow Queen,' 'Little Claus and Big Claus,' and 'The Swineherd.' Andersen's other writings, which Hans Christian Andersen are generally inferior to the Tales, include Billedbog uden Bil- leder (1840); Ahasuerus (1847); De to Baronesser (1849); At vaere eller ikke vaere (1857); and his autobiography, Mits Livs Even- tyr (1855-77). There are many English editions of the Fairy Tales. Anderson, city, Indiana, coun- ty seat of Madison County, on the west fork of White River, and on the Central Indiana, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis, and the Pennsyl- vania Railroads; about 40 miles northeast of Indianapolis. A network of interurban lines has its centre here, and there are manufactures of iron, steel, brass, paper machinery, glass, lumber, and wire nails. The historic mounds of the 'mound builders' are near the city. Pop. (1900) 20,178; (1910) 22,478; (1920) 29,767. North Anderson has been annexed to the city since 1920. Anderson, town. South Caro- lina, county seat of Anderson County, on the Charleston and Western Carolina, and the South- ern Railroads; 120 miles north- west of Columbia. The town is located on three important high- ways, the Bankhead, National, and the Cincinnati-Florida Short Route 'A.' It has fine civic buildings, two high schools, and Anderson Female College. Its many industries include cotton and lumber mills, machine shops, foundries, and factories for the manufacture of spring beds, mattresses, towels, and hosiery. The surrounding district is rich in cotton and other agricultural products. Anderson was first settled in 1827. Pop. (1900) 5,498; (1910) 9,654; (1920) 10,570. Anderson, Alexander (1775- 1870), American wood engraver, was born in New York City. Following the wishes of his father, he studied medicine and was graduated from the Medical School of Columbia University; but he .soon gave up this pro- fession for engraving. Ander- son is the father of wood engrav- ing in the United States, and for about fifteen years was the only wood engraver in New York. He modelled his work upon that of Bewick, and his best engrav- ings are almost the equal of his master's. Among his best known works are illustrations to Bell's Anatomy, Shakespeare's Flays, Webster's Spelling Book, and Josephus' History. Anderson, Elizabeth Gar- rett (1836-1917), English phy- sician and pioneer woman suf- fragist, was born in Suffolk, and was privately educated. The Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons and other medical ex- amining bodies refused to admit her to their examinations, but in 1865 she obtained the license of the Society of Apothecaries and in 1870 the Paris degree of m.d. From 1866 to 1890 she was senior physician of the New Hospital for Women, an institution she had greatly helped to develop; was dean of the London School of Medicine for Women (1883- 1903), and Mayor of Aldeburgh (1908), the first woman in Eng- land elected to such office. Dur- ing the Great War Lord Kit- chener invited her to establish a military hospital of 500 beds in London, and for her work the British Government gave her the rank of major. Anderson, Galusha (1832- 1918), American theologian and educator, was born in Clarendon, N. Y. He was educated at Rochester University and at the Rochester Theological Seminary, was ordained in the Baptist ministry, and held pastorates in Janesville, Wis., St. Louis, Brook- lyn, New York, Chicago, and Salem, Mass. From 1866 to 1873 he was professor in Newton Theological Seminary; from 1878 to 1885 president of the old Uni- versity of Chicago; from 1887 to 1890 president of Denison Uni- versity, Ohio. He was professor in the Baptist Union Theological Seminary (1890-92) and in the latter year occupied the chair of practical theology at the Divinity School, University of Chicago, becoming professor emeritus in 1904. Anderson,jAMES (1739-1808). Scotch political economist, was born near Edinburgh. While still a young man, he invented the 'Scotch plough,' a small two-horse implement without wheels, which has been exten- sively used. His publications in- clude a pamphlet on Western Scotch Fisheries (1783); a weekly paper entitled The Bee (1790-4); An Account of the Present State of the Hebrides (1785); Observations on Slavery (1789); Recreations in Agriculture (a paper in monthly parts from 1797 to 1802) ; Inquiry into the Nature of the Corn Laws (1777), in which he anticipated Ricardo's theory of rent. Anderson, John (1726-96), Scotch educator, was born in Dunbartonshire, studied at Glas- gow University, and became pro- fessor of Oriental languages (1756) and of natural philosophv (1760) there. He was interested in practical philanthropy, and for years taught a class of physics for working men. In his will he provided for the founding of Anderson's College (Glasgow), the arts department of which was merged in 1886 in the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College, now devoted to medicine, physics, chemistry, and botany. Anderson, John Jacob (1821- 1906). American author and edu- cator, was born in New York City. He was educated at the Normal School there, and for thirty years was engaged in teaching. He published many historical works, including man- uals of ancient, mediaeval and modern history, histories of England, France, and the United States, historical readers, and historical textbooks for schools, including Pictorial School History of the United States (1863) and A School History of England (1870). Anderson, Larz (1866- ), American diplomat, was born of American parents in Paris, France. He was educated at Phillips Ex- eter Academy and at Harvard University, and after spending two years in travel was appointed successively second secretary of the U. S. Embassy, London (1891-3); first secretary and charge d'affaires U. S. Embassy at Rome (1893-7); Envoy Ex- traordinary and Minister Pleni- potentiary to Belgium (1911-12) and to Japan (1912), resigning in 1913. He served as captain and assistant adjutant general of vol- unteers (luring the Spanish- American War and during the Great War was honorary chair- man of the New England Belgian Relief C^ommittee. He has been honored by many foreign gov- ernments. Anderson, Martin Brewer (1815-90), American educator, Vol. I.— March '28 Anderson 234 Andersson first president of the University of Rochester, N. Y., was born in Brunswick, Me., and was edu- cated at Colby College, where he taught Latin, rhetoric, and his- tory. From 1850 to 1853 he was editor of The New York (Baptist) Recorder, and in 1853-88 was president of the University of Rochester. Anderson, Mary Antoinette (1859- ), American actress, was born in Sacramento, Cal. She was educated in Louisville and began to study for the stage in 1875, making her debut in Louis- ville as Juliet. She subsequently appeared in many of the large cities of the United States play- ing Julia in The Hunchback, Bi- anca in Fazio, Pauline in Lady of Lyons, Lady Macbeth in Mac- beth, Meg Merriles in Guy Man- nering, Berthe in The Daughter of Roland, Parthenia in Ingomar, Rosalind in As You Like It, Perdita in A Winter's Tale, and Clarice in Comedy and Tragedy. In 1890 she was married to Antonio de Navarro, retired from the stage, and thereafter made her home in England. In 1916 she reappeared in Worcester, England, in Comedy and Tragedy, in aid of a war charity, and in that and the following year was seen in a number of other benefit per- formances. She published A Few Memories (1896). Anderson, Melville Best (1851— ), American educator, was born in Kalamazoo, Mich. He was educated at Cornell Uni- versity, and in Gottingen and Paris, and was successively pro- fessor of modern languages, and English literature in Butler Uni- versity (1877-80), of English lit- erature in Knox College (1881-6), of literature and history in Pur- due University (1886-7), and of English language and literature in the State University of Iowa (1887-91). He was professor of English literature in Leland Stanford Jr. University from 1891 to 1910, when he became professor emeritus. He has trans- lated and edited numerous clas- sical works and published Repre- sentative Poets of the Nineteenth Century (1896); The Happy Teacher (1910); The Great Refusal (1916). Anderson, Rasmus Bjorn ( 1846- ) , American author and educator, of Scandinavian de- scent, was born in Albion, Wis- consin. He was educated in Luther College, la., and in the University of Wisconsin, where for eight years (1875-83), he was professor of Scandinavian lan- guage and literature. During President Cleveland's first ad- ministration Professor Anderson was U. S. minister to Denmark. He is editor and publisher of America, a Norwegian weekly issued at Madison, Wis., and is Vol. I.— March '28l the author of Norse Mythology (1875); Viking Tales from the North (1877); The Younger Edda (1880); First Chapter of Nor- wegian Immigration, 1821-40 (1895). Anderson, Richard Henry (1821-79), American soldier in the Confederate service, was born near Statesburg, S. C. He was educated at West Point, served in the Mexican War, and at the outbreak of the Civil War entered the Confederate army. He took part in the bombard- ment of Fort Sumter, and distin- guished himself in many battles commanding a division at Get- tysburg, and the fourth corps of Lee's army at the close of the struggle, with the rank of lieu- tenant general. Anderson, Robert (1805-71), American soldier, was born near Louisville, Ky., and was gradu- ated in 1825' from West Point, where he later became instructor in artillery (1835-37). He served in the Seminole and Mexican Wars, and at the close of 1860 he was in command of Fort Moultrie, Charleston Harbor, but soon transferred his garrison to Fort Sumter. Here he withstood a bombardment by the Confeder- ates on April 12-13, 1861, but was finally forced to evacuate the fort, his garrison (which had re- mained intact) being allowed to retire with the honors of war. For his defence of the place he received the nation's thanks, with appointment to the rank of major general. In 1863 ill health com- pelled him to retire from active service. Anderson, RuFUs(1796-1880), American Congregational minis- ter, and for more than forty years secretary of the American Board of Commissioners for For- eign Missions, was born in Maine. He was educated at Bowdoin College and Andover Theological Seminary, and devoted his life to the interests of foreign missions, travelling, lecturing, and writing on their behalf, as well as in- specting them in various coun- tries. His writings include Ob- servations upon the Peloponnesus and Greek Islands (1830), and A Heathen Nation Civilized (1870). Anderson, Sherwood (1876- ), American author, was born in Camden, Ohio. He was educated in the public schools and engaged in newspaper work. In 1916 he published his first novel. Windy McPherson's Son, which won immediate recognition and stamped him as one of the most sympathetic and artistic of the younger American writers. His work is ([uite freely tinged with mysticism and is sometimes a bit involved hut displays keen insight into the inarticulate yearning quest for the unattain- able. His other published works include Marching Men (1917); Mid-American Chants (1918); Winesburg, Ohio (1919); Poor White (1920); Triumph of the Egg (1921); Many Marriages (1923); Horses and Men (1923); A Story Teller's Story (1924); Dark Laughter (1925); Note Book (1925); Tar: A Mid-West Child- hood (1926); A New Testament (1927). Anderson, William (1842- 1900), British surgeon, professor of anatomy and surgery at Tokyo (1873-1880), formed a large col- lection of Chinese and Japanese paintings and engravings, after- wards bequeathed to the British Museum. He is the author of The Pictorial Arts of Japan (1886), Japanese Wood Engraving (1895), and Catalogue of Collection of Japanese and Chinese Pictures in the British Museum (1886). An'dersonville, village, Geor- gia, in Sumter County, on the Central of Georgia Railroad; 62 miles southwest of Macon. It is notable as the site of a Confed- erate prison maintained during the Civil War. The stockade or prison pen was originally built in the winter of 1863-4 and was first occupied by prisoners in February 1864. It covered an area of about 18 acres, later in- creased to about 24, and into it the prisoners were turned like cattle, with no shelter, barracks, or buildings of any kind. Within the stockade, about twenty feet from the outer walls, was a rail- ing known as the 'dead line,' which no prisoner might cross under pain of death. Into this 'prison' over 30,000 men were herded at one time, giving less than 6 square feet to a person. There was no medical attendance within the stockade; food was wholly inadequate and insuffi- cient, and no soap or clothing was issued. The number of pris- oners received at Andersonville was 49,485, of whom 12,462 died, an average of 958 a month during the thirteen months of its existence. At the close of the war the superintendent of the prison, Henry Wirty, was tried by a military commission for 'murder in violation of the laws of war,' found guilty, and hanged. The prison site and adjoining graveyard have been made a national cemetery, in which are buried some 14,000 Union sol- diers. Anderssen, iin'der-sen, Adolf (1818-79), German chess-player, was born in Breslau, where he became (1847) master at the Lyceum. He won the first prize at the international chess tour- nament held in London in 1851, during the first International Exhibition, and afterwards won other international contests. He published many books on chess. Andersson, Karl Johan Andes 235 Andes (1827-67), Swedish African ex- plorer, who investigated the land of the Damaras and Ovampos (1850-4), and the Okavango R. (1859). He died while on an expedition to the Kunene R. See of two or more parallel ranges or Cordilleras, enclosing lofty plateaus. Its total length is con- siderably over 4,000 m., and its greatest development in Peru and Bolivia, where, between . the his Lake N garni, or Discoveries in S. Africa (1856), and The O kavango R. (18G1). Life in his Notes of Travel in S. Africa (1875), ed. by Lloyd. Andes, a mountain system stretching along the w. side of the continent of S. America, from Tierra del Fuego to the Carib- bean Sea. Throughout most of its length the system is composed transverse ridges of Vilcanota (lat. 14° 30' s.) and of Lipez (lat. 22° 30' s.), it expands to a breadth of 500 m., enclosing between its E. and W. Cordil- leras plateaus 12,000 to- 14,000 ft. above sea-level. North of the Vilcanota range the E. Cordillera has been eroded by affluents of the Ucayali, and to the w. of this great basin is a confused group of ranges, among which runs the Alto Maranon, or Upper Ama- zon. The W. Cordillera, between lat. 23° and 7° 45' s.^ descends in a bold escarpment to the Pa- cific littoral, but it gradually de- creases in height northwards. On entering Ecuador the Andes con- sist of a single broad chain, which bifurcates in the province of Loja; and thence to the bor- ders of Colombia the system is again composed of two Cordil- leras, united by transverse ridges, and including lofty basins, 8,000 to 10,000 ft. above sea - level. These Cordilleras are continued in the Western and Central Cor- dilleras of Colombia, which in- clude between them the great longitudinal valley of the Cauca R. The last-named range is the loftier, containing many peaks over 16,000 ft. in altitude. The long valley of the Atrato sepa- rates the W. Cordillera from a coast range, the Sierra de Baudo, with an average elevation of 3,- 000 ft., which is continued across the Isthmus of Panama. The E. Cordillera of Colombia, or Cor- dillera of Bogota, a third divi- sion, branches off near the fron- tier of Ecuador. At first only a low watershed between the basin of the Magdalena and those_ of the Amazon and Orinoco, it rises to over 15,000 ft. in the peak Suma Paz, and runs n.w. to Pamplona, whence it is continued by the Cordillera de Merida in Venezuela. Near Santa Cruz de la Sierra, in Bolivia, the Eastern Cordillera makes a great bend to the s.s.w.; crossing the Upper Pilcomayo, and appearing as the Sierra de la Huerta in the Argentine province of San Juan, it terminates in the hills of Pencoso in San Luis. In the Famatina peak (Argentine province of Rioja) it rises to a height of 20,680 ft. Another (central) range of isolated peaks and volcanic cones rises in lat. 17° 30', E. of Oruro in Bolivia, and divides the great plateau of Titacaca and Poopo into two sec- tions. The Andes preserve their plateau character down to Acon- cagua (about 32° 30' s.), enclos- ing the great dreary Puna (high plain) of Atacama; thence to 41° 30' s. lat. they consist of a single chain. South of Lake Nahuel- huapi they no longer constitute the watershed, _ but are crossed by numerous rivers rising from an elevation to the e., from which in some cases the water runs to both oceans; and finally they pass through the islands cf the Tierra del Fuego archipelago to Cape Horn. The Andes are built up of Ar- chaean, Palaeozoic, and Cretaceous rocks, with some Jurassic strata and porphyritic rocks in the w. range. They appear to have been Andes folded in Tertiary times, the Cre- taceous rocks being involved in the folds. Probably the West Cor- dillera is more recent than the East Cordillera. Many volcanoes are still active. Andesite lavas fill the basins of Ecuador, where the grand- est group of volcanoes in the whole chain is found, among which are Cotopaxi (19,613 ft.), Sangay (17,460 ft.), and others. These lavas also compose the large mass of Aconcagua, which rises to 23,080 ft., the highest point of the South American continent. Many of the highest peaks are covered with perpetual snow, and glaciers are still found in the south. In Peru the West Cordillera forms a formidable barrier to traf- fic, while farther south, between lat. 23° and 32° s., there is no pass lower than 12,000 ft. In lat. 32° 33' is the Uspallata Pass, between Argentina and Chile, or La Cumbre 236 toward La Paz, Bolivia; another climbs up (alt. 14,660 ft.) from Mollendo to Lake Titicaca; yet an- other in Peru, from Lima up to Cerro de Pasco. Consult Whym- per's Travels Amongst the Great Andes (1892); Conway's The Boliv- ian Andes (1901); Fitzgerald's The Highest Andes ^ (1899); Fountain's Great Mountains and Forests o} South America (1902); Enoch's The Andes and the Amazon (1907). Andesite. A volcanic rock of porphyritic or compact texture, composed of plagioclase feldspar and a dark silicate, either horn- blende, mica, or augite. By addi- tion of quartz, andesite grades into dacite, while the presence of olivine marks a transition to basalt. An- desites are very common rocks in the Western States, and are named from the Andes of South America, where they are the prevailing type of lavas. See Trachyte. Andes Tunnel and Railway animal transport, leaving Las Cuevas in. Argentina and arriving at Caracoles in Chile, and vice versd. From Valparaiso to Los Andes, the line belongs to the Chilean govern- ment, and is broad gauge; from Los Andes to Caracoles, the Chilean Transdine, it is narrow gauge; from Las Cuevas to Mendoza, the Argen- tine Transandine, again narrow gauge, and from Mendoza through Villa Mercedes to Buenos Ayres, now operated by the Buenos Ayres and Pacific Railway, again broad gauge. This difference in gauges was, however, a slight obstacle to travel in comparison to the great and permanent one of climate. From some time in May to some time in November — the winter of South America — travel across the Andes by this route, except for the hardy mail carriers, was aban- doned; and during this interval both passengers and freight had to Railroad from Buenos Ayres to Valparaiso, Including New Andes Tunnel. (12,605 ft.), now crossed by the railway tunnel (alt. 10,468 ft.) be- tween Buenos Ayres and Valpa- raiso; and at 36° the Planchon (10,- 000 ft.). In Ecuador and South Colombia the passes are of about the same height. The Guayaquil and Quito Railway crosses the Andes at an altitude of 10,800 ft. at 2° s. lat. This railroad connects the Port of Guayaquil with Quito, the capital of Ecuador, and after climbing the Andes extends on the plateau for about 200 m., prepared to tap the agricultural and mineral wealth of Ecuador and South Colombia when extended still far- ther north. Besides the peaks already men- tioned, Illimam (22,200 ft.), Hua- scaran (22,182 ft.), and Illampu, or Sorata, east of Lake Titicaca, are among the most prominent — the last, according to Sir Martin Con- way's estimate, exceeding 23,000 ft., and therefore rivalling Aconcagua. Chimborazo, in Ecuador, rises to 20,475 ft., and Tupungato, south of Aconcagua, to 21, .550 ft. Other railways across the Andes are the line (highest alt. 15,000 ft.), which connects Oruro in Bolivia with Antofagasta in Chile; and the line now in construction from Arica Andes, Los. A territory of Argentina, consisting of part of the Puna de Atacama assigned to Argen- tina by arbitration in 1899. Area, 21,990 sq. m.; pop. (1908), 2,250. Andes, Los, town, Chile, province of Aconcagua, 18 m. southeast of San Felipe. Pop. 4,500. Andes Tunnel and Railway. The distance from Buenos Ayres in Argentina to Valparaiso in Chile is given, for the sake of easy remem- brance, as 888 miles; the railway estimate is 1,439 kilometers. This portion of South America between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, belonging to the above-mentioned Republics, with the dividing line on the crest of the Andes, embraces some of the most productive land on that continent, and increase of traffic across it has been constant. In 1874 a concession was granted to build westward up the Andes, and in 1888 a train climbed from Mendoza toward the Chilean frontier. Work from Valparaiso eastward was begun in 1889, but the section from Los Andes to Juncal, about where the present tunnel is, was not inaugurated until 1906. Travel across the gap be- tween these two rail ends has been for some years carried on by go by boat through Magellan Strait — a matter of about ten days, com- pared with the 40 to 48 hours of rail and mule. The proiect of tunnelling the Andes had been seriously discussed ever since the railway was con- structed, because it had from the first seemed impossible to carry the line in the open across the higher pass used by foot passengers, or animals, on account of both en- gineering and climatic difficulties. This Uspallata Pass has an eleva- tion of 12,605 feet (3,841 meters), and is practically at the boundary between Argentina and Chile, at which point is situated the famous statue of 'The Christ of the Andes,' dedicated by the two na- tions as an emblem of peace in March, 1904. The Transandine Tunnel was first Eierced by the workmen on Novem- er 27, 1909. It had been under- stood that construction would be concluded in 1911; but the fact that both Argentina and Chile were to celebrate the centennial anniversary of their declarations of indepencf- ence in 1910 caused the contractors to accelerate the work, so as to have the tunnel open for traffic early in the latter year. The effort was sue- Andijan 237 Andr§ ("•ssful. On April 5, 1910, the formal opening of the tunnel took place. The actual tunnel begins at Caracoles in Chile, passes under the frontier, and ends at Las Cuevas. Its length is 10,385 feet; height 18 feet; width 16 feet. Andijan, an-di-zhan', town, Russian Central Asia, in the province of Fergana, situated at an altitude of 1,500 feet, on the Syr Daria; 160 miles east of Tashkend. It is the terminus of a branch of the Transcaspian Railroad. It is famous for its gardens and for its cotton manu- factures. Pop. 20,000. Andi'ra, a genus of about 30 species of tropical American and African trees. The bark of A. inermis and A. retusa contains purgative and emetic substances; the pith of A. araroba provides the 'Goa powder,' or chrysarobin (q.v.), used as a remedy for cer- tain skin diseases. The wood of several sp2cies is hard and dur- able and takes a high polish. Andirons, or Fire-Dogs, the supports on which are laid the logs of wood burned in open hearths. They are usually made of wrought iron and are often brass trimmed and highly orna- mental. Andkhui, and-kob'e, or And- KHOi, town, Afghanistan, on the trade route between Afghanistan and Bokhara; about 80 miles west of Balkh. Pop. about 15,000. Andocides, an-dos'i-dez (439- 389 B.C.), one of the ten Attic orators; an influential man of oligarchical sympathies. In 415 B.C. he was accused of being con- cerned in the mutilation of the Hermae; he turned informer, but was forced to leave Athens. He was banished three times after- ward, and died in exile. Three genuine speeches of historical importance are extant. Andor'ra (Arabian, Al Darra, 'a wooded place'), a small inde- pendent republic on the Spanish side of the Pyrenees, between the French department of Ariege and the Spanish province of Lerida, with an area of 191 square miles. On the northern side bridle- paths lead into France, by which the valley of the Ariege and the town of Ax-les-Thermes are reached. There is a considerable quantity of timber, which is a large source of revenue to the inhabitants. The somewhat lim- ited but rich arable land produces rye and barley, tobacco, vines, and vegetables. The country is rich in iron and lead, but the mines are very little worked, the cost of transport being a hin- drance to their development. There are hot mineral springs at Las Escaklas and elsewhere. The chief wealth consists of cat- tle, mules, sheep, goats, and pigs. Horse-breeding is an important industry. The Andorrans, about 6,000 in number, are of Spanish race, Catholics in religion, and speak a dialect of Catalan. Government. — The republic of Andorra is under the joint suze- rainty of France and the Spanish bishop of Urgel. The inhabi- tants are governed by a council of 24 members, elected by the heads of families. Each of the suzerains is represented by a viguier (vicar). The bishop's viguier holds office for three years, and the French viguier for life. The viguier s and the judge of appeals constitute the supreme court. The capital is Andorra la Vieille (Old Andorra), a small town of 800 inhabitants, 10 miles from Urgel. When Louis le Debonnaire be- sieged Urgel, the inhabitants of Andorra assisted him against the Saracens (805 a.d.) ; Louis, there- fore, gave them self-government, reserving certain rights, which were subsequently transferred to the Counts of Foix, and passed by inheritance to the Bourbons. The tithes and other dues were granted to the bishop of Urgel. An'dover, town, Massachu- setts, in Essex County, compris- ing several villages, situated a little south of the Merrimac River. Andover proper lies on the east bank of the Shawsheen River, on the Boston and Maine Railroad; 23 miles north of Bos- ton and 10 miles east of Lowell. The town is the seat of Phillips Academy (for boys) and Abbot Academy (for young ladies). Its industries include manufactures of twine and thread, shoes, rub- ber goods, woollen goods, and printer's ink. The town was settled in 1643, and its early his- tory was checkered by Indian forays and by witchcraft delu- sion. Pop. (1910) 7,301; (1920) 8,268. Andover, town, England, in Hampshire, 27 miles northwest of Southampton. It has iron works and manufactures of agri- cultural implements. Pop. (1921) 8,569. Andover Tlieological Sem- inary, a divinity school under Congregational auspices, former- ly at Andover, Mass., now es- tablished in Cambridge, and affiliated with Harvard Univer- sity. It was founded in 1807 and has always been open to all Protestant students. The insti- tution is progressive in teachings, and has been a leader in the higher criticism which has in- fluenced the theology of all the Protestant churches. The li- brary contains about 125,000 volumes which include many rare and valuable editions. Ow- ing to a decree of the Massachu- setts Supreme Court, declaring the affiliation of Andover Sem- inary with Harvard University untenable, instruction was sus- pended for a time, pending necessary readjustments. Andrada e Sylva, an-dra'da e sel'va, Bonifacio Jose de (1765- 1838), one of the founders of Brazilian independence, was born in Santos, near Rio Janeiro. He studied in Europe and was for a time professor of metallurgy in the University of Coimbra, Por- tugal. Returning to Brazil in 1819 he held the portfolios of the interior and of foreign affairs. His democratic tenden- cies led to his exile to France (1823-9). On the abdication of Pedro I. (1831) he undertook the education of the Prince Imperial (Pedro II.). Andrassy, on'dra-she, Count Gyula (1823-90), Hungarian statesman, was born in Zemplin, which he represented in the Pres- burg Diet (1847-8). During the 'year of revolution' he espoused the cause of Hungarian inde- pendence, and was exiled, passing the years 1849-57 in France and England. Under the amnesty of 1857 he returned to his native land, and was elected a member of the Diet in 1860, where he supported the policy of Deak — that of autonomy for Hungary under the Empire — and became (1867) premier and minister of national defence. In 1871 he be- came minister of foreign affairs for Austria-Hungary. He re- signed in 1879 but until his death retained great popular influence. Andrassy, Count Gyula (1860-1929), Hungarian states- man, son of Count Gyula An- drassy, early entered political life. He was elected to the Reichstag in 1884, was made secretary of state in 1892, and appointed minister 'near the per- son of the King' in 1894. He organized and led the coalition which caused the defeat of the Liberal Party under Count Stephen Tisza in 1906; and on the organization of the new min- istry under Dr. Wekerele, he be- came minister of the interior. At the outbreak of the Great War he supported the Tisza min- istry but was untiring in his ef- forts to make peace. In 1920 he became a member of the Hun- garian National Assembly and was returned in 1922. His pub- lished works include The Develop- ment of Hungarian Constitutional Liberty (1908); Wer hat den Krieg verbrochen? (1915); Diplomatic und Weltkrieg (1920); The Ante- cedents of the World War (1925). Andre, an'dra, John (1751- 80), British soldier, was born in London of Swiss parents. In 1771 he joined the British army, and in 1774 was ordered to Amer- ica. From November, 1775, un- til December, 1776, he was a prisoner of war in the hands of Vol. I.— Oct. '29 Andrea del Sarto 238 Andrewes the Americans; in 1777 he be- came a captain, and in 1778 was made adjutant general of the British army in the United States, and an aide to Gen. Henry CUnton, with the rank of major. He was selected by General Clin- ton to negotiate with Benedict Arnold, then in command of the American fortifications at West Point, when the latter made over- tures to surrender that post to the British. While returning on horseback to New York, from West Point, in civilian attire, he was apprehended at Tarrytown as a spy. After trial by a mili- tary court convoked by Wash- ington, he was found guiltj' and hanged at Tappan, N. Y., Oct. 2, 1780. In 1821 his remains were removed to Westminster Abbey, where a monument was raised to his memory. Andrea del Sarto, an-dra'a del sar'to (1487-1531), the name usually given to Andrea d'Agn- OLO, from his father's trade (sarto, a tailor), Florentine paint- er, the greatest colorist of the Florentine school, who was born in Gualfondo. He was early ap- prenticed to a goldsmith, but evincing artistic talent he be- came a pupil of Piero di Cosimo, the housemate of Francia Bigio. He studied the frescoes of Mas- saccio and Ghirlandajo, and the cartoons of Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci and in 1518 went to France to paint the fine Charity (Louvre) and the Pietd (Vienna) for Francis i. Accord- ing to Vasari, his wife — the beau- tiful model for his Madonnas — induced him to return to Flor- ence in 1519, and break his en- gagement to the king; but the story of the embezzlement of money given him by Francis to purchase pictures is questioned since the divscovery of the king's accounts. A full conception of Andrea's power can be best obtained by a study of the fine series of frescoes in Florence, in the Church of I'Annunziata, including the Ma- donna del Sacco in the convent of St. Salvi, particularly his Last Supper, which rivals Leonardo's, and especially the monochrome series in the Cloister of the Scalzi, painted in 1512-26. Most of his best known panel paintings are in the galleries of Florence: the Pitti, which has a Pietd, Holy Family, an Annunciation and vseveral portraits, the Ufifizi, whose gem is the Madonna with the Harpies, and the Academy; but there are also examples in Pisa, and in the galleries of Dres- den, Berlin, London, Paris, and Madrid. Consult Vasari's Life (translated by Blashfield and Hopkins). Andrea;, an-dre'e, Lauren- Tius (1480-1552), Swedish re- former, was born in Strengnas, but lived for some time in Rome and in Leipzig. As archdeacon of Strengnas, he won Gustavus i. to the principles of the Reforma- tion. He subsequently became chancellor, and superintended the translation of the Scriptures into Swedish, published in 1526. Having enraged the king by re- sisting the secularization of the Church, he was charged with treachery and was condemned to death (1540), but was reprieved and spent his last years in retire- ment, Andree, an'dra, Salomon Au- gust (1854-97), Swedish aero- naut and explorer, was born in Grenna. He was for some time head engineer at the Swedish patent office. After making several balloon journeys, he at- tempted to reach the North Pole by such means and on July 11, 1897, started from Dane's Island, Spitzbergen, with two compan- ions, Strindberg and Fraenkel, in a balloon of 5,000 cubic metres. A message sent by carrier-pigeon, and dated July 13, was the last authentic news of the explorers. Andreossy, an-dra-o-se', An- TOiNE Francois, Comte d' (1761-1828), French general and diplomatist, was born in Castel- naudary in Languedoc. He en- tered the army in 1781, served with Bonaparte in Egypt as chief of brigade, returned with him to France, and supported him at the revolution of 18th Brumaire. He was ambassador to London and Constantinople, and gover- nor of Vienna. In 1826 he was elected to the Academy and the following year became deputy for Aude. He published military memoirs and scientific works. Andrew, S.a.int, the first called of Christ's disciples, was the brother of Peter. He belonged to Bethsaida, and had been a follower of John the Baptist. Tradition has it that he preached in Scythia, Macedonia, and Epirus, and that he was cruci- fied at Patrae, in Achaia, on an X-shaped cross. The festival of St. Andrew falls on Nov. 30. He is the patron saint of Scot- land, and is held in high regard in Russia as having evangelized that country. Andrew, Saint, Brother- hood OF, an organization of men and boys in the Episcopal Church, founded in 1883 in Chi- cago. Its object is the spread of Christianity among men and boys, and it has chapters through- out the United States and in many foreign countries, including Canada, England, Scotland, West Indies, Canal Zone, Ha- waii, China and Japan. A junior department for work among boys is a feature. There is an active membership of about 10,000 and the ofificial organ is St. Andrew's Cross. Andrew, Saint, Cross of. See Flag. Andrew, Saint, Order of. See Orders of Knighthood. Andrew, the name of several kings of Hungary. Andrew i. (1046-61) succeeded Peter the German, and engaged in war with Germany till 1052. He attempted to introduce Chris- tianity into his kingdom, but was dethroned and killed by his brother Bela in 1061. Andrew ii. (1175-1234) as- cended the throne in 1205. He conducted a crusade to the Holy Land at the instigation of the Pope in 1217, and on his return, in 1221, he found his kingdom in great disorder. The following year he issued his Golden Bull, which became the basis of the rights of the Hungarian nobles. Andrew hi. (P-1301) suc- ceeded to the throne after the murder of Ladislaus iii. in 1290, but was opposed by the Duke of Austria and by the Pope, who claimed Hungary as a fief of the church, and put forward Charles Martel, son of Charles ii., king of Naples, as his nominee. Andrew defeated them both in 1291. Andrew, James Osgood (1794-1871). bishop of the Meth- odist Episcopal Church, South, was born in Wilkes County, Georgia. In 1812 he became an itinerant missionary attached to the South Carolina Conference and in 1832 was consecrated bishop at Philadelphia. On his marriage to a second wife, who was a slaveholder, there arose a momentous controversy which helped to bring about a cleavage in the church, which resulted in the formation of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, to which Bishop Andrew adhered. Andrew, John Albion (1818- 67), American political leader, was born in Windham, Me. He was graduated from Bowdoin College in 1837, was admitted to the bar in 1840, and settled in Boston. In politics he was suc- cessively an anti-slavery Whig, a Free Soiler, and a Republican. He was a member of the Massa- chusetts House of Representa- tives (1858), was governor of the State (1861-6), and is remem- bered chiefly as one of the fore- most of the notable 'war gover- nors' of the North. Andrewes, Lancelot (1555- 1626), English scholar and di- vine, was born in Barking. He was appointed dean of Westmin- ster (1601); took part in the Hampton Court Conference, and in the preparation of the Author- ized Version of the Bible, and was successively bishop of Chichester (1605), Ely (1609), and Win- chester (1618). He was one of the most learned theologians of his time and a great preacher. Consult Whyte's Lancolet An- VoL. I.— Oct. '29 Andrews 239 Andrews drewes and his Private Devotions (1896). Andrews, Charles McLean (1863- ), American educator, was born in Wethersfield, Conn. He was graduated from Trinity College (1884). and from Johns Hopkins University (Ph.D., 1889), and was professor of his- tory at Bryn Mawr College (1889-1907) and at Johns Hop- kins (1907-1910). In 1910 he became Farnham professor of American history in Yale Uni- versity. His published works include: The River Towns of Connecticut (1889); The Old Eng- lish Manor (1892); The Historical Development of Modern Europe (2 vols., 1896, 1898); Contemporary Europe, Asia, and Africa 1871- 1901 (1902); A History of Eng- land (1903); Colonial Self-Gov- ernment, 1632-1689 {IQQA) \ Brit- ish Commissions, Councils and Committees, 1622-1673 (1908); A Short History of England (1912); The Colonial Period of American History (1912); Fathers of New England and Colonial Folkways (1919); The Colonial Background of the American Revolution (1924). Andrews, Christopher Co- lumbus (1829-1918), American soldier and diplomat, was born in Hillsborough, N. H., and served throughout the Civil War, rising from the rank of private to that of brigadier-general and brevet major-general of volun- teers (1865). He was U. S. min- ister to Sweden in 1869-77, and consul-general at Rio de Janeiro in 1882-5. Andrews, Edward Gayer (1825-1907), American clergy- man, was born in New Hartford, N. Y. He was educated at Wes- leyan University (Conn.) and entered the Methodist Episcopal ministry in 1848, being in charge of churches in New York State for six years. He was principal of Cazenovia Seminary in 1854- 64, pastor in Stamford, Conn., and Brooklyn, N. Y., in 1864-72, and was appointed bishop in 1872. Later he spent several years visiting the foreign mission- ary field. Andrews, Elisha Benjamin (1844-1917), American educator, was born in Hinsdale, N. H. He served in the Civil War, was graduated, after its close, from Brown University, studied at Newton Theological Institution, and became pastor of the First Baptist Church, Beverly, Mass. (1874-5). He was president of Dennison University, Granville, Ohio (1875-9), professor of homi- letics, pastoral theology, and church polity at the Newton Theological Seminary (1879-82), professor of history and political economy at Brown University (1882-8), professor of political economy and finance at Cornell University (1888-9), and presi- dent of Brown University (1889- 98), resigning primarily on ac- count of friction growing out of his public advocacy of the free coinage of silver. In 1898-1900 he was superintendent of public schools in Chicago, and in 1900- 08 chancellor of the University of Nebraska. He was U. S. com- missioner to the International Monetary Conference at Brussels in 1892. His publications include Brief Institutes of Constitutional History, English and American (1884); Brief Institutes of General History (1885); Institutes of Eco- nomics (1889); An Honest Dollar (1894); History of the United States (2 vols. 1894); History of the Last Quarter Century of the United States (2 vols. 1896); The United States in Our Own Times (1904). Andrews, Ethan Allen (1787-1858), American educator, was born in Connecticut and was educated at Yale. He was for a time a professor in the Univer- sity of North Carolina, then taught in New Haven and Boston until 1829. He published a Latin grammar and several Latin text- books, and edited a Latin-English Lexicon (1850), based on Freund. Andrews, Loren (1819-61), American educator, was born in Ashland county, Ohio, and was educated at Kenyon College, Ohio. He taught in various capacities, and was instrumental in bringing the common schools of Ohio to their high standard of excellence. He became president of Kenyon College in 1854, and, while holding office at the out- break of the Civil War, raised a company in Knox county, and was elected colonel of the 4th Ohio Volunteers. He succumbed to an attack of camp fever con- tracted during his brief service. Andrews, Lorrin (1795- 1868), American missionary, was born in East Windsor, Conn., and received his education at Jeffer- son College, Pa., and at Princeton Theological Seminary. He began missionary work in the Hawaiian Islands (1827), establishing him- self at Lahaina, and founding a seminary which developed into Hawaii University, of which he was for a decade a professor. He was subsequently chaplain to the seamen at Lahaina, and even- tually entered the service of the Hawaiian government. He com- piled a dictionary of the native language, made studies in Ha- waiian literature and antiquities, and translated part of the Bible into Hawaiian. Andrews, Mary Raymond Shipman (1884- ), an Ameri- can short-story writer. Her works include: Vive L'Empereur; A Kidnapped Colony; Bob and the Guides (1900); The Perfect Tribute (1906); The Militants (1907); Better Treasure (1908); Counsel Assigned (1912); Mar- shall (1912); Eternal Masculine (1916); Crosses of War (1918); Joy in the Morning (1919); His Soul Goes Marching (1922); Yel- low Butterflies (1922); Pontifex Maximus (1924). Andrews, Roy Chapman (1884- ), American naturalist and explorer, was born in Beloit, Wis. He was graduated from Beloit College in 1906 and in 1908 made an exploring trip to Vancouver Islands and Alaska. In 1909-10 he was naturalist on the U. S. S. Albatross on its trip to the Dutch East Indies, and in 1913 was with the Borden Alaska Expedition. He became con- nected with the American Mu- seum of Natural History in 1914 and conducted expeditions to Tibet, Southwest China, and Burma (1916-17); to North China and Mongolia (1919); and to Central Asia (1925). These expeditions proved of great his- torical and archaeological inter- est, having brought to light geo- logical strata previously un- known and extensive evidences of primitive life in the Central Asian Plateau, including the first dinosaur eggs ever discovered. Andrews' writings include Whale Hunting with Gun and Camera (1916); Camps and Trails in China (1918); Across Mongolian Plains (1921); On the Trail of Ancient Man (1926). Andrews, Samuel James (1817-1906), American clergy- man, was born in Danbury, Conn., and was educated at Williams College. He practised law for a time, but later became a clergyman and for several years (1848-1855) was pastor of the Congregational Church in East Windsor, Conn., and an instruc- tor in mental and moral phi- losophy in Trinity College, Hart- ford. Embracing Irvingite doc- trines, he became pastor of the Catholic Apostolic Church at Hartford, Conn. He is the au- thor of Life of Our Lord upon the Earth (1862); God's Revelation of Himself to Man (1885); The Church and Its Organic Minis- tries (1899); Man and the In- carnation (1905). Andrews, Stephen Pearl (1812-86), American author and propagandist, was born in Tem- pleton, Mass. He was educated at Amherst College, studied law and practised first at New Or- leans, and then in Texas, with considerable success, in spite of his abolitionist sympathies. He removed to Boston and then to New York, where he developed his Basic Outline of Universology (1872), with which was associ- ated his universal language, 'Alwato/ a system designed to reconcile the leading members of all schools. While in England (1843), Mr. Andrews learned Vol. I. — March '27 Andrews 240 Andros phonography and introduced I't into America. Andrews, Thomas (1813-85), Irish chemist, was born in Bel- fast. In 1835-45 he was pro- fessor of chemistry in the newly established Medical College in the Academical Institution, Bel- fast, and in 1845-79 was professor of chemistry in Queen's College. He pubHshed important re- searches into the heat evolved and absorbed in chemical com- binations, and on the liquefaction of gases. Andrews, William Draper (1818-96), American inventor, was born in Grafton, Mass. He devised (1844) the centrifugal pump by means of which goods not injured by water may be saved from sunken vessels, and made several improvements in pumps of the same kind, notably the 'Cataract' pump. Andrews, William Watson (1810-97), American clergyman of the 'Irvingite,' or Catholic Apostolic Church, was born in Windham, Conn., and was edu- cated at Yale. After 1849 he was in charge of the Irvingite congre- gation at Potsdam, N. Y., and in 1868 organized a church of that sect at Hartford. His publica- tions include many sermons, re- views, and addresses. Andria, an'dre-a, town and episcopal see, Italy, in the prov- ince of Bari, 8 miles from the Adriatic, and 34 miles west of Bari. It has a trade in almonds, olive oil, and majolica ware. Nearby is the massive Castel del Monte, built by Frederick ii., for years the prison of Manfred's sons. Andrieux, ah-dre-u'. Fran- cois Guillaume Jean Stanis- las (1759-1833), French poet of the First Empire, and secretary of the Academy (1829), was born in vStrassburg. He published several graceful and witty come- dies — e.g., Les etourdis (1788), La soiree d'auteuil (1804), and La comedienne (1816). His place among the minor poets of his day is secured by his Cant s — Le meu- nier de Sans Souci (1797), La promenade de Fenelon, etc. An'dro, or Andros, most northerly of the Cyclades Is- lands (q.v.); area, 157 square miles. The capital, Andros, is situated on a sheltered bay on the eastern coast. Lemons are exported. Pop. (1920) 16,895. Androclus, an'dro-klus, or Androcles, a Roman slave, who, according to Aulus Gellius, was thrown into the arena, where a lion appeared to recognize him and licked his hands. Inquiry showed that Ancroclus had previously taken pity on the animal in the forest, extracting a cruel thorn from its paw. Andromache, an-drom'a-ke, in Greek legend, the daughter of Eetion, king of Cilician Thebes, Vol. I.— March '27 and wife of Hector, to whom she bore Astyanax. Homer beauti- fully depicts the tender relations existing between her and her husband, particularly in the passages in the Iliad which de- scribe her parting with him, her grief at his fate, and her lament over his funeral. After the fall of Troy her son was cast from the walls and killed, and she became the captive of Neoptolemus, son of Achilles, and accompanied him to Greece. She afterwards married Helenus, brother of Hector, who ruled over Chaonia. Androm'eda, in Greek legend, the daughter of Cepheus, king of Ethiopia, and Cassiopeia. As her mother boasted that in beauty Andromeda excelled the Nereids, Poseidon sent a sea monster to ravage the country, whereupon the oracle of Ammon prescribed that the maiden should be sacrificed to the mon- ster; but Perseus rescued and married her. After death she was placed among the stars. Andromeda, one of the Ptole- maic constellations, forming, with Cepheus, Cassiopeia, and Per- seus, a group of prehistoric an- tiquity. Three stars of about the second magnitude — Alpheratz, Mirach, and Almaach — mark severally the head, the girdle, and the foot of the mythical heroine. Alpheratz, or a Andromedae, /3 Cassiopeiae, and y Pegasi (Alge- nib), being aligned on the equi- noctial colure, are called the 'Three Guides.' Almaach, or y Andromedae, is a triple star, com- posed of a third magnitude star, attended by a pair of the fifth and sixth magnitudes. In its vicin- ity is situated the radiunt point of the Andromeda mf teors, the last conspicuous shower of which occurred Nov. 23, 1892. The great nebula near y Andromedae was familiar to Al Sufi in the 10th century, but the first telescopic view of it was obtained Dec. 15, 1612, by Simon Marius. A photograph taken by Dr. Roberts in 1888 disclosed it as a vast spiral structure. Close to its nucleus a temporary star rose to 6.5 magnitude in AugUvSt, 1885, then in six months faded to extinction. More than twenty novae have been observed in the nebula, which emits white light, giving a continuous spectrum, overlaid by absorption lines. The nebula is approaching the solar system at the enormous velocity of 300 kilometers per second, and clear evidence of rotational motion has been se- cured with the spectroscope. The spectrum, on the other hand, of the planetary nel)ula (N. G. C. 7662) is almost purely gaseous. This beautiful nebula consists of an oval ring lying on a more or less circular disc of nebulosity. Andromeda, a monotypic genus of plants belonging to the order Ericacece. The only species is A . polifolia (wild rosemary, or moorwort), a small poisonous evergreen shrub found in peat bogs throughout the North Temperate and Sub- Arctic zones. It bears large, pendulous, pink flowers. Andronicus, an-dro-ni'kus oi an-dron'i-kus, Livius, the earliest Roman poet, was of Greek birth, the slave of Livius Salinator, who later restored him to free- dom. He wrote tragedies, com- edies, and hymns, of which only fragments are extant, and made a translation or imitation of the Odyssey in Latin Saturnian verse. Andronicus, of Rhodes, a Greek peripatetic philosopher, who lived in Rome about 58 B.C. He made known to the Romans the works of Aristotle; none of his own writings are extant. Andronicus I., Comnenus (P1112-85), emperor of Constan- tinople; son of Isaac, and grand- son of Alexius I. He was regent during the minority of Alexius ii., and caused the latter's assassina- tion, seizing the throne for him- self. He was later killed in a popular insurrection. Andronicus III.,Pal.eologus the younger (1296-1341), em- peror of Constantinople, suc- ceeded to the throne in 1328. During his reign the Turks con- quered all his territories in Asia to the Bosporus; and in Europe, Stephen iii. (Urosh, king of Servia), and Stephen iv. (Du- shan), his successor, conquered Bulgaria and the greater part of Macedonia. Andronicus Cyrrliestes* Greek architect, the builder of the famous octagonal tower at Athens generally known as the Tower of the Winds. An'dros, Sir Edmund (1637- 1714), English colonial adminis- trator in America, was born in London. He was governor of New York and nominally of the Jerseys from 1674 until 1681, when, though he had done much for the betterment of the colony, he was recalled by the Duke of York (the future James ii.). In 1686 the various colonies of New England were consolidated into the 'Dominion of New England,' and Andros was appointed gov- ernor-general. Two years later New York and New Jersey were also placed under his jurisdic- tion. He displayed considerable ability, but the colonies, pre- viously self-governing, were refractory, Connecticut, for in- stance, refusing (1687) to sur- render her old charter, which, according to an oft-challenged tradition, was concealed in an oak-tree at Hartford. Andros, himself, in his well-intentioned effort to carry out instructions, resorted to arbritrary meas- Androscoggin 241 Aneroid ures, and consequently incurred the hostility of the colonists, res- tive under restraint; and in April, 1689, after the news of the entry into England of William of Or- ange had reached Massachusetts, he was seized, deposed, and in 1690 sent to England for trial. The ' Dominion of New England ' instantly dissolved, and no fur- ther attempt at consolidation was made. Andros was never brought to trial, and subsequently was governor of Virginia (1692- 8), of Maryland (1693-4), and of the Island of Guernsey (1704-6). See The Andros^ Tracts (3 vols. 1869-72), containing a memoir by Whitmore. Androscoggin, a riv. in Maine and New Hampshire, rising in Umbagog Lake in the White Mts., and flowing s.e. for 155 m. to its junction with the Kennebec, near Bath, about 15 miles above the mouth of the latter. It fur- nishes power for many industries, especially at Auburn, Me. Androsphinx, a sphinx with a male instead of a female head — e.g., the great sphinx of Gizeh. Andujar, tn.,prov. Jaen, Spain, on the r. bk. of the Guadalquivir; stn. on ry. between Cordova and Madrid. Flour, oil, wax candles, and porous jars for cooling water are manufactured. Six miles dis- tant are the mineral baths of Marmolejo. Pop. (1900) 16,302. Anemochord, a stringed in- strument, invented by Schnell in 1789, in which the strings were made to vibrate by currents of air directed upon them. It was found suitable only for the slowest music. The same principle was developed by Herz in his piano colien (1851). Anemometer, an instrument for measuring the pressure or velocity of the wind. The best- known form is the hemispherical cup anemometer invented (1846) by Robinson, consisting of four hemispherical cups which rotate horizontally with the wind, and a combination of wheels which record the number of revolutions in a given time. Robinson sup- posed that the cups revolved with about a third of the wind's veloc- ity, and the instruments were scaled on that assumption; but it has been found that the ratio between the speed of the cups and that of the wind varies not only with the velocities, but also with the dimensions of the cups and arms, so that recorded veloc- ities must be materially reduced. The Royal Meteorological So- ciety of Great Britain appointed a committee to consider the sub- ject of wind-force; and an ane- mometer was invented by W. H. Dines, which has been found es- pecially useful in measuring gusts of wind. It consists of a head, which is exposed to the Vol. I.— 19. winds, and the recording appa- ratus, which may be placed in any convenient situation. The head consists of a vane, formed Robinson's Cup Anemometer. of a piece of tube with an open end, which is kept facing the wind; underneath the vane is an- other and larger tube, perforated by several holes arranged in rings; and the action of the wind in blowing across these is to suck out the air from the inside. The two tubes are separately con- nected with pipes which commu- nicate with the recording appa- ratus, which consists of a float, placed in a closed vessel contain- ing water. The wind-pressure causes the float to rise or fall in the water, and it is connected with a recording mechanism. Os- ier's pressure anemometer con- sists of a p]ate,_ usually of 1 sq. ft. area, which is kept facing the wind, and is by it driven back upon a spring whose resistance is the measure of the wind's force. The Robinson anemom- eter, however, is the one most generally employed and is the standard form of the United States Weather Bureau, where Professor C. F. Marvin has made important investigations dealing with its construction and use. See Maxwin' sAnemometry (1900) ; and id. Anemometer Tests (1900). Anemone, the 'wind-flower' genus of Ranunculaceae, includes nearly one hundred species widely spread throughout the temperate regions. The white wood anem- one {A. nemorosa), like the similar American A. quinque- /o/lia, is abundant in marshy woods in _ spring. The many-colored spring anemones of horticulture are varieties of the poppy anem- one (P. coronaria), introduced from the Mediterranean at the end of the 16th century. This anemone is considered to be one of the plants meant by ' lily ' in Biblical references; the autumn- flowering species is the A. japon- ica. Anemone, Sea. See Sea Ane- mone. Anemophilous Flowers. See Fertilization of Plants. Aneroid (Or. 'non-liquid'), the barometer invented by Vidi of Paris (1843), consists of a metal box from which the air is ex- hausted, or ' vacuum chamber,' and a steel spring in the form of a double leaf. Alterations in atmospheric pressure bring about changes in the shape of this metal box, which are magnified by a system of levers turning a hand on a dial to indicate a higher or lower barometric pressure. The dial is graduated by comparison with a mercurial barometer, both instruments being placed under an air-pump for the purpose. The vacuum chamber A is made of two discs of corrugated Ger- man silver soldered together, and attached to the base plate, b; a strong spring, s, supported by the frame, f, and attached to the vacuum chamber, acts in opposi- tion to the motion of the box, preventing its sides giving way under reduced atmospheric pres- sure. The lever, c, of iron and brass, is attached to the spring, and compensates for alterations in temperature. The bent lever at D connects it to a chain, e, which is wound round the arbor, o. The spiral spring, p, keeps the chain, which is coiled round the barrel, free from slackness while the pressure is diminishing, and the hand turns to the left over the graduated dial. When the pressure is increasing, the lever pulls upon the chain, and Anemone nemorosa. 1, Section of flower ; 2, Carpel. the hand moves to the right over the dial. The index is fixed to the arbor. As these instruments are grad^ uated experimentally, they have frequently to be compared with a mercurial barometer. Although Aneurin 242 Angel very sensitive, they are liable to get out of order owing to rusting, or to alterations in the force of the springs, so that if an instru- ment has been long in use its scale alters. It is thus rarely used for accurate meteorological observations, but, owing to its lightness, is a handy instrument for the traveller. After subjec- tion to a low pressure, as in a one. He took refuge at the court of King Arthur, and wrote the Gododin, an epic poem, descrip- tive of the wars which terminated in the battle of Cattraeth. Of the poem only 900 lines are extant. It has been translated by E. Davies in his Mythology and Rites of the Brit. Druids (1809), and has been edited and trans- lated by Williams ap Ithel Construction of the Aneroid Barometer. mountain ascent, an aneroid does not at once recover its readings for normal pressures. Vv hymper made a series of experiments on aneroids in the field and work- shop under varying conditions, which are recorded in Hozv to Use the Aneroid Barometer (1891). He finds that all ane- roids lose upon the_ mercurial barometer when submitted to di- minished pressure, and that when pressure is restored a portion of this loss is recovered. Even at a fixed station an aneroid, after having experienced diminished pressure, will not follow natural diurnal or hourly variations with reasonable accuracy. As regards the use of the instrument for the measurement of altitudes, he has found that large reductions will have to be made in the height of many positions which have been determined by the aneroid. As the indications do not depend on the force of gravity, but on the elasticity of a metallic spring, the readings do not need a correc- tion for latitude. See Marvin's Barometers and the Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure (1901); Monthly Weather Reviezv, Sep- tember, 1898. See Bakometer. Aneurin, a Welsh poet, who flourished during the 6th century, generally supposed to be the son of Caw ap Geraint, chief of the tribe of Gododin (Otadini), who inhabited the land between the walls of Septimius Severus and Antoninus Pius. The Gododins were routed by the Saxons at Cattraeth, on the Northumbrian coast (540). and of 360 chiefs present at the battle only three escaped, of whom Aneurin was (1855), by Thomas Stephens (1885), and by F. Skene (1866). Aneurism (Gr. 'a widening'), the local dilatation of an artery, varying greatly in size, and af- fecting the whole or part of the vessel's circumference. If the artery is dilated in a considerable part or the whole of its circum- ference, a spindle-shaped or fusi- form aneurism is formed. Some- times the dilatation forms a pouch, and is said to be saccu- lated; at other times the blood does not lie in a distinct sac, but between the coats of the artery, in what is called a dissecting aneurism.^ _ It sometimes arises from an injury (travmiatic aneu- rism), but more frequently oc- curs spontaneously, and is often multiple. When an artery is wounded, the blood may make a receptacle outside the artery (spurious or diffuse aneurism). Minute aneurisms (miliary: mi- lium, ' millet seed ') are, by their rupture, frequently the cause of cerebral htxmorrhage. A cure of aneurism is rarely effected. By acupuncture the internal surface of the artery may be so rough- ened as to promote the formation of thrombosis or clot. Occlusion of the artery, which may be brought about by ligaturing the vessel, encourages this. But the majority of aneurisms are beyond the reach of surgical interference, and usually they enlarge and end fatally. This termination may result from pressure on neigh- boring parts, such as the heart, so that death may result from hyperaemia and oedema of the lungs or from venous engorge- ment. The aneurism sometimes ruptures. It sometimes presses on nerves, causing, first, irrita- tion, and then loss of function. When an aneurism meets with a firm structure, such as bone, it erodes it. Drugs have little ef- fect, but iodide of potassium, and also digitalis, has sometimes proved beneficial. Some surgeons have advocated electrolysis, fine silver wire being inserted and coiled within the aneurism and an electric current being passed through it. The subcutaneous injection of a one per cent, solu- tion of gelatin is now advocated, to encourage clot formation; but this treatment is still sub judice. Meanwhile the general aim is to lessen strain by lowering blood- pressure, moderate diet, and rest. Angamos, Battle of. A naval fight off Angamos Point, N. of Antofagasta ((3hile), on Oct. 8, 1879, between the Peruvian iron- clad Huascar and the Chilean ironclads Blanco Encalada and Almirante Cochrane, assisted by the corvette Covadonga. The battle lasted one and a half hours, when the Peruvians were forced to surrender. See Clowes's Four Modern Naval Campaigns (1902); Mackenna's Guerra del Pacihco (1880); Mason's War on the Pa- cific Coast (1883); Markham's War betzveen Chili and Peru (1882); Jour, of R. U. S. Inst., xxv.; B. Arana's Hist, de la Guerre du Pacifique (1881). Angara, riv., Siberia rises in Transbaikalia, enters Lake Bai- kal on the N. side, issues from it on its w. side (from this point it is also called the Upper Tun- guska), flows N. through the town of Irkutsk, and then w., and after a course of 1,300 m. joins the Yenisei above the town of Yeni- seisk. Dangerous for steam navi- gation because of rapids. Angel. The word angel is formed from the GrceXa aggelos (pronounced o«ginajor) ; 13. CB. cophalus (male) ; 19. CE. cephalotes (minor) ; 9 arid 14. Atta barbara (minor and major) ; 10. Stenamma Westwoodii ; 11 and 17. Termesbollieosus (soldier and male) ; 18 and 15. Lasius flavus ; 16. Campa- notus inflatus ; 18. Myrmeleo f orniicalis ; 20. Strongylognathus f estaceus ; 21. Lasius niger; 22. Tetramorium cajspitum. making practised by many species. The large red ant, Formica san- guineay an inhabitant of both Europe and North America, a courageous and warrior-like spe- cies, at times makes raids on other ants, carrying off their pupai to its own nest. It is stated that these forays take place only at ihose seasons of the year when the pupae are likely to be all workers, and not males or females. It is, at least, certain that the workers hatched from the stolen pupae remain in the nests of their conquerors, and there perform much of the needful work. The slave-making in the case of this species is not universal, and ants are capable of existing without their slaves; but Folyergus rujes- research is greatly multiplying the number of kinds of insects which may be found in ant-nests. The association with aphids is not very remarkable; for ants are exceedingly fond of the sugary secretion which they are induced to exude under the stroking of an ant's antennae, and the general characteristics of the plant-lice lead to the belief that they are quite passiv( in the transaction. Much more remarkable is the large number of beetles found in ant-nests, some of which are fed by the ants, and carried away by them if any circumstance should render a migration neces- sary. While in some cases these guests are simply tolerated — per- aps because tne ants cannot get ize this with much skill to form 'fungus-beds,* on which they grow singularly pure cultures of a fungus which constitutes their main food supply. The natural- ists Bates {Naturalist on the Ama- c:ons) and Belt (Naturalist in Nic- aragua) have given interesting accounts of these formidable creat- ures. The wandering ants {Eci- ton) are interesting South and Central American forms, which are usually blind, and do not make permanent nests, but wander from place to place The driver ants (Anomma) of West Africa are re- lated forms, which travel in vast hordes^ overwhelming everything on their path. For a general ac- count of ants, see the Text-hooks ol Entomology by Packard, Com- ANTS' NESTS. 1. Wood ants' nest (part), about two-thirds natural size, after White and Kirby. — 2. Interior of same (section): o, galleries; x, pupaj.^ 3. Tree ants' nest, about one-seventh natural size: e, exterior; s, section. — 4. Nest of agricultural ant, about one-fiftieth natural size; after McCook: M, mound; e, entrance; i), disc, cleared of grass, etc.; r, roads. — 5. Horizontal section of same: s l, surface level; e, entrance; 0, granaries; s, seeds stored; o, openings from below. — 6. Nest of honey ant, about one-third natural size; after McCook: e v, exterior view; s V, sectional view; e, entrance; g, galleries; H r, honey-room. — 7. Honey ants in their chamber full of honey, about two-thirds natural size. Vol. I. — Page 263 Vol. I. — March '30 Antacids 264 Antarctic Exploration stock, or Sharp; Lubbock's Ants, Bees, and Wasps; White's Ants and Their Ways; McCook'sAgn- cultural Ant of Texas; articles by Wheeler in The American Naturalist. Antacids, ant-as'idz, medi- cines which counteract acidity by combining with the acid. The acids formed in the stomach dur- ing digestion, such as lactic acid and butyric acid, are neutralized by antacids given after meals. Certain alkalis are given with the object of rendering the blood plasma more alkaline: these are the salts of potassium, sodium, ammonium, lithium, magnesium, and calcium. Antacids are ad- ministered chiefly in dyspepsia, gout, rheumatism, and uric-acid diathesis. Antaeus, an-te'us, according to Greek tradition, a Libyan giant of invincible strength as a wrestler, until overcome by Her- cules. It was believed that he was the son of Gaea, the earth, from whom he received his power. Antag'onism, in anatomy, the opposition of one set of muscles to another — e.g., of the flexors and extensors of the arm; in medicine, the counteraction of some drug against others — e.g., atropine shows antagonism to morphine. Antalcidas, an-tal'si-das, Greek statesman born in the fourth century B.C., was ambas- sador from Sparta to the Persians in 393-392 and in 388-387, in each instance with the view of strengthening Sparta against Athens by means of Persian sup- port. On his return from the second of these missions as ad- miral of the Spartan fleet, he conducted the war against Athens so successfully as to conclude the Peace of Antalcidas, by which all the cities and islands of Greece except Imbros, Lemnos, and Skythos were declared indepen- dent, and all the Greek cities of Asia Minor were annexed to the Persian empire. He was again sent to Persia in 371 B.C. Antananarivo, capital of Madagascar. See Tananarivo. Antar, an'tar, or Antara, ibn Sheddad al-Absi, celebrated Arabian warrior and pre-Islamic poet of the sixth century, author of one of the seven select Arabian poems, called the Moallakat (Eng. trans., Seven Arabic Poems, by Johnson). He is the hero of the group of Arabian romances, Antar, a portion of which was translated into English by Hamil- ton as Antar: a Bedouin Romance. Antarctica. vSee Antarctic Exploration. Antarctic Exploration. The story of Antarctic exploration in the restricted sense of the area beyond the Antarctic Circle be- gins January 17, 1773. On that day Lieutenant James Cook Vol. L — March '30 crossed, for the first time in hu- man history, the line that divides the South Temperate from the South Frigid Zone. He had two small sailing ships, the Resolution and the Adventure. Crossing the Circle in the neighborhood of 40° East Longitude, he pushed on to 67° 15' South Latitude. Here he was turned back by the ice. The following year he again guided his ships southward, this time cross- ing and recrossing the line be- tween the 150th and 130th merid- ians West, then describing a great swing to the north and coming back to the Antarctic Circle near the 110th meridian West Longitude. Finally he drove deeply into the mysterious area, and on January 30, 1774, reached in Longitude 106° 54' West and Latitude 71° 10' South, the farthest south attained in the eighteenth century. The honor of having sighted the first land within the Ant- arctic Circle belongs to Captain Fabian von Bellingshausen. He led a Russian expedition which sailed from Kronstadt in 1819. January 28, 1820, he reached Latitude 69° 21' South, Longi- tude 2° 15' West. Stopped there by the ice he headed east and went back to Sidney. At the opening of the next Antarctic summer he sailed again, and on January 11, 1821, sighted land in Latitude 69° 30' South, near the 90th meridian of West Longitude. This land was an island, and he named it Peter i. Island, in honor of the founder of the Russian Navy. Six days later he dis- covered, further east, another island, which he called Alexander I. Island, in honor of the patron of his expedition. While sailing eastward from his latter discovery Bellings- hausen encountered Captain Nathaniel B. Palmer, a Con- necticut sailing master who had skirted the coast of a land lying south of Bransfield Strait from the neighborhood of Antarctic Sound to the north end of De Gerlache Strait. Until the 1928 flight of Captain Sir Hubert Wilkins it was supposed that this land was a peninsula of the Ant- arctic Continent, but his aerial surveys show it to be a long chain of large islands separated from one another and from the main- land by a series of channels. A map published in London by George Powell, in 1822, gives Palmer's chart of the coast, which agrees with the findings of Cap- tain Wilkins, and shows that it should be called Palmer Land instead of Graham Land, as it is given in the later maps of the English cartographers. The next expedition of major note was that of James Weddell. In command of the brig Jane and the cutter Beaufoy, he sailed into the sea that now bears his name, and there, on February 20, 1823, reached the farthest south up to his day in Latitude 74° 15' South, Longitude 34° 16' 45" West. After Weddell came John Biscoe in the Enderby brig Tula and cutter Lively. He crossed the Antarctic Circle in Longitude 1° East, January 22, 1831, and sailed to 50° East Longitude within or on the Antarctic Circle, reaching his 69° South in 10° 43' East, January 28, and discover- ing Enderby Land February 28. The promontory he saw there he named Cape Anne. Then the winter closed in and Biscoe sailed back to Hobart. The following October he sailed into the Ant- arctic again. On February 17 and 18 he discovered the row of islands and later landed on the larger area which Mill says must have been the land discovered by Captain Palmer and named for him by Powell — an honor denied Palmer by later British chart makers. In 1833 a British skipper named Kemp sighted land near the 60th meridian East and named it Kemp Land. It never has been sighted since but still remains on British charts. In 1839 John Balleny, in the schoon- er Eliza Scott and the dandy- rigged cutter Sabrina, reached the Antarctic Circle in Longitude 178° East, January 29, and dis- covered the Balleny Islands February 9. He reported the sighting of land in Longitude 121° East. The honor of first recognizing Antarctica as a continent and of the longest tracing of its shore line belongs to Lieutenant (after- ward Admiral) Charles Wilkes, of the United States Navy. He was appointed to command a fleet which was to make 'a second attempt to penetrate within the Antarctic region, south of Van Diemen's Land, and as far west as Longitude 45° East, or to Enderby Land.' His squadron consisted of the Vincennes, the Peacock, the Porpoise, and the Flying Fish. On January 16, 1840, the expedition sighted what it believed to be land in Longi- tude 157° 46' East. Heading west it penetrated a deep bay. The headland at its entrance Lieutenant Wilkes named Cape Hudson in honor of his second in command. Lieutenant William L, Hudson. Sailing along the coast the Wilkes expedition sighted land several times between Janu- ary 19 and 30. On the latter date it approached within half a mile of dark volcanic rocks, with land rising to 3,000 feet and ex- tending over 60 miles. It was here that Wilkes christened the great Antarctic area Antarctica. February 2 the expedition was in contact with land 60 miles west le with " Belgica " 1898 — r- jold with "Antarctic" 1902 _ "AnUrctic" 1903 old's sled^ng parties m-10 f fLuplaae, 192& SiiJC.giloody • iv!^ ^ c Elephant ] Antarctic Exploration 265 Antarctic Exploration of Piner's Bay. February 7 land was definitely sighted and named Cape Carr, February 13 Wilkes landed and gathered geological specimens. February 14 he saw a 75-mile stretch of land, and going ashore gathered boulders, stones, gravel, and clay. In Longitude 97° 37' East, Wilkes came to what he named Termina- tion Land, where he headed north and ended his cruise. For many decades it was popu- lar, in England particularly, to minimize the work of Wilkes. Many explorers and map makers referred slightingly to his dis- coveries or entirely omitted refer- ence to them, and sought in every way to shorten the shore line he traced. But latterly this attitude of injustice is changing, and most authorities now admit there can be no doubt that Wilkes saw land along the line where Adelie Land, Kemp Land and Enderby Land are known to exist. It is a remarkable fact that the French explorer d'Urville's loca- tion of land along the same conti- nental periphery agrees with the findings of Wilkes. Furthermore, when the fact is considered that he failed to drop a day when crossing the 180th meridian, events recorded by the two ex- plorers fit together perfectly, as was shown in 1910 by Rear Ad- miral John E. Pillsbury, u. s. n., later President of the National Geographic Society. With this correction it became clear that Wilkes sighted Cape Hudson the day before d'Urville saw Adelie Land, and that Ringgold, of the Wilkes expedition, saw the Cote Clarie some hours before it was sighted by d'Urville. One of the grounds upon which explorers long refused to accept the discoveries of Wilkes was that they did not find the land in exactly the same spots where he had charted it, some of them de- claring they had sailed over lands he had charted. On this point Commander Richard E. Byrd offers testimony in his statement that Amundsen underestimated the distances of mountains, due to the deceptive character of the clear atmosphere. The next major explorer in the Antarctic was Captain J. Clark Ross, R. N. He had two ships, the Erebus and the Terror, and had intended to sail straight from Hobart to the South Magnetic Pole region. But seeing that Wilkes and ^'Urville were in that general area he entered the pack ice on January 5, 1841 in Longi- tude 174° 34' East. Pushing through this he found open water in what is now Ross Sea and fol- lowed the western shore of that sea, landing on Possession Island. There, unable to reach the main- land, he named that mainland Victoria Land and claimed it for his queen. He sailed first south- ward and then eastward along the Barrier to 167° West Longitude, having made a furthest south of 78° 4', and then returned to Hobart, after failing to find a winter base. He returned again in November, 1841, entering the pack ice in 146° West Longitude and reached the Barrier in Longi- tude 161° 27' West, a few degrees northeast of Commander Byrd's Little America. Ross then skirt- ed, but did not identify, what since has been called King Ed- ward VII. Land, and then went to the Falkland Islands, where he wintered. Returning at the open- ing of the following season, he fought his way eastward from the longitude of Joinville Island, finally crossing the Antarctic Circle March 1, 1843, but dis- covering no land. He recrossed it and headed for civilization March 11. A fruitful but very short expedition to the Antarctic was that of February 16, 1874 made by the Challenger, the first steamship to cross the Antarctic Circle. She came out again in a few days, for her mission was a cruise of the oceans and not a war with polar ice. But with some of the ablest scientists aboard that ever set foot in polar areas she brought back a wealth of material. Antarctic exploration for a quarter of a century after the Challenger expedition was limited to the normal activities of whal- ing ships with which discoveries were only incidental, and there- fore of a minor nature. But deeper interest was reborn in 1898. January 23 of that year saw Lieutenant Adrien de Ger- lache, of the Belgian Navy, with his Belgica expedition off the coast of Palmer Archipelago. He found the strait which Nathaniel B. Palmer had discovered in 1821, and marked the archipelago on their charts Archipel de Palmer. The expedition dis- covered more than a hundred islands in De Gerlache Strait. This expedition was the first that ever wintered in the Antarctic. It was caught and frozen in the ice in 71° 30' South, on March 3, and for thirteen months was held tight. During the same period C. E. Borchgrevink led an expedition to the Ross Sea area. He fitted out the old whaUng ship Pollux with powerful engines, rechris- tened it the Southern Cross, gathered around him a competent staff, and ret sail. February 17, 1899, the Southern Cross dropped anchor at the foot of Cape Adare, the first anchor ever dropped within the Antarctic Circle. After putting 10 men and sup- plies on shore, the ship, on March 2, departed for New Zealand. The hardships of this first Ant- arctic night on shore were in- describable. Finally the South- ern Cross returned, finding the party January 28, 1900. Febru- ary 2 all hands went aboard and sailed southward. Before turn- ing back the party was rewarded for its hardships by reaching 78° 50' South Latitude and breaking the previous record of poleward travel. In 1901 Captain Robert F. Scott, accompanied by Lieu- tenant Ernest H. Shackleton, sailed for the Antarctic in the Discovery. They entered the pack ice January 1, 1902, landed at Cape Adare January 9, and at the base of Mount Terror Janu- ary 22. Sailing eastward along the Barrier they discovered King Edward vii. Land. February 10 they found a harbor in McMurdo Bay, sailing over slopes of moun- tains as shown on Ross' charts — the same Ross who had rejected Wilkes' findings entirely on kin- dred grounds. Here the Dis- covery was anchored, huts were built on shore, and the Antarctic night came apace. With the following summer Scott and Shackleton set out November 2 and December 30 reached 82° 17' South, the farthest south. The ice never broke sufficiently to release the Discovery. Lieuten- ant Shackleton was invalided aboard the Morning which had come out on a relief expedition and Scott settled down to an- other year's work. He explored Victoria Land reaching his re- motest point from his ship No- vember 30, 1903. January 5, 1904 the Morning and the Terra Nova appeared at the edge of the ice with peremptory orders to bring the Scott party back to England even if the Discovery had to be abandoned. The ice fortunately broke up with the aid of blasting operations and Feb- ruary 18, 1904 the three ships headed homeward. In February, 1902, a German Antarctic expedition, under Erich von Drygalski, in the Gauss, reached pack ice in 61° 58' South Latitude and 95° 8' East Longi- tude. Proceeding south, the ex- pedition discovered new land, which was named Kaiser Wilhelm II. Land, and wintered off this land in 89° 48' East Longitude and 66° 2' South Latitude. Near the coast an inactive volcano, the Gaussberg (1,200 feet) was ob- served. A Swedish expedition in the Antarctic, 1901-1903, under Otto Nordenskjold, proved that the west coast of Danco Land is a continuation of Louis Philippe Land; also that Mount Hadding- ton is placed upon an island. Nordenskjold's ship, the Ant- arctic, was crushed by ice, and sank; but all the party, having wintered on Bouvet Island, were Vol. I. — March '30 Antarctic Exploration 265 A Antarctic Exploration rescued by an Argentine gunboat commanded by Captain Irizar. A Scottish national Antarctic expedition, led by Dr. W. S. Bruce, in the Scotia, 1902-04, ex- plored in its first season 4,000 miles of ocean, from 17° to 45° West Longitude in 70° 25' South Latitude, wintering in the South Orkneys. In its second season it reached the southeastern extremi- ty of the Weddell Sea, and dis- covered that a great barrier of ice, believed to be part of the Antarctic continent, was 600 miles north of its supposed posi- car with runners, and Siberian ponies, which, however, proved of little practical service. Shack- leton located the South Magnetic Pole January 16, 1909, at 72° 25' South and 155° 16' East. He also climbed Mount Erebus, 13,- 500 feet high. The year 1911 brought the final triumph over the forbidden areas of the Antarctic. In August, 1910, Captain Roald Amundsen left Christiana (now Oslo), Nor- way, headed for the Bay of Whales. There February 10, 1911 he began to prepare for his 15,000 feet, the highest being Neilsen Mountain. Over the 'Devil's Ball Room' the trail led, the party reaching the greatest height, 10,750 feet, on December 6. From this point a flat plain extended to 88° 25', thus con- firming Shackleton's observations at his last camp (88° 23'). With ideal sledging and beautiful weather each day 15 nautical miles were covered, until on De- cember 14 the South Pole was attained. The Pole was located upon a vast white, snow-covered plain. (g) Evxlng Galloway, N.Y. View in Antarctica showing For tuna Harbor, South Georgia, reached by Sir Ernest Shackleton on his Last Trip tion. The expedition also dredged in Ross' Deep, which proved to be 2,600 fathoms. In 1904-05 a French expedi- tion under Dr. Jean Charcot, in the FranQais, explored the Palmer Archipelago. In 1908-10 Dr. Charcot made another expedition in the Pourquoi Fas, in which he pushed still farther south, dis- covering new land, which he named for his father Charcot Land. One of the most successful of all Antarctic expeditions was that of Lieutenant (afterward Sir) E. H. Shackleton in the Nimrod, which returned in 1909, after a journey of 1,700 miles. Shackleton reached 88° 23' South, or within 111 miles c)f the South Pole, on January 9, 1909. Novel features of this expedition were a motor Vol. I. — March '30 dash to the South Pole in the fol- lowing Antarctic summer. He established a base which he called Framheim, and there spent the longest winter that Antarctic meteorology records. Amundsen got under way on his drive to the Pole October 19, with Hanssen, Wisting, Hassel, and Bjaaland as his fellow adven- turers. November 17 the party was at the foot of the mountains and began the ascent to the Divide between the coastal area and the Polar Plateau. The first night's camp was made at a 2,000-foot altitude. The second night found the party up to 4,000 feet. On the fourth night camp was made at an altitude of 10,600 feet. Through a heavily glaciated, mountainous country, peaks ap- peared at levels of from 9,000 to slightly descending in the direc- tion of the march, and at an ele- vation of about 10,750 feet. The mean temperature at the Pole was 15° below zero Fahrenheit, and the lowest on the journey thither, 34° below. During the greater part of the 4 days near the Pole the sun shone clear, and the wind was light. The last station where observations were taken was at 89° 59' South, and the advance was pushed about 9 miles farther. The camp was named Polheim. and upon de- parture the tent was left stand- ing, with the Norwegian flag fly- ing. To the plateau was given the name King Haakon vii., and to the mountain extending from the Barrier far inland, and pos- sibly an Antarctic extension of the Andes, Queen Maud's Range. From A mundsen's 'The South l^ole' ; Copyright by Lee Keedick DISCOVERY OF THE SOUTH POLE 1. Amundsen and Hi.s Companions Bidding Farewell to Their Tent at the South Pole. 2. Amundsen Taking an Observation at the South Pole. Vol. I.— Page 26.5 B Vol. I.— March '30 Antarctic Exioration The journey back to Fram- heim, the base station, was made in 39 days (ending January 25), at an average of 19-20 miles per day. Here it was learned that during the absence of the polar party, Captain Neilsen had taken the Fram to 78° 41' South, the farthest south attained by any vessel — thus gaining for the Fram the unique distinction of the farthest north and the farthest south of any ship. During the absence of the polar party, Lieu- tenant Prestrud also had made a reconnoissance to the eastward, across the interior of King Ed- ward VII. Land, coming out again upon the front of the Ross Ice Barrier at 77° 34', and defining the outline of much wholly new territory. Skua gulls were seen. Amundsen and his comrades per- formed the entire journey with- out illness or serious accident. The world hailed the achieve- ment of Captain Amundsen and his indomitable associates. He received the congratulations of King Haakon, of Norway, in whose honor he had named the polar area. Visiting Washington he was awarded the Hubbard Medal of the National Geograph- ic Society, receiving it at the hands of his friend and fellow explorer Admiral Robert E. Peary, the discoverer of the North Pole. Many other medals of geographic societies also were presented him. While Captain Amundsen was painfully making his way to the South Pole, another great ex- plorer was setting out a little further to the West in his second quest of the same objective. Captain Robert F. Scott with the most perfectly equipped and ex- pensively outfitted expedition that had yet reached Antarctic waters, reached Cape Evans, 14 miles north of the headquarters of his previous Discovery expedi- tion. He, like Amundsen, win- tered on the shores of Ross Sea and had everything set for an early march in the Antarctic spring of 1911. He left his base on November 2, fourteen days after Amundsen started. The motor party turned back at 81° 15'; and after most difficult travelling in snow — sometimes drifting and sometimes melting — Scott's party reached 83° 24' on December 4. On December 9, having reached the Beardmore Glacier, through snow in which only 8 miles were done in 14 hours, the ponies were destroyed, the forage having been exhausted. The travelling grew worse, and on 5 successive days only 5 miles a day were made in from 10 to 11 hours' work. On December 14, the day that Amundsen reached the South Pole and found a shin- ing sun, Scott was beginning his ascent of Beardmore (ilacier. Vol. L — March '30 265 C After December 16 owing to better conditions the rate in- creased, and from 13 to 23 miles a day were attained. The 86th parallel was crossed on Christmas Day; and on New Year's Eve a depot of provisions was laid and the sledges repaired at 86° 56 . On January 3, 1912, when 150 miles from the Pole, 87° 32' South Latitude, the last support- ing party, under command of Lieutenant Evans, was des- patched northward. From that point he went forward with a party of five — Dr. Wilson, Cap- tain Oates, Lieutenant Bowers, and Petty Officer Evans — with a month's provisions — expecting to reach the Pole in less than a week. They traveled the re- maining 150 miles in 26 days, and on January 29, 1912, reached the Pole. From Amundsen's hut, Polheim, at the Pole, Scott took the records and a letter to the King of Norway. Returning from the Pole everything went well until they passed the Beard- more Glacier. Then disaster after disaster overtook them. On February 17, Petty Officer Evans, thought to be the strongest man in the party, died from concus- sion of the brain, the effects of a fall on the ice. Captain Oates also suffered severely from frost bite and weakness; and on March 17, made desperate by his own condition and the delay he was causing his comrades, he walked from the tent, remarking, 'I'm going outside — I may be some time.' He never was seen again. Scott, Wilson, and Bowers pushed on to within 11 miles of One Ton camp, 155 miles from Hut Point. There they were forced to make camp, March 21, with fuel for one hot meal and food for two days. The gale confined them to the tent for four days, on the last of which Scott wrote his thrilling and memorable mes- sage to the public, reciting briefly the arrival at the Pole, and de- claring that the disastrous results were due not to faulty organiza- tion, but to misfortune in all the risks which had been undertaken. 'For my own sake, I do not regret this journey, which has shown that Englishmen can endure hardships, help one another, and meet death with as great forti- tude as ever in the past. But if we have been willing to give our lives to this enterprise, which is for the honor of our country, I appeal to our countrymen to see that those who depend on us are properly cared for. Had we lived, I should have a tale to tell of the hardihood, endurance, and cour- age of my companions which would have stirred the heart of every Englishman.' Ten months later, a party from Cape Evans, under Surgeon At- kinson, found Scott's last camp. Antarctic Exploration recovered the records, and buried the bodies under a cairn, over which a cross was erected. It was the desperately rough condi- tion of the surface between the mountain base and the Barrier edge coupled with the extreme cold of the approaching winter, the lack of dogs for transport, and the shortage of fuel at the several depots that resulted in this tragic end of one of the great leaders in the annals of polar exploration. Great Britain recognized gen- erously and spontaneously the heroism of Scott and his com- rades. A memorial service, at- tended by King George, was held in St. Paul's, London. Pensions were granted the families of the officers, and more than $1,000,000 was raised for a memorial. Upon Mrs. Scott — who received the news of her husband's death by wireless, in the Pacific, while on her way to join him — was con- ferred, in her own right, the order and cross of Grand Commander of the Bath, which would have been awarded to him had he lived. In welcome contrast to the tragic fate of Captain Scott was the successful return to Hut Point of Lieutenant V. L. A. Campbell's northern party, which had been marooned a year be- fore, but which had arrived in safety at Cape Evans on Novem- ber 7, 1912, after a winter of the severest hardship and 200 miles of the most difficult travelling. The party made an igloo in a snowdrift, isolating it with sea- weed, and subsisted for six and one-half months on seal meat and blubber, eked out with bis- cuit, cocoa, and sugar. The sci- entific work of the three parties of the Scott expedition was ex- tensive and satisfactory. Dr. Wilson and Lieutenant Bowers, of the southern party, collected specimens of plant fossils and coal from the Beardmore Glacier at an elevation of 8.000 feet. The for- mer are attributed to the late Paleozoic or early Mesozoic peri- od. Early Paleozoic corals and igneous rocks also were discov- ered at lower altitudes. The complete memoranda are said to furnish proof of the former exist- ence of two different periods of temperate chmatic conditions in the South Polar regions. Victoria Land was the region chosen for the work of the west- ern party, under Mr. Griffith Taylor, geologist. Coal was found at Granite Harbor. Near the Ferrar and Koettlitz glaciers a remarkable subterranean pass- age, 20 miles long was discovered. Seals traversed it, and it yielded thousands of dead, wingless in- sects new to science, and many fossils. The northern party, under the scientific direction of Antarctic Exploration 265 D Antarctic Exploration Mr. Priestly, made collections of volcanic and glacial rocks from the neighborhood of Robertson Bay and the Bay of Whales; and igneous and sedimentary rocks and wood fossils between Mounts Nansen and Melbourne. Profes- sor David's specimens, left on Depot Island in 1909, were found and brought back. Closely following Amundsen, the Aurora carried Sir Douglas Mawson's Australian expedition to the Barrier, landing the party in two detachments — on Adelie Land and Sabrina Land — for permanent work and study. His chosen field was about 2,000 miles of coast land, between Cape Adare and the Gaussberg, located by the von Drygalski German expedition. The expedition sought to ascertain what may be the resources of the Antarctic in mines and fisheries, particularly in whaling and sealing. It dis- covered and named George v. Land and surveyed hundreds of miles of coast between Adelie Land and Victoria Land. Lieu- tenant B. E. S. Ninnis, R.F., died as the result of an accidental fall in a crevasse, and Dr. Xavier Mertz, the Swiss scientist, per- ished on the march. While Sir Douglas Mawson was doing his work in the Adelie Land sector the Aurora sailed 1,500 miles westward and landed Frank Wild, who discovered Queen Mary Land. During this period there was a Japanese expedition in the Ant- arctic under the leadership of Captain Shirase. It entered the Bay of Whales four days before the departure of Amundsen in the Fram, and then skirted the ice eastward. There was also a Ger- man expedition operating during the same period under command of Lieutenant Wilhelm Filchner. It was his plan to lay depots in- land from the Ross Sea Barrier, then to move around to the oppo- site side of the continent and to attempt to gain the Pole from Weddell Sea, marching thence to Ross Sea, where his ship would await him. After two years of exploration by land and sea, dur- ing which he discovered Kaiser Wilhelm Land, he returned home. Lieutenant Ernest Shackleton decided to try again to conquer the Antarctic, this time by cross- ing it via the South Pole from Weddell Sea to Ross Sea, as Lieu- tenant Filchner had planned two years before. In the Endurance he entered the ice pack December 7, 1914, near Candlemas Island. Beset by the ice he pushed his way southward between the 15th and 20th meridians West Longi- tude, until he came to the shores of Coats Land where he headed southwestward discovering an area which he named the Caird Coast. On January 18, 1915 the Endurance became frozen into the ice, and began a helpless drift along the west shore of Weddell Sea in a general west of north direction. Crushed October 27, the Endurance remained afloat until November 21. Meanwhile Shackleton and his men had es- tablished themselves on an ice floe, drifting northward to the latitude of the South Shetlands. Here they were forced to take to their boats. Six days later after thrilling battles with Antarctic seas the party of 28 succeeded in reaching Elephant Island. Here a camp was built on a narrow beach, and Shackleton, with five men, undertook, in a whaleboat, to reach South Georgia 750 miles away. This they succeeded in doing to the accompaniment of almost unbelievable hardships. But when they landed it was on the side of the island opposite the whaling station. High moun- tains lay between. But weak- ened though they were, they faced the hardships of the terri- ble march, and reached the whal- ing station more dead than alive. On August 30, 1916 Sir Ernest succeeded in reaching the 22 men he had left on Elephant Island on the previous April 15. On De- cember 20, 1916, at Port Chalm- ers, New Zealand, he signed up at a shilling a month on the Aurora to sail to the rescue of the Ross Sea party which had gone there at the same time that he went to the Weddell Sea, they to lay a depot, and he to bring a force across the continent. The Au- rora, which had carried the Ross Sea party, had been caught in the ice and carried away before the supplies were all landed. She drifted for 315 days before get- ting free and then put into Port Chalmers. On January 10, 1917 Shackleton had the pleasure of seeing seven of the ten men who had been left at Cape Royds when the Aurora began her drift. May 6, 1915, come aboard; the remaining three had perished. Home again in the Aurora, Sir Ernest began making plans for another expedition to explore the Antarctic coast in the Enderby Quadrant, but at South Georgia he died of angina pectoris, Janu- ary 5, 1922. His last entry in his diary was Tn the darkening twi- light I saw a lone star hover gem- like above the bay.' His body was carried to Montevideo en route back to England. But cables from Lady Shackleton in- tercepted the party with instruc- tions to carry the dead hero back to South Georgia and bury him at the base of the mountains he had been the first to cross. There today stands a great cairn sur- mounted by a cross. And so Shackleton and Scott sleep amid the ice and the snows of the Ant- arctic they loved. Once again the Antarctic was left to its own for awhile. Of its great invaders only Mawson was left. A new generation of knights of the realm of eternal cold must be developed. During the inter- lude indomitable men were in training in the Arctic for even greater deeds in the Antarctic. Commander Richard E. Byrd had headed the Navy contingent of the National Geographic So- ciety's MacMillan expedition to Greenland and points west, and there had accumulated the ex- perience which stood him in such good stead in his flight to the North Pole and back from Spitz- bergen. Captain Sir Hubert Wilkins had fought his way awing over Arctic stretches off Point Barrow and in the follow- ing season had flown across the Pole from Alaska to Spitzbergen. Here then were two eagles of the air ready to attempt to soar in triumph over the Antarctic continent. Wilkins was first to try his wings. Arriving at De- ception Island November 6, 1928, with two Lockheed- Vega mono- planes he took the air December 20. He flew across Bransfield and De Gerlache Straits to Brial- mont Bay and then over Palmer coast. He then followed the shore of Weddell Sea to a point 71° 20' South Latitude at 64° 15' West Longitude, and then direct- ly back to his base. He had proved that the so-called Graham Land is not a peninsula, as most maps show, but rather a series of long, narrow islands, separated from one another by narrow sounds. His flight took him across the Antarctic Circle and gave him the honor of being the first aviator to fly in the South Frigid Zone. On January 10, 1929 Wilkins made another flight over the same general area and then decided to warehouse his planes at Deception Island, go back to America, and return to the task in December, 1929. Between the first and second flights of Wilkins, Commander Byrd arrived at the Barrier in Ross Sea, with the best equipped and most completely staffed ex- pedition that ever ventured into the Antarctic for a prolonged assault upon its mysteries. It was on the seventeenth anni- versary of Amundsen's discovery of the North Pole that the C. A. Larsen and the City of New York entered the ice pack, the Eleanor Boiling having transferred her load of coal to the City of New York, and headed back to Dune- din, New Zealand, for other supplies. The base at Little America was established January 6, 1929. Six days after Wilkins made his last flight of the season Byrd's Fair- child plane, the Stars and Stripes, took the air and made a series of Vol. I. — March '30 Antarctic Exploration seven flights in which all the air personnel participated. Two days later, January 18, Com- mander Byrd, with the Stars and Stripes and the Fokker plane, the Virginian, flew eastward, dis- covering great area which he named Marie Byrd Land, and charting a range of mountains which he called the Rockefeller Range. On January 27 he flew over King Edward vii. Land, saw 14 mountain peaks, and dis- covered a new island. February 14 he returned from an unsuc- cessful effort to reach King Ed- ward VII. Land in the City of Neib York. On February 18 Commander Byrd flew over King Edward vii. Land, discovered a 10,000-foot peak and two mountain ranges, and claimed 40,000 square miles of territory for the United States. On March 7 Lawrence Gould, Bernt Balchen. and Harold June flew to the Rockefeller Range and landed to make a geological survey of the region. A storm came up while they were there, wrecked their plane, the Virgini- an, and broke their communica- tion with Little America. Com- mander Byrd on the 18th flew to their relief, sending them back in his plane and waiting in the mountains until on March 22 it returned for him. Thereafter the Byrd expedi- tion settled down to winter life and preparation for the great assault on the South Pole in the following Antarctic spring. By October 15 the overland support- ing party was able to take off, and on November 4 Lawrence Gould headed a geological party which set out to explore the Queen Maud Mountains. On No- vember 19, 1929 Commander Byrd flew the Floyd Bennett to the last depot toward the South Pole, at the base of the Queen Maud Mountains, carrying a stock of gas and provisions to be used in emergencies or to supply the Gould geological party as occa- sion demanded. At length on November 28, 1929 the meteorologists at Little America reported favorable weather, the Gould party near the mountains found the outlook for sunshine beyond them good, and the hour for which all hands had waited arrived. Weighing, with its load, 15,000 pounds, the big trimotored cabin monoplane, Floyd Bennett, built by Edsel Ford, took off with Commander Byrd; Bernt Balchen, pilot; Cap- tain Ashley McKinley, aerial surveyor; and Harold L June, radio operator. Across the pied- mont ice it flew. At 304 miles out it sighted the Gould party for which it dropped messages and photographs of the depot which had been laid down a week previ- ous. 265 E Then came the test of tests, the crossing of the mountains with the heavy load. McKinley and his aerial camera with the necessary emergency equipment and rations reduced the ship's ceiling 1,000 feet. Below them stretched the rugged crevassed ice of Liv's Glacier. To the right and left rose rugged cliffs and icy walls. There was no room to turn; they must rise or perhaps perish in that terrible area. But hard battles to gain elevation, superhuman efforts to defy gusts, eddies, and swirls in the air, in- tense struggles to lighten the load and increase the plane's ceiling by pouring gas into the tanks and throwing overboard the empty containers, marked an al- most miraculous escape from the ice beneath and around them. Success, indeed, was not assured until two 125- pound bags of con- centrated food had been cast over- board and the plane thereby given several hundred feet more of ceil- ing. Then, with barely a few feet to spare, a few minutes brought the plane out on the great Polar Plateau, ranging from 7,000 to 11,000 feet. To the west a great mountain range, seen neither by Amundsen, Scott, nor Shackle- ton, was discovered. Onward the Floyd Bennett flew, every minute adding to airplane records in the Antarctic. Finally the sun compass designed by Albert H. Bumstead, cartogra- pher of the National Geographic Society — the same compass that proclaimed Byrd's approach to the North Pole — told them that they were above the bottom of the world. Dead reckoning and sun compass reading were checked with sextant observations and were corroborated. They were at the end of the Grosvenor Trail. Now they turned to the right, flew some six miles, then to the left for a similar distance. Here a semicircular flight brought them back to the line of the Grosvenor Trail extended through the Pole. When they reached the point where the first turn was made, all hands stood at atten- tion and four flags were dropped. First was a silken American flag, weighted with a stone taken from the grave of Floyd Bennett in Arlington Cemetery, and lowered in honor of the man who had flown over the North Pole with Commander Byrd, and who would have flown with him over the South Pole had he not sacri- ficed his life for flyers in distress. Then there was a Norwegian flag in honor of Captain Roald Amundsen who had discovered the South Pole and given his life in search for Nobile and his men in the Arctic. The third flag was the Union Jack, let down in memory of the intrepid Captain Robert F. Scott who had reached Antarctic Exploration the Pole but perished on his re- turn. The fourth flag was the tricolor of France — a tribute to the people who had lavished their kindness on Commander Byrd when he made his transatlantic flight. These ceremonies over, the dash back to Little America be- gan. The return was made by way of the Axel Heiberg Glacier. At the foot of the Queen Maud Mountains a landing was made and Depot No. 8 was given an additional supply of provisions and gas to provide for the needs of the overland supporting party and the Gould geological party. After an hour caching these sup- plies the Floyd Bennett took off again, and at 10; 10 a.m., Novem- ber 29, reached Little America, triumphant from one of the great- est flights in the history of avia- tion. One of the results of the Pole flight was the mapping, with Captain McKinley's aerial cam- era, of an area of about 160,000 square miles of territory — a terri- tory equivalent to that of New England, New York, and Penn- sylvania. If there be added to that the new lands discovered and mapped on the other flights of the expedition it will be seen that Commander Byrd saw a territory equivalent to all that part of the United States which lies east of Ohio and north of the Potomac River. Commander Byrd made a series of flights after returning from the Pole and planned to sail for home early in 1930. The fall of 1929 saw Sir Hubert Wilkins returning for another series of flights, one of which he hoped might be along the periph- ery of the Antarctic continent from Palmer Land to Little America, a distance of 2,500 miles eastward. The other he planned to make westward from Palmer Land along the shores of Weddell Sea and toward the shores of Coats Land. A third expedition in the Ant- arctic in the season of 1929-30 was that of Sir Douglas Mawson. He sailed from Cape Town in the Discovery which so often has done battle with Antarctic ice, for a two-season cruise along that sec- tor of the Antarctic shore line which lies between Ross Sea and Enderby Land. The Discovery carried a scout plane with it to scout the Barrier as the ship sails along. No land base will be established, but the Discovery will spend the Antarctic winter in Australia returning as soon as the ice pack reopens. Between the Byrd, Wilkins. and Mawson expeditions many problems in connection with the Antarctic continent are expected to be solved. All of them have carried on researches as to the Vol. L — March '30 CO Antarctic Ocean 266 Antares relationship of Antarctic weather and meteorological conditions in the Southern Hemisphere. Byrd and Wilkins undertook studies to determine whether there is a channel stretching across the Polar Plateau from Ross Sea to Weddell Sea, with the great mountains Byrd discovered on his flight to the Pole seeming to provide a negative answer. All of them, too, were inter- ested in tracing out the answer to the question of whether the Ant- arctic continent might not have been the land bridge whereby the animal life of bygone geological times passed between South America and Africa, if, indeed, not Australia. Much additional evidence was found of the great fluctuation of climate in bygone geological eras. There are at least two strata which tell of a Brazil type of climate, and these are interlarded with strata that proclaim other ice ages as intense as the present one. Bibliography. — Consult Borch- grevink's First on the Antarctic Continent; Bernacchi's To the South Polar Regions; Nordensk- jold and Anderson's Antarctica; Mill's Siege of the South Pole; Armitage's Two Years in the Ant- arctic; Scott's Voyage of the Dis- covery; Official Reports by the French Ministry of Public In- struction of Charcot's FrauQais (1904-5) and Pourquois Pas (1908-10) Expeditions; The Heart of the Antarctic, by Sir E. H. Shackleton and others (1909); Mawson's The Home of the Bliz- zard (1915); Markham's The Lands of Silence (1921); Hurley's Argonauts of the South (1925); Brown's Polar Regions (1927); Nordenskjold and Mecking's The Geography of the Polar Regions (1928). Antarctic Ocean, one of the great water divisions of the globe, in many respects the antithesis of the Arctic Ocean. The Antarctic consists of a central mass of land, covered with a thick and pre- sumably unbroken ice cap. To this vast accumulation of ice are due the huge table-topped ice- bergs projecting 150 to 200 feet above the surface of the sea, and descending 1,200 to 1,500 feet below it. As the edge of the great ice barrier is approached, the ocean in many parts very per- ceptibly decreases in depth. For instance, east of Victoria Land, and off the adjacent Adelie Land, the depth ranges from 100 to 800 fathoms; east of the South Shetland Island, it is 100 to 500 fathoms deep; and west of Graham Land there is a 'conti- nental' shelf of 200 to 300 fath- oms depth. But in the higher latitudes, or between 60° and 40° s. lat., the depth is greatly increased. From Patagonia east to Kerguelen Island the depth Vol. I. — March '30 generally exceeds 2,000 fathoms — in some places even 3,000 fath- oms. Indeed, the depth on the 60th parallel nearly all round the Pole exceeds 2,000 fathoms. South America, or rather Tierra del Fuego, is apparently linked to the Antarctic lands at Graham Land by a curving submarine ridge, which separates the South- ern Atlantic from the Southern Pacific, and is only about 110 fathoms below the surface. On the whole, the water of the Antarctic Ocean would appear to be colder than the water of the Arctic. On the surface, and down to about 50 fathoms, it is comparatively warm, though absolutely cold (29° to 30° f.). Thence the temperature gradu- ally increases down to about 165 fathoms, where it is 35°; and this temperature is maintained down to 800 or 825 fathoms. From this level to the bottom it again sinks to about 31°. These are the results of observations made by the German deep-sea expedition in the Valdivia in 1898-9. According to the obser- vations of the Challenger, some twenty-five years earlier, the temperature of the surface water was between 29° and 38° (accord- ing to latitude), and of the bot- tom 32° to 35°; and wedged in between these two layers was a colder stratum of water, with a temperature of only 28° to 32.5°. Ross, again, in 1841-3, reported a surface temperature of 27.3° to 33.6°, with an average of 29.8° — this being in the summer. \ Meteorologically, the area about the South Pole is one of low pressure, having a mean of less than 29 inches; and this vast permanent anticyclone appears to have a much wider extension in winter than in summer. The climatic conditions depend large- ly upon the wind. When it blows from the south it is clear and cold; but winds from the op- posite directions bring fogs and cloud and a rise of temperature. There is continuous daylight from November to January. In regions higher than 40° s. lat., the Antarctic plankton, or organic life of the surface, is characterized by an abundance of diatoms. Pelagic animals, such as molluscs, amphipods, copepods, and other marine organisms, are plentiful down to 1,000 fathoms, and are not at all scarce at 2,700 fathoms. Sir John Murray asserts there are species common to both North and South Polar regions which are absent in the depths of the intervening oceans. The southern right whale {Ba- Icena australis) is found at least as far south as 50° s. lat., but it is in no sense an ice whale. There are two whales peculiar to southern seas — the pygmy whale (Neobalcena marginata) and a bottlenose (Hyperoddon planifrons) ; but these hardly penetrate into the Antarctic. There are possibly several Ant- arctic rorquals. Four true seals are peculiar to the Antarctic — Weddell's seal {Leptonychotes Weddelli), the sea-leopard {Og- morhinus leptonyx), Ross' seal {Ommatophoca Rossi), and the crab-eating seal (Lobodon car- cinophagus) . All are widely dis- tributed throughout the area. No fur-seal is truly Antarctic; but it is stated that the elephant- seal occurs off the coast of Vic- toria Land. The most characteristic birds are the penguins, especially the emperor and the Adelie; the petrels, especially the ice, giant, and Antarctic petrels; and the Antarctic skua, which Lieutenant Prestrud's party of Amundsen's Expedition (1910-1911) saw in King Edward vii. Land. Mean- time, the invertebrates are little known; but recent expeditions have made rich finds. Land plants are naturally very few; a grass {Air a ccespitosa) and a few mosses and lichens have been thus far described. Much information has been collected by recent expeditions regarding the geology of the Ant- arctic regions. In Victoria Land sandstone has been found con- taining fossil plants (dicotyle- dons), apparently of Miocene age. In the region of Louis Philippe Land, almost at the opposite side of the circle, a marine volcanic tuff containing (drifted) land plants of Tertiary age occurs. In the same region there are deposits containing Jurassic land plants, and fossil- iferous marine beds belonging to the Jurassic and Cretaceous systems. The South Orkneys consist of Primary sedimentary deposits, chiefly greywackes and conglomerates, in which a fossil graptolite has been found. Kaiser Wilhelm ii. Land is apparently composed of Archaean rocks, especially granite, gneiss, and quartzite. Here, as elsewhere within the area, there also occur volcanic lavas of recent date. See also the article on Antarc- tic Exploration, and Bibliog- raphy cited there. Antares, an-ta'rez, a Scorpii, a red star of 1.5 magnitude. It gives a banded spectrum char- acteristic of stars whose tempera- ture has not yet become high enough to dissociate titanium oxide and certain other com- pounds. The apparent diameter, measured with the interferom- eter, is 0".040. As the star has a very minute parallax — the measured value is 0".009; it must have the enormous diameter of something like 400 million miles. With a volume 100 million times Ant-Bear 267 Anthelmintics that of the sun, its density, even if the mass is so improbably great as 100 times that of the sun, can be only one one-millionth that of the sun or 1/900 that of air. Antares is in one of the very OPHIVCHUS y^^-'J "Vr<5^ / r Antares earliest stages of stellar evolu- tion. It radiates the light of 3,000 suns. Ant-Bear, either of two large, furry termite-eating animals: the great ant-eater of South America; or the Cape ant-eater of Africa (qq.v.). Ant-Birds, tropical birds of various kinds which feed partly upon ants or termites (white 'ants'). All belong to a large family of small South American insect-eating birds characteristi- cally named Formicariidae. They are for the most part of subdued colors and voice, and spend their time in shyly hunting for various small insects on or near the ground in wooded regions; but when a marching column of leaf- cutters or other migratory ants is abroad they will sometimes gath- er and prey upon it in great numbers. Resemblances in form, colors or manners, to other well known birds, have led Euro- peans there to give the names 'ant-thrush,' 'ant-shrike' and 'ant-wren' to particular species. Similarly the small, brilliant ground-searching pittas of the tropical East are there called 'ant-birds,' though they rarely take this food. Ant-Eater, a term applied to several unrelated mammals of similar habits and diet. The true ant-eaters are members of the order Edentata, and are con- fined to South America. The largest, the great ant-eater or tamanoir (Myrmecophaga jubala) , reaches a length of 4 feet exclu- sive of the large, bushy tail, and has the face prolonged into a long, tubular snout. Teeth are entirely absent, and the long, flexible tongue is covered with sticky saliva by which the ants are caught when the tongue is thrust into their unroofed masses. The fore limbs are furnished with powerful claws, which are used in tearing open the nests of term- ites, or 'white ants,' on which the animal chiefly feeds. It is ter- restrial and lives in dense forests, but does not burrow; and its long claws and great strength make it a formidable antagonist. Related forms are the arboreal tamandua and the little ant-eater (Cycloturus) , the latter subsisting mainly on the honey-comb and grubs of wasps. The scaly ant- eater or pangolins (q.v.) are mem- bers of the same order; as is also the African aard-vark, ant-bear, or Cape ant-eater. The term spiny ant-eater is applied to Echidna, and banded ant-eater to Myrmecobius fasciatus, a curious little Australian marsupial mam- mal, which is chestnut-red, with white and dark stripes on its back, and somewhat resembles the English squirrel in appear- ance. Great South American Ant-eater Antece'dent, in grammar, the subject to which a succeeding pronoun refers; in logic, the premise from which a 'conse- quent' proposition is inferred; in mathematics, the first element in a ratio — e.g. 2:4 = 3:6. Antelope, one of a group of agile, swift-footed ruminants (Bovidae), which cannot be defi- nitely regarded as either sheep, goats, or oxen. They are char- acterized by having slender, usu- ally cylindrical horns, generally marked with ring-like elevations, and as a rule confined to the males. Some of these {e.g. the Alpine chamois) are structurally near the goats, and others {e.g. the African genus Alcelaphus) are far removed from them. Antelopes are typically plains animals, and are therefore spe- cially at home in Africa, but their migration thither from the north is recent in a geological sense. In the genus Alcelaphus, in- cluding the African hartebeest, blesbok, bontebok, and others, the back slopes, owing to the fact that the height at the withers is much greater than at the rump, the head is long and narrow, and the horns are lyrate and bent back at the tips. The African gnu is a near ally of these forms. In size these antelopes may be contrasted with the duikerboks, of which the smallest is not larger than a rabbit, while the harte- beest may stand nearly 5 feet at the withers. The saiga is one of the few antelopes which occur in Europe and Asia. In India there are relatively few antelopes; but the somewhat cowlike nylghau is noteworthy. Related is the Afri- can genus Tragelaphus, including the beautiful harnessed antelopes, with long, spirally-twisted horns. Another African antelope, the gemsbok, is remarkable for its long, straight horns, present in both sexes. The eland {Oreas canna), the largest of all ante- lopes, is said to be rapidly dis- appearing. In structure and in habitat the European chamois connects the antelopes with the goats. No true antelope belongs to America, its so-called 'ante- lope' being a prong horn (q.v.). See also articles on the several species mentioned. Consult Sclater and Thomas, The Book of the Antelopes. Ante Meridiem. See a.m. Anten'nse, or feelers, are sense organs, generally tactile, borne on the head in crustaceans, myriapods, and insects, where they are homologous with the other appendages, such as the jaws. See Insects; Crustacea. Ante'nor, the Trojan counsel- lor who urged the Trojans to restore Helen to Menelaus. Ante-Nuptial Agreement. An agreement made by a man or woman, with each other or with third parties, in contempla- tion of their marriage with one another. The term is most fre- quently applied to an agreement for the settlement of the property of one or both the parties for their joint benefit after marriage and for that of their issue, or to an agreement between them respect- ing the terms on which the wife is to share in the husband's estate in the event of his death. The importance of an ante-nuptial as compared with a post-nuptial agreement lies in the fact that a contemplated marriage is a good consideration for a promise made with reference thereto, whereas a past marriage is not, and in the further fact that at common law the marriage, by merging the wife's legal personality in that of the husband, destroys the woman's ability to enter into a binding contract with her hus- band. Antequera, an-ta-ka'ra (anc. Antiquaria) , town, Spain, in the province of Malaga; 27 miles from Malaga. It has manufac- tures of paper, soap, and sugar and a trade in fruit and wine. Pop. 32,000. Anthe'lia, colored circles, usu- ally three or four in number, which surround the shadow of the observer's head when projected on a fog. They are also known as 'Ulloa's circle,' or as a 'glory.' Anthelmin'tics, remedies which kill or expel intestinal worms. Vermicides kill the worms, vermifuges expel them. For tape worms, oil of male-fern Vol. I. — March '30 Anthem 268 Anthonjr is used; santonin is useful for round worms; and an injection of quassia, or salt and water, is used for thread-worms. An'them, a form of musical composition set to sacred words and used in the service of the church. Compositions of this class were first written to be sung in alternate parts; but great di- versity of treatment has been ad- mitted, and the modern anthem may be written for solo, soli, or chorus, or for some or all of these parts in combination. In the English Church the anthem takes the place of the motet in the Ro- man Church. See Antiphony. Anther, the male organ in flowering plants. It contains the pollen, and is situated at the free end of the stamen. See Flower. Antherid'ium, the male re- productive organ in the fern and moss groups, and in some species of Algae. In every case motile sexual cells, called spermatozoids, are developed within the anthe- ridia. Antherozoid, an-ther-o-zo'id, the free-swimming male element or cell in the sexual reproduction of the lower plants. See Sper- matozoa. Anthol'ogy (Gr. 'flower-gath- ering'), a term meaning a series of select extracts, generally poems, chosen from the works of various authors, and complete in them- selves. Probably the most im- portant is the Greek anthology. The earliest compilation of any note was the Stephanos ('gar- land') of Meleager of Gadara, put together early in the 1st cen- tury B.C. Other similar collec- tions were edited by Philippus of Thessalonica during the reign of Nero, by Strato of Sard is (the Paidike Mousa) under Hadrian, and by Agathias of Constanti- nople {c. 550 A.D.). The earliest and most complete of the extant versions is that brought together by the grammarian Constantinus Cephalas (probably c. 950 a.d.); this work was altered, abridged, and rearranged by Maxim us Pla- nudes, a rhetorician of the early part of the 14th century. This inferior Planudean anthology re- mained for three hundred years the only one known to Europe. It was first printed in Florence by Janus Lascaris (1494), and fre- quently reprinted. The anthol- ogy of Cephalas was rediscovered by Salmasius (1606) in the library of the Counts Palatine at Heidel- berg, whence it is now generally known as the Palatinate An- thology. Salmasius copied the epigrams hitherto unknown, which circulated in MS. as the Anlhologia Inedila; but the first complete edition was published in Brunck's Awa^ec/a Veterum Poeta- rum GrcBCorum (Stras. 1772-6), an improved recension being Jacob's Anlhologia Grceca (Leip., Vol. I. — March '30 13 vols., 1794-1814; and 4 vols., 1813-17). The range of the Greek anthology is from the 6th century B.C. to the 10th century a.d. It was translated into Latin by Hugo Grotius (1630; pub. 1795-1822), into German by Herder (1785-97), into English by Wrangham, Sterling, Gold win Smith, Merivale, Macgregor, Sir R. Garnett, and others. Latin anthologies, in imitation of the Greek, were published by Scaliger (1573), Pitthous (1590), Peter Burmann (1759; ed. Meyer. 1835), and Riese and Bucheler (1894-7). The substance of the numerous Oriental anthologies is accessible to Western readers in Von Hammer-Purgstall's Persian Literature (1818), in his West Turkish Poetry (1836). and in Garcin de Tassy's Hisloire de la literature, Hindoue et Hindoustani (1839-47). The Chinese Shi- King (Book of Songs), attributed to Confucius, and said to be the oldest anthology in the world, has been translated into German by Riickert. The standard English anthol- ogy of modern times is F. T. Pal- grave's Golden Treasury (1861); other well known collections are Trench's Household Book of Eng- lish Poetry (1868), R. W. Emer- son's Parnassus (1875), Quiller- Couch's Oxford Book of Verse (1900), Stedman's Victorian An- thology (1895), and American Anthology (1900); Louis Unter- meyer's Modern American Verse (new ed. 1929); Marguerite Wil- kinson's Contemporary Poetry (1923); Bliss Carman's The Ox- ford Book of American Verse (1927). The Psalms also are virtually an anthology. Anthol'ysis is the formation of double flowers, in which the stamens and carpels become leaf- like; all the organs are usually multiplied. This peculiar condi- tion throws light on the homology of the members of the flower with the foliage leaves. An'thon, Charles (1797- 1867), American classical scholar and writer, was born in New York City. He was educated at Columbia College, from which he was graduated in 1815. He was admitted to the bar. but never practised. In 1820 he was ap- pointed adjunct professor of an- cient languages at Columbia, and fifteen years later was made head of the classical department. While holding these posts he is- sued an extensive series of anno- tated texts of the classics which for many years were exceedingly popular. Besides editing an edi- tion of Lempriere's Classical Dic- tionary (1822), he published in 1841 a Classical Dictionary and a Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1843), both of which have been in extensive use in this country and in Great Britain. Anthony, city, Kansas, coun- ty seat of Harper County, on the Kansas Southwestern, the St. Louis and San Francisco, the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe, the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific, and the Missouri Pacific Railroads; 70 miles southwest of Wichita. It is situated in a good agricultural and stock rais- ing district, and has ice plants and flour mills. Pop. (1910) 2,- 669; (1920) 2,740. Anthony, Henry Bowen (1815-84). American publicist, journalist, and legislator, was born in Coventry, R. I. He was educated at Brown University and was editor of Providence (R. I.) Journal (1838-c. 1858). He was twice (1849-50) governor of Rhode Island. From 1859 until his death he was a Republican U. S. Senator, and in 1863. 1871, and 1884 was president pro tern. of that body. Anthony, John Gould (1804- 77). American conchologist, was born in Providence, R. I. In 1863, at the instance of Louis Agassiz, he became director of the conchological department of the Harvard Museum of Com- parative Zoology, and two years later accompanied Prof. Agassiz on his productive expedition to Brazil. He published A New Trilohite (1831), and descriptions of new species of shells (1839 and 1866). Anthony, St. See Antony, St. Anthony, Susan Brownell (1820-1906), American reformer and prominent advocate of wom- an suffrage, was born in South Adams, Mass.. the daughter of a Quaker. She was educated chief- ly at the Friends' School at West Philadelphia, and early in her career took a zealous interest in temperance and anti-slavery movements. In 1868-71 she published The Revolution, a jour- nal devoted to the woman's rights cause; she also organized, in com- pany with Mrs. Stanton, the National Woman Suffrage Associ- ation, and with her and Mrs. Gage published a volume. History of Woman Suffrage (1881-1902). She was a fluent and eloquent speaker and took a prominent part politically in movements tending to the enfranchisement of women, lecturing frequently in the United States and in England and often speaking before Con- gressional committees and tak- ing part in State political cam- paigns. In 1872 she was ar- rested, tried, and fined for voting illegally under the Fourteenth Amendment. Consult Harper's Life and Work of Susan B. An- thony (2 vols., 1898.) Anthony, William Arnold (1835-1908), American physi- cist, was born in Coventry, R. I., and in 1860 was graduated from the Sheffield Anthony's Nose 269 Anthropoid Apes Scientific School, Yale. He sub- sequently taught physics at An- tioch College, Ohio, Cornell Uni- versity, and Cooper Institute, New York. He published : Man- ual of Physics (with C. F. Brack- ett, 1898); Theory of Electrical Measurements (3d ed. 1908). Anthony's Nose, a promon- tory on the east bank of the Hudson River, between Peeks- kill and West Point, 47 miles north of New York City. Anthophyllite, a fibrous or- thorhombic mineral of the am- phibole group. See Amphibole. Anthozo'a, or Actinozoa, an order of the Coelenterata, includ- ing such polyp-like forms as the corals (except millepores) and sea anemones. See Ccelenter- ata; Corals; Sea Anemone. An'thracene (C6H4C2H2C6H4), a white crystalline solid with blue fluorescence, is an aromatic hy- drocarbon formed when certain carbon compounds are exposed to a high temperature. It was dis- covered in 1832 by Dumas and Laurent. In 1866 Limpricht prepared it by synthesis, and in the same year Berthelot showed its formation by means of tubes heated to redness and the method of extracting it from coal tar. It is produced in large quantities in the manufacture of coal gas (q. v.), and is principally used in the production of alizarin and allied coloring matters. See Ali- zarin. An'thracite, a grade of coal distinguished by its hardness, its high proportion of carbon, and the intense heat given out in burning. Anthracite is brilliant and even metallic in appearance, often with a curious iridescence like that of a peacock's feather; has a hollow, rounded, con- choidal fracture; specific gravity, 1.3 to 1.8. Anthracite contains comparatively little volatile mat- ter, the mineralization of woody matters having been carried to a further degree than in bitumin- ous coal; but it shows occasional traces of the cellular structure of wood. In burning, there is little flame, and no caking; combus- tion is comparatively slow; hence it is of value for fusing refractory metals and for steam raising. The greatest anthracite mines are those of Pennsylvania, and it is also mined in the Rocky Mountain region. Western Can- ada, Wales, Silesia, Westphalia, France, and Russia; while in the Chinese province of Shan -si are said to be the largest deposits in the world. For further descrip- tion and methods of mining, see Coal; Coal Mining. Anthrac'nose, a fungous dis- ease that attacks many plants, including the bean, grape, cotton, blackberry and raspberry, cu- cumber, and eggplant. See Bean; Cotton, Diseases. Vol. I.— Mar. '18 Anthraqui'none, C14H8O2, a yellow crystalline solid obtained from anthracene, used in the manufacture of alizarin (q. v.). 1 Anthrax (French charhon), an infectious disease occurring pri- marily in herbivorous animals, as cattle or sheep, in which it is known also as Splenic Fever; and transmitted to man in a number of industrial pursuits, es- pecially those involving the handling of hides and skins. It exists in all countries, but is more common in Europe and Asia than in America. Causation. — The causative or- ganism of anthrax is the Bacillus anthracis, first observed in 1849 by Pollender, It is one of the largest and most easily recog- nized of the disease-producing organisms; but it is not to be so much feared as a cause of disease as the spore, which is easily car- ried about, and under favorable conditions rapidly germinates and sets up a focus of infection. Animals become infected by in- gestion, when grazing in infected pastures; by inoculation, brought about by contact of abrasions and wounds with infected ma- terials, or by flies or other in- sects; and by inhalation of the spores. In man the disease is most commonly contracted by inoculation or by inhalation. Anthrax in Animals. — The most acute type, apoplectic or ful- minant anthrax, occurs chiefly in cattle or sheep. The symptoms are those of a cerebral apoplexy; the animal reels and falls; there is a bloody discharge from the nose and rectum; and death ensues in a few hours. Anthrax fever, or internal anthrax, differs from the fulminant form chiefly in its duration. It is character- ized by excitability, restlessness, high fever, oozing of blood from the nose, eyes, ears, rectum, and thinner parts of the skin of the axilla or thigh; tremors, dulness, prostration, grinding of the teeth, colicky pains, difficult breath- ing, and convulsions. In sheep death occurs in 24 hours, in cattle from 2 to 5 days, and in horses from 1 to 5 days. In local or external anthrax swellings appear suddenly on different parts of the body, and the animal develops the characteristic symptoms of the other types as the bacilli from the local lesions enter the circu- lation. The principal form of anthrax in man is the so-called malig- nant pustule, due to inocula- tion. This begins, about three days after infection has occurred, with a tiny red pimple, which in- creases in size, developing into a painful vesicle surrounded by a peculiar resilient swelling. The centre of the vesicle rapidly be- comes necrotic, forming a black eschar, around which the skin rises in blisters, while the .lym- phatic glands in the vicinity be- come swollen and painful. In malignant oedema, also due to in- oculation, no pustule is present, but there is extensive swelling, usually on the eyelid, neck, or forearm, accompanied in severe cases by redness, vesication, and a gangrenous appearance of the skin. Either form may develop into a generalized infection {an- thracoemia) by the entrance of the bacillus into the blood stream. Pulmonary anthrax, known also as wool sorters disease and ragpickers' disease, is due to the inhalation of the spores of the an- thrax bacillus in the dust from infected wool and rags. It is comparatively rare, but usually fatal. Swellings and ulcers with hemorrhage occur in the trachea, bronchi, and lungs; collapse en- sues rapidly, and death usually occurs from the second to the fourth day. Intestinal anthrax is a rare form, due to the inges- tion of the bacilli or their spores, and characterized by sudden on- set and collapse. Treatment and Prevention. — The treatment of anthrax in ani- mals is wholly preventive, medi- cation being of no value once the disease has developed. The chief measures are restriction of the movement of infected ani- mals; disinfection of stables and other premises, of body dis- charges, and of everything com- ing into contact with the diseased animal; disinfection and proper disposal of carcasses; and pro- tective inoculation. This last measure was introduced by Pas- teur in 1881, and has proved of great value. Treatment of malignant pus- tule is by the thermocautery, by local injections of iodine or of carbolic acid, or by complete ex- cision, followed by the applica- tion of strong antiseptics. In cases of inoperable anthrax in man, Sclavo's serum treatment has proven efficacious. The chief preventive measures among industrial workers are proper in- spection of hides, skins, hair, etc., especially when imported from countries where the disease is known to be endemic; washing and disinfection of suspected products; dust prevention; and exclusion of workers with open sores. Consult Bulletin 137, U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry (1911); Farmer's Bulletin 439, U. S. Department of Agriculture (1911); Bulletin 205, U. S. Bu- reau of Labor Statistics (1917). Anthropoid Apes, or Simiad^, form, with the exception of man himself, the most specialized members of the Primates. There are four living kinds of anthro- poid apes — the gibbon, orang. Anthropological Societies 270 Anthropology chimpanzee, and gorilla (qq. v.). In all the tail is absent, and there are no cheek pouches. The fore limbs are much longer propor- tionately than in man, and the sternum is broad. See Ape, Consult Hautmann's Anthropoid Apes; Huxley's Man's Place in Nature. Anthropological Societies. See Anthropology. Anthropol'ogy, the Science of Man, embraces all those subjects which deal with man as a social animal. It is the most widely related of the sciences, for it in- cludes or is allied to Ethnology, Archaeology, Ethnography, Soci- ology, History, Physical Geog- raphy, Economics, Philology, the Useful and Fine Arts, Ethics, Re- ligion, Physiology, Psychology, and many other subjects. The study of the natural his- tory of social life, or the investi- gation of peoples in respect of the present state and the evolu- tion of their culture, is known as Ethnology. Although ethnology is subdivided into several sep- arate studies, which deal with arts and crafts on the one hand and with ethical and social mat- ters on the other, yet, since all that man accomplishes is the result of intelligent action, all that is included under ethnology has its psychological aspect. (See Ethnology.) The earlier history of man is known as Archaeology, which is essentially a department of eth- nology, to which it bears a rela- tion similar to that which palae- ontology does to zoology. (See Archeology.) Ethnography is a general term, and signifies a description of the races of men, their material and mental culture, etc., in the geo- graphical groups in which they are found, without reference to their origin, laws of development, and other scientific problems. While the foregoing definition would include many subjects now recognized by common consent as distinct sciences, the province of anthropology is supposed to end wherever and whenever a peo- ple produce written history. Sociology traces the rise of communities, and their evolu- tion to the complex civilizations of ancient and modern times. (vSee vSociology.) History, in the ordinary meaning of the term, deals with the later phases of this development; but sociol- ogy is the endeavor to get be- hind history, and to give an ac- count of the data with which his- torians work. (See History.) The Physical Geography of a country, including its climate, vegetation, and animals, affect profoundly the life of the in- habitants, and we find that cer- tain types of social organization are related to specific habits of Vol. I.— Mar. '18 life. (See Physical Geog- raphy.) With the further ad- vance of civilization there arises the state, which is the subject of Political Science, and the complex conditions of social wealth. (See Economics.) An essential condition of cul- ture is that art of communica- tion which has developed into language and into writing; and the study of the language of a people, or Philology, illustrates the stage of culture which has been reached, and may give a clue to the peoples with whom the race has previously come into contact. (See Philology.) The communication of ideas by vis- ual signs begins with Picture Writing (q. v.) (in which maps may be included), and ends with our alphabet (q. v.). Finally, there are the universal languages of definite signs, of which mathe- matics, music, and to a certain extent chemistry, afford the best examples. The Useful Arts may be next considered. The progress in the improvement of tools and me- chanical appliances has been spasmodic. The similarity of the stone or other implements used by different peoples does not necessarily imply community of origin, nor even the transmission of culture, as the material of which the object is made and the use to which it is put preclude great variety inform. The great- est ingenuity is usually shown in weapons of offence; war has proved a great stimulus to inven- tion, and the wit of the hunter has been sharpened in the con- tinual attempt to circumvent his quarry. Certain crafts, such as agriculture, pottery, and weav- ing, are essentially women's work, as hunting and fighting form that of men. Clothing, house building, travel, transpor- tation, weights and measures, etc., are also studied. (See Met- allurgy; Weaving; Building; etc.) The arts which do not appeal to mere utility, but have been most important factors in the mental development of man, are those which are investigated in the study of Msthetics or the Fine Arts. The temporary deco- ration of the person by paint or ornaments, and its permanent embellishment by tattooing and deformation, are, at least in many cases, associated with some social or religious concept. Panto- mimic dances, music, and feast- ing have played an important part in social development. Sto- ries about the origin of the world and its creatures, and legends of heroes and races, are the begin- nings of literature — at first tra- ditional and oral, later recorded in writing. The rhythmic form, associated with a wealth of simile and allusion, leads to poetry as we know it. (See Literature; Poetry, Drama; etc.) Man's social habit gives rise to customs, and then rules, which make for security and good fel- lowship in the conjmunity. Ac- tions were early distinguished as good or evil, according as they were social or anti-social. These distinctions lie within the field of Ethics, and their sanctions within that of Comparative Religion. Clan morality has widened its area slowly and imperfectly; but the responsibility of the individual was recognized at an early stage, and the social instincts of man have resulted in totemism, and, in a higher form, in various sys- tems of religion. Early specula- tions as to the nature of the sur- rounding world and of human life are, indeed, erroneous; but their errors are such as could be reme- died by no process of logic, but only by wider experience. An- imism and Magic are good exam- ples of theories arising from very limited knowledge. (See Ethics; Religion.) Physical Anthropology, or An- thropometry, is the comparative study of the structure of the hu- man body in the various races of mankind. In the case of living persons, such characteristics as the color of the skin, hair, and eyes, as well as the general pro- portions of bodily stature and facial features, are available for examination; but the detailed study of the skeleton constitutes the most exact part of the sci- ence. In this connection, meas- urements have been devised which are applied in the con- struction of anthropometric ta- bles. The word race is used to designate distinct physical types of mankind, from the intermin- gling of which peoples or nations are developed ; and it is necessary in the study of peoples to analyze the physical factors which have been derived from separate sources. Physical characters may be acquired under varying geological and geographical con- ditions, from climate and tem- perature, from food and exercise; clothing modifies the color of the skin; bones are influenced by habits and posture; and acquired and ancestral characters are transmissible from one generation to another. The most important anthropo- logical measurements are those of the Skull. Their value is partly due to the fact that the skull con- tains the brain; but we must not suppose that the dimensions and capacity of the former ncccvssarily affect the quality of its contents. In the skull, the cranium is dis- tinguished from the face. The former is the box which contains the brain. An estimate of its dimensions is formed by measur- Anthropology 271 Anthropology ing its capacity, its circumference in different directions, segments of its circumference, and the chords which subtend them. The face consists of the apparatus for mastication, and of the parts sur- rounding the organs of sight, smell, taste, and hearing. Its dimensions, either as a whole or in reference to its parts, may be obtained by measurement. The skull may be examined in two ways — inspection by the eye (cranios'copy), and exact measure- ments taken by special instru- 'nents (craniometry). 1. Cranioscopy. — There are cer- 'ain recognized 'views' of the .skull, each of which is termed a norma. The view from above {norma verticalis) rarely shows any part of the face, or at most the lower part of the nose or the margin of the upper jaw; the cheelc arches (zygomae) may be invisible. Three lines of juncture, or sutures, may be seen; the sag- gital, or longitudinal, the highest point in which is termed the vertex; the coronal, at the anterior end of the saggital — the meeting- point between these two being termed the bregma; and the lamb- doidal, at the hinder end of the saggital. The skull is said to be ' well filled * when it bulges on either side of the vertex- but when it presents a rooflike slope, as in the case of many aborigines, it is said to be 'ill-fifled.' The norma lateralis gives the profile view of the cranium and face, and shows the amount of projection of the face and of its separate parts. This view of the cranium shows the projection above the root of the nose {glabella) and the curve of the outline of the vertex. The hinder part of the slope may be precipitous — a deformity due to pressure applied in infancy. This norma also shows the mastoid processes behind the ears, and the temporal ridges associated with^ the temporal muscles of mastication. The norma facialis ^hows the form of the jaws and he character of the teeth, the outlines of the nose and orbits. It is characteristic of man that the highest point of the nasal opening is above the level of the lower border of the orbits. The nasal spine found in the middle line at the lower end of the nasal opening is another important human char- acteristic. The view from behind {norma occipitalis) shows the ex- ternal occipital protuberance or inion, above which the skull is covered by the scalp, while below it are tHe attachments of the muscles of the neck. The point of greatest backward projection of the skull occurs above the inion. The area below the inion looks downwards — a human character- istic directly associated with the erect attituae. The norma injerior is the basal aspect of cranium and face. Its chief feature is the fora- men magnum, the front edge of which is named the basion. On either side of this foramen are the condyles, by which the skull artic- ulates with the vertebral column. It is important to note that in man the foramen magnum looks down- wards, whereas in most quadru- geds it looks directly backwards, ecause of this backward convex- ity of man's skull, the cerebellum ('little brain') is placed below the cerebrum, while in quadrupeds the former is behind the latter. This norma also shows^the form of the hard palate, aud gives a view of the teeth, which is of value in the determination of age and habits. The age of the skull may be estimated with considerable accu- racy from the state of dentition, and the latter also determines the proportion of face to cranium. As a rule, with the exception of the 'wisdom teeth,' or third molars, which may be very late, dentition is completed by the_ twenty-fifth year, and from that time the teeth of m.odern Europeans decay at variable rates; but decay is absent from the teeth of ancient crania and of savage peoples, though the crowns are worn down and flat- tened by the presence of sand in the food. The general ossification of the skeleton also is completed about the twenty-fifth year. Be- tween the eighteenth and twenty- second years the basi-sphenoid articulation on the base of the skull ossifies, and becomes obliter- ated. About the fortieth year the saggital suture begins to ossify at its hinder end. Ten years later, the coronal suture begins to ob- Hterate at the bregma. In savages these changes occur earlier than among civilized peoples, with whom metopism (persistent fron- tal suture) is frequent. Ridges and eminences associated with the attachment of muscles are most marked in adult skulls. Hollow spaces, called 'air sinuses,' which are in direct continuity with the interior of the nose, arc found in certain skull bones. These .spaces cause modifications of contour — e.g. above the eyebrows and the root of the nose — which do not appear before the fifteenth year. There are striking contrasts be- tween the aged skull and that of the adult. In the former, the arched shape of the vault is lost as if by subsidence, while there is an accompanying bulging of the sides and flattening of the base. The loss of teeth from the lower Jaw results in a revision to its infantile form, in which little more than the lower border of the bone is left, while its angle departs from the right-angled adult condition to repeat the obtuse angle of in- fancy. Similar changes occur in the upper jaw; and the cheeks of the living subject become hollow, the face shrinks, the nose pro- trudes, and approximates to the chin. 2. Craniometry. — ^The capacity of the cranium indicates the de- velopment of the brain; but other structures besides the brain are contained within the cranium, and it has been suggested that a deduc- tion of 10 per cent, should be made in order to allow for these. There is no method of estimating the capacity of the cranium which is quite free from error, or by_ which constant results are obtainable. The operator fills the cranium with some substance, which is afterwards measured in a gradu- ated glass vessel. Special precau- tions must be taken to ensure equal conditions of pressure dur- ing both stages of this operation; the routine of the procedure must be rigidly observed* and it is ad- visable to have a large series of observations recorded by the same operator. After experiments with numerous substances such as sand, seed, and water, it has been found that the best results are ob- tained by using chilled shot No. 8, and that, both in filling the skull and in pouring the shot from the skull into the glass measure, it should run through a funnel whose outlet is twenty millimetres in diameter. Even when every pre- caution has been taken, discrepan- cies will arise; but if the variation be no more than 10 cubic centi- metres, it is regarded as 'slight.' The capacity of the normal human cranium varies from 1,000 to 1,800 cubic centimetres. In striking averages, it is preferable to compare crania of the same sex, because the mean capacity of female crania is 10 per cent, less than the mean of male crania. On this basis crania have been classi- fied as: (a) Microcephalic, below 1,350 c.c— 6'.^. extinct Tasmani- ans, aboriginal Australians, Bush people, Andamanese, many Mela- nesians, Veddahs and Hillmen of India; {b) Mesocephalic, from 1,350 c.c. to 1,450 c.c. — e.g. Ne- groes, Malays, American Indi- ans and Polynesians; (c) Megace- phalic, above 1,450 c.c. — e.g. Eskimos, Europeans, Mongolians, Burmese, and* Japanese. The mean capacity among Eu- ropeans is about 1,500 c.c. Sir Wm. Turner has recorded the capacity of a male Scots cranium of nearly 1,800 c.c. and a female aboriginal Australian at 930 c.c. There is no doubt of the human character of the smaller of these two crania, in spite of the enor- mous difference between them. Another great gap separates man from the nearest of the anthro- poid apes, in which 500 c.c. is the maximum capacity. Sex and general bodily statue un- Anthropology 272 Anthropology doubtedly influence the capacity of the cranium, and thus the Weight of the brain. Manouvrier calculates that the cranial capa- city multiplied by 0.87 gives the weight of the brain with reason- able exactness. Linear measurements of the skull may be absolute or relative; and since the cranium is not a rectangular box, it is necessary to measure the distances along the arcs of curves, as well as the chords of these arcs — i.e. the shortest distances between points upon the surface. For these pur- poses two instruments are re- quired — viz. a graduated steel tape and callipers. The latter consis:;s of a straight graduated bar upon which there are two curvea arms; of these one is fixed at zero, while the other may be moved upon the bar so as to record the shortest distance between any two points upon a curved surface. One end of each arm is bent, so as to be available for recording the distance between two opposing points upon the in- ner aspect of such a hollow cham' ber as the nose or orbit. The pres- ent writer has devised a modifica tion of this instrument whereby a third arm is added to the gradu • ated bar. This arm is placed at zero in the centre of the bar, and Is straight, while the two curved arms are both freely movable; thus the relative distances between three points upon the surface of the cranium may be registered — e.g. in deter- mining the amount of asymmetr3\ By the tape, measurements are made of the circumference of the cranium in the horizontal, trans- verse, and longitudinal directions; though, in order to complete the two latter, it is necessary to resort to the callipers. By the latter instrument the length, breadth, and height of the cranium are determined. Length is technically the glabello-orcipital diameter; breadth, for ordinary purposes, is the greatest width; height is the diameter between bregma and basion. The chief interest in the figures thus obtained lies in the comparison of one with the other. It is customary to compare the length with the greatest width. This is done by assuming that the length equals 100, and then repre- senting the width as a percent- age. The result is termed an 'index,' the formula for which is greatest width x 100 , \^ = ""P^^^^^ index. This index affords by far the most important basis for clas- sification of skulls. "When the in- dex is low, length greatly pre- dominates over width, giving an elongated or oval skull; on the other hand, when the index is high, the skull tends to be rounded. The current classification of skulls upon this index is the following: hyper dolichocephalic, below 70; dolichocephalic, from 70-75; mesa- ticephalic, 75-80; brachycephalic, from 80-85; hvperhr achy cephalic, above 85. These divisions are quite arbitrary, and unnecessarily minute. It may serve to indicate the general result of this classi- fication to state that Eskimos, Fuegians, African Negroes, Ved- dahs, Australian aborigines, Fiji- ans, and certain races of N. Europe are typically dolicho- cephalic; while aboriginal Amer- icans, Mal&vs, Mongols, Sand- wich Islanders, Lapps, Finns, Poles, Tyrolese, etc., provide illustrations of brachvcephalic skulls. The mesaticephalic crania are found among Japanese, Chi- nese, Greeks, French, Germans, Danes, British, etc. Sometimes height is contrasted with length, and a vertical index is calculated on the principle stated above. In this way we get low skulls {platycephalic) — e.g. Bushmen ancl aboriginal Aus- tralians; moderate skulls (me- trioccphalic) — e.g. Scottish, Eng- lish; high skulls (acrocephalic)— e.g. Fijians, Loyalty Islanders. From what has been said, it is clear that there are always two distinct and extreme types of cra- nium; but an_v attempt to explain their origin must be largely specu- lative. It must not be forgotten ' that the indices merely express relative proportions between two diameters of the cranium, whose function it is to contain and pro- tect the brain. We do not know whether brain growth has an in- fluence on the period of oblitera- tion of sutures; but when a cranial suture obliterates, no further ex- pansion is possible along that par- ticular line, although this may readilv be compensated bv con- tinuerl growth along the line of another still unobliterated suture. It is possible that these two con- ditions react upon each other in producing the dift'erent types of cranium. The Face is of peculiar interest, because it is modified more rapidly than the cranium in the process of evolution. To define its limits is not so simple as it might appear. Popularly, the face includes the forehead, and extends to the tip of the chin; anatomically, the forehead, being part of the cra- nium, is not included in the face. Sometimes its upper limit is taken above the root of the nose, in order to include the evebrows; but, as a rule, the root of the nose (fronto- nasal suture) is the limit. The facial width is calculated between the projecting convexities of the zygomatic arches. A percentage comparison of the length and widtn gives a facial index, accord- ing to which high faces are above and low faces are below ninety. The lower jaw, however, is fre- quently absent from collected skulls, since this bone may be used as an ornament — e.g. in'New Guinea, where it is used as a bracelet. Accordingly, an upper facial or maxillary index is neces- sary, in which fifty forms the dividing line between high and low faces. Most Europeans have high — i.e. narrow — faces ; but Mongols, Eskimos, etc., have low or broad faces. The skeleton of the nose varies greatly; and the marked contrast between the Grecian rose and the squat bridgeless nose of the aboriginal Austrahan or extinct Tasmanian is chiefly due to a difference in the size of the nasal bones. The nasal spine of the anterior nasal aperture may be well developed, as in Europeans, or feebly, as in the aboriginal Austrahan, who, in this respect, approximates to the lower animals. When it is feeble, a certain amount of jaw projec- tion (prognathism) is always present; and this becomes pro- nounced when, as in the apes, the nasal spine is absent. The nasal aperture of the skull looks for- wards; its downward direction during life is due to cartilages which are absent from the dry skull. The height of the nose is measured from its roof to the an- terior nasal spine; the width is taken where greatest. From these data a nasal index is calculated according to which a skull is leptorhine (narrow nostrils) below 48 — e.g. Engish, Eskimos, etc.; mesorhine (medium nostrils) from 48-53 — e.g. Chinese, etc.; pla- tyrhine (broad nostrils) above 53 — e.g. aboriginal Australian. No European is ever platyrhine,* nor any aboriginal Australian ever leptorhine. The orbit is the somewhat pyramidal cham- ber which lodges the eye-ball; the height and width of its outlet are compared. These meas- urements are taken at right angles to each other, the width being calculated from the dacryon — a fixed point upon the inner wall — to the most distant point upon the outer edge of the orbit. The width is always greater than the , . , ^ , , height X 100 height, and hence = orbital index. High orbits (megaseme) are above 89 — e.g. Andamancse, Chinese; moderate orbits {mcsoseme) from 84-89 — e.g. English; low orbits [micro- seme) Ixdow 84— <^.^. Bushmen and aboriginal Australians. By various measurements of the hard palate we obtain a palatal ind'^ which expresses the relation o* width to length. As a rule, the width exceeds the length; but in apes the opposite is the case, and aboriginal Australians approxi- Anthropology mate to the apes in this re- spect. So far the cranium and the face have been considered separately, but they must be compared in order to express the relation of face to cranium. The scientific terms indicate the relative projec- tion of the face in front of th cra- nium. Such animals as the horse, tiger, ape, etc., in which the amount of projection is great, are called prognathic. Europeans, in whom the amount of projection is slight, are called orthognathic; but the lower races are prognathic. To determine the amount of pro- jection, the distance from the basion to the base of the incisor teeth is multiplied by 100, and the product is divided by the dis- tance from the basion to the root of the nose. The quotient gives the gnathic index. Skulls below 98 are orthognathous — e.g. Euro- peans, Bushmen; from 98-103, mesognathous — e.g. Chinese, Jap- anese, Malays, Maoris; above 103, prognathous — e.g. Hottentots, Ne- groes, Kaffirs, aboriginal Austra- lians. Prognathism may be inten- sified by the lips, incisor teeth, and lower jaw, by the curvature of the skull, and by its attitude upon the spinal column, which is, nor- mally with the axis of vision, hori- zontal. The facial angle, which only affects the face, and may be determined on the living head as well as on the skull, may also express the amount of prognath- ism. _ To obtain this angle, a line is drawn from the external auditory opening either to the subnasal point {camper) or to the alveolar point between the two central incisor teeth (cloquet). This line is intersected by a face line, drawn from the face margin of the upper lip to the glabella. The facial angle is highest among Europeans, whose skulls are or- thognathous, and becomes lower according to the amount of prog- nathism. Deformities of the cranium may result from a variety of causes, and the two lateral halves are rarely, if ever, symmetrical. A disease such as hydrocephalus enlarges the skull in all directions. Prem- ature closure of certain sutures may cause abnormal expansion in special directions, producing skulls which are unduly elongated, rounded, or even _ triangular. Again, certain aboriginal tribes and some civilized peoples cause artificial flattening of the front, back, and sides of the skull by eeculiar methods of treating the cads of infants. Lastly, it has been observed that deformity re- sulting from pressure occurs in skulls which have been softened by burial in water-laden or clay soils. The Spinal Column of the in- fant consists of thitry-three dis- 273 tinct vertebrae. Of these, twenty- four remain separate in the adult, while five fuse to form the sacrum, and four to form the coccyx, or concealed and rudimentary tail. Between the bodies of each pair of distinct vetebrae there is an intervertebral disc of white fibrous tissue having a certain amount of elasticity. In Europeans the verte- br£E present certain definite char- acters; but occasionally structural variations occur, suggesting condi- tions characteristic of lower ani- mals. Such variations are much more common among the lower human races. During life the adult vertebral column of man presents three well-marked curves — viz. cervical, dorsal, and lumbar, of which the cervical and lumbar have their convexity, while the dorsal curve has its concavity, forwards. These curves are di- rectly associated with man's bi- pedal gait and his erect attitude, in which the weight of the head requires to be poised upon the summit of the vertebral column. The curves are therefore most dis- tinct in civilized man, but the difference between him and primi- tive man is only one of degree. Quadrupeds do not possess these curves, and the anthropoid apes show them only to a modified extent. At the time of birth the spinal curves of the human infant are quadrupedal, but with the ac- quisition of the erect attitude the curves change gradually into those which are characteristic of the adult civilized man. The Sacrum is very wide in relation to its length, and the percentage proportion between these measurements is expressed by a sacral index. Width pre- dominates in white races, but among many black races the length is the greater — the nor- mal condition in lower animals. The Pelvis, or basin, consists of the sacrum and the two haunch bones articulated together. It ranks next to the skull in an- thropological importance, and possesses peculiar interest both because of modifications due to the erect attitude and because of sex characters associated with its obstetrical functions. Compared with that of animals, the human pelvis presents great breadth and shallowness, while the capacity of what is called the 'true pelvis' is also great. The pelves of the various human races present cer- tain differences, the most impor- tant of which have relation to the antero-posterior and trans- verse diameters of the inlet or brim of the true pelvis. The per- centace relation between these two diameters provides the pelvic or brim index. In classifying the indices, it is necessary to group the pelves of the two sexes sepa- rately; the male pelvis is the Anthropology more important for comparison. According to Turner, pelves whose index is below 90 are platypellic — e.g. European; 90-95, mesatipellic ■ — e.g. Negroes; above 95, dolicho- pellic — e.g. aboriginal Australians, Andamanese, orang-outang (126), chimpanzee (133), gorilla (144). In this respect dolichopellic races closely approximate to the lower animals. Among Europeans both sexes are platypellic. Increased width is a feature of all female pelves, and Turner knows no race in which the females have doli- chopellic pelves. The Lower Limb consists of the haunch; a shaft, divisible into thigh (of which the femur forms the skeleton) and leg (containing the tibia and fibula); and the foot. This limb is used for support and locomotion; only to a very slight extent can the foot be u^ed for grasping. _ The femur presents many distinctive human charac- ters directly associated with the erect attitude. Before birth this bone closely resembles the femur of the anthropoid ape. Its propor- tions and general characters in the adult have intimate relation with the stature, attitude, muscularity, and habits of the individual; it may also be used in determining sex. The maximum diameter of its head, as well as that of its lower or condylar end, are found with callipers. In the upper and middle thirds _ of its shaft the _ antero- posterior and transverse diameters are taken at fixed points. In the upper section the percentage com- parison between the two diameters yields a platymeric index, and in the middle section we obtain a pilastric index. Each of these gives interesting results which bear upon attitude and habits. The total length of the femur, as of any long bone, is obtained by using an osteometric board, of which there are several varieties. Among Europeans its length is about 18 in. in males, and 17 in. in females. The two femurs of the same person are very rarely of equal length. In relation to the total stature of the individual the femur equals about .275. Of the bones of the leg, the fibula, or outer bone, possesses no special interest; but the tibia, or shin bone, is important. Its upper or knee joint end may present its articular surfaces looking up- wards or considerably bent back- wards. The latter condition, which is called retroversion, is usually associated with consider- able lateral compression of the shaft, whereby its antero-poste- rior diameter greatlv exceeds its width. The amount of this flat- tening (platyhirmia) is calcu- lated at the middle of the shaft , tibial length y 100 ^ antero-posterior diameter Anthropology 274 Anthropology platyknemic index. The total length of the tibia, which does not include the spine at its upper end, is measured as in the femur. It is believed that squatting— z.e. sitting on the heels — influences longer than the tibia, but the pro- portions vary; the relationship is J V tibial length x 100 expressed by ; — = femoral length tibio-femoral index. In Europeans this index is about 81; aboriginal Anthropology. — Craniometry. A, Norma verticalis. B, Norma lateralis. C, Norma occipitalis. D, Norma inferior. El, E2, Dolichocephalic type (negro). Fl, F2, Brachycephalic type (Chinese). Gl, G2, Mesaticephalic type (European). II, Prognathous type (Australian). K, Calipers. not only the extent of the articular surfaces at the upper and lower ends of the femur, but that retro- version of the tibial head, platy- knemia of its shaft, and extension of its inferior articular surface to the front of the bone, are due to the same cause. Similar appear- ances are found in the row-born infant, but these usually disappear tmle.ss fixed by the squatting at- titude. From' the fact that the hones of prehistoric man pre- sented similar conditions, many investigators believe that he could not walk erect, but assumed the posture of the anthropoid apes. The human femur is a^vays Australians, 83; Tasmanians, 85; Bushmen, 86. All above 83 are dolichoknemic — i.e. the proportion of leg to thigh is greater than in Europeans; all below 83 are hrachyknemic. It is seldom that the two lower limbs are of equal length, but taken together, the femur and tibia are used for deter- mining the stature. Of several methods, the simplest is: length of tibia -}- length of femur x 2, and 1 in. added for soft parts. Up to ten vears of age the rate of growth 'is greater in the male than in the female; from ten to fourteen vears the female is the taller; 'after fourteen the male again preJominates. The maximum height is reached about the thirty-fifth year; and as ossification is completed about the twenty-sixth year, the addi- tional height is believed to be gained by an increase in the inter- vertebral discs. The peoples of the world present great differences in height. Among Andamanese the mean height is below 5 ft., and among Bushmen, Lapps, Es- kimos, and Veddahs the average is also below 5 ft. (1.4 to 1.5 m.). The Akka of equatorial Africa, in whom the height of both males and females is below 4 ft., are the most dwarfed; but among the more northern tribes the height is greater^ through intermarriage with negroes. The Upper Limb is primarily adapted for grasping (prenension), and in a minor degree for support and locomotion. The clavicle, or collar bone, merely presents varia- tions in length and thickness, due to stature and muscularity. The scapula, or shoulder blade, is plate- like and triangular. Its anatomi- cal features are believed to be con- siderably modified by muscularity, depending upon habits and occu- pation. In man (unlike quadru- Eeds) the length exceeds the width. ,ength is reckoned from the upper to the lower angles of the bone, and width from the middle of the outer border of the glenoid fossa to the vertebral border at the root of its spine. From these , ^ width X 100 , . J data — length — =scapular index. Among Europeans the mean in- dex is 65.3. but is higher in infants than in aaults. The index varies from 62 6 in Lapps, and 64.9 in aboriginal Australians, to 70.2 among Andamanese. It is doubt- ful whether it possesses much value as a race character. The' humerus, or upper arm bone, is a typical long bone. The maximum diameter of its head possesses a certain amount of value as a sex character. A small hookhke pro- jection on its shaft — supracon- dyloid process — is occasionally found, representing a portion of bone which encloses a foramen in many animals. Sometimes the olecranon fossa is perforated ■ — a condition which was of fre- quent occurrence in prehistoric bones. The radius and ulna — the outer and inner bones of the fore arm — are not in themselves of great interest. For some time, however, it has been recognized that there are variations in the rela- tive lengths of upper arm and fore arm. In expressing this relation- ship, the lenjTth of the humerus is compared with that vi the radius, , , length of ra dius x 100 _ ^"'^ length of humerus ~ radio-humeral index. A high in- dex, therefore, indicates a long fore arm in relation to the upper A.nthropology 275 arm, and vice versd. The Lapps and the Eskimos, who have the shortest fore arms, have an index about 71; Europeans, 74; aborig- inal Australians, 77; Negroes, 79; Andamanese, 81; the chimpanzee, shaft of the upper limb is longer than that of the lower limb, as in the orang. The fullest exposition of these details is known as BertiUonage, from M. Bertillon, who aims at Anthropology. — Spinal Column and Pelvis. Figs. I.-IV., Spina/ Cwrres.— I. European (male). II. European (female). III. Hottentot — bushman. IV. Orang:. (C, cervical ; d, dorsal ; L, lumbar ; s, sacral vertebrae.) Fig. V„ Lumbo- Scleral Angle.~T&, fifth lumbar vertebra ; si, first sacral. Fig. VI., Inclination of the Brim of the Pelvis and its Axis in the Erect Posture.— a b, horizontal line ; cd, line of inclination of the brim of the true pelvis ; e/, axis of inferior outlet ; flf, diameter of inferior outlet. Fig. VII., Male PeMs (European). Fig. VUl., Female Prlvis (European).— a.b, antero-posterior or conjugate diameter; cd, transverse or widest diameter ; ef, gh, oblique diameter. 90; and the gorilla, 100. This in- dex is higher in the infant than in the adult. Indices are also employed to represent the relative length of the humerus and femur, the latter being taken as 100. This is called the Jetnoro -humeral index. Fur- ther, the combined length of the humerus and radius is compared with that of the femur and tibia, by regarding the latter as equal to 100. In this manner an intcrmcm- hral index is obtained, which, when it is above 100, indicates that the establishing the identity' of indi- viduals by careful tabulation and classification of the data obtained by measurements. For this pur- pose actual measurements, ancf not indices, are employed — e.g. stand- ing height; sitting" height; span of arms; length and breadth of ear, of nose; length of fore arm and hand, of foot, of fingers, etc. The color of the eyes — i.e. of the iris — and the nature and direction of the opening between the evelids are also observed and noted. Similar attention is paid to the color of Anthropomorphism the skin (whether black, brown, yellow, copper color, fair white, or dark white), and to marks upon it, such as tattooing, or scars re- sulting from wounds. The natural structure of the skin, as seen in the palm of the hand and sole of the foot, where it shows fine alter- nating ridges and furrows, has led to elaborate methods of recording, classifying, and interpreting the finger-print patterns which may be obtained from the palmar surface of the terminal phalanges of the digits. Lastly, the hair is studied in regard to its color, and the Specimens of Finger Prints {enlarged). shape which it presents on section. Among Europeans and American Indians it is circular, in trans- verse .section; among aboriginal Australians, ovoid; among Hot- tentots, laterally compressed; among Papuans, kidney-shaped. Huxley _ classified mankind as Iciolrichi (smooth-haired) and ulotrichi (crisp or woolly haired). See the art. Man; and Turner, in Challenger Reports, and papers in J our. of Anat. and Phvs.; Tylor's Anthropology (1881);" Deniker's The Races of Men (1900); Galton's Finger Prints (1893); Bertillon's Identification A nthropometrique (2nd ed. 189.3); Henry's Classifi- cation and Uses of Finger-Prints (1900); Hepburn, papers in Jour, of Anat.; and Proc. Ed. Roy. Soc. Anthropomorphism (Gr. 'in the form of man'), usually defined as the ascription to the Deity of qualities which properly belong to human beings, really denotes a more generic tendency to repre- sent all things under conceptions derived from man's personal ex- perience. Thus, the child instinc- tively attributes feelings like its own to inanimate objects, and it is never possible entirely to banish this element from our thought. Many of our most important conceptions are, in varying degrees, transcripts oj the nature of the self, and there: fore anthropomorphic. The an thropomorphism which science An th ropophagi and philosophy have to avoid arises from the mind's imposing its own nature upon things, not in the way which is essential to cognition, but in ways that are arbitrary and unintelligent. But anthropomorphism is most prom- inently exemplified in religious thought. It is impossible for the religious mind to formulate the relations between God and man save by attributing to Him a na- ture akin to its own. Still, there have been sects in the Christian Church whose doctrine of God has assumed forms so anthropomor- phic as to threaten the purity of the faith. It is impossible to for- get that the attraction of Chris- tianity for man, and its power over his heart, is largely due to its setting forth the Divine so Uvingly in terms of the human. A-nd tJ lose who put forward vari- ous reasons fcr denying altogether the legitimacy of such forms of thought have to answer the ques- tion whether science is not as an- thropomorphic in construing the universe logically and rationally ^s religion is in construing it fliorally and spiritually. In both cases it is a reasonable position that anthropomorphism is forced ?n us by fidelity to the facts. Anthropophagi. See Canni- balism. Anthurium, a large genus of 'Topical American plants, belong- ing to the arum order. Certain >pecies are cultivated in hot- houses for their red, flaring spathes. Antibes {a.nc. Antipolis), fort.tn, and health resort of France, 12 m. 3.W. of Nice in the French Riviera. The harbor is deep and easy of access. Oranges and olives are cultivated, and there are several tobacco factories. Pop. (1901) 10,947. Anti-Burghers, Scottish seces- sionists who, in 1747, condemned the 'burgess oath,' and adopted the name General Associate Synod. See Presbyterian Church. Anticlilor, a name given by bleachers and papermakers to any substance used to neutralize small Quantities of free chlorine which tne cloth or paper retains. If not removed, the chlorine would act injuriously on the fabric, de- / stroy the dyes, and damage the machinery. In paper it would bleach the inks used in printing or writing, and in time destroy the fibres. Hyposulphite of soda and sulphite of soda are the princi- pal antichlors. The presence of free chlorine is indicated by a very simple test. A quantity of any ordinary starch is boiled in water, and a few crystals of potassium iodide added. When the solu- tion is cold, a few drops of it on the fabric or paper pulp contain- ing chlorine is at once turned blue. The antichlor is then added to the 276 bulk of the pulp until the test produces no blue color. Antichrist. In the New Tes- tament the word occurs only in the Epistles of John (1 John 2:18,22; 4:. 3; 2 John ver. 7). It may mean either a false claim- ant to the Messiahship or an antagonist to the true Messiah. Of the former aspect of the per- sonage or personages denoted by the name, we have illustrations in the discourses of Jesus — 'false prophets,' 'false Christs' (Matt. 7:15; 24:11,24- Mark 13:22; Luke 21 :S); while the Johannine passages noted above furnish ex- amples of the latter. In 2 Thess. 2 : 2-12 Paul amalgamates the two in the figure of the 'man of sin,' the lawless one, who, meanwhile mysteriously held in check, will be at length fully revealed as the blasphemer and adversary of God; only, however, to be finally over- thrown at Christ's second coming. Next we have the antagonistic powers of the Book of Revelation: the beast that rises from the abyss and wars successfully against the two witnesses, ch. 11; the dragon of ch. 12; and the two beasts of ch. 13, one of which blasphemes God, while the other bears the character of a false prophet, and deceives men by his miracles. It is not easy to frame from these data a con- sistent figure of antichrist. In the view of the early eschatologists, the antichrist is a definite person- ality, a Jewish pretender to the Messiahship who is to appear to- wards the end of the world, rebuild Jerusalem and establish himself there, and, performing great signs and wonders, gain the allegiance of the world. The two witnesses who withstand him are Enoch and Elijah, who convert some from their delusion; but at length, the true Messiah having come to the rescue of the faithful, the forces of antichrist are shattered and himself slain. With this as our starting-point, we may endeavor (1) to find a fulfilment of the prophecy regarding antichrist. The Westminster Confession of Faith, for instance, and indeed most of the reformers, identify him with the Pope ; others, again, regard Mohammed as anti- christ. But whatever points of resemblance may exist between the mysterious personality of Scripture and these or other in- dividuals, the whole method of interpretation is prepo«,terous and unwarranted. (2) It is a more promising mode of inquiry to seek to trace the elements of the figure of antichrist which may have been suggested by the adverse expe- riences of the early Christian Church. Paul's teaching regard- ing the 'man of sin' was doubtless influenced by the bitter opposition which his preaching evoked among the Jews; while it was Anticline natural enough that the cruelties wreaked upon the Christians by 'the persecuting emperors Caligula and Nero should seem to exalt these men to the unholy eminence of being incarnations of the un- seen powers that defy God. (3) Finally, we may not unprofitably seek for some ancient tradition which, with gradual transforma- tions and accretions, at length de- veloped to the idea of the potent adversary of all that was divine — an earthly representative of Satan, as Christ was of God. Now, as a matter of fact, we find in Jewish tradition the sinister figure of such an adversary, traceable, as some think, even to the Tiamat of Babylonian mythology, and embracing such opponents to the divine purposes as Gog (Ezek. 38 /.; cf. Rev. 20 : 8), the beasts of Dan. 7, Belial or Beliar (2 Cor. 6:15), and Satan himself. Here we seem to find the key to the problem of antichrist. See Al- lord's 2 Thess. for a very ex- haustive list of identifications; also Bousset's Der Antichrist (Eng. trans. 1896). Anticlimax, a rhetorical figure in which the expressions, after rising in intensity, suddenly fall to a lower level — e.g. 'For the cause of liberty we would sacri- fice everything, including even our wife's relatives' (Artemus Ward). Anticline. Through a flexure of the earth's crust the rocks, which normally lie horizontal with the older rocks below, may be elevated into an upward fold or arch known as an anticline. Anticline, denuded (diagram- matic section). The limbs or wings are the curved parts which slope away from the medial or axial line and with it they may be inclined at very different angles. By denudation the top of the anticline is worn away and the lower and older beds are brought to view. From the centre of the denuded por- tion, in going to the outer edge of each limb, one passes in regu- lar order from the older to the newer strata. Anticlines may be so small as to be observed in a hand specimen, or of such pro- fortions as to form mountains, t is not unusual in many moun- tain chains to find anticlines run- ning side by side in nearlv parallel directions as is well illustrated in the Appalachian sections o/ the United States. Anti-Corn Law League 277 Antigonish Anti-Corn Law League, an organization formed in 1838-9, under the leadership of Cobden, Bright, Villiers, Joseph Hume, and Roebuck, to effect the repeal of the British corn laws. Upon the accomplishment of its object (1849-9), the league was dis- solved. See Corn Laws. Anticos'tl, island, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada, which it divides into two channels. It is about 140 miles long, with an average breadth of 27>^ miles, the surface being chiefly rocks and swamps. Hills in the interior rise to about 600 feet. Owing to the channel currents, navigation near the coast is dangerous, and the government maintains several lighthouses on the island, which also serve as relief stations. Anti- costi has considerable salmon, trout, cod, and herring fisheries, and is a resort for seal and bear hunting. Marl and extensive peat deposits are found. It is visited by fishermen in the summer, but practically the only inhabitants are the lighthouse keepers and a few officials. In 1886 the Island was purchased as a game pre- serve by M. Menier of Paris. It is attached to the province of Quebec. Anticy 'clone, an area of high barometric pressure surrounded by nearly circular isobars. The barometer is highest in the cen- tre, and gradually falls as it pro- ceeds outwards. The air in the centre is calm, cold in winter and warm in summer; while the winds blow spirally outwards round the centre, in the direc- tion of the hands of a watch in the northern, and in the opposite way in the southern hemisphere. Radiation is a marked feature of anticyclonic weather, the sky being usually blue, the air dry, cold in the shade but hot in the sun, and hazy, with heavy dew or hoar frost at night. See Cyclone; Weather. Anticyra, an-tis'i-ra, or Anti- CIRRHA, the name of three towns of ancient Greece — one in Phocis, on a bay of the Gulf of Corinth; one in Locris, also on the Corin- thian Gulf; and one in Thessaly. All were famous for the produc- tion of hellebore (q. v.). Antidlphtberitic Serum. See Serum. An 'tidote, any substance which prevents or counteracts the effects of poison, either by its chemical action or its physiologi- cal effects. For a table of the com- moner poisons and their anti- dotes, see First Aid. See also Poisons. Antletam Creek, an-te'tam, a narrow but deep stream rising in the Alleghany Mountains, Penn- sylvania, and flowing south into the Potomac River near Sharps- burg, Md. Battle of Antietam or Sharps- VOL. I.— Oct. '18. burg.— On Sept. 16 and 17, 1862, one of the most hotly contested battles of the Civil War was fought immediately west of An- tietam Creek, about Sharpsburg, between the Federal Army of the Potomac, numbering about 87,- 000, under Gen. G. B. McClellan, and the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia, numbering about 55,000, under Gen. Robert E. Lee. The Union loss in killed, wounded, and missing was about 12,400; that of the Confederates about 11,100, the combined losses of the two armies on Sept. 17, during which most of the fight- ing occurred, making it, accord- ing to Longstreet, 'the bloodiest single day of fighting of the war.* Lee awaited a renewal of the fighting on the 18th, but McClel- lan remained inactive, and on the 19th Lee withdrew across the Potomac into Virginia, thus abandoning his Maryland cam- paign. For this reason the battle has been called a strategical vic- tory for the Federals; tactically, however, neither side can be said to have been victorious, though military critics agree that Lee's generalship far excelled that of McClellan. In the North the battle was regarded as a Federal victory both strategically and tactically, and it led President Lincoln to issue his preliminary emancipation proclamation of Sept. 22, 1862. Antifeb'rin, the trade name for Acetanilide or Phenyl- ACETAMIDE, CHaCONHCeHs, prepared by boiling aniline with glacial acetic acid. It is a colorless crystalline powder, slightly sol- uble in water, and with a punrent taste. It is used in medicine as an antipyretic and analgesic, in place of quinine, and is a common ingredient of so-called 'headache powders.' It should not be taken except under medical advice. Anti-Fed 'eralists, in American political history, a name first ap- plied to those who in the various States opposed the ratification of the Federal Constitution of 1787, which, they thought, provided for a too highly centralized form of government; and afterwards to those who, in the early years of the National Government, in- sisted on a strict rather than a liberal construction of the Con- stitution and, in particular, vigorously opposed the centraliz- ing measures of Alexander Hamil- ton, the leader of the Federalists. While the two groups were not identical — for instance, Jefferson approved the ratification of the Constitution, but was pre-emi- nently a strict constructionist — they were in general made up of the same class of men. They furnished most of the leaders and formed the basis of the later Democratic-Republican Party, which came into existence about 1792. Loosely the members of this latter party are also often spoken of as Anti-Federalists. See Democratic Party; Feder- alists; Hamilton, Alexander; United States, History. Anti-FouUng Compositions, substances for application to the under-water parts of ships to prevent the adherence of sea- weeds, barnacles, etc. They act on the principle of providing a coating that will give way when the plant or animal attains any considerable size, or that con- tains an ingredient inimical to life. With wooden ships, sheath- ing of copper, or some alloy of copper, is quite effective, acting chiefly, but not wholly, on the second principle; with iron ships, however, the destructive galvanic action between the two metals renders such a protection impos- sible without the interposition of a costly wooden sheathing. Slow- moving iron sailing ships may be treated with a greasy composition of the first class; but as this would be washed off in the case of steamships, a coating of the poisonous variety is necessary to vessels of that class. Many such paints, of various degrees of efficiency, have been patented, the most effective being those which contain insoluble mercury compounds, as the cyanide or oxide, which are slowly given off from the vehicle enclosing them. Antlgo, an'ti-go, city, county seat of Langlade county, Wiscon- sin, fn Chicago and Northwestern Railroad; 205 miles northwest of Milwaukee. It is the centre of a rich agricultural region, and has numerous industrial establish- ments, including breweries, dairies, foundries, machine shops, railroad shops, manufactures of wood and iron, and wagon works. Pop. (1900), 5,145; (1910), 7,196. Antigone, an-tig'o-ne, in an- cient Greek legend, the daughter of CEdipus (q. v.) by his mother Jocasta. Antigone is represented as a maiden of noble and un- selfish character. Her devotion to her father led her to accom- pany him when exiled from Thebes, and her affection for her brother Polynices (q. v.) gave her courage to defy the pro- hibition of Creon, then ruler of Thebes, which forbade the honor- ing of Polynices' corpse with the rites of burial. For the latter offence she was buried alive. It is particularly in Sophocles' play, called by her name, that her character is developed; but she appears also in his Oedipus Colo- neus, in the Seven against Thebes of ^schylus, and in the Phcenissce of Euripides. See Sophocles.^ Antlgonisli, an-tig-o-nesh', formerly Sydney or Sidney, sea- port town. Nova Scotia, capital of Antigonish county, on the Intercolonial River. It contains Antigonus 278 Anti-Monopoly Party St. Ninian Cathedral, a Catholic seminary, and the college of Saint Francis Xavier. Pop. (1901) 1,526; (1911) 1,787. Antig'onus, known as Cy- clops or the One-Eyed, one of the generals (381-301 B.C.) of AlexandertheGreatof Macedonia. After the latter's death Antigonus became ruler of Greater Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia. Aspiring to the sovereignty of Asia, he defeated and killed Eumenes (316 B.C.), and for several years waged war with Seleucus, Ptol- emy, Cassander, and Lysimachus. After defeating Ptolemy's fleet (306), he took the title of king. He was eventually defeated by Lysimachus at Ipsus, in Phrygia (301), and fell in the battle. Antigonus Do'son ('about to give'), so called as he was lavish in promises, but slow to perform, was a son of Demetrius of Cyrene and grandson of Demetrius Poliorcetes. On the death of Demetrius ii. of Macedonia, he married the latter's widow, and became king. He defeated Cleomenes of Sparta at Sellasia, and took Sparta (221 B.C.). He died in 220 B.C. Antigonus Gona'tas, son of Demetrius Poliorcetes, and grandson of Antigonus, the One- eyed (q. v.). He assumed the title of King of Macedonia in 283 B.C. Pyrrhus of Epirus drove him out of his kingdom in 277 and again in 273, but he twice regained it. He died in 239. Antigua, an-te'gwa, British island, the most important of the Leeward group of the West Indies, is situated in 17° 6' N. lat. and 61° 45' w. long. It is 28 miles long and 14 miles wide, having a total area of 108 square miles. The surface is generally rugged, and numerous islets, rocks, and shoals border the shore. Sugar, cotton, and pine- apples are the chief products. The island is the seat of govern- ment of the British colony. The capital and chief town is St. John. Population, including the dependent islands of Barbuda and Redonda, 32,269 (1911). Antigua was discovered in 1493 by Columbus. It was first settled by a few English in 1632, and was declared a British pos- session by the Treaty of Breda (1667). It has suffered severely from earthquakes in 1689, 1843, and 1874; and also from hurri- canes, as in 1899. Antigua, town, Guatemala, Central America, between the volcanoes Fuego and Aqua. Pop. 14,000. Antl-Jacobln. See Canning, George. Anti-Lebanon, or Anti-Li- BANUS. See Lebanon. Antilegomcna, an-ti-le-gom'e- na (Gr. 'things spoken against'), a term applied by Eusebius to Vol. I.— Oct. '18. 2 Peter, James, Jude, Hebrews, 2 and 3 John, and Revelation, which were not at first admitted into the New Testament canon; called by the Roman Catholics enter ocanonical. See Bible. Anti-Libanus. See Lebanon. AntUles, an-til'lez. See West Indies. Anti-Loafing Laws, Compul- sory Work Laws, or Lazy Man's Laws, a name applied to a number of State laws enacted in 1917 and 1918, whereby every able-bodied man in the State is required to engage in some useful occupation. Laws of this charac- ter were passed by Maryland and West Virginia in 1917 and by New York and New Jersey in 1918. The New York law, which was signed by the Governor on May 13, and put into efi"ect by pro- clamation June 1, 1918, requires all able-bodied men between the ages of 18 and 50 to be regularly employed for at least 36 hours a week. Those who are unsuccess- ful in seeking employment are required to register with the Bureau of Employment of the Department of Labor or such other agency as the State Indus- trial Commission may designate, and any person failing to register within 30 days after the date of the proclamation, or continuing out of employment for any period of 30 days without having so registered, or who refuses to accept employment assigned to him by the State Industrial Commission, is declared guilty of a misdemeanor and punishable by a fine not to exceed $100, by imprisonment for not more than three months, or both. A similar measure, but one not to be confused with the State laws, was taken by Provost Marshal General Crowder, who on May 23, 1918, issued an edict requiring all men of draft age to engage in some useful occupa- tion or be inducted into military service (see Conscription). Antiloctius, an-til'o-kus, one of the heroes of the Trojan War, son of Nestor and friend of Achilles, renowned for beauty and bravery; fell in battle while trying to save the life of his father, but was revenged by Achilles. The ashes of the three friends, Antilochus, Achilles, and Patroclus, were placed in the same grave near the Hellespont. Antimachus, an-tim'a-kus, the CoLOPHONiAN, a Greek poet who flourished during the latter period of the Peloponnesian war. His works, of which the chief were Thebias, an epic, and Lyde, an elegy, exist now only in frag- ments. Quintilian placed him first after Homer. Anti- Mason Mc Party, a short- livcfl political organization in the United States, based, in its origin, on opposition to the Free Masons, but soon becoming essentially an anti-Jacksonian party. The occa- sion for its organization was the sudden and mysterious dis- appearance (1826) of William Morgan, of Batavia, N. Y., a Mason, who had threatened to divulge the secrets of his order. The Masons were at once charged with foul play, though the charge was never conclusively proved, and the belief became current that legislatures, juries and judges, and newspapers through- out the United States were under the influence of the Masonic Order, and that Masonry was a menace to the country. Within a year a distinct Anti-Masonic party was organized (1827) in New York, and the movement spread rapidly to other States. The new party rose to power under the leadership, in New York, of such men as Thurlow Weed, W. H. Seward, Francis Granger, Myron Holley, Wil- liam H. Maynard, and Albert Tracy, and in Pennsylvania of Thaddeus Stevens and Joseph Ritner (who was elected governor in 1835); it elected many State officers and State legislators and a number of Congressmen, and even entered national politics, though its candidates for the presidency and the vice-presi- dency in 1832 (William Wirt, himself a Mason, and Amos Ellmaker respectively) received only seven electoral votes. The party undoubtedly owed much of its strength to the con- ditions of the times, being largely a complex of political and social discontent under the guidance of clever leaders. It disappeared after 1835. Consult McCarthy's monograph The Anti-Masonic Party, Annual Report of the Amer- ican Historical Society (1902). Antimonan, an'te - mo - nan', seaport, Luzon, Philippine Is- lands; 19 miles east of Tayabas, opposite Alabat Island. Pop. 11,500. Anti-Monop'oly Party, a short-lived American political organization, formed at Chicago, May, 1884, to regulate commerce among the States, to effect settle- ment of disputes by arbitration, to secure a graduated income- tax, a direct vote in senatorial elections, and the prohibition of grants of lands to corporations, and of contract labor. At the following election it united with the Greenback Labor Party, and though their candidates — Ben- jamin Butler of Massachusetts for President, and Gen. A. W. West of Mississippi for Vice- President — gained only 175,370 popular votes and no electoral vote, several of these reforms were ultimately carried out. Consult Stanwood's History of the Presi- dency. Antimony 279 Antioch College An'tlmony (Sb. 121.8), a metallic element, which repre- sents a product intermediate between metals and non-metals, occurring native in rare instances, but derived almost exclusively from stibnite or gray antimony ore (Sb2S3), which has been known since very early times. It also occurs in kermesite or red antimony (2Sb2S3.Sb203) , valen- tinite or white antimony (Sb203) , senarmontiie (Sb203) , cervantite (Sb203Sb205) , and certain ores of lead, silver and gold. Tlaere are several methods of extracting metallic antimony from its ores. In the Roasting Method stibnite, which must be free from lead and arsenic, is crushed and heated to a tempera- ture not materially exceeding the melting point of the antimony sulphide, and the liquid sulphide drawn off and roasted in a cur- rent of air to form the oxide Sb203. The Crucible Method, in which the ground ore (stibnite or native antimony), mixed with scrap iron and salt, is heated in graphite crucibles, sulphide of iron and metallic antimony resulting and the wet and electro- lytic processes have also been used, but not extensively. From its oxides antimony may be ob- tained by reduction with carbon. The raw antimony requires re- fining to separate it from such impurities as arsenic, iron, and sulphur. This may be carried out in crucibles, or reverberatory furnaces. Antimony is an extremely brittle metal of a flaky, crystal- line texture, tin-white color, and high metallic lustre. Its specific gravity is 6.6, hardness, 3 to 3.5, melting point, 630.5° c. It is not acted on by air at ordinary temperatures, but when heated in air above its melting point burns brilliantly, forming copious white fumes of the oxide Sb203. It is a poor conductor of heat and electricity. It expands on solidi- fication, a property which it also imparts to its alloys, rendering them of special value in making fine and sharp castings. When added to other metals it makes them harder, hence its alloys are of considerable importance. The more important alloys include type metal (q.v.), Britannia metal (q.v.), stereotype metal, and Babbitt metal. The principal compounds of antimony are the sulphides, chlorides, and tartar emetic. The trisulphide, Sb2S3, as found native or prepared by fusion, is a shining crystalline solid, used in the preparation of matches and percussion caps, and in pyro- techny. The orange sulphide is of the same composition; while kermes mineral contains also oxide and alkali. The golden sulphide, pentasulphide, is used in vulcanizing rubber; antimony cinnabar, an oxysulphide, is employed for making paints and in calico printing. Antimony trichloride, or 'butter of anti- mony,' is a caustic, deliquescent solid, used for bronzing gun barrels. It is prepared by the treatment of metallic antimony with chlorine. Tartar emetic (q.v.) is a tartrate of potassium and antimony prepared by heat- ing cream of tartar with antimo- nious oxide. The double salts which antimony fluoride forms with various ammonium and alkali salts are of great technical importance, being used exten- sively in the textile industry in place of tartar emetic. Statistics. — Antimony is pro- duced in commercial quantities mainly in China. France, Al- geria, Austria, Mexico, Bolivia, Canada, Australia, Japan, Italy, and Spain also produce small quantities. The output of the United States is limited. In 1926 the total production, in- cluding that from domestic ore, imported ore, and that recovered from old alloys, scrap and dross, was 43,316 tons. Imports in- cluded 16,343 tons of metal, 4,406 tons of crude and ore antimony, and 1,070 tons of type metal and hard lead. An'tino'mianism, the doc- trine, recurring from time to time in the history of the Chris- tian Church, that Christians are freed by faith from obligation to observe the moral law laid down in the Old Testament. From certain passages of the New Tes- tament — e.g., Rom. vi. and 2 Peter ii. 18, 19 — it would seem that a tendency to antinomian- ism had manifested itself even in the apostolic age; but the term was first used by Luther to de- scribe the opinions of Johann Agricola (q.v.), whose teaching that man is saved by faith alone, without regard to his moral char- acter, led to the famous Antino- mian Controversy of the Refor- mation period. Antin'omy, a Kantian term to denote an apparent conflict of reason with itself; e.g., it may be argued with apparently equal truth both that the universe is infinitely extended in space and that it has spatial limits. Antinous, an-tin'o-us (d. 122 A.D.), a youth of extraordinary beauty, a native of Claudiopolis, in Bithynia, the favorite of the Emperor Hadrian, and his com- panion in all his journeys. He was drowned in the River Nile, near Besa, perhaps with suicidal intent. The Emperor's grief know no bounds. He enrolled him among the gods; built in his honor Antinoopolis on the ruins of Besa, as well as numerous tem- ples in Bithynia, Arcadia, and elsewhere; and perpetuated his memory by numerous statues and bas-reliefs. An'tioch (modern Antakieh), town of Syria, on the Orontes River, 14 miles from the sea, first the Syrian and afterward the Roman capital; a great city of Bible times, ranking in im- portance next after Rome and Alexandria. Built by Seleucus Nicator about 300 B.C., and named by him after his father,[it became notorious for its wealth and luxury. The city reached its greatest glory in the time of Antiochus the Great, and under the Roman emperors of the first three centuries. At that time it contained 500,000 inhabitants, and vied in splendor with Rome itself. Nor did its glory fade immediately after the founding of Constantinople; for though it then ceased to be the first city of the East, it rose to new dignity as a Christian city. There the name 'Christian' was first used (Acts xi. 26) ; and it was th^ centre whence missionaries were sent to the Gentiles. (See Acts xiii. 1; XV. 22-25; Gal. ii. 11, 12.) Chosroes, king of Persia, de- stroyed Antioch in 538; but it was rebuilt by Justinian, and called by him Theupolis. After a gradual decline it was almost de- stroyed by an earthquake in 1872, but has since recovered, and has now a population of 30,000 (Mohammedans, Greeks, and Armenians) . There are warm springs in the vicinity, and the town has a trade in silk and other local products. Antioch, in Pisidia, founded also by Nicator, was declared a free city by the Romans in the second century B.C., and made a colonia under Augustus, with the name Caesarca. It was visited by Paul and Barnabas. Antioch College, a coeduca- tional, non-sectarian institution at Yellow Springs, Ohio, organ- ized in 1853. It is reputed to be the first college to admit both sexes of every race on equal terms. Its first president was Horace Mann who, in his in- augural address, expressed the hope that it would be a place of training for all latent qualities of men and women. During his lifetime, and for 50 years after his death the college continued as a small liberal-arts college similar to many others but in 1920 the institution was thor- oughly reorganized and now endeavors to provide an educa- tion that insures symmetrical development. It supplies in a curriculum of five or six years the fundamentals of a liberal educa- tion, a training in a chosen profession or vocation and a practical apprenticeship to life. In September, 1927, a pro- gramme of self-directed study for students above the sopho- VoL. I.— Oct. '28 Antiochus 279 A Antipodes more year was instituted. A syllabus outlining the work of a whole semester is given the student and he is free to master the subject in his own way. Since that time, also, each mem- ber of the four upper classes is expected to devote five hours each week to campus service work of an educational character, such as assisting in laboratory work, grading papers, tutoring, and the like. Study, is coordi- nated with practical income- earning experience and as far as possible students are employed in the calling for which they are preparing themselves. The college offers the degrees of b.a., B.S., M.A., and M.S. The campus consists of 250 acres and there are 11 buildings which include the main building, dormitories, the Horace Mann Memorial Library, Mills House, Glen House and Weaver House. For recent statistics see Table under the heading College. Antiochus, an-tl'o-kus, the name borne by most of the kings of Syria belonging to the family of Seleucus, who founded the dynasty. Antiochus III., the Great, (reigned 223-187 B.C.), in the early part of his reign carried on unsuccessful war, first with Egypt, then with Parthia and Bactria. In 198 B.C. he con- quered Palestine and Coele-Syria, and afterward became involved in war with the Romans. Han- nibal, after his defeat at Zama took refuge at his court, and urged him to invade Italy; but he did not heed the advice. In 192 he crossed into Greece, and the next year was defeated by the Romans at Thermopylae, and forced to return into Asia. In 190 he was again defeated near Magnesia, in Asia Minor, and ob- tained peace in 188 on condition of ceding all his possessions east of Mount Taurus and paying a heavy indemnity. In trying to extract money for this purpose from a rich temple in Elymais, he was murdered by the people of the place in 187. Antiochus IV., Epiphanes, son of Antiochus the Great, succeeded his brother, Seleucus Philopator, in 175 B.C., and reigned till 164. From 171-108 B.C. he successfully waged war against Egypt. He is notorious for his oppression of the Jews and their religion. But the Jews revolted, under Mattathias and his sons the Maccabees, and de- feated Lysias, the general of Antiochus. (See Maccabees.) He afterward became insane and died, a calamity which both Jews and Greeks attributed to his sacrilege. Antiope. See Amphion. Antioquia, an-te-o'ki-a, a de- partment of Colombia, South Vol. I.— Oct. '28 America, bounded by the depart- ments of Bolivar on the north, Santander on the east, Tolima on the south, and Cauca on the west; area, 22,752 square miles. It is occupied by branches of the Cordilleras. The soil is poor. Gold is abundant in the Porce valley; platinum, iron, galena, cinnabar, coal, and rock salt are found in other places. Minerals, leather, coffee, rubber, and Pan- ama hats are exported. MedelHn (q.v.) is the capital. Pop. (1918) 823,226. Antiparallel. If, in a triangle ABC, a line is drawn cutting ab in FEC, and AC in e, so that the angle AEF is equal to the angle abc, fe is said to be antiparallel to bc with respect to the angle a. Antip'aros (ancient Oliaros), one of the middle Cyclades in the ^gean Sea, close to Paros (q.v.). It is well cultivated and tolerably fertile, nearly 14 square miles in area, and contains about 500 in- habitants. Rich lead mines were discovered in 1872. Its wonder- ful stalactite grotto is 312 feet long, 98 wide, and 82 high, and is covered with stalactite and sta- lagmite formations. An'tipas. See Herod. Antip'ater {c. 400-319 B.C.), a general highly trusted by Philip and Alexander the Great, left by the latter as regent in Macedonia when he crossed over into Asia in 334 B.C. The murder of his un- successful rival, Perdiccas, in Egypt in 321 B.C., left Antipater the supreme regency of the kingdom. Antipater (d. 43 B.C.), the father of Herod the Great, was a favorite of Julius Caesar who ap- pointed him procurator of Judaea in 47 B.C. He was poisoned. Antipater, the son of Herod the Great by his first wife. He was a worthless prince, who was perpetually conspiring against the life of his brothers, but was executed in prison five days before Herod died. Antip'atliy, a term applied to a class of cases in which indi- viduals are disagreeably affected by, or violently dislike, things in- nocuous or agreeable to the ma- jority of mankind. These pecu- liarities are sometimes innate; sometimes they are due to a child's having been injudiciously terrified with some object, the mental impression becoming per- manent. vSome medicines af- fect particular persons danger- ously, even when given in very minute doses. The air of some places has a peculiar influence on individuals. The most remarkable antipa- thies are those affecting the spe- cial senses, such as loathing at reptiles and certain animals, hear- ing a wet finger drawn on glass, smelling musk, or touching any- thing unusually smooth. Antip'atris (Acts xxiii, 31), a city on the edge of the Plain of Sharon, on the main road from Jerusalem to Caesarea; named after Antipater, father of Herod the Great. It is probably now the ruined mound at Ras el-Ain. Antiperiodics, drugs which relieve or cure certain diseases whose attacks occur at regular in- tervals, as, for instance, malaria, for which the chief antiperiodic employed is cinchona and its alkaloids (especially quinine). Antiph'anes (408-334 B.C.). the most famous of the Middle Attic comic poets whose plays number more than 260. Antiph'ilus of Egypt, Greek painter of the fourth century B.c a pupil of Ctesidemus, ranked by ancient critics next to Apelles and Protogenes. He painted por- traits of Philip and Alexander of Macedon, and Ptolemy of Lagos. Antiphlogis'tics, remedies counteracting inflammation, in- cluding drugs, local applications, and blood letting. Antiplilogistine, a trade name for cataplasma kaolini (N.F.). It contains boric acid, methyl salicylate, thymol, oil of peppermint and glycerine, and is used externally in inflammation, pneumonia, and rheumatism as a substitute for poultices. An'tiplion (480-411 B.C.), the earliest of the ten Attic orators in the Alexandrine canon, was born in Rhamnus. He belonged to the oligarchical party at Athens, and to him was mainly due the estab- lishment of the government of the Four Hundred in 411 B.C. On its fall, Antiphon was brought to trial and condemned to death, in spite of his noble defence. Only fifteen of his orations have come down to us. Antipli'ony, a piece of sacred music sung in alternate parts re- plying to each other. Antiphonal singing has been practised from earliest times in the Hebrew Church, and many of the Psalms were intended to be sung in this manner. In the Christian Church it has been in use since the first century. See Anthem; Motet. Antipodes, an-tip'6-des, a word of Greek origin, signifying, literally, those who have their feet over against each other. As applied in geography, it means the inhabitants of any two op- posite points of the globe. From this primary relation there necessarily arise many sec- ondary relations. Antipodes must be on one and the same meridion- al circle, separated from each other by half the circumference. Being on one and the same merid- ional circle, they must differ in longitude exactly 180°, with the exception of the Poles them- selves, as having no longitude at all; and being vseparated from each other by half the circum- Antlpope 279 B Antisana ference, they must be equidistant from the Equator in opposite di- rections. Antipope, a pontiff elected in opposition to one canonically chosen. The first antipopes were Felix, during the pontificate of Liberius (352-66); Ursinus. against Damasus (366-84) ; and Laurentius, against Symmachus (498-514). During the Middle Ages several emperors of Ger- many set up popes against those whom the Romans had elected without consulting them. Otho the Great displaced successively two bishops of Rome; and when the rival pope, SyK^ester iii., had expelled the simoniacal and profligate Benedict ix. (1033-45), the latter was brought back by the German king, and soon after- ward sold his dignity to Gregory VI. There were now, consequent- ly, three popes, but their claims were all set aside at a council con- vened at Sutri by the Emperor Henry iii., and a new pope elect- ed as Clement ii. in 1046. Shortly after. Pope Alexander ii. found a rival in Honorius ii., the nom- inee of the emperor; but his claim was ratified by a council con- vened at Mantua. In 1080 the Emperor Henry IV. elevated to the papal chair Guibert of Ravenna, under the title of Clement iii., in opposition to his own implacable adversary, Gregory vii. But after the death of Gregory (1085), Clement was himself opposed successively by Victor III. (1086-1088) and Ur- ban II. (1088-99). Innocent ll. (1130-43) triumphed over the antipope Anacletus ii. by the help of St. Bernard; and Alexan- der III. during his pontificate (1159-81) had to contend with no fewer than four successive an- tipopes, the election of only one of whom, however, Victor v., in 1159, has any canonical validity. After a long contest, Clement v. was elected in 1305, and four years later he transferred his se&t to Avignon (q.v.), where his suc- cessors reigned for nearly seventy years, losing the while, by their subjection to French influences, the sympathies of Germany and England. The election of Urban vi. in 1378 occasioned 'the great schism of the West,' which divided the church for fifty years. He was elected by the Romans, who de- manded an Italian pope after the death of Gregory xi. The French cardinals, then a majority in the curia, on the plea that they had 4 voted for the pope only under in- timidation, withdrew to Prov- ence, and elected a new pope un- der the name of Clement vii., who was recognized by France, Spain, Savoy, and Scotland; while Italy, Germany, England, and the north of Europe sup- ported Urban vi. For thirty- VOL. I. — Oct. '17 eight years these two popes, one at Avignon, another at Rome, anathematized each other. At the beginning of the fif- teenth century, an attempt was made to prevail on both the ri- vals, Gregory xii. at Rome and Benedict xiii. at Avignon, to re- nounce their claims with a view to promote union, but both evad- ed this as long as possible. At length the cardinals of both sides summoned a general Council at Pisa in 1409, which deposed both popes, and elected Alexander v. The Council of Constance (1417) deposed the three who now claimed actually to be pope, and laid the schism by electing Mar- tin v. (Colonna). The Council of Basel (1431-47), in its struggle with Pope Eugenius iv. (1431- 47) for supremacy, attempted to arrogate to itself the papal func- tions, and proceeded to elect Amadeus of Savoy pope, as Felix v. The attempt, however, failed; the two popes Eugenius iv. and Nicholas v. (1447-55) secured their authority, the ambitious council finally dissolved itself, and Felix v. resigned his empty dignity, and was raised to the rank of cardinal by the magnanimous pope himself. This was the last occasion on which the faithful were distracted by the sight of a rival pontiff within Christendom. See Papacy. An'tipyret'ics are agents which lower temperature in fe- vers. Cold baths are rapid and powerful antipyretics, but care in using them is essential (see Baths). The hot bath is also antipyretic; so is the wet pack. Alcohol (q.v.) externally applied is antipyretic by dilatation of the superficial blood vessels, thus cooling the blood at the body sur- face. Quinine, antipyrin, phenac- etin (qq.v.), and other similar preparations are widely used; and such drugs as antimony, ipe- cacuanha, and jaborandi are an- tipyretic by inducing perspira- tion. An aperient draught will often lower temperature indirect- ly by removing a toxin or other irritant. An'tipy'rin, Phenazone, or Analgesin (C11H12N2O), a white, crystalline, inodorous sol- id with a slightly bitter taste, is prepared by treating ethyl-dia- cetic-esterwith phenylmethyl-hy- drazine. It is a prompt and usu- ally efficacious antipyretic, lower- ing the febrile temperature in about half an hour, and an effi- cient analgesic, particularly in pains of a neuralgic type and in rheumatism. It is used also as an antispasmodic and general sed- ative in whooping cough and chorea, and is applied locally for its analgesic, antiseptic, and styptic effects. The drug should be taken only on the advice «»f a physician. It is contraindicated in patients with weak hearts, in the old and feeble, and in renal diseases, es- pecially when associated with febrile conditions. Large or re- peated doses may result in fatal poisoning. Antiquarian Society, Ameri- can, an organization with head- quarters at Worcester, Mass., founded in 1812. Its library has over 100,000 volumes, and in- cludes many valuable publica- tions relating to early American history. It has published semi- annual Proceedings since 1849, and Transactions since 1820. Antiquities. See Archeol- ogy. Antiquities, American. See Archeology in America. Anti-rentism, the term applied to a movement which caused con- siderable disturbance in the State of New York (1843-47) in con- nection with the non-payment of rent. Large tracts of land had been granted in old colonial days by the Dutch West India Com- pany to its members in New York, who had the title or privi- lege of a lord 'patroon' or protec- tor, and the colony or manor was governed by feudal tenures. Though the latter were abolished by laws enacted in 1779 and 1785, yet the proprietors managed to form a deed by which rents and dues should be paid as formerly. Associations were formed in 1839 to get rid of these burdens; evic- tions were tried by the propri- etors, which led to resistance and outrages. Ultimately the legis- lature gave relief to the tenantry; feudal tenures and incidents were abolished; and agricultural land was forbidden to be leased for a longer period than twelve years. An'tirrhi'num. See Snap- dragon. Anti- Saloon League of Amer- ica, a non-partisan, non-sectarian organization having for its object the extermination of the beverage liquor traffic; founded in 1895 by the coalition of the Anti-Saloon League of the District of Colum- bia, the Anti-Saloon League of Ohio, and forty-five other State, national, and local temperance bodies. It maintains branches in all the States of the Union; has been active in securing State leg- islation restricting the sale of in- toxicating liquors, and in obtain- ing the enforcement of existing laws; and has conducted a vig- orous campaign for national pro- hibition. It publishes The Ameri- can Issue and other temperance periodicals, and issues a Year Book. Consult E. H. Cherring- ton's History of the Anti-Saloon League (1913). Antlsana, an-te-sa'na, a snow- covered volcanic cone of the Andes (19,335 feet), in Ecuador, 35 miles southeast of Quito. It is now dormant, though partially Antiscorbutics 280 Anti-Slavery Society, American active during A. von Humboldt's visit in 1802. An'tiscorbu'tics, drugs coun- teracting scurvy. See Scurvy. Anti-Semite Movement. See Jews. Antisemites, modern enemies of the Jews in Russia, Roumania, Hungary, and Eastern Germany. In these countries the Jews are found in great numbers, and their constantly increasing wealth and influence excite popular jealousj^ and alarm. Even in Berlin the Judenhelze raged hotly; and an Anti-Semitic League was formed in 1881 to restrict the liberty of Jews in Germany. In Russia there have been frequent massa- cres of Jews, and a serious out- break took place at Kishinev (q.v.) in Bessarabia at Easter, 1903. Austria has an energetic Anti-Semitic party. French Anti- Semitism was illustrated in the Dreyfus Affair (q.v.). See Jews. Antiseptics, in surgery, those substances which prevent sepsis or wound infection from pyogenic organisms, either by destroying such organisms or arresting their development. The employment of such agencies is known as anti- sepsis; and the system of treating surgical wounds by their use, as antiseptic surgery. vStrictly speak- ing, antisepsis and antiseptic sur- gery are to be distinguished from asepsis (q.v.) and aseptic surgery, the latter terms implying the total exclusion of germs from the operative field rather than their destruction or inhibition. In modern surgical practice, how- ever, the two methods are so closely combined that they may be properly considered together. Modern antiseptic surgery dates from about 1867, when Lord Lister (q.v.), realizing that putrefactive processes — i.e., sep- sis — constitute the chief danger which the surgeon has to combat in dealing with accidental and operative wounds, introduced his method of treatment based upon the fact that certain chemical substances have the power to de- stroy or inhibit the action of those germs by which fermenta- tive processes are induced. By the use of carbolic acid as a germ- icide he reduced the death rate after major operations from 45 per cent, to 15 per cent, in his wards at Glasgow; and later, when he had further developed his method, to about 12 per cent, in his wards at Edinburgh. In 1881 Koch of Berlin drew atten- tion io the germicidal properties of bichloride of mercury, and his suggestion of its use in 1-1,000 aqueous solution was almost uni- versally adopted. Numerous other antiseptics have since been recommended; aseptic measures, as the steriliza- tion of instruments and dressings by means of heat, have been Vol. L— Oct. '17 adopted; and pyaemia, septi- caemia, erysipelas, and gan^aene (qq.v.), once the scourge of surgi- cal hospitals, have become dis- eases of comparatively rare occurrence. In modern aseptic-antiseptic surgical procedure the hands of the operator are carefully washed and purified with a 1-1,000 bi- chloride of mercury or other anti- septic solution; the skin of the patient at the field of operation is shaved, thoroughly washed with soap and water, and treated with a bichloride of mercury solution; instruments are sterilized by boiling or immersion in pure car- bolic acid or lysol; non-absorb- able ligatures are boiled; absorb- able ligatures, as catgut, are sub- mitted to special treatment to render them sterile; and dress- ings, towels, etc., are sterilized under high-pressure steam. Ordi- nary sterile gauze is the dressing usually employed, but gauze im- pregnated with an antiseptic is necessary where complete sterili- zation of the skin cannot be as- sured, and in open and tubercu- lous wounds. The wound itself is treated with a germicidal solution only if the presence of germs within it is suspected. The number of antiseptics now in use is very large. Those most commonly employed are as fol- lows : Carbolic acid (q.v.), first rec- ommended as an antiseptic by Lister, still finds a wide applica- tion. It is used in solutions of 1 part of acid to 20 parts of water for sterilizing instruments and the operative 'field, and in a 1-40 solution for the surgeon's hands. As it is extremely irritating to the skin, it should never be used in clean wounds; but infected wounds may be irrigated with a 1-60 or 1-80 solution, drainage being instituted to allow the es- cape of the wound fluid. Pure carbolic acid is sometimes used to cauterize poisoned wounds. Bichloride of mercury, or corro- sive sublimate (q.v.), is a power- ful and reliable antiseptic, al- though irritating in its effects upon the tissues. In a solution of 1-1,000 it is used to disinfect the hands and skin, and in solu- tions of 1-2,000 to 1-4,000 as an irrigating fluid for infected wounds, drainage being provided. It should never be used on serous membranes because of its irri- tating qualities and the danger of mercury poisoning. Iodine (q.v.) is most com- monly used as a tincture for ster- ilizing the skin before operating. It may also be emplojied in a 1 or 2 per cent, solution for irrigating wounds. Iodoform (q.v.) in the shape of powder or iodoform gauze, while not strongly germicidal, is valuable as neutralizing bacterial products and promoting healthy granulation. It is especially use- ful in tuberculous abscesses, bone cavities, and open wounds. Aris- tol (q.v.), a dusting powder of iodine and thymol, is sometimes used in preference to iodoform Hydrogen peroxide (q.v.), di- luted with an equal amount of water, is used for deodorizing and cleansing septic wounds, but should not be employed in other cases. Boracic acid (q.v.), a mild an- tiseptic, is valuable for its non- irritating and non - poisonous qualities. As a powder it may be dusted upon wounds, and in solu- tion it ma^' be used for hot fo- mentations, forirri gating wounds, and as an eye and ear wash. Permanganate of potassium in a 1-5,000 solution is used to disinfect septic wounds, and for free irrigation of mucous mem- branes. Other familiar antisep- tics are creolin, acetate of alumi- num, betanaphthol, chloride of zinc, lysol, and acetanilid. In 1915 it was announced that Drs. Alexis Carrel (q.v.) and Henry D. Dakin had discovered a new antiseptic of great value, prepared by the addition of car- bonate of lime and boric acid to hypochlorite of lime. A similar discovery was made independ- ently by a British scientist. Pro- fessor Lorrelin Smith. Like the Dakin-Carrel solu- tion, the dyestuffs acrijlavine and malachite green, which have been shown to be deadly to all species of microbes, and productive of none of the irritation and local sj-mptoms caused by many anti- septics, have found extensive ap- plication in the treatment of wounds during the present war. In medicine antiseptics are used for their effect on the ali- mentary, respiratory, or genito- urinary tract. Creosote, carbolic acid, sulphurous acid, menthol, and other aromatics are exam- ples. Condiments, such as mus- tard, horse radish, and garlic, also act antiseptically on the intesti- nal tract. In the arts antiseptics include all substances which prevent or arrest putrefaction and analo- gous fermentative changes. They are used in the preservation of food (see Foods, Preserved), and in other processes in which it is desirable to prevent the de- composition of putrescible sub- stances,, as in the manufacture of size for writing paper from scraps of hides. See Disinfectants. « Anti - SJavery. See Aboli- tionists; Slavery. Anti- Slavery Society, Ameri- can, an organization advocating the immediate and total aboli- tion of slavery in the United States, was formed at Philadel- phia in IHS'.i under the leader- Antispasmodics 281 Antofagastu ship of William Lloyd Garrison (q.v.). In 1840 a majority of the Society's membership, who favored concerted political ac- tion, withdrew and helped to found the Liberty Party (q.v.). The Society continued in exist- ence until 1870. See Abolition- ists; Slavery. An'tispasmod'ics, drugs which relieve or prevent involuntary muscular spasm (see Spasm) , and the pain which often accompa- nies it, and exert a sedative influ- ence on the nervous system. Anaesthetics (e.g., chloroform), sedatives (e.g., bromides), nar- cotics (e.g., opium and its alka- loids, and stramonium and the nitrites), are all antispasmodics. Warmth and friction also tend to relieve muscular spasm ; and ton- ics, such as arsenic and quinine, are indirectly useful where spasm depends partly upon the general health, as in asthma, laryngis- mus stridulus, and infantile con- vulsions. An'tispast, a tetrasyllable foot — thus, — v^. Antls'thenes (c. 445-370 B.C.), founder of the Cynic school of philosophy, was the son of an Athenian father and a Thracian mother. He was first a disciple of Gorgias, afterward a friend and follower of Socrates, and died at Athens at the age of seventy. After the death of Socrates he taught moral and practical philos- ophy in the Athenian gymna- sium Cynosarges. Antisthenes held that virtue mainly consists in voluntary abstinence from pleasure, and in a stern contempt of riches, honors, and even learn- ing. He attracted many imita- tors, among them Diogenes (q.v.); from his school possibly the Stoics sprang. See Cynics. Antistrophe, an-tis'tro-fe, in poetry, a portion of a poem fol- lowing a strophe and correspond- ing to it, applied especially to the metrically similar stanzas alter- nating with strophes in the Greek choral ode. In rhetoric, the repetition of the same word at the conclusion of successive clauses — as, 'Wit is dangerous, eloquence is dangerous, every- thing is dangerous that has effi- ciency and vigor for its charac- teristics.' Anti-Taurus. See Taurus. Antith'esls (Gr. anti, 'against,' and thesis, from tithemi, 'I place'), an opposition or contrast of ideas expressed by bringing words that are the natural oppo- sites of each other close together so as to produce a strong con- trast — e.g., 'He dazzles more, but pleases less.' Antithesis, when it is naturally and moder- ately employed, gives liveliness to style; but becomes wearisome when too often repeated. Antitoxins. See Serum; Se- rum Therapy. Vol. I.— Oct. '17 Anti - Trade Winds. See Trade Winds. An'titrinita'rianism, the ten- ets of those who oppose the Doctrine of the Trinity (q.v.) on philosophical grounds. See Uni- tarianism. Anti- Trust Legislation. See Trusts. Antitype, the person in whom any prophetic type is fulfilled. See Type (in theology). Antium, an'shi-um (modern Anzio), an ancient citj'- of La- tium, built on a rocky promon- tory. The Volscian pirates, who made it a stronghold, were one of the most powerful enemies of ris- ing Rome. Conquered in 468 B.C., it soon revolted, and long maintained its independence, but was at length subdued in 338 B.C. It became a favorite resort of the wealthy Romans. Among the ruins of their villas and pal- aces were found the Apollo Bel- vedere and the Borghese Gladia- tor. It was the birthplace of the Emperors Caligula and Nero. Antivari, an-te'vii-re (Monte- negrin Bar), town, Montenegro, on the Adriatic coast; 18 miles northwest of Scutari. The old town, with its crumbling walls, ruined castle, mosques, and ba- zaars, lies some miles inland, in a valley surrounded by dense groves of olive trees. The port is at Prslan, site of Topolitsa, palace of the crowTi prince. There is trade in hides, soap, and petroleum. Antivari was as- signed to Montenegro by the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. During the Great War of Europe it was bombarded by the Austrians (Jan- uary. 1916). Pop. 2,200. Anti-Vivisection. See Vivi- section. Antlers, bony outgrowths from the frontal bones of almost all the members of the deer family. Except in the reindeer (q.v.), they are restricted to the males, and are secondary sexual char- acters used as weapons in fight- ing for possession of the females. They appear as a pair of knobs covered with dark skin, from which the bony tissue is devel- oped. In the year after that of birth, the antlers remain un- branched conical 'beams.' In the following spring, the previous growth having been meanwhile shed, the antlers grow to a larger size, and form their first branch or 'brow.' Year by year the number of branches or 'tines' in- creases, and more than sixty have been counted on some mag- nificent heads. The soft hairy skin which secures their rapid annual growth is known as the 'velvet,' and its accidental in- jury affects the development of the antlers. The antlers are shed, in many cases at least, an- nually, after the breeding period. Antlers being of very tough, hard material and convenient form, they have been utilized by both savage and civilized men for many purposes. Ant'lia Pneumat^ca, *the Air- Pump, ' a southern constellation, placed by Lacaille, in 1752, be- tween Argo and Hydra. One of its stars, S Antliae, is variable in a period of 7 hours 47 minutes. Ant-lion, the larva of an in- sect (Myrmeleon) of the order Neuroptera, remarkable for the ingenuity of its insect-catching habits. Some species are com- Ant-lion and Pit. a, Larva, the ant-lion; 6, adult insect; c, ant-pit. mon in North America. The per- fect insect is about 1 inch k ng. and has a general resemblance to a dragon-fly. The grayish yellow larva is rather more than K inch long; it has a stout hairy abdo- men, and a small head, which is furnished, however, with two very large incurved mandibles. It has six legs, but is incapable of rapid locomotion, and gener- ally jerks itself backward. The ant-lion feeds upon the juices of insects, especially ants, in order to obtain which it clev- erly excavates a funnel-shaped pitfall in sandy ground, and lies in wait at the bottom, often with all but its mandibles buried in the sand. When insects ap- proach too near to the edge of the hole, the loose sand gives way, so that they fall down the steep slope. If they do not fall quite to the bottom, but begin to scramble up again, the ant- lion throws sand upon them by jerking its head, and thus brings them back. It employs its head in the same way to eject their bodies from the pit, after the juices have been sucked, and casts them to a considerable dis- tance. In forming its pit, the ant-lion begins by working round the circumference, and gradually narrows and deepens it; turning quite round after each time that it works round the hole, so as to employ next time the fore-leg of the other side. The pit is rather more than 2 inches deep. Antofagas'ta, port, Chile, in Antofagasta province. The nar- row-gauge railway to Oruro in Bo- ™1 TYPICAL FORMS OF ANTLERS. NoH. 1-9. Red deer (l.buiT, enlarged). 10-U. CerruH tetraceros (fossil). 15. Wapiti deer. 16. Reindeer. 17. Fallow deer. 18. Muose. 19. Koebucli. 20. Irish deer (fossil). Antofagasta 283 Antonio livia, of which 275 miles are within Chilean territory, starts from here; and there is railway connection with the rich silver fields of Caracoles and Huan- chaca. There are important salt- petre deposits in the neighbor- hood. Besides Bolivian goods, some nitrate, copper, borate of lime, silver, and salt are exported. Pop. (1914), 36,114. Antofagasta, largest province of Chile, is bounded by the Argentine Republic on the east, the Pacific Ocean on the west, and the provinces of Tarapaca and Atacama on the north and south. It lies within the great Atacama desert and is for the most part mountainous and barren. Silver, lead, manganese, iron, borax, guano, and saltpetre are the principal commercial prod- ucts. The capital is Antofagasta (q. v.). Area 46,408 square miles. Pop. (1914) 126,101. Antoine, afi-twan', Andre (1851), French theatrical man- ager, was born in Limoges. In 1887 he founded the Theatre Libre, Paris, an association for producing plays of unconven- tional type and literary quality, which was imitated in London, Berlin, and New York. It ceased to exist in 1894, and Antoine became codirector (1896) and, later, director (1906) of the Odeon Theatre, Paris. Antoine de Bourbon, an-twan' de bobr'bon' (1618-62), Due de Vendome and, by his marriage with Jeanne d'Albret (1548), King of Navarre and Lord of Bearn, was born in Picardy, son of Charles of Bourbon. He became Lieutenant-General of France in 1661, and the following year met his death in an attack on the Huguenot stronghold of Rouen. He is best known as the father of Henry of Navarre, later Henry iv. (q. v.) of France. See Bourbon Family. Antoliolsld, a n - 1 5 - k 5 Ks k e, Mark Matveyevitch (1843- 1902), Russian Jewish sculptor, was born in Vilna, and studied in St. Petersburg, where he also worked as an engraver. He received an imperial pension for his ivory piece The Miser in 1865, but achieved his greatest success by his statue of Ivan the Ter- rible, purchased in 1871 by Alex- ander III. After spending some years in Italy, Antokolski settled in Paris. His important works include Christ Before the People (1874), Sister of Mercy Tending Wounded Soldiers, Mephistopheles (1881), Spinora (1882), Death of Socrates (1876), and portrait statues of Turgenieff, Tolstoy, Alexander ii., Alexander iii., Nich- olas II., and Peter the Great. Antomarclil, an-to-miir'-ke, Francesco (1780-1838), Italian surgeon, was born in Corsica. He studied medicine at Pisa and Vol. I.— Oct. '18. had acquired some celebrity as an anatomist, when he was induced in 1818 to go to St. Helena as physician to Napoleon i. After the latter's death Antomarchi published a cast of the ex-em- peror's head, doubt as to the genuineness of which gave rise to much discussion. On the out- break of the Polish revolution, in 1830, he proceeded to Warsaw, and devoted himself to the care of the wounded. He went to America in 1836, and died two years later in Cuba. He wrote Les derniers moments de Napoleon (1823). Antonelli, an-t5-nel'le, GiA- COMO (1806-76), Italian cardinal and statesman, was born at Sonnino, near Terracina. He gained the favor of Pope Gregory XVI., and in 1841 became under- secretary of state to the ministry of the interior; in 1844, second treasurer; and in the following year, finance minister of the two apostolic chambers. He was raised to the dignity of cardinal (1847) by Pius ix., and was made premier (1848) in the liberal cabinet which framed the famous Statuto or Constitution pro- claimed in 1848. The ministry was short-lived, however, and Antonelli fled with the Pope to Gaeta. Upon their return to Rome, he supported the reaction- ary policy, obstinately resisting all concessions to the growing national spirit of the Italian people. In 1855 he narrowly escaped death at the hands of an assassin. AntonePlo da Messi'na (c. 1430-79), Italian painter, was born in Sicily. According to the usual view he learned the secret of oil painting in Flanders from the pupils of Jan van Eyck (q. v.), but there is no authority for this theory and it seems quite as likely that he acquired the art in Naples, where Flemish in- fluence was then predominant. He was in Venice in 1475-6, and through his painting of the lost altar piece of San Casciano ex- erted a marked influence on Venetian art. Of his authentic pictures, the National Gallery, London, possesses his earliest known work, Salvator Mundi (1465), a portrait, a Crucifixion (1477), and St. Jerome in His Study. There are fine portraits in the Louvre, and in Berlin, Milan, and Rome. An'tonine Cnlumn, a column erected at Rome in 176 a.d. in commemoration of the victories of Marcus Aurelius (q. v.) in the German and Sarmatian wars. At the present time it adorns the Piazza Colonna. Antonine Itinerary, a work, in two parts, giving a survey of the principal land and sea routes in the Roman empire, with the names of the stations and the distances between them. It was published in the reign of the Emperor Antoninus Caracalla, but was based upon a survey made between the consulship of Julius , Caesar (44 b.c.) and the reign of the Emperor Augustus. Antonine's Wall, a Roman rampart erected between the Firths of Forth and Clyde, Scot- land, in 140-142 A.D., during the reign of Antoninus Pius, to restrain the encroachments of the northern tribes. Following the earlier line of Agricola's forts (81 a.d.), it extended some 40 miles; the Eastern termination being at Bridgeness in Carriden on the Forth, while the western was probably at a point beyond Dum- barton on the Clyde. The work consisted of a long vallum built of sods, upon a stone foundation, with an estimated height of 20 feet on a base 24 feet thick. Along its northern front ran a V-shaped fosse, about 20 feet deep by 40 feet in width, with a counterscarp on the farther side; and there was a chain of supporting forts or camps at irregular intervals. The vallum is still traceable. The popular name is Graham's or Grime's Dyke. Antoni'nus Pi 'us, Titus Aure- lius FuLvus BoiONius Arrius (86-161 A.D.), Roman Emperor (138-61), was born during the reign of Domitian of a family originally from Nemausus, now Nimes, in Gaul. He was made consul in 120 and afterwards was sent by Hadrian as pro-consul into Asia, where the wisdom and gentleness of his rule won for him a high reputation. In 138 he was adopted by the Emperor Hadrian, and in the same year came to the throne. His reign was proverbially peaceful and happy, forming, along with those of his immediate predecessors, Trajan and Hadrian, and that of his successor, Marcus AureHus, the Golden Age of the Roman Empire. In his private charac- ter he was simple, temperate, and benevolent; while in public affairs he acted as the father of his people. Anto'nio, Prior of Crato .(1531-95), pretender to the Por- tuguese throne, was the son of Dom Luis, a younger son of Emanuel, King of Portugal, and of Yolanda da Gomez, a Jewess. He was appointed prior of Crato, and, later, constable of the king- dom. In 1580, on the death of King Henry, he was proclaimed king of Portugal, but was after- wards defeated by Philip ii. and compelled to flee to France. In 1582 he made an unsuccessful attack on the Azores and in 1589 an attack, also unsuccessful, on Lisbon. An account of his life was written by his son Chris- topher (1629). Antonio de Sedilla 283 A Antony Antonio de Sedilla, da sa-de'- lya {c. 1730-1829), Spanish mis- sionary priest, was sent to New Orleans in 1779 in connection with the Inquisition, and again in 1783 as priest of the St. Louis Cathedral. By his numerous charities, he greatly endeared himself to the people by whom he was popularly known as Pere Antoine. Pere Antoine's palm, said to have been planted by the priest, was long a familiar land- mark in the city. Anto'nius, the name of several distinguished Romans. (1) Marcus Antonius (143- 87 B.C.), called Om/or, was prsetor in 104 B.C., governor of Cilicia in 103 B.C., and consul in 99 B.C. He was one of the aristocrats who supported Sulla, and, when Marius and Cinna seized Rome in 87, was executed by them. He figures in Cicero's De Oratore. (2) Gaius Antonius, sur- named Hybrida, son of the above-named, was expelled from the Senate in 70 B.C., but was Cicero's colleague as praetor in 65, and as consul in 63. He was a partisan of Catiline, but Cicero secured his loyalty to the state by yielding to him the province of Macedonia. His army defeated Catiline, although, be- cause of his friendship for the latter, he relinquished the com- mand to one of his lieutenants. He plundered his province, and in 59 was condemned for extortion, though defended by Cicero. He retired to Cephalonia, but was recalled by Caesar to Rome in 44 B.C. (3) Marcus Antonius (83- 30 B.C.) , the famous Mark Antony of the Second Triumvirate, son of Marcus Antonius Creticus and Julia, sister of L. Julius Caesar, was brought up in the house of Lentulus, a fellow-conspirator with Catiline. He spent a prof- ligate youth, and in 54 B.C. joined Caesar in Gaul. Return- ing to Rome in 50 B.C. he upheld his great kinsman against the oligarchical party and was ap- pointed quaestor, augur, and trib- une of the plebs. In the follow- ing year he was expelled from the curia because of his adherence to Caesar, who made the incident a pretext for his war against Fompey. Caesar's most ardent supporter, Antony was with him until the battle of Pharsalia (48), when he commanded the left wing. He was master of the horse in 47 B.C., and was deputy governor of Italy during Caesar's absence in Africa. He became consul with Caesar in 44 B.C., and on the latter's assassination, so wrought upon the passions of the people by his famous funeral oration that the conspirators were forced to flee from Rome, leaving him in possession of almost absolute Vol. I.— Oct. '18. power. Antony's claims were dis- puted, however, by Octavianus, the great-nephew and adopted son of Caesar, who afterwards became the Emperor Augustus. Octavianus won the support of the senate, and Antony was severely defeated by the sena- torial forces at Mutina (44), where he was besieging Brutus in an attempt to secure Cisalpine Gaul. Retreating over the Alps he joined Lepidus, and with the latter's troops and those of Plan- cus and Pollio, who now joined him, he returned to Rome. A reconciliation was effected with Octavianus, and the Second Triumvirate — Octavianus, An- tony, and Lepidus — was formed. To secure their spoil the trium- virs now entered upon a course of proscription and plunder, in which Cicero and many others were put to death. Antony and Octavian then led their troops into Macedonia, and defeated Brutus and Cassius at Philippi. Antony next paid a visit to Athens, and then passed over to Asia, to arrange his dispute with Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, whose conduct had offended the trium- virs. The queen herself appeared to answer his challenge, and, captivated by her beauty and address, he followed her into Egypt, where he remained with her in idleness and luxury, until aroused by tidings of a quarrel in Italy between his own kindred and Octavian. This dispute gave rise to a short war, which came to an end before Antony arrived in Italy. A new division of the Roman world was now arranged, Antony taking the East, and Octavian the West, while Lepidus had to be content with Africa. Antony had confirmed his friendship with Octavian by a marriage with his sister, Octavia; but, returning now to Cleopatra, he resumed his voluptuous mode of life, and was guilty of acts of the grossest injustice. Octavian used these facts to excite the indignation of the Roman people, and war between the rivals became in- evitable. Finally in the naval engagement of Actium (31 B.C.) Antony was defeated. He re- turned to Egypt, but on the arrival of Octavian at Alexandria he was deserted by the Egyptian fleet, and by his own army. De- ceived by a false report of Cleo- patra's suicide, he killed himself by falling upon his sword. The character of Antony is vividly portrayed in Shake- speare's Julius CcEsar and Antony and Cleopatra. Cicero's Letters and Philippics give contem- porary but biased evidence as to his career. There is also a Life by Plutarch. (4) Gaius Antonius, brother of the triumvir, was praetor in Macedonia in 44 B.C. In 43 he was captured by Brutus, who put him to death to avenge the murder of Cicero. Antonomasia, an-to-no-ma' zhi-a (Gr.), the use of an epithet, patronymic, or appellative in- stead of a proper name, as 'the son of Peleus' for Achilles, or the 'swan of Avon' for Shakespeare. An 'tony, Mark. See An- tonius, Marcus (3). Antony, or Anthony, St., of Padua (1195-1231), was born in Lisbon. He joined the Canons Regular of St. Augustine in 1210, and in 1220 entered the Francis- can order. Having won renown for his Biblical and patristic lore, he was sent by St. Francis to northern Italy, and there at- tained great success as a revival preacher. He died in Padua, and was canonized by Pope Gregory IX. He is credited with many miracles, and is usually repre- sented as the patron saint of the lower animals, probably because of the legend that he preached to the fishes. In the Roman calendar his feast is June 13. Consult biographies by Hilaire, Beale, and Mrs. A. Bell. Antony, or Anthony, St., of Thebes, known also as Antony THE Great (?251-356), founder of Christian monasticism, was born at Coma in Upper Egypt. Having inherited a considerable fortune, he disposed of his wealth to the poor and withdrew into the wilderness near the Nile, where he lived for twenty years in absolute solitude. The fame of his sanctity having spread abroad, he eventually yielded to the prayers of numerous anchor- ites to leave his retreat and become their spiritual guide. He founded a monastery, at first merely a group of scattered and separate cells, near Memphis, but later withdrew again into seclu- sion. In 355 the venerable her- mit, then over a hundred years old, made a journey to Alexan- dria to dispute with the Arians, but feeling his end approaching, he retired to his desert cell, where he died. His immediate following at his death numbered 15,000. His festival is on Jan- uary 17. The temptations of St. An- thony, and other incidents of his life, many of them legendary, have afforded numerous subjects for sacred art. St. Antony's Fire was the name given to a pestilential epidemic, also called the sacred fire, which in 1089 swept off great numbers, especially in France; it being held that many sufferers had been cured through the inter- cession of St. Antony. The dis- ease was commonly supposed to be erysipelas, which is still fre- quently known as St. Antony's Fire. (See Erysipelas.) Antraigues 283 B Antwerp Antraigues, an-trag', Emanuel Louis Henri de Launay, Count d' (1755-1812), French diplomat, was born in Villeneuve, depart- ment of Ardeche. In 1788 he published Memoires sur les Etats- Generaux, which, by its advocacy of liberty, helped to bring on the French Revolution. He was chosen deputy in 1789, joined the royalist party, and in 1790 was sent to St. Petersburg and Vienna in the Bourbon interest. In 1803 he was employed under Alexander of Russia in an em- bassy to Dresden, where he wrote a brochure against Bona- parte entitled Fragment du XVIII livre de Polybe. He later settled in England, where he was befriended by Canning. He was murdered near London in 1812. Consult Life by Pingaud. An 'trim, maritime county in the northeast of Ireland, prov- ince of Ulster, including Loughs Neagh and Beg in the south and southwest. It is 57 miles long (extreme length), 28 miles wide at its broadest part, and has 90 miles of seacoast. The area is 1192 square miles. Off the north coast lie Rathlin Island and the Skerries, and off the east coast the Maiden Rocks. Between Ballycastle and the mouth of the Bann is the Giant's Causeway (q. v.), one of the finest examples of columnar basalt in the world. There are many peat bogs, but more than three-fourths of the area of the county is under cul- tivation, in tillage and pasture. Flax — 21 per cent, of the total for Ireland — cereals, and oats are grown, and cattle, sheep, and pigs are raised. This county is the centre of the Irish linen in- dustry; cotton goods and coarse woollens are also manufactured, and much beautiful hand em- broidery is made and sold by the householders. Among the natural resources are salt mines at Dun- crue and Carrickfergus, small coal fields near Ballycastle and in the interior, rich beds of iron ore in Glenravel, and deposits of limestone. The ore has been ex- ported in large quantities from Cushendall and Carnlogh. Several large distilleries are situ- ated in the county, and the fisheries of the coast are im- portant. The principal towns are Belfast, Lisburn, Carrickfergus, Bally- mena, Larne, Ballymoney, Por- trush, and Antrim, the capital. The population of the county (1911) is 478,603. Antrim, market town. Ireland, capital of Antrim county, on the Belfast and Northern Counties Railway; 14 miles northwest of Belfast. Linen weaving and bleaching and paper manufac- ture are among the industries. Antrim Castle, a round tower, Vol. L— Oct. '18. and Shane O'Neil's Castle are in the vicinity. Pop. 1,900. Antung, an'tdbng', town. Southeastern Manchuria, is situ- ated on the Yalu River, about 7 miles from its mouth, and is con- nected with Mukden by the Antung-Mukden railway (170 miles). The Battle of the Yalu (q. V.) was fought nearby. Pop. (1911) 160,000. Ant'werp (Fr. Anvers; Flem. Antiverpan, 'on the wharf), city, Belgium, capital of the province of Antwerp, is situated on the right bank of the River Scheldt; about 60 miles from the sea, and 27 miles by rail north of Brussels. An extensive system of docks and quays marks the river front, principally at the north end of the city, and on elevated ground above the quays there is com- munication with many Belgian cities and towns not only by means of the railroad, but also by the Scheldt and the canals that traverse the city. The layout of the city includes three 'rings' or circles of forts, upon which the heavy German siege guns wrought terrible havoc in the fall of 1914, and also a beautiful park, and extensive zoological gardens. The spacious Avenue de Keyzer and the Place de Meir, formed by the arching over of a canal, are interesting parts of the older section. The most noteworthy of the city's buildings is the six-aisled cathedral (1352-1518), one of the noblest Gothic structures in Bel- gium. It is a cruciform structure, 284 feet long, 212 feet wide, and 130 feet high, and has an exquis- ite spire, in which hangs a splen- did carillon of ninety-nine bells. The interior of the cathedral is ornamented with paintings by Rubens, including the famous 'Descent from the Cross' and the 'Assumption.' Other notable edifices are the Church of St. James containing the tomb of Rubens and a monument of the Rubens family; the Hotel-de- Ville (156.5), a fine building in the Renaissance style; and the Mu- seum, containing a unique collec- tion of Rubens' paintings, as well as works by Quentin Matsys, Jan van Eyck, Rogier Van der Wey- den, Steen, Hals, Rembrandt, and others. The Academy of Sciences, Academy of Painting and Sculpture, Medical and Sur- gical School, Flemish Theatre, and Naval Arsenal are also worthy of note. The house of Rubens is still partially preserved. Before the invasion of Belgium by Germany in 1914, Antwerp carried on a flourishing trade and commerce. Sugar refining, cigarmaking, shipbuilding, brew- ing and distilling, and the cut- ting of diamonds and other prec- ious stones were prominent in- dustries. Leading manufactures were white lead, cotton goods, lace, linen thread, sewing silk, black silk stuffs, starch, and printer's ink. The chief exports were flax, sugar, iron, woollen goods, tallow, metal, and glass, and the principal imports were tobacco, wheat, hops, coffee, hides, wood, and petroleum. Interesting statistics show a remarkable increase in Antwerp's maritime trade during a twenty year period ending shortly be- fore the Great War (1914), as follows: In 1893, 4,414 vessels (net tonnage 4,646,000) visited Antwerp; while in 1912, 7,043 vessels (net tonnage 13,750,000) traded in the harbor. In 1912 more than 10,000,000 tons of goods came in on these ships, and more than 8,000,000 tons went out, while the annual trade was valued at over $500,000,000, The population of the city was 40,000 in 1790; 73,500 in 1830; 169,112 in 1880; 272,831 in 1900; and 301,766 in 1910. History. — The history of Ant- werp extends back as far as the seventh century, when it was known as a market town. In 836 it was destroyed by North- men, but was rebuilt and early in the eleventh century was the capital of a margravate, formed to protect the German frontier against the Counts of Flanders. Its advantageous location was conducive to steady develop- ment, and the city grew and flourished, until, during the first part of the sixteenth century, it was the commercial capital of the world. In 1576, during the 'Furie Espagnole,' Spanish sol- diers seized the town, killed some 8,000 persons, and burned hun- dreds of buildings. The eff"ect of this disaster and of the siege and capture by the Duke of Parma, in 1585, caused Antwerp's fortunes to decline, and its population was scattered. In 1648 Holland's closing of the Scheldt to sea- going vessels was a further severe blow to the city's commercial prestige. From 1794 until 1814 Antwerp was held by the French. A trade revival took place when Napoleon i. recognized the ad- vantages of the town as a naval base, and the union of Belgium with Holland, in 1815, gave an additional impetus to the com- mercial development of Antwerp, which had a wonderfully pros- perous career from 1863 — when it acquired from the Nether- lands the right to levy tolls on Scheldt shipping — until 1914, when the German invasion took place. The history and associations of Antwerp make it one of the most interesting towns in Belgium. Some of the greatest masters of painting the world has ever known had their homes there — Ann 284 Anzio among them, Van Dyck, Rubens, Cornelius de Vos, Jordaens, and the two Teniers (qq. v.). Antwerp in the Great War. — A new interest attaches to Ant- werp because of the part the city played in the defence of Belgium during the invasion by the Germans in the fall of 1914. The German forces poured across the Belgian border on Aug. 4, 1914; between Aug. 15 and Aug. 17, the seat of the Belgian government was transferred to Antwerp; and on Aug. 19 the principal Belgian army, accom- panied by King Albert, retired thither before an overwhelming drive of German troops. For the next five weeks the city was comparatively quiet, but on Sept. 25, heavy German guns were brought up, and by Sept. 28 these had been put in place and brought to bear with terrible effect upon the fortifications of the town. British reinforcements arrived on Oct. 3 and 5, but it soon became clear that retire- ment alone could save the Bel- gian army. The work of trans- ferring the base at night to Ostend was splendidly carried out, and on the nights of Oct. 5 and 7 the Belgian army began its retirement to Ghent and the seacoast. At the same time, while Antwerp was undergoing intense bombardment, practically the en- tire civilian population of about 400,000 men, women, and chil- dren, crossed the Scheldt and withdrew, with the army, from the beleaguered city. The per- manent Antwerp garrison and three British naval brigades held until the last possible rho- ment what remained of the city's defences. Part of this heroic post retired on the evening of Oct. 8, and the rest followed on Oct. 9, when the formal surrender of the city took place. See Eu- rope, Great_War of. Anu, a'noo, a Babylonian deity, supreme god of heaven. Anubis, a-nu'bis, an Egyptian deity, usually represented in the form of a man with the head of a jackal or dog. He was the god of embalming, and the assistant of Osiris in weighing the hearts of the dead. The Greeks identi- fied him with Hermes, and he was worshipped in Rome as Mercury. Anura, an-u'ra, an order of Amphibians characterized by ab- sence of the tail in the adult, and including the frogs and toads. See Amphibia; Frog; Toad. Anuradhapura, a-nob-rad-ha- pob'ra, ruined city and ancientcap- ital (437 B.C.-750 A.D.) of Ceylon; 80 miles north of Kandy. It has extensive ruins, including monas- tic buildings and numerous water tanks, and a bo-tree (Ficus religiosa) venerated as a shoot of the tree under which Gautama Vol. I.— Oct. '18. experienced enlightenment and became Buddha. Pop. 3,700. A'nus, the external opening of the rectum. See Rectum. Anvari, an-va're, or Anwari, AuHAD UDDiN Ali, a Celebrated Persian poet who flourished dur- ing the twelfth century, was born in Khorassan. His verses exhibit consummate skill and great satirical powers. His lyrics (ghaz- els) are characterized by sim- plicity, but his kasides, poems mainly in praise of his patron, the Sultan San jar, are somewhat marred by extravagant imagery. Anville. See D'Anville. An'zacs, a term composed of the initial letters of the words, Australia New Zealand Army Corps, and used to designate the Australasian military forces in the Great War (19 14-). The name was coined by the troops them- selves while they were in the Levant. On the morning of Aug. 5, 1914, Australia and New Zealand received the news that England had decided to stand with France, against Germany. Al- though the Australian Parlia- ment was at the time dissolved, the Prime Minister with full popular consent immediately offered Great Britain a first contingent of 20,000 men. This offer was accepted and a call for volunteers was issued, with the result that more than the desired number responded and training was begun on a large scale, Great Britain granting a war loan of $90,000,000 for the furtherance of the war prepara- tions. New Zealand also quickly raised a force of 10,000. Within sixty days after the war began the Anzacs had been largely instrumental in breaking up the German wireless chain in the Pacific and in the seizure of the German Pacific colonies. During the latter part of August, 1914, Col. Robert Logan, with a New Zealand military force, con- voyed by Australian warships, occupied German Samoa; and toward the end of September 1914, Col. William -Holmes, with an Australian naval and military contingent, occupied extensive territory at Herbetshohe in New Pommern (New Britain). By the end of November, 1914, the first Anzac contingent of about 30,000 infantry, cavalry, and artillery — more than 20,000 Australians, and about 10,000 New Zealanders — sailed for Egypt, the emb?irkation of this force and its safe conduct from Albany, West Australia, to the Suez Canal, a distance of 6,750 miles, being in itself a record feat. It was in the spring of 1915, however, during the Dardanelles campaign, that the Anzacs first made themselves famous. To- ward the end of April a force landed near Gaba Tepeh, on the Gallipoli Peninsula, and carried the fortified heights in the face of a raking Turkish fire, the posi- tions won at that time being held throughout the campaign, which was characterized by consistent courage and resourcefulness. From April, 1916, most of the Anzac army was with the British on the Western front where, as elsewhere, they acquired a repu- tation for reckless courage. They were conspicuous in the various Allied drives, notably Mouquet Farm, Messines Ridge, BuUe- court, and Pozieres, and the British offensive of August and September, 1918. General Sir William Birdwood, who led them at Gallipoli, was their com- mander in France also. In the Far East (Southern Palestine and the Sinai Peninsula) Australian horse and camel troops played an important part, and in Mesopo- tamia the Anzacs did brilliant fighting. They also took a glorious part in the Battle of Dogger Bank, under Admiral Beatty, January 24, 1915, and again in the Battle of Jutland Bank (q. v.). The Anzac con- tribution to the British army, from a total population of 6,000,- 000 inhabitants, in January, 1918, had exceeded 448,000 men. In 1918 Anzac troops that had seen active service in France visited America in the interest of the Third Liberty Loan. Anzengruber, an'tsen-groo- b^r, LuDWiG (1839-89), Austrian dramatic writer and novelist, spent most of his life in straitened circumstances, but won lasting fame by his tragedies of domestic (peasant) life, notably DerPfarrer von Hirschfeld (1870), Der Mein- eidhauer (1871), Das Vierte Gehot (1878), Mahl und Stein (1889). and Der Fleck auf der Ehr' (1889). He also gained success in comedy, of which Die Kreuzelschreiber (1872) is typical, while in the novel, he reaches a high level in his characterization and descrip- tion of the life of the common people, as in Der Schandfleck (1876; rewritten 1884) and Der Sternsteinhof (1885), His Gesam- melten Werke were published in 10 volumes in 1890 (3rd. ed. 1897). Anzin, an-zan', town, depart- ment of Nord, France, is situated on the River Scheldt; 1 mile from Valenciennes. It is a coal mining centre of the first impor- tance, having an annual output of about 4,000,000 tons. It has also metallurgical industries, ma- chine shops, sugar refineries, glass works, breweries, and distilleries. Pop. (1911) 14,439. Anzio, an'tsi-o, formerly Porto d' Anzio (ancient Antium), small seaport, is loca- ted 33 miles southeast of Rome, A.okl 285 Ape Italy. In ancient times it was a stronghold of the Volscians. CaU- gula and Nero were born here. It was a favorite Roman watering- place, and art treasures {e.g. the Apollo Belvedere) have been dis- covered there. Pop. (1901) 3,449. Aoki, Viscount Siuzo (1844), Japanese statesman; was ambas- sador to Germany in 1874 and 1892; foreign Secretary of State in Japan 1885, 1889, and 1898; conducted negotiations for the re- vision of Japan's foreign treaties 1897; Minister of Foreign Affairs 1898-1900; first Japanese am- bassador to the United States 1906-07. Aomori. See Awomori. Aorist (Gr. 'indefinite'), a tense of the Greek verb expressing in- definite past time, and correspond- ing to the English simple past tense, 'did,' 'went,' 'came.' There are two aorists in the Greek verb, known as 'first' and 'second' aorists, but there is no distinction between them in use. Aorta. See Heart. The chief diseases of the aorta are atheroma, fatty degeneration, calcification, and aneurism. Aosta (anc. Augusta Pretoria), tn. and episc. see of Italy, prov. Turin, 50 m. N.w. of Turin._ Its strategic position at the junc- tion of the passes over the Great and Little St. Bernard induced Augustus to found there (25 B.C.) a military colony. The walls are in great part those constructed by the Romans. Birthplace of An- selm. Pop. (1901) 7,554. The Val d' Aosta is one of the most charming valleys of the Pied- montese Alpine country, grassy, well wooded, and in part planted with vineyards. Cretinism is common among the people. Aoudad, AouL, or Arui, a wild sheep {Ovis tragcliphus) inhabit- ing the mountains of northwestern Africa and familiar in menageries, where it is easily recognized by the fringe of long hairs depending from its cheeks and throat and about the fore legs. The horns of the rams are long and wide- spreading, but not coiled. This sheep still exists in wild flocks on the remoter of the Atlas ranges, where it shows remarkable power of concealing itself, by taking a position and keeping motionless, so that its dun hues blend invisibly into the rocky hillside. The spe- cies is a transition-form between the sheep and goats. ^ Apaches, N. American Indians, the southernmost branch of the Athapascan linguistic family, who formerly ranged over the south- western parts of the United States, and the northern provir-ccs of Mexico, between 30° and 35° N, They were fierce, predatory tribes, but are now confined to reserva- tions in New Mexico and Arizona, where, with their Navajo kinsmen, Vol. I.— 22. they numbered (1903) about 6,090. Handbook of American Indians (1907). Apaffl. (1.) Michael i., prince of Transylvania (1632-90), who remained faithful to the Porte until the unsuccessful siege of Vienna (1683). Then he entered into a treaty with the Emperor Leopold I. of Hungary (1687), who guaranteed his independence. (3.) Michael ii. (1667-1713), son of above, maintained his claim to the throne of Transyl- vania against Count Tokoli, mainly by aid of the emperor. On his death Transylvania was incorporated in the empire. Apalachicola. (1.) Riv. in s. part of the U.S., formed by the junction of the Flint and Chatta- hoochee Rs., and flowing into the Gulf of Mexico at the seapt. of Apalachicola in Florida. It is navigable throughout its length of 90 m. (3.) Tn. and port of entry, Fla., CO. seat of Franklin co., on the Gulf of Mexico, at the mouth of the river of the same name. It has a large export trade, especially i*" naval stores and lumber. Pop. (1910) 3,065. . ^ Apar, an armadillo (q.v.) of the genus Tolypeutes, especially the small and numerous three-banded armadillo (7 apar), which defies its enemies by quickly rolling into a ball. Aparri, port at mouth of the Rio Grande, Cagayan Prov., N. of Luzon, Philiopine Is. Pop., in 1903, 18,252. ■ Apatin, tn. on the I. bk. of the Danube, 10 m. s.w. of Zombor, Hungary; produces hemp, mad- der, and silk. Pop. (1900) 13,- 940. Apatite is a phosphate of lime with fluoride or chloride of lime, or more usually a mixture of these last two (FCajPsOia). It has various forms, but always crystal- lizes in hexagonal prisms, with a hardness of 5, and an imperfect cleavage. It is soluble in dilute nitric acid, and with ammonium molybdate the solution gives a yellow precipitate (test for phos- phates). Apatite is the principal natural phosphate of the crystal- line rocks. As phosphoric acid is an essential constituent of the food of both plants and animals, vege- table and animal life are depend' ent on the existence of apatite in the earth's crust. The phosphates in sedimentary rocks and in soils are derived from the apatite set free by the disintegration of the older crystalline rock masses. Apatite occurs in a great variety ot formations, but is most common in mctamorphic crystalline rocks, particularly in granular limestone, in gneiss, mica schist, and in beds of iron ore. It is found as an accessory mineral in many igneous rocks, the larger crystals being characteristic of granite and peg- matite. From several places in Switzerland come transparent and colorless, or white and cloudy, crystals. These are found in fissures in gneiss and crystalline schists. It is more frequently of a sea-green or bluish-green color; fine crystals of this variety come from Norway and many parts of N. America. Asparagus stone, osteolite, and moroxite are names given to other forms. Apatite is mined at Kragero in Norway; and in S. Burgess (Canada) there is a vein, 3 ft. thick, of pure sea- green apatite, from which large quantities have been extracted. The lime phosphate known in commerce as apatite contains many impurities. Apatornls, one of the primitive toothed birds, closely allied to Ichthyornis (q.v.). Ape, a term sometimes used to designate the anthropoid apes only, and sometimes quite in- definitely for the monkeys, ba- boons, and their allies of the order Primates. Anthropoid apes are those of the largest size, most advanced organ- ization and attainments, which are so called on account of their physical nearness to man. They constitute the family Simiadae, and include the chimpanzees, gorillas, orang-utan and gibbons. They are entirely of the Old World, and differ more widely from the American than from the Old-Workl branch of the Pri- mates. Though arboreal for the most part, when they come to the ground they walk more erect than do the baboons or monkeys, and _ rest their weight upon the outside of the closed fingers, not upon the palm of the hand. None of the anthropoids has a tail, any cheek-pouches or ischial callosities, except the last, of small size, in the gibbons. The hair is more scanty — an approach to man. The placenta differs in detail from that in the lower apes, and is exactly like that of man; and they have a vermiform ap- pendix. Their arms are of greater length as compared with the legs. The gorilla is regarded as the most advanced and man- like, and the gibbons as nearest to the lower apes (Cercopithecidas). A fossil anthropoid of great in- terest as standing in an interme- diate position between the great apes _ and human beings, and pointing toward the unknown common ancestor whence each line has divergently developed, is the Pithecanthropus {P. erectus). whose fragmentary remains were discovered in 1894, in Java, by Prof. Eugene Dubois, in marine deposits of late Pliocene or Early Pleistocene age, in company with those of many extinct mammals. The remains consisted of the cap of the skull, two molar teeth and a Apeldoorn 286 Apennines femur (diseased). They indicate a creature which must have stood, when erect, about 5^ ft. tali, and whose cranial capacity was about 40 per cent, greater than that of the gorilla, and equal to that of some female Australians tories. Near it is Castle Loo, the summer residence of the royal fam- ily. Pop. of comm. (1899) 25,761. Apelles, the most celebrated painter of ancient Greece, contem- Eorary of Alexander the Great, is patron. Born in Colophon, Apes — A nthropoid. 1. Hoolock gibbon. 2. Orang-utan. 3. Chimpanzee. 4. Gorilla. and Veddahs. The profile of the skull comes between that of a chimpanzee and the oldest known remains of the Cave-men (Nean- derthal). It is still a mooted Eoint whether this creature should e classified as simian or human. Consult Hartmann, Anthropoid Apes (18S6); Haeckcl, The Last Link (1898); and sec Chimpanzee; Gorilla; Orang-utan; Gibbon. Apeldoorn, tn., 11 m. by rail s.W. of Dcventer, Gelderland, Netherlands. Several paper fac he went to Macedonia during the reign of Philip; there Alexander gave him the exclusive right to paint his portrait. Two of his greatest pictures were, Alexander wielding a Thunderbolt, in the temple of Artemis in Ephcsus; and Aphrodite Anadyomene {i.e. rising out of the sea), in the temple of /^isculapius in Cos. Other cele- brated pictures are, Alexander entering the Triumphal Car, Her- cules, and Artemis. His peculiar excellence was grace — i.e. perfec- tion of proportion and harmony in the treatment of his subjects in grouping, drawing, and coloring. See Wustmann's Apelles' Leben und Werke (1870), Woltmann and Woermann, Eng. Trans, vol. I. (1886). Apelt, Ernst Friedrich (1812- 59), professor of philosophy (1840-59), Jena, author of philo- sophical works : Epochen dcr Geschichte der Menschheit (1845: 2nd ed., 1852); Theorie der In- duktion (1854); Religions- Philo- sophie (1860). Apennines (anc. Mans Apen- ninus), one of the principal moun- tain ranges in Europe, running the entire length (som.e 750 m.) of the Italian peninsula, and con- tinued through Sicily. At their N.w. extremity they touch the Maritime Alps, the dividing line being drawn at the Pass of Al- tare, at the head of the Bormida valley. The range bears different names {e.g. Ligurian, Etru can, Roman, Neapolitan, Calabrian, and Apuan). The Calabrian Apen- nines and the Apuan Alps are of granite, gneiss, and crystalline slate; the rest of the system is composed mainly of sandstones and limestones of Cretaceous and Tertiary age, the older rocks be- ing conspicuously absent. Bosses of intrusive gabbro, trachyte, basalt, diorite, etc., are found. In the Central Apennines the most characteristic feature is the abrupt emergence, above the broad base of the Tertiary strata, of huge ellipsoidal high limestone plains of older formation. On the E. side of the Sibylline Mts., reach- ing 8,010 ft. in Mt. Vittore, there has been a gigantic subsidence, exposing the mountain wall for a vertical height of 6,500 ft. In the Abruzzi, two parallel chains separated by the valley of the Aterno, the loftiest and most rugged stretch of the system oc- curs: the E. has the huge knot of the Gran Sasso dTtalia, culminat- ing in the snow-capped Monte Corno (9,580 ft.); farther to the S.E. rises Monte Amaro (9,170 ft.). The Calabrian Apennines terminate in the volcanic upheaval of Aspromonte (Monte Montalto, 6,425 ft.), overhanging the Gulf of Messina. The N. Apennines sub- side into the valley of the Po; the Central make a steep plunge to- wards the Adriatic; on the W. or Tyrrhenian side the slope is more gradual, and the Apennines en- close several longitudinal valleys — e.g. the Chiana, the Pistoia- Florencc plain — parting the dif- ferent lateral chains from the main range. The Apennines are, as a rule, bare and picturesquely rugged in their higher altitudes, but their lower slopes are clothed with forests. The system is poor in minerals, but is especially rich in marble. The Romans made Aperients roads over the Pietra Mala Pass (2,960 ft.), between Florence and Bologna; the Furlo Pass (flanked by rocky walls of over 1,500 ft.), debouching upon the Adriatic coast at Fano; the Via Salaria, between the Sibillini Mountains and the Gran Sasso; and the Caudine Forks, between Naples and Benevento. The Bocchetta Pass (2,560 ft.) connects Genoa with the upper valley of the Po. Railways now unite the two coast belts. SesFsivtsch.'s'Die Haupt- ketten des Centralen Apennins,' in Verhandl. d. Gesch. f. Erdkunde zu Berlin (1889); Marinelli, in Atti, of the First Ital. Geog. Con- gress, vol. ii.; Globus (1899): L'Appenino Bolognese (1881); and L'Appenino Modenese (1895). Aperients, or Laxatives, are the mildest class of purgatives, intended to assist the natural ac- tion of the bowels. They act by moderately increasing peristalsis, or in some cases — (e.g. belladonna) apparently by allaying spasm. As examples of ^ * natural aperi- ents,' one may instance hot or cold water taken on an empty stomach, ripe fruits generally, whole-meal bread, oatmeal bis- cuits, and porridge. Instances of aperient drugs are castor oil, senna, olive oil, sulphur, cascara sagrada, and glycerin, all in com- paratively small doses; most of these in large doses become so purgative in their action as to be classed among cathartics. Some writers classify aperients as (1) laxatives, (2) purgatives — the lat- ter being subdivided as (a) cathar- tic, and {b) drastic. The habit of taking even mild aperient drugs is to be condemned. See Consti- pation; also Mineral Waters. Apex (in Mining Lavi^). The end of a mineral vein or lode which projects above the en- closing l)ea-rock. At the com- mon law the boundaries of land marked on the surface are ex- tended vertically downward in- definitely, and the surface-own- er's rights are limited to the earth and minerals enclosed within those vertical boundaries. In the American law of mines, however, it has come to be the accepted doctrine that the owner of a mining claim which includes the apex of a vein may follow that vein on the dip even into and through the land of another. This doctrine has been a source of great confusion in mining rights and consequently of much litigation. Aphasia (Gr. 'absence of speech'), total or partial loss of the power of speech, either spoken or written. It is a syrnptom of many brain disorders. The term always covers loss of the power of expression by spoken words, accompanying some morbid con- dition of the brain; but some ex- 287 tend the meaning, and include the misunderstanding of what is said (word-deafness), and inability to read words (word-blindness). Again, the inability to make the movements necessary to express oneself, whether by gesture, writ- ing, or speech, is distinguished as motor aphasia, from inability to understand familiar gestures and written or spoken words, which is sensory aphasia. Aphasia, in any of these cases, is the term used only when consciousness is unaf- fected, and the intellect otherwise normal. The causes are lesions effecting the nerve-centres con- cerned, such as haemorrhage, em- boli, thrombi, and adjacent tu- mors. With the first two causes aphasia may follow almost instan- taneously; with the other it is of slower growth. Temporary apha- sia may be caused by fright, ex- citement, any severe illness, or, indeed, any cause disturbing nor- mal cerebral circulation. Treat- ment consists in first dealing with the cause of tbe disorder, and then in educating the brain — the edu- cation being the same as that of a child. See also Amnesia. Aphelion (Gr. 'away from the sun'). The planets revolve round the sun in elliptical orbits; and the sun is situated, not at the centre of these orbits, but at one of the two points known as the foci. The greater axis of each ellipse is the line passing through the centre and the foci. At one extremity of this axis the planet is at its greatest distance from the sun, and at the other extremity at its least distance. The former is known as the aphelion, the latter as the perihelion. The earth is in aphelion early in July, in perihelion in the beginning of January. In the former position we are distant about 94^ millions of miles from the sun, in the latter about 91^ millions. Aphids are the minute bugs known to gardeners as plant-lice, green-fly, etc., which feea by punc- turing plants, and sucking the Aphids juices, and in some instances they are so destructive as to become ruinous pests, owing to the enor- mous rapidity with which they reproduce, and the elaboration of the arrangements by means of which they migrate from one host to another, or from one region of the same host to another. They attack all parts of a j)lant and exhaust it of sap, some kinds feed- ing upon the roots, others stunting the growth of shoots and tips, others attacking the leaves, bark or fruit. The life history is always com- plicated. In its simplest form it may be given as follows: — In spring, wingless female aphids hatch from winter eggs, and bring forth living young, which develop without previous fertilization (parthenogenetically), and become themselves capable of partheno- genetic reproduction after about ten days. The result is to form a rapidly-increasing colony, whose members attach themselves to the succulent parts of plants, and be- ing well fed are capable of con- tinuing their prolific multiplica- tion until the growth of the plant is checked by the approach of au- tumn. Any check to nutrition, however produced, leads to the Eroduction of winged forms, capa- le of migrating to a new plant, but much less prolific than the imperfect wingless forms. In au- tumn there invariably appear truly sexual forms, male and fe- 2 2.— Wingless form. male, from whose union fertilized eggs arise, which are capable of standing the winter's cold. Most aphids secrete a sugary substance which exudes through two tube-like apertures near the hinder end of the body, and forms a sweet food upon which the young are at first fed. This is so abundant sometimes as to make the place about a colony stickv, or it may even fall in a wind-blown spray called *honev-dew.* Of this ants pre extremely fond, and they will assiduously attend upon and arrange to protect apnid 1 Aphids. 1.— Winged male of greenfly. Aphonia colonies in order to get it, pro- moting the secretion by stroking the aphids. They a'lso carry aphids to their nests, and care for them like herds of cows, in order to maintain a constantly accessible supply of the honey. In color aphids closely re- semble their surroundings. They are greatly relished as food, not only by birds and other insect- eaters, but also to a much greater Aphides. a, Phylloxera vastatrix ; 6, Schizoneiira lanigera ; c. Aphis mali. extent by other insects, notably ♦ladybirds' (beetles). The cot- tony threads of 'American blight' {Schizoneura lanigera), and the shell-like shields of various bark- lice, are instances of a great va- riety of protective coverings formed by aphids, giving the name 'scale-insects' to many of the best-known fruit-pests {Phylloxera vastatrix). The vine-pest has wrought great damage to vineyards in Europe. Consult Howard, Insect Book (1901), and authorities mentioned under special heads. Aphonia (Gr. ' voicelessness'), loss of voice, sometimes due to disease of the larynx or vocal cords, sometimes to nervous dis- orders. See Voice. Aphorism, a concise statement of some truth, generally more or less abstract, such as, 'Wisdom is knowledge in action.' The ad- jective 'aphoristic' is applied to the style of writers who convey their meaning in a series of ab- stract and isolated sentences, omitting the usual logical con- nectives. The chief examples of this in English are contained in the works of Emerson. Aphrodite, called Venus by the Romans, the goddess of love and beauty. As her name (^ acres. Ruins re- main of the abbey founded by Vol. I.— Mar. '17 William the Lion in 1178. Ar- broath is the 'Fairport' of Scott's Antiquary. The famous Bell Rock is 12 miles southeast. Pop. (1901) 22,398; (1911) 20,648. Arbues, ar-boo-as', Pedro de (1441-85), Spanish inquisitor, born at Epila, Aragon; became an Augustine monk at Saragossa, and was appointed (1484) by Torquemada (q. v.) first inquisi- tor there. His excessive zeal in the persecution of the heretics led to his assassination in 1485. Ar'buthnot, John (1667-1735), Scottish author and physician, was born at Arbuthnot, Kincar- dineshire, and graduated m.d. at St. Andrews. He was physician to Queen Anne, a close friend of Swift, and intimate with Pope and Gay. He was the author of the celebrated satire, The History of John Bull (1712). The Mem- oirs of Martinus Scriblerus (1741), though published among Pope's works, is now ascribed to Arbuth- not. Among his scientific works the essays On Aliments (1731) and Concerning the Effects of Air on Human Bodies (1732) possess much merit. Consult the Life and Works, by G. A. Aitken. Arbutus, ar'bu-tus or ar-bu'- tus, a genus of small trees and scarlet, somewhat resembling a strawberry, with a vapid, sweet- ish taste. A wine is made from it in Southern Europe. Trailing Arbutus (also known as Ground Laurel and Mayflower) is an American creeping shrub of the heath family (Epigcea repens) , famous for its early blooming, and fragrant, exquisite, pink and white flowers. Arc (Latin arcus, 'a bow') is any part of a curved line. The straight line joining the ends of an arc is its chord, which is always less than the arc itself. Arcs of circles are similar when they sub- tend equal angles at the centres of their respective circles; and if similar arcs belong to equal cir- cles, the arcs themselves are equal. The length of an arc is found thus : Let the whole circumference be 100, and the angle of an arc 50°, the length of the arc is 360° : 50° : : 100 : 100><50 _ nearly. 360 See Curve; Asymptotes. Arc, Electric. See Electric Lamps; Electro-Metallurgy. Arc, Jeanne d'. See Joan of Arc. Arcachon, ar-ka-shon', health re- sort, department Gironde, France, on the Bassin d' Arcachon; 35 Arcade in the Ducal Palace, Venice. shrubs belonging to the order Ericaceae. A. unedo, the Straw- berry Tree, is a native of the South of Europe, found also in Asia and the warmer parts of the United States, where it is often planted as an ornamental ever- green. It grows to a height of 20 to 30 feet, but is rather a great bush than a tree. The bark is rugged; the leaves oblong-lance- olate, smooth, shining, serrate; the flowers nodding; corolla urn shaped, greenish white; the fruit miles southwest of Bordeaux. The town proper is situated on the la- goon; the winter town is com- posed of numerous villas scat- tered among the pine woods. The climate is mild and bracing (59° F, average for the whole year, 48° F. average for winter). Pop. (1911) 10,266. Arcade, a term in architecture generally used for — (1) a series of apertures or recesses with arched ceilings; (2) a single-arched aper- ture or enclosure, equivalent to a Arcadelt 318 Arch vault; (3) the space covered by a continued arch or vault supported on piers or columns. The first is the true arcade, behind which there is usually a walk or ambula- tory. The Romans erected ar- cades one over the other. The piers of arcades may be decorated with various columns, pilasters, niches, and apertures. The term is also applied, but improperly, to a glass-covered street or lane, with a row of shops or stalls on each side. Ar'cadelt, Jacob (d. 1575), musical composer, born in the Netherlands at the end of the fifteenth or beginning of the sixteenth century. He went to Rome in 1539, and was employed as a singer at the Vatican until 1555, when he accompanied Car- dinal Charles of Lorraine to Paris. He wrote many masses, over two hundred madrigals for four and five voices, and a collection of songs. Arca'dia, a mountainous and picturesque country in the cen- tre of the Peloponnesus, Greece; bounded by Achaia on the north, by Argolis on the east, by La- conia and Messenia on the south, and by Elis on the west; entirely surrounded by mountains. The loftiest peak in Arcadia — the loft- iest also in the Peloponnesus — is Mount Cyllene, in the northeast (7,787 feet). The chief river is the Alpheus. Its chief towns were Tegea, Mantineia, and, after 370 B.C., Megalopolis (qq. v.). The Arcadians claimed to be the most ancient people in Greece — 'older than the moon,' according to the name they gave themselves. They were certainly a primitive people, chiefly occupied in pas- toral pursuits and hunting. Their devotion to music is responsible for the Arcadia of modern poetry and romance. They retained their independence against the Spartans, and in the third cen- tury B.C. joined the Achaean League, and, with its other mem- bers, submitted to the Romans in 146 B.C. Modern Arcadia forms a nom- archy or department of Greece. Area, 2,020 square miles. Pop. 167,000. Arca'dius (377-408), first em- peror of the East alone, was born in Spain, and was the son of the Emperor Theodosius (q. v.), after whose death, in 395 a.d., the Roman empire was divided into East and West, the West falling to Honorius. Arcadius lived in Oriental state and splendor, and his dominion extended from the Adriatic Sea to the River Tigris, and from Scythia to Ethiopia; but the real rulers over this vast empire were, first, the Gaul Ru- finus, and afterward the eunuch Eutropius. Eutroi)ius was later supplanted by Eudoxia, the wife of the Emperor, who exiled the Vol. L— Mar. '17 great archbishop, Chrysostom, because of his stern denunciation of vice. He was succeeded by his son Theodosius ii. Arcani Disciplina. See Dis- ciPLiNA Arcani. Arca'num, Royal. See Royal Arcanum. Arcanum, the Great. See Al- chemy. Arce, ar'tha, Francisco (1822- 78), Mexican settler in California, who, before the era of the Forty- Niners (q. v.) and the discovery of gold in the country, was at- tacked on June 6, 1846, by some Americans belonging to Capt. John C. Fremont's party, as he was conveying a number of horses southward for the Mexican gov- ernment. The Arce Incident was one of several that preceded the raising of the Bear Flag in Cali- fornia and its annexation as one of the States of the Union. ArcesUaus, ar-ses-i-la'us (316- 241 B.C.), Greek philosopher, founder of the Middle Academy, was born at Pitane in Eolia. He ultimately became the head of the Academic school, or of those who held the doctrines of Plato; but he introduced so many inno- vations that its philosophic char- acter was completely changed in the direction of scepticism. ' His great rivals were the Stoics. A true successor to Pyrrho in his antagonism to the dogmatic schools, he denied that there is any standard by which truth and error may be distinguished. Our convictions, he said, are opinion rather than knowledge; but in the practical or moral sphere we must be guided by probability. Arch, a structure of brickwork or masonry, or of iron or steel ribs, whereby a load is supported over an open space, as in door- ways, windows, roofs, bridges, and tunnels. The word is not applied to a straight horizontal support, such as a lintel or girder, which fulfils its purpose by its mere tensile strength and rigidity. Arches are, as the name im- plies, curved (or polyhedral) structures designed to receive the load equally at all points, and to transmit the pressure through elements (stones, rios, etc.) placed in the 'line of pressure.' The latter has a definite geometrical form for every amount and dis- tribution of load, and it is the business of the architect or en- gineer to calculate where that curved line of pressure will lie, and to build his arch to coincide with it. Limited to this prin- ciple, architects have yet given to the arch a wonderful variety of forms, and it has been the most important factor in de- termining the several architec- tural styles of history. The arch was known to and used by the ancient Egyptians, and the Assyrians were acquainted with its principles. The arch w^s not unknown to the Greeks, though they did not employ it generally in their architectural structures. It is to the Romans that the nations of the modern world are indebted for the use of the arch. The Romans most probably derived their acquaint- ance with it from the Etruscans, who, as well as the Pelasgians of Greece, made their arches pointed. The introduction of the arch by the Romans gradually effected a complete revolution in the archi- tectural forms which they had borrowed from the Greeks. The predominance of horizontal lines gave way by degrees, till, in the works of the late empire, such as the palace of Diocletian at Spala- tro, the entablature was entirely omitted, and the archivolt sprang from the capital of the columns. In the Romanesque and Gothic styles the arches sprang freely from the caps of the shafts. The introduction of steel girders (which, in this respect, have the same qualities as wooden beams) has, for many purposes, elimi- nated the arch, vault, and dome frOm modern structures. A typical arch is supported by two piers, the distance between which is the span of the arch. Above each pier is a horizontal block, the impost; then the spring- er, or lowest voussoir of the curve ; then other voussoirs, all wedge shaped; until at the apex is reached the keystone, which is the centre of the arch. The con- cave side of the arch is the intra- dos, the convex the extrados; the rise is the height of the intrados at its highest point, above the middle of the line joining the top of the imposts; the thrust is the pressure which the arch ex- erts outward. Masonry arches are built upon a wooden struc- ture, called a centring, which is afterward removed. The dia- gram shows the most notable forms of arch, indicating the style of architecture with which each is associated. The engineering questions involved are discussed under Bridges. See also Abut- ment; Architecture; Vault. The Triumphal Arch was a monument erected by the Romans fn honor of an individual, or to commemorate some historical event, usually a great victory. Such structures were originally temporary wooden erections fes- tooned with garlands of flowers, stretching across the road or street along which the victorious general and his army entered the city. Afterward the triumphal arch became a massive, highly or- namental, permanent piece of ar- chitecture, decorated with appro- priate bas-reliefs and inscriptions. The oldest, although not now in existence, were tho.se erected in honor of Scipio Africanus (190 Arch B.C.) and Fabius Maximus (120 B.C.). Among surviving arches there are three at Rome — the Arch of Titus (80 A.D.), erected in honor of the conquest of Judea (it is richly sculptured, and shows reliefs of Titus in triumph, with the plunder of the temple at Jeru- salem); the Arch of Septimius Severus (203 a.d.), erected in commemoration of his victories over the Parthians; and the Arch of Constantine (312 A.D.), which has a large central archway with a smaller arch on either side, and four Corinthian columns on each front. It was the greatest and most lavishly decorated of all, and was erected in honor of Constan- ine's victory over _ Maxentius. Triumphal arches existed also in all parts of the Roman empire — as at Ancona; at Benevento (114 A.D.), in honor of the Emperor Trajan; and at Saint-Remy and Carpentras, in honor of Marcus Aurelius. In modern times there are the arch erected at Naples in honor of Alphonso of Aragon (in the 15th century); the Arco del- la Pace at Milan (in the 19th cen- tury); the two arches erected by the municipality of Paris in honor of Louis xiv., called after- ward Porte Saint-Denis and Porte Saint-Martin; the Arc du Car- rousel (1806), and the Arc de Tri- omphe de I'Etoile (1836), both at Paris, and both dedicated to the Grande Armee. The Arc de Tri- omphe de I'Etoile is situated at the end of the Champs Elysees, in the middle of a circus from which twelve large avenues radiate. Its erection was begun by Napoleon i. after the battle of Austerlitz (1806), and completed in 1836. It stands 150 ft. high, is 135 ft. broad and 69 ft. deep. It is splendidly decorated and adorned with alle- gorical statues, and contains the names of the principal victories of Napoleon, and of 386 generals who took part in the battles of the revolution and of the first em- pire. The Arc du Carrousel, in the square of the same name in Paris, was erected by Napoleon in 1808, after the model of the Arch of Septimius Severus in Rome. Other notable arches are the Brandenburger Thor at Ber- lin, the Siegesthor at Munich; and in America the Washington Arch at New York, Memorial Arch at Brooklyn, and others. Arch, Joseph (1826), agitator (1867-1900) in favor of farm la- borers, was born in Warwick- shire; worked as a farm hand; became a Methodist preacher; founded the National Agricul- tural Lalwrers' Union (1872); was elected to Parliament as a Liberal (1885). See his Auto- biography, ed. by Countess of Warwick (1898). Archaean System. A geologi- cal term applied to those rocks 319 which are older than the earliest fossiliferous strata. The name means 'initial' (Gr. archaios), and was suggested by J. D. Dana on the supposition that they in- cluded the remains of the first crust found on the cooling globe. That the original crust has been preserved, except in a highly modified form, is now regarded, however, as very doubtful. Such rocks have also been called Azoic and Primitive. The term Pre- cambrian has now come into gen- eral use as a synonym for Ar- chaean in the broad sense defined above, and the latter is usually limited to the basal (Laurentian) Archsean System group of the Precambrian which is composed entirely of crystal- line rocks. The overlying group of sedimentary and metamorphic strata, with the included igneous rocks, is known as Algonkian. The Precambrian rocks are spread over wide areas of both hemispheres, everywhere exhibit- ing great diversity of character, and structures often intricate and difficult to decipher. As a general rule gneisses and metamorphic schists are the prevalent rock types, but sedimentary rocks and igneous masses are found in prac- tically every area. The lower or Laurentian series is probably Normtan. 1066-1109. Norman. ( 'Romm4l91(i 1914-17 EkbUw. 101 K SVALBARD (SnXSBERGEN) Boal« of MHos P . ■ ■ . ^ . ■ . 7^ Henrieta 1. AVH.<«, ^Kl*. 1848 KEGIOX AROUND THE NORTH POLE Giviiis: the Itecords of the Most Importaut li^xplorationa Copyright by C.S.Hammond & Co., Nev/ York 0 50 3 along the Mcridi;ins. too Cnfvtude. 80°33 « reaelied by Capt. Oagni i/ThtJce 0/ Abruzri-) SxveUitiim. 1000 290 Miles to Olio Inch 20 0 300 m 500 60 0 -'-p^'f^M Spitab«TgeD , ^ , -Ige Island B»nk '^0^ Svalbafd- I .,1 XTT'^ (Spitsbergen) (J Vest 161(6) a«ftH» «f/ /£wJ«Ci;«.f^« '^'^^S;fe^%^^ ...... Janet Bvmke; Say t^-^^ , I /V ix-^H«M;wlth.IIope\^^ . L A\N D £xBlorcr.'Roul*.l ' >o(£,in/i McClur,. 1850-1853 - • • DtLong, "JcMncK.-, ISIB-lSSi- I D.T1..15 y-i'/ oA Cockburn^ aoo(A till /» Island Common, 1850-186»- , "Eimm-, i8as.va«e P«J, 1801.1894. lOOl.lOQS.IWe.ISlOO, 19fl8-lil0» ' AmimdMn:, »onhTOt.ft,„|, l«08,l«0ff Mjllui ErIcMn. ISOT — • — + — • — —J/ P»ii>o«oiWait\i.i/r Heninstila I Bt (iu,r..in, 1013 Koch, IglJ >IxiMIII>D,4«14 191« - ShruuKD, Iai4-17 Arctic Exploration 347 B Arctic Exploration Basin. At the altitude the planes were flying, 1,600 feet, it was possible to see as far as lat. 88° 30', or to within 90 miles of the North Pole. The only animal life seen during the stay in the ice was one seal, one little auk, and two geese. The Amundsen-Ellsworth-No- hile Transpolar Flight of 1926 was a continuation of the 1925 Arctic exploration plans of Cap- tain Roald Amundsen and Lincoln Ellsworth and was officially sponsored by the Aero Club of Norway. A semi-rigid airship, 347 feet over all in length, with three 250 horse-power Maybach dirigible engines, capable of making 62 miles an hour, a gas capacity of 640,000 cubic feet, built by Italy as the N-1 and rechristened the Norge, was used instead of aeroplanes, the choice dictated by the experience of the previous year. At the time of its purchase from the Italian government. Colonel Umberto Nobile, designer and builder of the N-1, became identified with the expedition as ship com- mander, his name being added to that of the expedition as a tribute to Italy for her part in the expedition. The line of flight from Rome was over France, England, Norway, Swed- en, and Russia, to Kings Bay, Spitzbergen, a distance of about 5,000 miles; there the Norge arrived May 7. At 8: 55 a.m. (g. m. t.), on May 11, the start over the Polar Sea was made. The personnel of the airship was as follows: Captain Roald Amundsen and Lincoln Ells- worth, leaders of the expedition; Colonel Umberto Nobile, in com- mand of the airship ; Lieutenants Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen, second in command, Oscar Omdahl, motor expert, and Emil Horgen, helms- man; Frederik Ramm, journal- ist; Captain Oscar Wisting (Amundsen's companion to the South Pole), helmsman; Fenn Malmgren, meteorologist; Cap- tain Birger Gottwaldt, wireless expert; Fritz Storm Johnson, wireless operator; an five other Italians, Cecioni, chief engineer, Caratti and Pomella, engineers, and Alessandri and Arduino, riggers. The polar pack showed no signs of life north of 83K°. Up to this latitude polar bear and white whale were observed. After leaving the Pole the first sign of life — a lone polar bear track — was seen at lat. 86°. On reaching the North Pole (600 nautical miles from Spitz- bergen) at 1:30 A.M., May 12, the airship was slowed down, and from an altitude of 300 feet, the Norwegian, American, and Italian flags were dropped in the order named; here, too, the first and only hot meal of the entire 71-hour flight was partaken of. The 'ice pole,' or 'pole of in- accessibility,' the centre of the great Polar 'pack,' was reached about 6: 30 a.m., on the 12th. Between 8 and 9 a.m., on May 12, south of latitude 86°, inter- mittent fogs were encountered, and the expedition's troubles began. Fog and ice were ex- tremely dangerous handicaps from this time on, hindering navigation and making wireless transmission and reception im- possible, (in fact, after the North Pole was passed wireless com- munication ceased), and giving increasing danger that flying bits of ice would shatter the pro- pellers and cut holes in the gas bag, thus causing a forced landing. This perilous condition continued to the end of the voyage, and several times the motors were stopped to clean the ice from the blades. It was a surprise, therefore, to find from observation at 4 a.m.. May 13, that the Norge was on a line striking the Alaska coast and passing only 21 nautical miles west of Point Barrow (1,200 nautical miles from the North Pole), which was sighted at 6: 50 P.M. (g. m. t.) on May 13, 46 hours and 45 minutes after leaving Kings Bay, during which the members of the expedition looked down upon approximately 100,000 square miles of hitherto unknown territory. A safe land- ing was effected at Teller, Alaska, a few minutes before 8 a.m., May 14, after a flight of 71 hours. The mean average temperature during the flight was - 10° c. The expedition proved that between the North Pole and Alaska lies only a deep Polar Sea; compiled valuable meteo- rological and wireless data; bisected the 1,000,000 square miles of unknown region by a trail of approximately 100 miles in width, crowning with success the plans and ambitions of the leaders, who had met with such a severe reverse the preceding year. Byrd Polar Flight. — The month of May 1926 was a notable one in the history of Arctic explora- tion, for not only was the Pole reached by the Norge in its trans- polar flight, but three days earlier (May 9, 1926) Lieut.- Com. Richard E. Byrd of the U. S. Navy and his pilot, Floyd Bennett, passed over the pole in the airplane Josephine Ford. The expedition was financed by men of note in the United States. The flight was made in a Fokker plane — com- mercial type— equipped with three 200-H. p. Wright motors. Its equipment included a Bum- stead sun compass, a drift indi- cator, and the bubble sextant devised by the Commander. In view of a possible emergen- cy landing there were also carried a short wave radio with hand dynamo for sending; a sled for manhauling supplies over the snow; two and a half months' food; a rubber boat for getting across leads in the ice; extra fur clothes and shoes; a rifle and pistol and ammuni- tion; a Primus gasoline stove; a light waterproof tent; hunting knives, ice knives and axes; a complete medical kit with surgi- cal instruments, and smoke bombs. Fortunately none of these supplies were required during the flight. The fliers took off from Kings Bay, Spitzbergen, at 12:37 a.m. (Greenwich time) May 9; and reached the Pole at 9:03. They did not land, but after caking observations, returned to Spitz- bergen, which they reached Vol. I. — Oct. '26 The 1926 Polar Flights (Reproduced by permission from Current History Magazine) Arctic Life 347 C Arctic Ocean at 4:34 in the afternoon, about fifteen hours after their departure, having flown a distance of some 1,500 miles. Bibliography. — Consult Parry' s Journals: Sir John FrankUn's Thirty Years in the Arctic Re- gions and Narration of a Journey to the Shores of the Polar Sea (new ed. 1910); Sir J. Ross' A Voyage of Discovery — for the purpose of Exploring Ba ffln's Bay and Inquir- ing into the Possibility of a North- West Passage; M'Clure and Le Mesurier's The Discovery of the Northwest Passage, by H.M.S. Investigator; Nares' Narration of a Voyage to the Polar Sea, 1875-6; De Long's The Voyage of the Jeanette; Nordenskiold's The Voyage of the Vega (trans, by A. LesUe); Severdrup's New Land (trans, by Hearn); Amundsen's The North-West Passage; Nan- sen's Farthest North and In Northern Mists; Peary's Nearest the Pole and The North Pole; Greely's Three Years of Arctic Service and Handbook of Polar Discoveries; E. K. Kane's Arctic Explorations; P. L. Simmond's The Arctic Regions and Polar Discoveries during the Nineteenth Century; The North-West and North-East Passages, 1576-1611, edited by P. F. Alexander (1915); MacMillan's Four Years in the White North (1918); Rasmussen's Greenland by the Polar Sea (1921) ; Haworth's Trailmakers of the Northwest (1921) ; Sir C. R. Mark- ham's The Lands of Silence (1921) ; Golder's Bering's Voy- ages (1922); Stefansson's The Northward Course of Empire (1922) ; Rouch's Le pole nord (1923) . Arctic Life. The Arctic zone forms a well-defined geographical region, characterized by many peculiar animals and plants. In certain parts — as in the interior of Greenland — this region is sin- gularly barren and devoid of life; but elsewhere, as in the tundras of Asia, there is, during the brief but hot summer, an exceedingly luxuriant growth of plant life, with a corresponding abundance of insects, birds, and herbivorous and carnivorous mammals. There are relatively few varieties of herbivorous mammals; though as in the case of lemmings and reindeer, those present may be numerous in individuals. Many Arctic animals depend directly or indirectly upon the marine organisms with which the Arctic Ocean teems. This is true of man, no less than of such char- acteristic Arctic forms as fur seals, walruses, and polar bears; of entirely aquatic forms like the whales; and of the flocks of birds which are temporary in- habitants of the region. Plant Life. — Among the land plants the mosses and lichens de- serve special mention, on ac- count of their abundance and importance as food for the rein- deer, musk ox, and lemming. Among mosses, the bog moss {Sphagnum) and species of Hyp- num and Polytrichum are com- mon, and cover vast tracts. The so-called 'Iceland moss' (Cetraria islandica) is an important part of the reindeer's diet, and is also exceedingly abundant. In addi- tion, there are many flowering plants. Among such may be mentioned the pink Andromeda polifolia, the cloudberry (Rubus chamcemorus) , various rushes and sedges, and saxifrages. Within the Arctic region prop- er, trees do not occur, the Arctic species of willow and birch being low-growing plants — herbs rather than shrubs. The majority of the plants display xerophytic char- acters, and many possess rounded or centric leaves, which have not an upper and lower surface, but stand erect, and are so arranged structurally that light falling on any part of the surface can be utilized in assimilation. This is an adaptation to the peculiar conditions of illumination, the light falling on each side of the plant in turn. Again, the conti- nuity of the light during the brief period of summer checks growth, so that the plants are dwarfed and tufted in habit. Further, although insects are numerically abundant, they are largely short-tongued forms, such as flies (Diptera) , and the flowers are, therefore, mostly short- tubed, with honey near the sur- face; very many are self-fertilized, and where self-fertilization is impossible, the power of sexual reproduction is marked. The plant life of the sea would not appear to be of great direct importance. Indirectly, the algae, both large and small, are of great importance, as they furnish ulti- mately the food upon which the marme organisms depend. Animal Life. — Of sea forms, the molluscs are of interest; among them may be mentioned Pecten islandicus, Astarte borealis, Turrilella polaris, and Leda ro- slrata. Mya truncate and Saxi- cava arctica, which are very abundant, constitute the chief food of the walrus; the ptero- pods, Clio borealis and Limacina arctica, form the staple diet of the whalebone whale, and the cuttles feed many of the toothed whales. The Crustacea also de- serve notice. Crabs are few, but shrimps, schizopods, and amphi- pods are abundant; in the case of the ill-fated Greely expedi- tion they formed the only food obtainable by the survivors. In certain parts of the Arctic region fish are extraordinarily plentiful, and reach a large size. They form an essential part of the diet of many of the Arctic mammals. Of terrestrial animals, the birds in certain regions are very abundant during the summer months. The valuable eider duck, cormorants, mergansers, oyster catchers, puffins, guille- mots, terns, auks, razor-bills, and many others, literally darken the air in the vicinity of their breeding haunts. In the tun- dras such land birds as the ptarmigan, the golden plover, and the phalarope abound. The mammals themselves show many striking peculiarities. As the conditions throughout the region are quite uniform, a domi- nant species is likely to be widely distributed. This is true of the reindeer {Rangifer tarandus) and the elk (Alces machlis); the musk ox (Ovibos moschatus), now con- fined to the northern parts of the western hemisphere, is an appar- ent exception, but it occurs as a fossil in Europe and Asia, and was undoubtedly once widely distributed. Among other inter- esting forms should be men- tioned the fossil mammoth {Ele- phas primigenius) , which consti- tutes an important source of fossil ivory; the lemming, impor- tant on account of its fecundity; the Arctic fox, which, like the marten, ermine, sable, and others exhibits a seasonal change of color, and is a valuable fur animal. Of even greater importance are the aquatic or semi-aquatic mammals, such as the true fur seal (Otaria), whose breeding habits are of great interest, the whalebone whale (Balcena mysti- cetus), and the bottlenose {Hype- roddon rostratus). Of less com- mercial but equal zoological im- portance are the hooded seal (Cystophora cristata), the polar bear, the narwhal (Monodon mo- noceros), the white whale (Del- phinapterus leucas), the Green- land seal {Phoca grcenlandica) , the walrus (Odobcenus rosmarus and Odobcenus obesus), and others. Consult, in addition to the works cited under Arctic Ex- ploration, Stefansson's The Friendly Arctic (1921) and Ma- son's The Arctic Forests (1924). Arctic Ocean, one of the great water divisions of the globe, is for the most part enclosed between the northern coasts of Europe, Asia, and North America. The only wide connection it has with the Atlantic runs over the ridge which links Iceland with Scot- land by way of the Faroes, Shet- lands, and Orkneys; but it has three other narrower openings — viz., Denmark vStrait between Greenland and Iceland; Davis Strait (with Baffin Bay, Smith Sound, Lancaster Sound, and Jones Sound), between Green- land and British North America Vol. I.— Oct. '26 From Wide World Photos POLAR FLIGHTS OF 1926 1. The Norge preparing to land at Kings Bay, Spitzbergen. 2. The Josephine Ford, receiving final inspec- tion before the departure for the Pole. Vol. I.— page 347 D Vol. I.— Oct. '26 Arctic Ocean 348 Arden (both of these connecting it with the Atlantic) ; and Bering Strait, which unites it with the Pacific. Apparently there is no land in the higher latitudes, and the North Pole is in a vast sea of comparatively smooth ice. At its periphery the Arctic is bordered by a tolerably broad continental shelf, above which the water is exceptionally shal- low; at least this is the case along the north of Europe and the north of Siberia as far as 135° E. long. West of this point the depth of water on the continental shelf is generally between 50 and 80 fathoms; but in the Kara Sea it sinks to 400 fathoms or more, and between Novaya Zemlya and Franz Josef Land there exists a depression of 100 to 150 fathoms deep. There is also another depression between Norway and Bear Island, meas- uring 240 fathoms. But east of 135° E. long, the depth, even on the line of continuation of the continental shelf, suddenly plunges down to 2,000 fathoms. Five miles from the Pole Peary found no bottom with 1,500 fathoms of line. Along the route where the Fram (Nansen's ves- sel) drifted in 1893-6 the sound- ings exceeded 1,800 fathoms and often 2,000 fathoms, from 79° N. lat. and 138° E. long, to near Spitzbergen, Soundings taken by the Amundsen - Ellsworth Flight expedition showed a depth of 2,062.5 fathoms at 87° 44' N. lat., 10° 20' W. long. The greatest depth yet sounded in the Arctic is 2,100 fathoms, in 81° N. and 130° E.; or 2,650 fath- oms, if we accept the sounding of the Sofia made in 1868. The area of the Arctic Ocean is estimated at 5,908,000 square miles, and it is computed to re- ceive the drainage of 8,614,000 square miles. In the Polar basin the temperature of the surface water is generally at 29.2° — about the freezing-point of salt water. At about 110 fathoms it suddenly increases to 33°-33.5°. But the temperature (and with it the salinity) ranges highest be- tween 120 and 350 fathoms — viz. 35° to 39.9°. Underneath this warm stratum — which has been charged to the diffusion of the Gulf Stream — there comes a sec- ond cold layer the middle of which lies at about 500 fathoms, where Nansen found the tem- perature to be 31.9°. But from 1,000 fathoms to the bottom there is a pretty uniform tem- perature of 33.1° to 33.4°. Dur- ing the thirty hours which Peary spent around the Pole the tem- perature of the air ranged be- tween — 12° and —33°, though — 59° was recorded beyond the 84th parallel, with which it is interesting to compare the low- est land temperature of — 90° f. at Verkhoyansk in Siberia. Vol. I. — Oct. '26 Normally, the ice-pack seldom exceeds from 7 to 13 feet in thickness. It is neither unchangeably fixed nor unalter- ably solid, but, in the sum- mer at any rate, is in almost unceasing motion. Not only does it drift bodily from the middle of the northern coast of Siberia in a northerly curve westward toward the northeast shoulder of Greenland, but it is locally subject to continuous dis- turbance, being thrust up into hummocks by pressure from be- low, and alternately split asunder and again driven together. In summer, outside the edge of the permanent ice-pack, there is in many places a permanent layer of fresh water, sometimes 5 to 6 feet in depth, which has resulted from the melting of the ice-pack itself, and from the outflow of the great Siberian rivers. In addition to the movements just mentioned, there is a never- ceasing circulation between the waters of the Arctic and the waters of the Atlantic, in that the warm surface water of the latter flows up between Green- land and Norway, and then, be- coming chilled on contact with the cold Arctic water and ice, sinks toward the bottom, and finally flows back southward as a cold current, chiefly along the east side of Greenland and down Davis Strait, carrying with it the icebergs which are so often a menace to vessels navigating the Atlantic (see Icebergs). But this circulation, thus generally outlined, is locally much compli- cated by the Gulf Stream, by the winds, and by the submarine ridges and trough-like depres- sions which intervene between the continental shelf and the islands, and among the islands themselves. Animal life is fairly abundant in the Arctic regions (see Arctic Life), though in the highest latitudes no form of life is re- ported either by Peary or Nan- sen. The sun remains perma- nently above the horizon about 160 days and for a corresponding period remains permanently be- low it — this is, of course, in high latitudes. Arctinus, ark-ti'nus, of Mile- tus (fl. c. 750 B.C.), one of the 'cyclic' poets, who completed the cycle of epic stories begun by Homer. Only fragments of his poems survive, but he is said to have written two epics — the jEthiopis, continuing the story of the Iliad, and the Sack of Troy. His fragments are col- lected in Kinkel's Epicorum GrcBCorum Fragmenta (1878) and in Monro's Oxford Text of Homer (1896). Arcturus, ark-tii'rus, a Bootis, one of the brightest stars in the northern hemisphere, its magni- tude being 0.24. It is first men- tioned by Hesiod, who selected the acronychal rising of Arc- turus (the latest visible after sunset) as the signal for the pruning of the vines; and whose fixing of the occurrence at sixty days after the winter solstice gives 730 B.C. as the approxi- mate date of composition of the Works and Days. Arcturus had a stormy reputation. The spec- trum of the star is of the ko type, and its rays have a reddish tinge. The minuteness of its parallax indicates for it a light- power about 90 times greater than that of the sun; and, taken in conjunction with its proper motion of 2.3" annually, shows it to have an actual veloc- ity in space of about 114 km. a second. Arcturus was one of four stars which Halley in 1718 ob- served had unmistakably shifted their positions since Ptolemy's epoch. The apparent diameter, measured with the interferome- ter, is 0.022", which corresponds to a linear diameter of 21 million miles. The volume is 14,000 times that of the sun and the density, if the generous assump- tion be made that the star has 10 times the mass of the sun, is Vs that of air. The heat re- ceived from it, measured with radiometer and thermocouple, amounts to 1/100,000,000 of that from a candle at a distance of one meter. Arcus Senilis, ark'us se-ni'lis, a gray curved band partially or wholly occupying the rim of the cornea of the eye, occurring generally in the aged. It is usually a symptom of general arterial degeneration. Ardastiir, ar-da-sher', founder of the Sassanian dynasty of Persia, wrested the crown from Artabanus, the last of the Ar- sacid (Parthian) line, in a battle fought by appointment on the plain of Hormizjan (227 or 224). He had first made himself master of Istakhr (Persepolis) , and built his power upon the influence of the ancient Zoroastrian faith. His career of conquest was checked by the Romans in 233. Ardebil, ar-de-bel', Ardabil, or Ardabeel, town, Persia, in Azerbaijan, 110 miles east of Tabriz. It is a trading centre on the route to Astara on the Caspian Sea. The shrine of Sheikh Sufi is annually visited by numerous pilgrims. Pop. 10,000 to 15,000. Ardeclie, iir-desh', mountain- ous and picturesque department of Southern France, bounded on the east by the Rhone. It is watered mainly by the swift- flowing Ardeche and its tribu- taries. Though mainly agricul- tural, it has mining and some silk-spinning interests. The area is 2,144 square miles; the capital Privas. Pop. (1921) 294,308. Arden, Forest of, a former Arden 349 Areopagus forest (patches of woodland rather than continuous forest) in Warwickshire, north of the Avon (see Shakespeare's As You Like It, Act ii., in which, though the characters are French, the allusions to Robin Hood and the descriptions of scenery clearly indicate the English fores'^V Previous to the division of Eng- land into counties, the name was applied to a more extended tract ^ reaching north to the Trent and rtS west to the Severn. Arden, Edwin Hunter Pen- nDLETON (1864), American actor, ^ manager, and writer of plays, was born in St. Louis, Mo. He first appeared on the stage in ^ 1882 with Thomas W. Keene's ^ company in Chicago. His best known plays, some of which have Q been written in collaboration . ^ with other playwrights, are Zo- ^rah, The Eagle's Nest, Barred ^^Out, Raglan's Way, and Told in the Hills. Ardennes, wooded mountain system. Southeast Belgium, be- tween the Meuse and Moselle; geologically connected with the hills which fence in the Rhine between Bonn and Bingen. The general elevation is about 1,800 feet. It consists mainly of bar- ren moors, with densely wooded (oaks and beeches) slopes and fertile river valleys. Large stal- actite caves exist at Han and other places, and the region yields coal, iron, lead, antimony, copper, manganese, and clay. Consult -vlacquoid's In the Ar- dennes. Ardennes, department, North France, with only the northwest- ern portion in the Ardennes system. It is crossed by the Meuse and the Aisne, these riv- ers being joined by a canal. The climate is continental, and dry and pleasant in autumn. The department is agricultural in the centre and south, pastoral in the east, with a renowned race of sheep, and industrial (iron and textiles) in the Meuse Valley. Capital, Mezieres; but its neigh- bor, Charleville, is twice as pop- ulous. Area, 2,028 square miles. Pop. (1901) 315,589; (1911) 318,- 896. Ardestan, or Ardistan, town, Irak Adjemi province, Persia; 80 miles northeast of Ispahan, Pop. about 10.000. Arditi, LuiGi (1822-1903), musical composer and conduc- tor, was born in Crescentino, Piedmont. He studied music at Milan, and became an expert violinist. In 1841 he produced his opera / Briganli, and made his debut as an operatic conduc- tor at Vercelli in 1843. He con- ducted in Milan, London, Vienna, Madrid, Constantinople, St. Petersburg, Havana, and the large cities of the United States (1846-56); and from 1858, when he settled in London, he was conductor at Her Majesty's Theatre. He is best known by his brilliant vocal compositions — e. g., II Bacio and L'Ardita. Consult My Reminiscences (ed. by Baroness von Zedlitz). Ardmore, town, Oklahoma, on the Gulf, Colorado, and Santa Fe Railroad ; a b o u t 95 miles northeasL of Fort Worth, Texas. It is in the lands of the Chicka- saw Nation. It has cotton trade, and asphalt and coal-mining in- terests. Hargr.^ve College is the chief educational institution. Pop. (1900) 5,681; (1910) 8,618. Ardrossan, seaport and water- ing place, Ayrshire, Scotland; 1 mile northwest of Saltcoats. In- dustries are shipbuilding, engi- neering, iron works, sawmills, and timber yards. Castle Craig Head was the site of a castle of the Montgomeries, which was captured by Wallace and de- molished by Cromwell. Pop. (1901) 6,077; (1911) 11,720. Ardsley, urban district. West Riding, Yorkshire, England; 2 miles east of Barnsley. It has collieries and glass works. Pop. (1911) 6,870. Ardstraw, parish and village, county Tyrone, Ireland; 3 miles northwest of Newton-Stewart. It has freestone, lime, and clay- slate quarries. Pop. 8,500. Are (Latin area) in the French metric system is the unit of superficial measurement, being 100 square metres, equivalent to 119.6 square yards. The hectare (100 acres) = 2.47 imperial acres, Areca. See Betel- Nut Palm, Arecibo, town, north coast of Porto Rico, West Indies, capital of department of Arecibo, at the outlet of the Rio Grande de Are- cibo; 40 miles west of San Juan, It exports coffee and sugar. There is a lighthouse 120 feet high, with white light, visible 17 nautical miles. Pop. 10,000. Arecibo, department, north coast of Porto Rico, having Aquadilla on the west, Bayamon on the east, and Ponce on the south. The department is trav- ersed by the Rio Grande de Are- cibo and several tributaries which flow north through pictur- esque valleys in which are plan- tations of coffee and sugar. Ba- nana trees are cultivated every- where, and there are cocoanut groves on the low coast lands. The macadamized military road from Ponce crosses the depart- ment to Arecibo. Area, 620 square miles. Pop. 160,000. Arenaceous Rocks, a class of sedimentary rocks composed es- sentially of quartz particles, formed by the disintegration of other silicious rocks. Among the important varieties, depending on the size and state of aggrega- tion of the constituent particles, are sand, gravel, shingle, sand- stone, quartzite and conglomer- ate. See Sandstone. Arenaria, or Sandwort, a large genus of rock and alpine plants, belonging to the pink family, of wide distribution. They are low, mainly tufted herbs, either annual or perennial ; and they have small, sessile leaves and white flowers, gener- ally in terminal heads or cymes. Arendal, or Arndal, town, Nedenas county, Norway, on the south coast; 36 miles northeast of Christiansand. It has timber and carrying trade, and iron mines. Pop, (1900) 4,370; (1910) 10,315. Arenicola. See Lugworm. Arens, Franz Xavier (1856). German-American musical con- ductor and voice specialist, was born in Neef, Rhenish Prussia, and in 1866 emigrated to the United States. In 1885 he was graduated from the Royal Con- servatory of Music, Dresden. He conducted the Philharmonic Orchestra of Cleveland, O. (1885-8) and the American Composers' concerts at Vienna and in other European capitals (1890-2). From 1892 to 1897 he resided in Indianapolis, Ind., directing the May music fes- tivals, and acting as president of the Metropolitan School of Music, and as head of its vocal department. He was conductor of the New York Manuscript Society concerts in 1898; and in 1900 he founded and has since conducted the New York People's Symphony Concerts. Arensky, Anton Stephano- VITCH (1861-1906), Russian mu- sical composer, was born in Novgorod. He was professor at the Moscow Conservatoire (1883-95), and director of the imperial choir at St. Petersburtr. He wrote three operas — Un Songe sur le Volga (1892), Rapn- ael (1894), and Nal et Damayanti (1899), besides symphonies, etc. His trio (Op. 32) and quintet (Op. 51) for pianoforte and strings are well known. In his Attempts at Some Forgotten Rhythms (1894) he revived some interesting ancient forms. Areometer. See Hydrometer. Areopagus, 'Hill of Ares' (Mars), a hill in Athens, west of the Acropolis; on its northern slope stood the temple of Ares. It gave its name to the council of the Areopagus, which met there. This council represents the 'council of elders' possessed by every Aryan nation. Until the establishment of the democ- racy, it constituted the govern- ment of Athens; but Solon's council of 400, and Clisthenes' of 500, took away some of its powers, which were further re- Arequlpa 350 Argand Burner duced (460 B.C.) by Ephialtes and Pericles. Its composition in earlier days is unknown; but from 600 B.C. it consisted of ex- archons. Arequipa, coast department, Southern Peru, with an area of 22,000 sq^uare miles. The region along the coast is a desert fur- rowed by gorges of the streams descending from the Andes. Rain seldom falls. The small river valleys are fertile, and pro- duce coffee, sugar cane, and cot- ton. The railroad from Mol- lendo to Arequipa and Puno (325 miles) continues into North- western Bolivia, bringing mer- chandise to the coast for export Pop. 230,000. Arequipa, city, capital of Are- quipa department, Peru, the second largest city in the re- public, on the Chile River; 500 miles southeast of Lima. It stands at the base of the volcano El Misti (q. v.), in the former bed of a lake. It is 107 miles (by rail) from its seaport Mol- lendo, on an important railroad, which continues to Puno, on Lake Titicaca, crossing the Andes at a height of 14,660 feet above sea level. The town, which was founded by Francisco Pizarro in 1540, has suffered se- verely from earthquakes — most disastrously in 1868. Besides the cathedral, there are large churches, monasteries, and con- vents, and a university. Near the town are the springs of Tingo and Jesus, the latter impreg- nated with carbonic acid, and with a temperature of 87° F., and Yura (17 m.), with a tem- perature above 90° f. Arequipa sends to Mollendo for shipment sheep, alpaca, and vicuna wool, borate of lime, ores, etc. There is extensive man- ufacture of jewelry, and fabrics with gold and silver threads. Gold, silver, and copper are mined in the vicinity. The shops of the Southern Railroad are lo- cated here. Harvard University has maintained here a branch astronomical observatory, where meteorological observations of great value have been secured. Alt. 7,850 feet. Pop. 40,000. See El Misti. Ares, the Greek god of war, whom the Romans identified with their god Mars, is repre- sented as the son of Zeus and Hera. He is represented by Homer as not on equal terms with the other Olympians, and is somewhat of a swashbuckler and ruffian. He is constantly in undignified positions — as when Athene and Diomedes drive him from the field {Iliad, v.), and the pain of his wounds makes him roar as loud as 9,000 or 10,000 warriors together, and Zeus re- fuses him sympathy; and, again, in his amour with Aphrodite {Odyssey, viii.), Sophocles calls him 'the god unhonored among the gods divine ' {QLd. Tyr.). His worship originally belonged to Thrace, where Dionysos was his younger rival. This 'bar- barous origin' lowered the esti- mate of him in Greece. Aretaeus {c. 100 A. D.), a Greek physician who is ranked next after Hippocrates as a diagnoser of diseases. He was born in Cappadocia; practised in Rome; and left two important medical works, written in elegant and concise Ionic Greek. Arethusa, a genus of Or- chidaceae, represented in America by A. biilbosa. It is found gen- erally in large colonies in sphag- num bogs, having a tiny bulb, and a solitary linear leaf. The flower is borne at the top of a scape about a foot high, and is nearly two inches long itself. It is magenta-pink in hue, with a drooping, mottled lip, bearded and crested with white hairs in three ridges. It blooms at the end of spring. Arethusa, one of the Nereids, and nymph of the famous foun- tain of the same name in the island of Ortygia, near Syracuse. See Alpheus. Aretino, Pietro (1492-1557), Italian poet and satirist, was born (in Arezzo, whence he was banished on account of his lam- poon against indulgences. He worked as a bookbinder at Peru- gia; visited Rome (1517), where he was favorably received by Pope Leo x., whose patronage, however, he lost by the publica- tion of obscene sonnets as letter- press to drawings by Giulio Ro- mano. He then became a client of Giovanni de' Medici, and received favors from Francis i. of France and Charles v. of Ger- many. His later days were spent i.i Venice. Although his life was licentious and venal, and his writings impudent, Pietro en- joyed extraordinary popularity for the wit of his verses and plays. He wrote dialogues {Ragionamenti, 1535-38), five prose comedies (// Marescalco, 1533; La Corligiana, 1534; L'- Ipocrilo, 1542; La Talanla, 1542, and // Filosofo, 1546), a tragedy {Orazia, 1546), letters (6 vols. 1538-57), and sonnets, the last of which have been translated into French under the title of Academic des Dames. Consult Lives by Sinigaglia, Schultheiss, and Bertani. Arezzo, province of Italy, forming the southeast division of Tuscany, stretching across the main chains of the Central Apen- nines. Cereals, wine, fodder crops, olives, etc., are grown, and wool- lens, hats, and leather are the chief industries. Area, 1,273 square miles. Pop. (1900) 272,359; (1911) 284,520. Arezzo (ancient Arrelium), city, capital of above and episco- pal see, 55 miles by rail southeast of Florence, stands on the side of a hill overlooking the valley of the Chiana. It was one of the twelve confederate cities of the ancient Etruscans, and possesses several very interesting buildings of the thirteenth to the fifteenth century. Chief among them is the Gothic Cathedral, begun in 1277, and containing monumen- tal tombs of Pope Gregory x., who died here in 1276, and of Tarlati, the warlike bishop of Arezzo (died 1327). Silk, cloth, leather, pottery, etc., are manu- factured. It is the birthplace of Maecenas, the patron of Horace, and of the poet Petrarch (1304). Pop. (1901) 44,316; (1911) 47,498. Argaeus (Turkish Arjish-Dagh or Erjish-Dagh) , extinct volcano and loftiest mountain in Asia Minor; 10 miles south of Kaisar- ieh. It was active in the time of Strabo and Claudian (first to fourth century). Alt. over 13,- 000 feet. Argali, an Asiatic mountain sheep {Ovis vignei), ranging from Western Tibet to Kamchatka, on the highest ranges and pla- teaus, but becoming increasingly scarce, and difficult to stalk. It grows to the size of a donkey, and is covered by short, coarse, gray-brown hair, the rump and under surface of the body being white. The rams carry great coiled horns, often measuring 15 inches around the base and over 40 inches along the curve. The term Argali is sometimes extended to include the whole group of mountain sheep with coiled horns, of which Poll's sheep in the Pamir and the North American bighorns are striking examples. Argali, Sir Samuel {c. 1580- 1626), an English adventurer and naval officer, deputy-governor of Virginia (1617-19). In 1609 he discovered a short route to Vir- ginia; and in April, 1612, by gain- ing possession of Pocahontas, the daughter of the Indian chief Powhatan, as a hostage, not only secured the return of English captives held by Powhatan, but also brought about more peace- ful relations with the Indians. In 1613 he destroyed the French settlements of Mount Desert, Port Royal, and St. Croix, in Nova Scotia. As deputy-gov- ernor of Virginia (1617-19) he was charged with dishonesty and usurpation of powers. After leaving Virginia, he commanded an English and Dutch squadron, which inflicted severe damage upon Spanish merchantmen. Argand Burner, invented by Argand of Geneva about 1782. Argao 351 Argentine Republic Used in oil lamps, the wick rises through a hollow ring, so as to admit air to both surfaces of the flame, with the effect of greatly increasing the light and heat. Gas burners are also made on this principle, the gas rising through a hollow ring perforated with small holes. By means of a chimney the flame is steadied, and a draught created. Argao, ar-ga'o, town, Philippine Islands, on the east coast of Cebu, on the main highway; 35 miles southwest of Cebu. Pop. (1918) 39,121. Argel, ar'gel, or Arghel (Syr- ian), a name given in Syria and the Levant to Solenostemma argel (natural order Asclepiadaceae) , a plant whose leaves are used in Egypt for the adulteration of senna leaves, from which they are distinguishable by their leathery texture, downy surface, and the symmetry of their sides. Argelander, ar'ge-lan-d^r, Friedrich Wilhelm August (1799-1875), German astrono- mer, was born in Memel. He was the pupil and assistant of Bessel (q. v.) at Konigsberg, and from 1823 to 1827 was director of the Abo Observatory, which was removed to Helsingfors about 1832. In 1837 he became professor of astronomy at Bonn, where in 1843 he published an excellent celestial atlas, Urano- metria Nova. In continuation of Bessel's work, he determined the position of 22,000 stars, described in his Astronomische Beobach- tungen zu Bonn. Argemone, ar-je-mo'ne, a ge- nus of plants belonging to the Papaveraceae, of which there are about ten species. Among the best known is Argemone mexi- cana, commonly called 'prickly poppy,' found in the Southern United States, and in Mexico. It is an annual herb from one to two feet high, with orange or lemon colored flowers, and its seeds are said to possess emetic, narcotic, and cathartic properties. Argensola, ar-han-so'la, Bar- TOLOMEO Leonardo (1562- 1631), Spanish poet and his- torian, was born in Barbastro, in Aragon. With his elder brother Lupercio (q. v.) he was the lead- er of the so-called Aragonese school of Spanish literature. He succeeded Lupercio as annalist of Aragon, and also wrote a His- tory of the Conquest of the Moluc- cas (1690). The poetical works of the two brothers, who were styled 'the Horaces of Spain,' were published first in Saragossa in 1634. Consult Mir's B. L. de Argensola. Argensola, Lupercio Leonar- do (1559-1613), Spanish poet and historian, brother of Bartol- omeo (q. v.). His genius and his poetical and historical works, similar to those of his brother, give him high rank in Spanish literature. He was secretary to the ex-Empress Maria of Austria at Madrid, chronicler of Aragon, and secretary of state to the viceroy of Naples. He wrote three dramas, Isabela, Filis, and Alejandra, the first two praised by Cervantes but not generally considered as praiseworthy. He is best known for his lyric poems and sonnets. Argensou, ar-zhan-s6h'. Marc Antoine Rene de Voyer, Mar- quis de Paulmy (1722-87), French diplomat and author, son of Rene Louis (q. v.), was envoy to Poland, Switzerland and Venice. He edited some 40 vol- umes of Universal Bibliography of Romance, which included some of his own writings. Argenson, Marc Pierre de Voyer, Count (1696-1764), French statesman, brother of Rene Louis (q. v.), served as minister of war in 1742-57. He was greatly interested in the army for whose reorganization he labored, founding the Ecole Militaire in 1751. He was a friend of Voltaire and Diderot, who dedicated the Encyclopedic to him. Having incurred the enmity of Madame Pompadour he was exiled but on her death returned to Paris. Argenson, Marc Rene de Voyer (1652-1721), French pub- lic official, became chief of police in Paris in 1687 and served as president of the council of fin- ance in 1718-20. He secretly cooperated in the financial schemes of John Law (q. v.), but was dismissed in his favor, 1720. Argenson, Marc Rene de Voyer (1771-1842), French aris- tocrat, grandson of Marc Pierre (q. v.), who embraced the cause of the Revolution and served for a time as Lafayette's aide-de- camp. He represented Strass- burg in the Chamber of Deputies and vigorously opposed the July monarchy. Argenson, Rene Louis Voyer, Marquis (1694-1757), French statesman, son of Marc Rene, was foreign secretary for Louis XV. in 1744-7. He devoted his later life to literature and is the author of Considerations sur le gouvernement de la France. Ar'gent, in heraldry (q. v.), is the metal silver, usually repre- sented by white. Argen'ta. See North Little Rock. Argenta, town, Italy, in the province of Emilia, 20 miles southeast of Ferrara. Pop. 20,000. Argentan, ar-zhiih-tah', town, France, in the department of Orne; 27 miles by rail north of Alengon. It contains an old castle (fifteenth century), and has manufactures of lace (point d' Argentan), linen, and gloves. The historian Mezeray (1610) was born near here. Pop. (1921) 6,753. Argentera, ar-jen-ta'ra, PuN- TA Dell', the highest summit (10,794 ft.) of the Maritime Alps, southwest of Cuneo, in Piedmont. Argenteuil,ar-zhari-tu'y',town, France, in the department of Seine-et-Oise, on the Seine; 8 miles northwest of Paris. Its priory, now in ruins, was turned into a nunnery, of which the famous Heloise (see Abelard) became abbess. Industries in- clude market gardening, quarry- ing, wine making and the manu- facture of watches and files. Pop. (1921) 32,173. Argentiere, ar-zhan-tyar', CoL d', an easy Alpine pass (6,545 feet) leading from Barcelonnette, in the French valley of the Ubaye (an affluent of the Durance), to the Italian valley of the Stura, and so to Cuneo. Napoleon made a carriage road across it, but from remains discovered it is evident that the pass was known to the Romans, though it only came into prominence when crossed by Francis i. of France and his army in 1515. Some have supposed that it was Hannibal's pass, but this was probably the Mont Genevre. Argentina. See Bahia Blanca. Argentine, ar'jen-ten, a species of smelt frequenting the southern coast waters of Europe and seined in schools together with sardines and anchovies. It is remarkable for the resplendent silvery lustre of its sides, and for the abundance of nacre about the air bladder, which is used in making artificial pearls. Kindred species are found in North American waters. Argentine, former city, Kansas, was annexed to Kansas City, Kans., in 1910. Argentine Republic, one of the most progressive of South Amer- ican states, and the second in size, is bounded on the north by Bolivia and Paraguay; on the east by Paraguay, Brazil, Uru- guay, and the Atlantic Ocean; on the south by Chile and the Atlantic Ocean; on the west by the Andes Mountains. It lies between lat. 22° and 55° s., and long. 53° 30' and 70° w. Area, 1,153,418 square miles. Topography and Geology. — The northern part of the Republic slopes very gradually from the coast northwest to the Bolivian basin, where the watershed be- tween the affluents of the Para- guay River and the headwaters of the Madeira lies only 800 or 900 feet above sea level. At a very recent geological period this country was the basin of a vast sea, covering about 600,000 square miles. On the south it seems to have been bounded by the Archaean and Palaeozoic sier- VOL. I.— Oct. '27 Argentine Republic 351 A Argentine Republic ras of Tandil' and Ventana, stretching across the province of Buenos Aires from Cape Corri- entes. On the west the Sierra de Cordoba rose as islands above the sea, and the Salina Grande was a fjord opening into it. The southern extremity of the Republic, Patagonia, is a plateau of Tertiary sandstone, interrupt- ed here and there by old eruptive rocks and Archaean schists, which slopes westward to the watershed, where Cretaceous rocks are ex- posed. It is intersected by deep depressions, many of them drained by the existing rivers flowing to the Atlantic. Along the water- shed — a succession of elevations, 6,000 to 7,000 feet high — lies a series of lakes, some of which now drain to the Pacific; but occasion- ally, when the water is high, send part of their overflow to the Atlantic. The land has risen even within historic times, and the lakes, to a great extent excavated by glacial action, are drying up. From the great lake Nahuel- huapi (41° s. lat.) to 34° s. lat. the Andes consist of a single chain. Farther north a succes- sion of sierras lies to the east of the main chain, the chief being the Uspallata, Huerta, and Fa- matima, and the prolongation of the Cordillera Real of Bolivia, with summits rising to 19,000 feet. Near the southern extrem- ity of this region are found the loftiest peaks of the main Cordil- lera — e.g., Aconcagua (in which the American continent culmi- nates at a height of 23,080 feet), the extinct volcano Tupungato, and Maipu. The largest hydrographic basin is that of the Parana and its tributaries. Many rivers lose themselves in the swamps and sands of the pampas. Of the rivers of Patagonia, the Negro is the most important for naviga- tion. Several lakes are scattered over the country; the finest are those in the west of Patagonia — the beautiful Nahuel-huapi (2,100 feet above sea level, and 200 square miles in area), the Buenos Aires or Ayres (75 miles long and 558 feet above the sea), and others. The Republic has an Atlantic seaboard of 1,505 miles. Climate. — The mean tempera- ture in the central part of the Republic is not much higher than that of Southern Europe, and the extremes are not excessive. The mean temperature at Buenos Aires (03° F.) is nearly the same as at Cadiz, vSpain, In the northern and midland provinces it is higher — e.g., 71° at Corri- entes, and 07° at Tucuman, Mendoza, near the Andes, at an elevation of 2,500 feet, has a mean temperature of only 61°. At Rawson, on the Chubut, the mean temperature is 56°, and in Vol. I.— Oct. '27 Southern Patagonia the climate is cold. The rainfall — 34 inches at Buenos Aires and 46 inches at Rosario — diminishes toward the Andes, being only 13 inches at Rioja and 3 inches at San Juan. The prevailing wind is the south- east. The pampero, from the southwest, is cold and invigor- ating, the north wind relaxing and unhealthy. Fauna. — The fauna is rapidly vanishing. The puma and jag- uar are still found in the less populated districts of the Chaco and Patagonia. The viscacha is scarce, owing to a campaign of extermination; and armadillos, esteemed a delicate dish, have been killed in large numbers. The huemul (Cervus chilensis), the guanaco, and the rhea, or American ostrich, have their habitat on the Patagonian pla- teaus. The peccary and anta, a species of tapir, are confined to the north. The Patagonian hare, weighing 25 pounds, and a weasel with a pouch for its young, are peculiar to the country. Birds are more numerous than mammals. They include the con- dor of the Andes and other birds of prey, humming-birds, game birds, and a large variety of water fowl. The African or plume-bearing ostrich has been introduced, and the export of the plumes have made it a commer- cial success. Forestry. — There are thirty or more varieties of costly woods now being worked commercially. Some of the most extensive for- ests are in Misiones, El Chaco, and Tucuman. Misiones yields a quantity of valuable fibres, and the yerba mate, or Paraguay tea, as well as excellent timber for building and cabinet work and dyewood. The acacia, algarrobo lapacho, button tree, cedar, bay, and other black, red, and white varieties, are plentiful. The quebracho, a tanning hard- wood, furnishes an important in- dustry. Along the foot of the Andes the woods consist chiefly of Winter's bark, Fitzroya pata- gonica, and Libocedrus. The value of forest products exported in 1925 was $20,979,780. Mining. — The Argentine Re- public has no present importance as a mining country. The principal mineral product is pe- troleum, the output of which in 1925 was 642,090ccubic metres. Gold, silver, copper, salt, anti- mony, wolfram, and other min- erals occur, but the deposits are in most cases too far from the railways to be profitably worked. Agriculture, — The country is well suited for agriculture, which constitutes the principal in- dustry. Wheat, maize, and lin- seed — i.e., flaxseed — are grown, especially in Buenos Aires and Santa Fe, as well as at the Welsh colonies on the Chubut. Wine comes principally from the west- ern provinces — Mendoza, San Juan, La Rioja, and Salta. Tucuman produces the most sugar, and Corrientes ranks first as a tobacco district. Lucerne (alfalfa) is one of the principal crops, and is grown in almost all the provinces, being more valu- able each year. In Cordoba and Santa Fe provinces eight million acres are given up to this forage crop. Good cotton is raised in the northern provinces. The area of the Argentine is about 099,278,300 acres, of which about 500,000,000 acres are suitable for agriculture and stock raising. West of Cordoba, and in Patagonia, the rainfall is often insufficient, and there is con- siderable risk from drought. Of the cultivable area, about 10,- 000,000 acres require irrigation. The provinces of Buenos Aires, Cordoba, Santa Fe, and Entre Rios, and La Pampa Territory form the principal agricultural belt. The absence of small navigable streams and good roads retarded the opening up of the country; but in recent years the railroads have greatly aided land develop- ment. In 1880 the total area of land under cultivation was 3,- 705,560 acres; in 1911 it had risen to 40,939,180 acres. In 1923-4 the acreage and pro- duction of the four leading agricultural products were as follows: wheat, 17,317,107 acres, 0,723,284 tons; corn, 8,503,600 acres, 5,744,463 tons; linseed, 5,316,365 acres, 1,488,105 tons; oats, 2,779,437 acres, 1,182,356 tons. The area under sugar is about 237,500 acres and the quantity manufactured in 1924 was 256,- 904 metric tons. About 280,000 acres are devoted to the vine and the annual production is about 125,000,000 gallons. Tobacco cultivation covers about 22,060 acres and cotton 150,000 acres. Stock Raising. — Since the six- teenth century the cattle in- dustry has flourished on the grassy plains of Santa Fe and Buenos Aires, and stock raising, with its allied meat industry, is second only in importance to agriculture. The national census of 1922 showed the following data as to domestic animals in the Republic: 37,064,850 cattle, 30,671,841 sheep, and 1,430,638 pigs. Extensive frozen meat and dairying industries have grown up from stock raising; while the exports of chilled and frozen meat have largely superseded the export of live vStock. In 1925, about 750,000 tons of meat, valued at approximately $374,- 793,472, were exported. Approx- imate values for the chief indi- Argentine Republic 351 B Argentine Republic vidual meat exports were: frozen beef, $46,128,542; canned meat $16,040,175; chilled beef, $67,- 747,832; frozen mutton, $20,- 757,433; frozen offal, $4,316,628; jerked beef, $3,550,315; frozen pigs, $179,364. Transportation. — On January 1, 1926, 22,627 miles of rail^vay were in operation, 4,335 miles being state property. The prin- cipal lines radiate from Buenos Aires, north, northwest, south- west, and west to Mendoza. From Mendoza a line crosses the Andes through the Uspallata Pass, and is continued to the Pacific Ocean at Valparaiso, the capital of Chile (see Andes Tunnel and Railway) . Branch railways connect with the main lines. Aviation has shown rapid advance and there are air routes from Buenos Aires tJ Salta, Corrientes, Mendoza, San Juan and other cities, and a tri-weekly air-mail service between Buenos Aires and Montevideo. In 1924, 2,949 seagoing vessels entered Argentine ports (except Bahia Blanca). In 1922 there were 25,763 miles of telegraph lines in operation. There are twelve wireless telegraph stations. In 1922 18,614,106 pesos revenue was derived from the postal service, and 7,143,353 pesos from the telegraph service. Manufactures. — The Argentine Republic is not a manufacturing country. The latest industrial census reported 48,779 factories, employing 410,201 persons, and with a total capital of 1,787,662,- 295 pesos. The chief industrial establishments are sugar fac- tories, wine depots, flour mills, breweries, and meat-freezing de- pots. Meat refrigeration is the leading industry, with flour milling second. In 1922 the wheat flour production totalled 930,569 tons. Scarcity of do- mestic coal and other fuels handi- caps manufacture. Commerce. — In 1925 exports amounted to approximately $841,891,000, and imports to $850,542,000. In the same year government customs and port revenues were about $140,000,- 000. The chief exports are hides and skins, wool, meat, and other animal products, wheat, corn, linseed, and quebracho. The Republic ranks first in the export of linseed and frozen meat, second in wheat and corn. The chief imports are textiles, agricultural implements, building materials, foodstuffs, iron and its manu- factures, liquors, glass, coal, chemicals, unbleached cloth, knit goods, binder twine, wire, oils, newsprint paper, and lumber. For the year 1925 the imports of merchandise from the United States were valued at $200,078,- 747 and the exports to that country at $69,458,839. The principal items of importation from the United States are agricultural machinery, twine, oils, vehicles and railway mate- rial, chemicals, electrical supplies, and manufactures of iron, steel, and wood. The chief exports are hides, hair, and wool. Finance. — The revenue for 1925 amounted to about $270,- 000,000 and the expenditures to about $260,000,000. The budget for 1925 was fixed at approxi- mately 588,641,000 paper dollars. The standard of value is the gold peso or dollar, worth 96.5 cents American money ; but the money in circulation is chiefly paper. The paper peso, convertible by law, is worth 42.5 cents American money. On Dec. 31, 1925, the national debt was 1,673,647,300 paper pesos. Population. — According to an official estimate taken in 1924, the total population was 9,548,- 093 or more than double what it was in 1895. In the country as a whole the density of population is 8 inhabitants to the square mile; Tucuman is the most densely populated province, hav- ing 32 inhabitants to the square mile. Of the country's popula- tion, about 25 per cent, are foreign. The following table shows the population by provinces. French, Turkish, Austro-Hun- garian, Brazilian, Chilean, Para- guayan, English, German, Boli- vian, and Swiss. On June 1, 1925 (official census), Buenos Aires, the capital city, had a population of 2,310,- 441. The population of other leading cities was: Rosario, 265,000; Cordoba, 156,000; Tucuman, 92,000; La Plata, 151,000; Santa Fe, 60,000; Mendoza, 59,000; Avellaneda, 46,000; Parana, 36,000; Cor- rientes, 27,000. Religion. — No state religion exists, and, although the state supports Roman Catholicism, there is perfect freedom of conscience, and toleration of all other creeds. The hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church consists of the archbishop of Buenos Aires and ten suffragan bishops. There are eight semi- naries for the clergy. Civil marriage was established in 1888. Education. — An admirable sys- tem of free, secular, and com- pulsory education has been in- troduced for children from six to fourteen years of age. In 1922 there were 9,940 primary public schools with 1,227,400 pupils and 40,169 teachers. The Federal Government controls secondary education, and for it maintains Federal District Provinces and Territories. Federal District Buenos Aires (the Federal Capital) Martin Garcia Island Provinces Buenos Aires Santa Fe Cordoba Entre Rios Corrientes San Luis Santiago del Estero Tucuman Mendoza San Juan La Rioja Catamarca Salta Jujuy Territories Misiones Formosa Chaco La Pampa Neuquen Rio Negro Chubut Santa Cruz Tierra del Fuego Los Andes Total Area: English sq. miles. 72 117,777 50,713 66,912 29,241 33,535 29,035 55,385 10,422 56,502 37,865 37,839 36,800 48,302 14,802 11,511 41,402 52,741 56,320 40,530 79,805 93,427 109,142 8,299 34,740 1,153,119 Population Jan. 1, 1924. 1,811,745 2,336,507 1,122,927 896,128 530,927 896,128 137,674 321,891 380,482 333,379 140,838 89,121 114,553 154,257 80,023 69,422 24,136 58,160 142,023 38,085 52,440 32,885 12,581 2,592 2,929 9,548,092 Population Census 1914. 1,575,814 783 2,066,165 899,640 735,472 425,373 347,055 116,266 261,678 332,933 277,535 119,252 79,754 100,391 140,927 76,631 53,563 19,281 46,274 101,338 28,866 42,242 23,065 9,948 2,504 2,487 7,885,237 In 1925 immigrants numbered 125,365, as compared to 160,127 in 1924; emigrants numbered but 49,840, as against 75,562 in 1924, In numbers, the foreign popula- tion ranks according to na- tionalities as follows: Italian, Spanish, Russian, Uruguayan, 40 national secondary schools, 84 normal schools, 6 commercial schools, one secondary girls' school, 3 industrial schools, 15 vocational schools and several other educational institutions. The total registration in these schools was 73,296, with 6,366 Vol. I.— Oct. '27 Argentine Republic 352 Argillaceous Bocks teachers. Private schools num- bered 188, with 9,345 pupils. For higher education there are the universities of Buenos Aires, Cordoba, La Plata, Tucuman, and the University of the Littoral. Army and Navy. — Service in the army, or national militia, is compulsory for all citizens from 20 to 45 years of age. The army is divided into three grades — the active army or first line, the Na- tional Guard, and the Territorial Guard. The first ten years are served in the active army; the second ten years in the National Guard ; and the last five years in the Territorial Guard. The an- nual period of service is three months for those training in the ranks. There are five military dis- tricts, each of which contributes a full division of about 12,000 men to the active army when mobilization is ordered, and in addition a division of reserves, outside of the National and Ter- ritorial Guards. The peace strength of the army is about 30,000 officers and men; the reserve is 300,000 men. In 1912 the Argentine navy was augmented by two of the most powerful battleships in the world, of the Dreadnought type — the Moreno and the Rivadavia, each of 27,600 tons displacement, and carrying 12 12-inch guns. In addition, the navy has 4 ar- mored cruisers, 2 protected cruisers, 7 destroyers, and 8 tor- pedo boats, besides training and miscellaneous vessels. Naval instruction is provided in a naval school, a school of mech- anics, an artillery school, and a school for torpedo practice. Government. — The government is a federal republic, with Buenos Aires (q. v.) as the capital. The Federal Assembly, or National Congress, is composed of two chambers — a Senate of 30 mem- bers, and a House of Deputies of 158 members. The Senate is elected by the city of Buenos Aires and by the legislatures of the 14 provinces (Buenos Aires, Entre Rios, Corrientes, Santa Fe, Cordoba, San Luis, Santiago del Estero, Tucuman, Mendoza, San Juan, La Rioja, Catamarca, Salta, and Jujuy), each of which manages its own internal affairs. The House of Deputies is elected by the people, one deputy for each 33,000 inhabitants. A dep- uty must be 25 years old and a citizen of four years' standing; a senator must be 30 years old and a citizen of six years' stand- ing. The deputies are elected for four years; one half of the House retiring every two years. Every three years one-third of the Senate is renewed. The president and vice-president are elected for terms of six years. The president, elected by rep- VoL. I.— Oct. '27 resentatives of the 14 provinces equal to double the number of Senators and Deputies com- bined, exercises the executive power; while the law-making power is vested in the National Congress. The president is com- mander-in-chief; appoints to all civil, military, and judicial of- fices; and has the right of presen- tation to bishoprics. He must be a Roman Catholic, an Argentine by birth, and cannot be re-elect- ed. He appoints a ministry of eight members, who act under his orders; but he is responsible, with the ministry, for the acts of the executive. The vice-presi- dent, elected in the same way and at the same time as the presi- dent, is chairman of the Senate, but has no other political power. The provincial governors are elected by the people of each province for a term varying be- tween three and four years, and within constitutional limits are independent of the president. The provinces elect their own legislatures. The sparsely inhabited parts of the country are divided into 10 gubernaciones or territories — Formosa, El Chaco, Misiones, Los Angeles, and Pampa, north of the Colorado; Neuquen, Rio Ne- gro, Chubut, Santa Cruz, and Tierra del Fuego, to the south. The territories are administered by governors appointed by the president. The capital forms a Federal District similar to the District of Columbia of the United States. History. — Juan Diaz de Solis, a Spaniard, sailed up the estuary of the Rio de la Plata in 1516 and asserted his master's sover- eignty over the surrounding country. In 1535 the site of Buenos Aires was occupied by Don Pedro de Mendoza; but no settlement was firmly established until after 1580, when Spanish rule began to have the support of other towns which were being founded. The settlements con- tinued under the administration of the viceroy of Peru until 1778, when they were made part of a new viceroyalty, of which Buenos Aires was the chief city. In 1806, before the British alli- ance with Spain against Napo- leon, Buenos Aires was captured by English troops; but they were unable to hold it. In 1810 the general South American revolt against Spain began; and in 1816 was founded the republic of the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata. From the turbulence of the next twenty years there issued the dictatorship of Juan Manuel de Rosas, from 1835 to 1852. After his defeat by the forces of a coalition a new con- stitution was declared in 1853. The uprisings and revolutions of the next two decades were typical of South American states; but they did not prevent mate- rial prosperity. In 1881 the Ar- gentine Republic acquired by treaty with Chile a small part of Tierra del Fuego and the greater part of Patagonia. Between 1899 and 1902 bound- ary disputes with Chile were set- tled by arbitration. In the north, the Puna de Atacama was di- vided with Chile in 1899, so that the larger and more valuable eastern portion fell to the Argen- tine Republic. South of 41° s. lat. the dispute as to the bound- ary with Chile was submitted to King Edward vii. of England as arbitrator, and in 1902 he deter- mined that the frontier should coincide for the most part with the watershed. In 1910 Dr. Roque Saenz-Pefia was elected president. In that year the centennial of the revo- lution of May 25, 1810, was cele- brated by four international ex- positions — land transport, agri- culture, fine arts, and hygiene — held at Buenos Aires. On May 16, 1914, the U. S. legation at Buenos Aires was raised to the rank of an embassy; and on July 10, 1916, the Spanish legation was also raised to that rank. President Hipolito Irigo- yen took office Oct. 12, 1916. During the Great War the Republic maintained a policy of neutrality. In 1922 Dr. Marco de Alvear entered upon a six- year term as president. Bibliography. — Consult Child's Spanish - American Republics; Turner's Argentina and the Ar- gentines; Pan-American Union's Handbook of the Argentine Repub- lic; Holdich's The Countries of the King's Award; Koebel's Ar- gentina Past and Present (1912); Bulletins of the Pan-American Union. Ar'gentite, or Silver Glance, a gray sulphide of silver (q.v.) and one of the chief sources of the metal. Argenton, ar-zhah-ton', town, France, in the department of Indre, on the Creuse; 55 miles southeast of Chatellerault. In- dustries include boot and shoe factories, and tanneries. Pop. (1921) 5,575. Arglle Plastlque, ar-zhel'pla- stek' (French 'plastic clay'), a series of beds of clay found in the Tertiary basin of Paris, belonging to the Lower Eocene and used for the manufacture of pottery. Argllla'ceous Bocks, a class of sedimentary rocks in which clay is an important constituent. Pure clay or kaolinite is a hy- drated silicate of aluminum formed by the decomposition of other materials, chiefly feldspars. Clay usually contains certain other ingredients, such as quartz, mica, hornblende, and hematite. Shale is a hardened or Argd 353 Argonaut consolidated argillaceous rock, while slate is a variety that has undergone both hardening and deformation by which new cleav- age planes are developed. Ar'go, the largest of Ptolemy's fifteen southern constellations, lies east of Canis Major and Columba. The Greeks and Romans saw in it the ship of Jason; the Hindus venerated it as a solar, the Egyptians as a lunar, bark — the last-named peo- ple holding, further, that by means of it Isis and Osiris had surveyed the Deluge ; and in Eu- rope it still figured as the ark in the seventeenth century. The unwieldy size of the asterism led to so much confusion in the no- menclature of its component stars that Sir John Herschel recom- mended its partition into Carina, 'the keel;' Puppis, 'the poop;' Vela, 'the sails;' and Malus.'the mast;' and the arrangement has become prevalent save that, for Malus, Lacaille's Pyxis, ' the com- pass,' is sometimes substituted. One of the structures forming the great 'Keyhole' nebula (N.G.C. 3372), so called from the shape of one of its character- istic dark openings, seems, from a comparison of Sir John Her- schel's drawing with Sir David Gill's photograph, to have lost since 1837, nearly all its light. Close to the 'Keyhole,' the ex- traordinary variable rj Carinae outshone Canopus in 1843, then rapidly declined, and is now sta- tionary at 7.5 magnitude. It shows the spectrum of coupled dark and bright rays belonging to most temporary stars. A still finer spectral display is made by the brilliant Wolf-Rayet star, 7 Velorum, some of the constit- uent lines in which have been identified through Professor Pick- ering's discovery of a second hy- drogen series, represented by ab- sorption in spectrographs of f Puppis. The lustrous section of the Milky Way in Argo is em- blazoned with several fine clus- ters, notably Messier 46, which includes the annular nebula N.G.C. 2438, and Messier 93, described by Smyth as 'of a starfish shape.' Both are situated in Puppis. Ar'gol, known in commerce as Crude Tartar, is an impure bitartrate of potash or cream of tartar, occurring as a hard crys- talline deposit in the vats in which wine is fermented, and in bottles of wine, where it is termed 'crust.' The salt is present in grape juice, but being insoluble in alcohol is precipitated as fer- mentation proceeds. Tartaric acid, cream of tartar, Rochelle salts, and tartar emetic are pre- pared from the substance. Argoiis. See Arc.os. Ar'gon (Gr. 'inactive'), A 39.9, a gas existing in the atmosphere Vol. I.— Oct. 'U in the proportion of about .8 per cent., the presence of which was first suspected by Cavendish in 1785, but attracted no further no- tice till 1895, when Lord Ray- leigh and Sir William Ramsay an- nounced its discovery, calling it argon on account of its chemical inactivity. Lord Rayleigh found that nitrogen obtained from the air always gives a higher den- sity than nitrogen prepared from chemical compounds, and Ram- say suggested that this was due to the presence in atmospheric nitro- gen of a heavier gas. By pass- other element; it is 2^ times as soluble in water as nitrogen and has approximately the same solubility as oxygen. It lique- fies at — 186° C, and solidifies at —189.6° C; and is best recog- nized by the characteristic lines near the red end of spectrum. The best-known method of ob- taining argon on a large scale is from liquid oxygen. Consult Ramsay's Gases of the Atmos- phere and Position of Argon and Helium among the Elements. Ar'gonaut, or Paper Sailor, a cuttle belonging to the order \ I M U S C A The Constellation Argo, ing atmospheric nitrogen through heated tubes which contained metallic magnesium, the nitro- gen was fixed, and a residual gas was obtained. It was soon dis- covered that the argon thus ob- tained was not itself a simple substance, but a mixture of what is now known as pure argon, and other constituents in much smaller proportions. Of these helium had been known since 1868 as an element in the sun. The others, which have been named neon, krypton, and xenon, occur in very minute quantities. Argon is nearly one and a half times heavier than air; it cannot be made to combine with any Octopoda and the genus Argo- nauta. One species {A. argo) lives in the Mediterranean, and is often called the paper nautilus, though it bears no relation to the true nautilus (q. v.). Its peculiarity is the presence — in the female only — of a thin, translucent, radiately fluted shell. This serves as a shelter for the animal, which is held in place by membranous expansions of the two dorsal arms, and also as a receptacle for the eggs. The cuttle has the appearance of sailing about on the water; hence its name and the many fanciful legends concerning it. The male has no shell and is much smaller than the female. Argonauise 353A Argonne Ar'gonaiitae, or Argonauts, according to Greek legend, a band of sailors who journeyed to Col- chis to secure the golden fleece. Their story is alluded to in the Odyssey, and is related by Hesiod, and among later writers, with great fulness by Apollonius Rho- dius and Apollodorus. The le- gend runs thus: Pelias, King of lolchos, having ousted his half- brother ^son, wished to rid him- self of the latter's ;3on, Jason, who demanded the crown which was rightfully hi >. /.ccordingly, with wily intent, ii'elias sug- gested that Jason should prove his courage by going in quest of the golden fleece which hung on an oak tree in the grove of Ares, in Colchis, guarded day and night by a fiery dragon. Jason gladly agreed, and with the aid of Hera, Athena, and Argus built for the quest the vessel Argo, sometimes represented as the first ship to venture on the deep. It had fifty oars, and in its crew were all the great heroes of the day, inclu4ing Jason him- self. Castor, an( Pollux, Zetes and Calais (sons < i Boreas), Or- pheus, Hercules, Tydeus, The- seus, and Nestor. The expedition left the shores of Thessaly, touched at the island of Lemnos, where dwelt a state of women ruled by Queen Hypsi- pyle (q. v.); stopped at Cyzicus in Mysia, where Hercules was left behind to seek for his friend and follower Hylas (q. v.); and reached Thrace, where Phin- eus the sage, whom the adven- turers freed from the Harpies (q. v.), instructed them how they might safely pass the Symple- gades — rocks which clashed to- gether at the entrance to the Euxine Sea. This they did with only slight injury to the ship and arrived, after further experiences, at the shores of Colchis. Here King JEetes craftily promised the golden fleece to Jason if he could harness to the plough two fire-breathing oxen with brazen feet, and sow the field thus ploughed with dragon's teeth, from which it was known a crop of armed men would spring, whom he must slay. Jason con- sented, and aided by Medea, the king's daughter, to whom he had plighted his troth, performed the task, secured the fleece, and sailed away, accompanied by Medea and her brother Absyrtus. King ^etes pursued them but his purpose was frustrated by Medea, who killed her brother and scattered his limbs on the waters so that her father must interrupt his voyage to collect the fragments of the body for burial. Concerning the return voyage of the Argus there seems to be less definite legend. According to the ante-Homeric Argonautics, Vol. I.— Oct. '19 the adventurers returned home the way they went, i.e., by the Black Sea; but the fame of the Odyssey made it an estab- lished belief that they returned through the Mediterranean, by the route the famous Ulysses pursued. They are supposed to have come at length to the isle of Circe, where they received the rites of purification for the murder of Absyrtus, and thence to the isle of the Sirens, from whose entrancing strains they were rescued by Orpheus' lyre. Passing Scylla and Charybdis and the Wandering Islands, they then reached the land of the Phaecians, and from there jour- neyed to Syrtes on the coast of Libya, to Crete, Anaphe and ^gina, finally arriving at lol- chos. The story of the Argonauts contains a number of incidents common not only to European but to savage folklore; variants have been collected from Sam- oyed, Epirot, Kafir, Malagasy, Algonquin, Gaelic, Norse, Rus- sian, Italian, Japanese, and Samoan sources. For the later story, see Jason, Medea, and Pelias. Consult Euripides' Medea; Apollonius Rhodius' Agonautica; Kingsley's Heroes; Keightley's Mythology; Tatlock's Greek and Roman My- thology (1916). Argonauts of '49. See Forty- niners. Argonne, a wooded region and rocky plateau, departments of Meuse and Ardennes, France, extending from Grand Pre on the north to Thiaucourt on the south. The Argonne has a notable his- tory, having served as a battle- ground in several wars. It fig- ured prominently in the Great War (1914-19) of Europe (q. v.). An account of the principal ac- tions follows: Early Actions. — On the even- ing of Sept. 5, 1914, the Ger- man armies had reached the extreme limits of their sweeping advance of the first days of the European War. At that time the Fourth German Army of the Imperial Crown Prince had reached the position where its line extended over the Argonne from St. Menehould to south of Verdun and was opposed in its advance by Sarrail's Third French Army. In the First Bat- tle of the Marne, the army of the Crown Prince was the pivot on which the German line swung. Here Sarrail's Third Army re- pulsed the repeated assaults of the Crown Prince from Sept. 6 to Sept. 11. The next day the Crown Prince fell back to a position running from Clermont to St. Menehould, where he held the only good pass of the Argonne. This retirement was made to conform to the retire- ment along the whole German line. The retreat saved Fort Troyon which had been bom- barded for five days and now was Httle more than a heap of dust with a garrison of forty- five men and four effective guns remaining. In the First Battle of the Aisne (see Aisne, Battles of), the Crown Prince on Oct. 3, 1914, made a vigorous assault upon Sarrail's centre from south of Varennes to just north of Verdun. At the same time he attempted a turning movement through the woods of the Ar- gonne against St. Menehould, for which German guns were brought up through the La Grurie woods to the forest road from Varennes west to Vienne. The next day, after sharp fight- ing, the French fell upon them and drove them back north of Varennes, capturing that town and gaining the road across the Argonne, which gave them touch with the right of Langle's Fourth French Army. This vic- tory straightened out the French front, which now ran from Ver- dun due west to north of Souain, and then along the Roman road to Rheims. During December, 1914, the Crown Prince was very active in the Argonne, where the fighting was confined to the narrow strip 8 miles wide from Varennes to Vienne. His objective was to regain the pass which was the connecting link between Sarrail's and Langle's armies. The num- bers engaged in the numerous attacks were small and gave many chances for personal en- terprise from which came won- derful tales of chivalry and dar- ing. The German attacks failed, while the French gained ground, pushing their trenches forward into La Grurie woods. In Jan- uary, 1915, another advance was made in the same woods, where more than a mile of Ger- man trenches were captured by the Italian regiment under Lieutenant Colonel Garibaldi, whose brother Constantine fell in the engagement. The wood- land war now relapsed into a genuine stalemate. The only major action during the midsummer of 1915 was the assault of the Imperial Crown Prince in the Argonne. For al- most eight months his small army had been stationed in the Argonne engaged in a forest warfare which was barren of results. The French held the pass between the little towns of Vienne and Varennes, save at its eastern end, where the Ger- man lines curved south and covered Varennes at a point on the Cleremont road south of the village of Bouveuilles. The Argonne 353B Argonne Crown Prince receiving rein- forcements began his attack on June 20, and heralded it with an announcement that the French had been using inflam- matory bombs southeast of Varennes, and flooded the op- posing trenches with Hquid fire. The announcement was false, being part of that naive plan by which, when the Germans intended adopting discreditable methods, they began by accusing their opponents of them. The same thing had happened pre- paratory to the attack by poi- soned gas at the Second Battle of Ypres, and the Allies were on the alert. Between June 20 and July 2 four attacks were deUv- ered on the French left against the angle formed by the French lines and the Vienne-Binarville road. Much use was made of asphyxiating shells, but the re- sult totalled only a few hun- dred yards of gain. On July 7 the Crown Prince changed his plan and flung his main strength against the French right from a green ride cut in the wood called Haute Chevauchee. After vio- lent artillery bombardment, two divisions of the sixteenth corps were hurled on the French be- tween Fontaine Madame and the highest point on the Haute Chevauchee, a hillock known as La Fille Morte. This position was carried, and the Germans advanced their centre and left nearly a mile. July 14 the French counter-attacked at the other side of the forest, where they gained some ground both in woods of La Grurie and beyond it to the west towards the vil- lage of Servon. After that the fighting languished. The Crown Prince was pushed back from the Haute Chevauchee and La Fille Morte, and the result of a month's struggle was a German gain of an average of 400 yards on their Argonne front. The casualties on both sides were about equal. During the Champagne Offen- sive of the French in Sept., 1915, the Crown Prince attempted a diversion in the Argonne. On Sept. 27 his army advanced, as in July, on the point called La Fille Morte, and after a gas attack delivered five separate assaults on Humbert's left wing. They won in places a few yards of trenches but the attack was so weak that not a single man was drawn off from the Cham- pagne armies to meet it. Meuse-Argonne Offensive.— In the final offensive planned by Marshal Foch to break the Ger- man defences all along the line from the Lorraine to the sea, the United vStates forces held the positions between the Argonne and the Meuse and east of that river facing Briey. The object Vol. L— Oct. '19 of the offensive in this section according to the report of Gen- eral Pershing was 'to draw the best German division to our front and to consume them.' The goal of the American attack, which was the hinge of the AUied offen- sive, was the Sedan- Mezieres railroad, the main line of supply for the German forces on the major part of the Western front, and the evacuation of the Briey iron fields. The American right flank was protected by the Meuse, while the left embraced the Argonne forest whose ra- vines, hills, and elaborate de- fences screened by dense thick- ets had been considered impreg- nable. The Third Corps cov- ered the right from the Meuse to Malancourt, the Fifth Corps from Malancourt to Vauquois, and the First Corps from Va- quois to Vienne le Chateau. Briefl-y the Meuse-Argonne offensive is divided into three phases. The first phase started Sept. 25, when the American army quietly took the places of the French, who thinly held the line of the sector. They also opened artillery fire on the east bank of the Meuse, as if an at- tack were coming in that quar- ter. Then followed an artillery bombardment of the German back areas everywhere between the Suippe and Verdun. At 5:.30 A.M., Oct. 26, Pershing's army crossed the parapets, mas- tering all the first-line defences. The greatest gains at this point were the heights of Montfaucon. East of the Meuse a division of Americans with the Second Colonial French Corps gained an advance which gave further protection to the right flank of the main body. By Oct. 4 the First American Army had ad- vanced over seven miles through the Hindenburg and Volker lines, but failed to clear the whole of the Argonne Forest. They were now in the open and prepared for the German reac- tion. After the first surprise the Germans launched violent counter-attacks supported by heavy bombardments and quan- tities of gas. Through all of this action the Americans re- tained the offensive and seized strategical points in preparation of further attacks. The second phase of the of- fensive was opened with a re- nev/ed attack all along the line on Oct. 4. This phase is marked by the most violent attacks and counter-attacks, and desperate stands on the part of the best German divisions that had been made at any time during the war. It was found necessary to con- stitute a second American army, and on Oct. 9 the command of the First Army was turned over to Lieut.-Gen. Hunter Liggett. The command of the Second Army, whose divisions occupied a sector in the Woevre, was given to Lieut.-Gen. Robert L. Buliard. On Oct. 10 the Ger- mans were cleared out of the Argonne Forest, St. Juvin was taken after a desperate assault a fev/ days later, and Grand Pre, an important German strong- hold, was taken three different times —the last time on Oct. 26, caiising the withdrawal of the Germans from Belle Joyeuse Farm, which had changed hands eleven times in ten days. On Oct. 2S the American 16-inch naval guns, which had been just brought up, opened a destruc- tive fire on the Longuyon-Sedan- Mezieres railroad. During this phase the First Army had suc- ceeded in breaking through the strong Kriemhilde Line, which had successfully held the Ar- gonne positions firm in German hands for four years and was deemed impregnable. A notable incident of this phase was the advance and rescue of the so-called 'Lost Battalion.' On the night of Sept. 27, a battaUon of the 308th Infantry, commanded by Major Whittlesey, participated in an attack on a German position deep in the forest, three miles northeast of Binarville. By a single file advance they gained their objective; but at dawn found Germans safely entrenched in front, behind, and on both sides of their position. Thus sur- rounded, a target for German artillery and machine guns, and without food during the last thirty-six hours, this battalion held out against the enemy for three days. Late on Monday, Sept. 30, it was rescued in an attack of the 307th Infantry led by Lieut. Col. Eugene Hough- ton. The last phase of the offen- sive began Nov. 1 with a des- perate assault of Liggett's First Army against the Freya line, 40 kilometres south of Sedan. The line was crushed every- where, Aincrevile, Bayonville, Champigneuille and Thenorgues fell, and Buzancy, an important German railhead, was taken by storm. The German resist- ance gave way before the re- peated attacks of the First Corps and they began to fall back so rapidly that their retreat bor- dered on a rout, which compelled thfe American infantry to follow in motor trucks in order to retain an offensive contact. The Third Corps crossed the Meuse on Nov. 5, and in conjunction with the troops on that side attacked the reinforced German resist- ance which attempted to hold the line on the east of the Meuse from Sivry to the north. Here, after desperate fighting, a wide Argos 354 ArgyU salient was driven into the Ger- man line and Stenay was cap- tured by Nov. 11. By Nov. 4 the First Corps crushed the German stand at Chatillon-sur- Bar and the Second Division of the Fifth Corps boldly took Beaumont. On the left the First Corps continued the ad- vance and by Nov. 6 took Raucourt and reached the out- skirts of Mouzon and Sedan. The next day, the Meuse was crossed and both Corps smashed into the German lines with success. In six days the First Army had rushed through to Sedan clearing all on the west bank of the Meuse, liberating many towns and thousands of civilians, and capturing great quantities of war material. The German armies were all but bottled up, as there remained only their lines of communication by way of Liege. Plans were now laid for an advance between the Meuse and the Moselle in the direction of Longwy, by the First Army, while at the same time, the Second Army was to strike the iron fields of Briey. Orders of attack had gone out on the morning of Nov. 11 when hostilities ceased at 11 A.M. Ar'gos, Argolis, Argia, or Argolice, district and town of ancient Greece. The district lies around the Argolic Gulf, bounded on the west by the Arcadian Mountains, on the south by La- conia, and on the east by the territories of Troezen and Epi- daurus. In early days it became the predominant state in the Peloponnesus, but early in the sixth century B.C. was reduced by Sparta to a secondary place. The state, however, retained its independence until the Roman conquest (146 B.C.) Argolis, with Corinth, now forms one of the sixteen nomar- chies of modern Greece. Area, 1,442 square miles. Pop. 158,- 000. The town Argos, with its cit- adel Larissa, lies on a plain west of the Inachus River, 7 miles northwest of Nauplia. It was noted for the worship of Hera (Juno), whose temple, the Herae- um, lay between it and Mycenae. Pop. 10,000. Argostoli, ar-gos-to'lo, seaport, Ionian Islands, capital of Cepha- lonia, famous for its Sea Mill§, which are driven by a stream of sea water pouring with great force into two holes in the rocky coast. Pop. 14,000. Argot, ar-go'. See Slang. Arguelles, ar-gal'yas, Augits- TIN (1778-1844), Spanish states- man and orator, was born in Rivadisella in Asturias. He took part in the War of Independence in 1808, and as a member of the Vol. I.— Oct. '19 Cortes assisted in producing the liberal constitution of 1812. Upon the restoration of Ferdi- nand VII., he was arrested and condemned to ten years in the galleys. He was released during the revolution of i82'0, but sub- sequently was obliged to flee to England, where he remained until the amnesty of 1832. He afterward became a leader of the Moderates, and guardian (1841) to Queen Isabella. His oratorical powers won for him the name of the Spanish Cicero. Ar'giunent, in rhetoric or logic, is a reason offered for or against a proposition, opinion, etc.; a debate or disputation. Certain types of argument have received special names — e.g. (1) the argumenlum a fortiori, an ar- gument from the truth of a more general or difficult proposition to the truth of a related proposi- tion of less generality or difficulty; (2) the argumenlum ad hominem, an argument applied to the par- ticular man one is addressing, based on his principles or con- duct, his prepossessions or pre- judices; (3) the argumenlum ad rem, an argument drawn from the nature of the subject-matter; (4) the argumenlum ad populum, an argument based on prevailing opinions or sentiments; (5) the argumenlum ad verecundiam, an appeal to an opponent's unwill- ingness to contradict the opin- ions of eminent authority; (6) the argumenlum e consensu gentium, an argument from the general acceptance of a proposition to its truth. Argument, in legal procedure, is the address to the jury in which the counsel sets forth the points in his client's case which determine its outcome. Argun, ar-gobn', river, Siberia, called in its upper course the Kerulen, joins the Shilka to form the Amur. It rises in the Great Kinghan Mountains, flows north, and drains the eastern part of Transbaikalia, passing through Nerchinsk, and forming the frontier between Siberia and China. Length 1,100 miles. Ar'gus, in Greek mythology, a giant with a hundred eyes, only two of which were closed at one time. Hera set him to watch lo, whom Zeus has changed into a heifer; but Hermes, who was sent to carry her off, managed to sur- prise and kill Argus, whereupon Hera transferred his eyes to the tail of a peacock, her favorite bird. Argus Pheasant (Phasianus argus), a genus of galUnaccous birds, native to the Indo-Malay- an region. The plumage of the male is magnificent; the head is dark blue with a black crest, and the tail has twelve feathers, beau- tifully marked, the two middle ones being much elongated. The secondary wing feathers are much longer than the primary and, like the tail feathers are well covered with eye-like markings, from which the bird derives its name (see Argus). Like the peacock it erects the tail into a huge fan, and struts about be- fore the fem.ale. The latter is a plain bird of mottled buff and black and without the eye-spots. The male attains a total length of six feet, about fifty inches of which is in the tail. Argyll, ar-gil', Earls and Dukes of. Archibald Camp- Bell, Fifth Earl (1530-73), was a great-great-grandson of Colin, lyord Campbell, created First Earl of Argyll in 1457. He headed the Lords of the Con- gregation in their successful efforts to thwart the poHcy of the queen regent; was involved in the murder of Darnley; and intrigued to deliver Mary from prison. Under the regency of Morton he was, however, made lord chancellor. Archibald (1598-1661) after- ward Eighth Earl was created marquis in 1641. This earl de- picted in Scott's Legend of Mon- trose, supported the Covenanters; and, although, in 1641, he was created marquis, he nevertheless bore arms against Charles I., and in 1644 was defeated by Mon- trose. He took up the royal cause against Cromwell in 1651; but at the restoration he was called to account by Charles ii, for submission to Cromwell's usurpation, and was executed at the Cross of Edinburgh in 1661. The fate of his son Archibald, Ninth Earl (d. 1685), was equally tragic. His support of the Highland rising in favor of Charles ii. in 1654 led to his condemnation; but he was re- leased in 1663, and restored to his estates and titles as earl. He suppressed the risings of the Cov- enanters in 1665 and following years, though always advising gentler measures; and for resist- ing the Test Act of 1681 he was found guilty of treason. Escap- ing from prison, he went over to Holland, whence in 1685 he re- turned to Scotland, and associat- ed himself with the Monmouth rebeUion, when he was taken prisoner and beheaded at Edin- burgh. The restoration by William of Orange of Archibald, Tenth Earl and afterward duke (d. 1703), to his estates, was one of the causes of the rising in the Highlands under Dundee in 1689. Arg\ll shares with Dal- rymple the responsibility for the massacre of Glencoe. He was created duke in 1701. His eldest son, John, Second Duke (1678-1743), was created a peer of England for his services in Argyllshire supporting the Union, and served under Marlborough. He took a leadinoj part in promoting the accession of George I.; was ap- gointed commander-in-chief in Gotland, and led the Royalist troops against the Jacobites at Sherift'muir. In 171S he was created Duke of Greenwich. He figures in The Heart of Mid- lothian. George Douglas, eighth duke (1823-1900), second son of the seventh duke, was a distin- guished orator and politician, and an able writer on ecclesiastical matters, on geology, and on economics. From IS53 he was a member of most Liberal govern- ments, successively Lord Privy Seal, Postmaster-general, and Sec- retary of State for India; but in 1881 he resigned oJilce on the question of tne Irish Land Bill. Among his principal works are The Reign of Lav) (1866; 19th ed. 1890); Primaval Man (1869): The Unity of Nature (1884; 2nd ed. 1888); and The Philosophy of Belief (1894). His eldest son, John Douglas Sutherland, ninth duke. Marquis of Lorne (b. 1845), mar- ried, in 1871, Princess Louise, daughter of Queen Victoria. From 1878-83 he was governor- general of Canada. He wrote Canadian Pictures (1884); Life of Lord Palmerston (1892); and a popular Life of Queen Victoria (1901). Argyllshire, a maritime co. in the w. of Scotland, with an ex- treme length from N. to s. of 115 m., and a coast-line, owing to its numerous sea lochs, of 2,290 m. It has an area of 3,165 sq. m., and is very mountainous. The chief town is Inveraray. Sheep-raising, herring fishing, slate (Balfachulish) and granite quarrying (near In- veraray), coal-mining (near Camp- beltown), and whisky distilling (Campbeltown and Islay) are the chief industries. Highland cattle are largely ^ reared. In the s. the climate is mild, but in the N. it is severe, the snow lying on the hills for months. Argyll and the Islands form one of the seven bishoprics of the Scottish Epis- copal Church. Pop. (1901) 73,642. See Lord A. Campbell's Records of Argyll (1885). Argyria, a bluish gray per- manent pigmentation of the skin, caused oy the internal use of compound.s of silver, an{l most pronounced in those parts exposed to the light. It is due to silver particles in the corium. Argyropulos, Joannes (1416- I486?), humanist, was born in Constantinople, but on the fall of that city he went to Rome (1453), where he soon became a renowned Greek teacher, passing from Rome to Padua, and from Padua (on the invitation of Cosimo de' Medici) to Florence (1456), where among his pupils were Picro and Lo- a56 renzo de' Medici. In 1471 he moved to Rome, where he died. Among his pupils were Poliziano and Reuchlin. His principal works were translations of Aris- totle' s treatises, with commentaries. Aria (It.), a rhythmical air, song, or tune. The term is com- monly applied to_ a song for a single voice with instrumental or vocal accompaniment, and intro- duced into such works as oratorios, operas, and cantatas. Beethoven' s Ah Perfido and Mendelssohn's Infelice are model specimens. Ariadne, daughter of Minos, king of Crete, the lover and helper of Theseus, to whom she gave the clue of thread whereby he extri- cated himself from the labyrinth after slaying the Minotaur. She left Crete as Theseus' s promised wife, but, according to Homer, was killed by Artemis in Naxos. Another legend relates her deser- tion by Theseus and her succor by Dionysus, who married her, and placed her among the stars. Her name is attached to the 43rd asteroid. Arian Controversy. See Arius. Ariano di Puglia, tn. and episc. see, prov. Avellino, Italy, stands on the Apennines, 2,505 ft. above sea-level, 24 m. by rail E. by N. of Benevento. Sulphur is mined and marble quarried; the liqueur rosoglio is also made. Pop. incl. comm. (1901) 17,653. Arias Montanus, Benedictus (1527-98), Spanish theologian and Orientalist, member of the Council of Trent. He edited the Antwerp Polyglot Bible (1568-72); wrote Jewish Antiquities (1503). See Life by Loumyer (1842), and An- tonio's Bihliotheca Hispana Nova. Aribert, or Heribert (d. 1045), was of a noble Lombard family, and became archbishop of Milan in 1018. He was a partisan of the Ghibelline (Imperial) party, and invited to Italy the Emperor Conrad ii., whom 'he crowned as king of Milan in 1026. Arica, a roadstead and tn., grov. of Tacna, Chile, connected y a railway (39 m. long) with Tacna. Goods are landed here for Bolivia. Forty_ per cent, of the customs is paid to Bolivia. Some guano, salt, copper, silver and sulphur are exported. It had formerly 30,000 inhabitants, but has suft'ered repeatedly from earth- quakes, and was bombarded by the Chileansinl880. Pop. (1895)2,853. Arichat, fishing tn. on s. side of Madame I., Nova Scotia; chief town of Richmond co.; has a fine harbor, and is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop. There is a lead mine in the vicinity. Pop. (in- cluding W. Arichat) 2,500. Ariege. (1.) Dep., S. France, on frontier of Spain and Andorra, with the main ridge of the Py- renees running w.N.w. (highest point in the department, Pic Arlosti d'Estats, 10,300 ft.) as the s. limit. It lies mainly in the valley of the Ariege and its tributaries, the^ W. part of the department draining to the Garonne. In spite of its general altitude the climate is not cold, and there are some delightful summer resorts. The lower plains are fertile — cereals, vegetables, fruits, and vines being grown — and the pasturage of the highlands supports great flocks of sheep and herds of cattle. Refor- estation has begun._ The indus- tries are wool-working and iron- mining. Lead, copper, marble, coal and slate, zinc, and man- ganese occur. Area, 1,893 sq. m. Cap. Foix. Pop. (1901) 210,527. Ariel, the name of two individ- uals in the English Old Testament (Ezra 8:16; 1 Chron. 11:22). In Isa. 29:1, 2, 7, Ariel is used of Jerusalem. It may mean 'lion of God,' or 'hearth of God;' but Isaiah probably intends by par- onomasia to pre'dict that Uriel {i.e.., Urusalem or Jerusalem), 'God's enclosure,' was to become Arial, a sacrificial hearth — i.e., a place of slaughter. See Cheyne's Isaiah. For Shakespeare's Ariel, see The Tern pest. Aries, a zodiacal constellation which originally marked the first sign of the zodiac, entered by the sun at the vernal equinox, and denoted by the symbol r. Ow- ing to the effects of precession, the pas age of the sun through Aries has been shifted forward from April 16 to May 13. Ariguanabo, lake, prov. of Havana, Cuba. Its area is c. 6 sq. m. Arilfara, or Arikaree (horns) a part of the Caddoan linguistic family and members of the Paw- nee confederacy, were formerly associated with the Skidi. Ac- cording to tradition they separ- ated, and the Arikara migrated to the northward, fighting their way through the Dakota country to the vicinity of Fort Berthold, North Dakota, where their de- scendants now reside. See Maxi- milian's Travels in North America (1843), Hayden's Ethnography and Philology of the Missouri Valley (1862) and Coues, New Light on the Early History of the Greater Northwest (1897). Ari manes. See Ahriman. Arimao, or San Juan, river, prov. Santa Clara, Cuba. Ariminum, the ancient name of Rimini, Italy. Arion of Methymna in Les- bos, lived at Corinth about 625 B.C.; was one of the earlier Greek lyric poets, and developed the clithyramb or choral song in hon- or of Dionysus. The one ejctant fragment attributed to him is probably a forgery (see Bergk's Poetoe Lyrici Grceci, new ed. 1900). Ariosti, Attilio (c. 1660-1740), Italian musician and composer. Arlosto Handel, Bononcini, and Ariosti were employed together to pro- duce Italian opera in England in 1720. He composed fifteen operas, of which the most popu- lar was Coriolano. He has been credited with the invention of the viol d'amore. Ariosto, LuDOVico (1474- 1533), Italian poet, was born at Reggio in Emilia. In 1503, after he had written two comedies. La Cassaria and / Suppositi, and several lyric poems, he was taken into the service of Cardinal Ippo- lito d'Este. While residing in Ferrara, Ariosto wrote his great poem Orlando Furioso, which was published in 1516 in its first form, in forty cantos. Quarrelling with the close-fisted cardinal in 1518, Ariosto transferred his services to Alfonso of Ferrara. Soon after the 2nd edition of his Orlando ap- peared, in 1521, the duke sent Ariosto to the wild province of Garfagnana, to suppress various robber bands. After returning to Ferrara he produced three new comedies — La Lena, II Negro- mante, and La Scolastica. For some years he labored anew at the Orlando, which appeared in its final form in 1532, in forty-six cantos. He died in the following year and was buried in the church of San Benedetto at Ferrara, where a splendid tomb of marble was erected over his remains. The Orlando Furioso, upon which Ariosto' s immortality rests, is one of the great poems of the world, and one of the very first epics in the sphere of chivalry and romance. Taking up the theme first undertaken by Boiardo in the Orlando Innamoralo, Ariosto elaborated it, celebrating the ori- gin of the family of Este, and the loves and exploits of Ruggieri and Bradamante. The second part of the argument deals with the wars between Charlemagne and the Saracens, while the mad- ness and recovery of Orlando form the third argument or action of the poem. A good new edition of the Orlando Furioso was issued by Picciola in 1885. The best- known translation into English are those by Harrington (1591), Hoole (1773-83), and Stewart Rose (1823). The Satires have been translated by Markham (1608) and Crokcr (1759). See Life prefixed to Cappelli's Lcttere di L. Ariosto (3rd ed. 1887); and Lije by G. Campori (3rd cd. 1896), Ariovistus, German chief, rc- auested by the Sequani to help tnem against the .^^^dui by whom they were hard pressed. PIc subdued the yEdui and seized territory from the Sequani as his reward. Sequani and ^xlui now combined, and invoked the aid of Ca;sar, who defeated Ariovistus and his hordes about 50 m. from the Rhine (B.C. 58). Ariovistus es- 356 caped across the river in a small boat, and nothing more is known of him. Arispe, tn., Sonora, Mexico, on the Sonora R. In the neighbor- hood are antiquities, and several mines. Pop. 2,000. Arista, Mariano (1802-85), Mexican general and statesman. In the war with the U. S. in 1846 he was defeated by General Tay- lor at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. He was war minister under Herrera in 1848, and was elected president in 1851. He re- signed in 1853, and was banished. Aristaeus, a Greek deity, ac- cording to tradition the son of Apollo and the nymph Cyrene. At Thebes he learned the art of healing and prophecy, and mar- ried Autonoe, the daughter of Cadmus. In the Theban legend they were the parents of Actason. He was worshipped as the pro- tector of vine and olive planta- tions, hunters, and herdsmen. Aristagoras OF Miletus (d. 497 B.C.), brother-in-law of His- tiaeus the despot, who left him governor of the town while he was at the Persian court. In 501 B.C. Aristagoras failed to capture Naxos for the Persians, and, fearing punishment, ini- tiated the Ionian revolt against Persia. Sparta refused aid; but Athens sent ships and troops, with which he burnt Sardis, though he was soon driven back to the coast. The Athenians went home, and the Persians took most of the Ionian cities — Aristagoras fleeing to Thrace, where he fell in battle against the Edonians. AristarchusoFSAMOS(^.c.280- 264 B.C.), ancient Greek astrono- mer, whose one surviving work treats of the distances of the sun and moon from the earth. He appears to have believed the sun to be at rest and the earth in motion. Aristarchus OF Samothrace (c. 150 B.C.), ancient Greek gram- marian and critic, was educated at Alexandria, and founded a school of criticism himself, which flourished there, and afterward at Rome. He is said to have left Egypt in his old age, as Ptolemy Physcon, the reigning monarch, treated scholars badly, and to have retired to Cyprus, where, at the age of seventy-two, he starved himself to death, as he was suf- fering from an incurable dropsy. His whole life was devoted to the study and criticism of the Greek poets, and especially Homer. It was by his labors that the text of Homer, as we possess it, with the division of both Iliad and Odyssey into twenty-four books, was constituted, though later cor- ruptions have overlaid his edition to some extent. His aim was to restore the genuine text: verses which he considered spurious he marked with an obelus, and those Arlstldes of particular beauty with an aster- isk. None of his writings survive in integrity. See Lehr's De Aris- tarchi Studiis Homericis (3rd ed. 1882); Ludwig's Aristarchs Ho- merische Textkritik (1885). Aristides (fl. 360-330 B.C.), Greek military painter, whose work, The Capture of a City, was taken by Alexander the Great to Macedon; while A Battle with Persians, containing a hundred figures, was purchased by Mnason of Elatea; and a portrait of Bac- chus was bought by Attalus, king of Pergamus, and brought to Rome by L. Mummius. Aristides OF Athens (c. 530- 468 B.C.), son of Lysimachus, sur- named 'the Just,' was a leading Athenian statesman at the time of the Persian wars and after- ward. In 490 B.C. he commanded his tribe at Marathon; the next year he was archon; in 482 he was ostracized — i.e. banished by popu- lar vote — for five years, as a result of his rivalry with Themistocles. Returning in 480, he rendered con- spicuous service at the battle of Salamis, commanded the Athe- nian forces at Plataea (479), and drew up the assessment of the confederate states which joined Athens in the Delian League (476). He proposed, or supported, the throwing open of the archonship to all Athenians (c. 478). He died so poor that his funeral expenses were paid by the state, which also portioned his daughters, and gave a grant of land to his son Lysima- chus. As compared with his rival Themistocles, nis policy was lack- ing in foresight and breadth. He has been represented as an oligarchical and conservative poli- tician, and probably favored friendship with Sparta. See Plu- tarch's Life of Aristides. Aristides, Publius ^lius, surnamed Theodorus (129 - 189?), Greek rhetorician, ' was born at Adriani in Mysia, and studied under Herodcs Atticus and Polcmon of Pergamus. After his return from travels in Greece, Italy, Egypt, and Asia, he was seized (155) with an illness which lasted for seventeen years, and is described in his six Sacred Dis- courses, which contain descrip- tions of visions, dreams, and cures. His account of these cures has excited attention, because of their similarity to the effects of hypnotism. Removing to Smyr- na, he became a favorite of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius; and when the town was destroyed by an earthquake (178), he in- duced the emperor to rebuild it. He died at Smyrna, about 189. Fifty-five of his orations and two treatises of rhetorical and tech- nical importance are still extant. The best complete edition of his works is that of Keil (1898. etc.^. See Baumgart's Aristeides (1874). Arlstlppus Aristippus OF Cyrene (r, 430- 360 B.C.), founder of the Cyrenaic school of philosophy, was a pupil of Socrates, lived at the court of Dionysius, the tyrant of Sicily, but returned to Cyrene in his old age. He was the first of Socrates' followers to take pay for teach- ing; and for this reason, and because of his philosophy of pleasure, he was attacked by Plato and Xenophon. Aristippus developed the utilitarianism of Socrates into an acknowledged hedonism: the pleasure of the moment is the sole end of action; pain is the^ greatest evil; knowl- edge also is purely sensational; truth exists simply in relation to each individual, and universal truth is impossible. Aristippus is mentioned by Plato, Xeno- phon, Aristotle, and Diogenes Laertius. See also Zeller's Soc- rates and Socratic Schools (Eng. trans, by Reichel, 1877), and Ueberweg's History of Philos- ophy (Eng. trans., 1877). Aristizable Island, Queen Charlotte Sound, British Colum- Dia,_ near Princess Royal I., is 27 ■xi. in length. Aristobulus (c. 150 B.C.), founder of the Jewish-Alexan- drian philosophy. He endeavored to show that the Greek poets and philosophers drew their matter trom tne sacred books of the Jews. See Schiirer's History of the Jewish People in the Time of Christ (1886-90). Aristobulus I. (d. 105 B.C.), high priest of the Jews, a son of the Maccabean prince, John Hyrcanos. In 107 B.C. he was the first after the Babylonian captivity to assume the title of king in Judaea. He conquered Ituraea, and attempted to prosely- tize the inhabitants. — His nephew, Aristobulus ii., led a successful rebellion of the Sadducees against his brother, Hyrcanus ii., in 69 B.C. He was captured by Pompey in 63 B.C., and taken to Rome. Aristocracy (Gr. 'rule by the best') is a government controlled by the nobility or privileged class. See Government. Aristodcmus, hero of the first Messenian War with Sparta (743- 724 B.C.), belongs to legend rather than history. He slew his daughter as a sacrifice to save his country- was elected king in 731; and killed himself on his daughter's tomb. Aristol, an odorless, amor- phous powder, of a light-brown color, used instead of iodoform in dressing wounds. It is prepared from iodine and thymol, is slightly soluble in alcohol, but more freely so in water and glycerin. It is useful as a cica- trizant and mild antiseptic. Aristolochia, a genus of plants found in temperate and tropical countries, except Australia. A European species, sometimes cul- S57 tivated, is A. clematitis (birth- wort). The corolla forms a trumpet-shaped tube similar to the spathe of the arum, which attracts and imprisons insects until fertilization is effected. A, macrophylla is an American species known as Dutchman's pipe, from its curved purple-brown corolla. A. Serpentaria (Virginian snake- root), having an S shaped corolla, is one of the plants formerly sup- posed to be a cure for snake-bite. Aristomenes, the chief figure on the Messenian side in their second war with Sparta (685-668 B. C.); elected king of the Mes- senians in 684 B.C.; resisted the Spartans in the mountain fortress of Ira for eleven years, and, when the fortress was captured, retired (668) to Rhodes. Aristophanes (c. 444-380 B.C.), the greatest comic poet of Athens and of Greece. His father Philip- pus came from ^gina, which cast some doubt on the Athenian citi- zenship of Aristophanes; and the popular statesman Cleon brought more than one unsuccessful action against him to deprive him of civic rights. This partly accounts for Aristophanes' s extreme bit- terness against Cleon. His first play — the Banqueters, which is lost — was produced for him by a friend (427 B.C.), as he was too young to compete. Of his greater works, the Acharnians appeared in 425, the Knights in 424, the Clouds (probably) in 423, and a revised edition in 422; the Birds in 414, the Frogs in 405, and the Women in Parliament in 392. His last play seems to have been acted in 387 B.C. Aristophanes was by far the greatest poet of the old Attic comedy, which was distinguished by its bold and out- spoken criticism and caricature of public men by name; indeed, leading men were often made characters in hi^ comedies — as Nicias, Cleon, and Demosthenes in the Knights, Socrates in the Clouds,^ and Euripides in the Acharnians. It is this personal criticism which gives a great his- torical value to his plays; but his excellence as a comedian depends more truly on other qualities — the originality of his plots, the humor of the situations, the keenness of his wit, the vigor, grace, and delicacy of his lan- guage, the smartness of his dia- logue and repartee, and the per- fection of his lyrical passages. Aristophanes was a conservative, and disliked the new school of philosophy, education, and poetry represented by Socrates and Eu- ripides. The Birds, perhaps his finest play, supposed the founda- tion of a * Cloud-cuckoo-city,' in ridicule of the ambitious aspira- tions of his day. In the Women in Parliament he caricatures Plato's Republic^ which contended Aristotle for the perfect equality of the sexes. The Wasps ridicules the excessive litigation of the Athe^ nians. As a comic genius he was on a level with Shakespeare and Moliere. Editions: text alone, Blaydes (1886); with notes, the editions of separate plays by Kock (German) and Merry (1887-1901). Mitchell has translated the Achar- nians, Knights, Clouds, and Wasps (1822); Frere the same without the Wasps, but including the Frogs and Peace (1871); B. B. Rogers various plays (1867-1902). Ra- cine's comedy Les Plaideurs is an imitation of the Wasps. Aristophanes OF Byzantium {c. 264 B.C.), Greek scholar and critic, pupil of Zenodotus and Eratosthenes, and master of Aris- tarchus, was chief librarian of the Great Library at Alexandria. He introduced the use of accents in Greek. Some fragments of his works remain in the scholia to various poets, and some plots pre- fixed to tragedies and comedies. Aristotle is rightly called by Dante 'the master of them that know* {Inf., iv. 130); for he first marked out the path all science was to follow, and first took all knowledge to be his province, al- though he had little appreciation of mathematical ways of thinking. Aristotle is called 'the Stagirite,' from Stageira (or Stagiros), in Chal- cidice, where he was born in 384 B.C. The profession of medicine was hereditary in his family. At the age of seventeen he came to Athens, now ' the school of Greece,' in search of that wider culture of which Isocrates was then the great professor; but it was in the Acad- emy, the school of Plato, alone that he could find intellectual satisfac- tion. Plato was then about sixty years old. Aristotle always speaks of him with reverence, though he was driven to reject his most char- acteristic doctrine, that of 'ideas,* or rather 'forms* (see Plato), at least in its original shape. Aristotle agreed with Plato in holding that all science is of the 'form,' the universal element in things; but he would not draw the inference, so natural to a mathematician like Plato, that the 'forms' alone were real, and that the manifold objects of sense only existed in so far as they 'partook of them. Still less could he follow him in his later reduction of the 'forms' to 'num- bers' or mathematical formulae. As a biologist, he was most in- terested in those, 'forms' which constitute the genera and species of animals and are reproduced by generation, and these, though the true object of science, are actual only in individuals. There is a 'form of man,' because 'man be- gets man;* but it is not a one 'alongside of the many,* but a one which is true 'of the many.* Aristotle 358 Aristotle Aristotle was about thirty-seven when Plato died (347 B.C.). He is said to have been disappointed at not being chosen head of the Acad- emy. It was natural that Plato's nephew, Speusippus, should be preferred, for he was in full sym- Sathy with the later mathematical evelopment of Platonism, which Aristotle did not care for or per- haps even understand. However that may be, Aristotle left Athens in company with Xenocrates, who succeeded Speusippus later on, and the two found a patron in Hcrmcias, prince of Atarneus in Mysia, whose niece, Pythias, Aris- totle married. Before long, how- ever, he was invited by Philip of Macedon to direct the education of his son Alexander; but no trace of Aristotle's influence can be discovered in the career of Alexander the Great. The fusion of Greeks and Persians, which was Alexander's ideal, is directly opposed to Aristotle's doctrine of a 'natural' distinction between the _ free Hellene and^ the ' bar- barian,* for whom it is better to be a slave. On the other hand, Aristotle never saw that the foundation of a military empire by his brilliant pupil had made his favorite city-state an anach- ronism. Each had, doubtless, too original a mind to be much influ- enced by the other. On the ac- cession of Alexander, Aristotle returned to Athens in 335 B.C. Isocrates was now dead, and Speusippus had been succeeded by Xenocrates, so the way was clear for him to found a school of his own on the model of the Academy. Like Plato, Aristotle set up his school in a 'gymnasium' outside the town. This was the Lyceum, once a favorite haunt of Socrates; and the school itself came to be known as the Peripatos, from a covered walk (TrepiVaTo?) in which the lectures were^ given. The term 'peripatetic' is later, and is due to a confusion, for it implies that the followers of Aristotle derived their name from some custom of walking about while teaching. The school was a society with a regular organiza- tion and a corporate life. Scien- tific work wa5 done in common, and its results were embodied in courses of lectures (a^cpoao-ei?) whioh were constantly revised and kept up to date by Aristotle him- self. It is these lectures that have come down to us as the works of Aristotle. But we also possess numerous fragments of discourses and dialoj'ues in the manner of Plato and Isocrates; and in 1891 a whole treatise on the Constitution of Athens, dis- covered on a papyrus roll in Egypt, was publisned for the British Museum by Mr, Kenyon. Cicero admired the style of the dialogues, and speaks of Aris- totle's 'golden stream of lan- guage' (Acad. Post., ii. 38, 119). It is very important, in compar- ing Aristotle with Plato, to bear in mind that we possess all Plato's literary works, and not a word of his lectures in the Academy; while we have only Aristotle's lectures, and no m.ore than scraps of his published writings. The death of Alexander revived the activity of the nationalist and democratic party at Athens, and Aristotle was threatened, like Socrates two generations earlier, with a prosecution for 'impiety.' He fled to Chalcis in Euboea, and died the next year (322 B.C.). Aristotle's most original crea- tion was the science afterward called Logic, as contained in the collection of treatises to which the name Organon ('instrument') was given at a later date. The first of these, the Categories (prob- ably post-Aristotelian), gives the forms of predication — substance, relation, quality, quantity, etc. The De Interpretations (nepl epMijvta?, *on the expression of thought by language') deals with affirmation, negation,' and the like. The Prior Analytics treats of the syllogism, with its moods and figures; while the Posterior Analytics gives the theory of demonstrative science based on this. The term 'analytics* is taken from mathematics, and describes the scientific process. Each science has certain 'start- ing-points' (apxai) or 'princi- gles' (principia), which cannot e demonstrated any more than the individual a.t the other end of the scale. Science lies between these extremes, and analysis con- sists in discovering the inter- mediate steps, or 'middle terms.' It therefore finds its proper ex- pression in the syllogism, in which a conclusion i.<= shown to follow necessarily from two premises, each containing the middle term, which does not itself appear in the conclusion. As 'first princi- ples* cannot b? known in this way, our knowledge of them is 'immediate' or 'intuitive* in the sense that there truth is appre- hended by perception alone. It docs not follow, however, that they are easily apprehended; a long process of 'induction' may be required. In the middle ages this logical system, as is well known, domi- nated all thought; but it was apt to \)e used as a mere device for de- veloping conclusions from 'given' premises. The revolt against Aristotelian logic was really a re- volt against this misunderstand- ing; for to Aristotle himself no syllogism was scientific unless its premises were 'true and more known than the conclusion,* and unless they expressed 'the cause of the conclusion.' Reasoning of the other sort — that based upon premises admitted or assumed — IS necessary, indeed, in rhetoric, and in subjects which do not admit of scientific accuracy- and this _ forms the subject of the Topics (xon-oi, loci communes) the last book of which deals with fallacies, and is known by the distinctive title of the Sophistici Elenchi. The 'organon' forms a propcedeutic to all science. Science itself was divided by Aristotle into theoretical and practical. The objects of theo- retical science are either un- moved, or have their source of motion in themselves; and it ' has three branches — mathematics, physics, and first philosophy, or theology. The first of these Aris- totle left practically untouched. By physics (0uo-i(cr)) he meant the science of everything that has its source of motion or efficient cause in itself, including, of course, organic life. This has to be studied in the light of the four causes — the material, the efficient, the formal, and the final. As, however, the final cause or 'end* of a thing is to attain its form, and as it is the form appearing as an end that is ultimately tlie efficient cause of the process from potentiality (Sui'ajais) to actual- ity (ei^e'p-yeia), the four may be reduced to two — matter (vAtj) and form (etSo?), This amounts to a theory of teleological evolution. Matter is purely negative; it only exists potentially — i.e. in so far as it is capable of tecoming actual through form. Tie course of lec- tures specially calico the Physics ($udopai) treats of coming into being and ceasing to be. The De Cmlo (irepl ovpavov) applies the theory to the structure of the universe; while the Meteorologica deals with par- ticular phenomena. Coming to organic life, the De Anima (rrepl >//ux%) explains the soul or vital principle as the formal cause of a body potentially living. The Historia Animal ium contains an astonishing mass of observations made chiefly from a teleological point of view, and thus prepares the way for the great biological treatises on the Parts of Animals, the Locomotion of Animals , ana the Generation of Animals. First philosophy, or theology, is said to be the science of 'the real as real.' It is represented in the Aristotelian corpus by certain treatises which do not stand in any clear order of connection, and some of which seem to be un- finished. They were ^jlaced after the Physics, and from this fact rcceivea the title TA m^tA tA «/)vp6vr)ai<;), the wisdom of the lawgiver who has in his soul the 'form' of goodness, as the doctor has that of health. Now this wisdom belongs to intellect, ■ not to character; but it is not the highest form of intellectual good- ness. That is theoretical wisdom {i7crts), which arise from an instinct of human nature. The fragment called the Poetics, which deals with tragedy, is practically all that remains under this head. It shows that the function of tragedy is that of a 'purge' (/ca0apa-ts) in medi- cine. The emotions of pity and fear are apt to accumulate in the mind, and to produce a morbid condition. Tragedy v/orks off these feelings on a noble object in which we have no mean interest. The technical discussion of the structure of tragedy — the 'unities' and the like — has_ had more in- fluence upon the histcry of litera- ture and criticism than the main theory, which has generally been misunderstood. It is convenient to mention the Rhetoric along with the Poetics, though Aristotle hardly intended it to occupy this Elace in his system. It is a ful- Iment of the demand, made by Plato in the Phcedrus, that the art of rhetoric should be based upon psychology and treated in a philo- sophical spirit. Such, in bare outline, is the sys- tem of Aristotle; but no outlme can give any suggestion of the enormous mass of detailed observa- tion upon which it is built up, and by which it is illustrated. Aris- totle had a love of facts for their own sake, but he always saw them in the light of universal principles. His immediate fol- lowers lost themselves in detail, and became antiquarians and col- lectors of scientific curiosities. The revived Aristotelianism of the middle ages was weak on the other side. The leading princi- Elcs were grasped clearly enough, ut the content was unscientific. The true heirs of Aristotle's spirit are the scientific men of our clay. See Zeller's Aristotle and the Earlier Peripatetics, trans, by Costelloe and Muirhead (2 vols. 1897). The chief English works are Grote's Aristotle (2 vols. 1872) — deals with the life of Aristotle — the Organon, De Anima, and Metaphysics; G. H. Lewes' s Aris- totle: a Chapter from the History of Science (1864) — deals chiefly with the physics and biology. For the Ethics and Politics, see the essays in Sir Alexander Grant's edition of the Nicomach- ean Ethics (4th ed. 1884), 2 vols., and the introduction to New- man's edition of the Politics (4 vols. 1887-1901). For the Poetics, Butcher's Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine Art (3rd ed. 1903); and for the Rhetoric, the edition by Cope and Sandys (3 vols. 1877). Aristotle's Lantern. See Sea- urchin. Aristoxenus (c. 350 B.C.), Greek philcsopher, born at Tarcn- tum; was a pupil of Aristotle. He wrote principally on music, his chief work he'ing Elements of Har- mony (ed. with German trans, by Marquard, 1869). Arithmetic is that branch of the science of mathematics which treats of the properties of numbers and of the operations which can be performed with them. The developm.ent of the science has had close relation to the method used to express numbers — the Greeks, otherwise clever mathe- maticians, and after them the Romans, making but little prog- ress, because of the clumsy modes of notation they used. The Roman system was in general use through- out Europe until the end of the 16th century, and is still occasion- ally seen in dates, numbering of chapters in books, on clock dials, etc. The symbols now in use were introduced some time before 1,200 A.D., from the Arabs, who derived them from the Hindus, to whom also is to be ascribed the intro- duction of the symbol 0, the great- est step ever taken in the history of arithmetical science, and one which completely escaped the Greeks and Romans. Bv the use of the ten symbols it has been pos- sible to develop the decimal system of numeration by grouping num- bers into tens and giving names to the groups (tens, hundreds, thousands, etc.). Of this decimal system, which doubtless arose from the fact that man had ten fingers, traces are found in the early in- scriptions of Babylonia and Egypt. Following the introduction oi the Arabic system about 1200 A.D., the science of Arithmetic advanced rapidly, two important stages be- ing marked by (1) the discovery of the double rule of three (com- pound proportion) in the 16th century, and (2) the invention of logarithms by Napier of Merchis- ton in the 17th century; while a fundamental development was effected by the extension of nota- tion to express what part one quantity is of another, thus intro- ducing the study of fractions. The elementary operations of arith- metic are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. The complete investigation of arith- metical rules and of the proper- ties of numbers has been hin- dered by the prejudice against the employment of literal symbols, which have been considered to belong exclusively to the domain Arithmetical Machines 361 Arizona of algebra. See Algebra; Mathematics; Numbers. Consult Brooks' Philosophy of Arithmetic; Bertrand's Traite d'Arithmetique; Smith's Teaching of Elementary Mathematics and Rara Mathematica (1908) ; Boole's Lectures on the Logic of Arith- metic (1903); Branford's Study of Mathematical Education (1908). Arithmetical Machines. See Calculating Machines. Arithmetical Series. See Series. Ari Thorgilsson, a're tor'gel- son (1067-1148), surnamed 'the Learned,' or 'the Wise,* Ice- landic historian and genealogist, one of the first to reduce to writ- ing, in Roman characters, the traditional tales of the Norse- men. Arius, a'ri-us or a-ie'us (256— 336), an Alexandrian theologian, born in Libya. After having been advanced to the priest- hood, he and his followers were deposed and excommunicated by a council of Egyptian bishops at Alexandria (321) for maintaining that Jesus Christ is not of the same essence as God. To settle the resulting controversy, the Emperor Constdntine called the Council of Nicaea (325), which adopted the Nicene Creed sug- gested by Athanasius, affirming the consubstantiality of the Father and Son. Arius and two other bishops refused to sign the creed, and were exiled; but Arius was recalled about three years later, largely through the influence of Eusebius of Caesarea, and Athanasius, then bishop of Alexandria, refusing to obey the Emperor's command to reinstate Arius, was himself exiled (336). Arius' sudden death prevented the performance of the ceremony by the bishop of Constantinople. Arianism maintained that there is a difference in essence be- tween God and Jesus Christ, which makes the latter second- ary; that the Son, though existent before any conceivable time, and creator of the universe, was yet an originated being, himself cre- ated by the Father out of noth- ing. This doctrine was a philos- ophy, an outgrowth of the specu- lations of the Neo-Platonists, Gnostics, and Origen. From such speculations the "West in general kept itself aloof, holding to the coeternity and essential identity of the Father and the Son. The Western victory in 381 determined both the ortho- dox doctrine and the orthodox form for its expression. The period in which Arianism was a vital issue extends from its temporary defeat at the Council of Nicasa, through the intervening years of supremacy in which it was supported by imperial favor, to its final overthrow at the Council of Constantinople (381). The controversy centred about Vol. I.— March '22 three words, representing as many parties: byLoovaiov, of the same essence (Nicenes) ; erepo- ovaiov, of unlike essence (Arians) ; and onoiova-Lov, of like essence (Semi- Arians) . The Council of Nicaea represented the triumph of the first party. The succeeding years, after 325, however, witnessed a reac- tion, which, enlisting both Arians and Semi-Arians under Eusebius of Nicomedia, reached the height of its power during the reign of Constantius (337-361). JuHan the Apostate (361-364), himself a pagan, tolerated all Christian parties; but the Arians lost ground through internal dissen- sions; and the extreme Arian po- sition taken by Valens (364-378) drove many Semi-Arians to Athanasius. The accession of Theodosius I. put an end to Arian ascendency. The second ecti- menical council, held in Con- stantinople in 381, reaffirmed and extended the Nicene Creed. Arianism during its brief su- premacy made converts among the German nations, where it continued until the sixth century. In the early eighteenth century there was a revival of the doctrine in England. In modern times, however, pure Arianism can hardly be said to exist, what was left of it having become merged in Unitarianism. See Athana- sius. Consult Newman's Arians of the Fourth Century; Stanley's Eastern Church; Gwatkin's Arian Controversy; Harnack's History of Dogma; Bright's Age of the Fathers (1903); 'Arianism' in Cambridge Medicaval History (Vol. I, 1911). Arlzo'na, a State on the south- west border of the United Statesf is situated between the parallels 31° 20' and 37° N., and between the meridians 109° 2' and 114° 45' w. It is bounded on the north by Utah, on the east by New Mexico, on the south by Mexico, and on the west by Cali- fornia and Nevada. The Colo- rado River forms nearly the whole of the western boundary. The total area is 113,956 square miles, of which 113,810 are land. Topography. — The northern part of Arizona consists chiefly of tableland, while the southern part is traversed by numerous mountain ranges. The entire State, however, is mountainous, more than two-thirds of the total area having an altitude of 3,000 feet or over. The Sierra Nevada and Rocky Mountains, meeting in the north-central part, form the southern rim of the Great Ba- sin. Here the greatest elevation in the State is reached — San Francisco Mountain (12,794 ft.). In this region also is what is known as the ' Mogollon Forest,' covering an area of about 10,000 square miles, and constituting one of the largest timber areas in the United States. Lowlands occur in the southwestern part, in the vicinity of Yuma, where the surface is about 170 feet above sea level. The Gila River, the Salt River, its main tributary, and their branches rise in the eastern mountains, and flow across Ari- zona to join the Colorado about 125 miles above the Gulf of California. Climate and Soil. — Arizona has a wide diversity of climate, the northern part being subject to heavy snows, while in the western part a temperature of 130° F. has been recorded. The mean annual temperature^ varies from 40° in the north to '69° in the south. The rainfall also varies greatly — from 2—5.5 inches in the lower gulf valley to 25-30 inches in the mountains. The soil in the southern part is a sandy loam; on the plateaus it is alkaline; and in the river val- leys a rich alluvium. The great- est obstacle to agriculture is lack of water, and irrigation is being increasingly practised. Geology. — The Archaean era is represented by widely distrib- uted areas of gneiss and slates, and the Palseozoic by the Tonto sandstone and extensive carbon- iferous formations. Consider- able deposits of red sandstone and shales, probably of Triassic origin, also exist. Discovery of mammoth remains in many places indicates that some of the great mammals flourished in Arizona during the Pleistocene period. Mining. — In 1919 Arizona ranked twelfth among the States, with a product valued at $86,- 950,055; but in 1921 the total value was only $25,000,000. Copper, in which industry Arizona ranked first in 1919, is still the most important mineral; in 1919 the output was valued at $82,689,000; in 1921 at $20,265,- 000. Silver was valued in 1920 at $5,965,404; gold, in 1921, at $3,046,000; lead, in 1920, at $1,167,981, and in 1921 at $238,- 000. Gypsum, manganese, and sandstone are produced in small quantities. While very little coal is mined in Arizona, coal measures exist at several points in the north- eastern part of the State. Oil in small quantity is reported to have been struck near Holbrook. For several years asbestos has been mined commercially. Forestry. — Cottonwood, syca- more, ash, willow, walnut, iron- wood, mesquite, and cherry grow in the lowlands; oak, juniper, pifion, cedar, yellow pine, fir, and spruce on the plateaus and mountain sides. Most of the wooded land is in forest reserves. On June 30, 1920, the total area of the national forests was 11,- Arizona 362 Arizona 367,632 acres, comprised partly as follows: Tonto forest, 1,988,- 806 acres; Coconino, 1,771,971; Tusayan, 1,298,119; Prescott, 1,447,850; Coronado, 1,304,888; Apache, 1,243.142. The State contains approximately 20 billion feet of saw timber, with a value of about $40,000,000. In addi- tion, the woodland forests con- tain 32,000,000 cords of pinon and juniper cord- wood, with an approximate value of $8,000,000. Agriculture. — According to the Federal Census for 1920 there were 9,975 farms in Arizona, comprising 5,802,126 acres. Farm property, including land, buildings, machinery, and live stock, was valued at $233,592,- 989 — an increase of $158,469,- 019 (210.9 per cent.) since 1910. Native-born white farmers num- bered 8,262; foreign-born whites, 1,067; Indians, 537. Agriculture is largely depend- ent upon irrigation, and remark- able results have been achieved since the completion of the Salt River project (q. v.), which was officially turned over to a water users' association in 1917. This project includes the Roosevelt Dam (q. v.), Granite Reef Dam, and Joint Head Dam, and over 800 miles of canals. The Yuma project (q. v.) is also of import- ance. In 1920 Arizona had under irrigation 467,565 acres, with an average value of $53.40 per acre, and a total valuation of $33,498,- 094. The estimated cost of ex- isting enterprises was $34,6 1 5, 064 . The foremost agricultural product of the State in value is cotton, this crop having increased in value from $730 in 1909 to $20,119,989 in 1919. In the lat- ter year 106,283 acres were de- voted to its cultivation, and 59,351 bales were produced. According to the Federal Census the acreage, yield, and value of the other principal crops in 1919 were as follows: hay and forage, 197,498 acres, 494,686 tons, $10,658,211; wheat, 37,131 acres, 835,374 bushels, $1,921,358; ka- fir and milo, 33,608 acres, 849,- 994 bushels, $1,274,994; barley, 21,748 acres, 656,835 bushels, $952,415; corn, 22,150 acres, 446,208 bushels, $870,105. The fruit industry is also im- portant. The total crops of peaches, apples, and apricots in 1919 were, respectively, 138,361 bushels, 120,765 bushels, and 60,463 bushels. According to State figures, the yield and value of the principal crops in 1921 were as follows: cotton, 39,000 bales, $5,868,000; tame hay, 450,000 tons, $5,850,- 000; kafir and milo, 1,200,000 bushels, $1,720,000; wheat, 840,- 000 bushels, $1,050,000; and corn, 1,015,000 bushels, $1,- 015,000. Stock Raising. — In 1920 the numbers and value of the farm Vol. I.— March '22 . animals were: cattle, 821,918, $35,500,759; sheep. 881,914, $7,- 123,719; horses, 136,167, $5.- 744,671; mules, 11,992, $1,415,- 397; swine, 49,599, $885,590; goats, 161,124, $816,793. In 1921 the wool produced amount- ed to about 3,000,000 pounds, with a value of about $3,000,000. Poultry numbered, in 1920, 517,312, valued at $640,595. Manufactures. — According to the Federal Census of Manufac- tures for 1919 Arizona had 480 manufacturimg establishments, employing 10,347 persons (8,528 wage earners) during the year, and expending $15,126,607 in salaries and wages. These estab- lishments turned out products to the value of $120,769,112, to produce which materials costing $92,645,437 were utilized. The value added by manufacture was thus $28,123,675. In 1914 the value of products was $64,089,- 510, and the value added by manufacture, $24,806,472. By far the largest industry in the State is the smelting and re- fining of copper, with a product, in 1919, valued at $94,184,000. Other leading industries, with the value of their products (1919), were: railroad shop construction and repairs, $5,398,000; flour- mill and grist-mill products, $2,392,000; lumber and timber products, $2,315,000; bread and bakery products, $1,839,000; printing and publishing, $1,715,- 000; oil, cake, and cottonseed, $1,670,000; manufactured ice, $1,410,000; slaughtering and meat packing, $1,406,000. Transportation. — The total railway mileage in 1920 was 2,477. The Southern Pacific and the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroads traverse Arizona from east to west — the former in the southern, the latter in the north -central part. The Santa Fe, Prescott, and Phoenix, the Arizona Eastern, and minor lines occupy the middle ground and form connections north and south. Finance. — On July 1, 1920, the State treasury showed a balance of $2,651,019.55; receipts during the succeeding year amounted to $4,320,754, and disbursements to $8,061,681.59. leaving a balance, on June 30, 1921, of $2,864,318.- 04. The net bonded debt on June 30, 1920, was $2,466,259.98, and the net value of taxable property in 1921, $830,536,582. Banks.— On June 30, 1920, the national banks in the State num- bered 21, with a combined cap- ital of $1,775,000; a surplus of $1,076,000; circulation, $1,077,- 000; deposits, $23,731,000; loans, $22,046,000; and total assets of $34,802,000. The State, savings, and private banks, and loan and trust companies numbered 67, with a combined capital of $3,- 736,000; a surplus fund of $2,233,000; deposits, $53,290,- 000; loans, $40,924,000; and aggregate resources and liabili- ties, $65,237,000. Population. — According to the Federal Census of 1920 the population of Arizona is 334,162. Of this total, foreign-born whites number 78,099; Indians, 32,989; Negroes, 8,005; Chinese, 1,137; Japanese, 550. The urban popu- lation, in towns and cities of at least 2,500 inhabitants, comprises 35.2 per cent, of the total. The population according to previous census reports has been as fol- lows: 1870, 9,658; 1880, 40,440; 1890, 88,243; 1900, 122,931; 1910, 204,354. The population of the principal cities in 1920 was: Phoenix, 29,- 053; Tucson, 20,292; Douglas, 9,916; Bisbee, 9.205; Globe, 7,044; Miami, 6,689; Nogales, 5,199; Prescott, 5,010. Education. — School attend- ance is compulsory for children between the ages of eight and sixteen for the full time that school is in session. For the school year 1920-21 the total en- rollment in the public schools was 79,302 pupils, with 2,452 teachers; $5,623,755.74 was ex- pended for education. In 1920 there were two commercial schools, one nurses' training school, and two summer schools, one at Bisbee, in connection with the University of Arizona, and the other at Flagstaff, in connec- tion with the Northern Arizona Normal. Several schools for the Indians are maintained by the Federal Government and by missionary societies. There are also normal schools at Tempe and Flagstaff. The University of Arizona (q. v.) is situated at Tucson. Charities and Corrections. — The supervision of charitable and penal institutions is vested in an ex-officio Commission of State Institutions, the secretary being appointed by the governor. There is an asylum for the insane near Phoenix, a State prison at Florence, an industrial school at Fort Grant, a school for the deaf in connection with the Univer- sity of Arizona, and a Pioneer's Home at Prescott. The Legislature of 1921 enacted a Child Welfare Law creating a board of five members appointed by the Governor, and appropriated $30,000 for the support of the children of bona fide residents of the State, who are half or entirely orphaned. Government. — The present constitution of Arizona was adopted in 1910. It may be amended by a two-thirds vote of each house, or on the initiative of 15 per cent, of the voters, later ratified by a majority vote of the people. The usual suffrage re- quirements are exacted. Direct primaries are provided for. Arizona 363A Arkansas The executive officers are the Governor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Auditor, Adjutant- General, and Attorney-General — all elected for two years. The governor's veto extends to all matters of legislation. The legislature, which consists of a Senate and a House of Rep- resentatives, meets biennially. Members of both houses are elected every even year. The judiciary includes a Supreme Court, consisting of a Chief Justice and two associates, and county courts, similar to the superiop courts of many Eastern States. Recall of the judiciary is in effect. Under the Reapportionment Act of 1911, Arizona has one Representative in the National Congress. Phoenix is the capital. Recent Legislation. — The first legislature of the State of Arizona met in 1912. Acts were passed making effective the provisions of the constitution, including em- ployers' liability and workmen's compensation. Important legis- lative enactments up to 1921 are those providing for the recall of the judiciary; establishing a child-labor law and an eight- hour day for miners; providing for the indeterminate sentence for criminals; forbidding black- listing; setting a minimum wage for women; prohibiting sale, re- ceipt, or possession of wines or liquors in Arizona; establishing a State Bureau of Mines; adopt- ing State colors and a State flag; establishing a Legislative Refer- ence Bureau in connection with the State Library; ratifying the Federal woman suffrage amend- ment; adopting a State budget systent; creating boards or commissions to control highway construction, soldier settlement, child welfare, industrial affairs, and real estate dealings. History. — The numerous ruins which are scattered about the entire State indicate that Ari- zona was once the home of a highly civilized race some time before it was visited by Spanish explorers. Fray Marcos de Niza is the first white man who is known to have entered Arizona (1539), although it is possible that Juan de la Asuncion pre- ceded him by one year. Jesuits established missions among cer- tain of the Indian tribes in the early part of the seventeenth cen- tury, and in the eighteenth century Tucson and Tubac were founded. Arizona originally formed a part of Mexico, and was ceded to the United States along with New Mexico on Feb. 2, 1848. The section south of the Gila River, however, did not become a part of the United States, until the Gadsden Purchase of 1854. Arizona was separated from New Mexico on Feb. 24, 1863, and received a territorial government. Vol. I.— March '22 The capital was first located at Prescott; was removed to Tuc- son in 1867; and returned to Prescott in 1877. Since 1889 it has been at Phoenix. In September, 1891, a con- vention was held in Phoenix at which a constitution was adopt- ed, and a bill providing for tl^e admission of Arizona to the Union was presented to Con- gress. Although passed by the House, the Senate failed to act. In 1898 the statehood bill was definitely rejected; but three years later another attempt to secure statehood was made. A project to admit Arizona and New Mexico as one State was voted down by the Arizona elec- torate. The Enabling Act of 1910 prepared the way for independent statehood; and after some delay — due to the provision in the new constitution for the recall of judges, which was eliminated for the time being — Arizona became a State (Feb. 14, 1912). In April, 1912, the first State Legislature began its sessions (see Recent Legislation), and in November, 1912, a woman's suffrage amendment was adopted. In national politics. Arizona, since it became a Si^tate, was Democratic in 1912 and 1916 and Republican in 1920. Bibliography. — Consult Coz- zens' Marvellous Country; Polk's Arizona Gazetteer; Hornaday's Camp Fires on Desert and Lava (1908); McClintock's History of Arizona (3 vols., 1915); James' Arizona the Wonderland (1917); Farish's Official History of Ari- zona (8 vols., 1918); Robinson's Story of Arizona (1919). Arizona, University of, a non- sectarian, co-educational insti- tution at Tucson, opened in 1891' under the Morrill Act of 1862, is the only institution of college grade in the State. It has a College of Letters, Arts, and Sciences, College of Agriculture, and an Agricultural Experiment Station, College of Mines and Engineering, College of Educa- tion, School of Law, and Univer- sity Extension Department; af- filiated with it are a United States Mines Experiment Sta- tion, State Bureau of Mines, State Pure Food Laboratory, and State School for the Deaf and Dumb. Until June, 1913, there was also a preparatory depart- ment. Military drill is reqtiired in the first two years. There is a museum contain- ing a large and varied collection. The State chemical and bacterio- logical laboratory and Steward Astronomical Observatory are at the university. For recent sta- tistics see Table of American colleges and Universities under the heading College. Ark OF Noah, a huge vessel of gopher wood (possibly cypress), built by the Patriarch for the purpose of preserving the race of man and of the land animals • during the flood. It was 120 years in building, measured 300 cubits in length, 50 in breadth, and 30 in height; it had three stories (see Gen. vi. and vii.). See Deluge. Ark OF THE Covenant, also called 'Ark of Yahweh of Hosts,' 'Ark of God,' and 'Ark of the Testimony,' was a chest of shit- tim (acacia) wood overlaid with gold, containing the stone tablets on which were inscribed the Ten Commandments. It was held in the highest veneration among the ancient Israelites. The Ark was constructed according to direc- tions given to Moses (Exodus XXV.), and was located in the most holy place of the Taber- nacle. It accompanied the Israel- ites in their march through the desert, and was a prominent factor in such events as the tak- ing of Jericho. It was subse- quently deposited at Shiloh, Ashdod (the Philistines having captured it), Beth-shemesh, and Kirjath-jearim, whence David had it conveyed to Jerusalem; and again it occupied the most holy place in Solomon's Temple. What ultimately became of it is unknown. It has been conjec- tured that it was destroyed with the Temple in 586 B.C. Arkadel'phia, city, county seat of Clark county, Arkansas, on the Ouachita River, and on the Missouri Pacific Railroad; 65 miles southwest of Little Rock. It contains the Ouachita Baptist College and the Henderson- Brown College (Methodist), founded in 1886 and 1896, re- spectively. It has flour and lumber mills and machine vshops. Pop. (1910) 2,745; (1920) 3,311. Arkansas, ar'kan-s6 (popu- larly known as the 'Bear State'), one of the South Central States of the United States, is situated between 33° and 36° 30' N. lat., and between 89° 40' and 94° 42' w. long. It is bounded on the north by Missouri; on the south by Louisiana; on the west by Oklahoma and Texas; and on the east by Tennessee and Mis- sissippi, from which it is sepa- rated by the Mississippi River. Its area is 53,335 square miles, of which 810 miles are water sur- face. Topography. — Th,e northern and central western, sections are broken by mountains and foot- hills, the mountains being part of the Ozark uplift, and .ib^ving their highest peak in Magazine Movintain (2,833 feet). "From the northeast corner to the south- west corner runs a :belt of rolling country. In the southeast section and along the easten\ .border the land is low and level, ahd sttbject to inundation from the overflow- ing of the Mississippi and tribu- taries. The State has some 3,000 Arkansas 364 Arkansas miles of waterway, afforded chiefly by the Arkansas, White, Ouaclaita, Saline, and Bartholo- mew Rivers — the first of which bisects the State from northwest to southeast, while the last three drain its southern section. The White River enters the State from Missouri, flows southeast, and joins the Arkansas near its mouth. Climate and Soil— The cli- mate is generally healthful throughout the State, the varia- tion in mean annual temperature in different sections being only about 6° F. The mean tempera- ture for spring is 61°; for sum- mer, 79°; for auttimn, 62°; for winter, 41.5°. The mean aver- age rainfall is 50.5 inches. There is little snow, no extreme cold, and no summer drought. !•* .-iThe soil of the uplands is gen- erally sandy; of the lowlands, clayey. The lowlands are fertile, and the alluvial bottoms are remarkably rich. Geology. — The southern por- tion of the State is of Tertiary formation, the northern of Pa- laeozoic. The oldest rocks are found in the Ozark region, and belong to the Lower Silurian age. They comprise sandstones, limestones, and other building stones. Mining. — The mineral indus- try of Arkansas has increased greatly in value since 1919. In that vear the total output was valued at $8,404,537, and 4,073 persons (3,630 wage earners) were employed in mining enter- prises. In 1921 mineral products reached a value of $100,000,000. this increase being due to the discovery of petroleum in the vicinity of Eldorado. The pe- troleum output in 1921, accord- ing to State figures, was 11,- 672,484 barrels, valued at $23.- 344,960. The output of coal, formerly the principal mineral product, amounted in 1919 to 1,500,000 long tons, and in 1920 (estimated) to 2,062,500 long tons. Arkansas produces prac- tically all of the bauxite produced in the United States and 70 per cent, of the world supply, with an output in 1921 of 500,000 long tpns; also three-fourths of the oil- stones of the United States; and some rock phosphates, graphite, and antimony. Slate occurs in several sections, and there are large manganese deposits. The only diamond mine in America is within the State. Zinc and lead are mined in the northern part, and marble, granite, limestone, and sandstone are qxiarried for building and road-construction purposes. There are two natural gas fields, one in the western part of the State, near Fort Smith, the other in the southern part, at Eldorado. Mineral springs are frequent. Forestry. — Arkansas has a for- Yot. I.— March '22 est area of about 40,000 square miles. Oaks, pines, cottonwood, poplar, catalpa, red cedar, locust, ash, elm, sycamore, maple, hick- ory, beech, walnut, and cypress are among the 125 varieties of hard and soft woods found in the State. There are two fine na- tional forests, comprising (1920) 915,649 acres: the Arkansas for- est, 633,277 acres, and the Ozark forest, 282,372 acres. Fisheries. — The fishing grounds of the State are mainly the Mississippi River and its tributaries. Buffalo fish and cat- fish, mussel shells, pearls, and slugs are the principal products. Agriculture. — Arkansas is pre- eminently an agricultural State. According to the Federal Census for 1920 it had 232.604 farms, comprising an area of 17,456,750 acres — an increase of 40,675 acres since 1910. The value of farm property, including land, buildings, machinery, and live stock, was $924,395,483 — an in- crease of $524,306,180 (131 per cent.) in the decade. Of the farmers, 158,273 were native whites and 72,275 were negroes. In the northern division the principal products are the cereals and temperate-zone growths; in the southern, cotton, sorghum cane, and other typical Southern crops predominate. Cotton and corn constitute the most valu- able products. In 1919, 2,553,811 acres were devoted to cotton, with a pro- duction of 869,350 bales valued at $159,960,400; and 2,292,119 acres to corn, producing 34,226,- 935 bushels valued at $61,608,- 482. The acreage, yield, and value of the other principal crops in 1919 were as follows: hay and forage, 1,002,333 acres, 989,780 tons, $22,760,223; rough rice, 143,211 acres, 6,797,126 bushels. $18,352,240; sweet potatoes and yams, 39,019 acres, 3,959,870 bushels, $6,533,789; white po- tatoes, 28,528 acres, 2,092,277 bushels, $4,812,243; wheat, 256,- 211 acres, 2,051,405 bushels, $4,266,922; oats, 173,317 acres, 2,703,753 bushels, $2,703,753; sorghum, 41,424 acres, 120,416 tons, $1,654,562. Fruits and nuts are also of importance. In 1919, 8,999 acres of cantaloupes were har- vested, the crop being valued at $389,144; the strawberry crop was valued at $2,407,436 and the peanut crop (21,962 acres) at $725,388. The yield and value of the principal orchard fruits were as follows: apples, 7,163,619 bushels, $10,745,448; peaches, 3,340,823 bushels, $5,178,276; plums and prunes, 161,906 bush- els, $267,146. Stock Raising. — According to the Federal Census for 1920 the value of domestic animals, poul- try, and bees was $127,852,580— an increase of $53,794,288 (72.6 per cent.) since 1910. Poultry was valued at $6,143,635; bees at $336,408. The number and value of the principal animals on farms were: mules, 322,677, $47,751,- 655; cattle, 1,072,966, $35,023,- 854; horses, 251,926, $24,151,061 ; swine, 1,378,091, $12,809,913; sheep, 100,159, $827,294. Manufactures. — A r k a n s a s contains large deposits of. bi- tuminous and semi-anthracite coal, which are accessible for in- dustrial purposes; while its ex- tensive timber areas provide abundant material for the lum- ber and timber industry, which is by far the most important branch of manufacture in the State. According to the Federal Cen- sus of Manufactures for 1919, Arkansas had 3,123 manufactur- ing establishments, employing 59,132 persons (49,954 wage earners) during the year, and expending $56,515,000 in salaries and wages. These establish- ments turned out products to the value of $200,313,000, to produce which materials costing $102,- 813,000 were utilized. The value added by manufacture was thus $97,500,000. In 1914 the value of products was $83,941,000, and the value added by manufacture, $39,034,000. Leading industries, with the value of their products in 1914, were: lumber and timber prod- ucts, $43,115,000; oil, cotton- seed, and cake, $9,249,457; flour- mill and grist-mill products, $5,802,099; cars and general shop construction and repairs by steam railroads, $4,971,093; printing and publishing, $2,341,- 989; rice cleaning and polishing, $1,837,478. Transportation. — The total railway mileage on Jan. 1, 1920, was 5,091. The railroad facili- ties are good except in the mountainous regions of the north-central and west-central sections. In general, the prin- cipal railroads traversing the State are those connecting the Gulf cities on the south with the large cities of the North Central States. The principal lines are the St. Louis, Iron Mountain, and vSouthern; St. Louis South- western; St. Louis and San Francisco; Choctaw, Oklahoma, and Gulf; and St. Louis and North Arkansas. The State has a number of navigable rivers, which have been important fac- tors in its industrial development. Finance. — On April 1, 1918, the State treasury showed a bal- ance of $838,992; receipts dur- ing the succeeding year amounted to $6,346,282, and disbursements to $6,035,773, leaving a balance on March 31, 1919, of $1,149,501. The vState debt on June 30, 1919, amounted to $2,266,410, and the assessed valuation of taxable Arkansai 365 Arkansas tllver property in 1919 was $553,- 485,082. Banks. — On June 3C, 1920, the national banks in the State num- bered 84, with a combined cap- ital of $7,145,000; a surplus of $3,368,000; circulation, S3, 917,- 000; deposits, $60,313,000; loans, $54,779,000; and total assets, $85,623,000. The State, savings, and private banks, and loan and trust companies numbered 404, with a combined capital of $15,605,000; a surplus fund of $6,045,000; deposits of $122,- 782,000; loans of $134,365,000; and aggregate resources and liabilities of $ 184, 147,000. Population. — According to the Federal Census for 1920, the population of Arkansas is 1,752,- 201. Of this total, foreign-born whites number 13,975; Negroes, 472,200; Chinese, 113; Indians, 106. The urban population, in towns and cities of at least 2,500 inhabitants, is 16.6 per cent, of the total. The population ac- cording to previous census re- ports has been as follows: 1830, 30,388; 1840, 97,574; 1850, 209,897; 1860, 435,450; 1870, 484,471; 1880, 802,525; 1890, 1,128,211; 1900, 1,311,564; 1910, 1,574,449. The population of the principal cities in 1920 was: Little Rock, 65,142; Fort Smith, 28,870; Pine Bluff, 19,280; North Little Rock, 14,048; Hot vSprings, 11,695; Tonesboro, 9,384; Helena, 9,112; Texarkana, 8,257. Education. — Education in Ar- kansas is under the general su- pervision of the Department of Public Instruction. The legisla- ture of 1917 passed a state- wide compulsory school-attend- ance law, requiring attendance of all children, between the ages of seven and fifteen, for three- fourths of the school session. Aid for the teaching of vocational agriculture, manual training, and home economics was also pro- vided. Separate schools are maintained for white and tor colored children. During the school year ending June 30, 1921, the total enrollment in the schools of the State was 498,282, of which number 9,257 were en- rolled in private schools; 11,769 public-school teachers were em- ployed. A county superintendency and county board of education law was enacted in 1921, providing for better school conditions in the various counties, especially in the rural districts. Institutions for higher learning include the University of Ar- kansas (q. v.), at Fayetteville : State Normal School, at Conway; State agricultural schools at Magnolia, Jonesboro, Russell- ville, and Monticello; Ouachita College and Henderson-Brown College, at Arkadelphia; Ar- kansas College, at Batesville; Vol. I.— March '22 Hendrix College and Central College, at Conway; Galloway College, at Searcy; College of the Ozarks, at Clarksville; and Crescent College, at Eureka Springs. Charities and Corrections. — The State charitable and penal institutions of Arkansas are un- der the supervision of the Com- mission of Charities and Cor- rection. These institutions are the Arkansas State Penitentiary, at Little Rock ; Tucker Penal Farm (for white men) , at Tucker ; Cummins Penal Farm (for col- ored men), at Cummins; State Farm for Women, at Jackson- ville; Boys' Industrial School, at Pine Bluff; Girls' Industrial School, at Alexander; State Hospital for Nervous Diseases, at Little Rock; State School for the Blind and State School for the Deaf, both at Little Rock; State Tuberculosis Sanitorium, at Booneville. Government. — The present constitution of Arkansas dates from 1874. A majority vote in both houses, and by the electors, is necessary for an amendment. Provision has been made for the initiative and referendum. Uni- versal suffrage prevails, with residence requirement and the payment of a poll tax. The chief executive officers are the Governor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Auditor, and Attor- ney-General — all elected for two years. The governor's veto may be overcome by a majority vote of each house. He has pardoning power except in cases of treason and impeachment. The State Legislature consists of a Senate, whose members are elected every iour years, and a House of Representatives, elected every two years. Sessions are biennial, and are limited to sixty days. The judiciary consists of a Supreme Court, circuit courts, county and probate courts, juve- nile courts, justices of the peace, and such other courts as the General Assembly may create. The Supreme Court is composed of a chief justice and four asso- ciates, elected for a period of eight years. Under the Reapportionment Act of 1911, Arkansas has seven Representatives in the National Congress. Little Rock is the State capital. Recent Legislation. — Impor- tant acts are the Anti-Gam- bling and Anti-Tipping Acts (1913); and those providing for the control of State charitable institutions, and for the better protection of the public safety, and for the right of the jury to render a verdict of life imprison- ment in the State penitentiary in all cases in which the punish- ment was formerly death by law (1915); and those making pro- vision for the erection, equip- ment, and maintenance of a State hospital, establishing 'bone-dry' regulations throughout the State, entitling women to vote in the primary elections, and creating an Arkansas Illiteracy Commis- sion (1917); ratifying the Federal prohibition and woman suf- frage amendments, and creating a State School Commission to study educational conditions in the State (1919). History. — -The State takes its name from the Arkansas Indians. The first white man to enter it was De Soto in 1541. The first white settlement was by some of Tonti's men in 1686. Until the Louisiana Purchase, Arkansas was a French possession; from 1805 to 1812 it formed part of Louisiana Territory, and until 1819 of Missouri Territory. It was then organized as Arkansas Territory; and in 1836 it became a State. In 1828 the first steamboat in Arkansas navigated the Arkansas River. Its first railway, the Memphis and Little Rock, was begun in 1854, but was not finished until some years after the Civil War. Although admitted as a slave State, paired with Michigan, there were many Unionists in Arkansas at the outbreak of the Civil War; but an ordinance of secession was finally adopted. The State was readmitted into the Union in 1868. In 1874 a serious strife arose between followers of two rival claimants to the governorship, and the Federal Government in- tervened. President Grant recog- nizing the Republican claimant. In 1874, also, a new constitution was adopted. Since 1876 the State has been consistently Democratic in State and national politics. Bibliography. — Consult Rey- nolds' Makers of Arkansas His- tory; Polk's Arkansas Gazetteer; Monk's History of Southern Mis- souri and Northern Arkansas; Shinn's History of Arkansas; Moore's Antiquities of the St. Francis, White, and Black Rivers — Arkansas (1910). Arkansas City, city, Cowley county, Kansas, on the Arkansas River, and on the Atchison, To- peka, and Santa F6 and other railroads. It has several fac- tories and a good trade, being the distributing centre for the military posts and cattle ranches in the neighborhood and the centre of an important oil region. Here are located a national In- dian school and a Manual Train- ing College. Pop. (1910) 7,518; (1920) 11,253. Arkansas River, next to the Missouri the largest affluent of the Mississippi, rises in the high mountains in Central Colorado, which it traverses through can- Arkansas Stond 366 Arm yons to the plains, near Canon City. Thence it flows 200 miles east to Kansas; and after 140 miles in a southeasterly course bends sharply to the north, forming the Great Bend; then flows southeast across Oklahoma and Arkansas to the Mississippi, 275 miles above New Orleans. Its principal branches are the Cimarron and Canadian Rivers. In Colorado 500,000 acres on the Arkansas and its tributaries are under irrigation, while the Gar- den City project of the Federal Government will irrigate 15,000 acres in Kansas. Its drainage area is 177,500 square miles; total length, 1,500 miles; navi- gable for 650 miles. It varies in width from 150 feet near the mountains to about a mile in the sandy regions. Arkansas Stone. See NovAC- ULITE. Arkansas, University of, a non-sectarian, co-educational State institution, located at Fayetteville, Arkansas, founded in 1871 and supported by Federal and State aid. It includes Col- leges of Arts and Sciences, En- gineering, Agriculture, and Edu- cation, and an Agricultural Ex- periment Station, and maintains a Medical School at Little Rock and an Agricultural, Mechanical, and Normal School for negroes at Pine Bluff. To residents of the State no tuition is charged, except in the Medical School. Non-residents are charged $10 per year. For recent statistics see Table of American Colleges and Universities under the head- ing College. Arkliangelsk, Russia. See Archangel. Ark'low, seaport, county Wicklow, Leinster province, Ire- land, 13 miles southwest of Wick- low, on the Avoca River, in a dis- trict noted for its scenery. It has a town hall and a beautiful parish church, and the remains of a thirteenth-century castle. There are large explosives fac- tories and fishing interests. It is a shipping point for copper and lead from the Avoca Valley. Pop. (1911) 5,042. Arko'na, or Arcona, cape on the northeast of Riigen Island, Baltic Sea, Germany. A light- house (1827) stands on the top of the chalk cliffs 177 feet high. Ark'wrigiit, Sir Richard (1732-92), English cotton-spin- ning inventor, was born in Pres- ton, Lancashire. He learned the trade of barber, and became a dealer in hair, adding to his prof- its by the invention of a sviccess- ful hair dye. His residence in the midst of a cotton-spinning popu- lation led him to take an inter- est in cotton manufacture, and about 1767 he turned his atten- tion to the invention of a machine or frame for carrying out all the operations of spinning at one Vol. I.— March '22 time, and by one application of force. In 1768 he set up in Pres- ton his first spinning frame. It consisted principally of two pairs of rollers, the first pair moving slowly in contact, passing the sliver to a second pair, which re- volved with greater velocity, and drevv out the cotton to the neces- sary degree of tenuity. The sliver was then attached to a spindle and fly, whose revolu- tions twisted the cotton into a thread, and at the same time wound it on a bobbin. By in- creasing the length of the rollers and number of spindles, a corre- sponding number of threads could be spun and wound at once by the same motive power. His patent was obtained in 1769, when he set up near Hockley his first mill, driven by horses. In 1771, with two capitalists, he built a mill at Cromford, in Derbyshire, the motive power of which was derived from the Derwent; and in 1790 he intro- duced the steam engine into his Nottingham mills. Arkwright's invention met with intense oppo- sition, one of his factories being destroyed by the mob. He amassed a large fortune, however, and was knighted in 1786. See Cotton. Arlberg, arVherch, Alpine pass in Austria (5,912 ft.) leading from Feldkirch, in Vorarlberg (near the Rhine Valley), to the Inn Valley, near Landeck, Tyrol. Between the fourteenth and the eighteenth century there was only a mule track over the pass, which was used chiefly for the transportation of salt from the Innsbruck mines. It is now traversed by a carriage road, while beneath it a railway tunnel (6 m. 650 yds. long) was pierced in 1880-83, connecting Vorarl- berg with the Tyrol. The Arl- berg railway is 85 miles long, and reaches an altitude of 4,300 feet. Aries, arl (ancient Arelale), town, department of Bouches-du- Rhone, on the Grand Rhone River; 53 miles northwest of Marseilles. It has a trade in corn, oil, wine, and fruits. The industries are chiefly silk spin- ning, hat making, and ship- building. The ancient town was known as 'Gallic Rome,' and was a favorite residence of Constantine. Important ecclesiastical councils were held here: in 314 the Dona- tists were condemned; in 353 the Arians were favored; in 452 cer- tain disciplinary canons were adopted; and in 1234 the perse- cution of the Albigenses was or- ganized. Aries was an archi- episcopal see from the time of Constantine to 1801. The chief Roman remains are the amphi- theatre, which accommodated 26,000 persons; the theatre, where the Venus of Aries, now in the Louvre, was discovered in 1651; the Cathedral of St. Trophimus (seventh century) ; and the Roman and Christian burial grounds, now partly de- stroyed by the railroad. Pop. (1911) BO, 978. Ar'lington, town, Middlesex county, Massachusetts, on the Mystic River and the Boston and Maine Railroad; six miles northwest of Boston. It is chiefly a residential place, but there are manufactures of pianoforte cases, ice tools, timber, and leather, besides market gardens. Ac- cording to the U. S. Census of Manufacttires of 1919 there were 27 industrial establishments, with 228 wage earners, $1,502,000 capital, and products valued at $1,006,000. Arlington was found- ed as Menotomy village (1635) and became a part of Cambridge. It was incorporated as West Cam- bridge in 1807, the present name being adopted in 1867. Pop. (1910) 11,187; (1920) 18,665. Arlington, town, Tarrant county, Texas, on the Texas and Pacific Railroad; midway be- tween Dallas and Fort Worth. It is the seat of a State Vocation- al College. Pop. (1910) 1,973; (1920) 5,180. Arlington, district, Arlington county, Virginia, opposite Wash- ington, D. C, the home at one time of Gen. Robert E. Lee, and the site of a beautiful national cemetery. Here are the graves of over 18,000 soldiers, mostly of the Civil War period, and many of them unidentified. The Lee mansion, a fine bit of colonial architecture, is still preserved. Pop. (1910) 5,850; (1920) 8,547. Arlington, Henry Bennet, Earl of (1618-8.5), English statesman, joined the royal army in the civil war; was severely wounded at Andover; was knighted by Charles il. at Bruges in 1658; and was sent as an en- voy to Spain. He became prin- cipal secretary of state in 1663, and was a constant opponent of Clarendon. He was created Earl of Arlington in 1672. He is said to have brought about the first Dutch war, and was con- cerned in the Treaty of Dover; was unsuccessfully impeached by the Commons in 1674; sold his secretaryship, and purchased the office of Lord Chamberlain, which he held till 1681. He was one of the group of statesmen from the initial letters of whose names the word 'cabal' (q. v.) was formed. Arlon, ar'loh' (Flemish Aar- len; ancient Orolaunum), cap- ital of the province of Luxem- bourg, Belgium; 17 miles by rail northwest of Luxemburg. It has woollen and iron industries. Here the French general, Jourdan, de- feated the Austrians in 1793. Pop. (1910) 12,012. Arm. The upper limb may be Arm 367 Armada divided into a proximal part or shoulder, a distal part or hand, and an intermediate shaft which consists of an upper arm and a forearm. The bones are: in the shoulder, the clavicle (collar bone) and the scapula (shoulder blade); in the upper arm, th(: humerus; in the forearm, the radius and ulna; in the hand, thf carpal and metacarpal bones an(f the phalanges. The smooth, round 'head' of the humerus ar« ticulates with the glenoid cavitj of the scapula, forming tht shoulder joint — a ball-and-socket joint. At the lower end of the humerus are two articular sur- 'Ji»T!cTe Bones of the Arm. faces for the bones of the forearm — the outer rounded for the head of the radius, the inner a curved rim for the ulna. These form the elbow joint — a hinge joint. At their lower extremities the radius and ulna articulate with the carpus to form the wrist joint — also a hinge joint. The arm receives its blood supply from the brachial artery and its branches, and the veins finally unite in the axillary vein. The nerves pass down by the side of the brachial artery, then are distributed as musculo-spiral, ulnar, and median. Fractures and Dislocations. — No bone except the radius is more frequently broken than the clav- icle, or collar-bone. This is due to its exposed position, and to its buttress-like action in keeping out the point of the shoulder. The treatment consists in cor- recting any displacement, and afterward keeping the broken ends apposed. If the patient can be depended on to lie quiet, it is Vol. I.— March, '20 enough to keep him in bed on his back, with a pillow between his shoulders; if he is to go about, bandages must be applied in such a way that the shoulders are braced back, the elbow sup- ported, and the upper arm kept fixed to the side. In fractures of the neck of the scapula the arm must be kept to the side and the elbow supported. In frac- tures of the humerus a pad should be placed in the axilla, the arm bound to the side, and the hand supported by a sling. In frac- tures at the elbow joint much care is needed to prevent, by suitable splints, ankylosis or deformity. Fractures of the ra- dius and ulna are treated with appropriate splints. The lower end of the radius is frequently broken, constituting what is known as Colles' fracture (for diagnosis and treatment see Colles' Fracture). In fracture of the metacarpal bones there is generally little displacement; rest, with the hand fixed in an ex- tended or clenched position, will generally effect a speedy cure. For the phalanges a small zinc splint may be moulded to the front of the finger. In disloca- tion of the shoulder, reduction may sometimes be made by trac- tion on the arm. Armada, ar-ma'daor ar-maMa, in Spanish 'an armed force,' more particularly the great fleet sent against England by Spain in 1588. In 1583 Philip of Spain had been urged by his admiral, the Marquis de Santa Cruz, to attempt the conquest of England. These proposals were renewed in 1586, in consequence of the sav- age raid of Drake upon the Span- ish settlements in the West Indies and elsewhere, and PhiHp, goaded to retaliation, and long- ing to strike a blow at Protestant- ism in revenge for the murder of Mary Queen of Scots, set about the preparation of a huge fleet for the adventure. Following the death of Santa Cruz in Jan- uary, 1588, the command of the expedition was entrusted to the Duke of Medina Sidonia, a man of no naval experience. He was instructed to proceed to the Strait of Dover, to embark from Flanders a large army which lay there under the Duke of Parma, and to effect an invasion of England. The Spanish fleet, called La Felicisima Armada, left Lisbon on May 20, 1588, reached Corunna after a stormy voyage on June 9, and again set sail on July 12. It consisted of 130 ships, many of which were very large, with 30,000 men. The whole number of English ships available to meet it was about 70, of which number only 30 — and several of these small ones — be- longed to the royal navy. The total number of men on board was about 9,000; in command were the lord high admiral. Lord Howard of Effingham (in the Ark), Sir Francis Drake (in the Revenge), Sir John Hawkins (in the Victory) and other famous captains, including Lord Henry Seymour. Lord Thomas Howard, the Earl of Cumberland, Lord Sheffield. Sir William Winter. Sir Martin Frobisher, Edward and William Fenner, and Richard Hawkins. The greater part of the English fleet was at Plymouth when, on July 19, news of the approach of the enemy was brought thither by Captain Flemyng of the Gol- den Hind. Howard warped out. and on July 20 first caught sight of the Spaniards. On the 21st he began a running fight with them. This was continued on the 22nd, Medal struck to Commemorate the Defeat of the Armada. A more general but indecisive engagement took place off Port- land on the 23rd. On the 25th there was another fierce battle off the Isle of Wight. On the 27th the Armada entered the road- stead of Calais, by which time nearly the whole English fleet was united. On the night of the 28th Howard sent fire-ships among his enemies, so that they, in panic, slipped or cut their cables and made off in confusion. They were followed, and so badly mauled off Gravelines on the 29th that they never afterward s formed a coherent body. Most of them fled north-about, and were chased as far as Newcastle-on-Tyne. The remains of the Armada passed between the Orkneys and the Shetlands, and then rounded the west coast of Ireland, suffer- ing even more from the elements than from the English. Of its 128 sail, 2 were abandoned to the English, 3 were wrecked on the French coast and 2 on the coast of Flanders, 2 were sunk in action off Gravelines, 19 were known to have been wrecked off Scotland and Ireland, and 35 others never returned to Spain. Thus 63 in all were lost. The effect upon the prestige of the Elizabethan navy was immence. Consult Duro's La Armada Invencible; Clowes' The Royal Navy (6 vols.). Armadillo 368 Armenia Armadll'lo, a name applied to certain tropical American ani- mals belonging to the mamma- Han order Edentata, character- ized especially by the possession of a peculiar armor, consisting of shields on head, neck, shoulders, and rump, and of movable cross bands of plates across the back. In addition to the protection of these bony scutes, the animals are armed with stong claws on the fore limbs, by means of which they burrow with great rapidity, especially when in danger. They are nocturnal in habit, and feed on insects, worms, fruits, roots, and sometimes on carrion. Armadillos range from Mexico to Patagonia, and are prized as The Six-banded Armadillo (Dasypus sexcinclus) food by the natives. In the caves and recent deposits of Argentina and Brazil fossil forms have been found, some of them of great size ,(see Glyptodon). The largest existing form is 3 feet in length, exclusive of the tail; the smallest measures less than a foot. Species include the Pichiciago (Chlamydophorus truncalus). about 5 inches long (see Chlamydophorus); the Weasel-headed or Six-banded Armadillo {Dasypus sexcinclus) ; the Peludo or Hairy Armadillo (D. villosus); the Pichey or Pigmy Armadillo (D. minulus); the Broad-banded Armadillo (Lysiurus unicinclus) ; the Giant Armadillo (Priodon gigas), the largest living member of the family; the Apar (q. v.) or Three-banded Armadillo; and the Peba (Lalusia novemcincla) . Armaged'don or, according to the Revised Version, 'Har- Mac;edon,' the battlefield of the Apocalypse, on which the final struggle between good and evil is to be fought (Rev. xvi. 16). The name is probably derived from Megiddo (q. v.), an impor- tant Canaanite fortress in Issa- char (Josh. xii. 21, etc.), placed by most writers at Lejjljn (Legio), west of the plain of Esdraelon. Armagh, ar-ma', county, prov- ince of Ulster, Ireland, lies be- tween Tyrone and Monaghan on the west and Down on the east, with Lough Neagh on the north and Louth on the south. It is about '.M miles long, 21 miles wide, and has an area of 312,772 acres. The surface is wooded and generally hilly, the highest point being Slieve G u 1 1 i o n Vol. I. — March, '20 (1,895 feet) towards the south. The principal rivers are the Upper Bann, the Blackwater, and the Newry. The soil is fertile with large tracts of bog, Oats, potatoes, turnips, wheat, and flax are grown. Linen weaving, cotton spinning, and clay working are the chief in- dustries. Pop. (1911) 120,291. Armagh, cathedral town, Ire- land, capital of county Armagh and seat of the Primate of all Ireland, lies 33 miles southwest of Belfast. Buildings of interest are the, Anglican cathedral, an an- cient cruciform structure with a lofty tower and chime of bells, supposed to occupy the site of the fifth-century Cathedral of St. Patrick destroyed by the Danes in 836; the modern Rom.an Catholic Cathedral of St. Patrick dedicated in 1873; the public library, founded in 1771, con- taining 20,000 volumes; the Roman Catholic and Protestant Archbishops' palaces; the City Hall; St. Patrick's Seminary, and a celebrated observatory. Emania or 'Navan Fort,' two miles west of Armagh, is of archae- ological interest as the site of an extremely ancient royal resi- dence. There are marble quar- ries a short distance from Ar- magh, and the town is celebrated for its production of brown linens and hoUand for window shades. Armagh was the Irish metropolis from 495 to the ninth century. It was almost destroyed in 1566 by Shane O'Neill, and again in 1642 by Phelim O'Neill. Pop. (1911) 7,356. Armagnac, ar-ma-nyak', for- mer name of a district of South- ern France, a part of Gascony, now largely included in the de- partment of Gers. It is espe- cially known for its brandy — eau d' Armagnac. Armand, ar-man', Charles Teffin, Marquis de la Rouarie (1756-93), a French officer who emigrated to the United States in 1777 and entered the Conti- nental Army. Two years later, as colonel, he took command of the Pulaski Legion (renamed 'Armand's Partisan Corps'), and was raised to the rank of briga- dier-general (1783). After the conclusion of peace, he returned to France and fought on the royalist side in the French Revo- lution. Consult Ward's Memoir, Pennsylvania Magazine of His- tory and Biography, vol. ii. (1878). Armature. See Dynamo. Armed, a term used in heraldry of the fiercer animals, and of birds of prey, when their natural weapons — teeth, claws, horns, etc. — are blazoned of a particular color or metal; also of the human figure, or parts thereof, when in armor. Armed Neutrality, a term applied to the association or league of Northern European Powers — Russia, Denmark, Swe- den, with Russia as controlling member — formed in 1780, to en- force the principles that neutral vessels should be allowed to navi- gate from port to port of belliger- ents and along their coasts; that enemy goods on neutral vessels, contraband excepted, should not be seized by belligerents; that a port should only be considered blockaded if the blockading belli- gerent had stationed vessels there so as to create an obvious danger for neutral vesselsj entering the port. In 1781 the Netherlands, Prussia, and Austria joined the league; in 1782 Portugal; and in 1783 the two Sicilies. France, Spain, and the United States accepted the principles without formally joining. England, how- ever, did not agree and some of the members violated the prin- ciples in subsequent wars. A second Armed Neutrality, including Russia, Sweden, and Denmark, was formed in 1800 following England's refusal to concede immunity from visit and search to neutral merchantmen under convoy. It was short- lived, owing to the British cap- ture of the Danish fleet and the assassination of Czar Paul in 1801. The questions involved arose again in 1806 and a final settlement was not reached until 1856 when, by the Declaration of Paris, the rule 'Free ships, free goods,' was incorporated in International Law. ' During the Great War of Europe (q. v.) the term 'armed neutrality' was applied to that poHcy in accordance with which merchant ships of neutral coun- tries were armed for the carrying out of their legitimate and peace- ful pursuits on the seas. Consult Wheaton's Interna- tional Law and History of the Law of Nations; Oppenheim's Inter- national Law. Armenia, ar-me'ni-a, a region of Northeastern Asia Minor, 400 to 500 miles in length by nearly the same breadth, is bounded on the north by Trebizond and Transcaucasia, on the south by Kurdistan, and on the east by the Caspian Sea. Prior to terri- torial readjustments following the Great War of Europe (q. v.), it was held in part by Turkey, in part by Russia, and in part by Persia. Turkish Armenia, with a total area of some 70,000 square miles, included the vilayets of Erzerum, Mamuret-ul-Aziz, Di- arbekr. Bitlis, and Van; Russian Armenia, the governments of Erivan, Yelisavetpol. and Tiflis. and the territory of Kars; Per- sian Armenia, part of the pro- vince of Azerbaijan. The erec- tion of the remnants of the Ar- menian people inhabiting these areas into an autonomous nation Armenia 369 Armenia was one of the problems facing the Peace Conference of 1919. Armenia is for the most part tableland, with an average ele- vation of more than 5,000 feet, traversed from east to west by- numerous mountain ridges, which reach their greatest height in the twin peaks of Ararat, 16,969 and 12,840 feet respective- ly (see Ararat), and in Alaghez (q. v.), 13, 436 feet. It is watered by the Euphrates and its head- waters — the Murad Su and the Kara Su — by the Tigris, which has its sources in the Armenian highlands, by the Aras and the Kura, emptying into the Caspian Sea, and by the Tchoruk, which enters the Black Sea near Batum. There are a number of lakes — notably the two large salt lakes of Van and Urmia (qq. v) and Lake Gokcha. The climate is varied. There is a region of rains, with subtrop- ical climate, embracing the val- ley of the Kura from Tiflis to the Caspian Sea and the valley of the Upper Tigris; a region of perpet- ual snow, which, in Ararat, ex- cept on the northwest side, starts as high as 14,000 feet, but elsewhere descends some 3,000 feet lower; and an intermediate region ranging from a Southern to a Middle European climate. The plateaus — volcanic, dry, and singularly bare of wood — have long and inclement winters and short summers very hot during the day, but always cold at night. The mineral resources of Ar- menia include deposits of copper, silver, lead, and iron, and hot mineral springs. The soil is gen- erally fertile. Much the richest belt of vegetation is the broad valley of the Aras; but the marshes produced by the many irrigating channels make this the most unhealthf ul part of Armenia. There are, nevertheless, rich vineyards and orchards, fields of cotton, tobacco, rice, hemp, and flax. The high tablelands are chiefly pastoral, thopgh a little corn is cultivated. The Arme- nians in Armenia follow chiefly agricultural and pastoral occu- pations. Carpets, shawls, rugs, and similar articles are woven, and silk and wine are produced. People. — The Armenians are Caucasians, rather above middle stature, of dark complexion, with black straight hair, rather large noses, and wide foreheads. Of quick adaptive intelligence and an enterprising commercial spirit, they are especially well suited to trade, and have long consti- tuted an important element in the economic strength of the Turkish Empire, Converted to Christianity in the fourth cen- tury, the Armenians have clung to their faith in the midst of a hostile people and in the face of Vol. L— March, '20 the bitterest persecution (see Armenian Church). Prior to the outbreak of the Great War the number of Ar- menians in Turkish Armenia was estimated at about 650,000; in the rest of the Turkish empire, at 1,076,000; in European Russia at 49,329; in the Caucasus at 1,118,094; in Persia at about 100,000. The Armenian massa- cres of 1915-16 are estimated to have reduced the Armenian pop- ulation of Turkey by some 1,200,- 000. (See Armenian Atroci- ties.) The population of Ar- menia proper includes, besides Armenians, Kurds, Turks, Geor- gians, Jews, and Gypsies. History. Armenia, like Asia Minor in general, has never really had a history of its own, its for- tunes always having been closely linked with those of the greater empires of Media, Persia, Rome, defeated by Scipio Africanus in 190 B.C., Zariadris (Zadriates) and Artaxias, the governors in West and East Armenia respec- tively, asserted their independ- ence, and founded new dynasties. Artaxias, however, whose realm was by far the greater, was ulti- mately taken prisoner by Antio- chus Epiphanes iv., and the country again fell into the hands of the Seleucidae. In the middle of the second century B.C. the Parthian Arsaces VI. (Mithri- dates I.) set upon the Armenian throne his brother Valarsaces (Wagharshag i.), who became the founder of one of the greatest branches of the Arsrcid family. Under his great-grandson Ti- granes ll. (90-55 B.C.), Armenia attained the height of her power; the rival district of West Ar- menia was annexed, and the out- lying smaller states became Armenia. Byzantium, and Turkey. The country is called Haykh or Hay- astan, after Hayk, son of Thor- gom (the Septuagint form of Togarmah), son of Japheth, from whom the Armenians claim descent; and the legendary ac- counts of its early days, as re- lated by the native historians, are curiously influenced by the Old Testament narrative. In 546 B.C. Armenia was conquered by Cyrus, whose schoolfellow, Tigranes (q. v.), son of the de- feated king of Armenia, later overthrew the Median empire and restored his country's inde- pendence. It was subdued by Alexander the Great in 328 B.C., and during the succeeding years, with the exception of a short- lived independence under Ard- vates, was ruled by governors appointed by the Seleucidae. When Antiochus the Great was vassals. Through his connec- tion with his father-in-law, Mi- thridates the Great, king of Pontus, however, Tigranes found himself involved against Rome in the campaigns of Lucullus (69 B.C.) and Pompey, and at the conclusion of peace, in 66 B.C., his kingdom was reduced to its former limits. In the ensuing years Armenia suffered from the rival schemes of Parthia and Rome to gain possession of the country. In 114 a.d. a Roman army under Trajan invaded Asia Minor, and Armenia, in company with other states, was forced to do him homage. In 238 Chos- roes the Great was assassinated by one Anak, at the instigation of Persia, and the royal family, with the exception of one son, was entirely exterminated. From this time onwards Ar- menia came under the power of Armenia 870 Armenia: Language and Literature the Sassanids. Tiridates III., son of Chosroes, through the help of Rome, where he had been educated, ascended the throne in 259. He began his reign by persecuting the Chris- tians; but on his conversion, by- Gregory the Illuminator (accord- ing to tradition, a descendant of Anak), he used his energies on their behalf, with the result that Armenia was the first country to make Christianity the state religion, and Gregory became known as the historical founder of the Armenian Church (q. v.). This new policy of Tiridates, though it led to friendship with Greece, involved the country in frequent quarrels with Persia and Rome; and finally, in 387 a.d., the eastern portion was ceded to Persia (whence it received the name of Persarmenia) , while Rome annexed the western. Ar- tases (Artaxes) iv., last of the Arsacid dynasty, was removed in 429 through the machinations of the Armenian nobles, and the country was taken by the Per- sian king Bahram v. Shortly after the invasion of Heraclius (624) Armenia gained her first experience of the newly arisen Mohammedan power, whose hordes overran the land in 637, and until 885 held it in bondage. Under the dynasty of the Pagratides (Bagratides), a family claiming descent from an exiled Jewish prince, Armenia recovered some of her independ- ence; but on the assassination of Gagik, in 1079, the country fell into the hands of the Byzantines on the one hand, and of the Sel- juk Turks on the other. The Seljuk Turks, however, had driven out a number of the in- habitants, who, crossing the Eu- phrates, founded settlements on the slopes of the Amanus and Taurus. Here a dynasty was founded by Rhupen (Reuben), a relative of Gagik, which not only held sway over Cappadocia and Northern Cilicia, but was eventually able to extend its borders to the Mediterranean. This kingdom of Lesser Armenia became the last stronghold of Christianity in the East, and played no small part in the wars of the crusades. The kingdom allied itself with the invading Mongols against the Egyptian Mamelukes; but when, in 1305, the former adopted Islam, and the crusaders were no longer a power to aid, it was exposed to the vengeance of Egypt. Its last king, Leon (Levon) vi., of the house of Lusignan (Cyprus), was taken prisoner in 1375, and ultimately died in Paris (1393). Lesser Armenia then became an Egyptian province. In 1472 the eastern part of Armenia came into Persian possession. Fifty years later the western part fell Vol. I. — March, '20 into the hands of the Turks, and in 1541 Lesser Armenia passed to them. The subsequent history of Ar- menia is that of devastation by the Mongols and the hosts of Ti- mur, and of a long contest be- tween the Ottoman sultans and Persia for the possession of that ancient kingdom. At length Russia approached from the north, welcomed by the Arme- nians as a suzerain preferable to either Turkey or Persia. In 1827 the Tsar wrested from Per- sia the whole of the upper valley of the Araxes, including Ech- miadzin, and at the close of the Russo-Turkish war, by the Treaty of Berlin (1878), Ardahan and Kars were ceded to Russia. By the same treaty Turkey undertook to carry out certain necessary reforms for the pro- tection of the Christians {i. e., the Armenians) and other sub- jects of the Porte. Failure to accomplish this, together with the anti- Armenian policy adopted by Russia following the assassi- nation of Alexander ll. in 1881, served to strengthen the national aspirations of the Armenians, and the year 1885 saw the begin- ning of revolutionary propaganda in Turkish Armenia. Suppressed temporarily, the movement re- appeared in 1893 and led to the first of the series of wholesale massacres that have marked recent Armenian history. In 1909 massacres of gigantic pro- portions again occurred, and during the Great War of Europe (q. V.) thousands of Armenians were killed and deported. (See Armenian Atrocities.) Following the close of the War, the adoption by the Allied powers of a general policy of self-deter- mination for all peoples assured the erection of Armenia into an autonomous nation under a man- datory of one of the Entente powers, to be responsible for organization of the new govern- ment, and for the protection of life and property during the or- ganization period. The terri- torial claims of the new nation include Russian Armenia, Tur- kish Armenia, and Cilicia, or Lesser Armenia, an area extend- ing from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea. Bibliography. Consult Lynch's Armenia: Travels and Studies; Price's War and Revolu- tion in Asiatic Russia; Gregor's History of Armenia; Buxton's Travel and Politics in Armenia (1914); Hodgett's Round about Armenia (1916); Williams' Ar- menia Past and Present (1916); Arshag Mahdesian's Armenia, Her Culture and Aspirations (1917); Gabrielian's Armenia, a Martyr Nation (1918). Armenia: Language and Lit- erature. The Armenian lan- guage belongs to the Indo-Ger- manic family of languages. It was frequently assigned in the past to the Iranian branch, but it is now recognized as forming a more or less independent branch of its own, more closely akin to the European than to the Asiatic representatives. The language is hard, rough, and remarkably rich in consonants, especially in sibilants. The accent is on the last syllable. Syntactically it bears a close resemblance to classical Greek. The ancient language still sur- vives in the church and litera- ture, but in popular usage has been replaced by several dialects, the chief being the Western (Con- stantinople) and the Eastern (Tartary, Persia, India): the latter adheres more closely to the ancient language. Armenian literature begins with Mesrop (439 a.d.) , who introduced, an alphabet of thirty-six charac-' ters, to which two more werdi' added in the twelfth century. It was probably reconstructed and elaborated from several sources, some scholars having argued in favor of a Greek origin, while others have derived it from the Aramaean, through the Pehlevi, Previous to Mesrop, at all events, the Pehlevi, Greek, or Syriac al- phabet — perhaps even the lan- guage — was doubtless in use. To Mesrop, also, and to Sahak(Isaac) Bartevatsi, is due the Armeniati version of the Bible which was made between 432 and 437. It is not certain whether it was based upon the Syriac or the Greek alone; it seems to contain both elements, and, in particular, has been carefully revised by the help of the Hexaplar version of the latter. The best edition i s that by Zohrab (Venice, 1805). Armenian literature is largely theological, and contains many translations from the Greek and Syriac, chiefly made in the fifth x:entury. In a number of cases works have fortunately been thus preserved which are no longer extant in their native langitage; among these are the first part of the 'Chronicle of Eusebius, vari- ous writings of Philo, etc. His- torical works are numerous, but, as regards their early history of the country, contain much un- sound matter, and must be used with caution. On the other hand, they frequently ofTer important material relating to the several peoples with whom Armenia came into contact (Persians, Byzan- tines, Turks, and Mongols), and on this account are of consider- able value. Among the best- known historians are Agathan- gelos, secretary to Tiridates the Great, whose work was continued by Faustus of Byzantium; Zenob, a pupil of Gregory the Illumi- Armenian Atrocities 371 Armenian Cliurch nator; Moses of Choren, styled the 'Herodotus of Armenia,' in whose writings are embedded some fragments of the early Ht- erature previous to Mesrop's time. In the seventh century the chief names are John the Mami- kon, Sebeos (author of a history of the wars of Herachus), and Ghevond (Leontius), who wrote a history of the Mohammedan invasions of 661-788. For the tenth century, mention may be made of John CathoUcus and Thomas Artsruni. Among the biographical works, the best are Korium's Life of Mesrop (Ger. by Welte, 1841), and the Life of Nerses the Great, by Mesrop tiie priest. Armenian folk-lore has always been rich in epic and legendary poems of very ancient date; but the introduction of Christianity in particular, if it did not lead to their suppression, at all events afforded no encouragement to their preservation in writing. Of the sacred poets, the best known is Nerses Klaietsi, called Shnor- hali (1102-73). Among the more general literature are the fables of Vartan (ed. Saint Martin; Paris, 1825) and the astronomical and mathematical works of Ananias of Shirak (7th century). In the eighteenth century Ar- menian literature received a note- worthy stimulus by the erection of printing presses at Amster- dam, Moscow, Smyrna, Vienna, and more especially by the foun- dation of the Armenian Mekhi- tarist monks at San Lazarro, Venice. Among the notable works printed by this community are the History of Armenia, by Michael Chamchian (Eng. by J. Avdall; Calcutta, 1827), and its Antiquities and Archceglogy, by Lucas Intshitshean (1835). For fuller surveys of Arm^enian bibli- ography, consult the related works by Neumann, Somal, Langlois, Patcanian, and Dulaurier. Armenian Atrocities. Within the last few decades the juxta- position of turbulent and bitterly hostile Mohammedans and Ar- menians in the Turkish empire, especially in Asia Minor, has re- sulted in the continued persecu- tion of the Armenians and in at least three organized attempts to extirpate them as a people. Massacres of 1894-6 —The first wholesale massacre of Armenian Christians may be said to have had its beginnings as early as 1885, when a revolutionary propaganda on the Nihilist plan commenced to gain adherents among the Armenian population of Turkey. This was easily sup- pressed, but reappeared in 1893. The Kurds, the national police, were then charged with the sup- pression of the movement and proceeded to the task with char- acteristic brutality. Regular Vol. I.— Mar. '19 Turkish troops were sent to their assistance, and in August, 1894, there was a terrible slaughter at Sassun, which roused deep indig- nation throughout Europe and America. A commission of in- quiry, accompanied by the con- sular delegates of Great Britain, France, and Russia, was sent to Armenia, but while its findings showed that there was no justifi- cation for the barbarity practised by the authorities, the massa- cres, nevertheless, continued. The powers then pressed the Sul- tan for action and, after numer- ous delays and counter-proposals, a complicated program of reform was accepted by the Porte (1895). Meanwhile disturbances contin- ued, and massacre after massacre took place. Entire villages, es- pecially in the provinces of Er- zerum and Trebizond, were deso- lated, and plague and famine at- tacked those whom the sword had spared. In August, 1896, Armenians of Constantinople seized the Ottoman Bank and in retaliation seven or eight thou- sand were massacred by a Turk- ish mob, instigated by the gov- ernment. Massacres of 1909.— In April, 1909, a terrible massacre broke out in the district of Adana, and, altogether, 30,000 Armenian Christians were slaughtered, 6,500 in Adana city alone. The outbreak began in the Armenian bazaar in that city, whereupon the redifs, or reserves, were called out, and the worst of the subse- quent killing and house-burning was attributed to them. Most of the foreign property was de- stroyed, American commercial and missionary interests were ruined, and two American mis- sionaries, Daniel M. Rogers and Henry Maurer, were treacherous- ly killed. The condition of the survivors was pitiable, 35,000 homeless and penniless refugees being left to wander through the villayet. At this time Mo- hammed V. succeeded Abdul Hamid on the Turkish throne, government troops were sent to the afflicted district, and the sit- uation relieved. In December, 1909, twenty-six Moslems were executed for complicity in the April massacres. AlrocHies of 1915-16. — Having entered the Great War (1914- 18) as an ally of Germany, in November, 1914, the Turkish government proceeded to carry out a systematic massacre and deportation of Armenians that exceeded in cruelty and extent even the massacre of 1909. Ac- cording to evidence collected by Viscount Bryce and laid before the British Parliament as an of- ficial paper, the atrocities of 1915-16 show three phases: The first, the unjustly drastic demands upon the Armenians for military supplies and service in the fall of 1914; the second, the disarma- ment of the entire civil popula- tion early in 1915, accompanied in many instances by torture, open violence, and massacre, and the drafting out of the army of all Armenians for non-combatant service; the third, the period of massacre and deportations be- ginning at Zeitoun, April 8, 1915, and continuing for some seven months. In general the male population was massacred, while the women and children were sentenced to deportation. Some were packed in cattle cars and there died by the thousands of hunger, exposure, and disease; others were forced to march for miles under the guard of Turkish gendarmes, subject to the greed and license of the Moslem peas- ants, the Kurds, and mountain brigands. Many of these also died of hunger, thirst, and ex- haustion, while others were bru- tally murdered, or sold into Mos- lem harems. The point of desti- nation for the survivors was in general Aleppo, whence they were dispersed throughout the Southeastern Desert of Syria. According to a statistical esti- mate made by the American Com- mittee for Armenian and Syrian Relief, the number of Armen- ians within the Turkish bor- ders in January 1915 was be- tween 1,600,000 and 2,000,000. Twelve months later from a third to a half of that number had fallen victim to deportation, dis- ease, starvation, and massacre. A later estimate (1917) placed the number of deported and mas- sacred at 1,200,000 and the num- ber of dead at 800,000. Consult The Treatment of Ar- menians in the Ottoman Empire, IQ15-16 (Great Britain Foreign Office, Miscellaneous No. 31, 1916). Armenian Ctiurcli, the oldest of all national churches, owes its foundation traditionally to St. Bartholomew. The conversion of the Armenians as a nation, however, was due to the labors of St. Gregory the Illuminator, who baptized King Tridates in 301, was consecrated as head of the Church in 302, and for a quarter of a century thereafter devoted himself to its organization. With the invention of an Armenian alphabet early in the fifth cen- tury, the Bible was translated into Armenian and a liturgy in the native tongue was prepared. In the ecclesiastical controversy concerning the two-fold nature of Christ, the Armenian Christians refused to accept (491) the de- cisions of the Council of Chalce- don (q. v.). They were accord- ingly condemned as Monophy- sites (q. v.) and constituted themselves a separate church, taking the title of Gregorian from Armentieres 371 A Armlnius Gregory himself. In 1439, how- ever, certain foreign members met the overtures of the Pope for reunion in so tar as to give up be- lief in the one nature of Christ. There were thus introduced into the church two sects — those who adhered to the traditional beliefs, and the Roman Catholics, or Uniats (q. v.), who gave up the Monophysite heresy. The Armenian church proper differs from the Church of Rome (see Roman Catholic Church) in its belief in the one natuie of Christ, and its doctrine that the Spirit proceeds from the Father alone; in its denial of the suprem- acy of the Bishop of Rome (the Pope) ; in its rejection of the doc- trine of purgatory and of in- dulgences; and in its lack of any word equivalent to transubstan- tiation. It observes seven sacra- ments: Baptism by sprinkling and dipping three times each; chrism, or unction, conjoined with baptism; penance; com- munion, celebrated with pure wine and leavened bread; mat- rimony; anointing of the sick; and holy orders. Extreme unc- tion is administered to ecclesias- tics only. The head of the Church is the Catholicos, who resides at Etchmiadzin, a mon- astery near Erivan, in Transcau- casia, and to whom the patriarchs of Jerusalem and Constantinople are subordinate. See Armenia; Armenian Atrocities. Consult Tozer's The Church and the East- ern Empire. Armentieres, ar-man-tyar', town, department Nord, France, on river Lys; 10 miles northwest of Lille, close to the Belgian frontier. It manufactures cloth, hemp, and table linen. It was occupied by the Germans in the early days of the Great War and retaken in the great Allied ad- vance on Oct. 3, 1918. Pop. (1911) 28,625. Armes Parlantes, arm par- lan't, or Rebus, in heraldry the term applied to such armorial devices as pun on the bearer's name or attributes, as a bolt through a tun, for Bolton. Arm 'felt, Gustaf Mauritz (1757-1814), Swedish statesman, was born in Finland. He distin- guished himself in the Danish War of 1788 and the Russian War of 1788-90, and was the military representative of Gustavus iii. of Sweden at the Congress of Varala (1790). In 1792 he was named by Gustavus, who had been mortally wounded by an assassin, as governor of Stock- holm during the regency of Charles, the king's brother. Shortly afterward, conscious that his influence was waning, he left Sweden as ambassador to Na- ples, where he entered into a conspiracy for the overthrow of the regency. His plot was dis- VOL. I.— Mar. '19 covered and, having fled to Rus- sia, he was condemned for high treason. He was restored at the accession of Gustavus iv. (1799), became governor of Finland, and in 1805-7 successfully command- ed the Swedish troops in Pome- rania. His support of the claims of Gustavus IV. 's son to the throne caused his arrest, and in 1811 he was banished. Thence- forth he became a Russian sub- ject, and Alexander i. made him governor-general of Finland 1812-13. He encouraged the Czar to resist Napoleon i., and drew up for him the plan of the Russian campaign of 1812. Con- sult E. Tegner's Gustaf Mauritz Armfelt (2d ed.); Ingman's G. M. Armfelt. Armida, ar-me'da, in Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered, an enchant- ress, who by means of a magical girdle attempted to seduce the crusaders from their vows to de- Hver Jerusalem from the Sara- cens. Overcome by a Christian talisman, and conquered by Ri- naldo, she turned Christian, adopting Rinaldo as her knight. Armies. See Army. Ar 'miliary Sphere, an instru- ment formed by a combination of several rings, showing the relative positions of the imaginary circles of the celestial concave to which astronomers refer the situations of the sun, moon, and planets. The zodiac, or belt of the sky in which the movements of the greater planets take place, the equinoctial circle, the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, the me- ridian and horizon, are represent- ed, with the earth as centre. The instrument, by whose aid astro- nomical problems could be solved, has been superseded by the celestial globe. Armin'ianism, a theological system founded by Jacobus Ar- minius (q. v.) and developed after his death by his followers Johan Wtenbogaert (1557-1644) and Simon Episcopius (1583- 1643), as a protest against the rigor of orthodox Calvinism (q. v.). Its principal tenets were formulated in a Remonstrance drawn up in 1610 for presenta- tion to the States of Holland. This declares that election is based upon divine foreknowledge, denying the Calvinistic doctrine of absolute predestination; that the atonement is universal, that is, that Christ died for all and hot merely for the elect, though only believers receive the bene- fits of His death; that divine grace is not irresistible but may be rejected; that there is no Scriptural basis for holding that the regenerate may never fall away from grace. The Remonstrance met with a strong Counter-Remonstrance put forth by the Calvinists, and after several fruitless discussions, the States of Holland, in January 1614, issued an edict of full tolera- tion for both parties. The strife, however, continued. Maurice of Orange took advantage of the passions of the majority to crush his opponents of the republican party, whose leaders were ad- herents of the Arminian doc- trines. Several Arminians were put to death, and several others were imprisoned (Oldenbarne- veldt, Grotius). In these cir- cumstances, the Synod of Dort was held (1618-19), a restate- ment of Calvinistic * principles {The Canons of the Synod of Dort) was issued, Arminianism was condemned, and three hundred Arminians, or Remonstrants, as they were called, were expelled from office. In consequence of this decision, the defeated party sought shelter abroad, but under Maurice's successor (1630) they were again tolerated in Holland. As the church in Holland be- came less and less distinctively Calvinist, the separate testimony of the Remonstrants became the less necessary, and save at Rot- terdam and Amsterdam they are now few in numbers. Wesley's movement gave the name at least of Arminianism in England a new lease of life, and a modified Arminianism is associated with the Methodists, as distinct from the Calvinism of other sects. Consult Schaff 's Creeds of Chris- tendom. Armin'ius (18 B. C.-19 a. d.), a famous chief of the German Cherusci, served in the German auxiliary troops with the Roman army. When Varus, the Roman governor, aroused the German tribes by his exactions, Arminius secretly raised the country against him, cut off his outlying forces, and annihilated his main army in the Teutoburger Wald. The disaster caused great con- sternation at Rome. Tiberius led a force to the Rhine, which again became the Roman fron- tier. From 14 to 17 a. d. Ger- manicus fought with varying success against Arminius, but was recalled by Tiberius in 17. On the ground of seeking abso- lute power over his countrymen, Arminius was slain by his rela- tives. Consult Tacitus's A MMa/5; Merrivale's Romans under the Empire. Arminius, Jacobus (1560- 1609), whose proper name was Harmensen, founder of Armin- ianism, was born in Oudewater, Southern Holland. He studied at the University of Leyden and at Geneva, under Beza (q. v.), visited Italy, and in 1588 joined the ministry of the Reformed Church at Amsterdam and be- came a leading theologian and preacher. He was invited (1589) to refute the attack of Coornhert of Haarlem on extreme predesti- Armistice 371 B Armistice narianism, but abandoned the task, convinced of the untenable- ness of either the higher or lower predestination. His views in- volved him in much controversy, but he successfully defended his position in the ecclesiastical courts, and in 1603 was appoint- ed professor of theology in the University of Leyden, the great training school for the Dutch clergy. His colleague Gomarus, his principal opponent, traduced him as a Papist, a Pelagian, and a 'Coornherter,' whereupon he was proscribed by the clergy, and his students were subjected to persecution, although the States- general reported that he taught nothing but what could be tol- erated and his position at the University remained secure. Prostrated by persecution, he died at Leyden. See Arminian- ISM. Consult Arminius' Works, translated into English by James Nichols (1825-75); Brandt's Life of Arminius (Eng. trans, by Guthrie). Armistice, ar'mis-tis, a general suspension of military operations in time of war either by the whole or a large part of the forces -- engaged. Itis within the power of commanders in the field to bring about such a suspension of operations hy agreement, but it is more often the result of 'agree- ment by the governments of the nations at war as a preliminary to negotiations for a peace or from some high political or re- ligious motive. A brief cessation of hostilities between combatants in the field for the purpose of burying the dead or other cause due to local conditions does not rise to the dignity of an armistice, and is known as a 'suspension of arms.* One of the most notable ar- mistices in modern history was that which brought to a close the Franco-German War (q. v.) in 1871 and preceded the humiliat- _ing peace by which France was forced to cede Alsace-Lorraine, Metz, and Strassburg to Ger- many, and to pay, in addition, a war indemnity of $1,000,000,000. By a dramatic coincidence the building in Versailles in which French representatives requested this armistice was the very one in which the Interallied War Council framed the terms of the Great Armistice of 1918. Armistice of 1918. — The most stupendous war in all history came to an end with the signing of an armistice between Ger- many, the Allied powers, and the United States, on Nov. 11, 1918. This great event was preceded by the unconditional surrender of Bulgaria and the conclusion of an armistice between that country and the Allies at Salonica, on Sept. 29 (see Bulgaria) ; by the surrender of Turkey and the Vol. L— Mar. '19 signing of an armistice by Turk- ish and Allied representatives at Mudros, on the island of Lemnos, on Oct. 31; and by the surrender of Austria-Hungary to General Diaz, the Italian commander, and the signing of an armistice at Italian headquarters on Nov. 3. The diplomatic correspondence leading to the conclusion of the armistice dates from Oct. 6, when the German government ap- pealed to President Wilson for an immediate armistice and the conclusion of peace on terms pre- viously laid down by the Presi- dent in his public utterances. Numerous notes were inter- changed by the two govern- ments, and on Nov. 5 the German government was notified by the United States of the willingness of the Allies to arrange an ar- mistice on the principles already laid down by the President, the terms to be obtained from Mar- shal Foch, the accredited repre- sentative of the United States and the Allied powers. The German government accordingly named as its representatives Mathias Erzberger, Gen. H, K. A. von Winterfeld', Count Alfred von Oberndorff, Gen. von Griin- nel, and Naval Captain von Salow. These delegates were re- ceived by Marshal Foch in his special train at Rethondes, 6 miles east of Compiegne, on Nov. 8, and there were given the terms of the armistice with a formal demand that they be ac- cepted or refused within seventy- two hours. On November 11, at 5 A. M. Paris time (midnight, Washington time), the armistice was signed by Marshal Foch and Vice-Admiral Sir Rosslyn Wemyss, First Lord of the British Admiralty, representing the Al- lies and the United States, and by Mathias Erzberger, General von Winterfeld, Count von Oberndorff, and Capt. von Salow representing Germany. The conditions of the armistice were formulated by the Supreme War Council in session at Ver- sailles in October and November. As finally ^gned they included the following provisions: Western Front. — 1. Cessation of operations by land and in the air six hours after the signature of the armistice. 2. Immediate evacuation of invaded countries — Belgium, France, Alsace-Lorraine, Luxem- burg — to be completed within fourteen days from the signature of the armistice. 3. Repatriation, beginning at once and to be completed within fifteen days, of all the inhabitants of the countries above enumer- ated. 4. Surrender in good condition by the German armies of the fol- lowing war material: Five thou- sand guns (2,500 heavy and 2,500 field), 25,000 machine guns, 3,000 minenwerfer, 1,700 airplanes. 5. Evacuation by the German armies of the countries on the left bank of the Rhine, these countries to be administered by the local troops of occupation. 6. In all territories evacuated by the enemy there shall be no evacuation of inhabitants; no damage or harm shall be done to the persons or property of the inhabitants. 7. Five thousand locomotives and 150,000 wagons (freight cars) in good working order, with all necessary spare parts and fittings, shall be delivered to the associ- ated powers, and there shall like- wise be delivered 5,000 motor lorries (trucks) in good order, within a period of thirty-six days. 8. The German command shall be responsible for revealing with- in the period of forty-eight hours after the signing of the armistice all mines or delayed action fuses and any other destructive meas- ures on territory evacuated by the German troops and shall as- sist in their discovery and de- struction. 9. The right of requisition shall be exercised by the Allied and United States armies in all occupied territories. The up- keep of the troops of occupation in the Rhineland (excluding Al- sace-Lorraine) shall be charged to the German Government. 10. The immediate repatria- tion, without reciprocity, of all Allied and United States prison- ers of war. 11. Sick and wounded men who cannot be removed from evacuated territory will be cared for by German personnel, who will be left on'the spot with the medical material required. Eastern Frontiers of Germany. — 12 and 13. Evacuation by German troops of Russia, and of all territories formerly belonging to Austria-Hungary, Roumania, Turkey, and Russia. 14. Cessation by German troops from all requisitions and seizures and any other under- taking with a view to obtaining supplies intended for Germany in Roumania and Russia. 15. Renunciation of the trea- ties of Bucharest and Brest- Litovsk and of the supplemen- tary treaties. 16. Free access for the AlHes to the territories evacuated by the Germans on their eastern frontier, either through Danzig, or by the Vistula, in order to convey supplies to the popula- tions of those territories and for the purpose of maintaining order. East Africa. — 17. Evacuation of all German forces operating in East Africa within a period to be fixed by the Allies. General Clauses. — 18. Repatri- ation, without reciprocity, of all Armistice 3?2 Armor interned civilians, including per- sons under trial or convicted, be- longing to the Allied or associ- ated powers other than those enumerated in Article Three. 19. Financial reparation for damage done; immediate resti- tution of the cash deposit in the national bank of Belgium, and in general immediate return of all documents, specie, stocks, shares, paper money, together with plant for the issue thereof, touching public or private interests in the invaded countries; restitution of the Russian and Roumanian gold yielded to Germany or taken by that power. Naval Conditions. — 20. Imme- diate cessation of all hostilities at sea and definite information to be given as to the location and movements of all German ships. 21. All naval and mercantile marine prisoners of the Allied and associated powers in German hands to be returned without reciprocity. 22. Surrender to the Allies and United States within fourteen days of all submarines (including submarine cruisers and all mine- laying submarines) now existing, with their complete armament and equipment. 23. German surface warships which shall be designated by the Allies and the United States shall be immediately disarmed and thereafter interned in neutral ports or in default of them in Allied ports to be designated by the Allies and the United States. The following warships are des- ignated: Six battle cruisers, ten battleships, eight light cruis- ers (including two mine layers), fifty destroyers of the most mod- ern types. All other surface war- ships (including river craft) are to be concentrated in German naval bases to be designated by the Allies and the United States and are to be completely dis- armed and classed under the supervision of the Allies and the United States. 24. The Allies and the United States of America shall have the right to sweep up all mine fields and obstructions laid by Ger- many outside German territorial waters, and the positions of these are to be indicated. 25. Freedom of access to and from the Baltic to be given to the naval and mercantile marines of the Allied and associated powers. 26. The existing blockade con- ditions set up by the Allied and associated powers to remain un- changed. 27. All naval aircraft are to be concentrated and immobilized in German bases to be specified by the Allies and the United States. 28. In evacuating the Belgian coast and ports Germany shall abandon in situ and in fact all port and river navigation mate- VOL. I.— Mar. '19 riar, all merchant ships, tugs, lighters, all naval aeronautic ap- paratus, material and supplies, and all arms, apparatus, and supplies of every kind. 29. All Black Sea ports are to be evacuated by Germany; all Russian war vessels of all descrip- tions seized by Germany in the Black Sea are to be handed over to the Allies and the United States of America; all neutral merchant vessels seized are to be released; all warlike and other materials of all kinds seized in those ports are to be returned and German materials as specified in Clause 28 are to be abandoned. 30. All merchant vessels in German hands belonging to the Allied and associated powers to be restored without reciprocity. 31. No destruction of ships or of materials to be permitted be- fore evacuation, surrender, or restoration. 32. The German Government will notify the neutral Govern- ments of the world, and particu- larly the Governments of Nor- way, Sweden, Denmark, and Hol- land, that all restrictions placed on the trading of their vessels with the Allied and associated countries are immediately cancelled. 33. No transfers of German merchant shipping of any de- scription to any neutral flag are to take place after signature of the armistice. The duration of the armistice was for thirty days, with option to extend. Supervision of execu- tion of its terms was vested in an International Armistice Com- mission including representatives of the United States, Great Brit- ain, France, and Germany. The armistice was extended on Dec. 12 to Jan. 17, 1919, and on Jan. 13 to Feb. 17, subject to the following conditions: That Germany surrender to the Allies all her cargo steamers in Ger- man or Allied ports to enable the Allies to revictual Germany and adjacent countries, equitable remuneration for the use of the ships to be paid to Germany and applied as payment for food- stuffs to be furnished to Germany; that Germany restore all manu- facturing machinery, etc., taken from invaded regions which can be identified (including some 58,000 agricultural machines) ; that guarantees be furnished re- garding the removal of the Reichs- bank's gold from Berlin in view of the civil strife there. On Feb. 16 the armistice was extended indefinitely, with the provision that Germany cease hostilities against the Poles and complete the disarmament and demobilization of German forces under regula- tions prescribed by the millitary and naval advisers of the Allies. See Europe, Great War of. Ar'mltage, Edward (1817-96), English historical and mural painter, was born in London. He was a pupil (1836) of Paul Delaroche, assisted that artist in painting the celebrated Hemi- cycle in the Ecole des Beaux Arts, and in 1843 and following years won three prizes for frescoes for the Houses of Parliament, the subjects being The Landing of Ccesar (1843), The Spirit of Re- ligion (1845), and The Battle of Meeanee (1847). A visit to the Crimea in 1855 led to his paint- ing The Guards at Inkermann and A Cavalry Attack at Balaklava. He became professor of painting in the Royal Academy in 1875, and in 1883 published Lectures on Painting. Armitage, Thomas (1819-96), American Baptist clergyman, was born at Pontefract, England. He began work as a local preacher in 1835, and three years later came to the United States, where he was engaged in the Methodist ministry until 1848, when he was received into the Baptist minis- try, and accepted a call from the Fifth Avenue (the Norfolk Street) Baptist Church, of New York. He held this pastorate until his retirement in 1890. Dr. Armi- tage was deeply interested in Bible revision, and was a founder and president (1856-75) of the American Bible Union. Entirely self-taught, he gained a high rep- utation as a polished and scholar- ly pulpit orator. He wrote A History of the Baptists (1886). Armor, strictly speaking gar- ments of defence, but, as gener- ally applied, including also weap- ons. Axe-heads of many differ- ent kinds of stone and of a great variety of shapes and sizes are very characteristic implements of the earliest period. In addition to spear-heads and arrow-heads of exquisitely finished workman- ship in flint, the art of fabricating weapons in this material reached its highest point in the knife- daggers, especially those of Scan- dinavian origin, which display on their edges what is technically known as 'ripple-flaking.' With the use of bronze the va- riety of weapons increased, in the form of axes, daggers, swords, and shields. The earliest form of bronze dagger is a thin, knife-like blade about six inches long, broad at the hilt, and fastened to the handle by large rivets of bronze. The leaf-shaped sword, found all over Europe, was cast with the handle-plate in one piece, and was without a guard. Scandi- navian bronze swords are longer than British. A narrow rapier- shaped variety occurs frequently in Ireland. Spear-heads of bronze are chiefly leaf -shaped, though barbed examples have been found. The shields of the Bronze Age were circular, with concentric ridges and rows of studs, and the Armor handle was fixed beneath the boss. In Central Europe the Early Iron Age produced swords of iron formed in exact imitation of the leaf-shaped sword of the previous age. The Heroic Age in Greece is characterized by a bronze sword, double-edged, long and sharp, having gold or silver studs set in the hilt and scabbard; and its defensive armor consisted of hel- met, cuirass, greaves, and shield, all of bronze. In the earliest Egyptian period the archers were provided with arrows made of a reed tipped with bronze. Their swordsmen carried straight, double-edged weapons of bronze, tapering from hilt to point. Their shields were of peculiar form, round-headed but square below, and the spears used at this time were fitted with bronze leaf- shaped heads. The armor of the Etruscans was, in the main, sim- ilar to that of the Greeks. About the first century B.C. the Romans used two varieties of sword — the short, double-edged gladius, and the long, single- edged spatha. But of all the weapons carried by the Romans the most characteristic was the pilum, a wooden shaft fitted with a stout- iron head resembling the modern pike. It could either be hurled, javelin-wise, or used like a bayonet, as well as to ward off sword strokes. On the Trajan Column there are shown two varieties of shield — one oblong, rectangular, and highly convex; the other oval and flattened, the latter being borne by knights. During the Merovingian period (450-760 A.D.) the francisca or battle-axe was the characteristic weapon. It was hurled with un- erring aim at an antagonist. The Prankish angon was a de- velopment of the Roman pilum. Nearer the period prior to the Norman Conquest, most weapons were of iron, consisting of broad- swords with or without guards, and the curved blade called in A.S. seax, with sheaths of wood or leather. The loneibow became of great importance, and mace heads of iron and bronze were much in vogue. The shield, oval or circular, was of wood covered with leather, and had a high conical boss. Body armor con- sisted chiefly of the hyrnie (chain mail), the lorica, and crested helmets. A Norman knight was clad in hose of mail, steel knee caps, a byrnie, gambeson, and helmet, and bore two swords, dagger, spear, and shield. Arch- ery was encouraged in England by statute. The crossbow, at first prohibited by papal decree, came into use toward the close of the twelfth century. With the thir- teenth century archers and cross- bowmen increased; and the 373 Armorial Bearings varieties of armor, weapons, and decorations largely multiplied, in- cluding hoods of chain mail, greaves of metal or of cuir bouilli, banded armor, the dagger or misericorde, horse caparisons, and banners of display. With the advent of gunpowder in the thrust. The modern rifle and revolver used by the leading Powers differ only in points of detail. Of ancient and mediaeval weapons in use before the intro- duction of gunpowder — such as the sword, pike, mace, javelin, axe, etc. — there only remain the Specimens of the Armor and Weapons in Use Before the Invention of Gunpowder. 1. Knight with lance, early sixteenth century. 2. Crossbow with windlass, fifteenth century. 3. Cromwellian trooper. 4. Lochaber axe. 5. Targe or shield, sword. 7. Two-handed claymore. 8. Steel pistol. 9. Dirks. fourteenth century, the use of body armor naturally decreased, chain-mail hauberks being dis- continued. Leather and whale- bone were much used in addition to metals in the manufacture of elbow guards, gauntlets, knee pieces, and sollerets (armed shoes) . Modern arms are classed as firearms, and those wielded at close quarters with a cut or various types of bayonet, sword, and lance. See articles on the weapons mentioned, especially Firearms; Rifle; Revolver; Bayonet; Sword. Consult Brett's Ancient Arms and Armor; Bartlett's Some Weapons of War; Ash- down's Arms and Armor (1909). Armored Trains. See Trains, Armored. Arroo'rlal Bearings, the ge- Armorlca 374 Armor Plate neric term for insignia treated of in heraldry; strictly, those borne on the shield. See Heraldry, Armor'ica, a division of pre- Roman Gaul, identified with Brittany, and inhabited by the Armorici. During the Roman occupation it comprised the whole of the country north of the Loire. After the German in- vasion the Tr actus Armor icanus became a sort of federal republic, until annexed to the French crown by Clovis about- 500 a.d. See Brittany. Armor, Naval. See Armor Plate. Armor Plate. The first use of iron to protect the sides of ships against hostile shot was made by the French in the siege of Gib- raltar, in 1782. The vessels were floating batteries, and were ar- mored with heavy iron bars. They caught fire and burned, so that their invulnerability was not adequately tested. The first suggestion to apply rrmor to a sea-going vessel seems to have been made in 1812 by Col. John Stevens (q. v.), who prepared plans for an armored steam ves- sel for harbor defence. In 1841 his son Robert L. Stevens pre- sented to the United States Navy Department plans for an iron- clad steamer of high speed in which all of the machinery, in- cluding the propellers, was to be below the water line. The pro- posal was accepted, and an Act of Congress, approved April 14, 1842, authorized the Secretary of the Navy to 'contract for the construction of a war steamer, shot and shell proof, to be built principally of iron, upon the plan of said vStevens.' The aripor ex- periments of the Stevens broth- ers indicated that a thickness of 4.5 inches would be sufficient; but just as they were about to lay down the ship, Ericsson's wrought-iron gun showed its ability to perforate a thicker target than this. The ship was therefore re-designed, enlarged, and armor of 6.75 inches was al- lowed for. This and other causes delayed the laying down of Stevens' vessel until 1854, two months before the French began work on their floating batteries. The Stevens ship was never com- pleted because Congress refused the necessary money to carry on the work. In 1824 General Paixhans brought out his celebrated shell gun (explosive shells had hith- erto been used only in mortars), and in a report to the French gov- ernment predicted that the use of shells would force the building of armored vships. In 1841 he made definite proposals to this effect. His plans were rejected, but they aroused much interest, and in 1845 M. Dupuy de Lome sub- mitted plans for an iron-hulled, armor-plated frigate. He be- lieved that by substituting iron for wood he could save 19 per cent, of the displacement, and this would be sufficient for an armor belt 8 feet wide and 6.5 inches thick. De Lome's plans were also rejected, because it was considered that he over- estimated the saving in the use of an iron hull; because he had given the battery no protection; Solid Iron Plate A rmor as Ap plied to the French Cruiser 'Gloire.' and because a thickness of armor of 6.5 inches would not render the ship invulnerable to existing guns. In 1846, plans of armored float- ing batteries for coast defence were prepared by the French navy department, but were laid aside. Soon after the outbreak of the Crimean War these plans were taken up and reconsidered. Armor experiments were insti- tuted at Vincennes, and it was found that a solid iron plate gave Present Arrangement of Steel Armor. at least one-third greater resist- ance than a laminated one; that a 4.5-inch solid plate was invul- nerable to a 68-pounder, the heaviest fortress gun of the day; that solid plates of 4 inches were broken but were not perforated by 32-pounder solid shot or hol- low shot of 8 or 9 inches; that a backing of oak or other firm wood was necessary in addition to the side planking of a ship; and that through bolting was an element of much danger. Considerable knowledge was also obtained in regard to the necessary methods of manufacture of armor, and to the ductility and toughness of the metal required. Armor of 4.5 inches was selected, and sev- eral of the batteries were laid down in 1854. In September, 1854, Ericsson submitted to the French emper- or plans of a cupola or turret vessel which was the forerun- ner of the monitor. These plans were rejected — which is not surprising, as Ericsson pro- posed the use of a 20-inch steam gun. On Oct. 17, 1855, three of the French armored batteries took part in an attack upon the Russian forts at Kinburn, which had held the allied fleet at bay for many months and inflicted much damage upon the vessels. The batteries took up a position at 800 yards' distance from the fortifications, and in a bombard- ment lasting four or five hours dismounted nearly half the en- emy's guns, and compelled him to surrender. The armor of the batteries was not pierced, and their structures were uninjured. This brilliant success decided the question of armor; and France and other countries be- gan almost immediately to build sea-going armor-plated vessels. The first of this character was the French armor-plated frigate, the Gloire, which had the hull and machinery of a screw battleship of the old type. The number of guns was greatly decreased in the original plans, and still fur- ther reduced when actually in- stalled on board, but were indi- vidually much more powerful than those on ships of older type. The Gloire had very little work done on her until 1858, but the intervening years were not lost. Much had to be learned about armor manufacture, and means of producing it had to be devel- oped. The quality of the early plates was very poor, showing plainly the lack of knowledge of and facilities for working heavy metal. The delay in getting the armor for the Gloire, therefore, was probably more than com- pensated for by the superior quality obtained. From this time onward the increasing de- mand for armor changed the con- ditions materially; improved fur- naces, forges, hammers, rolls, and other machinery were installed, and experience and experiment had so greatly bettered the situ- ation that by 1862 the making of homogeneous, fibrous, tough wrought-iron plate had been brought close to perfection. The first British armor-clads, the Warrior and Black Prince, were designed in 1858, laid down Armor Plate 375 Armor Pit„te in 1859, and completed in 1861- 62. As in the case of the Gloire, they were delayed by armor ex- periments, and the plating finally used was superior in design and quality to that of the French ship; but they were signally de- fective in the method of applica- tion, which protected only part of the water line and battery, and left the stern, rudder, and steer- ing gear exposed to destruction. The reports of trials of the 'War- rior target,' representing a sec- tion of the Warrior's side, and of plates mounted in other ways, showed that a certain amount of wooden backing was necessary to reduce the shock of impact on the framing of the ship, but that so far as perforation was con- cerned, most experiments indi- cated that it was better to put all the weight of armor and backing into the plate. During this period of armor development the gunmakers had not been idle. As the improved defensive power of ships rendered existing guns almost impotent, means of increasing the power of ordnance were sought in every direction. Rifled guns began to be used before the Gloire was completed; and they were devel- oped so rapidly that she was equipped with a battery of muz- zle-loading rifles, although orig- inally planned to carry smooth bores. Rifled guns increased steadily in size and penetrating power, but the thickness and re- sistance of armor kept ahead during the period from 1858 to 1865. From the latter date until 1876 the gun kept ahead, al- though the thickness of armor had now reached 24 inches, and the area of side covered by it was reduced to less than one- third of the water-line length. The effort to keep up with the gun by thicker plating and re- duction of area was a vain one, and the limit of the carrying power of the ship was eventually reached, even with the restricted amount of surface protected. An improvement in the quality of the armor was apparently the only solution of the problem, and armor makers set diligently to work to discover it. Steel plates of various kinds were tried; also layers of iron and steel. The latter were inferior to solid plates, as was all laminated armor. The United States was compelled at first to use laminated plating, on account of the lack of mill equip- ment to forge or roll heavy plates. The sides, turrets, and conning towers of the monitors were built up in this way, and not only had a reduced resistance to perfora- tion, but the numerous bolts re- quired to hold the plates in shape and position were as great a danger to the personnel as the Vol. I.— 28. shells of the enemy; for every time the armor was struck, bolt heads and fragments of bolts were driven about the conning tower or turret, killing and wounding the inmates. In some cases thin sheathing was placed over the bolt heads. The earlier steel plates were unsatisfactory, not through lack of resistance to perforation, but because they cracked so badly and fell off the backing. Steel- faced armor in which the face was rivetted to the back was tried; but it also cracked badly and fell off. Despite all attempts to displace it, wrought iron con- tinued in favor until 1876, and reached a thickness of 24 inches. In 1875 the Italian government called for test plates of solid armor 22 inches thick from all the principal armor makers of the world. John Brown & Co. sub- mitted two solid iron plates; Cammell & Co. one solid plate and one sandwich (two plates with oak between) target; Marrel et Cie. presented the same; and Schneider & Co. furnished two solid steel plates. The trials took place at Spezia in 1876, and the result was overwhelmingly in favor of the steel plates; they cracked more than the iron, but the difference in penetration was so great as to overshadow the cracking. As a result of the Spe- zia tests, wrought-iron armor was definitely discarded. In England, and to some ex- tent in France and Italy, the cracking of steel armor was still regarded with apprehension; and one of the methods whereby it was sought to preserve .the im- penetrability of steel armor, as well as the resistance to cracking of the wrought iron, was to weld a steel face to a wrought-iron back. The result was called 'compound' armor, and its devel- opment both in France and Eng- land, but especially in the latter, held it for the next dozen years on a par with steel. There were two well-known methods of mak- ing it, and they were about equal as regards the character of the product. In the Wilson process (Cammell & Co.) molten steel was poured on a white-hot iron plate, adding about a third to its thickness. When sufficiently cool this plate was rolled and ham- mered, somewhat reducing its thickness, but improving its re- sisting qualities. In the Ellis process (Brown & Co.) a wrought- iron plate and a thin hard steel plate were separately made, placed in a furnace, and held apart by steel bars. When all was raised to a welding heat, molten steel was poured into the space between the plates, welding them together. There were other systems of making compound armor, but these exemplify the type and the central idea, which was to combine the hardness and resisting powers of steel with the non-cracking quality of homoge- neous, well-worked wrought iron. The first really successful com- pound plates appeared in 1877, and compound competed there- after on at least even terms with steel until 1889, when Schneider & Co., of Creusot, brought out their first nickel-steel plate. Its supe- riority was not universally con- ceded until, in September, 1890, the U. S. naval authorities pur- chased a compound plate of Cammell & Co. and two plates from Schneider, one of steel and one of nickel steel. The defeat of the compound plate by both ateel plates was so decisive and con- vincing that it at once stopped the making of compound armor. The results of this trial had hardly become accepted by the naval world when another one took place which was even more revolutionary. At the suggestion of Captain (afterward Rear-Ad- miral) W. M. Folger, who was then superintendent of the naval gun factory at Washington, H. A. Harvey, a manufacturer of high- grade tool steel, undertook the adaptation of his process for hardening tools to the hardening and toughening of the face of an armor plate. After two or three years of experiment the first large plate was tried on Feb. 14, 1891, The plate did all that theory had predicted for a plate which was hard on its face, tough through- out, and soft on the back. Only the best class of projectiles made any impression on it — all others were broken up on the hard face; and as regards penetration, the gain in resistance over all pre- vious plates was much more than had ever been gained in a single step before. In the Harvey proc- ess the plate is placed in a furnace with the surface to be hardened uppermost; this surface is covered with carbonaceous material, then a layer of sand, and then fire brick. The plate is raised to about the temperature of melting cast iron, and kept so for several days until the required additional carbonization — usual- ly about 1 per cent — is effected. It is then cooled to a cherry red, and hardened by spraying with water or by immersion in run- ning water (see Harveyized Steel). The next improvement was made by the Carnegie Company in 1895, which found that re- forging of plates after carboniz- ing considerably improved their quality. Of several European armor makers who endeavored to improve the Harvey process, the most successful was Krupp. For cementation he uses gas, which is Armor Plate very rich in carbon, and the plate contains some chromium as well as carbon and nickel. Recent plates of various makers are said to contain other substances, and to give higher resistance to pene- tration than the Krupp armor of five years ago; and some recent trials confirm these claims. Pro- jectiles are now very generally fitted with soft steel caps, which greatly increase the penetrating power; and as nearly all plates 376 ent kinds being too numerous to describe or even mention. See Battleship; Guns; Projec- tiles; Fortification. Consult Very's Development of Armor for Naval Use {Proceedings U. S. Naval Institute, vol. ix., No. 25); Brown's Armor and Its Attack by Artillery; Annual of the U. S. Office of Naval Intel- ligence; Brassey's Naval Annual. Ar'mour, Herman Ossian (1837-1901), American merchant, Section of a Recently Designed Battleship, Showing Side Armor, Protective Deck, Internal Armor, Etc. a. Upper armor deck, 2 inches thick; b, protective deck, flat, 2 inches thick; c, pro- tective deck, slope, 3 inches thick; d, lower platform deck, 1 inch thick; e, main armor belt, 16 inches thick; f, double bottom space; g, armor bulkhead, 1.5 inches thick; h, anti-torpedo armor, 4 inches thick; i, side above belt, 1 inch thick; k, bottom plating, ^ inch thick; I, inner bottom plating, ^ inch thick. are tried with the latest type of projectiles, it is difficult to make a satisfactory comparison with the older targets. The necessity for protecting the interior of battleships against shell fragments and torpedo ex- plosions has caused a large amount of 'special treatment' steel to be used in them. This is from 0.5 inch to 3 inches thick. Toughness and rigidity are more sought than resistance to pene- tration. The armoring of the hulls of ships below title water line as a protection against tor- pedoes will doubtlcvss bring out a new type, toughness and ductil- ity under sudden strain being the principal characteristics. The special steels and special- treatment steels are exceedingly varied in composition, the differ- brother of Philip D. Armour (q.v.), was born in Stockbridge, N. Y. From 1862 to 1865 he was a grain commission agent at Chicago, under the name of H. O. Armour & Co. -In 1865 he became the New York repre- sentative of t'.ie Milwaukee pack- ing business of Armour, Plankin- ton & Co. In 1870 the Milwau- kee business was transferred to Chicago, and the name of the firm was changed to Armour & Co., becoming one of the largest meat and provision companies in the world. Armour, Jonathan Ogden (1863), American merchant, was born in Milwaukee, Wis., and studied at Yale University. He became associated with his father, Philip D. Armour (q.v.), in the great Chicago packing house of , Armstrong Armour & Co.u and on the death of the latter succeeded him as president. Later he became a director in numerous important corporations and banks. He has written The Packers and the People (1906). Armour, Philip Danforth (1832-1901), American merchant and philanthropist, was born in Stockbridge, N. Y. In 1863 he founded the firm of Armour, Flankinton & Co., pork packers of Milwaukee. In 1870 the busi- ness was transferred to Chicago as Armour & Co., and developed with great rapidity. At his death it was said that he owned more grain elevators than any other man, and had 50,000 em- ployees on his roll. He was also noted for his philanthropic en- terprises-. The Armour Institute of Technology (q.v.) and the Armour Mission of Chicago were founded and endowed by him to the amount of .f2, 500,000. Armour Institute of Tech- nology, a technical school found- ed in 1892 at Chicago, 111., by Philip D. Armour (q.v.), to give to young students a knowledge of applied science. There are departments in Mechanical, Elec- trical, Chemical, Civil, Fire-Pro- tection Engineering, Architec- ture, and Industrial Arts, with evening and summer courses in addition to regular semesters. Through union with the Art Institute of Chicago, the Armour Institute of Technology main- tains a department of architec- ture, known as the Chicago School of Architecture. The fac- ulty consisted in 1914 of 62 in- structors, with 1,372 students in attendance. The library con- tained over 27,000 volumes. There are productive funds of about $2,000,000, and an income of $200,000. Armpit. See Axilla. Arms. See Armor; Fire- arms; Bayonet; Revolver; Rifle; Sword; Shooting. Arms, Coat of, the bearings on an individual shield, originally embroidered on the surcoa/; hence the name. See Heraldry. Armstead, Henry Hugh (1828-1905), English sculptor, was educated at the Royal Acad- emy, and became r.a. in 1879. He modelled several of the alle- gorical groups on the south and east sides of the base of the Albert Memorial, Kensingri-on Gardens, London; carved oak panels in the New Palace, Westminster, illustrating the history of King Arthur and Sir Galahad; and executed many portrait busts and statues, as that of Lord John Thynne in Westminster Abbey. Armstrong, David Maitland (1836), American painter, was born in Newburgh, N. Y., and was educated at Trinity College, Armstrong 377 Army Hartford. He studied law, and practised at the New York bar; ^ then took up art, studying in V ' Paris and Rome, and for four N years served as U. S. consul- 'V general at Rome, Italy. He was V director of the American Art De- O^artment at the Paris Exposition of 1878, receiving the decoration ^ of the Legion of Honor. He is J best known as a designer and maker of stained glass windows, ^and has executed memorial win- '^dows for numerous churches in (^New York City, at Biltmore, ^ N. C, and in other cities. Armstrong, Edward Cooke (1871), American educator, was born in Winchester, Va. He was graduated from Randolph-Macon College (1890), and later studied at Johns Hopkins (ph.d. 1897), and at Paris and Berlin. Since 1897 he has been professor of the French language at Johns Hop- kins, and since 1910 chairman of the Romance department. Armstrong, John (1725-95), American soldier, was born in Ireland. In 1776 he became a brigadier-general in the Revolu- tionary army, resigning in 1777 to join the Pennsylvania militia, which he commanded at the Battle of the Brandywine and at Germantown. In 1778 he was promoted to the rank of major- general. He was a member of the Continental Congress in 1778-80 and 1787-8. Armstrong, John (1758-1843), American soldier and diplomat, was born in Carlisle, Pa. He entered Princeton University, but left before graduating to join ' the American army in the Revo- lutionary War. He was succes- sively aide-de-camp to Generals Mercer and Gates, with the rank of major. After the war he served as secretary of vState and attorney-general of Pennsylvania ; was elected to Congress (1787); and removing to New York, rep- resented that State in the U. S. Senate (1800-04). From 1804 to 1810 he was U. S. Minister to France, and from 1806 to 1810 U. S. Minister to Spain. He be- came Secretary of War in 1813, but resigned in 1814 as the result of the ill-feeling aroused by the capture of Washington and the failure of the Canadian expedi- tion. He published Notices of the War of i8i2 (1836), and Memcnrs of Montgomery and Wayne in Sparks' American Biographies. Armstrong, Paul (1869), J American playwright, was born I in Kidder, Mo., and was educated at Bay City, Mich. From 1890 / <^ to 1895 he was a licensed master 1- on the Great Lakes. In 1896 he took a position on a newspaper in Buffalo, and was with the National Republican Committee during the Bryan-McKinley cam- paign, writing political pamph- lets. In 1907 he came to New York, and under the nom de plume of 'Right Cross' wrote sporting articles for the New York Even- ing Journal. His first play. Just a Day Dream, was produced by the Castle Square Stock Com- pany, Boston, in 1899. He has also produced: St. Ann (1902); The Heir to the Hoorah (1904); Salomy Jane (1905); The Rene- gade (1906); Blue Grass (1906); In a Blaze of Glory (1906); Going Some (with Rex Beach, 1907); A Romance of the Under- world (1908); Via Wireless (with Winchell Smith, 1909); Alias Jimmy Valentine (1909); The Deep Purple (with Wilson Miz- ner, 1910); The Greyhound (with Wilson Mizner, 1911); Escape (1912) ; To Save One Girl (1912) ; A Love Story of the Ages (1912); Woman Proposes (1913); The Bludgeon (1914); The Heart of a Thief (1914); The Vanity of Man (1914); The Bank's Half Million (1915). Armstrong, Samuel Chapman (1839-93), American educator and soldier, was born in the Hawaiian Islands, where his father was a missionary. After graduating from Williams Col- lege (1862) he entered the U. S. Army, and in 1863-5 was colonel of the Eighth U. S. Regiment (colored), retiring at the close of the Civil War with the brevet rank of brigadier-general. In 1868 he founded and became principal of the Hampton Nor- mal and Agricultural Institute. He did much to improve the methods in use for educating the negro and Indian races in the United States, advocating the development of manual skill as a part of their educational training. Armstrong, William George, first Baron Armstrong (1810- 1900) , was the son of a Newcastle merchant. After leaving school he studied law, but after a few years of practice forsook it for scientific pursuits. In 1845 he invented the hydraulic crane, and soon afterward the hydrau- lic accumulator, besides making many other applications of hy- draulic power. He was the founder of the immense Elswick Engine Works and Elswick Ship- yards at Newcastle - on - Tyne (q.v.). He wrote Electric Move- ment in Air and Water (1897). Army. An army, in its broad- est sense, signifies a body of armed and trained men organized for warfare. Armies may be grouped into three classes — National Armies, Regular or Per- manent or Standing Armies, and Field Armies. A national army is the total availal)le force of men trained, or partially trained, in the use of arms which a nation can call upon in time of war. A regular army is that portion of the national army actually serv- ing with the colors. Field armies are those portions of the national or regular army which are en- gaged in a campaign. In all ages the maintenance of a force of armed men has been a paramount factor oi national ex- istence. A large and well-or- ganized standing army is usually the main element in the compo- sition of a first-class power — though notable exceptions are furnished by the United States, whose geographical position and foreign policy render superfluous great military strength, and Great Britain, whose national defence lies primarily in her navy. The Continental military nations of Europe raise their armies on the principle of universal mili- tary service, comprising com- pulsory enlistment, short service in the regular army, and a long period in the reserve. Conse- quently the armies of the chief Continental powers far exceed those of the United States and Great Britain, who follow a system of voluntary enlistment. Technically, the organization of an army is of two kinds, tacti- cal and administrative. The former enables the leader of an army to transmit his orders to three or four subordinate com- manders, who pass them on to three or four others under them, until, through a regular chain of responsibility, the original im- pulse is communicated to the private soldier (see Strategy AND Tactics). The administra- tive organization, in a similar manner, divides the army into groups of gradually decreasing size, so that the men may be efficiently paid, fed, clothed, and armed. The present article will treat of the constitution and es- tablishment of armies, and indi- cate their historical development. Ancient Armies. — The mili- tary forces of the earliest times were little better than armed multitudes, possessed of a certain amount of rough organization, but unable to travel great dis- tances, or carry out any very serious operations. The earliest regular military organization is attributed to Rameses ii., known to history also as Sesostris, who ascended the throne of Egypt about 1300 B.C. He is said to have divided Egypt into thirty- six military provinces, and estab- lished a sort of militia or warrior caste, to each member of which he allotted lands for the support of himself and his family. His army took the field in four ter- ritorial divisions, each called after the name of a god, and was supported by the sea power of a fleet. With this army, number- ing, according to tradition, over half a million men, Rameses con- Army 378 Army quered and laid waste all the country as far east as India. Chariots and horsemen were im- portant factors in the Egyptian method of fighting; but victory depended on the infantry, which formed the bulk of the army. Little further progress was made in military art until the Persian empire arose, about a thousand years later. Its soldiers introduced the mass formation, with cavalry in intervals of squares; but the most important feature of the Persian organiza- tion was the establishment of what was practically a stand- ing army, divided as garrisons throughout the conquered prov- inces, and under the control of military governors distinct from the satraps. In Greece, it was not a standing army, but a national militia, sub- jected to an almost continuous training in the field, that gained Marathon, Plataea, and Mycale. Every freeman was bound to take up arms at the age of eighteen. For the first ^wo years he served at home, but after that, until he was forty, in any foreign country where the state was at war. Their discipline was the fruit of a highly specialized moral and physical education; but never- theless, judged by later stand- ards, was not remarkable. Or- ganization and tactics were closely studied, and the phalanx, the basis of Greek military formations, was successively mod- ified and improved by the various states. The most important element in the army was infantry, which was divided into two main branches, the hoplitai and psiloi. The former were heavy troops, and in action were arranged in the favorite Greek fighting for- mation, the phalanx — a body of 4,000 men drawn up in lines from eight to sixteen deep gener- ally, although the column was fifty deep at the Battle of Leuc- tra in .371 B.C. The psiloi were lightly armed troops, who carried out the skirmishing duties of the army, haraSvSed the enemy, and hung round the flanks and rear of the phalanx with the cavalry in time of battle. Their cavalry did not come into existence until after the Persian War, and was at no time very efficient. The Thebans introduced the column formation, which, being deeper and narrower than the phalanx, was intended to pierce the en- emy's line at some one point, and throw them into confusion. Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, established in Mace- donia the world's second standing army; and, as a further change, made the phalanx deeper and more massive than it had been among the Lacedaemonians. He brought into use the Macedonian pike, a formidable weapon 24 feet in length. The Roman armies which ruled the world from about the third century B.C. to the eighth cen- tury A.D. were probably the finest, comparatively, that have ever existed, rather because of their perfect discipline and organ- ization than because of individual prowess, which had previously been the main features of hostile armies. They were at first formed entirely of militia. Every one between the ages of seven- teen and forty-six — except the very lowest and poorest class — could be called on to bear arms in the service of the state. The new soldier went through a very severe course of drill and dis- cipline to fit him alike for march- ing, fighting, camping, working, carrying, and other active duties. Consular armies were raised every year for some expedition or campaign, at the end of which they returned home and were disbanded. This course was found impracticable for some armies which were employed in very distant lands, and so they were often kept under arms for several years, a fact that event- ually led to the formation of a standing army distinct from the militia, by which it was aug- mented for the prosecution of great foreign wars. The legion, which was the chief unit of Roman armies, was composed, on service, of about 3,000 in- fantry and a squadron of cav- alry, and was lighter and more extended in formation than the Greek phalanx. It was conse- quently superior in mobility, and better adapted for offensive operations. The infantry of the legion was divided into four classes — hastati, young men light- ly armed, forming the first line; principes, heavily armed men of great strength, forming the sec- ond line; triarii, the oldest men, heavily armed and armored, in the third line; and velites, or light troops, corresponding to the Greek psiloi. The first three classes were each divided into ten manipuli, commanded by centurions. After the adoption of standing armies the legion was increased to over 6,000 men, and was divided into ten cohorts. Mediaeval Armies. — With the decline of the Roman power all that remained of scientific war- fare was lost for a time. The northern invaders made little use of tactics, but relied chiefly on their personal bravery and on the impetuosity and weight of their attack in column. The army, among the Franks and Germans, was the nation. Every freeman bore arms alike as a duty and as a privilege. Kings and generals were entrusted in time of war with an absolute power, which the nation resumed with the return to peace. The conquerors of the Roman Empire at first recognized no superior save the community, of which all con- quests were the property. What all had aided to acquire all de- manded equally to share. Hence arose a division of the conquered territory, individual chiefs re- warding their own followers with gifts of the lands they had helped to conquer. The growth of a feeling that such gifts could be revoked, and that they im- plied an obligation to future service, marks the beginning of the Feudal period. About the ninth century the feudal system (see Feudalism), a form of which prevailed in Egypt about ISOO B.C., and which had been slowly developing for some time past, finally estab- lished itself as the basis of Euro- pean army organization. It arose originally through the young men of a nation gathering round the nobles, serving under their banners in war time, and garrisoning their castles during peace. Each of these bands practically formed a small stand- ing army, being paid for their services by gifts of booty or land. The profession of arms came to be regarded in time as an honora- ble and profitable calling, and the bands grew stronger and more numerous. The nobles owed allegiance to the king, and when the latter required an army it was formed of these feudal bands, supplemented by a levy of militia from the free men of the nation. The Crusades(q.v.) first showed the advantage of co-operation of this kind, although the different armies participating were prac- tically independent of each other. The chief branch of the feudal armies was cavalry. It wac divided into two classes — the knights and their retainers, the men-at-arms; and the hobblers, or light horsemen. Among the former the horses were pro- tected by armor. The riders were armed with lance, sword, and mace, and were covered from head to foot with heavy armor, which rendered them quite helpless when unhorsed. Individual skill and bravery counted more than organization and discipline, the decision of a battle being often left to the result of a combat between two knights. The foot soldiers were also divided into two classes — archers, with bucklers and steel caps, and armed with long- bows, swords, battle axes, and brown-bills; and the light in- fantry, with iron gloves and long knives. The iniantry branch of the army was greatly neglected, its training uncared Army 379 Army for, and its fighting power re- garded with contempt by the leaders and mounted soldiers. The events which led to the downfall of the feudal system were as follows: (1) The success of the English archers against the French at Crecy in 1346, at Poi- tiers in 1356, and at Agincourt in 1415, England having prac- tically abandoned the feudal sys- tem under Edward iii, (2) The victories of the Swiss infantry, which was armed with sword and halberd, wore no armor, and fought in wedge-shaped masses, at Morgarten (1315), Sempach (1386), Granson (1476), Morat (1476), and Nancy (1477). (3) The introduction of standing armies, chiefly infantry, and at first largely composed of for- eign mercenaries, but later as- suming more of a national char- acter. Modern Armies. — The Turkish Janissary force, the earliest standing army in Europe, was fully organized in 1362; but the formation of standing armies among Western powers, which may be said to have introduced the modern military system, dates from the establishment of compagnies d'ordonnance by Charles vii. of France in 1445. The superiority of such a force over militia gradually forced its adoption on the surrounding states. The rise of standing armies and the development of the use of gunpowder proceeded contem- poraneously, but it was long before firearms superseded bows and pikes. Although a small can- non was used at Crecy (1346), the musket did not become the recog- nized arm of the foot soldier until over two hundred years later. During this period every im- provement in firearms gave in- creased value to infantry, and it gradually took the place of cavalry as the principal arm. The feudal militia of the Mid- dle Ages was followed by a sys- tem of voluntary enlistment in time of peace; if necessary, the standing army was increased by compulsory levies in time of war. Armies were raised by contract, the king paying a fixed annual sum for this purpose to certain of his nobles. The latter com- manded the regiments which they enlisted, and selected captains who usually raised and com- manded the companies under a further contract with the nobles. Regiments were at first very strong, often mustering 3,000 men; but as the use of firearms increased, a more open fighting formation was adopted to avoid severe loss. The old company, 500 or 600 strong, became there- by too extended for efficient con- trol by its captain, and was re- duced in number, with the con- sequent reduction in strength of the regiment. Between the beginning of the sixteenth and the end of the eighteenth centuries the propor- tion of musketeers gradually in- creased; the pike was abandoned for the bayonet, and even the cavalry were taught to rely more on their fire than on the effect of their charge. The improvements in weapons naturally affected the tactical formation. During the Thirty Years' War (1618-48), Gustavus Adolphus and Wallen- stein adopted opposite modes of dealing with masses of infantry: the former spread them out to a great width, only six ranks in depth; the latter adopted a nar- rower front, with a depth of twenty to thirty ranks. In Louis XIV. 's reign, the prolonged wars introduced the larger grouping into brigades and divisions. Frederick the Great, in the next century, reduced the depth of his infantry formation to three ranks, and introduced a most rigid and exact systenj of tactics and drill; so that when able to manoeuvre he nearly always won his battles. But when the result depended on bold and unexpected onslaughts he was more fre- quently a loser than a winner. He also greatly improved cavalry tactics, and restored to this arm a reliance on the effect of a rapio charge, while the introduction of horse artillery added to its power. The French Revolution effected almost as great changes in the military as in the political organ- ization of Europe. Hitherto armies had been deprived of mobility on the march by the system of supply magazines, and were hampered in battle by the method of line tactics and a mis- taken adherence to mere ma- noeuvring. Napoleon destroyed these traditions, and devised the policy of living on the country and aiming at the direct destruc- tion of the enemy's army. At the same time a great change took place in the relation of armies to the state, until they consisted no longer of mercen- aries paid out of the proceeds of their victories, but of annual contingents of the native popu- lation. As early as 1793 France had almost exhausted her supply of voluntary recruits, and com- pulsory requisition was intro- duced. In 1799 systematic conscription was made the sole law; the population was classified according to age; every citizen was declared liable to five years' service; and all between the ages of twenty and twenty-five were enrolled. The immense advan- tage which this terrible power gave Napoleon compelled other nations to follow the example of France (see Conscription). From this period also dates the introduction of the short service 'and reserve' system. Restricted under the Treaty of Tilsit (1807) to 43,000 men with the colors, the Prussian strength was never- theless annually added to by Von Scharnhorst (q. v.), who first de- veloped the idea of sending the trained soldiers back to their homes at the end of a limited period of service, and replacing them with fresh recruits. In spite of this demonstration of strength, the other powers did not at once accept the Prussian model. Finally, the successes of the Prussian army in 1866 and the German army in 1870 led to its establishment in Austria, Southern Germany, Italy, and France. In nearly all nations some form of a reserve was now built up, intended to augment the standing army, or first fight- ing line, from a peace to a war strength, and consisting of two classes: those waiting for an im- mediate call to arms if required, and those constituting the militia or second line of reserves — the entire effective military power of the state. A typical example was the army of the German Empire (see Germany). The principles of organization were also modified in the large armies which took the field in the beginning of the century. In 1792 mixed divisions, com- posed of all arms, had been in- troduced, and in 1804 Napoleon organized, under his marshals, corps d'armee, each in itself a complete army. The Prussian model was generally accepted as the best type of army corps, and in that country originated the ter- ritorial system generally adopted by all European powers. Before the outbreak of the World War in 1914, the immense armies maintained by European countries had come to be a ter- rific drain upon their respective nations. Only a part of these huge armies actually served the year round with the colors, but the entire force turned out for instruction for a considerable portion of each year. In general, the men served at home stations except in case of war and in the case of countries having large colonial possessions, as France, Germany, and Great Britain. Of the regular army of Great Britain, only about one-half was serving on the home stations of England, Scotland, and Ireland; while an army of 76,000 regular European troops and about 175,- 000 native troops, officered prin- cipally by Europeans was main- tained in India alone. Russia, France, Germany, and Italy also kept large armies constantly with the colors. Some idea of the enormous cost of keeping up these immense armies of modern times may be Vol. I. — Mar. '26 Army 380 Available Military Man-Power of the World (Revised by the United States War Department as of Aug. 31, 1925) Country Active Army Organized Reserves Unorganized Reserves Total Military Man-power In Europe 3,000 TT Unknown 122,000 1 OK AAA 125,000 30,000 Not perm'td. 720,000 750,000 Belgium (a) 73,000 388,300 700,000 1,161,300 Bulgaria 18,500 11,500 450,000 700,000 150,000 1,510,000 140,000 1,800,000 11,581 125,000 300,000 436,000 17,000 76,000 100,000 193,000 34,500 115,000 150,000 CCA AAA 550,000 France (a) 685,459 5,280,000 890,000 0,855,459 100,000 Not permit'd 7,900,000 n AAA AAA 8,000,000 (b) 152,0/0 207,143 99,000 cr f\o A AAA 5,9^4,000 (36,000 Air Force incl.) 71,849 200,000 160,000 533,000 35,000 Not permit'd 735,000 TrTA AAA 770,000 Italy (o) 220,898 3,947,912 1,500,000 5,680,220 (11,410 Air Force incl.) 120,000 2,000,000 2,120,000 Latvia (o) 17,900 100,000 225,000 342,900 Lithuania (a) 30,000 60,000 150,000 240,000 Metherlands (a) 30,000 287,000 540,000 857,000 24,422 300,000 75,000 400,000 211,130 450,000 475,000 4,000,000 23,821 430,529 455,550 910,000 225,000 600,000 975,000 1,800,000 562,967 500,000 4.500,000 13,000,000 233,200 1,186,122 500,000 1,919,322 26,000 400,000 274,000 700,000 170,000 135,000 297,000 602,000 In \sia Unknown None Unknown 502,000 1,200,000 None 15,200,000 India (d) 209,179 66,481 2,500,000 210,000 1,503,000 461,000 7,130,000 25,000 85,000 840,000 Turkey 120,000 225,000 600,000 In Africa Abyssinia 51,000 None 455,000 500,000 Egypt and Sudan 22,535 10,000 700,000 650 2,500 3,500 200,000 Union of South Africa 3,000 168,275 190,000 In America 32,388 324,000 468,000 820,000 7,300 30,000 80,000 117,300 39,045 233,000 800,000 1,072,000 Canada 3,598 122,000 1,100,000 (h) 22,945 177,000 435,000 634,950 6,0i)0 24,000 270,000 300,000 (i) 500 5,000 (e) 35,000 40,500 (e) 11,830 None 209,000 220,830 5,420 None (e) 90,000 95,420 6,000 None 125,000 131,000 (c) 3,314 None (e) 20,000 23,314 3,00!) 31,100 17,354 51,454 Mexico 71,667 18,000 1,118,000 1,207,667 Newfoundland None None 32,000 2,000 None 118,000 120,000 1,900 23,000 77,000 101,900 Peru (a) 7,500 20,000 79,000 106,500 3,929 35,417 100,000 139,346 if) 704 None 25,000 25,704 United States (g) 138,236 ((/) 253,821 11,607,943 12,000,000 10,000 7,200 149,500 166,700 .7,500 3,500 89,000 100,000 Oceania 2,691 31,000 48,000 600,000 500 44,047 8,000 160,000 (a) Military service compulsory, (b) British Colonial units outside of India, (c) Gen- darmerie — no active army, (d) Includes British troops in India, (f) Estimated. (/) Na- tional Military Police, (g) Figures for May 31, 1925. (h) Includes 4,339 Carabineros or National Military Police, (i) There is no active array — National Police. Vol. I. — Mar. '26 Army Aviation gained from the following pre- war annual peace expenditures for military purposes of the lead- ing nations: Russia, $275,000,- 000; Germany, .$250,000,000; France, $195,000,000; Great Brit- ain, $145,000,000, exclusive of India; United States, $160,000,- 000; Austria-Hungary, $125,000,- 000; Italy, $90,000,000; Japan, $60,000,000. The accompanying table, com- piled by The World Almanac, and revised by the U. S. War Department, shows the fighting strength of the countries of the Old and New Worlds (Aug. 31, 1925). See Army of the United States; Army in the Field; Militia; Artillery; Cavalry; Infantry; Strategy and Tac- tics; Fortification; Army Avi- ation; Battles, Famous; Wars OF History; Military Ace; Military Education; Milita- rism; Sanitation, Military; also the section Army in the articles on the principal nations. For a detailed account of the war, see Europe, Great War of. Bibliography. — Consult Jer- ram's Armies of the World; Ar- mies of To-Day (various writers) ; Koppers' Armies of Europe (Eng. trans.); Oman's History of the Art of War: Middle A ge^;' Wil- kinson's The Brain of an Army; Stafs of Various Armies (issued by the Military Information Di- vision, U. S. War Department); Maude's Evolution of Modern Strategy, and War and the World's Life (1907). Army Aeronautics. See Army Aviation, Army and Navy Legion of Valor, U. S. A. See Medal of Honor Legion. Army Aviation. The advan- tages of observation and recon- naissance from the air were long ago recognized, and observation balloons were used sporadically in the American Civil War, in the Franco-Austrian War, and in the Franco-Prussian War. In the Siege of Paris, during the latter war, balloons played an impor- tant part in maintaining com- munication between the city and the outside world and as obser- vation posts by the French in observing the disposition of the Germans besieging the city. In 1879 the British inaugurated a systematic organization for their balloon department, which has since served as the model for the aviation services of the other great powers. France began shortly before this, and Germany about five years after. Until the first decade of the twentieth century, the captive balloon was the sole reliance of the various air services, and each war since its use was introduced has emphasized its value. In the Second Boer War in South Army Avfatioa 381 Army Avfatfon Africa the value of the captive balloon in reconnaissance was strongly brought out owing to the British lack of accurate maps of the theatre of war. The use made of balloons at that time to obtain topographical informa- tion for the correction of maps was but a forerunner of the work of the aeroplanes along similar lines in the Great War. Although large numbers of captive balloons were employed during the Great War, their field of utility was limited, as a captive balloon can ascend only in calm weather. As it must remain sta- tionary, it is also peculiarly sus- ceptible to attack by hostile aeroplanes and anti-aircraft guns. and must, therefore, be kept well back from the front-line trenches. Its place in reconnaissance was taken by the fast-moving scout aeroplane, but because of the facility with which communica- tion can be maintained with the ground it remained of great value for observing the effect of artil- lery fire. (See Balloon.) Experiments with the dirigible balloon began in the last decade of the nineteenth century, the foremost experimenter being Count Von Zeppelin (q. v.). In 1902 the German government began to take an interest in Zep- pelin's experiments and to give him substantial encouragement. As a result of this interest at the beginning of the war Germany had a large fleet of dirigibles at her disposal and a large manufac- turing plant capable of turning out a new Zeppelin every three weeks. The other European powers had also experimented with dirigibles but not to the same extent as had the Germans. Much was expected of the dirigibles, but the practical tests of war disclosed many disadvan- ■ tages and weaknesses of the type for land warfare, while the de- velopment of the aeroplane was so rapid that it crowded out the dirigible from many of the func- tions which its advocates ex- pected of it. Coincident with the experi- ments on dirigible balloons were the experiments on the heavier- than-air machines, and their value in a military sense was the guiding factor in their develop- ment. While some attention was given to the commercial use of aircraft, this was secondary in all cases to military considera- tions. In every great country in the world investigations were carried on independently, but the United States witnessed the first successful flight. Other nations, however, with an eye to military advantage, continued the experi- ments and encouraged the air services, while in the United States interest lagged until the nation entered the war. Prior to the Great War, the powers of Europe had been ex- perimenting with the aeroplane; but none had witnessed a real test of it in war. It was used in the Italo-Turkish and the Balkan Wars but only to a limited ex- tent. No extensive air opera- tions had been carried out, and such use as had been made was sporadic and without definite plan or object in view. But the value and utility of the aeroplane in military operations were dem- onstrated. The French gave more effort and time to aeroplane develop- ment than any other European nation, but there was no limita- tion as to type; no effort at standardization was made, and no attempt to adopt an official type, with the result that, while France went into the war with a i large aeroplane fleet and with large numbers of trained aviators available, there was a great diversity of types of machines, many of which were found un- suitable when subjected to the test of actual warfare. Shortly after the war began, the French issued an order limiting their aeroplanes to certain types. The result of the order was to de- crease the strength of their air fleet by 40 per cent., and for some time thereafter hundreds of trained aviators were idle be- cause they could get no machines. The French aeroplane industry was undeveloped, and machines to take the places of those elim- inated were not available for some time. From a comfortable lead in the air, the French dropped Vol. I.— Mar. '26 Photo Kddti and li Libert U. S. Fighting Planes (Navy) in Battle Formation Army Aviation 382 Army Aviation to inferiority at one stroke, and the Germans gained a superiority which the French were not able to dispute with them for eighteen months after war was declared. In Germany a different policy was pursued. The principal early efforts of the Germans in the field of aviation were devoted to the dirigible, although aero- plane experimenters were not lacking. The German govern- ment took advantage of the ex- periments of the French and, realizing the advantage of uni- formity, adopted standard types and standardized the parts in order that quantity production might be started on short notice. In anticipation of the war the government arranged with cer- the war, little official encourage- ment was given to aviation, due to lack of sufficient appropria- tions by Congress. A few ma- chines were maintained for train- ing purposes, but the country's entrance into the war found it with but a small number of machines suitable for war pur- poses and comparatively few trained aviators. Soon after the outbreak of war Congress appro- priated hundreds of millions of dollars for aviation; American aeroplane factories were largely increased in capacity, and a large number of aviation training schools were established in all parts of the country. The total personnel of the Air Service, of- ficers, students, and enlisted men. of aeroplanes and engines be- came an absolute necessity. This can be obtained only by stand- ardization, so that the parts may be turned out in a large number of factories each of which may be equipped to manufacture only certain parts. Another ten- dency in the use of aeroplanes was their employment in squad- rons and in masses, which de- manded machines of uniform type, speed, and other character- istics. The detailed organization of the air services of the powers, as well as all other units, in time of war, is kept secret, but all have well developed tactical and ad- ministrative organizations. The administrative and flying organi- Courtesy of the Scientific American Italian hombing Plane Caproni triplane carrying three men. and 2,750 pounds of explosives, besides fuel and guns — a total of 4,400 pounds of useful load. Note the man standing below to gain an idea of size of the machine. tain private manufacturers to turn their factories over to the manufacture of aeroplane parts upon the outbreak of hostilities. So while at the beginning of the war the German aeroplane fleet was inferior in numbers and slow in mobilizing, yet because of ad- vance arrangements for manu- facturing development and the necessity of the French to stand- ardize after war began, Germany soon obtained command of the air. British aviation development at the outbreak of the war was behind both French and German. The responsibility for its devel- opment rested with two depart- ments, and the principal use of the aeroplane was as an adjunct to the fleet. But the British aviators, while few in numbers compared with those of the other powers, were skillful and well trained. During the early part of the war, like the French, they were handicapped by lack of standardization and by lack of advance plans for quantity pro- duction. In the United States, prior to increased from 1,200 at the out- break of the war to 200,000 at its close. In 1914 no nation except Ger- many had given much serious thought or study to the standard- ization of its air service, or care- ful and detailed investigation into the capacity, life, and limita- tions of the various types of aeroplanes. Such data as were on hand were based upon exhi- bition flights in time of peace. All nations had considerable the- oretical knowledge of the value of the aeroplane, but it required the operations of actual war to show not only the necessity for standardization but the limita- tions of the various machines. In the light of this experience the number of types of machine in use was reduced to four or five for each nation, each type being designed for certain definite and specified duties. The life of machines in active vservice was found to be so short, and the success of military operations to be so dependent upon control of the air, that quantity production zations are usually kept separate. The flying organization for tacti- cal purposes corresponds to the companies, battalions, regiments, and brigades of the troops. These organizations are variously called squadrons, flights, wings, and groups. Provisional brigades may be organized for special service. For every flyer, the administrative services require five or six men on the ground in supply, repair, record, and photo- graphic services. Scouting operations or recon- naissances may be divided into two classes: (1) tactical or close, (2) battle and strategical or dis- tant. Tactical reconnaissance is carried out in the immediate vicinity of the fighting lines, while strategical reconnaissance is directed at objectives well within the hostile territory. For tactical reconnaissance the aeroplane must fly at a compara- tively low altitude, well within the range of the anti-aircraft guns, since an observer must be able to see clearly if his observa- tions are to be of any value to his Vol. I.— Mar. '20 Army Aviation 383 Army Enlistment commander and the results of his observations must be reported promptly. To be reasonably safe from gun fire sucll a machine must have great speed and must be able to carry out the operation without interference by hostile aircraft. As a swiftly moving object is difficult to hit, the type adopted for such work is a small, speedy craft of high engine power. To assist in the work of observation the aid of the camera has been invoked, and a special camera for aerial photography has been developed (see Pho- tography). For strategical reconnaissance long distance flights are neces- sary, and speed becomes second- ary to radius of action. The country and lines in rear of the immediate zone of operations are not apt to be so well protected with anti-aircraft guns, and therefore the aviator when flying low is not in such great danger as when flying over the lines. Machines engaged in scouting and observing should be able to devote themselves chiefly to these objects. Therefore they are sometimes convoyed by squadrons of fighting craft, the duty of which is to protect their own machines and to prevent enemy craft from carrying out similar operations. Fighting ma- chines must be armed and ar- mored, they must have speed, must climb rapidly, and ma- noeuvre easily. As a rule, they carry one man who both drives and fights the plane. The arma- ment consists of one or two light machine guns, usually so mounted and synchronized as to fire be- tween the blades of the propeller if the aeroplane is of the tractor type, which was the type most generally adopted by the bellig- erents in the Great War. The armor consists of light steel plates to protect the engine and the fuel tanks from rifle bullets. The observing aeroplane is usually not speedy, and is some- times armored to protect both the men and the engine from hostile fire, as the observer must fly low; it is capable of carrying two men, a pilot and an observer; and is equipped with wireless to report the result of observations. The duty of the observers is to operate in connection with the artillery and report the results of the artillery fire. The observers for this work must be specially trained and capable artillery ofifi- cers, since they must distinguish the shots from the particular bat- teries they are observing for, and also must be able to pick out the target. Another duty that falls to the aeroplane during an attack is that of observing and reporting the progress of the infantry. This information is necessary in order that the commander may know how the attack is progress- ing and also that the artillery may know the location of their own infantry and thus avoid firing on them. Such machines also assist the infantry by flying low and actually attacking with their machine guns the hostile infantry either in the trenches or drawn up in close formation in reserve. Raiding or bombing operations are usually carried out by special type machines, the former by attack planes and the latter by the heavier bombing planes. Such operations are, as a rule, aimed at some depot, airdrome, railway centre, or munitions factory more or less distant from the zone of active operations. Hence great radius of action and carrying power are the desirable qualities in such aeroplanes. See Aeronautics; Balloons; Europe, Great War of; Flying Machines; Liberty Motor; Zeppelin. Army Chaplains. See Chap- lains. Army Corps. The corps is the largest peace time formation in the armies of Continental na- tions. This organization, first adopted by Napoleon in 1803, has, with certain modifications, been retained in all large armies. In Prussia the territory of the kingdom was divided into army corps districts, and the corps commanders were not only the leaders of these units in war, but the superintendents of their re- cruiting, training, and equip- ment in time of peace. The ad- vantage of this arrangement was obvious, and after the Franco- German War of 1870 the system of territorial localization was adopted by all continental na- tions. The German army corps be- fore the outbreak of the Great War may be taken as a type. Its component parts were the general staff, 2 infantry divisions (to which cavalry and artillery were attached), 1 battalion of rifles, 1 telegraph section, 1 corps bridge train, 1 division machine guns, 1 company pioneers, 6 sup- ply columns, 7 supply parks, 12 ammunition columns, 2 field bakery columns, 12 field hospitals, 2 horse depots; or a total of 41,- 000 men, 1.3,000 horses, 144 guns, and 2,000 vehicles. In Great Britain the army corps had never existed prior to the (Treat War as a permanent fighting unit, the largest formation being the divi- sion (see Division). In the United States the army corps does not exist in time of peace, the highest administrative units being the regiment in the infantry, cavalry, and field artil- lery, and the district in the coast defence. During the war with Spain the men mustered into the service were organized into army corps, of which the Fifth, commanded by General vShafter, may be taken as an example, al- though below the average in strength. This corps contained, at the surrender of Santiago, 803 officers and 14,935 enlisted men, divided as follows: 17 head- quarters and staff, 11,730 infan- try, 3,248 cavalry, 478 artillery, 165 engineers, and 60 signal corps. See Army in the Field. Army Departments. See Ar- my OF THE United States. Army Education. See Mili- tary Education. Army Enlistment. In the army of the United States there is no compulsory military service, except in time of war, and all en- listments are voluntary. Such men as desire to become soldiers can present themselves before any authorized recruiting officer, and if they meet the required conditions, and are physically sound, can then take the oath of enlistment. Army recruiting is conducted by an officer properly detailed and authorized, for each post, regiment, or detachment, and by special officers detailed by the War Department for that pur- pose. There are general recruit- ing stations in the leading cities, at which applicants are exam- ined. If found qualified for service, they • are accepted and sent to their units (if enlisted for a specified station) or to recruit- ing depots for final disposition. Any male citizen of the United States or person who has legally declared his intention to become a citizen, if above the age of eighteen and under the age of thirty-five years, able-bodied, and free from disease, of good character and temperate habits, may be accepted for enlistment. If the applicant is a minor, he must have the written consent of his parent or guardian. His moral character is looked into, and if satisfactory he is examined physically and mentally. Both examinations are very thorough. After the nature of the service and terms of enlistment have been fully explained to the appli- cant, he is required to declare under oath that he desires to become a soldier, and that he is free from any disqualification to prevent his so doing. When all is done, he signs the following contract, which is his oath of en- listment, and which is adminis- tered by a commissioned officer of the army: Oath: State of , county of , I, , born in the State of , and now aged and months, do hereby acknowl- edge to have voluntarily enlisted (or re- enlisted) this day of , 19 — , as a soldier in the army Vol. I.— Mar. '26 Army fn the Field 3^4 Number of U. S. Troops Engaged in Wars of the United States War Date Regulars Militia and Volun- teers Total * Casualties Revolution 1775-1783 130,711 164,080 309,781 No record Northwest Indians 1790-1795 8,983 1,332 France 1798-1800 14,593 Tripoli 1801-1805 t3,330 Creek Indians 1813-1814 ' ' 600 i3,V81 13,781 Great Britain 1812-1815 85,000 471,622 576,622 5,877 82 1817-1818 1,000 6,911 7,911 Black Hawk Indians. . . . 1831-1832 1,339 5,126 6,465 65 Cherokee Indians 1836-1837 9,494 9,494 Creek Indians 1836-1837 ' ' 935 12,483 13,418 Florida Indians 1835-1843 11,169 29,953 41,122 ' ' 940 Mexico 1 8,lfl_1 Q IS 30 954 73 776 119 o'in 17 "370 11 ,616 Apache, Navajo, and 1849-1855 1,500 1,061 2,501 1856-1858 3,687 3,687 Civil Wart 1861-1865 2,772,408 359,528 1898 §274,717 1,688 1898-1902 60,000 7,052 1900 5,000 5,000 209 World War 1917-1921tt 544,663 61 6,779 **4,051,606 318,203 * Including all branches of the service, t Naval forces engaged. % The number of troops on the Confederate side was about 750,000. § Troops actually engaged, about 60,000. ** Includes 2,890,164 drafted men; does not include Marines serving with the Army, tt Active hostilities ceased 1918. of the United States of America, for the period of years, under the conditions prescribed by law, unless sooner discharged by proper authority; and do also agree to accept from the United vStates such bounty, pay, rations, and clothing as are or may be established by law. And I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will bear true faith and alle- giance to the United States of America; that I will serve them honestly and faithfully against all their enemies whomsoever; that I will obey the orders of the President of the United States, and the orders of the officers ap- pointed over me, according to the Rules and Articles of War. Then follow the signature of the applicant and the seal, cer- tificate, and signature of the recruiting officer. \ Under the existing regulations the original term of enlistment may be for either one or three years. Subsequent re-enlistments must be for three years. For rates of pay, see Pay, Army and Navy. After thirty years' service, en- listed men may be retired with three-fourths of the pay of their grade, and $15.75 per month ad- ditional in lieu of clothing, sub- sistence, quarters, fuel, and light. Unmarried soldiers under thirty years of age of not less than two years' service may compete in examination for promotion to second lieutenant. See Com- missions, U. S. Army. Army in the Field. Regular or permanent or standing armies are those in which the entire force composing the army has been trained and organized for war, and kept by the nation on a paid basis, always ready for war. Vol. I.— Mar. '26 National armies are those in which the entire available force are the trained men of the nation or those fit to bear arms. A regular or standing army may be part of a national army. A field army, more generally known as a field force, is an army prepared to take the field. Thus, the regu- lar army of the United States, when raised to a war footing, be- comes a field force or field army. An army engaged in an active campaign is said to be in the field. The strength of an army in the field depends upon variable fac- tors — on the nature of the coun- try in which it is to operate, on the character and strength of the forces of the enemy, on the na- ture of the objective, and on the population and wealth of the na- tion to which it belongs. In the Spanish-American War, General Shafter's army numbered only about 16,000 men, the Russo- Japanese War drew out 700,000 Russians and 850,000 Japanese, while the Great War brought out millions of men from all the countries engaged (see Europe, Great War of). At the close of the Civil War, practically all the armies on both sides were in the field, numbering 2,500,000 men on the side of the north and 1,100,000 on the south, the great- est forces that had been engaged in a modern war, until the advent of the Great War. The term field army (or ar- mies) has had various meanings, especially in the United States. At times it has meant a group of divisions and at others a group of army corps. The present organ- ization includes a headquarters, a body of auxiliary troops and trains, called army troops, and Army tn the Field two or more corps. The organ- ization of military forces changes constantly to meet changing con- ditions, especially in the case of those engaged in active cam- paign in time of war. In time of peace the United States has had no organization larger than the division. During the Civil and Spanish- American Wars an army con- sisted of a group of corps, but between the close of the Russo- Japanese War and the passage of the Act of June 3, 1916, a field army was a group of divisions or what in other times and in Eu- rope was called a corps. By the Act of June 3, 1916, the President was authorized to organize corps and armies in time of war. Dur- ing the Great War each corps consisted of two or more divisions with additional artillery, troops, engineers, trains, and other auxil- iary troops. In the United States, when war has been declared the stand- ing army is at once filled up by voluntary enlistment or draft, or both, to its war strength. By recent law the President has the right not only to mobilize the militia, but can even order it outside the boundaries of the country. According to the strength of the opposing power and the forces likely to be en- gaged, bodies of volunteers or other forces are called for and enlisted for several years or for the entire war or resort is had to the draft (see Conscription). The troops are then concentrated at advantageous points, supplies of ordnance, food, clothing, medi- cines, etc., are collected, and the army is fully equipped and put into condition to take the field. To do all this requires a com- plete organization previously formed, so that when the time for action comes, like a huge ma- chine all the various parts act in unison (see Mobilization). The commander-in-chief for the army in the field having been appointed, he takes complete charge of operations. As a rule, natural strategic positions deter- mine the theatre of operations, and in proximity to these the commanding general determines the base of operations from which he will work. This is different from the base of supplies, which is usually located in his own country or in one that is friendly, and known as the zone of the interior. At the base of opera- tions the army itself is gathered, with such supplies as it needs for immediate use, and these are constantly renewed from the base of supplies. The movement across the seas of any large body of troops, with their attendant equipment and stores, necessitates a disem- barkation on a seashore, and a Army In the Field S85 Army of the tJnlted StatetS preliminary collection and organ- ization of materiel. A maritime base is, therefore, a necessity — as, for example, Siboney during the Cuban campaign, Manila during the Philippine insurrec- tion, Dalny during the siege of Port Arthur and the Manchurian campaign. Cape Town and Dur- ban during the British wars in South Africa, or the French ports in the Great War (1914-19). When the theatre of war is far from a seaport, the base is neces- sarily inland — as, for example, Peshawar* and Kohat during English campaigns in Afghanis- tan, and Harbin for the Russian army after the siege of Port Arthur and the destruction of their navy. The selection of a base in a friendly country has obvious advantages, as it gives time for preparations before the actual arrival of the troops. It may often happen that the situa- tion of a base can be secured only by force, as in the case of Balak- lava in the Crimean War, and Dalny in the Japanese-Russian War; or by stratagem, as in the case ot Ismailia in the Egyptian campaign. The objective of the army may be the opposing force of the en- emy, or his capital, or some main soxirce of his supplies. Whatever it is, the army must make a pathway to get to it. This path- way to the objective is called the line of operations, and includes not only the country through which the army moves, but all the territory contiguous to it whose possession is necessary to render the march of the army secure and practicable. The line of operations may or may not be parallel to the base, according to the strength of the forces and the topography of the country. Deep lines of operations are those which advance far beyond the base. The front of operations in- cludes all territory occupied to- ward the enemy, and all adjacent territory that must be observed to render it secure against hostile advance. The front becomes a line of defence when the army is retreating or is on the defensive. A zone of operations is the belt of territory controlled by the moving columns of the army, wherein these columns can move in safety. As an army moves forward, a line of communications becomes necessary, along which the per- sonnel and materiel necessary to maintain the army in fighting condition are forwarded, and by means of which sick, wounded, prisoners, etc., are removed from the theatre of actual hostilities. The provost marshal general's department should have a force sufficient to preserve proper police throughout the army, and especially along the line of com- VOL. I.— March '22 munications. The length of this line may vary from a few miles, as in the Crimean War and the campaigns against Port Arthur and Santiago, to hundreds of miles, as in the South African campaign of 1899-1902 and the Russian line from Moscow to Harbin. The line consists of a chain of military stations connected by a route traversed by rail, road, or river transport, or a combina- tion of all three. With an un- friendly population, or a vigilant and active enemy, a large force is necessary to guard the line. Each station or depot becomes a defensive fort; blockhouses pro- tect vulnerable points, such as defiles or bridges; and flying col- umns have to keep the enemy at a distance. As the army ad- vances, the length of the line of communications increases, and it is necessary to organize it into sections. Wherever there is a break in bulk in the conveyance of stores, a depot is necessarily formed; and in each section at im^portant points there must be hospitals, rest stations, and ac- cumulations of commissariat and ordnance stores. The usual method by which an army is supplied is an adaptation of the magazine and requisition systems. Arms, ammunition, ac- coutrements, clothing, harness, tools, and stores in general are forwarded to troops from the nearest magazines; but ordinary transport, and as much as possi- ble of the daily food for men and horses, are drawn from the thea- tre of war. In a civilized country the inhabitants may be forced to supply lodgings as well as food, and requisitions may be made for staple commodities. As a gen- eral principle, everything is paid for in cash or by promissory notes, and the forcible taking of supplies is limited as far as pos- sible. Purchase in the open mar- ket is authorized in the field; and by establishing good relations be- tween the natives of a country and the army, this plan often enables supplies to be obtained which would otherwise be con- cealed. Food has to be issued daily, as a rule, and the unexpended portion of a ration is carried on the person. In addition, each soldier is supplied with a reserve or emergency ration of biscuit ('hard tack'), pemmican, pre- served meat, concentrated foods, etc., which may be opened only by order of a superior office. (See Rations.) A general transport of a semi- military character is worked from the base of operations to the ad- vanced depot in rear of an army, or to the magazines nearest to the troops to be supplied. The labor, carts, animals, etc., are mainly procured from the country, while the supervision is of a military character, and drawn from the staff of the line of communica- tions. From these depots sup- plies are sent to the troops daily by trains assigned to each unit. Each regiment of infantry, cav- alry, and field artillery has its own train, these regimental trains being combined when necessary to facilitate guarding the sup- plies. Under suitable conditions, troops should be able to move on emergency for two or three days by utilizing the resources of the country, their regimental trans- port, and their reserve rations. The supply columns and supply packs of the division carry three to four days' provision for ordi- nary use, and thus extend the area in which troops can act. (See Transportation, Mili- tary.) Next to the problem of provid- ing ammunition and supplies, that of a proper medical and sani- tary service is most important. It is a matter of history that far more men die of disease during a campaign than from all other causes combined. Four complete field hospitals (q. v.) are assigned to each division of a U. S. army corps, in addition to regimental and other hospitals. (See Sani- tation, Military; Hospitals, Military.) In addition to the collection and distribution of supplies, the staff of the line of communica- tions has to utilize and often cre- ate postal and telegraph services. The collection and dissemination of information, and the preven- tion of information from reaching the enemy, is a task for the ser- vice of security and information; but the bulk of this work, and the censorship of the press, will be associated with the main centres that lie on the line of communica- tions. The advantage of keeping up communication by wireless, telegraph, heliograph, flying ma- chines, and other means along the route between its various maga- zines and depots is obvious, and the post of director of telegraphs in a campaign is an important one. (See Signalling, Mili- tary; Telegraph, Military.) See Army; Army of the United States; Strategy and Tactics; Cavalry; Infantry; Artillery; Army Aviation; Field Equipment; Reconnais- sance; Railways, Military Rail- ways; Europe, Great War of. Army of the United States. Early History. — On June 14, 1775, the Continental Congress, recognizing the necessity for a force that would be subject to its orders, authorized the raising of ten companies of riflemen to serve for a period of one year. The following day it took into its pay all of the troops then around Army of the tJnited States Army of the TJnited States' Boston, created the office of Commander-in-Chief of all of the forces raised or to be raised in the defence of American liberty, and appointed George Washing- ton to the office. The small force of Colonial troops thus created was increased from time to time during the war, forming the backbone of the Revolution- ary army, composed in great part of militia and State troops. In 1776 Congress laid the foundation of the present War Department by appointing a Board of War and Ordnance to take charge of all military stores, superintend the raising, equip- ping, and despatching of land forces, keep a register of the officers, and perform other func- tions. In 1781 this board was superseded by a Secretary of War. At the close of the war the militia and State troops were returned to their homes, and the regular troops were ordered re- duced to two care-taking detach- ments aggregating less than one hundred men retained for the purpose of guarding supplies. In 1785 a regiment of seven hun- dred riflemen was atithorized for a period of one year to serve against the Indians, and in 1787 authority was granted to con- tinue this regiment in service. In 1790 a regiment of 1,216 men was authorized, with Lieut. -Col. Josiah Harmar of Pennsylvania in command. This force was in- creased in 1792 to two regiments of infantry and one battalion of artillery. For the next hundred years the history of the Regular Army is one of a succession of small in- creases to meet em.ergencies, with corresponding decreases af- ter the emergencies had passed. At the time of the Spanish- American War, in 1898, the Regular Army consisted of a force of, approximately, 25,000 officers and men. Between the close of that war and 1916 the army was increased from time to time until it reached a strength of, approximately, 100,000 of- ficers and men, composed of regiments and smaller units, but no provision was made for or- ganizing them into higher com- mands or for increasing their number in the event of emer- gency. The National Defence Act of 1916— By the act of June 3, 1916, known as the National Defence Act, an effort was made to provide more adequately for national defence. This act pro- vided for the establishing of the Army of the United States, com- posed of the Regular Army, the Volunteer Army, the Officers' Reserve Corps, the Enlisted Reserve Corps, the National Guard while in the service of the Vol. I. — March '22 United States, and such other land forces as were then or might thereafter be authorized by law. Under this act the Regular Army was increased from, ap- proximately, 100,000 men to about 208,000, with a provision that the increase should be ef- fected in five equal increments, beginning June 30, 1916. The first increment had been added to the army and the work of forming the Officers' Reserve Corps and the Enlisted Reserve Corps had been begun when the United States entered the Great War in 1917. For this emergency the four remaining increments were at once added to the army, the National Guard was called into the service of the United States, and the National Army was organized. The National Army. — Realiz- ing the necessity for a larger force than could be raised through volunteers. Congress, by an act of May 18, 1917, pro- vided for raising a new army through conscription. To dis- tinguish this new force from the Regular Army and the National Guard, it was at first known as the National Army, but in 1918 it was merged by executive order with the Regular Army and the National Guard into the Army of the United States. Under the provisions of the act of May 18 (1917) all able- bodied citizens between the ages of twenty-one and thirty years, inclusive, were made liable to military service. The President was authorized to call them into service, organize them into com- panies, regiments, brigades, di- visions, corps, and armies, and to provide the necessary officers for such units. As far as pos- sible, companies, battalions, and regiments were to be composed of men from the same State or locality, while officers were drawn from the Regular Army, the National Guard, the Officers' Reserve Corps, or civil life. The first call was for 687,000 men, who reported for service between Sept. 5, 1917, and Feb. 28, 1918. These men were or- ganized into seventeen divisions and a large number of special and technical troops. Included in the latter were engineer troops of various types, aviation and signal corps units, medical and sanitary units, and numerous other auxiliary troops required for operations in the field. The first call was followed by others, until the total force engaged in the war aggregated more than three m.illion men. Act of June 4, 2920.— Follow- ing the armistice (q. v.) and the demobilization of the war army, reorganization of the military forces of the country was effected through an amendment of the National Defence Act of 1916, passed and approved as the Act of June 4, 1920. Under this act provision is made for the Army of the United States, to consist of the Regvilar Army, the National Guard while in the service of the United States, and the Organized Re- serves, including the Officers' Reserve Corps and the Enlisted Reserve Corps. The peace strength of the Regiilar Army is fixed at a maxi- mum of 280,000 enlisted men and, approximately, 17,000 of- ficers. The peace strength of the National Guard is fixed at not less than 800 men for each Sen- ator and Representative in Con- gress, with a proviso that four years be allowed in which to reach this minimum. When it is reached, the strength of the National Guard will be, approx- imately, 425,000. No limit is fixed for the strength of either the Officers' Reserve Corps or the Enlisted Reserve Corps. The organization of this force is left to the discretion of the President, with the provision that the peace establishment, in- cluding the Regular Army, the National Guard, and the Or- ganized Reserves, shall include all of those divisions and other military organizations necessary to form a basis for a complete and immediate mobilization for the national defence in the event of a national emergency declared by Congress, and with the further provision that the army shall at all times be organized so far as practicable into brigades, divisions, and army corps, and whenever the President may deem it expedient, into armies. The Commander-in-Chief. — Under the provisions of the Constitution the President of the United States is the commander- in-chief of the land and naval forces of the United States. In the past he has invariably exer- cised this office through the Secretaries of War and the Navy and through military and naval commanders in the field and at sea. With the establishment of the General Staff Corps in 1903, the office of the Commanding Gen- eral of the Army was abolished, and the President has since exer- cised his functions through the Secretary of War. Following the World War, Congress created the office of General of the Armies, and, in recognition of his services during the war. Gen. John J. Pershing (q. v.) was appointed to that office, which is to con- tinue during the period of his life. He does not exercise its functions during time of peace, but occupies the position of Chief of Staff, with the provision that he may assume command in the Army of the United States field in the event of emergency. In time of war the President designates the general officers in command of the various armies in the field. (See President of THE United States.) The Secretary of PTar.— The Secretary of War is charged with carrying out the policy of the President in military matters and with the general administration of the War Department. He acts for the President, and under the law his orders have the force of those of the President. In the exercise of his duties, the Secretary of War has the aid of two assistants, the Assistant Secretary of War and the Chief of Staff. In addition to such other duties as may be assigned him by the Secretary of War, the Assistant Secretary of War is charged with the supervision of the procurement of all military supplies and other business of the War Department pertaining thereto, and the assii ranee of adequate provision for the mo- bilization of materiel and indus- trial organizations essential to wartime needs. Under the di- rection of the Secretary of War, the chiefs of all branches charged with proctirement report directly to the Assistant Secretary. (See War, U. S. Department of.) The Chief of Staff presides over the War Department Gen- eral Staff and, under the direc- tion of the President and of the Secretary of War, causes to be made by the War Department General Staff the necessary plans for recruiting, organizing, sup- plying, equipping, mobilizing, training, and demobilizing the Army of the United States and for the use of the military forces for the national defence. He transmits all such plans and recomm.endations to the Secre- tary of War, and, when these have been approved by the Secretary, acts as his agent in carrying them into effect. In general, the Chief of Staff is the principal military advisor of the Secretary of War as well as his chief agent in the execution of orders. In addition, the Chief of Staff has general supervision over the administration, train- ing, discipline, and operations of the army. The Staff— The Staff of the army consists of those corps and departments charged with the administration and maintenance of the army. In general, this in- cludes all of the agencies con- cerned in sheltering, clothing, feeding, equipping, paying, trans- porting, and caring medically for the officers and men, the procur- ing and manufacturing of sup- plies and munitions, the keeping of records, and the transacting of all other necessary business. Primarily, the Staff is divided Vol. I. — March '22 385B into the General Staff Corps and the various Technical, Supply, and Administrative Corps and Departments. The General Staff Corps consists of the War Department General Staff, and the General Staff with Troops. The War Department General Staff is charged with the prepara- tion of plans for the national de- fence and for the use of the military forces for the purpose, both separately and in conjtmc- tion with the naval forces, and for the mobilization of the man- hood of the nation and its ma- terial resources in emergency. It is also charged with investigat- ing and reporting upon all ques- tions affecting the efficiency of the Army of the United States and its state of preparation for military operations, and with rendering professional aid and assistance to the Secretarv of War and the Chief of Staff. The General Staff with Troops assists Corps Area, Department, and Division Commanders in supervising and co-ordinating the administration, training, sup- ply, and operations of the troops. (See General Staff.) The Adjutant General's Depart- ment keeps all records of the army, carries on its correspond- ence, publishes orders and official books and manuals, manages the recruiting service and, under regulations prescribed by the Secretary of War, is charged with the operations of procuring, assigning, promoting, transfer- ring, retiring, and discharging all officers and men of the army. (See Adjutant General.) The Inspector General's De- partment has general supervision over all that pertains to the ef- ficiency of the army; the condi- tion and state of supplies of all kinds; of arms and equipment; of the expenditure of property and money, and of the accounts of all disbursing officers; of the condition, discipline, and ef- ficiency of the troops, and with the enforcement of all orders and regulations. (See Inspector General's Department.) The Judge Advocate General's Department passes upon all legal questions and transacts all other legal business 'arising in the War Department at large, or in the administration of military tri- bunals. (See Judge Advocate General's Department.) The Quartermaster Corps, es- tablished in 1912 by the con- solidation of the old Quarter- master, Subsistence, and Pay Departments, and reorganized in 1920 by the addition of the war- time Construction and Trans- portation Services and the sub- traction of the Finance Depart- ment, is charged with the pro- curement, storage, and issue of Army of the United States all supplies for the army, with the exception of certain technical materiel; with the construction, repair, and maintenance of all building and utilities, except for- tifications; with the operation of all utilities; with the acquisition and disposition of all real estate for the army; with the transpor- tation of the army by land and sea, including the transportation of troops and supplies by me- chanical or animal means; and with the furnishing of all kinds of transportation. In a word, it shelters, feeds, clothes, and transports tne army. (See Quar- termaster Corps.) The Aledical Department is charged with the care of the sick and wounded and their trans- portation from the battlefield to hospitals; with the preparation of medical histories of officers and men; the sanitation of posts and camps; and, in general, car- ries out such preventive and curative measures as will main- tain the health of the troops and relieve them of all care of the sick and wounded, both on the march and on the field of battle. It consists of the Surgeon General, with the rank of major- general, two assistants with the rank of brigadier-general, the Medical Corps, the Dental Corps, the Veterinary Corps, the Med- ical Administrative Corps, the Army Nurse Corps, and an en- listed force of size varjang in proportion to that of the army. (See Medical Department, U. S. Army.) The Corps of Engineers has both line and staff functions. As line troops, it furnishes a regiment of combat engineer troops to each Infantry Division as well as other combat engineer units for corps and armies. As a supply branch, it furnishes the army with a variety of engineer materials. As a staff corps, it is charged with the building of all fortifications ; the building, main- taining, and operating of all roads and railroads in the theater of operations; the laying out of field fortifications; the prepara- tion of charts and maps; and the building and maintaining of river and harbor improvements. (See Engineering, Military.) The Ordnance Department sup- plies the army with all types of arms and ammunition, as well as certain other kinds of equip- ment. It also has charge of the arsenals for the manufacture and storage of such supplies. (See Ordnance Department.) The Signal Corps also has both line and staff functions. As line troops, it furnishes a bat- talion to each Infantry Division as well as similar ttnits for corps and armies. In general, it col- lects and transmits military in- formation, installs, maintains, Army'of the United States 385C Army of the United States and operates telephone, tele- graph, and wireless systems of communication, develops the pigeon service, and conducts the meteorological service. (See Sig- nal Corps.) The Air Service, while primar- ily a line or combatant branch of the army, is charged with the development of all agencies for aerial flight. Originally, it be- gan as a subdivision of the Signal Corps, but during the World War became a provisional sep- arate service. By the act of June 4, 1920, it was established as a separate service. It de- velops and operates aeroplanes of all types, dirigibles and fixed balloons. It consists of a Chief of the Air Service, with the rank of major-general, an assistant with the rank of brigadier- general, 1,514 officers, and a force of enlisted men and flying cadets varying with the strength of the army. (See Army Avia- tion.) The Finance Department, under the authority of the Secretary of War, is charged with the dis- bursement of all funds for the War Department, including the pay of the army and the mileage for officers and the accounting therefor, and with such other fiscal and accounting duties as may be required by law. In ad- dition to the disbursement of funds, the Finance Department is charged with the audit of all property accounts for the army. It consists of a Chief of Finance, with the rank of brigadier-gen- eral, 141 officers, and 900 en- listed men. In addition to his other duties, the Chief of Finance has been designated by the Secretary of War as the Budget Officer for the War Department. The Chemical Warfare Service came into existence as a pro- visional organization during the World War and was established by Congress in the act of June 4, 1920. It is charged with the investigation, development, man- ufacture, or procurement, and supply to the army of all smoke and incendiary materials, all toxic gases, and all gas-defence appliances; with research, de- sign, and experimentation con- nected with chemical warfare and its materials; with the chemical projectile filling plants and prov- ing grounds; v/ith the supervi- sion of the training of the army in chemical warfare, both offen- sive and defensive, including the necessary schools of instruction; and with the organization, equip- ment, training, and operation of special gas troops. It consists of a Chief of the Chemical Warfare Service, with the rank of brigadier-general, 100 officers, and a number of enlisted men. (See Chemistry: Chem- ical Warfare.) Vol. I. — March '22 The Bureau of Insular Affairs has general supervision over the affairs of the insular possessions of the United States, particularly the Philippines and Porto Rico. The Militia Bureau of the War Department has super- vision over the organizing, equip- ping, training, and administering of the National Guard of the United States. The chief of the militia bureau has the rank of major-general and, under the act of June 4, 1920, is appointed by the President from a list of former and present National Guard officers recommended by the governors of the several States and Territories. To be eligible for this appointment, a candidate must hold a commission in the Officer's Reserve Corps, must have had ten years or more of commissioned service in the National Guard, five of which was in the line, and must have reached at least the grade of major. The Line of the Regular Army. — The line of the army includes the combatant or fighting branches, such as Infantry, Cavalry, Field Artillery, Coast Artillery, Air Service, Signal Corps, and the Corps of En- gineers. The Coast Artillery is occupied chiefly with the fixed defences along the seacoasts and is or- ganized into companies and battalions and distributed in dis- tricts and defences according to their needs. Based on the act of June 4, 1920, the remaining combatant branches were organized into 12 Infantry Divisions, 2 Cavalry Divisions, and a number of units for use in the organization of corps and armies. Of these organizations, 3 In- fantry Divisions, with certain ad- ditional units, are for garrisons without the continental limits of the United States; the remaining divisions and units constitute an emergency force for duty within the United States. Under the provisions of the Appropriation Act for the fiscal year 1922, the strength of the Regular Army was limited to 156,000 enlisted m.en. In the re- organization following this re- duction, 6 Infantry Divisions, one Cavalry Division, and a number of corps and army units were placed on inactive status, with provision for their rehabili- tation in emergency. At present (1922) there remain in the United States 3 Infantry Di- visions, one Cavalry Division, and -a small number of corps and army units. The National Guard. — Under the act of June 3, 1916, the National Guard became an im- portant element in the national defence. The act provided that the National Guard should con- sist of 200 men for each Senator and Representative in Congress, and that it should be organized, uniformed, and equipped sim- ilarly to the Regular Army. Pay was provided for attendance at drill, and a large number of officers and enlisted men were authorized for duty with the National Guard. Members of the Guard were required to take a dual oath of allegiance to the Federal Government and to the State. Under the act of June 4, 1920, the number of men in the Na- tional Guard was increased to 800 for each Senator and Representa- tive in Congress and the pro- visions with regard to pay for attendance at drills and for the detail of officers and enlisted men for duty with the Guard were continued. Based on this act, the National Guard of the coun- try has been reorganized into 18 Infantry Divisions, 4 Cav- alry Divisions, and a large num- ber of corps and army units. The 18 Infantry Divisions are distributed equally among the 9 Corps Areas; the 4 Cavalry Divisions and the Corps and Army units through out theUnited States in suitable localities. These divisions and their units retain the historic numbers they bore during the World War. In the present plans for na- tional defence, the National Guard, with the Regular Army, form the first echelon of defence. For a full account of the his- tory and present status of the National Guard, see Militia. The Organized Reserves. — In the present plan for national defence (1922) 27 Infantry Divi- sions, 6 Cavalry Divisions, and a large nimiber of corps, army and general headquarters reserve units have been allotted to the Organized Reserves. The In- fantry Divisions are distributed equally among the 9 Corps Areas; the Cavalry Divisions and other units throughout the United States in suitable lo- calities. The divisions and units are at present in process of organiza- tion. The purpose is to organize them in skeleton, each subdivi- sion consisting of the proper number of officers and non- commissioned officers, with a few only of the more important en- listed men. The Organized Re- serve constitutes the second echelon of defence, to be called out only in a national emergency involving the extreme effort. In such an emergency, resort would again be had to the draft for the necessary men, and in such an event, the units of the Organized Reserves, with their cadres of trained officers and non- commissioned officers, would be Army of the United States 386 Army Worm National Guard Strength October 31, 1921. Aggregate Strength. Recog- nized. Author- ized. xvecog- nized in i er *^eni tnorizecl. 1 574 1 581 yy 2*920 3 427 so 'fino 8'± z,ouu 81 CQ 8o 2 632 3 371 78 3 423 4419 77 6703 8 757 77 4 568 6*304 72 11 653 16*229 72 1 ,811 70 1 147 1 621 71 7Bfl / oU 1 1 flQ 1 , 1U<} 71 / 1 17,693 25,767 69 2,695 3,899 69 3,799 5,778 66 3,944 6,014 66 7,979 12,207 65 4,003 6,181 65 7,093 11,133 64 3,110 5,041 .62 2,194 3,546 62 3,196 5,338 60 1,749 2,932 60 2,286 3,875 59 1,226 2,100 58 1,355 2,489 54 Porto Rico . . . Connecticut. . Arizona Oregon Arkansas Washington. . . Iowa Wisconsin Minnesota. . . . Pennsylvania . Rhode Island . Vermont Delaware New York . . . . Maryland . . . . New Jersey . . . Missouri Ohio Indiana Massachusetts Oklahoma. . . . Georgia Michigan Maine Virginia Tennessee .... Florida Kansas Mississ North Larol South Carolina New Mexico Illinois Colorado Alabama California Nebraska Hawaii Kentucky Utah Wyoming Louisiana District of C clumbia Idaho North Dakcta West Virginia Texas New Hampshire South Dakota Montana Nevada Total nized. 2,444 1,109 2,127 1,415 670 5,947 1,291 1,779 2,587 1,333 1,251 1,653 575 308 769 406 385 361 427 1,581 193 131 70 132,221 Author- ized. 4,600 2,082 4,070 2,709 1,319 11,971 2,591 3,744 5,776 3,043 2,817 4,081 1,495 895 2,664 1,381 1,440 1,667 2,001 7,781 1,367 1,430 1,581 179 222,877 ready to receive and train these men with the minimum of de- lay. Corps Areas and Depart- ments. — For purposes of ad- ministration, training, and tac- tical control, the continental area of the United States is divided on a basis of military population into 9 Corps Areas. In addition to these, there are three Departments, embracing the foreign possessions. Each Corps Area and Department is provided with a suitable head- quarters and staff and exercises complete control, under the War Department, over all military ac- tivities within the Corps Area or Department. Geographically, the Areas and Departments are as follows: First Corps Area: Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massa- chusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. Headquarters: Boston, Massachusetts. Second Ccrrps Area: New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and the Island of Porto Rico. Head- quarters: Governors Island, New York. Third Corps Area: Pennsyl- vania, Maryland, the District of Columbia and Virginia. Head- quarters: Fort Howard, Mary- land. Fourth Corps Area: North Carolina, South Carolina, Geor- gia, Tennessee, Florida, Ala- bama, Mississippi, and Louisi- ana. Headquarters: Fort McPherson, Georgia. Vol. I. — March '22 Fifth Corps Area: West Vir- ginia, Ohio, Indiana, and Ken- tucky. Headquarters: Fort Ben- jamin Harrison, Indiana. Sixth Corps Area: Illinois, V/isconsin, and Michigan. Head- quarters: Chicago, Illinois. Seventh Corps Area: Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, Mis- souri, and Arkansas. Head- quarters: Fort Crook, Ne- braska. Eighth Corps Area: Oklahoma, Colorado, Texas, Arizona and New Mexico. Headquarters: Fort Sam Hoviston, Texas. Ninth Corps Area: California, Nevada, Utah, Oregon, Idaho, Wyoming, Washington. and Montana. Headquarters: the Presidio of San Francisco. The Philippine Department: Embracing all of the islands of the Philippine archipelago. Head- quarters: Manila, P. I. The Hawaiian Department: Embracing the Hawaiian Islands and their dependencies. Head- quarters: Honolulu, Hawaii. The Panama Canal Depart- ment: Embracing the Panama Canal Zone and its defences. Headquarters: Balboa Heights, Panama Canal Zone. The accompanying illustration shows at a glance the various corps .«.reas in the Continental United "States. Army Pay. See Pay. Army Register, U. S., an an- nual publication issued by the War Department, which con- tains a record of the officers on the active list of the U. S. Army, with the department, arm of the service, regiment, corps, and company, and other personal and military data; a record of all officers on the retired list, giving name, rank, date of rank, highest brevet rank, date and cause of retirement, etc.; a list of aides- de-camp to general officers, the officers on duty at the Military Academy, and the most distin- guished students at each tmiver- sity in the United States having a military department conducted by a regular army officer. This is followed by a list of officers ar- ranged according to lineal rank, and according to relative rank ; a list of active and retired officers on whom brevet rank has been conferred, stating the service for which brevetted; and a list of all persons who have received the Congressional medal of honor, and of those to whom certificates of merit have been granted. It also contains a list of casualties during the year; of military posts; a table giving the organization of the army; a complete pay table for the army; a statement show- ing the strength of the organized militia by States. Similar pub- lications are issued by other countries. Army Schools. See Military Education. Army War College. See Mili- tary Education. Army Worm, the caterpillar of a dark-colored, night-flying, de- Arnaboldi 387 Arnhem structive moth {Leucania uni- puncla), allied to the cutworms, which sometimes does much dam- age in the United States to grass, and occasionally to Indian corn. The name is also applied to the larva of the Glass Worm (La- phynga frugiperda) , and in Eu- rope to the grub of a small black fly {Sciara militaris). Arnaboldi, ar-na-bol'de, Ales- SANDRO (1827-98), Italian poet, was born in Milan. He was sec- retary to the town council at Milan until 1873. In 1872 he published a volume of Versi, which put him in the front rank of the modern poets of his coun- try. In 1888 he published a new collection, Nuovi Versi. Arnason, ar'na-son, Jon (1819- 88), Icelandic author and writer of folk-tales, was born at Hof, and died at Reykjavik, where he was for several years custodian of the Icelandic National Library. He is known for his admirable collection of popular Icelandic tales, which won him the title of the 'Grimm of Iceland.' His collection of these stories was entitled Popular Legends and Tales of Iceland (1862-4). Arnaud, ar-no', Henri (1641- 1721), Waldensian clergyman and patriot, pastor of La Tour in Piedmont, was forced, in the per- secution of the Vaudois by Victor Amadeus of Savoy, to retire to Switzerland in 1686. In 1689 he led the 'glorious return of the Vaudois to their valleys,' in spite of the attacks of the French and Savoyards. The Duke of Savoy granted religious liberty to the Vaudois; but on his reconciliation with France the concession was withdrawn, and the Vaudois had to find a retreat in Wiirtemberg. Arnaud's expedition is described in his Histoire de la Glorieuse Ren- tree des Vaudois dans leurs Val- lees, printed in 1710, with a dedi- cation to QTieen Anne. Arnaud, J. L. de Saint-. See Saint-Arnaud. Arnauld, Angelique (1624- 84), distinguished religieuse, born in Paris, and educated by her aunt, Marie Angelique Arnauld. She became prioress (1653) and abbess (1678) of Port-Royal, and was persecuted by the Jesuits. She was principal author of Me- moirs . . . de Port-Royal (1742). See Port-Royal des Champs. Arnauld, Antoine (1560- 1619), French advocate, born in Paris. He became procureur- general in 1585. He is remem- bered for his defence of the Uni- versity of Paris against the Jes- uits, which resulted in their tem- porary banishment. He was the father of 'the Great Arnauld' (see Arnauld, Antoine), and had six daughters who took the veil at Port- Royal. Arnauld, Antoine (1612-94)^ Vol. I. — Mar. '18 French theologian, called 'the Great Arnault,' was born in Paris, and was educated at the Sorbonne. Retiring to Port- Royal monastery, he became the strenuous adversary of the Jesu- its. He was expelled from the so- ciety of the Sorbonne for his support of the Jansenists (see Jansenism). To avoid the per- secutions of the Jesuits, he be- came an exile in 1679, thereafter residing in Flanders and Holland. He gave assistance to Pascal (q. V.) with his Lettres Ecrites a un Provincial de ses Amis, and to Lancelot with his Grammaire. He was a devout Catholic, be- lieving in 'the corruption of hu- man nature and the depravity of the will,' and one of the profound- est metaphysicians of his century. His great work, the Logique de Port-Royal, was written in con- junction with Nicole. Consult Larriere's Vie; Sainte-Beuve's Port-Royal; Varin's Verite sur les Arnaulds. Arnauld, Marie Angelique (1591-1661), sister of the above, was made abbess of Port-Royal at eleven, ultimately reformed the convent by her holy example and severe discipline, then re- signed, but returned to be pri- oress under her sister Agnes (1593-1671). Arnault, ar-no', Antoine Vin- cent (1766-1834), French poet and litterateur, born in Paris. He went with Napoleon to Italy, be- came secretary to the University of Paris on his return, and was elected to the Academy in 1799. He was exiled by the Bourbons (1816-19), but afterward re- turned to France; was appointed (1833) secretary to the Academy. His dramas, of which the best are Blanche et Montcassin, ou les Venitiens (1798), and Germanicus (1817), show the worst faults of the classicists. He is better known by his short moral poems. Fables et Poesies. Arnaut of Mareuil (in the diocese of Perigueux), Provencal troubadour (fi. c. 1150-1200). He frequented the court of Alazais (Adelaide), the wife of Roger ii. (Taillefer), Count of Beziers, and there he devoted himself to the service of the countess, whom he celebrated in many songs. The audacity shown in his poems at length gave offence to the coun- tess, who dismissed him from her service. Petrarch calls him the less famous Arnaut as compared with Daniel Arnaut; but this is not the verdict of modern criti- cism. About thirty of his poems have come down to us. The three epistles in verse, Saluts d' Amour, which he addressed to his lady, are among the best of their kind. Arnaut, Daniel, twelfth-cen- tury troubadour, born at Ri- berac (Dordogne), France; lived a long time at the court of Rich- ard I. of England. He was the inventor of the sestina, which was imitated by Dante. Arndt, arnt, Ernst Moritz (1769-1860), German poet and patriot, born in the island of Riigen. After travels in France and Germany he became profes- sor of history at Greifswald ( 1805) . The son of a serf, he was instrumental in the abolition (1806) of serfdom by his work, Geschichte der Leibeigenschaft in Pommern (1803). In 1818 he exchanged his professorship of history at Greifswald for that at Bonn, from which, in 1820, he was suspended for twenty years on account of his radical political opinions. He wrote patriotic poems and songs, which include Was ist des Deutschen Vaterland? Was blasen die Trom- peten? and Der Gott, der Eisen wachsen Hess. He is familiarly called 'Father Arndt' by the Ger- man people. He was a German chauvinist, detesting everything French. Arne, arn, Thomas Augustine (1710-78), English m.usical com- poser, was born in London. He gave his sister — celebrated as Mrs. Cibber, the tragic actress — lessons in singing, enabling her to appear in Lampe's opera Amelia (1732), and to play heroine in Arne's first opera, Rosamond, produced in 1733. He was the first to introduce — in his Judith (1773) — female voices into ora- torio choruses. Besides oratorios and operas, he composed a large number of glees, catches, and canons; but he is best known by his musical settings of such songs as Rule Britannia (the finale of The Masque of Alfred, 1840), Where the Bee Sucks, Under the Greenwood Tree, and other Shake- spearean songs. Arneth, ar'net, Alfred Rit- TER VON (1819-97), Austrian his- torian and statesman, was born in Vienna. He vv^as a member of the German Assembly of 1848-9 at Frankfort-on-the-Main, and after 1869 a member of the Aus- trian Upper House. His princi- pal work is Die Geschichte Maria Theresias (10 vols., 1863-79). Among other works are Prinz Eugen von Savoy en (3 vols., 1858- 9), and the Letters of Maria Theresa and Joseph ii., in 12 vols. (1866-91). Arn 'hem (ancient Arenacum), town, capital of province Gcldcr- land, Netherlands, on the Lower Rhine; 35 miles by rail east of Utrecht. It is one of the most pleasant towns in the country. Among its buildings are the 'Great Church' (fourteenth cen- tury; restored 1895-1902), with interesting monuments, and the Town Hall, with grotesque carv- ings. Sir Philip Sidney died in, Arnhein Land 388 Arnold 1586 at Arnhem. Paper, furni- ture, glass, printers' type, and scientific instruments are manu- factured. Arnhem was a mem- ber of the Hanseatic League (q. v.). In 1672 it was taken by the French, and in 1813 was stormed by the Prussians. Pop. (1910) 64,019. Arnhem Land, the most north- erly part of the North Territory of South Australia, between the Gulf of Carpentaria and Anson Bay. Ar'nica, the dried acrid and aromatic rootlets and rhizome of the Mountain Arnica (A. mon- tana) of Middle and Southern Europe. The rhizome is peren- nial and crooked, the stem about 2 feet high, simple or little branched, with few leaves, bear- ing on the summit a head of flowers of a dark golden yellow, often 2 inches in breadth. The official preparation is a poisonous tincture which, diluted with water, serves as a remedy for bruises. Internally it has a stim- ulating effect on the alimentary canal, but is seldom prescribed. Its efficacy seems due to the al- cohol in the tincture. Applied too freely to the skin, it may produce erysipelas. Arnim, ar-nim. Countess von (Mary Antoinette Beau- champ) (1856), English author- ess, was born in Sydney, Aus- tralia. She married Count Hen- ning August von Arnim (who died in 1910), and in 1916 Earl Russell. Her first published book, Elizabeth and Her German Garden, published anonymously in 1898, won immediate success in both England and America, and was followed by a number of other successful novels: The Soli- tary Summer (1899); The Bene- factress (1902) ; The Adventures of Elizabeth in Riigen (1904); The Princess Priscilla's Fortnight (1906); Frdulein Schmidt and Mr. Anstruther (1907); The Cara- vaners (1909); Priscilla Runs Away (1910); The Pastor's Wife (1914). Arnim, Bettina (Elisabeth) VON (1788-1859), a sister of Clemens Brentano, and wife of Ludwig Achim von Arnim, was born in Frankfort-on-the-Main. The great event of her early life was her enthusiastic attachment to Goethe, whom she first saw in 1807, he being then nearly sixty. The correspondence, published under the title of Goethes Brief- wechsel mit einem Kinde in 1835, and translated by Bettina into English {Correspondence of Goe- the with a Child), is mainly fanciful. She also published: Die Giinderode (1840); Dies Buch gehort dem Konige (1843); Letters. Arnim, Harry Karl Ed- uard. Count von (1824-81), Vol. I.— Mar. '18 Prussian diplomat, was born in Pomerania. In 1870 he was am- bassador at Rome, and supported the German bishops who opposed infallibility at the Vatican Coun- cil. In 1871 he took part in the negotiations which resulted in the Peace of Frankfort; in 1872 he became ambassador at Paris. Recalled, owing to his hostility to Bismarck, in 1874, he was sent to Constantinople. Charged with having stolen state documents in Paris, he was sentenced to impris- onment, and on appeal his sen- tence was increased ; but by living in exile he escaped the penalty. In 1875 he published a violent pamphlet against Bismarck, and was prosecuted for high treason and libel and sentenced to five years' penal servitude. He died at Nice. Arnim, Johann Georg von (1581-1041), general of the Thir- ty Years' War, was successively in the service of the Swedes, the Poles, the Emperor, and the Sax- ons. He besieged Stralsund un- der Wallenstein (1628); co-oper- ated with Gustavus Adolphus at Breitenfeld (1631); occupied Prague (1631); carried on negoti- ations with Wallenstein (1633-4) ; defeated the imperialist general Colloredo at Leignitz (1634), and captured Zittau and Glogau ; and in 1637 was arrested by the Swedes and carried to Stockholm, but contrived to escape in 1638. Consult Irmer's Hans Georg von Arnim. Arnim, Ludwig Achim (Joa- chim) VON (1781-1831), German poet, born in Berlin. In 1806 he met his lifelong friend, Clemens Brentano (q. v.), in Heidelberg; and together they edited (1806-8) many old German songs {Des Knaben Wunderhorn) . Arnim married Brentano's sister Bet- tina (see Arnim, Bettina) in 1811. His first novel {Hollins Liebeleben, 1802) was an imita- tion of Goethe's Wertherj the second (Ariel's Offenbarungen, 1804) was an indifferent specimen of the romantic school. His best work is Die Kronenwdchter (1817), based on extensive historical re- search, and representing German life in the renaissance period. Arnim also wrote some unsuc- cessful plays. An edition of his works in 22 vols, was published by his wife in 1853-6. Ar'no (ancient Arnus), river, Italy, rises at an altitude of over 5,000 feet in the Central Apen- nines, 23 miles northeast of Flor- ence. As a mountain torrent it flows at first nearly due south al- most to Arezzo, then sweeps round to the northwest, and flows back nearly parallel to its former course as far as Pontassieve, where it turns to the west, and flowing through Florence enters the Mediterranean 7 miles below Pisa. Length, 140 miles. Pisa stood originally on the seashore, but the Arno and Serchio to- gether have brought down so much alluvium that the sea has been thrust back four and a half miles since the begin- ning of the Christian era. The Arno is subject to destructive in- undations. Arno'bius, also called Afer, rhetorician of Sicca in Numidia?, wrote about 295 a.d. an apology for Christianity {Adversus Na- tiones, lib. vii.). An English translation of the work was published-in 1888 under the title The Seven Books of Arnobius Against the Heathen. Arnold, town, Nottingham- shire, England; 4 miles northeast of Nottingham. Lace and ho- siery are manufactured. Pop. (1911) 11,147. Arnold of Brescia (c. 1100- 55), Italian monk, studied under Abelard at Paris. For an attack on the worldliness of the higher clergy he was cited by the bishop of Brescia before the second Lat- eran Council (1139) as a heretic, and banished. He took refuge with Abelard, but his preaching brought upon him the hostility of St. Bernard, who denounced him. He found refuge (1142) in Swit- zerland; but in 1145 he proceeded to Rome, and endeavored (1147) to establish a republic. In 1155, being expelled by the senate of Rome at the instigation of Pope Adrian iv., he fled to Campania, but was brought to Rome and crucified. His body was burned and the ashes cast into the Tiber. The influence of Arnold of Bres- cia lived after him, and through his sympathetic insight into his country's needs, his name is even yet revered and loved in Italy, though he left no record of his doctrines save in the heart of the people. His eloquence and dis- interestedness are acknowledged even by his enemies, who are also his biographers, and who have yet placed him in history along- side Rienzi and Savonarola. His life is the subject of tragedies by Bodmer and by Nicolini. Con- sult Lives by Giesebrecht, Bonghi» and Hausrath (1892). Arnold of Winkelried. See Winkelried. Arnold, Abraham Kerns (1837-1901), American soldier, was born in Bedford, Pa., and was graduated from West Point in 1859. He served with dis- tinction in the Civil War, being brevettcd captain and major for meritorious services. In 1898 he was appointed brigadier-general, and during the Spanish-American War saw service in Cuba as com- mander of a division in the Sev- enth Army Corps. Arnold, Benedict (1741- 1 Arnold 1801), an American soldier, whose services are thrown into the background by his treason to his country, born in Norwich, Conn. For some years he was a druggist and bookseller at New Haven, Conn., also engaging in the West India trade. At the outbreak of the American Revo- lution he raised a militia com- pany (of which he became cap- tain) for service against the Brit- ish. As colonel he assisted in the capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point (May 10-12, 1775), which had been undertaken inde- pendently by Ethan Allen and Inmself. He then commanded the disastrous * Kennebec Expe- dition,' sent out from Cambridge to assist in the capture of Canada, reaching Quebec after manifold difficulties and being wounded in the unsuccessful attack, under Mpntgomery, on that city (Dec. 31, 1775). On Jan. 10, 1776, he became a brigadier-general, and on Oct. 11, 1776, commanded the flotilla of small vessels which was defeated by a greatly superior British naval force near Valcour Island on Lake Champlain. In Feb., 1777, he was deeply af- fronted by the unjust promotion over his head, by Congress, of five of his inferior officers to be major-generals. In this he was the victim of enmities and jeal- ousies, which he was always arousing, but soon afterward his repulse of a British force at Ridgefield, Conn., compelled rec- ognition, and he was raised in actual, though not in relative, rank, being made a major-general on Feb. 17, 1777. He took a conspicuous part, under Gen. Gates, in the first and second battles of Saratoga, though in the second (in which he was severely wounded), having quarrelled with Gates, he was nominally without command. He was afterward (1778-9) in command in Phila- delphia, after the evacuation of that city by the British; there, as everywhere, he aroused enmities, was accused of disloyalty, to which charge his marriage to Miss Margaret Shippen, a mem- ber of a loyalist family, lent color, was tried by court-martial on charges which apparently had little basis, and was found guilty of two minor offences, for which Washington, directed by the court, mildly reprimanded him (Jan., 1780). Filled with a sense of wrong and longing for revenge, he entered into treasonable nego- tiations with the British, and, ob- taining from Washington the command of the important forti- fication of West Point, offered to betray it into the hands of Gen. Henry Clinton, the British commander, then in New York. The loss of West Point would have been an almost irreparable 389 one to the Americans, but the plot was discovered through the capture (Sept. 23, 1780) of Major John Andre (q.v.), who had been sent by Clinton to confer with Arnold. Arnold, informed of the capture by a guileless subordinate, escaped to New York, received about £6,800 as an indemnity for property lost, and as brigadier- general in the British army led a pillaging expedition into Vir- ginia and commanded the British force which burned New London, Conn. (Sept., 1781), after hav- ing overpowered the garrison of Fort Griswold (Groton), and massacred most of the survi- vors. In Dec, 1781, he went to England, where he lived dur- ing most of the time until his death, being everywhere treated with contempt, and being in his last years afflicted with melan- cholia. Four of his sons served in the British army, and one of thern, James Robertson Arnold, attained distinction as a soldier. The best biography is by I. N. Arnold (^880); see also that by Sparks (1838), Codman, Arnold's Expedition to Quebec (1901), J. H. Smith's Arnold's March from Cambridge to Quebec (1903), and Abbott's The Crisis of the Revo- lution (1899). Arnold, Sir Edwin (1832- 1904), English poet, born at Gravesend. For a poem on The Feast of Belshazzar he gained the Newdigate prize (1853). He was principal of the Government San- skrit College at Poona (1856-61). After his return to England he was employed on the editorial staff of the Daily Telegraph. His works include Poems (1853); Hero and Leander (1874); The Indian Song of Songs (1875); Light of Asia (1879), an epic on the life and work of Buddha, which has gone through numerous editions; Indian Poetry (1881); Pearls of the Faith (1883); With Sa'di in the Garden (1888); The Light of the World (1891); Seas and Lands (1891); and Adzuma, a lapanese Tragedy (1893). Arnold, George (1834-65), American author and poet, was born in New York City. His Mc- Arone Papers (1860, et seq.) were published in Vanity Fair. His poems were edited by Will- iam Winter, with a Memoir (1870, 1889). Arnold, Hans (pseudonym of Babette von Bulow), German author, was born in Warmbrunn in 1850. Her tales, mostly pub- lished under the title of Novcllcn (1881-1903), treat mainly of the small vexations and worries of life. Among her best works are Geburtstagsfrcudcn (1884) and Aprilwctter (1893). Arnold, Isaac Newton (1815- 84), American legislator and abolitionist, was born at Hart- Arnold wicL, N. Y. He was intimate with Abraham Lincoln, of whom he wrote an excellent biography (1866), and also wrote a good biography of Benedict Arnold. He was a Republican representa- tive from Illinois to the 37th and 38th Congresses, and was sixth auditor of the U. S. Treasury in 1865-66. Arnold, Lewis G. (1815-71), American brigadier-general, was born in N. J., and graduated in 1837 at West Point. He served throughout the Mexican War, and was advanced to the rank of major. He also had a highly honorable record in the Civil War, particularly in the defence of Fort Pickens. As brig.-general of volunteers, he _ subsequently commanded the Union forces in Florida, and at New Orleans and Algiers, La. Arnold, Matthew (1822-88), poet, critic, and educationist, was the eldest son of Thomas Arnold, headmaster of Rugby. He was born at Laleham, Middle- sex. In 1847 he became private secretary to Lord Lansdowne, by whom he was appointed in 1851 to a lay inspectorship of schools. On three occasions he drew up valuable reports of con- tinental systems of education. Two of them have been reprinted as The Popular Education of France (1861) and Schools and Universities on the Continent (1868). Meanwhile _ Arnold steadily devoted his leisure to literature, and achieved a two- fold reputation as poet and critic. From 1857 to 1867 he was regius professor of poetry at Oxford. His home was for a time in Lon- don, then at Harrow, and finally, from 1873, at Cobham, Surrey. In 1883, and again in 1886, he undertook lecturing tours in America. In 1885 he resigned his inspectorship. He died sud- denly at Liverpool. Matthew Arnold's literary work presents three phases. The ten or twelve years following his' Ox- ford career were mainly devoted to poetry. Two early volumes — ■ The Strayed Reveller (1849) and Empcdoclcs upon Etna (1852) — were anonymously issued under the initial ' A.' The best of their contents were reprinted in the Poems of 1853, on the title-page of which the author's name ap- peared, and to which he added such masterpieces as Sohrab and Rustum (a narrative poem in the Homeric vein) and The Scholar Gipsy. A second series of Poems appeared in 1855, Merope (a tragedy in the Greek manner) in 1858, and New Poems in 1867. Hardly less remarkable than the Poems of 1853 was the preface — dwelling on the importance of structure and unity in poetry — that accompanied them. Although Arnold 390 Arnold the monody on his friend Ar- thur Hugh Clough, printed as Thyrsis in the 18G7 volume, is one of his finest single pieces, and he continued to write poetry at intervals until the end of his life. for a decade from 1857 it was in literary criticism that his strong- est work was done. The Oxford lectures, On Translating Homer (1861, 1862) and On the Study of Celtic Literature (1867), are models of sympathetic, lucid, and graceful discussion of literary problems; and some scattered studies of no less interest were collected as Essays in Criticism in 1865. Arnold took Sainte- Beuve as his model, and aimed at establishing a scientific system of criticism. Literary criticism, like poetry, Arnold never wholly dropped. But his educational experience, and a constant study of the work- ings of the English mind when brought into contact with ideas, had led him into a profound dis- satisfaction with the current ideals of the day. Towards the end of ♦he 'sixties it became evident that the goal of his criticism was shift- ing from letters to life. There followed a period of active battle, during which, with a serious pur- pose beneath a mist of raillery, he attacked the social and educa- tional prejudices of his country- men in Culture and Anarchy (1869), their political prejudices in Friendship's Garland (1871), their religious prejudices in a series of works of which Litera- ture and Dogma (1873) was the most startling and the most dis- puted. Arnold had the gift of crystallizing his views in memor- able phrases. His plea for 'sweet- ness and light,' his division of English society into * Barbarians,' ' Philistines,' and * Populace,' have become household words. His message proved no incon- siderable factor in forming the ideals and habits of thought of a younger generation. Stimulating as his critical works are, it is probably by his poems that Ar- nold will live in English litera- ture. Other works : Higher Schools and Universities in Ger- many (1874); God and the Bible (1875); Last Essays on Church and Religion (1877); Mixed Es- says (1879); Irish Essays (1882); Essays in Criticism, 2nd series (1888). Editions: Burke's Let- ters, Speeches, etc. (1881), etc. Collected Works : Edition for America only (1884). Collected Poems, in 2 vols. (1869, 1877); 3 vols. (1885); 1 vol. (1890). Selections : Passages from the Prose Writings (1880); Selected Poems (1878); and recent edi- tions since the partial expiration , of copyright by W. Sharp,' R. Garnett, H. B. Forman, and oth- ers. Biography : Fitch's Thomas and Matthew Arnold (1897), es- timating his educational influence; Robertson's Modern Humanists (1891), his social influence; and for his literary achievements, Gates's Three Studies in Litera- ture (1899); Woodberry's Makers of Literature (1900) and Brown- ell's Victorian Prose Masters (1902); also Letters of Matthew Arnold, ed. G. W. E. Russell (1901) . Monographs, by A. Gal- ton (1897); G. White (1898); G. Saintsbury (1899); H. W. Paul (1902) . Bibliography, by T. B. Smart (1892). Arnold, Richard (1828-82), American major - general, was born at Providence, R. I., and graduated at West Point (1850). He served in the battles of Bull Run (1861) and Savage's Station, and was made brigadier-general and major-general for gallant and meritorious services in the field, and brevet major-general of vol- unteers for services at the sieges of Port Hudson, La., and Fort Morgan, Mobile Harbor. Ten years later, he entered the regular army of the U. S., and for a time was assistant inspector-general in the East. Arnold, Samuel (1740-1802), born in London; composed ora- torios, operas, and miscellaneous music. He is best known as the compiler of an excellent collec- tion of music by English com- posers, entitled Cathedral Music (1790). Arnold, Samuel Greene (1821-80), American historian, was born at Providence, R. L, was lieut.-governor of that state in 1852 (when he was the only Whig to be elected) and 1861 and 1862, and in 1862-63 was a mem- ber of the U. S. Senate. . In 1861 he served on the Peace Commis- sion. His published works in- clude The Spirit of Rhode Island History (1853), and a valuable History of Rhode Island and the Providence Plantations (1859). Arnold, Thomas (1795-1842), historian, divine, and greatest of English schoolmasters, was born at East Cowes, Isle of Wight. In 1828 he was chosen headmaster of Rugby School, which he raised to a level second to that of none in England. He widened the con- ventional public school curricu- Matthew Arnold. Arnold 391 Arnolfo di Camblo lum, and developed the 'prefect' and 'fagging' systems, but his secret lay less in any system than in the profound religious and moral force of his own character, together with a sense of justice which inspired respect. He had an acute insight into character. Thomas Arnold of Rugby and influenced his pupils by stimulus, moral and intellectual, without subjecting them to need- less rules, so that the 'Rugby' type of men obtained the repu- tation of holding an unusually serious and ethical view of life — though perhaps also of not being wholly free from priggishness. The chief difficulty in Arnold's way was the prejudice excited in the Tory and High Church classes of society by his liberal views on politics and religion. Although a contemporary of Keble, he was a strong opponent of Tractarianism, which he attacked with an intolerance and a controversial vigor equal to its own. By 1841 Arnold had conquered public opinion, at least as to the merits of his methods at Rugby, and in that year he was ap- pointed regius professor of his- tory at Oxford. His contri- butions, under the influence of Niebuhr and other German writers, to a more scientific treatment of ancient history were not inconsiderable. While at Laleham he had written articles on Roman history for the Ency- clopedia Metropolilana, and at Rugby he undertook an edition of Thucydides. In 1832 he had bought Fox How, Ambleside, as a vacation home, and there he died suddenly on June 12, 1842. Dr. Arnold married in 1820 Mary Penrose, daughter of the rector of Fledborough, Nottingham- shire, and to them were born four sons of whom the eldest was Matthew Arnold (q.v.), the poet, and the second Thomas Arnold (q.v.). Arnold's published works in- clude an edition of Thucydides (1830-41); History of Rome, to the Punic Wars (1838-43); and Sermons and Miscellaneous Works, the last collected and edited by A. P. Stanley in 1845. There is an excellent bi- ography of Arnold by Dean Stanley in Arnold's Life and Correspondence. Consult also Sir J. Fitch's Thomas and Mat- thew Arnold: Their Influence on English Education; M. Arnold's Rugby Chapel and T. Hughes' Tom Brown s School Days. Arnold, ar'-nold, Thomas (1823-1900), second son of Dr. Thomas Arnold (q.v.) of Rugby, and younger brother of Matthew Arnold (q.v.), was born at Laleham, Middlesex. He was educated at Rugby and Oxford; went to New Zealand in 1847, and in 1850 became inspector of , schools in Tasmania. Becoming a convert to Roman Catholicism and an associate of Cardinal Newman, he was appointed professor of English literature in the Catholic University, Dublin (1856-62); from 1862 until 1865 he was classical master in Birmingham Oratory School; in 1882 was appointed professor of English literature at Uni- versity College, Dublin. Mrs. Humphry Ward, the novelist, was his eldest daughter. Besides his well-known Manual of English Literature, History and Criticism (1862; 7th ed. 1897), he was the author of Chaucer to Words- worth (1868; 2nd ed. 1875); editions of English classics in- cluding Select English Works of John Wycliffe (3 vols. 1869-71); Beowulf, with a Translation (1876); English Poetry and Prose (1879; new ed. 1882); and Dry- den : an Essay of_ Dramatic Poesy (1889). He published also an au- tobiographical volume, Passages in a Wandering Life (1900). Arnold, Thomas Kerchever (1800-53), English educational writer, rector of Lyndon in Rutlandshire, was born in Stam- ford, England. In 1838 he pub- lished a Practical Introduction to Greek Prose Composition, fol- lowed in 1839 by a similar Intro- duction to Latin Prose Composi- tion, both of which have been widely used. He also published, with Rev. J. E. Riddle, an English-Latin Lexicon (1847). Arnold, William Rosen- ZWEIG (1872- ), American scholar, was born in Beirut, Syria. He was educated at Ohio Wesleyan University and at Union Theological .Seminary and in 1896 became curator of the Department of Antiquities, Met- ropolitan Museum of Art. In 1903-22 he was professor of Hebrew language and literature at Andover Theological Seminary and in 1922 became Hancock pro- fessor of Hebrew and other Oriental languages at Harvard University. He is a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. His publications in- clude Ancient Babylonian Temple Records (1896), The Rhythms of the Ancient Hebrews (1908), The Passover Papyrus from Ele- phantine (1921). Arnold-Forster, Right Hon. Hugh Oakeley (1855-1909), English public official, was the son of William Delafield Arnold (a brother of Matthew Arnold), and the adopted son of the Right Hon. W. E. Forster. He was educated at Oxford, was called to the bar in 1879, and entered Parliament as member for West Belfast in 1892, sitting for that constituency until 1906, when he was elected for Croydon. He was parliamentary secretary to the Admiralty (1900-03), and Secretary for War (1903-06). He is the author of several works, including The Laws of Everyday Life; Things New and Old; A History of England (1897); Army Letters (1898); Our Great City (1900); In a Conning Tower; A Policy and a Vindication; English Socialism of To-day (1908); Military Needs and Military Policy (1909). Arnold!, ar-nol'-de, Wilhelm (1798-1864), bishop of Treves, was born at Baden, near Treves. He was ordained priest in 1825 and elected bishop in 1839. In 1844 he drew vast crowds of pilgrims to Treves by the exhibition of the 'holy-coat,' held to be the seamless coat worn by Christ at His crucifixion and said to have been given to Treves by St. Helena. Revolt against the exhibition led to the formation, under the leadership of Johannes Ronge, of German Catholicism (see German Catholics). Ar'noldson (Fishof) Sigrid (1861- ), Swedish soprano opera singer, was born in Stock- holm, and became a favorite at St. Petersburg, where she ap- peared regularly in Italian opera. She also sang in London, The Hague, Amsterdam, and Mos- cow, and in 1893-4 at the Metropolitan Opera House, New York. Her favorite roles are Mignon, Rosina, Carmen, and Dinorah. Arnolfo di Cambio, ar-nol'fo de kiim'byo (? 1232-1310), Flo- rentine architect, was born in Tuscany, and was a pupil of Niccolo Pisano. The church of Santa Croce in Florence is his work, and he made designs for the reconstruction, in 1296, of the Cathedral of Florence, which, however, were not followed in their entirety. Vol. I. — March '27 Arnon 391A Aromatic Series Ar'non, a river flowing into the Dead Sea, now known as the Wady-el-Mojib. For a great part of its course it flows through a deep trench, with rocky and precipitous banks, which rise in places to a height of 1,700 feet. The width and velocity of the current vary with the season of the year, its bed .becoming almost dry in July. The Arnon early separated the territory of the Amorites and Moab (Nu. xxi. 13), and later that of Moab and Reuben (Deut. iii. 16). It is about thirteen miles long. Ar'not, village, Pennsylvania, in Tioga County, is situated in a coal-mining district, on the Tioga division of the Erie Rail- road; 4 miles from Blossburg. Pop. (1920) 2,530. Arnot, William (1806-75), a popular Scottish preacher and author, became minister of a parish in 1839. He left the Established Church at the Dis- ruption in 1843, becoming a minister of a Free Church in Glasgow. He published Illus- trations of the Book of Proverbs, and The Parables of Our Lord. Arnott, Neil (1788-1874), Scottish physician, was born at Arbroath, Scotland, the son of a farmer. From Aberdeen Grammar School he proceeded to Marischal College, Aberdeen, and thence to St. George's Hospital, London. He made two voyages to China as surgeon in the service of the East India Company, and from 1811 till 1855 carried on an extensive practice in lyondon. In 1832 he invented th(; water-bed; and in 1835 published a treatise on Warming and Ventilating (1834) in which he described the 'Arnott Stove' and 'Arnott Ventilator.' He was a munificent benefactor to higher education. Arnotto. See Annatto. Arn prior, arn-pri'er, town, Ontario, Renfrew county, on the Madawaska River, near its junction with the Ottawa River, and on the Cr.nadian Pacific and Canadian National Railways; 37 miles northwest of Ottawa. It is situated in a region rich in iron and marble. There are manufactures, also, of office fixtures and furniture and of paper felt. Pop. (1911) 4,405; (1921) 4,077. Arnsberg, arns'berc/i, town, Prussia, in the province of West- phalia, on the Ruhr River; 50 miles by rail northeast of Bar- men, 44 miles southeast of Munster. It has railway work- shops and paper and cellulose factories. Arnsberg was formerly a centre of the famous West- phalian courts of justice (Vehm- gerichte) and was long the capital of Westphalia. Pop. (1919) 11,181. Arnstadt, arn'stiit, town, cap- ital of Thuringia, on the Gera, Vol. I. — March '27 14 miles south of Erfurt. Fea- tures of interest are the Lieb- frauen-Kirche, one of the chief ecclesiastical buildings of Thu- ringia, with fine sculptures, and the sixteenth century Rathaus. The chief industries are corn and timber markets, brewing, pottery making, and gardening. In the vicinity are saline springs and baths. Pop. (1919) 19,371. Arns'walde, town, Prussia, in Pomerania, 41 miles southeast of Stettin. It has a 14th century Gothic church and manufactures of iron, machinery, matches, and woollens. Pop. 10,200. Arnuif. See Ernulphus. Aroa, a-ro'a, town, Venezuela, in the state of Yaracuy, on the Aroa River; 30 miles from the Gulf of Triste. Important copper mines are located here. Pop. 10,000. Aroa, river. Northern Vene- zuela, rises in the sierra and empties into the Gulf of Triste after a course of 80 miles. Aroideae. See Arace^; Arum. Arolcszalias, or'ok-sal-ash, town, Hungary; 44 miles north- east of Budapest. It contains a fine Catholic church and has trade in grain. Pop. 12,100. Arolla, a-rol'a, a group of chalets near the foot of the glacier of the same name (the local term for the Pinus cembra), at the head of the southwest fork of the Val d'Herens, Valais, Switzerland. It is 3% to 4 hours by mule path from Evo- lena, which is 16 miles by car- riage road from Sion. Arolla is one of the most frequented of all Swiss summer resorts. Aroisen, a'rol-sen, town, cap- ital of the republic of Waldeck, Germany, is situated on the Aar; 22 miles northwest of Kassel. The castle contains antiquities from Herculaneum and Pompeii, a good library, and a fine collec- tion of Spanish arms. Pop. (1919) 2,222. Aromat'ics, a class of medi- cines which owe their properties to the essential oils, to benzoic and cinnamic acids, to volatile productions of distillation, or to odorous glandular secretions. Among the plant families which yield the most important aro- matics are the Labiatae, Umbelli- ferae, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae, Au- rantiaceae, Coniferae, Scitamineae, and Orchideae. In some cases the aromatic matter is diffused throughout all parts of the plant, but it is usually condenvsed in particular organs as the root, in ginger and galanga; the bark, in cinnamon, canella, and cas- carilla; the flowers, as in cloves; the fruit, as in anise and vanilla; the wood, as in sandal-wood and aloes- wood; the leaves, as in most of the l^abiatae and Umbel- liferae. Aromatics may be arranged in the following subclasses: (1) Those in which the active principle is an essential oil, as the oil of thyme. (2) Those containing camphor, or an allied body. (3) Bitter aromatics, in which there is a mixture of a bitter principle and an essential oil, as chamomile. (4) Those of which musk is the type, as civet and ambergris; and certain plants with a musk-like odor, as Malva moschala, Mimulus moschatus, and Hibiscus abel- moschus. (5) Those containing a fragrant resin, as benzoin, which possess stimulant properties. (6) Lastly, those which are artifi- cially produced by destructive distillation, as tar, creosote, benzol, etc. As a general rule, these sub- stances act as diffusible stimu- lants of more or less power, and as antispasmodics, while those in which a bitter principle is present act as vermifuges and tonics. Aromatic Series, a term applied to a large group of organic chemical compounds, many of which occur in balsams, essential oils, and other sub- stances having an aromatic odor. It was originally limited to the compounds of the benzene group, but it has now been extended so as to include other series homologous with them, and ranging round the group of hydrocarbons, CnHin—i- The simplest of these hydrocarbons is Benzene, CeHe. Such a body is an unsaturated one, and is capable of uniting with mona- tomic elements such as chlorine to form chlorides, containing from one to six atoms of chlorine. To account for this Kekule has devised a structural formula for benzene, which assists one in understanding the complex re- lations of the aromatic series; but it must be borne in mind that such formulae do not profess to represent the actual positions of the atoms in the compound, but are used only as convenient standpoints from which to regard them. In Kekule's formula, the double lines, uniting the atoms of carbon, indicate that each of these atoms can still unite with H Fig. 1 an atom of hydrogen. From this peculiar construction it Aromatic Series 391 B Arqua Petrarca is evident that the compounds of the aromatic series must have distinctive properties, and the number of these compounds is very large. Thus, referring to chlorine, we see that we may either replace hydrogen by chlorine or add chlorine to benzene, the resulting bodies having the com- position CsCle and CeHeCle.when the full amount of chlorine has been taken up. So also oxygen may enter into the compound, giving us a series of bodies called phenols, which are monatomic, diatomic, or tetratomic, accord- ing to the number of atoms introduced. The phenols corre- spond to the alcohols of the fatty series (see Alcohols), ordi- nary phenol having the formula CeHsOH, that of common alcohol being C2H6OH. Hydrogen may also be replaced by amidogen, NH2, giving rise to amines (q.v.), the best known of which is phe- nylamine, or aniline, C6H5NH2. The nilro compounds, in which hydrogen is replaced by the group NO2, include nitro-benzene, or artificial oil of bitter almonds (not to be confounded with the true oil), the formula of which is CbHsNOj. The benzene nucleus has the peculiar property, not found in aliphatic compounds, of forming three di-substituted products. There are, for example, three di-nitro benzenes designated or- tho, meta, and para. If the two substituted groups are connected to adjacent carbon atoms, the compound is called ortho. If one carbon atom separates the two to which the substituting groups are attached, the compound is called meta. If two carbon atoms separate the two carrying the added groups, the compound is called para. The accompany- ing diagram (Fig. 2) illustrates H (^) H (3) Fig. 2 this point. If one of the sub- stituting groups is in the position marked 1, that is replacing the hydrogen atom at that point, then any group substituted in positions 2 or 6 forms an ortho compound. Similarly, positions 3 and 5 are 'meta positions,' and position 4 is the 'para position' to 1. Similarly there are four tri- substituted compounds possible when all the substituting groups are alike. The hydrogen atoms in ben- zene may be replaced by a wide variety of atoms or radicals, thus giving rise to an almost in- definite number of possible deriv- atives. The other well known members of the aromatic series are deriva- tives of naphthalene, anthracene, etc., groups formed by the ap- parent union of two or more benzene nuclei. Thus naphtha- lene has the structural formula shown in Fig 3. Naphthalene, in (2) CHC8) CHO) CHC5) CH(4) Fig. 3 distinction from benzene, forms two mono-substituted products, called alpha and beta. The positions 1, 4, 5, and 8 are called alpha positions, and 2, 3, 6, and 7 are called beta positions. There are ten possible di-sub- stituted naphthalenes formed when two substituting groups are the same. The structural formula for anthracene is apparently made up of three benzene nuclei and is ordinarily represented by the formula shown in Fig. 4. An- CK CH CH H Fig. 4 CH \ r thracene is easily oxidized to anthraquinone, the fundamental intermediate for many im- portant dyestuffs, and forms a number of substitution products which are of less importance. See Anthracene; Benzene; Naphthalene; also Alizarin and Coal-tar Dyes. Aromatic Spirits of Am- monia. See Sal Volatile. Aromatic Vinegar is gener- ally prepared by adding the oils of cloves, lavender, rosemary, bergamot, neroli, and cinnamon to the strongest acetic acid. It is a pleasant and powerful perfume; is very volatile, and when snuffed up by the nostrils, is a powerful excitant, being serviceable in fainting, languor, headache, and nervous debility. The liquid must be cautiously dealt with, as it is very corrosive. Arona, ii-ro'na, town. North- ern Italy, on the southwest shore of Lago Maggiore; 23 miles northwest of Novara. It has textile (silk and cotton) and metal works, and a flourishing trade. On a nearby hill stands a colossal statue of Cardinal Bor- romeo erected in 1624. Pop. (1921) 4,998. Aronia, a European species of the Crataegus (q.v.). Aroo Islands. See Aru Islands. Aroostoolt, a-robs'tuk, river, rising in Piscataquis county, Maine, flowing through Aroos- took county, and joining the St. John River in New Bruns- wick, Canada. Its length is about 120 miles, and its banks are heavily timbered. It pos- sesses a historical interest from its connection with the North- east Boundary Dispute (q.v.). Aroostoolc Disturbances. See Northeast Boundary Dis- pute. Aros, African tribe inhabiting the Cross River region, north of Old Calabar. A British punitive expedition suppressed their turbulent and slave hunt- ing proclivities in 1901-2. Arouet, a-roo-a', family name of Voltaire (q.v.). Ar'pad (d. 907), the national hero of Hungary, under whom the Magyars (q.v.) first gained a footing in that country, about 884. Chosen duke on his father's death, he extended his conquests by incessant warfare with the Bulgarians, Wallachians, and Moravians. The Arpad dynasty ruled Hungary as dukes from 889 to 1000, and as kings from that year until it became extinct in the male line with Andreas iii. in 1301. Arpad, or Arphad, city of Biblical times. Northern Syria; 13 miles northwest of Aleppo. It was destroyed after a three years' siege by Tiglath-pileser III. in 741 B.C. (2 Kings xviii. 34). It is now a ruin called Tell Erf ad. Arpeggio, ar-pej'6, in musical score a chord of which the constituent notes are sounded consecutively from below up- wards, instead of simultaneously. The sign is usually an upright wavy line placed before a chord. Ar'pent, an old French land- measure corresponding to the English acre. Arpino, iir-pe'no, town, Italy, in the province of Caserta; 88 miles by rail (via Roccasecca) southeast of Rome. It stands on the site of the ancient Volscian town of Arpinum, still in part enclosed by cyclopean walls, with ancient gates and towers. It is the birthplace of Vipsanius Agrippa (63 B.C.), Caius Marius (157 B.C.), and the painter Giuseppe Cesari (c. 1568). There are manufactures of woollen, leather, and paper, and quarries of marble. Pop. 11,000. Arqua Petrarca, ar-kwii piit- rar'ka, village, Italy, in the province of Padua, is situated among the Euganean Hills, 12 miles southwest of Padua. It Vol. I.— March '27 Arquebus 391 C Arras, Battles of was the home of Petrarch (1370-74) and his house and tomb are still shown. Pop. 1,500. Arquebus, ar'kwe-bus (more properly Harquebus), an early- form of hand firearm used in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries; an improvement on the first Arquebus, with enlarged View of Lock simple tube, with its touch-hole and hand-applied match. The arquebus had a match-holder, which fell on the priming pan when the trigger was pulled; and, later, other improvements were added. Soldiers armed with the weapon were designated arquebusiers. Arracacha, ar-ra-ka'cha, a plant of the genus Umbelliferce, with tuberous roots, native to the tablelands of Northern South America. The flowers are borne in compound umbels, shading from white to a dark purple. Arracacha zanthoriza is much cultivated in the Andes, where its tubers are boiled and used for food as well as for flavoring purposes, the flavor being similar to that of the carrot or parsnip. It requires a great deal of mois- ture and an even temperature, and in deep loose soil yields abundantly. A starch, similar to arrowroot, is obtained by wash- ing and rasping the root. A. dugessi is found in Central America. Arracan, See Arakan. Ar'rack, ox Rack, an Ori- ental name applied to various distilled liquors, in particular to that obtained from the fer- mented juice (toddy) of the cocoanut, date, and other palms. It is sometimes made also from fermented rice and from a combination of rice and mo- lasses. It is usually of a pale yellow or straw color and, when pure, is clear and trans- parent, with a taste resembUng that of sour beer. It contains at least 52 per cent, of alcohol and is distinctly heady. Arrack is made in Batavia, Java, Ceylon, Siam, and Goa, that of Ceylon and Goa being made from palm juice alone. Only small quantities are exported, but large amounts are consumed in India and the East. Arragon. See Aragon. Arrah, ar'ra, town, India, in the province of Bihar and Orissa, Vol. I. — March '27 in Shahabad district; 33 miles west of Patna. During the Mutiny of 1857 it was gallantly held for eighty days by fifty Sikhs and a dozen Englishmen against a force of 10,000 mu- tineers. Pop. (1921) 40,769. Arraign' ment, in criminal procedure the act of summoning a prisoner to the bar to hear the charge contained in the indictment or information filed against him and to plead thereto. The first step is to summon him to the bar, at which, being presumed innocent, he is entitled to appear free and unfettered unless violence on his part is anticipated; the next step is to read to him the indictment so that he may entirely under- stand its nature; and the third step is to ask whether or not he is guilty. If he makes no reply, a jury is sworn to determine the cause; whether it be dumb- ness or malice and obstinacy. If the former reason is decided on, a plea of 'not guilty' is entered. If the prisoner pleads 'guilty,' nothing further is done until judgment; if he pleads 'not guilty,' that plea is entered for him and the attorney-general replies that he is guilty, thus making the issue. In cases of felony the accused must appear for arraignment in person; in other cases appearance by at- torney is sufficient. Arran, ar'-an, the largest island in the Firth of Clyde, Scotland, forming part of the county of Bute; 3 miles east of Kintyre, from which it is separated by Kilbrennan Sound. It is generally oval in form, 20 miles long (from north to south), and about 12 miles broad, with an area of 165 square miles, of which about one-seventh is culti- vated. The low platform of an ancient sea margin follows the coastline, with lofty cliffs on the south and southwest. The north- ern parts are mountainous, lofty granitic peaks and narrow glens affording magnificent scenery. Goatfell ('hill of wind'), the highest point, rises to 2,866 feet. The principal villages are Brodick, a seat of the dukes of Hamilton; Lamlash, with a sheltered bay formed by Holy Island, Whiting Bay, Corrie, and Lochranza, with fishing industry; Pirnmill; and Blackwaterfoot — all favorite summer resorts. Lochranza Castle, dating before 1380, and Kildonan Castle, a royal stronghold in the fifteenth century, are noted features. The Norse held the island till the thirteenth century; later (1306) it sheltered Robert Bruce. Pop. (1921) 8,294. Arran Islands, Ireland. See Aran. Arrange' mcnt, in music the transcription or adaptation of compositions to suit other instru- ments (or voices) than those for which they were composed. A common kind of arrangement is that of adapting orchestral compositions for the piano. Arras (Nemetacum), ar-ras', town, France, capital of the department of Pas-de-Calais, 40 miles by rail northeast of Amiens. It is the seat of a bishop, and is one of the principal grain markets of France, with soap, oil, cast iron, salt, sugar refining, lace, and agricultural implement industries. The Hotel de Ville, of the sixteenth century, with a belfry (240 feet), and the cathedral, of the eighteenth century, are the chief architec- tural features. Before the Roman invasion Arras was the capital of the Atrebates. The town was destroyed by the Vandals in 407 and by the Normans in 880; besieged in 1414 and 1479; taken in 1578 by the Prince of Orange; besieged again in 1640 and 1654 by Conde, and rescued by Turenne. Robespierre was born here. Pop. (1921) 24,835. During the Great War (see Europe, Great War of). Arras was occupied by the Germans Aug. 30, 1914, but was shortly afterward evacuated. On Oct. 6-9 the Germans bombarded the city. Much damage was done, and part of the beautiful old Town Hall was ruined, but the invaders did not succeed in entering the streets. For sub- sequent action in the vicinity, see Arras, Battles of. Arras, Battles of, a series of battles in the Great War. First Battle.— The first battle of Arras occurred in October 1914. The Allied battle line in the north, which was completed Oct. 19, 1914, stretched a dis- tance of 80 miles or more from Albert to the sea. There were many points in this front which offered special advantage in attack. The first of these points was Arras, a centre of lines con- verging from West Flanders and Northeastern France, from which lines ran down the Ancre valley to Amiens and the basin of the Seine to Boulogne, by Doullens and by St. Pol, and northward to Lens and Bethune. A suc- cessful breach here would have been a decisive step in the German drive for the Channel ports. The stroke was delivered from Oct. 20 to 26, 1914, the fighting previous to that date having centred chiefly around Maud'- huy's left centre, west of Lens. Von Buelow resolved to cut the Allied line in two at its most critical point. Accordingly the main strength was concentrated before Arras against Maud'huy's centre, the movement being effected by the line of railway south of Lens, which con- nected, three niles east of Arras, Arras, Battles of with the main line, Arras- Douai— Lille. Maud'huy had no such as- sistance, and reinforcements from his left could only be brought by the Lens— Arras high- way. But behind Arras itself, he had certain advantages. The line to St. Pol went round to the west of the city, and north, behind the French positions, ran the line to Amiens by the Ancre valley, while the Doul- lens line provided a third pas- sage for the coming of reserves. The junction of the lines is at Achicourt, just south of Arras, and it was obligatory on Maud'- huy to hold this point at any cost. His position was, there- fore, a semicircle north and east of the city, with each flank rest- ing on the slopes of a shallow amphitheatre, and Achicourt securely covered. The chief German attack was on Oct. 24, when Von Buelow pushed up to within gun range of the city. All day there was desperate fighting. The Ger- mans rate this struggle as one of the main battles of the war, and there is little doubt that, but for Maud'huy's stubborn stand, the gates of the north would have been unlocked. The German guns came near enough to bombard the city a second time, and for the next week shells rained in its ancient streets. The Hotel de Ville, one of the oldest and finest buildings in France, suffered, and whole quarters were reduced to debris. But the destruction of Arras did not give the Germans pos- session. All attempts to break the French line failed and by Oct. 26 Maud'huy had begun to retaliate. The traditional furia francese has never been seen to better advantage than in the counter-attack which in many places pushed the Germans out of their advance trenches, and restored to the French some of the little villages in the flats of the Scheldt. Bit by bit the circle was widened, till Arras was beyond the reach of the German howitzers, and the in- habitants began to return to their ruined dwellings. By the beginning of November the at- tack had failed; and it was not likely to be renewed, for some of Von Buelow' s best corps were demanded for the north, where before Ypres was being fought the longest, bloodiest, and the most desperate combat in the history of British arms (see Ypres, Battles of). Second Battle. — At the end of the first week of April, 1917, the German armies were back in the new Siegfried Line, se- cure in defence, if deprived of a first-rate chance of an offensive. Everywhere from Arras to the Vol. I.— Oct. '19 391 D Aisne the attack of the enemy had been checked. The French were involved in the difficult country of the St. Gobain Pla- teau. Rawlinson's Fourth Army had halted at the outskirts of St. Quentin; Gough's Fifth Army, having forced the out- lying positions early in April, stood in front of the main de- fences in the upper valleys of the Cojeul and the Sensee. In the Arras region lay Allenby's Third Army, and beyond it Home's First Army before Lens and La Bassee, and thence to the sea Plumer's Second Army — all three in the positions which they had held for a year or more. The army group under the Crown Prince of Bavaria (com- posed of Von Armin's Fourth Army, Otto von Buelow's Sixth Army, and Von der Marwitz's Second Army) had been strength- ened in men and in material, for some 60 divisions lay between the coast and the Osie. To meet the Allied artillery, the Ger- mans had increased the range of their field guns by some 2,000 yards; they had in use a large number of long-range naval guns, and in their 5.9-inch howit- zer they had a heavy weapon of exceptional value; while air work had also vastly improved. They comforted themselves with the reflection that the Siegfried Line gave them a position stronger than that which they had lost on the Somme; that the Al- lies, wearied with the hectic business of pursuit, were not yet in a position to launch any great attack; and that ere they were ready the German defences would have become impregnable. The eyes of the Allied Generals were fixed on the pivots, espe- cially on that northern one where, at the hamlet of Tilloy- lez-Mofflaines, the Siegfried Line branched off from the old front. Between that point and Lens the original lines were very strong, consisting of three main systems, each constructed on the familiar pattern of four par- allel lines of trenches, studded with redoubts, and linked up with numerous switches. A special and very powerful switch line ran for five and a half miles from the village of Feuchy north- ward across Scarpe to beyond Thelus, and so constituted what was virtually a fourth line of de- fence. The whole defensive belt was from two to five miles deep; but the German command was not content with it. They had designed an independent line running from Drocourt, south- east of Lens, to the Sicgfrierl Line at Queant, which should be an alternative in case of as- sault on the Arras salient. But at the beginning of April this position, which later became Arras, Battles of famous as the Drocourt-Qu^ant line, was not yet completed. It was intended as a protection for Douai and St. Quentin, the loss of which would have made the whole Siegfried system untenable. The Arras neighborhood had seen some of the bloodiest fight- ing of the war. At this time the British line from Loos south- ward lay just west of the Double Grassier; east of Souchez and Neuville St. Vaast; and thence in a sharp curve eastward to cover Roclincourt. The Key of all this region was Vimy Ridge, which dominated the British lines on the Souchez as Messines Ridge dominated the southern part of the Ypres salient. The front continued across the Scarpe just west of Blangy, and south of the Arras-Cambrai road came in contact with the Siegfried Line from Tilloy-lez-Moffiaines. Ar- ras was free from its old en- circlement on the south. Here, where the Picardy wolds break down into the flats of the Scheldt, long low spurs reach out to the eastward, separating the valleys of the Scarpe, the Cojeul and the Sensee. Their sides are scored with smaller valleys, and on their crests are various hil- locks — such as Telegraph Hill, south of Tilloy and the more considerable heights above Monchy-le-Preux. It is a pocket country — the last foothills of the uplands of Northern France, and, like all foothills, a strong position for any defence. The city of Arras, though sit- uated less than a mile inside the British lines, had for two years been a place of compara- tive peace. At the beginning of April, 1917, however, it awoke to an amazing change. The city made a difficult base for a great attack. Yet it had to be the route of advancing infantry and their billeting area while it was a mark which the German guns could scarcely miss. To minimize this danger, the Allied generals had recourse to a bold plan. They resolved to assemble their armies underground. After the fashion of the old French towns. Arras had huge ancient sewers like those of Paris. A map of them was found and the underground labyrinth was explored and enlarged. Moreover, the town had grown over the quarries from which the older part had been built, and these also were discovered. The result was that a second city was created below the first, where three divisions could be assembled n perfect security. The Germans shelled the town intermittently, but there was no real bombardment, and before Arras could be methodically assailed the enemy had been pushed many miles eastward. Arras, Battles of 391 E Arras, Battles of The British front of attack was slightly over twelve miles long, from Givenchy-en-Gohelle in the north to a point just short of Croisilles in the south. Against Vimy Ridge lay Byng's Canadian constituents the army of assault was largely Scottish. In all, thirty-eight battalions of Scots went over the parapets — a larger number than the British at Waterloo. ish guns woke along the whole sector. There was a steady bombardment of all the Ger- man positions, more especially the great fortress of Vimy Ridge. The 'preparation' was intense f l\G.venchy . ^ r >J Gohelle jricourtj ^Rouvroy^ ^^^Drocourt Achevitle^f ^Bois-Bernard Wiflerval Izel ARRAS; C/"> J Vaf Ba.lleul J^oclincourt^y Ij, Gavrelk Athies l|F_ampoux_ Jlangy FeuchyV "^-Ofoe jlTilloy-lez-Mofflaines '\,,„„/f,^ // V ' \ // ^ Monchy le Preux ^Beaurains' ^ ^ ^ Brebieres^ Fresnes CorDehem Bellonne Tortequenne Estr^es Fichcux < Ciuemappe Haucourt Etaini Saudemont 'HenincI ,1. Marl.n Chei^ Boisleux au Mont ontaine-; lezCtoisilles Villers •lez-Cagnicourt^ ''Hendecourt "^^s^^ Xagnicourt Boyelles Croisilles^ iullecourt •2 3 Miles General Map of the Lens- Arras Front, April, 1917^ Corps; between the Canadians In the third week of March a until Easter Sunday, April 8, and the Scarpe Fergusson's Sev- systematic cutting of the Ger- when a lull seemed to fall upon enteenth Corps; opposite Arras man wire entanglements began, the British front, and the ear- Haldene's Sixth Corps; and and the heavy artillery shelled splitting din of the week past south of it, astride the Cojeul, their back areas and communi- died away into sporadic bom- Snow's Seventh Corps. In its cations. About April 4 the Brit- bardments. The attack itself Vol. L— Oct. '19 Arras, Battles of 391 F Arras, Battles of began next day, when, at 5:30 A.M. (zero hour), the British guns broke into such a fire as had never been known on any battlefield. The men went over the parapets under a very can- opy of shrieking steel. Within forty minutes all the German first positions were captured and the British troops were moving steadily against the sec- ond, while their barrage crept relentlessly before them. The first stage of the battle lasted three days and by the evening of April 1 1 , it was found necessary for the infantry attack to wait on the advance of the guns, the British troops in the meantime devoting themselves to minor operations to round off their gains. Thus far the battle was a remarkable success. Air-craft artillery, infantry, and tanks had worked in perfect combina- tion. The British had broken through all of the German de- fences on a twelve-mile front; they were half-way to the Dro- court-Queant line, and had car- ried two miles of the northern end of the Siegfried Line. The exploits of each corps had been magnificent. The Canadians at Vimy had stormed the last of the great German observation points south of the Lys, and taken [over 4,000 prisoners. The Seventeenth Corps had won separate fortresses like the Hy- derabad Redoubt and had taken between three and four thousand prisoners. The Sixth Corps had dealt with the Harp and the Railway Triangle, and by their capture were responsible for the large number of guns taken. Altogether in three days over 12,000 prisoners and 150 guns were captured, the guns being speedily turned into Brit- ish weapons. On April 12 the British posi- tions were improved, the second stage of the battle opened with a gain of 1,000 yards of the Sieg- fried Line to the south, and the Germans retired to their third line from Gavrelle northward. The next two days the German retreat was hard pressed, and they evacuated all positions from Fampoux to just south of Lens. On April 15 their resistance stiff- ened, resulting in violent attacks and counter-attacks until the close of the month, the most notable of which was a German counter-attack on a six-mile front astride the Bapaume- Cambrai road, and around Monchy hill, where the Third Bavarians, advancing in five columns, were broken up by the British guns with a loss of 4,000 men. The British attack on an eight-mile front on both banks of the Scarpe on April 23 resulted in gains of Gavrelle, Vol. I.— Oct. '19 Roeux, Gu^mappe, and Fon- taine-lez-Croisilles at great cost of men to both sides. The at- tacks on April 28 and 29 also re- sulted in British gains both north and south of the Scarpe. The Germans fought stubbornly to hold their Douai positions, for the British were by this time half-way from Arras to that city, and only the Drocourt- Queant line barred the way. Here ended the Battle of Arras as originally planned. That plan, in its ultimate objective, had involved the destruction of the northern pivot of the Sieg- fried Line, and the consequent reduction of the whole position. But the failure of the French at the southern pivot made this impossible in the immediate future. The action against the Siegfried pivots was Nivelle's conception, accepted by the Allied Governments, and once begun, could not readily be broken off. Haig had, there- fore, henceforth to work with a double aim. He had to con- tinue his efforts in the Arras area, partly to ease the pressure on the new French position on the Aisne, partly in order that when the time came for the breaking off of the battle in this sector, he should be able to leave his front in a favorable position for future operations. Likewise, he had to prepare for that great assault upon the German right wing in Flanders, which had long been decided upon as the main British enterprize of that sum- mer. The fighting in the Arras area for the next month or more was, therefore, in a different cat- egory from that of April. The initial impetus was gone, the main strategical end had not been attained, and, as during the last phase of the Somme, it became an affair of local offen- sives and limited objectives. The final actions ended in the first days of June with slight gains north of the Scarpe. The Battle of Arras was a limited victory — that is to say, it attained completely its imme- diate objectives; but, owing to events outside the control of the British Command, it did not produce the strategical result upon the Western front as a whole which was its ultimate design. It was, therefore, an action on the Somme model, a stage in the process of attri- tion, the value of which had to be measured in terms of its effects upon the enemy's morale and by the efficiency of its mil- itary machine. In a month the British took 21,000 prisoners, 257 guns (of which 98 were of heavy calibre), 227 trench mor- tars, and 470 machine guns. The vital fact was that the German plan had been defeated. When their hasty retreat to the Siegfried Line had deprived them of the chance of taking the Allies at a disadvantage, the Germans had determined to avoid battle, to create a stale- mate on the West, and to set their hopes of victory on the success of their submarine cam- paign. The first day of Arras shattered that illusion. They lost Vimy Ridge, one of their most cherished observation posts; they lost Bullecourt, where the Drocourt-Queant or Wotan Line joined the main Siegfried posi- tion; they lost between six and seven miles of the cherished Siegfried Line itself. The de- fences of which they boasted for six months had proved no more impregnable than Thiepval or Quillemont. German Drive on Arras, March 28, iPiS.— During the last days of the Second Battle of the Somme, the Germans made a desperate drive for Arras. The front of assault was across the valley of the Scarpe from the neighborhood of Gavrelle as far south as Puisieux. Von Below had three fresh divisions north of the Scarpe, besides two in hne; against Arras he had four divisions; while southward towards Serre no less than eleven divisions were disposed for the attack. The British forces north of the Scarpe were de Lisle' s Thirteenth Corps on the right of Home's First Army; and from Arras to Bulquoy Ferg'usson's Seventeenth Corps and Hal- dane ' s Sixth Corp s. (See Somme, Second Battle of). The advance was made after a short but fierce bombardment, and was met by the British guns under perfect conditions by which, before the zero hour, the enemy mass assembling on Greenland Hill was broken up. Everywhere the Germans at- tacked with great resolution, in some places in six lines, shoulder to shoulder, making superb tar- gets for the British artillery. The weight of the shock carried them through the gaps in the outpost line, but they were firmly held long before they reached the battle zone, while the outpost garrisons turned their machine guns and caught the Germans in the rear. The attack north of the Scarpe hav- ing been repelled, the Germans began a new bombardment after midday, and late in the after- noon launched another attack, but with no better results. South of the Scarpe all attacks from Boiry to Bucquoy were beaten off except on the extreme right, south of Dcrmancourt, where the British fell back to the line Mericourt-Sailly-le-Sac. Otto von Below's great effort was a complete failure. Arrebo 392 Arrest Last Battle, Aug. 26-Sept. 12, 1918.— The Second Battle of the Mame (see Marne, Battles of) restored the initiative to the Al- lies. That is to say, they had now power to impose their will upon the Germans to the extent of de- ciding the form and the time of an action. The Germans had blundered in a trying hour, and had thus given Foch the chance for a coup which restored to him the initiative. He had now in addition a final superiority in men and materials, and, more- ever, had — -what is not neces- sarily the same thing — this su- periority translated into a greater number of reserve divisions. This tactical freedom enabled him to ring the changes over the entire battle front. The Germans might attack, but the attack would be the result of Allied com- pulsion, and so foreseen and pre- pared for, whereas the Allied of- fensives would come of their own free will. Foch, however, was not yet ready for the grand climax, the decisive blow. It was his business to wear down the Ger- mans continuously and methodi- cally by attacks on limited fronts, aiming at strictly limited objectives. These actions for limited objectives were the last battles of the Somme, Aisne, St. Mihiel (qq. v.), and Arras. Up to August 26, 1918, the Allied Armies had attacked the Germans across and south of the Somme and on the Aisne, but on that day Haig struck again, this time with Home's First Army astride the Scarpe. It was a preparation for the next great stage of the British advance. At 3 A.M. Sir Arthur Currie, with his Canadians, attacked on a five-mile front. Wancourt and the old storm centre of Monchy and Gu6mappe, were taken, and by nightfall the advance had reached the outskirts of Roeux, winning as much in a day as had been won in six weeks in the same area during the Second Battle of Arras in 1917. Next day the advance continued, and Roeux and Gavrelle fell; to the south Horne took Green- land Hill, while Byng's New Zealanders entered Bapaume. This was a grave matter for Ludendorff, for he saw both his line and his reserves shrink- ing with a perilous speed. He had all but lost the Bapaume ridge by being outflanked and Horne, on the Scarpe, threat- ened to turn the Siegfried Line itself. He still clung to the hope of an intermediate stand, to enable him to withdraw in good order to the Siegfried Line, when the weather broke. His scheme was to take position on a front which was roughly that of the Ailettc and the Oise, the upper Somme and the Tortille. Vol. I.— Oct. '19 On August 30 Home moved along the Arras- Cambrai road, and found the German resist- ance stiffening. Nevertheless, by that evening the Canadians were in Ecoust-St. Mein and Haucourt, and the British on their left had taken Eterpigny. Horne was then in close touch with the famous Drocourt- Queant Switch, which had been constructed to link up the Sieg- fried Line proper with the old German front south of Lens after the battle of Arras had destroyed the northern Sieg- fried pivot. Further south he reached Bullecourt, and cap- tured Bancourt and Vaulx- Vraucourt. The next day vio- lent counter-assaults against the new British front between the Scarpe and the Somme were repelled with ease. Luden- dorff's intermediate position had gone, and he was once more a wanderer struggling to find a resting-place short of the main Siegfried Line. The ceaseless pressure of the Allies delayed his going and unless he found some intermediate defence, he might never reach that line. He hoped, by means of the Canal du Nord, to check Byng, while to the north and south, his men retired before Horne and Rawlinson behind the Dro- court Queant Switch and the main Siegfried front. On Sept. 1 the Australians entered Pe- ronne. On Sept. 2 the right wing of Home's First Army, Currie's Canadian Corps, and Fergus- son's Seventeenth Corps of the Third Army, attacked at 5 A.M. astride the Arras-Cam- brai road against the Drocourt- Qu^ant Switch. It was, as the Germans well knew, the key of their whole front, and they had no less than eleven divisions on the nine miles, between the Sensee and Queant. The at- tack went clean through all the lines of one of the strongest positions in the West, taking six miles of the Switch, and the villages of Etaing, Dury with its important Hill of Dury, Vil- liers-les-Cagnicourt, Cagnicourt, and Noreuil, and netting 8,000 prisoners. The feat was one of the great- est in the campaign, and it made Ludendorff' s plans for an inter- mediate stand impossible. He had no time for counter-attacks but hurried his troops in the south behind the Canal du Nord, and, in place of the old Switch, put his trust in the line of water and marsh in the Sen- see Valley east of Etaing which protected Douai, and which was continued southward from Marquion by the Agache River and the Canal du Nord. By evening of Sept. 4, the British troops were on the Canal bank, and found the Germans in- trenched on the east side every- where from the Scarpe to the Tortille. The next day Lens was evacuated. For a week following the Al- lied armies were occupied only in pressing the German retreat. They struck no great blow, for their immediate task was to secure the kind of front upon which to launch a final battle for which Foch had been pre- paring since July. Douai was covered by the water line, Cam- brai and St. Quentin by the Siegfried zone, and Laon by the difficulties of the St. Gobain massif. The whole front which Ludendorff had vainly hoped to establish for the winter in impenetrable defences, was a thing of angles and patches, and parts of it as fluid as wax under a flame. On Sept. 10, he had drawn in his front between the Sensee and the Oise, and from the Scarpe to the Aisne was holding a straight fine. The result of this was to shorten his front by 70 miles, as compared with July 14, which meant a saving of 30 divisions. In front of his line he held two strong forward positions about Havrin- court and Epehy, which Byng took with his Fourth and Sixth Corps on Sept. 12. Ludendorff finally set to work strengthening every natural defence, such as the northern pillar on the Pass- chendaele and Wytschaete heights, and increased by inun- dation the depth of the water line. He also prepared positions well to his rear, and evacuated the civilian population of Douai, Cambrai, and St. Quentin. The British were for the most part in and beyond the front lines which they held prior to March 21. Between March and May, 1917. the British had forced the Germans back to the Siegfried zone, taking in the process 21,000 prisoners and 257 guns. In 1918, starting from a front many miles further west, they had performed the same feat in one month, and had 70,000 prisoners and 700 guns to their credit. Arrebo, ar're-b5, Anders CllRlSTENSEN (1587-1637). Dan- ish poet, was born in ^ro. He was appointed bishop of Trond- hjem (1618). but was deposed in 1622. and afterward rein- stated as preacher of Vor- dingborg. He was styled 'the father of Danish poetry' for his innovations of the renaissance. He published Hexa'emeron (1641- 61). a description of the six days of creation, and a metrical trans- ation of the Psalms of David. Consult Life by Rordam. Arrest. The act of taking a person into custody by authority Arrest of Judgment of law. Arrest was formerly ex- tensively employed in civil cases, especially as a creditor's process for compelling the payment of debts, but its use for this purpose has been generally done away with by statute. It is now sel- dom employed in civil cases ex- cept where a debtor is fraudu- lently concealing himself or his property to avoid legal process, and even in such cases it is closely regulated by law. Arrest is still, however, the ordinary process of apprehending a person accused of crime. It may be on warrant or without warrant. Any justice may issue a warrant for the arrest of any person for any offence upon a sworn information being laid before him. Without war- rant a private person may, by common law, arrest any one com- mitting a felony in his presence, or any one whom he reasonably suspects of committing a felony, if a felony has in fact been com- mitted. He may not arrest for a misdemeanor except under special statutory authority. A constable may arrest without warrant upon reasonable suspicion that a felony has been committed, and that the person he arrests is guilty of it, even though no felony has been committed, and whether the grounds of his suspicion are facts within his own knowledge or stated to him by another. He is not generally justified in arresting without warrant for a misde- meanor, but he may do so if a breach of the peace is committed in his presence, or in the pres- ence of some one who gives the prisoner in charge, and there is danger of immediate re- newal. Arrest of Judgment. A per- manent stay of judgment on a verdict rendered in a court of law by reason of a fatal error in the proceedings or a fatal and incur- able variance between the allega- tions and the proof or between the proof and the verdict. The procedure is summary, on motion and order, and is at common law final and conclusive, though by statute an action in which judg- ment has been arrested may in a proper cavse be renewed. This remedy is not available to secure the reopening of a case on the ground of newly discovered evi- dence, nor can it be employed in any case after final judgment has been rendered. Arretlum, Italy. See Arezzo. Arrhenlus, a-re'ni-us, Svante (1859- ), Swedish chemist, was born near Upsala. He was educated at the University of Upsala (PH.D. 1884), and became teacher of physics at Stockholm in 1891, and professor in 1895. His most fruitful work has been in putting the dissociation theory of electrolysis on a sound ex- perimental basis. He received the Davy medal in 1902, was 393 elected a foreign member of the British Chemical Society in 1898, was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1903, and was appointed Director of the Physico-Chemical De- partment of the Nobel Institute in 1905. In 1914 he received the Faraday medal. His publications include Electrochemistry, trans- lated by M'Crae (1901); Im- munochemistry (1906); Theories of Chemistry (1906) ; Worlds in the Making (1908); Life of the Universe (1909); Quantitative Laws in Biological Chemistry (1915); The Destinies of the Stars (1918); Chemistry and Modern Life (1919). Arria. See P^tus. Arriaga, ar're-a'ga, Manoel Jose de (1842-1917), Portu- guese statesman, the first presi- dent of the Portuguese republic, was born in Horta, in the Azores. He was educated at the University of Coimbra, studied law, and entered the Chamber of Deputies as a Republican. He was actively identified with the movement which overthrew King Manuel in 1911, and under the new con- stitution became president of the republic, a position he held until 1915, when he was succeeded by Theophilo Braga. Arriaga was distinguished as an orator, poet, and writer on political economy. Arria'nus or Arrian (c. 90- 170 A.D.), Greek historian, pupil and friend of Epictetus, was born in Nicomedia, in Bithynia. The Emperor Hadrian appointed him prefect of Cappadocia and in 137 he defeated an invading horde of Alani. In 147 he became Archon Eponymos in Athens, but during his latter years seems to have retired from public life and devoted himself to writing. As a writer he strove to be to Epictetus what Xenophon had been to Socrates, his Discourses of Epictetus and Enchiridion Epicteti being attempts to per- petuate verbatim the philos- opher's conversations with him- self and others. He is best known, however, for his Anab- asis of Alexander the Great, a graphic and trustworthy ac- count, in seven volumes, of that ruler's life and campaigns in Asia. Other works are Cynegetica, a treatise on hunting; Tactics; The Events after Alexander; The Parthica; The Bithyniaca, the three last named of which have been lost. Arrianus* style is clear and simple; as a critical historian he deserves great credit for having made use of authoritative matter now lost. There is an edition of his works by Diibner and Miiller (1846), an English translation of the Anabasis by Chinnoch (1893) and of the philosophical works by Thomas Wentworth Higginson (1891). Arrowrock Dam Arriaza y Superviela, ar-e-a'- tha e soo-per-uya'la, Juan Bautista de (1770-1837), Span- ish poet, was born in Madrid. His early poems are erotic; but his Poestas patrioticas, pub- lished in London during his exile in 1810, are full of fire and elo- quence. On the return of King Ferdinand after the war, Arriaza became a court poet. Arrondissement, a-roh-des- man', the principal civil division of the department in France. It is divided into cantons, and each canton into communes. Every arrondissement is governed by a sub-prefect and council. Arrow, a wooden shaft tipped with stone, metal, or bone, and notched and feathered at the butt, discharged by hand from a bow. It is one of the most ancient objects made by man, no other weapon being traced to a more distant or simpler beginning. Prehistoric flint arrow-heads display numerous forms, and range in length from half an inch to three inches. The Egyptians favored a chisel-like arrow-head, while those of early Greece were made of bronze. In America flint triangular arrow-heads, notched at the base so that they could be bound to the shaft with sinew thread, were in general use among the Indians. Occasionally tips of antlers were sharpened and the shaft inserted in the hollow at the base, while in the Great Lakes region similar heads were made of native copper. Barbed arrows were in use among the fishing tribes of the North Pacific Coast and in the valley of the Amazon. In all parts of America the shafts were of willow, cane, or similar material, those of Mexico and South America usually of two parts, a main shaft of cane and a fore-shaft of hard wood, to which the head was fastened. As a rule, three feathers were sym- metrically arranged on the butt of the shaft, though the Eskimo and Amazon tribes often used but two. Shafts with knob-like heads were used for bringing down birds and in target practice. The tools used by the Indians in arrow making were flakers for shaping the stone heads; straight- eners, wrench-like objects of bone, and polishers of grooved sandstone for working out the shafts. See also Archery. Arrowgrass, two small, erect, grass-like plants of the genus Triglochin; one is found in wet meadows, and the other in marshes overflowed by the tide. Arrowhead, any member of the genus vSagittaria (q.v.). Arrowrock Dam, the chief engineering feature of the Boise Project, Idaho. It is located in a canon of the Boise River, with a granite foundation 90 feet below the bed of the stream. It is Vol. I.— March '27 Arrowroot 394 Arsenic 3,486 feet high, 1,100 feet long, and contains 585,200 yards of concrete. The dam has twenty outlets, three of which are 6 feet, and the rest 4 feet 4 inches, in diameter. These outlets are ar- ranged in sets of ten, the upper ten 110 feet below the top of the dam, the lower set, 90 feet below the upper. There are five sluicing outlets, 5 feet in diam- eter, each controlled by a sliding gate. The dam was completed in 1915 at a cost of nearly $4,500,000. See Boise Project. Arrowroot, an edible starch obtained from the root stock of various plants. The true arrow- root comes from the rhizomes of Maranta ariindinacea, a West Indian plant of the order Maran- tacece. These are dug when about a year old, and after thorough cleaning are reduced to a pulp, whence a milky liquid is ob- tained. This liquid is strained and the starch allowed to settle as an insoluble powder, which is dried in the sun or in drying houses. It is a light, white, odorless powder, easily digested, and often recommended as a food for invalids and children. It is used also in making cakes, biscuits, jellies, and broths. Other forms of arrowroot are the East Indian, obtained from species of Curcuma; Florida, from species of Zamia; English, from potatoes or maize; and Portland, from Arum maculatum. Brazilian arrowroot is obtained from the Cassava (q.v.). Arrows mith, Aaron (1750- 1823), English geographer and maker of maps, all of great merit. His chief maps are those of the World (1790); of North America, based chiefly on the Mss. of the Hudson's Bay Co.; of Scotland (1807), based chiefly on Military Survey of Scotland, I745~55< rnade at the instance of the Duke of Cumberland; and of South India. Arrows mith, John (1790- 1873), British cartographer, one of the founders of the Royal Geographical Society (1830). Having succeeded to the map- publishing business founded by his uncle Aaron, he published (1) large maps and charts — e.g., his London Atlas, for the third edition of which (1858) 10,000 sheets were examined ; (2) smaller maps (illustrative of expeditions) in books of travel, and in the Royal Geographical Society's journals; (3) after 1861, improve- ments of older maps, and illustra- tions of other geographical works. Arrow Worms, small, trans- parent creatures often found in enormous numbers at the surface of the sea. The common genera are vSagitta and Spadella. Arru Islands. See Aru Is- lands. ArsacCvS, iir-sa'sez, the founder of the Parthian empire. He Vol. I. — March '27 raised a revolt among the Par- thians against Antiochus ii. of Syria, and was the first king of Parthia, about 250 B.C., reigning two years. His name was~ borne by all his successors, of whom the last was Arsaces xxxi. (Arta- banus iv.), whose power was overthrown by the Persians in 226 A.D. A branch of the dynasty ruled over Armenia from 147 B.C. to 430 A.D. Ar'senal, a government estab- lishment for the manufacture, repair, storage, and issue of arms, ammunition, and munitions of war for the land forces. As early as 1776 the U. S. Government undertook the manufacture of gunpowder, and the next year Washington selected Springfield, Mass., as the site of the first arsenal. The manufacture of small arms begun there in 1787 has continued to the present day. Harper's Ferry, the next arsenal, was built in 1795, and others were erected at various times, until, in 1900, the United States had seventeen establishments of the kind, several of which have since been abandoned. The greater part of the powder and many of the heavy guns used by the U. S. forces are now made by private manufacturing firms, but arsenals are still maintained as follows: Augusta, Augusta, Ga.; Benicia, Benicia, Cal.; Frankford, Frankford, Pa.; Pica- tinny, Dover, N. J.; Raritan, Metuchen, N. J.; Rock Island, Rock Island, 111.; San Antonio, San Antonio, Tex.; Springfield Armory, Springfield, Mass.; U. S. Nitrate Plant No. 1, Sheffield, Ala.; U. S. Nitrate Plant No. 2, Muscle Shoals, Ala.; Watertown, Watertown, Mass.; Watervliet, Watervliet, N. Y.; Edgewood Arsenal, Edgewood, Md. There are, in addition, proving grounds at Aberdeen, Md., Port Clinton, Ohio, and Savanna, 111. In Great Britain the only ar- senal prior to the Great War was that at Woolwich, but during the war temporary munition works were established at various other points. In Continental Europe the term arsenal has been applied to the great naval establishments, as those at Brest, Cherbourg, and Toulon. In the United States and Great Britain such establish- ments are known as navy yards (q.v.). See Ordnance Depart- ment. Ar'senlc (As, 75.96), a semi- metallic element widely distrib- uted in nature. It rarely occurs native, but usually combined with sulphur, iron, and other elements, as in realgar, AS2S2, arsenical iron, and particularly as mispickel or arsenical pyrites, FeSAs. The element is prepared by heating mispickel, upon which the arsenic sublimes, and ferrous sulphide is left. Arsenic is a steel-gray, brittle, crystalline solid that sublimes when heated, being deposited partly in crystals and partly as a black, amorphous solid. It tar- nishes in air, and is rapidly oxi- dized if heated with it, giving off a garlic-like odor, and forming arsenious anhydride, AS2O3. It is poisonous, and is chiefly used to harden and improve the sphericity of shot, for bro;izing, and in pyrotechny. Arsenic forms two oxides, AS2O3 and AS2O5, both of which are acid anhydrides. Arsenious anhydride, or white arsenic, AS2O3, is by far the most impor- tant compound of arsenic, and is obtained by roasting arsenical pyrites in air and condensing the fumes in large chambers. As many metallic ores are contam- inated with arsenical pyrites and similar compounds, white arsenic is commonly obtained as a by- product in their preliminary preparation by roasting. This is notably the case with tin ores. Arsenious anhydride is a white solid, which crystallizes, as a rule, in brilliant octahedra, but if sublimed under pressure it is glassy and amorphous. It is very volatile, and only slightly soluble in water. It is extremely poison- ous; though, if taken habitually, a considerable tolerance may be acquired. Arsenic anhydride, AS2O5, is more acid and less poisonous than the arsenious oxide, from which it is obtained by oxidation. It and its salts are used in dyeing calico and wall- paper printing. The use of Scheele's green and Schweinfurth green in the printing of wall papers has led to cases of arseni- cal poisoning. The sulphides of arsenic, orpiment, AS2S3, and realgar, AS2S2, are used as paints and in pyrotechny. Arsine, or arseniuretted hydro- gen, AsHs, is evolved as an in- tensely poisonous gas whenever hydrogen is set free in the pres- ence of arsenic or its compounds, being decomposed again on heat- ing. Its formation and decom- position are the bavsis of Marsh's test for arsenic, which is carried out as follows: — Hydrogen is evolved in a small flask fitted with a thistle funnel, by the ac- tion of arsenic-free diluted sul- phuric acid on arsenic-free zinc — the gas, after filtration through cotton-wool, being passed through a fine, hard glass tube, provided with a tip slightly turned up at the end. As soon as the hydro- gen burns quietly after collection the tube is heated; and if, after the lapse of a sufficient time, no mirror forms on it, the materials may be considered pure. A suitable solution of the substance susr)ected to contain ansenic is then added through the funnel, whereupon the formation of a mirror shows the presence of Arsenical Poisoning 395 Art arsenic. This can be confirmed by heating the mirror with air in the tube, when, if of arsenic, microscopic octahedra of AS2O3 will be formed. Another test for arsenic is that of Reinsch. It consists in heating the suspected liquid with pure copper foil and hydrochloric acid, when the cop- per receives a gray deposit, which on sublimation yields octahedra if arsenic is present. In the Gutzeit test sheets of lead ace- tate paper are exposed to the gas evolved in the Marsh test apparatus, and the amount of arsenic present is gauged by the extent of coloration of this paper. The largest use of arsenic at the present time is in various insecticides, as the arsenates of calcium and lead and Paris green. In 1925, 21,131 tons of arsenic tri-oxide, or white arsenic, were used in the United States and 476 tons of arsenic sulphide, or orpi- ment. The estimated amount of white arsenic consumed in the United States for agricultural purposes during 1925 was 13,850 tons. The greater part of this was used in fighting the cotton boll weevil. (See Insecticides.) Medicinally the salts of arsenic are used as tonics and alteratives in anaemia, chronic malaria, asthma, eczema, and other skin affections. Arsenic preparations are also used extensively in syph- ilis. (See Salvarsan.) Arsenical Poisoning. Acute arsenic poisoning due to an over- dose of the drug is characterized by a burning feeling in the ab- domen, violent vomiting, dryness of the mouth and intense thirst, intestinal irritation, bloody and offensive evacuations, rapid and feeble heart action, difficulty in breathing, great agitation, and collapse. In some very acute cases coma appears suddenly, followed by death. The antidote is hydrated sesquioxid of iron, which may be prepared in an emergency by adding ammonia to the tincture of chlorid of iron and washing the precipitate with water. This should be followed by castor oil and draughts of demulcent drinks, opium, ex- ternal heat, and stimulants. If there is a tendency to suppression of the urine, water containing sweet spirits of nitre should be ♦ given freely. One half-grain of arsenic may produce symptoms of poisoning, and from two to four grains may prove fatal to an adult. Arsenical poisoning occurs in industry as a result of inhalation of or contact with the dust of arsenic salts and the inhalation of arseniuretted hydrogen gas. Poisoning due to arsenic salts was formerly frequently attributable to contact with arsenical pig- ments used in coloring artificial flowers and wall papers, but since the introduction of anilin colors. it is largely confined to persons handling insecticides, as Paris and emerald green. It is charac- terized by an acneiform or ecze- matous eruption — the so-called 'arsenic pock.' Poisoning by arseniuretted hydrogen gas oc- curs mainly in the chemical and metallic industries. Arsenius, ar-se'-ni-us, sur- named The Saint (c. 354-450), an Egyptian monk; was tutor to Arcadius and Honorius, sons of Theodosius the Great. He is honored in the Greek Church on May 8, and in the Latin on July 19. Arsenius, surnamed Antori- ANUS, was appointed (1255) patriarch of Constantinople by Theodorus Laskaris 11., who also made him, with George Muzalon, guardian of his son, John iv. When Michael viii. (Palacologus), who had deposed and blinded John IV., demanded absolution, Arsenius refused it, and excom- municated him. Michael there- upon deprived Arsenius of his rank, and banished him (1267). He died in 1273. Arsenobenzol. See Salvar- san. Arsenopyrite. See Arsenic; MiSPICKEL Arsinoe, ar-sin'o-e, in Greek legend, a daughter of Phegeus and wife of Alcmseon (q.v.). Her brothers, having incurred her displeasure by slaying her faith- less husband, sought revenge by carrying her in a chest to Aga- penor and accusing her of the crime. She was put to death but not before she had induced the sons of Alcmaeon to kill her brothers. Arsinoe, in Egyptian history, the name of several women famous among the Ptolemies. Among them were (l) the mother of Ptolemy i.; (2) the daughter of Ptolemy i., and wife succes- sively of Lysimachus, of Ptolemy Ceraunus, who murdered her sons by Lysimachus, and her own brother, Ptolemy 11., who named many cities in her honor; (3) the daughter of Lysimachus and Nicaea, first wife of Ptolemy 11., who banished her to Coptos in order to marry his sister Arsinoe; (4) a daughter of Ptolemy xi., who escaped from Caesar and was recognized as queen by the Alexandrians, but after the cap- ture of that city was carried to Rome and led in triumph through the city. Later she was put to death by Anthony at the insti- gation of Cleopatra. Arsis and Thesis (Gr. 'eleva- tion' and 'depression'). In pros- ody, arsis signifies the strong or primary accent in a word, thesis the weak or secondary accent. In music, they denote respectively the strong and the weak beat in a bar; the reverse of the Greek usage, as, in the choric dances, the arsis, or upward movement of the foot, was the weaker. Ar'son. The act of unlawfully and maliciously setting fire to a house, barn, or other building of another. It is not arson at com- mon law to burn standing corn, stacked hay, timber, or other per- sonal property of another, nor to burn one's own house, even though the object thereof be to injure or defraud another person, as a mortgagee or insurer of the premises. In some jurisdictions some or all of these acts have fallen within statutory definitions of arson, and in all jurisdictions the intentional infliction of injury upon another by means of fire is punishable as a crime. Arson was long dealt with in our legal system as a capital offence. Though the death penalty is no longer imposed, it is still regarded as a heinous offence, and is pun- ishable by varying periods of imprisonment, depending upon the nature of the offence and the jurisdiction in which it is com- mitted. Where arson results in loss of life it comes under modern statutory definitions of murder, and is punishable as such. Arsptaenamin, or Arsphena- MINE, the name adopted by the U. S. Federal Trade Commission for Salvarsan (q.v.). Ars Poetlca (also called Epis- tle TO THE Pisos), a poetic epis- tle by the Roman poet Horace (1st century b.c), in which he tried to set forth the laws of poetic composition. Subsequent works, written with a similar view, include Vida's Ars Poetica (1527); Sir Philip Sidney's Apol- ogy for Poetry (1595); Boileau's Art Poetique (1674) ; Pope's Essay on Criticism (1711); Louis Ra- cine's Reflexions sur la Poesic (1752). Art has been defined as 'the manifestation of emotion obtain- ing external interpretation, now by expressive arrangements of line, form, or color, now by a series of gestures, sounds or words governed by particular rhythmical cadence' (Veron). Each of these different modes of expression is described as an art. In virtue of the organs through which the arts severally appeal to the mind, they are usually grouped as (1) 'arts of the eye,' including architecture, sculpture, and painting, with the minor arts associated with them; (2) 'arts of the ear' — literature and music. The drama and the music drama, with the ancient and symbolic dance, appealing to both sight and hearing, may be described as 'composite.' Excluding the minor arts, the function of which is to give pleas- ure by adorning articles of use, all the arts have a common origin in the desire to reproduce the feeling awakened in the artist by the contemplation of life and nature. But each art is better suited to the presentation of Vol. I. — March '27 Art 396 Art certain emotions than the others, and the range of the expressive power of each is determined by the limitations of its medium. The Fine and the Decorative Arts. — Popular usage usually limits the term 'art' to architec- ture, sculpture, and painting, and such handicrafts as gold- smith's work, enamelling, pot- tery, and wood-carving, related to them by skill of workmanship and display of taste. In this sense art may be said to be the materialized expression of man's delight in beauty. It is not until something has been added to adorn an article already adapted for its purpose that art can be said to begin. In the bone and ivory remains found in prehis- toric cave dwellings in France, the representation of animal and other forms points to a desire to record observation, or simply to make objects of daily use more beautiful; while the same is true of the curious and even beautiful forms and decoration of the wooden cups and vessels which the Challenger expedition found in use amongst the Admiralty Islanders, at that time in the Stone Age state of civilization. Thus the two tendencies — one decorative, the other expressive — which mark all developed art are found even in its beginnings. The decorative element appeals to the senses alone, and it is the essential, if not the sole, charac- teristic of the applied arts. On the other hand, the expressive arts — architecture, sculpture, and painting — appeal vividly to the senses, and through the senses to the intellect and the imagination. At the same time, certain of the decorative arts approach closely to the expressive; and in some cases, as in fine decorative sculp- tures and mural decoration, in- cluding tapestry, they possess many of the qualities of the latter. As a rule, decoration has to forego something of expressive- ness to conform to the conditions of its own highest beaut}^ The expressive arts are freer, for their aim is the embodiment of the mental and emotional impres- sions received from reality. Art as an Expression of So- cial Conditions. — Architecture has been called the 'mother of the arts,' though the earliest known efforts in art partake, as we have seen, of the nature of sculpture. As soon as men commenced to erect huts and temples, the art of architecture, thus originated, provided a groat and suggestive field for the exercise of the arts of sculpture and painting. At first, and for centuries, the three arts were closely related. In Egypt and Babylonia, in which they earliest developed, and in Greece, among the northern peo- ples, who evolved Gothic art, and during the Renaissance, they worked together, while in some cases one artist is known to have practised all. The complete sep- aration of the arts which exists to-day is comparatively mod- ern. The art of every epoch and of every great school is, in a wide sense, the outcome of social con- ditions, and the expression of national or racial aspirations. Thus, reUgion had much to do with shaping the course of the arts — in Egypt and in Greece originating temple and tomb ar- chitecture, sculpture, and paint- ing, and even supplying dec- orative motives for the lesser arts; in France and England, during the Middle Ages, produc- ing the Gothic cathedral and objects of ecclesiastical art in metal and enamel, ivory and textiles. But if the most impor- tant works were inspired by the religious instinct, desire for beau- ty expressed itself in domestic and warlike furnishings also. With the Renaissance and the Reformation other elements came into play. Both of these move- ments, although they took such different directions north and south of the Alps, originated in a revival of learning and a re- newed interest in life: the Italians found in the arts and mythologies of the classic peoples a new source of artistic impulse, leading on to the grafting of an almost pagan delight in sensuous beauty upon the art of the earlier Christian artists; the northern peoples, cut off from their religious past by a renewed religious life, left the old traditional subjects and turned to contemplate the world around them. So realism, in its modern sense, arises in the paint- ings of the 17th century Dutch- men. But as if to reveal how independent of environment and tradition artistic genius may be, Velasquez in Catholic Spain is simultaneously producing those marvels of atmosphere painting and impressionistic concentration which, two centuries later, were to exert a profound influence. Art as a Personal Expression. — All works of art are more or less colored by the individuality of the artist. Even among the Greeks, whose sculpture has as a general ideal the perfect beauty of the human form, the masters are distinguished from one an- other by individual treatment of common motives, and Phidias and Praxiteles have given their names to epochs of sculpture. During the earlier Renaissance, also, although the principal works of art were wrought for the church, and deal with a clearly- marked range of subjects in a technique common to all, the individuality of the artist dis- plays itself in the conception of his subject — be it a Crucifixion, a Holy Family, or a saintly legend — and in his preferences in types or accessories, form or color. It is, however, in the painting of the matured schools of the 16th and 17th centuries that person- ality, combined with a great but flexible technical tradition, first fully asserts itself. And it is towards greater individual free- dom that art has since tended to move. As painting and sculpture deal with facts or ideas more or less familiar to all, the personal ele- ment in them is easily recognized. Architecture, however, is neces- sarily rather a collective than a personal expression. In a great building it is the religious, social, or governing instincts and aspira- tions of a community, rather than the personal preferences and im- agination of the architect, that are expressed; for architectural form is clearly determined by utilitarian ends. At the same time, considerable play is per- mitted the fancy of the designer, particularly in variety of propor- tion, combination of material, and decoration. Convention and Tradition. — Convention exercises a great in- fluence in the arts. Indeed, to practise an art at all, it is neces- sary to conform to its conven- tions. Thus, in painting, the artist must express his impres- sion of the visible world, or his dreams and imaginings, in color and form (or in black and white, as in etching) upon a flat surface, in terms conformable to the laws and habit of vision, at the same time giving due consideration to the decorative or merely pleasing aspect of the result. In sculp- ture, again, in which real form is imitated in its three dimensions, or suggested as in relief, the nature of the imitation is con- trolled and determined by the material characteristics of the medium — stone or marble, bronze or silver — which, in its turn, should be so used as to bring out its inherent beauty as that is affected by mass and the play of light upon the modelled surfaces. Finally, architecture is largely conditioned by the use to which a builaing is to be put, by the structural possibilities of the building materials available, and by the necessity of providing against the prevailing weather. Tradition also influences artis- tic form. It serves to preserve sound technical methods, and transmits from one generation to another the experience gained in experiment with new subjects or new processes. Sometimes, how- ever, under the form of academ- icism, it sets up an arbitrary ideal of subject and style, founded upon past achievements, and tends to stereotype and conven- tionalize art. Thus, tradition may become the enemy of self-expression and of experi- VoL. I. — March '27 Art 397 Artery ment. Tradition and belief in personal impressions divide the world of art into two hostile camps. But while academic in- fluence still controls much mod- ern art, painting and (in lesser degree) sculpture have largely- freed themselves from the shackles of tradition. Today, in every capital in Europe, there is a strong body of 'seceding' art- ists; and one of the most notable features in art during the past century has been an ever-increas- ing disposition to regard every kind of subject as possible of treatment in one or other of the arts. In architecture, however, tradition remains exceedingly powerful, and no style has yet been evolved adequately expres- sive of contemporary life. The Function of Technique in Art. — Some critics would draw a distinction between the manner and the matter of art, and restrict the use of the word 'art' to the former. In reality, however, these two elements are so closely knit that to separate them, ex- cept in theory, is impossible. In all fully developed art the tech- nique, or manner of expression, is the direct outcome of the spirit in which the subject is conceived. Hence it is only in academic art that a definitely formulated method is possible. Naturally certain methods of using, let us say, oil-paint, or of carving marble, are more productive of beauty than others; and if it is possible to combine this sensu- ous element with the effects aimed at. it should be done. Art cannot exist without technique, but technique does not exist for itself; and if a man, by breaking through the tradition of the past, can express himself more fully, he is justified by the result. This is at once the explanation and justification of the methods of impressionist painters, and of such sculptors as Rodin and Meunier. Technique has, how- ever, a fascination and legitimate charm of its own quite apart from its expressive power. But these appeal to the artist as craftsman, and to the connois- seur rather than to the general public. Art consists of a com- bination of fine emotion and skil- ful expressive technique. The greatest art is that which appeals with the greatest force to both the intellectual and the aesthetic emotions. Of the many books treating of the origin and theory of the arts, the majority deal with them either as a branch of philosophy or metaphysics, or as so much archaeology or history. Among those written from a more purely artistic standpoint are the fol- lowing: Ruskin's Art Culture; Loveridge's Apprecialion of Art; Henri's The Art Spirit (1923); Mullen's An Approach to Art (1923); Neuhaus' The Apprecia- tion of Art (1924); Ruckstuhl's Great Works of Art and What Makes Them Great (1925) ; Cortis- soz' Personalities in Art (1925); Cox's Art for Amateurs and Stu- dents (1926); Blackie's The ABC of Art (1927). Arta, province or nomarchy of Greece, a division of Thessaly; 395 square miles in area. Pop. (1920) 56,053. Arta, city, Greece, capital of the province of Arta, on the left bank of the Arta River, near its mouth in the Gulf of Arta, at the entrance to which the battle of Actium was fought (b.c. 31). It has manufactures of cotton and woollen goods, and a large trade in wine and tobacco. Near it the Turks defeated the Greeks in 1822. Pop. (1920) 9,626. Artaxata, ar-taks'a-ta, city, ancient capital of Armenia, on the Aras; 68 miles from Erivan. It was here that Hannibal took refuge. The Romans destroyed this city (a.d. 58), and after re- building, it was sacked by • the Persians (a.d. 370). Later the patriarch Joseph presided over its council. Its ruins are now known as Ardashir. Artaxerxes, ar-taks-urks'ez, a name borne by four ancient Per- sian kings. Artaxerxes i., sur- named Longimanus, was a son of Xerxes, who reigned from 464 to 425 B.C., and is mentioned in the Book of Nehemiah. Arta- xerxes II., surnamed Mnemon, reigned from 405 to 358 B.C. The chief events of his reign were the defeat of Cyrus and his 10,- 000 Greeks at Cunaxa (401 B.C.) ; the war with Archelaus, king of Sparta (401-394); the conclusion of the peace of Antal- cidas (387) ; and struggles against his rebellious satraps — Evagoras of Cyprus, Ariobarzanes of Phrygia, and Datames of Cappa- docia — and wars with Egypt. Artaxerxes hi., surnamed Och- us, reigned from 358 to 338 B.C., and revived for a time the decay- ing power of his dynasty; with the aid of Greece he reconquered Cyprus, Egypt, and Phoenicia. Artaxerxes iv., the founder of the dynasty of the Sassanidse, after the overthrow of the Par- thian empire, reigned from 226 to 240 A.D., and waged war with Alexander Severus, the Roman Emperor. Artel, ar-tyel', the Russian cooperative organization of arti- sans or skilled workmen. The organization varies, but the fun- damental principle of all is equal remuneration and equal shares of work. Arteiiiidonis, iir-tem-i-dd'rus {c. 100 B.C.), Greek geographer, a native of Ephesus, who made voyages in the Mediterranean and Red Seas, to Iberia and Gaul, and as far as the Southern Ocean. His work, called Periplus, is not extant, but some fragments have been collected in Hudson's Geo- graphi Greed Minores (1826), vol. i. Artemidorus, surnamed Dal- DIANUS, from Daldis, a town in Lydia, his mother's birthplace, was also a native of Ephesus. He Hved in Rome from about 140—180 A.D., and wrote a work on dreams, which is extant. Ar'temis, called Diana by the Romans, one of the chief divini- ties of the Greeks, and twin sister of Apollo, was the daughter of Zeus (Jupiter) and Leto (La- tona). She was born in the island of Delos, and was wor- shipped under a variety of as- pects. The earliest Greek conceptions of Artemis regards her as a god- dess of the fields and wild coun- try, unmarried certainly, but not a virgin goddess; indeed, she is closely connected with child- birth, and is worshipped particu- larly by women. The Artemis or Diana of Ephesus, whose wor- ship was widely extended by colonists on the coasts of the Black Sea, in Sicily, in Massilia (Marseilles), and other Greek- speaking lands, was probably a nature-goddess of the Phrygians or other inhabitants of Asia Minor, whose worship was adopt- ed by the Greek settlers. A goddess of fertility and wild life, her image represented her with many breasts, and attended by wild animals. The general conception of Ar- temis in Greek literature, begin- ning with Homer, is that of the virgin huntress, in close associa- tion with her brother Apollo. She is also sometimes confounded with Hecate, with Selene, or the Moon, and with Britomartis (or Dictynna) and Eileithyia. See also DiAN.\. Artemisia, ar-ti-mish'i-a, daughter of Lygdamis and queen of Halicarnassus, the birthplace of Herodotus, who tells her story. As a vassal of Xerxes, she accom- panied his expedition against Greece, and fought at the battle of Salamis. Another Artemisia was the daughter of Hecatomnus, and sister, wife, and successor of the Carian prince Mausolus, who reigned from 352-350 B.C. She is famous as the builder of the mausoleum at Halicarnassus to her husband's memory. Artemisia. See Wormwood. Artemus Ward. See Browne, Charles Farrar. Artery, any of the numerous blood-vessels which convey blood from the lieart to the various parts of the body. The arterial system is similar in its distribu- tion to a many-branching tree, of which the aorta, arising from the left ventricle of the heart, is the Vol. I. — Oct. '29 Artery 398 Artesian Wells trunk. The main arteries usu- ally follow comparatively straight courses and are fairly well pro- tected from pressure and other dangers. The branches, through an elaborate system of subdivi- sion, extend to every part of the body except the hair, nails, epi- dermis, cartilages, and cornea, endmg in minute vessels called arterioles, which in turn open into the capillaries (q.v.). In their distribution through the body both the large and small arteries communicate or anas- tomose freely with one another, with the result that when any one artery becomes obliterated. Diagram showing the Principal Arteries 1. Heart. 2. Arch of aorta. 3. Left carotid. 4. Right carotid. 5. Temporal [6. Vena cava]. 7. Thoracic aorta. 8. Brachial. 9. Intercostal. 10. Radial. 11. Ulnar. 12. Talmar arch. 13 Renal. 14. Coehc axis and mesenteric. 15. Iliac. 16. Femoral. 17. Tibial. 18. Dorsalis pedis. as by ligature, a collateral cir- culation may be established, through the enlargement of these anastomotic communications. Those arteries which do not an- astomovse with other airteries either directly or through their branches are known as 'end ar- teries' or 'terminal arteries.' The arterial wall is composed of three coats — (1) the external coat, or tunica advcnlilia, an outer fibrous tunic; (2) the mid- dle, or tunica media, of muscular, elastic tissue; and (3) the inter- nal, or tunica intima, lined with endothelial cells. The arteries are capable of extension and dis- tention — a property of great service in the maintenance of normal blood pressure and veloc- ity. The loss of this elasticity, occurring during degeneration of the arteries from disease or senile changes, is a precursor of soften- ing and final rupture, an acci- dent which usually causes death when occurring in the brain. Diseases and Injuries of the Arteries. — The arteries may be the seat of thrombus formation or of embolism. A thrombus is a solid mass formed , in situ from the constituents of the blood, causing complete or partial oc- clusion of the vessel (see Throm- bosis). An embolus is a clot or a plug carried by the blood current from one vessel to an- other distant and smaller one, where it obstructs the circulation (see Embolism). Injuries to the arteries include incisions and perforations by sharp instruments or by gunshot wounds and contusions and lac- erations due to crushing injuries, with resulting haemorrhage and in some cases thrombus forma- tion and gangrene (see Hemor- rhage). The artery may also be obliterated by ligature: the middle and inner coats are torn through; the blood stagnates and forms a thrombus; inflammatory changes ensue, followed by gran- ulation, and the portion of the artery involved is resolved into cicatricial connective tissue. Acute in/lamination of the ar- teries or arteritis is due most fre- quently to the extension of an adjacent infection and may re- sult in thrombosis or in actual erosion producing serious haemor- rhage. Syphilitic and tubercu- lous arteritis are specific types. Arteriosclerosis, popularly known as hardening of the ar- teries, is one of the almost inevi- table accompaniments of advanc- ing age; it may be due also to toxic or infectious causes, and may occur in association with high blood-pressure. Factors which have been held to play a causative role are excessive pro- tein diet, tobacco, alcohol, mus- cular over-exertion, obesity, and nervous strain. In the extrem- ities the process usually begins in the media; in the aorta and larger arteries the changes occur first in the intima; in the smaller vessels there is a marked generalized proliferation of the intima with fatty and necrotic changes in the deeper layers. This intimal pro- liferation encroaches upon the lumen of the artery and may even obliterate it. a condition known as endarteritis obliterans. The arteries lose their elasticity and as a result of constant stretching without the ability to resume their former shape. become lengthened, tortuous, and dilated. Since, generally speaking, ar- teriosclerotic lesions cannot be cured, treatment consists of the prevention of further progress and of measures which will en- able the vessels to function with maximum efficiency. These in- clude dietary regulation, con- trolled exercise, rest, etc. Among drugs, sodium or potassium io- dide holds first place. Thrombo- angiitis obliterans, known also as Buerger's disease, is a condition brought about by a thrombosis of both the arteries and veins of the extremities. It occurs almost exclusively in male Jews and in severe cases is accom- panied by ulceration and gan- grene. An aneurism is a dilatation of the arterial walls forming a sac filled with blood. It may be due to degeneration, disease, or in- jury of the wall, and is a frequent accompaniment of arteriosclero- sis. See Aneurism. Artesian Wells, deep borings into the earth to obtain water. The name was originally applied to flowing wells exclusively, be- ing derived from the French province of Artois (mediaeval L. Artesia), where the oldest known flowing wells were sunk in 1126. In the United States the term has come to be applied to all wells in which the water rises above the strata in which it is found. The conditions neces- sary for such a rise are a pervious stratum between two impervious strata, the pervious stratum be- ing exposed to moisture at some point higher than that at which the well is located. The ideal section for producing artesian flow is shown in the illustration below. Such wells are found in places all over the world. In the United States they are largely used for city water supply and in the arid regions for irrigation. The sections of the United States where artesian wells have been most largely developed and used for irrigation are the James River Valley in South Dakota, Southern Texas, Pecos Valley in New Mexico and Texas, and Southern California. Many wells used for irrigation, which were formerly flowing wells, have ceased to flow but it is probable Ideal Section for Artesian Flow that additional artesian basins of sufficient capacity to irrigate large areas of land will be found in the United States following thorough investigations which have been undertaken by the Division of Hydrology of the United States Geological Survey. Vol. I.— Oct. '29 ARTESIAN WELLS. 1. Cambridge Downs Bore. North Queensland. 9. Artesian Well in Southern California. 3. Moree Bore, New South Wales (driith, 2.792 feet ; daily flow, M08,080 gallons ; temperature, 115? Fahr.). 4. Charlotte Plains Bore, Queensland. 6. Artesian Well, Roswell, New Mex. Artesian Wells 400 Arthur The most comprehensive inves- tigation of artesian water supply in the United States made up to the present time was that carried on by the U. S. Department of Agriculture under its ' Artesian periment Stations, Bulletin 119, Part 2. Artcvelde, Jacob van (1285- 1345), Flemish patriot, was a wealthy brewer of Ghent, who assisted the people in their after defeating the Count of Flanders he became regent. He was slain at the battle of Roose- beke in 1382, fighting against the forces of Charles vi. of France. See Kervyn de Lettenhove, Jacques d'Artevelde (1863); Hut- ton, James and Philip van Artc- velde (1882); Ashley, James and Philip van Artcvelde (1883); also Sir Henry Taylor's drama, Philip van Artcvelde (1834); and Con- science's historical novel, /. van Artcvelde (1849). Arthritis. See Joints. Arthrophycus, a genus of what is regarded as fossil sea plants, though by some it is claimed that they show annelid characters. They are subangular or rounded and show transverse ridges and furrows, and appear to branch. This genus is very characteristic of the unper Me- dina sandstone and shales. Arthropoda (jointed feet), the name of a series of invertebrate land and water animals, incKiding such diverse forms as crustaceans, insects, and arachnids. Arthro- pods have bilaterally symmetrical, segmented bodies, some of the segments bearing jointed append- ages; the body is covered by a tough cuticle made of chitin; the heart lies above the food canal, and the nervous system below it, except for the dorsal brain; there is no distinct body cavity between the food canal and the body wall. These are characteristic of the series; but in regard to the other organs there is much variation. The chief classes of Arthropoda are as follows: — (1.) Crustacea, including crabs, lobsters, and their allies. (2.) Prototracheata, including only a primitive form known as Peripatus. (3.) Myria- poda: the millipedes and centi- pedes. (4.) Insecta : the insects. (5.) Arachnoidea: spiders, scor- pions, and mites. (6.) Palaeo- straca: the living king crab and the extinct trilobites and euryp- terids. Arthur, a famous British chief- tain who distinguished himself in the wars with the Saxons during the latter part of the 5th and com- mencement of the 6th centuries. Some writers suppose that there were two historic chiefs of that name — one mainly active in the north, the other in the southwest part of the island. We may ac- cept as historical the fact that Arthur fought a scries of success- ful engagements with the invaelers, ending in the crushing defeat in- flicted upon the Saxons at Mount Badon (according to Zimmer, be- tween 495 and 501); probably he was betrayed by his wife, and met his death in conflict with a near kinsman. About 1135 Geoffrey of Mon- mouth wrote his IJistoria Rcgum BritannicB, based upon the earlier Arthropoda. Insecta— 1. Butterfly. Prototrachkata— 2. Peripatus. Pal^eostraca— 3. King or Horseshou Crab ; 4. Eurypterus (fossil) ; 5. Trilobif;e (fossil). Myriapoda— 0. Gem - pedc ARACHNOiDKA— 7. Scori)ion. Crustacea— 8. ilasked Crab. (King Crab one- twelfth natural aize ; all others two-thirds nature.) and Underflow Investigation and Irrigation Inquiry,' the final re- port being Senate Executive Document No. 41, 52nd Congress, First Session. See also 5th An- nual Report U. S. Geological Sur- vey, pp. 125-173; Artesian Wells as a Means of Water Supply, by Walter Gibbons Cox; 11th An- nual Report, U. S. Geol. Sur- vey, Part 2, pp. 59-294 ; and U. S. Dept. Agr., Office Ex- ?truggle against Louis, Count of Flanders. He was chosen com- mander of the forces, and in 1335, with the assistance of the English, expelled Louis from Flanders. After having been ruler of Flanders for nine years, he was killed in a street disturb- ance at Ghent. His son Philip (c. 1340-82) was placed at the head of the citizens of Ghent in 1381, and Arthur history of Nennius, amplified by popular tradition. Here the his- toric Arthur, dux bcllorum, be- comes Arthur the king of Britain and world-conqueror. Geoffrey's work was translated into French verse, about 1155, by Robert Wace, who himself found a translator in the Anglo-Saxon monk Layamon, each of them adding, from his own knowledge of popular tradi- tion, to the picture drawn by Geoffrey. It is more especially on the version of Wace that the popular conception of Arthur is founded. Here he is the son of Uther Pendragon; king of Brit- ain; conqueror of Scandinavia, Gaul, and Rome; the founder of the Round Table, and the centre of a brilliant circle of heroes. Victim of the joint treachery of his wife and his nephew Modred, he is wounded in battle with the latter, and retires to Avalon to be healed of his wounds. Mythical Elements. — _Many threads meet and mingle in this Eerplexing legend. Alfred Nutt as pointed out the resemblance between the popular tales of Ar- thur and a very wide- ^pread heroic and pre-hisotric tradition, the forms of which were classified by Von der Hagen under the title of The Aryan Expulsion and Return Formula. Professor Rhys detects in the British hero a certain Mer- curius Artaius, worshipped by the Gauls as a culture-god, and has dwelt at length on the persistence in the story of certain elements of early Celtic myth. It is probably in his character of culture-hero that Arthur is represented as the slayer of monsters — e.g. the demon cat of Lausanne, the giant of Mont St. Michel, and the boar Twrch Trwyth — while the prevalence of certain features of early Irish tra- dition in tales alike of Arthur and his knights cannot be denied. To later mediaeval writers the Arthu- rian story was largely compounded of fairy elements. After his last fight his body was magically trans- ported to the isle of Avalon, and its wounds healed. Avalon was a land of fairy, of which Arthur was king {Bataille de Loquifer)', he was heir to the kingdom of Obcron [Huon de Bordeaux), and all places haunted by fairies, in what- ever land they were situated, be- longed to him, and were under his rule {Brun de la Montaigne). Arthurian Romance. — It is now generally recognized that, great as was the influence of Geoffrey of Monmouth and his transla- tor Wace, Arthur as a romantic (rather than historic or mythic) hero was known before the publi- cation of the Historia, and that stories connected with him and his knights were already widely diffused. Professor Rajna has shown that the names of Arthur and Gawain were known in Italy 401 by the end of the 11th century. Modern scholars are divided in opinion as to the source of this romantic tradition, some holding that is was of purely continental growth, the work of the Armori- can Britons — their insular com- patriots knov/ing only the historic dux bellorum; while others main- tain that the romantic tradition was common to both sides of the Channel, and that Anglo-Norman writers played an important part in the transmission of the legend to the Continent. It is certain that during the latter half of the 12th and the first quarter of the 13th century the legends con- nected with Arthur were the most popular subject for literary treatment. Round the figure of the British king, as represented by the pseudo-chronicles, gathered a group of heroes, many of whom had already an independent and popular story attached to their names. Many of these old stories were retold with a view to bringing them into harmony with Arthu- rian tradition; new combinations and developments followed; and the resultant body of literature, prose and verse, the work of ap- proximately some seventy years of literary activity, is what was known as the Arthurian cycle. Many of the stories are only super- ficially connected with Arthur, and all have been remodelled at least six centuries later than that in which the events are supposed to occur. The ignor- ing of this elementary fact has been the main cause of the mis- taken popular conceptions con- cerning Arthur. A British chief- tain of the 5th and 6th centuries could not have been the centre of a court such as the French romances describe, nor could his heroes have been 'knights' in any other sense save that in which the Roman soldiers were such. The main body of Arthurian romance is in French, the principal writers being Chretien de Troyes, Robert de Borron, Walter Map, Raoul de Houdenc — the names of Helie de Borron and Luces de Gast, the ostensible compilers of the prose Tristan, being fictitious. In Ger- many the leading writers were Hartmann von der Aue, Wolfram von Eschenbach, and Gottfried von Strassburg; but in every case their work is wholly or in part derived from a French source. This was also most probably the case in England, where, previous to Sir Thomas Malory's 15th cen- tury compilation, based upon the later prose romances, Arthurian tradition was represented by a few scattered metrical romances, some of which had certainly French or Anglo-Norman originals, while the source of others is unknown. The original of the Welsh talcs is more doubtful; French influence ArthuT is undoubtedly present, but it seems highly probable that the groundwork of the stories repre- sents genuine insular tradition. See, for history, Nennius's His- toria Britonum (1838); Zimmer's Nennius Vindicatus (1893); Geof- frey of Monmouth's Historia Regum BritannicB (ed. Schulz, 1854) — translations of Nennius and Geoffrey are included in Bohn's Library; Wace*s Li Ro- mans de Brut (ed. Leroux de Lincy, 1836-8); Layamon's Brut (ed. Sir F. Madden, 1847). For mythical elements, Nutt's Folklore Record (vol. iv.), Aryan Expulsion and Return Formula, ^ and (vol. v.) Mahinogion Studies; Rhys' s Ar- thurian Studies (1891), and his Celtic Heathendom, 1886 (Hibbert Lectures). For romance, J. L. Weston's King Arthur and his Knights ('Popular Studies in Mythology, Romance, and Folk- lore,' No. 4, Nutt, 1899), a sum- mary of the various branches of Arthurian romance, with full bibliography; Ward's Catalogue of MS. Romances in the British Museum (1883, vol. i.). For the sources of Arthurian romance, cf., for the arguments in favor of Continental origin, Professor Zim- mer Gottinger Gelehrte Anzeigen (1890), Nos. 12 and 20), and Zeit- schrift fur Franzdsische Sprache (vol. xiv.); E. Brucgger, Zeitschrift filr Franzdsische Sprache (vol. xx.); Professor Foerster, Introduction to vol. iv. of his edition of Chretien de Troyes (1884, etc.). On the other side, Gaston Paris, Introduction to Histoire Litteraire de la France (1888, vol. XXX.); Ferd. Lot, Nou- velles Etudes sur la Provenance du Cycle Arthurien (in Romania, vols, xxiv. seq.); J. Loth, Les Nouvelles Theories sur POrigine des Romans Arthurien (in Revue Ccltique, vol. xiii.); J. L. Weston, The Legend of Sir Lancelot du Lac (Grimm Library, vol. xii. ch. v., 1901), where Professor Focrster's theo- ries are examined. Also King Arthur and the Round Table (1897; Newell's trans, of Focrster's ed. of Chretien) and, for the connection with Irish literature. Brown's Gawain: A Study of the Origins of Arthurian Romance (1902). Arthur, Duke of Connaught. Sec Connaught. Arthur, Prince of Brittany (1187-1203), grandson of Henry II. On the death of his uncle, Richard I., Arthur's claim as son of Geoffrey, elder brother of John, king of England, was upheld by several French provinces, and, at first, by Philip Augustus of France. John captured Arthur in 1202, and imprisoned him at Falaise and at Rouen, where he disappeared in 1203, murdered, it is said, by the hands of his uncle. See Sbake- spcare's King John and Norgate's John Lackland (1902). Arthut Arthur, Prince (1486-1502), eldest son of Henry vii. of Eng- land, was married to Catherine of Aragon at the age of fifteen; died in the following year. Arthur, Chester Alan (1830- 86), the twenty-first President of the U. S., born at Fairfield, Vt., Oct. 5, 1830. His father was William Arthur, a native of Ire- land, who emigrated to America in 1814 and was a teacher and a Baptist minister in turn at various places in Vermont and Canada. The son graduated at Union Col- lege, Schenectady, N. Y., in 1848, was principal of an academy at North Pownal, Vt. (1851-3), was admitted to the bar in N. Y. City in 1854, and as a member of the firm of Culver, Parker & Arthur attained considerable prominence as a lawyer. Strongly opposed to slavery, he took part, as one of the counsel, for the slaves concerned, in the famous Lemmon Slave Case tried before the lower courts and finally before the Court of Appeals of N. Y. (1860). He joined the Republican Partv soon after its organization, and during the first two years of the Civil War ren- dered valuable services and gave evidence of very unusual ad- ministrative ability as inspector- general and quartermaster-general of the N. Y. state troops. In 1863 he resumed the practice of the law in N. Y. He was the collector of customs for the port of N. Y., by Pres. Grant's ap- pointment, from 1871 until 1878, when, for having sanctioned the continuance of the 'spoils system' as applied to his ofiice, he was removed by Pres. Hayes, who had undertaken the reform of the civil service of the U. S. His re- moval further increased the quar- rel in New York between the so-called ' Stalwart,' and ' Half- breed' factions of the Republican Party; Arthur was one of the Stalwart leaders, and, on the defeat in the Republican National Convention (1880) at Chicago of the Stalwarts, who had fought for the renomination of Pres. Grant, Arthur was nominated for the vice- presidency, on the ticket with Garfield, as a concession to the defeated faction. He was elected, but even as vice-president he did not stand aloof from the faction- al quarrel, supporting Senators Conkling and Piatt, Stalwart leaders, in their contest with Pres. Garfield over the disposition of the Federal patronage in New York, and in particular over the appointment of the 'Half-breed,' W. H, Robertson, as collector of the port of N. Y. Nevertheless, upon succeeding Garfield, after the latter's assassination, he ceased to be a partisan, and as President (1881-5) he discharged his duties with much dignity and efficiency. His administration 402 was marked by the passage of the Edmunds Anti-Polygamy Act (1882) , of an Act Restricting Chinese Immigration (1882), of the Pendleton Civil Service Act (1883) , and of a Contract Labor Act (1885), and by the thorough- going exposure of the 'star- route' postal frauds. Arthur was de- feated for a renomination in 1884, and died in N. Y. on Nov. 18, 1886. Arthur, Sir George (1784- 1854), British statesman and colonial governor, wa^ born at Plymouth, England. He was for a time lieut. -governor of Brit- ish Honduras, and later on was at the head of the government of the Eenal colony of Van Dieman's ,and (Tasmania). In 1837, dur- ing the rebellion in Upper Canada, he was appointed Governor of that province, as successor to Sir Francis Bond Head. He ruled the disturbed province, then agi- tating, under Wm. Lyon Mac- kenzie, for responsible govern- ment, with a firm but heavy hand, having little sympathy for the now accepted theory of responsible government. On his return to England, after the union of Upper and Lower Canada, Sir George was appointed Governor of the Presidency of Bombay. Arthur, Joseph Charles (1850), American botanist, born at Lowville, N. Y., and educated at Iowa State College, at Johns Hopkins, Harvard, and Brown Universities. He was botanist at the experimental station at Geneva, N. Y. (1884-87), when he took the chair of pathology and vegetable physiology at Pur- due University, and became botanist at the Indiana Experi- mental Station. His published writings include the following, in association with others: Hand- hook of Plant Dissection (1886), and Living Plants and thetr Properties (1898). Arthur, Julia (1869), Canadian actress, whose real name is Ida Lewis, born in Hamilton, Ontario. After playing in New Ycrk in The Black Masque, and in other roles, she appeared in London in Henry Irving's Company, acting the part of Rosamond to Irving's A Becket. She has also starred in the United States with Irving and Miss Terry, and has played acceptably such Shakespearean parts as Rosalind. Arthur, Timothy Shay (1 809- 85), American novelist and story- writer, was born at Newburgh, N. Y. He edited (at Baltimore) The AthencBum, and afterward founded at Philadelphia, in 1852 Arthur's Home Magazine. Of his twenty -odd bo<.ks, perhaps the most popular was hi-^ Ten Nights in a Bar-room (1860); others are Good Time Coming (1855); Light on Shadowed Paths (1863); Artichoke Married and Single (1843); and Seed-time and Harvest (1851). Arthur, William (1819-1901), Irish author, Wesleyan missionary and for a time president of the Methodist College at Belfast, was born at Kells, Ireland, and edu- cated at Hoxton College, London. He was a prolific writer, his best- known works, besides an account of a Mission to Mysore, being The Successful Merchant (a Life of Samuel Budgett), and The Tongue of Fire ; or. The True Pozver of Christianity (1856 ; 40th ed., 1885). Arthur's Seat, hill (822 ft.), Holyrood Park, Edinburgh. The internal structure of the hill and its detailed h' story have given rise to much discussion. The hill figures in Scott's Heart cj Midlo- thian. Globe Artichoke — Bracts. Artichoke, two different plants of the order Compositae — the globe artichoke, or Cynara scoly- mus, and the Jerusalem artichoke, or Helianthus tuber osus. The globe artichoke, a native probably of Southern Asia, is grown for the sake of its large flower-heads, the edible parts being the large fleshy bracts and the fleshy axis from which they grow. In the second plant, the name Jerusalem is a misnomer for the Italian gira- sole (turning to the sun), from the habit of the plant, which be- longs to the same genus as the Jerusalem Artichoke — Tubers. sunflower. Its underground stem- tubers resemble potato tubers, their value as a food depending upon the starch they contain. The plant, introduced into Europe from N. America in 1616, is in- Article 403 Artificial Limb digenous to the upper Mississippi and parts of Canada. It was one of the few plants cultivated by the American Indians, and is now grown as a winter vege- table, and particularly as a food for live stock. Jerusalem arti- chokes are easy of cultivation and succeed on any well-drained land with but slight attention. They are planted in the same way as potatoes but are more prolific and more easily grown. Since frost does not harm the tuber, the crop may be left in the ground all winter and dug in the spring. Article, in grammar, one of a class of limiting words. In English there are two articles — the, definite article, and a or an, indefinite article. Some gram- marians include the articles among the adjectives. See Parts of Speech. Articles of Association, inlaw, a written agreement setting forth the rights, powers, and duties of the persons concerned in a joint enterprise. In England, model articles of association for joint stock companies are set forth in the Companies Act of 1908, and are held to apply to all such com- panies registered under the Com- panies Act, unless expressly ex- cluded or modified by articles made by the company. In the United States, articles of asso- ciation, when duly executed and filed, have the effect of a charter of incorporation, and this is the usual method for incorporating companies. See Charter; Cor- poration. Articles of Confed'era'tion, The, the fundamental law of the United States from 1781 to 1789, were adopted by Congress on Nov. 15, 1777, but did not go into effect until ratified by the various States. All the States gave their adhesion by May, 1779, except Maryland, which for important reasons did not sign until March 1, 1781. (See United States, History.) The Articles provided for a loose confederation of the various States, in which the central government had little real power. The latter could not levy taxes nor effectually control foreign commerce; it could not coerce any individual State into obedi- ence to its acts, even in cases in which it nominally had jurisdic- tion; and it could not enforce its authority by arresting and pun- ishing individual offenders. Ad- ministrative, legislative, and ju- dicial affairs of the Confedera- tion were to be vested in a gen- eral Congress, a single chamber with little real power, in which each State was to have one vote, and was to be represented by not less than two nor more than seven members, none of whom was to serve more than three Vol. I.—Oct. '21 years in any term of six years. In general, the central government was to have charge of foreign rela- tions, with the exclusive power of declaring and waging war; was to settle disputes between the States through the agency of a commission or court appointed jointly by Congress and the con- testants; and was to have the right of regulating the coinage, Indian affairs, and the postal service. None of the more im- portant powers of Congress could be exercised without a prior affirmative vote of at least nine of the thirteen States. After the Revolution the de- fects of the systerh of govern- ment provided by the Articles of Confederation became more and more apparent, and in 1789 the Articles were superseded by the present Constitution (see Constitution of the United States) . The text of the Articles of Confederation may be found in Macdonald's Select Documents of United States History. Con- sult McLaughlin's The Con^ federation and the Constitution ('American Nation Series'). Articles of Faitli, a su^nma- rized statement of religious be- lief. Important articles of faith are the Apostles' Creed, the Nicene Creed, the Athanasian Creed (see Creeds), the Thirty- nine Articles (q. v.) of the Church of England, the Augsburg Con- fession, the Westminster Con- fession, and the Articles of the Methodist Episcopal Church. Articles of War, ordinances for the government of troops, seamen, and camp followers, providing for the punishment as crimes of acts or omissions which in civil life would be regarded as mere breaches of contract — e.g., desertion or disobedience of orders. The Articles of War in the United States cover generally the same ground as those of England. They number 121, and are prescribed by Chapter II of the Act of Congress ap- proved June 4, 1920 (41 Stat. L., 7'>9). Every officer of the U. S, Army must subscribe to them before he enters upon the duties of his office, and fidelity to them is a part of the oath of en- listment. By Article 110, cer- tain enumerated articles must be read and explained once every six months to the soldiers of every garrison, regiment, or com- pany in the service of the United States. Among the offences which are explicitly mentioned are mu- tiny, desertion, quarrels, duelling, drunkenness, and sleeping on duty. War offences includemis- behavior before the enemy; at- tempt to compel the commander to surrender to the enemy; im- proper use of countersigns; forc- ing a safeguard; neglect to secure enemy public property for the service of the U. S. Government; dealing in captured or abandoned property; relieving, correspond- ing with, or aiding the enemy; acting as a spy. See Military Law. The United States Naval Articles of War are essentially the same as those governing the army. Articles, The Six (called 'the whip with six thongs'), in Eng- lish history, were imposed by Parliament in 1539, as a cor- rective to the reforming zeal of Protestants after the breach with Rome (1529-36, 1539). These articles asserted the doc- trine of transubstantiation, de- clared communion in both kinds not to be necessary, condemned the marriage of priests, en- joined the continued observance of vows of chastity, and sanc- tioned private masses and auric- ular confession. Those denying the truth of transubstantiation were to be burnt. The penalties for non-compliance with the other articles were forfeiture of property for the first offence, death for the second. The statute was repealed in 1547, after Edward vi.'s accession. Articles, Thirty-nine. See Thirty-Nine Articles. Artic^ila'ta (Lat. articulus, 'a joint'), the term formerly used to include animals, such as crustaceans and insects, which bear jointed appendages. See Annulata; Arthropoda. Articulation. See Joints. Artificer, ar-tif'i-s^r (Latin artifex), a soldier who is a black- smith, mechanic, carpenter, har- nessmaker, wheelwright, machin- ist, etc. In the United States army he is enlisted as a private, and appointed artificer by the officer commanding, and receives a corporal's pay. Artificial Butter. See Oleo- margarine. Artificial Flowers. See Flow- ers, Artificial. Artificial Gems. See Gemsj Artificial. Artificial Ice. See Refrig- eration. Artificial Limb, a mechanical contrivance taking the place of an absent limb in rise and ap- pearance. In the Museum of the London College of Surgeons there is an artificial leg made of bronze, wood, and iron, which was dis- covered in 1885 in a tomb at Capua along with other relics dating from 300 B.C. In the beginning of the nineteenth cen- tury, Baillif of Berlin constructed a hand which did not exceed a pound in weight, and in which the fingers, without the aid of the natural hand, not only exer- cised the movements of flexion and extension, but could be closed upon and retain light objects, such as a hat, and even a Af tiflclal Limb 403 A Artillery pen. Recent years have seen great advances in the adaptation of these mechanical contrivances to varied requirements. Up to the period of the Great War (1914-19), however, the in- vention and manufacture of arti- ficial limbs had no scientific basis, and improvements were made only as the result of commercial competition. Once the ampu- tation was successfully accom- plished, the patient was left to choose his own artificial limb as suited his needs. The European conflict, with its attendant casu- alties, caused a tremendous in- crease in the demand for artificial limbs, and the governments of the various belligerents ap- pointed special surgeons to study the problem and work out the best method of solution. Won- derful results have thus been achieved. A classification of the different types of artificial limbs, grouped according to the needs of the prospective wearer, has been worked out; practical lab- oratories for the study, testing, manufacture, and fitting of these limbs have been established; and the study of ^orthopaedic prosthe- sis has been so intensively pur- sued that the improvements made have been little short of marvellous. The first desideratum in an artificial limb is lightness. In other respects, however, im- portant differences exist between what is desirable in an artificial arm and in an artificial leg. In the former, mobility, to the ex- treme limit compatible with control over its movements, is sought; in the latter, stability is of prime importance. In all amputations a certain period of time must be allowed for the shrinkage of the stump before the adjustment of a permanent artificial limb. Ab- solute immobility of the part,, however, is not always desirable, and for this reason, as well as for the encouragement of the patient, provisional apparatus is frequently employed before the fitting of the permanent limb. Arms. — The simplest form of artificial arm, after amputation above the elbow, consists of a leathern sheath accurately fitted to the upper part of the stump. The lower end of the sheath is furnished with a wooden block and metal screw plate, to which can be attached a fork for hold- ing meat, a knife for cutting food, or a hook for carrying a weight. It is retained in posi- tion by shoulder and breast straps. In the Bigg artificial hand, voluntary and variable movement is given to the thumb by compressing an india-rubber ball placed under the armpit. The Beaufort arm consists of a wooden hand attached to a Vol. L— Oct. '21 leathern socket that firmly fits the stump. The thumb is piv- oted on a pin concealed in the ball of the thumb, and is firmly pressed against the finger tips by a strong rubber band similarly concealed. A piece of whip- cord is attached to the back of the thumb, whence it runs up- ward to the shoulder of the wearer, and across his back to the opposite shoulder. By draw- ing upon and relaxing the whip- cord the grasp of the thumb is alternately opened and closed. More complicated and expen- sive apparatus may also be ob- tained, in which the motions of thumb, fingers, and wrist are imitated, and a natural softness given to the hand by the use of rubber or gutta percha. With the aid of these artificial hands, books, papers, and other articles may be held, heavy weights carried, and writing with a pen or pencil achieved. Dr. Jules Amar of the Paris Institute for Vocational Re-education has de- vised a hand with all fingers, as well as the thumb, jointed at the knuckles, and each finger sepa- rately movable. A series of belts and straps encircling the body, with flexible shafts attached to the different digits, enables the wearer, by means of different motions, to move the several members. Legs. — Artificial legs, having fewer requirements to fill, are usually simpler in structure than artificial arms. They are com- posed of several parts: the sock- et, which holds the stump and supports the body weight; the prosthetic column, which corre- sponds to and replaces the miss- ing portion of the limb; a system of attachment which fastens the apparatus solidly to the body; and the articulations which re- place the missing joints. The simplest form of artificial leg is the ' bucket ' leg, consisting of a hollow wooden or leathern sheath fitting accurately to the contour of the stump, and having a peg firmly attached to its lower end. The French have devised an artificial leg, known as the 'ortho- paedic leg,' consisting of a leather socket braced by a steel frame, to which is attached a leather prosthetic column with a mobile foot. In use this has proved less satisfactory than the American type. The essential feature of the American type is that it is of wooden construction, with no accessory supports of leather or steel except for the joint mech- anism. It has a rigid socket sculptured out of rough wood, preferably mountain willow, to fit the stump, while the leg piece, which serves for the transmission of weight, is in the form of a double truncated cone, the base of the upper cone corresponding to the calf, and the base of the lower to the malleolar region. Externally the shaft conforms to the form of the normal leg; the interior is hollowed out until the wall has the smallest thickness compatible with strength. In amputations above the thigh a knee block is provided. This is joined to the end of the socket, by means of glue and wooden keys and is rounded at the lower end to conform to the shape of the normal knee. Of the more complicated forms of artificial leg, three are espe- cially popular: the Anglesey leg, of English origin, the Palmer leg, and the Bly leg, the last two in- vented by Americans. Advan- tages of the Bly leg include rota- tion and lateral action of the ankle joint, power to walk with ease on any surface, a self- acting spring in the knee joint, urging the leg forward in walking and imparting automatic motion, and a mechanical arrangement at the knee joint by which all shock to the stump is avoided. The Beaufort leg lengthens the stride that can be safely taken, and reproduces the natural gait, while the curved sole is instru- mental in increasing stability. Equipped with an improved type of artificial leg, the wearer can dance, skate, ride a bicycle, climb ladders, and pursue the active life of a mechanic or pub- lic servant. Artificial Pearls. See Pearl. Artificial Respiration. See Resuscitation. Artificial Silk. See Silk. Artificial Stone. See Stone, Artificial. Artigas, ar-te'gas, the most northerly department of Uru- guay, bounded on the west by the Uruguay River, on the north by the Cuarcim River, and on the south by Salto. Pop. 30,- 000. Capital, San Eugenio. Artil'lery, in the general sense, includes not only the guns, but also the mounts, equipment, personnel, and transport of that branch of the military service which is charged with the ser- vice of the guns in action. The term artillery is not used in con- nection with the small calibre cannon, mortars, etc., supplied to the infantry and used by them as a part of their normal equip- ment. Neither are guns mount- ed on ships referred to as artil- lery, thoiigh the weapons, with minor exceptions, are identical with those of the land forces. Formerly the general term in- cluded the theory and practice of the employment of cannon, but of recent years the term gunnery is generally used to designate the science or principles involved in artillery firing, and the term Artillery 403 B Arttllery artillery is restricted in meaning to include only the materiel and the personnel. All artillery is grouped in two general classes viz., field artillery and coast artillery. Field artillery is that which accompanies the armies in the field, and coast artillery, or garrison artillery, as it is some- times called, is that designed for the defence of the coasts against naval attack. During ancient times, the large number of fortified walled cities encountered in military opera- tions made necessary the intro- duction of engines of war of greater power than those that could be transported and oper- ated by the individual soldier. These heavy engines of war, the precursors of artillery as we now understand the term, were the ballista, catapult (qq. v.), and similar engines for hurling heavy darts and stones. These weap- ons were heavy and cumbersome, difficult to transport, slow in operation, and consequently were used only in the deliberate and prolonged attack of fortified places. There is no authentic record as to the date of introduction of cannon into Europe, and very little is written about mediaeval artillery. In fact, until the mid- dle of the nineteenth century the artillery jealously guarded its technical principles and theo- ries of fire, and the arm was little understood by the other branches of the military service. Cannon were introduced into Europe very shortly after the discovery, by Schwartz, in 1320, of a method of granulating pow- der, and it is said that Edward III., in his campaign against the Scots in 1327, used what were called 'Crakeys of War,' but no accurate description of these weapons has been found. Frois- sart states that at the siege of Quesnoy (1340) the French were repulsed, 'their horses being frightened by weapons which made a great noise and shot pieces of iron*; and the English apparently used cannon at the Battle of Crecy (1346). These first cannon were of small cali- bre, low power, and of little efficiency. From the middle of the fourteenth century the use of cannon rapidly increased, with a corresponding develop- ment in their construction, and, more particularly, in the size and weight of the projectile. "With its improvement, artillery soon came into general use for the defence of fortified cities and on ships of war where weight and the consequent lack of mobility were not of vital im- portance. In 1453, over one hundred years after the first authentic record of the use of cannon, Vol. I.— Oct. '21 Mohammed ii. used a battery of monster cannon alongside cata- pults and other ancient engines of war at the siege of Consta.n- tinople. Mohammed's cannon is interesting, inasmuch as it is the first of which we have an accurate and detailed descrip- tion. It was cast of solid brass, was 17 feet long, and weighed 18 K tons. The projectiles thrown were stone balls 25 inches in diameter, each weighing ap- proximately 600 lbs. The weap- on was transported on a train of trucks drawn by oxen, and its movement was slow and cumber- some. For short distances it was rolled along the ground by means of handspikes inserted into recesses cast in the circum- ference of the breech and muzzle ends of the gun. It had no car- riage from which it was fired, ^ but was given the proper direc- tion and elevation by means of blocks and wedges. Recoil was apparently prevented by sinking the breech in the ground or plac- ing it against a tree or other im- movable object. The earliest cannon were made of iron bars hooped together and reinforced by wrapping rope, leather, or similar material about them. Contrary to popular conception, the earliest types of cannon were breech and not muzzle loaders. The breech mechanisms were crude affairs and, as a rule, consisted simply of a cylindrical block of metal in- serted in the breech of the gun and held in place by a lug or other projection. It is interest- ing to note that the early at- tempts in gun construction were in many respects along lines and based on principles followed in the manufacture of cannon at the present time. The failure of the pioneers in this field of construction was due not to the incorrectness of their theories but to the fact that the mechani- cal arts were so little developed th?,t metal parts of the required stiength could not be manu- facrnred within the permissible weight, nor the necessary degree of accuracy in various essential parts obtained. Breech-loading cannon failed in the first at- tempts because the escape of the gases of combustion of the pow- der charge could not be pre- vented. This serious defect was not eliminated successfully until about the middle of the nine- teenth century, when an expand- ing mass called an obturator, which tightly sealed the breech upon discharge of the gun, was incorporated in the breech block. Obturation is obtained in the smaller calibre cannon by the expansion of the thin metallic cartridge case upon discharge of the gun. During the World War the use of metallic cartridge cases in guns of large calibre was resorted to with success, and the necessity of incorporating an obturator in the breech mechan- isms of these guns was obviated. This method of handling the powder charge also greatly sim- plifies its insertion in the gun and increases the accuracy of fire due to the uniformity of loading. A small cannon mounted on a cart was introduced early in the fifteenth century. These guns were of very low power and effi- ciency, but on account of their mobility could accompany troops. About 1525, when small arms had attained a fairly satisfactory degree of efficiency, the cart gun became obsolete, and artillery was limited to guns of position and the heavier and less mobile field artillery. However, these small cannon assisted materially in the French successes in Italy. In the Thirty Years' War great improvements were made in artillery through the genius of Gustavus Adolphus, who not only improved the materiel but gave to the arm greater impor- tance and value by changing the method of its employment. The principles enunciated by him remained, with but slight modi- fication, as the accepted doctrine until the middle of the eighteenth century. Gustavus recognized that the efficiency of artillery depended upon its mobility and the rapidity and accuracy of its fire. He therefore made use of light guns which could be laid and fired with greater facility than guns of large calibre and which possessed the required degree of mobility. The first of these, which were used in his Polish wars, were made of light cylinders of copper, strengthened by iron bands and coiled rope and covered with leather. These were later replaced by 4- pounders weighing 650 pounds, and drawn by a single pair of horses. (The smaller cannon are often referred to by the weight of projectile thrown, but in the United States service can- non are usually referred to by their calibre.) Two of these 4- pounders were attached to each hz ttalion of infantry. Gustavus changed the tactical employ- ment of the arm by massing the heavy guns in strong batteries on the wings and in the centre of his forces instead of distributing them at equal intervals along the front. He thus centralized con- trol of the guns and secured greater concentration of fire and resultant effect. To increase the rapidity of fire, he substi- tuted the use of cartridges for the old laborious process of inserting powder with a ladle. Between the wars of Gustavus Adolphus and those of Frederick the Great, few changes were ArtUlery 404 ArtUlery made in the artillery. The arm at this time included a multi- plicity of calibres and was cum- bersome both in organization and materiel. At the same time its influence was strongly felt in nearly all the important battles. Frederick in his early campaigns neglected his artillery, but these early experiences impressed him with its value, and as his trained infantry was gradually replaced by raw troops due to the casu- alties of the war, he increased the proportion of guns to five per thousand of the other arms. He also reduced the weight of the battalion guns, making them more mobile; assembled his heavy guns into large batteries of position at the centre and wings of his army; and in 1759 or- ganized horse artillery — a battery of 6-pounders to accompany the cavalry. The Austrians recog- nized the value of the artillery and previous to the Silesian wars had designated an officer as chief of artillery and given him a general's rank. Consequently their artillery was at first more efficient than that of the Prus- sians. In 1765 Gribeauval, sometimes called the father of modern field artillery, began the reorganiza- tion of the French artillery. He provided separate materiel for field, siege, garrison, and coast service; and made interchange- able all parts of the same type of gun or carriage. The guns were made shorter and lighter and were provided with stronger but lighter carriages. The powder charge was reduced in weight to one-third that of the projectile. Tangent sights, elevating screws, prolonges, and new ammunition wagons were provided. The field guns were assigned two to each infantry battalion, and the remainder to three reserves: one each for the right, centre, and left of the army. The guns of the reserve were organized into divisions, each of eight guns of uniform calibre. The cannon- eers were organized into com- panies of artillery which were assigned one to each infantry brigade to serve the battalion guns and one to each 'division' of the reserve. Artillery played a prominent part in Napoleon's operations and he, like Frederick the Great, increased the proportion of ar- tillery to the other arms as the quality of his infantry declined. He also made many improve- ments. The guns were taken away from the battalions of infantry, organized into batter- ies, and assigned to infantry di- visions. The artillery drivers were given military organization. Napoleon uniformly held a large proportion of his artillery in re- serve, and for fire effect resorted Vol. I.— Oct. '21 to concentrations from large masses of guns. In 1793 the organization of the British artillery was similar to that of the French of that date. In 1802 the battalion guns were abolished and the brigades re- duced to six pieces — five guns and one howitzer. The horses were harnessed in pairs. A company of foot artillery was converted into a brigade of field artillery by the assignment to it of a driver troop. In 1808 shrapnel, an English invention, was adopted. Between 1814 and the Crimean War the artillery of all nations was improved. As a result of the experiences of the Crimea, the armament of the British artillery was as follows: 'posi- tion artillery,' 18-pounder guns and 8-inch howitzers; 'heavy field artillery,' 12-pounder guns and 32-pounder howitzers; 'field artillery,' 9-pounder guns and 24-pounder howitzers ; ' horse artillery,' 6-pounder guns and 12-pounder howitzers; 'moun- tain artillery,' 3-pounder guns and 4-inch howitzers. The artil- lery organization of the other powers was similar. Napoleon nr. was the first to equip his batteries with guns of uniform calibre. He also introduced the bronze 12-pounder 'Napoleon' in 1852, and this gun was later used extensively in the American Civil War. Some rifled guns were tried by the British at the siege of Sebas- topol but these were not a suc- cess. Prior to the French-Aus- trian War of 1859, a few French batteries had been equipped with rifled guns. The Austrians were armed with smooth bores in this war; yet in spite of their pre- ponderance in the number of guns, their artillery was out- ranged by the French rifled guns, and the Austrians were defeated. During the Civil War in the United States, half of the Federal artillery was equipped with 3- inch rifled guns and half with 1 2- pounder Napoleons. The ex- treme ranges of these two guns were about 2800 yards and 1520 yards. The artillery of the Federal Army had six guns to the battery in the early stages of the war; later this number was reduced to four. As a rule, the artillery of both armies was assigned to divisions, a reserve being sometimes retained. In the Austro- Prussian War each army had a large force of artillery, but there were radical differences in the organization and assignment. The Prussians were armed with breech-loading steel cannon, though some bat- teries still retained 12-pounder smooth bores. Four batteries were assigned to each infantry division; others were retained either as a general reserve or as corps artillery. Each battery consisted of four guns. The Austrian guns were rifled muzzle loaders organized into batteries of eight guns each. One battery was attached to each brigade of infantry, and four field and two horse batteries to each corps as corps reserve. In the Franco-German War the Prussians abolished their reserve artillery and assigned the artillery as divisional and corps artillery. Four field batteries were assigned to each infantry division, and four field and three horse batteries to each corps. The guns were steel breech load- ers and assigned in the propor- tion of 3.7 guns per 1000 rifles. The French, on the other hand, still retained the reserve as a part of their artillery organiza- tion, and their artillery, conse- quently, was used less aggres- sively. In this war the concen- tration of fire by large masses of guns was brotight to maximum by the Prussians. The French guns were partly muzzle-loading rifles and partly 12-pounder Napoleons. Following the introduction of the breech-loading steel cannon, few changes were made in artil- lery until the latter part of the nineteenth century. The prin- ciple recognized by Gustavus Adolphus, that the efficiency of artillery depended upon its mobility and the rapidity and accuracy of its fire, still held, and though the mobility of the artillery was considered as satis- factory at this time, the accu- racy and rapidity of its fire were not. All field guns prior to 1900 were mounted on the non-recoil type of carriage, and it was necessary for the gunners to relay the piece for each shot on account of the displacement of the gun and carriage due to re- coil. The sights at this time were quite elementary affairs in the light of subsequent develop- ments, and the accuracy of lay- ing attainable with the telescopic sights of to-day was impossible then. Another factor retarding the rate of fire was the dense smoke from the powder following each discharge, which prevented the gunners from seeing the target and delayed relaying the piece. This difficulty was eliminated by the introduction of smokeless powder in 1895. The French, in more recent times, as in the days of Gribeau- val, have taken the lead in artil- lery matters, and to them is due the introduction of what is known as the rapid-fire long-re- coil type gun (see Field Guns), the '75' Model 1897 of World War fame. The French jeal- ously guarded the details of con- Battery of 75 mm. Guns Prepared for Inspection. Copyright by Committee on Pia>lic Information 75 mm. Gun and Caisson in Action UNITED STATES ARTILLERY EMPLOYED IN THE GREAT WAR Vol. I.— Oct. '21 ArtUlery 406 ArtUlery struction of this gun and, prior to the World War, Httle was known of its interior mechanism or method of construction. The other principal powers soon fol- lowed the lead of France and adopted a long-recoil type gun for their artillery. In this type of gun the shock of discharge is absorbed by the recoil mech- anism and, aside from an oc- casional slight correction in the laying of the gun, it is not nec- essary to relay after each shot for the same target and the rate of fire is greatly increased. Along with the introduction of the long- recoil type, came im- proved telescopic sights, range finders, observation telescopes, and other fire-control instru- ments. The improvements in observation instruments en- abled artillery commanders to obtain the maximum advantage at the longer ranges, and the improved sights permitted con- cealment of the guns from view of the enemy, behind an inter- vening mask, from which posi- tion they could fire upon desig- nated targets with the same de- gree of accuracy as though the targets were visible to the gun- ners. Great improvement was also made in ammunition and fuses. Fixed ammunition, in which the powder charge and projectile are assembled as a unit, was adopted for the use of field artillery. This improvement permitted the entire round to be inserted in the breech of the gun at one time, obviated ramming the projectile, and thus in- creased the rapidity of fire. In the early days of artillery one round every half hour was con- sidered as a very satisfactory rate of fire. To-day field guns of the ' 75 ' type may be fired at the rate of 20 to 25 rounds per minute. Such a rate may be maintained, however, only for a very brief period, as the gun soon becomes overheated and will be destroyed if fire is continued at such a rate. Two rounds per gun per minute is the normal rate of fire for light field guns if the fire is to. be continued for a con- siderable length of time. Higher rates of fire than this will, if maintained, soon destroy the accuracy of the weapon due to erosion. All of the above im- provements in materiel increased the accuracy and rapidity of fire. Great advance was also made •in the tactical employment of the arm. Concealment of the guns from observation by the enemy has become an absolute necessity for field artillery, due to the great rapidity and ac- curacy of its fire. The truth of an axiom, born during the World War, to the effect that ' a battery seen is a battery lost' was re- peatedly demonstrated. With Vol. I.— Oct. '21 the advent of the airplane it has become necessary to conceal guns from aerial as well as ter- restrial observation. It has be- come exceedingly difficult to manoeuvre artillery on the field of battle, and belligerents pos- sessing artillery of about equal strength can seldom move guns unless they are screened from hostile observation. The condi- tions of position warfare which came into being during the World War, subsequent to the first large advances of the Ger- mans, permitted refinements in the calculation of firing data not previotisly attempted nor ob- tainable during warfare of move- ment, and enabled artillery to open an accurate and destructive fire practically without previous adjustment. The proportion of guns per thousand of infantry reached a maximum in this war, and in all American operations varied from 18 to 23. In some operations, however, this pro- portion was greatly exceeded, when necessity or special condi- tions demanded. As a result of experiments made during the World War, it was found that a considerable increase in range could be ob- tained by a change in the form of the projectile, which reduced the resistance offered by the air. During this war the Central Powers first made use of guns and howitzers with their mobile forces of a weight and calibre previously considered prohibi- tive with field forces. These weapons were used with terrible effect in the early stages of the war in overcoming the resistance of fortified places in Belgium and France. Never before has artil- lery played such a prominent part in a war nor has it ever been used to such an extent. Forests and even the hills were in certain localities obliterated by the fire of artillery. At the beginning of the war and even much later it was the practice to precede every attack of any consequence by artillery preparation, varying in duration from a few hours to several days. During this per- iod the enemy was subjected to a severe shelling not only of his front lines but also of support positions, assembly points, head- quarters, and lines of communi- cation. During the latter stages of the war the period of artillery preparation was shortened and in some cases omitted entirely in order that the enemy might be taken by surprise. Railway artillery, for shelling distant bases and routes of com- munication, was employed to a considerable extent in the war. Among the largest of the railway guns was a 14-inch naval gun mounted on a special car, hav- ing an extreme range of 44,000 yards and firing a projectile weighing 1,400 pounds. The gun with which the Germans shelled Paris was at first 8.4 inches in calibre, but was later re-bored to 9.6 when it became worn. Its range was approxi- mately 70 miles. It did little material damage to Paris, but its moral effect was consider- able. Such guns as these dete- riorate rapidly and are of doubt- ful value. The anti-aircraft ar- tillery used during the war was armed with guns of the same type as those used in the field artillery mounted on special carriages to permit high-angled fire. In the latter stages of the war artillery played an important part in delivering gas attacks. When gas was first used as an offensive weapon by the Ger- mans it was released from con- tainers and formed a cloud which drifted close to the ground, and the success of the attack was dependent upon the direction of the wind and other atmospheric conditions. Later, shells filled with gas in liquid form were used almost exclusively to effect gas concentrations which could be put down at any desired point, practically without consideration of the atmospheric conditions. The element of surprise so neces- sary to a successful gas attack was thus easily attained. Much effort has been made in recent years looking to the motorization of all field artillery, but as yet no motor vehicle has been devised that is altogether satisfactory or that so effectively meets the needs of the arm as to eliminate the horse as the prin- cipal motive power for light artil- lery. The improvements in heavy guns for coast and naval service have kept pace with the lighter guns of the land service; and, omitting the question of mobil- ity, which does not apply to guns of position, the tendency has been, and still is, to produce guns of greater power, longer range, and higher rates of fire. According to the terms of the Army Reorganization Act of 1920, the Field Artillery of the U. S. Army includes one chief (a major general), 1,900 lesser officers, and 37,000 enlisted men; the Coast Artillery one chief (a major general), 1,200 lesser officers, and 30,000 enlisted men. See Coast Artillery; Field Artillery; Gunnery; Guns (Field Guns and Siege, Railway, and Seacoast Guns) ; Army of THE United States. Bibliography. — Consult Berk- heimer's Historical Sketch of the U. S. Artillery; Owen's Modern Artillery; Birnie's Gunmaking in the United States (Journal of the U. S. Mihtary Service Institu- tion) ; Lloyd and Hadcock's Ar- Artillery Company 407 Art Students' League tillery. Its Progress and Present Position; Rouquerol's Tactical Employment of Quick-Firing Field Artillery (1903); Wagner's Or- ganization and Tactics (1905); Bethell's Modern Artillery in the Field (1911); Spaulding's Notes on Field Artillery (1914). Artillery Company, Ancient and Honorable. In 1637 there was formed in Massachusetts Bay Colony 'the MiUtary Com- pany of Boston,' which twenty years later became the 'Artillery Company.' The company was armed with brass three-pounders, and was very active during the Revolutionary War, utilizing the training in the theory and prac- tice of gunnery received from the British Royal Artillery Com- pany, which wintered in Boston in 1766. The company has never been a part of the organized militia. Its functions are now mainly social, although it still preserves its military organiza- tion, and drills are held regularly at its armory in Faneuil Hall. Its membership, numbering about 700, comprises many of the leading citizens of Boston and officers of the State militia. Artillery Company, Honora- ble, an ancient military organi- zation in Great Britain, formed in the days of the Tudors in 1537. The organization is highly es- teemed by the city of London, and is permitted to parade in the streets with bayonets fixed, a privilege granted to no other troops except regulars. The of- ficers are appointed by the crown. The organization ren- dered excellent service in the South African War, sending out an active company. In 1903 it visited the United States as the guests of the Ancient and Honor- able Artillery Company of Bos- ton. Artillery Corps. See Army OF THE United States. Artillery Practice. See Tar- get Practice. Artillery Schools. See Mili- tary Education. Artiodactyla, ar-ti-o-dak'ti-la. The great mammalian order Ungulata (q. v.) is usually di- vided into two suborders, the Perissodactyla, the 'odd-toed' or 'solid-hoofed' forms, including the horse, tapir, and rhinoceros, and the Artiodactyla, the 'even- toed' or 'cloven-footed 'ungulates, such as the sheep, cow, and pig. The artiodactyls have the third and fourth toes of the foot almost equally developed, and vso shaped that, while each is unsymmetrical in itself, the whole foot is sym- metrical. The femur is without the third trochanter, conspic- uous in the horse, and the stomach is generally complex. The Artiodactyla may again be divided into two groups — the Non-Ruminantia and the Rumi- VOL. I.— 30. nantia. The former have usually more than one pair of upper in- cisors; the metacarpal and meta- tarsal bones remain separate, and there are no horns; the stomach has rarely more than two divi- 12 3 Comparison of Even-toed Ungulate with Odd-toed. 1. Pig (artiodactyl) ; 2. Horse; and 3. Rhi- noceros (perissodactyl) . sions. The Ruminantia have never more than one pair of upper incisors, the stomach has at few- est three, and usually four divisions. The sub-order Artiodactyla contains: (1) Suina, including hippopotamus, pigs, and pec- caries; (2) Tylopoda, including camels and llamas and their allies; (3) Tragulina, the chev- rotains; (4) Pecora, the rumi- nants, including deer, giraffes, cattle, and sheep. None but artiodactyls bear upon their heads true (sheathed) horns, or antlers. Artists, Society of American. See National Academy of De- sign. Artocarpacese, an order of plants confined to the tropics, allied to the Urticaceae, and con- taining a milky juice. The best- known species are the Upas Tree of Java, the Bread Fruit Tree of the Pacific Islands, the Cow Tree of South America, and others producing rubber and beautifully marked woods. Artois, ar-twa', former prov- ince of France, now forming the greater part of the department Pas-de-Calais. The name is de- rived from Arras, its capital. From the time of Charles the Bald, Artois belonged (863) to Flanders; was French from 1180 to the middle of the thirteenth century; became then a Burgun- dian and afterward (1493) an Austrian possession, finally re- verting to the French (1659- 1713). Arts. The term 'Arts,' or 'Liberal Arts,' as technically applied to certain studies, came into use during the Middle Ages; and on the estal)lishment of uni- versities, the term 'Faculty of Arts' denoted those who devoted themselves to science and phi- losophy, as distinguished from the faculty of theology, and after- ward of medicine and law. The number of 'Arts' embraced in the full mediaeval course of learning was seven: grammar, dialect, rhetoric (constituting the Triv- iu?n), music, arithmetic, geom- etry, and astronomy (the Quad- rivium). See Degree; Uni- versity. Arts, American Federation of, an association of organizations and individuals, formed at a convention held in Washington in May. 1909. The objects of the Federation are to unite in closer fellowship all who are striving for the development of art in America, either through production or the cultivation of appreciation; to encourage and foster endeavor; to prevent, as far as possible, duplication of effort; and to furnish a channel through which public opinion, instrumental in securing better legislation, may find expression. The means it employs include ex- hibitions of paintings and other works of art of high standard sent to places where they are de- sired, and the furnishing of type- written lectures, illustrated by stereopticon slides, to towns re- mote from art centres. The Federation publishes a monthly illustrated magazine. Art and Progress, and also the American Art Annual, a comprehensive directory of art. Annual dues are $10 per delegate for chapters, $2 for associate membership, and $10 for active | members. The Federation maintains at Wash- ington a general bureau of infor- mation ; and holds in that city, an- nually, a convention at which top- ics of interest are discussed. It is governed by a Board of Directors, elected at the annual conven- tions, and is supported by the dues of chapters and associate members and by voluntary con- tributions. The membership in 1914 included over 200 chapters, scattered throughout the United States, besides several thousand individual members. President, Robert W. de Forest; Secretary, Miss Leila Mechlin, 1741 New York Avenue, Washington, D.C. Art Schools. See Schools of Art. Art Students' League of New York, a well-known school of art, founded in 1875, and located in the American Fine Arts Building, New York City. The League gives instruction in drawing and painting from life, antique draw- ing, portrait, still life, and min- iature painting, composition, il- lustration, modelling, and lec- tures on anatomy, construction, and history of art. The League also conducts night classes, a summer term, and a summer school of landscape painting at Woodstock, N. Y. Scholarship and cash prizes are awarded. The Artvln 408 Arya annual fees range from $30 to $70, and there are no entrance requirements. The League is governed by a board elected from among the membership. In 1914 the membership was about 1,500, and the a\ erage daily attendance about 500. Secretary, Katherine Jenkins. Artvin, art-ven', town, capital of province Kutais, Russian Ar- menia; 34 miles southeast of Batum. It exports honey, oil, and wax. Pop^ 7,000. Aruba, a-roo'ba, or Oruba, island, Dutch West Indies; 35 miles east of Curagoa, and 20 miles off the Venezuelan coast. Area, 69 square miles. Pop. 9,500. See CuRAgoA. Aru Islands, a'roo, or Arru Islands, small Dutch archipel- ago. East Indies, 80 miles south of Papua. Coralline in forma- tion and well wooded, the group produces trepang, sago, cocoa- nuts, rice, maize, mother of I>earl, edible swallows' nests, betel nuts, sugar, and tobacco. The birds and fauna are of great interest. Chief town, Dobbo. Area of group, 2,460 square miles. Pop. 15,000. A'rum, a genus of plants be- longing to the natural order Araceae or Aroideae. This order is chiefly tropical, and comprises herbaceous plants, some of which are stemless; shrubby plants, some of which are arborescent; and plants which climb by aerial roots, clinging to the trees of tropical forests. The leaves are sheathing at the base, convolute in bud, usually with branching veins. The small degenerate flowers are crowded upon the elongated axis or spadix, which is generally enclosed by a large bract or spathe, frequently col- ored or white. The male flowers are aggregated at the upper part of the spadix, and the female flowers toward its base. The Arrow Arum (Peltandra) is an American plant. The Calla (q. V.) or Calla Lily (Calfa palus- tris) is the Bog Arum or Water Arum. The only British species is A . maculatum, Cuckoo-Pint, Lords and Ladies, or Wake-Robin, which is common in most parts of Europe. It produces scarlet berries, half seeded, about the size of peas, clustered upon the spadix. The root has a burning, acrid taste, which, however, it loses in drying or boiling. In a fresh state it is a drastic pur- gative, too violent for medicinal use; and both root and leaves are an active poison. Yet a nourishing farina is prepared from the root, after the acrid juice has been removed, known as Portland Sago or Portland Arrowroot. Ar'undel, municipal borough, West SUvSsex, England; 11 miles east of Chichester. The Castle, the seat of the Fitzalans, earls of Arundel, from 1243 to 1580, and since then of the Howards, comprises a circular Norman keep, 100 feet high, and a modern Gothic edifice, and is now a mag- nificent pile surrounded by a park of 1,200 acres, the seat of the Duke of Norfolk. Pop. (1911) 2,842. Arundel, Earls of, a British peerage which has descended through several noble families from Roger de Montgomery, a follower of the Conqueror. In 1243 the estate passed to the Fitzalans through John, a de- scendant of the third earl. The chief members of the Fitzalan family are: — (1) Richard Fitz- alan, first Earl of Arundel (1267-1302), who was the first of the peerage actually summoned Earl of Arundel by writ (1291). — (2) Richard Fitzalan, third earl (1346-97), a famous admiral; was involved in Gloucester's fall, and beheaded in 1397. — (3) Henry Fitzalan, twelfth earl (1511?-80), was one of the twelve councillors in the regency during the minority of Edward VI. He was a prominent coun- cillor of Queen Elizabeth, and also a suitor for her hand. He was imprisoned for his connec- tion with the Ridolfi conspiracy. Through failure of male heirs, the earldom passed to Philip, son of the fourth Duke of Norfolk, in right of his mother, Mary Fitz- alan, and has since continued in the line of the Fitzalan Howards, dukes of Norfolk. (See Howard.) Arundel, Thomas (1353-1414), Archbishop of Canterbury, be- came bishop of Ely when twenty- one, and was chancellor five times under Richard ii. and Hen- ry IV. He became archbishop of York in 1388, archbishop of Can- terbury in 1396; was banished for complicity in the conspiracy against Richard ii. (1397); and returned with Henry iv., on whose head he placed the crown, in 1399. He vigorously perse- cuted the Lollards. Arundel Marbles, the collec- tion of ancient sculptures formed by Thomas Howard, Earl of Arundel, in 1624-7, and pre- served in the Ashmolean Muse- um (q. V.) at Oxford. They in- clude the celebrated ' Parian Chronicle,' a slab recording the outlines of Greek history from 1582 to 263 B.C., though the por- tion containing the last ninety years is missing. Arundo. See Reed. Arus pices. See Haruspices. Aruwimi, ii-rob-we'me, a sta- tion and administrative centre of the Belgian C^ngo, near the junction of the Aruwimi River with the Congo. Aruwimi River, a right-bank tributary of the Congo River (q. v.), rises near the west side of Albert Nyanza, and drains the great forest region between the central lakes and the Congo. Navigation is possible from Baso- ko to Yambuya. It was ex- plored for 100 miles by Stanley in 1883, and by it Stanley ad- vanced to the relief of Emin Pasha in 1887. Ar'vad, a famous Phoenician town (Gen. x. 18, etc.) on a small island north of Gebal, called Arados in Greek (now Er-Ruad); also known as Amrit and Mara- thos. It is mentioned on monu- ments about 1500 B.C., when the fleet of Arvad assisted the Amor- ites against Egypt, and attacked Tyre. Phoenician remains, in- cluding a temple, amphitheatre, and tombs, have been found on the island. Ar'val Brethren (Fr aires Ar- vales) , a kind of priestly college in ancient Rome who in the end of May conducted the ambarvalia, or progressions round the plough- ed land, chanting as they went hymns of invocation to Dea Dia, probably Ceres, or to the Lares of the fields, praying that they might grant them a rich harvest. This rite, which lasted three days, was accompanied by danc- ing and singing; the priests, of whom there were generally twelve, holding office for life, wore chaplets of oak leaves and ears of corn; honeycombs, on which wine and milk were poured, were offered to the goddess, and sacrifices of animals were also made. This priesthood was of great antiquity, and survived until at least the fourth cen- tury A.D. Consult Frazer's Golden Bough. Arverni, a Gallic tribe in Aqui- tania. In early days they were the most powerful people in Gaul, and under Vercingetorix offered a stubborn resistance to Caesar (52 B.C.), but were sub- dued in 121 A.D. by the Romans. Arvicola. See Vole. Ar'ya, Aryan, Aryanism. Ar- ya is a Sanskrit word, the general connotation of which is nobility, historical and personal, 'belong- ing to good family' {cf. Latin gentilis), in opposition to anarya, 'unworthy,' 'vile.' In the Rig- Veda, from the language of which classical Sanskrit was derived and formed, it was used as the na- tional designation of the invading tribes from the northwest. Its original meaning was probably 'kinsman,' as one of the same race, and having the same religion. By it was evinced the proud con- sciousness of superiority and unity or community, in opposi- tion to the aboriginal inhabitants, who were called Dasa or Dasyu, 'fiends.' When ultimately the Dasa were reduced, their name assumed the meaning of 'slave,' and they were incorporated into the Hindu social system as the Arya fourth caste, the Sudra. (See Caste.) The name Arya then assumed its meaning as in San- skrit: instead of being tribal and national, it became social and ethical. But the more ordinary use of the term Aryan is for the whole family, which is also -known as Indo-Germanic and Indo-Euro- pean. This use of it was intro- duced chiefly by Max Miiller and Pictet; and latterly, when language and race became more strictly discriminated , M ax M iiller advocated the sole use of the term for the Indo-European family of languages. Its application, how- ever, to race as well as to language has been long established. When it was seen that the chief lan- guages of Europe had affinities with the ancient languages of India and Persia, the problem arose of their historical connec- tion, and their relation to the parent speech; and out of this problem, again, arose that of the original home of the parent race of the peoples. At first, on account of the antiquity of the ancient language of the Hindus, those of Europe were derived from India, as by Friedrich Schlegel (1808); and from a study of the Avesta, Rhode first indicated the highlands of Central Asia, about the upper basin of the Amu Daria, as the original home. By the com- parative study of words and names common to all or several of the languages (linguistic palaeon- tology), it was believed possible to locate the original home as indicated by the primitive civili- zation. And by the work of many scholars this came to be regarded as somewhere in Central Asia, from the Urals to the Hindu-Kush. and from the Pamirs to Armenia. Opposition to this view was first made by Omalius d'Halloy and Latham, who held that the original abode must be looked for in Europe. Benfey and Schrader decided for the southern plains of Russia, Geiger indicated Central and West Germany, Hirt favored the Baltic plains, and Cuno claimed the whole of North and East Europe from the Urals to the Atlantic. Finally, anthropo- logical evidence was adduced by Posche on behalf of Eastern Europe, and by Penka on behalf of Scandinavia. Europe may be said to have gained the day; but Asia has been, nevertheless, up- held by scholars such as Max Miiller, Van den Gheyn, Ujfalvy, Hehn, and Ihering. Thus arose the problem of the Aryan race and its origin. As the population of Europe consists of two fundamental races, one of which is dolichocephalic and the other brachycephalic, it is neces- sary to decide which is to be considered the Aryan. But the 409 dolichocephalic race comprises two branches — a brunette in the south and another in the north. By one school it is held that the Aryans are the tall, blond doli- chocephalic race which is best represented by the people of North Germany and Scandinavia. It is held by another school, the Gallic, that the brachycephalic race is the original Aryan. In the study of the Aryan prob- lem it is necessary to discrimi- nate between language, race, and civilization or culture. From the comparative study of the Indo- European languages, several ac- counts have been given of the primitive Aryan civilization, no- tably by Kuhn, Pictet, Max Miiller, Ihering (for law and custom), and Schrader in all its aspects. The fascinating idyll of the primitive Aryan of Pictet and Max MuUer has been dis- sipated by more exact study. Its civilization was much inferior to that of the neolithic people of Europe. According to this view, the classical civilization of Europe is of Mediterranean origin, but Aryanized in speech. The advocacy of the opposite theory is termed Aryanism — that Europe owes its culture and civi- lization to the Aryan, a tall, blond dolichocephalic race represented by the modern Germans, Scandi- navians, and English. Consult Schrader' s Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan Peoples (trans, by Jevons) ; Sergi's Mediterranean Races (with a bibliography); Morris' The Aryan Race: its Origin and its Achievements; Humphrey's Mankind: Racial Values and Racial Prospects (1917); Dutt's The Aryanization of India (1925); Childe's The Aryans: a Study of Indo-Euro- pean Origins (1926). Arzamas, ar-za-mas', town, Russia, in Nijni Novgorod gov- ernment, 70 miles southwest of Nijni Novgorod. Commercially, it is, after Nijni Novgorod, the chief town of the government and has tanneries, oil works, and foundries. Pop. 14,000. As, the Roman libra, or pound, so called because made of the Roman As {reduced) compound metal aes. Eventually the name came to denote a coin, the as, which weighed half an ounce. As, in northern mythology. See ^siR. Asa, king of Judah (c. 918-877 B.C.), son and successor of Abijah. Asaphus He showed great energy in purg- ing his kingdom of idolatry. He defeated Zerah, a Cushite in- vader, and, with the help of Syria, Baasha, king of Israel. See 1 Kings xv. 9-24; 2 Chron. xiv.-xvi. Asaba, a-sa'ba, town, Nigeria, West Africa, on the right bank of the Niger, about 12 miles north of lat. 12° s. Asafcetida, as-a-fet'i-da (Lat. 'fetid gum'), a gum resin from the living root of various species of Ferula, found chiefly in Tibet, Afghanistan, Persia, and the Punjab. The fresh oil has not an unpleasant smell, but when decomposed it gives off sulphu- retted hydrogen. It is one of the aromatics, differing from most of them in its disagreeable charac- teristics. It is used as a cathar- tic to expel flatulence, and as a nerve stimulant. Asakusa, a-sa-koo'sa, popular Buddhist temple to the 'thousand- armed Kwan-non,' the goddess of mercy, in a suburb of Tokyo, Japan. Asaky, or Asachi, ^George (1788-1869), Roumanian author, one of the leaders in the regenera- tion of his country. He founded a School of Engineering in Jassy (1813), established the first Roumanian theatre (1817), set up the first press for printing books in the Roumanian language, and founded, and edited for thirty years, the first Roumanian paper {Albina). He also composed school books, translated classical plays from German and French, and wrote a volume of poetry. Asama-yama, a-sa'ma-ya'ma, active volcano (doleritic lava) , in the province of Shinshu, Japan, 80 miles northwest of Tokyo. It is the largest and most treacher- ous volcano in Japan, rising to a height of 8,260 feet and having a crater about >^ mile in diameter. The ascent, usually made from Kutsukake, is comparatively easy. In 1908, 1911, and 1912 more or less serious eruptions occurred and in 1783 a violent one, lasting 88 days, spread terror and destruction for miles. Asaph, a'saf, chief musician in the time of David and Solomon (1 Chron. xvi. 5). His name is prefixed to 12 psalms (Nos. 1. and Ixxiii.-lxxxiii.), and he seems to have been regarded as the founder or ancestral representa- tive of a guild or family of singers in the second temple. Asaphus, as'o-fus, a genus of trilobites, characterized by nearly equal size of cephalic shield and pygidium; a glabella contracted between the large prominent eyes; large free cheeks; forked hypostoma and eight thoracic segments. It is found abundantly in the Lower Silurian formation of Europe and America. With the allied genus, Illaenus, it forms Vol. I.— Oct. '27 Asarum 410 Asbotb the important members of the family Asapliidae as found in America. Asarum, as'a-rum, a genus of plants of the order Aristolo- chiaceae. They are low-growing perennial herbs with purplish brown flowers, found in shady woods. An American species, A. canadense, is the snake-root or wild ginger. It has a pair of soft, hairy, heart-shaped leaves and a brownish-purple flower, which grows close to the ground. The long, fleshy rootstock is pleas- antly aromatic, and ginger-like in flavor. The leaves of the European species, called asara- bacca, are said to be emetic, cathartic, and diuretic. Asben. See Air. Asbestos (Gr. eternal, inde- structible), a term used in mineralogy to designate three minerals, and their varieties, whose genesis is still undeter- mined, but whose fibrous, crystal- line structure and the special property of being more or less acid and fire proof mark them from all others. These minerals are, (1) Ser- pentine group 3 MgO 2 Si02- 2 H2O) or hydrated silicates of magnesia; (a) picrolite, (b) chrys- otile, or serpentine asbestos, (c) talc; (2) Amphibole or horn- blende group (R SiOs), anhy- drated, and usually associated with oxide of iron and manga- nese, sodium and potassium also being present; (a) tremolite, (b) actinolite, (c) hornblende, or Italian asbestos (Amphibole), (d) crocidolite (blue or African asbestos), (e) mountain leather, wood or cork; (3) Anthophyllite (Mg. Fe) Si03, a silicate of mag- nesium and iron. The use of asbestos can be traced back to the Romans, who named it amianthus, considering it a vegetable substance. It was probably the amphibole asbestos found in the Ural and Alps mountains, whose brittle fibres they wove together with threads of linen, to make burial cloth, in which to wrap their dead, in order to retain the ashes when the body burnt on the funeral pyre, Plutarch records the use of asbestos in the wicks of the Vestal Virgins' lamps,*and Marco Polo in the 13th century noted the use of amianthus in Siberia. All knowledge of asbestos, how- ever, was buried with the past, for it was not until 1868 when it was rediscovered in' the Aostro Valley, in the Italian Alps, that it became known to the modern world. Even then it was not until 1878 when chrysotile as- bestos was discovered in large quantities in the Thetford and Coleraine hills near Quebec, Canada, that any real progress was made in the industry. Since then its exploitation and de- VoL. I.— Oct. "27 velopment has been rapid and today asbestos, in one form or another, is indispensable in the electrical and engineering worlds, and plays an important part in our domestic life. Commercially the asbestiform minerals are divided into three groups: (1) Chrysotile, or ser- pentine asbestos, known as cross fibre: (2) Amphibole asbestos or slip fibre including crocidolite, tremolite, and actinolite; (3) An- thophylHte, or mass fibre. Chrysotile is found in serpentine where it occurs in veins varying from M to K of an inch in width, seldom wider. The fibres run from wall to wall across the vein, and are easily separated. In color they are green, yellow or black and have a silky or waxy lustre. The fibres are impervious to acid and fire, and have a re- markable degree of elasticity, flexibility, and tensile strength which makes them adaptive for spinning and weaving. These quaUties of strength, flexibility, and elasticity which are not possessed by amphibole asbestos, place chrysotile first in value and importance. Amphibole asbestos, or slip fibre, usually occurs in courtlan- dite or pyroxenite, sometimes in schistose rock, in slipping planes. The fibres run parallel to the direction of the slipping and are 2K to 3 inches long. In color they are white, green, brown, or black, of vitreous lustre, and are coarse and brittle, and not adapted to spinning but have excellent fire and acid resisting qualities. Anthrophyllite, an iron magne- sium metosilicate, differs from chrysotile and amphibole in that it never occurs in veins but composes the whole mass of rock in which it forms. It is yellow, brown, or black due to the iron present, the fibres pulverize easily and are generally radial. It is quarried extensively in the United States, principally in the Gall Mountains in Georgia. Chrysotile, 80 per cent, of which comes from Canada, where it is quarried in open pits, is used in the making of yar ns'and fabrics, packing, brake linings, and in- sulating material. Amphibole is found in many parts of the world, but the commercial varieties come from South Africa, Russia, United States, and Italy. It is used in making building material, fire- proofing, paints, cements and domestic articles, and combined with chrysotile, paper and mill board. Recent successful experi- ments with long-fibred amphibole found extensively in the some- what inaccessible Grand Canyon of Arizona, whereby the brittle fibres can be made suitable for spinning and weaving will make mining in this region practical, and greatly reduce the United States' present dependence on foreign sources of supply. Imports into the United States in 1926 were: Africa, 553 tons, $117,471; Canada, 14,635 tons, $493,449; Belgium, 30 tons, $7,823; Germany, 67 tons, $17,102; United Kingdom, 35 tons, $8,570. According to the Census of Manufactures for 1925 asbestos products, other than steam pack- ing, or pipe and boiler covering, were valued at $36,173,797, made up as follows: Brake lining and clutch facing, $8,059,947; shingles and roofing material, $5,795,636; table mats and protectors, $379,- 719; all other products, $21,939,- 495. The total value for the industry shows a decrease of 1.8 per cent, as compared with $36,820,444 for 1923, the last preceding census 3'ear. Of the 49 establishments reporting for 1925, 5 were located in Illinois, 9 in New Jersey, 4 in New York, 8 in Pennsylvania, and the re- maining 23 in twelve other states. Asb-jornsen", as-byurn'sen, PeterChristian (1812-85), Nor- wegian author and writer of folk- tales, was born in Christiania. He studied medicine for a time, was a tutor in various Norwegian cities, and eventually became a practical forester and naturalist as well as a writer. In 1842 he and his friend and colleague, J. E. Moe, published the first part of the classic Norske Folkeevcnlyr (new ed. 1896-9), which can be placed by the side of Grimm's Kinder — imd Hausmdrchen and which had great influence on the development of Norwegian liter- ature. A second collection of folk-tales, dealing chiefly with fairies, appeared from 1845 to 1848, under the title Norske Huldreevenlyr og Folkesagn, with a literary merit even higher than the Folkeeventyr. A third col- lection of the tales appeared in 1870. Of his scientific works his account of his Mediterranean expedition (1849-50) in the corvette Eagle is the most im- portant. Asbjornsen is the Norwegian story-teller, par ex- cellence, though he wrote in Danish. Asbotb, osh'bot, Alexander (Sandor) (1811-1868), Hun- garian-American soldier. He fought under Kossuth in the Hungarian revolution of 1848-9, shared that patriot's imprison- ment in Turkey (1849-51), and in the latter year accompanied him to the United States, of which he became a citizen. At the outbreak of the Civil War, he enlisted and he commanded divisions under Fremont and Curtis. In 1866 he was appointed minister to the Argentine Re- public. Asbury 411 AschaflTenburg Asbury, Francis (1745-1816), first American bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church, and joint founder with Thomas Coke of Methodism in the United States, was born in Handsworth, Staffordshire, Eng- land. He early came under the influence of the Wesleys, was converted at the age of thirteen, was a local preacher at sixteen, and at twenty-two was one of John Wesley's chosen lieutenants. He went to Philadelphia in 1771, as missionary, and was afterward appointed general assistant over the entire American organiza- tion. He kept up his work during the Revolution and when Thomas Coke was set apart as superintendent and sent to America by Wesley (1784), he consecrated Asbury joint super- intendent (later changed to bishop), with himself, of the American church. Asbury was a most fearless and successful evangelist and organizer and the great development of Methodism in the United States was largely due to his untiring efforts. Asbury Park, city, New Jersey, in Monmouth County, on the Atlantic coast, and on the New York and Long Branch and the Pennsylvania Railroads; 6 miles south of Long Branch. It is a well known watering-place, and, together with the adjoining resort of Ocean Grove, is a favorite place for religious and educa- tional meetings. Pop. (1910) 10,150 (1920) 13,674. As'calon or Ashkelon, one of the five chief Philistine cities, now in ruins. It is situated on the Mediterranean, north of Gaza and about 40 miles south- west of Jerusalem. It is con- sidered one of the oldest cities in the world, and according to the tablets at Tel Amarna was a vassal of Amenhotep. It passed into the hands of the Philistines in the 12th century B.C., later was conquered by Alexander and under Ptolemaic rule became thoroughly Hellenized. The people were bitterly opposed to Christianity but the city was taken by the Crusaders in 1153, the Christians having won a signal victory near the town some fifty years earlier (1099). It was recaptured by Saladin in 1187 and finally destroyed by Bibars Bendukbar in 1270. Remains of the city walls and some temples are still standing. Asca'nlus, the son of ^Eneas and Creusa, who as a boy escaped with his father after the fall of Troy. He distinguished himself in the war against the Italians, and after the death of .Eneas founded the town of Alba Longa. He is also called lulus, and from him the Julian clan at Rome claimed descent. As'cariS) a genus of round worms or nematodes, including some important intestinal para- sites — e.g. A. lumbricoides, of man; A. mystax, of cats, and dogs; and A. megalocephala, of the horse and related animals. Other species have been found in birds, reptiles, and fishes. They usually infest the small intestine and may be expelled by means of cathartics and vermifuges. Ascendant. See Astrology. Ascen'sion, British island in the Atlantic Ocean, in lat. 7° 56' S., long. 14° 24' w.; 760 miles northwest of St. Helena. It is about 34 square miles in area, composed of extinct volcanic cones. In the southeast is Green Mountain (2,820 feet), which is used as a sanatorium. The only good anchorage is at George Town, in the northwest. Land crabs and turtles are plentiful and phosphates and guano are collected. It was discovered by the Portuguese navigator, Juan de Nova, on Ascension Day, 1501. It is used as a coaling and supply station by Great Britain, who took possession of it in 1815. Ascension Day, or Holy Thursday, commemorates, in most of the Christian churches, the ascension of Christ into heaven, held to have taken place forty days after the resurrection, and thus placed in the calendar forty days after Easter. Ascension, Right. See Right Ascension. Ascet'Icism, as used by ec- celsiastical writers from the 3rd century onwards, means the con- tinual mortification of bodily de- sires, even of such as are lawful in themselves, in order to attain purity of soul and more perfect union with God. But though this meaning of the word is of Christian origin, the principle of asceticism is common in vary- ing degrees to most religions. It is especially prominent when the idea prevails that earthly life is evil, or that the body is a hin- drance to the soul in its quest of virtue. Hence in Brahminism we meet with an elaborate system of meditation and penance, by which the adept attains union with the divine, and acquires supernatural powers (see Der- vishes and Sati); while Bud- dhism regards the life of the monk who lives in poverty and celibacy as the means of escape from transmigration into new forms of bodily existence. Even among the Greeks there are traces from early times of this ascetic view. After the Christian era, the Roman Stoics, and later still the Neo-Pythagoreans and Neo-Pla- tonists, pursued ascetic modes of life. The Old Testament, with its solitary fast {viz. that on the Day of Atonement) and its exaltation of marriage, gives scant encouragement to asceti- cism. Still, among the later Jews, the Pharisees fasted twice a week; the Essenes, as a rule, abstained from marriage, and lived in community; and the praise of virginity finds frequent expression in the works of Philo Judaeus. It was from the influ- ence of later Greek philosophy that the ascetic life gained en- trance into the Christian church. The New Testament requires complete self-surrender to the service of God and man, but pre- scribes no rules of ascetic dis- cipline. Early in the 2nd century a.d.. Christians kept stated fast days and hours of prayer. It was thought meritorious ' to abstain from marriage; watching through the night, endurance of cold, going barefoot, wearing of sack- cloth, and other kinds of mortifi- cation were in high repute. Gradually a special class of men and women arose, known as 6.aK7}Tai or ascetics. Such per- sons were at first bound by no vows, and continued to live in the family circle. But towards the close of the 3rd century, Hieracas of Leontopolis, a disciple of Origen, gathered round him a number of ascetics, whom he trained to study and mortifi- cation. He even regarded the ascetic life as the distinguishing novelty of the Christian revela- tion. It is said that some of these ascetics fled into the desert during the Decian persecution (250). In any case, the Egyptian An;ony (251-356 a.d.) became the father of monasticism, which is the legitimate outcome of the ascetic life. The ascetic principle is still maintained in the Roman and Eastern Churches, though from the earliest times Roman Catholic authorities have condemned as heretical the belief that wine, flesh-meat, marriage, and family life are intrinsically evil. The Reformation was unfriendly to asceticism, but a moderate as- ceticism, represented for example, in Jeremy Taylor's Holy Living, has found favor in the Anglican Church. Consult Morris' Greek and Roman Ascetic Tendencies (1912). Asch, ash, town, Czechoslo- vakia, at the foot of the Hain- berg; 13 miles northwest of Eger. Industries include manufactures of dress stuffs, stockings, wire, and lace. Pop. 21,900. Aschaffenburg, a-sha'f^n- hobrch, town, Bavaria, on the right bank of the Main, 23 miles southeast of Frankfort-on-the- Main. The castle contains a val- uable library, a picture gallery, and a collection of engravings. There are manufactures of colored paper, papier-mache, tobacco, and glue. Pop. (1919) 32,199. Vol. I.— Oct. '27 Ascham 412 Asepsis Ascham, as'kcm, Roger (1515- 68), English writer and scholar, one of the earliest masters of English prose, was born in Kirby Wiske, near Northallerton. He entered Cambridge in 1530, in 1537 became reader in Greek, and in 1546 was appointed public orator to his university. In 1545 he published Toxophilus, a trea- tise on archery, which gained him the favor of Henry viii. and the appointment (1548) of tutor to Princess Elizabeth. Three years (1550-3) spent abroad in the suite of the English ambassador at the court of Charles v. led to the pub- lication in 1553 of his Report on the Affairs of Germany. Mean- time he had been appointed Latin secretary to Edward vi., and was continued in the same position under Mary. Under Elizabeth he was secretary and tutor un- til his death. In 1570 his widow published his principal work, The Scholemaster , in which Ascham advocates the teaching of clas- sical languages by the analysis of choice passages rather than by an elaborate course of grammatical instruction; he also shows that gentleness is more effective than punishment with children. Ascherslaben, ash-ers-la'ben, town, Prussia, in Saxony, pleas- antly situated on the Eine, 36 miles northwest of Halle. Industries include manufactures of woollens, hardware, tinware, sugar and linen, breweries, tan- neries, and salt works. Pop. (1919) 27,550. Ascid'ians (Ascidiacea) , an or- der of tunicates or sea-squirts, including all the familiar mem- bers of that class. The term is also used in a more restricted sense for tunicates belonging to the genus Ascidia and the related genera. See Tunicata. Ascites, a-si'tez, an accumula- tion of fluid, more or less serous, in the peritoneal cavity. The swelling is not inflammatory, but dropsical; and ascites is not, properly speaking, a disease, but a sign of one of several diseases. Fluid in excess in the peritoneal cavity may be due either to (1) lack of propelling power — heart weakness; (2) obstruction to circulation; (3) weakness of the tissues, and impairment of ab- sorption; (4) changes in the fluid itself; or (5) mechanical ob- struction to the portal circulation, caused by liver disease. Ascites is usually slow in onset, and is diagnosed chiefly by observ- ance of the abdomen in different positions, by palpation and percussion, or by the discovery of disease likely to produce it. The treatment consists in dealing with the cause, medically or by surgical operation, and in pro- moting absorption of the ascitic fluid by free action of the bowels, skin, and kidneys. Asclepiadacese, as-kle-pi-a-da'- se-e, an order of plants closely related to Apocynaceae, or Dog- banes. Many are characterized by a milky juice {latex), which in certain cases forms an acrid caoutchouc of small value, the best known species occurring in Penang. They are most abun- dant in Africa, but many are found in India and tropical America — the cow plant of Cey- lon, a pitcher plant (Dischidia) in the Malay Archipelago; the fragrant Stephanotis, and the ill-scented species of Hoya and Stapelia, all belong to the order. The milk weeds (Asclepias) are common in the United States. In most of the genera the pollen forms pollinia, as in orchids. Many of the plants are reputed to have medicinal value and several yield useful fibres — e.g. mudar. Asclepiades, as-kle-pi'o-dez, a Greek poet of Samos (fl. 280 B.C.), who is said to have taught Theoc- ritus. Thirty-nine epigrams in the Greek anthology are ascribed to him. Asclepiades, Greek physician, a native of Bithynia who lived in the first century B.C. and at- tained great fame in Rome, where he founded the 'methodical' school. The salient features of his treatment were such as are approved by most modern physi- cians — viz. a generous diet, the use of alteratives, open-air ex- ercise, bathing, and in general the assistance of nature by freeing the patient from mental or nervous strain. Asclepiadic, as-kle-pi-ad'ic, a metre supposed to be so-called because of its connection with the poet Asclepiades. The lesser asclepiad consisted of a spondee, two choriambi, and an iambus (__|_ ^^_| |^_); as, Maecenas atavis edite regibus. The greater asclepiad contained three choriambi ( | — ^ — | as. Quis post vina gravem militiam aut pauper iem ere pat? Ascoli, as'ko-le, Graziadio IsAiA (1829-1907), Italian philol- ogist, was born in Gorz, Austria. He early devoted himself to linguistic study and from 1861 to 1902 was professor at the Academy of Milan, where he was influential in promoting the study of comparative philology, San- skrit, and the Romance languages, and was a leading authority on the science of phonetics. His chief publication is Fonologia Comparata del Sanscrito, del Greco, e del Latino (1870). His most noteworthy contributions on dialects are contained in the volumes of the Milan periodical Archivio Glottologico (1873-1912). His Studii Critici (1861) and Letter e Glottologiche (1886) deal mostly with phonetics. Ascoli Piceno, pe-cha'no, prov- ince, Italy, in the Marches, sloping northeast from the Central Apennines to the Adri- atic, with the Sibylline Moun- tains (8,130 feet) on its western border; area 805 square miles. Pop. (1921) 265,164. Ascoli Piceno, city, Italy, capi- tal of Ascoli Piceno province; 20 miles from the Adriatic coast, and 73 miles south of Ancona. It represents the ancient A senium Pieenum, chief town of the Piceni, which played a leading part in the Social war, and in retaliation was burnt (91 B.C.) by the Roman consul Pompeius Strabo. Various remains of the ancient town — e.g. a bridge, and portions of the walls — still sur- vive. The ancient cathedral is alleged to have been built by Constantine the Great, on the site of a former temple of Her- cules. Majolica, glass, paper, hats, leather, wax, and silk are the chief manufactures. Pop. (1921) 32,095. Ascoli Satrjiano,^ sa-tre-a'no, town and episcopal see, Italy, in the province of Foggia, 19 miles south of Foggia. It is identified with the ancient Asculum Apu- lum, where Pyrrhus, in 279 B.C., defeated the Romans. Pop. 6,000. Ascomycetes, as-ko-ml-se'tez, a class of fungi which develop their spores in membranous sacs called asci. They include many species, from tiny one-celled plants to large and sometimes beautiful specimens. Among the better known varieties are the truffles, the Pezizales, or cup fungi, some of which are edible, and various species of the genera Morchella, Gyromitra, and Helvella. See Fungi. Asco'nius Pedia'nus (2 B.C.-83 A.D.), Roman grammarian, famed especially for his commentary on the speeches of Cicero, of which valuable fragments are extant. Ascot or Ascot Heath, a famous race course, nearly 2 miles long, in Berkshire, England, 6 miles southwest of Windsor. The races, instituted in 1711, are held annually in June, and are usually attended by royalty. The course was altered and improved in 1902. The centre of the race course is laid out as golf links. Ascot Vale, a suburb of Mel- bourne, Victoria, Australia, situ- ated on the Saltwater River. Asellio, a-sel'yo, Gasparo (1581-1626), a celebrated Italian surgeon, native of Cremona. An early advocate of vivisection, and an accomplished anatomist (some time professor of anatomy at Padua), his greatest claim to distinction is his discovery (1623) of the lacteals. Asep'sis, the neutral condi- tion in which there are neither the germs of putrefaction nor any active antiseptic agents: e.g. water boiled for half an hour in Vol. I.— Oct. '27 Asexual 413 Ashburton Treaty a covered vessel is aseptic, con- taining no living germs of putre- faction, but is not antiseptic until an antiseptic has been added to it. The term aseptic is now used to express a condition of freedom from all bacteria — not merely from those concerned in putre- faction. Asexual. See Sex; Parthe- nogenesis; Reproduction. Asgard, as'gard, home of the Aesir, in Scandinavian and Teu- tonic mythology. See Aesir. AsgUl, as'gil, John (1659- 1738), English barrister and pamphleteer, expelled in 170.3 from the Irish and in 1707 from the English House of Commons on account of the blasphemous nature of his book, An Argument, holding that men may be trans- lated to heaven without dying. He attributed death to the power of custom, and to the fear of dy- ing, rather than to necessity. From the Fleet prison, where he was imprisoned for debt (and where he died), he issued numer- ous pamphlets. Coleridge (Table Talk) declares there is no 'genu- ine Saxon English' finer than As- gill's. His famous pamphlet An Argument was edited by Gregg in 1875. Ash (Fraxinus), a genus of trees belonging to the family Oleacese, and including thirty species, half of which are found in all except the coldest sections of the New World. They bear pinnately compound leaves, small inconspicuous flowers, which ap- pear in dense clusters in the spring, sometimes before the leaves are out, and winged, dart- shaped seeds. The wood is white, tough, and elastic, and is valuable in cabinet work, for making barrel staves, carriages, tools, and baskets, and for fuel. Its ashes are rich in potash and make excellent fertilizer. The most important American species is the White Ash (F. Americana), a tall stately tree, 75 to 125 feet in height, with a trunk 6 feet in diameter, found from Nova Scotia to Florida and west to Minnesota and Texas. Other common species are the Black Ash (F. nigra), usually growing along the borders of streams and in swamps; the Red Ash (F. Pennsylvania), a small, spreading tree with a reddish bark and somewhat inferior wood; the Green Ash (F. lanceo- lata), a beautiful shade tree with dark lustrous foliage; and the Oregon Ash (F. Oregona), also a valuable shade tree, found on the Pacific coast. The European Ash (F. excelsior) is a large timber tree, growing in Asia as well as in Europe. It is exceedingly valuable for its wood; the seeds are used as a food for pigs; and the ashes make good fertilizer. The Flowering Ash (F. ornus) of Southern Europe and Asia Minor yields a medicinal wax known as manna (q. v.). Ashanti, a-shan'te, or Ashan- tee, a district of the Gold Coast, lying inland behind the Prah River, until 1896 a native king- dom of West Africa, dating from the beginning of the 18th cen- tury. It is an undulating region, clothed with dense forest, and traversed by wide, swampy streams. The forest products — timber, vegetable oils, rubber, and gum copal — are a great po- tential source of wealth. Cocoa and rubber plantations have been formed, and the practice of agriculture in general is being extended. Gold is the principal mineral product, the output for 1921 amounting to 85,019 oz., valued at £361,360. The people are one of the most important tribes of the Tshi group, warlike, predatory, and formerly notori- ous for their orgiastic human sacrifices. Owing to their dep- redations on the Fanti subjects of Britain in the coast regions, they were punished bv military expe- ditions in 1807-11; in 1873-4, when Sir Garnet Wolseley cap- tured and burned Kumassi; in 1895-6, when their king, Prem- peh, was exiled; and again in 1900, after which Ashanti was annexed by Great Britain. It now constitutes a district (North- ern Territories) of the Gold Coast Colony. The chief town is Kumassi, with 20,000 inhabi- tants. The population of Ash- anti is estimated at about 407,000. Ash'bourne, or Ashborne, market town, England, in Derby- shire, on the left bank of the Dove; 22 miles southeast of Buxton. The cruciform church with a central tower dates from 1241, and has a beautiful spire (212 ft.), known as the 'Pride of the Peak.' In the north chancel is Banks' fine sculpture to the memory of Penelope Boothby, which suggested Chantry's Sleep- ing Children in Lichfield Cathe- dral. Pop. (1921) 4,147. Ashbourne, Edward Gibson, Baron (1837-1913), was born in Dublin. He became m.p. for Dublin University (1875), at- torney-general for Ireland (1877- 80), and was raised to the peerage in 1885. He was lord chancellor of Ireland in 1885-92 and again in 1895-1906. His name is as- sociated with the Act of 1885 for facilitating the sale of Irish hold- ings to tenants. Ashburner, Charles Albert (1854-89), American geologist and engineer, was born in Phila- delphia, Pa. He was educated at the University of Pennsyl- vania; was employed on the U. S. Lighthouse Survey; was assistant geologist of Pennsylvania in 187.5-79, and in 1880-87 was geologist in charge of the anthra- cite coal fields of that State. He was subsequently connected with various mining and engineering companies in Pittsburgh and else- where. His work in the Penn- sylvania coal fields was exceed- ingly valuable. He published The Anthracite Coal Beds of Penn- sylvania (1882), The Geology of Natural Gas in Pennsylvania and New York (1885), and American Petroleum (1888). Ashburnham, John (1603-71), confidential agent to Charles i. He sat in the Long Parliament; assisted, during the civil war, at the treaty of Uxbridge and other peace negotiations, accompanied Charles in his journey to the Scots army, and arranged his flight from Hampton Court to the Isle of Wight. During the Commonwealth he was impris- oned and banished, but regained his old office as groom of the bed- chamber at the restoration. Ash'burton, market town, England, in Devonshire, on the Yeo; 19 miles southwest of Exe- ter. It received a charter in the time of Edward i. (1239-1307) as a stannary town, for the weigh- ing and stamping of tin and the holding of Tin Parliaments. It was occupied by the Royalists during the civil war, and was taken by Fairfax in 1646. Pop. (1921) 2,362. Ashburton, Alexander Bar- ing, Baron (1774-1848), was the head of the British banking firm of Baring Brothers; was m.p. for various constituencies (1806-35), and was raised to the peerage in 1835. As special commissioner to Washington (1842), he con- cluded the Ashburton Treaty (q. v.). Ashburton, John Dunning, First Baron (1731-83), English lawyer and politician, was born in Ashburton. Called to the bar in 1756, he became recorder of Bristol (1766), and was subse- quently solicitor-general (1767- 70); M.p. for Calne (1768-82); chancellor of the Duchy of Lan- caster, and a privy councillor. He was a persuasive orator, and an opponent of the government's American policy. He was raised to the peerage in 1782. Ashburton River, Western Australia, rises in the mountains west of the Great Sandy desert, and after a northwesterly course of 400 miles, enters the Indian Ocean, northeast of Exmouth. Ashburton Treaty, or Web- ster-Ashburton Treaty, an im- portant treaty between the United States and Great Britain, negotiated at Washington, D. C, in 1842, by Daniel Webster (q. v.), then Secretary of State, on behalf of the United States, and Alexander Baring, Lord Ash- burton (q. v.), on behalf of Great Britain. By this treaty (Arts, i and ii) the boundary between the United States and Canada, east of the Rocky Mountains, was agreed upon; and provision was Vol. I.— Oct. '23 Ashby 414 Ashfleld also made (Art. iii) that the navi- gation of the St. John River should be free to the inhabitants of Maine and New Brunswick; that (Art. iv) 'all grants of land heretofore made by either party, within the limits of the territory which by this treaty falls within the dominions of the other party, shall be held valid, ratified, and confirmed to the persons in pos- session under such grants, to the same extent as if such territory had by this treaty fallen within the dominions of the party by whom such grants were made; that (Art. v) the United States should pay to Massachusetts and Maine $300,000 'in equal moieties on account of their assent to the line of boundary described in this treaty;' that (Art. viii) each power should 'maintain on the coast of Africa a sufficient and adequate squadron ... to en- force, separately and respec- tively, the laws, rights, and obli- gations of each of the two coun- tries for the suppression of the slave trade,' the two squadrons to co-operate; and (Art. x) that, under certain conditions, each power should 'deliver up to jus- tice all persons who, being charged with the crime of mur- der, or assault with intent to com- mit murder, or piracy, or arson, or robbery, or forgery, or the ut- terance of forged paper, com- mitted within the jurisdiction of either, shall seek an asylum or shall be found within the terri- tories of the other.' The treaty was negotiated at a time when relations between the United States and Great Britain were strained (see Caroline Affair; Creole Case), and was particu- larly important in that it settled the long-standing dispute con- cerning the northeast boundary of the United States, which had brought the two powers almost to the verge of hostilities. (See Northeast Boundary Contro- versy.) Ratifications were ex- changed in London on Oct. 13, 1842, and the treaty was pro- claimed on Nov. 10. The text of the treaty is to be found in Macdonald's Select Documents of United States History, 1776-1861 (1898), the diplomatic corre- spondence concerning it in the House Executive Document, No. 2, of the 27th Congress. Ash'by, Turner (1828-62). American Confederate soldier, was born in ROvSe Bank. Fauquier County, Va. He became a planter and was a supporter of slavery, though not of secession. With a company of mounted men, raised by himself, he par- ticipated in the recapture of Harper's Ferry from John Brown's followers (18.59). He commanded the advance guard in the Shenandoah Valley cam- paign under General Jackson, covering his retreat before Gen- VOL. I.— Oct. '23 eral Banks with much skill and gallantry. He was raised to the rank of brigadier-general in 1862, and was killed at Harrisonburg, Va., in a minor engagement two days before the battle of Cross Keys. Ashby-de-Ia-Zouch, ash'bi- de-la-zobch', town, England, in Leicestershire; 21 miles north- west of Leicester. Features of interest are the ruins of the Cas- tle, built about 1474, and famous as the scene of several events in Scott's Ivanhoe, and the church of St. Helen, containing the tombs of the Earl and Countess of Huntingdon. There are col- lieries and manufactures of hos- iery, hats, and leather. Pop. (1921) 4,983. Ash'by-Ster'ry, Joseph (1860- 1917), English artist, journalist, and critic, was born in London, He at first painted portraits in oil and made wood drawings for Punch and other papers, but soon drifted into journalism and became widely known in England as the writer of the 'Bystander' papers in the London Graphic. From 1891 to 1907 he was art critic on the Daily Graphic. Be- sides many interesting sketches and some clever verse, he pub- lished Nutshell Novels (1890), Lazy Minstrel (1892), Naughty Girl (1893), A Tale of the Thames in Verse (1896), Leaves for the Lazy (1900), The River Rhymer (1913). Ash'dod, a great city of the Philistines (Josh. xi. 22), not far from the Mediterranean coast; called Azotus in the Apocrypha and New Testament, now Isdud or Esdud, a small mud village. It was for long a thorn in the side of the Israelites. When the Philistines captured the ark, they conveyed it to Ashdod, where stood the temple of Dagon. The town underwent sieges at the hands of Sargon and Psam- metichus, and was despoiled by Judas Maccabaeus, as also by Jonathan, his brother. Ashdown Park, in Berk- shire, England, 6 miles north- west of Lambourn. Near here was fought the sanguinary bat- tle {Mscandune or Assandune) in which Ethelred and Alfred de- feated the Danes (871). The associated legend plays a part in Scott's Kenilworth. Ashe, John (1720-81), Ameri- can Revolutionary soldier, was born in Grovely, N. C. He was presiding officer (1762-5) in the Colonial Assembly and in 1771 took part in suppressing the Regulators (q. v.). In 1775 he aided in the capture of Fort Johnson, and equipped at his personal expense a regiment to defend the first Provincial Con- gress of North Carolina, of which he was a member. While in command of a force vsent to capture Augusta, he was defeated at Brier Creek by General Pre- vost. He was taken prisoner when the British captured Wil- mington in 1781, and while in prison contracted small-pox, of which he died. Asheville, N.C., was named in his honor. Ashehoh, a-zhe-ho', Ajeho, or Alchuku, trading town, Man- churia, in the northern part of the province of Kirin; 30 miles south of the Sungari River. Pop. 30,000. Asber, Jacob's eighth son, whose mother was Zilpah, the handmaid of Leah. Asher was the ancestor of the tribe of the same name, whose allotment of land extended from Dor north- eastward to Lebanon (Josh. xix. 24-31). Ash'erah, a Hebrew word (pi. asherim; asheroth), translated 'grove' in the King James Ver- sion of the Bible, but simply transliterated in the Revised Version. It signifies the sacred pole of the Phoenicians and Baby- lonians, the symbol of fertility, representing the goddess Asherah. Ashes, the mineral residue ob- tained by the combustion of animal and vegetable substances, and consisting of the fixed salts contained in these substances. In plants the most important are salts of potash (land plants) or soda (sea plants), along with sil- ica and lime. Ashes of sea plants contain also more or less iodine. Ashes of animal bodies do not differ greatly from those of vege- tables. Bone ashes consist es- sentially of lime united with phosphoric acid. Ashes are eco- nomically useful as fertilizer and as an insecticide. Asheville, city, North Caro- lina, county seat of Buncombe county, at the junction of the French Broad and Swannanoa Rivers, on the Southern Rail- road; 103 miles northwest of Charlotte. It is picturesquely situated at an elevation of 2,350 feet above sea-level, and is one of the best known health resorts in the United States. The city has many fine public buildings, including the Post Office, Court House, Federal Government Of- fices, Pack Memorial Library, and the City Hall. Its educa- tional institutions include a mil- itary school, a college for young ladies, an academy of fine arts, and a school of forestry. It is situated in a rich mineral and forest region, a large part of which is well fitted for dairy farming and fruit and vegetable culture. Among its manufac- tures are leather, cotton goods, and wood- working products. Bilt- more, the country seat and es- tate of G. W. Vanderbilt, is near bv. Pop. (1900) 14,694; (1910) 18,762; (1920) 28..504. Ashfleld, town, Australia, in New South Wales, 5 miles south of Sydney. Pop. (1921) 33,636. Ashford 415 Ashmofean Museum AsbTord, market town, Eng- land, in Kent, near the Stour; 14 miles southwest of Canterbury. It is the headquarters of the Southeastern and Chatham Rail- way, and has breweries, brick- works, tanneries, and manufac- tures of agricultural implements. Pop. (1921) 14,355. Ash'hiirst, John (1839-1900), American surgeon, was born in Philadelphia, where for some years he was professor of clinical surgery in the University of Pennsylvania, and later presi- dent of the Philadelphia College of Physicians. In 1862-5 he was assistant surgeon in the U. S. Army. Besides editing Erich- sen's Science and Art of Surgery (1869) and the International En- cyclopedia of Surgery (1881-86), he wrote Injuries of the Spine (1867) and Principles and Prac- tice of Surgery (1871). Asbikaga, a-shi-ka'ga, town, Japan, on Hondo Island, 72 miles northwest of Tokyo. An image of Confucius is the only relic of an ancient academy of Chinese learning which once existed here. There is a large trade in cotton and silk goods^ Pop. 22,000. Asbio, a-she'o, town, Japan, on Hondo Island, 12 miles south- west of Nikko. It is the site of a famous copper mine covering an area of over 2,000 acres and producing annually over 30,000,- 000 pounds of copper ingots. Pop. about 30,000. Ashkelon. See Ascalon. Ash'kenaz, the name of a tribe descended from one of the sons of Gomer, the son of Japheth (Gen. X. 3), originally inhabiting the part of Asia Minor in the vicinity of Armenia, and associated with Ararat and Minni (a portion of Armenia) in Jer. li, 27. It has been identified with certain tribes of Phrygia and Bithynia, with the Scandinavians and oth- ers, including the Polish and German Jews, who are, as a mat- ter of fact, called Ashkenazim, to distinguish them from the Se- phardim, or Spanish and Portu- guese Jews. Assyriologists con- nect the name with a people who lived near Lake Urumiyeh and were sought as allies by the Man- nai when they revolted under Esarhaddbn. Asbland, city, Kentucky, Boyd county, on the Ashland Coal and Iron, and the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroads; about 140 miles southeast of Cincinnati, Ohio. It has extensive manufactures, including iron and steel products, woollen goods, leather, fire-brick, furniture, nails, and lumber. It is situated in a highly productive oil and mineral region. Two fine parks adorn the town. Pop. (1900) 6,800; (1910) 8,088; (1920) 14,729. Asbland, town, Ohio, county seat of Ashland county, on the Erie, and the Lorain, Ashland and Southern Railroads; about 50 miles southwest of Akron. It is the seat of Ashland College. There are trade in grain and manufactures of agricultural im- plements, rubber, pumps, medi- cines, and stock remedies. Pop. (1910) 6,795; (1920) 9,249. Asbland, city, Oregon, Jack- son county, on the Southern Pacific Railroad; 185 miles south of Salem, the State capital. It is in a rich agricultural and min- eral region. Fruit-growing and dairying are important interests, and there are woollen, flour, and lumber mills, gold mining, and manufactures of granite and sandstone. It is becoming known as a health resort, owing to the nearby mineral waters. Pop. (1910) 5,020; (1920) 4,283. Asbland, borough, Pennsyl- vania, Schuylkill county, on the Philadelphia and Reading, and the Lehigh Valley Railroads; 119 miles northwest of Philadelphia. It is in a rich anthracite coal min- ing district, and has machine shops and foundries, planing mills, and a shirt factory. It is the seat of the Miners' State Hospital. Pop. (1910) 6,855; (1920) 6,666. Asbland, town, Virginia, Han- over county, on the Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad; 17 miles north of Rich- mond. Randolph-Macon Col- lege is located here, and within a few miles is the birthplace of Patrick Henry and Henrv Clay. Pop. (1910) 1,324; (1920) 1,299. Ashland, city, Wisconsin, county seat of Ashland county, on Chequamegon Bay, an arm of Lake vSuperior, and terminal of the Chicago, St. Paul, Min- neapolis and Omaha, the Chicago and Northwestern, the Minne- apolis, St. Paul and Sault Ste. Marie, and the Northern Pacific Railroads; 60 miles southeast of Duluth, Minnesota. Public build- ings and other features of interest are the Post-Office, Opera House, Federal Government Offices, Public Library, High School, and seven large coal and iron ore docks. Northland College is located here. Ashland is the centre of a rapidly developing agricultural and dairy section. Its manu- facturing interests include iron and steel products, pig iron, lumber and flour mills, dairy products, candy, and tobacco. Owing to its position on the upper lakes it is a shipping port for coal, iron ore, and lumber. Approximately 700.000 tons of coal pass over the Ashland docks annually, supplying territory as far west as the Dakotas and Montana. Pop. (1910) 11,594; (1920) 11,334. Asblar. See Masonry. Asb'ley, borough, Pennsyl- vania, Luzerne county, on the Central of New Jersey Railroad, and a trolley line; 3 miles south of Wilkes-Barre, in the heart of anthracite coal-mining field. The machine and car repair shops for the Central of New Jersey Railroad are located here. Pop. (1910) 5,601; (1920) 6,520. A s b 1 e y, Anthony. See Shaftesbury. Asbley, Anthony Evelyn Melbourne (1836-1907), fourth son of the Earl of Shaftesbury, was secretary to Lord Palmers- ton (1858-65), whose life he afterward (1876) wrote; m. p. for Poole (1874-80) and for the Isle of Wight (1880-5); parliamen- tary secretary to the Board of Trade (1880-2); church estates commissioner (1880-5); Under- Secretary of State for Colonies (1882-5); Privy Councillor (1891-1907). Asbley, Sir William James (1860- ), English economist, was born in London. He held the chair of political economy at Toronto (1888-92), and that of economic history at Harvard (1892-1901); became professor of commerce in the University of Birmingham in 1901 and vice- principal in 1918; was member of many committees and commis- sions appointed by the English government during and since the Great War. He published In- troductions to English Economic History and Theory (1888-93); Surveys Historic and Economic (1900); Adjustment of Wages (1903) ; The Tariff Problem (1903) ; The Rise in Prices (1912); Gold and Prices (1912); Economic Organization of England (1914). He was also joint author of Report of Unionist Social Reform Committee on Industrial Unrest (1914). Asb'mole, Elias (1617-92), English antiquary, founder of the Ashmolean Museum (q. v.), at Oxford, was born in Lichfield. He became a solicitor in 1638, a Royalist soldier in 1642, and in 1644 was appointed commis- sioner of excise at Lichfield. Becoming interested in alchemy and astrology, he entered Brasen- ose College, Oxford, where he devoted himself to their study and to physics and mathematics. He was made Windsor herald by Charles ii., in 1660, and from that time engaged in antiquarian research. In 1677 he prcvsented his collection of antiquities — in- cluding that of his friend Trades- cant — to Oxford University. He wrote Theatrum Chemicum (1652); Institution, Laws, and Ceremonies of the Order of the Garter (1672); The Antiquities of Berkshire (1719). Consult his Diary (1717). Asbino'lcan Museum, a mu- seum of antiquities at Oxford, England, founded in 1679 by Elias Ashmole (q. v.); and originally housed in a building designed for the purpose and executed (1679-83) by Thomas Vol. I.— Oct. '23 Ashmun 416 Asia Wood of Oxford. Among its greatest treasurers are the Arun- del Marbles, the founder's col- lection of antiquarian curiosities, and the Westwood collection of ivories. Ashmole's library of heraldic, genealogical, and as- trological works (2,136 vol- umes including 850 Mss.) was transferred in 1858 to the Bodle- ian Library; the scientific col- lections were later placed in the University Museum, and the other collections removed to a new Ashmole Building. Ash'mun/ Jehudi (1794- 1828), American missionary, prominent for his efforts in de- veloping the negro republic of Liberia, was born in Champlain, N. Y. He was educated in the University of Vermont, studied for the Congregational ministry, and became professor in the Bangor Theological Seminary, Maine. He later became an Episcopalian and was editor of the Theological Repertory (Wash- ington). Becoming interested in colonization, he was appointed agent of the American Coloniza- tion Society, and in 1822 con- ducted a party of negroes to Liberia, where he remained for six years, displaying great valor and remarkable executive ability. Ashokan Reservoir. See Cat- skill Aqueduct. Asliraf, ash-riif, or Ashref, town, Persia, Mazanderan prov- ince, near the southeast corner of the Caspian Sea, and about 50 miles west of Astrabad. It was the residence of Shab Abbas the Great in the 16th century, and remains of its earlier glory are still evident, though the popula- tion, formerly about 6,000 is now insignificant. There is trade in silks and cottons. Asli'tabula, city, Ohio, Ashta- bula county, on Lake Erie, and on the New York Central, the New York, Chicago and St. Louis, and the Pennsylvania Railroads; 55 miles northeast of Cleveland. Its excellent harbor is one of the largest ore-receiving ports of the world, as well as a great coal-shipping port. Man- ufactures include ship-building, sheet steel, automobile parts, tires, agricultural implements, machine shops, leather goods, and paper boxes. It has the City Manager form of govern- ment. Pop. (1900) 12,949; (1910) 18,266; (1920) 22,082. Ashtarotli. See Astarte. Asliterotti-Karnaitn, a chief city of Bashan (Gen. xiv. 5), noticed on monuments 1700- 1500 B. C. It is probably now the ruin Tell Ashterah, in the Hauran. Asliton-in- Mali erfl eld, or Ash- TON-LE-WiLLOWS, urban district, Lancashire, England, 4>2 miles south of Wigan. It manufac- tures locks and tools, and has collieries. Pop. (1921) 22,489. Vol. L— Oct. '23 Asliton-under-Lyne, parlia- mentary and municipal borough, Lancashire, England, 6K miles east of Manchester. The an- cient church of St. Michael was rebuilt in the 15th century. The public buildings include a tech- nical school, school of art, and a free library. The public park was mainly the gift of Earl Stam- ford. Local industries are cot- ton spinning and weaving, silk spinning and dyeing, and the manufacture of hats, machinery, and beer. There are extensive collieries in the vicinity. Pop. (1921) 43,333. Ashuapmouciiouan, ash-wap'- moo-chwan', river, Canada, in the province of Quebec, flowing from a point near Mistassini Lake, in a southeasterly direc- tion, for about 170 miles into Lake St. John. It is the outlet of a small lake of the same name. Ashurada, a-shdb-ra'da, island and Russian naval station at the southeastern extremity of the Caspian, at the entrance of the Bay of Astrabad. It was ac- quired under Nicholas i., and was for a time the only Russian possession in the Eastern Cas- pian districts. It is now over- shadowed by Krasnovodsk. Ashwanip'i, Hamilton, or Grand River, Labrador, flows from Ashwanipi Lake into Es- quimaux Bay or Hamilton Inlet, after a course of several hundred miles. The Grand Falls of Lab- rador are 316 ft. high. Asli Wednesday (Ger. Ascher- miitwoch; Fr. Le jour des cendres), the first day of Lent in the Western Church, said to derive its name from the custom of sprinkling ashes on the heads of penitents — a ceremonial that re- ceived papal sanction in 1191, but is believed to be much older. In the Roman Catholic Church ashes obtained by burning the palm branches blessed on Palm Sunday of the preceding year are used for this purpose. In the Protestant Episcopal Church the day is marked by a special serv- ice but by no ceremonial. Asliworth, Henry (1879-1880), born in Bolton, Lancashire, was one of the founders and leaders of the Anti-Corn Law League, and the author of Recollections of Richard Cobden (1876; 2nd ed., 1881). Asia, the largest of the conti- nents, so extensive that when the sun at the equinoxes is rising on its western extremity. Cape Baba, in Asia Minor (26° e.), it is nearly setting on its farthest eastern shores. Cape Dezhneff (170° w.), 6,000 miles away. For some weeks every year continual night reigns at the northernmost point. Cape Chelyuskin (77>^° n.); while day and night are always nearly equal at the most south- erly point. Cape Romania (I'/a" n.), 5,400 miles distant, and within 90 miles of the equator. The main feature lines are drawn out, on the whole from west to east, but converge towards the west. No physical barrier interrupts their passage westward from Asia into Europe, and it is natural to expect a con- tinuity of intercourse as well as of physical features between the two continents. Nevertheless, the Mediterranean and Black Seas form natural physical west- ern limits to the continent; as does the Red Sea, lying between Asia and Africa, which are con- nected by the isthmus of Suez, 72 miles wide. The modern Suez Canal may here be taken as the boundary. The Ural River and Mountains are the common conventional boundaries with Europe north of the Caspian. The Manych depression and the crest of the Caucasus are both used as the limits of Asia between the Black and Caspian Seas. The former is the better. The low northern coast, with great river estuaries in the west and great river deltas in the east, borders the Arctic Ocean, into which the Taimyr peninsula pro- jects, and out of which the New Siberian Islands rise. Bering Strait, 50 miles wide, separates Asia from America; and the St. Lawrence and Aleutian Islands are reckoned with the latter, the Komandorski Islands with the former. The east coast borders the Pacific. The mainland juts out in peninsulas and recurves in great gulfs, bordered on the outer side by a series of volcanic islands, which form a fringe to the continent; the Japan and Philippine Islands are the chief of these. Farther south the Ma- lay Archipelago links Asia to Australia, and presents another boundary problem. The vol- canic chain can be traced through the Moluccas and Sunda Islands, and it may be taken as the limit. Three great peninsulas, which have some analogies with those of Southern Europe, project south- wards. Within these limits the conti- nent has an area of over 17,000,- 000 square miles — roughly, one- third of the land of the globe. The coast-line bounding it is some 44,000 miles (three times the minimum possible periphery). The peninsular area amounts to 17 per cent, of the whole, a proportion surpassed only in Europe. Excluding this area, the continent is a compact quad- rilateral, whose centre lies over 1,600 miles from any sea. Physical Divisions. — Over one- fourth of the area lies below 650 ft. (1.3 per cent, being beneath the level of the sea), and one- seventh is over 6,600 ft. The bulk of the lowlands is in the north, and the highest land in the centre. The continent may Asia 417 Asia be divided into four great natural regions: (1) The Great Lowlands, in the N.; (2) the Great Central Mountain System; (3) the East- ern Margin of Fringing Basins and Volcanic Islands; (4) the South and South-west Table- lands of the Deccan and Arabia. 1. The Great Lowlands lie n. of a line drawn from the Sea of Okhotsk to the s. of the Caspian, whose surface lies 85 ft. below sea-level. There are three well- marked divisions: (1) The Tura- nian lowlands, separated by the Kirghiz steppe from (2) Western Lower Ob flow northwards, and into the same depression the Ir- tish and the Ob flow from the S.E. Eastern Siberia is a higher and more uneven land (composed largely of almost horizontally bedded Palceozoic and crystal- line rocks, with some recent vol- canic outcrops). The w. part is drained by the Upper, Middle, and Lower Tunguska Rivers to the Yenisei. The Lena flows through the central region. The E. is bounded by an arc of moun- tains which runs, under various West of Armenia the Caucasus and Yaila Mountains (continued westwards as the Balkans) sweep round the Black Sea depression. The plateau of Asia Minor to the s. is separated from this depres- sion by the Pontic chain, and bounded on the s. by the Taurus chain. The e. and w. lines of heights which characterize the plateau project westwards as pen- insulas, and the intervening hol- lows form bays in the ^gean Sea, and may be traced westwards through the archipelago to Eu- rope. Much evidence of recent Siberia beyond the Yenisei, which rises to the more rugged region of (3) Eastern Siberia. Turan (Western or Russian Turkestan) forms the Aralo-Cas- pian depression. It is a low, sand - covered plain, with few heights, except the Ust-Urt pla- teau to the E. of the Caspian, and the Kirghiz steppe to the n. Here all the rivers evaporate or enter lakes without an outlet, of which the chief are the Caspian, Aral, and Balkhash. The Ural flows to the first, the Amu and Syr (Oxus and Taxartes) to the second, and the Ili to the third. Western Siberia is a low, flat, marshy region, lying between the Urals and the main stream of the Yenisei. It is lowest in the w., where the Tobol and the names (Verkhoyansk, Stanovoi), from the Lena delta to Cape Dezhneff. The n. is drained by the Indigirka and the Kolyma. 2. The Central Mountain Sys- tem. — The central mass of moun- tains and plateaus gradually wid- ens from w. to E. At two points it is constricted, and the northern and southern lowlands come closely together — (a) in Armenia (separating the Caspian and Mesopotamia), and (b) in the Pamirs (separating Turan and the Indo-Gangetic plain). Be- tween these mountain nodes are three series of chains — northern, ccntral. and soutlirrn. A series of depressions lies between th" north- ern and central sets of chains, and a serif S of plat- aus between the central and southern ones. volcanic disturbances exists — e.g., the volcano Arjish, the ancient Argccus (14,000 ft), surpassed by the twin-peaked Ararat in Ar- menia (17,000 ft.). East of Armenia lie the Turan depression and the Iran plateau, separated by the Elburz, Khoras- san, and Hindu-Kush Mountains. The N. ranges are not so definite here, but may be traced in the w. spurs of the Tian^Shan and their probable w. continuation in the Mangishlak. The Iranian plateau is largely composed of porous limestone, producing karst land- scapes. On the whole it is a desert region, and only a few of the riv- ers run s.w. to the sea. On all sides it is bounded by narrow folded ridges and furrows, domi- nated by a massive, chain of Cre- Asia 418 Asia taceous peaks. These * retaining mountain walls ' may be called the Zagros chain in S. W. Persia, the Mekran chain in S. Baluchi- stan, and the Khirthar or Hala and Sulaiman ranges in the e., w. by parallel streams which are forced to the n. by the Badakh- shan plateau, forming the Amu or Oxus. The Tian-Shan forms the n. boundary of the Pamir plateau, Asia — Isotherms, January and July. rising in terraces above the plains of the Indus. The Pamir plateau is much loftier. It is bordered on the e. by the lofty Sarikol and Muztagh- ata ranges, and is drained to the from which its ranges strike both to w. and to E. The E. extension is by far the more important, and bounds the depression of Eastern or Chinese Turkestan, with the great Takla-makan desert, round whose margin flows the Tarim and its tributaries, fed by the melting snows of the mountains, and forming rich oases. The Kwen-lun runs due e. from the Pamirs; has the E. Turkes- tan depression on the n., and the Tibetan plateau on the s. It ex- tends for 40° of lat. (nearly 2,300 m.), with a mean level higher than that of any other mountain chain. The Tibetan plateau, like those of Iran and the Pamirs, consists of many bare west to east parallel ranges and troughs. Its aver- age height is over 13,000 ft. It is bounded by lofty mountains, and most of the passes crossing them are over 15,000 ft. hix- A 1 HENS. GRRhC P. 1. Entrance to the Stadium, scene of the Panathenian Games, with the Acropolis in the right back- ground and the Hill of Philopappos on the left. 2. The Zappeion, an exhibition buildmg for Greek industries and manufactures. 3. Ruins of the Ancient Agora (Market Place), with the Tower of the Winds to the extreme left. The eight sides of the tower are turned to the different pomts of the com- pass, and are adorned with reliefs representing the various winds. The building is 26 feet in diameter and 42 feet in height, and was built in the first century B.C. Vol. I. — Page 453. Vol. I.— Oct. '26 Athens 454 Atherton political assemblies, and the Hill of Philopappos or Hill of the Muses, on the crest of which is a monument erected in memory of Julius Antiochus Philopappos. History. — The site of Athens was probably occupied in the far distant past by the Pelasgians, who were expelled bj'- immigrant lonians, though the Athenians always proudly considered them- selves autochthonous, or sprung from the soil. They regarded Cecrops as the founder of the town, but Theseus is generally held to have established the city in the year 1259 B.C. It was ruled by kings until the death of Kodros, when kings were re- placed by archons, about 1058- 752 B.C., at first elected for life, but later for ten, and eventually for but one year. In the 7th century the supremacy of the nobles, Eupatridae, became great- ly weakened, and in 594 the revision of the constitution by Solon (q.v.) gave a share of power to wealth apart from birth, opened the highest offices to all free citizens, and estab- lished choice of Judges by lot. For further details of Solon's re- forms and for the subsequent history of Athens up to the Pelo- ponnesian War, see Greece. The Peloponnesian War (432- 404), though it ended in terms humiliating to Athens and de- prived her of much of her political power, did not greatly affect her cultural supremacy, which remained unchallenged for centuries. The Gothic raid of 258 A.D. and consequent re- fortification, the spoliation of the temples by Constantine (330), and the invasion of Alaric (396) are landmarks of decline, and the suppression of the schools of law and philosophy by Justinian (529) completed the transforma- tion. The Acropolis became a Byzantine fortress; the Parthe- non was consecrated to St. Sophia, and the Theseum to St. George; and many churches — e.g., the Capnicarea (founded 444, actual buildings 9th cen- tury). St. Theodore (1049), and the old cathedral (13th century) — sprang up in the lower town. The Latin conquest of 1204 brought a disastrous siege and established a Prankish dukedom. After passing from one adven- turer to another (Otho de la Roche, 1204; Walter de Brienne, 1308; the Grand Company, 1311; Manfred of Sicily, 1326; the Florentine Nerio Acciajuoli, 1386). the duchy fell under the protectorate of Venice in 1394. Freed by Duke Antonio in 1403, it came under Ottoman suze- rainty in 1435, and was annexed by Mohammed ii. in 1458. Under the Prankish dukes Ath- ens regained prosperity and culture, but since it lay off the Vol. I.— Oct. '26 pilgrim routes, was little known in the west. John of Basing- stoke, however, had studied there in 1202, and in 1436-47 Cyriac of Ancona made invalu- able sketches of the ruined monu- ments. Under Turkish rule the Greek Church was at first reinstated, but the Parthenon and other buildings were soon converted to Moslem uses. The best pre- served Turkish building is the 18th-century mosque adjoining the governor's palace. The in- troduction of artillery and the Venetian raid of 1466 brought fresh fortifications and more destruction. The Propylaea was blown up in 1636, and the Par- thenon in 1687. The Nike Temple (reconstructed in 1836) was demolished in 1686, and thenceforward destruction was rapid. At the Greek revolt of 1822 Athens was at once seized by the insurgents, but was cap- tured by the Turks in 1827. In 1833 the Turkish troops evacu- ated the citadel, and in 1835 Athens became the capital of the kingdom of Greece. Bibliography — Consult Stuart and Revett's Antiquities of Ath- ens (revised ed., 4 vols.); Leake's Topography of Athens (2 vols.); Harrison and Verrall's Myth- ology and Monuments of Ancient Athens; Curtius' Stadtgeschichte von Athen; Penrose's Principles of Athenian Architecture; Beul's Acropolis d" Athenes; Gardener's Aticient Athens; Butler's The Story of Athens; Ferguson's Hellenistic Athens (1913); Whit- ing's Athens the Violet-crowned (1913); Weller's Athens and Its Monuments (1913); Tucker's Life in Ancient Athens (1914); Pow- ers' The Hill of Athena (1924). Athens, city, Alabama, coun- ty seat of Limestone county, on the Louisville and Nashville Railroad; 98 miles north of Birmingham. It is the seat of Athens College, Trinity College (colored), and of a State agri- cultural school. It is situated in a timber and cotton growing district, and has cotton and planing mills and an ice plant. Pop. (1910) 1,715; (1920) 3,323. Athens, city, Georgia, a county seat of Clarke county, on the Oconee River, and on the Central of Georgia, the Gains- ville Midland, the Georgia, the Seaboard Air Line, and the Southern Railroads; 73 miles northeast of Atlanta. It is the seat of the University of Georgia (q.v.), the State College of Agriculture, a State normal school for girls, and the Lucy Cobb Boarding School. Of special interest is the 'tree that owns itself,' a tree to which Col. William H. Jackson made a deed of several square feet of land. The city is an important cotton market and manufactures cotton and fertilizers. Pop. (1900) 10,245; (1910) 14,913; (1920) 16,748. Athens, city, Ohio, county seat of Athens county, on the Hocking River, and on the Baltimore and Ohio, the Hocking Valley, and the New York Central Railroads; 76 miles southeast of Columbus. It is the seat of Ohio University (q.v.) and has a State hospital for the insane and a Carnegie library. Industries include coal mining and the manufacture of stoves and bricks. Pop. (1910) 5,463; (1920) 6,418. Athens, borough, Pennsyl- vania, Bradford county, on the Susquehanna and Chemung Riv- ers, and on the Lehigh Valley Railroad; 75 miles northwest of Wilkes-Barre. Cigars, furniture, overalls, pneumatic tools, and flour are manufactured. Pop. (1910) 3,796; (1920) 4,384. Athens, city, Tennessee, county seat of McMinn county, on the Louisville and Nashville, and the Southern Railroads; 55 miles northeast of Chattanooga. It is the seat of Tennessee Wes- leyan College (formerly the U. S. Grant University) and has lum- ber, cotton, and woollen mills. Pop. (1910) 2,264; (1920) 2,580. Athens, town, Texas, county seat of Henderson county, on the Southern Pacific, and the St. Louis Southwestern Railroads; 70 miles southwest of Dallas. The region produces cotton, fruit, timber, and coal. Brick, pottery, and tile are manu- factured. Pop. (1910) 2,261; (1920) 3,176. Atheroma, ath-e-ro'ma, a soft, yellow, cheesy material replacing normal tissues in the walls of arteries, weakening them and lessening their elas- ticity. It may give rise to aneur- isms or cause embolism. Ather- roma of the cerebral arteries is a common cause of cerebral degeneration. Treatment is mainly palliative. . Ath'erstone, market town, England, in Warwickshire; 8 miles southeast of Tamworth, About 5 miles to the northeast lies the battlefield of Bosworth. Pop. (1921) 20,849. Ath'erton, or Chowbent, town, England, in Lancashire; 5 miles southwest of Bolton. It has large cotton mills and col- lieries. Pop. (1921) 19,863. Atherton, Charles Gordon (1804-53), American politician, was born in Amherst, N. H., and was graduated from Harvard (1822). He was a member of Congress in 1837-43, and of the U. S. Senate in 1843-9 and 1852-3. In 1838 he gained notoriety by moving the 'Ather- ton Gag Resolution,' which proposed that 'all petitions Atherton 455 Atjeh relating to slavery or to its aboli- tion be laid on the table without debate.' The resolution was carried by a majority of forty- two, but it was ultimately re- scinded in 1844. See Gag Rules. Ath'erton, Gertrude Frank- lin (nie Horn) (1857- ), Amer- ican novelist, was born in Sa Francisco, and was educated in Benicia, Cal., and Lexington, Ky. Her works include: The Doomswoman (1892); Patience Sparhawk and Her Times (1897); Transplanted (1898); The Cali- fornians (1898); Daughter of the Vine (1899); Senator North (1900); Aristocrats (1901); The Splendid Idle Forties (1902); The Conqueror (1902); Rulers of Kings (1904); The Bell in the Fog (1905); The Travelling Thirds (1905); Rezanov (1906); Ancestors (1907) ; Tower of Ivory (1910); Julia France and Her Times (1912); Perch of the Devil (1914); California — an Inti- mate History (1914); Before the Gringo Came (1915); The Living Present (1917) ; The White Morn- ing (1918); The Avalanche (1919); Sisters-in-Law (1921). She also edited A Few of Hamil- ton's Letters (1903). Mrs. Ather- ton has passed much time in England and on the Continent. Atherton Resolutions. See Gag Rules. Athlet'ics, a term used in a broad sense to cover all games or sports depending in whole or in part upon feats of physical strength or skill. It is fre- quently applied to field sports as distinguished from indoor gym- nastics. Athletic sports were practised in various forms by the ancient Egyptians, and were brought to a high standard of development by the ancient Greeks. In Great Britain they have been cultivated since Celtic times, different vari- eties of sports being in favor at different periods. Athletic sports in the modern sense were insti- tuted by the Royal Military Col- lege at Sandhurst in 1849; in 1866 the Amateur Athletic Club held the first of a series of cham- pionship meetings, continued from 1880 by the Amateur Ath- letic Association, which is the chief British authority in athletic sports. In the United States the pop- ularity of athletic sports dates from the years immediately fol- lowing the Civil War. The Na- tional Association of Amateur Athletes of America was organ- ized in 1879, and the Amateur Athletic Union, which now con- trols amateur athletes through- out the country, was organized in 1888. In connection with the subject of Athletics, see the following headings in this work: Vol. I— Oct. '21 Amateur Baseball Basketball Bowling Boxing Canoe Cricket Curling encing 'ootball olf *f'Gymnastics /4tt^ce Hockey '^ce Yachting La Crosse Lawn Tennis Ol3Tnpic Games Physical Training Polo Rowing Skating Ski Snowshoe Swimming Tennis ^ Toboganning Track and Field Athletics Walking Water Polo Wrestling Yacht. Athlone, ath-lon', town, county Westmeath, Ireland, on both banks of the Shannon; 17 miles southeast of Roscommon. It is a strong military position, and formerly had extensive for- tifications and barracks. The town is an agricultural centre; woollen goods are manufactured; and there is a salmon fishery. Pop. (1911) 9,631. Athlone, Godart de Gin- KELL, FIRST EaRL OF (1630" 1703), English military com- mander, was born in Utrecht, and followed William of Orange to England in 1688. His cap- ture of Ballymore, Athlone, and Limerick won for him the thanks of the House of Commons and the earldom of Athlone. In the wars of William lil. with France, Ginkell distinguished himself at the recapture of Namur and in the surprise of Givet. In the war of the Spanish Succession (1702) he served under Marl- borough, with whom, however, he was continually at variance. Atholj ath'ol, town, Worcester county, Massachusetts, on Mil- ler's River, and on the Boston and Albany, and the Fitchburg Railroads; 25 mileS northwest of Worcester. Boots and shoes, mechanical tools, furniture, toys, silk, and artificial leather are manufactured. Pop. (1910) 8,536; (1920) 9,792. A t h o r , a'thor. Ay t h o r , Hether, or Hathor, an Egyp- tian goddess, daughter of Ra, in whom the Greeks recognized their Aphrodite. The cow was her symbol. Athos, ath'os, a mountainous peninsula which projects from the south coast of Macedonia in- to the ^gean Sea. Its circum- navigation was so much dreaded by ancient mariners that Xerxes, when invading Greece in 480 B.C., cut a canal (traces of which are still visible) through the isthmus which joins it with the mainland. Here, in 492 B.C., the Persian fleet under Mardon- ius was completely wrecked. In ancient days the peninsula con- tained several prosperous towns. At the present time it is covered with a score of monasteries, be- longing to the Orthodox Greek Church, the monks forming a kind of repubhc, though under Turkish suzerainty. The first Christian monasteries were built here in the ninth and tenth centuries. Athrep'sia, the wasting of in- fants due to malnutrition. The child is constantly uneasy, and in the early stages its cries are piercing and almost incessant. It suffers from hunger, flatu- lence, colic, and other discom- forts of the alimentary tract, with frequent diarrhoea and rashes. In the later stages the face is characteristically sharp- featured and pinched, the body is cold, the temperature maybe much below normal, and the likelihood of intercurrent disease is correspondingly great. Treatment consists in correct- ing faults in the diet. See Diet and Dietetics. Athyroid'ism, deficiency of the secretion of the thyroid gland (q. v.). Atitlan, a-te-tlan', or San- TIGO DE Atitlan, town, de- partment of Solola, Guatemala. It is on the south side of Lake Atitlan, and has cotton mills and mineral springs. Pop. 10,000. Atitlan, Lake, department of Solola, Guatemala, 4,700 feet above the sea, 64 miles in cir- cumference, of great depth, and with no visible outlet. The in- active volcano of Atitlan is situ- ated at the southern end of the lake, rising to a height of over 11,000 feet. At'jeh, Atchin, or Achin, a-chen', residency of the Dutch East Indies, in Northern Suma- tra, with an area of about 20,500 square miles. The surface is mountainous, the country being traversed about midway from northwest to southeast by a mountain chain culminating at the extreme north in Gold Moun- tain, at the base of which lies Kota Radja, or Achin, the cap- ital. The soil is light and fertile, producing rice, cotton, tobacco, tropical fruits, and pepper. Horses and cattle are raised, and gold is abundant. The inhab- itants are engaged in agriculture, silk manufacture, fishing, and the fashioning of weapons of gold and iron and of filigree work. Rice, pepper, rattan, bamboo, camphor and betel-nuts are ex- ported. The population, estimated at about 709,000, consists chiefly of Atchinese, whose ethnological relations are not conclusively established. They are shorter and darker than the other Su- matrans and are more active and industrious, though cruel, treach- erous and of a low type of mor- ality. They are said to be Malays at root but have prob- ably a strain of Arab blood. They are Mohammedans. As early as 1509 the Portu- guese tried to enter into relations Atka 456 Atlantic Cable with the Sultan of Atjeh, and a century later the Dutch estab- lished a factory there. They were expelled, however, in 1616 and the kingdom remained hos- tile throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In 1819 the English made a treaty with the Atchinese whereby all other people should be excluded from residence there, and when British settlements in Sumatra were ceded to the Dutch, in 1824, it was stipulated that Atjeh should be unmolested. In 1873, this stipulation having been withdrawn by the Hague Tribunal, the Dutch sent an expedition against Atjeh, and, after a campaign of about forty years, costly in both lives and money, Atjeh was placed under the authority of a military commandant. At'ka, or Atcha, an island of the Andrenovian group in the chain of Aleutian Islands, (q. v.), in long. 195° w. It contains a good harbor. Area, about 500 square miles. Atka Fish, or Atka Mack- erel, a species of fish belonging to the rock-trout family (Hex- agrammidse), extremely numer- ous in the kelp beds around the Aleutian Islands, in the North Pacific. It is a handsome fish about 18 inches long, with an average weight of 2H pounds. It varies in color from a pale to a chrome-yellow, with jet-black crossbars. It is an excellent food fish, especially when salted. At'kins, Tommy, originally a supposititious nameused in speci- men forms issued by the British War Office, whence it came to be applied generally to the British regular soldier. At'kinson, Edward (1827- 1905), American economist, was bom in Brookline, Mass. For more than forty years he was a prolific writer on banking, eco- nomic legislation, industrial edu- cation, the money and tariff questions, and colonial expan- sion. He was interested also in fire prevention and in problems of nutrition. His published writings include Science of Nutri- tion; Distribution of Property; In- dustrial Progress of the Nation; Margin of Profit; Taxation and Work; Prevention of Loss by Fire. Atkinson, George Francis (1854-1918), American scientist, was born in Raisinville, Mich. He was educated at Olivet Col- lege and Cornell University, and was successively geologist of North Carolina; assistant and associate professor of entomology and zoology at the University of North Carolina (1885-8); pro- fessor of botany and zoology at the University of South Caro- lina (1888-9); and professor of biology at the Alabama Poly- VOL. I.— Oct. '21 technic Institute (1889-92). In 1892 he joined the faculty of Cornell University, where he be- came professor of botany and head of the botany department in 1896. He was botanist of the experiment station there from 1902 to 1907. He wrote Biology of Ferns (1894); Elementary Botany (1898); Lessons in Botany (1900) ; Studies of Ameri- can Fungi (1900); Mushrooms, Edible, Poisonous, etc. (1903); First Studies on Plant Life (1904); College Text-Book of Botany (1904) . Atlanta, city, capital of Georgia, county seat of Fulton county, 7 miles southeast of the Chattahoochee River, and on the Atlanta and West Point, the Southern, the Seaboard Air Line, and five other railroads, with 14 lines radiating in all directions; 269 miles northwest of Savannah. It is situated on a ridge which divides the watershed of the Atlantic Ocean from that of the Gulf of Mexico, at an altitude of 1,050 feet. The mean annual temperature is 60° F., and the average rainfall 48 inches; the climate is mild and equable. The city covers an area of 26 square miles, and has 18 public parks, 840 acres in extent, of which the chief are Grant, Piedmont, and Lake wood. The business blocks and the civic buildings are both handsome and commodious. Among the more important edifices are the State Capitol, Carnegie Library, Con- federate Soldiers' Home, U. S. Penitentiary, the County Court House, Post Office and Federal Building. The auditorium ar- mory seats 7,000 people, "and is said to be the finest in the South. Educational institutions include the Georgia School of Tech- nology, Emory University, Ogle- thorpe University, Lanier Uni- versity, and Georgia Military Academy, and the Agnes Scott College, Cox College and Con- servatory and Elizabeth Mather College, for young women. There are five colleges for negroes, three medical colleges, and sev- eral business schools. The State Library is also located in Atlanta. The public school system is well organized; there are 64 public schools with 713 teachers and over 31,000 pupils. There are 272 churches in the city, repre- senting twenty denominations. All the principal denominations, including the Christian Scien- tists, have handsome edifices. Commerce and Industry. — Atlanta is the commercial centre of the Southeastern States, with a large trade in cotton and cotton goods, horses, and mules. It is the second largest mule market in the United States. Its man- ufacturing interests are varied and extensive, including agri- cultural implement works and machine shops, foundries, fur- niture factories, candy, crackers, cakes, cotton, paper, and cotton- seed-oil mills, ice factories, and printing and publishing houses. Industrial establishments num- ber over 500, with a capital of more than $50,000,000 and man- ufactured products valued at $185,000,000. The population of Atlanta is 200,616 (1920). It was 2,572 in 1850; 21,789 in 1870; 65,533 in 1890; 89,872 in 1900, and 154,839 in 1910. History. — About 1840 the vil- lage of Marthasville grew up on the present site of Atlanta; the present name was shortly after- ward adopted, and the town soon became a centre of trade. In the Civil War it was a base of sup- plies for the Confederate armies, and after a brief siege was cap- tured by General Sherman on Sept. 2, 1864. By his orders the city was afterward destroyed ex- cept for a few central and public buildings. It was speedily rebuilt after the close of the war and was the seat of the reconstruction government. When the old State government was re-established, the seat of government was re- turned to Milledgeville, its former site, but in 1877 a popular elec- tion, held to determine the per- manent location of the capital, resulted in the choice of Atlanta. Two expositions have been held in Atlanta: the Cotton Exposition of 1881, and the Cotton States and International Exposition of 1895. The city has also been a favorite meeting place for conventions, through which it has become widely known. On May 21, 1917, a destructive fire occurred in the heart of the city. No lives were lost but the property loss was estimated at $5,500,000. Atlantes. See Atlas. Atlan'tlc, city, Iowa, county seat of Cass county, on the Chicago, Rock Island, and Pacif- ic Railroad; 80 miles southwest of Des Moines. It has produce houses, machine works, a can- ning factory, ice factory, sheet- metal plant and brick plant. Pop. (1910) 4,500; (1920) 5,329. Atlantic Ca'ble. The idea of uniting Europe and America by telegraphic communication seems to have originated in the first half of the nineteenth cen- tury, and to have first assumed definite form in 1845, when Messrs. John and Jacob Brett registered a company entitled 'General Oceanic Company.' After a period of eleven years, during which cables had been successfully laid across the Eng- lish Channel and across the Gulf of St. Lawrence, these gentlemen joined a syndicate, of which Cyrus Field (q. v.) was the lead- VIEWS IN ATLANTA, GEORGIA. Gordon Monument. Carnegie Library. Georgia State Capitol. Grant Park. Lower Peachtree Street. Piedmont HoteL ■Oct. '21 Vol. I.— at Page 456 » / Atlantic Cable 457 Atlantic Fisheries Arbitration ing spirit, for the establishment of telegraphic communication between Ireland and Newfound- land. The company was fi- nanced by American, English, and Scottish capitalists, and was registered Oct. 20, 1856, as the Atlantic Telegraph Com- pany. Trinity Bay, Newfoundland, was selected as the American ter- minus for the projected cable and Valentia Bay, Ireland, as the British, and construction was begun in February, 1857. The distance between the two ter- minal points being 1,640 nautical miles, a cable length of 2,500 nautical miles was considered sufficient. This cable consisted of a core of seven strands of copper wire, weighing 107 pounds to the mile, insulated with three coatings of gutta-percha, and sheathed with eighteen strands, each containing seven iron wires of 22 gauge. The British vessel Agamemnon and the U. S. S. Niagara were selected for laying the cable, each receiving a half of the entire length. The first attempt was made from Valentia, August 6, 1857, when the Niag- ara started paying out the cable. After various misfortunes had occurred and the cable had been returned to Plymouth, it was decided to start the laying in mid-ocean, and in June, 1858, the two vessels proceeded thither, successfully spliced the two portions, and separated, the Agamemnon proceeding toward Valentia and the Niagara toward Trinity Bay. On Aug. 17, 1858, connections with the receiving instruments having been com- pleted, the first message was cabled across the Atlantic: 'Eu- rope and America are united by telegraph. Glory to God in the highest; on earth peace and good- will toward men.' Owing to faulty insulation and other defects, however, communica- tion was soon interrupted, and no messages were transmitted after Oct. 20. Through the efforts of Cyrus Field a new company, known as the Anglo-American Telegraph Company, was organized in 1865, and a second attempt was made to establish telegraphic connection between the two con- tinents. After careful study and experimenting, a cable ftilfilling conditions favorable for deep-sea work was made, and the Great Eastern, a vessel of 22,500 tons, was secured for the enterprize. This vessel left Valentia on July 23, but after nearly 1,000 miles had been laid, the cable parted, all attempts to recover the part submerged were unavailing, and the project was abandoned. The following year, however, addi- tional capital was raised, and it was decided not only to attempt Vol. I.— Oct. '21 to lay a new cable but also to recover the old one and add to it a sufficient new portion to com- plete it. In July the new cable was successfully laid, and the following September the old one was recovered, spliced to the necessary new portion, and re- laid. Since that date a number of cable companies have been formed, and there are now (1921) 15 cables between Europe and North America. Consult Bright's Submarine Telegraphs. Atlantic City, city and popular Atlantic coast resort, Atlantic county, New Jersey, on the Atlantic City and the West Jersey and Seashore Railroads; 60 miles southeast of Philadel- phia. Situated on a narrow sandbar stretching for ten miles along the coast, separated from the mainland by salt bays and meadows, it is one of the most attractive winter and summer resorts in the United States, its splendid beach, bathing facil- ities, and immense hotel accom- modations attracting weekly from 200,000 to 300,000 visitors. The famous Board Walk, 50 to 60 feet wide, extending along the ocean front for eight miles, and six huge recreation piers offer a vast variety of amuse- ment to pleasure seekers. The city has a Carnegie Library, a fine high' school btiilding, and several hospitals. The Atlantic City Air Port — the first in the world — was dedicated in May, 1919. It supplies a splendid flying field for the Aero Club of America, the Aerial League of America, and the Atlantic City Aero Club. It also provides an aerial mail station, an air port for trans-Atlantic liners, sea- plane, land plane, or balloon type, and a good landing field for all aircraft. Absecon Light, 160 feet high, at the north end of the beach, is a well known beacon to mariners. Atlantic City was first settled in 1854 on the site of a fishing settlement which dated from 1780. In 1902 it was visited by a disastrous fire which destroyed several hotels and other buildings and led to a municipal enact- ment regarding fire-proof build- ings within the city limits. Permanent population (1910) 46,150; (1920) 50,707. Atlantic Fisiieries Arbitra- tion, The, before the Permanent Court at The Hague in 1910, was instituted for the purpose of set- tling the rights of United States fishermen to fish in the waters of Northeastern Canada. The issues involved grew largely out of the true interpretation of Ar- ticle I. of the Treaty of 1818. Question I. raised the issue as to whether the United States was to have a voice in the fishing regulations passed by Great Britain. The tribunal decided that while Great Britain's or Canada's sovereign right to leg- islate concerning the fisheries was unimpaired, nevertheless it was limited to the enactment of ' reasonable ' regulations. For the determination of the reason- ableness of any regulation, the tribunal recommended the es- tablishment of a Fishery Board, to pass upon protests on the part of the United States against the reasonableness of any partic- ular British regulation. If such regulation is found unreason- able, it cannot come into force. On Question il., the tribunal decided that American vessel owners had the right to engage local fishermen ' of Canada as members of their fishing crews, overruling Great Britain's con- tention that by the treaty both the ownership of the vessel and the manual act of fishing were confined to inhabitants of the United States. Newfoundland had passed laws forbidding its inhabitants to take employment as fishermen on American fishing vessels, and the award takes this legislation into consideration, for it points out "that the persons so employed derive no benefit or immunity from the treaty in their own right. Under Question V., the tri- bunal was to determine what was meant by the negotiators of the Treaty of 1818 when they renounced, for the inhabitants of the United States, the right of fishing 'within three miles of . . . bays of his Britannic Maj- esty's dominions in America.' The United States contended that the bays in which fishing was thus renounced were ter- ritorial bays of Great Britain — i.e., bays six miles or less wide. Great Britain contended that the term was intended to apply to geographical bays, regardless of their width. The tribunal decided that such a body of water was renounced, the con- figuration of which could be recognized as a bay; and they recommended that the water inside a line drawn from shore to shore where the width of the bay first contracted to ten miles should be regarded as the bay proper, and the water outside, the open sea. The other decisions relieved United States fishing vessels from the requirement of certain cus- tom-house formalities (Questions III. and IV.) ; accorded American fishing vessels the right to fish in bays on the treaty coast (Ques- tion VI.); and decided that the use of an American vessel for fishing purposes did not dis- qualify such vessel from being used for commercial purposes after the fishing operations had been completed (Question vii.). Atlantic Flights 45g Atlas Atlantic Flights. See Aero- nautics. Atlantic Ocean, a large body of water stretching from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Antarctic Ocean in the south, and lying between the shores of Europe and Africa on the east and those of North and South America on the west. Its northern and southern limits are more or less conventional, a partial separation from the Arctic being the Wyville Thom- son ridge, which stretches north- west from the north of Scotland toward the Faroes, and rises to within 250 fathoms of the surface. The Atlantic is about 9,000 miles long from north to south, and its breadth varies from 4,500 miles, between Florida and the Saharan coast, to 1,600 miles between Brazil and the African coast. Its area is esti- mated at from 23,000,000 to 30,000,000 square miles. Direct- ly or indirectly it receives about one-half the entire rainfall of the globe. The floor of the Atlantic is a gently undulating plain (average depth, 2,200 fathoms), with a narrow ridge, at less than 1,700 fathoms, along the centre, roughly parallel to the Europeo- African coasts, the volcanic peaks of the Azores representing its greatest elevation. North and south of these islands the ridge widens out considerably, and farther to the north stretches out arms eastward to Ireland and westward to Newfoundland. Along this east to west elevation the chief Atlantic cables have been laid. In at least fifteen places on both sides of this median ridge are the 'deeps' of the oceanographers — abysses of over 3,000 fathoms. The deepest sounding thus far is that of the Nares deep (70 miles north from Porto Rico), 4,561 fathoms, or nearly 5M miles. The conti- nental shelf is relatively narrow all round the Atlantic, but at its outer edge the shelf drops sharply nearly everywhere. Sir John Murray estimates this con- tinental shelf and slope as cover- ing 17 per cent, of the horizontal area of the ocean. There are relatively few oceanic islands. Iceland, the Azores, St. Paul's Rocks, Ascen- sion, and the Tristan da Cunha group all rise from the central elevation, and are all of volcanic origin. Jan Mayen rises from the deep water of the Norwegian Sea. "The coral group of Ber- mudas rises from the deep water of the western North Atlantic. Off the western coast of Africa are the Canaries, Cape Verdes, and Madeira. In the South Atlantic, to the west of the central ridge, are Fernando Noronha and Trinidad, and to the east of the Vol. I.— Oct. '21 central ridge, St. Helena. There are numerous continental islands, such as the British Isles, New- foundland, the West Indies, the Falklands, and others^. The surface temperature over the greater part of the North Atlantic averages 40° F., in- creasing to 50° F. near the shores of Europe. The heat equator lies a little to the north of the geo- graphical, and the surface tem- perature there averages 80° to 90°. Between this central belt and the polar waters a band of ocean intervenes on each side, with a temperature of between 50° and 60°. Over the greater portion of the South Atlantic the bottom water varies between 35° and 40°, but in the North Atlantic the average temperature ranges 2° higher. Soundings made between Europe and North America by way of the Azores, in 1899, appear to indicate that the temperature of the water, even at the lowest depths, varies slightly according to the season. Despite its great tribute of river water and its semi-enclosed seas, the Atlantic is relatively saltier than the other oceans, its salinity being greatest in the re- gion of the trade winds, and least in the region of equatorial calms. The surface everywhere teems with pelagic life, animal and vegetable. ' Seaweed meadows ' of gulf-weed form the Sargasso Sea. For the characteristics of the deposits on the Atlantic floor, see Oceans; for the currents, see Ocean Currents and Gulf Stream; and for the winds. Trade Winds. Since the 16th century the At- lantic has been the chief commer- cial highway of the world. The progress made in its navigation may be illustrated by the follow- ing comparative statements. In the year 1620 the Mayflower took sixty-four days (Sept. 6 to Nov. 9) to cross from Plymouth to Cape Cod, though it should be noted that adverse wind and storms rendered the voyage ex- ceptionally long. In 1819 the steamer Savannah, relying main- ly on her sails, crossed in twenty- six days from New York to Liverpool. In 1840 the first regular steam liner, the Bri- tannia (Cunard Line), crossed from Liverpool to Boston in fifteen days; in 1909 the voyage (Queenstown to New York) was accomplished by the Mauretania in four days, ten hours, and fifty-one minutes. About a score of telegraph cables lie on the floor of the Atlantic, while the Marconi Company maintains a regular service between Glace Bay, Nova Scotia, and Clifden, Ireland, by means of wireless telegraphy. (For trans-Atlantic flights, see Aeronautics.) The foundation for our knowl- edge of this as of the other oceans was in great part laid by the Re- ports on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H. M. S. 'Challen- ger,' edited by Sir Wyville Thom- son and Dr. (Sir) John Mxirray, in 37 vols. (1880-9). Consult also works cited under Ocean; Schott's Geographie des Atlan- tischen Ozeans (1912); Hull's Monograph on the Sub-Oceanic Physiography of the North Atlan- tic Ocean (1912). Atlantic Telegraph. See Atlantic Cable. Atlan^tis, according to an- cient tradition a great island west of the Strait of Gibraltar, op- posite Mt. Atlas, the inhabitants of which were very prosperous and powerful,; they even in- vaded Africa and Europe, but were defeated by the Athenians and their allies. Afterward, ow- ing to their impiety, they and their island were swallowed up by the ocean. Plato mentions Atlantis in the Timceus, and in his Critias he gives a detailed account of the history and cus- toms of the inhabitants. The island has been variously identi- fied with the Canary Islands, the Azores, and the continent of America. As a result of recent palaeontological research, geol- ogists have concluded that in the Tertiary epoch such an island really existed. The Tertiary shells of the United States are identical with a whole series of fossils in the same beds of France. Also the Tertiary vertebrate animals in France have their analogues either in fossil creatures or in living species in America, justi- fying the conclusion that a land connection existed between the two continents. Consult Archer- Hind's and Th. H. Martin's editions of the Timceus of Plato; Steiner's Submerged Continents of Atlantis and Lemuria. Com- pare Isles of the Blest. Atlantosau'rus, or Titano- SAURUS, a member of the order Dinosauria, the largest land animal which is known to have at any time inhabited the globe. Its fossil remains are found in the Jurassic strata of Colorado. Its thigh-bone was more than 6 feet in length, and the limbs were small relatively to the large body they supported. It is supposed to have been herbivor- ous in habit, being able to support itself in a half-erect posture like a kangaroo. Con- sult Marsh's Dinosaurs of North America. At'Ias, one of the Titans in Greek legend, son of lapctus and Clymene; said to have been the leader of the Titans in the war against the gods, and to have been condemned, as a punishment, to the task of bearing the heavens on his shoulders. In some stories Vol. I —Oct. '24 Vol. I— Page 459 Atlas 459 A Atmosphere Perseus is said to have turned Atlas to stone with the Gorgon's head for refusing to give him shelter; he then became Mt. Atlas. He was the father of the Pleiades, the Hyades, and Hes- perides, ^nomaus and Maia, Dione and Calypso. Atlas (pi. Atlantes), in archi- tecture, a term applied to statues of men, analogous to caryatides (q. v.), set in the place of columns to bear the entablature, etc. Atlas, a collection of maps, first used in this sense by Mercator, evidently from the common deco- rative use of Atlas bearing the heavens as a symbol of earth. Atlas, in anatomy, the highest vertebra of the spinal column, which supports the skull. See Spinal Column. Atlas Mountains, an extensive system of folded mountains in North Africa, stretching from the shores of the Atlantic Ocean, to which it has given its name, through Morocco, Algeria, and Tunis, in a general southwest to northeast direction, to the shores of the Gulf of Tunis. The sys- tem, which consists of broad ridges and rounded elevations, sometimes connected, sometimes isolated, with numberless off- shoots, extends for some 1,500 miles, and is unconnected with the other highlands of North Africa. The mountains may be divided into two sections, (1) the Western or Moroccan range, which con- sists of three chains, the Great Atlas, Little Atlas and Anti- Atlas, and (2) the Eastern or Algerian range, comprising the Tell Atlas and the Sahara Atlas. The Great Atlas is the highest part of the Moroccan range and has many peaks exceeding 10,000 feet in height, Jebel Ayashin and Tizi-Tamj^urt being over 14,000 feet. North of the Great Atlas lies the Little Atlas chain, some- what lower in elevation; to the south is the Anti-Atlas, also lower and shorter than the Great Atlas. Of the Algerian range the Tell Atlas borders the Mediter- ranean Sea, its highest summits ranging from 7,000 to S,000 feet. The Sahara Atlas fronts the desert in a wide range with several southern spurs penetrat- ing the arid regions; its culminat- ing peak is Shelia, over 7,600 feet. There are no glaciers in the Atlas Mountains, only a few of the highest peaks being perpetually snow-covered. The valleys are fertile, and the vegetation is generally Mediterranean in char- acter. See Algeria; Morocco. Atlas Powder, an explosive of the dynamite class, consisting mainly of nitroglycerine ab- sorbed in wood fibre, with addi- tions of sodium nitrate and mag- nesium carbonate. At'lin, Lake, Canada, with an area of 'M'.i scjuare miles, of which Vol. L— Oct. '24 331 are in British Columbia and 12 in the Yukon Territory. It is long and narrow, lying parallel to and a little east of long. 13 1° w.; in its northern part it is crossed by lat. 60° n. It is con- nected with Taku Inlet, the eastern arm of Lake Tagish, by the Atlintoc River, which flows into it in its central portion. Atlixco, at-les'ko, town, Mex- ico, in the state ot Puebla, about 25 miles southwest of Puebla. It is a picturesque Spanish town, situated in a rich agricultural district. Coffee, oranges and other fruits, wheat, and maize are raised, and there are textile and flour mills. Pop. about 16,000. Atmolysis is the method of separating gases of different den- sities by means of porous tubes or other septa. By diffusion the gases pass through the porous septum at rates inversely propor- tional to the square roots of their densities. See Filter. Atmometer, an instrument for the determination of the amount Von Lamont's Atmometer oi water passing into the air by evaporation. In Von Lamont's atmometer, which may serve as an example of smaller instru- ments, a pan, p, is connected by a pipe with a cylinder, c, in which a closely fitting piston plunger, r, carrying a scale, s, is adjusted by means of a screw. The scale be- ing set at zero, water is poured into the pan until it stands flush with the opening of the outflow pipe; the water is then driven by the piston to within a little of the top of the pan, and evaporation is allowed to take place. When an observation is to be made, the piston is raised to such a height that the water sinks again from the pan to the vsame level as before, and the reading on the scale showing the change of level of the piston gives the amount of water evaporated. Atmosphere (Greek, 'sphere of vapor'), a gaseous envelope sur- rounding a body in space. The atmospheres of the several planets differ greatly in qualitv. Those of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune appear to be dense and cloud-laden; that of Mars, al- though much less dense than ter- restrial air. almost certainly in- cludes a considerable ingredient of water-vapor. Mercury is be- lieved to be still more thinly covered; and refractive phenom- ena on Venus indicate her posses- sion of an atmosphere fully com- parable with our own. The air- less condition of the moon is accounted for by its slight gravi- tative power; for the gases that may have primitively enwrapped it would, according to the kinetic theory, have gradually escaped into space, owing to the ineffec- tive control exercised by the central body over the velocities of their particles. Even the earth is affirmed by some authori- ties to be incapable of retaining such volatile substances as hy- drogen and helium, although heavier gases continue perma- nently subject to her attraction. The atmospheres of massive globes condense rapidly down- ward, and are hence — other things being equal — less exten- sive proportionately than those of minor orbs. That of the earth may extend in a highly rarified state to a height of 200 miles, and meteors give rise to conspicuous light at elevations up to 120 miles. Above 45 miles, however, the effects of refraction cease to be perceptible. With each ascent of 3>^ miles the density of the air is halved. For each 300 feet of ascent the temperature falls about 1° F. The higher strata are verv cold (-165° F. at 35,000 feet). On the summit of Mount Misti (18,000 feet), for instance, the barometer stands at about 15 inches; and at 32,600 feet the at- mosphere is balanced by 8 inches of mercury. The whole of the air, if concentrated into a shell of uni- form sea-level density, would rise no higher than 5miles (26,163 f^et). If reduced to a liquid by the cooling of the earth to -200° c, it would form a universal ocean only 35 feet in depth (See Gases AND Vapors.) Atmospheric air is a mechani- cal mixture of 79.04 volumes of nitrogen with 20.93 of oxygen and 1 of argon; a small percentage (0.03) of carbon dioxide is also present, besides traces of free hydrogen and helium (probably supplied by mineral springs), of neon, krypton, and xenon. The ceaseless convection currents due to the sun's heat keep the atmos- phere mixed, and of uniform com- position. It also contains a vari- able but all-important proportion of water- vapor. It is through the thermal opacity of this i)art of its atmosphere that the e?rth is rendered habitable, the heat received from the sun being. Atmospheric Electricity 459 B Atom through its intervention, stored, distributed, and hindered from departing uselesslj^ back into space. Water-vapor, too, is the mainspring of atmospheric circu- lation, as well as of all the actions and disturbances concerned in meteorological processes; and the amount suspended over a given area largely determines the type of prevalent weather. (See Meteorology.) The total weight of the atmos- phere, as computed by Sir John Herschel, amounts to II5 trillion tons, or lanJgoo that of the solid globe itself. It exerts a pressure, when the barometer stands at 30 inches (760 mm.), of 14.73 lbs. avoirdupois to the square inch, so that an average man sustains a constant weight of about 14 tons. The unit of pressure, called an 'atmosphere,' is defined in Paris as that of 760 millimetres (29.922 in.), in London as that of 30 in. of mercury at 0° c. See Climate; Temperature. Atmospheric Electricity. See Electricity, Atmospheric. Atmospheric Nitrogen. See Nitrogen. Atoll. See Coral. Atom — from the Greek, mean- ing indivisible — the name applied to the ultimate portions of mat- ter which are supposed to be the smallest quantities which can enter into chemical combination, the 'grains' of which masses of matter are built, as houses are built of bricks. The notion of a granular struc- ture of matter is a very old one and seems to have been first sug- gested by the Greek, Democritus, 360 B.C., who explained all mat- ter as being made up of minute granules, alike in their sizes and qualities. The different qualities of matter he attributed to dif- ferences in number and arrange- ment of the atoms entering into the body. Each atom was exactly similar to every other atom. The modern conception of the atom springs from the work of Dalton, the English chemist, about the end of the 18th cen- tury. According to Dalton, cer- tain substances are found in nature which are called elements, or elementary substances — as gold, iodine, bismuth, aluminium, oxygen — which cannot be broken up into other substances. The smallest amounts of these sub- stances which can enter into chemical combination are the atoms. On the other hand, sub- stances are found in nature which can, by proper means, be decom- posed into other, and elementary, substances. Examples of these bodies are iron pyrites, ordinary salt, water, alcohol, indigo, cellu- loid. The smallest amounts of these substances which can be separated are always made up of at least two atoms, often many times two. The atom cannot exist alone, but at once combines with other atoms to form mole- cules (see MoLECur^E). Chemical combinations are brought about by the attractions between the atoms. In such combinations a definitely fixed amount of any one element always combines with a fixed amount of some other substance. For example, 23 units by weight of sodium will always combine with 35.5 units of chlorine to form ordinary table salt, without any residue of sodium or chlorine being left over. And one unit of hydrogen will combine with 35.5 units of chlorine to form hy- drochloric, or muriatic, acid. The single atoms cannot be is- olated and weighed, but from combinations made it can be shown that hydrogen and chlo- rine and sodium always unite in proportion to 1 and 35.5 and 23 respectively. These numbers are then said to be the atomic weights of the three substances named. They surely give the relative weights ot those substances; and similarly, for other substances. In what is said above concern- ing the atomic weights of sub- stances, it is implicitly assumed that the atoms are all just alike. This assumption seems not to be borne out by experimental evi- dence. Aston has shown, for example, that lead of different origins has several atomic weights, differing by four or five units among themselves. This seems to indicate that, instead of having all the atoms of one size, like grains of shot of one number, the atoms of any substance have somewhat varying sizes, like strawberries in a basket. What is commonly called the atomic weight would, according to this view, be the average weight of all the several and different weights of the separate atoms, or at least, a number propor- tional to this averaee. From the time of Democritus efforts have been made to determine the real nature of the atom, its real 'structure.' During the last century, it was recognized , because of certain elastic proper- ties, the theories of heat and our understanding of temperature, that the simple, solid atom as- sumed by Democritus and his immediate successors could not be acceptable. The atom might be a solid particle but this parti- cle must dominate and occupy a volume larger than that of the solid part alone, and must, in some way, be able to keep all other similar particles out of this volume. This could, of course, be accomplished by the very rapid vibratory motion of the solid particle, or nucleus, along rapidly changing lines. As a shepherd dog, by dashing rapidly in different directions, might keep a large area clear of sheep, so the nucleus of the atom, by its rapid motion, might keep a volume much greater than its own clear of all other material particles. The atom, then, consisted of a solid core, or nucleus, surrounded by a shell, a 'sphere of influence,' which was not entered by other atoms. Lord Kelvin offered a very ingenious explanation of the atom and atomic characteristics in the vortex theory, in which the atom consisted of a vortex ring in a continuous medium. By the known properties of vortices many atomic properties could be explained. With the discovery of radio- activity by the Curies, there came an epochal change in the theory of the nature of the atom. Obser- vation showed that radium and other radioactive substances con- stantly emitted streams of parti- cles, which were found to be elec- tric charges. It also showed that radium was constantly at a higher temperature than the surround- ing medium. Later experiments indicated that uranium gave off successive emissions, or radia- tions, and at the end turned into lead, with helium, a gas, as one of the by-products of this radio- active transformation, this trans- mutation of the elements (see Radio-activity). The dream of the alchemist was come true, one metal was transmuted into an- other, but the noble into the base. Today reports come of the possi- ble transformation of mercury into gold by means of the electri- cal furnace. These convincing results of observation and experiment make it impossible for us to hold to a belief in the old type of atom. The atom can no longer be re- garded as simple but must be thought of as complex, as having a structure, and therefore, as being divisible. The atom can- not now be looked upon as the smallest portion of matter that can exist, for the electron, whose mass is about if?oo that of the hy- drogen atom, has been collected and measured. It is negative electricity, and has been called the 'atom of electricity.' The fact that matter, the atom of radium, gives off constantly streams of particles of electricity suggests the thought that elec- tricity is the fundamental stuff and that matter is only the col- lection of particles of electricity. It offers a possible explanation of the structure of the atom, and of some of its qualities. Many efforts have been made to formulate a theory of the structure of the atom and to make a mechanical model, or picture, of such structures. One of the earliest and most success- ful of such efforts is that due to Bohr. Sommerfeld, Lewis and Longmuir have suggested other Vol. I.— Oct. '24 Atom types of atomic structure. All present theories of the structure of the atom agree that there are minute charges of negative elec- tricity called negative electrons, or simply electrons, and equally small charges of positive elec- tricity, or protons; that in any uncharged atom there are the same amounts ol positive and negative electricity and, there- fore, the same number of protons (positive electrons) as of elec- trons (negative electrons) ; that an atom becomes positively elec- trified by losing electrons, and negatively electrified by losing protons. These theories further agree that the protons (the posi- tive electricity) and some of the electrons (the negative charges) are grouped together in a volume which is small in comparison with the total volume of the atom. This is known as the nucleus. The remainder of the electrons are outside the nucleus at dis- tances from each other compar- able with the dimensions of the atoms. Several theoretical con- siderations and three lines of experimental attack indicate that the number of electrons outside the nucleus is always the same as the atomic number. If the elements be arranged in a table in the order of their atomic weights, the rank of any element in the table is its atomic number. Element. Atomic Atomic Weight. Number. Hydrogen 1.007 1 Helium 4 • 2 Lithium {? 3 Carbon 12 6 Oxygen 16 8 (20 Neon ]2\ 10 (22 Thus, in the carl)on atom there are 6 electrons outside the nucleus, in the neon atom 10 electrons outside the nucleus, in the helium atom 2 electrons out- side the nucleus, and so on. In the Bohr atom, the electrons out- side the nucleus are assumed to be in rapid orbital motion about the nucleus, like the earth and the other planets in their motions about the sun. Such an atom is a dynamical atom and meets with especial success in accounting for the phenomena ot radiation and of ionization. It is a striking fact that the same mathematical processes are used in the study of the structure of the dynamical atom as in the calculation of the motions of the planetary bodies of the solar system. A different type of atom has Vol. I.— Oct. '24 4C0 been conceived by Lewis and Longmuir, a statical atom. In it, the electrons outside the nucleus are assumed to be ar- ranged as symmetrically as possible in shells drawn about the nucleus as a focus. These shells are arranged as are the successive layers of an onion. In the shell next the nucleus 2 electrons are arranged, 8 in the next shell, 8 in the third, 18 in the fourth, 18 in the fifth, and increasing num- bers in the further shells. No shell towards the outside can contain any electrons at all until all the shells within this one shell have their full complement of electrons. The total number of electrons thus distributed on the shells, and outside the nucleus, equals the atomic number of the' element. This atomic structure, very ingeniously imagined, explains chemical combination by assum- ing that an outer electron of an atom may be 'shared' by a second atom, that such an elec- tron may be on the shells of two different atoms at one time. It also explains the phenomena of the periodicity of the physical qualities of elements arranged in the order of increasing atomic weights. Each of the dynamical and the statical types of atomic structure explains certain phenomena which the other does not, but both leave much yet to be comprehended. They are both only possible steps towards an ultimate correct un- derstanding of the real nature of the atom. Consult Kelvin's Constitution of Ma//(?r,- Millikan's The Electron; Aston's Mass Spectra of the Ele- fnents: Sommerfeld's Atombau und Specirallinien. Atomic Heat. Dulong and Petit of Paris were the first to show (1819) that an approximate relation exists between the spe- cific heat and the atomic weight of elements — viz., that the spe- cific heat is inversely' proportional to the atomic weight; the higher the specific heat, the lower the atomic weight. They concluded that 'all atoms of the solid ele- ments have the same specific heat or thermal capacity,' and termed this the atomic heat. Expressed in another way, the same cjuantity of heat is required to raise an atom of mercury, an atom of iron, ;ui atom of sulphur, and an atom of lithium, or an atom of any solid element, through 1° c. Hence: The mean specific Element. Specific Heat. Atomic Weight. Atomic Heat. Platinum. . .032 195 6.2 Iron .112 56 6.3 Sulphur. . . .178 32 5.7 Litliium. . . .941 7 6.6 heat multiplied by the atomic weight of a great number of Atomic Theory elements is approximately 6.4; conversely, the constant (6.4), divided by the specific heat of an element, equals its atomic weight. Increasing knowledge of physical data has tended to belittle the importance of the Dulong and Petit law. The discrepancies from the law are too great to be ignored. The atomic heat (6.4) is of value only as an indication of the atomic weight of an ele- ment, when there is any doubt as to the result by other methods. Atomicity, or Valency, de- notes the number of atoms of hydrogen which an element will unite with or displace: it is prac- tically the atomic weight divided by the equivalent. All those elements which combine with hydrogen, atom for atom, are termed monads, the valency being I. Those elements of which 1 atom can unite with or displace 2 atoms of hydrogen are termed dyads, their valency being 2; and so on — the remaining elements being triads, tetrads, or pentads, etc. An element may have, really or apparently, more than one atomicity (or valency) — e.g. ni- trogen is a triad in ammonia, while it is a pentad in ammonium chloride. Atomicity is usually shown graphically by putting dashes or numerals over the symbol; but it is often useful to represent it by dashes (techni- cally known as bonds) radiating from the symbol, thus: I H O N C— I I Atomic Theory. The atomic theory is the foundation on which modern chemical science is built. John Dalton, in the first decade of the 19th century, revived the idea of atoms, which was first taught by the ancient Greek phi- losopher Democritus, 400 B.C.; and it is now generally agreed that all matter consists of atoms of elements united with each other by the force which has been known as the 'force of chemical afiinity.' Modern divscoveries indicate that this force is probably electri- cal in origin. These discoveries have proved that the atom is not indivisible but can be broken up into parts, some of which have masses only a small fraction of the mass of the atom (see Atom). They have shown, further, that all matter is proba/bly electrical in nature, and that certain ele- ments can be transformed into others, and they indicate that the atoms of any element do not all have the same weight. Lith- ium atoms have weights 6 and 7, boron atoms weights 10 and II, and mercury atoms all the integral weights between, and including, 197 and 204. The so- called atomic weights are aver- ages of these multiple atomic weights. Atomic Theory 461 Atonement However, these recent ad- vances in physical knowledge and theory of the atom have been chiefly quahtative in character, are still greatly in the realm of hypothesis, and have not affected the quantitative relations under- lying chemical reactions, and their calculations. The weights of the various atoms relatively to one another are known. The atom of hydrogen, being the lightest, is taken as unity; com- pared with it, the atom of oxygen weighs in round numbers 16, nitrogen 14, iron 56, and mercury 200. These numbers are known as 'atomic weights.' When a chemical change takes place, it is due to the union or separation of atoms, and it necessarily fol- lows from the indivisibility of the atoms that this union or separa- tion must occur in definite or fixed proportions by weight — i.e. the weights of the' atoms them- selves. For example, if the atoms of nitrogen and oxygen weigh respectively 14 and 16 times as heavy as a hydrogen atom, then, according to the theory, they can only unite 1 to 1, 2 to 1, 3 to 1, 3 to 2, etc.; and the proportion of nitrogen to oxygen in the com- pound formed will be that of 14 parts by weight of nitrogen to 16 of oxygen, 14X2 to 16, 14X3 to 16, 14 to 16X2, and so on. And this we know by experiment to be the case. Carbon combines with oxygen to form two compounds — the monoxide and dioxide; and with hydrogen to form marsh gas and ethylene. An analysis of these compounds, stated in the usual way, shows them to contain the weights as follows: — Carbon Carbon Marsh Ethylene. Monoxide. Dioxide. Gas. C = 42.8 C = 27.2 C = 75 C = 85.7 0 = 57.2 0 = 72.8 H= 25 H = 14.3 100.0 100.0 100 100.0 There is here no apparent relation between the weight of carbon in the four compounds to the oxy- gen and hydrogen; but if we cal- culate the weight of oxygen and hydrogen in each to unit weight of carbon, we obtain the following figures: — Monoxide. Dioxide. Marsh Gas. Ethylene. 0 = 1 .C = l .C = l .C = l . 0 = 1.33 0 = 2.66 H = .33 H = .166 We thus learn that the dioxide contains twice as much oxj-gen as the monoxide, and that ethylene contains but half as much hydro- gen as marsh gas relative to the weight of carbon. Though Dalton was unable to understand and explain all his facts, he laid down the following laws of definite (or constant) and multiple proportions: — (1) The same compound always contains the same elements, combined in the same proportion by weight; or, in every chemical compound, however produced, the proportion by weight of the elements is al- ways the same. (2) When two elements unite with each other in more than one proportion by weight, the quantity of one of these being constant, the weights of the others vary in simple ratio. Further advances were made by the investigations of Gay- Lussac and Avogadro. The researches of the former were chiefly confined to gases. He proved by experiment that 2 volumes of hydrogen (say 2 cub. in.) combine with 1 volume of oxygen (1 cub. in.), no more and no less, to produce 2 volumes of water vapor (2 cub. in.). He thus arrived at the following con- clusions, known as 'Gay-Lussac's Laws': (1) There is a simple ratio between the volumes of gases which combine. (2) The volume of the resulting compound bears a simple ratio to the volumes of the original gaseous constituents. Avogadro was the first to suggest an explanation of these experi- mental facts. By the assump- tions — (a) that atoms combine to form molecules, ib) that atoms of the same kind unite in pairs to form elementary molecules {e.g. H2 and O2 represent molecules respectively of hydrogen and oxygen), and (c) that atoms of different elements unite to form compound molecules (HCl, H2 O, CH4, and C2H4 represent mole- cules of hydrochloric acid, water, marsh gas, and ethylene respect- ively), he concluded that equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure con- tain the same number of mole- cules, independently of their size or the number of atoms in them, and thus laid the foundations of modern chemistry. It is impossible to describe here how atomic weights are deter- mined, or all that the atomic theory leads to, but one result is that we can employ symbols, formulae, and equations. A syyn- bol of an element indicates (1) its name, (2) one atom of the ele- ment, (3) the weight of the ele- ment compared with hydrogen or its atomic weight. A formula indicates (1) the name of the substance, (2) the number of atoms in the molecule, (3) the composition of the molecule {i.e. the elements which by combina- tion produce it), and (4) the weight of the molecule (molecu- lar weight) compared with the atom of hydrogen. Equations describe or express chemical changes. They indicate graphi- cally the nature of the combina- tions or decompositions which take place, the relative weights of the substances involved, and, in the case of gases, their volumes. A table of the atomic weights of the chemical elements, com- piled by the International Com- mittee of Atomic Weights, will be found in the article on Ele- ments. Certain important rela- tions which atomic weights bear to one another, pointed out by Mendeleyeff, are indicated in the article Periodic Law. See also Chemistry. Consult Ostwald's Outlines of General Chemistry (trans, by Walker) ; Nernst's Theoretical Chemistry (trans, by Palmer) ; Clarke's A Recalculation of the Atomic Weights. Atonement, the name given in (English) Christian theology to the work of Jesus Christ as the Saviour of sinners. The word occurs but once in the King James version of the New Testament (Rom. v. 11), and not at all in the Revised V^ersion, in which the more accurate rendering of the Greek — 'reconciliation' — is em- ployed. The term is common, however, in the sacrificial lan- guage of the Old Testament law, in the sense of propitiation or expiation, and it is in th's latter sense that it has been applied to the work of Christ, which is looked upon as an expiatory offer- ing, 'propitiating an offended deity and reconciling him with man.' Some authorities regard atonement (removal of guilt) as one important element in primi- tive conceptions of sacrifice; while others point out that the sin offering or atoning sacrifice, as such, is admittedly a late development. Men offered sacri- fices before they realized the need of propitiating the divine anger and afterward employed the rite for a new exigency. It does not follow that the New Testament writers thought of atoning sacrifice exactly as primi- tive men or Old Testament law- givers had thought. They do not define its meaning; the 'altar forms' (Bushnell's phrase) were so familiar in New Testament times that they seemed to require no explanation. Christian thought is, therefore, largely thrown back on hypotheses as to the nature of the atonement. It takes shape somewhat as follows: We cannot put right what our misconduct has put wrong; it is, perhaps, even immoral to try to do so, im- plying that we underestimate the gravity of our sin; but all Christians are agreed that recon- ciliation with God is effected by Jesus Christ, although there is considerable difference of opinion as to the way in which this is accomplished. In the early church it was for a long time held that Christ's sufferings were the price paid to Satan in order to rescue from his dominion the souls acquired by him by right of conquest. This view was held by Origen, Gregory of Nyssa, Augustine, Jerome, and other Church fathers but was controverted by Athanasius. In the latter part of the eleventh Vol. I.— Oct. '24 Atonement, Day of 462 Atriplex century Anselm (q. v.), taught that, sin being a debt, it must be paid, and as no mere creature was able to discharge it, a substi- tute was found in Jesus Christ, who as the incarnate Son of God offered a vicarious satisfaction to divine justice. Most of the best scholars of the day accepted this view, and at the time of the Reformation it was incorporated into the creeds of nearly all the churches. This so-called juridi- cal theory lays the necessity of atonement on the perfections of the divine nature and holds that it was a complete satisfaction to the claims arising from those perfections. Socinus dissented from this view, maintaining that Christ is a Saviour because He announced and confirmed the way of salvation and showed it in His own person by His example and resurrection. In opposition to Socinus, Gro- tius set forth what is known as the governmental theory, namely that God as moral governor of the world must enforce precept and penalty, and that an exam- ple of suffering in Christ was necessary to a wicked world to show that sin cannot escape witn impunity. Still another theory is the mystical theory, held by the disciples oi Scotus Erigena, the Platonizing fathers, Osiander, Schleiermacher and many others. According to this view, the recon- ciliation effected by Christ is due to the mysterious union of God and man by the incarnation rather than to His sacrificial death. Many modern writers deny any form of satisfaction or expia- tion but explain the doctrine of atonement as a sort of moral influence exerted upon man; some writers teaching that Christ suffered with us through sym- pathy so as to give Him the power of quickening and moulding men by love and example; others that His death and suffering were designed to illustrate the beauty of vself-sacrifice; and still others, notably M'Leod Campbell, that Christ so identified Himself with us as sinners that He offered to God a perfect confession and adequate repentance for our sins and thus met all the demands of the law. Consult Remensnyder's The Atonement and Modern Thouiiht; Oxenham's The Catholic Doctrine of Atonement; Simon's The Re- demption of Man; Pullan's The Atonement: Tymms' The Christian Idea of the Atonement. Atonement, Day of, a Jewish fast day, on which the high priest, clad in robes of white, entered the holy of holies with the sacrificial blood which he offered as an expiatioti for the sins of himself and his people. It is the tenth day of the seventh month (Tishri), and is known in the Talmud as 'the great day.' Its observance is enjoined in Leviticus xvi. and in some few scattered passages elsewhere; but there is no evidence that it was observed before the Exile. Ac- cording to the Mosaic law, it is to be observed as 'a sabbath of solemn rest,' and on it no manner of work is to be done. At the present time the day is kept by fasting from sunset of the ninth to sunset of the tenth day of Tishri and by elaborate services throughout the day. It is looked upon generally as the most sacred day of the Jewish year. At'ony, a medical term, indi- cating a want of tone; weakness; debility. Atos'sa, queen of Persia, was daughter of Cyrus the Great, and wife successively of her brother Cambyses, Smerdis the usurper, and Darius Hystaspis. to whom she bore Xerxes and three other sons. She possessed great influ- ence over Darius, and is said to have urged him to the invasion of Greece. In ^schylus' play The Perscp. she is a prominent character. Consult also Herodo- tus, bks. iii. and vii Atrak', or Atrfk, river of Persia, rising in Khorassan. It flows northwest and then west between Khorassan and Trans- caspian districts and enters the Caspian Sea at Hassan Kuli Bay. Its total length is about 350 miles. Atrato, ii-tra'to, river in Co- lombia, South America, rising on the west flank of the Western Cordillera and flowing north to the Gulf of Darien. It is about 400 miles long, drains a basin of 11,400 square miles, and is navi- gable for 250 miles, to a point a little beyond Quibdo, but a shal- low bar closes its mouth to ocean steamers. At various times the construction of a canal to the San Juan, to connect the Atlantic and Pacific, has been suggested, but the idea has been abandoned as impractical. Atrebates, a-treb'a-tez, an an- cient Celtic people of Gallia Bel- gica, having as their capital Nem- clacum or Nemetocenna (now Arras) . A branch was also settled in England, in what is now Berk- shire, their chief town being Calleva or Calleva Atrebatum {i.e. Silchester). Atveus, a'troos, in Greek legend , the son of Pelops and Hippo- damia, and grandson of Tantalus. Versions of the legend vary, but it is substantially as follows. Atreus was thrice married: first to Cleola, by whom he became the father of Pleisthenes; then to Aerope, who bore him Agamem- non, Menelaus, and Anaxibia; and then to Pclopia, the daughter of his brother Thyestes. Atreus and Thyestes, at the instigation of their mother, murdered Chry- sippus, their half-brother, and fled to Mycena?, where they were received by their nephew Eurys- theus, whom Atreus afterward succeeded as king. Thyestes, having seduced Aerope, was ban- ished by his brother, and in revenge sent Atreus' son Pleis- thenes, whom he had brought up as his own son, to slay his rightiul father. Atreus, after unwittingly killing Pleisthenes, discovered Thyestes' treachery, and pre- tending a reconciliation, sent for Thyestes, whose two sons he killed and served to their father at a banquet. At the knowledge of this crime Thyestes fled in horror, calling the curse of the gods upon the house of Atreus. Later Atreus married Pelopia, daughter of Thyestes, in igno- rance of her parentage, and brought up as his own ^gisthus, Pelopia's son by Thyestes, who had unknowingly violated her. Eventually .-Egisthus learned of his real parentage and vslew his foster father. TThe misfortunes of the house of Atreus supply the theme for many Greek tragedies, notably the Agamemnon, the Choephorce and Eumenides of ^schylus, the Electra of Sopho- cles, and the Electra and Orestes of Euripides. The Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae (q. v.) is the largest of the ancient tombs. Atri, a'tre, city, Italy, in the province of Teramo; 8 miles from the Adriatic and 14 miles north- west of Pescara. It has a fine Gothic cathedral dating from the fourteenth century, occupying the site of an ancient temple. Pop. (1911) 14,053. A'triplex, a genus of the Cheno- podiacese, the species of which are commonlv called Oraches, or Salt Bushes or Salt Sages. They are either annual or perennial herbs and low shrubs, and are often silvery or scurfy. Their 'seeds,' so-called, are fruits or utricle, nearly always enclosed by two bractlets which enlarge at maturity and are grotesquely winged or crested or tubercled, in most species. One annual species, A. arenaria, is common along the A'tlantic beaches, decumbent in huge rosettes, the crested fruits clustered in the axils of the silvery, scurfy, oblong leaves. It is the perennial salt bushes which are important, however. A. nuttallii, or Nuttall's Salt Bush, is the most useful, and is the one usually referred to as 'Salt Sage.' Like the other species it will grow in soils strongly impregnated with salt, and even absorbs a distinct quantity of that chemical. It is a perennial with a woody base, pale green and scurfy, rising to 2}4 it., with oblong leaves. The flowers are in terminal spikes, or clustered in heads at the axils; the bract- lets, in fruit, have toothed mar- gins, and crested, tubercled or spiny sides. The Shad Scale Vol. I.— Oct. '24 A.trium 463 Atsuta (A. canescens) has seeds, bearing 4 membranous scales; the spiny salt-bush, A. confertifolia, has comparatively simple fruits, with bracts meeting all around the edges. One annual atriplex {A. volutans) is a tumble-weed, break- ing loose from its tap-root in autumn and rolling over the desert. In summer it forms a nearly spherical mass about 3 ft. in diameter. All of these, and es- pecially the former, are very val- uable forage plants in arid regions; and both young shoots, foliage, and fruit are highly nutritive, be- sides affording salt, in their tis- sues, to live stock. They flourish in regions, where live stock can- later times other rooms were built on to the atrium, but, with Ro- man conservatism, it retained its original character as the chief room of the house. In it were E laced the sacred fireplace, the ousehold gods, the bed of mas- ter and mistress, and the statues of their ancestors; and it was used as the formal reception-room. In early Christian churches the atri- um was an open court in front of the basilica, a place of abode for penitents, sometimes also as an asylum for criminals. See Pres- ton and Dodge's Private Life oj the Romans (1893). Atrophy, a general or local wasting of the body. In chil- shade), and in the seeds of Da- tura stramonium. It is a powerful poison, but used medicinally it is valuable to dilate the pupil of the eye, quicken the heart's action, and relieve cardiac distress, and as an external application for the relief of pain. See Bella- donna. Atropos, the eldest of the three Fates. Her functions were to render the decisions immutable, according to Plato, and to sever the thread of life (spun by her sisters) with ^ the scissors with which she is pictured, her features darkly veiled. Wyntoun's witches, in his story of Macbeth, and Gray's Fatal Sisters, doubtless owe their The Atrium o} a House in PoDipai {restored). not be pastured in summer for lack of water; in this period the perennial salt-sages grow rapidly, and mature their fruits, while the. sun 'cures' their foliage. Then, when the snows come, furnishing water, the stock, especially sheep, are driven into the deserts, and feed on the salt-sages for about four months. These arid past- ures are being constantly im- proved by this system of pastur- age, and the seedmg of such areas with salt-bushes, is contemplated. Atrium, the principal apart- ment of a Roman house; in the earliest times, no doubt, the only chamber. It had a hole in the roof, called the compluvium, which collected the rain and conducted it to a cistern in the floor. In dren, general atrophy is most commonly due to unsuitable food (see Athrepsia), to catarrh of the digestive organs, to tubercle, or to worms in the alimentary canal. In adults it is generally the result of grave organic dis- ease, such as gastric ulcer, tu- bercle, cancer, albuminuria, or long suppuration; it is occasion- ally due to nervous disorder, as in hysteria. Local atrophies of muscle and nerve mav be caused by disuse, as in paralyzed limbs; more rarely by overwork. It is sometimes congenital, the normal growth of a part being arrested. Atropia, or Atropine, an al- kaloid which occurs along with hyoscyamine in all parts of the Atropa belladonna (deadly night- origin to Atropos and her sisters, Clotho and Lachesis. Atrypa, a genus of fossil bra- chiopods of the family Atrypidas, found abundantly in the Silurian and Devonian. A . reticularis is the best known form and is remark- able for its range of time, extend- ing from the Clinton to the Wa- verly group inclusive, and having a very wide geographic distribu- tion. The Tcrebratulina are the nearest resembling genus to-day. See Brachiopods. At sight, a commercial term used upon bills of exchange, equivalent to 'on demand.' Atsuta, tn. on the s. coast of Nippon, Japan, 70 m. e. of Kioto; has Shinto temples. Pop. (1898) 24,941. Attacca 464 Atterbury Attacca (Ital.'i, in music a term signifying that a succeeding movement is to be begun without stopping for any intermediate pause. Attache, Military. To the embassy or legation representa- tive of a nation at the seat of government of a foreign poM^er there is usually appointed a mili- tary or naval attache. The duties of these officers are to make them- selves thoroughly acquainted with every change that takes place in military or naval matters, and to report from time to time on the mobilization, armament, and equipment of the power to whom they arc accredited. The task is one of no little difficulty, as they must be thoroughly alive to all that concerns their professional interests, be diplomatically and socially persona grata, and must refrain from procuring informa- tion in an underhand manner. In time of war the privilege of being attached to the headquarters staff of an army is usuall;^ con- ceded to representatives of friendly nations. Attachment. A process for placing a person or personal property in legal custody. At- tachment of persons is commonly employed in this country to com- pel the attendance of a delin- quent juror or witness or a person guilty of contempt of court. It was once extensively resorted to to enforce the payment of debts, but its use as a creditor's process is now limited to cases of fraudu- lent concealment of property by a debtor and the like. See Arrest; Execution. Attach- ment of Goods is not generally available to a creditor except as a special proceeding based upon proof that the debtor is concealing th» goods to avoid legal process or is about to remove them from the jurisdiction for the same pur- pose. It is a pureljr statutory pro- ceeding and IS strictly regulated by law. Attachment of Debts is a creditor's process whereby a judgment creditor, in satisfaction of his judgment, secures the pay- ment to himself of a sum of money due from a third person to the judgment debtor. See Garnishment. Attainder. The extinction of all civil rights as a consequence of a judgment of treason or felony. Attainders was a neces- sary result of such a judgment at common law and it involved (1) a forfeiture of all the estate, real_ and personal, of the person attainted and (2) the corruption of his blood. The latter had the effect of breaking the line of descent, rendering the attainted Eerson incapable either of in- eriting or of transmitting real property bv descent. Attainder was abolished by act of Parlia- ment in 1870 (33 and 34 Vict. c. 23). (See Escheat.) In the 15th cen- tury there arose a practice of introducing bills of attainder into Parliament, which were passed like any other Act of Parliament, and had against the persons or person mentioned therein the effect of a common law attainder. The last execution under an Act of Attainder was in 1797. In the United States a man may be attainted for treason, but the condemnation does not involve corruption of blood. The Con- stitution of the United States and those of the several states limit- ing the attainder to a forfeiture of estate only for the life of the person attainted. (U. S. Const., Art. III., Sec. 3.) Attains, the fiame of three kings of Pergamus. (1.) Sur- named Soter, reigned from 241 to 197 B.C.; defeated the Gauls near Sardis in 239 B.C.; waged fre- quent war against the Seleucids; and was allied with the Romans against Philip of Macedon and the Achaeans. He was distin- guished for his great wealth and is patronage of literature. (3.) A. Philadelphus, reigned from 159 to 138 B.C., second son of (1), and like him an ally of the Ro- mans; he overthrew Prusias of Bithynia. (3.) A. Phjlometor, succeeded (2), who was his uncle; he reigned from 138 to 133 B.C., and by his will left his kingdom to the Romans; it formed their original province of Asia. Attap, the native name cd the Nipa f ruticans, a nearly stemless palm indigenous to the forests of the E. _ Indian Archipelago. Its long, thick pinnate leaves are in common use for thatching. Attar, or Athar, Ferid ud- DiN (1119-1230), Persian poet of the mystic school, and author of the Mantik ut-Tair, or Conversa- tions of the Birds, a series of thirty moral tales, describing, in terms of Sufic thought, the progress of the human soul to Nirvana. He also wrote the Pandnama, or Book of Counsels, and, in prose, a Biography of famous n^ystics. Ed. and Fr. trans, of the Mantik by Garcin de Tassy (1857-63); and ed. and Eng. trans, of the Pand- nama by Hindley (180€). Attar, or Otto, of Roses, a perfume which consists of the volatile or essential oil distilled from certain varieties of rose. The manufacture is carried on in India, Persia, and Bulgaria, the latter district producing the largest quantity and the best quality. The flowers are gathered in May and June, and at once placed in copper stills heated with a wood fire, and partially filled with spring water. The distillate from the first operation is again distilled, and the distillate is re- ceived in narrow-necked bottles. This distillate contains a large proportion of the oil suspended in tne water, and on allowing it to stand at a temperature not exceeding 60° F. the oil gradually rises to the top, and is skimmed off. It is largely adulterated. Attention, ^ tne process in which, or activity by which, an object is brought from the mar- gin to the focus of consciousness, and thus acquires additional clear- ness and distinctness. It has been a matter of controversy within recent years whether attention is to be conceived as a complex pro- cess explicable in more ultimate terms, or as a unique activity in- capable of further analysis. See James's Principles of Psychology (1890), vol. i. ch. xi.; Ribot, Psychology of the Attention (trans.). Atterbom, Peter Daniel Amadeus (1790-1855), the most distinguished poet of the roman- tic school in Sweden. When a student at Upsala he helped to found the Aurora League, and played an active part in the strife which the romanticists waged against the old 'classic' writers, first in the journal Fosfor (18.10- 13) — whence they were called Phosphorists — and afterward in the periodicals {Poetisk Kalender (1812-22), which Atterbom him- self edited, and in the Svensk Litteratur Tidning (1813-24). At- terbom' s own chef-d' ceuvre is the dramatic poem Lycksalighetens O (1824-7), or Isle of Happiness, which contains some of the swcet- estlyrics^in the^language. A frag- ment, Fagel Bla, is almost equally famous. Atterbom also wrote an important work on Swedish literary history entitled Siare og Skalder (184 1-64). In 1828 he was appointed professor of philosophy, and in 1835 professor of aesthetics and literary history, at Upsala University. His col- lected \yorks {Samlede Skrifter) appeared in 1854-70. Atterbury, Francis (1662- 1732), bishop of Rochester, was born at Milton, in Buckingham- shire. He 'became lecturer of St. Bride's, a royal chaplain, and minister to Bridewell Hospital in 1691. He manifested his skill as a controversialist in a defence of Protestantism against Walker, master of University College (1687); in the Examination of Dr. Bentley's Dissertations on the Epistles of Phalaris (1698), though the book appeared with the name of Charles Boyle; and in 1700 he ably upheld, on the High Chuich side, the powers and privileges of Convocation in an argument with Dr. Wake. This service procured him the archdeaconry of Totnes and a canonry of Exeter. He be- came dean of Westminster and bishop of Rochester in 1713. At- terbury is credited with Dr. Sacheverell's defence (1710), and Attestation 465 AttUa the authorship of the well-known treatise Representation of the State of Religion. After the acces- sion of George i. he bitterly re- sented the Hanoverian rule, and in 1722 he was committed to the Tower, and finally deprived of all his ecclesiastical offices and banished from the kingdom. He died in Paris, and was buried obscurely in Westminster Abbey. Atterbury wrote four volumes of Sermons, a Latin translation of Absalom and Achitophel, and letters to Swift, Pope, Boling- broke, and others, all of which were published between 1682 and 1723. His Private Correspondence was published by Lord Hailes in 1800, and his Epistolary Corre- spondence by Nichols in 1790. Curll published in 1727 Atter- buryana: being Miscellanies by the late Bishop of Rochester (1727). Consult, also, Atterbury's Mem- oirs (1723); Williams' Memoirs and Correspondence of Atterbury; Canon Beeching's Life. At'testa'tion, the verification by a witness of the due execution of a legal document. An attesta- tion is usually effected by the addition of the signature of the witness to the instrument at- tested. Legal instruments are often attested to give them addi- tional solemnity or to facilitate the proof of their due execution, but in many cases attestation is required by law either to render an instrument valid or to entitle it to registration. Att'field, John (1835-1911). English chemist, was born near Barnet, Hertfordshire. He was demonstrator of chemistry at St. Bartholomew's Hospital (1854- 62) , and professor of practical chemistry. Pharmaceutical Soci- ety of Great Britain (1862-96). He was one of the founders of the British Pharmaceutical Confer- ence and of the Institute of Chemistry, and an authority on pharmaceutical education. He published: A Manual of Chemis- try (1867, 19th ed. 1906), and many lectures and papers on chemical subjects. He was assist- ant editor of the British Pharma- copoeia in 1885, and editor-in- chief in 1898. At'tica, a division of ancient Greece, with the ^gean Sea to the east and southwest, and Boeotia to the north. It was divided into several independent states, but before the dawn of history they were united into one polity (by Theseus, according to the legends) ; Athens was the capital city. Attica and Boeotia now form a nomarchy of Greece, extending from the ^Egean Sea and the Egripos Channel west to the Gulf of Corinth. Area 2,472 square miles. Pop. (1920) 623,- 399. See Greece. Attica, city, Indiana, Foun- tain county, on the Wabash River, and on the Wabash and the Chicago, Attica and South- ern (freight only) Railroads; 21 miles southwest of Lafayette. It is served by three important highways. State road no. 9, the W Trail, and the Adeway. Attica has a large steel foundry, a brick plant, several gravel companies, a lumber and plan- ing mill, and clothing factories. Pop. (1910) 3,335; (1920) 3,392. Atticism, at'i-ciz'm, a term used to denote a well-turned phrase, was, among the Atheni- ans, applied to those grammari- ans (Atticists) who endeavored to retain the pristine purity of the Attic dialect, Attic wit and Marius, Sulla, Pompey, Brutus, Cassius, Antony, and Augustus, and, above all, with Cicero, from whose correspondence with him, covering the years from 68 to 43 B.C., we gain a picture of him as the ideal classical man of cul- ture. In philosophy he was an Epicurean. He wrote on Roman history, and also in Greek on Cicero's consulship, but none of his works survives. Atticus Herodes, at'i-kus he-ro'dez, Tiberius Claudius (104-180 A.D.), celebrated Greek rhetorician of the 2nd century. He possessed great wealth, even after presenting five minae — nearly $100 — to every Athenian Ancient Attica Attic salt signify a poignant and delicate wit characteristic of the Athenians. Atticus (c. 400 A.D.), at'i-kus, patriarch of Constantinople and successor of Chrysostom. He wrote a treatise, entitled De Fide et Virginitate, opposing Nestorian views. Atticus, Titus Pomponius (c. 109-32 B.C.), a Roman knight, whose full name was Quintus Caecilius Pomponianus Atticus. The last name was given him be- cause of his residence in Athens (86-65 B.C.) and his attainments in Greek literature and culture. Though distinguished for his ability among his contemporaries, he decided to stand aside from the politics of Rome, especially from the civic war of 87 to 81 B.C. He was on terms of intimate friendship with the younger citizen in fulfilment of his father's will. He built a race-course (ruins of which remain) and a theatre at Athens, erected a theatre at Corinth, an aqueduct at Olympia, a stadium at Delphi, and hot baths at Thermopylae. He taught rhetoric both in Athens and Rome, having for pupils the Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. In 143 A.D. he was made consul by Antoninus Pius, and at one time was administrator of the free towns in Asi?. None of his works survives. Attila, at-ti'la, or Etzel, king of the Huns, succeeded to the kingship in a.d. 434. In the be- ginning of his reign his brother Bleda shared the royal authority, but the overweening ambition of Attila speedily led him to de- prive his brother of his sceptre, Vol. I. — March '24 Attis 466 Atwater and even, according to some writ- ers, oi his life. In the reign of Attila (434- 453) the supremacy of the Huns is said to have extended from the Caspian Sea to the Rhine, the commanding position then at- tained by this savage people be- ing due largely to the resistless energy and masterfulness of their great leader. It is said that he styled himself the 'Scourge of God' ; but Gibbon observes that 'the ancients, Jornandes, Priscus, and others, are ignorant of this epithet.' In 441 Attila laid waste Thrace and Illyria, withdrawing his forces only after exacting a heavy fine. In 445 he founded the city of Buda as his capital. In 448 he extorted a heavy tribute from the Byzantine emperor, Theodosius; but in 450 again attacked the Eastern empire, until his atten- tion was diverted to the Western empire, it is said by the offer of the hand of Princess Honoria. In the following year he marched on Gaul with an army nearly three- quarters of a million strong. Fail- ing in his effort to detach The- odoric, king of the West Goths, from his alliance with the Romans under their general, Aetius, Attila retired from Orleans to Chalons, where he gave battle to the allies on the Catalaunian Fields (451). The Huns were defeated; but the Romans did not follow up their victory, and in the following year Attila laid waste Northern Italy, and even threatened Rome. He died in 453 on the night of his marriage with the Burgundian princess, Hilda or Ildiko. Con- sult Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire and Thierry's Histoire d' Attila. Attis. See Atys. At'tleboro, city, Massachu- setts, Bristol county, on the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad; 31 miles southwest of Boston. It has manufactures of silverware, cot- ton, jewelry, leather, and chains, as well as carriage works, bleach- ing and dye works, and smelters. According to the Federal Census for 1919 industrial establishments number 144, with $22,632,192 capital, and products valued at .1534,471,577. Pop. (1900) 11,335; (1910) 16,215; (1920) 19,731. Attorney, at-tur'ni, in the most general sense, any person appointed by another to act in his behalf. An attorney in fad is an agent with specific authority to bind his principal, the author- ity being usually conferred by a writing known as a 'power of attorney' or 'letters of attorney.' Such power may be either general, to act for the principal in all matters, or special, to act for him only in particular matters or in a particular manner. Powers of attorney are strictly construed. Vol. I. — March '24 In a specific sense, an attorney, or attorney at law, is one who represents another, known as his client, in legal proceedings. The term was formerly employed in England to describe the class of legal representatives who con- ducted the business of litigants in the common law courts, the corre- sponding class of practitioners in the equity tribunals being known as solicitors; but by the Judica- ture Act of 1873 the two classes were merged in one under the name of solicitors. The term attorney has never been applied in England to the superior order of lawyers known as advocates and barristers. In the United States, however, all classes of lawyers have been described as attorneys, and that is still the name by which they are com- monly known, though in some parts of the country the title 'counsellor' is employed either in substitution for 'attorney' or, more frequently, as an addi- tional title — as in the phrase 'attorney and counsellor at law.' For a description of the func- tions of the attorney and his place in the administration of justice see Bar; Lawyer. See also Disbar. Attorney General, in the United States and Great Britain, the principal law officer of the government. He is the public prosecutor and standing counsel for the government in all its legal proceedings, as well as the legal adviser of the various gov- ernmental departments. In Eng- land he is a member of the minis- try but not of the cabinet and he is, by virtue of his office, the recognized head of the bar. In the United States the Attorney General, who was made a mem- ber of the first cabinet of Presi- dent Washington (1789), is fourth in rank of the great appointive officers of the govern- ment, only the Secretaries of State, Treasury, and War having precedence over him. His duties are prescribed by Act of Con- gress. Besides performing the legal functions which attach to the office of Attorney General in England, he is in the American administrative system the head of the Department of Justice. He is the legal adviser of the President and of Congress, and his opinions are regularly pub- lished and form precedents for future decisions. The organiza- tion of the Department of Justice includes, also, a Solicitor Gen- eral, an Assistant to the Attorney General, and several Assistant Attorneys General. The Attor- ney General receives a salary of $12,000. Each of the States has a similar officer. See Justice, U. S. Department of. Attornment, at-turn'ment, the formal recognition by a tenant of another person than his lessor as landlord. At the common law no conveyance by a landlord was complete without an attornment of the tenant to the grantee of the reversion. A complete aliena- tion of lands subject to lease thus required the twofold process of grant and attornment. The necessity for an attornment was done awav with by statute in 1'705 (4 Anne, c. 16), but it may still be employed so as to affect the rights of parties in certain cases, as where the tenant of a mortgagor recognizes the right of the mortgagee to take the rents of the mortgaged premises. See Landlord and Tenant. Attrac'tion, the tendency of bodies to approach each other and unite; the force which brings bodies together and resists their separation. The chief kinds of attraction are: the attraction of gravitation (q. v.); capillary attraction, meaning the attrac- tion excited by a hairlike tube on a liquid within it — a variety of adhesion (see Capillarity) ; mo- lecular attraction, which acts only at infinitely small distances; chemical attraction (see Affin- ity, Chemical) ; magnetic at- traction — the power of a magnet or loadstone of drawing iron to itself (see Magnetism); and elec- trical attraction — the power pos- sessed by an electrified body of drawing certain other bodies to itself (see Electricity). These attractions are divisible into two classes: (1) those which act at sensible and measurable dis- tances, as gravitation, magnetic and electrical attraction; and (2) those which extend only to ex- tremely small and insensible dis- tances, as capillary, molecular, and chemical attraction. Attribute, a term employed in logic to denote the opposite of substance. See also Sub- stance, Attu, iit'toS, the most westerly of the group of Aleutian Islands, in the Northern Pacific Ocean, in lat. 52° 58' n., long. 172° 66' e. It has a small population of Aleut Indians. At'water, Wilbur Olin (1844- 1907), American chemist, was born in Johnsburgh, N. Y. He was graduated in 1865 from Wes- leyan University (Middletown, Conn.), and after a course in chemistry at the Sheffield Scien- tific school, was appointed pro- fessor of chemistry at Wesleyan, a position which he held for more than thirty years. He was active in the formation of agricultural experimental stations for the Connecticut and U. S. govern- ments, and in 1894 he took charge of the U. S. government investigation as to the relative values of food materials. Dr. Atwater wrote many papers for scientific publications. Atwood 467 Aubry de Montdidier At'wood, George (1746-1807), English mathematician, was edu- cated at Westminister and Cam- bridge, where he was third wrangler, and afterward excelled as a lecturer. In 1784, William Pitt, one of his pupils, bestowed on him a patent office — an indi- rect payment for his services in financial calculations. Atwood was the author of many mathe- matical works, one of which gives the first description of what is now called 'Atwood 's machine' (q. v.). Atwood, Isaac Morgan (1838-1917), American clergy- man, was born in Pembroke, N. Y. He was educated at Yale University and was ordained as a Universalist Minister in 1861. After holding several pastorates in New York and New England, he became in 1879 president of the Canton Theological Semin- ary. From 1898 to 1906 he was superintendent of the Universal- ist Church in the United States and Canada, and in 1911 he be- came professor of theology and philosophy at St. Lawrence Uni- versity. His published writings include: Have we Outgrown Chris- tianity? (1870); Walks about Zion (1881); Latest Word of Universalism (1879); Balance Sheet of Biblical Criticism (1895). Atwood, Thomas (1765- 1838), English musician and composer, was born in London. He was a favorite pupil of Mo- zart at Vienna, and an intimate friend of Mendelssohn. He be- came organist of St. Paul's (1795), and composer and organ- ist to the Chapel Royal (1796). His works include many songs and glees, operas and anthems. Atwood's Machine, a machine invented by George Atwood to demonstrate the laws of uni- formly accelerated motion, and to illustrate the relations of time, space, and motion in the case of a body falling under the action of gravitation. This machine is so constructed, by means of pulleys and wheels which turn with the least possible friction, that a weight (or falling body) descends much more slowly than a body falling in free space, being made to raise a counterpoise by means of a cord passing over a pulley, yet increases in velocity in the same ratio as when falling at liberty. Atys, at'is, or Attis, a beauti- ful Phrygian sHepherd beloved by the goddess Cybele, who made him her priest, then changed him into a fir-tree. The story is related by Ovid (Fasti, bk. iv.) and by Catullus (Ode 63). The versions vary widely. Aubagne, 6-ban'y', town, France, department of Bouches- du-Rhone, 10 miles east of Mar- seilles. There are important pot- tery works. Pop. (1911) 9,744. Aubanel, o-ba-nel', Theodore (1829-86), poet and dramatist of the Provengal language, and one of the leaders of the development of Provengal poetry, was born in Avignon, where he carried on the business of publishing. His works are La Miougrano Entreduberto (1860) and Li Fiho d'Avignoun (1885), both collections of poetry. He also wrote the dramas Lou Pan dou Pecat (played at Mont- pelier in 1878 with great success), Lou Pastre, and Lou Raubatori. Aube, 6b, river, France, a tributary of the Seine (q. v.). Aube, department, Central France, consisting for the most part of the parallel valleys of the Seine and its tributary the Aube, with an area of 2,326 square miles. The lower parts of the valleys of the Seine and Aube belong to the chalky, barren Champagne Pouilleuse, which grows only a little oats, rye, and buckwheat. The hilly district on the left bank of the Seine (Pays d'Othe), and the Bassigny, between the Aube and the Seine on the southeast, yield good crops of wheat, contain market gardens, and have several large forests. There are deposits of limestone and potter's clay. Cotton weaving is the leading industry. Aube was the scene of disturbances and rioting in 1911, during what was known as the Champagne War (q. v.). The capital is Troyes. Pop. (1921) 227,839. Aubenas, ob-na', town, France, department of Ardeche, on the river Ardeche, 20 miles southwest of Privas. Notewor- thy features are a church with a 15th century tower, the massive Chateau, now used as the Hotel de Ville, and the chapel of the old College. Coal and iron occur in small quantities, and the silk industry is important. Pop. (1911) 7,206. Auber, o-bar', Daniel Fran- cois Esprit (1782-1871), French operatic composer, was born in Caen. His first dramatic com- position was the resetting of an operatic libretto called Julie, which was performed in 1812 and so impressed Cherubini that he became Auber's instructor. His next work was a mass, from which he afterward took the 'Prayer' which appears in Ma- saniello, his most serious work. His first two operas were unsuc- cessful; but his third. La Bergere Chatelaine (1820), was well re- ceived. Auber's subsequent col- laboration with Scribe (q. v.), the most succcvssful of librettists, did much to enhance his musical reputation. In 1842 he was ap- pointed director of the Conserva- tory in Paris; and in 1857 Na- poleon III. made him Maitrc de Chapelle. He wrote ov6r forty operas, among which are Le Macon (1825), La Muette de Portici or Masaniello (1828), La Fiancee (1829), Fra Diavolo (1830), La Cheval de Bronze (1835), Le Domino Noir (1837), Les Diamants de la Couronne (1841), Zerline (1851), written for Madame Alboni, and Le Reve d' Amour (1869). Aubergine, 6-bar-zhen', an- other name for the Eggplant (q. v.). Aubervilliers, 6-bar-ve-ya', town, France, department of the Seine, forming a suburb of Paris to the northwest. It has nu- merous factories, mainly engaged in chemical industries. Pop. (1921) 40,832. Aubignac, Aubigne. See D'AUBIGNAC, etc. Aubin, o-ban', industrial town, France, department of Aveyron, on the Orleans Rail- road; 30 miles northwest of Rodez. It is in an important coal-producing district and has large coal and iron mines and iron works. Pop. (1911) 9,574. Aublet, Jean Baptiste Chris- TOPHORE Fusee (1720-78), French botanist, was born in Salon, in the south of France. He founded botanic gardens and pharamaceutical schools in Mau- ritius and French Guiana (1762), and in his expeditions made val- uable collections of plants. He wrote Histoire des Plantes de la Guyane Francaise (1775). Aubrey, 6'bri, John (1626-97), English antiquary, was born in Easton Pierse in Wiltshire. In 1649 he drew attention to the megalithic remains at Avebury, of which, in 1663, he wrote an account by command of Charles II. After 1670 he worked on antiquarian subjects with Hobbes and Ashmole. His Miscellanies (1696) is a complete storehouse of quaint anecdotes with refer- ence to supernatural subjects. His 'Minutes of Lives,' given by him to Anthony a Wood, and printed in Letters by Emi- nent Persons (1813), show him as a kind of 'immature Boswell.' His antiquarian researches in Surrey were published in five volumes by Rawlinson (1718- 19), and a similar collection for Wilts was privately printed by Sir T. Phillips in 1821, but the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford contains much still unpublished MS. A fragment. Remains of Gentilism and Judaism, was printed by the Folklore Society in 1880. Aubrietia, or Purple Rock Cress, a genus of small plants belonging to the order Crucifera\ They are about 3 inches high, and in the spring produce masses of violet, lilac, and purple flowers admirably adapted for pots, borders, and rock gardens. Aubry dc Montdidieri d-bre' dc mon-de-dya', courtier of Vol. I.— Oct. '23 Auburn 468 Auohmuty Charles v. of France. Tradition says that he was assassinated (1371) by Richard de Macaire, and that the murderer was re- vealed through the animosity displayed toward him by the victim's dog. To decide the case, Macaire was commanded by the king to fight the dog, was beaten, and confessed. The pop- ular drama, Le Chien d'Aubry, is founded on this story, which is known also as The Dog of Mon- targis. Auburn, city, California, county seat of Placer county, on the Southern Pacific Railroad; 126 miles northeast of San Fran- cisco. Situated in an agricul- tural district, its principal indus- tries are the raising of farm prod- ucts and fruit growing. There are quartz mills and other mining industries in the vicinity. Pop. (1910) 2,376; (1920) 2,289. Auburn, city, Illinois, Sanga- mon county, on the Chicago and Alton, and the Chicago and Illi- nois Midland Railroads, and a local trolley line; 26 miles south- west of Springfield. The St. Louis-Chicago Highway passes through the city. There are coal mines in the immediate vicinity. Pop. (1910) 1.814; (1920) 2,660. Auburn, city, Indiana, county seat of De Kalb county, on Ce- dar Creek and on the New York Central, the Baltimore and Ohio, and the Pennsylvania Railroads, and a local electric line; 23 miles north of Fort Wayne. It is a trading centre for agricultural produce, and has manufactures of automobiles, tires, brooms, han- dles, furniture, excelsior, and rubber goods. It has a supply of natural gas. Pop. (1910) 3,919; (1920) 4,650. Auburn, city, Maine, county seat of Androscoggin county, on the Androscoggin River, and on the Maine Central, and the Grand Trunk, New England Lines Railroads, and several local trolley lines; 34 miles north of Portland. The falls of the river furnish power for manufactures, principally boots and shoes, fur- niture, and cotton. Pop. (1900) 12,951; (1910) 15,064; (1920) 16,985. Auburn, city, Nebraska, county seat of Nemaha county, on the Little Nemaha River, and on the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, and the Missouri Pacific Rail- roads; about 65 miles south of Omaha. Flour milling is its chief industry. Pop. (1910) 2,729; (1920) 2,863. Auburn, city. New York, county seat of Cayuga county, situated at the foot of Owasco Lake (which furnishes the city with water, and also supplies power for manufacturing), and on the Lehigh Valley, the Cen- tral New York Southern, and the New York Central Railroads; 174 Vol. L— Oct. '23 miles west of Albany. Among the public institutions are the Auburn Theological Seminary (q. V.) and a State prison, not- able for the reformatory charac- ter of its discipline. Manufac- tures include shoes, woollen goods, rope and twine, agricul- tural implements, oil engines, wagons, forgings, rugs, flour, and carpets. Auburn was long the home of William H. Seward, Sec- retary of State in President Lin- coln's cabinet. Pop. (1900) 30,- 345; (1910) 34,668; (1920) 36.192. Auburn, city, Washington, King county, on the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, the Great Northern, the Northern Pacific, and the Oregon-Wash- ington Railroads; 22 miles south of Seattle. Freight transfer sheds and the car repair department of the Northern Pacific Railroad Company are located here. There are also a milk condensory and terra cotta plant. It is a ship- ping point for lettuce and small fruits. Pop. (1910) 957; (1920) 3,163. Auburn-Lissoy, village in county Westmeath, Ireland, 8 miles northeast of Athlone. It is famous as the scene of Oliver Goldsmith's Deserted Village. Auburn Theological Semin- ary, a divinity school under Pres- byterian control at Auburn, N. Y., founded in 1818, associated with which is a School for Re- ligious Education (1921) designed to prepare young men and women as directors of religious educa- tion, teachers, missionaries, and pastors' assistants. The course in the Seminary is three years; that of the School of Religious Education two years. There are summer sessions for both the Seminary and the School of Relig- ious Education, and post-grad- uate courses are offered. Aubusson, o-bii-soii', town, France, department of Creuse, is picturesquely situated on the Creuse, 34 miles southwest of Montlucon. It is noted for its carpet and tapestry factories, one of them established by Col- bert in 1665. This industry is said to have been introduced by the Saracens, who are supposed to have founded the town after their defeat at Tours (732 a.d.). Pop. (1911) 7,211. Aubusson, Pierre d' (1423- 1503), sometimes called 'the shield of the Church,' was in 1476 elected grand master of the order of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, having previously dis- tinguished himself against the Turks (1435), the English at Montereau (1437). and the Swiss at St. Jakob (1444). After his elevation to the grand-master- ship he strove to create a confed- eration of the Christian powers against the Turks, and by his successful defence of Rhodes (May- July, 1480) against an army of ioO.OOO Turks, checked their victorious course after the fall of Constantinople (1453). A.U.C. (Lat. anno urbis con- dilcE, 'in the year from the found- ing of the city'). In Rome a particular year was usually de- scribed by the names of the con- suls for that year; but later Roman writers reckoned from the year of the founding of Rome — according to Varro, B. c. 753. Hence, to bring a date A. u. c. in accordance with Christian chro- nology, the date a. u. c. must be subtracted from 754 if b. c, but 753 must be added to the given date A. u. c. if a. d. Aucassin et Nicolette, 6-ka- san' a ne-ko-let', a celebrated French romance of the 12th century, written in alternate prose and assonant verse of seven syllables. It recounts the love of Aucassin, son of the Count of Beaucaire, for Nicolette, the cap- tive daughter of the king of Car- thage. Auch, osh (the Augusta Aus- corum of the Romans), town, France, department of Gers, for- merly capital of Gascony, on the right bank of the Gers; 367 miles south of Paris. It is situated on a steep hill (540 ft.), approached from the river by a flight of 200 steps, and crowned by a Gothic cathedral with stained windows of great beauty. It is the seat of an archbishop, and has a public library and museum. Thread, cotton, and woollen goods are manufactured, and there is trade in wines and brandy. Pop. (1911) 13.638. Aucbenia, 6-ke'ni-a, or Lama, the genus to which belong the llama, alpaca, guanaco, and vicuiia. Though the nearest allies of these animals are the Old World camels, they them- selves are entirely confined to South America, and even as fos- sils are not known outside the American continent. They dif- fer from the Old World camels by their smaller size, the absence of any dorsal hump, the woolly coat, the narrow feet with dis- tinctly separated toes, the short tail, long and pointed ears, and in the detailed characters of the teeth. Auchmuty, ok'mu-ti, Sir Sam- uel (1756-1822), English soldier, was the son of Samuel Auchmuty (1722-77), and was educated at Kings College (now Columbia University). He fought for the king in the battles of Brooklyn and White Plains, N. Y., and after the declaration of peace went to England, and then to India, where he served against Hyder Ali and against Tippoo Sultan at Seringa patam (1792). He was engaged in the capture of Monte Video (1806); was commander in chief at Madras Auchterarder 469 Audiphone (1810) ; captured Java (1811) ; but it was as adjutant general to Sir David Baird in his march across the desert to the Nile (1801) that he became a popular hero. Auchterarder, ok-ter-ar'der, market town, Scotland, in Perth- shire; 13 miles southwest of Perth. Industries include brew- eries, cotton weaving, flour mil- ling and the manufacture of tartans. Pop. (1921) 2,263. Auckland, ak'land, provincial district. North Island, New Zealand; area 25,364 square miles. It is hilly, well timbered, and well watered, and has an extensive seaboard, with many good harbors. Kauri timber and gum, and sub-tropical fruits are peculiar to this district. In Thames and Coromandel coun- ties are large gold fields (quartz reefs), and in the Waikato basin agriculture is important. In the south are the Hot Lakes district (See Rotorua) and Lake Taupo. The chief exports are wool, gold, kauri gum, timber, and flax. The district, the first to be settled, includes two-thirds of the Maoris. Pop. (1921) 369,618. Auckland, the largest and most important city of New Zealand, in North Island, is situated on an isthmus at the head of Waite- mata Harbor, an inlet of Hauraki Gulf. It is a city of beautiful parks, chief among which are Albert Park, Auckland Domain, and Victoria Park, of wide, shaded streets, and fine public buildings. Features of interest are the General Post Office, Government House, St. Patrick's Cathedral (R. C), St. Mary's Cathedral (Anglican), the Free Public Library and Art Gallery, with a valuable collection of pictures and books presented by Sir George Grey, Leys Institute, the Museum, with a splendid Maori collection, and University College. The harbor, one of the best in New Zealand, has ample accom- modation for shipping and is equipped with graving docks, one of which, the Calliope dock, being among the largest in Australasia. Manakau harbor on the western coast is only six miles distant. Industries include shipbuilding, sugar refining, brick making and timbering. The city was founded in 1840 and until 1865 was the seat of colonial government. Pop, (1924) 172,935. Auckland, George Eden, Earl of (1784-1849), British statesman, was born near Becken- ham, Kent. He was educated at Oxford and was called to the bar in 1809. He succeeded his brother in the House of Com- mons (1810), was President of the Board of Trade (1830), First Lord of the Admiralty (1834), and Governor General of India (1835-41), being recalled because of his failure in the Afghan cam- paign. He was created Earl of Auckland in 1839. Auckland, William Eden, Baron (1744-1814), British dip- lomat was born in Durham. He was educated at Oxford and was called to the bar in 1769. Entering the House of Commons (for Woodstock), he joined Lord North's party; was a devoted follower of Pitt, who sent him as minister - plenipotentiary to France, where he negotiated an important commercial treaty (1786); and was ambassador to Spain and later to Holland. Created an English peer (1793), he was Postmaster General (1798-1801). His published works include Principles of the Penal Law (1772); History of New Holland (1787). Auckland Islands, a group of uninhabited, mountainous, vol- canic, islands about 180 miles south of New Zealand, to which they belong; total area, about 350 square miles. The largest, Auckland Island, about 330 square miles in area has two good harbors and a relief department for shipwrecked sailors. The islands were discovered in 1806, by Bristow and annexed by Great Britain in 1886. Auction, a method of selling property by which the vendor agrees to sell to the highest bidder. An auction sale is usually made subject to printed conditions of sale and an exact description of the property to be sold. The sale proceeds by increased bid- dings until no more offers are forthcoming, when the property is 'knocked down' to the highest bidder, unless a reserve price has been fixed by the vendor, at which the property may be withdrawn if not reached. A bid may be retracted at any time before the property is knocked down on the general prin- ciple of contract law that an offer is not binding without acceptance. The auctioneer is the agent both of the seller and the buyer, and his signature to the memorandum of sale will bind both parties. He should sell for ready money only and has authority to receive the purchase money for the goods sold. Auction sales and the busi- ness of conducting them are carefully regulated by statute, both in England and the United States. Auction Bridge. See Bridge. Aucuba Japonica, a'ku-ba ja- p6n'i-ka, an Asiatic shrub of the order Cornaceae. It grows to a height of a few feet, and bears large mottled evergreen leaves and red berries, ripened in March. It somewhat resembles the laurel and is frequently cultivated as an ornamental shrub. Aude, od, maritime depart- ment in Southern France, lying along the Mediterranean coast; area 2,448 square miles. The northern part of the department lies on the southern slopes of the Montague Noire (highest point Pic de Noire, 3,970 feet); but between the Aude and the sea runs the Chaine des Corbieres. The Canal Languedoc (Canal du Midi) traverses the department. The climate is generally mild and agreeable. Several localities with mineral springs are much fre- quented; many varieties of fruit ripen on the slopes of the hills, and the summits afford good pasturage. The honey of Nar- bonne is famous. The quarries yield plaster, slate, and marble, there is some iron ore and coal, and manufacturing is carried on. Carcassonne is the capital. Pop. (1921) 287,052. Aude, river, France, rising in the department of Pyrenees- Orientales, crossing the depart- ment of Aude, and entering the Mediterranean after a course of 139 miles. Audebert, 6d-bar', Jean Bap- tists (1759-1800), French natu- ralist and painter, was born in Rochefort. He studied in Paris and in 1800 produced Histoire naturelle des singes, with 62 plates, printed in oil colors by a process of his own invention, being the first to use gold leaf in illustrating the plumage of birds. Other publications include His- toire des colibris, des oiseaux- mouches, des jacmares, et des promerops (1802); L' Histoire des grimpereaux et des oiseaux de paradis (1803). Audenarde, Belgiufn. See Oudenarde. Audh. See Oudh. Audhumla, oud-hdom'la, in Scandinavian mythology, the cow whose milk nourished the giant Ymir, the first created being, and his race. Audiffret-Pasquier, 6-de-fra'- pas-kya', Edme Armand Gaston, Due d' (1823-1905)," French statesman, was born in Paris. At first an adherent of the Orleanists, he subsequently sup- ported the moderate Republi- cans. He was the first person elected life senator by the Na- tional Assembly, of which he be- came president in 1875, and was president of the Senate in 1876-79. He was elected to the Academy in 1879. Audiom'eter, an instrument, invented by Professor D. E. Hughes in 1879, to accurately measure the sense of hearing. It consists of an adaptation of the telephone. Au'diphone, a device for im- proving the hearing of persons partially deaf. It consists of a thin fan-shaped sheet of ebonite or other suitable material, which is pressed against the upper front teeth, and capable of being Vol. I.— Oct. '27 Auditor 470 Audubon varied in convexity. Sound vibrations are conveyed through the bones of the head. Auditor, a person employed to examine and report upon the financial condition of a private business or undertaking, or of a corporation, or of a public office or department, municipal, state, or federal. When appointed by statute, his duties are thereby de- fined, and the skill and caution of a professional or expert ac- countant is required of him; otherwise he is subject only to the terms of the contract under which he is engaged. He is obliged to go behind the figures and to investi- gate and report upon proper re- ceipts and expenditures, make a just allowance for depreciation and bad debts, and otherwise determine the true state of the account. He is often a perma- nent official of industrial cor- porations. There are six auditors of the treasury department at Washington. (1) Civil Service, Customs, Judiciary, Public Debt, etc. (2) Indian Affairs and a part of Army Affairs. (3) Quar- termaster-General, Engineer Corps, War Claims, etc. (4) Navy. (5) Internal Revenue, Census, Patent Office. (6) Post Office department. Auditory Nerve, the eighth cranial nerve, consists of two roots (auditory, vestibular) with different functions and distinct peripheral and central connec- tions, and should be regarded as two distinct nerves. The audi- tory nerve is concerned solely Vol. I.— Oct. '27 with hearing, passes from the cochlea, and for that reason is known as the cochlear nerve. It leaves the trunk of the eighth nerve and enters the pons by the posterior, lateral or cochlear root. See also Brain; Ear. Audley, ad'li, Sir James (? 13 16-69), British knight, a 'first founder' of the Order of the Garter (1344) , famous as a brave companion of the Black Prince. His chief exploits were at Poitiers (1356). In 1362 he was appointed governor of Aquitaine by the Black Prince. Audley, Thomas (1488-1544), lord chancellor of England, was born in Essex. He studied law; was returned to Parliament in 1523 and in 1527 became a member of Wolsey's household. In 1529 he succeeded Sir Thomas More as Speaker of the House of Commons and in 1533 was elevated to the lord chancellor- ship through his subserviency to Henry viii. He presided at the trials of More and Fisher and his conduct at both has been uni- versally condemned. Audouln, o-doo-an', Jean Vic- tor (1797-1841), French natu- ralist, was born in Paris and in 1833 was appointed professor of entomology at the Paris Museum of Natural History. He inves- tigated certain plant diseases affecting French industries, espe- cially those of the silkworm and vine. He wrote, in conjunction with Milne-Edwards, Hisloire des insecles nuisibles d la vigne (1842), and contributed the sec- tion on insects to Cuvier's Regne animal (1817). Audran, o-dran', Edmond (1842-1901), French musical composer, was born in Lyons. He was originally intended for the church, but finding himself unfitted for that vocation he turned to music, and became choirmaster at Marseilles. His Grand mogul, an operetta (1864), first brought him prominently into notice. It was followed by Olivette, La mascotle. La Cigale and La poupee, all of them grace- ful, sparkling, and melodious light operas. Audran, a family of French ar- tists who flourished in the latter half of the seventeenth and the early part of the eighteenth cen- turies. The best known are: Gerard (c. 1640-1703), an en- graver who developed a system that reproduced the breadth and tone of the original picture. His best known works are Les batailles d' Alexandre, after Le- brun. Jean (1667-1756), whose masterpiece is L' enlevement des Sabines, after Poussin, and other works after Rubens, Veronese, and Lebrun. Claude ii. (1644- 84), painter, pupil of Lebrun, whom he imitated. He dec- orated with frescoes the gallery of the Tuileries and the grand stair- case at Versailles. Claude hi. (1658-1734), known as a painter of the extreme grotesque and ornamental. Audsley, George Ashdown (1838-1925), architect and writer, was born in Elgin, Scot- land. He went to the United States in 1892 and settled in New York City where he practised as an architect. His work in archi- tecture includes the Bowling Green office building and other similar structures. His writings include a Handbook of Christian Symbolism (1865). The Art of Chromolithography, and a number of beautiful volumes on JapancvSe art, including The Ornamental Arts of Japan (1882-6) and (with J. L. Bowes) Ceramic Art of Japan (1875-80); The Art of Organ-Building (1903). Audubon, o'ddb-bun, John James (1780-1851), American ornithologist, was born in Mande- ville, near New Orleans, La. His father was a wealthy plan- tation owner, who had been a commander in the French navy, and his mother was a Spanish Creole. His father early recog- nized his on's talent as a draughtsman, and sent him to study under the artist David, in Paris. On his return (1798) young Audubon went to the Mill Grove farm, near Philadelphia, Pa., where he had unlimited facilities for collecting natural history specimens, making his drawings, and setting down his notes of the appearance Audubon's Peak and habits of wild creatures. He there met Miss Lucy Bakewell, whom he was to marry (1808), and who accompanied him in his wanderings through the Middle West, in several towns of which he tried unsuccessfully to estab- lish businesses. Through all this period (1808-26) he continued work on his drawings of birds, and in 1826 went to England to arrange for the publication of the great volume of The Birds of America (1830-9). This work was characterized by Cuvier as 'the most magnificent monu- ment that art has yet raised to ornithology.' At the same time Audubon put through the press the volumes of descriptive text. Ornithological Biography (1831- 9). A great part of the Quadru- peds of America (1846-54) was completed by his sons. He re- turned to America in 1840, and thereafter resided at his home on the Hudson River. Consult Life by Buchanan from materials sup- plied by his widow; Coues' Aud- ubon and his Journals and the appendix to Coues' Birds of the Colorado Valley; Herrick's Audu- bon, the Naturalist (1917). Audubon's Peak, one of the Rocky Mountains, situated in Colorado, lat. 40° 5' n., long. 105° 37' w. Height, 13,173 ft. Aue, ou'^, town, Saxony, dis- trict of Zwickau, on the Mulde, 12 miles southeast of Zwickau. Machinery, lace, furniture, and linens are manufactured, and there is an industrial school. Pop. (1910) 19,360. Aue, Hartmann von. See Hartman von Aue. Auenbrugger von Auen- brugg, ou'en-brobg-er, Leopold (1722-1809), Austrian physician, was born in Gratz, studied in Vienna, and practised in the Spanish hospital there (1751-68). He introduced the method of diagnosing chest and abdominal diseases by percussion and de- scribed this in his Inventum no- vum ex Percussione Thoracis hu- mani interni Pectoris Morbos dete- gendi (1761). Auer, ou'er, Aloys (1813-69), Austrian printer, was born in Wels, Upper Austria. He was trained as a compositor, but managed to study French, Ital- ian, English and other languages with the result that he was ap- pointed professor of Italian in Linz (Upper Austria). He trav- elled widely, collecting material on printing, and from 1841 to 1868 was director of the Imperial Printing Office in Vienna. He made many typographical in- ventions and made known the discovery of 'spontaneous im- pression' in Die Enldeckung des Naturselbstdrucks (1854). He also published the Lord's Prayer in over six hundred languages. Auer, Leopold (1845- ), Hungarian violinist, was born at Vol. I. — Mar. '23 Veszprimf anciystuaied music at Vienna and later with Joachim at Hanover. After conducting in Dusseldorf (1863) and Ham- burg (1866), he was engaged in 1868 as soloist for the imperial orchestra at St. Petersburg, and was appointed professor at the conservatory of music. From 1887 to 1892 he was conductor of the symphony concerts given by the Imperial Russian Musical Society. After the revolution in March, 1917, he emigrated to Scandinavia and in 1918 made New York his residence. His best known pupils are Elman, Zimbalist, Heifetz and Seidel. Auerbach, ou'^r-bak, Ber- THOLD (1812-82), German au- thor, was born of Jewish parent- age in Nordstetten. He had been destined for the synagogue but turned to philosophy, study- ing closely and translating the works of Spinoza, whom he made the hero of his novel Spinoza (1837). He is chiefly known as the founder of the contemporary German 'tendency novel' and as the author of various novels of peasant life in the Black Forest. Many of his works have been translated into English; the best known are Das Judentum und die neueste Litteratur (1836); Schwarzwdlder Dorf geschichten (1843); Village Tales (1846); Barfiissele (1856); Joseph in Schnee (1861); Edelweiss (1861); Auf der Hoke (1865); Nach dreis- sig Jahren (1876); Der Forst- meister (1879); Brigitta (1880). Auerbach's Keller, a wine cel- lar and restaurant in Leipzig (No. 1 Grimmaische Strasse), associ- ated with the early life of the poet Goethe, who used it as one of the scenes of his drama Faust. Auersperg, ou'ers-per ch, An- ton Alexander, Count von (1806-76), German poet, known under the pen name Anastasius GrDn, was born in Laibach. As a politician he played an active part in the provincial govern- ment of Styria and Carniola (1861-7), in the constitutional assemblies of 1848, and in the Austrian House of Peers, of which he became a life member in 1861. He was noted for his liberal and pro-German tendencies. His po- etical works include political satires, in behalf of liberty and light humorous verse. Auerstiidt, au'er-stat, village. Saxony, 32 miles southwest of Halle. Here, on Oct. 14, 1806, the day of the battle of Jena, the French under Davoilt defeated the Prussians with great slaugh- ter. Pop. 600. Aufrecht, oui'recht, Theodor (1822-1907), German Sanskrit scholar, was born in Leschnitz, in Upper Silesia. He studied un- der Bopp, Bockh, and Lachmann at Berlin, and in 1852 went to Oxford, where he compiled a catalogue of the Sanskrit mss. Augier (1859-64) in the Bodleian Li- brary, and assisted Max Miiller with his edition of the Rigveda (1877). He was professor of Sanskrit at Edinburgh (1862- 75) and at Bonn (1875-89), and published, in collaboration with Kirchoff, Die umbrischen Sprach- denkmdler (1849-51), dealing with the comparative philology of the old Italian tongues, and Catalogus Catalogorum: an Al- phabetical Register of Sanskrit Works and Authors (1891-1903). He founded the Zeitschrift der ver gleichenden Sprachforschung. Auge. See Telephus. Augean Stables. See Her- cules. Augereau, ozh-ro', Pierre Francois Charles, Duke of Castiglione( 1757-18 16), French soldier, was born in Paris. He gained distinction in Napoleon's campaigns in Northern Italy, es- pecially at Lodi (1796), Castig- lione, and Carmignano, and shared the honor of Areola (1796); was made a marshal in 1804, and served in the battles of Jena (1806), Eylau (1807), and Leipzig (1813). On the return of Louis xviii. he made his sub- mission and retained his rank, but refused to act as a member of the military tribunal on Mar- shal Ney. During the 'hun- dred days' he endeavored to conciliate and rejoin Napoleon, but succeeded only in incurring the displeasure of the Bourbons. Au'gershell, an elongated, closel^'^ coiled, carnivorous gas- tropod mollusc, of the family Terebridae, inhabiting the tropi- cal seas and the Southern Pacific. Over 200 varieties are known. Aughrim, 6 'grim (anc. Each- raim), village and parish, county Galway, Ireland. It is famous as the scene of the decisive battle (fought July 12, 1691, after the capture of Athlone) between the troops of William iii., under the command of Ginkel, and those of James ii., led by St. Ruth. Augier, o-zhi-a', Guillaume Victor Emile (1820-89), French dramatist, was born in Valence. Although educated as a barris- ter, he early turned his attention to literary work, and in 1844 produced La cigue, a play in verse, which pleads the cause of the courtesan redeemed by love. This was followed by Un homme de bien (1845), L'aventuriere (1848), and Gabrielle (1849). His works do not show great tech- nical skill but his characters and settings indicate real human sympathy and understanding. His plays, while lacking passion and imagination, are straightfor- ward in action and never unduly theatrical. Other works than those already mentioned are Le joueur de flute (1850); Diane (1852) ; La pierre de louche (1853) ; Philiberte (1853); Le mariage d'Olympe (1855) ; Le gendre de M. Augite 472 Augusta Poirier (written in collaboration with Sandeau, 1855); Ceinture doree (1855); La jeiinesse (1858); Les lionnes paimres (with Edou- ard Foussier, 1858); Un beau mariage (1859); Les efrontes (1861); Le fils de Giboyer (1862); Le maUre Guerin (1864); La con- tagion (1866); Paul Forestier (1868); Lions et renards (1869); Jean de Thommeray (1873); Mad- ame Caverlet (1876); Les Four- chambauU (1878). His collected dramatic works appeared in 1890. Aug'ite, a common variety of pyroxene (q.v.), rich in iron and aluminum, and specially impor- tant as a rock-forming mineral. It is most abundant in the cry- stalline igneous rocks, and is often an essential ingredient in basalt, andesite, and picrite. Augite is usually black, occurring in small crystals of the mono- clinic system, as well as in irreg- ular grains. It may be distin- guished from hornblende (q.v.), the corresponding variety of amphibole, by the shorter, stouter crystals and less perfect cleavage. The cleavage angle is approxi- mately 87°. The hardness is SK. and sp. gr. 3.3. Augite decom- poses into chlorite, uralite, and serpentine (qq.v.). Augmentation, in music, is the reproduction or imitation of a theme or subject by doubling the time value of the notes in which it was first introduced. Augmentation, Honorable, in heraldry an addition to a coat- of-arms granted by the sovereign for distinguished service. Augsburg, ouks'bobrch, city, Bavaria, situated at the conflu- ence of the Wertach and the Lech; about 40 miles northwest of Munich. Some of the gates of the mediaeval fortifications are still extant, the buildings are many of them elaborate Renais- sance structures, and there are several celebrated fountains. Noteworthy structures are the Rathaus, erected in 1615-20, containing the Golden Hall, one of the most magnificent halls in Germany; the Cathedral, begun in 995 and altered in the four- teenth century; the Maximilian Museum, iiistalled in the so- called Fugger Bath Rooms, con- taining the art treasures of the Fugger-Babenhausen family; the Arsenal; the Royal Picture Gal- lery; and the churches of St. Anna, founded in 1321, and St. Ulrich, erected in 1467-99. In the western part of the city are several handsome modern build- ings, including the Municipal Archives, the Law Courts, and the Municipal Library. Augs- burg has good water power and its industries include cotton spinning and weaving mills, pa- per factories, dye-works, and machine works. Augsburg was founded by the Romans about 15 B.C. Pop. (1919) 154,555. Vol. I.— Mar. "23 Augsburg Confession, the chief statement of faith of the Luth- eran church. In 1530 Emperor C'harles v. of Germany, desirous of effecting an amicable vsettle- ment of the religious differences between Protestants and Catho- lics, summoned the German Diet to meet in Augsburg (April 8, 1530) and requested from the Protestants a statement of the doctrines in which they differed from the Catholic faith. Such a statement, known as the Torgau Articles, was accordingly drawn up by Luther, Jonas, Bugen- hagen, and Melanchthon, and with this as a basis Melanchtho.n, aided by suggestions from Luther and others, drew up the Confes- sion of Faith which was pre- sented to the Diet on June 25. Augsburg Interim. See In- terim. Au'gur and Auspex, o'ger, os'peks, names given to the Ro- man diviners, meaning primarily 'diviners by birds'. The Roman augurs formed a priestly col- legium and in ancient times no public transaction took place without consulting them. The college originally consisted of three patricians, of whom the king was one; about 300 B.C. the number was raised to nine, four patricians and five plebeians, and finally, under Julius Caesar, it was raised to sixteen, all of whom held office for life. The college continued to exist until the end of the fourth century a.d. In ancient times the auspices were taken by observation of the flight of birds, generally immedi- ately after midnight or at the dawn of day. In later times other kinds of auspices were used — signs in the sky, such as thunder and lightning; the be- haviour of chickens while feed- ing; the cries and motions of ani- mals; and signs given by unusual and terrible occurrences. See Divination. August. See Year. August 'a, name of several an- cient cities built by or called after Augustus and other Roman em- perors; Augusta Allohrogum, now Geneva; Augusta Ccesarea, now Saragossa; Augusta or Julia Gadi- tana, now Cadiz; Augusta Tauri- norum, now Turin; and Augusta Vindelicorum, now Augsburg. Augusta or Agosta, a fortified seaport in the province of Syra- cuse, Sicily, is situated on a small island close to the southeastern coast; 19 miles north of Syracuse. Vines and olives are grown, there is a large salt industry, and fish- ing is carried on. The town was founded in 1232. Pop. 16,000. Augusta, city, Georgia, county scat of Richmond county, at the head of navigation on the Sa- vannah River, and on the Cen- tral of Georgia, the Charleston and Western Carolina, the Chat- tahoochee Valley, Georgia and Florida, and Southern Railroads; 170 miles southeast of Atlanta. It is an attractively built city, with wide, well-paved streets, and contains several parks. Edu- cational and philanthropic in- stitutions include the Medical College of Georgia, Paine's Col- lege (for colored persons), Rich- mond Academy, a public library, orphan asylum, and a number of hospitals, including the Univer- sity Hospital and Wilhenford Hospital for Children. Other features of interest are the Ma- sonic Temple, the cotton ex- - change, two fine public monu- ments, and the U. S. Arsenal. The Augusta canal, 7 miles long, owned by the city, diverts the waters of the Savannah River for the use of the manufacturing industries, which include cotton, cotton-seed oil, lumber, and flour mills, foundries, machine shops, and manufactures of confection- ery and ice cream, and mineral and carbonated waters. The total number of manufacturing establishments according to the Federal Census for 1919 is 93. with 5,156 wage earners and products valued at $37,161,000. The cotton trade is one of the largest in the South. Augusta was captured bv the British in 1779 and in 1780', and recaptured by Gen. Henry Lee in 1781. Pop. (1900) 39,441; (1910) 41,040; (1920) 52,548. Augusta, city, Kansas, Butler county, on the Atchison, To- peka and Santa Fe, and the St. Louis-San Francisco Railroads; about 20 miles east of Wichita. It has two refineries, and oil well tools, boilers, and artificial ice are manufactured. Pop. (1910) 1,235; (1920) 4,217. Augusta, city, capital of Maine and county seat of Kennebec county, is situated on the Kenne- bec River and the Maine Cen- tral Railroad; 60 miles northeast of Portland. It has remarkably fine civic buildings, and is the seat of a U. vS. arsenal, the State asylum for the insane, Old Fort Western of the Revolutionary era, the State library, and a pub- lic library. The Blaine Man- sion, formerly the home of James G. Blaine, is also located here, and is now the property of the State, used as its Executive Mansion. Manufacturing indus- tries, fed by water-power from a dam above the city, include pa- per, pulp, lumber, and cotton mills, and in recent years the city has shown rapid development as a shoe centre. Pop. (1910) 13,- 211; (1920) 16,985. Augusta, Marie Luise Katharina (1811-90), German empress, daughter of Charles Frederick, Grand-Duke of Saxe- Weimar. On June 11, 1829, she married William, Crown-Prince of Prussia, afterward the Em- peror William i. A.ugusfales 473 Augustine Augustales. (1.) Games in honor of Augustus held at Rome and in other parts of the empire. After B.C. 11 the senate decreed their celebration annually on the birthday of Augustus. (3.) Two classes of priests, one at Rome isodales augustales) and the other in the municipia, instituted by Tiberius to attend the worship of Augustus and the Julia gens. They numbered twenty-one, to- gether with certain members of the imperial family, and were selected from the principal per- sons in Rome. In the municipia they are supposed to have been wealthy libertini. They formed a collegium, and were appointed by the deciiriones, or senate of the municipia. The six chief mem- bers were called seviri. Augustana College ani Theo- logical Seminary. A Lutheran institution at Rock Island, 111., established in 1860 at Chicago. Students of both sexes are ad- mitted except in the divinity school. In 1905 it had 350 stu- dents, a faculty of 40, and a li- brary of 40,500 volumes. The productive funds amount to $57,- 700, with an income of $98,500 from all sources. Augustan Age, a term applied to the period of the Roman em- peror Augustus (31 B.C. to 14 A.D.). The great names of the Augustan age were Ovid, Horace, Livy, Virgil, and Catullus. The expression is also associated with the age of Queen Anne and the early Georges in English litera- ture, and with the reign of Louis XIV. in French history. Augusta Praetoria, Italy. See AOSTA. Augusta Victoria (1858), Ger- man Empress and Queen of Prus- sia, daughter of Frederick, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein. In 1881 she married Prince William of Prussia, now William n. Augustenburg, seaside resort on the Baltic, in the Prussian prov. of Schleswig-Holstein, at the head of a bay of Alsen I., 20 m. N.E. of Flensburg. Pop. , (1900) 663. Augusti, JoHANN Christian WiLHELM (1772-1841), German Protestant theologian, born at Eschenberga, near Gotha. His chief works are Lehrbuch der christlichen Dogm engeschichte (^1805; new ed. 1835); Denkwiir- digkeiten aus der christlichen Archdologie (12 vols. 1817-31); Handbiich der christlichen Ar- chdologie (1836-7) ; Kritik der neuen Preussischen Kirchena- gende (1823). Augustine (Aurelius Augus- TiNus), the greatest of the Latin fathers of the Christian church, was born on Nov. 13, 354 a.d., at Tagaste, a small Numidian coun- try town. Monica, Augustine's mother, was a woman of deep (Christian piety. At the age of sixteen he was enabled to pro- ceed to the University of Car- thage. During his residence at Carthage Augustine lived a life of gaiety and dissipation; but not, apparently, to the neglect of his studies, for he gained the first place in the school of rhetoric-^ the most coveted distinction in those days. In Carthage, while a youth of eighteen, he contracted an alliance with a young woman, with whom he lived in a state of unmarried fidelity for fourteen years. When in his twentieth year Augustine began, as he says, to desire ' with an incredible ardor the immortality of .wisdom.' The book that awakened him to this serious state of mind was Cicero's Hortensins. Turning to the Scriptures to satisfy his new hun- ger, he was disappointed, for they seemed to him ' unworthy of being brought into comparison with the rnajesty of Cicero.' In this condition of mental fermen- tation Augustine fell in with pro- fessors of Manichaeism, and for more than nine years he remained a professed Manichsean. With a ' mind darkened by er- ror and a heart led astray by passion,' Augustine, at the age of twenty, opened a school for in- struction in grammar and rheto- ric in his native town. Though not unsuccessful, the young lec- turer ere long resolved to seek fame in Carthage. There pupils gathered around him in large numbers, and Augustine further increased his fame by winning a high prize in a public rhetorical contest. But, owing to the lack of discipline among the students, he resolved to seek his fortune in Rome. His mother opposed the idea; but finally (383 a.d.) he eluded her vigilance and escaped. ' I lied to my mother, and to such a mother.' On his arrival at Rome the fugitive fell into a dangerous illness, but recovered. He set about opening a school, and num- bers came to listen to his teach- ing. Unlike the students at Carthage, they behaved well; but they invariably failed to pay their fees. As a consequence Augus- tine applied for and obtained a post as teacher of rhetoric in Milan, where he drew a salary from the government. Before leaving Carthage his enthusiasm for the teaching of the Manichaeans had considerably abated. In Milan various influ- ences operated on him which tended to lead him to accept Christianity. The study of Plato completely undermined his old faith, and the preaching of Am- brose, bishop of Milan, completed the process. It was about this crisis in his history that his mother arrived from Africa. As a result of her influence and that of others, and of the study of the New Testament, Augustine was convinced of the truth of Chris- lianity. The moment of awaken- ing, so graphically described at the close of the eighth book of the Confessions, was the result of a conversation in which Pontitianus, a fellow-countryman of his own and a Christian, told him how the Life of Anthony the Hermit had so deeply impressed two members of the imperial service as to in- duce them Xo retire to a mon- astery. This great change in Augus- tine's life took place in August, 386. On Easter eve, April, 387, he, along with his son Adeo- datus and his friend Alypius, was baptized in Milan by Am- brose. Tradition associates with this memorable occasion the com- position of the great Christian hymn the Te Deuin. Shortly afterward at Ostia, when about to return to Africa, Augustine ex-, perienced a great sorrow through the death of his saintly mother; and he had not long settled in his native town, Tagaste, when his son also was taken away. In 391 the Christian community of Hippo Regius, a town close to the bor- ders of Algeria and Tunis, com- pelled him to accept ordination. Within five years, Valerius, the bishop, secured him as his col- league; and after the death of the former, Augustine remained in possession of the see till the end of his life._ The year 429 saw the Vandals in Africa, and in 430 they besieged Hippo. Three months later, on Aug. 28, 430, the famous divine breathed his last. No theologian has produced a larger and deeper impress on the mind of Christendom than the bishop of Hippo. This he has achieved not only by his writings, but by the exhibition of Chris- tian fervor and devotion which is given in the story of his inner life. _ As a philosopher and a moralist he anticipated many of the problems of modern times. As a stylist he is often prolix, but sooner or later he strikes off a sentence of immortal brilliance. Three great controversies called forth his immense mental re- sources. As against the Manichsc' ans, he maintained the doctrine that evil was not a nature. Every- thing that God made was good. Evil was a defect or corruption of nature, brought about by the exercise of the human will. In opposition to the Donatists, who claimed that the Catholics had ceased to be a holy church by ad- mitting those who had been un- faithful, Augustine denied that the church now existing was in- tended to be coextensive with the final and glorious church, and re- ferred his opponents to the par- Augustine 474 Augustus ables of the * Tares * and the ' Drag-net.' But Augustinianism — the doctrines with which the name of Augustine is universally identified — was developed by its author in controversy with Pela- gius, a British monk, and others who more or less entirely sup- ported his views. The point of conflict was the relation between truth and individuals — the con- ditions and process of salvation. Augustine employed all his ener- gies to establish the position that man is unable of himself to will anything good. There is no power either of choosing or of realizing the good in man; grace must do all. Starting from this, which he regarded as a fact of conscious- ness and as the teaching of Scrip- ture, Augustine built up that elab- orate system of theology which took shape in later days as Cal- vinism. Embracing expositions of Scripture, letters, philosophical and strictly theological works, Augustine's writings are volumi- nous. But the two best-known compositions are undoubtedly the De Civitate Dei, or ' City of God ' (413-426) and the Confessions (397). The former appeared after the fall of Rome (410), and if much of it lacks weight because of Augustine's slight acquaintance with Greek and ignorance of He- brew, it is a stupendous attempt to create a philosophy of history. In the midst of grave political disasters it brought before men's minds the conception of that spiritual city of God which had been slowly rising in the past, and which was destined to include all the kingdoms of the earth. The Confessions is the history of Au- gustine's thoughts and emotions, his sins and his struggles, his de- feats and delays, and ultimate triumph. It was written, as he says, ' to praise the just and good God, and stimulate the heart and mind of man to approach unto Him.' And, with Bunyan's Pil- grim's Progress, Pascal's Pensees, and a Kempis's De Imitafione, it has fulfilled, _ and still fulfils, its author's design. Many English editions of these two Avorks have appeared. In the original, the best editions of Augustine's writ- ings are the Benedictine (8 vols, folio, published at Paris, 1679- 1700, and republished in 22 vols., 1836-40), and Migne's (16 vols.). An English edition, including most of the important works, ex- cept the Retractiones (428), was published at Edinburgh (T. and T._ Clark) in 1872-80, under the editorship of Professor Marcus Dods. See also Nicene and Posf- Nicene Fathers (ed. by Schafif, 1886-8, 8 vols.); Milman's Latin Christianity: Mozley's Augustin- ianism: Cunningham's St. Austin, etc. (Hulsean Lecture, 1885); Harnack's Hist, of Dogma (1898) and Monasticism and Confessions of Augustine (1901); Hatzfeld's St. Augustine (1898); Rainy's Catholic Church (1902); Schaff's Life and Labors of St. Augustine (1854); Baillie's St. Augustine (1859); Maccabe's St. Augustine and his Age (1902); also works in German by Cloth (1840), Reu- ter (1887), Bindemann (1844- 69), Dorner (1873), Ribbeck (1858), Bqhringer (1877-8), and Von Hertling, and in French by Poujoulat (1886) and L'Abbe Flottes (1861). For an unfavor- able estimate, see Allen's Con- tinuity of Christian Thought (1894). Augustine, or Austin, St., first_ Archbishop of Canterbury, originally a monk of the Benedic- tine convent at Rome, was sent by Pope Gregory to convert Brit- ain to Christianity. Accompa- nied by forty monks, Augustine landed on the Isle of Thanet (596). Through the intercession of Bertha, wife of Ethelbert, king of Kent, he was permitted to preach, and succeeded in making the king himself a convert to his cause. He was consecrated Arch- bishop of Canterbury, and, fol- lowing Gregory's advice, concili- ated native feeling, and made the change of religion as gradual as possible. Augustine ranks high for his monastic zeal, and as a capable bishop of the Roman Church. He died c. 607, and was buried at Canterbury. See A. J. Mason's The Mission of St. Au- gustine to England (1897). and books by E. W. Benson. G. F. Browne, and W. E. Collins (all in 1897). The chief source is Bede's Eccles. Hist. (ed. Gidley, 1870). Augustinians, fraternities in the Roman Catholic Church who follow the rules referred to St. Augustine; but the origin of the order is in dispute. The princi- pal congregations are the Canons Regular, the Hermits, the Special Congregations (of which Luther was a member), and the Bare- footed Augustinians. The Can- ons Regular, or Austin Canons, founded at Avignon about 1061, made their first appearance in Britain about 1100. At the Re- formation they owned two hun- dred houses, the chief being at Pontefract, Scone, and Holyrood, and from their habit they were sometimes called the Black Friars. The Hermits, or Austin Friars, were under a rule much more se- vere, and were one of the four great mendicant orders of the church, whence the name ' Beg- ging Friars.' The Special Con- gregations and Barefooted Augus- tinians were even more rigorous in their discipline. The Augus- tinian nuns are said to have founded their first convent at Hippo, under Perpetua, the sis- ter of Augustine. See Speak- man's Rule of St. Augustine (1902); Dugdale's Monasticon, vi. 37; and Heimbucher, Die Orden und Kongregationen der Katholischen Kirche (2 vols. 1896-7). Augustowo, tn., Poland, Rus- sia, gov. Suwalki, 50 m. N.w. of Grodno, on river Netta, which is connected by canal with the Nie=- men, was founded in 1557. It is noted for its cattle and horse fairs. Pop. (1897) 12,700. Augustulus, Romulus, the last Roman em.peror of the West, was the son of Orestes, a Pannonian, who, ^yith the assistance of the barbarian troops, dethroned Ju- lius Nepos, and placed Augustulus (the diminutive was added in de- rision of his youth and his weak intellect) as a puppet upon the throne (476). Dissatisfied with their reward, the barbarians, un- der Odoacer, overcame and slew Orestes. Augustulus, deprived of his sovereignty, retired to Naples. Augustus (63 B.C.-14 A.D.), the first and greatest — unless Julius Caesar is reckoned — of the em- perors of Rome, was the son of C. Octavius, by Atia, daughter of JuUa, the sister of Julius Caesar, who adopted him. His name before adoption was C. Oc- tavius; afterward it was Gains Julius Caesar Octavianus. the title Augustus (' the revered ') being added by the senate and people in 27 B.C. Augustus was studying at Apollonia, in 44 B.C., when the news of the murder of Caesar reached him. Proceeding to Rome, at first he professed ad- herence to the republican party, and fought against Antony at Mutina, along with the consuls Hirtius and Pansa. Antony fled across the Alps, and both the consuls fell in the battle. Au- gustus, on his return to Rome, compelled the senate to support his election to the consulship. He then proceeded against An- tony, but was reconciled to him by Lepidus; and the three formed the second triumvirate, which was to last for five years. They pro- scribed all their enemies, massa- cring them and confiscating their property, to the number of over 2,000 knights and 300 senators, including Cicero. In 42 B.C. Augustus and Antony defeated Brutus and Cassius at Philippi, thus destroying the hopes of the republican party. Returning to Italy (b.c. 41). Augustus had_ to wage war with L. Antonius, brother, and Fulvia, wife, of the triumvir. The capture of Peru- sia decided the contest favorably for him. Antony now threatened him, but, thanks to Fulvia's death a reconciliation was effected be- tween them at Brundusium. An- Augustus 475 Aumale tony then took the east, Augustus the west of the empire, and Lep- idus Africa. In 36 b.c. Augustus put down the power of Sextus Pompeius, son of Pompey the Great, who had for years held Sicily with a powerful fleet, and deposed Lepidus, whom he al- lowed to live at Rome as pontifex maximus ('chief priest'). Mean- while Antony's repudiation of Octavia, his wife, Augustus's sis- ter, led to the decisive struggle for supreme power, which was ended by Augustus's victory at Actium (Sept. 31). Next year he went to Egypt, and the death of Antony and Cleopatra left him undisputed master of the Roman world. In 29 B.C. he returned to Rome, and held a triple triumph. He pro- posed, in 27, to lay down his ex- traordinary powers; but the sen- ate prevailed on him to accept them for ten years longer, and this plan was repeated more than once. His last years were clouded by the defeat of Varus in Ger- many in 9 A.D. Though Augustus was really an absolute monarch, he appeared to preserve the republican constitu- tion. In the Monumentum An- cyranum — his own record of his achievements — he claims to have held extraordinary power only by will of the people until the empire was reduced to order, and then (in 27) to have restored the old constitution. And this claim was justified ; for though he held the consulship eleven times, his authority really depended on wider powers conferred on him without a definite office — the im- perium proconsnlare (' conimand of a proconsul'), unlimited in time or place, which made him supreme over all other provincial governors; and the tribunitia po- testas ('power of a tribune'), which, given for life, enabled him to call the senate, initiate legisla- tion, and control politics in Rome. His reform of provincial gov- ernment was his best title to fame; he regulated taxation, re- stored justice, and gave peace and order to the Roman world. Au- gustus did not aim to extend the empire, but to secure it within its natural boundaries — the At- lantic on the west, the Sahara on the south, the Euphrates on the east, the Danube and Rhine on the north. Rome was greatly em- bellished under his rule ; he boasted that he found Rome made of brick, and left it built of mar- ble. Literature was much en- couraged by his patronage : Hor- ace, Virgil, Livy, and other writers of the * Augustan age,' were assisted by the emperor's advice and reward. He owed much to his assistants, Agrippa in action, Maecenas in counsel. The dominant note of his char- acter is a studied moderation. Ancient authorities : Cicero's Letters and Philippics ; Tacitus's Amials, bk. i.; Suetonius's Augus- tus ; Plutarch's Antonius : Dion Cassius, bks. xlv.-lvi.; Velleius Paterculus, bk. ii. See Beule's and Gardthausen's Life of Au- gustus, Baring - Gould's Tragedy of the C(csars, and Shuckburgh's Life of Augustus. Augustus, elector of Saxony (1526-86), born at Freiburg, was brought up at Prague a Calvinist, in intimate friendship with Maxi- milian, afterward emperor of Germany. Having married the Lutheran Anna of Denmark (1548), he became a staunch Lu- theran, and on succeeding his brother Maurice (1553) he per- secuted the Calvinists. He was mainly instrumental in negotiat- ing the peace of Augsburg (1555), and showed great and enduring activity as an organizer of the legal institutions of his country. Augustus II., Frederick, the Strong, elector of Saxony and king of Poland (1670-1733), sec- ond son of John George iii. of Saxony, was born at Dresden, and succeeded his brother, John George iv., as elector in 1694. He was elected king of Poland in 1697, becoming a convert to Roman Catholicism in order to obtain election. Joining Peter the Great and Denmark against Charles xii. of Sweden, he in- vaded Livonia (1699), but suf- fered defeat at Riga (1701) and Klissow (1702). He was deposed by Charles xii. from the Polish throne in favor of Stanislaus Leszcynski, but after the defeat of Charles at Pultowa (1709) was reinstated, and renewed the war (1710-19) with Sweden. He had various mistresses, among them Aurora von Konigsmarck; and among his many illegitimate chil- dren was Marshal Saxe. Augustus III., Frederick, elector of Saxony (1696-1763), son of the preceding, was born at Dresden. Succeeding his father (1733), he was chosen king of Poland (1734) by a party of the Diet, prevailing over Stanislaus. He was embroiled in the three Silesian wars — siding in the first with Prussia; in_ the second and third, through jealousy of the power of Prussia, with Austria. In the second (1745) Dresden was occupied by Frederick the Great, through the defeat of Au- gustus and his ally Maria There- sa ; in the third (the Seven Years' War, 1756-63) he escaped to Poland, returning after the peace of Hubertsburg in_ 1763. He was a patron of music and painting. Auks, or Alcid^, a family of marine birds with heavy bodies, large heads, and compact plu- mage. The wings are always short, and the great auk, or gare- fowl, now extinct, was flightless. From the position of the feet, the gait on land is clumsy; but the auks are expert at swimming and diving, rarely leaving the sea ex- cept for breeding purposes, when they resort to the ledges of sea- fronting cliffs on remote northern coasts and islands, and each pair lays a single conical, blotched egg, making no nest. They feed wholly upon fish. See Newton. Dictionary of Birds (1896). See Garefowl. Aulapolai. See Alleppi. Aula Regia, or Regis, a court instituted by William the Con- queror, formed of the great offi- cers of state, and afterward regulated by Magna Charta. 'Auld Lichts.' See Presby- terian Church. Aulic Council. The Em- peror Maximilian, in 1501, set up in Vienna the Aulic Coun- cil. Though at first it dealt only with Austrian business, the Aulic Council gradually encroached upon the Imperial Chamber and usurped many of its functions. With the disso- lution of the empire in 1806, the term Aulic Council was applied to the emperor of Austria's coun- cil of state. Aulie-Ata ('Holy Father'), tn. on r. bk. of the Syr Daria, Rus- sian Turkestan; pop. (1897) 12,- 006, mostly Kirghiz. It was taken by the Russians, July 3, 1864. Aulis, seapt. in Boeotia, Greece, on the Euripus. It was the scene of the detention of the Greek fleet, Trojan War, and of a part of the famous story of Iphigenia, the subject of two plays by Eurip- ides. Aullagas, Lake. SeeTm- CACA. Aulnoy. See D'Aulnoy. Aumale. (1.) The anc. Alhe- marle, tn. of France, dep. of Seine-Inferieure, on the Bresle, 37 m. n.e. of Rouen. It produces cloth, leather, and steel, and has a mineral spring. Pop. (1901) 2,383. (2.) The anc. ^w^rm, military post, Algeria, 80 m. s.e. of Algiers; has many Roman re- mains. Pop. (1901) 5,203. Aumale, Count and Duke of. The former title was granted by William the Conqueror to Eudes, son of Henri Etienne, count of Troyes and Meaux, in the 11th century. The male line of this family terminated with the third generation, when the title passed by marriage to the family of Cas- tille. Confiscated by Philippe Au- guste (1194), it was granted in the 13th century to Simon _de Dammartin, count of Ponthieu, and passed by marriage to the house of Lorraine (1417). The countship was made into a duchy (1547) by Henry ii. in favor of FranQois de Lorraine, who ceded Aumale 476 Aurellus' it to his brother, Claude de Lor- raine. In 1618 it passed to the house of Savoy by the marriage of Anne de Lorraine with Henry of Savoy, and in 1675 was bought by Louis xiv. and given to Louis Auguste de Bourbon. In 1679 it passed by marriage to the house of Orleans, the fourth son of Louis Philippe bearing the title. Aumale. (1.) Charles de Lorraine. Due d'Aumale (1554- 1631), the last of the old dukes, was a prominent rnember of the Holy League, instituted by the Duke of Guise (1576). Defeated at Senlis by the Due de Longue- ville, and at Arques (1589) and Ivry (1590) by Henry iv., he fled to Spain, was condemned to death in absence, and lived abroad till his death at Brussels. (3.) Henri Eugene Philippe Louis d'Orleans, Due d' (1822-97), fourth son of Louis Philippe, was born in Paris. He served in the army of Algeria (1840-7), of which province he became gover- nor-general in 1847. After a year in office he retired, as the result of the Revolution of 1848, and lived in England. He devoted himself to literature, mainly mili- tary and historical, his chief works being Les institutions mili- taires de la France (1867) and the Histoire des Princes de Conde (1869). In 1871 he returned to France, and became a member of the Assembly and of the Academy (1871). Expelled in 1886, he was permitted to return in 1889, having in 1886 handed over his chateau at Chantilly to the Insti- tut de France. See E. Daudet's Le Due d'Aumale (1898). Aune, an old European cloth measure corresponding to the English ell, varying between 27 and 54 in. It survives in Switzer- land, where the aune is 47i in. Aungerville, RieHARD (1281- 1345), called also RieHARD de Bury, from his birthplace, Bury St. Edmunds; tutor to the Prince of Wales, afterward Edward iii.; becamebishop of Durham (1333). lord high chancellor (1334), and treasurer (1337). Having acted as ambassador to France, Germany, Hainault, and to the Pope, he gained a wide knowledge of European literature, and corre- sponded with Petrarch. He was an ardent book collector, and founded a library in connection with Durham College, Oxford. Philobiblon is his chief work (1473); ed. by E. C. Thomas, 1902. Aura, any strange sensation which gives warning of the ap- proach of an epileptic or a hys- terical fit. It often resembles a breath of cold air moving up the body to the head; whence the name. Aural Diseases. See Ear. Auray, tn., dep. Morbihan, France, 3 m. from the sea (Bay of Morbihan), 11 m. w. of Vannes. It produces corn, butter, honey, cloth, and cattle. ' Le Pardon d' Auray ' gathers yearly thou- sands of Bretons round the Chapel of St. Anne. In 1364 the Anglo-Breton army defeated the French under Duguesclin, who was taken prisoner. Pop. (1901) 6,485. Aurelianu, Petru, Rumanian statesman, born in 1833; entered public life (1876) in which he has taken a leading part; prime min- ister (1896-7). Is also a notable economist. Chief work, Tara Noastra (1876 ; new ed. 1888). In 1868 he founded the journal Economia rurala la Romanii. Aurelianus, emperor of Rome from 270 to 275 a.d., was born of humble parents, probably at Sirmium, in Pannonia, c. 212. Elected by the army to suc- ceed Claudius ii., he defeated the Goths and Vandals, who had crossed the Danube, and repelled a German invasion of Italy. In the east he overcame (271) Ze- nobia, queen of Palmyra, and brought her captive tO' Rorne. Next he recovered Gaul, Spain, and Britain from the usurper Tetricus. He fortified Rome with a new line of walls, and, abandon- ing Dacia, made the Danube the frontier of the empire. He was murdered by his officers while preparing an expedition against Persia. Aurelian Wall, the wall which the Emperor Aurelian built round Rome in 271 a.d., though it was completed by Probus in 280. _ It had a circuit of over 12 m., in- closing 5,000 square miles of ter- ritory, and was pierced by fourteen gates. It was built of concrete, with brick facing, and was 12 ft. thick. Its height varied according to the contour of the ground, but in some places it was as much as 60 ft. high, and was provided at regular intervals of 45 ft. with massive square towers. A great part of it still exists in a more or less perfect state — e.g. near the Porta Appia. See J. H. Middleton's Remains of Ancienl Rome (1892); Burn's Rome and the Campagna (1870); Quaren- ghi's Le Mura di Roma (1880). Aurelian Way {Aurelia Via), one of the principal ancient mili- tary roads of Italy, which, start- ing from Rome near the janicu- lan gate, ran northwards along the west coast, passing through Centumcellae (Civita Vecchia), Pisa, Genoa, to Antipolis (An- tibes) in Gallia. The part north of Pisa was constructed by Au- gustus. Aurelius, Marcus (121-180 A.D.), Roman emperor, whose birth-name was M. Annius Verus, was born at Rome. His father's sister, Faustina, married T. An- toninus Pius, the successor of Hadrian, in the empire; and it was to Antoninus, ' that true unconscious humanist,' that he owed his highest example in rectitude and the duties of sovereignty. But the bent of his mind towards Stoic prin- ciples seems to have been fos- tered most by Junius Rusticus, to whom he owed his reading of Epictetus. In 138 he was adopted by his uncle, the Em- peror Antoninus, taking on him- self the new name of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. With his deepening conversion to philos- ophy came also a growing Stoic' abnegation of the pleasures of literature, although his connection with men of letters never entirely ceased. He succeeded to the throne in the year 161. The influence of the emperor's philosophy became apparent in the broader and more beneficent interpretation of Ro- man law : the rights of slaves were extended even to a share in an intestate master's property; the ' tutelary praetor ' was created to safeguard orphans; and hu- manitarian foresight touched even the circus and the gladiatorial shows. In 166 the frontiers of Italy were menaced by northern barbarians. Aurelius first took the field in person in 167, and the uncongenial business of war oc- cupied him almost continuously until the year 175. In 173 the Marcomanni were overwhelmed in their passage of the Danube. In the previous year Aurelius had won the title of * Germanicus '; in the succeeding one he added to it that of * Sarmaticus.' Avidius Cassius, an able commander in the East, declared himself im- perator in 175, but was murdered before the arrival of Aurelius. In Dec, 176, the emperor re- turned to Rome, where he was accorded a triumph. But the Mar- comannic troubles breaking out afresh, he left again for the field in Aug., 178. The campaign was successful ; but Aurelius died, either at Vienna or Sirmium. March 17, 180. In the Piazza Colonna, on the Corso at Rome, stands a fine ancient monument (95 ft. high) to his memory. The emperor's twelve books, or rather short chapters, to)!/ ei? eavrhv, form one of the famous books of the world. They are the jottings of his lonely reflections in the moments snatched from rest or action during his campaigns — Among the Ouadi. At Carnutum, etc. The Thoughts unite high nobility with complete sincerity and tenderness. The premises of stoicism M. Aurelius accepts more faithfully than was general among his contemporaries, and it is possible to ^ trace in his Thoughts all its main doctrines — - life according to nature, mastery of the inner self, God immanent Aureole 477 Aurora in the cosmos, and the insignifi- cance of the individual. But the enduring quaHties of the book are due rather to its human feeling — its wistfulness, its courage, and its call to duty. M. Aurelius wrote in Greek — the accepted philosophical speech of his age — but hardly with per- fect ease. The Thoughts were not published till 1558, when Xylander issued at Zurich the first edition, from a MS. since lost. Some time previously (in 1529) the Spanish euphuist, Antonio de Guevara, had written his Lihro de Marco Aurelio, a work based on the Emperor's teaching; and Sir Thomas North's version of this, entitled The Dial of Princes, had a considerable vogue in Eng- land. The first translation of Aurelius' own book into English was that of Meric Casaubon, is- sued in 1634 (recent edition, 1900, by W. H. D. Rousse). Jeremy Collier (1702) published a version, not without some mer- its; but the two standard mod- ern translations are Long's (2nd ed. 1880) and G. H. Kendall's (1898), both with introductions, and the latter with a careful study of Stoicism. Walter Pater introduced M. Aurelius into his romance of Marius the Epicurean, and the book is valuable as an attempt to give the atmosphere of the time. Consult also Re- nan's Marcus Aurelius {Origins of Christianity, bk. vii.) and Matthew Arnold's Essays in Criticism. Aureole, au're-ole, a radiance or luminous cloud surrounding the body of Christ, the Virgin Mary, or the saints, in sacred art, emblematic of the influence of the Holy Spirit. It is to be dis- tinguished from a nimbus, a luminous circle surrounding the head only. The combination of the aureole and the nimbus is termed a glory. Aurg> Mountains, 5-ra' (the Mons Aurasius of Procope), a range in Southern Algeria, prov- ince of Constantine, about 75 miles in length, overhanging the Sahara, and enclosing fertile val- leys and plains. Its inhabitants, the Shawia, are Berbers, and their customs betray a Christian ancestry. The highest peaks in the range are Shelia (7,600 ft.) and Mahmel, which is nearly as high. Aureus, 6're-us (Lat. aurum, 'gold'), the first and standard Roman gold coin, issued tenta- tively about B.C. 217, and after- ward permanently by Julius Caesar and the Roman emperors, until Constantine substituted for it the solidus = 100 sesterces or 25 denarii. Its average weight was 121 grains. Its value was about $5.00. Aurich, ou'rich, town, Han- over, Prussia, 18 miles by rail northeast of Emden. In the vicinity is the hill of Upstalls- bloom, where in olden times rep- resentatives of the Frisian coast- lands met each Whitsuntide to deliberate. An important horse fair is held here in February. Pop. about 7,000. Auricle. See Heart and Ear. Auricula. See Primrose. Auriga (Lat. 'the Charioteer'), an ancient constellation, situated between Perseus and Taurus, of which Capella (q. v.) is the prin- cipal star. There is little doubt of its Euphratean origin. About five degrees southwest of Ca- pella are T and v Aurigae, known to Hipparchus and Ptolemy as the 'Kids.' Their heliacal rising in October was supposed by the Romans to portend stormy weather. Virgil mentions them (yEneid, ix. 668), as pluviales Hcedi, and Horace (Od., vii. v. 6) as insana sidera. A white star of the second magnitude, /3 Au- rigae, marking the right shoulder of the Charioteer, was discovered by Miss Maury, in 1889, to be a spectroscopic binary revolving in four days. Similar evidence of circulatory motion was derived by Professor Vogel, in 1902, from spectrographs of e Aurigae, a star varying irregularly from 3.0 to 4.5 magnitude. A temporary star near x Aurigae, which rose to 4.4 magnitude in December, 1891, gave a remarkable spec- trum of bright and dark lines, indicative of violent disturbance. Nova Aurigae is still discernible with powerful telescopes. It is situated in the Milky Way. Three clusters. Messier 36, 37, and 38, are collected in the same neigh- borhood, the last resembling in shape an oblique cross, while Messier 37 is Admiral Smyth's 'gold-dust' cluster. Au'rigna'cian, an important culture stage (the first division) of the upper Palaeolithic period, probably began 25,000 or 30,000 years ago. The people were ar- tistically more developed than their predecessors, and were probably the first to decorate the walls and roofs of their caves with outlines. Aurigny, o-re-nye', the French name of Alderney, used by Ma- caulay in his Armada. See Al- derney. Aurillac, o-re-yak', town, France, capital of the department of Cantal, on the Jordanne river; about 200 miles southwest of Lyons. The church of St. Ge- raud, begun in the 15th century and completed about 1890, and an old castle now used as a nor- mal school arc the most notable buildings. Printing, lace mak- ing, the manufacture of silver and copper articles, and slate quarrying are the leading indus- tries. An abbey was founded here in 900. The town is the birthplace of Pope Sylvester n. Pop. (19X1) 18,036. Aurispa, ou-re'spa, Giovanni (c. 1369-1459), Italian scholar, was born in vSicily, and in 1418 visited Constantinople to study Greek. He returned with a large collection of manuscripts of ancient Greek writers, most of which he translated. Aurlands Fjord. See Sogne Fjord. Aurochs, a'roks, a modern name for the European bison (see Bison). Aurora (Gr. Eos), goddess of the dawn, daughter of Hyperion and Thia. Every morning she rose from her couch to announce the coming of the sun, in a cha- riot drawn by swift horses. She loved several mortals, among others Cephalus, Orion, and Tithonus. Memnon was her son by Tithonus, and « Phaeton by Cephalus. Aurora, city, Illinois, Kane county, on the Fox River, and on the Chicago, Milwaukee and Gary, the Chicago and North- western, and the Elgin, Joliet and Eastern Railroads, and on electric lines; 40 miles west or Chicago. Important institutions include Aurora College, a co- educational institution, the Jen- nings Seminary, and a Central States Fair and Exposition. Manufacturing interests are extensive and varied, including foundries, smelting works, ma- chine shops, railroad shops, cot- ton and woollen mills, sash and blind factories, carriages, print- ing material, machinery, and steel products. According to the Federal Census of Manu- factures for 1919, Aurora has 133 industrial establishments, with a combined capital of $35,307,941. the products of which are valued at $30,038,961. Pop. (1900) 24,- 147; (1910) 29,807; (1920) 36,- 397. Aurora, city, Indiana, Dear- born county, on the Ohio River, and on the Baltimore and Ohio, and the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis Railroads; about 23 miles west of Cincin- nati, Ohio. Its chief industries are machine shops, foundries, and flour mills. Pop. (1910) 4,410; (1920) 4,299. Aurora, city, Missouri, Law- rence county, on the Missouri Pacific, and the St. Louis and San Francisco Railroads; 40 miles southeast of Joplin. Fruit- raising and agriculture are the chief industries of the region, together with the mining of lead and zinc. Pop. (1910) 4,148; (1920) 3,575. Aurora, city, Nebraska, coun- ty seat of Hamilton county, on the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad; 78 miles west of Lincoln. It lies in a fertile agricultural region, dairying and flour-milling being the chief in- dustries. Pop. (1910) 2,630; (1920) 2,962. Vol. L— Oct. '23 Aurora Borealis 478 Ausable River Aurora Borealis, or Northern Lights, a luminous meteor of great beauty which is seen in the northern sky, taking the form of streamers, arches, or patches, which vary in shade considerably, being sometimes smoky black or steel gray, and at others brilliant yellow, green, violet, or fiery red. As usually seen, the aurora com- mences with the formation of an arch with its apex to the magnetic meridian, the arch being usually better defined on the lower than on the upper side. Underneath the arch the sky is apparently darker than the rest of the heav- ens, this gloomy portion being known as 'the dark segment'; stars are visible through this part of the sky as well as through the aurora itself. Slender streamers of well-defined bright light extend up from the arch usually to a dis- tance of from 20 to 30 degrees, towards the magnetic zenith. In width they vary from half a de- gree to three degrees, and move a degree from one side to an- other. The arch is sometimes evenly illuminated, but is at times convoluted like a folded curtain. Sometimes the sky is entirely covered with brilliant coruscations shooting up from the horizon, converging in a quivering blaze of feathery flame high in the sky, nearly in the direction shown by the south end of a magnetic dipping-needle. This is known as the corona. The arch has been observed after formation to move slowly away from the direction of the belt of greatest frequency. Its appar- ent breadth diminishes on ap- proaching the coronal point, the streamers making a more and more acute angle with the arch until they unite with it where it meets the coronal point. The arch is supposed to be like a sheet suspended nearly vertically, the rays and streamers being paral- lel, their apparent divergence from the coronal point being due to perspective. Auroral displays are most fre- quent and brilliant in relatively high latitudes. In America, ac- cording to Professor Loomis, the zone of maximum frequency is between lat. 50° and 60° N. ; but in Europe and Asia the region of greatest frequency lies between the parallels of 66° and 75°. The aurora is most common in an oval belt which surrounds the pole, closely coinciding with the line of equal dip. This belt begins close to the shores of the Arctic Ocean, extending from the North Cape east to Point Barrow, thence south, passing through Hudson Bay in lat. 60°, then south of Greenland, and obliquely north again between the Faroe Islands and Iceland. In the zone of maximum frequency over eighty auroras are seen annually. In the torrid zone it is rarely ob- VOL. L— Oct. '23 served, not more than- six auroras in a century being seen as far south as lat. 20°. Auroral dis- plays are much more frequent, latitude for latitude, in America than in Europe. Auroras are at times seen simultaneously over large tracts of the world, from Russia to California, and from Jamaica to Labrador, such a dis- play being that of October, 1870. Professor Loomis is of opinion that a display of aurora in the vicinity of the north magnetic pole is regularly attended by a simultaneous display round the south magnetic pole. Messrs. De la Rue and Miiller have established the connection between the color of electrical discharges and the potential, from which the height of the aurora may be approximately determined. Using a battery of 11,000 cells, they find that the color of the discharge with the same potential varies greatly with the tenuity of the gas or air. At a pressure corresponding to 11.6 m. the discharge is of a full red color; at a pressure corre- sponding to a height of 12.4 m. the discharge assumes the car- mine tint so frequently observed ; at a pressure corresponding to 30.9 m. the discharge becomes salmon-colored, which at a height of 34 m. becomes of a paler hue, changing, as pressure is lowered, to a pale, milky white. The roseate and the salmon-colored tints are always close to the posi- tive source of the electric cur- rent. At the magnetic terminal in air the discharge is always of a violet hue, and this color in the aurora is due to the proximity of the negative source. From these researches the authors concluded that the aurora may appear at altitudes as low as a few thou- sand feet, or as high as 80 or 100 miles. From obsiervations taken in the Arctic regions during the long polar nights, it has been found that the aurora is more frequent in the nocturnal than in the diur- nal hours, but in the middle lati- tudes the maximum is reached earlier in the evening. The an- nual period is well marked, there being two maxima and two min- ima, which vary slightly in dif- ferent localities. Auroras are of frequent occurrence in October and April, and rare in December and June. The generally received theory is that the aurora is due to the ascent of positive electricity from the intertropical water surfaces, which flows towards the poles, wafted by the higher aerial cur- rents. In the region of the poles it descends towards the earth, and comes in contact, in a highly rarefied atmosphere, with the terrestrial negative electricity, which results in luminous dis- charges of great brilliancy. The Aurora Australis, which is the name applied to auroral displays seen in the southern hemisphere, differs in no striking feature from the Northern Lights. See text-books of meteorology, and The Polar Aurora, by M. Angot (Inter. Scientific Series, 1896). Aurungabad, 6-rung-ga-bad', walled town in the state of Haidarabad (Deccan), India, 67 miles northeast of Ahmednagar and 180 miles from Bombay. It contains the ruins of a palace built by Aurungzebe, and the mausoleum of a favorite daugh- ter. There are caves, partly Buddhist, a mile west of the town. Embroidery, silverware, silk, and cotton are produced. Pop. 35,000. Aurungzebe, o-rung-zeb', Mo- hammed MUHI ED-DiN AURUNG- ZEB Alamgir (1618-1707), Mo- gul emperor, ascended the throne of Delhi in 1658, when he put to death his two brothers, Dara and Murad Baksh, drove his third brother, Shuja, into exile, and imprisoned his father, the Em- peror Shah Jehan, for the rest of his life. Once firmly seated on the throne, Aurungzebe, un- der the cloak of piety, as a strict Mohammedan, persecuted the Hindus, and alienated his non- Moslem subjects. He subdued Bijapur and Golconda, and his reign has been regarded as the most brilliant period of the Mo- gul domination; but the animos- ity aroused by his persecutions, and the successful raids of Sevaji, the Mahratta chief, sapped the foundations of the empire. Consult S. L. Poole's Aurangzib and Sarkan's History of Aurangzib (1913). Ausable Chasm, au-sa'b'l, village. New York, Clinton county, on the Keesville, Au Sable Chasm and Lake Cham- plain Railroad, at a point where the stream falls 70 feet and flows through a narrow, deep chasm between vertical rocks of Pots- dam sandstone, from 90 to 175 feet in height. It is a famed rock formation and a resort for tourists. Ausable Lakes, two small bod- ies of water, called Lower and Upper Ausable Lake, situated in the Adirondack Reserve, New York, about 2,000 feet above sea-level. Au Sable River, river of Mich- igan, about 80 miles long, rising in Crawford county, and flowing in a southeasterly direction into Lake Huron at Oscoda, iosco county. Grayling fishing makes it popular with anglers. Ausable River, river of New York, rising in the Adirondacks, in Essex county, in two small streams which unite at Ausable Forks. It follows a northeast- erly course between Clinton and Essex counties, forming their AascnltatlcQ 479 Aosttn boundary line, and discharging into Lake Champiain, See Au- SABLE Chasm. Auscultation, in medical prac- tice listening to the sounds (es- pecially respiratory and cardiac) of the body, with a view to diag- nosis. It was introduced regu- larly into practice by Laennec (q. v.). Ausglcich, ous'glich, the com- promise between Austria and Hungary, effected in 1867, which governed the relations between the two halves of the monarchy prior to its dissolution in 1918. See Austria-Hungary. Ausonius, au-so'ni-us, called Decimus Magnus, one of the latest Latin poets, was born after 300 A.D. and died after 388 a.d. He was born in Bordeaux, where he practised at the bar until he reached the age of thirty, when he became a teacher of rhetoric. He was later tutor to Gratian, son of Valentinian, and from the lat- ter received the title of count and the qusestorship. Gratian made him prefect of Latium, Libya, and Gaul, and finally consul in 379 A.D. A number of his works survive, of which the poem Mo- sella, on the river of that name, is the most interesting. Auspex. See Augur. Aussig, oxi'sich, now known as Uste n. Labem, town, Czecho- slovakia, in Bohemia, 66 miles northwest of Prague. The chief points of interest are the town hall, town museum, and the Stadt-Kirche, destroyed by the Hussites in 1426 and several times restored. There are large chemical works and a good trade in coal, grain, and fruit. The painter, Raphael Menge, was born here. Pop. (1921) 39,815. Austen, Jane (1775-1817), English novelist, was born in Steventon, Hampshire, of which parish her father was rector. The first twenty-five years of her life were spent in her native town; there she received her edu- cation — a somewhat better one than was usual for girls of her day; and there she began writing. Her first serious literary work was done when she was about seven- teen, taking the form of a story in letters, called Elinor and Mar- ianne. This, when finished, she put away for a while, and turned her efforts to a second story. To this she gave the title First Impressions; but meeting, it is conjectured, the phrase 'pride and prejudice' in Fanny Bur- ney's Cecilia, she altered it to that. The novel was finished in 1797^ having taken ten months; was offered to Cadell and re- jected. Elinor and Marianne was then taken in hand, rewrit- ten, and renamed Sense and Sen- sibility. This was again put away, and Northanger Abbey was begun in 1798. The new work was a departure, being at first frankly a travesty of the school of Mrs. Radcliffe, whose Mys- teries of Udolpho was in every one's hands, and also of a certain type of sentimental love story then prevalent; but as the story proceeded the human interest deepened, and fortunately el- bowed out the original ironical purpose. Northanger Abbey was sold to a Bath bookseller for £lO in 1803, but was not published. Thus ended the first period of Miss Austen's literary career. From 1801 to 1805 the Aus- tens lived at Bath, where Mr, Austen died; they then moved to Southampton, and then (1809) to Chawton, near Alton. During the years at Bath and South- ampton Miss Austen seems to have written only the fragment known as The Watsons; but at Chawton the second writing period of her life began. Her first care was to revise Sense and Sensibility and Pride and Preju- dice (which were published, anonymously, in 1811 and 1813 respectively), and to get back Northanger Abbey from its pur- chaser, and to revise that. She also wrote three new novels — Mansfield Park, published in 1814; Emma, 1816; and Per- suasion, published posthumously, with Northanger Abbey, in 1818, with a memoir prefixed, and the author's name for the first time on a title-page. These six stories, with a shorter tale in letters, called Lady Susan, and the frag- ment already referred to, consti- tute Jane Austen's entire contri- bution to English literature. She died on July 24, 1817, and was buried in Winchester Ca- thedral, Jane Austen's novels are the earliest and the best example of the so-called domestic novel in English, Macaulay said that in the minute delineation of shades of character she came nigh Shakespeare; Tennyson made a similar criticism; and Scott said, 'That young lady had a talent for describing the in- volvements, and feelings, and characters of ordinary life which is to me the most wonderful I ever met with.' These enco- miums omit reference to Miss Austen's fine irony which by many readers is as much valued as her analysis of the tender passion and emotion. Of all the novels, the earliest. Pride and Prejudice, is at once the most popular and the best. Though it has not the maturity of Emma, which vies with it for first place, in steadiness of progress, in di- rectness of purpose, in intensity of interest, it excels. Consult Goldwin Smith's Life; Howell's Heroines of Fiction; Hill's Jane Austen; Bonnell's Charlotte Bronte, George Eliot, Jane Austen; Mitton's Jane Austen; Chapman's English Lit- erature in Account with Religion; Austen-Leigh's Jane Austen: Her Life and Letters; A Family Record (1913); Cornish's Jane Austen ('English Men of Letters Series'; 1913); Firkins' Jane Austen (1920). Auster, called Notus by the Greeks, the south or southwest wind, which was usually wet, but at certain seasons dry and un- healthful; the modern Italian si- rocco. Austerlitz, Battle of, ous'ter- lits, a famous battle of the Na- poleonic Wars, fought in the country west of the town of Austerlitz (a small town in Mo- ravia, Austria, on the Littawa), on Dec. 2, 1805, in which the French army under Napoleon i. routed the combined forces of the Austrians and Russians. The forces engaged numbered 65,000 French and 82,000 Allies, and the battle lasted from 7 a.m. until dark. The French lost 6,800 men, while the Allies lost 12,200 in killed and wounded and 1^,000 prisoners. As a result of the battle, Austria was forced to sign the Treaty of Pressburg (Dec. 26, 1805). Austin, city, Minnesota, coun- ty seat of Mower county, on the Cedar River, and on the Chi- cago Great Western, and the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railroads; 100 miles south of St. Paul, at the intersection of the Red Ball Route (north and south) and the S. M. Route Highway No. 9, running east and west. Free camps are main- tained by the city. It has a fine Court House, Modern High School, Public Library, Hospital, State Armory, three city parks, and the Horace Austin State Park. It is the seat of the University of Southern Minne- sota and College ot Engineering. Among the city's industrial in- terests are furniture and cement factories, creameries, green- houses, brick and tile works, machine shops, bottling works, and the manufacture of rugs, brushes, candv, and food prod- ucts. Pop. (1900) 5,474; (1910) 6,960; (1920) 10,118. Aus'tin, borough, Pennsyl- vania, Potter county, terminus of a branch of the Buffalo and Susquehanna Railroad; 13 miles southwest of Coudersport. For- merly the centre of a large lum- ber trade, its principal industry has recently been the manufac- ture of wood pulp and paper. Pop. (1910) 2,941; (1920) 1,556. On Sept. 30, 1911, the great concrete dam of the Bayless Pulp and Paper Company broke, and the fiood of released water overwhelmed the entire village, spread out along the bottom of the valley one and a half miles below. Fire from the broken natural-gas mains added to the devastation. The loss of life Vol. I.— Oct. '23 Austin 480 Austin was about 100, and the property loss about $4,000,000. Austin, city, capital of Texas, county seat of Travis county, on the Colorado River, and border- ing Lake Austin, and on the International and Great North- ern, the Missouri, Kansas and Texas of Texas, and the South- ern Pacific Railroads; about 165 miles northwest of Houston. Five National highways, the Meridian, Southern National, King of Trails, Bankhead, and Colorado-Gulf, pass through Aus- tin. There are a number of naturally scenic camping grounds in the vicinity. It is a beautiful and well-built city, and contains some of the finest public build- ings in the country, notably the State House, an immense granite structure erected at a cost of more than $6,500,000. It is the educational centre of the State, being the seat of the University of Texas, the Presbyterian Theo- logical Seminary, St. Edward's College, St. Mary's Academy, Texas Wesleyan College, Mili- tary Academy, efficient prepara- tory schools, and two extensive libraries, including the new build- ing of the University of Texas ($250,000). The city has also State asylums for the blind, insane, deaf, and defective, a Confederate Home, and a City Hall. Among the many points of interest are the old home of the French Ambassador to Texas, Aldridge Place, the scene of early Indian massacres, and the State Pasteur Institute. Austin is a trade centre for farm products and live-stock, and is noted for its brick and white lime manufactures. It ships more pecans than any other point in the South. Other in- dustries are chili packing plants, iron foundries, and manufactures of flour, cotton-seed oil, engines, wagons, trucks, harness and sad- dlery, and food products. Ac- cording to the Federal Census of Manufactures for 11)10 there are in Austin 91 industrial establish- ments, representing a capital of $4, .305, 038, with products valued at $4,990,021. The commission form of government was adopted in 190H. Pop. (1900) 22,258; (1910) 29,860; (1920) 34,876. Austin, Alfred (1835-191.3), English poet, was born in Head- ingley, near Leeds. He was graduated from London Univer- sity in 1853, and was called to the bar. On the death of his father (1861) he abandoned law for journalism and literature. His first publication was Randolph: A Tale of Polish Grief (1854), followed by the much-criticised volume, The Season: A Satire (1861), and its sequel, entitled My Satire and Its Censors, in the same year. After that date he wrote numerous volumes of verse, including The Human Vol. I.— Oct. '23 Tragedy (1862; new ed. 1889); Songs of England (new ed. 1900); Tale of True Love and Other Poems (1902); Door of Humility (1906); Sacred and Profane Love (1908). He also published sev- eral novels, and as a journalist contributed to the Conservative press, notably the Standard news- paper (which he represented at Rome and as correspondent dur- ing the Franco-German War), the Quarterly Review, and the National Review, of which he was for a time editor. In 1896 he was appointed poet-laureate, in succession to Tennyson. A collected edition of his Poems appeared in 6 vols. (1892). Among his prose works are In Veronica's Garden (1895); Spring and Autumn in Ireland (1900); Haunts of Ancient Peace (1902); Lesson in Harmony (1904); Au- tobiography (1911). Austin, John (1790-1859), founder of the modern English school of analytical jurisprudence, and friend of Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, was born in Greeting Mill, Suffolk. He was called to the bar, but met with slight success and retired from practice in 1825. The fol- lowing year he was appointed professor of jurisprudence (1826) in the newly founded University of London, but in 1832 resigned his chair. He subsequently served on two royal commissions — one for the reform of the criminal law (in 1833), the other to examine the condition of Malta (in 1836), the latter being probably his one practical success. The real work of his life was the summary of his lectures on jurisprudence, the first part of which was published in 1832 and re-edited by his widow in 1861. Additions sub- sequently appeared, under the editorship of his son-in-law, Rob- ert Campbell; and the completed work contained three parts — The Province of Jurisprudence Deter- mined; The Analysis of Pervad- ing Notions; and The Arrange- ment of Law According to Its Sources and Modes. The first part expounds Austin's much de- bated philosophy of law, founded mainly on Hobbes and Locke, and reminiscent of Bentham, but without the depth of the older philosophers or the fecundity of the later. Essentially a Tory and a soldier, Austin bases the whole authority of law on physi- cal force expressed in definite orders. The second part of the work is admirable and original, showing great acuteness and power of expression. The third part, despite certain obvious mis- takes, is likewise suggestive and original. In a word, Austin was a jurist rather than a politician or a philosopher. His great merit consists in his having been the first English writer to attach precise and intelligible meanings to the terms which denote the leading conceptions underlying all systems of jurisprudence. Consult Mill's Autobiography; Brown's Austinian Theory of Law. Austin, Jonathan Loring (1748-1826), American soldier and diplomat, was born in Bos- ton, Mass. He was graduated from Harvard (1766); entered the American Revolutionary Army (1775), and as major was in turn an aide to General Sulli- van and the secretary of the Massachusetts Board of War. He carried to the American rep- resentatives in France the news of Burgoyne's surrender al Sara- toga (1777); was for two years Franklin's private secretary, and during this time was sent by Franklin to England on a secret service mission. In 1780, as the agent of Massachusetts, he tried unsuccessfully to secure a loan of £150,000 in France, Spain, and Holland, being captured and held as a prisoner for some time by the British. Austin, Stephen Fuller (1793-1836), American pioneer, one of the founders of Texas, was born in Wythe county, Va., the son of Moses Austin (1767-1821), who just before his death ob- tained from the Mexican govern- ment a tract of land in Texas, on which he planned to estab- lish a settlement of Americans. Stephen Fuller carried out his father's plan early in 1822, found- ing the city now known as Austin (q. v.). For several months in 1835 Austin was imprisoned in the City of Mexico for having attempted to secure from the Mexican government the separa- tion of Texas from the province of Coahuila and its erection into a distinct commonwealth of the Mexican Union. He was one of the foremost leaders of the Tex- ans both before and during the war for Texan independence, be- ing commander-in-chief, for a short time (1835), of the army of Texas. With William Wharton and Branch Archer, he was sent as agent of Texas to Washington in 1835, securing considerable aid in the United States for the revo- lutionists; and after his return (1836) was defeated for the pres- idency of the Republic of Texas by Gen. Sam Houston, in whose cabinet he was secretary of state. Austin, William (1778- 1841), American author, was born in Charlestown, Mass., and was graduated from Harvard. He studied law and gained a prom- inent position at the Middlesex bar. A two-years' visit to Eng- land, during which he met many distinguished personages, is de- scribed in his Letters from Eng- land (1804). He is best remem- bered for his story, Peter Rugg, the Missing Man, a modern ver- sion of the Wandering Jew. Australasia 481 Australia Australasia, os'tral-a'sha or -zha ('Southern Asia'), a popular term, sometimes used to com- prehend the Malay Archipelago, the Philippines, Australia, and all the islands of the Pacific; at other times confined to the British possessions of Australia, Tas- mania, and New Zealand, to which New Guinea and Fiji are sometimes added. As a geo- graphical term it is best applied to the greater Australian region, which includes the islands of Australia, Tasmania, New Guin- ea, the Bismarck, Solomon, and New Hebrides archipelagoes. New Caledonia, and New Zea- land (qq. v.). If all this region under mandate from the League of Nations. The area of the island of Australia is 2,948,366 square miles; of the Common- wealth, 2,974,581 square miles, exclusive of Papua (90,540 square miles). From Steep Point, in the west, to Cape Byron, in the east, is a distance of about 2,400 miles, and from Cape York in the north, to Wilson promon- tory, in the south, nearly 2,000 miles. Australia is bounded on the north by the Timor and Ara- fura Seas and Torres Strait, on the west by the Indian Ocean, on the south by the Southern Ocean, and on the east by the Pacific. The coast line, exclusive of minor Tasmanian Alps, and other lat- eral spurs, culminates in Mount Kosciusko (7,777 feet) in New South Wales — the highest point on the continent. To the west of these mountains are extensive table lands and plateaus, stretch- ing far into the interior, as the Monaro Table Land, the Great Western Plains, and the 'Downs' country of Queensland and South Australia. In the north a rugged table land of moderate elevation rises sharply from the low coast lands and extends well into South Australia. The western half of Australia is also a table land, with a mean were above the sea level, it would form a continent as large as North America. See Melanesia. Austra'Iia is the name ap- plied, at the suggestion of Cap- tain Matthew Flinders, to the island continent which lies be- tween latitude 10° 39' and 39° IIK' s., and longitude 113° 5' and 153° 16' E. It includes the island of Tasmania. The Terri- tory of Papua in New Guinea is adjacent to Australia and is administered by the Common- wealth. The Commonwealth of Aus- tralia comprises the states of New S"ith Wales, Queensland, South . istralia, Victoria, West- ern An • alia, and Tasmania, the North'^ri. Territory, and the Federal Capital Territory. The Commonwealth also administers the Territory of New Guinea (late German New Guinea) indentations, is 12,210 miles in length. Topography. — The general physical appearance of Australia has been roughly compared to an inverted saucer. There is a rich, low-lying coastal belt of fertile soil, averaging 40 miles in width, separated from the vast plains of the interior by the mountain ranges of the east and west. In the east is the Great Divid- ing Range, stretching the length of the continent in a line parallel to the coast. The northern sec- tion of this great range extends through North Queensland to Cape Grafton, with Mount Bar- tie Frere (5,440 feet) ; the central portion varies from 2,500 to 4,000 feet above sea level, with Mount Lindsay (5,700 feet) and a num- ber of other high, rugged peaks; and the southern, comprising the Blue Mountains, Australian Alps, JolmJEdTliolom.-- & Co Jl'(! 9 13) are worthy of mention, as personal records of busy, useful lives. Other autobiographies of special interest are: Sir Walter Besant's Autobiography (1903); Helen Keller's Story of My Life (1903); Senator Hoar's record of a life of seventy years (1903); \ndrew D. White's Autobi- ography (1905); Sarah Bern- hardt's Story of My Life (1907); James B. Angell's Reminiscences (1913); Brand Whitlock's Forty Years of It (1914); Anna Howard Shaw's Story of a Pioneer (1915), interesting also for its history of the woman suffrage movement; and Dr. Edward Trudeau's Autobiogra- phy (1916). Auto Car. See Motor Cars. Autochthones, the Greek name for the original inhab- itants of a country, not set- tlers, considered as having sprung from the soil itself. The Latin equivalent term was aborigines. Autoclave, or Digester, is an apparatus for heating sub- stances under pressure, invented by Dr. Papin about 1690. It usually consists of a strong iron or steel pot, provided with a cover that can be bolted on air- tight, and is often lined with an acid-resisting material. It is, as a rule, provided with a safety-valve, and is often swung on trunnions for convenience. It is used in separating gelatine from bones; in slaughter houses, to obtain lard and tallow from carcasses too poor for marketable purposes; and in extracting tannin from nut-galls. Autocles, an Athenian general and orator of the fourth century B.C. In 371 he negotiated a peace with the Spartans, and in 362 conducted an expedition into Thrace. Autocracy (Gr.'sole mastery,' 'ruling by one's self), a term signifying that form of govern- ment in which the sovereign unites in himself the legislative and the executive powers of the state, and thus rules uncon- trolled. Auto da Fe. See Inquisi- tion. Autodidactus. The ('Self- taught man '), an Arabic romance setting forth the growth, into knowledge of nature and God, of a child cast upon a desert island; by Abu-Bekr-ibn-Tofail. (Lat. trans., Philosophus Autodidacli- cus, E. Pocock, 1671; Eng., The Improvement of Human Reason, S. Ockley, (1711.) Autographs, documents of any kind in the handwriting of their authors (Gr. avToypd. The key of B natural has five sharps; that of B^ has two fiats. Baader, Franz Xaver von (1 765-1841), GermanRomanCath- olic mystic and philosopher, pro- (Baal-berith), a baal of flies (Baal-zebub), etc. The theory which makes Baal the proper name of a god typifying the sun is not consistent with this multi- plicity of local baals (Heb. pi. baalim) and lacks corroborative evidence. The baalim were rather local deities each of whom gave fertility to his district and thus became an object of worship. The Israelites found the cult everywhere when they entered Canaan and naturallv adopted it, calling Yahweh their baal (c/. Hos. 2:16, where *Baali'='my baal,' B is ft mutated — ie. v or iv. Similarly, Hebrew 3 is B, H v. In English, b has shown a tendency to become silent before t and after m (' debt,' 'lamb'). B is the Greek form of the sign, and be- came the Latin also. Except as a 'capital,' it is now supplanted by other forms. ^ b is a Roman modification, which perhaps origi- nated when the loops of B were written from the bottom. JZi- is a cursive variation of b (14th cen- tury). /3 and S are the principal Greek minuscule variants. The Semitic original, ^ . was open at the bottom on tne left. The Aramaic alphabet opened the top loop, and nnally lost it entirely. Temple of Jupiter, Baalbek. fessor of philosophy and theology at Munich (1826), was a spiritual follower of Boehme, with whose works he became acquainted when travelHng in England (1792-6^. His works, with Life (vol. xv.), were published in 16 vols. (1850- 60); and a selection, with Life^ ed. Claassen, in 2 vols. (1886-7). Baal, a word found in all Semitic languages meaning 'own- er, proprietor.' When used of a god the article is often prefixed and a word is added expressing the place or thing possessed, or indicating a characteristic. Thus, there was a baal of Tyre (whose name was Melkart), a baal of Mt. Hermon, a baal of the covenant and proper names like Ishbosheth =Isnbaal, see below). _ As the baalim were gods of fertility, the rites of the baal worship degener- ated into sensuality and thus the Yahweh cult was corrupted {cf. 1 Kings 18 for a description of the baal rites). The prophets in- veighed against it and to the later Jews the name was so offensive that they substituted bosheth, 'shame,' for it. See Saycc, Hib- bert Lectures (1887); Baethgen, Beitrage zur semitischen Religions- geschichte (1888); Robertson Smith, Religion of the Semites (1894). Baalbek (Gr. Heliopolis, *city of the sun'; Scrip. Baalath)^ an- Baalbek cient city of Syria, on the pla- teau (alt. 4,500 ft.) of El Bekaa, at the foot of Anti-Libanus, 35 m. N. by w. of Damascus; chiefly re- markable for the magnificence of its ruins, which occupy a site analogous to that of the Acrop- olis of Athens. The temple of Jupiter, or the Sun (Little Tem- ple), stands to the s. of the Great Temple. A third ruin is known as the Circular Temple. Elsev/here are numerous columns, altars, and the remains of the city walls (2 m. in circuit). The older portions of the acropolis wall are probably of Phoenician or kindred origin, and date from a time when the worship of Baal was supreme. The early history of Baalbek is lost in the mists of antiquity; but as it stood on the route be- tween Tyre and Palmyra, it early became a great entrepot of Ori- ental commerce. Under Alex- ander the Great it rose to a high degree of prosperity, and Augus- tus made it a Roman colony. Antoninus Pius erected the Great Temple, which Theodosius con- verted into a Christian church. The Arabs conquered Baalbek in 636, after a stubborn resistance; in 1139, and again in 1260, it was captured by the Mongols; and Timur Beg (Tamerlane) utilized the temple as a fortress (1400). From this period the decline of Baalbek was rapid, and an earth- quake (1759) CO] ipleted the devas- tation begun by Tartars, Turks, and Damascene pashas. During the Crusade? the city was fre- quently the centre of warlike operations. It is now a poverty- stricken little village, with about a hundred mean houses. The Germans excavated the site of the acropolis iu 1900-2. See V/ood's The Ruins c} Balbcc (1757; new ed. 1827); Lortet's La Lyrie d'au- iourd'hui (1884); Belle w (two 506 articles) in Temple Bar (1861); Frauberger's Die Akropolis von Baalbek (1891). Baaslia, a man of humble origin, who, having slain Nadab, son of Jeroboam i., ascended the throne of Israel about 914 B.C. He massacred all the descendants of Jeroboam and vmdertook a long war with Asa, king of Judah, who, in self-defence, had to seek the help of Syria. See 1 Kings 15:16-16:7. Baba. Turkish word, title of respect='papa'; applied to ec- clesiastic and secular dignitaries in Western Asia. Baba (Slav, 'old woman'), the name of a fantastic being who plays a great role in the folk-lore of the Slavonic peoples, especi- ally the Russian, wnere she is called laga-Baba. See Ralston's Russian Folk-tales (1873). Babbage, Charles (1791-1871), a scientific mechanician, who. with Herschel and Peacock, gave the first impulse to an English mathematical revival. He is famous for his unfinished calcu- lating machines. BabbagewasLu- casian professor of mathematics at Cambridge University (1828- 39), and wrote a good little book called Economy of Machinery (1833), also Tables of Logarithms (1827; new ed. 1889). See Weld's Hist, of Roy. Soc.^ vol. ii. ch. 11 (1848). ^ Babel, Tower of. The narra- tive of (jen. 11:1-9 is obviously intended to explain the different varieties of race and la.iguage, and th? name Babel (Aram balbel, 'confound') seemed to the writer a corroboration of the story. But it ic probable that the legend arose from the name, whicn is really Bdb-tli, 'gate of God,' and has no connection whatever with the Aramaic word for 'confound.' Recent scholarship is disposed Babl to identify the 'Tower of Babel' with the zikkurrat of the temple E-sagilla, the extensive ruins of which are now known as Amran, in Babylon itself. See Sayce's Fresh Light from the Ancient Monuments (1884), and his edi- tioti of G. Smith's Chaldeean Account of Genesis (1880). Bab-el-Mandeb, strait unit- ing the Red Sea with the Indian Ocean (14^ m. wide).^ The island of Perim divides it into two un- equal channels (the western 12^ m. and the eastern 2 m. wide). The cape of the same name is on the Arabian side of the strait. Babel und Bibel, the title of a series of lectures delivered in Berlin before the emperor of Germanv in 1902-3 by Friedrich Delitzscn, one of the most eminent of Assyriologists, in which he expounded the relations between the Bible and the results of the recent excavations at Babylon and the ancient Mesopotamian centres of culture. Baber (the Tiger), Zehir ed- DiN Mohammed (1483-1530), first Mogul emperor in India, and founder of the Mogul dynasty, which lasted to the beginning of uhe 19th century, was a descendant of Timur-Beg (Tamerlane), and succeeded his father. Sheikh Mirza, at the age of twelve on the throne of Andijan in Ferghana. In 1504 he conquered Kandahar and Kabul, and thence made four expeditions against India between 1508 and 1525. In 1526 he ap- g eared in the Punjab, ^ defeated is opponents near Delhi, and oc- cupiecl Delhi and Agra, and in the following year pushed his con- quests as far as Bengal. He made Agra his favorite residence. Baber was also a poet, writing in both Turkish and Persian; but the most important of his literary works is his Autobiography or Memoirs, which he wrote in Turk- ish, at the end of his life: trans, into English by J. Leyden and Erskine under the title Memoirs of Zehir ed-Din Mohammed Ba- ber, Emperor of Hindustan (1826). See Lane Poole's Baber (1899). Babeuf, Francois Noel (1760- 97), a French revolutionist who formed a plot against the French Directory. Babeuf was executed. See Advielle's Histoire de Babeuf (1884). Babl and Babiism. The term Babiism denotes the tenets of a school of religious refori lers who arose in Persia in the middle of the 19th centurj. 'i he founder was a young sayid. Mirza Ali, son of Monammed, who was born at Shiraz in 1819, and who, while resident near Bagdad, in 1844, began to preach a faith which differed in many respects from the orthodox Sufism of Persia. Regarding himself as the latest prophet of God, he took the 4 Babington title of Bab al-Din ('gate' or in- termediary between the Twelfth Imam and the faithful), whence he became known as 'the Bab 'and his disciples as 'Babis.' Later he styled himself the Nuqta ('point,' 'centre/ or 'focus'), believing that in him all previous dis- pensations centred. Mohammed, Christ, and Moses he revered as prophets, but as his forerunners. The doctrine which he preached was largely _ a healthy protest against the ideas of the Persian hierarchy. He forbade polyg- amy and concubinage as de- grading to womanhood, and he 507 in himself. The preaching of doctrines such as these quickly aroused he antagonism of the or- thodox mullahs. It was in 1843-4 that the Bab distinctly declared himself. By the year 1848 he and his followers were in open rebel- lion against their persecutors; but after a brave resistance they were defeated and dispersed, and the prophet himself was, on July 8, 1850, put to death at Tabriz. An attempt against the life of Shah Nasr ed-Din in 1852, attributed to the Babis, led to renewed severi- ties; and they were deported (1863) to Constantinople, and shortly Babirusa Mary of Scotland, to whom he was devoted. Having been selected by an association of youths for the purpose, he led the conspiracy to kill Elizabeth and release Mary. Babington confided their plot to Mary, who wrote her ap- proval (July 17, 1586) in the letter which brought her, Babington, and the other conspirators to the scaffold. See W. D. Cooper's Notices of Anthony Babington (1862), repr. from the Reliquary for April, 1862; State Trials, vol. i.; Turnbull's Letters of Mary Stuart (1845); and Froiide and Lingard's Hists. of England. Babirusa. f)laced woman on the same evel as men. Asceticism and mendicancy he equally con- demned; and although disap- proving of the use of intoxicat- ing liquors, he advocated a life of generosity to oneself as well as to one's neighbors. But his creed was also strongly tinctured with Gnostic, Pantheistic, and Buddhist ideas. The numbers 7 and 19, for example, are regarded as of great significance. The latter number, indeed, expressed the name of the Deity, wnoin^ he believed to be incarnate in him- self and his eighteen fellow- prophets or colleagues^ but chiefly after to Adrianople, and again in 1868 to Famagusta in Cyprus. Since 1868 Acre has been the home of a section led by Baha, who now number between half a million and a million. A new schism ensued upon the death of Baha. There are some 3,000 Babis in the United States. See E. G. Browne, A Traveller's Narrative, written to illustrate the Episode of the Bab (1891), and The New History of the Bab (^1893); and Khayru'llah and H. MacNutt, Beha'u'llah (Chicago, 1900). Babington, Anthony (1561- 86), English Roman Catholic con- spirator, served as page to Queen Babington, William (1756- 1833), English physician and min- eralogist; was the founder of the British Geological Society, and author of A Systematic Arrange- ment of Minerals reduced to the Form of Tables (1795), and A New System of Mineralogy (1799). Babirusa, a wild pig of Celebes and Buru, in the East Indies. Its special peculiarity lies in the fact that the canine teeth in the male go on growing throughout life, and form huge, curved, hornlike structures arch- ing over the snout. The upper canines do not enter the mouth BaYK>on at all, but perforate the skin of the face, ana arch backwards over the forehead. See A. R. Wallace's The Malay Archipelago^ (1890). Baboon, a name which should strictly be applied only to Afri- can monkeys of the genus Cyno- cephalus. These monkeys are dis- tinguished by the fact that the fore and hind limbs are nearly equal, and that the animals are thus adapted for quadrupedal progression on the ground, rather than for arboreal life like other monkeys. The face and jaws are large, and the brain-case rela- tively small, giving rise to the name dog-faced monkeys (Cyn(h 508 library by Knoll in 1877; and yet others on wax tablets at Pal- myra by Von Assendelft in 1891. Nmety-five other fables brought forward by Minas in 1857 have been pronounced forgeries by Conington and others. The best editions are those of Rutherford (1883) and Cruzius (1897). See feentley's Dissertation on the Fables of Msop (1776); Tyrwhitt's Dissertatio de Babri (1776'>; Con- ington's Miscellaneous Writings^ vol. ii. (1872). Babu, a native of India who possesses a superficial education m English; though, strictly speak- ing, the term is equivalent to Chacma Baboon. cephalus). The baboon which was sacred to the ancient Egyptians is supposed to have been the hamadryad. For examples, see Mandrill, Chacma, Drill. Babrius, a Greek poet, prob- ably before the time of Augus- tus. His work, called Fables, in ten books, was a version of JEsop's Fables, and seems to have been the base of all the various ^so- pean fables which have come down to us. In 1842 a Greek named Minas discovered 123 fresh yEsop's Fables, under the name of Babrius, in a MS. at Mount Athos; and others were dis- covered in Mss. in the Vatican 'Mr.* For an admirable travesty of *Babu' English, see Anstey's Baboo Jabber jee, B.A. (1897). Babul Tree, of India (Acacia arabica), 30 to 40 feet high, yields a transparent gum which is used medicinallv and also as food. The wood is used for railway sleepers, and the bark yields a brown tanning dye. Babuyanes, fertile island group, largely volcanic, Philip- pines, N. of Luzon, and the N. ex- tremity of the Philippine Archi- pelago. The most important are Claro, which has a volcano noted for its eruptions, Babuyan, Ca- layan, and Camiguin, one of Babylonia the largest (54 sq. m.), which yields large supplies of sulphur. Prod- •ucts: tobacco, rice, maize, and tropical fruits. Area, 212 sq. m. Pop. (1899) about 9,500. Baby, See Infant. Babylon, vil., Suffolk co., N. Y., on Long Island R. R., 37 m. from New York city. There is a ferry over Great South Bay to Fire Island. A popular summer resort. Pop. (1910) 2,600. Babylonia. This name is de- rived, through the Greek BajSuAw- vta, from the native Bdb-tli (rarely Bdb-tldni), 'gate of God* (or *of the^ gods'), the name of the city which, after the accession of the royal house known as the first dynasty of Babylon, became the capital of the country. The his- tory of the name Bab-ili is un- known, but it is not improbably due to a folk etvmology, as is suggested by the fact that Nebu- chadnezzar the Great often gives the name as Babilam (a form end- ing^ with a, and provided with the |mimmation'), a way of writing it which bears a likeness to a city name read as Babalam, mentioned in an inscription of King Gaddas. Both form and meaning, however, are of sufficient antiquity, as is shown by the fact that it was at an early date translated into the primitive language of the countrv under the form of Ka-dingira,with the same rneaning. In its widest extent the coun- try stretched from about the 31st degree N. lat. in a s.e direction to the Persian Gulf, having on the w. the Arabian desert, on the N. Mesopotamia and Assyria, and on the E. the plains at the foot of the mountains of Elam. It was anciently divided into different districts, which were inhabited by various tribes, in some cases speak- ing languages of a widely diver- gent nature. On the N. were the two districts of Sumer and Akkad, called by the non-Semitic inhab- itants Kingi-Ura, corresponding with the Shinar of the Old Testa- ment, which is derived either from Sumer, or from a dialectic form of Kingi-Ura, by the change of K into S. In Gen. 14:1, 9, the tract of which Ellasar CLarsaj the modern Senkara) was capital is mentitmed as if it did not form part of Shinar, or Babylonia proper. The tract in the extreme s. was called m.^ Tdmtim, 'the country of the sea,' and had its own native governors until a comparatively late date. In addition to the above names, the district immediately border- ing on Assyria was called Kar- Dunias: and at least a portion of this, where Sippar and the city of Babylon lay, bore the name of Edina, or the plain' (c/ Gen. 10:2), and was, according to Fried. Delitzsch, the original of the Eden of Gen. 2:8, etc. Besides the city of Babylon, Babylonia which was the capital of the coun- try in later days, Babylonia con- tained a number of other cities of the most remote antiquity, equal- ling, or perhaps exceeding, in that respect, Babylon itself. These were Sippar and Akkad, the Ac- cad of Gen. 10:10; Uriwa or Ur, identified by ancient writers and modern scholars with the 'Ur of the Chaldees' of Gen, 11:29, now Muqayyar or Mugheir; Nippuru, stated by the rabbins to be the Calneh of Gen. 10:9, now Niffer; Unuga or Uruk, the Erech of Gen. 10:9, now Warka; Larsa=Ellasar (see above); Lagas, now Tel-loh (Tello), from which some very fine sculptures of ancient date have been obtained; Kis, now Hymer, near Babylon; Borsippa, now represented by the ruins of Birs- Nimrud, the celebrated tower identified (probably incorrectly) with the Biblical Tower of Babel; the sacred city of Eridu; Nisin or Isin; Dur-ili; Aratta; Marad; and many others. This fertile region is watered by two great rivers which, rising in the mountains of Armenia, run through extensive districts before entering Babylonia, and fall ulti- mately into the Persian Gulf. Flowing through many hundreds of miles of territory, they have, in the course of centuries, brought down with them extensive allu- vial deposits, of which a consider- able stretch of country at the upper extremity of the gulf is formed. Indeed, so great has been the addition of territory that a proper understanding of the statements referring to this part, in legend and in history, is only possible by bearing the fact in mind. Numerous inscriptions found in the ruins of the cities testify to the success of the ancient Baby- lonians as agriculturists. The plain is still covered with a net- work of old canals, some of them of considerable extent, which an- ciently not only irrigated but also drained the land, keeping the in- undation *within due limits, and rendering healthier and more cul- tivable what is at present in too many cases a marsh. The digging of a new canal was considered, 2000 B.C., as being of sufficient importance to date by. As is indicated by the tablets and the sculptures, at least two races anciently inhabited the country, each speaking its own language, and living side by side, until, in the course of centuries, they became one people. These two races were the Semitic Baby- lonians, who spoke a language akin to Hebrew and Arabic; and the non-Semitic population, speaking an agglutinative tongue generally regarded as Turanian, and akin to Finnish, Tartar, and Chinese. Which nationality was 509 the first to enter the country, and whether the entry of those who were not the aborigines was a peaceful one or not, is unknown. It is probably not without sig- nificance in this connection, how- ever, that Nimrod or Merodach, the founder (according to Gen. 10:10 and the bilingual account of the creation) of the great cities of Babylonia, is described in Gen. 10:8 as a son of Cush, and there- fore not of Semitic race, as his name likewise indicates.^ The great majority of the archaic inscrip- tions of the country are, more- over, in the non-Semitic language of the country, often called in Brit- ain Akkadian, and generally, on the Continent, Sumerian. There were at least two dialects of this language, which was finally su- perseded by Semitic Babylonian about 2000 B.C., though isolated compositions in it of a later date are known. The earlier bas- reliefs of Babylonia also show types of the inhabitants of the time which are certainly not Sem- itic. The beginnings of Babylonian history are lost in obscurity, but were certainly of considerable an- tiquity. According to the_ Amer- ican explorers, the rubbish ac- cumulations of the ancient city Nippuru (Niffer) go back no less than 10,000 years — that is to say, as far as 8000 B.C. Naturally this is disputed, though the site is certainly one of the most ancient in the land, as were also the Babel (Babylon), Erech, and Accad of Gen. 10:10, together with others less renowned. In the earliest period of which any record has been preserved. Babylonia was divided into a number of small states of varying extent and power. These were Kis, Girsu or Lagas (Tel-loh), Upe or Opis, Uriwa or Ur (Muqayyar), Unuga or Uruk (Erech), Ararrna or Larsa (Ellasar), Agade, Nisin or Isin, Babylon, and Asnunna or Es- nunna, with one or two others. The earliest king is one whose monuments have been found at Niffer, and who calls himself 'lord of Kengi' — i.e. Sumer, or the south. He bore the name of En- sag-kus-anna, and is regarded as having reigned before 4500 B.C. The one historical event of his reign which is known is that he attacked the city of Kis, and dedicated the spoils which he captured to the god Ellila or Bel. Naturally, the small kingdom of Kis, against which En-sag-kus- anna fought, was of as great an- tiquity, and a state not without influence, as may be judged from the fact that its conquest was a thing worth boasting about, and that, at a later date, it attained to considerable power — its king, Me- silim (about 4000 B.C.), triumph- ing over a district whose name Babylonia has not yet been read with cer- tainty, but which seems to have lain near Opis. Equally glorious with the other states of Baby- lonia, however, was the little ter- ritory of which Lagas (Tel-loh) was the capital. Beginning with Uru-ka-gina, about 4500 B.C., this district possessed a line of rulers, sometimes called kings, but gen- erally bearing the title of patesi or issaku (headman), who ruled the district wisely and well for a long series of years, until, as with the other states of Babylonia, the little kingdom was absorbed in- to the great Babylonian empire. Whilst they reigned, however, they watched over the welfare of their subjects, and at the same time gained glory by foreign con- quest. Thus Gudea, who reigned * about 2700 B.C. or earlier, and who was one of the most renowned of the issaku, says that the god E- girsu (Nin-girsu), the patron deity of Lagas, * delivered ail things un- to him from the upper sea to the lower sea' (the Meaiterranean and the Persian Gulf). From Amalum (regarded as Amanus, in N. Syria) he brought cedar and other trees of large size; stone, among other places, from Musalla or Supsalla, in the mountains of Martu (the land of the Amorites) . From Tida- lum,^ a mountain in the_ same district, he brought a kind of limestone; from Melahha, identi- fied with the peninsula of Sinai, gold dust; and from Til-Barsip, now Bir or Birajik, a material the nature of which is uncertain. Be- sides this, he claims to have smit- ten the city of Ansan, in Elam, with the sword, and to have dedi- cated its spoils to his deity E-girsu. Exceedingly interesting is the history of the northern kingdom of Akkad. As far as can at present be ascertained, it was the state in which Semitic influence pre- dominated, and seems, therefore, to have given to Babylonia its first dynasty of Semitic kings. • Of these, the now celebrated ruler Sargani-sar-ali, known as Sargon of Agade (Akkad), son of Itti-Bel, was the most renowned. Accord- ing to a tablet of omens referring to his reign, he carried the arms of Akkad as far as the Mediter- ranean and Cyprus, in which isl- and he seems to have set up an image of himself. To do this, he had to subjugate the land of the Amorites. This is the ruler of whom it is recorded that his mother placed him in a little ark on the Euphrates, and he was brought up by a canal overseer(?) who found him. Notwithstand- ing his popularity, he had on one occasion to put down a revolt which took place among all the elders of the land. His son, Naram-Sin, was no less renowned than he was, it being stated of him that he conquered Apirak and Ma- Babylonia ganna. The little recorded by this omen-tablet concerning the reign of Sargon is supplemented by recent French excavations at Susa, which show that he invaded Elam, an old Semitic colony. It is noteworthy that though Sargon of Agade came into con- tact with Babylon, that city does not appear as a place of impor- tance until a comparatively late date; and that when it does come to the front, its kings gradually reduce all the other petty states to subjection, and the latter are not heard of afterward except as integral parts of the Babylo- nian empire. Yet the city of Babylon must have had a past as glorious as any of the others. As is well known, the patron 510 makes the total of their reigns 245 years. Taking these rulers in order, the native records in- form us that Sumu-abu, the first king, built or rebuilt various tem- ples and fortifications, and de- stroyed Kazallu; Sumu-la-ilu or Sumu-le-el dug the 'canal of the Sun,' smote Halambu with the sword, destroyed the city of Kis, drove out Ya'zar-ilu from Kazal- lu, 'smote him with the sword' a few years later, and carried out several _ useful and defen- sive works, including the wall of Babylon. The next king, Zabu, among other things, restored(?) the great temple of Belus at Babylon, rebuirt(?) the walls of Kazallu, and inaugurated( ?) an image of himself. Apil-Sin per- Babylonia inscriptions which apparently re- fer to Kudur-Lagamar, or Che- dorlaomer, one of them being in the form of a poetical legend. In the thirty-first year of his reign Hammurabi captured Rim-Sin (supposed to be the same as Arioch, with which name it agrees sufficiently well in meaning), thus putting an end to the last of the principalities independent of Babylon. Hammurabi was succeeded by Samsu-iluna, his son, who also had a very successful reign. To all appearance he employed him- self in consolidating the newly- formed kingdom, and to this end fortified certain cities. ^ His other works were the restoration of tem- ples (notably that of Belus at MTRoihll,- JiMcattt(H^o/vi ancient JIfarah y / A the (]rdund M eovered ' ' - A* \ divinity of Babylon was Mero- dach, called, in Gen. 10:8 and elsewhere, Nimrod, who, as the reputed founder oi the great cities of Babylonia, was in all probability the first really re- nowned king of the city and its district. But a German mission is at the present time excavat- ing the ruins. The city's history practically begins with the royal house called the dynasty of Babylon, consist- ing of eleven kings, who reigned, in all, about 290 years, beginning about 2200 B.C. Although this dynasty is called 'the dynasty of Babylon,' it was certainly not a Babylonian one. To all appear- ance it corresponds with what Berosus calls the Arabian dy- nasty, though he gives the num- ber of the kings as nine, and formed several pious works, in- cluding the setting up of a 'su- preme throne' for the sun-god at Babylon; and Sinmubalit occu- pied himself largely with the dig- ging of canals, building the de- fences of the chief towns, and other things of a similar nature. It is to Hammurabi, his son and successor, however, that the prin- cipal interest attaches. This ruler, whom a later text calls Ammu- rapi, is the Amraphel of Gen. 14. As there recorded, he took part, with Chedorlaomer of Elam, Arioch of Ellasar (Larsa), and Tidal, king of nations, in an attempt to reduce again to sub- jection the king of Sodom and his allies. There is no record in the inscriptions of Babylonia of any expedition of Hammurabi to Palestine, though there are three Babylon), the dedication of thrones, etc., to the gods, and the digging of canals. In the mutilated list of colophon dates there is a reference seemingly to the destruction of the city Eres; but as this place was, to all ap- pearance, on Babylonian soil, warlike operations are doubtful. Of the other kings of the dyn- asty of Babylon little is known. The names of many kings occur, but very little history, until the time of the Kassite dynasty, the first ruler of which was named Gandas or Gaddas (c. 1800 B.C.). This ruler calls himself 'king of the four regions, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of Babalam ' (for this last name see the first paragraph). Seven reigns later we have the name of the cele- brated king Agu or Agu-kak-rime Babylonia who states his titles at length thus: 'King of Kassu and Ak- kadu (Accad), king of the wide land of Babylon {mcLt Bdb-tli), colonizer of Asnunnak, an ex- tended people, king of Padan (Padan-aram) and Alman, king of the land of Guti, a rebel- lious(?) people, the king who has quieted(?) the four regions, the obedient one of the great gods, am I ' He then goes on to state that he had sent and fetched (the images of) Merodach and his con- sort, Zir-panitum from the land of Hani, and describes with what state they were replaced in shrines at Babylon. In the time of Kallima-Sin and Burna-buriasli.(c 1430-1380 B.C.) Babylonia had relations with Egypt, and a daughter of the former was given in marriage to Amenophis ill. A tragic passage in the history of Babylonia is that in which Kadasman-Murus (about 1370 B.C.), after deporting the numerous Suti (nomads of the west), and building fortresses in the land of Amurru (Amorites), was killed by Kassites in Baby Ionia. This brought down upon the country the vengeance of the Assyrian king Assur-ubal- lit, whose grandson he was, and Suzigas (otherwise Nazi-bugas), whom they had raised to the throne, was deposed — Kuri-galzu II., a youth, son of Burna-burias, being installed in his place. A great deal of space is devoted, in the Babylonian chronicle, to this ruler (there is just the possibility that the text speaks of two kings bearing the same name), who seems to have had a very glorious reign. Among other things re- corded of him is that Hurba-tila, king of Elam, sent him a chal- lenge to battle, and, as a result, was defeated by him at Dur- Dungi. Another notable ruler was Neb- uchadnezzar I., son of Ninib- nadin-sumi, who warred in Elam and the east generally, and in Syria (Amurru). He is said to have been defeated in battle by the Assyrian king Assur-res-isi. (See Assyria.) How fortune varied for the Babylonians is illustrated by this, and also by the fact that during the reign of Simmas-Sihu, about 1040 B.C., the Sutu nomads invaded Baby- lonia, and carried ofif as spoil the property of the temple of the sun-god at Sippara. About the year 892 B.C. the kingdom fell under the dominion of Tukulti-Ninip ii., king of As- syria ; but native rule was re- stored seven years later, when he met his death in a rebellion. (See Assyria.) The result of this was that Babylonia had a great advantage; for Assyria not being in a position to make a Tigorous resistance, the Babylo- 511 nians, to all appearance, occupied and devastated a large part of the country. The next two kings mentioned by ^ the chronicle are Bel-nadin-sumi and Ram-manu- sarra-iddina, in whose reigns the country suffered apparently on account of the invasions of an Elamite king named Kidin-hut- rudas. This in all probability weakened ^ the country, enabling the Assyrians to defeat a later king, Nabu-abla-iddina, who had allied himself with the Shuites. Peace was concluded between the two powers in the reign of the As- syrian king Shalmaneser ii. (See Assyria.) In 747 B.C. Nabonassar came to the throne, but^ all that is stated of his reign is that a revolt occurred in Babylon and Bor- sippa, _ but was quelled. As to his reign having commenced a 1 Babylonia the district of the Persian Gulf, mounted the throne, and had a great many conflicts with the Assyrians. He was captured by them about 711 B c, and Sargon of Assyria became king of Baby- lonia On the death of Sargon, in 705 B.C., his son, Sennacherib, becarne king of Babylon, but was repudiated by the Babylonians in 703 B.C., when Marduk-zakir-sumi was placed on the throne. This king, however, reigned only two months; for Merodach-baladan, having escaped from prison, killed him; and once more resumed the reins of government. He was soon again deposed by Sennacherib, and fled. _ The Assyrian king thereupon installed Bel-ibm, the Belibos of Ptolemy. The rule of this last, however, not being satis- factory, he was removed by the suzerain, who placed his own son, 2 Obverse of an unbaked Babylonian Tablet. Edge of same. 1. Mentions Dur-makh-ilani, son of Eri-Aku, probably Arioch, king of 'Ellasar; Tudkhula, probably Tidal, king of nations ; and Kudur Laganiar. king of Elam, probably Cnedorlaomer, king of Elam. (Gen. 14:1.) Now in the British Museum. 2. Shows the characters ' -Aku ' (the last two characters of Arioch) written ' round the corner,' in continuation of line 9. historical era, there is no trace of that in the inscriptions. Per- haps the true explanation is that systematic astronomical observa- tions were recor_ded in his time. Nabu-nadin-zeri or Nadinu (Na- dios), his son, reigned two years, meeting his death at the hands of Nabu-sum-ukin or Sum-ukin, who reigned two months. Ukin- zer (Chinziros), chief of the tribe of Bit-Amukkan (731 B.C.), was taken prisoner by Tiglath-pileser III. of Assyria, after a reign of three years. The Assyrian king, having seized the throne, _ ruled under the same name as in As- svria, though he is called Pulu (Pul, cf. 2 Ki. 15:19) in the Babylonian canon. He reigned in Babvlonia two years, and was succeed.ed by Ululaa (Elulaeus), as the canon calls the Assyrian king Shalmaneser iv. (See As- syria.) On his death, in 721 B.C., Merodach-baladan ii., a native of Assur-nadin-sumi, on the throne. Whilst Sennacherib was engaged in the south against Merodach- baladan, Nergal-usezib, whom he had once defeated, seized Baby- lon, and taking Sennacherib's son prisoner, sent him to Elam. The Assyrian army returning, Nergal- usezib was defeated and captured. Sennacherib next turned his at- tention to Elam, and whilst he was engaged there, Musezib-Mar- duk mounted the Babylonian throne. Later, the Elamite king, Umman-menanu, seems to have become the friend of the As- syrians; for he invaded Babv- lonia, and having taken Musezib- Marduk prisoner, sent him to the Assyrian king. Babylonia now fell under the rule of the As- svrians for twenty-one years (688- 6G9 B.C.). Sennacherib was assassinated in 680 B.C., and his son, Esarhaddon, who ruled Babylonia with mod- Babylonia 512 Babylonia eration, and tried to repair the ravages which his_ father had made, succeeded him. On his death, in 669 B.C., his son, Samas- sum-ukin (Saosduchinos), came to the throne of Babylonia, appar- ently in accordance with his father's wish. During his reign the country was invaded by the Elamite king Urtaku, who per- suaded Bel-ikisa, with some other Babylonian chiefs, to join him in attacking _ Samas-sum-ukin and Assur-bani-apli, his brother, the king of Assyria. The result was the deposition of the Elamite king. Samas-sum-ukin, however, did not like being regarded as his brother's vassal, and therefore bribed Umman-igas,the newElam- ite king, to join him in throw- ing off the Assyrian yoke. The result was disaster, for in 648 B c. the Assyrian army entered Babylon, and Samas-sum-ukin, setting fire to his palace, was burnt to death. He was suc- ceeded by Kandalanu (Kinela- danos), who is regarded by some as the same as Assur-bani-apli. ried away the Jews into captivity. He captured Tyre after a siege of thirteen years (573 B c ), and de- feated and deposed Hophra, kmg of Egypt, setting on the throne Amasis, who, however seems to have revolted against his suze- rain later on, necessitating an- other expedition to Egypt to re- duce him again to subjection Nebuchadnezzar is renowned as the restorer or rebuilder of all, or nearly all, the great temples and palaces of Babylon. He died in 562 B c , and was succeeded by his son, Evil-merodach, who, after a short reign of only two years, was assassinated by his brother-in-law, Neriglissar, who then mounted the throne. The record of the marriage of the daughter of Neriglissar with the high priest of Nebo at E-zida exists, and is preserved in the British Museum. Neriglissar was advanced in years when he came to the throne, and only reigned three years, being succeeded by his son, Labasi-Marduk (Labaro- soardochos), who was assassinated cally king, and he seems to have been killed on the night of the 11th of Marcheswan, 539 B.C., in an attack made by Gobryas. The next year the king of Anzan, as Cyrus is called, found himself completely master of Babylonia, and assumed the reins of govern- ment. Babylonia had thereafter no separate existence. From time to time she tried to revolt, but always without success. The inhabitants saw with grief their ancient glories disappearing; and the foundation of Seleucia on the Tigris by Seleucus Nicator (312- 280 B c ) completed the ruin of the city The Semitic Babylonian language, however, continued to be spoken and used in contracts almost, if not quite, until the Christian era, and the worship of their deities is said to have been carried on at the Birs-Nimrud (the temple known as E-zida) until the 4th century of the Christian era. Though it is uncertain whether the ancient Babylonians were more civilized than their Egyptian contemporaries there is but little doubt that they were the pioneers of civilization in the whole of Western Asia before Greece and Rome came to the front. Four thousand years B.C. their system of writing had already been de- veloped, and applied also to the Semitic Babylonian tongue. Four- teen hundred years B.C., as the Tell-el-Amarna tablets testify, its use extended over the whole of Western Asia as far as the Mediterranean and Egypt. (See Cuneiform.) Though not a war- like people, the Babylonians pos- sessed more than once what might have been described at the time as a world-wide empire. They were energetic, intelligent, polished in their way and fond of letters. From 4000 B.C. on- wards excellent sculptures and engravings on hard stone exist to testify to their skill and artis- tic instincts. Representations of musical instruments imply alsc that the art of harmony was not altogether unknown to them. To this must be added agricul- ture, mensuration, and mathe- matics, such as they were; and their legal enactments, codified apparently by Hammurabi, are, in their way, noteworthy produc- tions. In the matter of litera- ture we owe to them no less than three accounts of the crea- tion, two accounts of the flood, one of them put into the mouth of the Babylonian Noah (Ut- napistim or Atra-hasis), who is represented as relating it to the semi-mythical_ Gilgames (Gilga- mos), a primitive King of Erech (Uruk-suhuri). To these must be added a number of other legends, such as the story of Ura (the pestilence), Etanna, the horse and Fragment of a Clay Seal of Hammurabi. The rule of this king lasted twenty-two years, and he was apparently succeeded (625 B.C.) by the Assyrian king Assur-etil- ilani, who occupied the throne for at least four years. His succes- sor was Sinsarra-iskun, the Sara- cos of Syncellus, whose general, Nabopolassar, having been sent to drive back certain barbarians who were said to be invading the country, revolted against his mas- ter, and allying himself with the Medes and others, succeeded with them in overthrowing the Assyrian empire. (See Assyria.) Nabopolassar took for his share of the spoils the kingdom of Baby- lonia, and made the country the richest and most influential in the then known world He and his son attacked the Egyptians and defeated them; but the son learn- ing, whilst on this expedition, that his father had died, hastened back to Babylonia to assume the reins of government The glory of the reign of Nebuchadnezzar ll., rightly called 'the Great,' is well known He overran the states of Palestine, and having cap- tured Jerusalem in 587 B.C., car- after he had been on the throne only nine months, Nabo-na'id (Na- bonidos or Labynitus) being there- upon made king (556 B c.) Much has still to be discovered ere we know all about this re- markable ruler, to whom students of Babylonian history owe so much. The son of a princely family of Babylon, he was to all appearance learned, well read, and an antiquarian. The ac- counts of his researches in the foundations of the ancient tem- ples for records of his prede- cessors are of the highest value. He seems to have given over the direction of the military affairs of the kingdom into the hands of his son Belshazzar. During his reign the renown of Cyrus began to be spread abroad, and the Baby- lonian chronicle records that this conqueror attacked a petty ruler in the neighborhood of Arbela. In the year 539 B.C. he began the subjugation of Babylonia, and Gobryas, his general, entered the capital on the 16th of Tammuz of the following year. At this time, to all appearance, Belshazzar was at the head of affairs, and practi- Babylonia the ox, with many others — one at least, the story of Sargon of Agade, being historical. It is difficult to judge which was the more predominant charac- teristic of the Babylonians, their trading instinct or their reverence for their gods, for both are equally marked. They had intercourse by means of trade with Elam on the east, Syria on the west, and many , other places on the north and south whose names are not re- corded. Slavery was common, and contracts concerning the buying, selling, and hiring of slaves are frequently met with. 'Fair Gu- tian slaves' are spoken of at an early date; and in the time of Cambyses a Babylonian soldier speaks of an Egyptian slave woman and her child, the spoil of his bow.' The Babylonians seem at all times, but especially at the earlier period, to have been very prone to litigation, and the large number of tablets of this class which exist show that though the men had generally only one wife, a second was at times taken, often to wait upon the first. Whether a man had children or not, he would, if it seemed good to him, adopt sons or daughters, to whom he was then under legal obliga- tion to give part of his property. These foster children could not deny him, except under_ penalty of loss of all claim to his estate, and some punishment, perhaps slavery. A husband could divorce his wife by paying a fine; and in addition to this she might take away the amount of her dowry. If, however, a woman denied her husband, the penalty was death, generally by drowning, at least in earlier times. In common with all Semites, the Babylonians were exceedingly religious,_ and v/ere consequently greatly in the power of their priests, through whom tithes and offerings to their numerous gods were made. Their earliest chief *..ivinity was apparently the god Ea, lord of the deep, possessor of unsearchable wisdom, and creator of all things. When, however, Babylon became the chief city of the united states of Babylonia, Merodach, the god of that city, assumed the first place. He was a reflection of the sun, or the light of day, and was worshipped as he who constantly sought to do good to mankind. His chief title was Bel, 'the lord.' Other divinities were Samas, the sun- god; Sin, the moon-god; Nebo. the prophet or teacher; Nergal (Ura), tne god of death and the grave; Beltu (Beltis), consort of Joel or Merodach; Istar, the god- dess Venus, consort of Tammuz; Eres-ki-gala, goddess of Hades; and many others. It is note- worthy that the names of most of the deities of Babylonia are not Vol. I— 37. 513 Semitic, but in the language of the early Sumero-Akkadian inhabit- ants of the country. See Hom- mel's Geschichte Babyloniens und Assyriens (1885); Delitzsch's simi- lar title (1891); Geo. Smith's and A. H. Sayce's Hist, of Babylonia (1877); Maspero's The Dawn of Babylonish Captivity Susiana; M'Curdy's History, Prophecy, and the Monuments (1894, 1896); Radau's Early Babylonian Hist. (1900); Pinches' The O. T. in the Light of the Rec- ords, etc. (1902); and tor trans- lations, The Records of the Past, 1st ser., ed. by Birch, vols, i., iii.. Image of the Sun-God. Stone tablet recording the Restoration of the Temple of the Sun-God at Sippara by Nabu-pal-iddina, about 900 B.C. ' Civilization, ed. by Sayce (1896), and The Struggle of the Nations, ed. by the same (1897); Hilprecht, University of Pennsylvania Expe- ditions to Babylonia, Bulletins (Philadelphia, 1898-1901); History of Art in Chaldea and Assyria (London, 1884); Loftus's Travels and Researches in Chaldosa and v., vii., ix., xi.; 2nd ser., ed. by Sayce, vols, i.-vi. (1888-92); and from time to time, in the Proc. of the Soc. of Bib. ArchceoL, the Jour, of the Royal Asiatic Soc, and the Trans, of the Victoria Institute. Babylonish Captivity. See Israel, History of. Babyroussa Babyroussa. See Babirusa. Baca, The Valley of, through which the pilgrims march towards Zion (Ps. 84:6). Bacarra, tn., 3 m. N. of Laoag, prov. Ilocos Norte, N.W. of Luzon, Philippine Is. It is in a fertile agri- cultural district. Est, pop. (1906) over 15,000. Bacau, tn. Rumania, cap. of district of same name, on the Bistritza, station on the Bucha- rest-Jassy Ry. It has paper works and a brisk trade. Pop. (1900) 16,187, of whom half are Jews. Baccarat. The origin of the game of baccarat, or baccara — called more familiarly bac — is not known. It became the French gambling game par excellence during the latter portion of the reign of_ Louis Philippe, and still retains its pre-eminence in France. There are two forms of the game — baccarat a bangue (sometimes called baccarat a deux tableaux) and baccarat chemin de }er. Baccarat, tn., Meurthe-et-Mo- selle dep., France, 16 m. s.E. of Luneville. It possesses one of *he most celebrated artistic glass factories in Europe, founded in 1765, and employing over 2,000 men. Pop. (1900) 7,014. Bacchae, also called Masnade 514 and Thyiades, the female attend- ants of Bacchus. The na-me was also applied to the priestesses in the Dionysian festivals. Bacchantes, male and female devotees of Bacchus in his fes- tival processions. Bacchus. See Dionysus. Bacchylides (c. 510-450 B.C.) of Ceos, one of the great lyric oets of Greece, was a nephew of imonides. He lived for some time at the court of Hiero at Syracuse. Until 1896 only frag- ments of his poetry were extant,^ but in that year the British^ Museum obtained from Egypt a papyrus which contained twenty of his poems, of which six are practically perfect. Fourteen of these poems commemorate victo- ries in the games; of the others, two are paeans, one a dithyramb, and two hymns. Bacchvlides's poetry is distinguished by elegance and smoothness; he does not pos- sess the depth and magnificence of Pindar, nor his difficulty of thought and language. Editions: Kenyon (1897), the editio princeps; Blass (1898),trans. by Poste(1898). BacciochijMARiA Anna Elisa Bonaparte. See Bonapartes, The. Baccio della Porta. See Bar- TOLOMMEO, FrA. Bach, Alexander Anton Bach Stephen, Baron von (1813-93), Austrian statesman- became min- ister of Justice (1848), and minister of the interior (1849). After the death of Schwarzenberg (1853) he became the most powerful poli- tician in Austria, an advocate of reactionary absolutism, and a strenuous opponent of the Slavs and Hungarians. He was ambas- sador at Rome (1859-67). ^ Bach, JoHANN Christian -(1735-82), the youngest son of Sebastian; after the death of his father he went to Berlin, and studied the piano under his brother Emanuel. In 1754 he be- came organist at Milan, whence he removed to London in 1759, and was appointed conductor to the queen. He wrote many com- positions for the piano; several operettas, of which Orione (1763) had a great success, and another, La Clemenza di Scipione, was played as late at 1805. His wife, Cecilia Grassi, an Italian, was prima donna at the London opera from 1767. Bach, Tohann Sebastian (b. Eisenach, Mar. 21, 1685; d. Leipzig, July 28, 1750), musical composer. Johann Ambrosius (1645-95), the father of Sebastian, was court and town musician at Eisenach, and gave his son lessons on the violin. Sebastian, after having been a violinist for a short time in the orchestra of Prince Johann Ernst at Weimar, held successively the posts of organist in Arnstadt (1704), in Miihlhausen (1707), at the court chapel of Weimar (1708), and of capellmeister to Prince Leo- pold at Kothen (1717). In 1723 he was appointed cantor at the school of St. Thomas, Leipzig, where he also served as director of music at the university and at the churches of St. Thomas and St. Nicholas. These appoint- ments he held until his death. Bach's development of all forms of composition marks an epoch in the history of music. His orches- tral works and chamber music gave a great stimulus to those branches of art, and his solo sonatas for violin and for vio- loncello hold a unique position among compositions for these in- struments. Bach was perhaps the greatest organist of his genera- tion, and his numerous produc- tions for the instrument are still unsurpassed. Among his many vocal compositions may be in- stanced his magnificent Mass in B minor, and the Passions of St. Matthew and St. John. His valu- able compositions for the clavier, and his introduction of a new system of fingering, which made each finger of equal importance, have exerted an enormous influ- ence upon the modern art of piano playing; but of still greater mo- ment was the fact that Bach, who -mm Account of the Delude. (From the Library of Assur-banl-apli at Nineveh.) Bach 515 Backgammon tuned his own claviers, invented our present system of equal tem- perament. His Wohllemperirtes Clavier — forty-eight preludes and fugues in all keys — exemplifies the necessity of his method of tuning for keyboard instruments, and as a musical and technical work is considered indispensable to the trained pianist. The most complete edition of his works is that issued at Leipzig by the Bach Society between 1850 and 1900, in 59 folio volumes. The various biographies of J. S. Bach by Forkel, Hilgenfeldt, Bitter, and others were super- seded by J. A. P. Spitta's ex- haustive work (Eng. trans, by Bell and Fuller-Maitland, 1899). Among English books on the sub- ject, consult the Lives by Miss Kay Shuttleworth, R. Lane Poole, C. F. A. Williams, Rut- land Boughton (1907), Sir Hu- bert Parry (1909), and Schweit- zer (Eng. trans. 1911). Bach, baK, Karl Philip Emanuel (1714-88), third son of J. S. Bach (q. v.), studied music under his father, and law at the University of Leipzig and Frank- fort-on-the-Oder, where he found- ed a musical academy for the pro- duction of his own compovsitions. In 1738 he went to Berlin, where he became private pianist to the king; and in 1767 as musical di- rector to Hamburg, where he re- mained for the rest of his life. Among his many compositions are sonatas, fantasias, and vari- ous pieces for the piano and or- chestra, melodies for the Psalms, and the oratorio The Israelites in the Wilderness. He wrote also a didactic book of considerable value, Versuch iiber die Wahre Art, das Klavier zu Spielen (1753, 1763, 2 vols.). Bach, Wilhelm Friedemann (1710-84), eldest and most tal- ented son of J. S, Bach (q. v.), studied under his father. He be- came organist at Dresden (1733) and at Halle (1746-64). After resigning the latter appointment he led an irregular bohemian life, giving concerts and lessons, and died in Berlin in poverty. Bacharach, bag'a-rag, town, provmce Rhineland, district Ko- blenz, Prussia, on the Rhine; 22 miles southeast of Koblenz. In the Middle Ages it was the staple market for the wines of the Rhein- gau. Pop._(1910) 1,835. Bache, bach, Alexander Dal- las (1806-67), American physi- cist, grandson of Benjamin Frank- lin, was born in Philadelphia, and was graduated from the U. S. Military Academy (182.5) at the head of his class. In 1828-36 he was professor of natural philos- ophy and chemistry at the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania; in 1836- VOL. I.— Mar. '16 42 president of the trustees of Girard College; and from 1843 to 1867 superintendent of the U. S. Coast Survey, serving also as member of the Lighthouse Board and other departments in Wash- ington. He made valuable inves- tigations in physics and chemis- try; and he gave $42,000 to the National Academy of Sciences to promote scientific research. He published Observations at the Mag- netic and Meteorological Obser- vatory at Girard College (3 vols., 1840-7). Bache, Rene (1861), American author and journalist, was born in Philadelphia, Pa., and was ed- ucated at Yale and Harvard Uni- versities. Since 1889 he has de- voted himself to literature. Many ot his popular scientific articles have been published in The Tech- nical World, The Scientific Amer- ican, Harper's Weekly, and The Cosmopolitan. Bache, Sarah (1744-1808), American philanthropist, was born in Philadelphia, the only daughter of Benjamin Franklin. In 1767 she married Richard Bache, who was Postmaster- General of the United States in 1776-82. During the Revolu- tionary War she was prominent in the work of the ladies' Phila- delphia Society in furnishing clothing and other supplies to the American soldiers; and she also attended the wounded in the Philadelphia hospitals. Bach'eller, (Addison) Irving (1859), American author, was born in Pierrepont, N. Y., and was graduated from St. Lawrence University (1882). From 1884 to 1898 he directed the Bacheller Newspaper Syndicate, for sup- plying literary matter to the Sun- day newspapers of the United States; and in 1898-1900 he served on the editorial staff of the New York World. Since 1900 he has devoted his time to fiction writing. His publications in- clude: The Master of Silence (1890) ; The Still House of O'D ar- row (1894); Eben H olden (1900); D'ri and I (1901); Barrel of the Blessed Isles (1903); Candlelight (1903); Vergilius (1904); Silas Strong (1906); The Hand-Made Gentleman (1909^; In Various Moods (1910); The Master (1910); Keeping Up with Lizzie (1911); Charge It (1912); Turning of Griggsby (1913); The Marryers (1914). Bachelor, bach'e-kr, in its Latin form, baccalarius, signified first of all a cowherd or farm servant. Then it was applied to the cultivators of certain lands (called baccalaria) held in fief of a religious body; and then it came to mean novices in monasteries, and persons passing through the probationary stages of knight- hood (q. v.). On the institution of universities it was popularly used _ to denote those who had just entered on their academic career; and subsequently the Bachelor s Degree came to be con- ferred as the lowest academical degree in universities and colleges (see Degrees). The term, as commonly used at the present day, signifies simply an unmar- ried man. Bachelors* Buttons, the popu- lar name for the double-flowered 3^ellow or white varieties of but- tercup; sometimes applied also to the double daisy, cornflower, cam- pion, burdock, scabious, etc. Bachelor's Degree. See De- grees. Bachian. See Batjan. Bachmut. See Bakhmut. Bacho. See Baconthorpe. Bachtold, bec/z'tolt, Jakob (1848-97), Swiss man of letters, was professor of German lan- guage and literature at Zurich (1888). He wrote a useful Ge- schichte der Deutschen Litteratur in der Schweiz (1887-90); a good biography of Gottfried Keller (1892-6); and edited Morike's Briefwechsel and Goethe's Gotz von Berlichingen and Iphigenia auf Tauris. Bacillus (late Latin, 'little rod,' diminutive of baculus, 'stick'), properly the name of the rod- shaped Bacteria, but often inac- curately used in the same sense as bacterium. See Bacteria. Back, Sir George (1796- 1876), English admiral and Arc- tic explorer, was born in Stock- port, and entered the British navy as midshipman in 1808. He served with Sir John Franklin in Arctic expeditions to the Spitz- bergen Seas (1818), the Copper- mine River (1819-22), and the Mackenzie River (1824-7). In 1833 he took command of an ex- pedition in search of Sir John Ross (q. v.), and discovered Artil- lery Lake and the Great Fish (q. V.) or Back River (1834). He made other voyages to the Arctic regions in 1836 and 1837. He was knighted in 1839, and raised to the rank of admiral in 1857. He published: Narrative of the Arctic Land Expedition . . . in 1833-3 (1836) ; Narrative of an Ex- pedition in the 'Terror' (1838). Back Bay, popular name for a fashionable residential section of Boston (q. v.), Mass. Backbone. See Spinal Col- umn. Backergunge. See Bakarganj. Back'gam'mon, a game of con- siderable antiquity, known to the French as tric-trac. The game is played by two persons. The backgammon board is divided into two equal compartments by Backsammon 616 Bacon a raised border called the 'bar,* and is marked with twelve points (or fleches) in alternate colors at either end. These points are of such length that five pieces will rather more than cover them. Fifteen pieces, like those used for draughts, are placed on each side of the bar, the one set dark, the other light in color. A box and a pair of dice complete the appa- ratus. The arrangement of the game at its beginning is shown in the accompanying diagram. The numbers are used only for sim- plifying the present article. The object of the game is for each player (l) to move all his men into his own home table, and then (2) to remove them from the board, under conditions to be ex- plained. The line of movement for all pieces is in the direction on, by alternate throws of the dice. Thus, White, beginning, throws 4, 3: he may then move one piece from point White 8 to White 4, and another piece from White 6 to White 3. Black then throws 5, 1: he may move a piece from Black 8 to Black 3, and the same piece from Black 3 to Black 2. If a point at which a player aims has a hostile piece on it, it is 'un- guarded,' and the hostile piece (called a 'blot') is removed, and placed on the dividing border, while the player occupies the point. A point on which two or more pieces are standing is 'guarded,' and cannot be occu- pied. If the player has no vacant or unguarded point to take, he loses the move for that half of his throw, A player who has lost a BLACK Black's Home, or Inner Table. Black's Outer Table. White's Home, or Inner Table. White's Outer Table. WHITE The Game of Backgammon. of their own home table, from their own outer table, the enemy's outer table, and the enemy's home table, those standing in the last named having to pass through the others in the order named. The two sides, therefore, march in con- trary directions. The first move is decided by a throw of the dice. The first player then throws the two dice, and moves his pieces according to the numbers. If he throws 6, 3, he can move one piece to the sixth point in the author- ized direction, and another three points; or he can move one piece nine points. He can take the six or the three move first, as he pleases. He must move as the dice decides; but if the point at which he aims is occupied, then he cannot move for that half of his throw, which is lost. The other player then casts the dice, and moves accordingly; and so Vol. I.— Mar. '16 piece this way cannot move any of his other pieces until he has 'entered' this piece — i.e., returned him to the game. To do this he throws the dice: if either die shows the number of a vacant or unguarded point in the enemy's home]table, he places his captured man upon it, and uses the number of the other die for an ordinary movement. He cannot move while a 'blot' is 'hit' (captured); and till the dice allow him to en- ter the piece, his throws are lost. Meanwhile his opponent is stead- ily moving on. If a player throws doublets, or both dice of one num- ber, double the number of dots is reckoned. When a player has brought all his pieces into his own home table, he then has to 'bear them off' — i.e., to remove them from the board. On each throw of the dice he may either move one or two pieces forward as usual, or may remove from the board one or two of his own pieces that are on points corresponding with one or both of the dice, or may move one and remove another from the board. If he throws a larger number than that of the largest point occupied by a piece, he may remove a piece that is on his highest occupied point. Thus, throwing a 6, and his highest occupied point being 5, he may remove the piece on point 5. The player who first 'bears off' all his pieces wins the game. Consult Berkeley's Draughts and Back- gammon. Backhaus, bak'hous, Wilhelm (1884), German pianist, was born in Leipzig. He was graduated from the Conservatory of Leipzig (1898), and continued his studies under Eugen d'Albert at Frank- fort-on-the-Main. From 1902 to 1905 he made a concert tour of the Continent and England, and in 1912 he first appeared in Amer- ica as soloist with the New York Symphony Orchestra. Backhuysen, or Bakhuisen, LuDOLF (1631-1708), Dutch painter, was born at Emden in Hanover. He studied under Ev- erdingen and Dubbels, and be- came famous as a painter of sea pieces. Backlash, the shock which oc- curs in cog wheels or other such gearing when reversed suddenly from forward running to back- ward; also the lost motion in screw threads and gearing caused by wear or imperfect fitting. Back River. See Great Fish River. Bacolor, ba'ko-lor, pueblo, cap- ital of Pampanga province, Lu- zon, Philippines, on the Betis River; 40 miles northwest of Manila. It is an important trade centre. Pop. 15,000. Ba'con, the back and sides of a pig, cured or preserved for eat- ing by salting and drying. See Pork; Meat. Ba-c6n, pueblo, Luzon, Philip- pines, on the Gulf of Albay; 20 miles southeast of Albay town. Pop. 13,000. Ba'con, Alice Mabel (1858), American author and educator, was born in New Haven, Conn. She served on the teaching staff of the Hampton Institute at Hampton, Va. (1883-8, 1890), where she founded the Dixie Hos- pital for training colored nurses. She also served on the teaching staff of the Peeresses' School (1888-9) and the Girls' High School (1900-02) at Tokyo, Ja- pan. She published: Japanese Girls and Women (1891); A Jap- anese Interior (1893) ; In the Land of the Gods (1905); and edited Human Bullets, a Soldier's Story of Port Arthur (1907). Bacon 617 Bacon Bacon, Augustus Octavius (1839-1914), American public of- ficial, was born in Bryan county, Ga., and was graduated from the University of Georgia (1859), and from its law school (1860). He served as adjutant and captain in the Confederate Army during the Civil War, and subsequently (1866) began the practice of law in Macon, Ga. From 1870 to 1882, and again in 1892-3, he was a member of the Georgia legislature (speaker in 1874-82). From 1894 until his death he was U. S. Senator from Georgia; and in that office served on the Judi- ciary, Railroad, Foreign Rela- tions, and other important com- mittees. Bacon, Benjamin Wisner (1860), American theologian, was born in Litchfield, Conn., and was graduated from Yale (1881) and Yale Divinity School (1884). He has been pastor of Congregational churches in Old Lyme, Conn. (1884-9), and Oswego, N. Y. (1889-96) ; and instructor in New Testament Greek (1896-7), and professor of New Testament crit- icism and exegesis (since 1897), at Yale Divinity School. In 1905- 06 he was director of the Ameri- can School of Archaeology at Jerusalem. His publications in- clude: The Genesis of Genesis (1891); Triple Tradition of the Exodus (1894); Introduction to the New Testament (1900); The Sermon on the Mount (1902) ; The Story of St. Paul (1904) ; The Be- ginnings of Gospel Story (1909); The Founding of the Church (1909); The Fourth Gospel in Re- search and Debate (1909); Com- mentary on Galatians (1909); Je- sus the Son of God (1911); The Making of the New Testament (1912); Theodore Thornton Mun- ger (1913); Christianity Old and New (1913). Bacon, Delia Salter (1811- 59), American author, was born in Tallmadge, O., sister of Leon- ard Bacon (q. v.). She taught school for several years, and was a lecturer and story writer. Her fame rests on her having set in motion the theory that the plays of Shakespeare were written by Bacon, propounded in her book. The Philosophy of the Plays of Shakespeare Unfolded (1857). (See Bacon - Shakespeare Contro- versy.) She died insane. Con- sult Theodore Bacon's Life. Bacon, Fr^-vncis (1561-1626), Baron Verulam and Viscount St. Albans, English lawyer, statesman, man of science and letters, was born in London. He was a younger son of Sir Nicholas Bacon (q. v.) by the daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke, tutor to Ed- ward VI. At the age of twelve Bacon entered Trinity College, Vol. I.— Mar. '16 Cambridge, where he remained for three years, returning to Lon- don in 1576 to take up the study of law at Gray's Inn. The fol- lowing year he went to France in the suite of Sir Amyas Paulet, the English ambassador, but was shortly recalled to England by the death of his father (1579), slender of purse and health. Through the favor of Lord Burleigh, his uncle, Bacon was made an utter barrister after only three years' study; was given other advantages; and was em- ployed by Elizabeth in queen's counsel business. In 1593 he sat in Parliament for Middlesex, where he at once boldly took the popular side on a subsidy bill; and refusing to placate the gov- ernment's anger by receding or apologizing, was long held by Elizabeth too uncertain for reli- ance. In 1594 and 1595 he sought successively the vacant Attorney-Generalship and Solic- itor-Generalship; but despite Bur- leigh's influence they went to older and more reputed lawyers without political ideas. That he could Jiope and be pushed for them in his early thirties, however, proves that he was working hard enough at the study and practice of law to fill the time of most law- yers; and he was specially utilized by the Earl of Essex (q. v.), who did not put himself in the hands of literary danglers. Besides this, he was in active and zealous Par- liamentary service, studied sci- ence, meditated on a great work to revolutionize philosophy by turning its material from specu- lative metaphysics to experimen- tal science; and wrote somewhat, including some of his famous £5- says. Essex fell into treasonous ways, and drew away from Bacon, who had been over-frank in his warn- ings; and in 1601 attempted a rising to master the Queen. On ,her command Bacon was given a leading part in the prosecution which sent Essex to the block, and in preparing the government's justification. Because Bacon did not defy the Queen's orders, ruin his career, and refuse his country a just service for friendship's sake was then and still is held to dis- credit his conduct. But Bacon, though or because patient, conciliatory, and loyal, was no proficient in the arts of rising. He remained poor and out of office, and gained his posi- tions late and hard by sheer abil- ities. Elizabeth's death made little change for years, though in 1603 he was knighted in a crowd of three hundred. But he grat- ified James by Parliamentary help on subsidies and the Union; and at last, in 1607, became So- licitor-General; in 1613 Attorney- General; in 1616 Privy Council- lor; in 1618 Lord Chancellor and baron; and In 1620 viscount. As Chancellor, Bacon was a great and sound judge, and al- most none of his decisions were reversed. But as the greatest Crown officer, and first man in the kingdom next to the King and his favorite, he had necessarily to be a leading political figure also. He was chief Parliamentary man- ager, and was involved in several most unpleasant public and pri- vate matters, as James' subsidy 'benevolences,' the Peachum and Raleigh treason trials, the Coke marriage, the Overbury murder, the Suffolk peculations, the Yel- verton ultra vires, etc. A firm up- holder of royal prerogative, his •judgment is not always ours, but does not therefore dishonor him. James took his labors, but not his admirable suggestions on polit- ical vscience; Buckingham over- rode his judgment. While his rise had been cruelly slow, his fall was swift and ir- revocable. In 1620 a Parliamen- tary assault on monopolies and corruptions involved the Chan- cellor's office. He had not re- formed a bad old custom, then tolerated, of taking or letting his underlings take presents from suitors for speedier hearings; but once faced with it, he frankly owned its viciousness and his wrong. T had rather be a briber than a taker of bribes,' he said; and deprived of his office and ruinously fined, he wrote: T was the justest judge that was in England these fifty years; but it was the justest censure that was in Parliament these two hundred years.' There is no reason to doubt either. The fine was re- mitted, and he was pensioned, and in 1624 recalled to the House of Lords; but his public career was ended. The world was the gainer thereby. Bacon was a devoted and conscientious public servant, but inferiors in plenty could re- place his allowed work; while drudgery for bread and position had left little time for work no one else could approach. True, he had published several aug- mented collections of the incom- parable Essays, written on law, political science, and other sub- jects; in 1605 issued the Advance- ment of Learning; by 1617 wrote the New Atlantis; and in 1620, just before the crash, published the immortal Novum Organum. Thenceforth, however, his whole energies went to turning long- time thought and reading into literary form. In March, 1622, he produced his still valuable History of Henry VII.; in Novem- Bacon 518 Bacon ber, Historia Ventorum; in Janu- ary, 1623, Historia VilcB et Mor- tis; in October his magnum opus, De Augmentis Scientiarum, a Latin version of the Advance- ment, much enlarged and recast; in December, 1624, the Apoph- thegms, a collection of short sto- ries and jokes, still capital read- ing; in 1625 his Translations of Some of the Psalms, which show that so far from wishing to con- ceal his being a poet, he wished to prove himself one, and only proved amply that he was not one. Sylva Sylvarum and The New Atlantis appeared posthu- mously together. Lord Bacon's mighty fame as head of English science and phi- losophy seems, at first sight, un- intelligible. His 'inductive' meth- od — as Jevons says, 'a kind of scientific bookkeeping, where facts are entered in a ledger, and truth emerges as a balance' — has been, and must be, futile for dis- covery. Yet his position is de- served: it is the triple one of prophet, vast vital influence, and literary architect. More than any other, he determined the channels in which English intel- lectual effort and its outside prog- eny were to flow; he pointed out the line of march, though his tools were impotent to level the road; and his best prose, in rich- ness of knowledge and thought and suggestive metaphor, with a style now unsurpassedly pregnant and compact, now splendid and majestic, is a leading glory of English literature. The foremost authority is James Spedding, who edited his Works (7 vols., 1857-9), and Let- ters and Life (7 vols., 1862-74); and whose Evenings with a Re- viewer (2 vols., new ed. 1881), a minute refutation of Macaulay's essay on Bacon, is of high value and charm. The ablest short life, though as harsh in moral judg- ment as Macaulay, is Dean Church's in the 'English Men of Letters' series. Other lives are by Fowler, Abbott, and Nichols. Bacon, Henry (1866), Ameri- can architect, was born in Wat- seka. 111. He studied at the Uni- versity of IlUnois, and in Europe. From 1888 to 1897 he was associ- ated with the architectural firm of McKim, Mead & White, in New York City; and in 1897 es- tablished the firm of Brite & Ba- con, from which he withdrew in 1903. He is the designer of the Lincoln Memorial (Washington, D. C), and of many prominent buildings. Bacon, John (1740-99), Eng- lish sculptor, a native of London. His best-known works are his monuments to the elder Pitt in Westminster and the Guildhall, Vol. L— Mar. '16 London; his statues of Dr. John- son and John Howard in St. Paul's, and of Blackstone at All Souls College, Oxford. Bacon, John Mackenzie (1846-1904), English balloonist. After taking part in three eclipse expeditions on behalf of the Brit- ish Astronomical Association — to Vadso in Lapland (1896), to In- dia (1898), and to Wadesboro, North Carolina (1900) — he de- voted himself to investigations in acoustics, meteorology, etc., large- ly in connection with ballooning. He published: By Land and Sky (1900); The Dominion of the Air (1902). Consult Gertrude Ba- con's The Record of an Aeronaut (1907). Bacon, Josephine Dodge Daskam. See Daskam. Bacon, Leonard (1802-81), American clergyman, was born in Detroit, Mich., and was gradu- ated from Yale (1820) and Ando- ver Theological Seminary (1824). From 1825 until his death he was pastor and pastor emeritus of the Center Congregational Church, New Haven, Conn. He also served as acting professor of re- vealed theology (1866), and lec- turer on American church history, at Yale Divinity School (1871). He was the editor of The Chris- tian Spectator (1826-38), and a founder and co-editor of The In- dependent (1847-63). He pub- lished: Thirteen Historical Dis- courses (1839) ; Christian Self- Culture (1863) ; The Genesis of the New England Churches (1874). Bacon, Leonard Woolsey (1830-1907), American clergy- man, was born in New Haven, Conn., a son of Leonard Bacon (q. v.). He was graduated from Yale (1850), and subsequently studied medicine at Yale, and theology at Yale and Andover, He occupied Congregational pul- pits at Litchfield, Conn., Brook- lyn, N. Y., and Stamford, Conn.; travelled and studied in Europe (1872-7); and served Presbyte- rian churches at Philadelphia, Savannah, Ga., and Assonet, Mass. His works include: Me- morials of Emily Bliss Gould (1878); Sunday Observance and Sunday Law (1881); Irenics and Polemics (1895) ; History of Amer- ican Christianity (1897); Young People's Societies (with C. A. Northrop, 1900); The Congrega- tionalists (1904). Bacon, Nathaniel (1648-76), American colonist, emigrated from England to Virginia in 1673, where he became a leader of the more democratic element in the colony. In 1675-6, in violation of the orders of Governor William Berkeley (q. v.), he led a force against the Indians; and his at- tempted arrest for this led to a revolt of the entire colony. See Bacon's Rebellion. Bacon, Sir Nicholas (1509- 79), English lawyer, father of Francis Bacon (q. v.), was born at Chislehurst, and was educated at Cambridge. On the accession (1558) of Elizabeth he was ap- pointed Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, an office which he held for more than twenty years. Bacon, Robert (1860), Ameri- can public official, was born in Boston, Mass., and was gradu- ated from Harvard (1880). He travelled in Europe, and then en- tered the banking house of Lee, Higginson & Co., Boston. He was a member of the firm of E. Rollins Morse & Brother in 1883-94, and of J. P. Morgan & Co. of New York City in 1894- 1903, becoming prominent as a financier. From 1905 to 1909 he served as assistant Secretary of State (acting Secretary of State, January to March, 1909); and from 1909 to 1912 he was the American Ambassador to France. In 1913 he visited South America as the representative of the Car- negie Endowment for Interna- tional Peace, of which he is a trustee. He has been a member of the board of overseers of Har- vard University(1889-1901, 1902- 08), and a Fellow of Harvard University (since 1912). Bacon, Roger (c. 1214-94), English philosopher and scientist, is said to have been born in II- chester, Somersetshire, though neither the date nor place of his birth is certainly known. He studied at Oxford and at the University of Paris; and early turned from the philosophical disputes and verbal controversies of the day to the study of lan- guages, experimental research, and the quest for truth through the observation of nature. He entered the Franciscan order about 1250, and shortly after- ward returned to Oxford. In exploring the secrets of na- ture Bacon made discoveries and inventions which were looked upon by many as the work of magic. In 1257 he was forbidden to lecture at Oxford, and was banished to Paris, where he was imprisoned. In 1266 Pope Clem- ent IV. desired to see his works, and Bacon accordingly drew up his Opus Majus, Opus Minor, and Opus Tertium. These reached Clement at Rome shortly before his death, but of their reception nothing is known. Bacon re- gained his liberty, and about 1271 issued his Compendium Studii Philosophice, vigorously attacking both church and clergy. In 1278 the general of the Franciscan or- der, Jerome of Ascoli, forbade the reading of Bacon's books, and Bacon Beetle 519 Bacon's Befoeilioii issued an order for his imprison- ment, which lasted until about 1292. He then returned to Ox- ford, and prepared his last work. Compendium Studii Theologian. Although a believer in astrol- ogy and the philosopher's stone. Bacon was far in advance of his time as a scientist and philoso- pher. He is credited with the in- vention of the magnifying glass; with the discovery of important chemical facts, as that explosions may be produced with sulphur, saltpetre, and charcoal; with the preparation of a corrected calen- dar; and with a number of new and ingenious theories in optics. Ck)nsult Bacon's Opera Inedita (edited by Brewer) ; Lives by E. Charles, in French, and by Schneider and Held, in German; J. H. Bridges' The Life and Work of Roger Bacon (1914). Bacon Beetle (Dermestes lar- darius) , a hairy bettle that some- times causes much damage in storehouses and libraries. See Dermestes. Bacon- Sbakespeare Contro- versy, the generic popular term — • not always accurate, for Bacon is absent in some, and partial in others — for the many theories of non-Shakespearean authorship of Shakespeare's works: i.e., that those works were written either singly by Francis Bacon (q. v.), or by a person unknown, or by a group; Shakespeare, in any case, being a mere ignorant actor who fathered them. The last idea, first broached by Joseph C. Hart, U. S. consul at Santa Cruz, in his Romance of Yacht- ing (1848), was elaborated by Delia Bacon (q. v.) on the group theory in 1857. Scouted gen- erally as a crazy conceit, its amazing growth and tenacity had two deep roots: (1) a feeling that the known Shakespeare did not explain the works; and (2) as fur- nishing an easy and exhaustless field of scholarship in item-wise mystery and conjecture. In 1884 H. H. Wyman's Shakespeare- Bacon Bibliography showed 255 entries; in 1911 Jaggard's Shake- speare Bibliography gave over 500 volumes, mostly negative, with countless pamphlets and maga- zine articles. Of the writers supporting the theories, most of those worth con- sidering are lawyers. James Greenwood (Shakespeare Problem Restated, 1908, and three volumes since) upholds not Bacon, but an unknown; E. J. Castle (Shake- speare, Bacon, Jonson, and Greene, 1897) thinks Shakespeare was coached, not by Bacon, but by Coke; Edwin Reed (Bacon and Shakespeare, 2 vols., 1902) is mod- erate and dubious. Bormann (Das Shakespeare-Geheimniss, 1894) tries to prove that Bacon Vol. I.— Mar. '16 was idle just when the plays were coming out. A number of per- sons have worked out cipher schemes by which the author re- veals himself. The most ambi- tious of these is the Great Crypt- ogram of Ignatius Donnelly (q. v.), making the entire set of printed works one vast cipher in- terlaced from title page to colo- phon. For obvious reasons, the replies are far fewer, and none of them more than touch the real answer. Andrew Lang's Shakespeare, Ba- con, and the Great Unknown (1912) is excellent, as far as it goes. Mrs. C. C. Stopes wrote a small good book. The Shake- speare-Bacon Question (1888; rev. ed. 1889). Canon H. C. Beech- ing's Reply to Greenwood (1908) is commendable. The sceptical contentions, with endless details, reduce in the main to four, at bottom only one: that the works evidence vast scholarship, and Shakespeare was illiterate; display profound law, and Shakespeare could know lit- tle. Bacon being a master in both; show fine feeling and taste, and Shakespeare was a vulgar boor; exhibit deep human sympathies, and Shakespeare was a greedy man and a bad husband. To sum up, they were written by a very great man, and their reputed author was a very small one. The answer by points is partly a traverse of the facts, partly a 'general demurrer' that they are irrelevant: that no scholarship is evinced beyond what a clever man could easily gain from acces- sible books, talk, and travellers; that competent lawyers declare the law unequal and second hand ; that our only evidence of his quality is the works themselves; that there is no proof of his being a bad man, and, considering his- tory, it would have no bearing on the authorship if he were; and that, as Reed frankly admits, it is absurd to 'take Shakespeare away from Shakespeare, and then say that the rest of him could not have written Shakespeare.' As to Bacon, he and Shakespeare each did a man's great lifework in unrelated lines; and to find time, strength, and genius for both in one would transcend hu- manity. But the broad reply is that the imposture is a chimera: that only a great writer and re- puted man would be plausible as a mask, and he could not be hired; that an ignorant actor would render it a farce, breaking down at once in a storm of ridi- cule; and that a group could not be got together, nor kept at work in common, nor the pieces fit. nor the secret be kept. No one has ever suggested any workable plan of effecting the imposition. Bacon*s Rebellion, in Ameri- can colonial history, an uprising in Virginia in 1675-6, under the leadership of Nathaniel Bacon (q. v.). The navigation laws of 1651, 1660, giving English trad- ers a colonial monopoly to sell high and buy low, at once bled the colonists and destroyed the value of their chief purchasing medium, tobacco. This being also currency for taxes, the poorer planters for years leagued to re- fuse payment. In addition, the Restoration governor. Sir Wil- liam Berkeley (q. v.), headed an oligarchy of the richer planters and Charles ii.'s placemen quar- tered on the Virginia civil service; kept the Assembly of 1662 in office for fourteen years to sup- port all he did; and substituted property suffrage for universal, thereby driving some weighty men into opposition. Berkeley was also growing rich on the Indian fur trade; and when, in 1675, the savages began a fiendish war, massacred hun- dreds, and reduced a large dis- trict to wilderness, he dissolved the colony's one force; and again and again, backed by his legisla- tive tools, refused to form another for defence, or let the citizens do so. At last a border county de- fied him, raised 300 men, and for leader chose Nathaniel Bacon, a young English planter of Berk- eley's own council. He vainly ordered dispersal, and attempted Bacon's arrest; but the entire colony revolted and occupied Jamestown; and he had to replace his Assembly with one heavily against him, including Bacon, whom, when arrested, he dared not hold. The new Assembly re- stored universal suffrage, and voted a regiment for Indian ser- vice. Bacon, warned of treachery, fled, and gathered 600 men; forced Berkeley to commission him major-general, and memori- alize the king; and crushed the Indians at Bloody Run. Mean- time, Berkeley proclaimed the party rebels, and Bacon, return- ing, organized a rising which vir- tually deposed him till the king's reply. The aristocracy, which was really aimed at, clove to Berkeley; was promised the reb- els' confiscated estates; and was winning when Bacon, the Indians bridled, came back, drove out Berkeley, and burned James- town. Bacon shortly died of malaria, however; the rebellion collapsed; and Berkeley hanged the leaders wholesale with ghoul- ish insult. The good-natured Charles ii. exclaimed: 'The old fool has put to death more people in that naked country than I did here for the murder of mv father.' Consult John Fiske's Old Vir- Baconthorpe Sl9A Bacteria ginia; Edward Eggleston's 'Na- thaniel Bacon' (Century Maga- zin,e, vol. xl., 1890). Ba'conthorpe, Ba'con, or Ba- CHO, ba'k5, John (d. 1346), Eng- lish philosopher, 'the Resolute Doctor,' was educated at Oxford and Paris, and in 1329 was elected head of the Carmelite order in England. He advocated the soundness of the doctrines of Averrhoes (q. v.), and anticipat- ing Wycliffe, held that the priest- ly power should be subordinate to the kingly. He wrote com- mentaries on the Scriptures and on Aristotle, treatises on Anselm and Augustine, and many other works. Bacoor, ba'ko-6r, town, Cavite province, Luzon, Philippines, on Cavite Bay; 9 miles south of Manila. Industries are weaving and fishing. Pop. 12,000. Bacsanyi, bo'chan-ye, Janos (1763-1845), Hungarian poet, was born in Tapolcza. In 1796 he came to Vienna, where he later married the German poetess, Ga- brielle Baumgarten — an unhap- py match. In 1809 he translat- ed Napoleon's proclamation to the Hungarians, and was after- ward obliged to take refuge in Paris. After the Peace of Paris he lived till his death at Linz. Bacsanyi has exerted a strong in- fluence on Hungarian literature through his writings. His Com- plete Works were published at Budapest in 1865. Bacs-Bodrog, bach-bo'drog, county, Hungary, lying between the Theiss and Danube Rivers, and forming part of the great Hungarian plains. Capital, Zom- bor. Area, 4,300 square miles. Pop. 800,000. Bacteria and Bacteriology. The Bacteria are microscopic plants, of minute size and simple struc- ture. Among the smallest of living things, they are also among the most abundant, swarming in soil and dirty water, and in all sub- stances in which organic decom- position is going on. Their mul- tiplication is so rapid and their physiological activity so great that they set up far-reaching chemical changes in the surround- ing media. The results of their activity are often of much prac- tical importance to man, the chem- ical changes which they produce being sometimes useful and some- times prejudicial; and many mem- bers of the group which live as parasites in the human body are the inciting causes of some of the most serious diseases to which mankind is subject. The bacteria were first clearly described and figured by a Dutch microscopist, Anton von Leeu- wenhoek (q. v.), in 1683. During the next century and a half these minute objects, looking like dots, Vol. I.— Mar. '16 dashes, and spirals, which could be seen moving about in decom- posing fluids, remained only curi- osities for the naturalist. They were studied by O. F. Miiller in 1786, and by C. G. E.hrenberg (q. V.) in 1838; but the recogni- tion of their practical importance dates from the investigations of the great French chemist and founder of bacteriology, Louis Pasteur (q. v.). Pasteur showed that fermentations of all sorts were not due, as had been sup- posed, to the action of the oxygen of the air, but were caused by the activity of living microbes. Further, he proved that each par- ticular decomposition was the work of a particular microbe ; and, finally, he correlated the phenom- ena of fermentation and commu- nicable disease by demonstrating that these diseases, too, are the result of the action of microbes. On the basis of Pasteur's early work Joseph Lister (q. v.), the Eng- lish surgeon, founded our modern practice of antiseptic and aseptic surgery; while the German phy- sician, Robert Koch (q. v.), in 1882 devised the method of cultivating bacteria on solid culture media, and in 1884 discovered the bacillus of tuberculosis, probably the most important of all our microbic ene- mies. Place of the Bacteria in Nature. — The Bacteria constitute the simplest groupof the Fungi (q. v.), or plants that lack chlorophyll, and must therefore get their food ready made, instead of building it up under the action of the sun- light. The technical name of the group is Schizomycetes (Fission Fungi) ; and its members are dis- tinguished from the higher fungi (moulds, rusts, smuts, toadstools, etc.) by the fact that the bacteria reproduce by the direct splitting of one cell into two (fission fungi), and not by the formation of spe- cial reproductive spores. The bacteria are also simpler in struc- ture than the higher fungi, most of them showing no differentiated nucleus. The bacteria are uni- cellular organisms, the individual cells living an independent exist- ence, either freely separated from each other or in chance growth aggregates. The term microbe (little living thing) includes not only the bac- teria, but certain of the higher fungi (yeasts and moulds), uni- cellular animal forms (the Pro- tozoa), and a group of sub-micro- scopic disease-producing organ- isms of unknown nature which will pass through the pores of a Pasteur filter, and are therefore designated as filterable viruses. The yeast microbes (Blastomy- cetes or Budding Fungi) are of great importance in connection with brewing, bread making, and other fermentation industries, be- cause they have the power of pro- ducing the alcoholic fermentation in which sugars are changed to alcohol and carbon dioxide. The moulds (Hyphomycetes or Thread Fungi) play a part in the spoiling of foods, and are of use in the flavoring of certain cheeses and in other industrial processes. A few human and animal diseases are due to yeast and mould microbes. (See Moulds; Yeasts.) The Protozoa, or unicellular ani- mal microbes, include many im- portant disease-producing organ- isms, such as those which cause malaria, amoebic dysentery, sleeping sickness and other Try- panosome diseases, and Texas fe- ver of cattle. (See Protozoa.) Form and Structure of the Bac- teria. — The bacteria range in size from a sphere less than one mi- cron (I'l.ooo mm., or about 1/25,000 inch) in diameter to a large spiral form about 40 microns in length. Some 400,000,000 bacteria of av- erage size could be packed into a grain of granulated sugar like logs of wood in a woodpile. The shape of the bacterial cell, as a rule, is either spherical (coccm^) , rod-like {bacillus), or ranges from slightly curved to spiral {spirillum) ; so that bacteria look very much like tiny balls, sticks, or corkscrews. The bacteria reproduce by simply splitting in half, and sometimes, instead of separating, the new cells thus formed may remain at- tached to each other. Thus we get pairs of spherical cells (diplo- cocci), chains of spherical cells {streptococci), masses of spherical cells {staphylococci), regular pack- ets of spherical cells {sarcince), chains of bacilli, or long convo- luted spirals. The bacterial cell, as a rule, shows no internal structure except the ordinary granular network characteristic of protoplasm. In certain forms, however, special areas give a differential stain with aniline dyes {metachromatic gran- ules). The chromatin or nuclear material is usually distributed in a finely divided condition through- out the bacterial cell, but in a few cases it apparently becomes localized in a more or less definite nucleus at the time of cell division or spore formation. The cell wall of many bacteria may swell up to form a capsule surrounding the organism; and in some species a jelly-like mass, or zoogloea, is formed, in which the individual cells are embedded. Mother of vinegar and the jelly- like growth that sometimes devel- ops in drip pipes and pans under refrigerators are examples of this phenomenon. Many bacteria go through an actively motile stage, in which they may be seen to swim about Bacteria 519 B Bacteria more or less vigorously in an ap- propriate liquid medium. This locomotion is effected by means of long lashes or Jlagella, which may grow out singly or in groups from one or both poles of the cell, or may extend in various direc- tions from its surface. (See Fla- GELLUM.) Bacteria do not form true re- productive spores, but certain forms have the power of going into a resting-spore stage, in which they can tide over unfavorable conditions. At the time of spore formation the protoplasm gathers at one part of the cell, and a thick, highly refractive wall forms about it. The spores of bacteria are highly resistant to heat and poi- sons and other harmful physical and chemical conditions. The spores of certain species, for ex- ample, may survive boiling for many hours. Fortunately, only a very few of the disease-produc- ing bacteria possess this power of spore formation. Physiological Activities of Bac- teria. — While the bacteria . are comparatively simple in physical structure, their physiological ac- tivity is complex and diversified. At one extreme are prototrophic organisms, capable ot securing their life energy by the oxidation of such simple substances as me- thane, carbon monoxide, nitrites, and ammonia. Many of these forms are hampered in their devel- opment by small amounts of the organic matter which is so essen- tial to the life of other types. At the other end of the scale are paratrophic bacteria, which have become so closely adapted to life in the fluids of the animal body that they cannot grow under nat- ural conditions anywhere outside of it. Between these two ex- tremes are the great mass of metatrophic forms, which thrive upon non-living organic matter of various sorts. Even among the metatrophic species there is a wide range in metabolic power. Some organisms are able to get their nitrogen from ammonia, others require amino acids, others asparagin, others peptones, while some break up native protein. The carbon requirement may be met by a wide variety of sugars, organic acids, and alcohols, the power to utilize a particular car- bohydrate frequently constitut- ing a definite specific character. Among the larger bacteria whose cells commonly occur in threads or chains are peculiar forms which oxidize sulphur and iron com- pounds. Many of the activities of the bacterial cell are effected by means of soluble ferments or en- zymes, substances which stimu- late definite chemical changes without being themselves used up Vol. I.— Mar. '16 in the process. The action of the bacterial enzymes is in most cases a hydrolytic one, as in the inver- sion of sugars and the change of gelatin to peptone, although other types of enzymes are known to occur. (See Enzyme.) As a result of rapid multiplica- tion (under favorable conditions bacteria may reproduce by fission every twenty minutes), and as a result of the production of soluble enzymes, the bacteria produce rapid and profound changes in the media in which they grow. The decay of meat and other nitrogenous substances, or putre- faction, is due to the bacterial de- composition of protein and pro- tein derivatives with the forma- tion of indol, mercaptans (qq. v.), and other ill-smelling compounds. The souring of milk and other carbohydrate - containing media is the result of fermentation, or the decomposition of sugars with the formation of acids (see Fer- mentation). The energy liber- ated by vigorous bacterial growth may produce an appreciable rise of temperature, as in the 'heating' of manure piles or damp hay. Some forms produce phosphores- cence, as seen on decaying fish or meat. In the life of certain bac- teria, particularly those which are parasitic on man and the higher animals, specific complex sub- stances are formed which are highly poisonous, and are known as toxins (q. v.). Effect of Physical and Chemical Conditions upon Bacterial Life. — As in the case of all other living things, the life of the bacteria is conditioned upon the mainte- nance of a narrowly limited range of environmental conditions, and their existence is strikingly influ- enced by light, moisture, oxygen, temperature, and the presence of chemical poisons. Light is inimical to bacterial development, even diffuse day- light hindering growth, while di- rect sunlight is quickly fatal, the blue and violet rays being the most deadly ones. Moisture is essential to the growth and multiplication of bac- teria. When dried they gradu- ally perish: although it is prob- able that their destruction is due to internal katabolic changes which prove fatal in the absence of a compensating anabolism, rather than to any directly harm- ful effect of dryness se. In fact, bacteria are more resistant to heat and to chemical poisons in the dry than in the moist condition. The reaction of bacteria to oxygen varies widely in different groups; for while most bacteria thrive best in the presence of free oxygen, many of them (facultative anaerobes) can get their oxygen, if necessary, by the preliminary reduction of organic compounds, while others (obligate anaerobes) get their oxygen only in this way, and cannot develop at all in the presence of atmospheric oxygen. Temperature is one of the most important of all factors in con- trolling bacterial growth and de- velopment. There is a minimmn temperature, below which growth will not occur, which varies from 0° c. for some of the phosphores- cent bacteria to 42° c. for forms that develop in fermenting ma- nure heaps. Below this minimum (even down to the temperature of liquid hydrogen, about -250° c.) the bacteria are not killed off promptly, but gradually die off as a result of internal chemical changes, just as they do when dried. Above the minimum, an increase of temperature causes a regular and progressive increase in bacterial growth and activity until an optimum temperature is reached, which varies for differ- ent species from 20° c. to 70° c. Shortly above the optimum is a maximum temperature, above which growth ceases, and a still higher temperature destroys bac- terial life entirely. The thermal death point for the ordinary veg- etative cells of most bacteria in the presence of moisture lies at about 55°-60° c. for ten minutes, while certain spores are killed in the same time only by exposure to a temperature of 125° c. Many chemichl substances exert a powerfully poisonous action up- on bacteria. In dilute solution such substances merely check growth (antisepsis). In stronger concentration they destroy bac- terial life (disinfection or steriliza- tion) . Among the more common- ly used disinfectants are the salts of the heavy metals (corrosive sublimate), lime salts, the halo- gens (particularly chlorine com- pounds) , ozone and peroxides, al- cohol, iodine, formaldehyde, car- bolic acid, and various coal tar derivatives. Methods of Studying Bacteria. — The study of the morphology of the bacteria is greatly facili- tated by the use of various coal tar dyes (q. v.), which react with various elements in the bacterial cell, and bring out a differentia- tion between them when seen un- der the microscope. Thus, spores, capsules, flagella, metachromatic granules, etc., may all be differ- entially stained by the use of ap- propriate dyes. The more important character- istics of the bacteria, however, are physiological, and can be studied only by cultivating the bacteria in various media, and observing the physical and chem- ical effects that they produce. On solid culture media like gelatin or sliced potato the bacteria form Bacteria 6i9C fiacteria visible colonies, masses of millions of microbes, having a more or less characteristic size and struc- ture, and sometimes colored red or yellow or blue by characteristic pigments. The ability of a giv^en type to utilize the food sub- stances present in a particular medium, its relation to tempera- ture and oxygen and to the reac- tion of the medium., are of funda- mental importance; and the kind and amount of the acids or other end products formed by the ac- tion of the bacteria upon a par- ticular food substance must be more or less accurately deter- mined in order to place an un- known type. In the case of pathogenic forms, the reaction of an animal to the injection of the living bacteria is often highly characteristic. The number of bacteria present in water or milk or any other medium may be determined ac- cording to the method devised by Koch, by mixing a portion of the substance with a liquefied nutri- ent jelly and allowing the jelly to harden. Each bacterium will be imprisoned at a definite point in the jelly, and if conditions are favorable will divide and multi- ply until it produces a visible colony, when, by counting the col- onies, one may determine the number of individual germs orig- inally present. Classification of Bacteria. — The older classifications of bacteria, according to their form, are ex- ceedingly unsatisfactory, and the more recent physiological studies have not yet been systematized into a thoroughly satisfactory basis of classification. The most promising attempt along this line is the classification suggested by Jensen of Copenhagen. He recognizes two orders of bacteria, the Cephalotrichinae and the Peri- trichinae. The Cephalotrichinae (flagella, when present, polar), with a few exceptions, are water or earth forms that derive their life energy mainly from oxidative processes, grow badly or not at all on organic media, and never form spores. This order includes seven families, extending from extreme paratrophic forms up through the Actinomyces and tuberculosis group, the sulphur bacteria, the iron bacteria, the thread-forming bacteria, and the phosphorescent bacteria, to de- nitrifying organisms which in- clude the cholera vibrio and form a connecting link with the higher order. The PeritrichincB (flagella, when present, grouped all around the cell) include the more specialized bacteria, in whose metabolism the splitting of carbohydrates or amino-acids plays a primary role, rather than oxidation or denitri- VOL. I.— Mar. '16 fication. Here are found airthe commoner putrefactive and para- sitic types, except the germs of tuberculosis and cholera. This Order, according to Jensen, is made up of four families, one of which includes the non-spore- forming carbohydrate-fermenting types (cocci and colon-typhoid group), a second the non-spore- forming types that actively de- compose protein, and the third and fourth the strict anaerobes. Distribution of Bacteria. — Food supply, moisture, and a favorable temperature are the three condi- tions which chiefly govern bac- terial life, and wherever these are present bacteria will be abundant. In the surface layers of the soil and in the intestines of man and the higher animals these condi- tions are found in the highest de- gree, and the soil and the ali- mentary tract are therefore the home of the bacteria par excel- lence. In the soil itself the amount of bacterial life naturally varies with the amount of organic food and moisture. In uncultivated sandy soils there may be only 100,000 bacteria per gram, while garden soils may contain several millions per gram, and sewage- contaminated or heavily ma- nured soils several hundred mil- lions. The upper six inches of the soil are generally richest in bacteria, and the numbers fall off as one passes downward, organ- isms being rather rare below four or five feet. In water the number of bacteria varies with the extent of recent soil washings and of sewage pol- lution. Sewage itself contains millions of bacteria per cubic cen- timetre, and small streams after a rain, hundreds of thousands. In larger streams the bacteria settle to the bottom and die out, so that we may find only a few thousands per cubic centimetre, while in lakes and reservoirs the numbers fall to hundreds. Well and spring waters usually show a bacterial flora of less than a hun- dred, and sometimes less than ten per cubic centimetre. Bacteria are present in the air only as they have been dried and carried away by wind currents and the like. As a rule, even in inhabited places we find only one to four bacteria per litre, while in remote mountain regions, and over the ocean, germs can be found only by the examination of many litres of air. When a strong wind or other agitation stirs up a considerable quantity of dust, bacteria may be locally present for a time in large numbers. On the surfaces of the hu- man body bacteria are present in abundance, even on the outer skin. On the warm, moist mu- cous membranes of the mouth they are still more numerous and in the food debris between un- cared-for teeth they rise to enor- mous numbers. In" the intesti- nal contents conditions are ideal for bacterial multiplication. Hu- man fa?ces may contain 33 millions of millions of bacteria, per gram. Bacteria and Agriculture. — Among the most important prac- tical applications of bacteriology are those which concern the ni- trogen cycle and the fertility of the soil. Animals build up the protein matter of their bodies out of or- ganic food derived from the bod- ies of other animals or plants. The green plants, on the other hand, have the power of synthe- sizing protein from nitrates and other simple nitrogenous bodies; and it is by the absorption of such substances by plants that nitrogen usually passes from the inorganic to the organic world. Nitrogenous matter is given off by plants and animals, in their excretions and in their dead bod- ies, in complex forms not readily suitable for assimilation by the green plants. It is bacteria which first of all break up the more com- plex organic waste products of the higher forms of life into ammonia- cal compounds; and it is another group of bacteria (the nitrifiers) which change these ammonia compounds, first to nitrites and then to nitrates, in which form they may readily be utilized as food by the green plants. Most modern processes of sew- age disposal depend on the ac- tivity of one or both of these groups of bacteria to change the decomposable organic matter, which would otherwise putrefy and create a nuisance, into a harm- less mineral form; while the fer- tility of the soil is constantly be- ing enriched by the action of the nitrifying bacteria upon the prod- ucts of organic decomposition. (See Sewage.) There is an even more important service rendered to the agricultur- ist by still other groups of bac- teria which possess the remark- able power of absorbing the free nitrogen of the atmosphere and storing it in organic form. Green plants, for the most part, would quickly die of nitrogen starvation in a poor soil, in spite of the 80 per cent, of nitrogen in the at- mosphere surrounding them. It has long been known, however, that certain leguminous crops can grow in poor soils and enrich them in the process. This is accomplished by the action of nitrogen-fixing bacteria, which grow in knots or nodules on the roots of these plants; and there are other bacteria which can fix nitrogen while growing freely in Comparative Growth of Peas, Grown With and Without In- oculation of Soil with Nitrogen- Fixing Bacteria. {From Bulletin No. 71, U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry.) THE FOOT OF THE FLY , . . ^, _ , Living Fly Tracks. Each of the dots on the round dish of culture jelly is a colony of Relative Size of Bacteria and Foot of Fly. bacteria developed from a single {From Public Health Hall, American Museum germ, planted there by a fly as it of Natural History, New York ) walked over the surface. — i Fig. 1 Flo-. 2 Fig. 3 Fig. 4 Fig. 5 Fig. 6 PHOTO-MICROGRAPHS OF BACTERIA. Fig. 1. Streptococcus from pus. Fig. 2. Large micrococci from air. Fig. 3. Spore-bearing bacilli (malignant oedema). Fig. 4. Large spirilla. Fig. 5. Typhoid bacilli (showing flagella). Fig. 6. Anthrax bacilli. (From Alias der Baklerienkiinde, Fraenkel and Pfeijff'er.) Vol. I.— Mar. '16 Vol. I.— at Page 519 C Bacteria 519 D Bactris the soil. The inoculation of fields with the desired type of nitrogen- fixing bacteria has often proved of much practical value in in- creasing the yield of crops. (See Nitrogen, Fixation of.) Bacteriology in the Arts and In- dustries. — When the products of bacterial activity happen to be of value it is frequently of ad- vantage to grow the organisms in question in pure culture, or at least to take pains to provide the proper conditions for their most vigorous growth and develop- ment. Thus, cream for butter may be ripened by the use of pure cultures or 'starters,' and buttermilk is made by pasteuriz- ing milk and inoculating it with the Bulgarian bacillus. Certain cheeses are made by the use of pure cultures of the particular bacteria and moulds which im- part their peculiar flavors to the products. Vinegar is made from alcohol by the acetic acid bac- teria; and lactic acid, and other compounds used in tanning for the neutralization of lime, are formed by the action of bacteria of various types. The curing of tobacco is believed to be in part a bacterial process; and bacteria play an important part in the decomposition of cellulose and in the retting of flax and hemp. When, on the other hand, bac- teria decompose our foods or other materials that we do not want destroyed, they become our enemies, and must be diligently combated. The souring of milk and the spoiling of foods are all due to the activity of bacteria or moulds, and can be controlled by cleanliness, which keeps out the germs of decomposition, by anti- sepsis (cold, drying, smoking, weak antiseptics such as salt, sugar, pickling solutions), which checks their development, or by sterilization (destruction of germ life by heat as in canning and preserving). Bacteria and Disease. — The bacteria with which we are unfor- tunately most familiar are those which have become adapted to a parasitic existence, so that they grow on the surfaces or in the fluids of the body and produce disease. Man is not alone the victim of these pathogenic mi- crobes. Pear blight; wilt disease of cucumbers, melons, and squash- es; brown rot of tomato, egg- plant, and potato; stem rot of potato; black rot of cabbage and allied plants; stem blight of al- falfa; yellowing of hyacinths; co- coanut bud rot and olive knot and crown gall of various plants, are familiar examples of bacterial diseases aff^ecting the plant world; while glanders, tuberculosis, and many other bacterial maladies afflict the higher animals. Among human diseases the fol- lowing have been definitely traced to specific bacterial causes: an- thrax, Asiatic cholera, bacillary dysentery, diphtheria, epidemic cerebro-spinal meningitis, food poisoning, glanders, gonorrhoea, influenza, leprosy, plague, pneu- monia, staphylococcus infections (boils, suppurations, joint dis- eases, etc.), streptococcus infec- tions (erysipelas, scarlet fever, tonsillitis, rheumatism, endocar- ditis, blood poisoning, etc.), syphilis, tetanus, tuberculosis, typhoid fever, typhus fever, whooping cough, and wound sepsis due to gas bacilli. Amoebic dysentery, malaria, and many tropical diseases are caused by Protozoa; measles, epidemic po- liomyelitis, rabies, yellow fever, mumps and smallpox by filter- able viruses, the causative organ- ism of which latter has not yet been isolated. In practically all the bacterial diseases of man the infective agent is discharged in one or other of the excretions of the body; and the germs being adapted specifically to the fluids of the body, die out more or less rapidly in the world outside. These diseases are therefore spread by a more or less direct transfer of excretal material from one person to another (or in some cases from one of the higher animals to man). In most in- stances the germs enter their new victim by way of the nose and mouth. The control of these dis- eases lies therefore in breaking the chain of contact, the isolation of infected individuals, the dis- infection of excreta, the protec- tion of foods against pollution, and the protection of the portal of the mouth. Bacteriology is of supreme im- portance in the control of com- municable diseases, because it is by bacteriological methods that cases of disease and carriers are identified, and that the sanitary quality of water, milk, and foods is determined. The use of vac- cines and sera, which produce an artificial immunity against spe- cific diseases, is an important aid in the prevention and cure of dis- ease, based upon the results of bacteriological and clinical ex- perimentation. vSee Public Health; Serum Therapy; Vaccine Therapy; and the articles on the specific diseases mentioned herein. Bibliography. — Consult G. C. Frankland's Bacteria in Daily Life; G. Newman's Bacteriology and the Public Health; E. F. Smith's Bacteria in Relation to Plant Diseases (Carnegie Insti- tution of Washington); C. E. Marshall's Microbiology; A. C. Abbott's Principles of Bacteri- ology; W. H. Park and A. W. Williams' Pathogenic Micro-or- ganisms (1914); P. H. Hiss and H. Zinsser's Text Book of Bac- teriology (1914); E. O. Jordan's Text Book of General Bacteriology (4th ed. 1914); Hodge's Civi'c Biology (1918) ; Buchanan's Agri- cultural and Industrial Bacteri- ology (1921) ; Cunningham's Prac- tical Bacteriology (1924). Bacterioids, bak-te'ri-oids, Bacteroids, involution forms of bacteria which produce the tu- bercles on the roots of legumi- nous plants. They form and accumulate free nitrogen, enrich- ing the soil; hence peas, and similar crops, whose roots abound with these growths, are planted and ploughed into soil prepara- tory to other crops. See Fer- tilizers. Bac'tria, or Bactriana, an- cient territory in Central Asia, bounded on the south by the Hindu-Kush Mountains, and on the north by the River Oxus. Its exact limits in ancient times are now unknown, but probably cor- responded closely with those of the modern Balkh (q.v.). The southern part included rich pas- tures, and was famous for its horses and camels. The early history of Bactria is lost in antiquity. It was con- quered by Cyrus the Great, and made a part of Persia; and in the time of Darius it was the twelfth satrapy. In 327 B.C. Alexander the Great married Roxana (q.v.), daughter of the Bactrian chief- tain, and made Bactria part of the kingdom of the Seleucidae. About the middle of the third century B.C. the Greek kingdom of Bactria was founded, which extended to the Indus. The kingdom was subsequently over- thrown by Scythian tribes (c. 150 B.C.); and after being in the hands of the Parthians and Sa- sanians in 640 a.d. the country came under Mohammedan rule. The inhabitants of ancient Bac- tria were closely related to the Persians (see Arya), and from this region probably sprang Zo- roastrianism (see Zoroaster). Consult Rawlinson's Bactria, the History of a Forgotten Empire (1912;. Bactrian Camel. See Camel. Bac'tris, a genus of tropical American palms, characterized by their slender stems, which spring from the roots, and which may be solitary or fasciculate, ringed, smooth, or spiny. The Marajah palm (B. maraja) of Brazil is the largest species, some- times attaining a height of 50 feet, and bearing agreeable, succulent, acidulous fruit. Bac- tris minor reaches only 12 or 15 feet in height, and its stems, sel- dom more than an inch in diam- eter, are frequently made into walking sticks. Other species yield a fibre used for cordage. Vol. I. — March '28 Bactrites 520 Baden Bactrites, bak-tri'tez, a genus of fossil Ammonites (q.v.), with a straight shell, and indented but not ramified septa. The genus ranges from the Lower Silurian to the Devonian. Baculites, bak'u-li'tez, a genus of the family of Ammonitidae, dif- fering from the true Ammonites (q.v.) in the perfectly straight form of the shell, which tapers to a point, and is either round or compressed. The species, like the other Ammonitidae, are all fossil. Bacup, bak'up, town and mu- nicipal borough, England, in Lancashire, 20 miles northeast of Manchester by rail. The leading industries are coal mining, iron founding, and cotton spinning and weaving. Pop. (1921) 21,256. Badajoz, ba'da-hos', the larg- est province of Spain, adjoining Portugal on the west; area, 8,451 square miles. The Guadiana River traverses the province; the surface is generally undulat- ing. Mineral resources include copper and lead; manufactures comprise soap, cork, oils, wool- lens, and cottons. Stock raising is important. The capital is Badajoz (q.v.). Pop. (1920) 645,658. Badajoz, city, Spain, capital of Badajoz province, on the Guadiana River, and on the rail- way from Lisbon to Madrid; 315 miles southwest of Madrid, 175 miles east of Lisbon, and 5 miles from the Portuguese frontier. A fine Roman bridge of 32 arches spans the river at this point, and a ruined Moorish castle overlooks the town, which is strongly fortified. Notable edifices are the ancient Cathedral, with a splen- did organ, and paintings by Ce- rezo and Morales; the Military Hospital, and the Arsenal. The principal industries are the manufacture of pottery, hats, soap, linens, woollens, and leather. Badajoz was the Pax Augusta of the Romans, and the Bathaljus of the Moors. The fortress was beleaguered by the Portuguese in 1660; by the Allies, in the War of the Spanish Succession, in 1705; and by . the French during the Peninsular War, in 1808, 1809, and in 1811, when the Spanish commander surrendered to Mar- shal Soult. The British be- sieged it in 1811, and again in 1812, when it was captured by the Duke of Wellington. Pop. (1920) 37,967. Badakhshan, bii'dak-shan', or Badaksiian, district, Afghani- stan, in the province of Turkes- tan, bordered l)y the chain of the Hindu-Kush on the south, and the Amu Daria on the north and west; area, about 8,500 s(iuare miles. It is a mountainous region, varying from 500 to 15,- VoL. L— March '28 600 feet above sea level, and is drained by the River Pamir and its tributaries, the Kokcha and Kundua. The country is ex- ceedingly fertile and agriculture is the chief industry. Iron, gold, silver, salt, rubies, and lapis lazuli are mined. The inhabit- ants are largely Tajiks (q.v.), Turks, and Arabs of Moham- medan faith. The government of Badakh- shan has usually been in the hands of native rulers, subject to some great kingdom. In the eighteenth century it formed a part of the Persian empire. Af- ghan supremacy was established in the middle of the nineteenth century. The capital is Faizabad (q.v.). Pop. 150,000. Badalona,ba'da-l5'na (ancient Betiilo), seaport, Spain, in Barce- lona province, Catalonia, 6 miles northeast of the city of Barcelona (q.v.), of which it is a suburb. It produces wine, and has ship- yards, sugar factories, petroleum refineries and glass works. Pop. (1920) 29,361. Baddeck', village, Nova Sco- tia, capital of Victoria County, Cape Breton Island, on Lake Bras d'Or. It is a summer resort, popularized in Baddeck and That Sort of Thing, by Charles Dudley Warner. Pop. 1,500. Badeau, ba-do', Adam (1831- 95) , American soldier and author, was born in New York City. He entered the Union army; was aide-de-camp on Gen. W. T. Sherman's staff (1862-4); mili- tary secretary to Gen. U. S. Grant (1864-9); and retired in 1869 with the brevet rank of brigadier general. From 1870 to 1881 he was United States consul general at London, during which time (1877-8) he accompanied Grant on part of his world tour; and in 1882-4 was consul general at Havana. His published works include Military History of U. S. Grant, 1861-5 (3 vols., 1868-81); Conspiracy, a Cuban Romance (1885) ; Aristocracy in England (1886) ; Grant in Peace (1887). Baden, ba'den, a state of the German Republic, bounded by the River Rhine on the south and west, by Wiirtemburg and Hohenzollern on the east, and by Bavaria and Hesse-Darmstadt on the north. It comprises 5,888 square miles, including a portion of Lake Constance, which it shares with Bavaria and Switzer- land. Physically, Baden falls into two divisions: the western plain, lying along the right bank of the Rhine, and occupying about a sixth of the area; and the east- ern highlands, including the Schwarzwald or Black Forest (q.v.), which attains a maximum altitude of 4,900 feet, the Neckar highlands, the Odenwald to the north, and the extensive plateaus of the German Jura to the south. It is drained by the Rhine and its tributary, the Neckar, and by the Danube, which has its sources in the Schwarzwald. Nearly 60 per cent, of the state is under cultivation, the principal crops being hay, potatoes, oats, barley, wheat, rye, and the vine. Forests cover 41 per cent, of the area, and are largely under state and communal ownership. There are extensive tracts of meadow land and pasture, and large chest- nut plantations. Salt and build- ing stone are mined, and mineral springs are abundant. Tiles, jewelry, machinery, toys, clocks, musical instruments, ribbons, cotton textiles, hats, paper, and cardboard, woodenware, leather, brushes, and cigars are manufac- tured. Education is general, free, and compulsory. There are universities at Heidelberg and Freiberg-im-Breisgau, polytech- nic, art, and music schools at Karlsruhe and a commercial high school at Mannheim. The constitution of Baden, adopted in 1919, makes it a republic and a component pitate of Germany. There is direct and universal suffrage and all privileges of birth, religion or caste are abolished. There is one chamber whose members are elected for four years. The cabinet consists of 5 members and 3 state councillors elected by the Landtag (the legislature). The president of the cabinet is known as the state president. The capital is Karlsruhe (q.v.). Pop. (1910) 2,141,832; (1919) 2,208.- 503. History. — The present state of Baden is a development of the ancient duchy of Swabia or Alemannia, principally through the dynasties of the margraves of Baden-Baden and Baden-Dur- lach. The two lines were united in 1771 under Charles Frederick, who, by favoring the policy of Napoleon, and joining the Con- federation of the Rhine, doubled his possessions in extent and pop- ulation, and acquired successive- ly the dignity of elector (1803) and the title of grand duke (1806). In 1811 he was succeed- ed by his grandson, Charles Louis Frederick, who after the Battle of Leipzig seceded from the Confederation of the Rhine, and in 1815 joined the German Con- federation. In 1867 Baden entered the North German Confederation, and at the close of the Franco- Prussian War became a part of the German Empire. In 1918 the grand duke abdicated and the provisional government pro- claimed Baden a nipublic. Baden, or Baden-Baden, town and famous health resort, Baden 521 Badge Germany, in the state of Baden, on the Oos River, at the edge of the Black Forest (q.v.); 23 miles southwest of Karlsruhe. It is mainly celebrated for its mineral springs and baths, which are vis- ited annually by over 75,000 peo- ple. The waters have a tempera- ture of 115° F. to 153° F., and are recommended for rheumatism, gout, and renal and skin diseases. Notable buildings are the ruins of the Old Castle, crowning the summit of the Schlossberg, above the town; the New Castle, for- merly used as the summer resi- dence of the grand dukes; the ('Baden near Vienna'), city. Low- er Austria, on the Schwechat River; 17 miles southwest of Vi- enna. It is situated among the outliers of the Wiener Wald, and is much frequented for its warm mineral springs (sulphurous, with carbonic acid gas; 80° to 100° f.). It was known to the Romans as ThermcE Pannonicce. Pop. (1920) 14,083. Baden, town, Switzerland, in canton Aargau, on the Limmat; 13 miles by rail northwest of Zurich. It is an ancient town, and has celebrated hot springs (temperature as high as 117° f.). deni, and his retirement from active political life. Badenoch, ba'den-ok. High- land district, Scotland, in Inver- ness-shire, 45 miles long, by 19 broad, traversed by the River Spey. Baden-Powell, Sir Robert. See Powell, Badenweiler, ba'd^n-vl'l^r, town, Germany, in the state of Baden, on the west edge of the Schwarzwald, 1,395 to 1,477 feet above sea level; 18 miles north- east pf Basel. Its warm springs, equable temperature, forest walks, and whey cures attract. @ tlwing Galloway, i\ . y Baden, Germany, famous as a Watering Place Parish Church, dating from the fifteenth century; the Conversa- tionhaus; the Trinkhalle; the Theatre; the Anglican and Greek Churches; and the luxuriously equipped bathing establishments. Wood carving is the chief indus- try of the people. Baden is said to have been founded by Hadrian in the second century a.d. It was known to the Romans as Civilas Aurelia Aquensis, and numerous Roman antiquities have been found in the neighborhood. From 1808 to 1872 it was popular for its public gaming tables, then the most re- nowned in Europe. Pop. (1919) 25,444. Baden, or Baden bei Wien known to the Romans as Aqu(^ Helvelicce. From 1426 to 1712 Baden was practically the capital of the Swiss Confederation. Pop. (1920) 9,215. Badeni, ba-den'ye, Casimir Felix, Count (1846-1909), Aus- trian statesman, was born in Surochowo, Galicia, and studied law at Cracow. In 1888 he be- came governor of Galicia, and in 1895 premier of Austria. In the latter office he promulgated the Ordinance of Languages of 1897, which placed the C'zech language on a par with German in the provinces of Bohemia and Mora- via. This measure was bitterly opposed by the Germans, and re- sulted in the resignation of Ba- some 7,000 visitors annually. Pop. 1,000. Badge, any device used as an emblem, a token, or a decora- tion. As a cognizance of no- bility, badges form no part of armorial bearings* though inti- mately associated with them; nor is their use governed by the laws of heraldry. The badge is fre- quently, though erroneously, con- founded with the crest, or even with the coat of arms; but though it may partake of the form of a charge or of a crest, it is not borne upon a shield or a wreath. Fam- ily badges, which originated in the infancy of heraldry, often bore allusion to the owner's name, estate, or office, and were Vol. I. — March '28 Badger 522 Bad Lands embroidered on the sleeve, breast, or back of retainers. The fleur- de-lis (q.v.), the badge of the kings of France, dates back to the reign of Louis vii. ( 1 137-80) . Of the famous rival cognizances of the houses of York and Lan- caster, the red rose was first adopted by Henry iv., and the white rose by Edward iv. Royal badges now in use are a white rose within a red, crowned, for England ; a thistle proper, crown- ed, for Scotland; a harp for Ireland. The term badge is also applied to the distinctive decoration of an order of knighthood, and to society emblems. See Cockade; Fraternities, College; Her- aldry. Badges 1. The Red Hand of Ulster. 2. Tudor Rose. 3. Fleur-de-Lya. Badger, bajVr, a genus of car- nivores of the Mustelidae or wea- sel family, including the Euro- pean Badger, the American Bad- ger, the Sand Badger of India, arid the Ratel (q.v.) and Honey Badger of Africa and India. The feet of the badger are plantigrade, thus bringing the body nearer to the ground. The lower jaw is locked into its socket in a remarkable way, giving a very tenacious grip. The head is long, with a pointed muzzle; the tail short; the skin very thick, loose, and tough; the hair long. Ears and eyes are both small. The gait is slow, and the habits nocturnal. There are five toes on each of the fore and hind feet, which are peculiarly adapted for digging. Another characteristic is the possession of a bag beneath the tail, for the secretion of a peculiar substance, of a disagree- able odor, which is supposed to be of use in directing the sexes to each other. The true badger or European badger (Meles taxus), known also as the brock and gray, stands about 10 or 12 inches from the ground, and weighs from 22 to 25 pounds. The color is grayish brown, verging to red above and black beneath; the head white with a longitudinal black band on each side; the body long but robust; the hair coarse and reach- ing to the ground. The animal haunts the gloomy recesses of woods, or thick plantations on the sides of hills, digging for itself a deep subterranean retreat, where it sleeps by day and hiber- nates during the winter months. Vol. I.— March '28 Fruits, roots, beechmast, eggs, young birds, small quadrupeds, frogs, snails, worms, and insects constitute its natural food. The American badger, or taxus (Taxidea americana), is a dis- tinct, more carnivorous form, differing in dentition and in its broad, massive head. Its pre- vailing color is hoary gray in winter, and yellowish brown in summer with the under parts generally yellowish white; a white stripe runs from the nose over the forehead to the neck. The hair grows very long, and is woolly in winter. The American badger is possessed of extraordi- nary burrowing powers, and preys on small animals, such as marmots, which it pursues into their holes in the sandy plains near the Missouri and the Rocky Mountains, The sand badger or balisaur of India is larger than the true badger, while the closely related ratel and honey badger differ from the common species in color, their upper parts being ashy gray and the under parts black Badger Badgers were formerly much hunted for sport in England, badger baiting being a common practice. Their pelts are valu- able as furs, and the hair is used for artist's brushes. Consult Blakeborough and Pease's The Life and Habits of the Badger (1914). Badger, Charles Johnston (1853- ), American naval officer, was born in Rockville, Md., and was graduated from the U. S. Naval Academy (1873). In 1907-9 he was superintendent of the U. S. Naval Academy; and in 1909-11 commanded the battleship Kansas. In 1911 he was made rear admiral, and was appointed to command the sec- ond division of the Atlantic fleet; and in 1911 he became commander-in-chief of the Atlan- tic fleet. He was retired in August, 1915. Badger, Oscar Charles (1823-99), American naval of- ficer, was born in Windham, Conn. In 1841 he became a mid- shipman in the U. S. Navy, and in the Mexican War served on the Mississippi, participating in the attack upon Alvarado (1846). During the Civil War he com- manded the Anacostia of the Potomac flotilla (1861-2), and the ironclads Patapsco and Mon- tauk in engagements against the fortifications of Charleston Har- bor (1863); and acted as fleet captain in the attack upon Fort Sumter (1863), being severely wounded on board his flagship, the Weehawken. He became commander in 1866, captain in 1872, commodore in 1881, and was retired in 1885. Badger Dog. See Dachshund. Badger State, a popular name for Wisconsin (q.v.), where the badger is found. Badghis, bad-gez', or Bad- GHiz, a region in Northwestern Afghanistan, comprising the ter- ritory between the Murghab and Hari-Rud Rivers, east and west, and extending north and south from the Kara-Kum desert to the Hindu-Kush Mountains. Jam- shidis and Hazaras comprise the population. Badia y Lablich, ba-de'a e la-blech' (Leblich), Domingo (1766-1818), Spanish traveller, was born in Barcelona. In 1803 he crossed to Africa, disguised as a Mussulman, under the name Ali-Bei, and travelled through Morocco, where his tact and tal- ents gained for him such esteem that he was invited to the court of the Emperor. From 1805 to 1807 he travelled through Bar- bary, Greece, Egypt, and Syria on a pilgrimage to Mecca, being the first Christian to visit that city since the institution of Islam. Later in the same year he went to Constantinople, but his disguise was suspected, and he was obliged to flee. On his return to Spain he joined the French party, attached himself to King Joseph Bonaparte, and was appointed prefect of Cordova (1812); but on the fall of Napoleon he was compelled to leave the country (1814). He died in Syria while on another journey to India. He published Voyages d'Ali Bei en Afrique et en Asie pendant les annees 1803-07 (1814) Bad Lands, a term designat- ing certain rough and barren tracts in the western part of the United States, developed by the action of occasional rains upon arid plateaus of soft, incoherent rock. These plateaus become deeply trenched by erosion, re- sulting in the formation of dry gullies or arroyos that extend in all directions. In extreme cases much of the area is reduced to base level, leaving only isolated table lands or mesas from 200 to 400 feet high (see Mesa). Typi- cal Bad Lands are those on the White and Cheyenne Rivers, and the Lower Yelk wstone and Little Missouri. Smaller tracts occur in Arizona, Texas, and New Mexico. A remarkable series of mammalian fossils of the Eocene Age has been found in the Bad Lands of South Dakota. Badminton 523 Baeyer Bad'ininton, a game resem- bling lawn tennis (q. v.) , but differ- ing from it in one essential point — the use of a shuttlecock instead of a ball. As this shuttlecock must be played before it touches the ground, any fairly level piece of turf, any large public hall or gymnasium will serve. The number of players varies from two to eight, but four is the best number. The players, four or two in number, place themselves and carry on the game as in lawn tennis. The rules of scoring are practically the same as in rac- quets (q.v.), the game being 15. 15 feet. Right Court. Left Court. Service Line. *^ 15 feet. ^§o o S o(S Net. (2 Service Line. t s Right C< lOfeet. 10 fee*. Diagram of Badminton Court Badminton, village, England, in Gloucestershire. It is near the estate of the Duke of Beaufort, also called Badminton, which has given its name to the game (q.v.), to the Badminton Sport- ing Library, edited by the Duke of Beaufort, and to a London club of sporting men. Pop. about 550. Badoc, ba-dok', pueblo, Lu- zon, Philippine Islands, in the province of Ilocos Horte; 21 miles southwest of Laoag. Pop. (1918) 17,598. Badrlnath, ba-dre-niit', peak in Garhwal district. United Prov- inces of Agra and Oudh, India (30° 44' N. lat. and 79° 31' E. long.). It is 23,210 feet above the sea and on one of its slopes is a shrine of Vishnu, which annu- ally attracts some 50,000 pil- grims. Bseda. See Bede. Baedeker, ba'de-ker, Karl (1801-59), German author and publisher, the son of a bookseller, was born in Essen. Starting business in Koblenz in 1827, he issued in 1839, a small guide book on the Rhine, the first of an admirable series of handbooks in German, French, and English. In 1872 the business was moved to Leipzig and the series now includes almost every country in the world and is famed for reli- ability and excellence. Bael, ba'el, Bhel, or ^gle, a plant of the orange order, native to India, where the fruit is used as a remedy in diarrhoea and dysentery. The rind yields a per- fume,as well as a yellow dye, and a cement is made of the seeds. Baena, ba-a'na, town, Spain, in the province of Cordova; 30 miles southeast of Cordova. It is the site of an old Roman town and has manufactures of soap, silk, and flour. Pop. (1920) 18,361. Baer, bar, George Frederick (1842-1914), American lawyer and railroad president, was born in Somerset County, Pa. He was educated at Somerset Academy and Franklin and Marshall Col- lege. In the Civil War he took part in the chief engagements of the Army of the Potomac from the second battle of Bull Run to Chancellorsville, when he was promoted to the rank of adjutant general. He was admitted to the bar in 1864; was counsel and director for the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad Company, and took a prominent part in its reorganization in 1893. In 1901 he became president of the Phil- adelphia and Reading Railroad Company, the Philadelphia and Reading Coal and Iron Com- pany, and the Central Railroad Company of New Jersey. He was active in the negotiations for the railroad anthracite operators in connection with the coal strike of 1902. Baer, John Willis (1861- ), American business man, was born near Rochester, Minn. He was educated in Cleveland, Ohio and in 1879 engaged in journalism at Cedar Rapids, la. In 1881 he went to Minneapolis and entered business life and some years later was appointed national secretary of the Young People's Society of Christian Endeavor, becoming assistant secretary of the Presbyterian Board of Home Missions (1900- 5). In 1906-16 he was president of the Occidental College at Los Angeles, Cal., and since then has been engaged in banking. Baer, Karl Ernst von (1792- 1876), Russian zoologist and em- bryologist, was born in Esthonia. He was educated at the Uni- versity of Dor pot and in 1817 was appointed professor of zoology at Konigsberg, in 1834 becoming librarian of the Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg. Founder of the science of com- parative embryology, he ex- ploded the 'animalculist theory. by his discovery of the true laws of embryonic development of man and the vertebrates, the results of his investigations being expounded in De Ovi Mammalium el Hominis Genesi (1827). Next to this, the book which had most influence with his contempora- ries was Ueber Entwickelungs- geschichte der Thiere (1828-37), to which the Untersuchungen iiber die Enlwickelungsgeschichte der Fische (1835) may be regarded as a supplement. Baer, William Jacob (1860- ), American miniature paint- er, was born in Cincinnati, O. He attended the common schools, and studied art while working as a lithographer. Subsequently for five years he was a pupil at the Munich Royal Academy, where he received numerous medals. In 1884 he established his studio in New York City and engaged in genre work until 1892, when he took up miniature paint- ing, for which he received medals at all important exhibits. He is an officer of the American Society of Miniature Painters. Among his best known works in minia- ture are The Golden Hour; Auro- ra; Daphne; Nymph; Madonna with the Auburn Hair; Primavera; The Smiling Woman. In the past few years he has been a regular contributor to current exhibi- tions as a painter of portraits and ideal subjects on canvas. Bsetica, be'ti-ka, old name of Southern Spain, called after the river Baetis (now the Guadal- quivir) , which traversed it. Dur- ing the Roman occupation it contained Hispalis (Seville), Cor- duba (Cordova), Gades (Cadiz). Before the Roman conquest it was occupied by the Phoenicians and Carthaginians. After they abandoned it, it fell into the possession of the Vandals, whence is derived the name of Andalusia (q.v.). Baeyer, ba'yer, Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Adolph VON (1835-1917), German chem- ist, was born in Berlin. He studied under Bunsen and Ke- kule; taught in the Gewerbe- akademie in Berlin (1860-72); was professor extraordinarius of the University in Berlin (1866- 72); became professor at Strass- burg (1872); and in 1875 was made professor at Munich, where he succeeded Liebig. In 1905 he received the Nobel Prize (q.v.) for chemistry, and in the same year an edition of his collected works was published by his friends in honor of his seventieth birthday. He was an authority on the chemistry of indigo, which he was the first to prepare syn- thetically (1878); and author of important contributions to theo- retical chemistry, especially in connection with lienzol isomer- VOL. I. — March '28 Baez 524 Bagatelle ism. the assimilation of carbonic acid by plants, and fermentation. Baez, bii'as, Buenaventura (c. 1810-84), Dominican political leader, a mulatto, was born in Azua, Hayti. With Don Pedro Santana (q.v.) he bore the prin- cipal part in the founding of the Dominican Republic (1844), of which he was four times presi- dent (1849-53, 1856-8, 1865-6, 1869-73), being deposed each time by insurgents. During his last term he proposed the an- nexation of Santo Domingo to the United States, and negoti- ated with President Grant an annexation treaty, which was rejected by the U. S. Senate. He gained a high reputation for his dignified and manly conduct of public affairs. Baeza, ba-a'tha, (ancient Be- atia), town, Spain, in the province of Jaen; 20 miles northeast of Madrid. It is an ancient walled town with a university formerly famous (1533), now disestab- lished. Features of interest are the cathedral, the town hall and a ruined Franciscan monastery. Pop. (1920) 15,326. Baffa, Baffo. See Paphos. Baffin, William (1584-1622), British navigator and discoverer of the sea which bears his name, was born in London. He went to the whale fisheries off Spitz- bergen (1613-14), and joined Captain Robert Bylot in 1615 on board the Discovery, to search for the Northwest Passage by Davis Strait. Unsuccessful in this, he discovered and charted Baffin Bay. His observations, dis- credited during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, were verified by Sir John Ross in 1818, and were used by the Franklin expedition. Baffin was killed in the British service at the siege of Ormuz. Consult Markham's Voyages of William Baffin. Baffin Bay, or, more correctly, Baffin Sea, lies between Green- land and Baffin Land, with the Arctic Circle for its southern limit and 77° 30' N. lat. for its northern. Long. 51° to 80° w. On the south it communicates with the Atlantic Ocean through Davis Strait, and on the north with the Arctic through Smith Sound, Kennedy Channel, and Robeson Channel. Lancaster Sound and Jones Sound both lead out of it at the northwest into the Arctic. It is about 825 miles long; about 275 miles wide and its greatest depth is about 6,900 feet. It is a resort for whalers and seal hunters. William Baffin (q.v.) discovered and explored it in 1616. Baffin Land, an island of British North America, lying between lat. 62° and 72° N., with Lancaster Sound on the north, Baffin Bay and Davis Strait on Vol. I. — March '28 the east, the Gulf of Boothia and Fox Channel on the south. It is about 1,000 miles long, and from 200 to 500 miles wide, and is largely composed of rocks partly covered with ice. Grasses and Arctic flowers are found in the interior. In the southern part are the lakes Amadjnak (120 by 40 miles) and Nettilling (140 by 60 miles) . On the eastern side is an ice-capped plateau, reaching an elevation of from 5,000 to 8,000 feet. The principal ani- mals are the reindeer, wolf, fox, and polar bear, on land; the walrus, narwhal, Greenland whale, and seal, in the surround- ing waters. The island is in- habited by a few Eskimos. Bafulabe, French military post (founded in 1879) in West Africa, on the Senegal River, 120 miles by rail southeast of Bakel. Cattle, millet, and kola nuts are produced in the vicinity. Pop. 6,000. Bagalkot, town, India, in Bijapur district, Bombay, on the Ghatprakka River, 44 miles south of Bijapur. There are manufactures of silk and cotton goods. Pop. (1921) 19,471. Baga moyo, ba'ga-mo'yo, maritime district, Tanganyika Territory, East Africa. It pro- duces fruits (mangoes, oranges, lemons, guava, citrons, and papaws) and copra. Pop. about 75,000. Baga moyo, seaport town, at the mouth of the Kingani River, Tanganyika Territory, East Afri- ca, opposite Zanzibar, with which it is in direct communication. It is an important trading centre, the starting point of caravans, and the centre of the telegraph system of the colony. Pop. about 20,000. Bagara. See Baggara. Bagasse, ba-gas', a by-product of sugar-cane, being the sugar- cane stalk after the juice has been pressed out for sugar mak- ing. It is about half vegetable fiber and half pith, the latter being an undeveloped form of cellulose. For a long time it was considered only fit to use as a fuel and as such was auite exten- sively employed but the last decade has seen a remarkable extension of its use and today, besides its use as fuel, it is suc- cessfully utilized in making book and writing paper and celotex board, a synthetic lumber suit- able for almost any purpose for which wood is used, but mainly used as sheathing, as insulating material and as a corrective of improper acoustics and a sound absorber. The United States produces about 450,000 tons of bagasse a year, which is sufficient for the manufacture of some 10.000,000 feet of celotex. Aus- tralia also produces large quanti- ties of bagasse. In the beginning paper made from bagasse was too brittle to be commercially suc- cessful but careful experimenting has developed a process by which this brittleness is eliminated and a high grade pulp, suitable for book paper, can be produced. Bagatelle, bag-a-tel', a game played on an oblong table, vary- ing in length from 6 to 10 feet, and in breadth from 1>2 to 3 feet. At the semicircular upper end of the table are nine holes or cups, numbered from 1 to 9, into which it is the object of the player to Bagatelle Table drive by means of a cue the nine balls — eight white and one red — that enter into the game. Each white ball driven into a hole counts to the score of the player a number of points corresponding to the number of the hole; the red ball counts double. The red at the beginning of each round is placed on the spot about a foot nearer the balk spot at the end of the table than the nearest hole; ^ the white balls are played from balk, and each player in turn plays all the balls, the object Bagaudse 525 Bagdad being to lodge a ball in every hole. The playing of all the balls by a player is a round, and any agreed-upon number of rounds may be played for the game. In cannon bagatelle three balls only are used, and the holing of a ball counts only when it is preceded by a cannon. The striker's break ends when he fails to cannon. Cockamaroo, or Russian baga- telle, is the game in which the ball is driven through and among an arrangement of pins, holes, arches, and bells. Other forms of bagatelle go by the names sans egaZ (or French game), Irish can- non game, Mississippi, and trou- madame. Bagau'dse, Bagaudi, or Ba- GAUDS, a name applied to the the Southern Literary Messenger (1859-64), and subsequently State librarian of Virginia (1870- 8). He gained considerable repu- tation as lecturer and humorist, his pen name being 'Mozis Ad- dums.' Bagdad, bag-dad' or bag'- dad, or Baghdad, vilayet of Iraq (Mesopotamia), in the basin of the Lower Euphrates and Tigris Rivers. The surface is a fiat alluvial plain, once one of the granaries of the world, now steppe land. Grain and fruit, bitumen, naphtha, and petroleum are produced. Wool, carpets, mohair, and skins are exported. There is a mixed population (1,360,304 in 1920) of Persians, Armenians, Turks, houses. The Western section is about one-fourth the size of the Eastern, and constitutes the principal Persian quarter. Pon- toon bridges across the Tigris join the two sections. Just be yond Western Bagdad, to the north, lies Kazemain, an impor- tant shrine of the Shiite Moslems, Within a circle of 35 miles radius are ruins of Babylon, Seleucia, Ctesiphon, and Kerbela. Features of interest in the city are the Citadel, the minaret of Suk el-Ghazl (thirteenth cen- tury), the traditional tomb of Zobeida, favorite wife of Haroun al-Raschid, the bazaars and coffee houses, and the numerous khans or caravansaries. The climate is dry and invigorating, coloni (or serfs) and peasants of Gaul who in the third century a.d. revolted against Roman op- pression. A series of petty re- volts culminated in 287 in a gen- eral insurrection. Several cities were sacked, and after a seven months' siege Autun was cap- tured and destroyed. The two leaders, ^Emilianus and Aman- dus, were declared emperors. The Emperor Maximian put an end to the general insurrec- tion. B a g b y , George William (1828-83), American journalist, was born in Buckingham county, Va., and was educated at Prince- ton and in medicine at the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania. He was Washington correspondent of Southern journals, and editor of Jews, Arabs, and Kurds. The area is 54,540 square miles. The capital is Bagdad (q. v.). Bagdad, or Baghdad, city, capital of Iraq (Mesopotamia), and of the vilayet of Bagdad, is situated on both banks of the Tigris River, 500 miles from its mouth in the Persian Gulf. The Eastern section of the city covers an area of about 600 acres, and was formerly enclosed by a semi- circular wall of brick, now mostly in ruins. The ancient moat is represented by a deep ditch, and the fortified gates of the city, with one exception, have been destroyed or sealed up. Here are located the Governor's Pal- ace, the European consulates, the principal bazaars, and the more important commercial but with extremes of heat and cold. Modern sanitation is un- known. While the trade of Bagdad is still considerable, the city has declined in commercial impor- tance since the opening of the Suez Canal (q. v.) and the diver- sion of the Persian trade through Trebizond on the north and the Persian Gulf on the south. Com- munication with Basra, the port of transshipment to ocean steam- ers, is by the Tigris. Exports are wool, grain, gum, galls, skins and hides, opium, carpets, and dates. Imports include cotton goods, oil, sugar, coffee, indigo, and tobacco. Silk and other textiles, copper utensils, and leather goods are manufactured. The population is 250,000 Vol. I. — March '25 Bagdad Railway 526 Bagdad Railway (1920), largely Mohammedan. The Western city is occupied chiefly by Persians and Arabs; Turks, Arabs, Jews, Chaldeans, Syrians, Armenians, and Per- sians make up the Eastern city. History. — In 1848 Rawlinson discovered bricks at Bagdad bearing the name of Nebuchad- nezzar (604-561 B. c); but the historical city dates from 764 A.D., when it was founded by Al- Mansur (q. v.). It became the capital of the Abbaside califate; was enlarged and improved in the ninth century by Haroun al- Raschid, immortalized in the Arabian Nights; and under the latter's son, Al-mamun, became the seat of Arabian learning, lit- erature, and romance. The city was sacked in 1258 by Hulaku, grandson of Jenghiz Khan, and again by Timur Beg (Tamerlane) about 1400. After many vicis- situdes it came into the hands of the Turks in 1638. It suffered from plague in 1773, and again in 1831, when the population was reduced two-thirds. Bagdad formed an important objective in the campaign against Asiatic Turkey during the World War. On Nov. 22, 1915, the first British expedition against the city, under Major-General Townshend, ended disastrously after reaching Ctesiphon. 18 miles to the south. The second British expedition, under Gen- eral Maude, occupied the city on March 11, 1917, after a desperate battle that lasted three days (see Europe, Great War of). The occupation was of special impor- tance because of the city's re- lation to the Bagdad Railway (q. v.), whereby Germany plan- ned to open a route from Berlin to the Persian Gulf. Bagdad Railway. The rail- way from Constantinople across the Anatolian Peninsula and down the Mesopotamian Valley to Bagdad re-opened to the loco- motive and the steamship the last of the three great mediaeval trade routes over which, before the discovery of the all-water route to India, was carried on the trade between Europe and the East. The southern route had been re-opened by the com- pletion of the Suez Canal in 1869: the northern route was to be opened by the construction of the Russian Transcaucasian, Trans - Caspian, Trans - Persian, and Trans-Siberian Railways. The Bagdad Railway — which, because of its connection with the Austrian railways and be- cause of the predominant posi- tion of German capitalists in its ownership and control, came to be popularly called the Berlin- to-Bagdad line — was intended to open up the potential wealth of the Ottoman Empire, particu- larly in oil and minerals; to bring the trade of the Near and Middle Vol. I. — March '25 East in more direct and more rapid touch with Europe; and to strengthen the political and military position of Turkey in the Near East. Because of the great strategic importance of the railway, it early came into prominence as a source of Russo- German and Anglo-German im- perialistic rivalries. As early as 1857 a trans-Meso- potamian railway, from the Gulf of Alexandretta to the head of the Persian Gulf, was projected by British capitalists with the support of Lord Palmerston and with consent of the Sultan, but lack of funds caused the aban- donment of the enterprise. Some years later it was revived, only to meet with failure because of the completion of the Suez Canal and the purchase of the Canal by the British Government. In 1888, however, the establish- ment of direct rail communica- tion between Constantinople and the capitals of Europe stimulated interest in the construction of railways in Asiatic Turkey and caused the Sultan Abdul Hamid to grant concessions for the construction of several important lines. Among these concessions were those for extensions to the existing French-owned Smyrna- Cassaba line and to the British- owned Smyrna-Aidin line; con- cessions for the construction of Franco- Belgian lines in Syria and Palestine; and the important authorization of the line to Angora, the forerunner of the Bagdad Railway. Although the possibility of a line from Constantinople to Bagdad had been discussed between the Turkish Govern- ment and an Anglo-American syndicate in 1886, the plan fell through because of lack of funds. In 1888, however, a German syndicate brought the Sultan's dream into the realm of reality by taking up the concession which the British were unable to finance. Under the leadership of the Deutsche Bank, German bankers took over the former British line from Haidar Pasha (across the Bosporus from Con- stantinople) to Ismid and im- mediately began construction of an extension to Angora (later to become the capital of the Nationalist Government of the Turkish Republic). The Angora line was understood to be the first of a comprehensive system of railways to be constructed by the Anatolian Railway Company, as the German corporation was called. In 1895, in recognition of its successful completion of the railway to Angora, the Anatolian Railway Company was given a concession to build a branch from Eski Shehr to Konia, which it completed within three years. During these years, German prestige in Turkey was noticeably on the increase, and in 1898 it was still further enhanced by the visit of the German Emperor, who, at Damascus, proclaimed himself to be the true friend of the Turks and other Moslem peoples. Up to this time, how- ever, French capital far exceeded German in railway enterprises in Asiatic Turkey. Competition to build the line to Bagdad was keen between Russian, English, French, and German banking groups; but in 1899 the Sultan granted the con- cession to the Anatolian Railway Company, which alone of all the competitors agreed to the de- mands of the Turkish Govern- ment and the Ottoman Public Debt Administration that the line must be a continuation of the existing Anatolian lines rather than a new railway from a Syrian port to Bagdad. The German project called for a line from Konia across the mountains to Aleppo (in Syria), to Mosul, and down the Tigris to Bagdad, Basra, and the Persian Gulf. For political and strategic reasons, also, the Sultan was more dis- posed to grant the concession to German concessionaires than to Russian, British, or French capitalists. When the concession was defi- nitely awarded on March 18, 1902, the Ottoman Government agreed to furnish a kilometric guarantee to the Bagdad Rail- way, together with grants of public lands, the use of mines, quarries, and timber, and other subventions not unlike those granted by Congress to the American transcontinental lines. On the other hand, the Bagdad Railway Company was prohib- ited from granting preferential treatment to any shipper, regard- less of nationality or other con- sideration; it promised not to encourage German or other foreign colonies or settlements along the railway; it agreed that within five years of the opening of each section of the line the operating staff, except the higher officials, should be Ottoman subjects; at the expiration of the concession it was to surrender all of its rights to the Ottoman Government. The Bagdad Railway Com- pany was incorporated in Con- stantinople in March 1903, under the auspices of the Deutsche Bank and the Imperial Ottoman Bank. Almost immediately an invitation was extended to Brit- ish capitalists to participate in the enterprise, and under the watchful eyes of their respective foreign offices German, British, and French bankers discussed the details of the proposed inter- nationalization of the line. It was agreed that the three groups were to share equally in owner- ship and control of the railway. Bagdad BaHway 527 Bagdad Railway under conditions which were ac- ceptable to the British bankers and the British foreign office. The hostile attitude of the Eng- lish press, however, compelled the Balfour Government to with- draw its consent, and interna- tionalization of the line, at least as far as British capital was concerned, had to be abandoned. The financing of the road was undertaken as follows: 10 per cent, by the Ottoman Govern- ment, 10 per cent, by the Ana- tolian Railway Company, and the rest by an international syn- dicate headed by the Deutsche Bank. French interests were said to have contributed 30 per cent, of the capital secured by and British. Trade between Germany and Turkey showed a marked increase, although Brit- ish trade continued to hold its leadership and Italian trade grew rather faster than the German. German shipping lines estab- lished regular and efficient service to Near Eastern ports. Follow- ing the generally accepted tactics of European imperialism, the German Foreign Office took a gradually increasing interest in the fortunes of the country in which the capital of so many of its nationals was invested, and substantial economic foundations were laid for a subsequent politi- cal and military alliance between Turkey and Germany. Through Northeastern Anatolia except by Russian capitalists, or with the consent of the Russian Foreign Office. The Anatolian and Bag- dad railways were hardly a menace to Russian economic interest, but they certainly would have strengthened Turk- ish military resistance against a drive from the Caucasus along the southern shore of the Black Sea to Constantinople. Espe- cially did the Russians look with disfavor upon the alarming growth of German influence at the Sublime Porte. That the Tsar did not offer more serious opposition to the construction of the Bagdad Railway was due to the rise of complications in CASPIAN SEA The Bagdad Railway the international syndicate. Of the twenty-seven members of the board of directors, eleven were Germans, eight French, four Ottoman, two Swiss, one AUvS- trian, and one Italian. Thus, al- though the railway remained in Turco-German control, it was by no means a purely German proj- ect capable of being manipulated at will by the German Foreign Office. As the construction of the Bag- dad Railway progressed, German economic penetration of the Otto- man Empire became more po- tent. German banks opened branches throughout the Near East, a field which had hitherto been preempted by the French schools and religious institutions, as well as through business and banking, German influence was spread, and the Bagdad Railway became the symbol of German prestige — das JDeutschtum — in the Near East. From a railway it became a state of mind and one of the stakes of pre-war diplomacy. Meanwhile, the Entente Pow- ers had come to consider the Bagdad Railway less a private busincvss undertaking than a matter of serious international concern. Russian opposition had been pronounced from the begin- ning; in fact, in 1900 the Tsar had practically compelled the Sultan to promise that no rail- ways would be constructed in the Far East, the crushing defeats administered by Japan in 1904- 05, friction with Great Britain in Persia and Central Asia, and the outbreak of a troublesome revolutionary movement at home. The Russian press, how- ever, called upon their ally France to show its loyalty by refusing to help finance the proj- ect. Opposition in France was based upon economic, political, and religious grounds. But there was a considerable group of French- men with investments in the Near East who believed that the railway would increase Turkish prosperity in general and the value of their own securities in Vol. I. — March '25 Bagdad Railway 528 Baggage particular. For some time, there- fore, the French Government was disposed to maintain an atti- tude of neutrahty toward the Bagdad project. In October, 1903, however, at the instigation of the French Government, the Paris Bourse excluded all Bagdad Railway securities from the pri- vileges of the exchange. In this action the hand of the Govern- ment was forced by the insistence of the press that French and Russian interests were being menaced by the Bagdad Railway and that German enterprises in Turkey should be obstructed by every means possible. In spite of the Government's attitude, however, French financiers re- tained their interests in the Bag- dad Railway Company, and it was rumored that two important cabinet officers were purchasers of stock in the enterprise. British objections to the Bag- dad Railway were not so much directed at the project itseli as at the rising economic and political prestige of Germany. Before 1898, British statesmen had been inclined to encourage German ventures in the Near East because of the discomfort which they would cause France and Russia. But after the Boer War and coincident with the great German naval bills of the years following 1898, British opinion gradually came to be more fearful of Germany than of the traditional rivals, France and Russia. Only a year after the British Government rejected the offer for internationalization of the Bagdad Railway, the entente cordiale was negotiated with France and the way was paved for agreement with Russia. After 1904, and more particularly after 1907, Britain's policy in the Near East was distinctly pro-French and pro-Russian; therefore anti-German. Further- more, the proposed linking of the Hedjaz Railway with the Bagdad line led many nervous persons in England to believe that German interests in railway construction in Turkey were chiefly concerned with preparing for an attack on 'the jugular vein of the British Empire,' the Suez Canal. In spite of British, French, and Russian opposition, however, and in spite of the dislocations occasioned in the Near East by the Young Turk Revolution of 1908-09, theTurco- Italian War of 1910-11, and the tv/o Balkan Wars of 1912-1.3, the German concessionaires pushed forward construction of the line and successfully carried out many subsidiary enterprises, as the irrigation of the Konia plain. Had the Great War not intervened, the German railway lines in Turkey would have l.^een a powerful factor in increasing security and prosperity in an Vol. I. — March '25 Ottoman Empire which was sadly in need of both. On the eve of the Great War the international animosities aris- ing out of the Bagdad contro- versy had been almost completely adjusted. In 1910 Russia and Germany had completed the so- called Potsdam Agreement, by which Russian objections to the Bagdad line were withdrawn in return for German recognition of Russia's sphere of interest in Persia. In February 1914, Fran- co-German differences in the Near East were in large measure reconciled by an agreement of Paris and Berlin bankers, ap- proved by their respective foreign offices, by which French diplo- matic resistance to the Bagdad Railway was withdrawn in re- turn for certain specific promises regarding the promotion of Franco-German economic in- terests in Northern and North- eastern Anatolia. During Feb- ruary and March 1914, German and British capitalists interested in railways, navigation enter- prises, and oil concessions in the Ottoman Empire carried on a series of successful negotia- 'tions for the adjustment of over- lapping and competitive claims. These agreements, approved by the German and British Govern- ments, led directly to the secret Anglo-German Agreement of June 15, 1914, which settled amicably practically every out- standing question between Eng- land and Germany in the Near East. Two weeks later, however, the murder of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand at Serajevo precipitated a crisis which was destined to throw the Near East, along with the rest of the world, into the melting pot of the Great War. Unsuccessful attempts were made by the Allied Governments during and after the Great War to divide among themselves the Bagdad Railway and other Ger- man economic rights in Turkey. By a series of secret treaties from 1915 to 1917 and by the secret Tripartite Agreement appended to the Treaty of Sevres, 1920, the victors sought to share the spoils according to their several appe- tites. In this, however, they reckoned without Mustapha Ke- mal Pasha and the Turkish Nationalists, whose resurgent power led to the striking diplo- matic victory of Lausanne which upset all pre-arranged plans. At present (1925) Turkey herself retains undisputed control of the Anatolian sections of the Bagdad line, while the British, by pur- chasing German interests in the Bank fur orienlalischen Eisenbah- nen, a holding company of Swiss nationality, appear to have ac- quired ownership of the Mesopo- tamian sections. Because of the reparations provisions of the Treaty of Versailles, however, it doubtless will be necessary to arbitrate the question of the validity of the British and Turk- ish claims. Consult E. M. Earle's Turkey, the Great Powers, and the Bagdad Railway (1923), the most recent and most complete account, by an American. Consult also A. Cheradame's Le chemin de fer de Bagdad (1905), by a Frenchman; P. Rohrbach's Die Bagdadbahn (1902) and C. A. Schaefer's Die Enlwicklung der Bagdadbahn- politik (1916), by Germans; D. Eraser's The Short Cut to India (1909) and Sir Valentine Chirol's The Middle Eastern Question (1905), by Englishmen. Bage, ba-zha', town, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 175 miles west of Rio Grande do Sul city. It is the commercial centre of an extensive district, and is of mili- tary importance owing to its loca- tion near the frontier of Uruguay. Pop. 25,000. B a g e h o t , baj 'ut, Walter (1826-77), English economist, journalist, and critic, was born in Langport, in Somerset- shire. He was graduated with high honors from the University of London in 1846. Though called to the bar in 1852, he joined his father in the business of banker at Langport. In 1855 he became a contributor to and one of the editors of the National Review, and from 1860 to the end of his life he was also editor of the Economist. His most important works on economic and political subjects are Physics and Politics (1869); Lombard Street (1873), a fresh and lucid description of the money market; and The English Constitution (1867), a keen analy- sis of the English system of gov- ernment, widely used as a text- book. After Bagehot's death two volumes of Literary Studies (1879) and one of Economic Stud- ies (1880) were published. His literary essays are brilliant and humorous in style, though not without technical defects. Their sanity, breadth of view, and keenness of insight make them valuable contributions to English critical literature. Consult Me- moir prefixed to Literary Studies Birrell's Miscellanies; Duff's Out of the Past ; Stephen's Studies of a Biographer. Bagelen, bag'e-len, a residency of Central Java, East Indies, on the south coast. It is very fertile, and produces rice, sugar, tobacco, coffee, and indigo. Area, 1,323 sq. m. Pop. about 1,500,000. Bagelkhand. See Baghel- KHAND, Bag'gage is the personal prop- erty which a traveller may prop- erly carry with him to minister to the comfort and convenience of his journey. As usually defined, the term comprehends not only the clothing of the traveller, but Baggage Military 528 A Bagpipe a reasonable amount of jewelry and money. Innkeepers and com- mon carriers of passengers are bound to receive such baggage as the traveller brings with him, but not general merchandise, furni- ture, or household goods. They are liable for the loss of baggage proper, but not for other goods, unless lost or injured through their negligence. See Carrier. Baggage, Military. See Field Equipment. Bag'gara, Arab tribes living chiefly in Southern Kordofan, in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. They are hunters and herdsmen and own large herds of humped cat- tle, horses, and sheep. They are a warlike people and in the Mahdi's revolt against the Egyp- tians (1882) constituted his greatest strength. Baggesen, bag'ge-sm, Jens Emmanuel (1764-1826), Danish poet, was born in Korsor. His early poems attracted the atten- tion of the Duke of Augusten- burg, who sent him to study and travel in France, Switzerland, and Germany, where he met the most celebrated poets and philo- sophers. From 1800 to 1811 he lived in Paris, and from 1811 to 1813 he was professor of the Danish language at the Univer- sity of Kiel. Upon his return to Copenhagen he became involved in a literary feud with Oehlen- schlager (q. v.), the leader of the romantic school, and in 1820 left Denmark and retired to Ham- burg, where he died. Baggesen was a satirical humorist of the first rank, and a perfect master of his native tongue. His best works are Komiske Foflcellenger (1785); Labyrinthen eller Digler- vandringer (1792-3), recounting his impressions as a traveller; the polemical poems, Gjen ganger en and Per Vrdvler (1816); Parthe- nais Oder die Alpenreise (1804); a humorous epic, Adam und Eve (1826). His collected writings were published as Danish Works, German Works, and Skrifter. Baghal, ba-gal', Bagul, or Baghul, a hill state in the Pun- jab; area, 124 sci. m. The capi- tal is Arki, 20 miles northwest of Simla. Pop. 26,000. Baghelkhand, bag-el-kund', district under the British Central Indian Agency. Its area is 14,706 square miles, of which 13,000 belong to the native state of Rewa, while the remainder is divided among eleven small holdings. The country is tra- versed by the East Indian Rail- way. There are said to be ex- tensive ancient remains, but these have not been fully ex- plored. Pop. (1921) 1,638,623. Bagheria, ba-ga-re'a, or Ba- Garia, town, Sicily, in the prov- ince of Palermo, 8 miles by rail southeast of Palermo, and 2 miles from the north coast of Sicily. It contc^ins the now deserted villas of many Sicilian nobles. Pop. 21,500. Bagbirmi, ba-ger'me, or Bag- IRMI, territory (sultanate), Cen- tral Africa, in the Chad Terri- tory, French Equatorial Africa, with an area of about 71,000 square miles. It is a fairly fer- tile plateau, about 1,000 feet above sea-level. The Barmaghe (Mohammedan negroes) are the dominant race. Pennisetum, in- digo, and cotton are cultivated. Checkna is the capital. Pop. about 1,000,000. Baghistan. See Behistun. Bagimont's Roll, baj'i- monts, or Bagimond's Roll, an assessment roll of Scotch bene- fices made by the Italian Baji- mont de Vicci, who was sent by Pope Gregory x. to Scotland, to collect a tithe for the Crusade. It remained the basis on which Scottish livings were taxed until the Reformation. So far as is known, no contemporary copy is in existence. There is a late MS. copy in the Advocates' Li- brary, Edinburgh. BagnacavallOjba-nya-ka-val'- y5 (anc. Tiberiacum), old town, Italy, in the province of Emilia, about 11 miles west of Ravenna, with ancient walls and a fine cathedral. Pop. 16,000. Bagnara Calabra, ban-ya'ra ka-la'bra, town, Italy, in the province of Reggio di Calabria, Italy, on the west coast, 15 miles by rail northeast of Reggio. It was founded by Robert Guiscard. It suffered from an earthquake in 1783. Pop. 12,000. Bagneres de Bigorre, ba-nyar' debl-gor' (Latin A quensis Vicus), town, France, in the department of Hautes-Pyrenees, on the Adour River; 12 miles south of Tarbes. It has hot mineral springs (90°-124^ F.) and is visited annually by some 25,000 persons. It is famous, also, for its fine scenery and its winter sports. Pop. (1921) 14,341. Bagneres de Luchon, ' lu- shoh' (Latin Aquoe Onesios), town, France, in the department of Haute-Garonne, 2,065 feet above sea level; 72 miles southwest of Toulouse. It has sulphur springs (62°-151°F.), and is visited by some 40,000 persons annually. In the new section of the town are handsome buildings and promenades. Pop. 3,500. Bagnes, ban (French; Italian bagno), French convict prisons established at Toulon (1748), Brest (1750), Rochefort (1767), and elsewhere, on the abolition of the galleys. They were done away with in 1852, the convicts being thenceforward transported to French Guiana and New Caledonia. Consult Zaccone's Histoire des Bagnes. Bagni di Lucca, bii'nye di luk'ka, village, Italy, in the prov- ince of Lucca, 11 miles north of Lucca. Its springs, impregnated with sulphate o. magnesia and carbonate of Hme (100°-136° F.), have been known and visited since the thirteenth century; they figure in Heine's Reisebilder. Pop. 15,000. Bagni di San Giuliano, san joo-li-a'no, mineral baths in Italy, 5 miles northeast of Pisa. They were famous in antiquity, and are still used (temp. 80.5°-104° F.). Pop. 22,000. Bagno a Bipoli, ba'nyo a re'po-li, residential suburb, with baths, of Florence, Italy. Pop. 17,000. Bagno in Bomagna, ro-man' ya, town, Italy, on the north slope of the Etruscan Apennines, in the province of Florence. Its hot springs (105°-110 F.) con- tain natron. Pop. 10,000. Bag'ot, Sir Charles (1781- 1843), British diplomatist and administrator, was first in the public service as under-secretary of state for foreign affairs (1807). In 1814 he became minister to France; in 1816, minister to the United States; in 1820, ambassa- dor to Russia; and in 1824, am- bassador to Holland. While he was minister to the United States the treaty known as the Rush- Bagot Convention (q. v.) was negotiated (1817), by an ex- change of notes with Richard Rush (q. v.), then acting Secre- tary of State. The agreement, which is still in force, placed a limit on the number, size, and equipment of war vessels which each nation should maintain on the Great Lakes. In 1841, Lord Bagot succeeded Lord Sydenham as governor-general of the Canadas. Bag'pipe, a musical reed wind instrument of unknown origin, is believed to have been in existence before the Christian era, and at various times has been in use in nearly every European country. It was common in Germany and England as early as the fifteenth century, and is referred to by Chaucer, Spenser, and Shake- speare; and is still used in Italy, in Southern France, and in Great Britain (Ireland, Scotland, and Northumberland). The High- land bagpipe, which is now the most familiar, consists of an air- tight leathern bag, a wind-tube for blowing, three wooden pipes called drones, and the chanter, a pipe with notes, which produces the melody, the compass con- sisting of nine notes only. In playing, the drones point over the left shoulder, the bag is held under the left arm, the blow-pipe is taken between the lips, and the fingers manipulate the notes of the chanter. Occasional 'flour- ishing- or ornamental notes in- troduced by a player are known as warblers. The Irish bagpipe, with a much more elaborate chanter, is a very sweet-sounding instrument, but is now rarely seen. Vol. I.— March '25 Bagratldae 528 B Bahamas Bagratldae, ba-grat'i-de, or Bagratides, a dynasty of Ar- menian rulers, of whom the first was Ashod i. 'the Great,' who was recognized as sovereign prince of Armenia by Haroun al-Raschid in 885 a.d. The Bagratides were overthrown by the Seljuks toward the end of the eleventh century, though a branch line ruled over Little Armenia until 1375. Another branch ruled in Imeritia, in Georgia, down to 1802, when Georgia was annexed to the Russian Empire. Bagration, ba-gra-te-on', Peter Ivanovitch, Prince (1765-1812), a Russian general, descendant of the Bagratidae. He entered the army in 1782; be- came colonel at the siege of Ochakov (1788); served with Suvoroff in Poland (1794), and in Italy (1799), when he captured Brescia; and fought in the dis- astrous campaign in Switzerland. In the War of 1805 he covered the retreat of Kutusoff's army before Murat, and distinguished himself at Austerlitz (1805), and at Eylau and Friedland (1807); took part in the war in Finland (1808), and in Turkey (1809). In 1812 he was commander of the Russian army of the west; was defeated at Mohilev (July 25), and was mortally wounded at Borodino. Bagshot Beds, an important group of rocks found in the Eocene of the Thames basin, where they rest upon the London clay, and in the Isle of Wight. They are shallow marine and fresh-water deposits, consisting of sands, layers of flint pebbles, and occasional thin seams of pipe-clay. Bagster, Samuel (1772-1851), English publisher of Bibles, chief- ly polyglot, and New Testaments in Syriac and Hebrew. He also issued the famous English Hex- apla (1827). The firm still exists, under the title of Samuel Bagster and Sons, London. Baguet, ba-get', or Baguette (architectural), a small, round, convex moulding, called a bead- when plain, and a chaplet when carved and enriched. Bagul. See Baghal. Bag worm, Basketworm, or Dropworm (Thyridopleryx ephe- meroeformis) , a caterpillar moth belonging to the family Psy- chidae, common throughout the United States, particularly in the south. As a protection for its body the larva spins a bag of silk and bits of leaves, from which only the head projects. After about three weeks the male emerges as a small black moth. The female, which is wingless, never leaves the bag but deposits in it from 10 to 200 eggs, and these hatch the following spring. The bagworm feeds on a variety of trees, including the maple, arbor vitae, and cedar, causing Vol. I. — March '25 extensive defoliation. Removal of the bags is the best method of destruction; arsenate of lead used as a spray is also effective. Baha, ba-ha', Abdul, or Ab- bas Effendi (1844-1921), leader of the Babai movement, was born in Shiraz, Persia, the eldest son of the prophet Baha- Ullah (q. v.), upon whose death (1892) he became the leader of the Bahais. He was proscribed by the authorities and spent a great part of his life in exile or prison, but was released in 1907 and thereafter lived in Haifa. In 1921 he visited the United States. He was a man of learning and character and his home was a sort of Mecca for Bahais through- out the world. His writings in- clude many letters, known as the Tablets of Abdul Baha, which were written to individuals and assemblies, and translations of his teachings, talks, and prayers. Bahadur, ba-ha'aur. Shah (Abu-l-MozafTar Siradsch ed-din Mohammed) (1767-1862), the last of the Grand Moguls of the House of Tamerlane, and leader of a Mohammedan revolt against the British (1857). After the British capture of Delhi, he was taken prisoner in the tomb of Humayun, where he had sought refuge. He was tried and ban- ished to Rangoon, where he died. He was well known as a poet, some of his verses having been pubUshed under the title Safar (Victory). Baha'ism, or Behaism, a de- velopment of Babism which ac- knowledges Houssein Ali (1817- 1892) as the Baha Ullah (q. v.) whose coming was prophesied by the Bab. The basic principles of the Bahai religion are the one- ness of mankind, the independent investigation of truth, the accord of religion with science and rea- son, the unity of all religions, the equaUty of the sexes, universal peace, universal education, an international auxiliary language, and an international tribunal. The followers of Baha Ullah in- creased so rapidly that in a short time, although theirs was a peaceful mission, the Mohamme- dan authorities became alarmed and they were exiled to Acca on the shores of Syria. Some years before his death Baha Ullah declared his son Abbas Effendi (Abdul Baha, the 'Servant of God ') to be his successor (see Baha, Abdul); Abdul, who died in 1921, named his grandson Shoghi Effendi as head of the executive work of the cause. The Bahai movement has spread throughout Persia and other Eastern countries, Europe, Canada, and the United States, and numbers over 1,000, 000 ad- herents. A Bahai temple, stand- ing for unity between all races, creeds, and classes, is being erected in Chicago by voluntary contributions from all over the world; its cost is estimated at over a million and a half dollars. Consult Phelps' Life and Teaching of Abbas Effendi; Chase's The Bahai Revolution; Cheyne's The Reconciliation of Races and Religions (1914); Wilson's Bahaism and Its Claims (1915); Browne's Material for the Study of the Bahai Religion (1918); UoWeys Bahai, The Spirit of the Age (1921). Baha' mas, or Lucayos, the most northerly group of the West Indies, extending 780 miles between Florida and the east end of Santo Domingo. They comprise 29 inhabited islands and a large number of islets and reefs called keys, with an area of 4,404 square miles. The principal inhabited islands are New Providence, Abaco, Har- bour Island, Eleuthera, Mari- guana (Mayaguana), Ragged, Exuma, Long, Crooked, Cat, Watling and Andros Islands, and Great Bahama, most of them ports of entry. They are gener- ally long and narrow, covered with low, rounded hills of wind- blown shell and coral sand. The climate is agreeable and health- ful, and the islands are popular as a winter resort. From Novem- ber to May the temperature varies from 60° to 75° f. ; the re- mainder of the year from 75° to 85° F. The Bahamas contain no mineral deposits, but a good variety of building stone is pro- duced. The soil is fairly fertile, and small fruits, vegetables, pineapples, oranges, cocoanuts, grapes, and tobacco are grown. Sisal hemp cultivation is of im- portance, over 35,000 acres being under cultivation in 1920. Other leading occupations are sponge and pearl fishing. In 1922 the exports, chiefiy sponges, fibre, ambergris, and shells, were valued at more than £1,827,700, and the imports, principally textiles and flour, at almost £2,000,000. Nassau, on New Providence, is the capital, and the only town of importance. Pop. (1921) 53,031. The Bahamas were discovered by Christopher Columbus in 1492; the first land sighted is a matter of dispute but is gener- ally conceded to have been Watling's Island. An English vsettlement was made at New Providence in 1629, but was abandoned in 1703. In 1718 the islands were again taken by the British, whose claim has been undisputed since 1783. During the American Civil War, Nassau was the headquarters of the blockade runners and became exceedingly prosperous. The Cai- cos and Turks islands were politically separated from the Bahamas in 1848 and are ad- ministered by Jamaica. Baha Ullah 528 C Bahia Honda Baha Ullah, or MiRZA Hous- SEiN Ali (1817-1892), Persian prophet, was born near Teheran, Persia. On becoming a follower of Babiism (q. v.). he was im- prisoned (1852), deprived of his property, and sent to Bagdad, to Constantinople, to Adrianople, and finally (1868) to the Turkish penal colony in Acca, Syria, where he remained a prisoner with his family until his death. In 1862, Houssein Ali declared himself to be Baha Ullah ('He Whom God Should Manifest'), predicted by the Bab, a claim which is now recognized in many lands. Among his translated writings are the Book of I^han Bahawalpur, city, capital of the native state of Bahawalpur (q. v.), on a branch of the Indus River and the Northwestern Railway. It is an important trade centre, the chief industries being gold-enamelling and the manufacture of silks, chintzes, carpets, and pottery. The city has two hospitals, the Sadik Egerton college, an orphanage, and a palace, recently con- structed. Pop. (1921) 18,494. Bahia, ba-e'a, mountainous state of Brazil, stretching inland from the Atlantic and occupying the middle and northern parts of the Sao Francisco valley, with an area of 164,601 square miles. has been extensively improved, so that the largest ocean liners can come up to the docks. The city consists of two parts, an upper and a lower, connected by means of hydraulic elevators. The lower part, or business sec- tion, has narrow, dirty streets and poor sanitation, but the upper, residental section is clean and cool, with well paved streets and handsome buildings. It con- tains the cathedral, the finest ecclesiastical building in Brazil, the archbishop's palace, and the public library. There are also a university, medical college, normal school, school of fine arts, and a museum. Bahia is I'hoto from PuOlisners I'/ioio iiervict. (1904); Les Preceptes du Be- ha'isme (1906). See Bahaism. Bahawalpur, ba-ha'wul-pobr', native state of India, 1.5,003 square miles in area, under the political control of the Punjab government. It is largely desert, only about one-fifth being culti- vated. There is a deficiency of rain and of streams, but in the eastern part irrigation canals make possible the production of wheat, rice, and millet. The manufacture of silk is an im- portant industry. The North- western Railway traverses the state. The capital is Bahawal- pur (q.v.). The rulers, Abbasi Daudputras, claim descent from theAbbasid khalifs of Egypt. Pop. (1921) 781,191, The Bahamas; A Street in Nassau Agriculture is the chief occupa- tion of the large negro popula- tion. Sugar, cotton, coffee, cocoa, tobacco, and rubber are raised in the eastern part, and grazing is carried on in the west. Dia- monds are obtained from the mines of Sincora and Lenges. There are several whaling sta- tions along the coast. Bahia is the capital. Pop. (1920) 3,334,465. Bahia, or Sao Salvador da Bahia, city, Brazil, capital of the state of Bahia and an archie- piscopal see, is situated on Bahia de Todos os Santos (All Saints' Bay); 400 miles southwest of Pernambuco. It is an important railway centre and has a fine deep harbor, which since 1909 the centre of the tobacco, sugar, and cocoa trade, and exports, also, rubber, piassava, and tropi- cal fruits. It was founded in 1510 and from 1549 to 1763 was the capital of the country. Pop. (1920) 283,422. Bahia Blanca, seaport, Ar- gentina, in the province of Buenos Aires, 447 miles by rail southwest of Buenos Aires. It is the shipping centre of the southern part of the province, being known as the 'Liverpool of the South.' Large sums have been spent on the harbor. There is traflfic in grain and wool. Pop. (1914) 44,143. Bahia Honda, on'da ('deep port'), seaport in Pinar del Rio, Cuba, 53 miles west of Havana. Vol. I.— March '25 Bahnasa 528 D BalleF It has an excellent harbor, with a depth of IS to 36 feet. There are sugar, tobacco, and mining industries. It is a U. S. Navy coaling station. Pop. (1919) 1,402. Bahnasa, or Behnesa. See OXYRHYNCHUS. Bahr, bar, Arabic term con- noting river or lake — e.g. Bahr- el Abiad (White River). Bahr, Hermann (1863- ), Austrian critic, journalist, and dramatist, was born in Lin, and studied at the Universities of Vienna, Gratz, Czernowitz, and Berlin. He was one of the leaders during the nineties of the revolt against naturalism in German literature, and directed with others the 'Free Stage' in Berlin. Among his plays, novels, and short stories are Dora (1893); Renaissance (18 9 7); Wiener Theater (1899); Bildung (1900); Premieren (1901); Di Krampus (1901); Die Andere (1905); Die Stimmen des Bluts (1909); Das Konzert (1909); O Mensch (1910); Inventur (1912); Josephine (1913); Das Phantom (1913); Der Querulant (1914) ; Die Stimme (1917); Der Unmensch (1919); Summula (1921). Bahr, Johann Christian Fe- lix (1798-1872), German philol- ogist, was born in Darmstadt. He was educated at Heidelberg, and became professor of classical philology there in 1821. He published Geschichte der Rom- ischen Litter atur (2 vols., 1828- 32), with three supplements (1836, 1837, and 1840); also an edition of Herodotus (1830-5). Bahraich, ba-rich', chief town, Bahraich district. United Prov- inces, India, 65 miles northeast of Lucknow. The shrine of Masaud is visited by Moham- medans and Hindus. Pop. 30,- 000. Bahrdt, bart, Karl Fried- rich (1741-92), German Protes- tant theologian, was successively professor of Biblical philology at Leipzig (1766), of philOvSophy at Erfurt (1768), and of theology at Giessen (1771). The first two of these positions he was forced to relinquish on account of his profligacy, and from the third he was expelled following the publication of his heretical Translation of the New Testament (1772-5). In 1779 he settled in Halle, and there made the ac- quaintance of J. H. Everhard, who led him to extreme rational- ism. The last ten years of his life he spent as an inn keeper. In his Letters on the Bible (1782) Bahrdt anticipated the mythical theory of Strauss; his Letters for Truth-Seeking Readers (10 vols., 1784-6) are pervaded by a low moral tone. Consult his Auto- biography. Bahrein Islands, bii-ran', a group of islands under British protection, in the Persian Gulf, about 20 miles off the coast of Arabia. The largest, Bahrein, is 27 miles long by 10 miles broad and contains the capital Man- ameh (Pop. 35,000). Others in the group are Muharrek, Nabi Seiek, Jezcyra, and some tiny un- inhabited islets. Pearl fishing is the chief industry, engaging over 1,000 boats. Dates and figs are grown and a fine breed of white asses is raised. Sail cloth and reed mats are manufactured. The chief exports are rice, wheat, pearls, and coffee; the imports are specie, rice, sugar, and tobacco. The islands are gov- erned by an Arab sheik. Pop. 110,000, chiefly Mohammedans. Bahr-el-Abiad, the White Nile. See Nile. Bahr-el-Azrek, the Blue Nile. See Nile. Bahr-el-Ghazal, bar'd-ga- zal', a river rising in the Sudan and flowing into the White Nile in about lat. 9° 25' n. It is the main source of the floating vege- tation of the Nile. Its chief tributaries are the Bahr-el-Arab and the Bahr-el-Dschur. Bahr-el-Ghazal, an arm of Lake Chad, Africa, appearing periodically on the eastern side. It was formerly thought to be an outlet or inlet of the lake. Baise, bi'e, ancient town in Campania, Italy, on a bay west of Naples. It was the favorite watering-place of the Romans under the late republic and em- pire. It was at Baiee that Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus formed their famous triumvirate (60 B.C.) ; here also the Emperor Hadrian died (13^ a.d.). Baiburt, bi-boort', or Baibut, town, Armenia, 70 miles north- west of Erzerum. It has manu- factures of carpets, arms, and cutlery. Russian troops occupied the town in 1916. Pop. about 10,000. ■ Baidyabati, bid-ya-ba'te, town, Bengal, India, on the Hugli River, in the Hugli district; 15 miles northwest of Calcutta. It has manufactures of jute and hemp rope. Pop. 20,000. Baikal, bi-kal', the third larg- est lake in Asia, and the deepest fresh water lake in the world, is situated in Southern Siberia in the government of Irkutsk. It is 400 miles long, from 18 to 56 miles wide, and covers an area of 13,185 square miles. It lies 1,500 feet above sea level and is surrounded by rocky mountains over 4,600 feet high. Its depth in places is nearly 5,000 leet. It contains several islands, the largest of which is Olkhon. The waters of the lake are remarkably clear and cold and abound in several varieties of fish, notably salmon, sturgeon, and a fat oily fish known as golomynka, which is indigenous. The lake's surface is frozen from December to April. The Trans-Siberian railway pas- ses around the southern end, and the most important lake port is Lisvinichnoe. Baikie, ba'ki, William Bal- four (1825-64), Scottish ex- plorer, was a native of Orkney. He served as surgeon-naturalist with the Pleiad expedition (1854) up the Niger River. On a second expedition (1857) his ship was wrecked, and he remained up country for seven years, studying the Hausa and Fulfulde lan- guages. He translated parts of the Bible and the Prayer Book into Hausa, and wrote a Narra- tive of an Exploring Voyage up the Rivers Kwora and Binue. Bail, the process of surren- dering a person in legal custody to a competent person who un- dertakes to become responsible for the production of the former in court when wanted. The char- acter and amount of security sufficient to procure the release of a prisoner is sometimes fixed by statute, but is more often left to the discretion of the court. The term bail is equally applicable whether the person released is held on a civil or a criminal charge, though bail is not gener- ally allowed in cases of capital crime. In other cases the amount of security exacted is determined by the gravity of the offence charged. A prisoner accused of crime may be bailed in the inter- val between the arrest and the ar- raignment and again between the arraignment and the trial, but not after conviction. The surety must produce the prisoner for arraignment and trial, and he may at any time discharge him- self of further liability by surren- dering the latter into the custody of the law. The requiring of ex- cessive bail is prohibited by the Constitution of the United States. Bailen, bi-lan', town, Spain, province of Jaen, 22 miles by rail north of Jaen. It has mines and foundries of galena, and is fa- mous for its breed of Andalusian horses. Here the French general, Dupont, surrendered to the Spaniard Castaflos in 1808. Pop. 9,000. Bailey, Florence (Merriam) (1863- ), American author, was born in Locust Grove, N. Y. On leaving Smith College, she devoted herself to the study of birds, of which she is a sympa- thetic and accurate observer. Her published works include, in addition to numerous magazine articles: Birds Through an Opera Glass (1889); My Summer in a Mormon Village (1895); A-Bird- ing on a Bronco (1896) ; Birds of Village and Field (1898); Hand- book of Birds of Western United Stales (1902, 9th ed. 1924); Wild Animals of Glacier National Park (Birds, 1918); Birds Recorded from the Santa Rita Moun- tains in Southern Arizona (1923). Bailey, Gamaliel (1807-59), Vol. I. — March '25 Bailey American antislavery journalist, was born in Mount Holly, N. J. He was a practising physician for some time, and about 1834 be- came a zealous abolitionist. He was editor (1836-47), first with James G. Birney and after Sep- tember, 1837, alone, of The Philanthropist, an antislavery journal at Cincinnati, Ohio, and in 1847 became editor at Wash- ington, D. C, of the National Era, in which Mrs. Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin first appeared (1852). Bailey, Jacob Whitman (1811- 57), American naturalist, was born^ in Ward (now Auburn), Mass., and was graduated (1832) from the U. S. Military Academy. He served as an officer in the artillery until 1834, when he became a member of the teaching staff of the academy, and was professor of chemistry, miner- alogy, and geology until he died. He made valuable investigations with the microscope, for which he invented various appliances. He was president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1857, wrote many papers for scientific journals, and published Microscopical Sketches, containing more than 3,000 orig- inal drawings. Bailey, James Montgomery (1841-94), American journalist, was born in Albany, N. Y. He bought the Danbury Times, with which he combined another local paper in 1870, naming the new paper the Danbury News. His humorous contributions gave the paper a national reputation, and he became widely known as the 'Danbury News man.' He was active in local charities, was a lecturer, and published, among other books, Life in Danbury (1873), England from a Back Window (1878), and The Dan- bury Boom (1880). Bailey, Joseph (1827-67), American soldier, was born in Salem, Ohio. He served in the Union army throughout the Civil War, rising from the rank of captain (1861) to that of briga- dier-general of volunteers (April, 1865, to date from Nov. 10, 1864). As acting engineer of the 19th Army Corps he rendered 'dis- tinguished and meritorious ser- vices' in projecting and con- structing a temporary dam at the lower falls of the Red River, thereby enabling the flotilla under Admiral D. D. Porter to reach the waters of the Missis- sippi in safety. Bailey, Joseph Weldon (1863), American legislator, was born in Copiah county. Miss. He was admitted to the bar in 1883; removed to Gainesville, Tex., in 1885; and was represent- ative in Congress in 1891-1901, being leader of the Democratic minority in 1897-9. He served in the United States Senate for Vol. I.— Oct. '18. the terms /fcf 1901-13. He was known din-ing his Congressional career for his conservatism, his eloquence, and his knowledge of constitutional law. Bailey, Liberty Hyde (1858), American agriculturist and au- thor, was born in South Haven, Michigan. He was graduated from Michigan Agricultural Col- lege in 1882 (m. s. 1886); and was assistant to Asa Gray (q. v.) at Harvard University (1882-3). He was professor of horticulture and landscape gardening at Michigan Agricultural College (1883-8), and professor of horti- culture (1888-1903) and director of the College of Agriculture (1903-13), Cornell University. He has given special study to the subjects of botany and horti- culture and to rural problems, was chairman of the Roosevelt Commission on Country Life in 1908, and has written numerous works on agriculture, rural affairs, nature, and kindred subjects. Among them are: Survival of the Unlike; Evolution of Our Native Fruits; Beginners' Botany; Prin- ciples of Fruit Growing; Principles of Vegetable Gardening; Plant Breeding; Farm and Garden Rule- Book; Principles of Agriculture; Nursery Book; Forcing Book; Pruning Book; Practical Garden Book; The Nature Study Idea; Outlook to Nature; The Training of Farmers; Manual of Garden- ing; The State and the Farmer; The Country-Life Movement; The Holy Earth; Universal Service; Wind and Weather (verse). He has edited also: Cyclopedia of American Horticulture (4 vols.) ; Cyclopedia of Agriculture (4 vols.); Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture (6 vols.); Rural Bailey Science Series; Rural Text Book Series; Rural Manual Series; Rus, a Rural Who's Who. Bailey, Nathan (d.l742), Eng- lish lexicographer, and master of a boarding school at Stepney, London. He wrote the Universal Etymological English Dictionary, (1721-7; 30th ed. 1802), used by Johnson in preparing his more famous dictionary, and The An- tiquities of London and West- minster (1726), and edited the Dictionarium Britannicum (1730). Bailey, Philip James (1816- 1902), English poet, was born at Nottingham and was called to the bar in 1840, but never prac- ticed. His reputation rests wholly upon Festus, a poem which was published in 1839. It contains some fine passages, but is some- what marred by its striving for rhetorical effect. Bailey, Samuel (1791-1870), English economic and philosoph- ical writer, was born in Sheffield. After giving up his cutler's busi- ness, he twice contested Sheffield unsuccessfully as a philosophi- cal Radical (1832, 1834). His writ- ings are chiefly (1) economic, in one of which — on Value (1825) — he criticises Ricardo and others for confusing intrinsic value with exchange value; and (2) philo- sophical, the most valuable being Letters on the Philosophy of the Human Mind (1856-63) and Theory of Reasoning (1851). Bailey was a determinist, utili- tarian, and nominalist. Bailey, Solon Irving (1854), American astronomer, was born in Lisbon, N. H. He was graduated from Boston Uni- versity (1881; A.M., 1884), and from Harvard (a.m., 1888), founded a branch of the Harvard Lake Baikal. Bailey 530 Bailment observatory in the southern hemisphere, at Arequipa, in Peru, 1889, and in 1893 estab- Hshed on the summit of Misti (19,000 ft.) the highest scientific station in the world. He was successively assistant professor (1893-8), associate professor (1898-1913) and Philips professor (after 1913) of astronomy at Harvard. In 1908 and 1909 he carried on special astronomical investigations in South Africa. BaUey, Theodorus (1805-77), American naval officer, was born at Chateaugay, N. Y. He became a midshipman in the U. S. Navy in 1818, and as a lieutenant (com- missioned in 1827), took part in the conquest of California (1847), during the Mexican War. He is remembered particularly for his services, on the Federal side, during the Civil War. As captain (commissioned 1855) he cooper- ated with Gen. Harvey Brown in defending Pensacola (1861), and later (1862) was second in com- mand, under Farragut, of the fleet which captured New Orleans. As commodore (commissioned 1862) he commanded the Eastern Gulf Blockading Squadron, and captured numerous blockade run- ners. He became a rear-admiral in July, 1866. Bail 'iff, in Great Britain an official exercising a delegated authority. A private bailiff, or steward, is an agent in the care of property, real or personal, and is liable to his principal not only for the profits actually derived by him from the management of the property entrusted to him but for such additional profits as with proper diligence he might have made. Official or public bailiffs are of two kinds: (1) Sheriffs' bailiffs, who are charged with the execution of writs and processes, and summoning juries, and (2) county court bailiffs for executing processes issuing from the court. In the United States sheriffs have as in England bailiffs, usually called deputy-sheriffs, constables, or tipstaffs, who are under the orders of their superior or of the court. See vSheriff. Bairiwick, the district over which the jurisdiction of a bailiff or sheriff extends. BaiUeul, ba-yul', town, France, department of Nord, north of the River Lys; 18 miles northwest of Lille. Manufactures include beer, leather, lace, linen, and soap. Baillcul was the scene of violent fighting in the Great War 1914- ). It was taken by the Germans (April 15) in their great offensive in the spring of 1918, and retaken in the Allied offen- sive the following summer. Bail'lie, Lady Grisell (1665- 1746), Scottish poet, eldest daughter of Sir Patrick Hume, afterward first Earl of March- mont, was born at Redbraes Castle (now Marchmont House), Vol. I.— Oct. '18 Berwickshire. She is remembered chiefly for her pathetic lyric, Werena my heart Ucht I wad dee, and the fragment, The ewe- buchtin's honnie. Baillie, Joanna (1762-1851), Scottish dramatist and poet, was born at Bothwell, Lanarkshire. She went to London in 1784, and in 1790 published anonymously a volume of miscellaneous poems, entitled Fugitive Verses. Her first series of Plays on the Passions was issued in 1798, followed by a second in 1802, and a. third in 1812. These and The Family Legend, produced in Edinburgh in 1810, constitute her chief works as a dramatist. Some of her songs as, Woo'd an' married an' a'; Up, quit thy bower; and Saw ye Johnnie comin'? also became popular. Her Collected Works appeared in 1851, with a prefa- tory memoir. Baillie, Matthew (1761-1823), Scottish physician and anatomist, brother of Joanna Baillie, was born at Shotts, Lanarkshire, and studied medicine in London, un- der his uncle, William Hunter, the great anatomist, whom he suc- ceeded (1783) as lecturer on anat- omy. He was appointed physi- cian to George iii. about 1810. His Morbid Anatomy (new ed. 1833) was a standard work. BaUlie, Robert (1599-1662), Scottish theologian, was born in Glasgow. In 1622 he received episcopal ordination, and was shortly after presented to the parish church of Kilwinning. In 1637 he refused to preach in favor of Laud's service-book; and in 1638 he sat in that famous Gen- eral Assembly which met in Glasgow to protest against the thrusting of Episcopacy on an unwilling people. In 1840 he was selected by the Scottish leaders to go to London, with other com- missioners, and draw up charges against Archbishop Laud. In 1649 he was chosen by the church to proceed to Holland, and to invite Charles ii. to accept the Covenant and crown of Scotland. After the Restoration he was made Principal of Glasgow Uni- versity. Consult his Letters and Journals, edited by Laing for the Bannatyne Club. Baillot, ba-y5', Pierre Marie Francois de Sales (1771-1842), French violinist, was born at Passy, near Paris. He received his musical training at Paris and at Rome and was professor of violin in the Paris Conservatoire from 1795 until he died. Bailly, ba-y"', Jean Sylvain (1736-1793), French astronomer, was born in Paris. He was early admitted to the Acad'mie des Sciences, and he justified his honors by a succession of learned astronomical treatises, which cul- minated with his Histoire de I'Astronomie (5 vols. 1775-87). Elected president of the National Assembly June 17, 1789, and mayor of Paris on July 15, he conducted himself in these capa- cities with great integrity and purity of purpose; but at last lost his popularity by allowing the National Guard to fire on the masses who were assembled in the Champ de Mars, on July 17, 1791, to demand the dethrone- ment of the king. He was accused of being a royalist con- spirator, and was condemned, and executed by the Jacobins. From his papers were published his Essai sur I'Origine des Fables et des Religions Anciennes (2 vols., 1799), and Memoires d'un Temoin de la Revolution (3 vols., 1804). Bairment. The deposit of per- sonal property with a person not the owner so as to confer on the depositary a definite right to the possession thereof. It is of the essence of a bailment that the title or 'general property' in the goods shall remain in the bailor, and on the other hand that the bailee shall acquire a possessory interest, or 'special property' therein which the law will protect. A conditional sale or a mortgage, therefore, notwithstanding the temporary character of the inter- est created, is not a bailment, the legal title to the property having passed to the mortgagee or ven- dee; nor is the custody of goods by a servant a bailment, his possession being in fact that of his master or employer. Among the more common forms of bailment are the pawn or pledge, the common-law lien, the custody of goods by a common carrier, an innkeeper or a ware- houseman, the hiring and the loaning of chattels, and the like. The ordinary classification of bailments is derived from the Roman law. It comprehends (1) bailments for the sole benefit of the bailor; (2) bailments for the sole benefit of the bailee, and (3) bailments for the benefit of both parties. In the first case the gratuitous bailee is held to only a slight degree of diligence in caring for the property entrusted to him; in the second' case the bailee is required to exercise a high degree of care, and in the third case he must display the diligence of an ordinarily prudent person. Only in the case of the common carrier and innkeeper is the bailee abso- lutely liable for any injury sus- tained by the property in his custody irrespective of negligence on his part. (See Carrier; Inn- keeper.) In general any wilful miscon- duct of the bailee with refer- ence to the bailed property not only subjects him to an action for breach of the contract of bail- ment, but puts an end to the bail- ment and restores to the bailor the immediate right to the possession of the property. During the life of the bailment the bailee is enti- BaUy 531 Balrd tied to an action in trover or trespass for any wrongful inter- ference with his possession, ei- ther by the bailor or a stranger; whereas, if the bailment is for a definite time and is still unexpired, the bailor himself, not being in possession nor entitled to imme- diate possession, cannot maintain such an action against a third party, unless the act be such as to impair the value of the property to the bailor when he shall resume his possession. Ordinarily, the nature of a bailment is clearly established by the circumstances of its creation. In some cases, however — e.g., the deposit of grain in an elevator to be mingled with the grain of other depositors — a transaction which is on its face a sale or barter (mutuum) has the character of a bailment impressed upon it by custom or by special agreement of the parties. For the rights and obligations flowing from the various forms of bail- ment, see Hiring; Lien; Loan; Pledge. Bairy, Edward Hodges (1788- 1867), English sculptor, a native of Bristol, attracted the attention of Flaxman, in whose studio he worked for seven years (1807- 14). For his Eve at the Fountain (1818) and other works he was elected R.A. in 1821. His work was chiefly on domestic subjects (e.g., Motherly Love; Group of Children) and portrait statues — e.g., those of Wellington, Nel- son (Trafalgar Square), Byron, C. J. Fox, and Lord Mansfield. To him are also due the sculp- tures on the Marble Arch, Lon- don. BaU'y, Francis (1774-1844), English astronomer, practised as a stock broker in London from 1799 to 1825. On his retirement from business he devoted himself to astronomy; discovered Baily's Beads (q.v.); founded the Lon- don Astronomical Society (1820) ; revised the star catalogues of Flamsteed, Lalande, Lacaille, and others; reformed the Nautical Almanac; and repeated, in his own house, the 'Cavendish' ex- periments to determine the earth's density. He wrote a bi- ography of Flamsteed (1835). Consult Herschel's Memoirs of Francis Baily. Baily's Beads, the name given to a phenomenon in connection with eclipses of the sun, first fully described by Francis Baily (q.v.). Just before the beginning and after the end of the obscuration by the moon of the sun's disc, the thin, crescent-shaped unobscurcd portion of the sun seems usually to become suddenly discontinu- ous, and looks Hke a belt of bright points, varying in size and sepa- rated by dark spaces. The re- sulting appearance has been com- pared to a string of beads. The phenomenon is an effect of irra- VOL. L— Oct. '15 diation and the inequalities of the moon's edge. Bain, ban, Alexander (1818- 1903), Scottish philosopher, was born in Aberdeen. Educated at the university of his native city, he lectured there as deputy pro- fessor for a few years, afterward taught natural philosophy at the Andersonian University, Glas- gow, filled various other offices, and was appointed in 1860 to the chair of logic in Aberdeen. He resigned in 1881, and the same year was elected rector of his university. His chief works are: The Senses and the Intellect (1855), and The Emotions and the Will (1859). Other books are: JWm^a7 and Moral Science (1868); Logic, Deductive and Inductive (1870); The Relation of Mind and Body (1873); Education as a Science (1879), The distinguishing fea- tures of Bain's psychology were that he eliminated metaphysics, based his analyses upon physio- logical states and processes, and made subtle use of the mental laws of association, and thus largely determined the direction and methods of modern British psychology. He knew J. S. Mill well, and read bis Logic in manu- script, discussed the whole work in detail with him, and supplied him with many illustrative exam- ples drawn from the experimental sciences. Consult his Autobiog- raphy (1904). Bain'bergs, plate armor for the protection of the legs, introduced during the thirteenth century; worn over chain mail. Bain'bridge, city, county seat of Decatur county, Georgia, on the Flint River, and the Atlantic Coast Line and the Georgia, Flor- ida, and Alabama Railroads; 235 miles southwest of Savannah. There are ironworks, cotton-oil mills, brickyards, and turpentine distilleries. Pop. (1900) 2,641; (1910) 4,217. Bainbridge, William (1774- 1833) , American naval officer, was born in Princeton, N. J. After commanding a number of mer- chant vessels, he entered the U. S. Navy as a lieutenant in 1798. The same year, while in command of the schooner Retaliation, he was captured by the French frigates Volontier and Insurgente off Guadaloupe; and his report of the affair, after his release some weeks later, caused the enactment of the 'Retaliation Act,' directed against French subjects captured on the high seas. In 1800 he be- came a captain, and while in com- mand of the George Washington was despatched with tribute to the dey of Algiers, who forced him to convey an Algerian embassy to Constantinople. In the War with Tripoli (1801-05) he com- manded the frigate Philadelphia, which on Aug. 26, 1803, captured the frigate Meshboa, but which later in the same year, having run aground off Tripoli, was obliged to surrender; and Bainbridge and her crew of 300 were held as prisoners until the close of the war. His next important service was in the War of 1812, when he was made a commodore, and placed in command of a squadron. On Dec. 29, 1912, his flagship the Constitution (q.v.) captured the British frigate Java. In 1815 he commanded a squadron sent against Algiers; but peace was declared before he reached Carta- gena, and he returned to America. Subsequently, he was occupied in important service on shore, in command of the navy yards at Boston and Philadelphia, and as a member of the board of navy commissioners in Washington. Consult Life by Harris and by Barnes. Baiocco. See Bajocco. Bairaktar, bi-rak-tiir', or Bai- rakdar (1755-1808), grand vi- zier of the Ottoman empire, en- tered the army, and became pasha of Rustchuk. After the revolt of the Janissaries in 1807, by which Selim iii. (see Turkey) was deposed in favor of Mustapha IV., Bairaktar marched his troops to Constantinople, executed all those who had taken part in the murder of Selim, deposed Mus- tapha IV., and proclaimed the brother of this prince, Mahmud II., sultan on July 28, 1808. Bai- raktar was appointed grand vi- zier. His chief object was the annihilation of the Janissaries; but, favored by the fanatical people, these rebelled, and, with the support of the fleet, attacked the seraglio on Nov. 15, 1808, and demanded the restoration of Mustapha iv. Bairaktar de- fended himself to the last, and then died by his own hand. Bairam, bl-ram' or bi'ram, or Beiram, the Persian and Turkish name for a Mohammedan festival analogous to Easter. It com- mences immediately after the fast of Ramadan or Ramazan, which corresponds in its absti- nence to Lent. The festivities are generally protracted over three days. Seventy days after, the Moslems celebrate the second Bairam ('the festival of the sacri- fices'), instituted in commemora- tion of the offering up of Isaac by Abraham, when all the faithful of Islam must sacrifice victims. The second Bairam usually lasts four days. Baird, Sir David (1757-1829), British general, was born at New- byth, Scotland. In 1779 he sailed to India as captain in a Highland regiment, and in July, 1780, fell into the hands of Hyder Ali, whose prisoner he remained until 1784. In 1799, then a ma- jor-general, he signalized him- self at the victorious assault of Seringapatam. He commanded Balrd 531 A Bajocco an expedition sent to Egypt in 1801 for the expulsion of the French. In 1805 he commanded an expedition against the Dutch settlements at the Cape of Good Hope; in 1807 commanded a divi- sion at the siege of Copenhagen; and in 1808 was sent to Spain, with an army of 10,000 men, to assist Sir John Moore. He dis- tinguished himself in the Battle ofCorunna(Jan. 16, 1809). Onthe death of Moore he succeeded to the command, and was created a baronet. Consult his Life by Theodore Hook. Baird, Henry Carey (1825- 1912), American publisher and writer, was born in Bridesburg, Philadelphia, Pa. In 1841 he entered the publishing house of his uncle, Edward L. Carey, and in 1849 established the firm of Henry C. Baird & Co., the first house in the United States to make a specialty of the publish- ing of technical works. He also became widely known as a polit- ical economist; supported the cause of free silver and of protec- tion; and was one of the organ- izers of the Greenback Party in 1875-6. He published works on banking, money, and other eco- nomic subjects. Baird, Henry Martyn (1832- 1906), American educator and historian, was born in Philadel- phia. He was graduated from New York University (1850), studied at Athens (1851-2), and was graduated from the Prince- ton Theological Seminary (1856). From 1859 until . his death he was professor of the Greek lan- guage and literature in New York University. He was regarded as one of the foremost authorities on the history of the Huguenots. His works include: Rise of the Huguenots in France (1879) ; The Huguenots and Henry of Navarre (1886); The Huguenots and the Edict of Nantes (1895). Baird, Spencer Fullerton (1823-87), American naturalist, was born in Reading, Pa., and was graduated from Dickinson College (1840). He was profes- sor of natural sciences at that college from 1845 to 1850, and became the friend of Audubon, Agassiz, and other well-known naturalists. In 1850 he was made assistant secretary of the Smith- sonian Institution, where his special work was the develop- ment of the National Museum, which made its beginning under his direction in 1850; in 1878 he became secretary. In 1874 he was appointed the first U. S. Commissioner of Fish and Fish- eries, and in that capacity organ- ized the science of fish culture in the United States. Second only to Louis Agassiz, natural history in America is perhaps most indebted to .S. F. Baird. He was a born organizer Vol. I.— Oct. '15 of men and of methods, efficient, hard working, modest, and lov- able. G. Brown Goode compiled a bibliography of his writings up to 1882 (published as Bulletin No. 20 of the National Museum) , which contains 1,063 titles, and to which the product of his later years should be added. He edited the Annual Reports of the Smithsonian Institution from 1878 to 1887, and published a Catalogue of North American Reptiles (1853). He translated from the German and edited the Iconographic Encyclopcedia, and published Report^ on the collec- tions in natural history made by Stansbury, Gilliss, Marcy, and others in the Government explo- rations. In connection with John Cassin he published The Birds of North America (2 vols., 1860), and The Mammals of North America (1859); and with Brewer and Ridgway, History of the Birds of North America (5 vols., 1870- 84). Consult Life by his son; W. H. Dall's Spencer Fullerton Baird (1915). Baireuth, bi'roit. See Bay- REUTH. Bait Fishing ranks next to fly fishing as a sportsmanlike branch of angling (q.v.), and may be divided into spinning and live baiting. Spinning is usually accomplished with an artificial bait, the object being to present to the predatory fish a colorable imitation of one of the smaller species swimming away from it. Artificial baits are made of silvered, gilt, or painted metal, gutta percha, etc., and revolve upon a swivel. The best foot Hne for spinning baits is of twisted or single salmon gut, with at least two swivels; and when leads are necessary they should be colored green. Many anglers fail in spmning through not sinking the bait deep enough, and through spinning too rapidly. Spinning baits are best worked against stream. Live baits, in the parlance of anglers, are small fish, shrimps, or frogs. They must be vigorous, and should be used with snap tackle, that is to say, with hooks so arranged that they enter the mouth of the fish, and may be extracted to enable undersized or ill-conditioned specimens to be returned to the water. They are fastened to the foot line by gut strands, and the hooks being baited, the apparatus sinks to the bottom by means of a weight at the end. See Angling. Baitul. See Betul. Baize (Old French baies), a coarse woollen cloth with a long nap on one side, used mainly for coverings, curtains, and linings, but in some countries for cloth- ing also. Baja, bo'yo, town, county Bacs-Bodrog, Hungary, on the Danube; 90 miles south of Buda- pest. It has an imposing castle, manufactures of alcohol and shoes, and a large trade in fruit, grain, and swine. Pop. 21 000. Baja (ancient Baice), coast town, Italy, 10 miles west of Naples. See Bai^. Bajan. See Bejan. Bajaur, or Bajaor, district (area, 375 square miles) under British protection. Northeast Afghanistan, north of Kabul River and west of the Swat River. Bajazet I., bii'ye-zed', or Ba- YAziD (1347-1403), sultan of the Turks, succeeded his father, Murad i., in 1389, and began his reign by murdering his younger brother Yakub. In three years he conquered Bulgaria, with parts of Servia, Macedonia, and Thes- saly; and his swift subjugation of Asia Minor gave him the name of Ilderim, or 'Lightning.' He blockaded Constantinople for ten years, thinking to subdue it by famine. To rescue this city, King Sigismund of Hungary (after- ward emperor of Germany) as- sembled a large army, including 2,000 French nobles, and laid siege to the Bulgarian city of Nikopolis, on the Danube. Ba- jazet hastened to meet him, and gained a decisive victory over the allied Hungarians, Poles, and French (1396). Bajazet would now have entirely destroyed the Greek empire, if he had not been prevented by Timur, who at- tacked his possessions in Asia Minor, and completely defeated him (1402) near Angora. Bajazet was captured, and travelled in a litter with Timur's camp; which gave rise to the traditional story, used by Marlowe and others, that he was imprisoned in a cage. Bajazet II., or Bayazid (1447- 1512), son of the Sultan Moham- med II., the conqueror of Con- stantinople, ascended the Otto- man throne after his father's death in 1481. His reign, which lasted thirty-two years, was a succession of uninterrupted wars against Hungary, Poland, Ven- ice, Egypt, and Persia, which served on the whole to establish the Ottoman power. The sub- mission Bajazet always showed to the wishes of the Janissaries laid the foundation of the later importance of that body. He abdicated in favor of his youngest son, Selim, but died before he could reach the place of his volun- tary exile, in the neighborhood of Adrianople. He was a patron of learning, and the builder of many fine mosques and bridges. Bajimont. See Bagimont's Roll. Bajmok, boi'mok, town, prov- ince Bacs-Bodrog, Hungary; 13 miles southwest of Maria There- siopel. Pop. 8,000. Bajocco, ba-yok'ko, or Bai- occo (plural, Bajocciii), prior to Bajus 531 B Baker 1870 a copper coin in the Papal States, Central Italy, value nearly one cent. Bajus, ba'jus, or De Bay, Michael (1513-89), Roman Catholic theologian, was born at Melin, in Hainault. He studied at Louvain; and as professor of theology there took an active part in the Council of Trent (1563). A disciple of Augustine, he was taxed with heresy; eigh- teen of his propositions were cen- sured by the Sorbonne (1560), and seventy-six condemned by Pius V. (1567). Bajus made a public apology, but did not re- nounce his opinions, which even- tually developed into Jansenism (q. v.). Bakacs, bo'koch, Thomas (d. 1521), Hungarian statesman, the son of a peasant, was born about the middle of the fifteenth cen- tury. He held several bishoprics, and was successively secretary to King Matthias Corvinus, chan- cellor to Ladislaus ii., cardinal primate of Hungary (1500), and papal legate. Bakarganj, ba-kur-gunj', dis- trict, Eastern Bengal and Assam, India, in the Ganges-Brahmapu- tra delta. Area, 3,645 square miles. Pop. 2,300,000. Bakau, ba-kow'. See Bacau. Bakchiserai. See Bakhchi- sarai. Bakcl, ba-kel', fortified town of West Africa (fort built 1820), in the French colony of Senegal, on the Senegal River; 260 miles southeast of St. Louis. It has trade in dates, rice, beef, ivory, and gold dust. Pop. 3,000. Ba'kelite (oxybenzyl-methyl- en-glycol anhydride), a substance produced from the chemical union of phenol and formalde- hyde. It is an amber-like prod- uct, characterized by electrical insulating properties, great strength, insolubility in all known solvents, and resistance to most chemicals. It does not melt at 300° c. or over, but at higher temperatures chars and then burns with difficulty. In one of its preliminary con- ditions bakelite is a liquid which solidifies by the application of heat, enabling impregnation of coils for dynamos or motors, and the hardening of wood and other porous bodies. Compounded with asbestos, wood pulp, and similar fillers, it furnishes strong and accurately moulded articles. Transparent bakelite is suitable for pipe stems, jewelry, and other fancy articles, formerly made of amber, over which it has the ad- vantage of greater strength, more pleasing appearance, and lower price. It is not so flexible as hard rubber or celluloid, but answers better certain special purposes on account of its greater resist- ance to heat and solvents. It is used also as a varnish or enamel, and as a protective coating; and serves many purposes now filled by the inflammable celluloid. Bake- lite is the invention of Dr. Leo Baekeland. Ba'ker, city, Oregon, county seat of Baker county, on the Powder River, and the Sumpter Valley and the Oregon- Washing- ton and Navigation Company Railroads; 357 miles southeast of Portland. It exports gold and silver from the neighboring mines, wool, live-stock, and lum- ber. Industries include saw. planing, and flour mills, iron works, brickyards, creameries, milk condensery, and clay and stone quarries. The city has the commission form of government. Pop. (1910) 6.742; (1920) 7,729. Baker, Sir Benjamin (1840- 1907), English civil engineer, joint designer (1882) " with Sir John Fowler of the Forth Bridge (see Bridges), and joint engineer of the Assuan Dam (see Dams). He designed the ship that brought the obelisk Cleopatra's Needle from Egypt to New York City, and assisted in the con- struction of the Blackwall Tun- nel, the Tower Bridge, and the Metropolitan Railway system of London. He was also the in- ventor of the pneumatic shield for tunnelling under rivers. Baker, Charles Fuller (1872- ), American botanist and zoologist, was born in Lan- sing, Mich., and was graduated from the Michigan Agricultural College (1892). After teaching biology and botany for several years, he became botanist of the H. H. Smith exploring expedi- tion in Colombia (1898-9), and later headed field explorations in Nicaragua, Cuba, Brazil, and the Western United States. From 1904 to 1908 he served suc- cessively as chief of the depart- ment of botany at the agronomi- cal station of Cuba, and as cura- tor of the botanical garden and herbarium in Para, Brazil. He was assistant professor (1903-04) and professor (1908-12) of biol- ogy in Pomona College, Cali- fornia, and after 1912 professor of agronomy in the University of the Philippines. He published: Invertebrala Pacifica; Economic Plants of the World (with others) . Baker, Edward Dickinson (1811-61), American soldier and legislator, was born in London, England. He was brought to America by his father in 1815; practised law at Springfield, 111.; served in both houses of the Illi- nois legislature; was a member of Congress (1845-6, 1849-51); and served as colonel in the Mexican War (1846-7), commanding a brigade at the Battle of Cerro (iordo. In 1851 he removed to California, and subsequently to Oregon, being U. S. Senator from the latter vState (I860 1). On the outbreak of the Civil War he entered the Federal Army as a colonel, and in September, 1861, was appointed a major-general of volunteers. He was killed in the Battle of Balls Bluff (Oct. 21. 1861). Baker, Frank (1841-1918), American anatomist, was born in Pulaski, N. Y. He served in the Civil War (1861-3), and was graduated in medicine from Columbian University (1880) and from Georgetown Univer- sity (PH.D. 1890; LL.D. 1914). From 1883 to his death he was professor of anatomy at George- town University, and from 1890 to 1916 superintendent of the National Zoological Park at Washington. He served as vice- president of the American Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science (1890), and as president of the Association of American Anatomists (1897). From 1891 to 1898 he was editor of the American Anthropologist. Baker, Frank Collins (1867- ), American zoologist, was born in Warren, R. I. He was educated at Brown Univer- sity and the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, and was sent (1890) by the latter institu- tion on an exploring expedition into Mexico. In 1894 he was made curator of zoology at the Field Columbian Museum, Chi- cago, 111., was curator of the Chicago Academy of Sciences (1894-1915), zoological investi- gator. New York State College of Forestry (1915-17), and cura- tor of the Natural History Museum, University of Illinois, after 1918. He published: A Naturalist in Mexico (1895); Mollusca of the Chicago Area (1898-1902); Shells of Land and Water (1903); The LymnceidcB of North and Middle America (1911); Relation of Mollusks to Fish in Oneida Lake (1916); Life of the Pleistocene (1920). Baker, George Pierce (1866- ), American educator, was born in Providence, R. I. He was graduated from Harvard Uni- versity in 1887, and was associ- ated with that university as in- structor, assistant professor (1895-1905), and professor (after 1905) of English. He published Principles of Argumentation (with H. B. Huntington; new ed. 1905), The Development of Shakespeare as a Dramatist (1907), and Dra- matic Technique (1919); and edited the following works: Speci- mens of Argumentation (1893); Forms of Public Address (1904); Some Unpublished Correspondence of David Garrick (1907); Corre- spondence of Charles Dickens and Maria Beadnell (1906); and a number of Elizabethan plays. He also wrote and produced a number of pageants. Baker, Henry (1698-1774), English scientist and poet, was born in London. He instituted a successful method of instructing Vol. I. — March '24 Baker 532 Baking Powder deaf mutes, studied natural sci- ence and the writing of verses, and was associated in journalism with Defoe. He wrote The Mi- croscope Made Easy (1743) and Employment for the Microscope (1753), and in 1744 was awarded the Copley Medal for experi- ments on the crystallization of salt. He founded the Bakerian lecture of the Royal Society. Baker, Moses Nelson (1864- ), American editor and writer on engineering and municipal subjects, was born in Enosburgh, Vt. He was graduated from the University of Vermont (1886), and in 1887 joined the editorial staff of the Engineering News, now Engineering News-Record, New York, starting the engineer- ing literature section in 1902, and editing it after that time. He is a recognized authority on munici- pal government, engineering, and sanitation, and has contributed to Nelson's Perpetual Loose Leaf Encyclopedia on those subjects. He was a member of the board of health of Montclair, N. J., from 1894 to 1915 (presi- dent 1904-15); and vice presi- dent of the New Jersey State Board of Health (1915-16). He edited the Manual of American Water Works (new ed. 1897) and Municipal Year Book (1902), and wrote numerous works on sani- tary and municipal engineering. Baker, Newton Diehl (1871- ), American Cabinet officer, was born in Martinsburg, W. Va. He was graduated from Johns Hopkins University (1892), stud- ied law at Washington and Lee University, and was admitted to the West Virginia Bar (1894). In 1899 he removed to Cleveland Ohio, where he served four terms as city solicitor (1902-12), and was active in Mayor Tom L. Johnson's campaign for a three- cent trolley fare (see Cleve- land). From 1912 to 1915 he was mayor of Cleveland, during which time he built a municipal electric light plant and generally continued the progressive poli- cies of his former chief, maintain- ing the reputation of Cleveland as one of the best governed cities of the country. In March, 1916, he was appointed Secretary of War to succeed Lindley M. Garri- son, resigned, which office he held until the end of the Wilson administration, when he re- turned to the practise of law at Cleveland. Baker, Ray Stannard (1870- ), American author, known also by the pseudonym 'David Grayson', was born in Lansing, Mich. He was graduated from the Michigan Agricultural Col- lege (1889; ll.d., 1907), and studied law and literature in the University of Michigan. He was on the staff of the Chicago Record (1892-7); managing editor of the McClure Syndicate (1897-8); Vol. I. — March '24 associate editor of McClure's Magazine (1899-1905); and one of the editors of The American Magazine (1906-15). During 1918 he was sent by the U. S. Department of State as special commissioner to Great Britain, France and Italy, and the follow- ing year he acted as director of the Press Bureau of the American Commission to Negotiate Peace, at Paris. He published: The Boys' Book of Inventions (1899); Our New Prosperity (1900); Seen in Germany (1901); Second Boys' Book of Inventions (1903); Fol- lowing the Color Line (1908); New Ideals in Healing (1909); The Spiritual Unrest (1910); What Wilson Did at Paris (1919); The New Industrial Unrest (1920) ; ■ Woodrow Wilson and World Set- tlement (3 vols. 1922). Under his pseudonym appeared: Adventures in Contentment (1907); Adven- tures in Friendship (1910); The Friendly Road (1913); Hempfield (1915); Great Possessions (1917). Baker, Sir Samuel White (1821-93), English author and explorer, who, after exploring the Blue Nile and tracing the course of the White Nile, in 1864 reached the great fresh-water lake to which he gave the name of Al- bert Nyanza. On his return to England he was knighted. In 1869-73 he commanded an expe- dition organized by the Khedive of Egypt for the suppression of the slave trade and the annexa- tion of the equatorial regions of the Nile basin. He subsequently (1879) made a thorough explora- tion of Cyprus. He was author of: The Rifle and the Hound in Ceylon (1854); Eight Years' Wan- derings in Ceylon (1855; new ed. 1890) ; The Albert Nyanza (1866) ; The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia (1867); Ismailia (1874); Cyprus as I Saw It in 1879 (1879); Wild Beasts and Their Ways (1890). Consult Life by Murray and White. Baker, Valentine (1827-87), known also as Baker Pasha, British soldier, brother of Sir Samuel Baker (q. v.), joined the army in 1848, and served in the Kafifir War (1852-3), in India, and in the Crimea (1855). He became a major-general in the Turkish army in 1877, and served in the Russo-Turkish Wai. He organized and commanded (1882- 7) the Egyptian gendarmerie for the Khedive, and was routed at the first battle of El Teb (1884) by the tribesmen of Osman Digna. Baker, Mount, volcano, What- com county. Northwest Wash- ington, in the Cascade Range, a continuation of the Rocky Moun- tains; 20 miles from the Canadian frontier. It is in eruption from time to time, and was active in 1843 and 1880. Altitude, 10,827 feet. Bakersfleld, city, California, county seat of Kern county, on the Kern River, and on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe, and the Southern Pacific Rail- roads; 125 miles northwest of Los Angeles. It has a public library and fine county build- ings. In 1919 industrial estab- lishments numbered 73, with a capital of $3,971,755, and prod- ucts valued at $5,699,051. These include oil refineries, machine shops and foundries, planing and flour mills, and packing houses, largely operated by electric power generated at the Kern River. Fruit, meat, live-stock, hides, and wool are exported. Pop. (1900) 4,836; (1910) 12,727; (1920) 18.638. Baker University, a coeduca- tional institution of learning at Baldwin, Kans., founded in 1858 by the Methodist Episcopal Church. The University com- prises the College of Liberal Arts, Musical Conservatory, De- partment of Fine Arts, prepara- tory professional courses, and Summer School. There is a campus of sixteen acres, a fine athletic field, and a library of about 45,000 volumes. For re- cent statistics see College. Bakhchi-Sarai, bak'che-sa-ri', or Bakchiserai, town, Crimea, Russia, once capital of the khan- ate of Krim, in the valley of Cho- ruk; 20 miles southwest of Sim- pheropol. It contains the an- cient palace (1519) of the Tartar khans. In 1854 it was the head- quarters of the Russian army for the relief of Sebastopol. Pop. 15,000. Bakhmeteff, George, Russian diplomat, was educated at the University of Oxford, England. He was Master of the Imperial Court of Russia, and privy coun- cillor; and from 1911 to 1917 represented his country as Am- bassador Extraordinary and Pleni- potentiary to the United States. Bakhmut, bak-moot', or Bach- MUT, town, Ekaterinoslav govern- ment, Russia; 125 miles east of Ekaterinoslav city. It produces coal, salt, alabaster, and quick- silver, and manufactures steel rails. Pop. 20,000. Bakhtegan, bak'te-giin', or Niris, a salt lake in the Persian province of Farsistan, 50 miles east of Shiraz. Area, about 400 square miles. Baking. See Cookery. Baking Powder, a compound used in cooking in the place of yeast, consisting of an acid and an alkali. Bicarbonate of soda is the alkali generally used, and cornstarch is the usual filler, but the acid constituent varies, be- ing tartaric acid in tartrate powders, aluminum sulphate in alum powders, and some form of phosphoric acid in phosphate powders. When the powder is moistened, carbonic acid gas is generated and this blows or Bakony Wald 533 Balseniceps pufifs up the doughy mass. See Bread. Bakony Wald, bok'o-ne, a broad, hilly region (alt. 2,000- 2,340 feet) of Hungary, stretch- ing southwest from the elbow of the Danube above Budapest, par- allel to Lake Balaton, for 50 miles, and forming a division between the great pusztas (plains) on the east of the Danube and the plain of the Raab. Large herds of swine are annually driven hither. The swineherds were formerly the robbers celebrated in the ballads of the Hungarian people. Bakshish, bak'shesh, or Back- shish (Persian 'a gift'), a word used throughout the East for a gratuity or 'tip' for services ren- dered; though it is demanded, often, with threats. Bakst, bakst, Leon Nikola- jEwiTSCH (1868), Russian deco- rator and designer, was born in Petrograd of Jewish parentage. He studied at the Academy of Arts in Petrograd, and in Paris. He resided in Moscow until 1906, when he removed to Paris. He has become distinguished for his elaborate stage settings, espe- cially in connection with the pro- ductions of the Imperial Russian ballet — e.g., Cleopatra and Sche- herazade. Other notable works by him were the Egyptian set- tings for Salome; the Greek set- tings for A Faun's Afternoon, Narcisse, and Daphne and Chloe; the Byzantine settings for the opera Boris Godounoff; and the mediaeval settings for D'Annun- zio's Saint Sebastien. Baku, ba-koo', Russian govern- ment of the Eastern Caucasus, including the plains of the lower Kura and Aras, and the Talish Mountains. Its greatest impor- tance arises from its oil wells, mostly located in the vicinity of the city of Baku (q.v.). The chief crops are wheat, millet, maize, and rice; saffron, madder, and cotton are also grown, and silk is produced. The coast fish- eries are important, but the main industries are in the neighbor- hood of Baku city. Area, 15,060 square miles. Pop. 1,050,000. I Baku, city, seaport, and ad- ministrative centre of the govern- ment of Baku (q.v.), Russia, is situated on the Apsheron penin- sula, and has a fine natural har- bor on the Caspian Sea. Since 1883 it has been the eastern ter- minus of the railroad connecting the city with Tifiis, and with Poti and Batum, on the Black Sea, 561 miles distant; since 1887, the North Caucasus Railway has con- nected Baku with Novorossiisk, on the Black Sea. The soil around Baku is satu- rated with petroleum, and oil refining constitutes the chief in- dustry of the town. The larger number of the 3, 000 wells are sit- uated on the Balakhani Peninsula, Vol. I.— Oct. '15 8 miles north of the town, and lines of pipe carry the oil into the 'black town' to the refineries, where it is prepared for exporta- tion. The Baku output of 6,700,- 000 tons in 1912 was nearly four- fifths of Russia's total supply, notwithstanding the Baku output had decreased nearly 1,000,000 tons since 1910. Geologists claim that the Baku field is far from ex- hausted, but that the oil must be secured from greater depths. Shipbuilding yards and tobacco factories are also located at Baku. Cotton, silk, opium, saffron, rice, and salt are exported from Persia via Baku. Pop. (1897) 112,2.53; (1914) 200,000, largely Tartars and Armenians. The earliest mention of Baku is by the Arabian historian Masu- di, about 943. The ancient Par- sees or fire worshippers made Atesh-Ga (q.v.) (the 'place of fire') an object of pilgrimage, as there natural gas, or naphtha, issued from the ground and ig- nited spontaneously. The Per- sians possessed Baku from 1509 to 1723, when the Russians cap- tured it. After twelve years it was restored to Persia, but Rus- sia finally took possession in 1806. In 1901 a disastrous fire visited the city. Labor riots occurred in January, 1905, during the prog- ress of which some hundreds of oil towers were burned, a loss of $13,500,000 incurred, and many persons killed and wounded. Consult Marvin's The Region of Eternal Fire; Henry's Baku, an Eventful History (1906). Bakunin, ba-koon'yen, Mich- ael (1814-76), Russian revolu- tionist and anarchist, was born near Moscow. After serving for a short time in the Imperial Guard, he studied philosophy at Berlin (1841), thence went to Dresden, and later (1847) to Paris, where he became ac- quainted with George Sand and the socialist Proudhon. A little later he took an active part iiji the revolutionary movements at Prague and Dresden, and being arrested in Saxony (1849), was condemned to death. He was, however, given up to Russia, where he spent several years in prison. He was sent to Siberia in 1855, but managed to escape in an American ship to Japan, and arrived in England in 1861, In 1865 Bakunin was in Italy diffusing his socialistic views. In 1869 he founded the Alliance of the Social Democracy, which soon joined the International Workingmen's Association. As the leader of militant anarchism, Bakunin was in the International the opponent of Karl Marx. In 1872 he was expelled from the International, and retired to Switzerland. He wrote a large number of works, the chief being: L'Empire Knouto-Germanique et la Revolution Sociale; La Theol- ogie Politique de Mazzini et 1' In- ternationale; Dieu et I'Etat. Ba'laam, a prophet, seer, or soothsayer, who, according to Num. xxii.-xxiv., was summoned by Balak, king of Moab, to pro- nounce a curse upon Israel, and thereby arrest the march of that people toward Canaan. On the way from his home in Pethor, or Pitru, a city of Mesopotamia, near the Euphrates, the angel of the Lord met him. The proph- et's ass saw the apparition and turned aside in terror; but Ba- laam, not perceiving the angel, beat the animal three times, whereupon the beast 'spake with man's voice, and stayed the mad- ness of the prophet.' Three times Balak prepared the sacrifice for the ceremony of execration upon Israel, the first at Bamoth-Baal, 'the high places of Baal,' the second at Pisgah, and the third at Peor; but instead of the desired curse, Balaam ut- tered a series of oracles or predic- tions, prophetic of Israel's future greatness. However, Balaam succeeded in assisting Balak by his evil counsel to the Israelites, and for a time caused the latter to forfeit the favor of Jehovah by leading them into sin through the Moabitish women. He was slain while fighting on the side of the Midianites against Israel (Num. xxxi. 8, 16; Micah vi. 5-8; Rev. ii. 14, etc.). Nearly all the references to Balaam in Scripture, particularly in the New Testament, speak of him with opprobrium, and hold him up as a warning example of those who love the hire of un- righteousness. Probably the sig- nificance of Balaam's prophe- cies lies in the fact that a Gentile at that time should foretell Is- rael's greatness, which had the effect of encouraging the people against their enemies. Consult N. Schmidt's Messages of the Poets (p. 327, 1911). BaMa Beds. The rocks of the Bala district, North Wales, con- tain two limestones, separated by some 1,400 feet of arenaceous and slaty strata. The lower lime- stone (25 feet) is called the Bala limestone, and has been followed over a considerable area; the upper, or Hirnant limestone, is local. Bala beds form a group of the Lower Silurian. In the Snowdon region they attain great thickness, and show intercalated sheets of felsitic lava and tuff. See Silurian. Barachong, a condiment used in China for eating with rice. It is made of shrimps or small fish pounded with salt and spices and then dried. Baliena, ba-le'na. See Whale. Bala^niccps, ba-le'ni-seps ('whale- headed'), or .Shoe- Billed Stork, a gigantic grallatorial bird Balsenoptera 534 Balance found only on the Upper Nile. It has a large, hooked, very broad and flat bill, resembling that of the boatbill (q.v.). Bal'senopHera. See Fir^ Whale. Balaghat, ba-la-got' ('above the Ghats'), the elevated table land of Berar, India, which lies between the Eastern and West- ern Ghats. Balaguer, ba-la-gar', Victor (1824-1900) , Spanish administra- tor, poet, and historian. He be- came an active Radical leader and advocate of the rights of Cata- lonia; fled to France in 1866, and threw himself into the Provencal literary movement. In 1868 he became a leader in the Cortes, and minister of colonies in 1886. He is chiefly known by his Cata- lan poems (Poesias Covipletas, 1874, and Obras Poeticas, 1880), more particularly the collection known as Trovador de Montser- rat (1850), and tragedies (Trage- dias, 6th ed. 1891), his Historia de los Trovador es (1878-80), and especially his Historia de Catalun. Balak-hissar. See Balikesri. Balakireff, ba-la'ker-yef, Mili Alexeievitch (18.37-1910), Rus- sian musical composer, was born at Nizhni Novgorod. He appeared with great success as a pianist in St. Petersburg in 1855; was con- ductor of the Russian Musical Society in 1867-70; and, later, director of the imperial orches- tra. His works include: King Lear; Tamara and Russia, both symphonies; Islamey, an Oriental fantasia for the piano; an inter- esting collection of Russian popular songs (1866); and many overtures with Russian, Spanish, and Czech (Bohemian) themes. He edited a selection of Tausig's pianoforte pieces in 1908. Balaklava, ba-la-kla'va, or Balaclava, port and health re- sort, southwest coast of Crimea, Russia, in 44° .30' n. lat. ; 8 miles southeast of Sebastopol, from which it is separated by a rocky peninsula. The harbor, which affords secure anchorage for the largest ships, till 1860 was a naval station. Pop. village, 2,000. In 1854-6 Balaklava was the head- quarters of the British force dur- ing the Crimean War; and it is chiefly memorable for the action of Oct. 25, 1854, and the charge on the Russian guns by the Light Brigade (the 'Six Hundred'). (See Crimean War.) Consult King- lake's Invasion of the Crimea; Paget's The Light Cavalry Bri- gade in the Crimea. Balalaika, bal'a-li'ka, a musical instrument very much used in Russia for the accompaniment of popular songs. It is a stringed instrument, with, generally, two strings, and resembles a guitar. Balamban, ba'Iam-ban', pueb- lo, Ccbu, Philii)pines, on the Strait of Tanon; 25 miles north- VOL. I.— Oct. '15 west of Cebu town. It has a good harbor, and an active trade. Pop. 13,000. Balance, an instrument for de- termining the relative weights or masses of bodies, usually by ref- erence to certain standard units that the beam shall be able to oscillate freely on its support, the fulcrum consists of a steel or agate prism, or 'knife edge,' with its sharp edge at right angles to the direction of the beam, and resting on a plane of polished Common Form of Balance. Fig. 1. Or linarv balance — a, knife edge, and h, polished plane, of steel or agate; c, pointer. Fig. 2. Steelyard. Figs. 3 and 4. Spring balance, interior and front view — a, spring; h, case; c, hook; d, scale pan; e, index-finger; /, scale. (pounds, ounces, grams, etc.). There are many varieties of bal- ance. The ordinary balance con- sists of a lever of the first kind, called the beam, which is sup- ported on a fulcrum in the middle, and from the extremities of which are hung two scale pans, one for the weights, the other for the object to be weighed. In order steel or agate, thus reducing fric- tion to a minimum. Further, to insure that the arms of the beam keep at absolutely the same length irrespective of their move- ments, the scale pans are hung from hooks containing planes, which rest on similar knife edges at the ends of the beam. Fre- quently a needle or pointer is Balance fixed to the centre of the beam in such a way that one end oscil- lates along the arc of a circle, and comes to rest in the line of direc- tion from the fulcrum to the centre of gravity of the beam, or swings evenly on each side of that line, when the balance is horizontal. The following are the require- ments of a good balance: — (1.) The two arms of the beam must be precisely the same length, otherwise unequal weights in the scale-pans will be necessary to produce equilibrium of the lever. (2.) The balance should be in equilibrium when the scale-pans ar^ empty. (3.) The centre of gravity of the beam, when hori- zontal, should be in the same vertical line with the knife-edge of the fulcrum, and a short dis- tance underneath the latter, in order to insure that the beam, when at rest, shall assume a posi- tion of stable equilibrium. (4.) The balance should be delicate — i.e. should answer to the least alteration of the weights in the scale-pans. This is effected (a) by making the arms of the bal- ance long, while their weight is reduced as far as the necessary rigidity will permit; (b) and by having the centre of gravity but little below the knife-edge of the fulcrum; while (c) due attention must be given to d.iminishing fric- tion by having the knife-edges of the supports as sharp, and the bearings as hard, as possible. A balance to be used in the pro- cesses of chemical analyses must possess extraordinary delicacy, even to one ten-thousandth of a gram or one one-thousandth of a grain. In order to prevent the wearing away of the knife-edges of the fulcrum and of the scale-pans as much as possible, the wnole beam, and the pans from the beams are raised off tneir bearings, when not in use, by means of a screw; and to protect the balance from dust, moisture, air currents, or other disturbance of conditions, it is invariably, even when in use, kept within a glass case, one side of which is movable. Of the numerous special modi- fications of the balance only two require separate notice — the Ro- man balance and the spring bal- ance. The Roman balance, or steelyard, consists of a bar of steel suspended near one of its ends, from which hangs the object to be weighed, while along the longer arm moves a weight used as a counterpoise. As the counter- poise is on the longer arm, a much smaller weight can balance a heavy object, and thus its use obviates the necessity of heavy weights — an advantage which leads to its employment in cases when it is necessary to move the weighing apparatus from place to place, or when the objects to be weighed 535 (carts, wagons, etc.) are very heavy. Tne spring balance has for its essential part a cylindric coil of spring wire in a vertical case. From the lower end of the coil depends a hook supporting a scale-pan, and on the front of the case is an index-finger, which moves up and down a slot accord- ing to the strain put on the spring by the varying weights in the pan. A graduated scale is placed along the side of the slot, and the index at once shows the weight of any object put in the scale-pan. The spring balance becomes unreli- able when frequently used. See Glazebrook and Shaw's Practical Physics (1893) Balance of Power, a political Erinciple implying such a distri- ution and opposition of forces among the nations forming part of one system that no state or combination of states shall en- danger the rights or independence of any other state. It was this that Henry iv. of France and his great minister Sully had in view when, in 1603, they proposed the establishment among the Euro- pean states of a Republique tres Chretienne: it underlay the ar- rangements of the Peace of West- phalia (1648, closing the Thirty Years' War), which curtailed the power of the house of Hapsburg; and, again, it led to the European coalition against the aggressions of Louis XIV. of France, which received their final check in the treaty of Utrecht (1713). For the same reason Napoleon met with the desperate opposition of Eu- rope, led by Britain; and the settlement effected by the Con- gress of Vienna (1815) was based on calculations of the balance of power. To it also was due the coalition of Britain, France, Sar- dinia, and Turkey against Russia, which resulted in the Crimean War (1854). The influence of the same f)rinciple was operative in the Ber- in Congress oi 1878 j and it may be traced in recent international arrangements, in which the power of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria, and Italy) has opposed to it that of the Dual Alliance (France and Russia) ; in the grow- ing movement towards an Eng- lish-speaking confederacy for the mutual protection of its members against foreign interference, and in the alliance of Britain and Japan for reciprocal support in the Far East. See Dilke's The Present Position of European Pol- itics (1887); Hume's Essays, ii. 7. Balance of Trade. See Trade. Balance Spring. See Horol- ogy. Balancing of Machinery. In most machines the inertia of the moving parts originates forces which tend to cause the frame of the machine to vibrate as a whole. Such a machine is said to be un- Balancing of Machinery balanced, and in the case of high- speed machinery it is often nec- essary to balance these forces wholly or partially by means of suitably disposed weights. A gerfectly balanced machine, if ung up and set in motion, would not vibrate as a whole. Machines, such as dynamos, turbines, and centrifugal pumps, whose moving parts consist of rotating masses symmetrically situated about the axis of rotation, are naturally in balance, and only require adjust- ing for errors due to slight lack of symmetry in the different parts; but in machines such as the steam- engine, having unbalanced recip- rocating masses, it is impossible to obtain perfect balance as regards all the forces, and in practice a compromise has to be arrived at. (1.) Balance of Rotating Masses. — Suppose it is required to balance a single weight w rotating about a shaft XY, and at a distance r from it. This cannot be done hy a single weight, since in practice it A I r I I B could' not be placed opposite to w. Two weights, Wi and W2, will be required in the plane of w and XY, and placed so that (a) the cen- tre of gravity of w Wi, and W2, is on the axis xy; (b) the moments of the centrifugal forces of the three weights, about any axis per- pendicular to XY, must balance. The first of these conditions in- sures that there shall be no re- sultant centrifugal force parallel to AB, and is fulfilled if Wiri-|- Wor^—wr. The second condition insures the absence of a centrif- ugal couple tendi ig to twist the machine about an axis perpen- dicular to the plane of the paper. Taking moments about AB as a convenient axis (any axis perpen- dicular to XY will do), the second condition will be fulfilled if Wi^ja —W2r-^b. It is obvious that this condition could not be satisfied by a single weight unless it were placed opposite to w. (2.) Bala,ncing of Reciprocating Parts. — It is impossible to balance completely the reciprocating parts of an engine by means of revolv- ing weights. If the connecting rod were infinitely long, then it would be possible, by means of Balanga revolving weights, to balance the piston rod, crosshead, and con- necting rod, so far as regards forces in the plane of the engine; but the weights required to do this would produce an unbalanced centrifugal force in a plane per- pendicular to the plane through the cylinders and crank shaft. In practice a compromise has to be effected, only from a half to three- quarters ol the reciprocating mass being balanced in many cases. In locomotives it is usual to balance the horizontal forces and couples. The balancing of the first prevents the engine from ex- erting a tugging action on the train, and balancing the second prevents oscillation ; but the effect of the unbalanced vertical forces is to produce a hammer below on the rails, which has to be endured, as being the lesser evil. Some locomotive engineers balance the whole of the horizon- tal forces in this way, but often in order to reduce the hammer be- low on the rails, only three-fourths of the reciprocating masses are balanced. The balance weight is usually cast on the driving wheels. In outside cylinder engines, where one end of the coupling rod is connected with the crank-pin, the rod has to be considered as part of the reciprocating masses. In inside cylinder engines, of the type found in Europe, especially in England, the coupling rods may be made to exert a considerable balancing effect by placing them in the proper position. Balanga, pueb., on the w. side of Manila Bay, Luzon, Philippine Is.; cap. of Bataan prov. Pop. (1898) 9,000. Balanoglossus, a small (1-6") worm found in sand and mud in various seas, of much zoological importance from the fact that it is Young Balanoglossus {showing rudimentary gill-slits). found to possess distinct gill-slits, like those of the lower vertebrates, and, more doubtfully, some other vertebrate characters. It has been placed in a class by itself — Hemi- 536 chorda or Enteropneusta — and has been regarded as near the line of vertebrate ancestry. See Parker & Hawell's Text-book of Zoology (189S). Balanophoraceae, an order of fungus-like leafless plants in the sub-class Apetalae, found in the equatorial zone, consisting of about forty species, all of them parasitic on the roots of trees. Balaoan, or Balaoang, pueb., prov. of La Union, Luzon I., Philippine Islands, on main high- way, 21 m. from San Fernando, where there is a garrison and a telegraph station. Pop. (1903), 10,008. Balasinor, trib. Mohammedan state, Gujarat, Bombay, India. Area, 189 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 32,618. Balasor, dist. at the n.e. angle of the Orissa div., Bengal, India; produces rice, and salt is manufac- tured by a crude process. Area, 2,068 sq.m. Pop.(1901) 1,071,197. The chief town and port, Balasor, 118 m. s.w. of Calcutta, was one of the earliest English settle- ments in E. India (1642). Pop. (1901)20,880. Balas Ruby, or Precious Spinel, a precious stone, consist- ing of alumina and magnesia, which ^ occurs in small crystals with eight triangular faces (octa- hedra), and is a little softer than the true ruby. The color is red of various shades, the deeper be- ing sometimes known as ruby spinel, and the lighter as balas ruby, though blue, violet, yel- low, and colorless varieties are known. Burma, Afghanistan and Ceylon are the principal sources of supply. See Streeter's Precious Stones (1898); Kunz's Gems and Precious Stones of N. America (1892). Balata, a substance resembling gutta-percha, of a dirty reddish- brown color, with a rather greasy feel, and obtained as an exudation from a tree in Vene- zuela and Guiana. It is some- times made a substitute for gutta-percha, but is mainly used in conjunction with it, especially for driving-belts for machinery, composed of strong canvas coated with balata and gutta-percha. See Brannt's India - Rubber, Gutta- percha, and Balata (1900). Balaton, Lake, or Platten- SEE, the largest lake in Hungary, 47 m. long (n.e. to s.w^.) and 7 m. to 9 m. broad; alt. 426 ft.; depth, 13 ft. to 36 ft. The lake has been thoroughly studied in every aspect — ph)^sical, biological, and anthro- pological — by the Hungarian Geo- graphical Society. Balayan, pueb. and bay, Ba- tangas prov., on S.W. coast of Luzon L, Philippine Islands. The town is a port of entry, a telegraph and military station at the mouth of R. of same name. It has an Balboa anchorage, the bar having 3 ft. of water. It is on a wagon road to Tuy, prov. of Cavite, bad in wet season on account of clay soil. Pop. pueb. (1903) 8,493. Balbi, Adriano (1782-1848), Italian geographer, a native of Venice, visited (1820) Portugal, and published Essai Statistique sur le Royaume de Portugal et d'Algarve (1822; 3rd ed. 1850), L' Atlas Ethnographique du Globe (1826), and an Abrege de Geogra- phic (1832; 8th German ed. 1893), which summarized all the geo- graphical knowledge of his time. Balbi, Gasparo, a Venetian jewel-dealer of the 16th century; travelled frequently to Aleppo, and once to India, where he re- mained from 1579 to 1588. He published (Viaggio nelle Indie Orientali, 1590) the first descrip- tion of India beyond the Ganges. Balbinus, Decimus C^lius, Roman emperor (prob. 238-239), was an aged senator who, along with Maximus, was appointed em- peror on the death of Gordian and his son in Africa. The Praetorians put them both to death. Balbo, Cesare, Count (1789- 1853), Italian statesman and au- thor, born at Turin. After acting under Napoleon as auditor of the Council of State, Paris, he entered the Piedmontese army, and took an active part, as a moderate liberal, in the establishment of a monarchy under the house of Sa- voy, his chief opponent being the republican Mazzini. He published Storia d'ltalia (1830), Vita di Dante (1839); but his reputation as an author rests on his Speranze d' Italia (1843; 5th ed. 1855), in which he advocated the unity of Italy. See Life by Riccoti (1856). Balboa, Vasco Nunez de (1475-1517), Spanish explorer, born at Xeres de los Caballeros. He accompanied Rodrigo Bas- tidas to America in 1500, remain- ing on the island of Hispaniola (Santo Domingo) ; accompanied Enciso's expedition (1510) for the relief of San Sebastian (on the Gulf of Darien), then besieged by In- dians, and suggested the founding of Santa Maria del Antigua del Darien (directly across the bay), of which he was soon made an alcalde (with Zamudio). He was commissioned governor or captain- general of Darien by Diego Columbus in 1513; in Sept. he crossed the isthmus to verify the reported existence of a great ocean on the other side of the mountains, and on the 25th, from a high peak, saw, first of Europeans, the east- ern waters of the Pacific Ocean. On the 29th he entered the waters of the Pacific (which he called the Mar del Sud or South Sea) and took.formal possession of it and of all shores washed by it for the kings of Castile, the name, Gulf of San Miguel, which he gave to the Balbriggan 537 Baldwin arm of the ocean that he discov- ered being still retained. On his return to Santa Maria he found himself superseded by Pedrarias Davila, who sent him to explore the South Sea. After transport- ing materials for ships across the isthmus and preparing for his expedition, he was arrested by Davila, tried on an apparently unfounded charge of treason, convicted, and executed at Ada. Balbrig'gan ('town of Bre- can'), seaport and market town, Ireland, county Dublin; 21 miles northeast of Dublin. It has manufactures of hosiery, linen, and cotton fabrics. 'Balbriggan hose,' of fine unbleached cotton, take their name from the town, though now manufactured else- where as well. It is a popular summer resort. Pop. 2,300. Bal'bus, Lucius Cornelius, a Spaniard of Gades (Cadiz), who served under Pompey the Great against Sertorius, and received from him the Roman citizenship. In 56 B.C. he was prosecuted for having assumed the rights of a citizen contrary to law; was de- fended by Cicero, whose speech on the occasion is extant; and was acquitted. Caesar entrusted him with his affairs at Rome during the civil war, and in 40 B.C. he was made consul, the first of foreign birth to be so honored. Balcarres. See Crawford AND Balcarres, Earls of. Balcescu, bal-chesh', Nicole (1819-52), Rumanian author, who greatly promoted the study of Rumanian history in the Maga- zinul Istoric pentru Dacia. He took a prominent part in the revolution of 1848, and died an exile at Palermo. His chief work is Istoria Romdnilor sub Mihaiu- Vileazul (1887). Batch, George Beall (1821- 1908), American naval officer, was born in Tennessee. He be- came midshipman in the U. S. Navy in 1837 and took part in the capture of Vera Cruz during the Mexican War. During the Civil War he was in command of the Pocahontas and later of the Pawnee in the vSouth Atlantic Blockading Squadron, and took part in various engagements with South Carolina batteries, espe- cially along the Keowah and Stono Rivers and Togoda Creek. He became a captain in 1866, a commodore in 1872, and a rear- admiral in 1878. He was super- intendent of the U. S. Naval Academy from 1879 to 1881. Balchcn, Admiral Sir John (1670-1744), British naval offi- cer, was probably born in Go- dalming, Surrey. He entered the navy in 1685, was made cap- tain in 1697, was in command of the Chester in 1707, when she was captured while protecting a fleet of merchant ships and of the Gloucester in 1709 when sh^ was seized by Duguay Trouin's squad- ron. He was in command of the Shrewsbury, at Cape Passaro, in 1718. In 1728 he was made rear-admiral, and in 1731 went to the Mediterranean. In 1733 he became vice-admiral and in 1743, admiral. He was lost when the Victory (110 guns), with about 1,200 souls, went on the Casquet rocks, off Alderney, Oct. 4, 1744. Bal'cony, a platform outside a window or windows, enclosed by balustrade or parapet, and usu- ally supported on consoles or brackets. The balcony became popular in Southern Europe dur- ing the middle ages, and formed a feature of Renaissance archi- tecture. Italian balconies are usually of stone or marble and in most cases are uncovered, but those of France are sometimes canopied. Baldachin, bal'da-kin, a can- opy of silk cloth borne over the head of a dignitary (e.g. the Pope), especially in the East, sometimes also over the euchar- ist when carried processionally. From this original significance the term has been extended to the canopy of metal or stone, sometimes called ciboriuni, sup- ported by pillars or suspended over the high altar, in the East- ern and Roman Churches, from which is suspended a vessel con- taining the host. Bald Eagle. See Eagle. Balder, bal'd^r, or Baldr, the central figure of one of the most significant of the Scandinavian myths, and the personification of purity and innocence, was the son of Odin and Frigg, the brother of Thor, and the husband of Nanna. When Balder com- plained to his mother that he suffered from evil dreams, she exacted an oath from all nature, animate and inanimate, not to harm him, but failed to require this pledge from the mistletoe, which was too young to take the oath. As Balder was now im- mune from harm, the gods amused themselves by throwing their darts at him. But the evil Loki, having discovered that the mistletoe was not bound by the oath, persuaded Hod, the blind god of war, to shoot a dart made from that plant. The arrow pierced the heart of Balder, and he fell dead. Baldness. See Hair, Dis- eases OF. Bald'pate', an American gun- ner's name for the widgeon (q. v.) . Some other white-headed birds, as a variety of domestic pigeon, are also called baldpate or bald- head. Baldric, bal'drik, a belt worn from either shoulder, and crossing the body diagonally; used as an ornament, or to sustain a sword, dagger, or horn. Baldung, bal'doong, Hans {c. 1476-1545), called also Grun or Grien, German painter and en- graver, was bom in Weiersheim, near Strassburg. Little is known of his life, but he probably stud- ied and worked under Diirer. His best works are designs for woodcuts marked by exaggera- tion and fantastic ornament. Of his paintings, in Vv'hich the in- fluence of Diirer is discernible, the chief are his Coronation of the Virgin, The Crucifixion and others (1513-16), which form the altar-piece of Freiburg Cathe- dral; the Adoration of the Magi (1507), now in Berlin; Death and A Woman, in Basel; Portrait of a Young Man, in Vienna; Heavenly and Earthly Love, in Frankfort; and Noli me Tangere, in Darm- stadt. Baldwin, the name of nine counts of Flanders of whom the most important are Baldwin i. (d. 879), surnamed Bras de fer ('Iron Arm'), who founded the countship; Baldwin v. (d. 1067), Le Debonnaire, who founded sev- eral collegiate churches, was re- gent of France during the minor- ity of Philip (1060-7), and as- sisted William of Normandy in his conquest of England; and Baldwin ix., who as Baldwin i. was the first Latin emperor of Constantinople. He took part in the fourth crusade, assisted Alexius to recover Constantino- ple from the usurper Alexius An- gelus (1202), and was proclaimed emperor (1204) by the Latins. He was taken prisoner by John, king of Bulgaria, while besieging Adrianople (1205), and died in captivity the following year. Baldwin, the name of a number of Latin kings of Jerusalem. Baldwin i. (1058-1118), having taken part in the first crusade with his eldest brother, Godfrey of Boulogne, succeeded, on the death of the latter in 1100, to the government of Jerusalem, as the first Latin king. He was de- feated by the Egyptians near Rama in 1102, but in 1109 cap- tured Beirut and gradually added all the strongholds on the coast of Palestine to his kingdom. He was succeeded by his cousin, Baldwin ii., who reigned from 1118, and who, before his death, had brought nearly all of Syria under his sway. Baldwin iii., grandson of Baldwin ii., who reigned from 1143-1162, was known as the pattern of all knightly graces. Baldwin iv., the Leper, son of Amalric, who reigned from 1173 to 1183, re- signed in favor of his nephew, Baldwin v., a child six, who was poisoned by his mother in 1187 to make way for her second husband. The following year Jerusalem was taken by Saladin. Baldwin, Abraham (1754- 1807), American political leader and educator, was born in Guil- VOL. I.— Oct. '23 Baldwin ford, Conn. He was graduated from Yale in 1772, served as a chaplain in the American army during the latter part of the Revolutionary War (1779-83), and removed to Savannah, Ga. (1784), where he practised law. He did more than anyone else to bring about the founding of the University of Georgia, and was its first president (1786-1801). He was a member of the Confed- eration Congress (1785-8), of the Constitutional Convention at Philadelphia (1787), of the Na- tional House of Representatives (1789-99), and of the U. S. Sen- ate (1799-1807), serving as presi- dent pro tempore of the last body in 1801-2. After the formation of parties he became a Demo- cratic-Republican. Baldwin, Evelyn Briggs (1862- ), American explorer, was born in Springfield, Mo. He was graduated from Northwest- ern College, Naperville, 111., and after a trip to Europe, was as- sociated with the Kansas schools (1887-91). He was appointed observer in the U. S. Weather Bureau in 1892, and afterward inspector-at-large, U. S. Signal Corps. He accompanied Peary's North Greenland expedition as meteorologist in 1893-4, and the Wellman polar expedition to Franz-Josef Land as meteorolo- gist and second in command in 1898-9. He was the organ- izer and commander of the Bald- win-Ziegler polar expedition of 1901-2. Baldwin, James (1841- ), American author and editor, was born in Hamilton county, Ind. He received a common-school education but was for the most part self-educated. He was en- gaged in educational work in In- diana from 1865 to 1887, joined the editorial department of Har- per & Brothers, New York, in 1887, and was assistant editor of Harper's Magazine from 1890 to 1893. In 1894 he became an edi- tor of schoolbooks with the American Book Company. He is the author of Harper's and Baldwin's Readers, and many literary text-books. Among his original writings are: The Book- lover (1884); The Discovery of the Old Northwest (1901); The Con- guest of the Old Northwest (1901); Hero Tales Told in School (1904); Abraham Lincoln, a True Life (1904); An American Book of Golden Deeds (1907); The Golden Fleece (1912); Fifty Famous Peo- ple (1912); The Sampo (1913); The Story of Liberty (1919). Baldwin, James Mark (1861- ), American psychologist, was born in Columbia, S. C, and was educated at Princeton and at the Universities of Leipzig, Berlin, and Tubingen. He was in- structor in French and German at Princeton (188G); professor of Vol. I.— Oct. '23 538 philosophy at Lake Forest, 111. (1887-9), and at the University of Toronto (1889-93); professor of psychology at Princeton (1893- 1903) ; processor of philosophy and psychology at Johns Hopkins (1903-9) and at the National University of Mexico (1909-13); Herbert Spencer lecturer at Ox- ford Umversity (1916); professor in the Ecole des Hautes Etudes Sociales, Paris (1918-20). He is a chevalier of the French Legion of Honor. He founded the Psychological Review (1894) and edited the Dictionary of Phi- losophy and Psychology (3 vols. 1901-4). His publications in- clude Handbook of Psychology (2 vols. 1889-91); Mental Develop- ment (2 vols. 1895-7); Story of the Mind (1898) ; Development and Evolution (1902); Thoughts and Things of Genetic Logic (3 vols. 1906-11); Darwin and the Humanities (1909); History of Psychology (2 vols. 1913); Genetic Theory of Reality (1915); France and the War (1915); American Neutrality (1916); The Super- State (1916). Baldwin, Joseph G. (1815- 64), American humorist, was born near Winchester, Va. He practised law in Mississippi and Alabama, and was a judge of the Supreme Court of California, 1857-63, and chief justice, 1863- 4. He published Flush Times in Alabama and Mississippi (1853) and Party Leaders (1854). A volume of humorous legal sketches was published posthumously. Baldwin, Robert (1804-58), Canadian statesman, was born in Toronto. He studied law, and was called to the bar in 1825. In 1829 he became a member of the Upper Canada Assembly, in 1840 was solicitor-general, and in 1842-3 and again in 1848-51 was premier and attorney-general of Upper Canada. Baldwin is re- garded as the founder of the Re- form party. He inherited the liberal principles of his father and was untiring in his efforts to se- cure a system of responsible gov- ernment. Baldwin, Simeon Eben (1840- ), American jurist, was born in New Haven, Conn. He was graduated from Yale in 1861, ad- mitted to the bar of Connecticut in 1863, and practised his pro- fession at New Haven until 1893, when he was appointed associate justice of the Supreme Court of Errors of Connecticut. In 1907 he became chief justice, and in 1910 retired from the bench and became Democratic candidate for governor. He was elected and served for two consecutive terms (1911-1915). He was an unsuccessful candidate for U. S. Senator in 1914, and his name was presented as presidential candidate by the Connecticut State delegation in 1912. He was assotigft:ed with the Yale Law School from 1869 to 1919, served on several State commissions, and as officer of various legal or- ganizations. He is a member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters. Besides his strictly legal writings, he published Mod- ern Political Institutions (1898); American Railroad Law (1901); American Judiciary (1905); The Relation of Education to Citizen- ship (1912); Life and Letters of Simeon E. Baldwin (1919); The Young Man and the Law (1919). Baldwin, Stanley (1867- ), British statesman, was educated at Harrow and at Trinity Col- lege, Cambridge. He entered Parliament from Worcestershire in 1908, was financial secretary of the Treasury from 1917 to 1921, and in 1922 was made Chancellor of the Exchequer. In January, 1923, he visited America on a successful mission regarding the funding of the British debt. In May 1923 he succeeded Andrew Bonar-Law as premier of Great Britain. Baldwinsville, village. New York, Onondaga county, on the Seneca River, the New York State Barge Canal, and the Del- aware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad. It has large foundry and mill interests. Pop. (1910) 3,099; (1920) 3,685. Bale, bal, or Basel, canton in the northwestern part of Swit- zerland, including Bale-Stadt and Bale-Land, with a total area of 177 square miles. It is watered by the Rhine and its tributaries. Pop. (1920) 223,098. Bale, or Basel, city, Switzer- land, capital of Bale-Stadt, is situated on both banks of the Rhine, here crossed by four bridges, the newest of which has six spans and a small chapel in the middle. In Great Bale, on the left bank, are a picturesque 14th century minster, a museum with a fine picture gallery rich in works of Hans Holbein the Younger, a 16th century town hall, the University, the Church of St. Paul, and a large zoological garden. Little Bale, on the right bank, contains numerous manufacturing plants, including ribbon factories, paper, silk, and thread mills, and dye works. Anciently called Robur, the town took the name of Basilia in 374 A.D. It was almost totally destroyed by an earthquake in 1356. Here were signed in 1795 two treaties of peace — one (April 5) whereby Prussia ceded to France all her territories on the left bank of the Rhine; and the other (July 22) whereby France restored the status quo of Spain, and received part of Santo Do- mingo. The Bale Confession of Faith of the Swiss Reformed Church was promulgated here in 1534. The Council of Bale (see B&Ie 539 Balfour below) sat in the choir of the minster. Pop. (1910) 132,577. Bale, bal, Council of (1431- 49), the last of the three reform- ing church councils held in the fifteenth century, met in Bale, or Basel. It was summoned by- Pope Martin v., but met under his successor, Eugenius iv., its chief object being to find some common ground for reconcilia- tion with the Hussites, by- promoting internal reforms in the church. Its reforming zeal was obnoxious to Eugenius, who ordered it to dissolve, and it eventually came into such bitter opposition to the Pope that it voted his suspension from the functions of his ofiice in 1438, declared him a heretic in 1439, and later in the same year elected a rival pope, Felix v. In 1449 the Council was dis- solved, and the schism was ended by the general acceptance of Pope Nicholas v. Bale, John (1495-1 563), bishop of Ossory, Ireland, was born at Cove, near Dunwich, in Suffolk, England. He was educated as a Roman Catholic monk but later adopted extreme Protestant views, and held the living of Thornden, in Suffolk. Under Edward VI. he was made rector of Bishopstoke, and in 1552 bishop of Ossory. On the accession of Mary he fled to Bale, where he lived till 1559, when he returned to England as a prebendary in the Cathedral of Canterbury. He wrote the first literary history of England, Scriptorum Illustrium Majoris Britannics Caialogus (1548-59), and a num- ber of interludes and morality plays, the most important being the historical play of King John. Balearic Islands* bal-e-ar'ik ('Slingers' Islands'), a group of islands belonging to Spain, lying in the Mediterranean, about 125 miles ofif the eastern Spanish coast. The group con- sists of Majorca, Minorca, Iviza, Formentera, and several smaller islands, with a total area of 1,936 square miles. The islands are for the most part rocky,^ with precipitous coasts, but with a number of excellent har- bors, that at Mahon being strongly fortified and one of the best in the Mediterranean. The climate is delightful; the soil is generally fertile; and vines, olives, almonds, and many varieties of fruit are raised. There is some manufacturing, majolica and silver filigree work being especially made. The export trade is active and there is constant communication by steamer with Barcelona and Valencia. Palma is the capital. The population was estimated in 1917 at 332,756, mostly Spanish. The Balearic Islands were subdued by the Carthaginians Vol. I.— Oct. '19 in the sixth century B.C. and the inhabitants rendered valu- able service in th^fihfc|j|||ginian armies; in 123 BjflHnP^^^^ conquered by ^hflBQKH^^n the eighth centur^^oI'Dy the Moors; and in 1229-32 by King Jayme I. of Aragon, who constituted them a separate kingdom for his son. In 1349 they were incorporated with the kingdom of Aragon. See Ma- jorca; Minorca. Consult Bidwell's The Balearic Islands; Markham's The Story of Majorca and Minorca; Cal- vert's Catalonia and the Balearic Isles (1910). Baleen. See Whalebone. Balestier, bal-es-ter', Charles Wolcott (1861-91), American novelist and journalist, was born in Rochester, N. Y. He wrote a number of novels — notably Benefits Forgot (1894) — and collaborated with Rudyard Kipling, his brother-in-law, in The Naulahka (1892), a tale of Indian life. Balfe, half, Michael William (1808-70), British composer, was born in Dublin, and in his ninth year made his debut as a violinist, having begun to com- pose at least two years earlier. In 1823 he went to London, and during 1825-6 studied in Italy under Paer, Galli, Frede- rici and Roisini. In 1826 he wrote the music for a ballet. La Perouse, performed at Milan; and in 1827 he sang in the Italian Opera at Paris. In 1833 he returned to England, and in 1846 was appointed con- ductor of the London Italian Opera. Of his numerous operet- tas and other compositions, the most successful have been The Bohemian Girl (1843), The Rose of Castile (1857), and // Talismano (1874). Balfour, bal'-foor, Arthur James (1848), English states- man, son of James Maitland Balfour of Whittinghame, Had- dingtonshire, Scotland, was edu- cated at Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he was made an honorary fellow in 1902. He entered the House of Commons as member for Hert- ford at the general election of 1874, and continued to repre- sent that constituency until 1885, serving also as private secretary (1878-80) to his uncle, Lord Salisbury, whom he ac- companied to the Berlin Con- gress. At the general election of 1885, which placed the Con- servative party in power, he was returned as member for East Manchester, which he continued to represent until 1905. He was made President of the Local Government Board when the Marquis of Salisbury formed his first government; fourteen months later he was appointed Secretary for Scotland, and when Sir Michael Hicks-Beach, Chief Secretary for Ireland, retired, because of ill-health, in March, 1887, Mr. Balfour suc- ceeded to the office, applying himself to the task of 'restoring the reign of law and order,' as he expressed it, with a vigor and resolution that provoked the bitter hostility and resentment of Mr. Parnell and his followers. He secured the passage of the Light Railways Act (1889), and the act creating the Congested Districts Board (1890); while his organization and adminis- tration of the Zetland Relief Fund (1891) extorted grateful recognition even from his bit- terest political opponents. In 1891-2 Mr. Balfour was first lord of the treasury; in '^ord Salisbury's third adminis- tration (1895-1902) he resumed the leadership of the House of Commons; and he was con- tinued in this office when, in October, 1900, the general election was fought on the Balfour 540 Baliol question of the South African War. On July 12, 1902, on the retirement of Lord Salisbury, - Mr. Balfour became prime min-1 ister and Lord Privy Seal, withl the office of First Lord of th^ Treasury. He was the prin" cipal minister in charge of the English Education Bill of the session of 1902, and of the London Education Bill of 1903. In the latter year, when Mr. Chamberlain resigned and raised the fiscal question, Mr. Balfour expressed agreement with his proposals, but held that the country was not ripe for the taxation of food. In the winter of 1905, the opposition to the administration having become increasingly apparent and ef- fective, Mr. Balfour resigned the premiership, Dec. 4, and Sir Henry Campbell-Banner- man, the Liberal leader, was appointed to succeed him. Having failed of re-election in Manchester, Mr. Balfour re- entered Parliament in 1906 as representative of the City of London, assuming the leader- ship of the Unionist Party, which he retained until 1912, when he was succeeded by Bonar Law. Upon the formation of Mr. Asquith's Coalition Cabinet in May, 1915, Mr. Balfour became head of the Admiralty. He was made Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs in December, 1916, and in that capacity headed the British War Mission to the United States in the spring of 1917 and served as delegate to the Peace Conference at Versailles in 1919. He is the author of A Defence of Philosophic Doubt (1879); Es- says and Addresses (1893); The Foundations of Belief (1895); Economic Notes on Insular Free Trade (1903); Speeches on Fiscal Reform (1906); Criticism and Beauty (1909); Theism and Humanism (1915). Balfour, Francis -Maitland (1851-82), Scottish embryolo- gist, brother of Arthur James Balfour (q. v.), was born in Edinburgh. He was educated at Harrow and at Trinity Col- lege, Cambridge, and in 1876 was appointed lecturer on animal morphology at Cambridge. In 1882 a special professorship was instituted for him, but an Alpine accident cut short his promising career. His fame rests on his work. Comparative Embryology, (1878-83). aalfour, Gerald William (1853), British public official, younger brother of Arthur James Balfour (q. v.), was born in Edinburgh. He entered Parlia- ment at the general election of 1885, for the central division of Leeds, which he represented until 1906; was private secre- tary to A. J. Balfour (1885-6); Vol. I.— Oct. '19 Chief Secretary for Ireland (1885-1 900); President of the MjyyMKrade ( 1 900-05 ) , ^^^^^^^^^Hftt the ^^^^^^^^Bard ^^^^^^H^^e t ar y sh i p ^^^^^^HR^was extended to Balfour, Isaac Bayley (1853), Scottish botanist, was born in Edinburgh. He was educated at the University of Edinburgh; was professor of botany at Glasgow (1879-84) and at Oxford (1884-8); and in 1888 was called to Edinburgh to occupy the chair previously held (1845-79) by his father, John Hutton Balfour. He published monographs on the flora of Rod- riguez (1879) and of Socotra (1888), and edited the Annals of Botany. Balfour, Sir James (d. c. 1583), of Pittendreich, Scottish lawyer and politician. In early life he was implicated in the plot against Cardinal Beaton (q. v.), and in 1547 was sent with John Knox to the French gal- leys. On his return (1549) he became one of the most shameless political intriguers of his time, frequently betraying both Queen Mary's party and that of her op- ponents. He succeeded in secur- ing the execution of Morton for the murder of Darnley, in which he himself was almost as deeply involved as Bothwell. In 1561 he was appointed lord president of the Court of Session. Balfour of Burleigh, Sixth Baron (1849), Alexander Hugh Bruce, was educated at Eton and Oxford. He was parlia- mentary secretary to the Board of Trade (1889-92); Secretary for Scotland, with a seat in the cabinet (1895-1903); chairman of the Committee on Com- mercial and Industrial Policy after the War (1916-^17). Balfrush, bal-froosh', Bala- FRUSH, or Barfrush (Pers. Barfurush), town, Persia, prov- ince of Mazanderan, is situated on the river Bhawal; 12 miles from its mouth. It is an im- portant commercial (provincial) centre, with a considerable trade in silks and cotton. Pop. 50,000 to 60,000. Bali, ba'le, or Little Java, island of the Dutch East Indies, belonging to the Lesser Sunda group, lies immediately east of Java. It is about 75 miles long by 50 miles broad, and has a total area of 2,100 square miles. A chain of mountains crosses the island from east to west, rising in the volcanic peak of Gunun- gagung to 10,500 feet. The climate and vegetation are sim- ilar to those of East Java. Agriculture is the chief employ- ment, rice, indigo, cotton, fruits, maize, and edible roots being raised. The natives are a super- ior race, excelling as sculptors and metal workers. Dutch rule was established in 1849. The Siboga expedition (1899) ascertained that a sub- marine threshold, only 1,020 feet from the surface, connects BaH with Lombok, thus disposing of the well-known 'Wallace's line' (q. v.). Pop. 525,000. Bali, or Bally, town, Ben- gal, India, on the Hugh River; 4 miles north of Howrah. Pop. 19,000. Balikesri,ba-le-kes-re' Balak- Hissar, or Balik-Shehr, town, Asia Minor, is situated on a fer- tile plain; 75 miles southwest of Brusa. It has a large annual fair. Pop. 15,000 to 20,000. Balin and Balan, in Arthur- ian legend, two brothers, knights, who came to Arthur's court. Balan went away on an adven- ture; but Balin, rem.aining be- hind, overheard a love passage between Lancelot and the queen, and rode away, mad with the discovery. The two brothers met abroad, and, not recognizing one another, fought, and slew each other. Balinag, ba-le-nag', pueblo, former capital of the province of Bulacan, Luzon, Philippine Is- lands; 7 miles from Malolos. Pop. 12,000. Baliol, ba'li-ul or bal'yul, The Family of, an Anglo- Norman family that played a prominent part in Scottish his- tory. GuiDO DE Baliol, who crossed from Normandy with William i., received from Wil- liam Rufus large estates in Dur- ham and Northumberland, and his successors took an active part in Border warfare. — John DE Baliol (d. 1269) was regent of Scotland during Alexander iii.'s minority, and founded Balliol College (see Oxford). — John de Baliol (1249-1315), king of Scotland, was third son of John de Baliol. On the death (1290) of Margaret, the Maid of Norway, grandchild of Alex- ander III., he claimed the throne of Scotland in right of his maternal grandmother, Mar- garet, eldest daughter of David, brother of William the Lion. Edward i. of England, a self- nominated arbiter, adjudged the throne to Baliol, and he was crowned at Scone (1292). The allegiance that he swore to Edward as overlord soon became intolerable, and after a revolt he was compelled to abdicate, and was imprisoned (1296), but was liberated (1299). He died at Castle Gailiard, Normandy (1315). — HiS son, Edward de Baliol (d. 1363), king of Scot- land, invaded Scotland at the head of the barons displaced by Bruce. Having landed at King- horn, Fife, he defeated and slew the regent Mar at Dupplin Balistes 541 Balkan Peninsula Moor (1332), and was crowned at Scone; did homage to Edward III., to whom he subsequently surrendered ancient Lothian ; compelled to take refuge in Eng- land from Scottish patriots un- der Sir Andrew Murray and Earl of Moray (1334) ; restored by Ed- ward iii.'s aid (1335); surren- dered the kingdom of Scotland to Edward iii. (1356) in return for a pension of £2,000; and died at Doncaster (1367), the last of his race. Balistes. See File-Fish. Baliuag, market town, prov- ince Bulacan, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on a branch of the Rio Grande de la Pampanga; 25 miles northwest of Manila. It Balkan Peninsula, or Illyr- lAN Peninsula, erly of the thrt ranean peninsi Europe. It strt from the Danube' tributary, the Save, quadrilateral of nearly 200,000 square miles, having the Black Sea on the east, the Sea of Mar- mora and the ^gean Sea on the southeast and south respec- tively, and the Ionian Sea and the Adriatic on the west. The Bosporus connects the Sea of Marmora with the Black Sea, and the Strait of the Dardanelles continues the waterway to the ^gean Sea. The peninsula of the Chalcidice is mountainous plain of the Danube on the south. The section which traverses :^ Eastern Servia consists of lime- ' stone ridges rising to 6,500 feet, alternating with ranges of crys- talline schist yielding iron, lead, and copper ore. The Central Balkans form a long and nearly uniform ridge running easterly, with dome-like summits, reach- ing in Yumrukchal 7,790 feet, and clad on the flanks with for- ests of oak, beech, and fir. Bor- dering this central ridge on the north, and continuing the moun- tain region eastward after the main ridge has disappeared, are the East Balkans, with gradual slopes to the north, but steep declivities to the south, sinking is located at the junction of seven roads, in the centre of a fertile and populous district. It manufactures hats, and fab- rics of silk, cotton, and dyed Manila hemp. It was the first place in the Philippines to re- ceive municipal government at the hands of the Americans after their occupation. Pop. 21,000. Balize. See Belize. Balkan Mountains, Great and Little, a calcareous chain on the east side of the Caspian Sea, south of Aji Daria Bay, be- tween 39° and 40° n. lat. Start- ing from the northern shores of Balkan Bay, the double chain runs southeasterly with a broad plain between, through which passes the Transcaspian Rail- way. The highest point, toward the southeastern extremity of the range, is about 5,310 feet. and deeply indented. The coasts of the secondary peninsula formed by the Greek extension are lofty and mountainous, and deeply cleft by long indentations, form- ing good harbors. The Adriatic coast is flat to the mouth of the Drin; thence north to Fiume it is mountainous, and scalloped into a complicated series of peninsulas, with an outlying fringe of islands. The term Balkan Mountains (ancient Hcemus; cf. Cape Emine) is loosely applied to the whole mountain region of the north, but specifically to the range (Turkish, Khoja or Koja) which sweeps round from the Iron Gates of the Danube, where it is con- tinuous with the Transylvanian Alps, first south, then curving easterly to Cape Emine, on the Black Sea, bordering the lower to a series of intramontane ba- sins, the most important being that of Sofia, from which the River Isker flows north to the Danube, breaking through the Balkans in a narrow gorge. South of these basins are several mountain masses, such as the Anti-Balkans, which overlook the valley of the Maritsa, the most considerable stream of Tur- key proper. On its way to the iEgean Sea this river circles round the eastern foothills of the gigantic mass of the Rhodope Balkans, buttressed by the peaks of Muss-Alla (9,615 ft.) and Rila Dagh (8,700 ft.), be- tween which rises the great syenite mass of Vitosa (Vitosha), 7,515 feet. Important factors in the polit- ical, social, and economic devel- opment of the peninsula are the Balkan Peninsula 541 A Balkan War, 1913-13 passes, many of which afford mere tracks for baggage animals. The great historic highway ('Diagonal Furrow') from Bel- grade, on the Danube, to Con- stantinople, follows the valley of the Servian river Morava to the basin of Sofia, and then pro- ceeds along the valley of the Maritsa. At one point near the basin of Sofia the mountains approach so closely that the Ro- mans were able to barricade it with a thick wall (Trajan's Gate). The modern railway which fol- lows this route avoids the gorge by ascending a side valley. Communication with the upper valley of the Nisava (Nishava), the principal tributary of the Morava, is facilitated by the Pass of Dragoman (2,380 ft.). The Pass of Vladaja (2,980 ft.) gives access to the valley of the Struma; the Pass of Giiveshevo to the valley of the Vardar; the Pass of Ginci (Gintsi) to the Danube at Lorn Palanka; the Baba Konak Pass to Plevna. The Shipka Pass, strategically important, crosses the Balkans, and connects Kazanlik with Tir- nova. The two highest passes over this range are the Rabanica (6,285 ft.) and the Rosahta (6,160 ft.). In the west the peninsula is occupied by the broad folds of the Dinaric Alps, the main chain of which (northwest to southeast) separates Dalmatia from Bosnia and Herzegovina. The chains show the peculiar features of the karst region, the loftiest peak being Mount Dinara (6,010 ft.), a dazzling mass of hippurite limestone. Owing to the proximity of the mountains to the west coast, the rivers on that watershed are short, rapid, and useless for transport. On either side of the Chalcidice peninsula are the Vardar and the Struma, which flow to the -^gean Sea, and which have built up deltas. They are of little use for navi- gation, however, the Maritsa being the only navigable stream. The only river of size entering the Black Sea is the Danube. The centre and the east coast, as far south as the Bosporus, have a climate intermediate be- tween that of Central Europe and the south of Germany — the winter temperature often falling below zero f.; the summer tem- perature resembling that of the south of France. June is the month of greatest precipitation, but rain is fairly distributed throughout the year. The iEgean coast has the Mediterra- nean climate; and the Adriatic coast, with its heavy rainfall, has a January temperature 7° f. higher than that of the east coast. The higher inland parts have a semi-continental climate, with extremes of -6° to 120° F. be- tween summer and winter. In the regions of summer rains the hills are covered with dense forests of oak and beech, in which roam large herds of swine; while the lowlands yield exten- sive crops of corn. The soil is poor on the exposed uplands, but rich and productive in the pro- tected river valleys. Sheep and goats thrive on the treeless slopes of the southern hills. In Servia, two crops of hay and grain are harvested every year. In Bos- nia, snowfalls and frosts may occur as late as the middle of May at an elevation of 1,500 feet. The wolf and bear are found in the mountains; the deer and wild pig in the forests; the jackal, buffalo, and Oriental fat-tailed sheep in the southern plains; vast flocks of water fowl along the Danube; and pheasants and partridges everywhere. People. — The population of the Balkans is extremely hetero- geneous. It cannot be classified by racial differences nor relig- ions, still less by political boun- daries. The earliest historical inhabitants were the Illyrians, Greeks, and Dacians. The Thracians preceded them, but that fact is all that is definitely known about the latter people. The Illyrians are now repre- sented by the Albanians, and the Dacians by the Roumanians. The Bulgars were the first Slav invaders, coming probably from the Volga districts of Finland from about the third century onward. The Vlachs are de- scendants of the Roman refugees of the third century. -The Serbs and Croats came into the Penin- sula from the Carpathian Moun- tains, beginning with the seventh century. The Turkish invasion began with the fourteenth cen- tury. There are also consider- able numbers of Jews, Arme- nians, and Hungarians (Mag- yars) . Previous to the Balkan War (q. V.) of 1912, the Turkish pop- ulation was scattered throughout the peninsula, except in the northeastern section of Bulgaria, in the territory westward from Constantinople to Adrianople, and from the Black Sea south to the Sea of Marmora. There were none in Greece, and few in Servia. Numerically, they constituted about one-tenth of the population of the Peninsula. The latest (1912) estimates of the several peoples in the Peninsula are as follows: Serbo- Croats, 5,500,000; Greeks, 4,500,- 000; Bulgars, 4,500.000; Turks, 2.000,000; Albanians, 1,500,000; Vlachs, 500,000; others, 500,000. For further particulars, see the articles on Albania; Bosnia AND Herzegovina; Bulgaria; Croatia-Slavonia; Dalmatia; Greece; Illyria; Macedonia; Montenegro; Servia; Turkey. Consult Wyon's The Balkans from Within (1904); Durham's Through the Land of the Serb (1904); Villari's The Balkan Question (1905); Lyde's Military Geography of the Balkan Penin- sula (1905); Durham's Burden of the Balkans (1905); De Windt's Through Savage Europe (1907); Singleton's Turkey and the Bal- kan States (1908); Holbach's Bosnia and Herzegovina (1908); Trevor's My Balkan Tour (1911). Balkan War, 1912-13. In February, 1912, the four Chris- tian States of the Balkan Penin- sula — Bulgaria, Servia, Greece, and Montenegro — after long en- deavor on the part of some of their far-seeing rulers and states- men, formed an alliance for the promotion of their common in- terests and the improvement of their standing in the family of nations. The chief of these in- terests was, at the moment, the enforcement of Article 23 of the Treaty of Berlin (q. v.), by which the great Powers guaran- teed, and Turkey promised, local self-government for the Bulgar-Serb communities in Macedonia. Their condition was indeed deplorable, and it was one of the reproaches of the civilized world. But the Powers, with the idea of hastening the day when the European dominions of the Porte would become their legitimate prey, found it better to their purpose to let massacre, extor- tion, and other outrages go on than to insist on a proper ad- ministrative regime for the Mace- donian Christians, which might lead to a prolonged continuance of Turkish rule. So the Powers formed ententes to keep matters as they were; and after thirty- four years, Bulgaria and Servia, which in the meantime had been growing more cultivated and humane, realized that only by joint action could the wretched status quo be destroyed. Military preparations went on quietly during the spring and summer of 1912, and by Sep- tember the war spirit was so strong among the Balkan peoples that Turkey, under the guise of autumn manoeuvres, began to assemble a large force near Adri- anople — against which move the great Powers successfully protested. An imperative ulti- matum for administrative re- form was presented to the Porte Balkan War, 1913-13 541 C Balkan War, 1913-13 by Servia and Bulgaria, and it was rejected. The Powers labored in vain to avert a conflict; and on Oct. 8, Montenegro, apparently acting on instructions from Bulgaria, de- clared war upon Turkey. Servia and Bulgaria held back in the hope that this move might result in a peaceful solution of the diffi- culty, or at any rate that the Powers would immediately define their attitude. But neither end was accomplished. Turkey would listen to no proposition involving the league's interference in her internal affairs, and on Oct. 17 she declared war on Servia and Bul- garia, which immediately ac- cepted the challenge. Turkey at that time had about 200,000 regular troops in Europe; but at least 150,000 more were available in the Asiatic provinces, and they were moved as rapidly as possible. Nazim Pasha, the War Minister, was generalissimo of the forces. Four Nizam (ac- tive army) corps, under Abdullah Pasha, were in Thrace. The force in Macedonia was commanded by Tahsin Pasha. Army corps were stationed at Salonica, Monastir, and Uskub, while the smaller towns, including the stronghold of Scutari, capital of Albania, were garrisoned chiefly by Alban- ian and Macedonian volunteers under Riza Pasha. The total Macedonian force (including vol- unteers) was estimated at 200,- 000. The Montenegrin Advance. — The Montenegrin army was about 40,000 in strength, commanded by Crown Prince Danilo. It was divided into three parts — the Northern army, headed by Gen- eral Vukovitch; the Eastern, or Central, by General Lazovitch; and the Westerrf, by General Martinovitch, the War Minister. The last two made Scutari their objective; the Northern army set out across the vilayet of Kossovo to join one of the Servian columns. All three moved from Podgoritza without delay — Martinovitch marching straight upon Scutari, while Lazovitch's task was to re- duce a number of Turkish fortres- ses between the Montenegrin frontier and the Albanian cap- ital. The nearest one was on Mount Planinitza; and upon it, from Goritza hill, Prince Peter, a captain of artillery, fired the first gun on the morning of Oct. 9. King Nicholas, seventy-one years of age, was with the troops. Lazo- vitch quickly captured Planinitza, Detchitch, and Shiptchanik (Oct. 11); but Tuzi, offering stout re- sistance, did not fall until Oct. 14, when the garrison surrendered. Lazovitch had now cleared the way, and went forward by the north shore of Lake Scutari. He met with but little opposition, and his batteries silenced the fire of a few small Turkish vessels on the lake. The chief defence of Scutari, which Martinovitch reached with slight difficulty, was Tarabosch Mountain, 6 miles distant on the southwest, and not more than 1,200 feet in height. Its four forts had been admirably built by German military engineers; but they had overlooked a spur of the mountain, and by Oct. 23 this was in possession of Martin- ovitch's forces, which had hastily blasted a road to the top with dynamite. The two Montenegrin columns now began the siege of Scutari on the north, west, and east. The city was garrisoned by 12,000 volunteers, and had been reinforced by a division of 6,000 regulars under Essad Pasha, who took charge of the defence. Meanwhile Vukovitch was making his way through the vil- ayet of Kossovo. He drove the Turks from Berane and Bielo- polie, and captured several other towns, and on Oct. 25 joined the Western Servian column at Sien- itza. His successes brought him 6,000 prisoners and a large quan- tity of arms and provisions. The Serbs Invade Macedonia. — Before the formal declaration of war a body of 3,000 irregular Turkish and Albanian troops en- tered Servia through the Morava Valley, and came in contact with the Servian cavalry near Risto- vatz (Oct. 14). Three days later war was on. The Servian army numbered about 200,000 troops. General Putnik was commander- in-chief, and the force operated in four separate columns — the First, or Central army (3 divi- sions), under Crown Prince Alex- ander; the Second, or Eastern (2 divisions), under General Ste- fanovich; the Third (3 divisions), under General Zankovich; and the Fourth, or Western (2 divisions), under General Ziev- kovich. The objective point of the first two armies was Uskiib; while Zievkovich, in the west, was to operate with the Northern army of Montenegro. Alexander marched down the Morava; Stefanovich approached by way of Kustendil in Bulgaria, and captured Egri Palanka. The advance of the two columns was opposed at Kumanovo by the Sixth Corps under Zekki Pasha. The battle raged for two days on a fog-hung plain. There was fierce close-range fighting, and the Servian artillery made fright- ful havoc among the Turks, who were completely routed (Oct. 24), with a loss of 5,000 men and 60 pieces of artillery. The Servian casualties were about 2,500. The remnants of the Sixth Corps fled to Uskiib, whence they were driv- en (Oct. 26) by the victorious Serbs. Zekki now found himself in danger of envelopment. He evacuated Krupiilu, which the Serbs entered on Oct. 29, and re- tired upon Monastir. Zievkovich, in the meantime, after seizing Prishtina and Mit- rovitza, and acting in concert with the Montenegrins, had ef- fectively ridded Kossovo of its garrisons. The last of the Turk- ish soldiers fled from Novibazar into Austrian territory, while Servia proceeded methodically to occupy the conquered territory. The Eastern column now joined the Bulgarian army in Thrace. The Bulgars in Thrace. — The Bulgarian army numbered about 340,000, under the chief com- mand of General Savoff, and was divided into three . parts, with some independent divisions. The First Army, or Corps (5 divisions) , under General Kutincheff, marched down the Tundja Val- ley. The Second Army (3 divi- sions), consisting of second-line troops (about 55,000), under Gen- eral Ivanoff, seized the town of Mustafa Pasha (Oct. 18), which became Bulgarian headquarters, and advanced down the Ma- ritza upon Adrianople (Oct. 20). The Third Army (5 divisions), under General Dimitrieff, pro- ceeded by way of the Tundja to Kirk Kilisseh. Abdullah's original line north of Adrianople was forced back by the Bulgarian advance, and with 250,000 men he occupied a forti- fied zone with the two strongholds of Adrianople and Kirk Kilisseh at the extremities. His right wing — the Third (Nizam) Corps, at the latter place — was commanded by Mahmud Mukhtar Pasha; while he himself, on the centre and left, directed the movements of the leaders of the three other corps. Kirk Kilisseh was cap- tured by Dimitrieff on Oct. 24, after two days of heavy fighting. A few of Mukhtar 's officers and men started a panic, and the Third Corps retired in confusion upon Viza. Leaving a garrison of 40,000 under Shukri Pasha to cope with the Bulgarian bombardment of Adrianople, which began Nov. 1, Abdullah fell back upon Liile Burgas, and formed a new line between that place and Viza. Savoff left Ivanoff, with forces composed chiefly of the Second Army, to invest Adrianople, and sent the body of the First Army forward under Kutincheff. Dimi- trieff occupied Bunar Hissar (Oct. 28), and took position opposite Mukhtar at Viza. Kutincheff Balkan War, 1912-13 541 D Balkan War, 1912-13 seized Eski Baba (Oct. 27), and after reinforcement by three bri- gades from Ivanoff, marched on Lille Burgas and captured the town on Oct. 29. Abdullah's army had been weakened by the withdrawal of about 100,000 men for the de- fence of Constantinople, but his remaining 160,000 successfully resisted the Bulgarian attack, and even repulsed Dimitrieff at Viza. Next day (Oct. 30) Abdullah, see- ing that the Bulgars had suffered severely, advanced about 8 a.m. His troops were in poor condition, for they had been three days without food, and ammunition was lacking for the artillery. Ab- dullah counted on an energetic assault by Mukhtar with the Third Corps, seconded by the flank attack of an Ottoman divi- sion which had just debarked at Midia, on the Black Sea. But at three in the afternoon the Turk- ish commander realized that Mukhtar was too hard pressed to render him assistance; his own troops were completely exhausted ; and he had to abandon all his po- sitions. This move rendered nec- essary the retreat of the Third Corps on the following day (Oct. 31), and the whole army fell back in complete disorder, without food, transports, or ambulances, and reached the Tchataldja lines — the land defence of Constanti- nople, a series of antiquated fort- ifications crossing the Gallipoli peninsula about 20 miles from the capital — on Nov. 6. The losses at Lille Burgas-Viza were esti- mated at 15,000 allies and 30,000 Turks. Movements of the Greeks. — Greece, whose attitude had been uncertain, went to war on Oct. 17, after the Porte had refused to release some Greek vessels de- tained in Turkish ports. Her army numbered about 110,000 — although they were not all mo- bilized — under the command of Crown Prince Constantine. The bulk of these had Salonica as an objective; while one division of 12,000, under General Sapunza- kis, was sent to capture the fort- ress of Janina and other places in Epirus. The main army, leaving Larissa, forced its way over the Meluna pass and captured Elas- sona (Oct. 19). After a battle with some of Tahsin's troops at Sarantaporu the next day, it marched in two columns upon Salonica, occupying, with slight resistance, Servia, Verria,Vodina, Jenitza, and Catherini on the way. At Topsin it was joined by a Servian force which had marched down the Vardar. Mean- while a separate (ireek division had landed in Chalcidia, and was approaching Salonica from the southeast. A Bulgarian divi- sion, under General Todoroff, al- so heading for Salonica, had al- ready captured Drama and other towns; but it found itself opposed at Seres, 60 miles northeast of the city, by Turkish troops, strongly posted on the hills. Preparations for investment had been begun on the night of Nov. 1, when a Greek torpedo boat drove a Turkish cruiser from the harbor. The command- er at Salonica, Tahsin Pasha, found it impossible to hold out against forces at least three times the strength of his own, coming from all directions. On Nov. 8 he capitulated, and next day the Greeks and Serbs entered the town. Todoroff, who had dis- lodged his opponents, arrived on Nov. 10. The allies made 30,000 of the Fifth Corps prisoners, and captured 70 cannon, 30 machine guns, 2,000 horses, and 75,000 rifles. After Sarantaporu, Prince Constantine sent a division under Colonel Mathiopolu to- ward Monastir. Greece was the only member of the league with an adequate navy, and her fleet blockaded Turkish ports and seized a number of islands in the northern ^gean. Later Events. — The Bulgars and Serbs before Adrianople had suc- ceeded in capturing only 4 of the 30 permanent works of the fort- ress; but the city was completely isolated. Scutari still held out under Martinovitch's investment, and Sapunzakis was struggling toward Janina, defended by a garrison of 15,000. Winter with heavy snow storms had now set in, and the Montenegrins were suffering severely from exposure. Martinovitch determined to stop supplies from reaching Scutari; and with a portion of his army he moved upon the seaport of San Giovanni di Medua, which he reached on Nov. 16, after the cap- ture of Luzari in a hard fight (Nov. 14) had driven the Turkish troops from the neighborhood. From San Giovanni the Monte- negrins continued down the Adri- atic coast, driving the Turks into Alessio. Meanwhile, a Servian column made a remarkable forced march from Prizrend across the Albanian Mountains, pushing their guns through the snow. They approached Alessio by way of the Drin Valley, and began shelling the town; while the Mon- tenegrins opened fire from the hills on the opposite side of the river. In less than four hours the garrison had surrendered (Nov. 18). After his flight from Uskiib, Zekki Pasha and his remaining troops joined Djavid Pasha and the Seventh Corps at Monastir. Djavid was successfully resisting the Greek attack from the south when a Servian army appeared from the north. Monastir, with over 40,000 troops, surrendered on Nov. 17; but the generals man- aged to escape. The Bulgars made a rapid flank movement upon the Turks in their headlong flight after Lille Burgas, striking the rear guard a savage blow at Tchorlu (Nov. 6), while the cavalry penetrated as far as Rodosto, on the Sea of Marmora. A new line was formed opposite the Turkish position at Tchatal- dja, and preparations for attack were made at once. After some preliminary fighting, the main battle began on Nov. 17 and con- tinued until Nov. 19. For the first time the Bulgars found them- selves outranged in artillery, for the Turks had heavy siege guns, and a number of others had been brought up from the fleet. But Turkey had had enough. Albania had declared herself in- dependent in the middle of No- vember, and a provisional gov- ernment, with Ismail Kemil Bey as president, was set up. To add to the disasters, cholera broke out in the Turkish camp. The Porte had appealed several times to the Powers to stop the war, and now made direct overtures to Bulga- ria. A truce was declared, and this led to an armistice on Dec. 3. Meanwhile, the Serbs were com- pleting the occupation of Mace- donia; Dibia and Ochrida were taken, with many prisoners and stores. The armies were to remain where they were, and the garri- sons were not to be revictualled. Greece refused to sign the armis- tice, although she agreed to par- ticipate in a peace conference, and on her pact the war went on. It was confined chiefly to the attempt upon Janina, and Sa- punzakis fought a battle at Pesta (Dec. 15). The conference to arrange terms of peace met in London on Dec. 16; but it came to nothing, and the envoys were recalled on Jan. 6, 1913. Four weeks went by, filled with threats, and with efforts on the part of the great Powers to prevent a reopen- ing of the war; but on the night of Feb. 3 hostilities were resumed. The Last Phase.— Of all the allies, Servia had up to this time accomplished most in the way of effective conquest. To Bulgaria there remained the tasks of reduc- ing Adrianople and piercing the Tchataldja line. The latter was held by some 200,000 men, under the command of the new Turkish generalissimo, Izzet Pasha — Naz- im Pasha having been assassi- nated (Jan. 23, 1913), after the coup d'etat gf the Young Turk Balkan War, 1913-13 541 E Balkan War, 1913-13 Party, which overthrew the Cab- inet. Fifty thousand more troops were on the GalHpoli peninsula, and the advancing Bulgars were checked by these at Bulair, after successful engagements at Kava- keui and Hexamili (Feb. 4 and 5). The Bulgars then gradually fell back at all points, in the hope of drawing the Turkish army inland, and forcing a general action at some distance from its base. The siege of Adrianople (with its then garrison of 40,000) was renewed by I vanofT 's army, assist- ed by 45,000 Serbs. Crown Prince Constantine was now directing the campaign in Epirus, which had not been affect- ed by the armistice; and the gar- rison at Janina had been strength- ened, and numbered about 30,000. At Scutari, the armistice had been ignored. King Nicholas de- cided to abandon his policy of starving out the city, and a three- days' assault — the hardest fight- ing the Montenegrins had yet ex- perienced — with the assistance of 15,000 Serbs under Colonel Popo- vich, was begun on Feb. 6. The first real victory fell to the lot of the Greeks. On March 6, Janina surrendered to the Crown Prince, who twelve days later became King of the Hellenes when his father. King George, was shot and killed by a weak-minded Greek at Salonica (March 18). On March 24, Djavid Pasha and 15,000 men yielded up their arms to the Serbs on the Skumbra River, while March 26 witnessed the fall of Adrianople. Shukri Pasha capitulated to Ivanoff, after the eastern front of the city had been furiously stormed and most of the batteries captured. The Bulgar-Serb loss was about 7,000; the Turkish 1,000, with 30,000 prisoners. Meanwhile, the Powers had succeeded in determining the fron- tiers of the new state of Albania, and on March 27 Nicholas was invited to raise the siege of Scu- tari and withdraw from Albanian territory. The Servian allies did so; but the King of Montenegro replied by a more vigorous attack upon Tarabosch Mountain. A joint naval demonstration of the Powers was made off Antivari (April 4), and the coast block- aded, while Austria prepared to use military pressure. Essad f Pasha finally surrendered the city on April 23, but it was not until May 4 that Nicholas, in defiance of his ministers, finally yielded, and in return for financial assist- ance relinquished the place to the Powers. Elsewhere the war was over. The offer of mediation by the Powers, so constantly requested by Turkey, was accepted at last by the allies. On April 14 a truce had been declared between the opposing forces at Tchataldja. The ambassadors of the Powers met in London, and on May 16 representatives of the five states assembled to ratify the terms of peace. As in the previous winter, they were disposed to wrangle and accuse each other of intrigue; but the British government served notice that no delay would be tolerated, and on May 30 the Treaty of London was signed. According to the terms of the treaty, Turkey was to pay no in- demnity, but her entire European continental possessions west of a line drawn between Enos, on the Sea of Marmora, and Midia, on the Euxine, together with the island of Crete, were handed over to the allies. The future of Al- bania and the captured ^gean Islands was left to the Powers. Financial questions were referred to a commission sitting in Paris; other points were regarded as matters for settlement by the interested parties themselves. Disruption of the League, Sec- ond Balkan War. — There had been much scepticism in Western Europe as to whether the links in the chain that bound the allies would withstand the pressure of self-interest, and the progress of events soon justified the doubt. After the conquest of Macedonia, the bulk of the Bulgarian forces in such territory as would natu- rally be included in King Ferdi- nand's dominions was sent to Tchataldja, and many towns were occupied, some forcibly, by Greek troops. Such was the case at Nigrita, where, on March 5, the Bulgars made great slaughter by bombarding the Greek occupants. Servia claimed that she had not been given due credit for her share in the capture of Adrian- ople, but a far more serious diplo- matic quarrel was already brew- ing with Bulgaria. In September, 1912, these two governments had concluded a secret treaty, fixing the frontiers of any territory cap- tured from Turkey; but Servia was now desirous of going back on the terms of the bargain, since Albania was not to be hers. Bul- garia, on the other hand, was in- sisting on the fulfilment of the treaty, because she was threat- ened with loss of territory in an- other direction. Rumania had agreed to remain neutral in the contest, and for this she had her price. She demanded a southern strategic frontier, and to this the mediating Powers had agreed. It would mean the cession by Bul- garia of Silistria and territory south of Dobrudja; and Ferdi- nand, in consequence, w^s loth to yield any of the predetermined spoil in the West. Even while the delegates in London were concluding terms of peace, the Greeks and Serbs were forming an anti-Bulgar alliance, and frequent conflicts had taken place with the Bulgars in Mace- donia; but now, at the end of June, 1913, the fighting blazed into real warfare. On June 29, General Savoff or- dered a general advance. One Bul- garian column marched toward Servia; another was sent against the Greeks; while a third force held a strong line between Ishtip and Kotchana. Both the Greeks from the south and the Serbs from the west, in spite of some severe reverses, made steady progress against the common enemy, until the wedge of Bulgarian occupa- tion in Macedonia was almost forced out of that territory. King Constantine won a vic- tory at Morfassa, retook Gye- vegli, and captured Kukush (July 2), Doiran, Strumnitza (July 10), Drama (July 15), and finally reached Nevrekop, only twenty miles from the South Bulgarian frontier. A fifty-two-hour battle near Ishtip resulted in a Servian victory (July 2), and Krivolak was retaken (July 6), after it had fallen to the Bulgars. King Nich- olas made formal declaration of war on July 10, and the Monte- negrin army went to the assist- ance of Servia. Bulgaria's position was most critical, and the Porte was em- boldened (July 2) to demand the withdrawal of 60,000 of her troops, which were encamped near Ro- dosto, because the Turkish army was still mobilized. To this the Sofia government agreed on con- dition that Turkey remain neu- tral in the present conflict. But now, in Bulgaria's extreme hour, the opportunity to regain the la- mented Adrianople was more than the wisdom of the Turks could neglect, or human nature could resist. On July 12, an Ottoman force under Enver Bey started unopposed across Thrace, and re- captured Liile Burgas, Bunar Hissar, Viza, and finally Adrian- ople (July 22). It then entered Bulgaria, burned many villages, and committed other outrages. On July 10, the King of Ru- mania announced that he was compelled to take action. His army immediately occupied Silis- tria, and three flying columns crossed the frontier and marched upon Sofia. To this invasion Bulgaria offered no resistance, realizing that, in her inevitable defeat, she would make the better terms with her new enemy. She was indeed in dire straits, and the two w^rs haci cpst her, in killed Baikh 541 F Ball and wounded, 150,000 men. A new cabinet quickly promised the strategical frontier, and King Charles now threw all his weight into the balance in behalf of peace. The Bulgarian premier sent General Paprikoff (July 20) to negotiate with Servia and Greece at Nish. Meanwhile, the allies contin- ued to advance until the Greeks touched the Servian right wing. The Bulgars fell back after a Ser- vian attack at Widin (July 23), and five days later a peace con- ference opened at Bucharest. The very day that the armistice was concluded (July 30) , there raged a hard battle for possession of the southern gateway into Bulgaria; the Greeks occupied Gumuldjina, and captured Dedeagatch; the Servians continued to bombard Widin until Aug. 3. The treaty of peace was signed at Bucharest on Aug. 10. It gave to Servia the whole of Mace- donia under her occupation, and some territory east of the old vilayet of Kossovo — over 15,000 square miles in all. Her area was thusnearlydoubled. Greece made the greatest relative advance in political importance. Her share (18,700 square miles) consisted of parts of Macedonia, Albania, and even a small portion of Thrace. Bulgaria surrendered 2,000 square miles of her north- eastern territory to Rumania, and had to be content with only 7,000 square miles on the south and west — a much smaller area than that allotted by the Treaty of London. Montenegro's reward was a small addition on the south and east, corresponding to the aid rendered Servia in the second war. Negotiations between Tui'key and Bulgaria over Eastern Thrace were then begun, and on Sept. 17 an agreement was reached by which the former regained a considerable area, including De- motika, Adrianople, and Kirk Kilisseh. The good grace with which Bulgaria yielded to the demands of the Porte gave rise to a fear that there might be some secret understanding between the two defeated countries to make com- mon cause against the Greeks. On Nov. 13, 1913, however, Greece and Turkey came to an agreement in regard to their un- settled differences, and a new era in the Balkans may be said to have begun. BaIkh, district of Afghan Tur- kestan, the most northerly prov- ince of Afghanistan. It corre- sponds to ancient Bactria, and lies between 35° and 37° N. lat., and 64° and 69° E. long. It is bounded on the north by the River Oxus, on the east by Bad- akhshan, on the south by the Hindu-Kush, and on the west by the desert. Offsets of the Hindu- Kush traverse it in a northwest- erly direction, and slope down to the low steppes of Bokhara. Its length is 250 miles; its breadth, 120 miles. The soil has the gen- eral characteristics of a desert land; only a few parts are made fertile by artificial irrigation. The natives are Uzbegs, whose char- aracter differs in different dis- tricts. Balkh, former capital and chief town of Balkh district, is situated in a region intersected by canals and ditches, by means of which the waters of the Balkhab, or Dehas, are dissipated and pre- vented from flowing toward the Amu Daria, only 45 miles dis- tant. The town is now largely in ruins. It is a place of great an- tiquity, famous as the cradle of Zoroastrianism; indeed, Zoro- aster is said to have been born and to have died at ancient Bac- tra. Between the seventh and twelfth centuries it was a centre of Buddhism, and seems (from Sven Hedin's and Stein's discov- eries) to have extended its influ- ence as far as the now sand- buried cities of East Turkestan. It was sacked by Jenghiz Khan in 1220. The capital was re- moved to Mazar-i-Sherif, 10 miles to the east, in 1877, The modern city occupies but a small part of the former area, and is surrounded by a mud wall. The only commercial industry of importance is the weaving of silk. Pop. 15,000, mostly Uzbegs. East and west of Balkh are several small Uzbeg khanates in the basin of the Amu Daria, which, together with Wakhan, east of Badakhshan, constitute Afghan Turkestan. Balkhash (Kirghiz Tengis or Tenghiz; Chinese Sihai), a great inland lake near the eastern bor- ders of Russian Central Asia, be- tween 45° and 47° N. lat, and 73° 30' and 79° 20' E. long. Lying 900 feet above sea level, it ex- tends 340 miles southwest; its breadth at the western end is 53 miles, at the eastern from 4 to 9 miles; the area is 7,120 square miles. The water is clear, but intensely salt. Its principal feeder is the River Hi. It receives the waters of several streams, but has no outlet. Its depth. is from 70 to 80 feet; consequently, though its area is thirty-two times that of the Lake of Geneva, its volume is only twice as great. The southern shores of the lake are labyrinths of islands, penin- sulas, low sandhills, and strips of shallow water, with enormously tall reeds, in which wild swine shelter. The lake once extended over the arid plain to the south. See Asia, Balkis or Bilkis, according to Mohammedan tradition, thename of the Queen of Sheba, who vis- ited Solomon. Her story is re- lated (without mention of her name) in Sura 27 of the Koran, and has been elaborated by the commentators into an interest- ing Oriental tale. Ball. Games with balls were among the favorite gymnastic exerciser of the ancients. The Greeks prized such games as a means of giving grace and elas- ticity to the figure. The balls were of various kinds; they were generally of leather, and filled with air; others were stuffed with feathers or hair (pila). There was great variety in the kinds of game, each having a name. In one, the ball was thrown up, and the players strove who would catch it as it fell; another was similar to our football; in a third, a number of persons threw it at one another, either with a view to hit, or for the ball to be caught and returned; in a fourth, the ball was kept rebounding between the earth and the palm of the player's hand as often as possible. In the sixteenth century ball playing was in great favor in the courts of princes, especially in Italy and France; and it is still practised by the people in Italy and Spain, nowhere with more enthusiasm than among the Basques at the base of the Pyre- nees. Lawn tennis is the lineal descendant of the jeu de paume, which was so popular an amuse- ment at the French court. The American game of lacrosse origi- nated among the American In- dians; and football is so wide- spread that its origin is impossible to trace. See Baseball; Basket- ball; Billiards; Cricket; Cro- quet; Football; Golf; Hand- ball; Lacrosse; Lawn Tennis; Polo; Pushball. BaU, John (d. 1381), an Eng- lish priest who was one of the leaders in the rebellion of Wat Tyler, and was in several respects a precursor of Wycliffe. Having been repeatedly in trouble for heresy from 1366, he was ulti- mately hanged, drawn, and quar- tered. Ball, Sir Robert Stawell (1840-1913), British astronomer, was born in Dublin, After grad- uating from Trinity College, Dublin, he was appointed pro- fessor of applied mathematics at the Royal Irish College of Sci- ence; and in 1874, astronomer royal of Ireland. In 1892 he was appointed Lowndean professor of astronomy at Cambridge Univer- Ban 542 Ballad sity and director of the observa- tory, and in i897 he became pres- ident of the Royal Astronomical Society. He also served as presi- dent of the Mathematical Associ- ation, and of the Royal Zoological Society of Ireland. He was knighted in 1886. Sir Robert be- came widely known for his ability to popularize science, and by the publication of Time and Tide (1 889) ; A tlas of A stronomy ( 1 892) ; Story of the Sun (1893) ; Star Land (1893) ; In the High Heavens (1894) ; Great Astronomers (1895) ; The Story of the Heavens (1897); The Earth's Beginnings (1901); Popular Guide to the Heavens (1905) ; Natural Sources of Power (1908); Treatise on Spherical Astronomy (1908). BaU, Thomas (1819-1911), American sculptor, was born in Charlestown, Mass. When a boy he secured a position in the New England Museum, where he availed himself of the oppor- tunity to study art. After meet- ing with some success as a singer and painter, he devoted himself to sculpture about 1852. He studied in Italy from 1854 to 1856, and on his return was oc- cupied with portrait busts and statuettes until he began work on the famous equestrian statue of Washington in the Boston Public Gardens (1860-4). From 1865 to 1897 he lived in Florence, Italy, and afterward in New York. Some of his best known sculptures are Edwin Forrest as Coriolanus, Eve Stepping into Life, Emancipation (at Washing- ton), Daniel Webster (Central Park, New York), and a bronze statue of Washington (Boston). He wrote My Threescore Years and Ten (1891). Ballabgarh, town, India, the former capital of a native state of the same name, in the Punjab; 21 miles south of Delhi. It con- tains a palace and several tem- ples, and has trade in food grains. Pop. 7,000. Ballad. The word ballad is derived through the medium of French from the Late Latin bal- lare, 'to dance,' and thus meant originally a song sung to the rhythmic movement of a dancing chorus — a dramatic poem sung or acted in the dance, of which a kind of survival is seen in the ring songs of children's games at the present day. The name is sometimes applied to a simple song, usually of a romantic or sentimental nature, in two or more verses, each sung to the same melody. But in literature the name Ballad means more particularly a simple, spirited, narrative poem in short stanzas of two or four lines (without counting the burden or refrain), in which a story is told in straight- forward verse, often with great elaborateness and detail in inci- dent, but always with graphic simplicity and force. Of all nar- rative and lyrical forms it is the simplest and most direct in its effect, in its power of represent- ing to the imagination with vivid- ness and truth incidents or natu- ral emotions which it attempts to portray. It is obvious that such a form of literary expression is best fitted to a simple and unlettered age, and it is equally obvious that in an age of greater refinement and complexity in the conditions of social and intellectual life, it is difficult, if not impossible, for an artist so to divest himself of the effects of his environment as to reproduce it without affectation and unreality. And this is exactly what we find when we turn to contrast our traditional ballad poetry with the productions of the modern imitative school. Coleridge's 'Rime of the Ancient Mariner,' Tennyson's 'Revenge,' Browning's 'Herve Riel,' and Rossetti's 'King's Tragedy' have, however, preserved the best tra- ditions of the ballad. But the ballad poetry of mod- ern versifiers is not to be com- pared with the genuine ballads of old times. They were made by the people for the people, and they went straight to the hearts of their hearers, who, if they lacked the refinement of their successors, were not less quick to feel the hot human emotions — love, hate, pity, and fear. They were versified originally by un- lettered men for unlettered audi- ences; and passing as they did from mouth to mouth and gener- ation to generation of reciters possessing the literary sense in very varying degrees, it is not wonderful that many changes of omission or alteration have slipped in, and that what are really the same ballads are found in versions differing considerably from each other. We are acquainted with no race more primitive than the Australian aborigines, whose stone implements are on the line between the Palaeolithic and the Neolithic. This people, in its corroborees, magical, religious, or secular, accompanies the dance with song. These ditties, if ad- mired, are transmitted, as part of the dance, across the continent, reaching tribes to whom the words of the song are partially or wholly unintelligible. The song also accompanies the dance among other savage peoples, American and African, and it holds its old place in the dance games traditional among English children; while we have abundant mediaeval evidence of the exist- ence of the dance song in Scot- land, France, and Europe gen- erally. The ballad, like the popu- lar tale (mdrchen) , is, as a dance song, an invention of the folk, with savage origins and direct modern survivals. The word 'ballad' has long lost the special sense of a dance song. As early as 1568 the poems in fourteen lines each, said to have been addressed by Mary Queen of Scots to the Earl of Bothwell, were spoken of indifferently as 'sonnets' or 'fond ballads.' Knox talks of the 'ballatis' made against the four Marys; and if the famous ballad of The Queen's Marie, or Mary Hamilton, be a survival of one of these, then the word was used on this occasion (about 1564) of a popular narrative poem, whether written by a man of the people, a courtier, or a Puritan. The early 'gude and godly ballatis' are popular songs, travestied for purposes of relig- ious edification in the time of Knox. The ballad, in short, is a pop- ular form of verse, often adapted — during the last four centuries at least — to the purposes of edu- cated men of letters. The verse, as a rule, runs in this meas- ure: 'The king he writ a letter then, A letter which was large and long; He signed it with his own hand, And he promised to do him no wrong.' In the traditional ballads of England and Scotland we must not look for exact dates; but there is ample evidence that a large part of that poetry existed in much the same form as now, more than three hundred years ago. Many of the themes, of course, are much older, and un- doubtedly many of the versified ballads also. Already in The Vision of Piers Plowman, in the second half of the fourteenth century, we find Robin Hood a hero of popular song. The popular poetry of the British Isles was for generations the possession of the people alone; it was long before it at- tracted the notice of the learned at all. Shakespeare knew the old romantic ballads of England, and worked snatches of them with fine eff'ect into his dramas. Sir Philip Sidney could say: 'I neuer heard the olde song of Percy and Duglas that I found not my heart mooued more then with a Trum- pet: and yet is it sung but by some blinde Crouder, with no rougher voyce, then rude stile.' Ben Jonson used to say he would rather have been the author of it than of all his works; and Addi- BaUad 543 BaUad son commended the 'majestic simplicity' of the same ballad in two fine papers of his Spectator (70 and 74). Yet the ballads continued to be neglected, and it was not till Bishop Percy published his fa- mous Reliques of Ancient English Poetry, in 1765, that Englishmen awakened to the fact that their popular poetry was poetry at all. Among the ballads in this collec- tion were such masterpieces as 'Childe Waters,' 'Glasgerion,' 'Edom o' Gordon,' 'Edward, Edward,' 'The Jew's Daughter,' 'Old Robin of Portingale,' 'Sir Aldingar,' 'King Estmere,' 'Sir Patrick Spens,' and 'Gil Morice.' Perhaps no book ever had a greater or more immediate effect. 'I do not think,' says Words- worth, 'that there is an able writer in verse of the present day who would not be proud to acknowledge his obligation to the Reliques.' A similar return to the sim- plicity of truth and nature took place about the same time in France and Germany, and ere long showed its results as plainly in the lyrical work of Andre Chenier, of Goethe, Schiller, and Heine. From the Reliques Scott drew directly the inspiration that made him a poet and more. In 1802 appeared at the provincial press of Kelso the first two vol- umes of his Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border, the richest single collection of popular poetry that has ever been published. Many of the poems were the fruit of raid after raid into Liddesdale, and were in part actually taken down from the lips of the old men and women who still knew them by heart. Of course, in many cases it is impossible now to say exactly how much they owe to the poetic touch of Scott him- self, and we know that it was possible for him to be taken in by ingenious friends; still there is proof enough that here we have what is substantially a body of traditional poetry that fulfils the strictest conditions of the ballad, and is yet of uncommonly high poetic value. The influence which Percy's and Scott's ballads have had on poetry is enough to prove their intrinsic power. Nowhere has there been a richer growth of really popular ballads than in Sicily, where Pitre tells us that as many as seven thousand examples have been gathered. It is interesting to note that many of these bal- lads have the same tone, the same incidents, the same itera- tion of words and ideas as the traditional ballads of England and Scotland, of Scandinavia, of Greece, of Germany, of Italy, of France, and of Spain. This dis- covery widens our interest in the question enormously. The plots and situations of many of our traditionary folk songs are the immemorial inheritance of Celts and Saxons, of Greek and Sla- vonic peoples — of unknown and prehistoric antiquity. They do not belong to one nation in par- ticular, but are the property at least of all the peoples of the Aryan family. 'There are certain incidents,' says Andrew Lang, 'like that of the return of the dead mother to her oppressed children; like the sudden recovery of a fickle bride- groom's heart by the patient af- fection of his first love; like the adventure of May Colvin with a lover who has slain seven women, and tries to slay her; like the story of the bride who pre- tends to be dead, that she may escape from a detested marriage, which are in all European coun- tries the theme of popular song.' They form part of the stock of primitive folk lore, and a study of them on the comparative method may be expected to lead to important constructive results in the hands of future scholars. The materials for such study were made available for the first time in Prof. Francis J. Child's monu- mental edition of the English and Scottish Popular Ballads, with its learned and luminous introduc- tions to each ballad, culled from a thousand volumes in every lan- guage of Europe. Entirely apart from questions of origin, the popular ballads of the English-speaking peoples will repay the most diligent study on their literary side alone. The Robin Hood cycle of ballads and the north country and Border ballads are the two largest and richest collections of ballad po- etry that remain to us; the latter is infinitely the higher in lyrical quality. The Robin Hood bal- lads are some forty in number, but include much repetition both of phrase and incident. Of all our ballads, the palm for poetry must undoubtedly be given to those especially connected with Scot- tish and English Border life and story. These formed the richest part of Scott's collection, which contained altogether more than forty ballads never published be- fore, among them such master- pieces as 'Thomas the Rhymer,' 'The Dowie Dens o' Yarrow,' 'The Wife of Usher's Well.' 'Annan Water,' 'The Douglas Tragedy,' 'The Lament of the Border Widow,' 'Clerk Saunders,' 'The Sang of the Outlaw Mur- ray,' and 'Kinmont Willie'; as well as good fresh versions of 'Lord Randal,' 'Helen of Kirk- connell,' 'Tamlane,' and 'The Lass o' Lochryan.' 'Kinmont Willie' can hardly be overpraised as a masterpiece of the heroic ballad. Fighting ballads like this have high historical as well as poetical value, for they reflect closely and accurately the man- ners and life of the particular people who produced them; and doubtless they had their influence on the rude people who preserved them. Above all our ballads in value stand those that have clustered round the Yarrow — 'fabulous as was ever Hydaspes.' Its story of love stronger than death has been one of the most potent charms in the world of English poetry, and has drawn some of the finest verse that has ever been written from Hamilton of Bangour, Logan, and Words- worth. The best collection of ballads, in all their varying versions, i« Professor Child's great work, English and Scottish Ballads (first published in 5 vols, in 1857-9); and a one-volume edition, edited by Mrs. Child Sargent and Pro- fessor Kittredge (1904), contains all but five of the 305 ballads. Allingham's is a good anthology. Among notable collections have been: Percy's Reliques of Ancient English Poetry (3 vols. 1765; a beautiful and excellent edition by H. B. Wheatley, 3 vols. 1886); Herd's Ancient and Modern Scot- tish Songs, Heroic Ballads, etc. (1769; 2 vols. 1776); Johnson's Scots Musical Museum (6 vols. 1787-1803) ; Ritson's Robin Hood: a Collection of all the Ancient Poems, Songs, and Ballads now extant, relative to that celebrated English Outlaw (2 vols. 1795); Scott's Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border (3 vols. 1802-3, with its admirable introduction and notes) ; Robert Jamieson's Popu- lar Ballads and Songs (2 vols. 1806); Kinloch's Ancient Scottish Ballads (1827); and Motherwell's Minstrelsy, Ancient and Modern (1827), with an excellent intro- duction. The publications of the Percy Society embraced 30 vols. (1840- 1852), a few of them pertaining to ballads. Indispensable books are Chappell's Popular Music of the Olden Time (1855-9; new ed. 1893), and Hales and Furni- vall's reprint of the Percy Folio Manuscript (3 vols. 1867-8), in which we see why the bishop de- served the wrath of the surly but honest Ritson. It was a surprise to the world to discover that of his 180 ballads, there were only 45 that Percy had taken from his famous manuscript. In 1868 Mr. Furnivall succeeded in founding the Ballad Society, which has since published, mainly under the Ballade 544 Ballater enthusiastic and untiring editor- ship of Mr. Ebsworth, the Bag- ford ballads, the Roxburgh bal- lads almost entire, and other un- printed collections. The great collection of ballads made by the famous Pepys still remains buried in the library of Magdalen Col- lege, Cambridge. For comparative study may be named the following collections: For France, E. RoUand's Recueil de Chansons Populaires (6 vols.) ; for Denmark, Svend Grundtvig's Danmark's Gamle Folkeviser; for Germany, F. K. von Erlach's Die Volkslieder der Deutschen (5 vols.) ; for Italy, Giuseppe Pitre's Canti Popolari Siciliani (2 vols.) ; and for Spain, Francisco Rodriguez Marin's Cantos Populares Espano- las (5 vols.). Consult also Coun- tess Martinengro-Cesaresco's Es- says in the Study of Folk Songs (1886), and most of the sixty- nine books named in her list of books consulted. Consult also Andrew Lang's article on ballads in The Cambridge History of Eng- lish Literature (vol. il., 1908); Veitch's History and Poetry of the Scottish Border; Geddie's The Balladists (1900); Frank Sidg- wick's Popular Ballads of the Olden Time (1905-07); F. B. Gummere's The Popular Ballad and The Beginnings of Poetry (1901); Gregory Smith's The Transition Period (1902); Sir A. T. Quiller Couch's Oxford Book of Ballads (1910). Ballade, a poem divided into one or more triplets, each formed of seven or eight lined stanzas, the last line being a refrain com- mon to each stanza. In the bal- lade of eight lines there are only three rhymes, thus — a, b, a, b; B, c, B, c. An envoi is usually at- tached. Its four lines repeat the rhymes of the last four lines of the stanza. The foregoing is the strict application of the term — it is now frequently used some- what more loosely of any poem divided into stanzas of equal length. This form was almost predominant in French litera- ture from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century, and was a favorite of Villon and many of the older French poets. In the nineteenth century it was the popular medium of poets like Verlaine, Theodore de Banville, and Baudelaire. Modern English poets who have revived the bal- lade are vSwinburne, Austin Dob- son, W. E. Henley, and Andrew Lang. The ballade should not be con- fused with the ballad. The two have no connection, apart from their common derivation from che Latin ballare, 'to dance.' Ballad Opera. See Comic Opera. Ballanche, Pierre Simon (1776-1847), French philosopher, was born in Lyons. He settled at Paris in 1814, having attracted some notice by his essays and a prize poem, Antigone. His great work is the Palingenesie Sociale (1828), in which he seeks to illus- trate the workings of God in history. His works are a strange mixture of mysticism, socialism, and the philosophy of history. His Vision d'Hebal (1832) is a prophetic forecast of the world's history. He was a member of the Academy. Consult Ampere's Life. Ballantine, James (1808- 1877), Scottish artist and poet, was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, and was one of the first to revive the art of glass painting. He exe- cuted the stained-glass windows for the House of Lords, and in 1845 published a treatise on Glass Staining. Two prose vol- urnes. The Gaberlunzie's Wallet (1843) and The Miller of Dean- haugh (1845), contain some of his best-known songs and ballads. He was author of Poems (1856 and 1865) ; One Hundred Songs with Music (1865); Life of David Roberts, r.a. (1860); Lilias Lee (1871). Two of his best lyrics are 'The Castles in the Air' and 'Ilka Blade o' Grass.' Ballantrae, a fishing village, Ayrshire, Scotland, at the mouth of the Stinchar. It is the head- quarters of the southwestern fishery district of Scotland. Fish curing is largely carried on. R. L. Stevenson's Master of Ballantrae has immortalized the place. Pop. of parish (1911) 1,080. Ballantyne, James (1772- 1833) and John (1774-1821), Scottish printers, were the sons of a merchant of Kelso, Scotland, where in 1783 they were both at school with Sir Walter Scott. James was bred for the law, but in 1797 he started the Tory Kelso Mail; and in 1802, having already printed some ballads for Scott, he produced the first two volumes of the Border Minstrelsy. The beauty of their typography es- tablished his fame as a printer; and toward the close of that year he set up two presses near Holy- rood. In 1805 Scott became a secret partner in the business, which in 1808 expanded into the printing, publishing, and book- selling firm of John Ballantyne & Co., vScott having one-half share, and each of the brothers one-fourth. As early as 1813, bankruptcy threatened the firm, and though its unsaleable stock (Scott's own rash ventures main- ly) was disposed of to Constable in 1818, it was hopelessly in- volved in Constable's ruin (1826). John had died bankrupt five years earlier; and James, after the settlement of affairs, was em- ployed by the creditors' trustees in editing The Weekly Journal, and in the literary management of the printing office. Consult History of the Ballantyne Press. Ballantyne, Robert Michael (1825-94), Scottish author, writer of tales for boys, nephew of James Ballantyne, was born in Edinburgh, Scotland. His first book (1848) was a record of per- sonal experiences during a six- years' residence (1841-7) in the territories of the Hudson Bay Company. In 1856 he took to literature as a profession. His first tales were founded on his life in the backwoods of Rupert's Land, among the fur traders and Indians. He wrote over 80 vol- umes. Consult his Personal Rec- ollections: Ballarat, or Ballaarat, city, Victoria, Australia, next in im- portance to Melbourne. Owing its rise to the discovery of gold there in June, 1851, it is still the centre of a rich goldfield. It is 76 miles northwest of Melbourne and 58 miles northwest of Gee- long. Ballarat, or Ballarat West, and Ballarat East, separated by the Jarrowee Creek River, are ad- joining municipalities. Being 1,440 feet above sea level, Bal- larat enjoys an exceptionally cool and healthy climate. There are two town halls, some fifty churches, several colleges, and grammar schools. Among the in- dustries are iron founding, brew- ing, distilling, flour and woollen mills. The 'Welcome Nugget,' discovered in 1858 at Bakery Hill, weighed 2,217 oz. 16 dwt., and was sold for $52,500. Since 1851 the output of gold is esti- mated at over $400,000,000. The surrounding district is well adapt- ed for farming and sheep breed- ing. Pop. 45,000. Consult Withers' History of Ballarat. Ballast, employed to give a ship sufficient immersion in the water, so as to insure her safe sailing with spread canvas, when her cargo and equipment are too light, may consist of iron, stone, gravel, sand, or water. The term is also used of the broken stone, cinders, or gravelly material laid as a packing between railroad ties. The word ballast is also ap- plied to the sand which is carried in a balloon, and which is thrown out from time to time in order to enable the balloon to ascend to higher altitudes. Ballater, village, Aberdeen- shire, Scotland, on the River Dee; 43 miles southwest of Aber- deen. It owes its origin, in 1770, to the Pannanich mineral wells in the vicinity. The bracing air of Ball Bearings 545 Balllnger the district makes it a favorite summer resort. Pop. 1,500. Ball Bearings, a device for re- ducing friction, usually applied to the shaft or axle of a rotating wheel or disc, as in the motor car and bicycle, and consisting of a series of hardened and perfectly true steel balls, one-eighth inch in diameter and upward. Each IT Ball Bearings Hub of motor car, showing two outer rows of balls taking the journal bearing load, and two inner taking the end thrust in both directions. ball is separate, and rotates with the shaft. Sometimes the balls run in a channel or 'ball race,' sometimes between coned sur- faces. In vehicles for heavier loads, and in some machines, rollers are used in place of balls. See Bearing; Friction. Ballenstedt, bal'len-stet, town, Germany, in Anhalt, at the east end of the Harz Mountains; 13 miles by rail southwest of As- chersleben. It is the site of the summer residence of the Duke of Anhalt, formerly a Benedictine monastery, surrounded by a wooded park, and containing a library, picture gallery and other collections of interest. Pop. 6,000. Ballentyne. See Bellenden, Balleny Islands, bal-la'ne, a group of five small islands of volcanic origin situated in the Antarctic Ocean, in latitude about 67° s. and longitude about 163° E. They were discovered in 1839 by Captain John Balleny. Peak Freeman on Young Island is over 12,000 feet high. Ballet, ba-la' or bal'et, a series of solo and concerted dances with mimetic actions, accompanied by music and scenic accessories, tell- ing a story. The ballet, com- bined with dialogue and vocal music, was introduced as a court entertainment into France from Italy about 1850 by Baltasarini, under the patronage of Cather- ine de' Medici, and immediately became popular. Louis xiii. and Louis xiv. took part in the court ballets, while Cardinal Richelieu interested himself in superintending and inventing new stage effects. As an exclusively dancing es- tablishment the ballet came into being with the foundation in 1669 of the Academie Roy ale de Musi que el de Danse in Paris. Lulli, director of the opera, paid great attention to the ballet, and to him is attributed the in- troduction of rapid dancing, in opposition to the solemn and de- liberate steps favored by the court in the early part of the reign of Louis xiv. Quinault, the opera poet who made use of dance and pantomime, had also much to do with making the inci- dental ballet a recognized part of opera performance, with his great ballets Armida and The Triumph of Love (1681)— the lat- ter being the first public ballet in which women took part. The ballet, as an independent enter- tainment, owes its origin to Jean Georges Noverre, who wholly parted it from opera about 1776, and set it very high on its own toes as a five-act play of music, dance, and pantomime without words. The ballet was introduced into England from France about 1734 by two female dancers — De Subligny and Salle, and flour- ished especially during the first half of the nineteenth century, after which time it suffered a serious decline. Among the favorite dancers of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were Gaetano Vestris (1729-1808). an Italian by birth, Marie Taglioni, whose triumph in La Sylphide echoed through- out Europe; Fanny Elssler, an Austrian, who was a great favo- rite in America; Carlotta Grisi, Lucille Grahn, and Fanny Cerito. Of more recent dancers, mention may be made of Mile. Genee and Phyllis Bedells. The Russian Ballel, which has risen to a position of pre-emi- nence since the decline of the ballet in France, was instituted by the Empress Anne in 1735. It was encouraged by subsequent rulers and continued under im- perial control and maintenance for more than a century and a half. Among its leading recent exponents are Anna Pavlowa, Waslaw Nijinsky, Mikail Mord- kin, Tamar Karsovina and Lydia Kyasht. Consult Pougin's Dic- tionnaire His tori que du Theatre; Flitch's Modern Dancing and Dancers; Perugini's The Art of Ballet. Ball-flower, an ornament in Gothic architecture of the thir- teenth and fourteenth centuries, in which the petals of a sculp- tured flower, three or, rarely, four in number, enclose a ball, instead of pistils or stamens. Balliet, Thomas M. (1852- ), American educator, was graduated from Franklin and Marshall College (1876), and studied at Yale and Leipzig; was superintendent of schools in Springfield, Mass., from 1888 to 1904, and from 1904 to 1919 was professor of the science of educa- tion and dean of the School of Pedagogy, New York University. He was associate editor of the Pedagogical Seminary, and pub- lished Some New Phases of Educa- tional Thought and several mono- graphs. Ballin, Hugo (1879- ), American artist, was born in New York. He studied at the Art Students' League in his native city, and in Rome and Florence, and devoted much time to mural painting, in which he attained some striking effects through his lavish use of color. His decora- tions for the capitol building at Madison, Wisconsin, are typical- ly American in spirit and concep- tion. He has also painted numerous pictures for private collections and has produced and mounted many feature motion pictures. He is an associate National Academician. Ballina, bal-i-na', town, Ire- land, in County Mayo, situated about 5 miles from the mouth of the Moy River, which separates County Mayo from County Sligo and the town of Ballina from the town of Ardanaree. It is a fishing port. Pop. 4,500. Ballinger, bal'in-jer, city, Texas, county seat of Runnels County, situated on the Colo- rado River and on the Abilene and Southern, and the Gulf, Colorado, and Santa Fe Rail- roads; 225 miles west of Forth Worth. It is the centre of a rich agricultural section. Pop. (1910) 3,536; (1920) 2,767. Ballinger, Richard Achilles (1858-1922), American execu- tive, was born in Boonesboro, la. He studied at Washington College, Kans., and at Williams College, from which he was grad- uated in 1884. Engaging in the study of law, he was admitted to the bar, was U. S. Court Com- missioner (1890-2), and later judge of the Superior Court of Jefferson County, Washington. He was elected mayor of Seattle in 1904. His active and thor- ough work in cleaning up that city at the time of the Alaska gold rush brought him to the atten- tion of President Roosevelt, and in 1907 he was appointed Com- missioner of the General Land Office at Washington. D. C. In 1909 he was appointed Secretary of the Interior in the Cabinet of President Taft. While he was occupying this position an in- vestigation by a committee of Congress was instituted respect- ing his conduct as Commissioner of the General Land Ofiice in previous years, and as Secretary of the Interior, in connection with certain land transactions (see Conservation). The criti- cisms, after investigation, were Vol. I. — March '30 Balliol College 545 A Balloons declared unfounded. On March 7, 1911, Mr. Ballinger resigned as Secretary of the Interior and engaged in the practice of law in Seattle. He is the author of Community Property (1895); An- notated Codes and Statutes of Washington (1897). Balliol College, Oxford. See Oxford. Ballis'ta, or Balista, an an- cient military engine in the na- ture of a catapult (q.v.), used in throwing large stones or darts. At the end of the fourth century, each centurion in a legion had (1) Non-dirigible balloons in- clude (a) free balloons and (b) captive or kite balloons. Free balloons are used in the training of airship pilots, for sport and for atmospheric exploration. Bal- looning is a splendid means for acquiring first-hand flying knowl- edge of atmospheric structure and characteristics. Captive or kite balloons afford an elevated platform for use in directing artillery fire and for general war time observation work. Such balloons connected in groups and put up at various high levels. stat and is the simplest of all air- craft. It is essentially a spherical bag made of fabric, cotton for most types and sometimes silk for racing balloons, rubberized or varnished to minimize diffusion of the contained lifting gas. Hydrogen and coal gas of light density are the gases ordinarily used for the inflation of free bal- loons. A cord netting, secured at the top of the bag and spread over it, has attached to it well below the bag a load ring to which a basket for passengers and instruments is attached. Courtesy of Flying. The British Dirigible R. 34, which made the First Non-stop Trans- Atlantic Flight from East to. West, July, 2-6, 1919. a ballista, drawn on wheels by mules, and served by eleven men. Ballis'ttc Pendulum, an ap- paratus invented (about 1740) by Benjamin Robins to ascertain the velocity of projectiles fired from a gun. It is now superseded by other contrivances, as the elec- tro-ballistic chronograph. See Chronograph. Ballistics. See Gunnery. Bal'listite, a smokeless pow- der resembling cordite (q.v.) , con- tains equal proportions of nitro- glycerin and soluble nitrocellu- lose. It was introduced in 188G by Alfred Nobel (q.v.). Balloons. There are two classes of lighter- than-air craft: (1) non-dirigible balloons; (2) dirigible balloons, or dirigibles, or airships. The latter term (air- ships) applies properly only to dirigible balloons and not to all forms of aircraft as often used. afford a low visibility measure of protection like a wall against bombing or low-flying airplanes. Peace time uses include advertis- ing and other utilitarian pur- poses. Dirigible balloons, or airships (non-rigid, semi-rigid and rigid), have been used extensively for military and naval purposes and have also been adapted for pas- vsenger, mail and cargo carrying, and in other useful ways. The art of operating lighter- than-air craft is called 'Aerosta- tion' as opposed to 'Aviation', which is the art of operating heavier-than-air craft. An aero- stat is a lighter-than-air craft. Free BalLoons. — The free bal- loon, spherical for the reason that such a shape affords the least sur- face (and conseciuently least weight) for a given volume, was naturally the first successful aero- Sometimes patch suspensions re- place the conventional netting for carrying the load ring. A balloon rises because the contained inflation gas is lighter than the air in which it is im- mersed and the total weight less than that of the volume of dis- placed air. As a balloon rises into the atmosphere of continu- ously decreasing density, its contained gas expands under the reduced pressure. In order to prevent accumulation of interior gas pressure which might rupture the balloon, it is fitted with a fabric sleeve called the appendix which leads directly from the bottom of the bag to the atmos- phere and automatically affords an exit for excess gas volume. The appendix also serves as the means of inflating the balloon. To permit ready and deliberate reduction of buoyancy by loss of Vol, I, — March '30 Balloons 545 B Balloons lifting gas, a manoeuvering valve is fitted at the top of the envelope and operated by a cord, white in color, leading to the basket through the appendix. When a free balloon lands in a strong wind it may be necessary to de- flate it rapidly in order to prevent its being dragged over the ground ; to provide for this, a special rip panel is sewed or otherwise se- cured into the upper surface of the envelope, so arranged that ^ Appendix. bar or Conc&ntratfGn 3u5pens«>n f]:^ ring fines ^'^jjjtA Free Balloon when the pilot pulls the rip cord (colored red) attached to the upper end of this panel, the stitching rips, thereby opening a considerable area of the envelope and allowing the rapid escape of gas and collapse of the spherical shape. A free balloon is equipped with a long drag rope (or trail rope) which may be used when sailing at low altitudes as automatic bal- last, for as the rope touches the ground the balloon is partly re- lieved of its weight and when rising again must pick up the weight of the rope. Sometimes an anchor is carried on a separate line. The navigating equipment generally consists of compass, altimeter, thermometer, stop watch, charts, recording baro- graph, and a statoscope, which is a sensitive device for indicating changes of altitude and their rates. The basket is generally fitted with flotation gear for safety in case of a landing on water. Ballast consists of fine sand carried in bags of about 30 pounds each and readily dispos- able by sifting overboard in measured amounts. Vertical control is afforded by discharging ballast for ascending and reduc- ing buoyancy by valving gas for descending. Since every dirigi- ble becomes a free balloon when its power is not in use in flight, the great value of balloon train- ing for airship pilots is readily evident. The first historical mention of a balloon occurs in Ministre's his- tory of Lyons, France, in which it is recorded that an aerostat carrying several persons de- scended into that city during the latter part of the reign of Charle- magne (742-814). They were charged with being sorcerers, and condemned to death. It is gener- ally believed that a balloon of some kind was sent up at Peking, China, at the coronation of the Emperor Fo-Kien in 1306. The first practical success was that achieved by the brothers Mont- golfier at Annonay, France (June 5, 1783), when their large paper balloon, inflated with the smoke and gases from burning straw, rose to a height of 1,000 feet. In 1766 Cavendish discovered hydrogen, the lightest substance known, and Dr. Black shortly after suggested its use in bags for lifting heavy bodies from the ground. After the success of the Montgolfiers, Prof. Charles, a French scientist, constructed a balloon of silk made impervious by a varnish of rubber prepared by the brothers Robert of Paris; this was filled with hydrogen and sent up in Paris, Aug. 29, 1783. The Montgolfiers then came to Paris, and sent up a hot-air bal- loon made of linen, with some animals as passengers. These coming safely to earth, Pilatre de Rozier built a similar balloon, but added a furnace to keep the air hot after the balloon had risen. Having anchored it by a rope, he ascended (Oct. 15, 1783) to a height of 80 feet, remaining for some time, feeding his fire as needed. On Nov. 21, with the Marquis d'Arlandes, De Rozier made the first free balloon ascen- sion, coming safely to earth after a voyage lasting twenty-five minutes. On Dec. 1, 1783, Prof. Charles with one of the brothers Robert made a voyage of 40 miles in a balloon 30 feet in di- ameter inflated with hydrogen. With the exception of the ripping panel afterward invented by Wise and the drag-rope devised by Green, the Charles balloon was a complete model of those now in use. In England, Tytler and Lu- nardi, a few weeks later, made the first ascensions in that country; and in January, 1785, the French aeronaut Blanchard, with Dr. Jeffries, an American scientist, succeeded in crossing the English Channel from Dover to Calais in a hydrogen balloon. De Rozier lost his life soon after while at- tempting to cross the Channel from France to England in a com- bination of gas balloon with hot- air receptacle beneath. The appa- ratus exploded. At that time, hydrogen was too costly for extensive use; but in 1818 the English aeronaut Green began successful experiments with coal gas, and ballooning re- ceived a new impetus. Many long journeys have been safely accomplished with coal-gas bal- loons — -in the international race of October, 1916, a voyage of 1,355 miles having been made by the America ii., piloted by Alan R. Hawley, which remained in the air over forty-six hours. The International Aeronautic Federa- tion, consisting at one time of one national aero club of each of eighteen nations, represented in the United States by the Nation- al Aeronautic Association, holds an international free balloon con- test annually for the Interna- tional Balloon Trophy known as the James Gordon Bennett cup. Balloons of 80,000 cubic feet gas volume are used in this event. The United States won this inter- national race in 1906, 1909, 1910, 1913, 1926, 1927, 1928 and 1929. The first scientific observations made during ascensions were those of Prof. Charles, in 1783. His barometer showed that he reached a height of 11,360 feet, up to which level he made a series of thermometer readings. The first solely scientific ascent was made by Dr. Jeffries in 1784. The first important balloon ob- servations were made by Gay- Lussac and Biot, in 1804, many atmospheric conditions being in- vestigated. The series of records made by Glaisher, who was usual- ly accompanied by Coxwell in his 28 ascensions, from 1862 to 1866, were for a long time standard. His figures were modified (1887) by Assman in Germany, who with Berson and Gross made several ascents for meteorological facts, with the substantial aid of the Emperor and the German government. On June 30, 1901, Berson and Suring rose to a height of 35,424 feet, establishing many records. Sounding Balloons. — There be- ing a limit to which a manned balloon can rise because of the rarefied atmosphere and the in- tense cold, recourse was had to small unmanned balloons carry- ing only a set of recording instru- ments. These small balloons are usually made of varnished paper and contain but a few cubic feet of hydrogen gas. Another type is made of sheet rubber and tightly closed after inflation. Upon reaching a certain altitude the rubber bursts, and the instru- VoL. I.— March '30 Balloons 545 C Balloons ments float down gently under a parachute. The importance of simultaneous explorations of the air was soon recognized, and in 1900 scientific men of several countries agreed to send up sounding balloons on the first Thursday of each month. Valu- able tables have been constructed from these records made at the same time at widely distant points. One of these sounding hausted of air, and fixed in an apparatus, so arranged that the necks of the bulbs were broken at the desired level, and immedi- ately sealed again by electric action, to bring down any cosmic dust which might be floating there. When opened, no such dust was found. Propaganda Balloon. — A type of free balloon came into use dur- ing the latter part of the Great ventive genius toward the im- provement of the Charles balloon, resulting in the elongation of the gas bag and the invention of the indispensable air balloonet. The first use of the balloon in warfare was as a means of sending de- spatches out of the besieged city of Conde, in 1793. Small un- manned balloons were used, and most of them fell into the hands of the besieging army. The 20 23' 3^' 27 25. 139 20 31 1 - Air duct 2- Air opening into bollopef 3 - Air scoop A-Appendix mon/no/e 5 - Automatic valve rigging 6 - Ba lionet 7- Ballonet deflation tiole 6-Bollonet dioptiragm seam 9 -Basket 10 -Basket suspension I /-Bonnet (valve cover) 1 2- Def lotion sleeve 1 3- Gas valve I ■4- Hand valve line ,32^ ^36 22 5. 17 .■38: -37 \\\ \22 30 ^18 '29- 30 40 W \\\ \ IS' \\\ \ 35 15 -Handling lines 1 6- Junction piece 17 - Lobe, lateraJ-.stabilizer le-L obe, verticoi.stobilizer 1 9- Manometer tube atfactiment 20- Mooring bonds 21 -Mooring ropes 22 - Nursing tube 23 - Nursing tube check valve 2-4 -Nursing tube discharge tube 25- Rip cord 26 - Rip cord gland 27- Rip panel 26- Suspension band 29-Suspension bar SO-Suspension lines 31- Tie patch for manometer tube 32- Tie patch for rip cord and valve line 33- Tie patch for infernal valve line 34 - Toggle 35 - Towing or traction cable 36- Tube cover 3 7- Valve adjusting gland 38 - Val ve cord alt ochment pyr amid 39 - Valve gland 40- V" wires (steel) 41 - Winch suspension Kile Balloon balloons set free near Brussels, Belgium, on Nov. 5, 1908, rose to a height of 18 miles, registering a pressure of 0.4 inch of mercury. The lowest temperature was — 89.7° F., recorded at a height of 8 miles. During the solar eclipse of 1905, meteorological observa- tions of the upper air were made with sounding balloons at several stations in Europe. At the time of the passing of the earth through the tail of Halley's comet, in 1910, a number of these balloons were sent up in Ger- many, carrying glass bulbs ex- VoL. I. — March '30 War for the purpose of distribut- ing propaganda into enemy territory. The arrangement con- sists of an envelope from which is suspended a device for auto- matically releasing and distribut- ing the propaganda over a wide area. Military Observation Balloons; Captive Balloons. — With the ear- liest successful ascensions, the military authorities of the day recognized the advantages of the balloon in warfare; and it was with this object in view that General Meusnier turned his in- value of the captive balloon for purposes of observation was rec- ognized, but the necessities of war demanded that the available supply of sulphur be kept for gunpowder, which prohibited the manufacture of hydrogen by the method then in use. Under this spur the French chemist Lavoi- sier invented the process of mak- ing hydrogen by passing steam over red hot iron; and thus it became possible for an army corps to carry with it a complete outfit for the rapid inflation of a balloon. The first military use of Balloons 545 D Balloons the observation balloon was at the battle of Fleurus, in 1794, by the French balloon corps. In 1795 this balloon was again used at the battle of Mayence. In 1796 two other balloons were used by the French army at Andernach and Ehrenbreitstein. In 1798 the French aerostiers took part in the Egyptian cam- paign, at the battle of the Nile, and at Cairo. In the year follow- ing. Napoleon ordered the bal- loon corps disbanded. In 1815 an observation balloon was used at the siege of Antwerp. The next historical record of the use of the balloon for military purposes is credited to the Aus- trians in their campaign against Venice (1849). Being unable to reach the city with their guns they loaded small balloons with bombs, with fuses so tied as to drop them into the heart of the the Boer War (1899-1902), in- flated their balloons in this man- ner. During the Great War the Germans devised large-volume high-pressure containers mounted on railroad flat cars, thus provid- ing a highly mobile supply of hydrogen. When a fesv years ago the aero- plane proved to be successful, and the attention of practically all students of aeronautics was drawn to its development for military purposes, interest in the captive balloon as a means of observation waned, not only in the United States, but abroad. In the United States the lack of sufficient appropriations for the aeronautical service of the army was also largely responsible for failure to develop this valuable auxiliary. The Great War of Europe dem- onstrated that the aeroplane. One observer on the western battle front in France states that he was able to count twenty-six balloons in sight at one time; this is convincing testimony of their extensive use. It is an interest- ing development of the war that battle-type aeroplanes were as- signed for the protection of the captive balloons, and for this purpose cruised about at a height of several thousand feet above the balloon, ready to swoop down upon any enemy aeroplanes that attempted to destroy it. Anti- aircraft guns were located sufifi- ciently near balloons to maintain barrage fire over them to prevent hostile aeroplanes from approach- ing within range with their in- cendiary rockets or bullets. The spherical type of captive balloons was abandoned in favor of the elongated type, often re- ferred to as 'sausage' or 'drachen' Diagram of the Forlanini Representative Semi-Rigid Dirigible (F. 4 type; 15,000 cubic metres capacity; two motors, 160 h. p. each; length, 280 feet; speed 73 kilometres per hour) city. A few reached their desti- nation, but the changing winds in some cases caused them to re- turn and fall into their own ranks. In 1859 Napoleon iii. re-established the French Bal- loon Corps, equipping it with two Italian balloons. In the Civil War (1861-5) the United States Army made extended use of the balloon, 8 being supplied to the several divisions. They were used not only for observation of the enemy's position, but also as a point of vantage for directing artillery fire. During the siege of Paris (1870-1), 64 balloons were sent out of Paris, carrying nine tons of despatches and 3,000,000 letters. Of these, 57 reached friendly territory. Gambetta left the city by one of these bal- loons on his mission to raise an army of relief. The device of compressing hydrogen gas, so that many cubic feet may be transported in a small cylinder, has facilitated the use of the balloon in military operations, obviating the neces- sity of making the gas in the field. The British army in Bechuanaland, in 1884, and in while of the greatest value for aerial reconnaissance, is not able to replace the captive balloon for certain purposes. So thousands of kite balloons were used in the war for directing artillery fire and observation. Captive bal- loons were carried by allied battleships and other surface craft but handling difficulties on board ship reduced their utility. The great advantage of the captive balloon is that the ob- server is constantly in direct telephonic communication with the artillery commanders in his vicinity; constant and thorough inspection of the enemy's posi- tion with the aid of powerful glasses and telescopes reveals every movement of bodies of troops or anything new that has appeared during the previous night, and the targets thus pre- sented can be immediately taken under fire. Continuous and searching observation of the same sector enables an observer to note even slight changes in the color of the earth and to make important deductions therefrom. Changes in trench construction can thus be easily detected. (German for kite) balloon, since the latter type has much greater steadiness in the wind; the pressure of the moving air against the under side of the balloon holding it steady in the same manner as in the case of a com- mon paper kite. The kite bal- loon was fitted with a tail con- sisting of several conical canvas cups, to assist in maintaining its stability, with the same result as is secured by affixing a tail to the toy kite. Captive balloons of the latest type, named 'Caquot' after the inventor, are made with streamline shape and empanages so that the kite-tail cups are not required for steadiness. During the war the observa- tion balloons were placed from two to four miles in rear of the line of trenches, and were sepa- rated by intervals depending upon the artillery activity in various sectors. The altitude at which they were held was dependent upon the atmospheric conditions and upon the distance of the enemy's artillery. They were usually sent up at daylight, and remained in the air until dark, being drawn down every Vol. I. — March '30 Balloons 546 Balloons few hours to change observers. Occasionally they remained up at night, and it was frequently found that enemy guns that were not visible by daylight could be located at night by their flashes. Even after dark it was found that observers who had studied every feature of the ground for days were able to see enough to fix accurately the position of the flashes. The strain of constant observation with high-power glasses or telescopes made it ad- visable to change the observers at frequent intervals. It is customary to have two officers in the basket of the bal- loon, and they are connected with the ground by telephone. One method is to have an iso- lated telephone wire in the centre of the cable which holds the bal- loon; another method is to drop a strong, light-weight wire from the basket of the balloon to con- nect with the telephone circuits directly underneath. In both cases the steel wires of the hold- ing cable serve to complete the electric circuit for the telephones. Balloon companies are provided with telephone switchboards so that the observer in the basket can communicate directly with any battery or higher artillery commander in his vicinity. Buildings, hills or specially constructed towers concealed by the trees are frequently utilized in conjunction with captive bal- loons to provide an auxiliary ob- serving station, so that the two may serve as the end stations of a base line for the accurate loca- tion of targets. In some cases another balloon is used as the second observing station. At the beginning of the war various special codes of signals were experimented with for the purpose of enabling observers to report the error in the fall of shots, but these were discon- tinued in favor of the brief an- nouncement of 'over,' 'short,' 'right,' and 'left.' Field glasses having a milled scale permit of the observer reporting in degrees the distance of shots from the target. For service with the mobile army it was customary to have highly trained balloon compa- nies, able to inflate a balloon and have it, with its observers, several thousand feet in the air in about twenty minutes after the organi- zation had halted; this speed was attained by using compres.sed hydrogen carried in special vehi- cles. The information of 1915-10 indicated that the peace strength of the balloon companies in Europe averaged about 60 men. The arduous service that was reciuired during the war necessi- tated an increase in the number, there being in some cases as many Vol. I. — March '30 as 160 officers and men assigned to one balloon; this number pro- vides for three reliefs for the cap- tive balloon, the observation tower personnel, the telephone switchboard operators, and de- tails for the manufacture of hydrogen. Since the service along the Western battlefront was in the nature of siege warfare, it was found practicable to supply hy- drogen from portable field gener- ators, instead of furnishing it compressed in cylinders. The average capacity of the balloon is from 30,000 to 50,000 cubic feet. There is continuous loss of hydro- gen due to leakage through the fabric and to losses from expan- sion at high altitude; these losses are ordinarily replaced at night. A common method of replacing gas is to fill small balloons called 'nurses' at the nearest field gen- erating plant; a small detach- ment of men can easily conduct this supply balloon to the hangar and transfer hydrogen from the 'nurse' to the captive balloon as it may be required. The most modern type of wind- lass for holding captive balloons consists of a winding drum con- structed on a motor truck. Whenever enemy aircraft at- tempt to destroy a captive bal- loon, it is customary to haul it down rapidly or to keep it mov- ing around the field to lessen the chances of its being hit. Captive balloons inflated with hydrogen are occasionally set afire and destroyed by incendiary bullets; bombs from airplanes are sometimes effective. Destruc- tion in this manner is not neces- sarily fatal to the observers, as they are usually provided with parachutes attached to body har- ness, which permit their safe descent to the ground. The use of non-inflammable helium gas did not reach the front before the end of the Great War; but the substitution of the safe helium for the highly inflammable hy- drogen adds materially to the value of captive balloons in war- fare by reducing the fire-hazard to practically nil. Barrage Balloons. — This class of captive balloon resembles the usual type in shape but has dilat- able or expanding gores in place of an air balloonet, is smaller and carries no passengers. It is in- tended for use in protecting cities or important points against attack by bombing planes in time of war. Such protection by bar- rage balloons is accomplished by having numerous balloons in the air, the holding cables serving as a possil)le means for the fouling of an airplane propeller or other- wise producing such damage as to bring the plane down out of con- trol and short of its objective. Another system tried out during the war consisted of connecting individual balloons with cables from which additional cables were hung, forming a curtain of cables and thus increasing the effectiveness of the system. Airships. — While Santos-Du- mont was making his experi- ments Count Zeppelin was build- ing his first great airship on a plan which had been unsuccess- fully tried by Schwartz in 1897, but with much essential modifica- tion. By persistent effort which produced many ships during the Great War, and the Los Angeles and the Graf Zeppelin more re- cently, this type of ship has be- come known to the world as the Zeppelin. The first ship was an aluminum and wire framework construction of about 400,000 cubic feet capacity, being 416 feet long, 38 feet in diameter and having 16 sides. The general shape of the ship was that of a cylinder with a spherical nose piece and a parabolic tail piece. The ship had a gross lift of approximately 25,000 pounds and a useful lift of 2,200 pounds with a top speed of seventeen miles per hour. It was powered with two 16 H.p. motors, each located in a car suspended under the centreline of the ship, one forward and the other aft, each driving two pusher propellers through a system of shafting and gearing. There were 16 gas cells within the ship made of rubber- ized cotton fabric. The outer cover was a light cotton fabric laced to the structure and shrunk in place by a dope. This first ship was, of course, weak for its great length, the gas cells were not tight and the engines of en- tirely too little power. Its first flight was made July 2, 1900, Experimentation and construc- tion continued, each succeeding class of ships representing con- siderable improvement in speed and performance over its pre- decessors. From 1908 to 1911 the entrance of the Schutte- Lanz Company had a marked effect on changing the trend of the Zeppelin ships. The first Schutte-Lanz ship had a volume of 724,000 cubic feet and a useful load of 10,000 pounds with a re- ported speed of forty-two miles per hour with two 250 h.p. en- gines. Even though this was their first ship, it was notably ahead of any corresponding Zep- pelin of the same type. Con- siderable progress was made in the Schutte-Lanz type as well as in the Zeppelin type but in 1915 the resources and patents of these two companies were combined and resulted in the production of airships of composite design em- l)oclying the best features of both. These were the L-jo class of a volume of 1,940,000 cubic feet and were referred to as the Page 546 A Balloons 546 B Balloons Super-Zeppelin. Progress in speed and performance continued until certain classes of wartime Zeppelins were capable of reach- ing a ceiling of 23,000 feet; a top speed of 75 miles was reached in some and a range of 6,200 miles in others. Stressing wartime quantity production of ships rather than a possibly slower out- put of different shaped ships which might have had better aerodynamic and strength quali- ties, it was left to the post-war Zeppelin type to bring out such improved features. The infla- tion of German ariships with hydrogen of course made them readily susceptible to destruction. been turned over to the United States, is a splendid ship of 2,600,000 cubic feet gas capacity, and is still in active operation. The Los Angeles made the flight from Friedrichshafen, Germany, to Lakehurst, N. J., in 81 hours, arriving with an ample margin of fuel and was turned over to the United States Navy. After the lifting of the Allied restriction the Graf Zeppelin, a ship of about 3,700,000 cubic feet capacity, the largest ship that could be built in the remaining large airship shed in Germany, was completed in the fall of 1928, and is the outstand- ing modern example of Zeppehn type. It includes a number of was completed. It consisted of a flexible gas envelope, fastened firmly to a rigid floor of elliptical shape. It attained a speed of 23 miles per hour, and made 33 suc- cessful voyages. In 1904 it was lengthened, and in that year, and 1905, it made thirty voyages, carrying 195 passengers. After extended trials it was purchased by the French Government. The rigid framework of the Lebaudy airship made its transportation difficult, and this objection to the type led to the invention, by Major von Parse val, of a collap- sible airship, which could be packed into small size and trans- ported readily with the baggage , Secfional assembly of intermediate frans^^erse ' of hull 26-h tors in writing his History of the X Pacific Coast of N. America (40 ^vols. 1882-91). His other works v» are Native Races of the Pacific \States (5 vols. 1874-5); Chronicles ,vof the Builders of the Common- Awealth (7 vols. 1891-2); and Re- ^ sources and Development of Mexico (1893). Bancroft, Richard (1544- 1610), Archbishop of Canterbury. In 1597 he succeeded Aylmer as bishop of London. He attended the Hampton Court Conference, and in 1604 he was raised to the primacy. See Fuller's Church Hist, (new ed. 1868). Bancrofts, The. Sir Squire Bancroft (1841), one of the most successful comedians of the Vic- torian stage, was born in London. In 1861 he made his debut at the Theatre Royal, Birmingham. Maria Wilton attracted the notice of Mr. Charles Dillon, the tra- fedian, who engaged her for the .ondon Lyceum in 1856. Having entered into partnership with H. J. Byron, she opened the Prince of • Wales's Theatre in 1865, Squire Bancroft being one of her com- pany. This success was followed by the production of Robertson's Ours, Caste, Play, School, and M.P., in each of which Miss Wil- ton and Mr. Bancroft — who were married at the close of the 1867 season — took leading parts, as they did in the subsequent pro- ductions of Money, The Scnool for Scandal, Masks and Faces, Diplomacy, and Sweethearts. In 1879 the Bancrofts acquired the Haymarket Theatre, which they opened in 1880 with Money. They retired in 1885. See the Band 559 Bandage Bancrofts' autobiography, On and off the Stage (1888). Band, in architecture, is a flat moulding, smaller than a fascia. The word, hovvever, is applied to narrow members somewhat wider than fillets, and the word fascia to broader members. The cinctures sometimes used round the shafts of rusticated columns are called bands, in which case the column is styled a banded column. Band, Military. The earli- est record of regimental bands is contained in a French decree of April 19, 1766, assigning a band of music to each regiment, but it was near the close of the century before the institution was thoroughly established, the instru- mentation of the time consisting of drums beaten with only one .stick, fifes, flutes, trumpets, pan- dean pipes (in Italy), and, a little later, oagpipes and. violins. The average military band instrumen- tation now consists principally of the following: 2 first, 2 second, and 1 third B flat clarinets; 1 E flat clarinet; 1 piccolo; 2 first, 1 second and 1 third B flat cornets: 1st, 2nd, and 3rd altos: 1st, 2nd and 3rd trombones; oboe, saxa- Ehone, glockenspiel, barytone, B at bass, E flat tuba; bass drum and snare drum. Individual bandmasters first began to attract attention about 1850. The most celebrated in the United States army was 'Patrick Sarsfield Gilmore, who served throughout the Civil War and was world famous for his military music. Someof his successors were D. W. Reeves, Victor Herbert and John Philip Sousa, who resigned from the U. S. Marine Band and developed at the beginning of the present century the highest type of military concert band ever known. Among the first celebrated band- masters of Europe may be men- tioned Neithardt of the Kaiser Franz Grenadier Band in Ger- many, and Charles Godfrey of the Coldstream Guards Band in England. There are 58 bands in the regular establishment of the United States Army: one belong- ing to each of the 15 cavalry and 30 infantry regiments; ten to the artillery corps; one to the Engi- neers; and one to the Military Academy. The organization is practically the same in all branches of the service with a total of 28 en- listed men to each band, under the musical direction and instruction of a chief musician as bandmaster, and under military control of the Regimental or District adjutant assisted by a drum major. The two musicians (buglers, trumpet- ers) of each company join the band when it turns out to play at mili- tary formations. Bandsmen are regularly enlisted soldiers, and as such subject to military discipline, and to service under arms in case of emergency. They are supposed to be skilled musicians when en- listed, but their instruction con- tinues under the chief musician. In addition to those of the regu- lar service, each regiment of the National Guard has its band, sometimes enlisted in the regiment but generally hired for the occa- sions when needed. Many fa- mous bands are thus affiliated with the military. Some of the most celebrated foreign military bands are those of the Royal Artillery, Royal Marine and the Guards, in England; the Kaiser Franz Grenadier Band, in Germany; the Garde Republi- caine Band, in France; the Bersaglieri Band, in Italy; the Imperial Guards Band, in Aus- tria; and the Czar's Gtiards Band, in Russia. For further details of U. S. army bands, see U. S. Army Regulations. Banda, cap. of dist. of same name, N. W. Provinces (United Provinces of Agra and Oudh), India, situated on the r. bk. of the Ken, 70 m. s. of Cawnpur. Pop. (1901) 22,565. Dist. area, 3,061 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 631,058. Banda. (1.) A group of islands in the Dutch E. Indies, lying some 60 m. s. of the Moluccas, rising independently from a depth of 13,000 ft.; total area, 18 sq. m. All of them are volcanic. Mt. Gunung Api (2,000 ft.) is an ac- tive crater. The chief town and centre of trade is Nassau in Banda Neira. Sago, cocoanuts, nutmegs, and mace are the chief productions. Up to 1873 the isl- ands enjoyed a monopoly in the production of nutmegs, which still form the chief export. Pop. 8,000. (3.) Banda Sea, division of the Pacific lying between the Moluccas on the N. and the e. islands of the Java-Timor chain on the s.; depth, over 2,000 fath- oms, except between the Kei Is. and the string of islets extending from the E. end cf Ceram. Be- tween the Kei and Aru archipela- goes there is a deep trough (5,684 fathoms) connecting the Banda Sea with the Arafura Sea. Bandage and Bandaging. The bandage may be used to fix splints or dressings, to pre- vent or to lessen swelling, to stop haemorrhage, to drive the blood from a limb before opera- tion, to support a limb, or to prevent or lessen movement. It is made of muslin, linen, cheese cloth, or of flannel. When applied to a wound it may be of gauze, medicated with carbolic acid, iodoform, boracic acid, or some other antiseptic. It may be stif- fened with starch, plaster of Paris, or water-glass, when it is intended to replace a splint. An elastic rub- ber bandage (Martin's) is some- times used in cases of varicose veins in the leg. The bandage is wound spirally about the leg be- fore the wearer rises from bed, and is taken off at night. It supports _ the walls of the dis- eased veins with an equal pres- sure, which must not be uncum- fortably great. Because of the heat it produces, the Martin's bandage must be kept particu- larly clean by washing; and the limb on which it is used must be washed nightly, and then dusted with some non-irritating powder. Esmarch's rubber bandage is used to drive blood from a limb before any serious cutting operation that involves risk of considerable loss of blood. The patient being laid flat, the arm or leg is raised as high as possible. This of itself helps to empty the limb of blood, and firm stroking towards the trunk helps further still. The Esmarch bandage is then rolled round the limb, beginning at fingers or toes, and covering the whc)le with spiral turns. A thick piece of rubber tubing is tied tightly round the limb just where the bandage stops, and return of the blood being thus prevented, the bandage is re- moved. An amputation may thus be rendered practically bloodless. The ordinary 'roller' bandage is usually 18 ft. long, and from 2^ to 4 in. broad. As a rule, only elastic bandages can be applied with simple spiral turns. Bandaging always pro- ceeds from below upwards, to help the blood onwards, and to lessen the risk of stopping cir- culation; and the gradually in- creasing girth of the average arm or leg necessitates reverses — i.e. half-turns of the bandage on it- self, bringing its inner face out- wards. The 'spica' and the 'figure of 8,' whereby the heel or the knee is passed, are more easily explained by diagram than by words; their object is always to make the bandage lie more closely, and therefore more se- curely. When bandaging an arm or a' leg the fingers or toes are left uncovered, so that a glance will serve to show whether there is any swelling or discoloration, which means too tight a bandage, and consequent risk of gangrene. A roller bandage, properly put on, lies snug and smooth, with about the upper third of each turn cov- ered by the turn next after it. The lower end is fixed by the first turn or two covering it. The upper end is fastened off with a safety pin; or the bandage is split lengthways for as far as is necessary, the two divisions are knotted together at their base, to prevent the split from lengthen- ing, and then, the split ends be- ing carried in opposite directions around the limb, they are tied together in a reef knot. The Bandana 560 Bandiera finishing off of a bandage must always be of such a form and in such a position that it shall not inconvenience the patient. Or- dinary pins must never be used. In bandaging for sprains,^ and in any case where swelling is to be feared, the four chief points are: (1) to provide elastic pressure, by means of cotton padding;; (2) to apply that pressure as quickly as possible; (3) to bandage hrmlv but not tightly; and (4) to examine the bandage without fail in three hours, to see whether it needs slackening. The roller bandage is the one chiefly used; but the triangular bandage, made by doubling a handkerchief diagonally, is use- ful for covering the head and for making a sling; while the placed upon a Turkey-red or dark ground. Banda Oriental, former name of Uruguay. Bandel, Ernst von (1800-76), German sculptor, born at Ans- bach in Bavaria, and studied at Munich, Rome, and Hanover. His Mars Asleep (1825) estab- lished his reputation. His chief works are his colossal statue of Arminius, near Detmold,_ and busts of Maximilian of Bavaria and the poet Grabbe. See Schmidt's Ernst von Bandel (1892). Ban-de-la-Roche. See Stein- THAL. Bandelier, Adolph Francis Alphonse (1840), American archaeologist, was born in Berne, Switzerland, and came to the U. S. in youth. He travelled for the a poem in eleven cantos (1545). Proceeding to France, he was made bishop of Agen by Henri II. (1550). He died at Agen, after a life full of strange loves and adventures. Bandello's no- velle, written between 1510 and 1560, were published in 1554 (Lucca) and 1573 (Lyons). They are based on the tales of former collections, and on contemporary events. Though in many ways a disciple of Boccaccio, Bandello is devoid of humor. His charac- terization is excellent, and his narrative direct. The erotic ad- ventures which abound are told with a certain restraint. Good editions of the novelle are those of London (1740), Milan (1813-14), and Turin (1853). English trans- lations by G. Fenton, 1567 (re- printed in the 'Tudor Transla- tions,' with an introduction by R. L. Douglas, 1898), and by John Payne (for the Villon Society, 1890). The latter version only is complete. See E. Masi, ' M. B., o Vita Italiana' in Un Novelliere del Cinquecento (1900); Morellini, M. B., Studj (1900); and V. Spampanato, M. B. e le sue No- velle (1896). Banderole. (1.) A scroll very common on engravings of the 16th-18th centuries, containing a motto, or title, or description of the picture. (2.) The piece of bunting attached to a fance or spear, and formerly often de- corated with the crest or badge of the bearer. Bandicoot, a name applied, to various small Australian mar- supial mammals of the family Peramelidas. The hind feet re- semble those of the kangaroo, while the fore feet have two or three of the middle toes of equal length, with strong, sharp claws, Common Bandicoot. and the other toes rudimentary. All are either omnivorous or insect- eating. The common bandi- coots (Perameles) are small ground animals with pointed noses; the rabbit-bandicoot (Peragale) is a burrower; the native rat, or rat- bandicoot (Chceropus), is an aber- rant form with very long hind feet. Bandiera, Attilio (1817-44) and Emilio (1819-44), Neapoli- tans, sons of an Austrian admiral, who, after attempting an insur- rection in Calabria against the Bourbon tyranny at Naples, were captured and executed at Cosenza^ (1844). Their letters (from Aug. Bandaging. 1. Rolling the bandage. 2. Reversing. 3. Figure eight. 4. Divergent spica of knee joint. 5. Many tailed bandage. 6 a and b. Triangular handkerchief sup- porting elbow. 'many-tailed' bandage is useful for the trunk or a leg, when dressings need to be frequently changed on the upper surface without change of position. The part lies on an unsplit piece of material, whose long axis is par- allel with the long axis of the part. Strips are sewn on either side of this piece, which overlap one another when brought across the limb or trunk, where they are pinned over. See Leonard's Ban- daging. Bandana, an Indian term prop- erly applied to the rich yellow or reef silk handkerchief, with diamond spots left white by ex- ceedingly great pressure applied to prevent their receiving the dye. It has now come to mean a kind of calico printing in which white or bright-colored spots are Archaeological Institute of Amer- ica among the native races of New Mexico, Arizona, Mexico, and Central America, was sent by "^Henry Villard to Ecuador, Peru, V and Bolivia for scientific investi- (J\ gation, 1892, and from 1897 was \^ occupied in Peru and Bolivia s,^ making the collections in the (^American Museum of Natural /V History. Author of, among other -^books, Archceological Reconnais- ^sance in Mexico (1881) and An ^Outline of the Documentary His- tory of the Zuni Tribe (1892). Bandelkhand. See Bundel- khand. Bandello, Matteo (c. 1490- 1561), Italian novelist, was born at Castelnuovo (Tortona); en- tered the Dominican order, and became teacher of Lucrezia Gon- zaga, in whose honor he wrote Bandinelll 15, 1842) to Mazzini, opened in London by the_ English govern- ment, were published by Mazzini, under the title of Ricordi dei Ban- diera(1844). See Ricciardi, Storia dei Fratelli, B. e Cons or H (1863). Bandinelli, Baccio (?1488- 1560), Florentine sculptor, son of a celebrated silversmith; a contemporary of Michael Angelo and Cellini, whom he vainly tried to rival. Among his masterpieces are the figure of Christ at the Tomb, the group of Adam and Eve, and the bas-reliefs in the Duomo at Florence. See Vasari's Lives, vol. iii. Scott's Sculpture, Renaissance and Modern (1886) and Symonds's The Renaissance in Italy (1885). Banditti. See Brigands. Band of Hope, great British children's temperance society, with the official title of The United Kingdom Band of Hope Union, founded in 1855, but started with local unions eight years previously. In 1904 it had 29,189 Bands of Hope, with a membership of 3,36.3,973. It publishes juvenile temperance literature and the Band of Hope Chronicle. Bandolier, or Bandoleer. A cartridge belt woven of stout canvas with a separate pocket for each cartridge or clip of five car- tridges, and intended to be worn over the shoulder. In the U. S. serrice the waist-belt is in general use, but is sometimes worn as a bandolier in the field. The bando- lier was extensively used in South Africa by the British colonial troops in 1899-1902 during the Boer War. It dates from mediae- val times, when each musketeer wore a bandolier over his left shoulder from v/hich were sus- E ended twelve small cylindrical oxes of wood, tin or leather, each containing a charge for the match- lock with which he was armed. Bandoline, a gummy substance produced from gum tragacanth, quince seeds, Irish moss, or Ice- land moss, with perfume added, used by hairdressers to make the hair glossy, or to fix it in posi- tion. Bandon. (1.) Market tn. in Co. Cork, Munster, Ireland, on riv. Bandon, 20 m. s.w. of Cork; has breweries and distilleries. Pop. (1901) 2,830. (2.) River, rises m the Carberry Mts., Co. Cork, and flows E. into Kinsale harbor; navigable for barges to 4^ m. be- low the town of Bandon. Bandong, or Bandung, tn., w. of Java, Dutch E. Indies, 75 m. by rail s.E. of Batavia. Pop. c. 21,200. Baneberry. Two members o the genus Actaea, belonging to the Ranunculaceae. are known as the red and white baneberrics. They are very similar in aspect, being bushy plants about 2 ft. high, found in shady woods with ternate 561 leaves, and pinnate divisions, large and wide-spread. The ra- cemes of small white flowers are European Baneberry, showing Root, Flower (part removed), and Fruit. terminal, and are succeeded by conspicuous fleshy berries. In A, alba, the berries are white as por- Bauffshire Baner, Johan (1596-1641), Swedish general, born at Djurs- holm, near Stockholm; fought with distinction in the Russian and Polish campaigns of 1626-9, and accompanied Gustavus Adol- phus to Germany in 1630, com- manding the right wing at the battle of Breitenfeld. On the death of Gustavus he was made commander-in-chief of the Swed- ish forces in Germany, and gained a brilliant victory at Wittstock in 1636, defeated the Imperial troops near Chemnitz in 1639, and occu- pied Bohemia for a whole year. He was a born strategist, and it was primarily to him that Sweden owed her success in the Thirty Years' War. Banff, tn., prov, of Alberta, Canada, 80 m. w. of Calgary, and 920 m. w. of Winnipeg, on C. P. R. R., at the base of the Rocky Mts. It is included in a national park 26 m. long n.e. and s.w. by 10 m. wide, embracing parts of the valleys of the Bow, Spray, and Cascade Rs., and several moun- tain ranges. The scenery here is of an unusually grand and im- gressive character. Fishing and unting attract many sportsmen. -The tn. contains a sanitarium, a hospital and a museum, Banffshire, maritime co. of N.E. Scotland, bounded on the N. by the Moray Firth, E. and s. by Aberdeenshire, w. by Inverness and Elgin shires. Area, 630 sq. m. or 403,364 ac; greatest length, 59 m.; greatest breadth, 32 m.; aver- Banff, Mount Rundle and Banff Hotel, on the Canadian Pacific Railway. celain, and are generally on thick- ened coral-red pedicels; A. rubra, the • herb-christopher. has oval scarlet berries. Both kinds of fruit are somewhat poisonous. age breadth not exceeding 12 m. The countv town is Banff. In the N. the land is low-lying and fertile; in the s. mountainous. ^ The cli- mate is dry and mild in the N. Bdnffy wet and cold in the s. Agriculture is extensively carried on, cattle are reared, and many of the inhabit- ants are engaged in the fishery industry. There are several large distilleries, including Glen- livet. The chief historic event connected with the county is the battle of Glenlivet (1594), between the^ forces of Huntly and Argyll. Ruins of mediaeval castles exist at Balvenie, Auchindoun, Find- later, Boharm, and Banff, and of old ecclesiastical buildings at Mortlach and Gamrie. Pop. (1911)61,402. See 'Aberdeen and Banff,' by W. Watt, in County Hist, of Scot. (1900). Banffy, Desiderius, Count (1843), Hungarian statesman,born at Klausenburg, Transylvania. In 1892 he became president of the Hungarian Chamber of Depu- ties, and in 1895 prime minister of Hungary. In this capacity he completed the passing of the ecclesiastical ana educational law, but failed to obtain Parlia- ment's sanction to the compro- mise (^W5-^/e?c/z.) with Austria, and i-esigned in February, 1899._ In 1902 he published a new national programme for Hungary. Bang, Hermann Joachim (1858), Danish novelist and jour- nalist, has written the critical works, Kritiske Studier (1879-80) and Realisme eg Realister (1879); and the novels, Haablose SlcBgter (1880), Stuk (1887), Siille Exis- tenser (1886), DetHvideHus(1898), and Liv og Dod (1899). Bangalore, cap. of native state, Mysore, India, lies about 150 m. due w. of Madras, with which it is connected by rail. A salubri- ous climate, a fertile soil, and an excellent water supply have attracted a colony of European settlers. Situated over 3,000 ft. above sea-level. Bangalore com- mands the province of Mysore, and is an important military sta- tion. The fort was stormed by the British under Lord Cornwallis in 1791. Pop. (1901) 159,030. Bangar, pueb., prov. of La Union, Luzon I., Philippine Islands, on the main road along the coast of the China Sea, 2 m. s. of the boundary of Ilocos Sur and 19 m. N. of San Fernando. There is trade in tobacco, rice, cotton and sugar-cane and live-stock. Pop. (1903) 9,851. Bange, Valerien de (1833), French artillerist, the inventor of the obturator for the preven- tion of gas escape in the breech mechanism of big guns, in use in the British, French, and other armies. The chief feature of the invention (about 1879) is a canvas Ead containing a mixture of as- estos fibre and mutton fat. See Henncbert's U Artillerie Krupp et I' Artillerie de Bange (1887). Bangka, E. Indies, See Banca. Bangkok, the cap. of Siam, on 562 both banks of the Menam, 20 m. from the Gulf of Siam, consists of a succession of towns. The first is the commercial town, with shipping, sawmills for teak, and rice-mills; next the town of the Asiatics (Malays, etc.), mostly built on bamboo rafts on the river; then the consular district, with verandahed houses and flow- ering trees; and lastly, the Chinese Bangkok and the native Siamese town, dominated by the royal palace. Steel bridges are taking the place of old wooden ones; tramways traverse the streets, some of which are lighted by electricity. Bangkok is the chief port of the kingdom, its trade be- ing chiefly with Hong-kong, Singa- pore, Bombay, and Great Britain. Chief exports, rice, fish, trepang, cattle, and pepper- imports, tex- tiles, bullion, machinery, opium, and sugar. The annual trade amounts to about $29,000,000. Pop. 400,000. See Smyth's Five Years in Siam (1898). Bangor. (1.) City, Maine, the CO, seat of Penobscot co., situated on the Penobscot R., 60 m. from its mouth, at the head of navi- gation, on the Maine Central, Bangor and Aroostook, and the Penobscot Central R. Rs., and on the line of the Eastern Steamship Co., and Bangor and Bar Har- bor Steamboat Co. Here is the Bangor Theological Seminary (1816). Bangor contains the East- ern Maine Insane Hospital, the Eastern Maine General Hospital. It also has a public library. The output of lumoer, boots and shoes and clothing is important and there are many factories, foundries and machine shops, the value of the commerce in 1901 being c. $5,400,000. Pop. (1910)24,803. (3.) City, munic. bor., and seapt. tn., Carnarvonshire, N. Wales, 9 m. N.E. of Carnarvon, on Chester and Holyhead Ry.; exports slate from the Bethesda quarries, and contains a cathedral (founded 525 A.p., and restored 1881), a con- stituent college of the University of Wales, and a normal school. Daily steamers Liverpool to Ban- gor insummer. Pop. (1911) 11,237. Bangorian Controversy The, in England, arose (1717) from a sermon by Bishop Hoadly of Bangor, in which he denied that the church possessed authority over the individual conscience. This led to a many-sided con- troversy. Hoadly's principal op- ponents were Bishop Sherlock and William Law. Bangs, John Kendrick (1862), American humorist, was born at Yonkcrs, N. Y., and graduated (1883) at Columbia. He studied but clid not p-actise law. Was associate-editor of Life, 1884-8, was a member of Harper & Brother's editorial sta2 miles below the town of Bandon. Ba'ndong, ban'dong, or Ban- doeng, town, Java, capital of Preanger residency; 75 miles southeast of Batavia. The chief places of interest are the resi- dence of the Resident General, Government House, the Moham- medan Mosque. Javanese Teach- ers' Institute, and the racecour'^e, where an annual race meeting is held. Bandong has the largest quinine factory in Java. Pop. 48,000. Bandra, a residential suburb of Bombay, India, on the south- west shore of Salsette Island. Pop. 24,000. Bane'berry, a name given to two members of the genus Actaea, belonging to the order Ranunculaceae. They are hardy, herbaceous plants, about 2 feet high, bearing ternate leaves and racemes of small white flowers, which are succeeded by conspic- uous fleshy berries, often some- what poisonous. In A. alba, the berries are white and are gener- ally borne on thickened coral-red pedicels; A. rubra has oval scarlet berries, and A. specata, often known as Herb Christopher, purplish black berries. European Baneberry, showing Root, Flower (part removed), and Fruit. Baner, ba-nar', Johan (1596- 1641), Swedish general, was born in Djursholm, near Stockholm; fought with distinction in the Russian and Polish campaigns of 1626-9, and accompanied Gustavus Adolphus to Germany in 1630, commanding the right wing at the battle of Breitenfeld. On the death of Gustavus he was made commander-in-chief of the Swedish forces in Germany, and gained a brilliant victory at Wittstock in 1636, defeated the Imperial troops near Chemnitz in 1639, and occupied Bohemia for a year. Banff, bamf, town, province of Alberta, Canada, on the Ca- nadian Pacific Railroad; 80 miles west of Calgary, and 920 miles west of Winnipeg. It is the headquarters for the famous Rocky Mountains Park (2,751 square miles), controlled by the Dominion government, and em- bracing the most beautiful parts of the Bow, Spray, and Cascade River valleys. Mountain climb- ing, riding, fishing, and hunting attract many sportsmen. The town has a sanitorium, hospital, hot sulphur baths, a zoo, a mu- seum, and three large hotels. A free auto camping ground is op- erated here by the government. Banff, town and seaport, Scot- land, county town of Banffshire, at the mouth of the Deveron river; 64 miles northwest of Aberdeen. Noteworthy build- ings are Banff Castle, the town hall, library, and Duff House, sit- uated in a fine park, a little to the south. Banff is the head of the fishery district and exports large quantities of herring, sal- mon, and other fish. Manu- factures include leather and iron goods and beer. A bridge con- nects the town with Macduff. Pop. (1921) 3,517. Banffshire, maritime county, in the northeastern part of Scot- land, with an area of 630 square miles. In the north the land is low-lying and fertile, and the climate dry and mild; the south is mountainous and the climate there is wet and cold. Limestone, manganese, cairngorm stones and serpentine are found in the mountains. Agriculture, cattle raising, salmon fishing, and dis- tilling are the leading industries.' The chief towns are Banff, Buckie, Keith, and Macduff. Pop. (1921) 57.293. Banffy, ban'fe, Desiderius, Baron (1843-1911), Hungarian statesman, was born in Klausen- burg, Transylvania, and was edu- cated in Leipzig and Berlin. He was elected to the Hungarian Chamber of Deputies, became its president in 1892, and three years later was made prime min- ister of Hungary. In this ca- pacity he completed the passing of ecclesiastical and educational reform laws, but failed to obtain Parliament's sanction to his ne- gotiations with Austria, and re- signed in February, 1899. In 1903 he returned to public life and was active as an extreme Nationalist until 1906. Bang, bang, Hermann Joa- chim (1857-1912), Danish au- thor, was born in Seeland, and educated in Soro and in Copen- hagen. He wrote many novels, short stories, and critical works, among which are Realisme og Realister (1879) ; Haablose Slcegter (1880); Fddra (1883); S title Ex- istenser (1886); Under Aeget (1890); Teatret (1892); Vad Vejen (1898); Liv og Dod (1899); Mi- kael (1903) ; Joseph Kainz (1910). Bangalore, ban'ga-lor', town, India, capital of the native state of Mysore; 150 miles west of Madras, with which it has rail connection. Features of interest include the Maharaja's Palace, the Science Institute, St. An- drew's Church, the Bowring Hospital, Lady Curzon's Wo- men's Hospital, the Army Y. M. C. A. Building, St. Mark's Church, and Cubbon Park. There are manufactures of cotton and wool- len good^. The fort was stormed bv the British under Lord Corn- wallis in 1791. Pop. (1911) 189,485. Bangar, pueblo, Luzon, Phil- ippine Islands, province of La Union, on the main road along the coast of the China Sea, 2 miles south of the boundary of Vol. I.— Oct. '23 Bang6 662 fianim Ilocos Sur and 19 miles north of San Fernando. There is trade in tobacco, rice, cotton, sugar- cane, and live-stock. Pop. (1918) 10,923. Bange, banzh, Valerand de (1833-1914), French artillery of- ficer, was born in Balignicourt. After being connected with the Ecole Polytechnique at Metz, he became director of the atelier de precision in Paris, where he dis- tinguished himself by inventing the obturator for preventing the escape of gas in the breech mech- anism of big guns, and the gun which bears his name. From 1882 to 1889 he was director of the ordnance works at Grinelle and Douai. His gun was adopted by the Serbian, British, Italian, and Swedish governments. Bangka, East Indies. See Banca. Bangkok, bang-kok', city, cap- ital of Siam, on the River Menam, 25 miles from its mouth. It covers an area of about 15 square miles on both sides of the river, the larger and more important part lying on the east bank. Until 1880 there were few road- ways, communicationbeing chiefly by water, but since that time numerous streets, well-paved and clean, have been constructed, many houses of brick have been erected, and tram lines now run through the principal streets. The native population, however, still live mostly in houses built on tall posts firmly planted in the stream or on floating pontoons moored at the river bank. The palace grounds, which are beau- tifully laid out, are surrounded by a wall within which are the palace, official buildings, tem- ples, and residences of attend- ants and servants. Many other gorgeous and imposing temples (Buddhist), chief among which are Wat Phra Keo, Wat Ben- chamabophit, and Wat Sa Ket, are scattered through the city. The European residential quar- ter, containing most of the for- eign consulates, is at the south- eastern end of the city. Bang- kok is the chief port of the king- dom, and trade is largely in the hands of Europeans and Chinese. Exports are rice, teak, pepper, and fish; imports are textiles, metal and machinery, petroleum, and spirits. Pop. (1910) 628,675. Ban'gor, city, Maine, county seat of Penobscot county, situ- ated at the head of navigation on the Penol)scot River, 60 miles from its mouth, and on the Maine Central, and the Bangor and Aroostook Railroads, on electric lines, and on the line of the Eastern Steamship Company, and Bangor and Bar Harbor Steamboat Company; 135 miles northeast of Portland. Public institutions and buildings in- clude the Bangor Theological Vol. I. — Oct. '23 Seminary (1816), the University of Maine School of Law, Bangor Anti-Tuberculosis Sanatorium, Bangor State Hospital, Eastern Maine General Hospital, Bangor Public Librarj', the Hershey Me- morial Building, and homes for children and the aged. The output of potatoes, lum- ber, boots and shoes and clothing is important and there are many wholesale houses, factories, foun- dries, and machine shops. Ac- cording to the Federal Census of Manufactures for 1919 the city has 106 industrial estab- lishments with a capital of $5,- 389,581, and products valued at $5,544,940. The place was founded by settlers from Massa- chusetts in 1769 under the name of Sunbury. In 1791 it was in- corporated as the town of Ban- gor, and the city charter was granted in 1834. Pop. (1900) 21,850; (1910) 24,803; (1920) 25,978. Bangor, borough, Pennsyl- vania, Northampton county, on the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western, and the Lehigh and New England Railroads; 63 miles north of Philadelphia. Silk and slate are manufactured. Pop. (1910) 3.535; (1920) 5,402. Bangor, city, seaport, and episcopal see, Wales, in Carnar- vonshire, on the Chester and Holyhead Railway; 9 miles northeast of Carnarvon and 60 miles west of Chester. The city is divided into two parts. Lower Bangor, lying along the south- eastern side of a narrow valley at the mouth of Menai Strait, and Upper Bangor, the residen- tial quarter, on a ridge to the north, overlooking the strait. Notable features are the cathe- dral, originally founded in the sixth century; the municipal buildings, the free library and museum, the University College of North Wales, one of the four constituent colleges of the Uni- versity of Wales, and Penryhn Castle, about a mile east of Bangor. Large quantities of slate from Bethesda quarries in the vicinity are exported. Pop. (1921) 11,032. Bangor, a seaport town and sea-bathing resort, Ireland, county Down, on Belfast Lough; 12 mil s northeast of Belfast. It is largely a residential town but has fisheries and manufac- tures embroidered muslins. Pop. (urban dist.) 7,800. Bangs, John Kendrick (1862- 1922), American humorist and editor, was born in Yonkers, N. Y., and was graduated (1883) from Columbia University. He was associate-editor of Life (1884-8), a member of Harper & Brother's editorial staff (1888- 1900), editor of the Metropolitan Magazine (1902-3) and of Puck (1904-05). His publications in- clude over forty books, chiefly of a humorous character. Amorj^ these are Ne2v Waggings of Old Tales (1885); Coffee and Repartee (1893); The Idiot (1895); A House-Boat on the Styx (1895); The Bicyclers and Other Farces (1896) ; The Idiot at Home (1900) ; Over the Plum Pudding (1902); The Inventions of the Idiot (1907); The General Idiot (1908); Songs of Cheer (1910); The Foothills of Parnassus (1914); From Pillar to Post (1916); The Cheery Way (1919). Bangued, ban-ged', pueblo, Luzon, Philippine Islands, capi- tal of the province of Abra, on the Abra river; 230 miles north of Manila. It is a military sta- tion and is in a fertile agricul- tural region. Pop. (1918) 13,892. Bangweolo, bang'we-o'lo, or Bemba, Lake, Africa, in North- ern Rhodesia, 3,800 ft. above the level of the sea. Its area is about 1,600 square miles, but this is practically doubled in the rainy season. Its waters find an out- let, at the southern corner, to Lake Mweru and the Luapula, a tributary of the Congo. It was discovered by Livingstone in 1868. Banialuka. See Banjaluka. Banian, ban'ya, a name given to the merchant class in India. The banians belong to the Vaisya caste and are worshippers of Vishnu. They are especially numerous in Western India, where they are engaged in bank- ing and money lending, and as dealers in all sorts of commodi- ties. Banian Tree. See Banyan. Ba'nim, John (1798-1842), Irish novelist, the younger of the two brothers who wrote Tales of the O'Hara Family (1825-9), was born in Kilkenny. He became a drawing master; but ill-health caused him to give up first art, then dramatic literature, al- though his play, Damon and Pythias, had been acted with success at Drury Lane Theatre, London. Of the O'Hara Tales John Banim wrote 'The Peep o* Day,' 'The Fetches,' 'The Smug- gler,' 'Peter of the Castle,' 'The Nowlans,' 'The Last Baron of Crana,' and 'The Disowned.' His chief separate novels were The Denounced (1830), The Ser- geant's Wife (1850), The Smug- gler (1833), The Celt's Paradise (1821), The Bit o' Writin' (new ed. 1865), The Boyne Water (1865), The Mayor of Windgap (new ed. 1865), The Peep o Day (new ed. 1865), Peter of the Castle (new ed. 1866); though to many of these his brother Michael wrote notes, if not more. Banim, Michael (1796-1874), elder l)rother of the above, be- sides joining in the O'Hara Tales — e.g. 'Crolioore of the Bill Hook' — wrote, with his brother, Father Banishment 563 Banking Connell, which has for its hero a kind of Roman CathoHc Vicar of Wakefield; and alone, The Croppy (1828), The Ghost Hunter (1863), Joe Wilson's Ghost (1870), and The Town of the Cascades (1864). The C haunt of the Cholera (1831) was probably written by both brothers. Banishment, a form of pun- ishment which consists in send- ing a person out of a country, district, or town, under penalties in the case of his return. Among the Greeks it took the form of ostracism (q.v.). The Romans had two forms: deportatio, which carried with it the forfeiture of the rights of citizenship, and relegatio, in which case the person banished was merely forbidden to depart from certain assigned limits. Banishment was first inflicted as a punishment in England by a statute of Elizabeth, but the practice did not become com- mon till the reign of Charles ii., when offenders began to be sent to the American plantations. An act of George i. gave the Crown power to transport offenders to places beyond the seas; and in accordance with statutes passed in the earlier part of the last cen- tury, certain penal settlements were founded in Australia and neighboring islands. These were discontinued about 1847, owing to complaints on the part of the colonists. In modern times ban- ishment for political offences has been practiced by Russia (prior to the revolution) and Turkey. Abjuration (q.v.), in the old law, was an oath sworn by a per- son who had taken refuge in a sanctuary to leave the realm. See Outlawry; Transporta- tion. _ Banj alalia, ban-ya-loo'ka, town, Bosnia, in the district of Banjaluka, on the River Vrbas; 87 miles northwest of Sarajevo. Features of interest are the citadel, many mosques and monasteries, the remains of Roman baths and several modern bathing estabHshments. In- dustries include grain mills, tobacco factories, and breweries. Pop. 18,000. Banjermassing, ban-yer-miis'- in, or Banjermasin, capital of Dutch Borneo, in the East Indies. Built on piles, it stands near the southern coast, on the Martapura, a few miles from the Barito River, and carries on a brisk trade in spices, gold, canes, wax, drugs, and diamonds (ex- ported), and in cottons, iron goods, salt, and rice (imported). Pop. 50,000. From the Middle Ages down to 1857 there existed an independent Malay state of the same name, its capital being Martapura. Ban'Jo, a musical stringed in- strument made popular by the American negroes and colored minstrels. It consists of a hoop of wood or metal, with a long neck containing the tuning pegs in its upper part, and a vellum drumhead body. The strings, from five to nine in number, rest upon a bridge, and are stopped with the fingers of the left hand and plucked with those of the right. Banjoemas. See Banyumas. Banka, ban'ka, or Mengka, town. North Formosa, on the Tamsui River, a few miles above the port of Tamsui, in a tea and camphor producing district. Pop. 50,000. Banka, East Indies, see Ban- CA. Bankalan, ban-ka-lan', town, on western coast of Madura Island, Java, Dutch East Indies; 20 miles north of Surabaya. Pop. 14,500. Bankers' Association, Am- erican, an organization, founded in the United States in 1875, 'to promote the general welfare and usefulness of banks and financial institutions; to secure uniformity of action, together with the prac- tical benefits to be derived from personal acquaintance and the discussion of subjects of impor- tance to the banks and commer- cial interests of the country; to secure the proper consideration of questions regarding financial and commercial usages, customs, and laws affecting the banking interests of the entire country; and to furnish protection against loss by crime.' The first convention of the Association, at Saratoga, 1875, was attended by three hundred bankers. Its present member- ship is about 20,000. Banket' (from a Dutch word meaning almond candy). South African mining term to describe the gold-bearing formation of which the Rand is the chief in- stance. Bankhead, John Hollis (1842-1920), American legislator, was born in Moscow (nowSulli- gent) , Ala. He received a public school education, served as cap- tain of the 16th Alabama Volun- teers throughout the Civil War, and was wounded three times. He was a member of the State legislature (1865-7, 1880-1), and of the State senate (1876-7); warden of the Alabama Peniten- tiary (1881-5); and Member of Congress for twenty years (1887- 1907). In 1907 he was elected U. S. Senator (Democrat) from Alabama, and in 1911 was re- elected for the term ending in 1919. ' He was conspicuous as a leader in the work of the Com- mittees on Public Buildings and on Rivers and Harbors. In 1907 he was appointed a member of the Inland Waterways Commis- sion and was appointed U. S. Senator to fill the unexpired term of J. T. Morgan, deceased (1907), being re-elected in 1913 for two succeeding terms. Bank Holidays, certain days on which the business of banking is suspended. In the United States generally, Sundays and all public holidays are bank holidays ; in some of the States Saturday has also been made a bank holi- day, in whole or in part. In Eng- land, the bank holidays are Sun- days, Good Friday, Easter Mon- day, Monday in Whitsun week, the first Monday in August, Christmas Day, and Dec. 26. It is generally provided by law that notes and bills of exchange falling due on such holidays shall be payable on the next business day. Banking .is a term rather loosely used to describe the operations of almost any in- stitution whose business is con- cerned chiefly with the handling of money or claims to money. The term bank (French 'banque,' Italian 'banco') is a word of doubtful derivation. Most au- thorities maintain that it comes from the Italian word for bench which was erected in the market place where it was customary to exchange money. These benches were established by the Jews in Lombardy and when one failed his bench was broken by the populace, and the word 'ban- corotto' was applied to him; hence our word bankrupt. As these Jews spread far and wide, settling later in London and giv- ing their name to Lombard Street (originally Lumbard), it seems reasonable to suppose that they brought with them their Italian words and that our word 'bank' is a modernization from 'banco.' Historical. — ^While very little is recorded of earliest banking institutions recognition was given even in the ancient civilization to the benefits obtained from the organization of a system designed to facilitate pecuniary trans- actions. It is known that com- mercial instruments including promissory notes, bills of ex- change, and transfer checks not unlike the modern bank check, were used in Assyria, Phoenicia, and Egypt long before they obtained fuller development in Greece and Rome. It was not until after the ascendency of Athens and Rome, however, that banking came under official regulation. In its earliest forms banking consisted primarily of money changing, and this func- tion was most important where geographical location determined international .trade centres. Lack of uniform coinage handicapped the financing of foreign trade and money changers arose to overcome this difficulty. Vol. I.— 030 Banking 563 A Banking The second inconvenience in financing foreign trade was that of transferring funds. The danger of loss and robbery led traders to deposit their money with money changers for safe- keeping and transfer. Money changers issued receipts and gave transfer orders which soon became instruments for making international trade payments. These were the forerunners of the modern bills of exchange. Before the fall of the Roman Empire banking had attained a development which in many respects resembled that of finan- cial institutions of the eighteenth century. But progress seems to have been checked during the Middle Ages when property be- came insecure in Western Europe; trade languished and metallic currency was withdrawn from circulation, thus shutting off the chief work of money changers. With the revival of trade in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, Europe set out to learn again the practice of banking. Money changing and lending had been shifted to the Jews because of the attitude of the church, but now the Italians began to emu- late these people and we find Italian bankers spreading over Europe during the next two centuries. The Bank of Venice, formed in 1157 is generally given as the first bank, but it was, in the first instance, merely a transfer office of a national debt. It was not until after an experience of several centuries, and subse- quent to the loans of 1480 and 1510, levied in the same manner as that of 1156, that the Bank of Venice became entitled to be called a bank in a modern sense. This bank was destroyed by the French invasion of 1797. The origin of modern banking is more properly attributable to the money lenders of Florence, who, in the middle of the four- teenth century, were famous throughout Europe, especially the houses of the Acciajuoli, Bardi, Peruzzi, Pitti, and Medici. But the principal function of a modern bank — that of keeping depositors' money safe but acces- sible — was perhaps first under- taken on a large scale by the Bank of Amsterdam, founded in 1609. General Banking Functions.— The functions of banks are so complicated and have changed so much in different countries and in the various stages of their history that a general description is hardly possible. The evolution of banking has been characteriz- ed by the same division of labor that dominates the rest of our economic organization. Credit institutions have become sepa- rated from merchandising and Vol. I.— 030 ^ industrial institutions and have themselves become further spe- cialized on the basis of functions. National and State laws provide for at least two dozen different kinds of credit institutions, and new subclasses arise when special functions or combinations of functions are called for by changes in methods of financing business. In their competition for business, banks have adapted their services to their customers' present and prospective needs until the large modern bank is a veritable department store of financial services. Of these many services three merge into promi- nence and banks may be classi- fied according to the predomi- nance of one or the other of these. (1) Commercial banking, which has as its main function the gathering together of the short- time funds of the community and making them available for current use in business, supplying in the process a form of credit which serves as our chief medium of exchange, namely, that which is called deposit currency. (2) A second banking function deals with more permanent types of capital and includes all invest- ment institutions such as saving banks, bond houses and invest- ment banks, which allocate that portion of the community's in- come not utilized for the satis- faction of current wants to cor- porate and governmental units seeking investment funds. (3) Trust companies which engage in fiduciary operations not strictly of banking nature, but in the course of which it is found ex- pedient to add banking functions so as to care for and better manage the trusts accepted. Today trust companies carry on most complete and inclusive financial operations. The fundamentals of banking are most easily understood from the point of view of commercial banking operations. A general view of the nature of these may be developed by describing the sources from which commercial banks obtain their funds and how these are invested or applied in their business. The bank balance sheet stripped of all non-essential items illustrates these operations as follows: Liabilities. — On the liability side are shown two classes of obligations which the bank as a corporation owes: (1) those representing the equity of its stockholders or owners, and the claims of all other creditors. Capital stock, surplus, and un- divided profits represent amounts paid in by shareholders and amounts saved out of earnings and kept in the business, which represent, in other words, what the owners of the business an- nually contribute or have con- tributed to the bank's resources. (2) The second group of bank liabilities represents amounts due customers, that is, depositors and note-holders; also, other banks, when interbank loans have been made, and miscellaneous lia- bilities. There can be no constant pro- portion between the capital subscribed by the owners and the business built up by its means, but in a successful bank it repre- sents only a small proportion of the amount of the liabilities. The larger the business that can be carried on with safety with a given amount of capital, the larger will be the source of in- come and higher the proportion that profits will bear to the original subscription. Trading on thin equity involves risk; governments have recognized this by providing laws covering minimum capitalization, double liability of stockholders, and establishing or building up a reasonable surplus before any profits can be taken out of the business. Laws have also been passed limiting the amount of loans or deposits to fixed pro- portions of capital, but it is now the general practice to permit the judgment of the persons most interested, acting under the law of self-preservation, to govern this relationship. In our early banking experience the propor- tion of owners' stock to custom- ers' claims was about fifty-fifty, but this has since changed to about one to five. This relation, which indicates the degree of solvency of the bank, like the reserve ratio, varies with the circumstances peculiar to each bank, the character of business carried on by the customers, and the degree of mutual confidence existing in the community. The proportion of the bank resources owned by shareholders is obvious- ly available as long as the bank continues in business. Deposits. — Deposits represent rights to draw on the bank for money. Depositors may get such rights in any of several ways: (1) By deposits of cash or cash items, or time items for collection and credit; (2) by the process of loan and discount; (3) by receiving credit as pro- ceeds from the sale of securities or other property to the bank. Banks receive money on cur- rent or checking account and on time deposit account. The de- positor's purpose in making such lodgments is to avail himself of the convenience and economy of the bank's services for safe- keeping and transfer of funds. Such transactions create a debt- or-creditor relationship in which the bank assumes the obligation to pay and the customer ob- tains the right to demand and Banking 563 B Banking receive repayment of the money- deposited in whole or in part at his pleasure, or at the expiration of an agreed term of notice of withdrawal. Money received by a bank on current account is paid in by the bank's customer on the understanding that he can at any time, within certain fixed hours of business, demand the repayment of the money he has deposited, in whole or in part, by means of a written order to pay, known as a check, signed by himself. Checks may be made payable to the bank's customer himself or to some person named by him. Money received by a bank on deposit account is paid in by the customer on the understanding that he can only demand its return at the expiration of an agreed term of notice of with- drawal, such as a fortnight, one month, or longer. Withdrawals from savings banks' accounts are subject to such notice, al- though savings banks usually waive advance notice except in time of stress. Some banks in order to at- tract customers allow interest on all money deposited with them; but, as a rule, except in the case of very big customers, such as wealthy corporations maintain- ing enormous daily balances to their credit, banks do not allow interest on money deposited on current account. On the other hand, except in the case of very small accounts with a very small average credit balance, they make no charge — in no case is the charge other than nominal — for work involved in keeping a customer's account. With re- gard to money received on de- posit account, all banks allow interest varying directly with the length of notice necessary to the withdrawal of the deposit. Their funds are advanced on the basis of security offered by the borrow- er, security which either itself becomes liquidated upon matur- ity, or which guarantees pay- ment by virtue of its saleability. What the borrower wants is a convenient form of purchasing power. This the bank provides by advancing cash, bank notes or deposit credit. The latter two represent forms of bank credit, the note being a duly certified promise to pay money on de- mand, and the deposit credit pro- viding the customer with a right to draw his own orders or checks against the bank. A distinction between notes and checks is commonly made by regulating laws, due to the fact that notes enjoy wider circulation and are deserving of special protection, whereas checks are employed between business associates whose credit conditions are known. Hence the principle of 'implied warranties' in the case of notes, and 'caveat emptor' in the case of checks. Resources or Assets. — The ap- plication or use of the funds obtained largely determines the safety and liquidity of bank credit as well as the earning capacity of the business. Clas- sified on the basis of liquidity, that is, with respect to the degree removed from cash, the bank's assets may be ranked somewhat as follows with respect to comparable bank liabilities. Character of Item A. Primary Reserve B. Secondary Reserve C. Investment Account D. Slow Assets, Invest- ment Accounts. E. Non-liquid or Fixed Assets. This is essentially the same kind of classification which the banker makes of his borrowing customer's balance sheet. The purpose is to get evidence of the borrower's ability to pay a short- term loan at maturity. So the banker compares the short term assets with the short term liabilities (including the pros- pective loan he is contemplat- ing), to see if the former are sufficiently large after allowing for possible shrinkage in value. This relationship shows the 'current condition.' Since the business of a commercial bank is largely a cash business it must protect its 'cash position,' which is shown in the relation of re- serve to cash obligations. In the United States and in some other countries laws prescribe mini- mum reserve requirements, but in England and elsewhere this is left to the discretion of the bank- ers themselves. Experience shows how much cash is needed to meet current business demands, and peak demands during periods of credit strain, and it also measures how large cash holdings must be to meet maximum needs. Cash reserve and bank pre- mises fall into the non-earning class; they are necessary and contribute to the earning capac- ity of the business and are pro- ductive in that sense, but since they yield little or no direct in- come they may be considered as over-head, or service items. In the category of earning assets come all loans and discounts and investments. Balances on de- posit with correspondent banks drawing interest are earning assets, but rates are low and do not fall strictly into this class. These items comprise the total advances made to business cus- tomers for a consideration. The character and amount of these advances depends not only on the bank's resources but also upon the demands of business^ In making these the banker Comparable Liability Demand deposits, and notes if issued. Demand deposits, and notes. Due to banks, and and to governments. Demand and time de- posits. Time deposits, capital, surplus, undivided pro- fits. Capital, surplus, and un- divided profits. should recognize the common principles of sound investments applied to his situation, e.g. cost, yield, marketability, safety, diversification, etc. If the de- mands of local trade and com- merce are heavy, as is evidenced by high interest rates on good commercial risks, the banker will increase his holdings of local loan and discount paper. If this demand is relatively light compared to the bank's resources, the banker will shift his funds into commercial paper and ac- ceptances bought in the open market through brokers and dealers; and if all commercial demands are low, the banker seeks an outlet for his funds in security investments. Thus the composition of the bank's portfo- lio changes to meet sudden shifts in business, from season to season, and during phases of business cycles, and over the banker's periods of years. His object is always to obtain maxi- mum earnings compatible with service to his customers and with regard to the safety of the funds entrusted to his care. Commercial banks make their loans chiefly through the pur- chase or discount of commercial paper. Strictly speaking banks discount paper for their custom- ers, and they buy paper from others, commonly through note brokers. When a manufacturer or merchant sells goods on credit he may take in payment his customer's notes or trade ac- VOL. 1.^30 Assets Legal reserve, cash in vault, due from other banks, etc. Collection items, bank accep- tances, prime commercial paper, gilt-edged securities maturing or salable in twenty-four hours without shrinkage' in value. Loans and discounts maturing in the ordinary course of business, investment securities, mortgage loans, etc. Loans and discounts, secured and unsecured, subject to re- newal, securities unlisted, etc. Bank premises, stock in Federal Reserve bank, etc. Banking 563 C Banking ceptances running for thirty, sixty, or ninety days. He takes these to the bank for discount in order to get the use of the pro- ceeds at once, or he may borrow on his own promissory note on the basis of collateral security, or upon the financial condition of his business. The terms of sale on credit and business cus- tom determine the methods of settlement of business trans- actions and hence the form of the bank borrower's obligation. Wherever security is conveni- ently available the banker does not hesitate to demand it, and if repayment of the loan is not forthcoming he will take any other security the debtor can give him in order to avoid making a bad debt. In those cases where trade instruments are not avail- able or are too inconvenient or expensive to employ, banks commonly make advances which are unsecured, that is, they are not based upon specific collateral. The chief examples of these are acceptances, which are based directly upon specific transac- tions, and commercial paper, which is more often negotiated on the basis of the liquid con- dition of the borrower's business. Banks are making advances to brokers and others on the security of investment stocks and bonds to an ever increasing extent. Such securities are deposited as a pledge or guarantee that the loan will be paid at maturity; if not, the security may be sold in order to reimburse the bank. Merchan- dise and real estate collateral loans are also common. Charac- ter loans too are often made for short periods on the mere note-of- hand of the borrower when the bank is satisfied of the ability and willingness of the borrower to repay the money at maturity. Theory of Credit Expansion and the Factors Limiting its Extension. — The loan and in- vestment policy of the individual bank must inevitably be based upon the condition of its reserves since borrowers make loans at the bank because they need more funds than they already possess. The bank must be prepared to honor checks drawn against the balances established. If the recipients of these checks are depositors in other banks, re- serves will be reduced when remittances are made. By in- creasing its outstanding loans, therefore, a bank increases its cash obligations or decreases its cash holdings. The relationship involved in the operation may be summarized as follows: the bank lends cash or a claim to cash. If the borrower prefers credit the bank's cash remains intact and loans and deposit liabilities increase pro tanto. If the bor- VOL. I. — 030 rower utilizes the proceeds of the loan by cashing checks the bank's liabilities are reduced by a corresponding reduction in cash. If the borrower's balances are left unused, or if transferred to another depositor's account in the same bank, the reserve ratio remains unchanged. In practice the bank borrower does withdraw part of the pro- ceeds of the loan and yet as a rule an unused balance remains on deposit. The net result is that the individual bank can expand its credit more or less in proportion to the 'free' reserves, depending upon the customary bank balances left by borrowers and the conventional reserve found to be safe in meeting cur- rent demands for cash. Changing Character of Com- mercial Bank Assets. — Since the cardinal concept of commercial banking is that of liquidity of assets their character must be constantly re-examined. The orthodox theory is that loans should be made only with refer- ence to financing the flow of specific goods from producer to consumer so that the returns from the sale of the goods which were the object of the financing will enable the borrower to meet the obligation when it is due. Such loans are called self-liquidat- ing and it is upon their use that the banking philosophy and legislation in both England and the United States has in the past been based. In present day banking practice, however, such transactions are becoming dis- tinctly in the minority, and both English and American bankers are coming to the posi- tion long since taken by Con- tinental bankers, that it is the function of banks to finance all legitimate needs of industry and commerce and to provide every type of financial service needed by bank customers. The ortho- dox ideas of liquidity are under- going material changes with the development of a financial part- ner ship with business and with the broadening scope of banking activities in a more highly organized money market. To- day the banker has ceased to rely upon the proceeds of matur- ing paper and depends for the replenishment of his cash upon his ability to sell or pledge in- stantly loans and investments which he holds in his portfolio as secondary reserve. This process has been immensely facilitated by virtue of the following facts: the presence of a highly organized market for securities provides a channel for liquidating long term investments; the growth of broad commercial paper and accept- ances markets provides means for the liquidation of prime and eligible paper. Within the last few years the relative increase in time deposits compared to the demand deposits means that the banker has more opportunity to convert his assets before cash demands are made. Thus we are able to justify a decided increase in mortgage loans and advances to brokers and investors dealing in the stock and commodity markets, types of transactions far removed from the older concep- tion of bank loans. The proportion of the bank's resources to be employed in the various categories of assets de- pends not only on general market and money conditions but also upon the circumstances surround- ing the business of each bank. No fixed rules can be laid down except the dictates of experience. The test of a good banker is largely the judgment he shows in adapting his business to changing conditions and utilizing the funds entrusted to him in a safe and profitable manner. Remittances and Other Func- tions. — Bankers perform the im- portant function of remitting money from one place to another, by setting off the amount of the drafts payable in one place against those payable in the other. They also often receive plate and other valuables be- longing to their customers for safe custody and they frequently issue letters of credit for the transmission of money, either within the country or abroad. A letter of credit is an authority from the banker who signs it to the banker or other person named in it, and who produces the letter. He alone is entitled to draw the drafts or to receive payment, and a letter of credit is not a nego- tiable instrument. (See Bill of Exchange; Check; Negotiable Instrument.) Inter- Bank Relations. — In a country with a large number of banking units, if financial chaos is to be avoided, some degree of cooperation and coordination must be obtained through volun- tary agreements. Originating locally such cooperation spreads in broader concentric circles through the bank system until district, national and even in- ternational bank relationships have been established. The germ or nucleus of a real banking system has begun when certain cooperative institutions and prac- tices have developed to knit in- dependent banks together so that all act in unison to achieve a given aim or to avoid the con- sequences of a crisis. Attempts to institutionalize the relationship between banks started with the development of the local clearing hoUvSe. The first of these originated in Lon- don in 1775. Prior to that ye^r each banker had to send a clerk Banking 563 D Banking to every other banker in London to collect the sums payable by them to him. In 1775 a common centre of exchange was agreed upon — the 'clearing house' — where the clerks employed in this business ('clearers') met daily for the exchange of bills and checks and the settlement of differences. Subsequently the clearing house, as well as each bank using it, opened an account at the Bank of England, and now the balances due at the close of each day's transactions are settled by transfers from one account to another on the books of the Bank of England. The country banks are represented by the London Bank which is their correspondent, as every bank in the United Kingdom has an agent in London. The larger provincial towns have also clear- ing houses of their own. The immense utility of these institu- tions can be inferred from the fact that the total of the checks passing through the London Clearing House was about fifteen billion pounds a year before the war; now (1930) it amounts to approximately forty-five billion. In the United States beginning with the clearing house associa- tion founded in New York City in 1854, clearing houses have been established in nearly every large city. At first established to facilitate the clearing and collection of checks, these in- stitutions took on new functions, and clearing houses formed to facilitate clearing and collection of checks between banks under panic conditions, resolved them- selves into protective units where reserves are pooled and con- served and clearing house loan certificates issued for settlement of bank balances. Since the in- auguration of the Federal Re- serve clearing system for member and non-member banks the whole country has been knitted to- gether into twelve clearing sys- te-Tis and one large district clear- ing system. United States. — In early days such a thing as a banking system hardly existed and a conception of what a bank should be and what it should do was wholly unlike that now prevailing. A century ago deposits were un- known in banking operations; today they constitute the chief source of banking funds. Circu- lating notes were the banks' main earning instrument; today only one in four banks issues its own notes. Notes were formerly issued on the basis of doubtful security and losses were large; today there are no losses from note issue. Banking was then a common law right and it was an easy transition for any merchant to become a banker since he performed in some fashion bank- ing functions when he made ad- vances in cash as well as selling goods on credit, and at times even issued his own notes to meet a scarcity demand for currency. The history of banking in the United States falls into five more or less distinct periods: (1) the Colonial period, dominated by experiments of government paper issues rather than the develop- ment of banks; (2) 1791-1836, during which two attempts were made to set up a Federal banking institution modeled after the central banks as they had de- veloped in Europe; (3) 1836- 1863, during which various ex- periments were tried in the several States; (4) 1836-1913, marked by the establishment of a group of banks under Federal charter; (5) 1914-to date, when a final attempt was made to unify the whole banking system under centralized control. The Colonial Period. — The ear- ly conception of banking brought over from the mother country was that of a note issuing in- stitution. In fact the word bank as first used in this country meant the issue of paper money, and the colony of Massachusetts re- sorted to a number of 'banks' in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries to pay soldiers for their services. Other colonies followed until the British government undertook to put a stop to the trend of monetary chaos which might result from these issues, by prohibiting the emission of letters of credit except for_ necessary government ex- penses. These were called 'anti-bubble' acts. The Revolu- tionary War brought further experiences with depreciating bills of credit. Worthless con- tinental currency was indeed partly responsible for the begin- nings of sound banking in the United States. In 1786 Robert Morris, Superintendent of Fi- nance under the Continental Congress, persuaded that body to charter a bank modelled some- what after the Bank of England as it existed at that time. The Bank of North America rendered conspicuous service during the last years of the wlar, supplying funds to the government and aiding in correcting currency dis- orders. It was rechartered in Pennsylvania in 1787 and still exists today. In 1784 two more banks were established, one in Massachusetts, the other in New York. These three banks were the only ones in existence at the time of the adoption of the Con- stitution. 1791-1836. — In 1791, at the instance of Alexander Hamilton, Congress established the First Bank of the United States with branches in eight cities, its capital being fixed at $10,000,000, one- fifth of which was sub- scribed by the government. Though not positively authorized to issue notes this function was taken for granted. These were at all times convertible into cash, were receivable for all pay- ments to the government, and hence circulated freely and set a high standard for notes of other institutions. The bank was em- ployed as an agent by the gov- ernment in financial transactions, and deficits in public revenues were frequently met by loans from the bank. From the outset this scheme met with much opposition, particularly from Thomas Jefferson and his politi- cal adherents, and at the expira- tion of the twenty years for which the charter was granted. Congress refused to renew it, and the institution went out of ex- istence. It was a most un- fortunate time for the country, on the verge of a war with Eng- land, to be deprived of the services of a Federal bank. State banks sprang up on every hand to take its place. Deprecia- tion and suspension of specie payments resulted, with only New England remaining on a sound money basis. These conditions led to a strong agita- tion for the reestablishment of the Federal bank. • The Second Bank of the United States received a twenty year charter in 1816. It was capital- ized at $35,000,000, one-fifth of which was subscribed by the government. This bank was mismanaged at first, and its endeavors to control the issues of State banks rendered it un- popular in many sections of the country. In 1819 there was a change in the administration of the bank, and in the following decade, especially under the competent management of Nich- olas Biddle, it became a powerful financial institution and per- formed valuable services to both government and business. Un- fortunately the bank got into politics during the administra- tion of President Jackson. The matter of charter renewal was made the chief issue of 1832. The policies of the bank irritated the President, who arbitrarily removed government deposits and placed them in 'pet' State banks. The Second Bank, thereafter, declined in impor- tance until its charter expired in 1836. • The Government's ex- periences with State bank de- positories was most unfortunate, and finally in 1846, the Govern- ment refused to place any further dependence on them and es- tablished its own 'Independent Treasury' for the custody of public funds. The State Banks before 1863. — Some 28 State banks were in ex- istence at the beginning of the Vol. I.— O30 Banking 564 Banking nineteenth century. In 1811, when the charter of the First United States Bank expired, the number had increased to 88, and during the period prior to the chartering of ^the Second United States Bank it is estimated that the number had increased to 246, with an aggregate note circula- tion of approximately $100,000,- 000. Eighty more banks were chartered prior to 1829, and from that date onward to the Civil War their growth was rapid. During 1811-1816 and 1836- 1863 State banks grew up and carried on their operations un- hampered by control or com- petition of Federal banks. The creation of a variety of types under the several independent States was to be expected. In a young country, rich in natural resources, and peopled by an aggressive and ingenious popula- tion, badly in need of circulating media, due to the scarcity of specie, banking experiments de- veloped chiefly around the prob- lem of economizing specie and producing safe credit money. Throughout this period bank notes were of more importance than deposit credit (although statistics indicate the growing importance in the use of checks after the middle of the fifties). The 'history of pre-Civil War banking, therefore, is largely the story of successful and unsuccess- ful experiments in regulating and controlling the issue of bank notes. Wild cat banking was profitable to the issuers who could circulate irredeemable notes, but noteholders suffered great loss and inconvenience in those cases where notes were at a heavy discount in terms of specie, and where high rates of exchange were charged to obtain remittances. The most success- ful attempts to remedy the situ- ation were: (1) the Suffolk System, developed in Boston in 1818; (2) the Safety Fund System (1829); and (3) Free Banking System (1838), both contribu- tions of New York experiences; and (4) certain notable experi- ments such as branch banking in Indiana under the law of 1834, and the well regulated system in Louisiana after 1842. The Suffolk contribution to banking practice was based on the idea of a redemption centre at which the notes of all banks could be pre- sented for payment, deposits of interior banks being maintained as reserve for the purpose. Notes were immediately sent home so that the solvency of the issuing bank was constantly tested. This system of note redemption still exists in Canada, and is the basis of check clearings and collections at the present time in that country. Under the Safety Fund System the banks chartered Vol. I.— 030 under the act contributed to the State treasury one-half of one per cent, of their annual earnings until they had paid amounts equal to three per cent, of their capital. Liabilities of failed banks were to be liquidated out of this 'insurance' fund. This scheme was not wholly successful since both note and deposit liabilities were originally included, and the financial crises of 1837 rapidly exhausted the fund. A limited application to notes alone would probably have worked success- fully. This system was intro- duced in other States with vary- ing success, and exists today as a characteristic part of the Cana- dian Banking System. The Free Banking System (so called be- cause the Act of 1838 in New York abolished the practice of chartering banks by act of legislature and instituted a gener- al law) was characterized by the issue of bank notes against de- posits of approved bond and real estate mortgage securities. The system worked well in New York and in some other States where adequate safeguards were imposed, and where the law was well administered, but in other instances it proved a disastrous failure because of poor provisions and administration. The prin- ciple of bond-secured note issues was later adopted in the National Banking Act and to the present day has proved absolute- ly safe. Other experiments in com- munities with highly developed commercial life, under the leader- ship of competent men, Have proved adequate and successful, whereas these principles men- tioned above have not always worked well under the conditions. This seems to indicate that no universal or absolute principles of bank practice can be laid down and that business morality and honest administration and public supervision are the sine qua non of successful banking. National Banks. — Prior to the Civil War State bank notes constituted the only form of paper money in the United States. There were perhaps ten thousand od'd varieties of these notes, issued by some sixteen hundred banks under the diverse provision of different State laws. Many of these were worthless because counterfeited or because the issuing bank had failed. The evils of a decentralized, hetero- geneous currency condition in- tensified financial difficulties when the Civil War broke out. One paramount need of the govern- ment in 1860 was, therefore, sound and uniform currency, another was the urgent need of public revenue. Taxation proved inadequate and paper rhoney issues (greenbacks) were re- sorted to, but loans were neces- sary and government credit needed support. The Act of 1863 was 'passed with the double purpose of pro- viding a uniform currency and at the same time creating a market for Government bonds; but not many banks entered under its provisions so a revision was made in 1864, which remedied many of the features to which banks objected. As the law stands now any number of citizens, not less than five, may organize a National bank, if they possess the neces- sary capital, by applying to the Comptroller of the Currency for a charter. It is not mandatory upon the Comptroller 'to grant such applications, and in practice charters are granted only in those cases in which a survey shows that there is a general demand for a bank and that it is well sponsored. The general super- vision of the system is com- mitted to a separate bureau established in the Treasury Department under the direction of the Comptroller of the Cur- rency. The Comptroller ap- points examiners who 'examine' all National banks. These banks are also required to report at least three times a year. Capital requirements have been modified from time to time, the amounts necessary being based on the size of the communities in which the banks are located. The law provided for double liability of shareholders in case of failure of the bank, and provision is made for building-up surplus for additional protection to the bank's creditors. One chief cause of bank losses and failures has been unsafe and non-liquid loans and advances. Regulations in this matter limit the advances of National banks both with regard to character and amount, so as to insure a reasonably safe diversi- fication and liquidity of assets. National bank notes may be issued to the value of United States bonds deposited with the Secretary of the Treasury. Be- fore 1913 every bank was re- quired to invest a part of its capital in Government bonds whether it took out circulation or not; but this provision was re- pealed by the Federal Reserve Act. Notes are redeemable at the issuing bank, and at all National banks, and at the Treasury of the United States, where, since the Act of 1874. there has been kept a five per cent, redemption fund contributed by the banks for this purpose. To clear the way for the new National bank notes and in order to abolish the chaotic circulation of State banks a prohibitory tax of ten per cent, was imposed in 1865 on all notes issued by State banks. The im- Banking 565 Banking mediate result of this provision was a rapid decrease in number and importance of State banks, which were practically wiped out by 1873; the ultimate result, however, spelled a relative de- cline in the importance of the bank note, and the increased use of deposit currency shifted the competitive advantage of banking to State and private in- stitutions enjoying the advantage of more liberal laws. The Na- tional Bank Act was liberal- ized in 1913 and finally in 1927 the McFadden- Pepper Act con- siderably broadened National bank powers. The development of State and National banks from 1864 to 1929 is shown in the summary table below: was to study the whole subject of banking reform and propose suitable legislation. The Com- mission's official programme of currency reform, the Aldrich Plan, failed of passage in a Democratic Congress, but the ground was prepared for the drafting and adoption of an act, full of compromises, but in- corporating the thought of a generation of students who had grappled with the problem of currency and banking reform. Its purposes may be sum- marized as follows: (1) To furnish an elastic currency; (2) To centralize and mobilize re- serves and to afford means of rediscounting commercial paper; (3) To obtain cheaper and more Development of State and National Banking Institutions from 186^-1929 (Amounts in Millions of Dollars) Year 1864 1865 1866 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1914 1917 1920 1926 1928 1929 National Banks Number 139 638 1,582 1,628 2,052 3,326 3,602 7,173 7,571 7,589 8,019 7,978 7,691 7,536 Capital 15 136 403 419 454 618 607 1,003 1,063 1,082 1,221 1,413 1,594 1,627 Deposits 221 552 585 766 1,480 2,461 5,146 6,079 9,321 13,672 17,057 19,300 19,493 Circu- lation 67 213 293 322 126 205 675 1,018* 723 688 651 649 646 State Banks Number 1,089 349 297 325 620 2,101 4,369 12,166 14,512 15,968 18,195 16,493 15,078 14,437 Capital 312 71 66 87 91 189 237 436 501 600 920 1,092 1,051 1,156 209 553 1,267 2,728 3,227 5,391 10,873 13,158 13,357 13,587 * Including emergency currency. Federal Reserve System. — The defects of the National Banking System were recognized almost from the start, but monetary problems, e.g. greenbacks and free silver, overshadowed ques- tions of banking policy. Practi- cally every financial crisis was accompanied by money panic due to the rigid provisions and necessity of independent, sauve qui peut action, and the lack of any dependable source of help. Nothing resulted from the ex- periences of the crises of 1873 and 1884, but the distressing need of an emergency currency during the panic of 1893 started an agitation which resulted twenty years later in the adop- tion of the revolutionary changes embodied in the Federal Reserve Act. Progress was slow until the collapse in the panic of 1907. In the following year Congress passed the Aldrich- Vreeland Act, which provided for temporary emergency currency until per- manent measures could be de- vised; and also for a National Monetary Commission, which effective clearance and collection of checks and a more efficient transfer system ; (4) To facilitate foreign trade financing; (5) To afford a satisfactory depository and fiscal agent for the govern- ment. A dministrative Organization and Structure. — To carry out the purposes of the reform the organ- ization of the Federal Reserve was effected in the following manner: the country was divided into twelve districts (not less than eight nor more than twelve) and a Federal Reserve bank was established in each. These banks were superimposed upon an undisturbed structure of National and State banks, and an attempt was made to obtain institutions of approximately equal strength by adjusting the size of geographical areas to their respective jurisdictions. De- spite the tradition against branch banking, these were allowed, and Federal Reserve banks have at the present time (1930) 24 branches and 2 agencies, most of these being located in large districts where access to the Reserve bank is difficult. In order to give cohesion there was established in Washington a centralized mechanism in the form of a Federal Reserve Board, consisting of eight members, the Secretary of the Treasury and the Comptroller of the Currency ex-officio, and six others appoint- ed by the President. They rotate in office and have a ten- year term of tenure. They have important coordinating, regu- lating, and supervisory powers over the Reserve banks, and exert a large measure of control over their policies. Federal Reserve Banks are incorporated under Federal char- ter; each bank must have a capital of at least four million dollars subscribed by member banks, one-half of subscribed capital must be paid up; it is thus a 'bankers' bank' with regard to ownership. This stock carries a cumulative dividend of six per cent, per annum; net profits in excess of this amount go to build up surplus until it is equal to the subscribed capital; thereafter one- tenth goes to surplus while the remaining ninety per cent, is paid to the Government as a franchise tax. On the criteria of return these banks are quasi-public in char- acter, since profits to owners are distinctly limited. With regard to management each Reserve bank is controlled by a board of nine directors, divided into three classes — A, B, and C — representing member banks, business, and the public, respectively. Class A and B directors are elected by member banks; Class C by the Federal Reserve Board. An ingenious method of proportional as well as occupational representation char- acterizes the election of the six directors by large, middle sized, and small banks. The Federal Reserve Agent, a Class C director, is chairman of the Board and acts as liaison-officer between the bank and the Federal Re- serve Board. The executive officer of the Federal Reserve bank is a trained banker, com- petent to direct the operations of the bank, hired on a commer- cial basis as any bank president would be and called the Gov- ernor. The membership of the system is composed of all National banks, which were required to become members or relinquish their Federal charters, and all State banks and trust companies satisfying certain eligibility con- ditions regarding capitalization and character of their business. State banks hesitated to enter the system during the first years of its existence and even today, after the liberalizing amend- Vol. I.— 03Q Banking 565 A Banking ments of 1917 and 1927, only one-third of the commercial banking institutions of the coun- try are members. These, how- ever, represent the larger in- stitutions since the aggregate resources of the members of the Federal Reserve system are more than two-thirds of the country's total. The chief operations involved in taking out Federal Reserve membership are keeping reserves without in- terest, paying checks through the system at par, investing in Federal Reserve stock, and con- forming to certain restrictions, regulation and supervision, and submitting reports. The com- pensating services derived from membership are the availability of a market for eligible paper, clearings and transfer facilities, and the protection and prestige involved. The Federal Advisory Council, as its name implies, is an ad- visory council only. It consists of twelve members elected by the members of each bank, meet- ing at least quarterly with the members of the Federal Reserve Board, and making recommenda- tions concerning policy which reflect the opinion of the different geographical districts. The Functions of Reserve Banks. — The Reserve banks, like ordinary commercial banks, receive deposits, extend credit, furnish a medium of exchange, but unlike ordinary commercial banks their operations are not dominated by considerations of profits but are governed by principles which are peculiar to central bank practice, namely, they must envisage the whole credit and economic situation of the country to develop their policies, to promote the general welfare of society as a whole. Their chief functions are, there- fore, to serve member banks and the government, with which they deal directly, and non-member banks and business, with which they come into contact through clearings and collections and open market operations, so as to best promote the general in- terests of commerce and business. These functions may be enu- merated as follows: (1) to hold the ultimate reserves of the banking system; (2) to extend credit to member banks; (3) to issue notes and to furnish cur- rency; (4) to act as fiscal agent for the government; (5) to oper- ate a clearings and collections system; (6) to facilitate foreign trade financing; (7) to control the volume of credit of the banking system. Reserves. — Under the old bank- ing system reserves were scat- tered among thousands of in- dividual banks and laws govern- ing reserves were so inflexible Vol. I. —030 that reserves could not be used in times of emergency. The Reserve system made two great changes in these requirements; (a) it concentrated the reserves into twelve great reservoirs in- timately connected in order to make them mobile and acces- sible; (b) it provided a plan of credit expansion based upon these reserves. This concentra- tion and greater efficiency in the use of reserves made possible a large reduction in the reserve requirements of each member bank. The reduction was effected gradually, and since the amend- ment of 1917 has remained as follows: member banks must maintain all of their reserve in reserve banks; provisions against demand deposits are 13, 10, and 7 per cent, for banks located respectively in central reserve, reserve cities, and else- where, whereas only 3 per cent, need be kept against time de- posits (payable in thirty days or over). Since member banks can withdraw currency at any time they keep no more cash in their vaults than is needed as till- money for the daily transaction of their business. Any excess is loaned or invested; they uni- formly expand their credit to the practical maximum allowed by the law. Credit expansion by member banks is called 'primary' expansion since it takes place first when loanable resources in- crease. These pooled reserves may be augmented in times of need by borrowing from the reserve banks. Advances are received and reserve credited to the account of member banks on the basis of high grade short- term commercial paper, or gov- ernment security, a category of items now called 'eligible' paper. Such a credit augments member banks reserve just as effectively as would a deposit of cash, enabling the member bank in its turn to grant new loans to its customers. Reserve banks ex- pand their credit on the basis of eligible paper as well as gold and lawful money; it is called 'sec- ondary' credit expansion, since it is based upon the assets ob- tained through member banks. The ultimate limit of reserve expansion is determined by the legal minimum rcvserve of thirty- five per cent, of gold and lawful money against deposit liabilities. This is not absolutely rigid since it may be allowed to fall below this amount subject to a penalty tax, and the limit may be temporarily suspended by the Federal Reserve Board. This system permits pyramiding of credit; thus thirty-five dollars of gold or lawful money in the reserve bank may form the basis of one hundred dollars reserve credit to members who in turn may utilize this as 7, 10, or 13 per cent, reserve against deposit liabilities, or 3 per cent, against time deposits. Such expansion is adequate for almost any con- ceivable emergency. The chief problem has been to develop restraints to prevent over-issue of credit. No interest is paid against reserve balances, hence no incentive is given for carrying large excessive amounts. This leaves the resources of the Reserve banks available for emergencies. Prior to the establishment of the Federal Reserve System four kinds of paper money were in general use, all of which are still in circulation: first, gold certificates covered by gold and susceptible of increase or de- crease only as gold in the United States Treasury is in- creased or decreased; second, silver certificates secured dollar for dollar by silver, the amount of which is limited by law; third. United States notes or green- backs, still limited by statute to $346,000,000; and fourth. Na- tional bank notes, limited by the amount of the United States bonds carrying the circulating privilege. None of these forms of currency fluctuate in any relation to usual or abnormal changes in business demands. The Federal Reserve Act in- troduced new principles by pre- scribing business paper as secur- ity behind Federal Reserve notes. This paper, eligible for rediscounting or as collateral, originates in industrial, com- mercial, and agricultural trans- actions with a maturity of ninety days, except in the case of agricultural paper, which may run for nine months. Short-term, fifteen-day, member bank loans, collateraled by government ob- ligations or eligible paper, was provided for by a war amend- nietit in 1916, and these still offer convenient forms of com- mercial bank borrowing. Con- traction of note issue, ag weil as expansion, is semi-automatic in its operation. When, business becomes less active the com- mercial paper security shrinks in volume and notes are retired, except, however, that the amount based upon gold may remain out- standing. Another form of paper created by the Federal Reserve Act, the Federal Re- serve bank note, intended to re- place National bank notes should these institutions wish to retire their circulation, is of little im- portance today. The presence of the Reserve banks relieves the Government Treasury of much of the direct responsibility which it formerly assumed in the money market. The Reserve banks, in constant touch with the money market, Banking 565 B Banking and with ofifices in all parts of the country, are able to perform the fiscal operations required by government business with ex- pedition and effect. Collections, remittances and transfers are made in huge amounts, practical- ly without charge. During the war and after the Reserve banks proved invaluable in aiding the flotation of bonds, and by furnishing machinery for secur- ing credit expansion made war financing possible. Credits and Collections. — Be- cause of the absence of any other organization in the United States capable of operating a nation wide clearings and collection system the Federal Reserve was compelled to establish an elabo- rate mechanism which has united the whole country into a single money market. What the local clearing house did for local settle- ments the reserve clearing system has done for out of town settle- ments. All member banks are compelled to remit checks at par, that is, they may not charge one another, or the Federal Reserve bank, for cashing their own checks. Non-member banks are invited to become members of the 'par list', assuming the obligation of paying their checks without exchange charges, and in return benefiting by the opera- tion of the system. Clearings and collections within the single district involve a simple process of settling transactions by debit and credit entries affecting mem- bers' accounts on the books of the Federal Reserve bank. Inter- district clearings are somewhat more complicated, and involve transfer of funds by debit and credit entries affecting Reserve banks upon the books of the 'Gold Settlement Fund,' a fund created by deposits of the twelve banks with the Treasury in Washington, in the custody of the Federal Reserve Board. The twelve Reserve banks aud twen- ty-four branches provide a mechanism for smooth and effec- tive settlements between distant points, reducing the expenses, risks, and delays, so unprofitable under the old system. Facilities for Financing Foreign Trade. — The bill of exchange was used in the United States prior to the Civil War but its use was practically discontinued and the law did not, thereafter, per- mit banks to accept bills until such a provision was incor- porated in the Federal Reserve Act. Prior to 1914 a small volume of American foreign trade was financed with letters of credit by private bankers. Through an amendment to the Federal Reserve Act in 1919 (the Edge Law) authority was given for the organization of corpora- tions for the purpose of engaging in international or foreign trade. These organizations were also authorized to accept bills or drafts drawn upon them. Ac- ceptance business has therefore been developed by three groups. These accepted drafts were also made eligible for purchase by the Reserve banks, and thus the necessary foundation was laid for a discount market. Year by year the numbers and kinds of bills have been increasing and the market has been ex- panding. At the present time bills are chiefly used to finance exports and imports, but large amounts are also drawn against readily marketable staples held in warehouses here and abroad, and some are drawn for domestic movements of goods. These types of paper have an inter- national market and the de- velopment of an American bill market is a favorable factor in encouraging a free flow of funds between this and other coun- tries. Bankers acceptances out- standing have in late years been two or three times as large as the volume of commercial paper out- standing. Mechanism of Credit Policy and Credit Control. — Federal Re- serve banks supply additional funds by expanding credit when more funds are needed, and curbing the use of their credit when contraction is desired. Controlling this flow of credit is what is meant by credit policy. Though many observers have laid out a large order for the authorities to achieve as ob- jectives of their policy, such as stabilizing interest rates and commodity prices, preventing bank failures, surpressing specu- lation, and eliminating business fluctuations, the fixed aim set by the law is definitely 'to accom- modate business and commerce.' Those who determine the Re- serve policy consist of the board of nine directors of each of the twelve semi-autonomous district banks, a board of eight members representing the nation at large, and the Advisory Council of local representatives meeting with the Federal Reserve Board. Thus we have a compromise of local and national interests by dual control. A distinction now commonly made by the Reserve authorities is credit policy as divStinct from hank policy. The latter involves the use of credit advanced by the individual banker, whereas the former involves questions of ad- justing the country's total credit supply to the volume of business. The Federal Reserve is directly responsible for the latter policy only. In controlling the supply of Federal Reserve bank credit three limitations may be noted: (1) Defining eligibility the vol- ume of reserve credit is restricted to those who possess eligible paper for sale and rediscount. (2) There are several restraints which check the use of reserve funds by member banks, chief of which is the discount rate. Various guides are used in chang- ing discount rates such as reserve ratio (a single figure obtained by computing the ratio of gold and lawful money to notes plus deposits), market rates of in- terest, member bank credit, use to which credit is put, employ- ment and business conditions, price levels, and international conditions. The problem is complicated and no single guide has proved adequate. (3) The open market operations of the Reserve banks are under the centralized control of a com- mittee located in New York. Although the provisions of the Act allow Reserve banks to buy and sell bills and government securities, the banks assume a passive role except with regard to the purchase and sale of government securities. The immediate effect of selling se- curities is to take funds out of the market, whereas buying puts funds into the market. When member banks are borrowing, the additional funds are used to repay loans, due to the tradition against borrowing, but when they are in debt such additional funds may be used to expand credit. Member bank borrow- ings therefore are also an im- portant guide to money con- ditions. When heavily in debt, rates will be high, when out of debt, discount rates will be low. Present Banking Structure and the Concentration of Bank Re- sources. — The chief problem re- lating to the United States composite banking structure seems to be due to the fact that there are two sets of banking corporations performing sub- stantially the same functions side by side, but under the control and regulation of differ- ent authorities. State banks carry on under the provisions of forty-eight different sets of laws, and though such conditions pro- vide for a certain adaptability to the peculiar credit needs of local conditions they do not possess the advantage of uniformity of supervision and high banking standards. The competition between these two types of banking systems has resulted in materially extending the powers enjoyed by National banks, but the question of branch banking still remains one provoking vigorous controversy. The origin of the independent unit banking system is found in the early abuse of special char- VOL. I. — 030 Banking 565 C Banking ters and banking monopoly and the fear of financial tyranny by big banks. The free banking plan in New York and the National Banking system both had the effect of stimulating the growth of many unit banks, and the Federal Reserve system though encouraging certain co- operation has forbidden branch banking. The majority of States have followed the lead of the Federal government and have either prohibited or limited branch banking. However some States, notably California, New York, Ohio, and Michigan, have permitted ownership of one bank by another, and this provision has encouraged National banks to give up their charter and in- corporate under the State laws. State bank resources amounting to fifty- five per cent, of the total commercial bank resources in 1919 increased to sixty per cent, by March 1929 with a corres- ponding decrease in the case of National banks. This tendency soon began to affect the Federal Reserve system; with consequent liberalizing provisions allowing National banks to have branches where State laws permit them, but restricting them within city limits. During the past ten years a business revolution has been taking place, and with it, a trend away from the multiplicity of independent banking units. Big business has been accompanied by big banking. This movement has been characteristic in most commercial countries. In Canada ten banks and their branches do all the commercial banking in the country. In England the Big Five with their branches, control about four-fifths of the total banking resources, and the German Big Four approximately seven-tenths. Mergers and con- solidations have been the^order of the day, especially in the last two years, but even now the five largest banks in the United States represent less than ten per cent, of the total banking resources in the country. The laws restraining branch banking are being defeated by the actual consolidation of banks, and through the creation of holding companies and investment trusts banking 'groups' or 'chains' which are spreading throughout the land. In the East the consolidation and the holding company seem to be most in favor as methods of controlling banking resources. In the Middle West and South, where many State laws prohibit trust com- panies from doing commercial banking business, holding com- panies, and chains or groups are formed, such as the Northwest Bancorporation, the First Bank Stock Corporation, and similar Vol. I.— 030 groups in Milwaukee, Detroit, Buffalo, and Atlanta. In the far West, where branch banking is permitted, the hugh Bank of Italy and the Bank of California represent the movement. The chief objectives of bigger banks are larger volume of busi- ness at lower costs, larger loans possible to big business units, extension of services to trust operations, investments, foreign departments, or to acquire par- ticularly profitable going con- cerns. These advantages have by no means been exhausted, and it seems reasonable to expect that a few bank chains, with a head office in New York City will dominate American banking, and that these institutions, singly, or through groups of affiliated corporations will ex- emplify a new conception of banking, namely, banks which are at the same time pure com- mercial banks, savings banks, trust operations, bond houses, insurance companies, safety de- posit banks, and mortgage houses England. — The foundations of banking in England were laid in the latter half of the seventeenth century by the goldsmiths of London. In the early part of the century merchants had been accustomed to hoard their sur- plus coin, bullion and other valuables, or to deposit them in the Tower of London for safe custody under government pro- tection. This latter arrange- ment was apparently satisfactory until 1640 when Charles I. seized £130,000 of merchants' gold as a drastic method to raise funds for his disheartened army. The mercantile community thereupon lost confidence in government custody and sought safer meth- ods, finally entrusting their funds to goldsmiths whose integrity they respected. The goldsmiths commenced their banking activities by re- ceiving money on deposit, giving receipts in return. These receipts or notes, soon passed into cir- culation in place of the specie they represented, first by en- dorsement, later, as currency, when made out in convenient round denominations and pay- able to bearer. A further de- velopment of this 'running cash business' involved the drawing of checks on goldsmith bankers by the merchant himself. The first check on record, dated 1675, bears all the characteristics of the present day check. Thus lodg- ments of customers were loaned with the goldsmiths' own funds to other merchants needing ac- commodation. By gradual steps, the goldsmiths, besides dealing in bullion, began to engage in all the operations which are still regarded as the chief functions of a bank, viz. they conducted exchange operations, opened cur- rent accounts, issued notes against these deposits, granted loans, discounted bills of ex- change. In the beginning no in- terest was paid on deposits, in fact a charge was exacted, but the high rates which could be obtained for loans ultimately led goldsmiths to attract deposits by offering interest. The goldsmiths acted to some extent in the capacity of govern- ment bankers. Charles iii. had borrowed £1,300,000 from some of them at from 8 to 10 per cent., giving as security a lien on taxes. However, he followed his father's example and in 1672 took the serious step of stopping all payments from the Exchequer, and the goldsmiths in turn were forced to suspend payment to their merchant customers. Though interest was ultimately paid, the capital was never re- paid, and the goldsmiths in- volved either failed or tended to drift back to their original call- ings. Those not involved sur- vived as private bankers. The shock to the goldsmiths' credit caused by the 'Stop of the Exchequer,' led to proposals of an institution which would give the mercantile community great- er security and reasonable terms of interest. The scheme adopted was proposed by a Scotchman, William Patterson, who realized that parliamentary sanction could best be assured by provid- ing for a loan to the Government by the new bank. In 1694 William ill's, government grant- ed a charter to 'the Governor and Company of the Bank of Eng- land,' in return for a loan of £1,200,000. The bank was granted the power to deal in bullion, make loans to the amount of its capitalization, but it did not have true note-issuing powers,. This was granted by the Act of 1697. 'Banking' at this time meant note issue; and since notes are really a part of the national currency, they were con- sidered public instruments sub- ject to regulation. Monopoly of exclusive banking was further defined by the Acts of 1709 and 1742 which 'prohibited note issues to any but partnerships of six or less members.' This pro- vision practically gave the Bank of England a monopoly of note issue and banking in general, until the Acts of 1826 and 1833, which allowed the establishment of joint stock companies with note issuing privilege, first out'- side of London, later within the sixty-five mile radius. Private bankers increased their note issues, especially in the latter half of the eighteenth century and continued to do so without restriction up to 1844. The vagueness of the language of the Banking 565 D Banking Acts of 1697, 1709 and 1742 hurt general banking by hindering the establishment of joint stock banks. The Acts of 1826 and 1833 were designed to encourage joint stock banks and a great extension of these followed. Though the Bank of England enjoyed a monopoly of note issue in London and for sixty- five miles around, the smaller and weaker provincial banks continued their issues. The causes of the financial crises of 1826 and 1837-9 were inter- preted as being due largely to these excessive issues, and a movement for reform ensued. It was at this time that the great debate arose between the ad- vocates of the 'currency' versus those of the 'banking' principle of note issue, i.e. whether bank notes should be based on specie or on liquidable assets. The currency school led by Sir Robert Peel won out, and the Bank Charter Act of 1844 was formulated on the basis of the currency principle. The pur- poses of the act were to make the Bank of England notes secure, and to limit and gradually elimi- nate all other issues. To ac- complish these purposes the Bank was divided into two parts: the Issue Department and the Banking Department. The Issue Department has .to do only with the note circula- tion, the directors merely acting as trustees to provide for the proper securities for the notes issued to the public; control is thus rendered almost automatic. A fiduciary issue made on the credit of the bank and secured by the standing debt of the government to the bank was fixed at fourteen million pounds. Any excess issue could only be made against the deposit of an equal amount of gold with the issue department. At the same time the issue of notes by country banks was restricted to those already having the right of issue and the Bank of England was allowed to increase its fiduciary issue by two-thirds of the amount of any cancelled country issue. Through amalgamation all country banks have now lost the right of note issue, the last having been cancelled in 1923, leaving the Bank of Eng- land with an absolute monopoly , of note issue. On the whole the system worked fairly well except for one great fault, namely: it was too inelastic to meet extreme financial crises. Sudden runs upon the stock of gold might have depleted the reserves had not government permission been given to the Bank to issue notes beyong the legal limit. Such action is known as 'suspending the bank act.' During the last century the power to exceed the legal limit of the fiduciary issue was given on three occasions, 1847, 1857, 1866; the last oc- casion for 'suspending the act' was on the outbreak of war in August 1914. The action of the Prime Minister and the Chancel- lor of the Exchequer authorizing suspension was immediately fol- lowed by the Currency and Bank Notes Act of 191^ which created a new form of currency govern- ment notes issued through a department of the Treasury. These 'treasury notes' were issued at the discretion of the Treasury in one pound and ten shilling denominations with no special provision for gold back- ing. Throughout the war both bank and treasury notes were theoretically convertible into gold, but control over the export and use of gold actually effected an abandonment of the gold standard. In January 1918, before the war was over, a parliamentary committee was appointed to in- vestigate and recommend meth- ods of rendering financial stabil- ity. The Cunliffe committee recommended a reduction of the fiduciary government issues and eventual amalgamation of treas- ury notes and Bank of England notes, and a minimum gold reserve of one hundred fifty million pounds. The report of the committee appointed in 1924 to consider amalgamation en- dorsed the Cunliffe proposals. In April 1925 the Chancellor of the Exchequer announced the lifting of the embargo on gold, but the Bank was no longer compelled to redeem notes in gold coin and the right of the holder of bullion to have it coined was withdrawn. Currency notes had reached a maximum of three hundred seventy million pounds in 1920. After that year reduc- tion of the treasury issue was automatically effected, in keep- ing with the policy of the Treas- ury, recommended by the Cun- liffe committee in 1919 to limit total notes uncovered by gold or Bank of England notes each year to the maximum amount attained in the previous year. The Currency and Bank Notes Act of 1928 provided for an amalgamation of government and bank issues which has resulted in increasing the Bank's fidu- ciary issue from £19,750,000 (to which it has grown from the original £14,000,000) to £260,- 000,000. The effect of the currency note amalgamation is shown in the statements of the Bank of Eng- land (issue Department only), before and after the transition. It will be noted that the post- amalgamation return includes a few additional items throwing slight additional light on the conditions of the English money market. We find that the statement for November 21, 1928, the last in the old form, is identical with the return adopted under the Bank Act of 1844. The new statement for November 28, indicates: (1) the amount of the fiduciary issue, and the nature of the security behind the issue; (2) the nature of 'other deposits' (those of commercial banks comprising their reserves), and those of private customers; (3) the nature of 'other securities' — the amount of discounts and advances in- dicating the extent to which the market is 'in the bank,' and the amount of securities indicating the extent to which the Bank has participated in open market operations on its own initiative. There are three chief reasons why the Bank of .England is the centre of Great Britain's money market: (1) it is the only issuer of legal tender notes; (2) it is the banker for the government; (3) it is the bankers' bank. Due to the third mentioned circum- stance the reserve of the Bank of England is practically the only money in the country available for any sudden demand for funds either domestic or foreign. Eng- lish banking laws do not require banks to maintain prescribed reserves against deposits. This matter is left to the discretion of the individual bankers. Joint stock and other banks maintain only sufficient cash in their own vaults to meet their own needs, keeping the larger part of their reserves as a balance in the Bank of England even though no in- terest on such balances is paid. This reserve is maintained in gold, which concentrated and mobilized, forms the basis of a high degree of credit expansion. In times of commercial activity banks sell their notes and bills in the market rather than re- discounting at the central bank as is done in the American sys- tem. The methods of credit control are consequently dif- ferent in detail, but not in result. The operation of credit control by the Bank is briefly as follows: when the cash reserve of joint stock banks is reduced through increased loans or cash with- drawals, they have recourse to their second line of defense, which is their short-term loans to the discount market, chiefly bill brokers, who occupy a unique position in London. The result is a rise of rates for short-term loans. When these reach the Bank of England rate the bill brokers will be 'forced into the Bank', which makes advances at its own price, but which is an institution always prepared to lend. The Bank can accelerate Vol. 1.-030 Banking 565 E Banking the process by borrowing at the market rate or by selling securi- ties, thus mopping up the cheap money supply. Higher rates stem the outflow of gold and eventual- ly attract an influx from abroad sidered the authoritative guide to current rates of bank discount. The Bank of England is privately owned and managed. The stockholders elect the board of 24 directors, who choose the Notes Issued: In circulation. . . In banking dept. BANK OF ENGLAND (Expressed in million pounds) ISSUE DEPARTMENT Nov. 21* Nov. 28** I II Nov. 21* Nov. 28*' I II 181 357 52 Government Debt. . . . , Other Gov't Securities. Other Securities Silver Coin , 11 231 10 5 Fiduciary Issue 260 Gold Coin and Bullion. . 161 159 181 419 BANKING DEPARTMENT Proprietors' Capital Rest 15 3 15 99 62 7 Day and other Bills 132 139 Gov't Securities Other Securities Discounts and Advances Securities Notes Gold and Silver Coin 181 132 139 * The last statement in the old form. ** The first statement in the new form. due to the increase in the de- mand for sterling exchange. This increases reserve balances in the Bank of England, and enables the market to repay sums borrowed, and the money condition tends to become easy again. Thus the bank is able to save the market from the more violent effects which the gold movements might cause. The process necessitates frequent changes in the Bank rate (in contrast with the stability of the Bank of France rates), and though the resulting instability governor and deputy-governor from their own members. The directors are not as a rule pro- fessional bankers, but are chosen from reliable firms in the city. While the bank is neither owned nor regulated by the government, its functions of fiscal agent to the government, sole depository of government funds, and sole issuer of notes give it great prestige. Besides keeping the reserves of banks, the Bank of England also has private ac- counts, so that it is a combina- tion central and commercial bank Banks PAID IN (In millions of pounds) Capita! Surplus Deposits in Number of Branches in 1929 (In England & Wales) 15.8 10.3 335 850 15.8 10. 352 1,750 13.4 13.4 395 2,000 National Provincial 9.5 9.5 290 1,260 Westminster 9.3 9.3 294 985 of market rates is disadvantage- ous to trade and industry, it must be borne in mind that great benefits are reaped from the position occupied by London in world finance and from the sen- sitive elasticity of credit changes thus obtained. The increasing of the size of deposit banks and the great volume of treasury bills outstanding make this con- trol less perfect than formerly, but the Bank rate is still con- VoL. L— 030 The other constituent parts of the English banking system con- sist of a few large joint stock banks, acceptance houses or mer- chant bankers, bill brokers and discount houses, over-seas and foreign banks. Fifty years ago there were some two hundred separate banks in the British Isles. Since that time scarcely any new banks have been created and gradual amalgama- tion into large banks has taken place. At the present time the so-called 'Big Five' with their four thousand branches do ap- proximately eighty-five per cent, of the total deposit bankin'i; business in England, and their branches and affiliations extend to all parts of the world. The second table gives a summary of the chief items from recent statements of these five banks, and indicates the scope of their activity, as of December 31, 1928. Canada. — The regulation of banking, the incorporation of banks, and the issue of paper money fall exclusively within the legislative authority of the Do- minion parliament and are not within the scope of provincial control. The Bank Act of 1871 is the original law under which the regulation takes place, and though it is usually revised every ten years it is none the less sub- ject to amendment by parlia- ment at any time. The last general revision took place in 1913. The 1923 Act embodied no far reaching changes and the Amendment of 1924 provided only for government inspection by an official known as the In- spector General of Banks. Banks incorporated under the Bank Act are commonly called 'chartered banks.' They are authorized to open branches and agencies, to deal in coin and bullion, to discount notes, lend money on the security of bills of exchange and other negotiable instruments, and to carry on generally the business of banking. They are prohibited, however, from direct lending of money upon the capital stock of any chartered bank, and upon the security of real estate, though they may, with respect to the latter, take mortgages or title deeds as coUateraJ. The Canadian banking system is very flexible and credit con- trol is highly perfected by virtue of the fact that there are but ten banks, (not including the recently established Barclay's Bank), with some 4,650 branches, located in all portions of the Dominion and Newfoundland, and foreign agencies in Great Britain and other countries. Through the branch system a few large and well managed in- stitutions keep closely in touch with all parts of a far-flung country and are able to gauge accurately the needs of any in- dustry or borrower, both local and general. Commercial paper instruments such as are common in the United States are little used in Canada and there is therefore no field for the bill broker. In gener- al practice drafts are usually drawn by the seller upon the buyer, and are then either dis- Banking 565 F Banking counted at the drawer's bank, or are forwarded through a bank for collection, and after accept- ance are held until maturity. Canadian Banks ASSETS Cash: Gold 88 Dominion Notes 172 Other Cash Items 131 391 Other Liquid Assets: Call and Short Loans in Canada . . 262 Call and Short Loans outside Canada 245 Securities 448 955 Other Assets: Loans and Discounts 1 ,775 Bank Premises 75 Bank Circulation Redemption Fund 6 Other Assets 137 1 993 Total Assets 3,339 In the absence of a central reserve bank and of any organ- ized money market such as a call loan, a discount, or a com- mercial-paper market, there has grown up a practice on the part of commercial banks of retaining large balances in New York, and of making heavy loans there in the 'call money' market and in the acceptance market. Their balances serve as a secondary reserve and are used to facilitate the heavy trade financing be- tween Canada and the United States. Another practice which is unlike that followed in the United States is the custom of dealing only with one bank, except by consent in case of large corporations and stock exchange brokers. Thus the lending bank becomes intimately familiar with the business of the borrower. In Canada the principal cir- culating medium in use, apart from Dominion notes, is bank notes. Branch banks are allowed to issue notes to the full value of their unimpaired, paid-up capi- tal, and are permitted to issue additional notes during crop moving periods (September 1 to the end of February) not in excess of 15 per cent, of their combined unimpaired paid-up capital and 'rest' or 'reserve' funds, i.e. surplus funds. This additional note issue is subject to a tax of 5 per cent, per annum. They may further increase their circulation by depositing an equivalent amount of Dominion notes or gold, in a central gold reserve controlled by trustees appointed for the purpose, and by rediscounting eligible, com- mercial paper with the Minister of Finance. Such notes may be outstanding during the entire year and are subject neither to tax nor to interest. There are (In millions of dollars) LIABILITIES To Public: Notes in Circulation 1 55 Deposits in Canada 2,103 Deposits outside 442 Due other Banks 123 Rediscounts 82 Other Liabilities 127 3,032 To Stockholders: Capital 143 Rest 158 Undiv. Profits 6 307 Total Liabilities 3,339 penalties for issuing notes be- yond the authorized limits. The notes are not ordinarily legal tender (though they were made so during the war and post- war emergency), but they are payable on demand, and the banks are required to insure parity by redemption in, legal tender, i.e. Dominion notes or gold, when presented by any other bank. This daily redemp- tion prevents over-issue and is the key to the whole problem of keeping notes at par throughout the country. Bank notes are secured by a joint lien on the assets of the issuing bank and by a 'bank circulation redemption fund.' Each bank is compelled to de- posit with the government a sum equal to 5 per cent, of its own monthly note issue. When a bank suspends payment, its notes in circulation bear interest at the rate of 5 per cent, per annum from the date of suspen- sion to the date fixed for pay- ment. The net result is that bank notes are practically guar- anteed by the banks at large, while the interest-bearing pro- vision prevents the notes of an insolvent bank from being dis- counted until paid. The summary table above shows the principal items on the combined balance sheet of the chartered banks as of December 31, 1929. Audit and Government Inspec- tion. — A peculiarity of the Can- adian banking system is the existence and operation of the Canadian Banker's Association. This body, incorporated in 1900, acts under the authority of the Dominion Treasury Board, and besides facilitating and encourag- ing cooperation between banks, has legal powers of supervision of bank note issues and hence the right to inspect banks so far as note circulation is concerned. The Association also supervises clearing house transactions, and has charge of the appointment of curators to conduct the affairs of failed banks. Until 1924 there were no laws for the inspection of banks by government bank examiners, though qualified bank auditors selected by shareholders and approved by the Minister of Finance were appointed to super- vise their affairs. The revision of the Bank Act in 1923 provided for more complete monthly statements to be published and filed with the Minister of Finance The Minister may also call for special returns when he deems it necessary. France. — The laws of France are singularly free from pro- visions regarding commercial banks. Such matters as organiza- tion, management, reserves, au- dits and inspection, which com- monly exist in other countries to protect depositors and share- holders, are entirely absent except in the case of the Bank of France and certain financial organiza- tions in the field of agricultural credit. Since reports are not required and are published vol- untarily by only a few of the larger institutions it is impos- sible to obtain a comprehensive picture of the financial structure of the country. The first bank to issue in France was the 'Banque Gene- rale' founded by the Scotch banker, John Law in 1716. This enterprise failed in 1721 as a result of the disastrous collapse of the 'Mississippi Bubble' and banking met with little encour- agement until the time of the French Revolution when other banks of issue were established, but after a brief life were forced out of existence. In 1800 Napo- leon Bonaparte established the Bank of France with a capital of thirty million francs. It was given the right of note issue in 1803. Departmental banks were later formed with note issuing privileges in their respective de- partments, but after the crisis of 1848 these were merged with the Bank of France which has since enjoyed the exclusive right of note issue in France. Banking in France is at pres- ent, as in England and Germany, essentially centralized in form. In the centre is the Bank of France, exclusive bank of issue, bank of discount for other banks. Government bank, and clearing house for the bulk of the coun- try's banking transactions. Next come the commercial banks. Vol. I.— 030 Banking [565 G Banking headed by the grandes societes de credit, and the less important but nevertheless vital elements of advances to the state have made possible the financing of recent and previous wars. French Banks (Amounts in million francs) icies ices jrren Bane inizec '^ '^ " o ■^^ Year orga Branches, and loc in Fran Dividend Capital Reserves Deposit a Accoun Total Ass Per Cent. 1800 661 35 182 298 19,509 83,449 Comptoir National d'Es- compte 1848 471 16 250 144 9,104 9,810 Credit Industriel et Com- 1859 53 16 100 70 1,315 1,549 Credit Lyonnais 1863 1,000 20 255 227 11,895 13,316 1864 1,437 17 500 105 12,646 13,941 Banque Nationale de Creciit 1913 606 13 262 136 4,712 5,472 the financial system: invest- ment banks, la haute banque and les banques d'affaires; sayings banks, la Caisse Nationale d'Epar- qne and les caisses d'eparqne ordinaires; mortgage banks, le Credit Fonder; agricultural banks le Credit Agricole; cooperative societies, foreign bank branches, and others. Bank of France. — Besides a central bank with 19 offices in Paris and its suburbs, there are 159 branches, 84 auxiliary offices, and 399 connecting offices in France (1930). The Bank is owned by private shareholders, and is under a dual private and state management. The Presi- dent of France appoint^ a gover- nor and two deputy-governors, while the general assembly of the two hundred largest shareholders elects a general council or board of fifteen regents, of which three are government treasury officials, five represent manufacturers and traders, and one agriculture. Previous to the stabilization of the franc in 1928 there was no legal specification as to the amount of reserve against notes and deposits. Notes were con- vertible under the operation of the 'limping standard' into either gold or silver at the option of the bank. The law of 1928 provided for the redemption of notes in gold only, and for reserve against circulating banknotes and de- mand liabilities of thirty-five per cent, gold bullion or coin. Like the other central banks of Europe the Bank of France does a large commercial discount and government security business. It not only discounts paper owned by other banks but buys paper from business corpora- tions and individuals, providing that it has three signatures or two signatures and accepted collateral. It serves as fiscal agent for the government and manages the public debt, and its Vol. I.— 030 The large credit establish- ments or deposit banks are highly centralized in France as in England. The five largest of these are the Credit Lyonnais, Societe Generale, Comptoir Na- tional d'Escompte, and Credit Industriel et Commercial. The above table is a statement of the chief items of interest showing the condition of these banks as of December 31, 1928. The operations of deposit banks are not as specialized as in England; rather they carry on diversified business in commercial loans and security financing. To meet long-term industrial re- quirements, many large banks have organized separate sub- sidiaries. The influence of the large deposit banks spreads throughout France in a system of branches and agencies whose extent is shown in the above table. In some cases these extend into French colonies and even into foreign countries. While it is known that the pro- portion of total banking re- sources of the country repre- sented by the big six is dominant no definite estimate is possible. In contrast to the varied func- tions of the deposit banks certain groups of banks of a specialized nature exist. In- vestment banks — both joint- stock and private — play an im- portant part in the launching and long-term financing of commer- cial and industrial enterprises. There are two independent classes of savings banks — or- dinary and postal — having more than 17 million accounts (1928). Other banks to facilitate agri- cultural reconstruction and hous- ing operations have been es- tablished. Germany. — The existence of a large number of different banking and credit institutions perform- ing various functions make the German structure complicated and lacking in uniformity. The reasons for this are partly his- torical and partly to be accounted for by the initiative taken by the Government in instituting social reforms. Prior to the unification of the Empire after the Franco- Prussian War Germany was broken up into a considerable number of independent states with numer- ous local banks of issue and other financial institutions. To bring about some order in the banking system it was essential to estab- lish a modern central bank of deposit and issue. Accordingly the Reichsbank was established in 1875, reconstituting the older Bank of Prussia which dated from 1765. The Reichsbank, though not exactly modeled after the Bank of England re- sembled it in many respects. As in the case of the Bank Act of 1844 in England, the German Act of 1875 provided that if the note issue privilege of other note issuing banks was allowed to lapse it should be transferred to the Reichsbank. Of the thirty- three b^nks enjoying note issue privilege in 1875 only four re- mained in 1914; these still exist under present laws. Like the British Act of 1844, the German law provided for a fixed fiduciary limit of authorized issue, known as the Kontingent, originally amounting to two hundred fifty million marks, to be increased by any amounts relinquished by other banks. This total had been raised by 1913 to five hundred fifty million marks, with an ex- tra allowance of two hundred million marks at the end of quarterly periods when currency was in exceptional demand. For issues beyond these amounts the bank had to have mark for mark in cash (i.e. gold after 1909). In order to avoid the awkward British expedient of suspending the Bank Act, issues without metallic cover (that is, fiduciary circulation), were permitted in times of emergency on the pay- ment of a five per cent. tax. Though privately owned, the management of the Bank was in part governmental, this relation- ship being modeled upon the system which had developed in France. The Chancellor of the Empire was made president of the Bank; the other members of the managing board (Direk- torium) were also government appointees. Representation of the general assembly of stock- holders (Kuratorium) was fur- nished by a special board (Central-Ausschuss) in charge of routine business only. In its general business the Reichsbank was intended to serve as a bankers' bank, dealing with other institutions primarily and limiting itself, for the most Banking 565 H Banking part, to very short-term loans made on the basis of commercial paper and approved securities. During the war and post-war periods the limitations and re- strictions upon Reichsbank ac- tivities were relaxed to provide for the exigencies of government finances. Reichsbank notes were given legal tender power and government treasury notes were also issued. The Bank was allowed to issue notes on the basis of government paper so that the amounts which at the beginning of the war did not exceed two billion marks in- creased to sums reaching extra- ordinary dimensions. Repara- tions difficulties, the invasion of the Ruhr — political problems both external and internal — • finally in 1923 brought the Reichsbank currency to a point where it practically ceased to perform the functions of money. The formation of the Renten- bank in October of 1923 afforded tentative relief by providing a stable Rentenmark currency based on general mortgages on landed property. Permanent stabilization was finally effected as the result of the operation of the so-called Dawes Plan, which provided for the liquidation of the Rentenbank and for the establishment of the new Reichs- bank This is quite similar to the old institution in both organiza- tion and operation except that it enjoys almost complete inde- pendence from the state. The outstanding capital (about one hundred twenty-five million Reichsmarks out of a three hundred million Reichsmarks authorized) is privately held. The bank is managed by the political control to insure repara- tions payments. Another body called the Council of Stockhold- ers is a counterpart of the former Central-Ausschuss. The Presi- dent of the Reichsbank is ap- pointed by the General Board with the approval of the Presi- dent of the Republic; he acts as chairman of the general manag- ing board and has full charge of the management of the bank. Under the provisions of the Young Plan the management of the bank is to be freed from foreign control. The bank has one head office, 17 main offices, 84 branches, 344 subordinate branches, 8 agencies and a goods depot, some 500 offices in all. Note issue provisions of the new Reichsbank are adminis- tered by a Commissioner of Note Issue elected by the General Board but who must be a foreigner representing the Allies. Forty per cent, gold and foreign exchange (at least ^ gold) must be held against out- standing notes under present requirements. The powers of the new Reichs- bank are quite similar to those exercised by its predecessor, namely, it continues to perform the functions of a commercial bankers' bank, to issue new Reichsmarks (which alone pos- sess full legal tender power), and to serve as the dominant factor in the money market in regulating the supply of credit by discounting commercial paper and granting loans on collateral. Provision is made for building up of the reserve fund by allocating twenty per cent, of the net annual profits so long as the German Banks (In millions of Reichsmarks) Deutsche Bank* Disconto- Gesell- schaft* Dresdener Bank Darmsta- dter und National Bank Commerz- und Privat- bank** Assets: Cash and with Reichsbank. . 52 47 35 46 32 Other Bank Deposits 919 559 758 705 517 Advances 271 218 327 241 192 Collateral Loans 162 96 109 130 152 1289 564 864 963 784 Liabilities: Capital Stock 150 135 100 60 82 Surplus 78 51 32 55 37 2398 1375 1971 1953 1480 * Mergt;;! in Deceoiber, 1929. **Including the Mitteldeutsche Creditbank. board composed entirely of Germans (the old Direktorium), but which is supervised by a general board (replacing the older Kuratorium), composed of both Germans and foreign repre- sentatives, the latter being in- cluded for the purpose of effecting reserve is less than twelve per cent, of the notes outstanding. Shareholders participate in pro- fits to the amount of eight per cent, dividends, and on a sliding scale their share decreases as the profits increase, the government receiving the remainder. In addition to the central bank the German financial struc- ture includes a large number of highly diversified public and pri- vate institutions. The most im- portant of these are the large commercial banks, Grossbanken, which, like the deposit banks of England and France, have be- come highly concentrated, and though not so numerous, have many branches. The four big banks (Deutsche Bank^ Dis- conto Gesellschaft, Dresdener Bank Darmstddter und National Bank and Commerz-und Privathank) have a combined capital of 520 million Reichsmarks, surplus of 269 million Reichsmarks, and total resources of 11,427 million Reichsmarks, representing about 70 per cent, of the entire as- sets of all incorporated credit banks. The table on this page gives a summary of the condition of these banks at the end of 1928. A characteristic feature of the German financial system is the use of the bill of exchange (Wechsel) in the transfer of funds, or what is called the Giro- verkehr. Generally speaking three types of transfer are ef- fected: (1) small payments through the post-office (Posts- checkverkehr) , for those not having bank accounts; (2) Reichs- bank clearings, which consist chiefly in large payments; in- terurban transactions through the several hundred Reichsbank branches and agencies; (3) inter- bank payments through the dis- trict clearing house, transactions through the girozentrallen, — payments made by those who carry bank accounts. The efficiency and perfection of this system account for the lack of the development of the check as we find it in England and Amer- ica. Bank for International Settle- ment or World Bank. — Under the Dawes plan special mechanism was provided for the transfer of reparations payments. These were made through the Reichsbank, where they were deposited to the account of the Agent General. Disposition of this account was made by a committee of five men representing the Allies and known as the Transfer Committee of the Reparations Commission. The Dawes Plan did much to separate the economic from the political considerations of the reparations problem but it was admittedly only a temporary plan. In 1929 another committee of experts on reparations finally agreed upon what is called the Young Plan, which has more definitely solved the whole question of debts and reparations. One of the objec- tives of the Young Plan was to free Germany from political Vol. I.— 030 Banking 566 Bankruptcy control, and in the realization of the purpose lies the original basis of a new institution known as the Bank of International Settle- ments. This bank becomes the trustee of the creditor accounts in dealing with the reparations annuities. These annuities are represented by German Govern- ment certificates of indebtedness similar to those used in ordinary- commercial practice. These are deposited with the bank and as payments upon them are made by Germany the proceeds are forwarded by the bank to creditor countries. The bank may create issuable bonds representing the capitalization of that part of the annuity payments, not subject to moratorium, hence called the 'unconditional' part. Proceeds from such bond sales are to be distributed to the allied creditors concerned. This process is known as the 'mobilization' of reparation payments. When sold to in- dividual investors the debt may be said to have become 'com- mercialized.' In addition to these functions as trustee or agent in regard to reparation payments, two other objectives are defined in the statute: 'to promote the coopera- tion of central banks, and to provide additional facilities for international financial opera- tions.' These ordinary banking functions are rather broad on paper but will naturally be limited by the funds it will have at its disposal, and by its ability to gain the consent of the central bank of the country in which such operations are proposed. Though it is not permitted to issue notes and its credit powers are limited, it promises to per- form a valuable purpose in facilitating cooperation between central banks, and in eventually becoming an international clear- ing house, thus eliminating the necessity of shipping gold in the settlement of international trans- actions. The Bank of International Settlement, located at Basle, Switzerland, commenced busi- ness in May 1930 with capital equivalent to one hundred mil- lion dollars, one-fourth paid in; shares were offered for public subscription in seven countries. Provision is made for the ac- cumulation of adequate reserve and for the payment of dividends. Shareholders receive 6 per cent, cumulative dividends after some reserve is provided for and there- fore their share may be increased to a maximum of 12 per cent, as amounts alloted to general and special reserve funds grow. The control of the bank is vested in the board of directors consisting of fourteen to sixteen members representing the central banks of Vol. I. — 030 the seven countries to which the committee of experts belonged, plus no more than nine ad- ditional directors elected from lists furnished by governors of central banks in other participat- ing countries. Bibliography. — General. Con- sult W. F. Mitchell's The Uses of Bank Funds (1925); H. P. Willis and G. W. Edwards' Banking and Business (1925); R. G. Rod- key's The Banking Processil926) ; R. B. Westerfield's Banking Principles and Practice (1927); L. D. Edie's Money, Bank Credit, and Prices (1928); R. D. Kil- borne's Money and Hanking (1928) ; C. H. Kisch and W. A. Elkin's Central Banks (1928); C. F. Dunbar's Theory and His- tory of Banking (5th Ed. 1929,); H. N. Stronck's Bank Adminis- tration (1929); H. P. Willis and B. H. Beckhart's Foreign Bank- ing Systems (1929); G. W. Dow- rie's American Monetary Banking Policies (1930); C. Hazelwood's The Bank and Its Directors (1930); F. C. James' Money, Credit, and Banking (1930). United States (See also refer- ences above) Dewey and Chad- dock's State Banking Before the Civil War; O. M. W. Sprague's History of Crises Under the National Banking System; H. L. Reed's Development of Federal Re- serve Policy (1922); H. P. Willis' Federal Reserve System (1923); E. A. Goldenweiser's Federal Re- serve System in Operation (1924); W. O. Scroggs' Century of Ameri- can Banking (1924); W. P. G. Harding's The Formative Period of the Federal Reserve System (1925); F. A. Bradford's Money (1929) ; L. L. Watkins' Bankers Balances (1929) ; P. M. Warburg's Federal Reserve System; Its Origin and Growth (1930). England. — E. Phillipovitch's History of the Bank of England; A. Andreades' History of the Bank of England (2d Ed., 1924); W. Leaf's Banking (1926); E. Sykes' The Amalgamation Move- ment in English Banking 1825- 192Jf (1926); L. A. Harr's Branch Banking in England (1929) ; H. W. Greengrass' The Discount Market in London (1930) . France. — Andre Leisse's Evo- lution of Credit and Banks in France from the Founding of the Bank of France to the Present Time (1909); H. E. Fisk's French Public Finance (1910); E. Dulles' The French Franc 1911^-1928 (1929). Germany. — K. Bergmann's History of Reparations (1927); H. Schacht's Stabilization of the Mark (1927). Canada. — R, M. Breckinridge's The History of Banking in Canada; J. F. Johnson's The Canadian Banking System. Bank Note, a promissory note by an authorized bank of issue payable on demand. In the United States the lowest note now issued is for $5; in England, for £5. Bank notes are manufactured in such a way as to render their forgery impossible, or at least easy of detection. This is usually effected by peculiarity of paper, design, and printing. In the United States, the bank notes at present in circulation are manu- factured by the Government Bu- reau of Engraving and Printing. The paper is made by a private concern under a patented process, the chief ingredients being a mix- ture of linen and cotton fibre, into which are introduced threads of silk, so arranged as to be per- ceptible after the notes are printed. This style of paper is furnished only to the Govern- ment. Superior skill is exer- cised in engraving the plates, nearly all parts of them being executed by the geometrical lathe and the ruling engine, the work of which it is impossible to imitate successfully by hand. Notes when badly worn are re- turned to the U. S. Treasury, other notes being issued in their stead. See Paper Money. Bank of North America, the first banking institution of a national character organized in the United States, was incorpo- rated by the Continental Con- gress in 1781, and $250,000 of its $320,000 capital stock was subscribed by Congress. It was established in Philadelphia, and in 1783-5 acted under a Penn- sylvania charter, the right of Congress to create a corporation having been questioned. In 1787 the Pennsylvania charter was renewed, and thereafter the insti- tution long existed as a local institution. For several years the bank rendered service of con- siderable value to the Confed- eration; but its relations with the general government virtuallj' ceased after 1784. Bank of tlie United States. See Banking: United States. Bank Rate, a term used to denote the rate of discount charged in the chief financial centres by the state bank, or the leading bank, as opposed to the rate in the open market. Bankruptcy, a state of insolv- ency ascertained and declared in appropriate judicial proceedings. The cardinal principle of the state of bankruptcy may be stated as follows: One who is unable to pay his debts in full may be discharged therefrom upon giv- ing up all his property for ratable distribution among his credi- tors. Under the present bankruptcy acts in the United States, pro- Bankruptcy 567 Banks ceedings in bankruptcy may be begun either by the debtor him- self, in which case they are known as voluntary proceedings, or by the creditors, known as involun- tary proceedings. In either event, the case is begun by filing a peti- tion. When filed by the debtor, this petition must state his inabil- ity to meet his obligations and his willingness to surrender all his property to his creditors. When filed by the creditors, it must show that the debtor therein named has committed one of the Five Acts of Bankruptcy. These are: (1) Conveying, removing, oral- lowing to be removed any of his property with intent to defraud any of his creditors. (2) Transferring, while insolv- ent, any property with intent to give preference to any individual creditor. (3) Allowing any creditor to obtain preference through legal proceedings. (4) Making an assignment in favor of his creditors. (5) Admitting in writing his in- ability to pay his debts, and his willingness to be adjudged bank- rupt. Insolvency of itself, not ad- mitted in writing, is insufficient grounds for bankruptcy proceed- ings. When a bankruptcy proceedmg starts, it is usual for the United States district courts to entrust the examination of the matter to a referee. He hears testimony, and gives his report on the situa- tion, stating whether the insolv- ent person should be discharged in bankruptcy. Subject to approval by the court, the bankrupt may offer composition of his debts to his creditors. If approved by a ma- jority in number and three- fourths in value of the creditors, such composition may receive the sanction of the court. The court can withhold its sanction, how- ever, on grounds entitling it to refuse a discharge. In default of a composition, the court may adjudge the debtor bankrupt, either upon a resolution of the creditors or not, and the creditors may then appoint a trustee of the estate. The trustee administers the estate, decides on proofs of debts, inquires into the validity of sus- picious transactions, realizes the assets, and pays dividends there- from. The bankrupt must give the trustee all information, and he may be committed to prison if he appears likely to abscond or tries to conceal his goods from the trustee. At any time after adjudication, the bankrupt may apply for his discharge; but it may be refused, suspended, or granted subject to conditions, if the bankrupt (1) has not kept proper books of ac- count, (2) has traded with knowl- edge of insolvency, (3) has failed to account for losses, (4) has spec- ulated rashly or lived extrava- gantly, (5) has given undue pref- erence to creditors, (6) has pre- viously been bankrupt, (7) has been fraudulent. At the time of the formation of the United States Constitution it was judged wise to give Congress power to establish uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcy throughout the United States. The fact that a bankrupt's credi- tors and debtors might readily be in different States, and the addi- tional fact that, were the subject left to the States, a man might be a bankrupt in one State and dis- charged from bankruptcy in another, made it necessary that the central government should have the means of dealing with the matter. This provision of the Federal Constitution (Article i., Section 8), however, does not prevent the States from legis- lating on the subject; but should any State provision be contrary to the Federal bankruptcy law, it is rendered thereby inoperative. The first national bankruptcy law, passed by Congress in 1800, followed closely the contempo- rary English statutes. Several other acts on the subject were passed and afterward repealed. From 1878 to 1898 there was no national bankruptcy act in exist- ence — a fact which caused an im- mense amount of suffering to in- solvent debtors wishing to start anew. In 1898 the present statute, amended slightly in 1903, came into force. See Debt; Insolv- ency. Consult Remington's A Treat- ise on the Bankruptcy Law in the United States (3 vols., 1908-10); American Bankruptcy (edited by W. M. Collier, 1899-1910); Cohen's Unethical Practices in Bankruptcy (1911). Bankruptcy, Five Acts in. See Bankruptcy. Banks. See Banking. Banks, in navigation, are shelving elevations in the sea or the bed of a river, rising to or near the surface, composed of sand, mud, or gravel. When tolerably smooth at the top, they constitute shallows, shoals, and fiats; but when rocky, they become reefs, ridges, keys, etc. Some sand banks shift their posi- tion by reason of currents, etc., and are specially troublesome. The most famous banks are those off Newfoundland. See Sand Banks. Banks, Sir Joseph (1744- 1820), British naturalist, was born in London, England, and was educated at Harrow, Eton, and Christ Church, Oxford. In 1766 he made a voyage to New- foundland, collecting plants; and from 1768 to 1771 he accompanied Cook's expedition round the world. In 1772 he visited the Hebrides and Iceland, whence he brought back a rich treasure of specimens for his studies in natu- ral history. Before this voyage, Staffa was hardly known beyond its immediate vicinity. It was carefully examined by Banks, and through him its wonders were made known to the public. In 1778 he was elected president of the Royal Society, an office which he held for forty-one years; in 1781 he was created a baronet, and in 1802 a member of the French Institute. Banks founded and managed the African Asso- ciation; and the colony of Botany Bay owed its origin mainly to him. Through his efforts the breadfruit tree was transferred from Tahiti to the West Indies, and the mango from Bengal, as well as many of the fruits of Cey- lon and Persia. He wrote : A Short Account of Blight, Mildew, and Rust (1805); Circumstances Rel- ative to Merino Sheep (1809) ; and his Journal during Cook's first voyage (edited by Hooker in 1896). Consult Marden's Sir Joseph Banks (1909) ; E. Smith's Life (1911). Banks, Louis Albert (1855), American clergyman, was born in Corvallis, Ore. He was educated at Philomath College and Boston University, and in 1879 entered the ministry. He has been pastor of leading churches in Boston, New York, Cleveland, Denver, and Kansas City, Mo.; and since 1911 has been engaged in union evangelistic service, with resi- dence at Delaware, Ohio. He has been a prominent member of the Prohibition Party, and was the candidate for governor of Massa- chusetts in 1893. He is a volumi- nous author; among his publica- tions are: The Peoples Christ (1891); Anecdotes and Morals (1894); Christ and His Friends (1896); Paul and His Friends (1896); The Fisherman and His Friends (1897); Hero Tales from Sacred Story (1897); Heroic Per- sonalities (1898); John and His Friends (1899); David and His Friends (1900) ; Life of T. DeWitt Talmage (1902); The Healing of Souls (1902) ; The Religious Life of Famous Americans (1904) ; The Great Promises of the Bible (1905) ; Capital Stories of Famous Ameri- cans (1905); The World's Child- hood (1910); The Great Themes of the Bible (1911); The Sunday Night Evangel (1911). Banks, Nathaniel Prentiss (1816-94), American soldier and legislator, was born in Waltham, Mass. He became a prominent Banks 568 Banquette lawyer in Massachusetts, and a leader in State and national poli- tics, being in turn a Free Soiler, a Know Nothing, a Republican, a Democrat, and again a Repub- lican. He was a member of the lower house of the State legisla- ture (1849-53), being speaker in 1851-2; chairman of the State constitutional convention of 1853; Member of Congress (1853-7). being Speaker in 1855-7; and governor of Massachusetts (1858- 61). During the Civil War he was one of the most conspicuous of the officers who entered the Federal service from civil life. He became a major-general of volunteers in May, 1861; served in 1862 in the Shenandoah Valley against 'Stonewall' Jackson, by whom his greatly inferior force was defeated at Cedar Mountain (Aug. 9, 1862); was placed in command of New Orleans late in 1862; captured Port Hudson in July, 1863, winning thereby the thanks of Congress; and in 1864 commanded the unsuccessful Red River Expedition. After the war he was again a Member of Con- gress (1865-73, 1875-7, and 1889-91), and U. S. marshal for Massachusetts (1879-88). Banks, Thomas (1735-1805), English sculptor, was born in Lambeth. He entered the Royal Academy schools, and having gained the gold medal (1770), spent some years (1772-9) in Italy. Proceeding to Russia (1781), he was patronized by Catherine ii., who bought his Cupid Catching a Butterfly and Caractacus before Claudius. In 1782 he returned to England, where, in 1784, he exhibited per- haps his finest work, Achilles En- raged, now in the entrance hall at Burlington House. In 1785 he was elected a member of the Royal Academy. The monu- ments of Sir Eyre Coote in West- minster Abbey, and of Captains Burgess and Westcott in St. Paul's Cathedral, were among his works. Banksia, a genus of the Aus- tralian order Proteaceae, named in honor of Sir Joseph Banks (q.v.). They have hard, dry leaves, generally white or very pale green beneath, and present a remarkable appearance from the peculiar arrangement of their branches, which bear toward their extremities oblong heads of very numerous flowers. The flowers secrete much honey. They are abundant in all parts of Australia, forming, indeed, a characteristic feature of its vege- tation, and are called honey- suckle trees. Banksian Cockatoo, an Aus- tralian cockatoo. The plumage is black or brown, flecked with red or orange. Banks Islands, group, South Pacific Ocean, in 14° s., and 167° 30' E. The chief are Vanua Lava and Gawa (Santa Maria). Banks Land, an island in the Arctic Ocean, part of the Domin- ion of Canada. It was discovered by Parry in 1819, explored by McClure in 1850, and named by him Baring Island. It is sepa- rated by McClure or Banks Strait from Melville Island, lying to the northwest, and by Prince of Wales Strait from Prince Albert Land, lying east. Banks Peninsula, on the east- ern coast of South Island, New Zealand. It is a high table land with extinct volcanoes; 50 miles long and 25 wide. Banks, Savings. See Savings Banks. Bankura, capital of Bankura district, Bengal, India, on the River Dhalkisor. It is a healthy place, with trade in rice, oil seed, cotton, and silk. Pop. 22,000. The district has an area of 2,621 square miles and a population of 1,200,000, over 90 per cent, of whom are Hindus. Bann, river, province Ulster, Ireland, consisting of the Upper and Lower Bann — the former (25 miles long) rising (1,467 feet) in the Mourne Mountains (County Down) and flowing past Bain- bridge to Lough Neagh; the lat- ter (33 miles) issuing from the northwest corner of the lough and flowing northwest to the Atlantic, between the counties of Antrim and Londonderry. The river is navigable to Coleraine. Bannatyne Club, a literary club instituted in Edinburgh in 1823 by Sir Walter Scott, with the assistance chiefly of David Laing of the Signet Library, Archibald Constable, and Thomas Thomson. Its object was to print rare works illustrative of Scottish history, topography, poetry, and miscellaneous literature. The club was dissolved in 1861, hav- ing printed 116 works. A com- plete set was sold in 1887 for $1,175, and one in 1905 for $695. Banner, a term sometimes loosely used to signify any mili- tary ensign or standard, but in a more strict sense denoting a square flag charged with the coat of arms of the owner. See Flag; Standards. Banneret, a higher grade of British knighthood bestowed on the field of battle by the sovereign in person for distinguished cour- age. The last instance of its be- stowal was by Charles i. on Sir John Smith at Edgehill (1642). Knights-banneret took prece- dence before the younger sons of viscounts, and were allowed to bear their arms with supporters. Bannock (Gaelic bannach, a cj^ke), a cake of home-m^d© bread, common in Scotland and the north of England. It is usu- ally composed of pease meal or of pease and barley meal mixed; prepared without any leaven, it is baked on a girdle or griddle. When made of mixed meal it is often called a mashlum bannock. Bannockburn, an historic vil- lage of 2,500 inhabitants, 3 miles southeast of Stirling, on the Ban- nock Burn, a small affluent of the Forth, Scotland. It has impor- tant woollen manufactures, espe- cially of carpets and tartans. The neighboring villages are noted for the manufacture of nails; while coal abounds in the vicinity. In the famous Battle of Ban- nockburn, fought on June 24, 1314, Robert Bruce, with 30,000 Scots, gained a signal victory over Edward ii., with 100,000 English, and secured his throne and the independence of Scot- land. The 'Bore Stone,' on which Bruce is said to have fixed his standard on that eventful day, is still to be seen on an eminence; and near it is a flagstaff, 120 feet high, erected in 1870. Not far off was fought the Battle of Sauchie- burn. See Scotland; Bruce. Banns (German bann, order or edict) is a word signifying the announcement of an intended marriage made in the presence of a congregation assembled for divine worship. The system of publishing banns is found in the earliest ages of the Christian Church, and was promulgated in England by the Council of Lon- don in 1200 a.d. The announce- ment is a summons to any who may be interested in opposing the marriage to state their objec- tions or remain silent forever. The statutory rules in England on the matter of banns are con- tained in the Marriage Act of 1823. Publication must be made on three several (not necessarily consecutive) Sundays, and the marriage must take place within three months of the last Sunday, otherwise republication will be required. Episcopal license, or a registrar's certificate, are alter- natives to the publication of banns. A marriage not preceded by any of these is declared null and void to all intents and pur- poses whatsoever. In the United States generally, banns have been superseded by ordinary marriage license. In some States not even the latter is required. See Marriage. Bannu, or Bunnu, district. Punjab, India, traversed by the River Indus. Wheat, barley, Indian corn, and sugar cane are its agricultural products. The chief town is Edwardesabad. Area, 1,680 square miles. Pop. 235,000. Bf^nquette, in fortification, ^ Banshee 569 Baobab small bank at the foot of a para- pet, from which the defenders can safely fire over the parapet. Ban'shee, a female fairy com- mon to Celtic myth, but more particularly to the folklore of Ireland and Western Scotland. Her mournful wail is looked upon as a herald of death. Banswara, ban-swa'ra, feuda- tory state in Rajputana, India. It covers an area of 1,946 square miles, much of it jungle land. The chief town is Banswara, with a population (1921) of 8,588. Pop. of state (1921) 183,072. Ban'tam, residency of Java, Dutch East Indies, at the western extremity of the island. It has an area of 3,053 square miles. Pop. (1920) 897,391, principally Sundanese. Bantam Fowl, a variety of domestic fowl remarkable for its small size. See Poultry. Bantayan, ban-ta'yan, pueb- lo, Philippine Islands, on the southwest coast of Bantayan Island, in the province of Cebu; 62 miles north of Cebu. The inhabitants are engaged in the collection of pearls, mother-of- pearl, and tortoise shell, and in the manufacture of fine cloth. There is a leper settlement on a small island off the coast. Pop. (1918) 14,812. Ban'teng, Malay name of Bos sondaicus, a wild ox found in the East Indian Islands and the Malay Peninsula, similar to the Indian gaur. It has been do- mesticated and interbred with Indian humped cattle, making . a good hybrid, of which large herds are kept by the Javanese. Ban'ting, Frederick Grant (1891- ), Canadian physician, was born in AUiston, Ontario, Canada. He was educated in the Victoria College, University of Toronto, and was graduated from the faculty of medicine in the latter institution in 1916. During the World War he served for four years with the Army Medical Corps of the Canadian Expeditionary Forces, being pro- moted to the rank of captain. He received wounds at Cambrai in 1918, and was subsequently decorated with the Military Cross. At the close of the war he engaged in private practice and acted as assistant in the department of physiology in the University of Western Ontario. In April, 1921, he returned to Toronto and began the researches which, with the collaboration of Cliarles Herbert Best, led to the discovery of Insulin (see Diabetes). In 1923 he became the first incumbent of the Bant- ing and Best chair of Medical Research in the University of Toronto, established by the Province of Ontario. Dr. Bant- ing has been the recipient of several medals and prizes, nota- ble among which is the Nobel prize in Medicine awarded him (jointly with Prof. J. J. R. Macleod), in 1923. Banting System, a method of treating corpulency by a restricted diet, proposed by Harvey, but first effectively practised by William Banting (1797-1878) of Kensington. It consists especially in avoidance of food containing much saccha- rine, farinaceous, or oily matter. Ban'tock, Granville (1868- ), English musician, was born in London. He entered the Royal Academy of Music in 1889, and during his term as a student produced the overture The Fire Worshippers, an Egyp- tian suite de ballet, the opera Ccedmer, and other compositions. He was editor and proprietor of The New Quarterly Musical Review (1893-6), and at the same time acted as conductor of musi- cal comedies and other light music in the provinces, making a tour of the world in 1894-5. From 1897 to 1900, he was musical director of The Tower, New Brighton. He became director of the Birmingham and Midland Institute School of Music in 1900 and professor of music in Birmingham University in 1908. He visited Canada in 1923 as adjudicator at the music festivals held in five of the prov- inces. Among his published compositions are Helena Varia- tions (1899); Dante and Beatrice (1902) ; The Witch of Atlas (1904) ; Omar Khayyam (1906); The Pierrot of the Minute (1909); Atalanta in Calydon (1910); The Great God Pan (1913); The Vanity of Vanities (1913); He- bridean Symphony (1920); The Song of Songs (1922); The Seal- Woman (opera, 1924). Ban'try, seaport and summer resort, Ireland, in county Cork; 51 miles southwest of Cork. It is picturesquely situated on Bantry Bay (20 miles long by 6 broad). There are manufactures of Irish friezes and tweeds. Fish- ing, formerly important, is now practically abandoned. The bay was the scene of engagements between the French and British in 1689 and 1796. Pop. (1911) 3,159. Ban'tu, a group of negro tribes occupying Central and South Africa, possessing a com- mon language, with numerous dialectic variations. Though the Bantu tribes now differ con- siderably in their physical char- acteristics, the indications are that they once constituted a powerful tribe whose original home was in northern and eciua- torial Africa. They are practi- cally all agriculturists and many of them have a knowledge of metallurgy. They include the Kaffirs and Zulus (ciq. v.), the Bechuanas, the Dwala, Bakunda, Basas, Bakoris, Adumas, Ba- lumba, Baluba, Swahili, Wa- kamba, Ovambo, and many others. The Bantu languages may be termed the lingua franca of inner Africa. They are re- markable for their regularity of inflection, their euphony, com- pass, flexibility, and power. Banville, ban-vel', Theodore Faullain de (1823-91), French poet, was born in Moulins. When a mere youth he published two volumes of verse, Les Caria- tides and Les Stalactites, but it was not until the appearance of his Odes funambulesques (1857) and Nouvelles odes (1867) that he attracted general attention. The Franco-German War moved him to a more impassioned style in his Idylles prussiennes, and he also wrote several dramatic sketches, including Gringoire (1866) and Socrate et sa femme (1885), and a treatise on French versification. Banville has a charmingly light and fanciful touch and a gift of rhythm. Ban'yan Tree (Ficus bengha- lensis), Indian tree, of the order Moracese, so called because it is frequently used as a market- place by the Banians or Indian merchants. It is a species of fig tree, bearing large heart-shaped leaves and small red fruit about the size of a cherry. As the branches spread they send down aerial roots which penetrate the soil, becoming stems or trunks. In this way one tree, in course of time, may form a large number of props and cover an enormous ground space, Bauyumas, ban'yob-mas', or Banjoemas. residency of Central Java, Dutch East Indies. Area, 2,147 square miles. Pop. (1920), 1,767,529. The chief town is Banyumas, on the river Serajo; 22 miles from the south coast. Pop. (1920) 13,304. Banyuwangi, ban'yob-wan'- ges, town, Java, Dutch East Indies, on the east coast. It was formerly an important port and was the capital of the native kingdom of Balambangan. Pop. about 18,000. Ba'obab, also called Monkey Bread and Sour Gourd {Adan- sonia digitala) , a tree of the or- der Malvaceae, found in most parts of tropical Africa, and in the East Indies. It is one of the largest and oldest trees in the world, with a trunk often more than 20 feet in diameter. The bark is fibrous, and is stripped off for making ropes and clothes; it is used also as a febrifuge. The leaves are dried and made into a powder called lalo, which is used by West Africans as a condiment, and by Europeans as a medicine. The large white flowers have stalks 3 feet long, and the fruit, about the size of a large lemon, contains seeds embedded in an acid pulp, which is eaten by the natives. Vol. I.— Oct. '24 Bap hornet 570 Baptism Baph'omet (probably a cor- ruption of Mahomet), the name given to the mysterious two- headed idol which the Templars were said to worship with secret licentious rites. Baptan'odon, a late ichthyo- saurian, which in the Middle Jurassic period had its home in the rivers of Colorado and Wyoming. It is the only type of the aquatic ichthyopterygian reptiles found in America. It was fish-like in appearance, about 10 feet long, and had short, broad paddles. Bap'tism, a rite of the Christian church, performed tered to Israelites themselves, as a token of their entrance into the new Messianic kingdom, thus having a moral and spiritual {cf. 'unto repentance,' Matt. iii. 11) rather than a merely legal or ethnological significance. The distinctively Christian rite is not only a symbol of a moral change in the recipient, but is further the outward ex- pression of a new life to the individual submitting to it, and of his union with Christ, which privileges were conferred by the gift of the Holy Spirit. The con- verts were to be baptized 'into' the name of the Irimty; and the infants of Christian parents for baptism hardly seems to have arisen in New Testament times, the converts being necessarily of sufficient age to make profession of their faith. It is held by some that it must have developed very soon. The church, proceeding on the analogy of circumcision, and in view of Christ's declaration regarding children (Mark x. 14), of Paul's statement (1 Cor. vii. 14) that the children of believers are holy, and of the fact that in the case of some a minimum of preparation had been deemed sufficient by the apostles (Acts xvi. 13 /.), sanctioned the prac- (c) Ewinu Galloway, N. Y. Great Banyan Tree, Calcutta, India This tree covers a circle 1000 feet in diameter, and has over 250 aerial roots. either by sprinkling the candi- date with water, pouring water upon him (affusion), or immers- ing him in water. Lustrations as purificatory rites occur in all forms of primitive religion and have their place in that of the Hebrews as described in the Old Testament. The immediate origin of Christian baptism would appear to be what is called 'the baptism of John' (Mark xi. 30), which was doubt- less suggested by Jewish practices. The distinctive feature of 'John's baptism' was that it was adminis- VoL. I.— Oct. '21 though the disciples seem at first to have used the name of Jesus (or Christ) only (Acts ii. 38; viii. 16), in course of time the original mandate came to be more liter- ally obeyed. Deissmann claims to have shown, from the evidence of recently-discovered inscrip- tions, that 'name' used in this manner signifies power, dominion; vso that to baptize into the name of any one means to place in the posscvssion or at the absolute dis- posal of the same. (1.) The Baptism of Infants. The question of the eligibility of tice, which soon became general. The opponents of infant baptism, however, point out that the practice is nowhere commanded or even countenanced in Scrip- ture, that Clirist's commission (Matt, xxviii. 19) plainly con- nects the ceremony with teach- ing, and that the apostles always restricted baptism to believers, as the symbol of a conscious change (Acts x. 43, 48); while they repudiate the analogy of cir- cumcision in view of the essen- tial distinction between the Jewish theocracy as an earthly Baptistery 571 Baptistery kingdom and the kingdom 'not of this world.' Such are the saHent points in the controversy. (2) The Manner of Baptism^ — There is httle doubt that the original practice was immersion (Matt. iii. 6, ir>; Acts viii. 38), but it is equally undeniable that sprinkling or affusion was some- times substituted at a very early period. (3) Lay Baptism. — Can bap- tism be properly administered by the clergy only? or is it equally valid when performed (in certain cases) by the laity? Scripture throws no decisive light on the question. It has generally been held that baptism by duly quali- fied ministers is desirable; but in cases of imminent death, when no minister was at hand, the ad- ministration of the rite by lay- men, or even by women, was deemed perfectly valid. The cus- tom had its rise, of course, in the belief that baptism was essen- tial to salvation. Lay baptism was formerly permitted in the Church of England, and is still in the Church of Rome. In the Re- formed Churches generally, how- ever, where the necessity of bap- tism is not regarded as being ab- solute, its administration is usu- ally confined to the regularly or- dained ministry. Among Bap- tists authority may be given by the local church to persons not ordained. (4) Baptismal Regeneration. — It is held by the Church of Rome and by ritualistic Anglicans that baptism confers even upon in- fants an 'indelible' character — i.e., actually changes the standing of the person baptized before God. Some Protestants admit that the act removes the guilt of original sin, but regard the cliange of character as something that can only be acquired con- sciously and apart from any necessary connection with an external ceremony such as bap- tism. They hold that the act changes the relation of the person to the church, but that, either before or (as in the case of in- fants) after, the privileges sym- bolized by baptism are to be consciously and voluntarily em- braced. Thus, the omission of it, as in the case of a child dying shortly after birth, is not consid- ered by Protestants to involve any detriment to the eternal interests of the individual. Consult Wall's History of Bap- tism; Hodges' Baptism Tested by Scripture and History; Hall's In- fant Baptism; Stone's Holy Bap- tism; articles in Smith's, Cheyne's, and Hastings' Bible Dictionaries. Bap'tistery, or Baptistry, the name given sometimes to a sep- arate building, sometimes to the portion of the church in which the ceremony of baptism is per- formed. Originally Christian baptism was performed at the rivenside, or at founts where springs of water flowed. The first built baptisteries were not, as now, within the church, but without, and often in places re- mote from it, distinct from the church, and connected with it only by a passage or cloister. diameter. It stands ' detached from, but in the immediate vicin- ity of the west end of the cathe- dral. It is built of black and white marble, in the style which Giotto is said to have introduced, and which is still peculiar to Tus- cany. The magnificent bronze doors, with their beautiful bas- reliefs, are remarkable features of Famous Italian Baptisteries 1. Pisa: Interior; 2 Exterior. 3. Asti: S Pictro. 4. Florence. Afterward they formed a con- structional part of the church, toward the west end. There are several old specimens in England — at Norwich, Lambeth, Kent, and Luton; and those in Italy at Asti, Novara, Pisa, and Flor- ence are well-known examples of Italian church architecture. The celebrated baptistery of Florence is an octagonal struc- ture, measuring about 100 feet in this famous baptistery. The most celebrated of the three doors was executed by Lorenzo Ghiberti, the earliest being the work of Andrea of Pisa. Fifty years were required for their completion. Next in importance, and of even greater size, is the baptistery of Pisa. It is circular in form, the diameter measuring 116 feet. The largest baptistery ever erected is supposed to have Vol. L— Mar. '26 Baptists 571 A Baptists been that of St. Sophia, at Con- stantinople, which was so spa- cious as to have served on one occasion for the residence of the Emperor BasiHcus. Numerous examples of circular baptisteries on the model of the Italian ones are still to be found in the south of France. Bap'tists, a denomination of Christians, so named because of God; faith as a prerequisite for entrance into the Kingdom of God; the supreme headship of Jesus Christ in that kingdom; and the freedom and responsibil- ity of the individual Christian; but they have among them many shades of belief. The great body of them in Great Britain and America hold the doctrine of Calvinism in a modified form — Famous Baptisteries in English Churches their distinctive views regarding the ordinance of baptism, which they administer by immersion to believers only. Doctrine and Worship. — The Baptists hold the inspiration and supreme authority of the Holy vScriptures as a revelation from God; the equal deity of the Son and the Holy Spirit in the unity of the Trinity; the direct rela- tionship of the individual soul to Vol. I.— Mar. '26 that is to vsay, they maintain the sufficiency of the Atonement for all men; the limitation which vsome have maintained lies, they consider, in its application to the sinner by the sovereign grace of God through faith. At the pres- ent day, however — especially in Great Britain — the tendency of thought is toward the recognition of no other limitation than that which results from the exercise of man's free will. They maintain the necessity of regeneration and holiness of life as essential to true religion, and that 'without holiness no man shall see the Lord.' They have ever stood for complete Hberty of conscience, and for absolute separation of church and state. They acknowl- edge but two ordinances. Bap- tism and the Lord's Supper. Looking upon the church as a completely spiritual institution, they maintain that the member- ship, and therefore the ordinance of baptism, ought to be confined to believers only — thus excluding the baptism of infants. They hold that the only correct mode of administering the ordinance is by immersion, asserting that affusion is unscriptural, obscures the significance of the rite, and annuls its historical testimony to the cardinal facts of redemp- tion as indicated, for example, in Rom. vi. 1-11 and Col. ii. 12. The Baptists are divided among themselves regarding communion — one portion receiving consci- entious Paedobaptists at the Lord's table; the other refusing this privilege to any but bap- tized believers. The former are called 'open' communionists; the latter, 'strict' communionists. Both agree in regarding the Sup- per as commemorative only, and in no sense sacrificial. Organization. — The form of church government of the Bap- tists is congregational. They maintain that the only officers of a New Testament church are pastors (otherwise called elders and bishops) and deacons; that the number of official persons in each of the apostolic churches cannot be ascertained from the record, but of necessity depended — and always must depend — on circumstances; that each church is a spiritual democracy, pos- sessed of the power of self-gov- ernment under its exalted head, Jesus Christ, subject to no foreign tribunal or court of review; that discipline is to be exercised in the presence and with the consent of the members of the church, and parties received or excluded at their voice. The doctrine of congregational independence is held to render unnecessary any general creed or confession; but it is assumed that all ministers and members of Baptist churches accept the prin- ciple of liberty of conscience and of the divine authority of Scrip- ture. Baptist associations and con- ventions exist, to which most of the congregations belong; but these unions have no legislative or judicial functions, and exer- cise no control over the individual churches. Their purpose is the organization of aggressive Chris- Baptists 571 B Baptists tian work on a scale wider than that of the individual congrega- tion, as well as mutual support and encouragement. These organizations include the General Convention of the Bap- tists of North America, the Northern and the Southern Bap- tist Conventions, the National Baptist Convention of America, and the State conventions, in the United States; the Baptist Union of Great Britain and Ire- land and various local unions, in the United Kingdom; the Canad- ian conventions; and the Baptist World Alliance, which was or- ganized in 1905 to meet every five years. The 1923 meeting was held in Stockholm, and To- ronto was chosen for the 1928 meeting. Statistics, — The statistics for Baptist churches in the United States for 1923 are shown in the following table: In 1925 there were 92,029 Baptists in Central and South America, 1,615,024 in Europe, 295,770 in Asia, 47,693 in Africa, and 31,850 in Australasia. In the same year Canadian Baptists numbered 140,025, with 1,295 churches and 841 ordained min- isters. In Great Britain, in 1925, there were 3,106 churches, 2,066 ordained ministers, more than 5,000 local preachers, and 413,841 members. The world statistics for 1925 show: ordained ministers, 55,- 380; churches, 73,513; members, 10,098,614. Great Britain. — The modern Baptist movement dates its origin from the time of John Smyth or Smith, who in 1606 or 1607, with a small body of Sep- aratists, fled from England to Holland to escape persecution. With Thomas Helwys and others, Smyth formed the first English The Principal Baptist Bodies in the United States (1923) Denominations Churches Ministers Members Baptists (including Seventh-Day and Free 57,167 47,510 7,924,104 Free Will Baptists 1,007 1,219 78,546 518 589 33,466 401 494 21,521 2,143 1,292 80,311 254 411 22,097 55 50 4,000 506 751 25,403 Total 62,051 52,316 8,189,448 'Figures for 1925 are 58,157 churches; 47,861 ministers; 8,025,348 members. The organized missionary and educational work of American Baptists is carried on by the American Baptist Foreign Mis- sionary Society, the American Baptist Home Mission Society, the American Baptist Publica- tion Society, the Board of Edu- cation of the Northern Baptist Convention (succeedingthe Amer- ican Baptist Education Society), the Horrue and Foreign Mission Boards of the Southern Conven- tion, the Women's Missionary Societies, and various State organizations. In 1925 American Baptists had in foreign lands 6,154 churches, 359,017 members, 4,438 Sunday schools, and 216,922 Sunday school scholars. They main- tained 3,000 home mission work- ers, and aided in the main- tenance of 131 home mission schools. Baptist educational institu- tions in the United States in 1925 included 16 theological semina- ries, 74 universities and colleges, 30 junior colleges, and 140 acade- mies, institutes, seminaries, and training schools, with 81,840 stu- dents. Their property was val- ued at .S93,852,700, and their total endowment was $96,293,- 280. Baptist church at Amsterdam in 1611. Their declaration of faith stated that 'every church is to receive in all their members by baptism upon the confession of their faith and sins, wrought by the preaching of the gospel ac- cording to the primitive institu- tion and practice; that baptism or washing with water is the out- ward manifestation of dying unto sin and walking in newness of life, and therefore in no wise appertaineth to infants; that no church ought to challenge any prerogative over any other, and that the magistrate is not to meddle with religion, or matters of conscience, nor compel men to this or that form of religion.' Smyth died in Holland in the year the church was founded, and in 1612 Helwys, who succeeded Smyth in the leadership, re- turned with his followers to London, where they organized the first Baptist church in Eng- land. This church, and others of its kind which soon sprang up, while they restricted member- ship to baptized believers, seem to have laid no emphasis on im- mersion till later in their history. In 1633 the first Particular or Calvinistic Baptist church was organized by a group of Separat- ists, and in the next ten years seven such churches had been established. These joined in is- suing a Confession of Faith in which they set forth the Calvin- istic teaching of predestination, vigorously emphasized the doc- trine of complete liberty of con- science, and defined baptism as the 'dipping or plunging of the body under water.' During the succeeding century both General and Particular Baptists were torn by dissension, and their growth was slow. In the latter part of the eighteenth century, however, they came under the influence of the general religious awakening that fol- lowed the Wesleyan revival. In 1770 the New Connection of General Baptists was organized; in 1792 the English Baptist Mis- sionary Society was founded, through the influence of Andrew Fuller and William Carey; and from that time the growth of the English denominations was rapid. In 1832 the General and Par- ticular Baptists united for mis- sionary and educational pur- poses in the Baptist Union; and in 1891 a complete amalgamation was effected. United States. — The first Bap- tist church in America was founded in Providence, R. I., in 1638, by Roger Williams (q. v.), who had been banished from the colony of Massachusetts for ad- vocating 'unsettling and danger- ous' views. About 1644 a sec- ond church was established in Newport; and in 1655 the First Baptist Church of Boston was organized. In 1683 or 1684 Bap- tist refugees from New England founded the first church in the South, near Charleston, S. C; and by 1740 there were Baptist churches in all the colonies. The most influential group of churches was in the vicinity of Philadelphia, which in 1707 or- ganized the Philadelphia Associa- tion, to which the churches of the middle colonies, as well as those of Virginia and South Caro- lina, were later admitted. In 1742 this association adopted what has since been known as the Philadelphia Confession, an adaptation of the Confession of the English Particular Baptists, strongly Calvinistic in doctrine. From the period of the Great Awakening (1743) the Baptist church in America experienced a rapid growth. At the Revolution there were about 10,000 Bap- tists in the country; in 1800, 100,000; and in 1850, 815,000. In 1812 the Baptist Education Society was organized, in 1814 the Foreign Mission Society, in 1824 the Publication Society, and in 1832 the Home Mission Society. For many years the. Baptists Vol. I. — Mar. '26 Baptists of the United States were united in missionary enterprises; but in 1845, on account of dissen- sions brought about by the slav- ery question, the Southern Bap- tists withdrew from the Ameri- can Baptist Missionary Union and the American Baptist Home Mission Society, and formed the Southern Baptist Convention. In 1880 the negro Baptists with- drew from co-operation with their white brethren in mission- ary and other enterprises, and formed their own National Bap- tist Convention. The German, Swedish, Dano-Norwegian, and other foreign-speaking Baptist churches are also grouped into conferences. Besides the Regular Baptists, there are eleven denominations in the United States that hold essentially Baptist doctrines. These are: The Free Baptists, formerly known as Free Will Baptists, originated in New Hampshire in 1780, as an anti-Calvinistic, 'open communion' body. Their greatest strength has been in New England and the West, their early anti-slavery sentiments having prevented their estab- lishment in the South. In 1911 a 'Basis of Union' was adopted by Free and Regular Baptists, whereby the greater part of the invested funds of the Free Bap- tists, along with their missionary and publication interests, were transferred to the Regular Bap- tist societies. Various associa- tions and local churches of this denomination have also united with Regular Baptist Ixjdies, and complete union seems to be but a matter of time. Free Will Baptists or Original Free Will Baptists are a small body in several of the Southern States who separated from the Regular Baptists when these for- mally adopted the Calvinistic faith, about 1750. Foot wash- ing and anointing of the sick with oil arc practised. General Six Principle Baptists are a small body, represented only in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Pennsylvania. Their first church was organized in 1670. Their creed, derived from Heb. vi. 2, contains the six prin- ciples stated in that passage. Seventh Day Baptists were known in England as early as the sixteenth century; in the United States the first church was founded in Newport, R. I., in 1671. Their distinctive doc- trine is the observance of Satur- day as the Sabbath. They are represented in 24 States. General Baptists differ but lit- tle from Regular Baptists. They hold that the atonement is gen- eral, and not for the 'elect' alone. They are found in the Middle West. Kentucky, and Tennessee. Vol. I. — Mar. '2G 572 The Separate Baptists with- drew from the Regular Baptist communion at the time of the Whitefield revival. The great majority reunited with the Reg- ular Baptists over a century ago; but a few churches in Indiana still retain the old name. Their doctrines are practically those of Free Baptists. The United Baptists were formed by the union of certain Separate and Regular Baptist churches at the beginning of the nineteenth century. A small number in the South have re- sisted organization under the latter name, and some bodies in full fellowship with the Regulars retain the name United. They are moderately Calvinistic, and practise foot washing and close communion. The Baptist Church of Christ, found only in the South, claims to be the oldest Baptist organiza- tion. It holds to a general atonement and a moderate Cal- vinism, including the persever- ance of the saints. Foot wash- ing is practised as an ordinance. Primitive Baptists, known also as Old School, Regular, Anti- Mission, and 'Hard Shell,' origi- nated about 1835 in the South, where they have their greatest strength. They hold to a supra- lapsarian predestination. They reject the agencies of Sunday school and missionary and Bible societies as institutions unsanc- tioned by Scripture. They prac- tise foot washing as an ordinance. Old Two-Seed-in-the-Spirit Pre- destinarian Baptists derive their name from the doctrine that there are two seeds, one of evil and one of good. They are con- servatively Calvinistic in doc- trine, holding to absolute pre- destination and reprobation. Many of them reject a paid min- istry, and agree with Primitive Baptists in their attitude toward missionary and educational agen- cies. There is no sectional line in their distribution. Bibliography. — Consult Ev- ans' Early English Baptists; Ar- mitsge's History of the Baptists; Merriam's History of American Baptist Missions; Newman's His- tory of the Baptist Churches in the United States; Vedder's Short History of the Baptists (rev. ed. 1907) and The Baptists; Carlile's Story of the English Baptists (1905); Jones' A Restatement of Baptist Principles (1909); Mc- Glothlin's Baptist Confessions of Faith (1911); Carroll's The Re- ligious Forces of the United States (1912); Christian's A History of the Baptists (1922); Horr's The Baptist Heritage (1923); Whit- ley's A History of British Baptists (1923) ; Lyon's Baptist Fundamen- tals (1923) ; The American Baptist Year Book (annual) ; The Baptist Handbook (English annual). Bar Baptist Young People's Union of America, an association of young people's societies in Baptist churches of the United States and Canada, organized in Chi- cago in 1891, with the object of training young people for effec- tive Christian living and service. Through its five departments (Devotional Life, Stewardship, Evangelism, Life Work, and City, State and Associational Organization) the Union seeks definitely to assist the local soci- eties in their programmed activ- ities. The Union holds an an- nual convention, participates in summer assemblies and workers' institutes, and co-operates with the American Baptist Publica- tion Society in the publication of the Young People's Leader, a monthly journal of methods and helps. Bar, Aramaic for 'son'; a com- mon constituent of Jewish names — e.g., Bar-jesus, Bartimfeus, Bartholomew. Bar, in heraldry, one of the honorable ordinaries. It differs from the fess (q. v.) only in its size {i.e., height), which is but Bar {Heraldry) one-fifth of the field, and in the fact that it may be borne in any part of the shield. Its diminu- tives are the closet, which is half a bar; and the barrulet, which is half a closet. Any number of bars, not exceeding four, may be borne. When two barrulets are borne in close proximity, they are blazoned collectively — two bars-gemelles {Fr.jumelle, 'twin'). Bar sinister, the popular, but erroneous, term for the 'baton sinister,' the mark of illegitimacy. See Heraldry. Bar, in music, an upright line drawn across the stave to regu- late the accent and divide the music into equal portions as de- termined by the time signature. Each portion is termed a measure, but is sometimes also called a bar. A double bar, consisting of two lines, denotes the end of a complete section or movement, or the introduction of a change of time or key. Bar, in hydrography, is a bank of sand, silt, etc., opposite the mouth of a river, which ob- structs or bars the entrance of vessels. The bar is formed where the rush of the stream is arrested by the water of the sea, as the mud and sand suspended in the river water are thus al- lowed to be deposited. It is in this way that deltas are formed Bar 573 Bar Associations at the mouths of rivers. The navigation of many streams is kept open only by constant dredging or other artificial means. See Sand Banks; Delta; Dredg- ing. Bar, in law, has several mean- ings. Thus, it is the term used to signify an enclosure or fixed place in a court of justice where lawyers may plead. Again, the dock, or enclosed space where persons accused of felonies and other offences stand or sit during their trial, is called the bar; hence the expression, 'prisoner at the bar.' It has also a general meaning in legal procedure, sig- nifying something by way of stoppage or prevention. There is also a Trial at Bar — that is, a trial before the judges of a par- ticular court, who sit together for that purpose in Banc (q.v.). In particular, bar is a collec- tive term for all those members of the legal profession who have the right to appear in court on behalf of suitors. In England this is limited to the class of advocates or barristers. In the United States it usually compre- hends all practising lawyers. See Bar Associations; Lawyer; Barrister; Advocate. Bar (Rov), fortified town, Ukraine, in Podolia, on an afflu- ent of the River Bug; 50 miles north of Mohilev. The famous Confederation of Bar, in the Po- lish Catholic and patriotic inter- est, was formed here (Feb. 9, 1768). Pop. 13,500, more than half Jews. Barab'a, a steppe of Siberia, in the governments of Tomsk and Tobolsk, between the Rivers Obi and Irtish. It occupies more than 50,000 square miles, covered with salt lakes and marshes. The soil is a deep black earth but most of the land is used for grazing. The Russians colonized it in 1767, and have cultivated parts of it. Bara Banl^ inch. Barlow, Francis Channing (1834-96), American soldier, was born in Brooklyn, N. Y. He was graduated from Harvard in 1855, and in the Civil War was a prominent officer on the Federal side, rising from the rank of private (April 19, 1861) to that of major- general of volunteers (May 25, 1865). He commanded a brigade at Chancellorsville and a division at Gettysburg, and in the final campaign of Grant against Lee, during which he particularly distinguished himself at Spottsylvania. After the war he was a prominent lawyer in New York. He was one of the organizers of the Bar Association of New York City (1871), and as attorney-general of the State (1872-3) was en- gaged in the pro.secution of the members of the 'Tweed Ring.' Barlow, Henry Clark (1806- 76), English writer on Dante, was born in Newington Butts, Surrey, was educated at Edin- burgh University, and in 1850 published Remarks on the Reading of the 59th Verse of the 5th Canto of Dante's Inferno. He later devoted some time to collating Dante Mss. on the Continent and in England, and from 1857 to 1864 published many papers on his favorite subject. In 1864 appeared his principal work, Critical, Historical and Philo- sophical Contributions to the Study of the 'Divina Commedia,' and the following year he took a prominent part in, and wrote a description of, the sixth Dante centenary celebration in Flor- ence. He endowed a course of lectures on Dante at the Uni- versity College, London. He also published Essays on Sym- bolism (1866). Barlow, Jane (1860-1917), Irish novelist, was born in Cion- tarf near Dublin. She is best known as a sympathetic inter- preter of Irish village life. Her writings include Bogland Studies (1892); Irish Idylls (1892); Ker- rigan's Quality (1893) ; The End of Elfintown (1894) ; The Battle of the Frogs and Mice (1894); Strangers at Lisconnel (1895); Creel of Irish Stories (1897); From ike East unto the West (1898); From the Land of the Shamrock (1900); Ghostbereft (1902); From Beach and Bog Land (1905) ; Doings and Dealings (1912); Between Doubt- ing and Daring (1917). Barlow, Joel (1754-1812), American poet and public official, was born in Redding, Conn., and was graduated (1778) from Yale. He was a chaplain in the Revolu- tionary army, was admitted to the bar in Hartford, and there published a paper, becoming known as one of the 'Hartford wits.' He visited France (1788- 91) as agent of a land company and entered French politics as a Girondist; then went to England (1792), and because of his political activities was obliged to return to France, where ne wrote his most popular poem. Hasty Pudding (1792), and re- ceived rights of citizenship. In 1795 he was American consul at Algiers, and in 1811-12 was United States minister to France. He joined Napoleon in Russia, and died in Poland during the disastrous retreat. His writings include The Vision of Columbus (1787), enlarged (1807) as The Columbiad, and The Conspiracy of Kings (1792). Consult Life by Todd. Barlow, William Henry (1812-1902), English engineer, was born in Woolwich. He was associated with the building of St. Pancras station, London, the Clifton Suspension Bridge (1861), and the new Tay Bridge (1880-7), and advised on the plans of the Forth Bridge. He was influential in the adoption of mild (Bessemer) steel in the construction of bridges and ships. Barlowe, or Barlow, Arthur (c. 1550 -c. 1620), English navi- gator. In 1584, in company with Philip Amidas (or Amadas), each commanding a small vessel, he visited the coast of North America for the purpose of examining the country and se- lecting a site for the establish- ment of Raleigh's proposed colony. His report led Raleigh to select Roanoke Island, off" the coast of North Carolina. Consult Hakluyt's Principall Voyages Barm 585 Barnard (1599-1600), and in Payne's Voy- ages of the Elizabethan Seamen to America (1880). Barm, or Brewer's Yeast. See Yeast. Barmecides, bar'mg-sidz, a rich and influential Persian family who came to power under the Abbaside caliphs of ■ Bagdad. One member, Khalid-ibn-Ber- mek, was prime minister to the first two Abbasides. Khalid's son Yahya acted as tutor and companion to Haroun al-Raschid (q.v.), and after Haroun's ac- cession to the caliphate (786) be- came his vizier, with unlimited power. One of Yahya's sons, Jaafar, was greatly beloved by Haroun and became his intimate companion but, in spite of this, he and all the Barmecide family were put to death (803), without known cause, by order of the caliph. Jaafar's virtues and his tragic fate are a popular subject in Persian literature. The expression Feast of the Barmecides comes from one of the tales in the Arabian Nights Entertainments which deals with a wholly imaginary banquet set by one of the family before a beggar named Schacabac, Bar 'men, city, province of Rhenish Prussia, on the Wupper, 25 miles northeast of Cologne and adjacent to Elberfeld. It is a pleasant, clean town, the seat of extensive manufactures of rib- bons, twine, thread, trimmings, buttons, chemicals, cottons, and silks, with dye works (Turkey red) and calico-printing works. Pop. (1910) 169,214. Barn. See Farm Buildings. Bar'nabas, otherwise Joses or Joseph, a Levite, born in Cyprus, and one of Paul's most distin- guished fellow-workers. He comes before us in Acts iv. 36 as one who has generously surrendered to the apostles the money he had received from the sale of a field. He afterward introduces Paul to the church at Jerusalem, and a little later joins him in his first missionary journey. When about to start on a second expedition, a difference arouse between the pair, and they separated; but they were ultimately reconciled. Barnabas, Epistle of, an im- portant Christian work found in some early Mss. of the Bible, and actually accepted as genuine by Origen and Clement of Alexan- dria. Its spurious character was generally admitted by the time of Eusebius. It consists of two parts: (1) Chapters 1 to 17, de- signed to instruct the reader in true Christian knowledge (gno- sis), especially as regards the re- lation of Christianity to the Old Testament dispensation; and (2) Chapters 18 to 21, a delineation of the 'two ways' — the accept- ance or rejection of the Christian life. The latter portion of the Vol. I.— Mar. '23 epistle is closely related to the Didache, and Holtzmann be- lieves both to be redactions of a work called The Two Ways. From a literary standpoint the epistle has little merit. Harnack dates the epistle about 130-131 a.d.; Lightfoot, earlier than 79 a.d. Bar'nabites, a religious order, founded in Milan in 1530, under the name of 'Regular Clerks of St. Paul,' but popularly styled 'Barnabites,' from St. Barnabas, the church in which they assem- bled. The order extended from Italy to Germany, France, and Austria. Expelled in 1880 from France, they now form some twenty colleges, in Italy, Austria, and Belgium. Bar'naby, Sir Nathaniel (1829-1915), British naval archi- tect, was born in Chatham, and was apprenticed as a shipwright at Sheerness in 1843. From 1855 to 1885 he was employed at the Admiralty, and assisted in the designing and construction of nearly all the vessels built for the British navy during these years. He was chief naval architect and director of naval construction, from 1870 to 1885, and was the author of many books on naval construction. He was one of the founders of the Institute of Naval Architects. Bar'nacle, a name applied gen- erally to the members of the crus- tacean order Cirripedia. The Ship or Goose Barnacle (Lepas) consists of a fleshy stalk attach- ing the animal to floating wood, and a series of five white calcare- ous shells at the end of the stalk, enclosing six pairs of branched Ship Barnacle. appendages (cirri). By means of these cirri the animal filters from the water the minute par- ticles on which it feeds. Except for them, it shows in adult life practically no definite crustacean character; but the study of de- velopment shows that it must have arisen from a typically crustacean stock. In the United States the name is applied popu- larly to the non-stalked or sessile sorts ( Balanus) , which cover rocks, wharf-piles, and the like, between tidemarks with their white acorn- shaped shells. Barnacle, or Bernicle Goose (Branta leucopsis), an Arctic bird, ' gray and black in color, with white markings and black bill and feet, about 25 inches in length and weighing about five pounds. It migrates southward during winter as far as the Med- iterranean and the Central United States, and is greatly prized by the hunter. The name is de- rived from the curious tale that these birds were produced from fir timber tossed about at sea, to which they were at first attached like eggs (see Barnacle). Bar'nard, Lady Anne, nee Lindsay (1750-1825), author of the haWad Auld Robin Gray. She was born in Fifeshire, Scotland, and spent the greater part of her early life there. In 1793 she mar- ried Andrew Barnard, son of the bishop of Limerick and went with him to the Cape of Good Hope, where he held a colonial secre- taryship. Upon his death, in 1807, she returned to London to live. Lady Anne's chief claim to fame is the ballad, Auld Robin Gray (1771), whose authorship was unknown until she confessed it to Sir Walter Scott in a letter written in 1823. Barnard, Edward Emerson (1857- ), American astronomer, was born in Nashville, Tenn. As a boy he was interested in pho- tography and astronomy, study- ing the latter by himself before entering Vanderbilt University, from which he was graduated in 1887. From 1883 to 1887 he was in charge of the observatory at Vanderbilt; from 1887 to 1895 was astronomer at the Lick Ob- servatory, Cal.; and after that professor of practical astronomy at the University of Chicago and astronomer at the Yerkes Ob- servatory Williams Bay, Wis- consin. He discovered the 5th satellite of Jupiter (1892) and 16 comets, and is known for his im- portant work in celestial pho- tography. Barnard, Fredrick Augus- tus Porter (1809-89), American mathematician and educator, was born in Sheffield, Mass. He was graduated from Yale in 1828 and taught in the public schools of Hartford and in the Hartford Deaf and Dumb Asylum. From 1837 to 1854 he was professor, first of mathematics and natural philosophy and later of chemis- try and natural history, in the University of Alabama. He was professor of mathematics, as- tronomy, and natural history (1854-6), and president and chancellor (1856-61) of the Uni- versity of Mississippi, and in 1856 took orders in the Episcopal Church. In 1864 he was elected president of Columbia College, Barnard 586 Barnburners which position he held until 1888, when he resigned because of ill health. During his long connec- tion with Columbia he did much for its advancement and im- provement, transforming it into one of the great universities of the country. He bequeathed to it the bulk of his property, and Barnard College (q.v.) is named for him. He was one of the in- corporators of the National Academy of Sciences; U. S. com- missioner to the Paris Exposi- tions of 1867 and 1878, and edi- tor-in-chief of Johnson's New Universal Encyclopcedia. His pub- lications include Letters on Col- legiate Government (1855); His- tory of the United States Coast Survey (1857); Recent Progress in Science (1869); and The Metric System (1871). Barnard, George Grey (1863- ), American sculptor, was born at Bellefonte, Pa., and studied at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris, 1884-7. He exhibited at the Paris Salon, and received gold medals at the Paris exposi- tion of 1900, the Pan-American exposition at Buffalo, 1901, and the St. Louis Exposition, 1904. Among his works are Brotherly Love; Two Natures; The God Pan (Central Park, New York); The Hewer; Adam and Eve; statues for the State Capitol, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, and busts of lead- ing Americans. He made his home in New York City after 1896. He is a member of the Sculpture Society. Barnard, Henry (1811-1900), American writer on education, was born in Hartford, Conn. He was graduated (1830) from Yale, was a member of the Con- necticut Legislature (1837-40), and became identified with school and prison reform. After serv- ing as school commissioner of Rhode Island (1843-9), he was president of the University of Wisconsin (1857-9) and of St. John's College, Annapolis (1865- 6) ; and first U. S. Commissioner of Education (1867-70). He or- ganized the Bureau of Educa- tion, and founded (1855) the American Journal of Education, of which he was long editor. His numerous papers were published in 1886 as American Library of Schools and Education. Barnard, John Gross (1815- 82), American soldier, was born in Sheffield, Mass. He was graduated from West Point in 1833, was assigned to the engi- neer corps, and won the brevet of major in the Mexican War (1846- 7) . In 1850-1 he was chief of the commission which surveyed the isthmus of Tehuantepec, and in 1855-6 was superintendent of West Point. During the Civil War he was one of the most dis- tinguished military engineers in the Federal service. He was Vol. I. — Mar. '23 commissioned brigadier-general of volunteers in September, 1861; was chief-engineer of the Army of the Potomac under General McClellan, in 1862; was on the staff of General Grant from June. 1864, to April, 1865; arid was brevetted major-general in the volunteer service (1864) and in the regular service (1865). Barnard Castle, market town, county Durham, England, situ- ated on the Tees; 15 miles north- west of Darlington. It has a fine town hall and a large art museum. The manufacture of fiax-thread is the chief industry. John Baliol, the Scottish king, was a native of the place. Pop. (1921) 4,737. Barnard College, New York City, the undergraduate college for women of Columbia Univer- sity (q.v.), founded in 1889, and named for F. A. P. Barnard (q.v.), president of Columbia, who worked for many years to introduce coeducation into that institution. As originally or- ganized, the college was affiliated with the university, having in- structors selected from the teach- ing staff there, but this arrange- ment was found to be unsatis- factory, and in 1900 the college assumed its present status, where- by it has a separate corporate and financial organization and separate internal administration under a dean and a provost. The president of Columbia, however, is also the president of Barnard, and all degrees are conferred by Columbia. Barnard students are allowed to register in certain graduate courses and have other privileges of the university. A liberal course of instruction leads to the degree a.b. The buildings of the college occupy a site on Broadway just west of Columbia, and include Milbank, Brinckerhoff, and Fiske Halls, erected in 1896; Brooks Hall, the main residence hall (1907); and Students' Hall (1917). For recent statistics see Table of American Colleges and Uni- versities under College. Barnar'do, Thomas John (1845-1905), English philanthro- pist, was born in Dublin, Ireland. He was employed for a time in a merchant's office but, as a result of a religious revival in Dublin, entered London Hospital to fit himself for missionary service in China. He decided later to de- vote himself to work among the destitute children of England, and in 1867 opened the East End Juvenile Mission. In '1873 he founded a village home for train- ing girls, at Ilford, in Essex, and in 1879 established the first of the Dr. Barnardo Homes. Other homes and workshops followed; an emigration agency for the transportation of young people to Canada was organized; and homes for incurables and cripples were established at Berkdale, Harrowgate and Tunbridge Wells. The children of the well-to-do were enlisted in the work through the formation, in 1891, of the Young Helpers' League. At the time of his death over 60,000 children had been rescued and helped. Barna'to, Barnett Isaacs (1852-97), South African finan- cier, was the son of humble Jew- ish parents (Isaacs) of Aldgate, London. In 1873 he went to South Africa as a conjurer and entertainer, assumed the name of Barnato, and became a diamond dealer at Kimberley. There he built up a great business, which, as Barnato Brothers in London (1880), and the Barnato Dia- mond Mining Company at Kim- berley (1881), rivalled in power and enterprise the De Beers group, of which Cecil Rhodes was the head. In 1888 the two great companies amalgamated. Re- turning from South Africa in ill health in 1897, he threw himself overboard from the liner Scot. Barnaul, bar-na-ool', capital of a district in the government of Tomsk, Siberia, on the left bank of the Upper Ob; 238 miles south- west of Tomsk. It lies in a dis- trict rich in lead, copper, iron, and silver, and has a mineral museum and soda factories. Pop. 30,000. Barnave, bar'nav', Antoine Pierre Joseph Marie (1761- 93), French revolutionist, was born in Grenoble and represented his native city in the Assembly (1789). He was a leader of the extreme party in the early days of the Revolution but opposed personal violence toward the king and the royal family, and displayed great courtesy to them when acting as commissioner to lead Louis xvi. back from Va- rennes to Paris. His growing ad- vocacy of moderate measures led to his being suspected of royalist sentiments, and he was de- nounced to the Assembly, and was guillotined. Barnay, bar'ni, LUDWIG (1842- ), German actor, was born at Budapest, where he met with his first great success in 1861. He afterward played in the principal cities of Germany and Austria, notably Mainz, Weimar, and Frankfort-on-the-Main, and in 1888 founded in Berlin a theatre of his own. This he conducted until 1894, when he retired into private life. His principal char- acters were Hamlet, King Lear, Othello, William Tell, Wallen- stein, and Kean. Barnburners, a faction of the Democratic Party in New York State (1844-52). The name, which was first used about 1844, originated in a comparison be- tween their rigorous demands for Barnby 587 Barney reform and the policy of a Dutch- man who set fire to his barn to drive out the rats. They exerted perhaps a determining influence in the presidential election of 1848. Refusing to share with their rivals, the 'Hunkers,' the representa- tion of Nevsr York in the Demo- cratic National Convention of 1848, they withdrew from the conven- tion and refused to support Lewis Cass nominated by it. Subse- quently they joined with the Free Soilers in supporting Van Buren, and by withholding their votes from the Democratic candidates brought about, indirectly, the triumph of the Whigs. A partial reconciliation between the Barn- burners (then called 'Softs') and the Hunkers took place in 1852. Barnby, Sir Joseph (1838-96), English musician and composer, was a native of York. Educated at the Royal Academy of Music, he held the following offices: or- §anist of St. Andrew's, Wells treet, London (1S62); conductor of Barnby's choir (1864-71); con- ductor of the Albert Hall Roval Choral Society from 1871 till his death; precentor and director of music at Eton (1875V, and princi- Kal of the Guildhall School of lusic (1892). He was knighted in 1892. Composer of numerous hymn tunes, part songs, and the oratorio Rebekah (1881). Barnegat Bay, Atlantic coast of Ocean co.. New Jersey. Island Beach and Long Beach protect it from the ocean. Between these is Barnegat Inlet, at the mouth of which is a light-house. Good fishing and an abundance of wild fowl make the bay a resort for sportsmen. Barnegat City, on Long Beach, is a summer resort. Barnes, par., Surrey, England, on L. & S. W. Ry., and on r. bk. of R. Thames, 7 m. s.w. of London. Area, 909 ac. of land and 119 of water. Pop. (1911) 30.379. Barnes, Albert (1798-1870), American theologian, was born at Rome, N. Y., and graduated (1820) at Hamilton College. He studied theology at Princeton, and was pastor of the First Presby- terian Church in Philadelphia, 1830-67. During this period his Notes on the Scriptures were pub- lished and obtained an enormous circulation. He was tried for heresy, and acquitted, for his annotations on the Epistle to the Romans, but was advised to alter the phraseology, which he did. He joined the new-school' Pres- byterians at the time of the sepa- ration. His numerous writings were collected and published as Theological Works (1872). Barnes, Alfred Smith (1817- 88), American publisher, was born in New Haven, Conn., and worked on a farm and in a shoe store before taking employment (1831) in D. F. Robinson's book- store at Hartford. In 1838 Mr. Barnes entered into a partnership with Prof. Charles Davies for the publication of the latter's books, and established the firm of A. S. Barnes & Co. at Hartford. Suc- cessful from the start, it removed to Philadelphia, 1840, and to New York, 1845, where it afterward remained, five of Mr. Barnes's sons eventually entering the firm as partners. Mr. Barnes made his home in Brooklyn, N. Y., and was a liberal benefactor of that city's institutions, and of mission- ary societies. He also left $45,000 for the building of Barnes Hall, the Y.M.C.A. building at Cornell University. Barnes, Thomas (1786-1841), English journalist. He was edu- cated at Christ's Hospital and at Pembroke College, Cambridge. He was from 1817 till his death editor of the Times, which under his guidance first assumed its commanc ing position in jovrnal- ism. He was at first violently radical, but moderated his views with advancing years, although he was a vigorous supporter of the Reform Bill. Barnes, William (1800-86), English poet and clergyman, was born at Rushay, near Salisbury. His first volume — Orra: a Lap- land Tale — was published in 1822. He became master of a school at Mere in Wiltshire in 1823, re- turning to Dorchester in 1835. He was ordained in 1847, and became curate at Whitcombe in 1847, and rector of Winterbourne Came, near Dorchester, in 1862, where he died. He began to write his Dorset poems in 1833, publishing Poems of Rural Life in the Dorset Dialect (1844), Hwomely Rhymes (1857). and a third volume in 1863. A combined edition was published in 1879, under the first title. He was a lyric writer of a high order. In his verses, which are homely and tender, and full of the joy of life, he never leaves the pleasant fields of his native Dorsetshire. See his Life (1887) by his daughter, Mrs. Baxter ('Leader Scott'). Barnesville. (1.) Vil., Belmont CO., O., on the Baltimore and Ohio R. R. There are manufac- tures of glass and car- wheels. Pop. (1910) 4,233. (3.) Tn., Pike co., Ga., on the Central of Georgia R. R. The Gordon Institute is located here, and there are car- riage factories. Pop. (1910) 3,068. Barnet, High IJarnet, or Chipping Barnet, mrkt. tn., Hertfordshire, England, 11 m. N. of London, on G. N. Ry. Here, in 1471, Edward of York defeated the Lancastrians under Warwick. An obelisk marks the spot where Warwick made his last stand. Pop. (1911) 10,440. _ Barnott, John (1802-90), Eng- lish musical composer and singer, born at Bedford, pupil of Arnold; composed songs, part songs, in- strumental music, and operas, including The Mountain Sylph (1834) and Fair Rosamond (1837), and an oratorio, The Omnipres- ence of the Deity. In 1844 he published School for the Voice. Barnett, John Francis (1837), English musical composer, nephew of John Barnett; studied at Royal Academy of Music and Leipzig, and became professor at the Royal College of Music and the Guildhall School of Music, both in London. He has written an oratorio. The Raising of Laza- rus (1876), produced with great success at_ Birmingham; The An- cient Mariner (1867), Paradise and the Peri (1870), The Lay of the Last Minstrel (1873), The Building of the Ship (1880), and The Wish- ing Bell (1893), mostly cantatas composed for the Birmingham, Liverpool, and Leeds musical festivals. Barnett, Samuel Augustus 1844), canon of Bristol (1893), ounder and first warden of Toyn- bee Hall, Whitechapel (1884), which was organized for the pur- pose of raising the moral and in- tellectual level of a poorer part of London through the personal ex- ample of university men. Author of Practical Socialism (1893). Barneveldt, Jan van Olden: (1547-1619),Dutchstatesman,was born near Utrecht. After taking Eart in an embassy to England, e became advocate-general of the Erov. of Holland (1585), and the ead of the republican party in the state in opposition to Maurice of Nassau, whose designs and war- like policy he successfully op- posed, concluding (1609) a twelve vears' truce with Spain. Having been appointed 'grand-pension- ary,' he took the side of the Ar- minians against Maurice's support of the Gomarists, who were fa- vored by the army, the clergy, and the people of Holland. In 1619, after the condemnation of the Arminians by the Synod of Dort, Barneveldt was convicted of treason and beheaded. See Motley's Life of Barneveldt (1874). Barney, Joshua (1759-1818), American naval officer, born at Baltimore, Md. During the American Revolution he served on various American vessels, in- cluding the Hornet, The Wasp, the Virginia, and the Saratoga; became a lieutenant in 1776; was three times a prisoner in the hands of the British; and on April 8, 1782, in command of the Hyder AH, he captured the British sloop- of-war General Monk off Cape May. He carried important despatches to Benjamin Franklin, then in Paris (1782); was in the service of France (1795-1800); and during the War of 1812 com- inanded, as captain, the Amer- ican flotilla in Chesapeake Bay Barnfleld 588 Barometer (1814). and fought in the battle of Bladensburg, near Washington, where he was severely wounded. See Mary Barney (ed.), Bio- graphical Memoir of the late Commodore Joshua Barney (1832). Barnf ield, Richard (1574- 1627), English poet, born at Nor- bury, Shropshire. He wrote son- nets and pastorals in the Spen- serian manner. His best verses, *As it fell upon a day,' were printed as Shakespeare's in The Passionate Pilgrim (1599). He wrote The Affectionate Shepherd (1594); Cynthia (1595); The Enco- mion of Lady Pecunia, with Poems in Divers Humours, etc. (1598); Collected Works, ed. A. B. Grosart (1876) and E. Arber (1882). Barnim, a district in Branden- burg, Prussia, divided into Upper and Lower Barnim, the latter con- taining Berlin. Barn Owl. See OwL. Barnsley, par. and munic. bor. (incorporated in 1869), W. Riding, Yorkshire, on R. Dearne, 12 m. n. of Sheffield. Coal is abundant in the vicinity, and the town has a linen and paper industry, and manufactures of iron, steel and glass, ready-made clothing, boots and shoes, bobbins, etc. It is connected with Leeds and Wake- field by the Barnslej^ Canal, and contains a fine public hall and park. Acreage of par. 2,386. Pop. of munic. bor. (1911) 50,623. Barnstable, tn.^ Mass., co. seat of Barnstable co., on Barn- stable Bay and on the Middle- boro and Provincetown branch of the New York, New Haven and Hartford R. R. It was settled in 1639, and contains 12 villages, including West Barnstable, Hy- annis and Osterville. There are large fishery interests. Pop. (1910) 4.67<^. Barnstaple, munic. bor. and seapt. in Devonshire, England, 6 m. from the mouth of the river Taw, and 35 m. N.w. of Exeter. There are manufactures of lace and gloves, and large cabinet works, tanneries, and potteries ('Barum ware'). In Elizabethan days it was a considerable seaport, and sent ships to fight the Spanish Armada. Its broadcloth manufac- ture, once an important industry, has now died out. Area of par. 1,361 ac. Pop. of munic. bor, (1911) 14,488. Barn Swallow. Sec Swallow. Barnum, Phineas Taylor (1810-91), American showman was born at Bethel, Conn., and kept store with more or less suc- cess. His first venture in the show business was the exhibition of a colored woman said to be 167 years old. He ran small shows in the South, and established Bar- num's Museum in New York, 1841, where he exhibited 'Gen. Tom Thumb' and other freaks of nature. He made a large fortune (1849-51) as manager for Jenny Lind. He settled at Bridgeport, Conn., and lost $1,000,000 by a bankruptcy, but was able to start again. After travelling with Tom Thumb in Europe, he again opened his Museum (which was burned two or three times), and established, 1871, his 'greatest show on earth,' which toured the country annually, and even visited Europe. Mr. Barnum served in the C^onn. legislature, and made several public benefactions. See his Autobiography (1854 and 1888); Humbugs of the World (1865); Struggles and Triumphs (1869); Money-getting (1883); and Life by Benton (1902). Barnwell, Robert Woodward (1801-82), American political leader, born in Beaufort. S. C. He graduated at Harvard in 1821, practised law in S. C, was a rep- resentative in Congress (1829-33), was president of South Carolina College (1834-41 and 1866-73) and was a member of the U. S., Senate (1850-1). In Dec, 1860- Jan., 1861, after the secession of S. C, he was one of the three com- missioners who visited Washing- ton on behalf of S. C, 'empow- ered to treat with the government of the United States for the deliv- ery of the forts, magazines, light- houses, and other real estate . . . within the limits of South Caro- lina.' The mission came to noth- ing, and Barnwell was subse- quently a member of the Provi- sional Congress of the Confederate states (1861-2) and of the Con- federate Senate (1862-5). Barocchi. See Vignola. Baroche, Pierre Jules (1802- 70), a French lawyer and politi- cian, who allied himself with the party of Napoleon ill., and was successively Minister of the In- terior (1850) and of Foreign Affairs (1851). After the coup d'etat of 1851 he held office as president of the Council of State. In 1863 he was Minister of Justice; but after Napoleon's fall, in 1870, he fled to Jersey, where he died. Baroda. (1.) State, situated in the Gujarat div. of Bombay, India; is one of the three large Mahratta feudatories of the British Indian empire, and is ruled by a chief called the Gaekwar. The greater portion of the dominion is concen- trated about the centre of Gujarat, but strips of Baroda territory are scattered over adjacent British districts, and intermingled with the lands of other native chiefs in Ka- thiawar. Area, 8,570 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 1,950,927 (1,007,944 males, 942,983 females). (3.) Capital of the feudatory state of the same name, situated 250 m. by rail N of Bombay, in Gujarat, Bombay, India. Pop. (1901) 103,782. Barograph. See Barometer. Barometer (Gr. 'a measure of weight'), an instrument for deter- mining the pressure of the at- mosphere. An observation by Galil leo, who remarked that water would not rise in a pump more than 'eighteen cubits,^ leci to the discovery, in 1643, of air-pressure by his pupil Torricelli. His classi- cal experiment consisted in filling a tube about three feet long, and closed at one end, with mercury. This he inverted, immersing its lower end into a basin filled half with mercury and half with water. The mercury descended in the tube, remaining stationary at a height of thirty inches, a vacant space of about six inches being Green Barometer , showing Section of the Mercurial Cisttrn. thus left at the top of the tube, which is still known as the 'Tor- ricellian vacuum.' On raising the open end of the tube above the level of the mercurv, but still under the surface of the water, all the mercury in the tube rushed rapidly out, its place being taken by the water, which completely filled the tube. He thus concluded that the elevation of the column of liq^uid which will stand in any tube IS determined by the specific gravity of the liquid composing the column and by the atmos- pheric pressure. In 1648 Pascal of Clermont proved the accuracy of Torricclli's surmises by carry- Barometer ing a barometer from Clermont to the summit of the Puy de Dome, the mercury falling 3.33 in., in- dicating a height of 3,458 ft. As air is about 10,000 times lighter than mercury, the height of the atmosphere should be 10,000 times 30 in., or about 4.7 m. As, however, its density diminishes according to its height, the actual elevation of the gaseous envelope surrounding the globe is much greater than 4.7 m. In the construction of a barom- eter much care has to be taken that pure mercury, of sp. gr. 13.594, is employed. This is in- troduced into a glass tube about 34 in. long, and the mercury is boiled in the tube, so that any air and moisture may be got rid pf. The tube, which in first-class in- struments is of large bore, stands vertically in a cistern of mercury. The height of the mercurial col- umn in the tube above the level of the cistern is measured by means of a graduated scale; but if great accuracy is required, a cathetometer is employed. The glass tube is fixed in a frame to Srotect it from damage, and the ivisions of the scale, unless the instrument is intended for use on a mountain, vary from 26 to 32 in. In barometers for scientific purposes the scale and the frame are DOth made of brass, of which metal the expansive coefificient is well known. It is thus possible to make allowances for the altera- tion by heat in the length of the scale, which has to be taken into account in the reduction of baro- metric observations to a fixed tem- Eerature. The scales of wooden arometers are liable to serious alteration in length and shape, owing to changes in the humidity of the air. In the construction of the barom- eter several difiiculties have to be overcome. It will, for example, be readily understood that the level of the mercury in the cistern varies with every movement of the mercury. If it rises, mercury is transferred from the cistern to the tube, and the level of the cistern falls. On the other hand, should the reverse process take place, and mercury flow from the tube to the cistern, the level of the mercury rises. As the height of the barom- eter is calculated from the level of the mercury in the cistern, a correction, known as the 'error of capacity,' is introduced. An- other source of difiiculty is how to cover the cistern so as to keep the mercury from escaping, and at the same time render the in- strument portable without affect- ing the pressure of the atmosphere on the mercurial surface contained in the cistern. In the Fortin barom- eter this difficulty is eliminated by making the bottom of the cis- tern of leather, while in the Kew 589 barometer a small cavity in the roof of the cistern is covered with the same material. The two ba- rometers specified are those em- ployed for scientific observation, and in them the 'capacity correc- tion' referred to is done away with. In the Fortin barometer (Fig. 1) a modified form of which is used by the U. S. Weather Bureau, the starting-point of the scale is formed by an ivory pin, which is placed in the cistern of mercury. When a reading is to be made, the mercury is raised or lowered by means of a screw until its surface just touches ^he pin, the Icwer end of which corresponds with the zero of the scale. The Green pattern, used by the Weather Bureau and American meteorolo- gists, has the advantage of porta- bility as well as affording the desired accuracy. By means of a vernier it can be read to even thousandths of an inch and the accompanying sectional diagram shows its construction. In Fig. 2 an ingenious device is shown which facilitates the adjustment of the ivory point and its image as reflected on the bright sur- face of the mercury below. The Barometer Kew barometer (Fig. 3) is admir- ably suited for observations on shipboard, or in situations where there is much oscillation. In order to check the irregular oscil- lation of the mercury due to the motion of the ship, a tube of small, calibre throughout the greater part of its^ length is employed. A closed cistern is used, and a scale of contracted inches, which are shortened from the upper part of the tube downwards in propor- tion to the relation existmg be- tween the diameter of the tube and cistern. In this v.-pv the error of capacity is allowed for. In the siphon barometer (Fig. 4) the capacity error is got over by dispensing with the cistern and using a U-shaped tube, in which the long leg is closea and the short leg open. The ordinary wheel barometer, or 'weather- glassj' is of this description, and was invented in 1665 by Robert Hooke, secretary to the Royal Society of London. In this in- strument a float attached to a silk cord rests on the mercury in the open leg of the siphon, the cord Dcing coiled two or three times round a fixed pulley. A Baronicttrs. 1. Fortin Barometer. 2. Lower part enlarged : a, Ivory pin ; b, adjusting screw. 3. Kew Barometer, i. Siphon Barometer. Barometer light counterpoise at the other end keeps the cord tight. The float rising or falling, according to the motion of the mercury in the closed leg of the tube, causes a needle indicator to move round a gradu- ated dial on which the height of the mercurial column is engraved. As mercury expands 59^55 of its bulk for every degree of Fahrenheit's thermometer, it is necessary, in taking observations of scientific accuracy, to apply a correction for temperature. A thermometer is thus usually at- tached to the barometer in such a way as to give the temperature of the barometer tube itself. _ Tables have been prepared showing at a glance the corrections to be ap- plied for the varying temperature of the mercurial column, tne read- ings being reduced to 32° F. Those published by the Smithsonian Institution and^ the U. S. Weather Bureau are available for American workers. We have seen that the barometer reads lower on the top of a hill than at its base, so that every barometrical observation has to be reduced to mean sea- level. In reducing to sea-level, the temperature of the air and the ac- tual atmospheric pressure at sea- level have to be allowed for. In pursuance of the recommendation of the Meteorological Conference (Munich, Aug., 1891), a firther correction, known as the 'gravity correction,' is given effect to, in order to allow for the difference of gravity at any given station from that at lat. 45°. Barometrical fluctuations are of two kinds — regular or periodic, and irregular or non-periodic. Of the regular oscillations the most marked is the diurnal one, which varies from a maximum of 0.150 in. in the tropics to barely T^i'oir of an inch in polar regions.^ The seasonal swing in pressure is also well marked in most regions of the globe. Barographs, or self-registering barometers, are employed to give a continuous automatic record of pressure fluctuations on a revolv- Barograph, or Self-Registering Barometer. ing drum driven by clockwork. In this class of^ instrument the record may be either mechanical or photographic, the latter method being the more reliable owing to 590 the elimination of friction. One of the best-known forms of this in- strument is the Richard baro- graph, or recording aneroid. See Aneroid* also works on meteor- ology ana meteorological instru- ments, such as the treatises by Cleveland Abbe (1887), R. H. Scott (1883), H. C. Russell (1871), F.Waldo (1893), A. Buchan (1868), W. M. Davis (1894), and J. W. Moore (1894), and especially the Sublications of the U. S. Weather ureau. Of the latter, Barometers, and the Measurement of Atmos- pheric Pressure (1901), by Prof. C. F. Marvin, will be found very useful. Baron (A.S. *a man' ), a word which has come to mean first a 'king's man' and afterward a I noble.' The title was unknown in Britain prior to the Norman conquest, and its earliest usage shows that it was applied to all the feudatories of princes, irre- spective of other titles they held, and therefore it included all the nobility. Feudatories were, in early times, of two classes — (1) barons in capite, holding their lands from the king, these being the greater barons; and (2) the lesser barons, who held their lands from the great vassals^ of the king by military tenure in capite. In ■ Magna Charta this distinc- tion is observed. By the time of Edward I. only the greater barons could claim to be summoned to the House of Lords; the sum- moning of the lesser barons fell into desuetude. The creation of barons by patent dates from the time of Richard II. — i.e. the year 1387. At the present time barons are of three classes, being the lowest rank of the nobility to have a seat in the House of Lords— (1) barons by_ prescription, their ancestors having sat smce an un- known and indefinite date in the House of Lords; (2) barons by patent, the dignity being granted to them and their heirs under the conditions of the patent; and (3) barons by tenure, who hold the title as annexed to land. In Scot- land and Ireland, barons have scats in the House of Lords only when elected as representative peers by their order. A baron's coronet consists of a gold circlet with six pearls set _ on it, sur- rounding a cap of crimson velvet and ermine. Baronet, originally a title given to the lesser barons, a meaning now obsolete, is a title of heredi- tarr rankj in degree next to that of baron, mstituted by James I. in 1611, professedly to support the English and Scottish colonization of Ulster. Each baronet had to pay the king £l ,080. The number was limited to 200, but this limit was soon departed from,_ and the payment annulled. A smilar Irish order was instituted by James in Barony 1619, and a Scottish (the so-called baronets of Nova Scotia) by Charles I. in 1625: but of the latter none have been created since the Union (1707;; of the former, none since 1801. In their stead there has been instituted the baronetcy of the United King- dom or of Great Britain. The badge of the order is the 'bloody hand of Ulster.' A baronet has Erecedence of all knights except annerets, knights of the Garter, and Privy Councillors. Baronius, C^sar (1538-1607), controversial historian of the_ Ro- man Catholic Church; born in S. Italy; studied under St. Philip Neri, of whose congregation of the^ Oratory he was chosen su- perior (1593); appointed cardinal (1596), and librarian of the Vati- can (1597). He failed to attain the papal chair in 1605 because of Spanish political opposition. His demonstration of the histori- cal identity of the Western with the primitive Church is elaborated in his famous Annates Ecclesias- tici a Christo Nato ad Annum H98 (12 vols. 1588-1607), written in reply to the Protestant Magde- burg Centuries. Though uncriti- cal, this chronicle is still of value to ecclesiastical historians; con- tinued by Raynaldus and others to 1585, the Annals now extend to nearly 40 vols, (last ed. 1864- 83). His Martyrologium Romanum (1586) is a great store of tradi- tion. See Life (Ital.) by Sarra (1862). Barons' War, The (1263-7). See England — History (Henry III.). Barony, in England strictly the domain of a baron, but also applied to the tenure by which a baron held of his superiorj also military or other * honorable ' tenure. Originally every peer of superior rank had also a barony annexed to his other titles, but the rule is not now universal. Ba- ronies appertain also to bishops, as they formerly did to abbots, William the Conqueror having converted the spiritual tenure by which they held their lands under the Saxon rule into the Norman or feudal tenure by barony. In Scotland barony is applied to a large freehold estate or manor, even though the proprietor is a simple commoner. A burgh of barony is a corporation consisting of the inhabitants of a determin- ate tract of territory within the barony erected by the king, and subject to the government of magistrates. Whatever jurisdic- tion belongs to the magistrates of the burgh, the superipr's juris- diction is cumulative with it. A court baron is the necessary court of a manor. It was partly ju- dicial and partly administrative. Other manorial courts were the customary court and court-leet. Barony 591 Barramunda The word barony is used in Ire- land for a subdivision of a county. Barony. See Glasgow. Baroque, a term at first applied to ill-shaped pearls, now denotes fantastic, bizarre, and ^ decadent forms in art, and even in nature. It is specially used in connection with an arcHitectural style, a de- generation of the Renaissance. Barosma, a genus of small evergreen S. African shrubs hav- ing a strong odor; the leaves are used in medicine as a diuretic, under the native name buchu. Barotac Nuevo, pueb., prov. of Iloilo, Panay, Philippine Is., on the 1. bark of the Jalaur R., 16 m. from Iloilo. The race and language are Visayan. The roads are good, connecting Baro- tac Nuevo with other towns. There is some trade in sugar-cane, rice, coffee, cattle, and pina cloth. Pop. (1903) 9,904. Barotac Viejo, pueb., prov. of Iloilo, Panay, Philippine Is., on the 1. bank of small river entering Iloilo Strait, 30 m. N.E. of Iloilo. Pop. (1903) 5,339. Barotse Land, or North-west- ern Rhodesia, a region in the Upper Zambezi, British C. Africa. It extends from 23° to 27° E., and from 16° S. to its s. boundary, the Zambezi. It is well watered and populous. The administrator of N. W. Rhodesia has his offi ial residence at Lialui, near the Zam- bezi, from which a monthly postal service to Buluwayo has been es- tablished. The inhabitants are Bantus. Barque, a three-masted ship, square-rigged on the fore and main masts, and fore-and-aft on the mizzen. A Barquentine dif- fers from a barque in being only square-rigged on the fore mast. Barquisimeto, tn. and episc. see, cap. of the state of Lara, Venezuela, on the Barquisimeto R., 170 m. w. of Caracas. It is connected by rail with its port, Tucacas, 100 m. to the N.E. Alt. 1.840 ft. It contains a college. The surrounding district is rich in agricultural products and live- stock. Pop. (1900) about 32,000. Barr, Amelia Edith (1831), Anglo-American author, was born (Huddleston) at Ulverston. Lan- ^ cashirc, England, and studied at -sN. the Glasgow high school. She ' was married to Robert Barr, the ^ son of a Scottish clergyrnan, 1850, ..and came to America with him in C 1854, residing in Texas until his v^death in 1867, when she removed to New York, and thereafter lived V there and at Cornwall, N. Y. £>Among her numerous novels are ,%Jan Vedder's Wife (1885), A Bow J^of Orange Ribbon (1886), Remem- V^er Ihe Alamo (1888), Trinity Bells (1899), and Thyra Varrick (1903). Barr, Robert (1850-1912), noveHst, was born in Glasgow; educated in Toronto, but returned to Engiand in 1881. Among his works are: In ihe Midst of Alarms (1894; new ed. 1900); A Woman Intervenes (1896); The Mutable Many (1897); The Countess Tekla (] 899); The Strong Arm; The Un- changing East, a book of travels (1900); The Victors (1901); The Tempestuous Petticoat {19G5). One cf the founders of the Idler maga- zire (18C2). Barra. (1.) Small tn. 4 m. E. of Naples, and midway between that city and Mt. Vesuvius, Italy; a sub- urban residence of Neapolitans. Pop. (1901) 11,973. (2.) Island and par., Inverness-shire, Scotland, near s. extremity of the Outer Hebrides. Area of par. 22,212 ac. Pop. (1901): isl. 2,362; par. 2,545. (3.) State, N. side and near mouth of R. Gambia^ W. Africa, N. of British Gambia. It is fertile but marshy. The chief port is Albreda. Pop. about 200,000. Barrackpur, munic. tn., dist. .of the Twenty-four Parganas, Ben- gal, India, 15 m. n. of Calcutta. The natives call it ' Charnak,' after Job Charnock, the founder of Cal- cutta. Here is the country resi- dence of the viceroy of India. It was the scene of sepoy mutinies in 1824 and 1857. Pop. (1901): N. Barrackpur, 12,600; S. Bar- rackpur, 19,307. Barracks, permanent shelters for troops in contradistinction to bivouacs, camps and canton- ments, which are temporary shel- ters. Until comparatively recent times (1792 in England) troops were generally permanently quar- tered or billeted on the citizens, as they still are during the short manoeuvre period in some conti- nental armies. This practice was abandoned because it was bur- densome on the people and had an injurious effect on the morals of the community on account of the dissolute character of the soldiery of the period. Barracks of some sort have been built in the United States at fully two-thirds of the almost 5,000 forts, batteries, sta- tions, etc., which have been oc- cupied by government troops since the beginning of the Repub- lic, and, until recent years, the only consideration, generally, was the local usefulness of the struc- ture. At the present time there is a permanent system of construc- tion being carried out in all army posts, the work being under charge of the Quartermaster-General, to whose department it_ pertains, and who has a Supervising Architect, and a corps of assistant architects and draughtsmen in his ofiice. All construction work is done by con- tract. The Arn^y Appropriation Bill carries a large item for 'Bar- racks and Quarters' each year, about $12,000,000 being expended for this purpose (h ring the fiscal year 1904-5. After the imme- diate site of an army post is se- lected, the greatest care is taken in locating the barracks and in their construction. First, there must be good elevation, drainage, water supply, and freedom from un- healthy environment. Next, there must be plenty of light and fresh air in the builcling itself. The rule of the departrnent is to allow 800 cubic feet of air space per man in barracks, and 2,000 cubic feet in hospitals, with a ventilating sys- tem to supply at least 60,000 cubic feet of fresh air per hour to a room occupied by 30 men. The latest building is generally of brick, but sometimes of stone or wood, built to accommodate one company. It consists of a basement, contain- ing store-rooms, coal-bins, a com- plete heating plant, a hot-water plant, and bath-rooms and lava- tories; a main or first floor con- taining the offices (2 rooms), a day-room for reading, a biUiard- room, one squad-room, a dining- room, kitchen, and pantries; a sec- ond floor with three small rooms used for higher non-commissioned officers, tailor-shop, barber-shop, etc., and two large squad-rooms, each occupied by about 40 men. There are porches upstairs and downstairs the length of the build- ing in front, also a rear porch and kitchen porch. Each man is fur- nished with a wall locker in which to keep his personal effects, and an iron bed with spring mattress, hair mattress, pillow, and sheets. There is a chair for each two men. In the dining-room are long ta- bles, with a stool for each man, and all the mess furniture re- quired — knife^ fork, spoons, plates, cup, saucers, etc. The term barracks is applied to sev- eral important military posts in the United States where there are no fortifications, the principal ones being Washington Barracks, Columbus Barracks, Plattsburg Barracks, Jefferson Barracks (St. Louis, Mo.), Jackson Barracks (New Orleans, La.), etc. Officers do not live in any part of the bar- racks in the U. S. service as is the case in some foreign armies, but in separate buildings called Quar- ters (q. v.). See U. S. Army Regu- lations. Barraconda. See Gambia. Barracuda, or Barracouta, a tropical fish of the genus Sphy- rocna, related to the mullets. They are large, voracious fishes, dreaded by bathers, and though edible, have at times poisonous proper- tics. The name is sometimes ap- plied to Thyrsites atun, a fish which forms an important article of export from New Zealand. Barra 3Ianza, tn., on r. bk. of the Parahiba do Sul, Brazil, 70 m. N.w. of Rio de Janeiro. Pop. 12,000. Barramunda, a name applied primarily to the cxtraoruinary Australian mudfish Ceratodus, Barranquilla 592 Barrett but used in Australia in a loose sense for more than one large fish. Barranquilla, orBARANQUlLLA, tn., Colombia, Bolivar dep. ; stands at the head of navigation on the river Magdalena, which is not navigable at its mouth. It is the most important trade centre in Colombia. It is in communica- tion by rail v^^ith the seaport Saba- nilla, 3 m. to the w. Pop. 40,000. Barrantes, Vicente (1829-98), Spanish poet and publicist; mem- ber of the Spanish Academy (1872) ; author of satiric articles (vi^hich brought a heavy fine on him for their audacity), philosophic and political verses — Narracjones Ex- tramenas (1872-3), Cuentos y Ley- endas {IS75) — and novels. He also vi^rote a history of the Philippine Isles, Guerras Pirdticas de Fili- pinas (1878). Barraquete, Alonzo (d. 1561), Spanish sculptor, vi^ho studied in Florence under Michelangelo. On his return to Spain he exe- cuted commissions for Charles V. at Toledo, Granada, and Valla- dolid. His bas-reliefs in the Al- hambra. The Triumphs of Charles v., representing the emperor as Hercules, are held in esteem. At 80 he executed the tomb of Cardinal Tavera in the Hospital of St. John the Baptist at Toledo. See Leader Scott's Sculpture: Renaissance and Modern (1886). Barras, Paul Franqois Jean NlCOLAS,VlCOMTEDE (1755-1829), who played a conspicuous part in the French Revolution, was born at Fos-Emphoux, Var. Officer in the Pondichery regiment, he took fart (1776-80) in the campaign in ndia. Returned by Var to the States-general, he voted for the king's immediate execution. As commander of the army besieging Toulon, he shared the responsi- bility for the cruel measures t- tending the reduction of that city to the republic. Again in Paris, he arrested Robespierre at the Hotel de_ Ville. Nominated general-in- chief, he, or rather Bonaparte, whom he had selected as general of artillery, crushed the insur- gents (Oct. 5, 1795). Thereupon appointed one of the five members of the Directory, and next (1797) practical dictator, he set up ciuite a royal establishment at the Luxembourg, which led to his overthrow (Nov. 9, 1799). Carlyle {French Revolution, bk. i. ch. 7) describes him well as 'a man of heat and haste; defective in ut- terance; defective indeed in any- thing to utter; yet not without a certain rapidity of glance, a certain swift transient courage,' He ultimately settled near Mar- seilles, and under the Bourbons lived the rest of his life in Paris. His Memoir es (4 vols.) were pub- lished by H. Duruy in 1895-6. Barratry. In maritime law, any fraudulent act of the captain or crew of a vessel through which the owners or the freighters suffer loss or damage to ship or cargo. The risk of loss by barratry may be covered by maritime insurance. The owner of a ship is liable for the barratry of his captain or crew unless exempted from liabil- ity by express terms in the bill of lading or charter party. The offence is punishable by fine and imprisonment, and is now gener- ally regulated by statute. Com- mon Barratry. The common law offence of habitually stirring up suits and quarrels at law. It is a misdemeanor punishable by fine and imprisonment. See Champerty; Maintenance. In old Scots law, barratry was a form of simony, consisting of the pur- chase of ecclesiastical benefices from Rome. Barre {i-e. 'comrades'), collect- ive name of numerous S. American aborigines who constitute a semi- independent confederacy about the head- waters of the Rio Negro, an affluent of the Amazons, and range thence across the Cassi- quiari into the Upper Orinoco basin. They comprise eight main groups — Barre proper, Manda- naca, Guariguena, Cunipusana, Pacimonari, Yabahana, Masaca, and Tariana. They are one of the few progressive nations of S. America, and since about 1800 their speech (a stock language radically distinct from all others) has become a sort of lingua franca throughout an extensive region above the Orinoco cataracts and in the Brazilian province of Ama- zonas. The Barre retain the old tribal organization, reject the preaching^ of the missionaries, and carrjr on independent commercial relations with settled and more civilized neighbors from San Carlos del Rio Negro. Barre. (1.) City, Washington CO., Vt., on the Montpelier and ^White River branch of the Cen- tral Vermont, and the Montpelier and Wells River R. Rs., 6 m. from Montpeb'er. It was settled in 1788. Much granite is distributed from here. Pop. (1910)10,734. (2.) Vil., Worcester co., Mass., on the Ware River branch of the Boston and Albany, and the Bos- ton and Maine R. Rs. There are lumber, cotton and dairying in- terests. Pop. (1910) 2,957. Barre, Isaac (1726-1802), the son of a French refugee in Dub- lin, was with Wolfe at Quebec, where he was wounded (1759), in consequence of which he ulti- mately (1790) became blind. (He is represented in West's picture of the death of Wolfe. (See plate accompanying Abraham, Heights of.) He held office under Bute, Pitt, and Shelburne, and gained the favor of the Amer- icans by a spirited speech against the Stamp Act in 1765, and by his subsequent actions. The ' Sons of Liberty ' got that name from his use of the phrase in a speech. Barre is one of those to whom the Letters of Junius have been ascribed. Barrel. A barrel of wine or brandy in the U. S. and Great Britain contains 31 1 gallons; a barrel of flour, 196 lbs.; a barrel of butter, 224 lbs.; and a barrel of pork or beef, 200 lbs. But the dry barrel is not a legalized meas- ure, and quantities should be specified in pounds or bushels. For manufacture of barrels, see Coopering. Barrel Organ, a portable mechanical organ played by a rotary handle. The handle turns a wooden cylinder set with bras; pins, which raise certain trigger- shaped keys, and so open the valves to the pipes of the instru- ment. The date of the manufac- ture of the first barrel organs is un- certain, but in Europe at one time they were frequently used in rural churches and chapels. Barrett, Elizabeth. See Browning. Barrett, Lawrence (1838-91), American actor, the son of an Irish mechanic, was born at Pater- son, N. J., and gained a reputa- tion as an amateur actor while working in a dry-goods store. Self-taught, he was permitted to play the part of Murad in the French Spy in 1853; and in 1854 he joined the stock company of the Grand Opera House in Pitts- burg. His first appearance in New York was in The Hunchback (1857), and the same year he played with Edwin Booth for the first time, in the same city. He was leading actor of the Boston Museum Company, 1858-60, and filled many standard parts. He joined the 28th Mass. regiment at the opening of the Civil War. Afterward he acted with the three Booths in Jtilius Ccesar at the Winter Garden in New York. After the war he began playing as a star, visiting England in 1867 and 1868, and in 1869 began a notable double-star presentation with John McCuUough at the latter's theatre in San Francisco. The following year he acted with Booth at Booth's Theatre, New York, and produced The Man of Airlee. Their greatest perform- ance of Julius Caesar occurred there in 1871. In 1878, Mr. Barrett produced Howells's Yor- ick's Love at Cleveland, O. He played again in London, 1884, and from 1887 to his death was on tour with Booth during the season. Author of Life of Edwin Forrest (1881). Barrett, Wilson (1846-1904), English actor, novelist, drama- tist, and poet, born in Essex. He made several successful Ameri- can tours (1886, 1888, 1889, 1893, Barrhead 1895, 1897), became manager of the Globe Theatre, London, and produced his own and G. R. Sims's The Golden Ladder and also The Lady 0} Lyons. In 1894 he produced The Manxman, and early in 1895 his great spectacular religious drama, The Sign of the Cross, appeared with great success at St. Louis, Mo., then at the Lvric Theatre, London, for over five hundred nights. In 1898 he paid a very successful visit to Australia, and on his return ap- peared again at the Lyceum, re- viving old plays, and producing his Man and his Makers, written in collaboration with Louis N. Parker. He dramatized Sienkie- wicz's Quo Vadis? (1900; new ed. 1902), and also wrote several novels. Barrhead, par. and tn. on R. Leven, Renfrewshire, Scotland, 9 m. s.w. of Glasgow, and 3^ m. S.E. of Paisley. The chief indus- tries are calico printing, shawl- weaving, cotton spinning and bleaching, and engineering. Pop. (1911) 11,387. Barrias, Louis Ernest (1841- 1905), French sculptor, b. Paris; gained the 'prize of Rome' (1865), and had exhibited in the Salon the Spinning Girl of Me gar a (1870), now in the Luxembourg Museum; The Oath of Spartacus (1871); Fortuna and Amor (1872); The First Funeral — Adam and Eve with Abel's corpse (1878), a bas- relief of great artistic value; Nature Unveiling (1899); and several monuments. Barricades, obstructive works thrown up in haste to arrest an enemy's progress through a street or give cover to the besieged, were used by the city of Saguntum against Hannibal. At the siege of Carthage the Romans took some six days to surmount the barricades opposed to them. In the wars of the League, the barricades raised by the Parisians compelled the retirement of Henry iii 's troops (Mayl2,1588) — 'journee des barri- cades.' Another 'journee des bar- ricades' is Aug. 26, 1648, when, in the war of the Fronde, barricades were erected in Paris from Notre Dame to within a pistol-shot of the Palais Royal. _ Other historic barricades of Paris are those of July 27-30, 1830, when Charles x. was dethroned, and of June 23- 26, 1848. Although Napoleon ill. widened and macadamized the streets of Paris, barricades were again raised in the insurrection of 1871. Barrie, city, cap. of Simcoe co., Ontario. Canada, on Lake Sim- coe, ana on Grand Trunk R. R, A U, S. consular agent is here stationed and there are extensive manufacturing interests, with a considerable output of leather, flour, stoves, woollen eoods and beer. Pop. (1011 ) 6,428. Barrie, James Matthew 593 (1860), Scottish novelist and dramatist, was born at Kirriemuir, Forfarshire ; went to Nottingham in 1883 as leader-writer on the staff of the Nottingham Journal; then to London, where he wrote ar- ticles for the St. Jameses Gazette, Speaker, National Observer, Brit- ish Weekly (as 'Gavin Ogilvy'), etc. His first notable book was Auld Licht Idylls (1888). This was followed by A Window in Thrums (1889) and My Lady Nicotine (1890). The Little Min- ister (1891) was his first serious attempt at a long novel. Mar- garet Ogilvy (a biography of his mother) and Sentimental Tommy appeared in 1896, the latter being followed by a sequel, Tommy and Grizel, in 1900. His first play. Walker, London (1892), was pro- duced by Mr. J. L. Toole. It was followed hy A Jane Annie (1893), written in collaboration with Co- J. M. Barrie. {Photo by Barrand.) nan Doyle. The Professor^ s Love Story was produced at the Garrick Theatre (London) in 1894, fol- lowed at the Haymarket (London) in 1897 by The Little Minister, an adaptation of his novel, played very successfully byMissMaudeAdams. The W edding Guest was produced at the Garrick in 1900, and What Every Woman Knows at the Duke of York's Theatre in 1908. Other dramatic successes have been The Admirable Crichton, played in the U. S. in 1904, and Little Mary. For Christmas, 1904, he produced a children's play, Peter Pan, and later, Alice Sit-by-the-Fire {1905). See the edition of his Novels, Tales, andSketchesinSvoh.O 897), and IlammertPn's /. M. Barrie and his Books (1900). Barrierc, Tiikodore (1823- 77), French dramatic author, born and died in Paris. He wrote over Barrington fifty plays, some of them in col- laboration with other authors; the best known being Les Filles de Marbre (1853) and Les Faux Bonhommes (1856), his master- pieces. He created the character of the raisonneur {of. his Desge- nais), who is now found in many new French plays, accompanying the action as a sort of moralizing chorus. Other well-known plays by him are a clever dramatization of Murger's La Vie de Boheme (1851), his first great success, Cendrillon (1858), Le Feu an Couvent (1859), Les Jocrisses de V Amour, and Malheur aux Vain- cus (1865). Barrier Reef. See Great Barrier Reef. Barrier Treaty, a treaty con- cluded in 1709 at the Hague be- tween England and the Nether- lands, by which the Netherlands republic obtained the right to occupy certain fortified places (Namur, Tournai, Menin, Furnes, etc.) in the Spanish Netherlands. In 1715 a similar treaty was concluded between the Nether- lands and Austria. In 1830 these same fortresses became part of Belgium, and were mostly de- stroyed after the erection of the fortifications of Antwerp. See Willequet's Histoire du Systeme de la Barricre (1847). Barrili, Antonio Giulio (1836), Italian writer, was born at Sa- vona. After taking part in the military campaigns of 1859, 1866- 67, he devoted himself entirely^ to literature, eventually becoming professor of Italian literature at the university of Genoa. He has published more than fifty novels, of which the early ones (simple tales of love, told in an admir- able style) are the best — Santa Cecilia (1866), Come un Sogno (1875), Val d'Olivi (1873), L'Olmo e I'Edera (1877), etc. Several of his later works have been trans- lated into English. Barrington, tn. and seaport, Shciburne co., Nova Scotia, on Barrington Bay. There arc large fishing interests and ships are built. A U. S. consular agent is stationed here. Pop. (including the suburb Barrington Passage) c. 1,800. Barrington, Daines (1729- 1800). English lawyer and an- tiquary, remembered chiefly as the correspondent of Gilbert White of Sclbourne. To Bar- rington, White wrote most of the letters which now make up his famous Natural History of Sel- bourne, the preparation of which Barrington is said to have strongly urged. See Nichols's Literary Anecdotes of the Eighteenth Cen- tury {1H12-15, 9 vols.). Barrington, George (1755-f. 1840), whose proper name wa-, Waldron, was of Irish birth; early became a professional thief Barrington in London, and in 1790 was trans- ported to Botany Bay. Released two years later, he rose to be high constable of Paramatta, N. S. W. A versatile author, he left A Voyage to Botany Bay (1801) and Histories of New South Wales (1802) and of New Holland (1808). See Life, Times, and Adventures of George Barrington (1820 ?). The oft-quoted line, 'We left our country for our country's good,' occurs in his prologue to Young's tragedy. The Revenge. Barrington, John Shute (1678-1734), son of a London merchant, was called to the bar (1699). His essay on Protestant Dissenters (1704-5) led to his being commissioned to proceed to Scotland, where he gained the Presbyterian interest in favor of the union of the two kingdoms. His Dissuasive from Jacohitism (1713) brought him the favor of George I. In 1720 he was made baron and viscount in Ireland. Twice returned to Parliament for Berwick-on-Tweed (1715 and 1722), he was expelled the House (1723) for his connection with the Harburg lottery. Barrington, Samuel (1729- 1800), British admiral, son of the preceding, served under Hawke in the Basque Road affair; in 1760 with Hon. J. Byron at Louisburg in Nova Scotia; and in 1761 with Keppel at Belle Isle. In 1778 he became commander-in-chief in the W. Indies, where he reduced St. Lucia, and defeated the French under D'Estaing. In the action off Grenada, in 1779, he was sec- ond in command to Byron, and in 1782 to Lord Howe at the relief of Gibraltar. He became an admiral in 1787. Barrios, Justo Rufino (1835- 85), president of Guatemala, rose to the supreme military com- mand under the administration of President Granados. He ob- tained the _ presidency in 1873, and held it until he met his death in the war with Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. Barrister. An advocate in the higher law courts of England and Ireland. In England he must be called by one of the Inns of Court, after keeping generally twelve terms at the inn by eating six (or, if a member of a university, three) dinners a term, passing examinations and Eaying certain fixed fees. The enchers of the inn may refuse to call any individual to the bar, subject to an appeal to the judges, who arc visitors of the inn, and originally had the right of calling to the bar. ^ Bar- risters have an exclusive right of audience in the High Court and Court of Appeal, and may have the same right in quarter sessions on an order by the justices. They have a right to conduct their 594 client's case, including a right to compromise it, and are not liable for mistakes or for negligence. They are privileged from arrest on their way to and from the courts. They may be guilty of contempt of court, and for any misconduct may be disbarred by the benches of their inn. They cannot sue for their fees, even though the solicitor has received them; and they are not liable to return their fees, even though they cannot attend a case. In litigious business, etiquette re- quires that a barrister should be instructed by a solicitor. See Advocate, the Scottish equiva- lent of barrister : Lawyer ; and King's Counsel. Barron, James {c. 1768-1851), American naval officer, born in Va. He became a captain in the U. S. navy in 1799 and a com- modore (then a courtesy title) in 1806. He commanded the Chesapeake when that vessel (un- prepared for action) was fired upon (in time of peace), June 22, 1807, by the British ship Leopard, and Barron was forced to surrender three of his crew, who, the British officer had al- leged, were British deserters. Barron was court-martialed for not having made sufficient re- sistance, and was suspended for five years, never afterward holding any responsible command, though in 1839 he became senior officer of the navy. In 1820, at Bladens- burg, he killed Decatur in a duel, and was himself badly wounded, Decatur having been one of his severest critics. See Chesapeake. Barros, JOAO DA (1496-1570), Portuguese historian, called the 'Livy of Portugal.' In 1522 he was made governor of the colony of Elmina (Guinea), W. Africa, and in 1532 treasurer of India. He tried to found a colony in Brazil (1539), but failed. Barros wrote the great historical work Asia Portugueza (1552-63, 3 vols.), the discovery, conquest, and deecs of the Portuguese in India. It was this book_ which inspired Camoens to write his great poem Os Luciadas. Barros-Arana, Diego (1824), Chilean historian and geographer, born at Santiago; has published a Hist, of Chilean Independence (1854-8): Htst. of the War of the Pacific (1881); Hist, of Chile (12 vols. 1884-93). Barrot, Camille Hyacinthe ODlLON(1791-1873),Frenchstatcs- m^n, took an active part in the revolution of July, 1830, and was ORC of the three commissioners who conducted Charles x. to Cherbourg. In 1840 he supported Thiers, but subsequently led an active opposition against Guizot and the conservatives, and was at the height of his popularity during the reform fever of 1847. Barrow He deplored the revolution of 1848, however, and after the flight of Louis Philippe supported the claim of the Count of Paris to the throne. Under Louis Napoleon he became president of the council; but the siege of Rome made him very unpopular, and he retired in 1851. In 1870 he was appointed president of the Decentralization Committee, and in 1872 coun- cillor of state and vice-president of the Council. Barrot's Me- moir es Posthumes (4 vols. 1875-6) attracted great attention. Barrow (O.E. beorh. *a little hill') is a term appliea by anti- quaries to the sepulchral mounds which are so numerous in the Brit- ish Isles, and indeed throughout a great part of the world. Some- times they are earthen mounds^ sometimes heaps of stones or cairns; and in the latter instances the name barp (a variant of beorh) is usually applied to them in the Outer Hebrides. Their ground plan is in most cases round, al- though frequently it is oval; and in height and extent of superficies they vary in a marked degree. The largest specimen in England is Silbury Hill, 130 ft. high. 'The manner in which the dead have been disposed^ within them dif- fers very considerably,' observes Canon Greenwell, speaking of British barrows. ' Sometimes the body, whether burnt or unburnt, has been placed in the mound without anything to protect it from the surrounding earth or stones. ^ Sometimes it has been placed in a small box of stone, a cist; at other times in the hollowed trunk of a tree, or in a grave sunk below the surface of the ground; and, when a burnt body, often in an urn, whilst in some instances the mound en- closes a large structure, suggest- ive rather of an abode for the living than of a resting-place for the dead.' The Vikings were frequently buried in their ships, over which earth was piled up till a barrow was formed. The skulls found in the round barrows of Britain are usually brachyccphalic; but Dr. Thur- nam's 'round barrows, round skulls; long barrows, long skulls' cannot be unreservedly accepted. See Nilsson's Primitive Inhabit' ants of Scandinavia (Eng. trans, by Sir J. Lubbock, 1868), Green- well's British Barrows (1877), D all's Cave Relics of the Aleutian Islands (1878), and Satow's An- cient Sepulchral Mounds^ Japan (1880). Barrow. (1.) The 'Birgos of PtolemV' (Joyce), riv., rises N. side of the Slieve Bloom Mts., Co. Queen's, Leinster, Ireland; flows generally s.; joins the Suir about 29 m. from the sea, to form, as its estuary^ Waterford harbor. Its chief tributaries are Barrow the Nore. Blackwood, and Greese rivers. Length, 119 m. Area of basin (including Suir), 3,555 sq. m. NavigaWe for vessels of 200 tons to New Ross, and for barges to Athy (70 m.), where it joins the Grand Canal. (3.) B. Strait, be- tween Lancaster Sound and Mel- ville Sound, Canada, 74° N., 90° to 100° w.; 40 m. broad. So named by Captain Parry (1879), after Sir John Barrow. Barrow, Isaac (1630-77), Eng- lish mathematician and divine, born in London, was appointed (1660) professor of Greek at Cam- bridge. Two years later he was nommated to the chair of geom- etry at Gresham College, London, and subsequently (1663) became Lucasian professor of mathemat- ics at Cambridge. This chair, again, in 1669 he resigned in fa- vor of his pupil, Isaac Newton. He was appointed master of Trin- ity College in 1672, and then laid the foundation of the famous Trinity College Library; in 1675 he was vice-chancellor of the uni- versity. Barrow was a man of strong character, and an eloquent and vigorous preacher. His math e=^ matical works included three able treatises — Lectiones OpticcB (1674) Lectiones Geometricce (1670), and Lectiones Mathematicm (1685). The best edition of the English theological works was that by Napier (9 vols. 1859), with a me- moir by Dr. Whewell, the edi- tor in 1860 of his Latin mathe- matical works. See Life of Bar- row (new ed. 1859), by Abraham Hill. Barrow, Sir John (1764-1848), English patron of Arctic explora- tion, was a poor, self-taught Lan- cashire boy. As secretary to Lord Macartney, he went with the first British embassy to China in 1792; in 1797 was employed in the settlement of affairs at the Cape of Good Hope, of which colony he subsequently wrote a history. Lord Mulgrave appointed him in 1804 second secretary of the Ad-, miralty, a post which he held for nearly forty years. In 1835 he was made a baronet. He was a great promoter of Arctic discov- ery, and the chief founder of the Royal Geographical Society(1830V Among other works, he wrote books of travel in China (1804), Cochin-China (1806), and S. Africa (1801-3); Lives of Macartney (1807),Howe (1838),Anson(1839), and Peter the Great (new ed. 1883); histories of modern Arctic exploration (1818 and 1846); and an autobiography ^1847). See Life by Staunton (1852). Barrow-in-Furness, munic. bor., pari, bor., co. bor., scapt., and manufacturing centre on the S.W. tip of detached portion of Lancashire, England. Walney channel affords safe anchorage for vessels drawing 21 ft. of water. Vol. I.— 43. 595 Once a fishing village. Barrow hag since 1847 made extraordinary progress owing to the discovery of pure haematite iron ore at Park, in the neighborhood. Furness Abbey forms a picturesque feature towards the N. The clocks (280 ac. in extent) are four in number — Devonshire, Buccleuch, Ramsden, and Cavendish; the first two 8. miLf:.') ',n '! opened in 1867 and 1873 respect- ively. The third is the Anchor Liner dock. The Cavendish is the timber basin, and is 142 ac. in extent. Shipbuilding forms an im- portant industry: the Naval Con- struction and Armament Com- {)any have accommodation for )uilding fifteen ships at a time; the Barrow Shipbuilding Com- Barrows pany have yards in Barrow I., whence came the City of Rome (8,453 tons) in 1881, and H.M.S. Dominion (16,350 tons) in 1903. There are huge steel and iron works (Bessemer steel works dat- ing from 1863), engineering, shops, foundries, jute factories, paper and pulp works, etc. The imports include general merchandise, cat- tie (from Belfast), flour, grain, ore, timber, petroleum (Russian); the exports, iron ore, pig iron, steel rails, etc. The total trade is val- ued at over $10,000,000 annually of which over $7,000,000 are ex- ports. Pop. (1847) 325; (1911) 63,775. Barrows, Elijah Porter (1807-88), American clergyman. Barrows was born at Mansfield, Conn., and graduated (1826) at Yale. He studied for the ministry and in 1835 was made pastor of the first Free Presbyterian Church in New York. He was professor of sacred literature in Western Reserve Col- lege, 1837-52, in 1853 was ap- pointed a professor at Andover Theological Seminary, and in 1872 at Oberlin College. He was the author of several theological works, and one of the editors cf the American Tract Society's BiHe Notes. Barrows, John Henry (1847- 1902), American clergyman, was born at Medina, Mich., and grad- uated (1867) at Olivet College. After various pastorates he ac- cepted the charge of the 1st Pres- byterian Church of Chicago, 1881- 96, in the latter year taking the newly-founded Christian lecture- ship in India, under the auspices of the University of Chicago. During his residence in Chicago he gained a great reputation as a pulpit orator. He was President of Oberlin College, 1898-1902. Author of Life of Henry Ward Beecher (1893) and The Christian Conquest o} Asia (1899). Barrows, Samuel June (1845), ^ • / American author, was born in 7(f(7 New York, and graduated (1875) at the Harvard Divinity School. / J jjg pastor of the 1st Unitar- ian Church of Dorchester, Boston, Mass., 1876-80; editor of the Christian Register, 1881-97; and served as a member of the U. S. Congress from Mass., 1897-9. Author of The Doom of the Ma- jority of Mankind (1883), Shay- backs in Camp (1887), Crimes and Misdemeanors in the United States, and other books. He was corre- sponding secretary of the Prison Association of New York and was considered an authority on penology. Barrow - upon - Soar, par., Leicestershire, England, 3 m. s.E. of Loughborough, and 10 m. N. of Leicester; has limestone quarries, and is engaged in the manufacture of cement and ho- siery. Pop. (1911) 23,740. Barrulet, in heraldry, a dimin- utive bar, generally one-fourth of a bar in width. Barry, in heraldry, is the term used when the field is divided by horizontal lines into an even Barry. number of equal portions. Barry of sin is one of the most common of parted coats, both with straight 596 and compound lines, in the ar- mory of all countries, and is borne by many great houses. Barry-bendy is the term used when a field is divided barwise and bendwise also, the tinctures being countercharged. Barry-pily is the name given to the field when it is divided by long narrow, pile- shaped indentations lying hori- zontally, or barwise, across it. Barry, seapt., Glamorgan, S Wales, 7 m. by rail s.w. of Cardiff. The docks (the property of the Barry Docks and Railway Com- pany) were opened in 1889. They are 114 ac. in extent, and have ac- commodation for the largest ves- sels afloat. There are three large graving docks of modern construc- tion. Pop. (1891) 4,722; (1911) 33,767. Barry, Alfred (1826), late bishop of Sydney and primate of Australia (1884-9), second son of Sir Charles Barry, architect, was principal of Cheltenham Col- lege (1862-8), and of King's Col- lege, London (1871-81); canon of Worcester ( 1 87 1-8 1 ), dean of West- minster (1881-4), and assistant bishop to the diocese of London (1897). Published Introduction to O. T. (1850) ; Boyle Lectures (1876, 1877, 1878); Christianity and Socialism (1891); Bampton Lectures (1892); Hulsean Lectures (1895). His Lije of his father appeared in 1867. Barry,SiRCHARLES,R.A.(1795- 1860), architect of the Houses of Parliament, Westminster, was born at Westminster, and in 1820 commenced practice as an architect in London. He was early entrusted with some nota- ble buildings, including King Edward vi.'s Grammar School at Birmingham, and the Travellers' and Reform Clubs in Pall Mall; and in 1835 his design was ac- cepted for the new palace of Westminster. He was knighted by Queen Victoria at the opening ceremony in 1852. He died in 1860, before the whole building' was completed, and was buried in Westminster Abbcv. See Lije by his son, Alfred Barry (1867). Barry, Mrs. Elizabeth (1658- . 1713), EngUsh actress who, be- tween 1673 and 1709, created no fewer than one hundred charac- ters, both in tragedy and comedy, of which the most famous were Belvidera, in Otway's Venice Preserved; Zara, in Congreve's The Mourning Bride; and Lady Brute, in Vanbrugh's The Pro- voked Wije. Otway concciyed for her a hopeless and pathetic pas- sion. See Gibber's Apology, p. 133 et scq. (1741) and BakePs English Actors from Shakespeare to Macready (1879). Barry, jAMEs(1741-1806),Trish artist, a native of Cork, studied art under West of Dublin, and also as a protege of Burke at Barry Paris and Rome. He was elected R.A. in 1773. At the Academy he was appointed (1782) professor of painting, but was deprived of his office in 1799 for having made false accusations against several of the members. The mural paintings for the room of the Society of Arts, at the Adelphi. London, form his best work. Barry, John (1745-18C3), American naval officer, born in Tacumshane, Co. Wexford, Ire- land. He emigrated to Phila- delphia about 1760, and in 1776, during the American Revolu- tion, was placed, by the Conti- nental Congress, in command of the Lexington. He subsequently commanded, in turn, the Effing- ham, the Raleigh (which was cap- tured 1778, Barry escaping), and the Alliance, in which ne carried Lafayette to France in 1781. During his service he fought a number of engagements, and won several victories. In 1794 he be- came a commodore in the U. S. navy. See M. 1. J. Griffin's John Barry (1903). Barry, Sir John Wolfe(1836), English engineer, youngest son of Sir Charles Barry, entered the office of Sir John Hawkshaw, leav- ing in 1867. He designed the Blackfriars, Kew, and Tower bridges over the Thames, and con- structed the Barry docks, docks at Hull and Middlesborough, and numerous railways in England, Scotland, India, and elsewhere. He has served on several royal commissions, including that on the port of London. He has writ- ten Railway Appliances (1874-92), Lectures on Railways and Locomo- tives (1882), and The Tower Bridge (1894). Barry, Spranger (1719-77), Irish actor, was the son of a Dublin silversmith, which occupa- tion he abandoned for the stage. He played (1744) in Dublin with imrhediate success, and then re- moved (1746) to London, where he became tne friend, and later the rival, of David Garrick. ' Gar- rick,' it is said, 'commanded most applause, Barry most tears.' See Murphy's Life of Garrick (1801), and Pollock's Actors and Actresses of Great Britain and the United States (1886). Barry, William Farquhar (1818-79), American soldier, born in New York city. He gradu- ated at West Point in 1838, be- came a brigadier-general of U. S. volunteers (Aug., 1861), soon after the outbreak of the Civil War, and was chief of artillery of the Army of the Potomac under Gen. McClellan during the Peninsular Campaign (1862), and under Gen. W. T. Sherman (1864-5) during the Georgia campaign, and the 'March to the Sea' and through the Carolinas. In Sept., 1864, he was brevetted major-general of Barry Cornwall 597 Bartb^Iemf volunteers for his services in the Atlanta campaign, and in March, 1865, major-general in the regular army for his services during the war. Barry Cornwall. See Procter. Bar'rymore, Ethel (1879- ), American actress, daughter of Maurice Barrymore (q.v) and niece of John Drew (q.v.), was born in Philadelphia, and was educated in the Convent of Notre Dame in that city. Her debut, made with John Drew's Company in 1896, was followed by a season in London as Pris- cilla in Secret Service. She subsequently played leading roles with Henry Irving, and starred in Captain Jinks (1900), Cousin Kate, A Doll's House (1905), Sunday (1906), Alice Sit-by-the- Fire (1906), The Second Mrs. Tanqueray (1925), and other well-known plays. She married Russell Griswold Colt. Barrymore, John (1882- ), American actor and film star, son of Maurice Barrymore (q.v.) and nephew of John Drew (q.v.), was born in Philadelphia. His theatrical debut, as Max in Magda (Chicago, 1903), was followed by seasons in New York, London, and Australia. He played Lord Meadows in Tod- dles, Mac in A Stubborn Cinder- ella, and Nathaniel Duncan in The Fortune Hunter, and starred in Kick-In, Galsworthy's Justice, Tolstoy's Redemption, Richard III., and The Jest, in which his brother Lionel Barrymore ap- peared as a co-star. In 1925 he went to London, organized his own company, played Hamlet, and was accorded high acclaim during a long season. He has been seen on the screen in Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, Beau Brummel, The Sea Beast, and Don Juan. Consult his Confes- sions of an Actor (1926). Barrymore, Lionel (1878- ), American actor and film star, son of Maurice Barrymore (q.v.) and nephew of John Drew (q.v.). His debut (1893) was made in The Rivals, in which his grand- mother, Mrs. John Drew, was appearing as Mrs. Malaprop. With her he appeared also in The Road to Ruin. Other plays in which he has taken leading parts include: Squire Kate, Cum- berland '6i, Arizona, The Second in Command, The Mummy and the Humming Bird, Pantaloon, The Fires of Hate, The Still Small Voice, The Jest, in which he was co-star with his brother John, and others. He has achieved marked popularity in motion pictures. Barrymore, Maurice (1847- 1905), actor and dramatist, whose real name was Herbert Blythe, was born in India. He was graduated from Oxford, studied for the India civil service, and was admitted to the English bar, but adopted the stage as a profession. In 1875 he went to the United States, where he made his debut at the Boston Theatre as Ray Trafford in Under the Gaslight, and appeared, also, as Captain Molyneaux in a revival of The Shaughran. The following year he married Geor- giana Drew (sister of John Drew), who often acted with him. Barrymore was at various times leading man for Modjeska, Fanny Davenport, Mrs. Langtry, Olga Nethersole, Mrs. Fiske, and others. He was an actor of more than common ability, handsome and dashing, with a dominating personality that won for him a host of admirers. He wrote Nadjeska, The Robber of the Rhine, and other plays. Bars-gemelles, barz-jem'el, or Bers-gemel, in heraldry, twin bars crossing the field, and so placed that the parts of the field above and below them are greater than the part between them. Bar's!, town, India, in Shola- pur district, Bombay Presidency; 128 miles east of Poona. Pop. (1921) 22,074. Barsin^, bar-si'ne, the daughter of Artabazus, and wife of Alexander the Great, to whom she bore a son, Heracles. When the son was fourteen years of age, he and his mother were secretly put to death by Cassander. Some authorities make Barsine the daughter of Darius Codoman- nus, and still others claim there were two women of the name, one a Greek and one a Persian, and that both were married to Alexander. Bart, or Barth, Jean (1650- 1702), French corsair, was born in Dunkirk. Having served in the Dutch navy, under Ruyter, in the campaigns of 1666 and 1667 against England, he entered the service of France (1672) and became captain of a priva- teer (1686). After performing many brilliant exploits in the Mediterranean and off the Eng- lish coasts, he was appointed by Louis XIV. chief of a squadron (1679), having p'-eviously ob- tained letters of nobility from the king for having captured a Dutch fleet laden with corn. Bartas, bar'ta', Guillaume de Salluste, Sieur du (1544- 90), French Huguenot poet, was born in Montfort. He was a faithful follower of Henry of Navarre, who sent him on va- rious missions, notably to Scot- land and England. His first poetic attempt was an epic, Judith, written in 1565 but not published until 1573. This was followed in 1578 by La semaine, a work on the creation which went through many editions and was translated into several languages. Bartas' poetry has vigor and a certain grandeur but is frequently marred by the grotesque. Bar'tels, Adolf (1862- ), Ger- man man of letters, was born in Wesselburen, Holstein. He be- came a journalist and settled in Berlin, where he devoted him- self to poetry, criticism, and the drama. His many publications include Dietrich Sebrandt (1899); Der Bauer in der deutschen Ver- gangenheit (1900); Geschichte der deutschen Liter atur (1901-2); a biography of Jeremias Gotthelf (1902); Adolf Stern (1905); Die Dithmarscher (1908) ; Die deutsche Not (1921); Jiidische Herkunft und Liter aturwiss ens chaft (192.5). Bartenstein, bar'ten-stin, town, East Prussia, on the Alle River; 32 miles southeast of Konigs- berg. It is a manufacturing centre and has a large grain trade. Here the treaty between Russia and Prussia was signed in 1807. Pop. 7,300. Bart'fa or Bartfeld, town, Czechoslovakia, in the county of Saros, on the Tapola River; 75 miles southeast of Cracow, Po- land. In the vicinity are cele- brated mineral springs. Pop. 6,500. Barth, bart, town and seaport, Prussia, in Pomerania, on the Bay of Barth; 20 miles northwest of Stralsund. It has a good harbor. Leading industries are shipbuilding, brewing, and the manufacture of leather and to- bacco. Pop. (1920) 7,344. Barth, Heinrich (1821-65), German traveller, was born in Hamburg. He visited Northern Africa in 1845, voyaged up the Nile, explored Arabia and the provinces of Asia Minor, and later, at the request of the British government, took part in the expedition for the explora- tion of Central Africa, for which he set out in 1849, with James Richardson and Dr. Overweg. After nearly six years in Africa, during which both his com- panions perished, Barth returned to Europe in 1855. In 1857 he published his Travels and Dis- coveries in North and Central Africa (5 vols.; new ed. 1890). In 1862 he explored Eastern Turkey. He also wrote Wander- ungen durch die Kiistenldnder des Mittelmeers (1849), Reise von Trapezunt nach Skutari (1860), and other works. Barth, Jean. See Bart. Barthclemy, bar-ta-l'-me'. Au- gust Marseille (1796-1867), French poet, was born in Mar- seilles. After the Restoration he settled in Paris, where he soon attracted attention by his satiric attacks on the Bourbons, which at length caused his imprison- ment. Liberated by the July Revolution, he allied himself with Louis Phillipe, defending his change of politics by the oft quoted line: L'homme absurde est Vol. I.— Oct. '26 Barth^lemy 698 BartlesTlUe celui qui ne change jamais. His more serious work includes Na- poleon en Egypte, Fils de I'homme, and L' Insurrection, all of which were produced in collaboration with his friend and compatriot, J. P. A. Mery. Barthelemy, Jean Jacques (1716-95), French writer and scholar, was born in Cassis, in Provence. In 1753 he was appointed keeper of the Royal Cabinet of Medals. His Voyage du jeune Anacharsis en Grece (4 vols. 1787), which occupied him thirty years, attained great popularity, and was translated into several languages — into Eng- lish by W. Beaumont (5th ed., in 6 vols., 1817). Barthelemy Saint - Hilaire, Jules (1805-95), French states- man and scholar, was appointed to the chair of Greek and Roman philosophy in the College de France in 1838, and member of the Academy in 1839. He en- tered the Assembly after the revolution of 1848, was impris- oned on the coup d'etat of Dec. 2, 1851, and on his release resigned his professorship, in which, how- ever, he was reinstated in 1862. In 1871 he was elected to the Assembly at Bordeaux, and gave consistent support to Thiers, whose secretary he became (1872-3). He was minister of foreign affairs in Jules Ferry's cabinet (1880-81). His principal works are translations of Aris- totle (1839-44), De I'ecole d'Alex- andrie (1838), Des Vedas (1854), Du Bouddhisme (1855), Le Boud- dha et sa religion (1866), Ma- homet et le Cor an (1867), Pensees de Marc-Aurele (1876), L'Inde Anglaise (1887), La philosophie dans ses rapports avec les sciences et la religion (1889), and Francois Bacon (1890) . Barthelemy Saint- Hilaire was the literary executor of Thiers and of Victor Cousin, whose Life he wrote (1895). Barthold, bar'tolt, Friedrich WiLHELM (1799-1858), German historian, was born in Berlin. On the publication of Der Romerzug Konig Heinrichs von Liitzelburg (1830-31), his greatest work, he was appointed pro- fessor of history at Greifswald. Bartholdl, bar-t5l-de', Fred- eric AUGUSTE (1834-1904), French sculptor, of Italian an- cestry, was born in Colmar, Alsace. He was commissioned by the French government to exe- cute a huge statue of Liberty for presentation to the American government in commemoration of the centenary of its inde- pendence. This statue. Liberty Enlightening the World, was completed in 1884, and in 1886 was erected on Bedloe's Island in New York Harbor (see Liberty, Statue of; New York City). Most of Bartholdi's other works were of a quasi- VOL. I. — Oct. '26 historical or patriotic character — e.g.. The Lion of Belfort (1880), a monument to Lafayette in New York (1873), another to Ver- cingetorix at Clermont-Ferrand (1902), and Helvetia carrying Help to Strasshurg (1895). Bartholdt, bar-tolt', Richard (1855- ), American legislator and editor, was born in Germany, and went to the United States when a boy. He received a classical education, learned the printer's trade, and later en- gaged in journalism, becoming editor-in-chief of the St. Louis Tribune. He was a representa- tive (Rep.) in Congress from 1893 to 1915, when he retired to devote himself to literary pur- suits. He was widely known for his activity in behalf of inter- national peace, serving as presi- dent of the Arbitration Group in Congress, which he founded, and as president of the Interparlia- mentary Union for the Promo- tion of International Arbitration. Bartholome, bar-t5-la-ma', Paul Albert (1848- ), French painter and sculptor, was born in Thiverval (Seine-et-Oise). He studied painting in Geneva under Menn and in Paris under Gerome, and between 1879 and 1886 exhibited at the Salon many genre pictures, the best being The Meal of the Old People at the Workhouse (1880) and Recreation (1885). After 1886 he devoted himself to sculpture, and may be said to be the interpreter in stone of human despair. His master- piece. Monuments to the Dead, was bought by the city of Paris in 1899 and placed at the entrance to Pere-la-Chaise ceme- tery. Other works of note are La douleur, Jeune fille pleurant, Adam et Eve chassis du Paradis, and Le secret. Barthoromew (son of Talmai), one of the twelve disciples of Jesus, frequently, though not conclusively, identified with Na- thanael (q.v.). In the lists of apostles he is always associated with Philip. The later accounts of his preaching in India, Ar- menia, Egypt, and elsewhere, and the various stories of his martyrdom, are wholly un- founded. Bartholomew, Edward Shef- field (1822-58), American sculp- tor, was born in Colchester, Conn., and studied at Rome. His most famous statues are Blind Homer led by his Daughter, Ganymede and the Eagle, and The Repentant Eve. . The Wads- worth Gallery, at Hartford, Conn., has a large collection of his works. He died at Naples. Bartholomew Bayou, a river of the Southern United States, rising in Jefferson county, Arkan- sas, and after a circuitous course of 275 miles discharging into the Ouachita River, La. It is nav- igable for most of its length. Bartholomew Fair, an English market held annually from 1133 in West Smithfield, London, on the festival of St. Bartholomew (Aug. 24, old style). In early times it was the principal cloth fair in England — leather, pewter, and cattle being also extensively sold. Later it became a pleasure fair of diversified character and in 1855 was abolished as a nuis- ance, after having been held since 1840 at Islington. Bartholomew, Massacre of St., the massacre of the Hugue- nots which began in Paris on St. Bartholomew's Day, Aug. 24, 1572. It was the result of a feud between the house of Guise and the Catholics and the house of Conde and the Huguenots (Protestants), and is generally admitted to have been performed at the instigation of Catharine de' Medici (q.v.). The atrocities inaugurated in Paris by the murder of Coligny and Teligny extended to Orleans (Aug. 27), Lyons (Aug. 30), and Rouen (Sept. 17). The total number of those massacred is stated vari- ously at from 2,000 to 100,000. Bartholomew's (St.) Hospital, a royal hospital in Smithfield, London, founded in 1123 by Rahere, also founder and prior of the adjoining priory, the church of which is now known as St. Bartholomew the Great. It was made a sanctuary by Ed- ward II., but both hospital and priory were dissolved by Henry VIII., who refounded the hospital in 1547. It was rebuilt in 1729, and now has more than 750 beds. Attached are a medical school, founded in 1843, a convalescent home at Swanley, Kent, and an out-patient and casualty depart- ment. Barthou, bar - too', Louis (1862- ), French public official, was born in Oloron-Sainte-Marie. He was educated at the Lycee de Pau and in 1889 was elected to the Chamber of Deputies. He became Minister of Public Works in 1894, and between 1896 and 1913 was successively Minister of the Interior, of Public Works, and of Justice. From May to December 1913 he was Premier. During the Great War he was Minister of State and subse- quently was Minister of Foreign Affairs and of War. In 1926 he was made Minister of Justice in the Poincare ministry. He was elected to the Academy in 1918. Bar'tizan, a small overhanging turret, with loopholes and em- brasures, projecting from an angle of tower or wall; a characteristic feature of the so-called Scottish- baronial style of architecture. Bar'tlesvllle, city, Oklahoma, county seat of Washington county, on Little Verdigris River, Bartlett 599 BartoU and on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe, and the Missouri- Kansas-Texas Railroads; 42 miles north of Tulsa. It has an Elks' Home, Carnegie library, and city and county buildings. Silver Lake is a feature of interest. The city is the centre of an important oil producing area. Zinc and natural gas also occur in the vicinity. Pop. (1910) 6,181; (1920) 14,417. Bart'lett, Sir Ellis Ashmead (1849-1902), British politician, son of the Rev. Ellis Bartlett, of Plymouth, Mass., was born in Brooklyn, N. Y. He was called to the bar (1877); became m.p. for Eye (1880), and for Eccle- sall Division, Sheffield (1885- 1902); served as civil lord of the Admiralty (1885-92), and was knighted in 1892. He was a Conservative and the champion of the Sultan of Turkey in the House of Commons. In 1897 he was captured by a Greek warship as a suspected spy. He published in the same year The Battlefields of Thessaly. Bartlett, Homer Newton (1845-1920), American composer, was born in Olive, N. Y., and studied under leading masters. He made his permanent residence in New York City, where he gave instruction on the organ, and was organist of the Madison Avenue Baptist Church, and president of the Manuscript Society. His vocal and instru- mental compositions, which are numerous, include Concert Polka, Toccata, U Amour (song), and a cantata, The Last Chieftain. Bartlett, John (1829-1905), American author, was born in Plymouth, Mass. He was a vol- unteer paymaster in the U. S. Navy in 1862-3, and in 1865-89 was senior member of a well- known Boston publishing house. He is best known by his Familiar Quotations (1854), an admirable and much-used compilation of selections from standard prose and poetry. His other works in- clude: New Method of Chess Notation (1857); Shakespeare Phrase Book (1882); Catalogue of Books on Angling, Including Ichthyology, Pisciculture, ' etc. (1882); The Shakespeare Index, The Complete Concordance to Shakespeare' s Dramatic Works (1894). Bartlett, John Russell (1805- 86), American author, statesman, and bibliographer, was born in Providence, R. I. He was en- gaged in the banking business until 1837, when he went to New York, and became a successful foreign bookseller. He was one of the commissioners for the de- limitation of the Mexican fron- tier (1850-53) and published an interesting Narrative of Explora- tions and Incidents in Texas, New Mexico, California, Sonora, and Chihuahua (1854). From 1855 to 1872 he was secretary of state of Rhode Island. He was superin- tendent of the John Carter Brown Library for several years, and prepared its four-volume catalogue. His other publica- tions include: Records of the Colony of Rhode Island and the Providence Plantations (10 vols., 1856-65); Progress of Ethnology (1848); Dictionary of American- isms (1850; 4th ed. 1877); and Bibliotheca Americana (1865-71). Bartlett, Josiah (1729-95), American political leader, was born in Amesbury, Mass., and became a physician in New Hampshire. Eagerly espousing the cause of the colonists in the controversies with the British government, he became a mem- ber of the New Hampshire Committee of Safety (1775), and of the Continental Congress (1775-6), serving on the com- mittee which drafted the Articles of Confederation and signing the Declaration of Independence. He was subsequently chief justice of New Hampshire (1782-90), president of New Hampshire (1790-2), and the first governor of the State (1792-4) after the adoption of the Constitution of 1792. Bartlett, Paul Wayland (1865-1925), American sculptor, was born in New Haven, Conn. He was educated in the public schools of New Haven and Boston, and studied at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris. In his early career he dealt mainly with animal subjects, as in the Bohemian Bear Trainer, now in the Metropolitan Museum, and the Dying Lion. Other important works are statues of Columbus and Michelangelo (in the Con- gressional Library, Washington, D.C.), the equestrian Lafayette, the Ghost Dancer (in the Penn- sylvania Academy, Philadelphia) ; figures on the pediment on the National House of Representa- tives, and six allegorical figures for the New York Public Library. The equestrian Lafayette was duplicated by him for the town of Metz, as a gift from the Knights of Columbus of America. Bart- lett's art is essentially monu- mental, with a happy balance between the austere and the pic- turesque. He was a member of the jury of awards at the Paris Expositions of 1889 and 1900, and was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honor in 1895. Bartlett, Robert Abram (1875- ), American explorer, was born in Brigus, Newfound- land. He was educated at St. John's College, Newfoundland, and in 1905 passed the examina- tion for 'Master of British Ships.' He began his career as an ex- plorer by wintering with Peary (1897-8) at Cape D'Urville. commanded the Roosevelt in Peary's expedition to the North Pole (1905-9), and in 1913-14 was in command of the Karluk in the Canadian Government's Arctic Expedition, which reached Wrangel Island. He commanded the third Crocker Land Relief Expedition in 1917 and during the Great War was marine superintendent of Army Trans- port Service in New York. He was awarded the Chas. P. Daly medal by the American Geograph- ical Society. He is the author of Last Voyage of the Karluk. Bartlett, Samuel Colcord (1817-98), American educator, was born in Salisbury, N. H. He was graduated (1836) from Dartmouth College, studied for the Congregational ministry, and held various pastorates and educational positions until his appointment, in 1858, as pro- fessor of biblical literature in Chicago Theological Seminary. From 1877 to 1892 he was presi- dent of Dartmouth College. The account of his trip across the desert of El Tih in 1874, taken with the object of comparing that region with the description in the Bible narrative, is given in From Egypt to Palestine, Observations of a Journey (1879). Bartlett, William Francis (1840-76), American soldier, was born in Haverhill, Mass. He was graduated from Harvard, and during the Civil War served with marked ability on the Federal side, rising from the rank of private to that of briga- dier-general of volunteers (June 20, 1864). On March 13, 1865, he was brevetted major-general of volunteers for 'gallant and meritorious services during the war.' He was taken prisoner at Petersburg (July 30, 1864), and was confined for a short time in Libby Prison, at Richmond, Va. He was especially distinguished for his bravery in action, it having been said that 'in every engagement in which he took part, with the exception of his first at Balls Bluff, he was wounded within an hour from the time the first gun was fired.' Bartlett, William Henry (1809-54), English artist and author, was born in London and was apprenticed to an architect. He spent his life chiefly in travel, making drawings of scenes in England, on the continent of Europe, in Palestine, and in the United States and Canada. The greater number were published, with letter-press by himself. Bar toll, bar'to-le, Adolfo (1833-94), Italian Uterary his- torian, was born in Fivizzano and held the professorship of literary history at the Floren- tine Institute of Higher Studies from 1874 until his death. His principal work is the Storia della Vol. I.— Oct. '26 Bartoll 600 Barton letteratura italiana (7 vols. 1878- 89), the first critical history of Italian literature, now to some extent superseded by the work of Gaspary. He also edited The Voyages of Marco Polo (1859), dealt with the evolution of the Renaissance (1877), and with the predecessors of Boc- caccio (1878), and in 1881 published Scenari inediti della commedia delV arte. BartoU, or Bartolo, Taddeo (1363-1422), Italian painter, was born in Siena and lived succes- sively in Perugia and Pisa. His work includes a picture of the Virgin for the church of San Paolo air Orto, Pisa, and frescoes depicting the life of the Virgin in the cathedrals of Siena, Pisa, Genoa and Perugia. One of his earliest works. The Virgin among the Saints (1390), is now in the Louvre. Bartolini, bar-to-le'ne, Lor- enzo (1777-1850), Italian sculp- tor, was born in Vornio, near Florence, and in 1797 went to Paris, where he established his reputation with the bas-relief Cleobis and Biton. He was a favorite of Napoleon, of whom he executed a bust, and who entrusted him with the estab- lishment of a school of sculpture at Carrara in 1808. Later he was professor of sculpture in the Academy at Florence. Among his many works, the most cele- brated are the group of Charity, Hercules and Lichas, Faith in God, and Pyrrhus hurling Asty- anax from the Walls of Troy. He also executed busts of Byron, Thiers, and Pius ix. Bartolommeo di Pagholo del Fattorino, bar-t6-lom-ma'5, Fra, known also as Baccio della Porta (c. 1475-1517), one of the greatest of the Florentine artists, was born in Soffignano, a village near Prato, the son of a mule- teer. He studied under Cosimo Roselli and when very young set up a studio of his own. Inspired by the preaching of Savonarola, he publicly burned his studies in the nude and after Savonarola's martyrdom entered the convent of San Domenico as Fra Bartolommeo (1500). After four years, during which he touched neither pencil not brush, he was persuaded to attempt an altar piece for the chapel in the Badia, the result being the Vision of St. Bernard, now in the Belle Arti in Florence. About 1506 he formed an acquaintance with Raphael and this grew into a warm friendship, the in- fluence of which is to be seen in the works of both artists. In 1510 Bartolommeo set up a studio with his life-long friend, Albertinelli, and in 1514 he went to Rome, where, influenced by the work of Michelangelo, he painted the large pictures of Vol. I. — Oct. '2G St. Peter and St. Paul, both of which were finished by other hands, probably Raphael's. He returned to Florence in 1515 and there remained, except for short visits, until his death. Bartolommeo left a great number of masterpieces charac- terized by deep religious feeling. His work shows force and power, beauty of coloring, and masterly handling of composition. His influence upon Italian art was fourfold: he preceded Raphael in a scientific system of compo- sition, based on principles of strict symmetry; he combined harmony of tone with brilliance of color; he elaborated his landscape backgrounds beyond the practice of his contempor- aries; he was the inventor of the lay figure. Among the best of his numerous paintings are a Pieta, a Resurrection, and Salvator Mundi in the Pitti Palace, Florence; Last Judgment, painted for Santa Maria Novella, and Enthronement of the Virgin, Uffizi Gallery, Florence; portrait of Savonarola, Florence; many frescoes in the convent of San Marco; and The Marriage of St. Catherine, Louvre, Paris. Con- sult Scott's Fra Bartolommeo. Bartolozzi, bar-to-lot'se, Fran- cesco (1727-1815), Italian en- graver, son of a goldsmith, was born in Florence. He studied art in the Florentine Academy, giving special attention to an- atomy, and in 1745 was articled to Joseph Wagner, an historical engraver in Venice. After a six years' apprenticeship he removed to Rome, and under the patron- age of Cardinal Bottari, executed portrait heads for a new edition of Vasari's Lives of the Painters. In 1764 he removed to England, where he spent nearly forty years in London, first as engraver to King George iiL, and later as his own master. From 1802 until his death he was head of the National Academy at Lisbon. Bartolozzi was an engraver of high merit, but his work is sometimes marred by haste and superficiality. He is said to be the inventor of the *red-chalk manner of engraving,' a sort of soft-ground etching which be- came exceedingly popular in England. Among his best productions are a series of etchings of Guercino's drawings; Clytie and Silence, after Carracci; Madonna del Sacco, after Andrea del Sarto, and Mater Dolorosa, after Dolci. Consult Tuer's Bartolozzi and his Works; Bailly's Bartolozzi. Bar'ton, Andrew (?-1511), Scottish naval commander whose daring and skill in capturing richly laden Portuguese ships, in reprisal for plundering his father's merchant vessels, won for him the favor of all Scotland. In 1506 he completely cleared the Scottish coasts of Flemish pi- rates, sending the king three barrels filled with their heads. Two years later he aided Den- mark against Liibeck. He was killed in a naval encounter with the Englishmen Sir Thomas and Sir Edward Howard, which event is celebrated in the old ballad Sir Andrew Barton. Barton, Bernard (1784- 1849), known as the 'Quaker poet,' was a native of Carlisle, England. He first engaged in trade, but afterward became a bank clerk at Woodbridge, in Suffolk, where he worked for forty years. His poems (1812, 1818, 1820) are distinguished by pious sentiment, pathos, and ten- derness. He is chiefly known, however, as the friend of Charles Lamb. Consult Letters and Poems edited by his daughter, with a Memoir by Edward FitzGerald. Barton, Clara (1821-1912), American philanthropist, was born in Oxford, Massachusetts. After teaching for eighteen years, she obtained a clerkship in Washington (1855), but resigned this at the opening of the Civil War to devote herself to the care of sick and wdunded soldiers. At the close of the war she in- augurated and carried on a systematic search for missing men, thus gaining a national reputation. She worked with the International Red Cross in the Franco-German War (1870-71) and by her efforts established and became the first official president (1881-1904) of the American Red Cross. Besides work in the Russian famine (1892) and fol- lowing the Armenian massacre (1896), she performed field duties in the Spanish-American War (1898) and in the Boer War (1899-1902), as well as super- intending other relief work car- ried on by the Red Cross. In 1905, when the National First Aid Association of America was organized, she became its first president. She published reports of her work and History of the Red Cross in Peace and War (1898), Story of the Red Cross (1904), Story of My Childhood (1907). Consult, also, Lives by Epler and by Wm. Barton. Barton, Elizabeth (1506-34), the 'Maid of Kent,' was a tavern servant at Aldington in Kent. She came out of an illness in a hysteric condition, and under priestly influence announced her- self (1525) as a prophetess, and delivered, as a revelation, the warning that should Henry vin. persist in carrying out his divorce from Catherine of Aragon, he would not survive that act seven months. Events falsified her pre- diction, she confesvsed the impos- ture, and, with six accom- plices, was executed at Tyburn. Bartow Bartow, tn., co. seat of P«lk CO., Fla., on the Plant System of R. Rs. Here are located the Summerlin and the South Flor- ida Military Institutes. There are large phosphate mining and orange- raising interests. Pop. (1910) 2,6G2. Bartram, John (1699-1777), American botanist, was born near Derby, Pa. He founded the first botanical garden in the United States, 1728, near Philadelphia, and made many journeys to unex- plored regions of North America in search of specimens. He pub- lished an account of his Observa- tions (1751) on a visit to the Lake Ontario regions, and was a cor e- spondent of foreign botanists. See Memoirs of John Bartram, by William Bartram. Bartram, WiLtiAM (1 739- 1823), American botanist, son of John Bartram, was born near Philadelphia, Pa., and established himself in business in N. C, but soon gave this up to accompany his father on his travels. He set- tled at Philadelphia, 1771, and was subsequently devoted entirely to botanical and ornithological studies. An account of his travels is given in Travels throtigh North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida (1791). Bartsch, Karl (1832-88), Ger- manic and Romance scholar, was custodian of the Germanic Mu- seum at Nuremberg (1855), and then_ occupied the chair of Ger- manic and Romance philology at Rostock (1858) and at Heidelberg (1871) successively. He edited a number of early German texts, and wrote several treatises on Germanic, of which the most im- portant is the Untersuchungen ilber das Nibelungenlied (1865). In Romance, his two Provencal Chrestomathies (4th ed. 1882) and the similar work for Old French (5th ed. 1884) have been much used. Indispensable to the stu- dent of Provencal is the Grund- Hss zur Geschichte der prov. Litt. (1872) ; As a translator he ren- aered into German, among other works, Burns's songs and ballads (1865), Dante's Commedia in the original metre (1876), and Old French popular songs (1882). His version of the Nibelungenlied reached a second edition in 1880. Bartsia, in botany, a genus of the order Scrophulariaceae. The rare purplish blue bartsia (B. alpina) is found in the arctic regions of America. These plants, like some others of the same order, are semi-parasitic on other plants. Into which they send suckers. Barttclot, Major Edmund MuSGRAVE (1859-1888). English officer, son of Sir W. Barttelot, distinguished himself in Afghan- istan and Egypt; accompanied H. M. Stanley on the expedition for the relief of Emin Pasha, and is 601 supposed to have been murdered by Manyema carriers. For a defence against the charges of cruelty brought against him see the Life written by his brother (1890). Baru, a fluffy, cotton-like fibre obtained from an E. Indian sago palm ; used instead of feathers to stuff pillows, and as a substi- tute for tow in calking boats. Baruch ('blessed'), the friend and amanuensis of Jeremiah. He shared many of the prophet's misfortunes, notably his exile in Egypt, and subsequently, accord- ing to Josephus (Antiq., X. ix. 7), in Babylon. Bunsen erroneously identifies Baruch with the 'great unknowa' prophetic writer of Isa. 40-66. See Jer. 32, 36, etc.; Cheyne's Jeremiah: his Life and Times (1888) ; and the two follow- ing articles. Baruch, a book of the Apoc- rypha, extant in Greek, purport- ing to have been written in the main by the above. It falls into four parts — (1) ch. 1:1-14, a his- torical introdviction, quite unre- Hable; (2) 1:15-3:8, confession and prayer of the captives in Bartsia alpina. 1, Pistil ; 2, corolla (opened) and stamens. Bab;j^lon, probably from a Hebrew original, and dating from the 3rd century B.C.; (3) 3:9-4:4, a eulogy of wisdom, addressed to the exiles, from about 70 A.D.; and (4) 4:9- 5:9, odes celebrating the return from captivity, still later. These heterogeneous elements were joined together probably towards the close of the 1st centurj'^ a.d. Baryton Attached to Uaruch (as ch. 6) is the Epistle of Jeremy. See Clif- ford's commentary in Speaker's Apocrypha (1888). Baruch, The Apocalypse of, a remarkable work, made known to scholars by the discovery of a Syriac MS. in 1866. The Syriac is evidently translated from the Greek, and the Greek was prob- ably translated from ^ Hebrew. The friend of Jeremiah is made to speak throughout in the first per- son, and relates the divine dis- closures made to him in Jerusa- lem. The work comes from four or five different hands, probably Pharisees, and assumed its present form about the first quarter of the 2nd Christian century, or a little earlier. It is thus contem- poraneous with the New Testa- ment writings, and herein lies the value of the book. See R. H. Charles's Apocalypse of Baruch 1896), and W. J. Deane's Pseud- epigrapha, pp. 130-162 (1888). Barus, Carl Hazard (1856-), American physicist, was born at Cincinnati, O., and was educated at Columbia and in Germany. He was physicist to the U. S. Geological Survey in 1880-92, professor of meteorology in the U. S. Weather Bureau in 1892-93, and physicist of the Smithsonian Institution in 1893-95, when he took the chair of physics at Brown University. His publications in- c\\xde Experiments with Ionized Air 1901) ; Structure of the Nucleus 1902) ; Nucleation of the Atmos- phere (190G); Condensation Induced by Nuclei and Ions (1907-8). Barwood. See Camwood. Barye, Antoine Louis (1795- 1875), one of the greatest of French sculptors. He served in the army from 1812 to 1814. For years he fought against poverty and opposition, till recognition of his talent came fron-' the U. S. through his friend Mr. Walters, whose fine art collection at Baltimore con- tains many of his be,t bronzes, such as The Orleans Group, The Hunt of the Wild Ox. jiarye was unexcelled in illustrating groups of animals in vigorous action, the best example being his Lion Struggling witn a Snake (1832). Another notable work is the Lion Resting (1847). Both are in the Tuileries. Barye also, in the specimens on the fagade of the new wing of the Louvre (War, Peace, Force, Order), treated the human figure in heroic sculpture with equal mastery. See Brown- ell's French Art (1892); Gruclle's Notes on the Walters Collection, Baltimore; BrowncU's French Art (1892); Ballu's L'CEuvre de Barye (1890). Baryton, or ViOLA Di bardone a stringed instrument, invented in 1700, but not now in use, some- what resembling the viola da gamba. Leopold Mozart eulogized Barytone 602 Baseball its beauty of tone, and Haydn, who tried hard to learn it, left 175 compositions for the instrument. Barytone. See Baritone. Bas, or Batz, a small island in the EngHsh Channel, 2.^ miles from the coast and 15 miles northwest of Morlaix, in the department of Finistere, France. It has a light- house at an elevation of 212 feet, 2 forts, and 4 batteries. There are 3 lishing villages. Pop 1,200. Basalt, certain volcanic or erup- tive rocks possess a micro- or crypto- crj'Stalline structure, consisting of crystals embedded in an amorphous or glassy ground mass. This struc- tural form is caused by rapid cool- ing, since complete crystallization only takes place through very slow State University (1893-5), lecturer and associate professor (1895- 1900) , professor of geology since 190(3 at Bryn M-wr College. She acted as gcologica.1 assistant (189G- 1901) , and assistant geologist since 1901, on the United States Survey. She is a fellow of the Geological Society ot America. She has writ- ten numerous bulletins and papers in technical journals, and collab- orated on Geologic Folios. Bascom, John (1827), American educator, was born in Genoa, N. Y. He graduated (1849) at Williams, and studied theology at Andover. From 1855 to 1874 he was professor of rhetoric at Williams; president of the University of Wisconsin from 1874 to 1887, when he resigned. He cooling. Mineralogically, rocks of Vreturned to Williamstown, and gave this group consist essentially of ^lectures at the college on sociology some form of feldspar, with liorn- ^\and political science. He has writ- blende or augite and quartz. \ten extensively on educational, According to the relative pre- V^psychological, and theological sub- ponderance of either silicic acid or ^jects, some of his books being bases, they are divided into two sub- .^Po///zca/ Economy (1853); Science, groups — namely, acidic and basic ^Philosophy, and Religion (1871); rocks. In the latter class there is a Growth of Nationality in the United predominance of either hornblende States (1899); God and His Good- or augite and plagloclase, with a siUca content of" 40 to 5 J per cent, and speci.ic gravity of 2.9 to 3.1. To this class belongs basaltic rock. It is then an igneous rock, made up of augite feldspar (silicate of mag- nesium, calcium, and iron) and ■plagioclase feldspar (silicate of cal- cium and sodium^ as esseniial con- stituents, with certain accessory minerals, as magnetite (magnetic iron ore), ' ilmenite (titanium iron oxide), and oUvine (silicate of mag- nesium and iron). Varieties of ba- salts distinguished by presence of notable quantities of certain silicates are olivine, leucite, and nepheHne basalts. Basaltic rocks are usually black, dark brown, or greenish black, and vary from a fine-grained to a coarsely crystalline structure, with a tendency to cleave into hexagonal columns. The usual type is of fine grain, and black, due to the pres- ence of magnetite and augite, in which the only mineral recognizable by the eye is the olivine. Basaltic rocks are abundant, and widely distributed in those regions which have undergone mure recent vol- canic disturbances— ii.g.. North Ire- land, West Scotlbi,nd, Western United States, Iceland, India, Africa, and the Hawaiian Islands. A feature of basalti/: lava flows is their columnar jointing, which pro- duces the characteristic scenery of the Giant's Causeway and Fin- gal's Cave in Ireland. Bascom, Florence, American geologist, daughter of John Bas- com (q.v.), was born in Williams- town, Mass. She was graduated at the University of Wisconsin (1882), and pursued post-graduate work at that university and at Johns Hop- kins until 1893. She was instructor in geology and petrograjjhy at Ohio ness (1901). Base, in chemistry, includes those hydroxides of metals which neutral- ize acids by partly or entirely re- placing their hydrogens, thereby yielding compounds called salts. When soluble in water, they turn red htmus blue and possess caustic Eroperties. Bases are termed mono- ydric, dihydric, or trihydric valent or acidic, according to the number of hydroxyl groups present. See Acid; Salts; Solutions. Base, in heraldry, is the lower portion of a shield. Charges borne therein are blazoned in base, and particularly in dexter base, middle base, or sinister base, according as they appear to the right, the centre, or the left. Baseball, a field game so uni- versally popular in the United States thai it is called "^the National Game.' It is claimed to have had its origin in the 'town ball' of the New England States of the thirties. This, however, was played on a square field, instead of a diamond, and the runs were made around four foot posts set in the ground, in- stead of bases. The Washington Club of New York, organized in 1843, seems to have been the first to use the diamond, and its game was called the 'New York,' as distin- guished from the 'Massachusetts game' of the New England States. The Knickerbocker Baseball Club, in 1845, first formulated a code of rules, and the first match game was played in 184G. In 1850, clubs were organized in Boston and Phil- adelphia; in 1852, the Gotham Club was formed in New York; in 1854, the Eagle and Empire; and in 185G, the Baltics and Putnams. In 1857 a convention was held, at which delegates were present from sixteen clubs. In 1858 a second conven- tion was held, and twenty-five clubs were represented. The National Association of Baseball Players was organized, and held annual con- ventions thereafter, revising the rules from time to time. The first gate-money series of matches was played at Flushing, L. I., in 1858, The first series of championship games was played in 1858 and 1859 at the Elysian Field, Hoboken, N. J. In 1800 the Excelsior Club of Brooklyn started on a tour through Western New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, arousing much en- thusiasm along the route. Baseball clubs spiang up everywhere in the territory visited. The Civil War gave baseball a serious setback, but with the close of the war interest revived; and at a convention which assembled in 18G5, delegates from thirty clubs were present. Within the ranks of the players a class of trained pro- fessionals presently developed, who were greatlv in demand. The For- est City Club of Rockford, 111., seems to have been the first to em- ploy players at regular salaries, although the Cincinnati 'Red Stockings,' organized in 18G8, are generally regarded as the first pro- fessional baseball club. In 18G9 the 'Red Stockings' played a series of 09 games without mee'ting defeat, throughout the country east of the Mississippi River. In 1870 they continued their triumphal tour until at the thirtieth game they were defeated by the Atlantics of Brooklyn. Another great impulse was thereby given to baseball, and teams were organized throughout the country. Salaries were raised as a result of competition to secure the star players. In the seventies, however, base- ball fell into the hands of gamblers, and there was grave danger that it would lose its popularity. In an effort at prevention, a convention was held in Louisville, Ky., in 1876, at which stringent rules against bribing of players, betting by them, etc., were passed, the National League of Professional Baseball Clubs was organized, and a circuit of eight clubs formed — Boston, Chi- cago, Athletics (representing Phila- delphia), Mutuals (representing Brooklyn), Hartford, St. Louis, Cincinnati, and Louisville. In 1882 a rival league was or- ganized under the tide of the American Association of Profes- sional Baseball Clubs. It made a strong bid for popular favor by reducing the price of admission to half the prevailing rate. Later in the same year the National League, the American Association, and the Northwestern League met and adopted a tripartite agreement which was afterward extended to a national agreement, and which in- cluded all the reputable organized clubs that desiretl to become mem- bers. The principal object was to Baseball 602 A Baseball provide a central government for professional baseball players. In 1884 a number of the play- ers revolted and formed the Un- ion Association, which lasted only one year. In 1890 there was an- other and more formidable revolt when the Players' League was or- ganized. The new league was made up of Boston, Brooklyn, New York, Chicago, Pittsburgh, Buffalo, Philadelphia, and Cleve- land. The league went through one season, and Boston won the pennant. Before another season began the National League per- suaded the New York and Brook- lyn clubs to sell out, and the new organization went to pieces. In 1891 the American Associa- tion broke away from the na- tional agreement, and after a season's war with the National League gave way to the older organization and was absorbed. The National League's great- est fight was with the American League in 1900-1902, and this resulted in the latter organization gaining a firm footing in the baseball world, until it has be- come as great a power in base- ball as the older organization. It was formed in 1893, under the name of the Western League, by Ban Johnson. After two years of strife the war was settled by the famous peace treaty made at Cincinnati, when the present National Agreement was formu- lated. During the seasons of 1914-15 the new Federal League furnish- ed strong opposition to the Na- tional and American Leagues, but was eventually consolidated with the older organizations. In 1920, ^ as the result of certain scandals arising from charges of alleged bribery in the Chicago American team. Judge Kenesaw Landis (q.v.) was appointed arbiter in all disputes arising in baseball associations. At the Waldorf-Astoria, in New York City, on Feb. 2, 1926, the National League celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of its birthday with a dinner at which many prominent guests were present. In addition to the two major leagues — the American and the National — there are many minor professional leagues throughout the United States federated in the National Association. In 1927 these leagues numbered 23, representing 146 cities and towns. College baseball came into prominence in 1879, when the clubs< of Harvard, Princeton, Brown, Amherst, and Dartmouth formed the Intercollegiate Base- ball Association. Yale joined in 1880. In 1887 Harvard, Prince- ton, and Yale joined with Colum- bia to form the Eastern College League, from which Columbia withdrew in 1888. Other changes followed until there is now no comprehensive general organiza- tion, though many match games are played annually. Plan of Baseball Field. — Base- ball is played with bat and ball upon a level field on which is laid out the diamond, a square 90 feet on each side, set cornerwise to the field. At each corner is a base — the one at which the bats- man stands and at which tha runs are scored being called the home plate. Facing the field, the base at the right of home plate is first base, that at the left third base, and that opposite the home plate second base. The following are the official rules for laying out the baseball field: 'Diamond or Infield. — From a point A, within the grounds, pro- ject a straight line out into the field, and at a point b, 154 feet; from point a, lay off lines BC and BD at right angles to the line ab; then with b as a centre, and 63.- 63945 feet (roughly, 63 feet 7H National League Baseball Record (1910-1927). Year Winner Won Lost Per Cent Manager Champion Batsman Per Cent 1910 Chicago 104 50 .676 Chance Magee .331 1911 New York 99 54 .647 McGraw Wagner .334 1912 New York 103 48 .682 McGraw Zimmerman .372 1913 New York 101 51 .664 McGraw Daubert .350 1914 Boston 94 59 .615 Stallings Daubert .329 1915 Philadelphia 90 62 .592 Moran Doyle .320 1916 Brooklyn 94 60 .610 Robinson Chase .339 1917 New York 98 56 .636 McGraw Roush .341 1918 Chicago 84 45 .651 Mitchell Wheat .335 1919 Cincinnati 96 44 .686 Moran Cravath .321 1920 Brooklyn 93 61 .604 Robinson Hornsby .370 1921 New York 94 56 .614 McGraw Hornsby .397 1922 New York. 93 61 .604 McGraw Hornsby .401 1923 New York 95 58 .621 McGraw Hornsby .384 1924 New York 93 60 .608 McGraw Hornsby .424 1925 Pittsburgh 95 58 .621 McKechnie Hornsby .403 1926 St. Louis 85 65 .578 Hornsby Hargrave .353 1927 Pittsburgh 94 60 .610 Bush P. Waner .379 American League Record (1910-1927). Year Winner Won Lost Per Cent Manager Champion Batsman Per Cent 1910 Philadelphia 102 48 .680 Mack Cobb .385 1911 Philadelphia 101 50 .669 Mack Cobb .420 1912 Boston 105 47 .691 Stahl Cobb .410 1913 Philadelphia 96 57 .627 Mack Cobb .390 1914 Philadelphia 99 53 .651 Mack Cobb .368 1915 Boston 101 50 .669 Carrigan Cobb .370 1916 Boston 91 63 .591 Carrigan Speaker .386 1917 Chicago 100 54 .649 Rowland Cobb .383 1918 Boston 75 51 .595 Barrow Cobb .382 1919 Chicago 88 52 .629 Gleason Cobb .384 1920 Cleveland 98 56 .636 Speaker Sisler .409 1921 New York 98 55 .641 Huggins Heilmann .394 1922 New York 94 60 .610 Huggina Sisler .419 1923 New York 98 54 .645 Huggins Heilmann .403 1924 Washington 92 62 .597 Harris Ruth .378 1925 Washington 96 55 .636 Harris Heilmann .393 1926 New York 91 63 .591 Huggins Manush .380 1927 New York 110 44 .714 Huggins Heilmann .396 World's Championship Series (1910-1927). Year . Winners Games Won Losers Games Won 1910 Philadelphia (A. L.) 4 Chicago (N. L.) 1 1911 Philadelphia (A. L.) 4 New York (N. L.) 2 1912 Boston (A. L.) 4 New York (N. L.) 3 tic 1913 Philadelphia (A. L.) 4 New York (N. L.) 1 1914 Boston (N. L.) 4 Philadelphia (A. L.) 0 1915 Boston (A. L.) 4 Philadelphia (N. L.) 1 1916 Boston (A. L.) 4 Brooklyn (N. L.) 1 1917 Chicago (A. L.) 4 New York (N. L.) 2 1918 Boston (A. L.) 4 Chicago (N. L.) 2 1919 Cincinnati (N. L.) 5 Chicago (A. L.) 3 1920 Cleveland (A. L.) 5 Brooklyn (N. L.) 2 1921 New York (N. L.) 5 New York (A. L.) 3 1922 New York (N. L.) 4 New York (A. L.) 0 1923 New York (A. L.) 4 New York (N. L.) 2 1924 Washington (A. L.) 4 New York (N. L.) 3 1925 Pittsburgh (N. L.) 4 Washington (A. L.) 3 1926 St. Louis (N. L.) 4 New York (A. L.) 3 1927 New York (A. L.) 4 Pittsburgh (N. L.) 0 Vol. I.— March '28 Baseball 602 B Baseball Major League Records for 1927. American League Club V York 1 ladelphia shington 1 .roit 1 cago veland Loius o c centage ]3 Ph Q \3 O o 1 pq o 1 New York 14 14 14 17 12 21 18 110 44 .714 Philadelphia. . . 8 12 13 14 12 16 16 91 63 .591 Washington 8 10 11 12 14 12 18 85 .552 8 9 11 8 15 14 17 82 71 .536 Chicago 5 8 10 13 8 15 11 70 83 .458 Cleveland 10 10 8 7 14 10 7 66 87 .431 1 6 10 8 7 11 16 59 94 .386 4 G 4 5 11 15 6 51 103 .331 Games Lost. . 44 63 69 71 83 87 94 103 National League Club burgh 1 "5 York o 1 innati 1 klyn o idelphia ;ntage u o JS a So -J) a O o m 1 pq 'i i 2 Ph Pittsburgh 14 11 13 14 14 13 15 94 60 .610 8 10 12 14 14 15 19 92 61 .601 New York 11 12 12 15 12 15 15 92 62 .597 Chicago 9 9 10 14 15 15 13 85 68 .556 8 8 7 8 10 18 16 75 78 .490 8 8 10 7 11 10 11 65 88 .425 Boston 9 7 7 7 4 12 14 60 94 .390 Philadelphia . . . 7 3 7 9 6 11 8 51 103 .331 Games Lost. . 60 61 62 68 78 88 94 103 inches) as a radius, describe arcs cutting the Hnes ba at f and BC at G, BD at H, and be at i. Draw lines FG, Gi, IH, and hf, each 90 feet in length, which said lines shall be the containing lines of the diamond or infield. 'The Catcher's Lines. — With F as a centre and 10 feet radius, describe an arc cutting line fa at z, and draw lines zj and ZK at right angles to fa, and continue same out from FA not less than 10 feet. "With F as a centre and 90 feet radius describe an arc cutting fa at L and draw lines lm and lo at right angles to fa, and continue each out from fl not less than 90 feet, to form the back-stop line. 'The Foul Lines. — From the in- tersection point F continue the straight lines fg and fh until they intersect the lines lo and lm, and then from the points G and h in the opposite direction until they reach the boundary lines of the grounds. 'The Players' Lines. — With f as centre and 50 feet radius, de- scribe arcs cutting lines fo and FM at p and q; then, with f as centre again and 75 feet radius, describe arcs cutting fg and fh at R and s; then from the points p, Q, R, and s draw lines at right angles to the lines fo, fm, fg, and FH, and continue same until they intersect at the points w and t. 'The Coachers' Lines. — With r and s as centres, and 15 feet ra- dius, describe arcs cutting the lines RW and ST at x and y, and from the points x and Y draw lines parallel with lines fg and FH, and continue same out to the boundary lines of the ground. 'The Three-Foot Line. — With F as a centre and 45 feet radius, dcvscribe an arc cutting the line fg at the figure one (1), and from 1 to the distance of 3 feet draw a line at right angles to fg, and mark point 2; then from point 2 draw a line parallel with the line FG to a point 3 feet beyond the point G, marked 3; then from the point 3 draw a line at right angles to line 2, 3, back to and inter- secting with fg. 'The Batsman's Lines. — On either side of the line afb describe a rectangle six feet long and four feet wide (marked 9 and 10, re- spectively). The longest side of each rectangle shall be parallel with the line afb, and the rect- angles shall be 29 inches apart or 14>2 inches on either side of line afb. The middle of the long side Baseball 603 Bashan of each rectangle shall be on a line with the middle corners of home base. 'The Pitcher's Plate. — ^From point F measure along line fe a distance of 60 feet 6 inches to point 4, which marks the front of the pitcher's plate. Draw a line 5, 6, passing through point 4 at right angles to f4, and extending 12 inches on either side of line fb; then with line 5, 6, as a side, describe a rectangle 24 inches by 6 inches in which shall be placed the pitcher's plate. 'The pitcher's plate shall not be more than 15 inches higher than the base lines or the home plate, which shall be level with the surface of the field, and the slope from the pitcher's plate to every base line and the home plate shall be gradual. 'The Bases. — Within the angle F, describe a five-sided figure, two of the sides of which shall coincide with the lines fg and fh to the extent of 12 inches each, thence parallel with the line fb inches to the points u and v . a straight line between which, 17 inches long, will form the front of the home base or plate. 'Within the angles at G and H describe squares, whose'sides are 15 inches in length, two of the sides of which squares shall lie along the lines fg and gi, ih and HF, which squares shall be the lo- cation of the first and third bases respectively. At point i, the in- tersection of GI and HI, describe a square 15 inches on each side, the centre of which is directly over point i and whose sides are parallel to gi and hi. This shall locate second base.' How to Play Baseball— The game is played by two sides, each consisting of nine players. A game consists of nine innings played by each side; an inning is completed when three men on the batting side are out. If the score is a tie at the end of nine innings, play is continued until one side has scored more runs than the other in an equal num- ber of innings. The batter takes his position in the batsman's box at the home plate, holding a round hardwood bat not exceed- ing 2yi inches in diameter at the thickest part, nor 42 inches in length. To him the pitcher, standing in the pitcher's box, de- livers a ball weighing not less than 5 nor more than 5}4 ounces, avoirdupois, and measuring not less than 9 nor more than 9}>i inches in circumference. The batsman must strike at every fairly delivered ball that passes over any portion of the home plate not lower than his knee nor higher than his shoulder. After three failures either to strike at or to hit such ball, the batsman Vol. 1.— Mar. *17 is out, provided the third ball is caught by the catcher before it touches the ground, or is thrown 'Curving the Ball.' to first base before the batter reaches there. The batsman's endeavor is to hit the ball inside the foul lines in such a manner as to enable him to make the circuit of the bases in a variety of ways provided for by the rules. After making a suc- cessful hit, or when he has been given four bad balls, or has been hit by the pitcher, the batsman becomes a base runner, and he scores a run after he has touched first, second, third, and home bases in succession without being put out. In the present-day game a high degree of skill is shown in the playing of the individual members, as well as much gen- eralship on the part of the man- ager or captain who directs the team as a whole. To muscular development should be added qualities of courage, daring, and skill, combined with perception and judgment gained by experi- ence. A set of signals are generally used to enable the batsman and the base runner to work together, as well as for the players in the field. For the team in the field the signals are often given by the catcher, who has a full view of the field at all times. Base running is one of the features of baseball, and a high degree of skill must be displayed by the player who 'steals' a base in an emergency. Bunting has become a feature of scientific team work, the bats- man often sacrificing his own chances of getting on base in order to forward a base runner. 'Stealing a Base.' Consult Spalding's America's National Game (1911); Richter's History and Records of Baseball (1914); Spalding's Official Base- ball Guide (annual). Basedow, hH'ze-dd, Johann Bernhard (1723-90), German educational reformer, taught for some time at Soro in Denmark, and was professor at a school in Altona in 1761-71. His ideas were appreciated by Leopold of Anhalt, who invited him to Des- sau as an educational expert, where he opened his Philanthrop- inum in 1774, closed in 1793. Basedow did much to hasten re- form in the educational system of Germany. The keynote of his system was 'everything accord- ing to nature.' The most import- ant of his numerous works are the Methodenbuch fiir Vdter und Mat- ter (1770) and the Elementarwerk (1774). Basedow's Disease. See Goi- tre. Basel, Switzerland. See Bale. Basel, Council of. See Bale, Council of. Base Line, or Base, in survey- ing, is a straight line measured on the ground, from the two ends of which angles can be measured with the purpose of laying out a triangle or triangles, thus map- ping out the country to be sur- veyed. See Geodesy; Survey- ing. Basel 'la, a tropical genus of Chenopodiaceae. They are plants with twining stems, in common use as pot herbs in the East In- dies, and cultivated in China; also sometimes in France as a substitute for spinach. B. rubra yields a rich purple dye. The great fleshy root of B. tuberosa, a South American twiner, is edible. Base of Operations, in warfare, is the receiving depot where everything required for prosecut- ing the campaign is collected and organized before being forwarded to the front, and to which the sick and wounded can be sent back for removal to their homes when opportunities occur. See Army in the Field. Basey, ba'sa, pueblo, Philip- pines, near the southernmost point of Samar Island. Pop. 14,- 000. Bashahr, a Punjab hill state, on the lower slopes of the Him- alayas, traversed from east to west by the Sutlej. Area, 3,860 square miles. Pop. 85,000. Ba'shan, an extensive region of ancient Palestine lying to the east of the Upper Jordan, and divided from Gilead on the south by the River Hieromax or Yar- muk. Og, its king, having been defeated and slain by the Israel- ites (Num. xxi. 33/.), his terri- tory was assigned to the half- tribe of Manasseh. Bashan (prop- erly The Bashan — i.e., 'rich earth') is a fertile table land, broken by volcanic cones, both sporadic and grouped, and furrowed by deep valleys, some 2,000 feet above sea level. It was famous for its oak forests (Ezek. xxvii. 6) and for its cattle — cf. the 'bulls' and Bashaw 604 BaslUdes the 'kine* of Bashan (Ps. xxii. 12; Amos iv. 1). Bashaw. See Pasha. Bash 'ford, James Whitford (1849), American clergyman and educator, was born in Fayette, Wis. He was graduated from the University of Wisconsin (1873; A.M., 1876), and from Bos- ton University (ph.d., 1881). In 1874 he was ordained in the min- istry of the Methodist-Episcopal (^^ Church, and until 1889 was pas- tor of churches in Boston and I Auburndale, Mass., Portland, 0^ Me., and Buffalo, N. Y. He was \ president of Ohio Wesleyan Uni- versity from 1889 to 1904, when ^ he became a bishop. He has been ^ especially active in missionary ^ and relief work in China. His p published works include: Out- \ lines of the Science of Religion ^ (1891); The Awakening of China .'^(1906); China and Methodism (1907); God's Missionary Plan ^for the World (1907); China — an Interpellation (1916). Bashi-bazouks, bash-i-ba-zobks', Turkish irregular troops, who serve without uniform or direct pay, are usually mounted, and are addicted to pillage. They were notorious in the Bulgarian atrocities of 1876. Bashkires, bash-kerz', or Bash- kirs, people inhabiting the Ural slopes in Russia; Ural-Altaic in origin, Mohammedan in religion; partly nomadic, partly settled; Tartars in habits and speech. Their wealth consists chiefly in horses; from the milk of the mares they prepare koumiss (q. v.). They number over three-quarters of a million, and make good horse soldiers, Bashkirtseff, bash-kert'sef, Marie (1860-84), Russian painter, born of noble family near Polta- va. After making the tour of Europe, she settled at Paris. De- voting herself from 1878 with in- ordinate enthusiasm to art, she exhibited the Umbrella (1882), Jean el Jacques (1883), l^he Meet- ing (1884), now in the Luxem- bourg. She had ^eal genius, though immature. Her Journal (1887), translated into English (1890), and Further Memoirs (1901), reveal the inner life of a profoundly emotional, egotistic, and unbalanced nature. Basidomycctes. See Fungi. Basil, baz'il, various herba- ceous plants of the order Labia- tae. Sweet Basil (Ocimum, basili- cum) is a native of India; the whole plant is fragrant and of a sweet taste, the young leaves being used for seavSoning dishes, and the leafy stems cut and dried for winter UvSe. Holy Basil (O. sanctum) is another Indian spe- cies. Bush Basil is O. minimum, and is cultivated like sweet basil. Sweet basil occurs in the old Vol. I. — Mar. '17 story of Isabella and the Pot of Basil, which has been the subject of the pen of Boccaccio and Keats, as well as the brush of several painters. BasU, baz'il, St. (329-379), sur- named The Great, one of the fa- thers of the Greek Church, born at Caesarea, of which he became bishop (370). He was much involved in the religious con- troversies of the time, an in- sight into which is afforded by his letters to Gregory . Nazianzen (q. v.), with whom he was united in tender friendship. He reso- lutely opposed Arianism. Threat- ened by Valens with exile and death if he did not open the churches to the Arians, he con- tinued inflexible. To him is also largely due the triumph of mona- chism over the hermit life. He embellished Caesarea, and raised in it numerous workshops and schools. The works he has left include the Hexameron, Ascetics, Reading of Profane Authors, and 365 Letters. His efforts at re- forming the services of the church were embodied in the liturgy which bears his name, and is still in use in the East. There is a Benedictine edition of his works in 3 vols., a complete French trans- lation of his works in 12 vols, by Roustan, and an English transla- tion in Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers. Basil, two Bji'zantine emper- ors. (1.) Basil i. (867-886), born at Adrianople, assassinated Michael iii. and seized the throne. He^was founder of the Macedon- ian dynasty, and his reign opens a new era in the history of the Byzantine empire. (2.) Basil II. (957-1025), Byzantine emper- or, only six years old at the death of his father, Romanus ii., be- came emperor in 976. For nearly thirty years (990-1018) he carried on a protracted struggle against Samuel, king of Bulgaria. He con- verted to Christianity Vladimir,, prince of Kiev (998). Bas'ilan, or Basilian, island and strait in Sulu Archipelago, Philippines, southwest of Min- danao. The island is volcanic, has a healthy climate, and the chief industry is fishing. It has valuable teak forests. Capital, Isabella. Area, 304 square miles. Pop. 8,000. BasU'ica (Greek basilike, from basileus, 'a king'), in ancient times a market place, exchange, and place "of meeting generally. Some twenty are known to have existed in Rome, and latterly every provincial town had its basilica, as that of Pompeii, which is now the most perfect ex- ample, still testifies. The earliest basilicas were entirely open, and were surrounded with a portico under which shelter could be ob- tained; but in course of time the basilica became an oblong hall, divided by rows of columns into a wide central nave and lower side aisles, over which there was frequently a gallery. Among its other uses, the basilica contained an apse, in which the praetor con- ducted his court of justice (see Apse). The basilica strongly influenced the form of the earliest churches. _ The usual plan of these Chris- tian basilicas consisted of an ob- long space, divided into central nave and side aisles by two or four rows, of columns, preceded at the entrance end by a porch or narthex (to which alone the neo- phytes and penitents were ad- mitted), and terminated at the opposite end with a wall, contain- ing in the centre an arch which led into the sanctuary, out of which opened the apse, with the bish- op's throne in the centre, raised some steps above the floor, and the seats of the presbyters and deacons on each side. Basilica, the name given to a legal code published in 887 a.d. for the Byzantine empire. The title is apparently a contraction for basilika nomina (royal laws or 'constitutions'), though some have supposed it to be derived from the name of the Emperor Basil I., in whose reign the com- pilation was begun. The basilica is to a large extent an adaptation of Justinian's code (see Code), and affords great help in the study of Roman law. Basilicata, ba-se'le-ka'ta (the ancient l-Mcania),compartimento, Southern Italy, coincident with the province of Potenza (name used since 1871), stretching from the head of the Gulf of Tarentum northwest through the middle of Italy. It pastures sheep and cat- tle, and produces grain, wine, fruits, olive oil, and timber. Chief town, Potenza. Area, 3,845 square miles. Pop. 475,000, Basil'icon, an ointment com- posed of yellow wax, resin, and olive oil, with suet and turpen- tine added for basilicon proper, black pitch for Black Basilicon, Burgundy pitch for Yellow Basili- con, and verdigris for Green Basil- icon. Basilides, bas-i-li'dez, founder of the Basilidian sect of the Gnos- tics, lived under the Emperors Tra- jan and Hadrian in Alexandria, He is the apostle of 'the Abraxas religion' and the doctrine of 'ema- nation.' From the Supreme Power, Abraxas, emanated mind; from mind, the word; from the word, providence; from providence, vir- tue and wisdom; from these two, principalities and powers; and from them, an infinity of angels — who, in turn, created the heav- ens, 365 in number. It is from Basillkon Dor on 605 Basketball this number (365) that the name Abraxas is formed, as its letters, according to the Greek computa- tion, make up 365. The later Basi- lidians became more and more imbued with the philosophy of the Stoics, and they abandoned altogether that obedience to the moral law which their master strongly inculcated. Consult Schaff's History of the Christian Church. Basil'ikon Dor'on, a work on the art of government, written (1599) by James vi. of Scotland for his son Prince Henry, and memorable as containing the king's own statement of the doc- trine of divine right. Basilisk, baz'i-lisk, the name given by the Greeks and Ro- mans to a fabulous serpent-like monster possessed of many mar- vellous attributes, its glance alone being sufficient to kill, and its breath being the concentration of the most deadly poisons. It has been applied by zoologists to cer- tain American tree lizards which, despite their hideous appearance, are both harmless and edible. In Basilicus mitratus the head is covered by a scaly, distensible cap, the so-called helmet. Basin, in geology, a depression in the rocks at the earth's sur- face caused by differential move- ments, by folding, or by erosion. When extensive faulting has taken place, a considerable area may be brought to a lower level compared with its previous posi- tion, thus producing a depression with more or less abrupt walls. Rift valleys partake of this char- acter and are well illustrated by the great rift valley of Central Africa in which lie the large lakes of Tanganyika, Nyassa and Albert Nyanza. Basins formed by folding occur in moun- tainous regions where the strata have been bent by compression into synclines and troughs (see Synchne). The coal-fields of Pennsylvania afford examples of this type. Erosional basins are those produced by the erosive action of water or ice upon the earth's surface. Most river basins have been formed in this manner. Basin, Great. See Great Basin. Basingstoke, ba'zing-stok, a market town, England, in Hamp- shire, on the Basingstoke Canal; 48 miles southwest of London. The parish church of St. Michael is a fine Perpendicular structure. The ruins of the Holy Ghost Chapel are inclosed in an in- teresting old graveyard. Cloth- ing, malt liquors, and tools are manufactured. Pop. (1921) 12,- 718. Bas'kerville, John (1706-75), English printer, was born in Wolverley, Worcestershire. When twenty years of age, he settled in Birmingham, where he taught writing and bookkeeping and later engaged in a highly success- ful business in japanned ware. About 1750 he began to occupy himself in typefounding and finally produced a satisfactory letter in which he printed an edi- tion of Virgil. In 1758 he was made printer to the University of Cambridge and began at once to prepare editions of the Bible and the Book of Common Prayer. He made his own paper and pre- pared his own ink, and speci- mens of his work are now of great value. Besides the works mentioned, he published editions of Milton, Horace, Sallust, Lu- cretius, Terence, and other classics. Basketball, a game invented in 1891 by James Naismith, fol- lowing a suggestion from Dr. L, H. Gulick that an indoor game might properly fill in the time between the football and the baseball seasons. The first printed statement about the game was made in 1892. It was originally played by branches of the Young Men's Christian Association and was subse- quently taken up by athletic clubs, schools, and colleges. Basketball is played on any ground or floor free from ob- structions with 3,500 square feet Ground Plan of Ulpian Basilica in the Forum of Trajan, Rome A. Main Entrance from Forum. B. Entrance from Street. C. Trajan's Column. D. Greek and Latin Libraries. E. Tribunal for the Judges. Vol. I.— Oct. '25 Basketball 606 Basking Shark of space. The ball is a round rubber bladder covered with leather, measuring not more than 32 inches or less than 30 inches in circumference, and weighing not less than 18 nor more than 21 ounces. The baskets are hammock nets of cord suspended from metal rings with an inside diameter of 18 inches. The rings are placed 10 feet above the ground in the centre of the short side of the playing floor, and the inside rim extends six inches from a rigid supporting surface, which, if not a wall of the build- ing, must be a special background which shall measure at least six feet horizontally and four feet vertically, and extend not less than three feet above the top of the basket. The playing floor is approxi- mately 40 by 70 feet. In the middle of the floor is a circle, two feet in radius. Twenty feet from the middle of each basket, at right angles to the back line, is the centre of another circle with a radius of 6 feet; at right angles from the back Hne to the circum- ference of this circle two parallel lines are drawn, each being 3 feet from the middle of the basket, making a line 6 feet wide extend- ing out into the floor. In the line-up there are five players on each side — centre, right and left guards, and right and left for- wards. Guards are opposed to forwards, and centre to centre. The officials are referee, umpire, scorer, and timekeeper. The game consists of two halves of twenty minutes each, with a rest of ten minutes between. With the centres standing with both feet within the centre circle, the referee puts the ball in play by tossing it up in a plane at right angles to the side lines to a greater height than either of the centres can jump, in such a way that it will drop between them. The ball may be batted or caught by the centre men. It may be advanced in any direction with one or both hands by passing, dribbling, or shooting, but a player may not run with it nor kick it. Violation of any of the rules constitutes a foul. A goal is made by throwing or batting the ball into the basket of the opposing side and counts two points. A goal from a foul is a free throw for the basket at a distance of not less than 15 feet, and counts one point. The side having the highest score at the end of the game is the winner. Certain very definite rules and regulations govern play, and special rules for women, adopted in 1899, off'er some modifications of the men's game. Consult Spalding's Official Basketball Guide, published yearly; Ward- law and Morrison's Basket Ball. Vol. I.— Oct. '25 Basket Fish, the popular nam? of a group of echinoderms related to the star-fishes, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, and other species. Basket fish belong to the class Ophiuroida, which also includes the brittle-stars, but they are dis- tinguished by the peculiar and elaborate ramification of their Basket-Fish arms. The body, which is five- sided, is 2 or 3 inches broad, while the arms are about 12 inches long. The name is de- rived from the animal's habit of folding its branching arms around its body when it is threatened, so that it resembles a basket. It is found chiefly in tropical waters. Baskets and Basket Making, Baskets are vessels made of osiers, reed, raffia, rush, straw, or hemp, in a great variety of shapes and sizes, and put to a corresponding variety of uses. Their manufacture is one of the oldest of all handicrafts. The ancient Israelites used baskets in offering sacrifice, the early Brit- ons were skilled in basketry, and the Chinese and Japanese have for centuries produced baskets of great beauty. In the New World the American Indians reached a high degree of pro- ficiency. To-day basketry holds an important place in educational work. It is taught in practically all schools where manual training has been introduced, and has proved an admirable industry for the aged and disabled, especially the blind. For ordinary baskets osiers (q. V.) — the cut branches of certain willows — are most commonly used. The tools needed are a knife, bodkin, shears, and pick- ing knife. The dry osiers or rods are first soaked in water to make them pliable, and are then laid out in a length considerably greater than that of the finished work. They are ranged in pairs on a plank or on the floor, parallel to each other, at close intervals, in the direction of the longer di- ameter; this furnishes the woof, for basket-work is, in fact, a web. These parallel rods are then crossed at right angles by two of the larger osiers, with the thick ends towards the workman, who places his foot upon them, and weaving each alternately over and under the parallel pieces first laid down, confines them in their places. The whole now forms what is technically called the 'slat' or slate, which is the foundation of the basket. The long end of one of the two rods is now taken and woven under and over the pairs of short ends all round the bottom, until the whole is woven in. A similar process is applied to the other rod, and additional long osiers are woven in until the bottom is of the desired size. The construction of the rest of the basket is accomplished by sharpening the large ends of as many long and stout osiers as may be necessary to form the ribs or skeleton. These are forced or plaited between the rods of the bottom, from the edge towards the centre, and are turned up in the direction of the sides; other rods are woven in and out between them, until the basket is raised to the requisite height. The brim is finished by turning down the perpendicular ends of the ribs, while a handle is made by forcing two or three osiers, sharpened at the ends, down the weaving of the sides, close together. They are then pinned fast, about two inches from the edge. After the osiers have been bound or plaited, the basket is complete. Fancy baskets are frequently made of raflia, the outer covering of the Madagascar palm, a light, tough material which may be used in its natural color or may be dyed in many beautiful shades. Rush is used for bas- kets where strength and dur- ability are requisites, as for scrap baskets and hampers. Among basket makers the American Indians occupy a lead- ing place. Basket making was once a common industry in all tribes, but at the present time it is confined chiefly to the Indians in the Southwest, the Pacific Coast, and Alaska, where it is still practised in its primitive simplicity. It is almost entirely the work of the women, whose skill and art have combined to produce articles of great beauty. Much legendary lore is associated with the Indian baskets, notably the baby baskets and the carry- ing baskets. In the healing cere- monies and dances of the Nava- hoes and the Apaches baskets have a distinct place; they also figure in marriage ceremonies, and are used for placing food at the graves of the dead. Consult Okey's Art of Basket Making; White's How to Make Baskets; Gill's Practical Basketry (1916); Collier's Basket Making (1920). Basking Shark (Selache max- Basnage 607 Basques ima), the largest shark of the Atlantic, exceeds thirty feet in kngth. It does not attack man unless molested, but feeds on small fishes. The liver yields oil, and the shark is hunted on this Basques (Span. Bascongados"), a race with a language out of relation to every other European language, whose habitat is now restricted to the west end of the Pyrenees, including, on the south Basking account. The common name re- fers to the fact that the anima! •is fond of lying at the surface of the water, with the upper part of the back exposed. Basnage, Jacques (1653-1725), French Protestant clergyman; born at Rouen, where he became minister of the Reformed church. At the revocation of the Edict of Nantes he went to Rotterdam, where he was chosen (1691) pastor of the Walloon church; and in 1709 he was transferred, in the same capacity, to the French church at The Hague. He is one of the best of the church historians, his books being ac- cepted by Catholics and Protes- tants alike. He published His- toire de la Religion des Eglises Reformecs (1690; much enlarged in 1725), Histoire de I'Eglise de- puis Jesus Christ jusqu' d present (1699), and Histoire des Juifs depuis Jesus Christ (1706). See Mailhet's /. Basnage (1881). Basoche, or Bazoche, a cor- poration of clerks of the Parlia- ment of Paris, to which, about 1303, Philip the Fair granted special privileges, exempting its members from the jurisdiction of the common law. It survived to the revolution. See Fabre's Etudes Historiques sur les Clercs de la Basoche (1856). Basque Road, The Action in. The French fleet, which had es- caped from Brest, was, in April, 1809, ranged below the island of Aix, and was there assailed by Lord Cochrane with a British fleet. The boom was broken by one of Cochr ane's fircships. The French began hurriedly to get under way, and panic and confu- sion arising among them, all but two ran aground. The vessels actually destroyed beyond repair were three ships of the line, a 50- IDS C un ship and a 40-gun frigate, lad Cochrane been properly sup- gorted by Gambier, all would ave been destroyed. See Coch- rane's Autobiography o} a Seaman (1890); Chatterton's Memorials of Gambier (1861). side, the Spanish provinces of Biscaya, Guipuzcoa, and Alava, and the Pamplona district of Navarra; on the north, one-third of Basses-Pyrenees. A language of Basque type was in prehistoric times common to the inhabitants on both sides of the Pyrenees. Euskaldunac, Euskaldena, and Euskara are the native names of the people, country, and lan- guage respectively. The primi- tive Iberians have further, ac- cording to latest ethnographic evidence, to be grouped with the Ligurians of Italy, whose original home is traceable to the Medi- terranean. The Ligurians, again, are, from evidence of craniology, archaeology, etc., concluded to have been prehistorically settled in the valley of the Po and Rhine- land. The Ligurians, it is further held, were spread over all Italy, as also Sardinia, Corsica, and bines the Iberians and Picts in the term 'Ibero-Pictish.' Gabe- lenz has (1894) compiled 780 ex- amples of verbal resemblance and structural correspondence be- tween the Basque tongue on the north and the Berber tongue on the south of the Mediterranean. There seems ground, then, for the assumption that the Basques are descended from the aborigmal race of Europe. The Basque language belongs to the agglutinative type, modifi- cations of meaning and grammati- cal relations being denoted, not by inflection or by prepositions, but by adjunction and postfix. It lacks general and abstract con- cepts. Basque has only two con- jugations — one for the intransitive verb, and to express the verb to be; the other for the transitive verb, and to express the verb to have. To the European the enun- ciation is about as hard as the grammar. The tongue is differ- entiated into as many as twenty- five dialects (L. L. Bonaparte), many mutually unintelligible. R. Collignon, after most search- ing investigations, concludes that the physical traits of the Basques, out of all relation to those of any other type, assign them indisput- ably to the Hamitic branch of the whites, N. African or European (Afro-European). _ According to E. Reclus, 'there is no Basque type.' Among the Basques there are two forms of physique: the one tall, fair, ana long-headed; the other short, dark, and round- headed. The two are blended in a long range of proportions, yet, on the whole, the Basques are The Basque Country. Sicily. There are data lending color to the conclusion that be- yond the Garonne the Iberians shared community of race with the Pictoncs and the British Picts. Professor J. Rhys com- rather taller than the average of the people of Spain. The pre- vailing type has the forehead broad ancl square, overhanging deeply -set eyes; cheek bones rather broad; the lower half of fiasQues the face narrowing rapidly to- wards the pointed chin. The complexion is generally fair; the eyes gray or blue; with blond hair, high - ridged nose, upright figure, square shoulders, strong Umbs. The Basques are further distinguished by their vigor and hardihood, sobriety and industry, gai ety, proneness to sing, dance, and play games, by their frank- ness, hospitality, pride, love of independence, and promptitude to avenge insult. They are noted as the best sailors of Spain. Pe- culiar are certain usages, such as the couvade, the wearing of the bc'ret and the zinta ^ (belt), etc. The Basque dramas, in large part survivals of the morality plays, still, in spite of cures, are yearly performed and witnessed with great enthusiasm in the French cantons of Tardets and Mauleon. Peculiar are also some of the agri- cultural implements. On the seaboard the Bafjques are engaged in commerce and fish- ing ; inland, in agriculture and pastoral pursuits. The Basque Provinces are the centre of the iron-mining of Spain. Pamplona (Pompeiopolis) tes- tifies to the foundation of this town by Pompeius (74 B.C.). The Romans _did not, however, suc- ceed in imposing their language on the Basques. Routed, after a long and obstinate resistance, by the Visigoths about 580, a portion of the Basques sought refuge in Gascony. About 920 the Basque countries were consolidated into the kingdom of Navarre, which was ultimately incorporated in the kingdom of Spain. The Basques still, however, retained their jueros or assemblies, one in each province, safeguarding their home rule. When, in 1832, the fueros were abolished by the Cortes, the Basques offered such stout resistance as to cause their reinstatement. In the insurrec- tions of 1833-7 and 1873-6 the Basques fought gallantly for Don Carlos, grandfather and grand- son. The jueros ended with the 608 year 1876. They still, however, retain a certain administrative autonomy and some commercial privileges. The literature of the Basques is of very narrow compass. A few words in Basque occur in L. Mari- ne© Siculo's Cosas illustres y ex- cellenles de Espana (1539). The oldest printed relic of the Basque tongue dates from 1545 — B. De- chepare's Lingua Vasconum Pri- mitice. There are some five hundred volumes in the Basque language, nearly all translations from Latin, French, and Spanish. Other Basque books betray the French or Castilian culture of their authors. The Basque dra- mas — pastorales — are, it appears from the discoveries of Mr. W. Webster, editions of French chap-books. The Basque tradi- tionary legends, comprising forty- seven stories, have been published (:i877) by Mr. W. Webster. There is a collection of wider range published by Vinson, Le Folk-lore du Pays Ba'sque (1883). Ignatius Bas-reliefs from the Parthenon, Athens. Bass Vinson's Les Basques et Ic Pays Basque (1882); Mahn's Denkmdler der Baskischen Sprache (1857); Prince L. L. Bonaparte's La Langue Basque et les Langues Finnoises (1862); Inchauspe's Le Peuple Basque: sa Langue, son Origine, etc. (1894); A.H.Keane's Man, Past and Present (1899). Basra, Bassora, or Bussorah, tn. and v'w. pt. on the Shat-el-Arab 70 m. from Persian Gulf, Asiatic Turkey; head of navigation for steamers drawing nineteen feet of water. River steamers ply between this port and Bagdad, 200 m. farther N. The district around is marshy and unhealthy. The exports for 1900 exceeded $7,500,000, the bulk of which was in wool and dates. Its imports consist of silk, woollen, and cot- ton goods. Founded in 632 by Caliph Omar, Basra was long one of the most important cen- tres of trade, and a place of his- toric note in Arabic literature. It was visited by Marco Polo in the 13th century. Pop. 18,000. Loyola and Francis Xavier were Basques. The total population is reck- oned at about 610,000, of whom 65,000 are in Bayonne, 60,000 in Mauleon, 150,000 in Navarra, 180,000 in Guipuzcoa, 10,000 in Alava, and 145,000 in Biscay. Of recent years there has been a heavy emigration, especially to the Argentine Republic, Mexico, and Cuba, where Basques are counted to the number of 200,000. See Michel's Le Pays Basque: sa Population, sa Langue (1857); Garat s Origines dcs Basques de France et d'Espagne (1869); J. F, Blade's Etudes sur 1' Origine des Basques (1869); Gabelentz's Die Verwandtschaft des Baskischen mit den Berbers prachen Nordafri- kas (1894); Geze's *£>e Quclques Rapports entre les Langues Ber- ber e et Basque' in Mem. Soc. Archcol. du Midi de la France; *La Civilisation Primitive dans la Sicilie Orientale' in L'Anthro- pologie (1897): Cenac-Moncaut's Llist. des Peuples Pyrenecns (1874); Bas-relief (Fr. 'low relief), or Basso-rilievo (Ital.), in sculp- ture, a form of relief in which tne figures or objects represented are raised upon a flat surface or background, slightly projecting, so that no part of them is en- tirely detached from it. When the_ figures stand out half of their proportions, the term used is mezzo-rilievo ('middle relief); and when they project more than half, the words used are alto-ri- lievo ('high relief). The finest known ^ example of bas-relief is the frieze of the Parthenon, copied in the design of the Atli en£Eum Club in London. Bas-reliefs were invented by the Egyptians, and their use in sculp- ture extended to India, Media, Persia, Greece, and Rome. See Sir C. Ea.stla.ke's Basso-rilievo. Bass, in music, is the lowest and most important part of all harmony. In earlier times it was common to write the bass notes alone of a composition, and place figures to indicate the construe- Bas» 609 Basset Horn tion of each chord: this was termed a 'figured bass.' Bass is also the name given to the lowest male voice. Bass, the name given to sever- al fishes, both fresh-water and marine, allied to the perch. In the United States the name com- monly refers to the two closely- related game fishes of its rivers and lakes, the large-mouthed and the small-mouthed black bass of tne sunfish family (Centrar- chidae). The former is the larg- er, often 10 pounds in weight, and prefers quiet southerly wa- ters, while the latter is more ac- tive, abounds in clear, rapid rivers and lakes, and has spread widely east of the Alleghanies, since the opening of the Erie and other canals. Both are favorites of the angler, taking a fly as well as baited hooks, and giving as much excitement in the catching as do gamey trout. Both are excellent eating; and have been extensively cultivated and trans- planted by methods of fish-cul- ture. Various smaller and less attractive, yet interesting species, as the grass bass, red-eye bass, and others, abound in the streams of the Mississippi Valley. The salt-water bass include many well known species of Ser- ranidae, of which the original 'bass' (Morone lahrax) of the European coast is a typical and valuable example; sometimes at- taining a length of 21/2 feet. In eastern United States the name belongs primarily to the striped bass (Rocctis lineatus), a hand- some fish, caught in large num- bers for market, and also a favor- ite with anglers, when it enters the bays and estuaries in spring to spawn. It is characterized by the series of dark longitudinal lines ornamenting its sides. Several close relatives perma- nently inhabit the rivers and land-locked lakes of the interior of the United States, one of which is the excellent white bass, or white perch, of the Great Lakes, The term 'sea-bass' is applied to various other active and gamey sea-fishes as the weakfish and drum of the Eastern coast, and the white sea-bass of California, the latter a near relative of the Eastern bluefish. Consult Hen- shall's Book of the Black Bass. Bass, Edward (172G-1803), American Protestant Episcopal bishop, was born in Dorchester, Mass. He was graduated (1744) from Harvard and was licensed to preach as a Congregationalist, but went to England in 17.52 and took orders in the Episcopal church. On his return he be- came rector of the church at Newburyport, Mass. He es- poused the American cause in the Revolutionary War, and was consecrated first bishop of the re- organized church in Massachu- setts, 1797, his jurisdiction soon being extended over New Hamp- shire and Rhode Island. Bass, George (d. 1812), Eng- lish explorer, was a native of Asworthy, Lincolnshire. After qualifying as a surgeon in Lon- don, he was appointed to H.M.S. Reliance, in which he served on the Australian coast v/ith Flin- ders in 1795-1800. The strait between Tasmania and Australia which bears his name and also Flinders Island were charted by Flinders and Bass in 1798. Bassandyne, bas'san-din, or Bassendyne, Thomas (d. 1577), printer and bookseller at the Nether Bow, Edinburgh, who issued the first Bible printed in Scotland. He commenced with the New Testament, which bears his imprint on the title, and the date 157G; while the Old Testa- ment bears the name of Arbuth- not, and the date 1579. Bassano, bas-sa'no, town, Ita- ly, in the province of Vicenza, on the high left bank of the Brenta; 53 miles northwest of Venice. An old covered bridge here spans the river and the town has a cathe- dral. There are manufactures of straw hats and silk, and the vicin- ity produces the vine, olives, and asparagus. Pop. 16,000. Bassano, or Jacopo da Ponte (1510-92), Italian painter, called II Bassano from his birthplace. He is noted as the first Italian genre painter and the first who treated landscape in the modern spirit. In his Biblical subjects he introduced episodes of con- temporary country life; his color- ing is of fine Venetian quality; his horizons are bathed in delicate gray twilight. His best work is an altar-piece of The Nativity, in Bassano. Among his other works are Rest during Flight (Ambrosian Library, Milan); Assumption (S. Luigi, Rome) ; Presentation (Pina- coteca, Vicenza) ; The Good Sa- maritan, once belonging to Sir Joshua Reynolds; two portraits in the National Gallery, London; and three pictures in Edinburgh. Bass Drum. See Drum. Basse, or Bas, William (d. 1653), English poet, was the au- thor of numerous poems on coun- try life. He lived most of his life near Thame, in Oxfordshire, as the retainer of a nobleman there. He is chiefly known by his Epitaph on Shakespeare (1633); and is also the author of Sword and Buckler (1602) and Urania (1653), though this latter has been assigned to a second William Basse. Bassein, ba-san', town, India, in Thana district, Bombay Pres- idency; 28 miles north of Bom- bay. It contains the ruins of a Portuguese fortress and of many churches. Pop. (1921) 10,366. Bassein, town, British Burma, in Bassein district, on the Nga- wun River; 90 miles from the sea. It has a large trade in rice and is one of the chief ports of Burma. The leading industries are pottery making and umbrella manufac- ture. Pop. (1921) 42,563. Basses- Alpes, biis-zalp', de- partment of France, in the south- eastern part, on the west slope of the Alps, forming the Italian frontier on the northeast; area, 2,697 square miles. The whole department is drained by the Durance River. On all sides high mountains (reaching 10,000 feet) surround it. The chief peaks are Chaine du Parpaillon in the north, Mount Pelat in the east. Mount des Trois Eveches in the south. The cli- mate is severe, except in the lower valleys, where even the olive tree grows. Good pastures are found, but deforestation has spoiled large tracts of mountains. The natural beauties of the depart- ment attract many visitors. Digne is the capital. Pop. (1921) 91,882. Easses-Pyrenees, bas-pe-ra- na', the most southwesterly de- partment of France, forming the boundary of Spain along the ridge of the Pyrenees, and facing • the Bay of Biscay for 17 miles be- tween the Adour and the Bidas- soa; area, 2,977 square miles. The ridge of the P^aenees rises slowly from west to east; the principal peaks are Pic du Midi d'Ossau (9,465 feet) and Pic du Palais (9,765 feet). Some twen- ty-six passes lead from France to Spain, including the famous Pass of Roncevaux. The department has about the same limits as the former province of Bearn, but the southwest is really Pays Basque. The inhabitants, Basques and Bearnais, have for . centuries kept their characteristic customs, especially in the mountainous dis- tricts. The plain of Bearn is well cultivated. Extensive forests clothe the mountains, and the streams yield abundance of fish. There are copper mines and stone quarries. Pau, the capital, and Biarritz are noted health resorts. Pop. (1921) 402,981. Basse-Terrs, biis-tar', sea- port, and capital of Guadeloupe, French West Indies, on the southwestern coast. It has a cathedral dating from 1694, and contains the government build- ings. Pop. (1921) 8,379. Basseterre, seaport, island of St. Christopher (St. Kitts), Lee- ward Group, West Indies. It is the capital of the island and has a centrally located botanical gar- den. There is a good trade, es- pecially in sugar and salt. Pop. (1921) 7,736. Basset Horn (Ital. corno di bassetto), a rich-toned wind in- strument, invented in Bavaria about 1770. It is similar to and fingered like the clarinet, but Vol. I. — March '29 Basset Hound has additional low keys and a prolonged bore, which enable it to sound the octave C, this being equivalent to F below the bass clef, as the instrument is tuned in F. Basset Hound, a breed of dog originating in France, where it is used in hunting. It is a good tempered dog with a clear and sweet voice and is a splendid hunter. It has a long body, heavy head, short and crooked Basset Hound legs, and is extremely keen of scent. It is white with colored patches, black, tan, or brown. A few packs are kept for hare-hunt- ing in England, but it is rarely seen in the United States. Bassett, James (1834-1906), American missionary, was born near Hamilton, Canada. He was graduated (1856) from Wabash College and studied for the minis- try at Lane Theological Semi- nary. He served as chaplain in the Federal volunteers during the Civil War, and held various pas- torates until he became a mission- ary under the American Board in 1871. His principal services were rendered in Turkey and Persia, and he was instrumental in estab- lishing diplomatic relations be- tween Persia and the United States. He is the author of Hymns in Persian (Teheran, 1875), Persia the Land of the Imams (1886). Bassett, John Spencer (1867- 1928), American educator and historian, was born in Tarboro, N. C. He was graduated (1888) from Trinity College, N. C, took his Ph.D. degree at Johns Hop- kins and served as professor of history at Trinity College (1893- 1906). In 1906 he became pro- fessor of history in Smith College. He was the first editor of the South Atlantic Quarterly from 1902 to 1905 and was secretary of the American Historical Society from 1919 to 1928. His pub- lished works include Constitu- tional Beginnings of North Caro- lina (1894), a series of papers on slavery in the colony and state of North Carolina; The Federalist System (1905); Life of Andrew Jackson (1911); A Short History of the United States (1913); The Plain Story of American History (1915); The Middle Group of Vol. I. — March '29 American Historians (1917); The Lost Fruits of Waterloo (1918); Our War with Germany (1919); Expansion and Reform (1926); The League of Nations, A Chapter in World Politics (1928); Makers of a New Nation (volume 9 of 'The Pageant of America,' 1928). He has also edited: The Writings of Colonel William Byrd of Weslover in Virginia (1901); Selections from the Federalist (1921); The Plantation Overseer as Shown in his Letters (1925), and other works. Bas'sia, a genus of tropical trees, of the order Sapotaceae, found in the East Indies and Africa. From the seeds of several species a vegetable oil much used in the manufacture of soap is obtained, and their fleshy flowers yield an intoxicating spirit when distilled. Several varieties of the Indian butter-tree yield useful oils known as butters — B. bu- tyracea, giving ghee butter; and B. lalifolia and longifolia, mowra or mahwa butter. These substances are used partly as medicines and food, partly for making candles and soap. From the bark, leaves, and oil of some species remedies for rheumatism and skin diseases are extracted. The timber is generally of excellent quality. Basso mpierre, ba-son-py-ar', Francois de (1579-1646), mar- shal of France and diplomat, was born in Haroue in Lorraine. As colonel of the Swiss Guards, he served against the Turks in 1603, at the siege of Chateau Porcien in 1617, and took part in the sieges of Montpellier (1622) and La Rochelle (1628) . He was sent on diplomatic missions to Spain (1621), Switzerland (1625), and England (1626), but having in- curred the suspicion of Richelieu, he was imprisoned in the Bastille from 1631 till Richelieu's death in 1642. While in prison he wrote his Journal de ma vie (1665; best ed. 1870-77), an interesting review of the years, 1598-1631. Bassoon', an important or- chestral wood wind instrument, the successor to the bombard of the 16th century. It forms the bass of the whole family of wood wind instruments, among which it occupies a position similar to that of the 'cello among the strings. Like the oboe, it is played with a double reed, which is inserted and fixed in the S- shaped neck of the instrument. The compass extends from (to though good solo players can bring out higher notes; and some bassoons have the low A, which Wagner has frequently used in his Ring des Nibelungen. Its upper notes have some affinity Bastar with those of the English horn and the 'cello, and sustained mel- odies in this part of the register are beautiful and expressive. The lower notes are somewhat coarse. In general, the tone of the instru- ment is telling and peculiar. For the production of grotesque ef- fects it is especially useful, hav- ing indeed been called 'the clown of the orchestra' (Prout). Haydn seems to have been the first to discover this quality but the most familiar example of the kind is in the march in Mendels- sohn's Midsummer Night's Dream music. In orchestral scores bas- soon parts are written in the F and C clefs, and the instrument is generally designated by its Italian title, fagotto, a name ap- plied to the bassoon from its re- semblance to a fagot. Bassora. See Basra. Bass Rock, volcanic islet, Scotland, at the mouth of the Firth of Forth, Haddingtonshire, 3K miles northeast of North Ber- wick, opposite the Tantallon Castle of Scott's Marmion; area, 7 acres. Its culminating point, on the north side, is 350 feet above sea-level. In Covenant- ing times (1671-94) it was used as a state prison. There is a light- house on the south side of the rock and it is a favorite resort of solan geese. Bass Strait, the channel run- ning east and west between Tas- mania and Victoria, Australia. The breadth varies from 80 to 140 miles but navigation is inter- rupted by many islands and coral reefs. It was named after Sur- geon George Bass, of H.M.S. Re- liance, who discovered it in 1798. Basswood, a name applied to the American linden, as the chief source of commercial bast. See Linden. Bast, in botany, a structural element in the stem of dicotyle- dons and gymnosperms. In most plants long, tough, elastic fibres form part of the bast, and it is on this account that it has economic value. The linden tree (Tilia) is specially rich in these fibres; and when the bark is removed the inner portion, or bast, is sepa- rated, and dried to form Russian bass or bast mats, which are used by gardeners. Strands of linden bast are also used for tying plants, but not so much as those of Cuban bast, which is derived from a tree of the mallow order. Flax, hemp, and jute are bast fibres of different plants. Liber, a term once used for bast, is be- coming obsolete. Bastar, native state, India, at the southern extremity of the Central Provinces; area 13,062 square miles. It is covered with jungle, and more than half the inhabitants are a timid, harmless race of aborigines of Gond origin. Pop. (1921) 464,137. Bastard 611 Bastille Bas'tard. one born out of law- ful v/edlock; an illegitimate child. By the common law of England and the United States a bastard is nullius filius, i.e. deprived of all the advantages of consanguinity. He cannot therefore inherit real property from any source nor can he transmit by descent to col- lateral relations. He may, how- ever, acquire property real and personal by gift, will or purchase, and convey or devise the same, and may transmit it to his lineal descendants as heirs or personal representatives. Bastardy in- volves no civil or political dis- ability and does not affect the right to sue and be sued in the courts, to exercise the elective franchise, or to hold office in state or church. A bastard child is entitled to support from the mother and the mother or the local authorities may under modern statutes devolve the charge of caring for the child up- on the father. The peculiar dis- ability of the bastard, above described, exists also in jurisdic- tions which owe their legal prin- ciples to the Roman law, but it may there be cured by the subse- quent marriage of the parents. By statute in many of the Amer- ican States, also, the subsequent intermarriage of the parents will render a bastard legitimate, but the English Parliament has, from the Statute of Merton (1235) to the present time, consistently re- fused to alter the common law rule on the subject. In a few of the United States, moreover, statutes have been enacted per- mitting a bastard to inherit from the mother and to transmit prop- erty to the mother by inheritance or under the statutes of distribu- tion. See Illegitimacy. Bastard Bar, in heraldry, an obsolete and somewhat mislead- ing designation for the symbol of illegitimacy. The figure to which this term is applied is properly called the baton. As the har proper is a horizontal and not Bastard Bar a diagonal figure, it can be neither dexter nor sinister, so that a bar sinister is, in English heraldry, an impossibility. The size {i.e. width) of the baton is half that of the scarp, which in its turn is half that of the bend sinister. Bastard of Orleans. See DuNois, Jean. Bastia, bas-te'a, town, and capital of Corsica, on the north- east shore, 100 miles northeast of Ajaccio. There is an ancient cathedral, a museum, the citadel, and a statue of Napoleon. It has a poor harbor, but there is a brisk trade in fish, fruit, oil, and marble. Pop. (1921) 31,939. Bastian, bas'tyan, Adolph (1826-1905), German ethnolo- gist, was born in Bremen. In 1851 he went to Australia as a ship's surgeon, and during the next eight years travelled over a great part of the world. He was appointed keeper of the Ethno- logical Museum, Berlin, in 1868, and lecturer on ethnology in the university there in 1869. In con- junction with Virchow he found- ed the Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, the organ of the Berlin Anthro- pological Society. His greatest work is Die Volker des dsllichen Asien (1866-71), a colossal collec- tion of facts of religious, eth- nological, and psychological in- terest. His other works, huge congeries of facts, without much attempt at order, include Der Mensch in der Geschichte (1860), Die Kulturldnder des alien Ameri- ka (1878-89), Der Buddhismus in seiner Psychologie (1882), Reli- gions philosophische Probleme (1884), Indonesien (1884-94), KuUurhistorische Studien (1900), Der Menschheitsgedanke durch Raum und Zeit (1901), and some fifty other books. Bastian, Henry Charlton (1837-1915), English physician, was born in Truro. He studied at University College, London, and was professor of pathological anatomy (1867-87) and pro- fessor of medicine (1887-95) at that institution. He was an au- thority on the pathology of the nervous system, and was also known as an advocate of the theory of the spontaneous genera- tion of life among the lower or- ganisms. His publications in- clude The Modes of Origin of Lowest Organisms (1871); The Beginnings of Life (1872) ; Evolu^ tion and the Origin of Life (1874) ; Clinical Lectures on the Common Forms of Paralysis from Brain Disease (1875); The Brain as an Organ of Mind (1880); Paralyses — Cerebral, Bulbar, and Spinal (1886); A Treatise on Aphasia (1898); Evolution of Life (1907); Origin of Life (1911). Bastiat, bas-tya', Frederic (1801-50), French political econ- omist, was born in Bayonne. He took a lively interest in the struggles of the English 'Anti- Corn Law League,' and in 1844 he published De V influence des tarifs francais et anglais sur Vavenir des deux peuples. He visited England in 1846, and on his return founded at Bordeaux the first free-trade association in France. But his health failing he retired to Italy, where he died. His best known writings are Cob- den et la ligue (1845); Sophismes economiques (1847; latest Eng. trans. 1888) ; Propriete et loi (1848) ; Justice etfraternile (1848) ; Propriete et spoliation (1850); L'etat (1849); Protectionisme et communisme (1849); Gratuite du credit (1850). Les harmonies economiques (1850; 10th ed. 1893) was translated into English by Dr. P. J. Stirling. Bastide, bas-ted', Jules (1800-79), a French republican politician and author, was born in Paris, He opposed the Orleans dynasty by sword and pen, was condemned to death in 1832, but escaped to England. After his pardon, in 1834, he returned to Paris, and again engaged in poli- tics, advocating republicanism in the National and the Revue Na- tionale, which he had established. In 1848 he acted as minister of foreign affairs for six months. Among his works are Histoire de V assemblee legislative (1849); His- toire des guerres religeuses en France (1859). Bastien-Lepage, bas-tyan'le- pazh, Jules (1848-84), French realistic painter, was born in Damvillers. He studied at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris, under Cabanel and served during the war (1870 -71) as a franc-tireur under the painter Castellani. He loved open-air nature, and paint- ed the rustic life of his childhood but was no student of sunshine, preferring gray skies and quiet tones, and using a high horizon line. In 1879 he went to London to execute the portrait of the Prince of Wales (1879) ; and seiz- ing the opportunity to study London street life, he painted the London Bootblack, a London Flower-girl, and later the Thames at London (1882). In 1881 he painted The Beggar, one of his best productions; Love in the Vil- lage in 1883, and The Forge in 1884. Other works are La petite communiante (1875); Les foins (1878); a portrait of Sarah Bern- hardt (1879). His influence on modern painting was far-reaching and beneficial. Bastille, bas-tel', a term ap- plied in the Middle Ages to a tower or bastion, and sometimes to the movable wooden tower otherwise called a berfry. In modern times the word has the general sense of a prison; but this significance is derived from the great and dreaded Bastille of Paris, in which, from the time of Richelieu onwards, persons ob- noxious to those in high place were summarily incarcerated on the strength of a lettre de cachet. It fell before the fury of the mob during the Revolution in 1789. Although in its later days more definitely a prison, the Bastille of Paris was originally a fortress, built in the latter part of the 14th century as one of the forti- fications of Paris. The story of Vol. I. — March '29 Bastion 612 Batac its downfall is told in Carlyle's French Revolution and Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities. Bas'tion, a fortification so de- signed that a flanking fire could be directed along every rampart and ditch from other parts of the same fort. It was introduced in the 16th century to bring a cross- fire to bear on the attackers' artillery; but when the power of guns increased so that they could climate is good and the soil fer- tile, and large quantities of grain are raised and herds of cattle pas- tured. The chief products are wool, wheat, and Kaffir corn, and small quantities of iron, coal, and copper have been found. The Basutos are practically autono- mous, living under their own chiefs and headman. In 1868 they were taken under British protection by Sir P. Wodehouse, 1. Skeleton of fruit bat (Pteropus jubatus). 2. Mouse-colored bat (V espcrtilio muri- nus). 3. Noctulo (Vesperugo noctula). 4. Kalong {Pteropus adulis). 5. Long-eared bat {Plecotus auritis). 6. Hammerheaded bat {Hypsignatlius monstrosus). 7. Greater horse- shoe bat (Rhinolophus ferrum-equinum). 8. Geoffrey's nyctophile {Nidophilus Geojfroyi). be withdrawn to a great distance, a cross-fire was no longer pos- sible, and the main object of the bastion disappeared. See Forti- fication. Basii'toland, territory, South Africa, in Cape of Good Hope province; area, 11,716 square miles. The whole district is mountainous, and the Maluti ranges, part of the Drakenberg, occupy most of the district. The Vol. I. — March '29 and annexed to the Cape Colony in 1871 by Sir H. Barkly. In April, 1880, an act was pavssed to disarm them, but the Basutos, availing themselves of the natural ramparts of their country, such as Thaba Bossigo, defended themselves vigorously. In 1884 the imperial government again took the Basutos under its juris- diction. The capital is Maseru. Pop. (1921) 498,781. Basyle* ba'sil, in chemistry, the simple or compound sub- stance which forms the electro- positive constituent of a salt. Bat, a small furry mammal be- longing to the order Chiroptera and characterized by the posses- sion of the power of true flight, but otherwise nearly related to insectivores. In structure the wing differs markedly from that of a bird, being formed by a mem- brane stretched over the greatly elongated fingers, arid extending between the hind limbs, and in some cases involving the tail. The thumb, short and clawed, is outside of the wing membrane, and is used for holding to sur- faces, and scrambling about the rocks of caves in which bats mostly dwell. Though the brain is not highly developed, the senses are exceedingly acute, and specially sensitive outgrowths of skin are often present on the head, forming 'nose-leaves.' Bats are widely distributed over the surface of the globe, are nocturnal in habit, and are di- vided, according to their diet, into two sub-orders — (1) Mega- chiroptera, large fruit-eating bats, in which the tail, if present, is not involved in the membrane con- necting the hind limbs. This order contains the fruit bat (q.v.) and the so-called flying foxes, with their various species. (2) Microchiroptera, small insect-eat- ing bats, in which the tail, when present, is involved in the mem- brane connecting the hind limbs — e.g. the horse-shoe bats (Rhi- nolophus), the pipistrelle bats (Vesperugo), the common bats ( Vespertilio) , the South American vampire bat (Desmodus rufus) and many other species. Of these, the Megachiroptera are confined to the warm regions of the eastern hemisphere, while the Microchiroptera are widely dis- tributed in both hemispheres. Bats form an order of great interest and importance to the naturalist. From a practical point of view they are of some economic importance so far as the one set destroy fruit crops, and the others make up for this by destroying insects, while only a very few, notably the vam- pire bat, are somewhat more sanguinary. See also Vampire Bat. Bataan, bii-ta-an', or Rincon- ADA, province, Luzon, Philippine Islands, lying west of the Bay of Manila; area, with 6 small de- pendent islands, 480 square miles. It has marble quarries, and pro- duces rice, sugar, and indigo. The capital is Balanga. Pop. (1918) .58,340. Batac, ba-tak', pueblo, Luzon Philippine Islands, in the prov- ince of Ilocos Norte situated on the main road, 10 miles south of Laoag. It is the largest town in Batak 613 Bates the province, and has an im- portant trade in rice, cotton cloth, tobacco, and sugar. Pop. (1918) 23.986. Batak, ba-tak', or Batta, a tribe of Malays found chiefly on the eastern coast of Sumatra, East Indies. They are probably one of the oldest divisions of the race and are taller and more muscular than most of the Malays, are democratic in their institutions, and show a rela- tively high civilization. They have maintained themselves in independence of the Dutch. At the present time they dwell for the most part on the plateau of Toba and number about 500,000. Batalha, ba-tal'ya, town, Por- tugal, in the district of Leiria, 6 miles southwest of Leiria. It has a famous Dominican monas- tery, built to commemorate the victory of Aljubarrota (1385). In the church are the tombs of Kings John I. and ii.. Edward, Al- phonso v., and Prince Henry the Navigator. Pop. 5,000. Batan, ba-tan', seaport, Phil- ippine Islands, on the north coast of Panay, in the province of Capiz; 17 miles west of Capiz. It has an anchorage in Batan Bay. Pop. (1918) 18,000. Batan Islands (Batanes), a group of islands in the Philippine Archipelago, north of the Ba- buyan group, between Bachi and Balingtan channels; area, 81 square miles. There are two clusters in the group, Ibayat, Diego, and the Bachi being the northern, and Batan, Sabtan, Ibugos, and Deques forming the southern. There are several excellent harbors and a large coasting trade. Shell fishing is an important industry. The capital is Santo Domingo de Basco on Batan Island. Pop. (1918) 8,214 Batang. See Battam. Batangas, ba-tan 'gas, prov- ince, Luzon, Philippine Islands; area 1,108 square miles. The chief products are cacao, coffee, and rice; manufactures include cotton, silk, and abaca. Pop. (1918) 340,199. Batangas, pueblo, capital of Batangas province, Luzon, Phil- ippine Islands, on the northwest shore of Batangas Bay, one mile from the mouth of Batangas River. It has several fine build- ings, including government house, city hall and a convent. Pop. (1918) 41,089. Batatas. See Sweet Potato. ■ Bata'vi, according to some a Celtic, but more probably a Ger- man tribe, who originally in- habited the 'island of the Rhine.' Eventually they became merged with the Franks. Bata'via, an ancient name for Holland. Batavia, province of Java, near the western extremity; area 2,598 square miles. Batavia, city, Java, capital of Dutch East Indies, on the north coast of Java, near the western end. It consists of an unhealthy old town built in the orthodox Dutch style, which contains the business houses and factories and is mostly inhabited by the natives and Chinese, and a fairly healthy upper town (Weltev- reden), chiefly residential, in which are two parks, several handsome squares, and the chief buildings of interest — the gover- nor general's palace (1828), museum of the Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences, and the library. Batavia is the principal trading centre of the Dutch possessions in the East. Its port is at Tanjong Priok, 6 miles to the northeast where new harbor works were constructed in 1877-86. The chief exports are coffee, tea, opium, copra, quinine, rice and pepper. The principal imports are woven fabrics. Ba- tavia was founded by the Dutch in 1619, and from 1811 to 1816 was in the hands of the British. It has often suffered an excessive mortality due to fever and malaria. Pop. (1918) 235,697. Batavia, city. New York, county seat of Genesee County, on Tonawanda Creek, and on the Lehigh Valley, the Erie, and the New York Central Railroads; 37 miles northeast of Buffalo, and 32 miles southwest of Rochester. There are manu- factures of farm implements, shoes, and paper boxes, and it is the seat of the State Institute for the Blind. Pop. (1910) 11,613; (1920) 13,541; (1925) 15,628. Batavian Republic, the name under which the Netherlands were known from 1795 to 1806, following the invasion by the French under Pichegru. Batch'eller, George Sher- man (1837-1908), American dip- lomat and jurist, was born in Batchellerville, N. Y., and was graduated (1857) from Harvard Law School. He practised at Saratoga, and later served through the Civil War. He was a member of the New York State legislature for several terms and was appointed by President Grant (1875) judge of the Inter- national Tribunal of Egypt, re- signing in 1885. He was first as- sistant secretary of the treasury, 1889-91, United States minister to Portugal, 1891, and held other diplomatic appointments until his reappointment (1898) to the In- ternational Tribunal. In 1902 he was appointed to the Su- preme Court of Appeal of that tribunal. Batchian. See Batjan. Bate,WiLLiAM Brimage(1826- 1905), American legislator, was born near Castalian Springs, Tenn., and received an academic education. After various experi- ences as steamboat clerk on the Mississippi, as private in the Mexican War. and member of the Tennessee legislature, he studied law, and was attorney general for the Nashville district, 1854-60. He served in the Confederate army, 1861-5, rising from private to major general. After the war, he resumed the practice of law at Nashville, was governor of Ten- nessee, 1882-6, and was U. S. senator from Tennessee from 1887 until his death. Bate man. Sir Frederic(1824- 1904), English physician, a native of Norfolk, and a graduate (1850) of Aberdeen University. His chief contributions to medical science are Aphasia, and the Localizaiion of Speech (1870); Darwinism tested by Language (1877); and The Idiot: his Place in Creation. He was knighted in 1892. Bateman, Kate Josephine (1842-1917), American actress, was born in Baltimore, Md., and after achieving considerable suc- cess on the American stage, in 1863 she went to England. Her chief roles in which she met with great favor, are Leah in Deborah, Medea, Lady Macbeth, and Queen Mary. Bates, Arlo (1850-1918), American author was born in East Machias, Me. He was graduated (1876) from Bowdoin College, after which he lived in Boston, Mass. He edited, 1878-9, The Broadside, a civil service reform paper, and was editor of the Boston Sunday Courier from 1880 until his appointment (1893) as professor of English literature at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. His published works include Patty's Perversities (1881) , The Pagans (1884), A Wheel of Fire (1885), Berries of the Brier, verse (1886), Sonnets in Shadow (1887), The Philistines (1889), The Puritans (1899), Talks on Writing English (1897-1901), Talks on' Teaching Literature (1906); The Intoxicated Ghost (1908). He was a member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters. Bates, Blanche (1873- ), American actress, was born in Portland, Ore. She was educated in the public schools of San Francisco and first appeared on the stage in that city in 1894. She has played leading parts in various comedies, has appeared in Shakespearian roles and has starred in such productions as The Girl of the Golden West, Madam Butterfly, The Darling of the Gods, Under Two Flags and others. Bates, Charlotte Fiske(1838- 1916), American poet, was born in New York City. She was educated in Cambridge, Mass., to which place she returned after some years of residence in Vol. I. — March '28 Bates New York City. She cooperated with the poet Longfellow in com- piling Poems of Places; published Risks and Other Poems (1879), and edited the Cambridge Book of Poetry and Song (1882). Bates, Edward (1793-1869). American lawyer and political leader, was born in Belmont, Va. He removed to St. Louis, Mo., in 1814, was admitted to the bar in 1817, and became prominent both at the bar and in politics. He was a member of the Missouri Con- stitutional Convention of 1820, U. S. district attorney for Missouri (1821-6), and a repre- sentative in Congress (1827-9). From 1861 to 1864, during the Civil War, he was attorney general in President Lincoln's cabinet. Bates, Henry Walter (1825- 92), English naturalist, was born in Leicester. Trained for commerce, he early decided to de- vote his life to the study of natural science and from 1848 to 1859 was in Brazil, part of the time with his friend Alfred Russel Wallace (q.v.), exploring the Upper Amazon region, and mak- ing a vast and valuable collection of specimens, entomological and botanical, of which the greater number (8,000) were new dis- coveries. Charles Darwin was indebted to him for a wealth of illustration for his theory of natural selection. His Naturalist on the Amazon an exceedingly able work, appeared in 1863, and in the following year he was ap- pointed assistant secretary of the Royal Geographical Society, an office which he held till his death. Bates, John Coalter (1842- 1919), American soldier, was born in S. Charles City, Mo. He was educated at Washington University, St. Louis, Mo., and served on the Federal side throughout the Civil War. He was president of the board of officers by which the drill and firing regulations of the U. S. army were drawn up, and was a member of that by which the Krag-Jorgensen rifle was adopted. He served first as brigadier general of volunteers and later as major general of volunteers in the Spanish-American War, took part in the Santiago cam- paign, and subsequently was in turn commander and military- governor of the Department of Santa Clara, Cuba (1899). He then served in the Philippines, becoming brigadier general in the regular service (1901), major general (1902), lieutenant general and chief-of -staff, in 1906. Bates, Katharine Lee (1859- ), American author and educator, was born in Falmouth, Mass. She was graduated (1880) from Wellesley College, of which she was assistant professor of English literature (1888-91), pro- VoL. L — March '28 fessor (1891-1925), becoming professor emeritus in 1925. She is the author of The College Beautiful, and Other Poems (1887) , Rose and Thorn, fiction (1889), The English Religious Drama (1893), American Literature (1898), Spanish Highways and Byways (1900), From Gretna Greene to Land's End (1907); The Story of Chaucer's Canter- bury Tales Re-told for Children (1909); In Sunny Spain (1913); Fairy Gold (1916); Sigurd, Our Golden Collie, and Other Com- rades of the Road (1919); Little Robin Stay-Behind and Other Plays in Verse for Children (1923); The Pilgrim Ship (1926) ; and is editor of numerous edi- tions of English classics. Bates College, a coeduca- tional institution at Lewiston, Maine, founded in 1864, an outgrowth of Maine State Sem- inary. It is an important educa- tional centre for the State. Courses of study are those of the usual undergraduate rank and lead to the degrees of b.a. and B.s. There is an attractive cam- pus of about 75 acres, and the buildings include the chapel, Hathorn Hall, Hedge Labo- ratory, Carnegie Science Hall, Chase Hall, Coram Library, with more than 50,000 volumes. Rand Hall, a building for the women students, and the gym- nasium, with an indoor field and two locker buildings. The college has a Summer School which specializes in secondary school matters. For recent statistics see Table under the heading College. Batesville, city, Arkansas, county seat of Independence County, on the White River, and on the Missouri Pacific Railroad; 100 miles northeast of Little Rock. It is the seat of Arkansas College and has quarries of marble, sandstone and manga- nese ore. Manufactures include flour, wagons and lumber prod- ucts. Pop. (1910) 3,399; (1920) 6,000. Batfisb, any of the several spe- cies of small carnivorous fishes of the family Malthidae, related to the anglers. They have relatively big and broad heads, and most of the time rest upon the seabottom supported upon their leglike pec- toral fins. In this attitude and with their rough skins and brown colors they resemble toads. One or more of the great American sting-rays are locally called 'batfish,' in reference to their dark, expansive, winglike lateral fins. Bath, city, England, in Somer- setshire, beautifully situated on the river Avon; 1 1 miles southeast of Bristol. The Avon and the Kennet canals connect it with the Thames. It is a favorite summer resort and much frequented for its Bath waters for which from early times it has been celebrated. The Romans, as shown by excava- tions since 1875, founded a city here, to which they gave the name of Aquae Solis, and in the reign of Claudius, erected magnifi- cent baths.. The Abbey Church, built in 1499, during the reign of Henry vn., stands on the site of a Roman temple dedicated to Minerva, and is sometimes known as the 'Lantern of England' from its many large windows. The hot springs are chalybeate and saline, and the daily outflow is nearly 500,000 gallons. Pop. (1920) 68,669. Bath, city, Maine, county seat of Sagadahoc County, situ- ated 12 miles from the mouth of the Kennebec River, here crossed by a fine railroad bridge, on the Maine Central Railroad, and lines of the Augusta and Bath Steamboat Company, and the Eastern Steamship Company. One of the chief ship-building towns, it has large interests in the manufacture of marine en- gines. Other industries include cordage works, boiler-works, iron foundries, and planing mills. Pop. (1910) 9,396; (1920) 14,731. Bath, city. New York, county seat of Steuben County, on Cohocton River, and on the Bath and Hammondsport, the Erie, and the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroads; 75 miles southeast of Rochester. It is the seat of the New York State Veterans' Camp, and has manu- factures of knit goods, automo- biles, ladders, harness, churns, milking machines and candies. Pop. (1910) 3,884 (1920) 4,795. Bath, Order of the, a famous order in English history instituted (or revived) by George I. in 1725. Until 1815 it con- sisted of a grand-master and Badge of the Order of the Bath 36 companions, and was purely military. In 1815 it was re- modelled and made to consist of three classes. (1.) Knights Grand Commanders (g. c. b.). (2.) KnightsCommanders(K.c.B.) . (3.) Companions (c.b.). In 1847 it was extended by the admission of civil knights, commanders, and companions. fiathforick Bathbrick, a material used for polishing or scouring metallic ves- sels, knives, etc.; made into fri- able bricks at Bridgwater, Eng- land, from the fine s liceous sand found in the river Parret. Bathgate, par. and tn. in Lin- lithgowshire, Scotland. Coalmines and parafifin works employ most of the inhabitants. Pop. (1911) par. 17,659 ; tn. 8,226. Batholith, or Batholite. A large irregular rock mass of ig- neous origin that cooled at con- siderable depth from the surface, but has since been exposed by erosion of the overlying strata. Their deep-seated formation is indicated by their coarse texture and homogeneous structure. They are common in areas of Precam- br'an crystalline rocks. Bathometer. See Oceanog- raphy. Bathori, name of an old aris- tocratic family of Transylvania, who gave to that province several princes, and to Poland one king. Stephen (1533-86), after ruling Transylvania for four years (1571- 75), was elected king of Poland. — SiGlSMUND (1573-1613) became prince on the death of his father, Stephen (1586). He was domi- nated by the Jesuits, and in 1596 yielded the throne of Transylvania to Rudolf II., emperor of Austria, in exchange for certain posses- sions in Silesia, the dignity of cardinal, and a life pension. — Elizabeth (d. 1614), a niece of Stephen Bathori, king of Poland, was reputed to be a werewolf, and during the years before her imprisonment in the fortress of Csejte, in the co. of Nyitra, in 1610, was said to have caused many young girls to be murdered in her dungeons, that she might renew her youth by bathing in their blood. See Baring-Gould's Book of Werewolves (1865). Bathos, a ridiculous descent from elevated language to com- monplace or absurdity, or a ludi- crous want of correspondence be- tween a writer's thought and his expression of it. The finest speci- mens of bathos in English are to be found in the British Album, a collection of poems of the Delia Cruscan group, compiled by Bell in 1790 from the columns of the World newspaper. One of these reads — ' Disordered, lost, from hill to plain I rim, And with my mind's thick gloom obscure the sun.' Dr. Brewer in his Dictionary of Phrase and Fable cites the fol- lowing well-known lines: — ' And thou, Dalhousie, the great god of war. Lieutenant-general to the Earl of Mar.' Alexander Pope wrote A Trea- tise of the Bathos, or the Art oj 615 Sinking in Poetry; and Swift and Arbuthnot collaborated on a work on the same subject. Baths and Bathing. The Jews, Mohammedans, and Bud- dhists observe bathing as a rite; the bath, in religious ceremo- nial, has always been first in- culcated in hot climates, where chiefly it is of sanitary value. The Pentateuch and the Koran are full of references to bathing. Both the Iliad and the Odyssey speak of the hot bath, ana the Greeks are believed to have been the first 'people to use hot air for bathing purposes. From them the Romans adopted the hot bath, having previously used the swim- ming bath and cold bath only. The Roman baths were popular lounges; and those of Hercula- neum and Pompeii, besides those built by Caracalla in Rome, are examples of the most enduring workmanship of those times. The last named provided accommoda- tion for 2,000 bathers. The very young and the very old cannot bear extremes of tem- perature, neither can these who suffer from heart disease or a tendency to apoplexy. The cold- water bath (temp. 65° F. and less) is suitable for regular use as a nerve tonic and stimulant for the aver- age adult,_ but only for a few min- utes at a time. Cold baths of long duration are used, on account of their depressing effect, to lower high temperature. In the case of weak persons the water should be warm (say 100° F.) at starting, and the temperature gradually lowered by adding cold water. Temperature continues to fall after the long-continued cold bath is ended, so that patients should always be removed when their temperature has dropjicd to 100° F. The ccld Lath cleanses no Bathshcba more than the skin surface. The hot-water bath (temp, above 10u° F.) acts upon the skin and the cu- taneous nerves, and thereby on deeper structures. The special liability to chill after a hot bath should be prevented, either by finishing with a cold spray or sponging, to restore tone to the capillaries, or by taking the bath immediately before bedtime. Water that cannot be comfort- ably endured by the nurse's elbow is too hot for any infant. Hot baths are useful for children in convulsions, mustard being added in the proportion of two tablespoonfuls to the gallon, and cold water being poured over the head._ It is probable that the good effect attributed to many of the fashionable spas and watering- places is due, not so much to the medicinal properties of the bath, •\ I •i s except in the case of skin diseases, as to the effect of the same waters used internally, as they generally are, together with a change of air and scene, and a saner scheme of feeding and exerc'se, as well as the temperature, pressure, and mechanical stimulus of the bath. The Nauheim baths have re- cently been recommended for acute heart disease. In the preparation of artificial baths, salt and mustard are often added. Sea salt is used for its stimulating effect on the skin, and mustard is effective in dilating the skin capillaries in order to relieve internal congestion or to reduce fever. See Baruch's Principles and Practice of Hydrotherapy (1900). Bathsheba ('daughter of the oath'), wife of Uriah the Hittite, afterward of David, and mother of Solomon. The manner of her ailmission into the royal harem Bath — Remains of Roman Bath (55 B.C.). ROMAN BATHS AT POMPEII (RESTORED). 1. The waiting-room. 2. The cold plunge. 3. The court. 4. The hot bath. Bathurst 617 Baton Rouge (2 Sam. xi.) was less shameful, according to Oriental ideas, than it appears when judged by mod- ern and Western standards; and the fact that even in its time and place some were found to con- demn it (2 Sam. xii. 1-25) is one of the glories of Israel. Bathsheba rose to great power (1 Kings i.). Some suppose that she was a granddaughter of Ahithophel {cf. 2 Sam. xi. 3 with xxiii. 34), but it is hardly justifiable to assume that Ahithophel's part in the rebellion of Absalom (2 Sam. xvi". 20 ff.) was caused by David's conduct with Bathsheba. Con- sult commentaries on 2 Samuel. Batburst, bath'urst, town, Bathurst county, western district of New South Wales, Australia, on the south bank of the Macquarie River; 145 miles by rail west of Sydney. It is situated on a tableland (altitude 2,153 feet) in the midst of a large, fertile plain west of the Blue Mountains. There are mines of gold (both quartz and placer), silver, and copper, and quarries of slate,, granite, and marble in the vicin- ity. The principal agricultural products are wheat, barley, to- bacco, and fruit. Industries in- clude tanning, brewing, milling, and manufactures of boots and shoes, railway coaches, and brick. Pop. (1911) 8,575. Batburst, capital of the colony and protectorate of Gambia, West Africa, is located on the island of St. Mary, on the tidal River Gambia. It is connected by an iron bridge with British Kommbo and Cape St. Mary, the resort during the unhealthy rainy season. The exports in- clude ground-nuts, wax, hides, rice, tobacco, gum, rubber, palm kernels, and some indigo, amount- ing to about $1,550,000 annually. Pop. 9,000. Batburst, district and town on the southeast coast of Cape Colony, South Africa. The dis- trict is a fruit-growing section (oranges, lemons, etc.), and pro- duces also oats, barley, mealies, and tobacco. Milch cattle and ostriches are raised, and butter is manufactured. Pop. 12,000, of which 2, .500 are white. The chief town is Port Alfred (pop. 1,600). BaAhurst, town, county seat of Gloucester county. New Bruns- wick, Canada, on Nepisiguit or Bathurst Bay, and the Inter- colonial Railway; 175 miles northeast of St. John. It is a port of entry and a banking town, and has large salmon fish- eries. It is a growing summer re- sort. Pop. (1911) 5,248. Bathurst, Earl, a British title created in 1772. Allen Bath- urst, first earl (1684-1775), English statesman, was born in London, educated at Trinity Col- lege, Oxford, and became a memT bar of Parliament in 1705. In Vol. I.— Mar. '19. 1711 he was created Baron Bath- urst of Battlesden. In 1742 he became a privy councillor, and in 1772 Earl Bathurst. He was a generous patron of literature — a friend of Swift, Addison, Pope, Sterne, and others. — Henry, sec- ond earl (1714-94), son of the first earl, was educated at Baliol College, Oxford. He was elected to Parliament in 1735, was Lord High Chancellor (1771-8), and became earl in 1775. In 1779 he was appointed lord president of the council. — Henry, third earl (1762-1834), son of the second earl, was elected to Parliament in 1783, and became earl in 1794. He was Secretary for War, and for the Colonies (1812-27) and lord president of the council (1828-30). Bathurst Inlet, an arm of Coronation Gulf, Northern Can- ada; 300 miles northeast of Great Slave Lake. Bathurst Island, one of the •Parry Islands (q. v.) in the Arctic Ocean, north of North America. Bathurst Island, mountainous island off the northern coast of Australia. It measures about 30 miles in length and is heavily wooded. Batbybius, ba-thib'i-us, a name given by Huxley to a supposed protoplasmic organism found in some deep-sea ooze which had been preserved ' with alcohol. Eventually it was shown that the substance was merely a precipi- tate of fiocculent sulphate of lime, thrown down from the sea water by the alcohol. Bathym'eter, Bathymetry, the instrument for, and the art of measurement of depth in the sea. See Ocean. Baticaloa. See Batticaloa. BatignoUes, ba-te-nyol', for- merly a town in the suburbs of Paris; now forming part of the seventeenth arrondissement, in the extreme northwestern part of the city. Batik, ba-tek', or Battik, a process for coloring textiles, in which the patterns are impressed on the fabric by waxing them over and dyeing the unwaxed parts. It is used for cotton stuffs in India and the East Indies, and for silks and velvets in Europe. Batiste, ba-test', properly a fabric of very fine and closely woven linen. The name is ap- plied also to a fine cotton fabric which shows the same peculiar texture as linen batiste. Batjan, bat-yan', Bachian, or Batshian, one of the Molucca Islands, Dutch East Indies, lies west of the southern peninsula of Jilolo (Halmahera), the largest of the group. It has an area of about 900 square miles, is moun- tainous (reaching 7,200 feet), very fertile, and has large sub- tropical forests yielding precious gums. It is sparsely inhabited along the coast. There is some coal of poor quality, and gold and copper have been found. The products are spice (principally cloves), rice, sago, and cocoanuts. Pop. 13,500, mostly Alfuras. Bat'ley, municipal borough in the West Riding, Yorkshire, England, 8 miles southwest of Leeds. There are numerous fac- tories making shoddy, heavy woollen cloths, and druggets. Pop. (1911) 36,395. Bat'man, a term used in the British army, originated in hat, a pack-saddle, but is now applied to an officer's servant. Batna, bat'na, fortified town, Algeria, 62 miles southwest of Constantine, on the railway to Biskra, at the base of the Aures Mountains. To the southwest are the great Roman remains of Lambessa. Pop. (1911) 8.890. Baton, bat'on or ba-ton', the stick with which the conductor of a choir or orchestra beats the time. It is usually made of ma- plewood, is 21 or 22 inches in length, and tapers from three- fourths to three-eighths of an inch in diameter. The baton did not come into general use till the third decade of the nineteenth century. Up to that time, the principal violinist usually marked the time with his bow or foot. Spohr was the first to employ the conducting stick in England at a philharmonic concert in 1820. The staves of field-marshals and drum-majors are also called batons. Baton, Batton, Baston, or Battoon, in heraldry, the mark of illegitimacy, commonly called the bastard bar. See Bend. Baton Rouge, bat'on roozh, city, Louisiana, capital of the State, and a port of entry, on the Mississippi River, and on the Yazoo and Mississippi Valley, the New Orleans, Texas, and Mexico, and the Louisiana and Texas Railroads, and on the hne of the Louisiana Railway and Navigation Company, all con- nected by interchange track; 130 miles above New Orleans by river and 80 miles by rail. It is the seat of the Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College, Southern University, which is the State college for the negro, and several other institutions of learning, in- cluding educational institutions for the deaf, dumb, and blind under State management. The State Agricultural Experiment Station, State prison, and a na- tional cemetery are also located here. There are large manufac- tures of cotton-seed products, mixed stock feed, artificial ice, lumber, and bricks, and consider- able shipping interests. Cotton, sugar and fruit plantations are located on the outskirts of the city. Batoum 618 Battery Baton Rouge was one of the first French settlements in Louis- iana. In 1779 it was taken from the British by the Spaniards. Here, in 1862, the Federals under Gen. Thomas Williams defeated the Confederates under Gen. J. C. Breckenridge. Commission government was adopted in 1913, Pop. (1900) 11,269; (1910) 14,897; (1918, est.) 23,000. Batoum. See Batum. Batrachia. See Amphibia. Batrachomyomachia, bat'ra- ko-ml'o-ma'ki-a (Greek, 'The Battle of the Frogs and the Mice'), a mock-heroic poem, in hexameters, erroneously ascribed to Homer, but more probably the work of the Carian Pigres, broth- er of Queen Artemisia. Batshian. See Batjan. Batta, Battak. See Batak. Battal'ion, in the U. S. Army, an organization of two or more (generally four) companies in the Infantry, Engineers, and Signal Corps, and of two or more bat- teries in the Field Artillery. Two batteries of Heavy Field Artil- lery and three of Light usually constitute a battalion. In the Coast Artillery two or more com- panies are usually organized into provisional battalions for other than Coast Artillery formations. The exact strength of a battalion is subject to change with changes in equipment and the conditions under which an army is operat- ing. At present (1919) the total strength of a battalion in various arms of the service is as follows: Infantry, 26 officers and 1,000 men; machine-gun battalion of 2 companies, motorized, 15 officers and 369 men; machine-gun bat- talion of 4 companies, 27 officers and 730 men; light artillery, 17 officers and 582 men; heavy field artillery, 12 officers and 410 men; field signal battalion, 14 officers and 459 men; engineer battalion, 20 officers and 750 men; trench mortar battalion, 26 officers and 740 men. The infantry battalion is a tac- tical unit only unless detached from the regiment, in which case it becomes an administrative unit as well. It is commanded by a major, assisted by a bat- talion adjutant and a battalion sergeant major. There are three battalions to a regiment of in- fantry. In foreign armies the battalion is the usual administrative and tactical unit. Each battalion of British infantry has a war strength of about 1,000 men, and is commanded by a lieutenant colonel, assisted by an adjutant. On the Continent a battalion consists generally of four com- panies, and there are three or four battalions to a regiment, the strength of a regiment varying from 1,000 to 1,500 men. See Company; Regiment. Vol. I.— Mar. ' 19. Battam, bat-tam', or Batang, island, Dutch East Indies, in the Riau Archipelago, 20 miles south of Singapore. It is fertile and well wooded, and produces cate- chu. Its chief harbor is Bulang Bay. Area, 160 square miles. Battenberg, bat ' t^n - berK, town, province of Hesse-Nassau, Prussia, on the Eder, 16 miles northwest of Marburg. It gives its title to the Princes of Batten- berg (q. v.). Pop. (1910) 990. Battenberg, a title conferred, with the added distinction of 'serene highness,' in 1851 on Countess von Hauke, daughter of a Polish general of artillery and a morganatic wife of Prince Alexander of Hesse. She was raised to the rank of princess in 1858. Of her four children. Princes of Battenberg, Louis Alexander (q. v.) became a British admiral; Alexander Jo- seph was the first Prince of Bul- garia (see Alexander i.) ; Henry (1858-96) married Princess Bea- trice, youngest daughter of Queen Victoria, in 1885, and died at sea while returning from an expedi- tion to West Africa. Their daughter, Victoria Eugenie (1887), married Alfonso xiii., king of Spain, in 1906. Bat'tens, commercially a form of squared timber from 1 to 4 inches thick, about 7 inches wide, and of any length. In common usage the term is applied to flat strips of lumber, as cleats, fur- ring strips, and the like. On shipboard battens are the strips of wood nailed to the deck to hold down the tarpaulin cover of a hatch. Batter, a backward slope in the face of a retaining wall, to make the plumb-line from the top fall within the base. It is a common construction in railway work, dams, etc., and in some archi- tectural designs. Battering Ram, an ancient and effective engine of war, used by the Greeks and Romans, and in 1 2 Battering Ram. mediaeval times, for making breaches in the walls of cities and forts. It consisted of a beam of wood, sometimes 120 feet long and sometimes 2 feet in diam- eter, with a ponderous mass of iron or bronze — weighing a ton in some instances — at the head. The ram was driven against the wall by the soldiers who carried it, or it was suspended horizon- tally by ropes from a framework which carried a protecting roof or was mounted on wheels. The wall was rammed by swinging the beam against it, and the blows were timed so that the wall would rock rhythmically, thus aiding in its disintegration. Bat'tersea, borough of Lon- don, England, bordering the south bank of the Thames, be- tween the Albert and Victoria bridges, noted for its park of 199 acres. The special feature of the park is the sub-tropical garden (about 4 acres). The district is mainly a residence quarter for artisans, and the Shaftesbury Park estate (40 acres) has been laid out in workingmen's homes. Battery, the criminal offence of inflicting violence upon an- other person, is the consumma- tion of an assault; but there may be assault which does not involve actual violence, and which does not, therefore, amount to bat- tery. Both offences are punish- able civilly by action for damages as well as by criminal prosecu- tion. See Assault. Battery, a military term of various meanings. A battery of Field Artillery is the smallest administrative and tactical unit of that branch of the service, a light-artillery (3-inch gun) bat- tery having 5 officers and 194 men; a heavy artillery (240 mm. gun) battery, 5 officers and 179 men. The term generally em- braces both personnel and mate- riel. The latter includes 4 guns or howitzers, and, in addition, 12 caissons, 16 limbers, a bat- tery wagon, a store wagon, a store limber, and a forge lim- ber, the caissons and limbers being 2-wheeled vehicles for car- rying ammunition and accesso- ries. Two batteries of heavy and three of light Field Artillery usu- ally make up a battalion (q. v.). See Field Artillery. In Coast Artillery the term re- fers to the cannon (whatever their number) in position for service; to the structure (of v^^hatever kind) erected for the emplacing, protecting, and serv- ing of the cannon; and, in a larger sense, to the complete es- tablishment, consisting of one or more companies of artillery, the guns, emplacement, stations for range finding, etc. The personnel of the coast artillery is called a company, not a battery. It con- sists of 112 officers and men. Sea-coast batteries consist of one or more guns mounted and ready for service, and in the United States are named after deceased Battery, Electric Primary 619 Battle of the Frogs and Mice officers or others who have gained distinction in the service of the United States, consideration be- ing given to geographical loca- tion of batteries in the selection of names. A light battery has horses only for the guns and wagons, while in horse artillery the men are mounted. Artillery batteries are usually designated according to the pur- pose for which or manner in which they are employed. For example, a Barbette battery fires over a parapet having its guns mounted en barbette; a Blinded ' battery is protected by bomb- proof defences; a Breaching bat- tery is intended to breach the walls of the hostile defences; a Counter battery is to operate against guns attacking a breach- ing battery; a Mortar battery consists of mortars (eight in the U. S. service) ; a Mountain bat- tery consists of guns which may be taken apart for transport to elevated positions; a Water bat- tery is near and only slightly above high water; and so on. In naval parlance all the guns of a ship are called its battery; the guns on the starboard side are styled the starboard battery; on the port side, the port battery; or guns of the same size, or class, are grouped, as the six-inch bat- tery, or the rapid-fire battery. See Artillery; Coast De- fence; Fortification; Guns. Battery, Electric Primary. See Cell, Voltaic. Battery, Electric Secondary (Storage Battery). See Ac- cumulator, Electric. Battery, Floating. See Float- ing Battery. Battery Park (The Battery), a park in New York City, of 21 acres, at tne extreme southern end of Manhattan Island. Here, early in tne history of the city, a platform was erected on the rocks jutting out of the water to support a battery that would command both rivers. A fort known as Castle Clinton was subsequently erected on the site (1807-11), and was afterward modified into Castle Garden, which later became the Aquarium. See New York City. Batteux, bii-tu', Charles (1713-80), abbe, professor in the College de France (1741)), and member of the French Academy (i/6l), is known for his treatise Oil the Beaux Arts (1746), his Principes de la Litterature (6 vols., 1774-7), his edition of Les Quatres Poetiques d'Aristote, d' Horace, de Vida, de Despreaux (2 vols., 1771), and his transla- tion of Horace (17.'iO, 1768, 1805). He was one of the ablest of the French academic critics. Batthyanyi, bot'ya-iiye, one of the oldest families in Hungary, from which sprang several prom- inent military leader" and states- men. Francis, Balthazar, and Karl were warriors of note. — Count Casimir Batthyanyi (1807-54) was Minister of For- eign Affairs in Hungary in 1849. After the defeat of Vilagos he fled, and remained in Turkish territory till 1851, going thence to France, where he died. — Count Louis Batthyanyi (1809-49) was appointed president of the new Hungarian ministry in March, 1848. He resigned in September. Civil war followed, and his party was vanquished. He was executed by the Aus- trians in 1849, under a sentence of martial law commonly re- garded as unjust. Battiadse, ba-ti'a de, a dynasty of eight kings, who reigned at Cyrene from about 630 to 450 B.C. See Cyrene. Batticaloa, ba-tl-ka-l5'a, town, capital of the province of the same name, on the east coast of Ceylon. It is located on an island, and has a good harbor. It is surrounded by plantations producing rice and cocoanuts, and has an active trade. Pop. 11,000. Battle. vSee Strategy and Tactics; Battles, Famous. Battle, market town, Sussex, England, 7 miles northwest of Hastings. Here in 1067 William the Conqueror founded Battle Abbey, in commemoration of his victory in the Battle of Hastings (q. V.) at Senlac. The High Al- tar is reputed to have stood on the spot where the body of Har- old was found. After the Ref- ormation Henry viii. presented the Abbey to Sir Anthony Browne, his Master of the Horse, who used it as a dwelling. The ruins are now shown to visitors. Battle Above the Clouds, a name popularly given to that part of the Battle of Chattanooga which resulted (Nov. 24. 1863) in the capture of Lookout Moun- tain by the Federals under the immediate command of General Hooker, who charged up the mountain through a heavy mist. See Chattanooga. Battle Axe, weapon of warfare used from primitive times down to the era of gunpowder, consist- ing of an axe blade, diversely shaped, and a handle of varying length. When the latter is long and ends in a spear, pike, or hook, and has a pick or spike opposite to the blade of the axe, it is called a pole-axe or halbert (q. v.). The earliest battle axes had stone heads (celts), and these were suc- ceeded by bronze blades. Among the Greeks and Romans the battle axe had either one broad cutting edge or was bipennate, the latter being pre-eminently the weapon of war. The French battle axe of the Middle Ages was ako bipennate, with convex cutting edges. The Francisca and Danish axes had but one blade of this kind, sometimes extended behind into a spike. Battle Creek, city, Michigan, Calhoun county, at the con- fluence of Battle Creek and the Kalamazoo River, on the Michi- gan Central, the Grand Trunk Western, and the Detroit, To- ledo and Milwaukee Railroads; 120 miles west of Detroit, and 45 miles from Lansing. It has a number of fine civic buildings and parks, and one of the largest sanatoriums in the world. The Roosevelt American Legion Hos- pital and the Federal Bureau Neuro-Psychiatric Hospital are located at Camp Custer just out- side the city. Battle Creek is an active in- dustrial centre, manufacturing cereals, health foods and drinks, spaghetti, macaroni, vermicelli, agricultural implements, motors, automobile accessories, pumps, aluminum ware, stoves, brass goods, mattresses, artificial flow- ers, ovens, corsets, bread wrap- ping machines, dog food, electric signs, printing presses, ink, paper cartons, fibre shipping cases, wire-bound boxes, registers, steel and wire specialties, mail and delivery wagons, soft drinks, candy, and dolls. According to the Federal Census of Manufac- tures for 1919, industrial estab- lishments number 118, with a capital of S38,863,882, and prod- ucts valued at $56,140,000. The commission form of government was adopted in 1913. Pop, (1900) 18,563; (1910) 25,257; (1920) 36,164. Battle Cruiser. See Battle- ship; Cruiser. Battledore and Shuttlecock, a child's game played with small racquets and a piece of cork stud- ded with feathers so as to keep it upright while falling, after being struck into the air. Battleford, town, Canada, province of Saskatchewan, situ- ated at the junction of the Battle and North Saskatchewan Rivers and on the Canadian Northern Railway, in the centre of a fine farming country. It was in- vested by Indians during the Northwest rebellion in 1885, and was relieved by Colonel Otter, Pop. (1911) 1,335, (1921) 1,229. Battle Hymn of the Republic. See Howe, Julia Ward. Battlement, a mediaeval defence consisting of a parapet erected round the top of a fortified build- ing, and broken into alternate high and lower parts. The rising parts of the wall, termed cops or merlons, served as shelters to the soldiers, who fired through the openings, styled crenelles, or through loopholes pierced in the merlons. Battle of the Frogs and Mice. See Batrachomyomachia. Vol. I.— Oct. '23 Battle of the Spurs 620 Battle of the Spurs, a name given to the victory of the Flem- ish over the French at Courtrai (q. V.) in 1.302, because of the large numbers of spurs gathered on the field of battle. The name has also been applied to the victory of Henry viii. and Maxi- milian over the French at Guine- gate (q. v.) in 1.513. Battles, Famous. Battles have become historically famous not alone because of the size of the armies engaged, or the dispro- portion between the forces, but See also separate articles — e.g., AusTERLiTZ, Gettysburg, Ma- nila Bay, Saratoga, Water- loo, Marne, Ypres. Consult Valentine's Sea Fights and Land Battles; Creasy's De- cisive Battles of the World — with Speed's supplement; Harbottle's Dictionary of Battles; Hitch- cock's Decisive Battles of America. Battleship, a naval vessel of the most powerful type, one fit to be placed in the line of battle of the main fighting force of a fleet. Such a ship must have strong Famous Land Battles. Battle. Date. 490 B.C. Syracuse 413 B.C. Arbclti 331 B c Metaurus 207 B^c." 42 B.C. Chalons 451 533 Tours 732 Hastings 1066 Orleans 1429 Berestecko 1653 Blenheim 1704 Pultowa 1709 1777 1792 1805 1806 1807 1813 Waterloo 1815 Gettysburg 1863 Koniggratz 1866 Sedan 1870 Modder River 1899 1905 1914, 1918 1914, 1915 Verdun 1916 Amiens 1918 Cambrai-St. Quentin. . 1918 Armageddon 1918 Victors. Vanquished. Athenians, 11,000 Syracusans Macedonians, 47,000 Romans, 50,000 Triumvirs, 100,000 Romans and Visigoths. . Romans, 100,000 Franks Normans French Poles, 100,000 English and Allies Russians, 70,000 Americans French French French, 100,000 French, 80,000 Austrians, 300,000 English and All-ies Federals, 75,000 Prussians, 200,000 Germans, 200,000 British, 10,000 Japanese, 370,000 Allies Allies Allies Allies Allies Persians, 100,000 -Athenians Persians, 150,000 Carthaginians, 47,000 Republicans, 100,000 Huns Vandals, 160,000 English English Wallachians, 300,000 French Swedes, 24,000 British Prussians Russians and Austrians Prussians, 70,000 Russians, 70,000 French, 150,000 French Confederates, 75,000 Austrians, 200,000 French, 150,000 Boers, 9,000 Russians, 350,000 Central Powers Central Powers Central Powers Central Powers Central Powers Central Powers Famous Naval Battles Battle. Date. Salamis 480 B.C. 31 B.C. Lepanto 1571 Armada 1588 Goodwin Sands 1639 Dungeness 1652 1666 The Downs 1692 1798 1805 1813 1862 1864 1866 1894 Yaiu River Manila Bay 1898 1898 1905 Falkland Islands 1914 1916 Victors. Greeks, 370 Romans, 250 Spanish, 250 vessels English, 197 vessels Dutch, 110 vessels English, 52 vessels Dutch Dutch-English, 96 ships, English, 14 ships English, 31 ships Americans, 9 vessels. . . , Federal, Monitor Federal, 14 vessels Austrian, 26 vessels Japanese, 12 ships Americans, 6 ships , Americans, 5 ships Japanese, 29 ships British , Vanquished. Persians, 1,000 vessels Egyptians, 460 vessels Turks, 270 vessels Spanish, 130 vessels Spanish, 67 vessels Dutch, 98 vesuels English French, 111 ships Frencn, 17 ships French, 40 ships English, 6 vessels Confederate, Merrimac Confederate forts Italian, 9 vessels Cninese, 10 ships Spanish, 11 ships Spanish, 6 ships Russians, 30 ships Germans sometimes becau.se of the ex- hibition of a high order of strat- egy or sublime bravery on the part of a leader or an entire army, and often for the resulting effects of the battle upon the world's history. In the accom- panying tables are recorded some of the memorable world's battles on land and sea. Vol. I.— Oct. '23 powers of offence and defence, and as high a speed as possible without sacrifice of these powers. During the sailing-ship era the fighting ships carried guns on three or more decks, and were styled line-of-battle ships or ships of the line. Ships of the line having guns on two covered and one open deck ('two-deck- Battleship ers') were often called 'seventy- fours,' as this was the nominal complement of guns; similarly, 'three-deckers' were called '90- gun ships' and 'four-deckers', '120-gun ships.' 'Razees' were 'seventy-fours' with the light upper works and guns removed; frigates had but one covered gun deck and one uncovered; cor- vettes were razeed frigates. The first steam man-of-war was the Demologos or Fulton (the first), designed by Fulton and launched at New York in 1814. She had oak sides nearly five feet thick and carried the heaviest guns of her day. She was a true battleship; and had she been completed three years earlier, the history of naval develop- ment might have been far dif- ferent. A lack of appreciation of her true powers, a magnifica- tion of her defects, and Congres- sional economy put her in retire- ment. It was many years before other steam battleships appeared. Pad- dle-wheels with their exposed ma- chinery were deemed inadmissi- ble, and it was not until Ericsson developed a practicable screw propeller that it became com- mon for the heaviest war vessels to be propelled by steam. The first screw-propelled war steamer was the U. S. S. Princeton, built in 1842. The screw propeller permitted all the propelling ma- chinery and boilers to be placed below the water line, where they were well protected. After this date nearly all new naval vessels, large and small, were given screw propulsion, and many of the old ships of the line were fitted with screws. But the death-knell of this type of vessel had been sounded by the invention of the shell gun for firing explosive shells. Some form of protection against such formidable missiles was felt to be imperative. To armor the great high sides of the old vessels was considered im- practicable, so that the first sea- going armor-clad, the French Gloire, carried guns on but one covered and one open deck, and was therefore styled a frigate. To make up for the power lost by the reduction in number, the guns were increased in size; and to give greater penetration, they were rifled so that the heavier elongated projectiles could be used in place of the spherical. Even before the completion of La Gloire, which took place in 1859, Ericsson had presented the design of a turret vessel to the French government, and Cap- tain Cowles had done the same in England. EriCvSson's ideas took shape in the Monitor, and Cowles designed and built the Danish ship Rolf Krake. The latter pos- sessed excellent seagoing quali- ties, and was a most successful o 5 <^ s ^ ^ I -SI •—I '•^ ill Ui u Z3 a r-( (J O d 1^ 4-1 .Jl. intimate with the Scottish regent, the Duke of Albany, who in 1519 appointed him resident for Scot- land at the French court. In 1525 Beaton became abbot of Ar- broath; in 1528, lord privy seal; in 1638 he was created a cardi- nal; and in 1539 he succeeded his uncle, James Beaton, as arch- bishop of St. Andrews. On the death of James v., in 1542, he sought to seize the infant queen of Scots, and to obtain the re- gency by m.eans of a forged will; but the scheme failed, and he was arrested and imprisoned. After his release, he became, in 1543, chancellor of Scotland. He now- persecuted the Protes- tants with great cruelty and rig- or. Among his victims was the famous preacher George Wishart. His rule became intolerable, a conspiracy was formed against him, and he was assassinated at St. Andrews on May 29, 1546. See Burton's Hist, of Scot.; Knox's Hist.; the IconO' graphia Scotica; G. Cook's Hist, of the Reformation in Scot. (2nd ed. 1819); Tytler's Original Letters (1839); and Cardinal Beaton, Priest and Politician, by John Herkless (1891). Beatrice, city, co. seat of Gage CO., Neb., on the Big Blue R., and on the Burlington and Missouri River, the Union Pacific, and the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific R. Rs. It was settled in 1859 and has large manufactures of flour, bricks, and jack - screws. The State Institute for Feeble-Minded Youth is located here, and there is a public library. Pop.( 1910) 9,356. Beatrice, the angelic woman who was the heroine of Dante's Vita Nuova, of his Divina Corn- media, and of his whole life. It has been supposed by some that she was a purely symbolic figure; but it is now certain that the ob- i'ect of his adoration was an actual Beatrice, a Florentine lady, daugh- ter of one Folco Portinari, who became the wife of a certain Simone de' Bardi. After her un- timely death in 1290, Dante mar- ried (1291) Gemma de' Donati. Beatrice, Princess. See Bat- tenberg. Princess Henry of. Beattie, James (1735-1803), Scottish poet and miscellaneous writer, born at Laurencekirk, Kin- cardine; died at Aberdeen, where he was ('1760) professor of moral Shilosopny in Marischal College, [c published a volume of miscel- laneous poems in 1 761 , and in 1 765 a poem, The Judgment of Paris. His once celebrated Essay on Truth (1770), for which he re- ceived a pension of £200 a vear from George III., was a refuta- tion of Hume's scepticism; but its main contents had been an- ticipated by Reid's Inquiry (1764). In 1771 he published the first book of The Minstrel, or the Progress of Genius, the work on which his fame rests; the second book ap- peared in 1774. Written in the Spenserian stanza, it abounds in beautiful descriptive passages, and is notable for the liarmonj of its versification. Among his other works were a Dissertation on Poetry and Music (1776), £vf Beatty 633 Beaumarchais ences of the Christian Religion (1786), and Elements of Moral Science (1790-93). Consult his Life by Sir W. Forbes and the edition of his poems by Alexan* der Dyce for the Aldine Series. Beatty, Sir David (1871- )} British naval officer, was born in Borodale, Wexford county, Ire- land. He entered the British navy in 1884 and was promoted through the various ranks (Com- mander, 1898; Rear Admiral, 1910; Vice Admiral, 1915; Ad- miral, 1919) to Admiral of the Fleet in 1919. He served in the Soudan in 1896-98, in China in 1900, and in the Great War (1914-18). He was Naval Secre- tary to the Lord of the Admir- alty in 1912; commanded the First Battle Cruiser Squadron in 1912—16; was in command of the Grand Fleet in 1916-19, and became First Sea Lord in 1919. He participated in the Battle of the Bight of Heligoland (q. v.), Aug. 28, 1914; in the action in the North Sea off the Dogger Bank, January, 1915; and in the Battle of Jutland (see Jutland Bank, Battle of), May 31 to June 1, 1916; and received the stirrender of the German fleet in the Forth, November, 1918. He was one of the British repre- sentatives at the Disarmament Conference in Washington, No- vember, 1921. He was knighted in 1914. Beau Bruirmiell. See Brum- MELL, G. B. Beauchamp, bo-shan', Al- PHONSE DE (1767-1832), French historian, was born in Monaco, and died in Paris. At seventeen years of age he took service with the king of Sardinia; but in 1792 he refused to fight against France, and after a short im- prisonment proceeded to Paris, where he obtained employment in the ofhce of the Committee of Public Safety, and a little later in that of the minister of police. The publication of his Histoire de la Vendee et des Chouans in 1806 cost him his ofhce and banish- ment to Rheims, from which he was recalled five years later. He also compiled numerous bio- graphical sketches {e.g., Moreau in 1814 and Louis XVIII in 1824). Beauchamp, Richard de. See Warwick. Beauchamp, William Mar- tin (1830- ), American clergy- man and ethnologist, was born in Coldenham, New York. He held charges at Northville, N. Y. (1863-65), Baldwinsville, N. Y. (1865-1900), and was for thirty- eight years examining chaplain for Central New York (1884- 1922). He made an extensive study of the Iroquois tribes, and of New York Indian antiquities. Among his works are: The Iro- quois Trail (1892) ; Indian Names Vol. ! —March '22 in New York (1893); Aboriginal Chipped Stone Implements of New York (1897); Aboriginal Occupa- tion of New York, (1900); Bone and Horn Articles Used by the New York Indians {1^02) ; History of the New York Iroquois (1905), Beauclerk, b5'klark, Topham (1739-80), great-grandson of Charles ii. and Nell Gwynne, remembered chiefly for his friend- ship with Samuel Johnson. Con- sult Boswell's Life of Johnson. Beaufort, bo'furt, town and summer resort. North Carolina, county seat of Carteret county, on the southeastern coast, at the mouth of Newport River and on the Norfolk Southern Railroad; 145 miles southeast of Raleigh. It has a fine harbor, on the shore of which is Fort Macon, and is of ccr^siderable commercial im- portance, with a large output of fish-oil. Pop. (1910) 2,483; (1920) 2,968. Beaufort, bu'furt, town. South Carolina, county seat of Beaufort county, in the southeastern part of the State, on the coast, near the mouth or the Beaufort River, and on the Charleston and West Carolina Railway. Its principal industries are truck farming, the manufacture of baskets, barrels, and ice, and stock raising. It was founded in 1711. Pop. (1910) 2,486; (1920) 2,831. Beaufort, bo'furt or bu'furt Henry (1377-1447), English car- dinal, natural son of John of Gaunt by Catherine, widow of Sir Hugh Swynford, studied at Oxford and at Aix-la-Chapelle, was consecrated bishop of Lin- coln in 1398 and bishop of Win- chester in 1405, and v/as made cardinal by Pope Martin v. in 1426. He was thrice chancellor (1403-04, 1413, 1424-26), and, while strongly opposed to Henry v.'s proposition to raise money from the clergy for carrying on the war against France, neverthe- less loaned the monarch large sums out of his private purse. In 1427 he fell under papal displeas- ure. In 1431 he conducted the yoimg king, Herirs'' vi., to France, to be crowned in Paris as king of France and England. He died at Winchester within seven weeks of the murder of his great political rival, the duke of Gloucester; but there is no evi- dence that he had a hand in that murder. Beauharnais,bo-ar-na', Alex- andre ViCOMTE DE (1760-94), French general, father of the Marquis de Beauharnais, was born in Martinique, and mar- ried, in 1779, Josephine Tascher de la Pagerie, afterward wife of Napoleon i. After serving under Rochambeau in the American Revolution, he returned to France, embraced republican principles, and was one of the first nobles to join the Third Estate. He became secretary to the Assembly, and afterward to the military committee; and was president of the Assembly when Louis XVI. fled from the capital (June 21, 1791). In May, 1793, he succeeded Custine as general- in-chief of the army of the Rhine. The decree for the exclusion of the nobility from military em- ployment led to his retirement; and shortly afterward he was ac- cused before the revolutionary tribunal of having contributed to the loss of Mayence, and was condemned and executed on the same day. Beauharnais, Eugene, Mar- quis de (1781-1824), better known as Prince Eugene, the son of Alexandre Beauharnais and Josephine, afterward consort of Napoleon, was born in Paris. Entering the army, he accom- panied Napoleon to Egypt, and became general of brigade in 1804. In the following year he received the title of prince, and was appointed viceroy of Italy. On Jan. 16, 1806, he married the Princess Royal of Bavaria, and immediately after was formally adopted by Bona- parte as his son. During the war with Austria, in 1809, he was commander-in-chief of the army of Italy, and shared in the honors of Wagram. In the later wars of Napoleon he took an active share, especially in the campaigns of 1812-13. Disappointed of the crown of Italy, he retired, after the downfall of Napoleon, to Bavaria, and died in Munich. Consult Baron Darnay's Notices Hisloriques sur le Prince Eugene; Du Casse'^ Memoires et Correspondance du Prince Eugene (10 vols.). Beaumarchais, bo'mar-sha', DE (1732-99), French dramatist and politician, was born in Paris, Pierre Augustin Car on, son of a watchmaker. Having a certain talent for music, he was engaged to teach the harp to the daugh- ters of Louis XV., and shortly thereafter married the wealthy widow of a court official, where- upon he assumed the title de Beaumarchais, by which he was thenceforward known. During this period he wrote his first plays, Eugenie (1767) and Les Deux Amis (1770), neither of which attained much success. His next work, Memoires du Sieur Beaumarchais par lui- meme, appeared in 1774, after the death of his friend and bene- factor, the financier Duverney, and the imfavorable conclusion of a lawsuit with the latter's heir, Count Lablache. This work combined the bitterest satire with the keenest logic, and did much toward stirring up the dis- content leading to the Revolu- tion. The same brilliant satire burns in the two famous come- Beaumont 684 Beaux dies, Le Barbier de Seville (1772) and Le Mariage de Figaro (1776), which, produced in 1784, met with an unprecedented success. During the American Revolu- tion Beaumarchais sent to the colonies a fleet bearing arms and ammunition and was also in- fluential in winning French recog- nition of the American cause. In later years most of his fortune was spent in vain attempts to gain from the United States re- imbursement for the aid which he had furnished. In the trou- bles of the French Revolution the last of his fortune was lost and, suspected of an attempt to sell arms in Holland to the enemies of the Republic, he was forced to flee to Hamburg, where he experienced real poverty. Upon his return to Paris he pub- lished La Mere coupable (1792) and Ales six epoques (1793), an account of his sufferings in tem- porary exile. His Theatre has been edited by Saint- Marc Girar- din (1861) and by de HeylU and Marescot (1868-72); his CEuvres Computes by Moland (1874) and Fournier (1875). Consult Beau- marchais et son temps by Lomenie and Lives by Lintilhac and Gudin. Beaumont, bo-mont', city, Texas, county seat of Jefferson county, on the Neches River, near its mouth, and on the Texas und New Orleans, the Sabine and East Houston, and the Gulf, Beaumont and Kansas City Railroads; about 80 miles north- east of Houston. The city forms the terminal of the Beaumont and Port Arthur ship channel, which carries most of the lumber from the rich pine regions of Eastern Texas and Western Louisiana, as well as the entire sulphur output of Loiiisiana. It is one of the world's greatest oil-reflning centres, the bulk of the petroleum from Oklahoma, Kansas, and Texas being run through its refineries. According to the Federal Census of Manu- factures for 1919 industrial es- tablishments numbered 70, with $65,731,000 capital, and prodiicts valued at $52,975,000. Pop. (1910) 20,640; (1920) 40,422. Beaumont, Eon de. See Eon de Beaumont. Beaumont, bo'mont, Francis (1584-1616), English dramatist, son of Francis Beaumont, a judge, and younger brother of Sir John Beaumont, was born in Grace- Dieu, Leicestershire. From Broadgates Hall (now Pembroke College), Oxford, he went (1600) to the Inner Temple. He first appeared as a poet in 1602, al- though it is not clear that the ascription to him of the O vidian narrative poem, Salmacis and Hermaphrodite, which appeared in that year, is correct. His close literary and personal rela- VoL. I.— March '22 tion with John Fletcher began about 1607, and he probably had a share, often a large one, in about half a dozen of the plays generally included in editions of Beaumont and Fletcher. In 1613 he wrote the masque produced jointly by the Inner Temple and Gray's Inn, on the marriage of the Princess Elizabeth with the Elector Palatine. About the same time he married Ursula Isley, and thereafter wrote little for the stage. He was buried in Westminster Abbey. For a classificatioa of the plays credited to Beaumont and Fletcher, on the basis of authorship, see Fletcher, John. Consult also G. C. Macaulay's Francis Beau- mont and A. W. Ward's English Dramatic Literature. Beaumont, Sir George How- land (175.3-1827), English con- noisseur, patron of art and land- scape painter, encouraged and befriended many of the poets and artists of his time, including Coleridge, H a y d o n , Jackson, Wilkie, Landseer, and the sculp- tor Gibson. The formation of the National Gallery is largely owing to his efforts, and to it in 1826 he presented sixteen pic- tures from his own collection. Beaumont, bo-m6n', Jean Baptiste Elie de (1798-1874), French geologist, was born in Canon (Calvados). He became professor of geology in the Ecole des Mines in 1829 and in the College de France in 1832, and in 1856 was made perpetual secretary of the Academic des Sciences, Paris. With Pierre Dufrenoy he published the great Carte Geologique de France (1840; 2nd ed. 1855), begun in 1825. Beaumont, bo'mont, William (1785-1853), American physi- cian, was born in Lebanon, Conn., and became a surgeon in the U. S. army. When stationed at Mackinac, Mich., 1822, he had under his treatment Alexis St. Martin, who had received a shot wound in the stomach. The patient recovered, but an orifice in the stomach remained open, so that the doctor was enabled to observe the processes of digestion and to obtain the first specimen of human gastric juice ever ex- amined. His observations, pub- lished in 1833, soon became recognized as one of the classics of physiology. Beaumontague, bo-mon'ta-gu, is a composition of iron borings, brimstone, pitch, sal-ammoniac, rosin, and beeswax, which is used to fill up cracks and flaws in an iron casting, to give an appear- ance of solidity. Beau Nash. See Nash, Rich- ard. Beaune, bon, town, depart- ment of Cote d'Or, France; 23 miles south of Dijon. It is cele- brated for the wines of the dis- trict, and gives its name to a well- known Burgundy. There is also trade in vinegar, corn, and cattle. Pop. 14,000. Beauregard, b5'rc-gard ; Fr. b5-r-gar', Pierre Gustave TouTANT (1818-93), Confederate general, was born in New Or- leans. He was graduated from West Point in 1838, served in the Engineer Corps during the Mexi- can War (1846-48), and at its close was charged with the super- vision of fortifications and har- bors on the Gulf coast. He was superintendent of West Point from November, 1860, until February, 1861, when he re- signed, became a brigadier-gen- eral in the Confederate army, and was entrusted with the de- fence of Charleston, in which capacity he bombarded and forced the surrender of Fort Sumter (q. v.). He commanded the Confederates in the battle of Bull Run (Jttly 21, 1861), where he defeated General McDowell, and was raised to the rank of general. At Shiloh he took com- mand upon the death of Gen. A. S. Johnston (April, 1862). Beau- regard afterward defended Charleston against Admirals Dahlgren and Diipont, and in 1864 he resisted at Petersburg Grant's movement on Richmond. He gained a victory at Drury's Bluff, and in 1865 joined Gen. J. Johnston, and with him sur- rendered to General vSherman (April 26). In 1865-70 he was resident of the New Orleans, Jackson, and Mississippi Rail- road, and ^or several years was associated with the Louisiana State Lottery as its manager. He was the author of Principles and Maxims of the Art of War (1863), and Report of the Defence of Charleston (1864). Consult Roman's Military Operations of General Beauregard. Beauvais, bo-va', capital of the department of Oise, France, on the River Therain; 55 miles northwest of Paris. The lofty cathedral of St. Pierre begun in 1247, and never completed, is one of the finest examples of Gothic architecture in France. The tapestry factory, founded in 1664, belongs to the State. Cloths, rugs and carpets, gold and silver lace, buttons, and brushes are also manufactured. Pop. (1911)19.841. Beaux, bo, Cecilia, American artist, was born in Philadelphia, Pa., and studied with William Sartain and in Paris. She ex- hibited at the Paris Expositions of 1890 and 1900, and at the latter received a gold medal. She also received medals at other expositions and at ex- hibitions in Philadelphia New York, Pittsbtirgh, and Chicago, and in 1902 became a mem- ber of the National Academy. Beaver 635 Beaver Falls She has devoted herself to portrait and figure painting. Beaver (Castor fiber), a large rodent of which there are two species or varieties, one occurring in Northern and Eastern Europe and in Northern and Western Asia, and the other in nearly all parts of North America. The two species are so similar that by many naturalists the American beaver is considered merely a variety of the European species. The animal is from two to two and a half feet long, exclusive of the tail, and has short, soft, thick fur of a reddish-brown color which has great commercial value. The tail is characteristic, oval and flattened horizontally and covered with a scaly skin. It serves as a rudder in swim- ming. The head is large and rounded, with small ears which can be laid back and closed. The limbs are short, with sharp clawed toes, those of the hind feet being webbed for use in swimming. The front teeth are strong and sharp and the muscles of the jaw massive and powerful. Near the anus lie two glands which secrete a fatty substance known as castoreum, which is used in medicine. The beaver is nocturnal and aquatic in its habits. Owing to the value of its fur the species is rapidly be- coming extinct, particularly in Europe and Asia. The great interest in the bea- vers lies in the ingenuity which they manifest in the construction of their hotises or 'lodges,' and in the building of dams where the water in the vicinity of their dwellings tends to become so shallow as to impede their movements. These structures are, in America, produced by the joint activity of the members of a colony; but in Europe the few remaining beavers are mostly solitary, and do not build to the same extent as their transatlantic allies. The diet consists of the leaves and bark of trees, especi- ally -willow and poplar, and it is these trees which are by prefer- ence used in building. In felling trees, the incisor teeth are the instruments used, and the beav- ers have been known to bite through trees feet in diam- eter. The dwelling is excavated in the banks of streams, and often has an entrance passage made of interlacing brushwood. In addi- tion, Canadian beavers construct ' lodges ' in the middle of expanses of shallow water, consisting of tree-trunks, turf, and other ma- terials, and containing large dwelling chambers. Sticks with the bark on, which serves for food in winter, are stored near the home at the bottom of the pond, whence they may be brought from time to time into the house, and the bark eaten. Consult Vol. I.— March '22 Martin's Castorologia; Morgan's American Beaver; Mills' In Beaver World; Hornaday's Amer- ican Natural History. Beaver, borough, Pennsyl- vania, county seat of Beaver county, is situated at the junc- tion of the Ohio and Beaver Rivers, on the Pennsylvania and the Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroads. It is the seat of Bea- ver College. Pop. (1910) 3,456; (1920) 4,135. Beaver, James Addams (1837- 1914), American soldier, was born in Millerstown, Pa. He was graduated (1856) from Jef- ferson College, Pa., became a member of the bar, served in the Union forces during the Civil War v/ith distinction, estab- lished the Bellefonte nail works soon afterward, and was governor of Pennsylvania (1887-91), show- ing great ability in his manage- ment of relief work at the time of the Johnstown flood. He became a judge of the superior court of Pennsylvania for the term 1896- 1906 and was reappointed in the latter year. Beaver Dam, city. Dodge county, Wisconsin, at the outlet of Beaver Lake, on the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul and the Chicago and Northwestern Rail- roads; 63 miles northwest of Milwaukee. It is the seat of Wayland Academy and has iron works, canneries, and manu- factures of machinery, textiles, shoes, boxes, knit goods, storage batteries, and flour. Pop. (1910) 6,758; (1920) 7,992. Beaver Falls, borough, Beaver county, Pennsylvania, on the Beaver River, near its junction with the Ohio, and on the Pennsylvania and the Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroads; 31 Beavers constructing a Dam. Beaver Islands 636 Beckerath miles from Pittsburgh. It is the seat of Geneva College (1848). There are extensive manufactur- ing interests including a foundry, and manufactures of crank shafts, glass, oil-well drillers, steam shovels, saws, tubing, and axes. Pop. (1910) 12,191; (1920) 12,802. Beaver Islands, a group of islands, named for the largest, in Lake Michigan, Manitou county, Michigan; 40 miles from the Straits of Mackinac. There are several lighthouses. Beaver State, popular name of Oregon (q. v.). Beaver Tree, a name some- times applied to the sweet bay or swamp magnolia. See Mag- nolia. Bebee'ru, or Beberine. See Greenheart. Bebel, Ferdinand August (1840-1913), German Socialist writer and political leader, was born in Cologne. At first a Liberal, he was converted to Socialism and became so zealous in its advocacy that he was im- prisoned (1872) for two years on a charge of high treason. He was a member oi the Reichstag from 1871, and with Dr. Karl Liebknecht and Paul Singer founded the Socialist Democratic party, of which he was for many years the leader. He was again imprisoned in 1886. He had an immense influence over the 4,- 000,000 members of his party and was regarded by the government as a dangerous enemy of the nation. lie wrote: Die Frau imd der Socialismus, his most widely read book; Unscre Ziele; Der deuische Bauernkrieg; Christen- tum und Socialismus; Charles Fournier; Aus mienem Lehen, and other works. Bee Abbey, bek'ab'i, in the department of Eure, Normandy, 13 miles northeast of Bernay, a Benedictine abbey founded by Hellouin in 1034, became one of the most noted seats of learning in the west of Europe in the 11th century. Lanfranc and Anselm (qq.v.) were both priors here. Beccaria, bek-ka-re^a, Cesare BoNESANA, Marquis de (173.5- 93), Italian jurist and economist, was born in Milan, and spent practically the whole of his life in his native city. His first pub- lished work was an essay on the coinage of Milan, in 1762; but the work on which his fame rests is the Treatise on Crimes and Punishments, which appeared in 1764. It is a protest against the nameless barbarities which disgraced the criminal codes of the day, and an advocacy of rea- soned and merciful treatment of offenders. It undoubtedly had a great influence on Bentham, and through him on the world; though its influence was also di- VoL. I.—March '22 rect. The cavillings of his ene- mies were silenced by his ax)point- ment in 1768 as professor of po- litical economy at the Academy in Milan. Beche de Mer, bash de mar (Port.), or Trepang (Malay),, known also as the Sea Cucum- ber, a holothurian or sea slug, much used, when dried, as an Beche de Mer. article of food in China. The animals, of which there are several varieties, are obtained off the coasts of Northern Au.stralia and from the East Indies, Burma, the South Sea Islands, Indo- China, Straits Settlements, New Guinea, and the tropical Pacific islands. They are from six to fifteen inches long, and resemble a cuciimber in shape. Having been cured by boiling, cleaning, and drying, they are much used for preparing soups and similar dishes. Becher, hech'ev, Johann Joachim (1635-82), chemist, was born in Spires, Germany. He ac- quired an extensive knowledge of medicine, physics, and chemistry, and became professor at Mainz, subsequently living in Vienna, Munich, Wiirzburg, Haarlem, and finally London. His Phy- sica Subterranea (1669) was the first attempt made to bring physics and chemistry into close relation. He began to construct a theory of chemistry, and in- vestigated the process of com- bustion. In this and his other work (including Institutiones Chemic(P., 1662) lies the first germ of Stahl's phlogistic theory. Bechuanaland, bech-oo-a'na- land or bek-u-an'a, or the land of the Bechuanas, a region lying north of the Cape of Good Hope in the south of Africa, and includ- ing British Bechuanaland and the Bechuanaland Protectorate. British Bechuanaland, with an area of .51,524 square miles, extends north to the Molopo River. It has an average eleva- tion of 4,000 feet, is mostly pas- toral and has a dry, healthful climate and a fertile soil. It was annexed by Great Britain in 1885 and in 1895 was transferred to Cape Colony. Pop. (1911) 99,- 553, of whom 14,917 are whites. The chief towns are Maf eking, noted for its siege in the Boer War, Vryburg, Kuruman, and Taungs. Bechuanaland Protectorate extends from British Bechuana- land northward .to the Zambesi River and from Matabeleland and the Transvaal on the east, westward to Southwest Africa. It has an area of about 275,000 square miles, forming part of a great plateau. The most im- portant tribes are the Bamang- wato, the Bakhatla, the Bak- wena, the Bangwaketse, the Bam- alete, and the Batawana. Each tribe is ruled by its chief under the supervision of a resident com- missioner, with headquarters in Maf eking. The natives are en- gaged chiefly in catcle breeding and farming. Education is pro- vided, with government assist- ance, in schools maintained by the London Missionary Society, Dutch Reformed Church, and other agencies. The population numbers about 125,000. Two short-lived Boer republics, Stella- land and Goshen, were formed here (1882-84); and here at one time lived David Livingstone (q. v.). The Kalahari Desert (see Kalahari) lies partially within Bechuanaland. Becke, George Louis (1848- 1913), Australian novelist, was a native of New South Wales. While trading in the South Seas (1870-93) he acquired the ex- perience which he later turned to good account in his stories of ad- venture. These include Bv Reef and Palm (1893); The Ebbing of the Tide (1896); Pacific Tales (1897); The South Sea Pearler (1900); By Rock and Pool Breachley Black Sheep (1902); The Jelasco Brig (1902); Tom Gerrard (1904); The Adventures of Louis Blake (1909). Beckenham, town, Kent, England, 7 miles southeast of London, of which it is a resi- dential suburb. Pop. (1911) 31,693. Becker, Karl Ferdinand (1775-1849), German philologist, was born in the old electorate of Treves. He was educated at the University of Gottingen, and from 1823 was head of an educa- tional institute at Offenbach. His view that principles of com- parative philology might be ar- rived at by deduction enjoyed much vogue till superseded by Grimm's epoch-making works. Becker, Wiliielm Adolf (1796-1846), German classical scholar, was born in Dresden, and was educated at Leipzig, where he became professor of archaeology in 1837. His Callus (1838) and Charicles (1840), both of which have been translated into English, are brilliant imagin- ative studies of the social life of ancient Rome and Greece, re- spectively. These, and his Hand- buck der Romischen Alter thiimer (1843-46), a forerunner of Mommsen's Romisches Staats- recht, were his chief productions. Beckerath, Hermann von (1801-70), German politician. Having founded (1838) a success- DEATH OF BECKET. {After the Painting by Cross in Canterbury Cathedral.) Beckct Bed &arnett (in his 1893 edition of, Vathek) to be fabulous. He sat as M.p. for Wells (1784-90), and for Hindon (1806-20). In 1796 he re- tired to Fonthill, where he squan- dered his fortune on extravagant building operations. Eventu- ally, in 1822, he was compelled to sell the Fonthill estate and remove to Bath, where he died. His other works are: Memoirs of Extraordinary Painters (1777); Modern Novel Writing (under pseudonym 'Lady Harriet Mar- low,' 1796); Azemia (under pseu- donym 'Jacquetta Agneta Mari- ana Jenks,' 1798); Italy (1834); Recollections of an Excursion (1835). His Life, by Cyrus Red- ding (1859), is inaccurate. Beckmann, Johann (1739- 1811), German naturalist and economist, for nearly forty years (from 1770) professor of rural economy and commercial science at Gottmgen. Chiefly known for his History of Inventions (5 vols. Leipzig, 1780 - 1805 ; London, 1814). See Exner's /. Beckmann (1878). Beckwith, James Carroll He was now as ascetic as he had i (1852), American painter, was formerly been luxurious; and he, ^born at Hannibal, Mo., and stud- the former devoted servant of the (Kied under Carolus Duran and king, became the champion of the >?^Yvon at Paris. He made his rights of the church. Becket re- home in New York after 1878, tired for a time to France, but X^and was elected a member of the maintained his indomitable an- ^National Academy in 1894, He tagonism to the king, going so ^received numerous medals at ex- far as to threaten to excommuni- ' \Jiibitions and world's fairs. He Gate the English bishops who had ENDIX OP PRONtJNCIATIOK. Abercrombie, ab'«r-krum. bl. Aberdare, ab-er-dar'. Aberdeen, ab-er-den'. Abergavenny, ab-er-gen'i or ab-er-ga-ven'i. Abernethy, ab'ei-ns-thi. Aberystwyth, ab-er-ist'- with. Abiathar, o-bi'a-thar. Abioh, Which. Abies, a'bi-gz. Abijah, a-bi'ja. Abilene, ab'i-lg'ne;tn.U.S. ab'i-len. Abimelech, a-bim'^-lek. Abiogenesis, ab-i-o-jen'g- sis. Abipones, a-be-pO'nas. Abishai, a-bish'a-I. Abitibi,a-bi-tib'i. Abkhasia, ab-ka'shi-a. Ablaut, ap'lout. Abo, O'boo or O'boo. Abo-Bjorneborg, byur-ne- bor'y'. Abomey, a-bo-ma'. Aboukir, a-bob-ker'. Abousambul, a-b<5D-sam- bdbl'. About, a-boo'. Abra, a'bra. Abranchiata, a-brang-ki- a'ta. Abrantes, a-bran'tes. Abravanel, a-bra-va-nel'. Abraxas, ab-rak'sas. Abrolhos, a-brol'yos. Abruzzi, a-broo'tsi. Abruzzi Molise, a-brob'tsi mo'le-za, Absconce, ab-skons'. Absinthe, ab'sinth; Fr. ab- sant'. Abstemii, ab-ste'mi-l. Abt, apt. Abu, a' boo. Abu Abdalla, a'boo ab- dal'la. Abu Bekr, a'boo bek'r. Abu Hamid, a'boo ha- mgd'. Abu Klea, a'boQ kla'a. Abul Ghazi Bahadur, a'- bTbl ga'zg ba-hd'do6r. Abulug, a-bod'loog. Abulfaraj, a-bo6l-fa'raj. Abulfeda, ii-bool-fed'a. Abu Nuvas, a'boo noo'- was. Aburi, a-bo?)'ri. Abyad, ab'yad. Abydos, a-bi'dos, Abyssinia, ab-i-sin'i-a. Acadia, o-ka'di-a. Acajete, a-ka-ha'te. Acajutla, a-ka-hoot'ia. Acalephae, ak-a-l6'i-5. A.camapichtli, a-ka-ma- Acapulco, a-kii-pool'kO. Acarnania, ak-ar-na'ni-a. Acarus. ak'a-rus. Accault, a-ko'. Acci^ccatura, at-chak-ka- tdo'ra. Acciajuoli, at-cha-yo'le. Accra, ak'ra. Accrescimento, ak-kresh- i-men'to. Aceldama, a-sel'da-ma. Acephalous, a-sef'-a-lus. Acerra, a-cher'ra. Acetamide, as-et-am'id or -am'id. Acetanilide, as-et-an'il-id. Acetic, a-set'ik or -se'tik. Acetone, as'i-ton. Acetyl, as'i-til. Acetylene, a-set'i-lgn. Achaei, a-ke'i. Achaemenians, ak-i-me'- ni-ans. Achaia, a-ka'ya. Achamoth, ak'-a-moth or -moth. Achard, arshar'. Achates, a-ka'tez. Ache, a-sha'. Achelous, ak-el-5'us. Achenbach, aK'en-baK. Achene, a-ken'. Achensee, aK'en-za. Achenwall, aK'en-val. Acheron, ak'e-ron. Acheval, a-sli'val', Achill, ak'il. Achillas, a-kil'as. Achillea, ak-i-le'a. Achilles, a-kil'es. Achilles Tatius, ta'shi-as. Achillini, a-kil-ls'ng. Achish, a'kish. Achitophel, a-kit'O-fel. Achmet, aic'raet. Achondroplasia, a-kon- dr0-pl5'zhi-a 0/" -zi-a. Achray, aK-ra'. Achroite, ak'rO-lt. Achromatic, ak-ro-mat ik. Achsah, ak'sa. Acidimetry, as-i-dim'i-tri. Aci Reale, a'che ra-a'la. Acis, a'sis. Ackermann, ak'er-man. Aclinic, a-klin'ik. Acoemetae, a-sem'e-t5. Acollas, a-ko-la'. Acolytes, ak'o-iits. Acoma, fl-ko'ma. Aconcagua, a-kon-ka'gwii. Acosta, ii-kOs'ta. Acoustics, a-k(>bs'tiks or -kons'tiks, Acquaviva, ak-wa-vS'va. Acqui, ak'kwe. Acre, ii'k^r or a'ker. Acri, ii'krO. Acroceraunian, ak-ro-si8' ro'ni-an. Acrolein, a-kro'le-in. Acrophony, a-krof'o-ni. Acropolis, a-krop'o-lis. Actaeon, ak-te'on. Acte additionelle, akta- de-syO-nel'. Actian, ak'shi-an. Actiniaria, ak-tin-i a'ri-a. Actinograph, ak-tin'o- graf. Actinometer, ak-ti-nom' e-ter. Actinomycosis, ak-tin-o- ml-ko'sis. Actium, ak'shi-um. Acupressure, ak'fl-presh- oor. Ada, od'o. Adabazar, a-da-ba-zar'. Adagio, a-da'jo. Adalbert, ad'al-bert. Adalia, a-da'li-a. Adam, E'.ad'am; i^r.a-daii'; Oer. a'dara. Adamawa, a-da -ma'wa. Adamnan, ad'am-nan. Adana, a-da'na. Adanson, a-dan-sdn'. Adar, a'dar. Adda, ad'da. Adelaer, a'de-iar. Adeler, ad'el-er. Adelsberg, a'dels-berc^. Adelung, a'de-l^ong. Aden, ii'den of e'den. Adenalgia, ad-i-nal'ji-a. Adenitis, ad-i-ni'tis. Adenoid, ad'i-noid, Aderno, a-der'no. Adersbach, a'ders-baK. Adiabatic, ad-i-a-bat'ik. Adiaphora, ad-i-af 'o-ra. Adige, a'di-ja. Adi Granth, a'di granth, Adipocere, ad-i-po-eer'. Adirondacks, ad i-ron'- daks. Adis Abeba, a'dis a-ba'ba. Adler, ad'kr. Ad libitum, ad libl-tum. Admetus, ad-me'tns. Admirable Crichton, kn'- tun. Admiralty droits, drwS. Adobe, a-do'ba. Adonai, a-dr/nl or ad-0 na'I. Adonijah, ad-o-nl'ja Adonis, a-do'nis. Adour, a-door'. Adra, ii'dra. Adrastus, ad-ras'tus. Adria, a'dri-a. Adrian, a'dri-an. Adrianople, ad ri-an-O'p'I. Adriatic, ad-ri-at'ic or a'- dri-. Adua, ii'dwa. ' Adularia, ad-fl la'rl-a. Adulis, a-dli-lg'; Lat. n du'lis. AduUam, a-duram. Ad valorem, ad va-lo'rem. Advowson, ad-vou'z'n. Adye, a'di. Adytum, ad'i-tum. ^acus, e'a-kus. Aeby, a'bi. -ffidiles, e'dilz. ^dui, ed'a-I. .ffietes, S-e'tgs. ^gades, g'ga-dez. iEgean, s-j§'an. ^geus, e'jUs. iEgilops, e'ji-lops. ^gina, e-jl'na. ^gir, a'jir. ^girite, e'ji-nt. iEgis, e'jis. ^gisthus, S-jis'tbus. JEgium, e'ji-um. JEgle, e'glg or egHg. JEgospotami, e-gos-pot'a. mi. .ffigrotat, e-gro'tat. JEgyptus, e-jip'tus. .ffilfgar, alf'gar. .ffilfred, al'fred. ailfric, al'frik. .Slia Capitolina, 5'Ii-a kap-i-to-lI'n«. .ffilianus, S-li.a'nus. .ffilius, e'li-u8. ^Ua, al'Ia. .ffinaria, e-na'ri-a. .Eneas, e-ne'as. .ffineid, S-ne'id, jEolian, e-o'li-an. JEolipile, s-ol'i-pil. .ffiolotropy, e-o-Jot'ro-pl. JEolus, e'o-lus. .Slon, e'on. .ffipinus, S-pI'nus. .ffipyornis, g-pl-or'nis. iElqui, e'kwT. .ffirarium, e-ra'ri-um. Aerated, a'^r-a'ted. Aerial, a-S'ri-al. Aeroclinoscope, a-^r-o-klr- nO-skop. Aerolites, a'er-o-lits. Aeroscope, a'er-o-skop. Aerostatic, a-^r-o-stat'ik. Aerotherapeutics, a'«r-o- ther-a-pa'tiks. Aerschot, ar'sKot. Aeschi, esh'i. JEschines, es'ki-nSz. .ffischylus, es'ki-lus. JEsculapius, es-kfl-la'pi- us. .ffisculus, es'ktl-lus. .9)sir, a'sir orfi'sir. -ffisop, e't^op. .ffilsopus, e-so'pns. .Esthesiometer, es-the-sl- APPENDIX OP PRONUNCIATION. 643 JEstheticism, es-thet'i- siz'm. Estivation, es-ti-va'shun. Etheling, ath'el-ing. JBthionema, e-thi-o-ne'- ma. Ethrioscope, e'thri-o- skOp. Etiology, e-ti-ol'o-ji. Aetion, a-g'shi-on. Etolia, e-to'li-a. Afanasiev, a-fa-na'sief. Afar, ii'far. Afer, a'f^r. Affettuoso, af-fet-twO'so. Aflfre, af'r'. Aflfry, a-fre'. Afghanistan, af-gan-is- tiin'. Afium-Kara-Hissar, a-fi- oom'-ka-ra'-his-sar'. Africander, af-ri-kan'der. Afridis, a-fre'diz. Afrit, a-fret'. Afzelius, af-ze'li-us; Swed. af-tse'li-oos. Agades, ag'a-dez. Agama, ag'a-ma. Agamemnon, ag-a-mera'- iion. Agamidae, a-gain'i-de. Agana, a-ga'nya. Agapae, ag'a-pe. Agapanthus, ag-a-pan'- thus. Agapemone, ag-a-pem'o- ne. Agapetae, ag-a-pe'te. Agapetus, ag-a-pe'tus. Agar, a-gur'. Agar-agar, a'ger-a'ger. Agardh, a'gard. Agaric, ag'a-rik or o-gar'- ik. Agassiz, ag'a-si; F., A-ga- se'. Agatha, ag'a-tha. Agatharchides, ag-a- thar'ki-dez. Agathias, a-ga'thi-as. Agathocles, a-gath'O-klez. Agathon, ag'a-thon. Agave, a-g5've. Agde, sgd. Agen, a-zhafi'. Agence Havas, a-zhans' a- va'. Agesilaus, a-jes-i-ia'us. Aggtelek, og'tel-ek. Aghrim, 6'grim Agincourti a-zhan-koor' ; E. aj'in-kOrt Agio, aj'i-5. Agira, a-je'ra. Agis, a'jis. Aglaophon, a-gla'o-fon. Agnadello, a-nya-dello. Agnano, a-nya'no. Agnates, ag'nata. Agnesi, a-nya'z5. Agnus Dei, ag'nus de'i. Agnone, a-nyO'na. Agonic, a-gon'ik. Agora, ag'o-ra. Agoraphobia, ag-o-ra-fo' bi-a. Agoult, a-goo'. Agouti, a-goo'ti. Agra, a'gra. Agram, a'gram, og'rom. Agramonte^ a-gra-mOn'ta, Agrapha, a-grafa. Agraphia, a-graf 'i-a. Agricola, «-grik'o-la, Agrigentum, ag-ri-jen'- tum. Agrippina, ag-ri-pT'na. Agrimony, ag'ri-mo-ni. Agrippa, a-grip'a. Aguadilla, a-gwa-del'yii. Aguado, a-gwa'do. Aguardiente, a-gwar-di- en'te. Aguas Calientes, a'gwas ka-Ii-en'tas. Aguesseau, a-ge-so'. Aguilar, a-ge-lar'. Aguilar de la Frontera, a-ge-lar 'de la fron-ta'ra. Aguilas, a'ge-las. Aguilera, a-ge la'ra. Aguinaldo, a-ge-nal'do. Aguirre, a-gei-'ra. Aguja, a-goo'ha. Agulhas, a-gool'yas. Agusan, a-gob'san. Agustina, a-goos-te'na. Ahab, a'hab. Ahasuerus, a-haz-u-e'rus. Ahaziah, a-ha-zi'a. Ahimelech, a-him'e-lek. Ahithopel, a-hith'o-fel, Ahlqvist, al'kvist. Ahlwardt, al'vart. Ahmed, a'med. Ahmedabad, a-med-a- bad'. Ahmednagar, a-med-Dug'- ur. Ahn, an. Ahrens, a'rens. Ahriman, a'ri-man. Ahwaz, a-waz'. Aicard, a-kar'. Aidan, a'dan. Aide, a-e-da'. Aide-de-camp, ad'dikan'. Aidin, T-den'. Aiguesmortes, ag-mort'. Aiguille, a gwel'. Aiguillette, a-gwi-let'. Aigun, T'gcMu. Aikawa, T-ka'wa. Ailanthus, a-Ian'thus. Ailly, ft-yS'. Ailsa Craig, al'sa krag'. Aimak, i-miik'. Aimard, a-inar'. Ain, an. Ainhum, an'hum. Ainmiller, in'mil-er. Ainos, I'noz. Ain-Tab, In-tab'. Air, a-er'. Airdrie, ar'dre. Aire-sur-Lys, ar-siir-les'. Aisle, 11. Aisne, an. Aisse, a-e-sa'. Aistulf, is'tdblf. Aivalik, I'va-lek. Aivazovski, i-va-zof'ski. Aix, aks. Aix-la-Chapelle, aks (or as) la sha-per. Aix-les-Bains, -la-ban'. Ajaccio, a-yat'c ho. Ajalon, aj'a-lon. Ajax. a'jaks. Ajmere, uj-mer'. Ajowan, aj'Jo-an. Ajurnoca, a-zhoor-no'ka. Akashi, a'ka she. Akee fruit, a-ke'. Akershus, ak'ers-hfis. Akhaltsikh, a-Kal-tseK'. Ak-Hissar, ak-his-sar'. Akhlat, aiv-lat'. Akhmim, aiv-mem'. Akhtirka, aK-ter'ka. Akiba, a-ke'ba. Akita, a'ke-ta. Akka, ak'ka. Akmolinsk, ak-mo-lyen?k'. Aksaiskaya, ak-si-ska'ya. Akshehr, ak-she'hV.' Ak-su, ak-soo'. Akyab, ak-yab'. Alabama, al-a-ba'ma. Alabat, a-la-bat'. Alacoque, a-la-kok'. Alacranes, a-la-kra'nas. Alai (Mountains), a-ir. Alais, a-ia'. Alajuela, a-la-hwa'la. Ala-kul, a-la-kool'. Alaman, a-la-miin'. Alameda, a-la-ma'da. Alamo, a'la-mo. Alamos, a'Ul-mOs. Aland (Islands), o'lan or 6'lan. Alar con, a-liir-kOn'. Alarcon y Mendoza, a-lar- kfm' e men-dO'tha. Alaric, al'a-rik. Alashehr, a-la-she'h'r. Alassio, a-Uls'se-u. Ala-tau, a-la-tou'. Alatri, a-la'tr5. Alatyr, a-la-t6r'. Alausi, ii-lou-ss'. Alava, a'la-va, Albacete, al-bli-tha'te. Albani, iil-ba'nc. Albania, al -ba'ni-a. Al-Battani, al-bat-ta'ne. Albaugh, al'bS. Albay, ai-oi'. Albedo, al-be'do. Alberoni, al be-ro'ng. Albert, Fr. al-bar' ; G. al'- bert. Albi, ai-be'. Albigenses, al-bi-jen's5z. Albion, al'bi-un. Alboni, al-bo'ne. Albornoz, al-bor-notb'. Albox, al-boh'. Albrecht, al'brecAt. Albret, al-bre'. Albrizzi, al-brgt'tse. Albuera, al-bwa'ra, Albula al'boo-la. Albumin, al-bti'min. Albuminuria, al-bu-mi- nu'ri-a. Albufiol, iil-boo-nynl'. Albuquerque, al-boo-ker'- ka. Alcaeus, al-se'us. Alcala de Guadaira, al-ka- la' da gwa-dl'ra. Alcala de Henares, al-ka- la' da a-na'ras. Alcala de los Gazules, al- ka-la' da los ga-thoo'las. Alcala la Real, al ka-la' la ra-al'. Alcalde, al-kal'da. Alcaiiiz, iil-kan-yeth'. Alcantara, al-kan'ta-ra. Alcaraz, al-ka-rath'. Alcaudete, al-kou-da'ta. Alcazar, al-kath'ar. Alcazar de San Juan, al- kath'ilr da siin hwan', Alcedo y Herrera, al-tha'- dO e er-ra'ra. Alchemilla, al-ke-mil'a. Alciati, al-cha'te. Alcibiades, al-si-bi'a-dez. Alcides, al si'dez. Alcinous, al-sin'o-us. Alciphron, al'si-fron. Alcira, iil-the'ra. Alcmaeon, alk-me'on. Alcmaeonidae, alk-me-on'- i-de. Alcman, alk'man. Alcobaca, al-ko-ba'sa. Alcofribas Nasier, al-ko- fre-bii' nii-sya'. Alcoholometry, al-ko-hol- om'i-tri. Alcoy, al-koi'. Alcuin, al'kwin. Alcyonaria, al-si-n-na'ri-a. Alcyone, al-sro-nC. Aldborough, old'bur-or colloq. o'bro. Aldebaran, al-dcb'a-ran. Aldegrever, al'de-gra-ver. Aldehyde, al 'de-hid. Alden, ol den. Aldershot, Ol'der-sbot. 644 APPENDIX OF PROxVUNCIATlON. Aldhelm, ald'helm. Aldiborontiphosco- phornio, al-di-bo-ron'ti- fos-ko-for'ni-o. Aldine, al'dm or ol'dln. Aldobrandini, al do bran- de'ne. Aldrich, dl'drich or 61'drij. Aldringer, alt'ring-er. Aldrovandi, al-dro-van'de. Aleardi, a-la-ar'de. Aleatory, a'le a-to-ri. , Alegrete, a-la-gra'ta. Aleman, al'e-man; F. al- man'; Span, a-le-rnan'. Alemanni, al-e-man'i. Alembert, a-lah-bar'. Alemtejo, a-lau-ta'zhoo. Alencon, a-lah-sOn'. Aleshki, ii-lesh'ks. Alesia, a-le'shi-o. Alessi, a-les'se. Aleurone, a-lu'ron. Aleutian (Islands), a-lu'- shi an. Alexandri, a-leks-an'dre. Alexandrovsk Grushev- ski, a-leks-an'drof 8k groo-shef'ske. Alexei, a-leks-a', Alexeief, a-leks-a'yef, Alfa, al'fa. Alfalfa, al-fal'fa. Alfieri, al-fi-a're. Alfreton, 6rfer-tun; colloq. 6f'er-tun. Algae, al'je. Algarotti, al-ga-rot'te. Algarve, al-gar'va. Algeciras, al-ha-the'ras. Algemesi, al-ha ma-se'. Algeria, al-je'ri-a. Alghero, al ga'ro. Algiers, al jerz'. Algoa, al-go'a. Algonquins, al-gon'kinz. Alguazil, al-gwa-thel'. Alias, a'li-as. Ali Bey, a'le ba. Alibi, al'i-bl. Alicante, a-li-kan'ta. Aligarh, a-li-giir'. Alima, a-le'ma. I Ali Pasha, a'le pa-sha', I Aliscans, a les kan'. Alizarin, a liz'a-rin. Aljubarrota, al-zhoo-bar- rO'ta. Alkali, al'ka-ll. Alkalimetry, al-ka-lim'-i- tri. Al-Kindi, al-kin'di. Alkmaar, alk-mar'. Allahabad, al'la-ha-bad'. AUantoin, a-lan'to-in. AUantois, a-lan'to-is. Allegheny, al'i-ga-ni. Allegretto, al-ln-gret'to. Allegri, ai-ia'gre. Allegro, al-ia'gro. AUeine, al'en. Allemande, al-i-mand'. AUeppi, a-lep'i. AUerion, al-le'ri-on. AUeyn, al'en or al'in. Allgemeine Zeitung, al- gfi-mi'ne tsl'totmg. Allier, a-lya'. Alloa, al'o-a. AUobroges, a-lob'ro-jez. Allodial, a-lo'di-al. Allogamy, a-Jog'o-ml Allopathy, a-lop'a-thi. Allori, al-lo'rg Allotropy, a-lot'rO-pi. Allowav, al'o-wa. AUyl, al'il. Alma, al'raa. Almada, al ma'da. Almaden, Sp al-ma-dan'; U. S. al-ma-den'. Almagest, al'ma-jest. Almagra, al-ma'gm. Al-mamun, al-ma-mJon'. Almansa, al-man'sa. Al-Mansur, al-man-soor'. Alma-Tadema, al-ma-ta'- de-ma. Almeida, al-ma'i-da. Almeida-Garrett, al-ma'- i-da-gar-ret', Almeirim, al-ma-ren'. Almelo, al-ma-lo'. Almendralejo, al-men-dra- la'ho. Almeria, al-ma-re'a. Almiqui, iil-me'ke. Almodovar del Campo, al- mo-dO'var del kam'pO. Almogia, ai-mo-he'a. Almohades, al'mo-hadz. Almond, ii'mund. Almonte, al-m5n't5. Almora, al-mo'ra. Almoravides, al - mo' m- vTdz. Almqvist, alm'kvist. Alnwick, an'ik. Aloe, al'o. Aloidae, al-o-l'de. Alopecia, al-o-pe'shi-a or -si-a. Alora, a'lo-ra. Alpes Maritimes, alp ma- re-tem'. Alpha and Omega, a) 'fa O-me'ga or O'mi-ga. Alphand, al-fan'. Alpheus, al-fe'us. Alpini, iil-pe'ne. Alpujarras, al-poo-har'ras. Alruna, al-roo'na. Alsace - Lorraine, al-sae'- lor-an' or al-zas', Alsatia, al-sa'shi-a. Al segno, al ea'nyo. Alsen, al'nen. Alsop, 61 'sup. Alster, al'ster. Altai, al-ti'. Altamaha, 61-ta-ma-h6'. Alt mura, al-ta-mob'ni. Altazimuth, alt-az'i-muth. Altdorf, alt'doif. Altdorfer, ait'dorf-er. Alten, al'ten. Altena, al'te-nii. Altenburg, al'ten-bobrcA. Altenstein, al'ten-shtin. Alter Ego, al'ter e'go. Altmiihl, alt'miil. Alt-ofen, alt-o'fen. Alton, 61'tnn. Altona, al'to-na. Alto relievo,al'to-re-lya'vo Altdtting, alt-et'ing. Altranstadt, alt'ran-stet. Altrincham, Ol'tring-am. Altstatten, alt'stet-en. Altwasser, alt'vas-er. Alt-Zabrze, alt'zab'zhe. Aluminium, al-u-min'i- um. Alvarado, al-va-ra'do. Alvarez de Cienfuegos,al' va-reih da thi-en-fwa'gOs. Alvary, al-va're, Alvensleben, al'vens-la- ben. Alvin, al-van'. Alvinczy, al-vin'tse. Alwar, ul'vur. Alxinger, alks'ing-er. Alyattes, al-i-at'ez. Alypius, al-ip'i-us. Alzey, al'tsi. Alzog, al'tsOK. Amadeo, a-ma-da'O. Amador de los Rios, a-ma- dur' de los re'os. Amadou, am'a-doo. Amager, a'ma-ger. Amalekites, am'a-lek-lts. Amalfi, a-mal'fe. Amalia, a-ma'le-a. Amalthaea, am-al-the'a. Aman, a-man'. Amaragosa, a'ma-ra-go'- eha. Amarapura, um-a-ra-poo' ru. Amari, a-ma're. Amaryllidaceae, am-a-ril- i-da'se-e. Amasia, a-ma'se-a. Amasis, a-ma'sis. Amati, ii-ma'te. Amatitlan, a-ma-ts-tlan'. Amaurosis, am-O-ro'sis. Amazonas, a-ma-zo'nas. Ambala, um-biil'a. Ambato, iim-bii'to. Amberg, iim'berc//,. Ambergris, am'ber-gres. Amblyopia, am-bli-o'pi-a. Amblyopsis, am-bli-op'sis. Amblystoma, am-blis'to- in^f. Amboise, jin-bwaz'. Ambriz, am-bresh'. Amelia(tn.Italy) a-ma'le-a. Amelie-les-Bains, a-ma- le'la-ban'. Amelot de la Houssaye, iiin-lO' de la oo-sa'. Amentace8e,am-en-ta'se-e. Amerigo, a-ma-re'go. Amerling, a'm^r-ling. Amersfoort, a'mers-fort. . Amhara, am-ha'ra. Amharic, am-ha'rik. Amice, am'is. Amicis, a-me'ches. Amicus Curiae, a-mi'kus ku'ri-e. Amides, am'idz or -idz. Amidogen, a-mid'o-jen. Amiel, a-mg-el'. Amiens, a-mi-an'; Eng. am'i-enz. Amines, am'inz or a-m5nz'. Amirante, am-i-rant'. Amistad, a-ms-stad'. Ammianus Marcellinus, am-i-a'nu8 mar-ce-ll'- nus. Ammoniacum, am-o-ni'- a-kum. Amnesia, ara-ne'zi-a or -si-a. Amoeba, a-me'ba. Amoebean, am-e-bg'an. Amontillado, a-mon-til- ya'-do. Amor, a'mor. Amorites, am'or-its. Ampere, am-par' or an-par'. Amphiaraus, am-fi-a-ra'us. Amphibole^, am'fi bolz. Amphibrach, am'fi-brak. Amphictyonic, am-fik-ti- on'ik. Amphimacer,am fim'a-ser. Amphion, am-fi'on. Amphipolis, am-fip'o-lis. Amphisbaenidae, am-fis- be'ni-de. Amphitherium,am fi-the'- ri-um. Amphitrite, am-fi-trl'ts. Amphora, am'fo ra. Amraoti, um-ra-wut'i. Amritsar, nm-rit'eur. Amru, itm'roo. Amsler, iims'Ier. Amstelodamum, am-etel- 0-da'miiin. Amu Daria, a-moo'dar'ya. Amur, a-m(5br'.^ Amurath, a-moo-rat'. Amyclae, a-mi'klg. Amygdalaceae, a-mig-da- la'sG-e. Amyot, a-mS-o'. Amyraut, a me-ro'. Anabasis, a-nab'a-si>? Anabolism, a nab'o-liz m. Anacharsis, an-a-kar'sie. APPENDIX OF PRONUNCIATION. Anachronism, an-ak'ro- niz'm Anacoluthon, an-a-ko lu'- thon. Anacreon, «-nak're-on. Anadyomene, an-a-di-om'- e-iie. Anadjn:*, ii-na-der'. Anagni, a-na'nye. Anagoge, an-a-go'je. Anaheim, a'na-him. Anahuac, a-na'wak. Anakim, an'a-kim. Anamosa, an-a-mo't»a. Ananchytes, an-ang-ki'- tez. Ananyev, a-njin'yef. Anapa, a-na'pa. Anapaest, an'a-pest. Anastasius, an-as-ta'shi-ns. Anastomosis, a-nas-to- mo'sis. Anatolia, an-a to'li-a. Anaxagoras, an-ax-ag'o- ras. Anaxarchus, an-aks-ar'- kus. Anaximander, a-naks-i- man'd^r. Anaximenes, an-aks-im'- e-nez. Ancachs, an-kachs'. Ancelot, ans-lo'. Ancenis, an-s'ne'. Anchises, an-ki'sez. Anchitherium, an-ki-the'- ri-um. Anchovy, an-cho'vi. Ancillon, an-se-y6n'. Ancylopoda, an-si-lop'f5- da. Ancona, an-ko'na. Ancre, afi'kr'. Ancren Riwle, ang'kren rool 0?' ang'kren roo'le. Andaliisia,an-da-lo(i'shi-a. Andante, an dan'ta. Andaqui, an-da'ke. Andenne, an-den'. _ Anderlues, an-der-loos'. Andermatt, an'dtr-mat. Andes, an'dez. Andijan, an-di-zhan'. Andkhui, and-Kw'e. Andocides, an-dos'i-dez. Andorra, iin-dor'ra. Andrassy, on'drii-she. Andrea, an-dra'a. Andreae, an-dre'e. Andreini, an-dra-e'ne. Andreossy, afi-dra-O-sC. Andria, an'drg-a. Andrieux, afi-drc-u'. Androclus, an'drrj-klus. Andromache, an-drom'a- kG. Andromeda,an-drom'e-da. Andronicus, an-dro-ni'kus or an-dron'i-ku3. Andujar, ;in-d(Il)'har. AnelectrotoDUS, an-e-lek- trot'O-nus. Anemone, a-nem'o-nc. Aneurin, an'u-rin. Angeln, iin'geln. Angelo, uu'je-lo; ItAuVje-lo. Angelus, an'je-lus. Angermanland, ang'er- m an- land. Angermunde, o n g ' ^ r - m'Ton-de. Angers, an-zha'. Angevine, an'je-vin or an'- je-wln. Angilbert, an-zhel-bar', Angiolieri, an-jo-lya're. Angola, an-go'la.^ Angouleme, an-guo-lem'. Angra do Heroismo, ang'- gra do a-ro-es'mo. Angra Poqueiia, pa- ka'nyii. Anguilla, ang-gwil'a. Anguisciola, ang-gwe'sho- lii. Angwantibo, ang-gwan- te'l)o. Anhalt, an'halt. Ani, a'ne. Animuccia, a-ne-mobt'cha. Anio, a'ne-O. Anion, an'i-on. Anjer, iin'yer. A n j 0 u , an'j K) ; Fr. an- zhoo'. Anklam, an'kliim. Ankober, jin-ko'ber. Ankole, an-ko'le. Ankylosis, an-ki-lo'sis. Annaberg, an'nii-berc/i. Anna Comnena, kom-ne'- na. Anna Ivanovna, an'a e-vii'nov-na. Annam, a-nam'. Annapolis, a-nap'o-lis. Annates, an'- ats. Annatto, a-nat'to. Annecy, an-se'. Annonay, a-no-na'. Annunzio, a-nobn'tsi-O. Anopheles, a-nof'e-lez. Anoplotherium, an-op-lo- the'ri-um. Anquetil - Duperron, iln- k'-iel'du-pa-roh'. Ansbach, iins'baK. Anseres, aii'8a'thos. Bathybius, ba-thib'i-up, BatignoUes, ba-te-nyol'. Batjan, bat-yan'. Batrachomyomachia, bat'ra-ko-ml'O-ma'ki-a. Batteux, ba-tu'. Batthyanyi, bot'ya-nyS. Battiadae, ba-ti'o-de. Batum, ba-toT)m'. Bauang, bon'iing. Baudelaire, bn-d'-lar'. Baudin, bo-dan'. Baudisson, bo-dC-son'. Baudry, bn-dre'. Bauer, bou'er. Bauge, bo-zba'. Bauhin, bo-aft'. Bauhinia, bo-hin'i-a. Baumann, bou'man. BaumOd-ch, boum'baK. Baumgarten - CrusiuSj bourn' gar - ten - krCTo' zi- oos. Baumgartner, boum'gart- uer. Bautain, bo-tan'. Bautzen, bout'stn. Bauxite, bok'sit. Baxar, buk'sur. Bayaderes, ba-ya-dgrz'. Bayard, ba'erd, hVerd ; Fr. ba-yar'. Bayeux, ba-yu'. Bayombong, ba - yom - bong', Bayonne, ba-yon'. Bayou, bi'oo. Baza, tn. Sp. ba'tha. Bazaine, ba-zan', Bazardjik, ba-zar-jek'. Bazeilles, ba-za'y'. Bazigars, ba-ze-garz'. Bdellium, del'i-um. Beaconsfield,bs''kunz-feld. Beam, ba-arn'. Beas, be'as. Beaucaire, bo-kar'. Beauce, bos. Beauchamp (Alphonse), bu-shan'. Beauchamp (William Martin), bech'am. Beauclerk, bo'klark. Beaufort, tn. li. C. bo'- furt; tn. S. C. bu'furt; man'^s name bo'furt, bfl'- furt; Fr. bO-fAr'. Beaugency, bo-zhan-se' Beauharnais, bo-ar-na'. Beaujolais, bo-zho-la'. Beaulieu, bo-lyu', Beaumarchais, bo-mar- eha'. Beaumaris, bo-ma'ris, Beaumont, bo-mont'; Fr. bo-moh'. Beaune, bon. Beauregard, bo're-gard ; Fr. bo-r'-gar'. Beauvais, bo-va'. Beaux, bo. Bebel, ba'bel. Bee Abbey, bek' ab'i. Beccafico, bek-ka-f6'ko. Beccaria, bek-ka-re'a. Becerra, ba-ther'ni. Beche de mer, bash df mar'. Becher, hecU'er. ^ Bechuanaland, bech-oo-a' na-land, or bek-u-an'a. Beckerath, bek'6;-rat. Becque, bek. Becquer, ba-kar'. Becquerel, bek-rel'. Becskerek, bech'ke-rek