OF THL UNIVERSITY Of ILLINOIS 051 C35^ I88S; V.4 / / Digitized by the Internet Arcliive in 2015 https://archive.org/deta.ils/chambersencyclop04unse CHAMBERS'S 5U -'^^z^ / o ENCYCLOPAEDIA: A DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE FOR THE PEOPLE, ILLUSTRATED, AMEEICAX REVISED EDITION Vol. IV. Philadelphia: J. B. LippiNcoTT & Co. 1882. Entered, according to Act ot (Jongress, In the year 1875, by J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO., In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE FOR THE PEOPLE ELEPHANT. JS'LEPHAXT (Gr. Elephas), a genus of quadru- peds, of the order Pacliydermata (q. v.), and of the section Prohosddea. Elephants are the largest existing land animals. The ordinary height at the shoulder is about eight feet, but sometimes exceeds ten feet. The weight of a large E. is aboiit five tons, the body being very bulky in proportion to its height. To sustain this weight, it is furnished ^\dth limbs of colossal thickness and strength, which are also remarkably straight, each bone resting vertically on that beneath"" it. From the appear- ance of inflexibility presented by the limbs, arose the notion prevalent among the ancients, and throughout the middle ages, that the limbs are destitute of joints, and that consequently an E. cannot lie down to rest Kke another quadruped, and if it were to lie down, could not rise again, but always sleeps standing, or leaning against a tree. It is indeed true that the E. often sleeps standing, and when fatigued, falls asleep leaning against a rock or tree, against which it may have been rubbing itself. The flexibility of the limbs is, however, sufficient to permit elephants to run with speed nearly equal to that of a horse, to indulge in plaj^ul gambols, and to ascend and descend steep mountains. Elephants are more sure-footed and Bervicealde than either horses or mules, in difficult mountain roads. On the very steepest declivities, an E. works his way down pretty rapidly, even with a howdafi and its occupants upon his back, his chest Atid belly on the groimd, and each fore-foot employed in making a hole for itself, into which the hind foot eflsrwards follows it, and to which the weight may be trasted, that another step may be ventured with safety. In lying down, the E. does not bring his hind-legs imder him, like the horse and other quad- riipeds, but extends them backwards (as man does when he assumes the kneeling position), an arrange- ment which, ' by enabling him to draw the hind-feet gradually under him, assists him to rise almost without a perceptible effort.' The E.'s pace, when exceeding a walk, is neither a trot nor a gallop, 137 which would be too violent a motion for its con. formation and huge body, but a sort of shuffle, the speed of which is increased or diminished without other alteration. The E. is incapable of springing like the deer, horse, and other animals which hava the bones of their shoulders and hocks set at lin angle. The head in elephants is large ; the neck is short and thick, the long flexible proboscis compensating both for the shortness of the neck, and for the inflexi- bility caused by the largely developed processcd by Aristotle as reseml^ling the hoarse sound of a trumpet, and from which this organ received its French jiame trompe, corrui)ted in English into tnmk. With the trunk also, they sometimes, when angry, beat violently on the ground. The sense of smell is very acute in the E., as iu also that of hearing. The ears are large and pond a- lous, the eyes are small. Elephants have no canine teeth, nor have they any incisors in the lower jaw. The upper jaw ia fiu-nished with two incisors, which assume the peculiar character of tusks, and attain an enormous size, a single tusk sometimes weighing 150 or even 300 11)S. The tusks are, however, often imperfectly developed, ten or twelve inches in length, and one or two in diameter. These stunted tusks are often used for such purposes as snapping off small branches and tearing climbing plants from trees. Those elephants which possess great tusks employ them also for such other uses as loosening the roots of trees which they cannot otherwise tear from the ground ; or in a state of domestication, for such labours as moving great stones, and piling or carrying timber. A powerfid E. will raise and carry on his tusks a log of half a ton weight or more. The tusks of the E. surpass in size all other teeth of existing animals, and are the largest of all teeth in projjortion to the size of the l)ody. They consist chiefly of that variety of dmtiiie called Ivory (q. v.), and continue to grow — like the incisors of the rodents, to which they are in some respects analogous — even when the animal has A, skull of Indian elephant; B, skull of African elephant; C, D, upper and lower molar teeth of Indian elephant; E, P, upper and lower molar teeth of African elephant ; G, the original state of the grinders when the laminae of which they consist are as yet unconnected together; II, the lamins as they are attached in parallels one to the other by corticsi substance. attained a great age, if not to the very end of its life. The young E. is at first furnished with deciduous incisors, which are shed between the first and second j^ear, and are succeeded by the permanent tusks.— The molar teeth of the E. are developed in succession ; and at least in the Indian E., never more than two are to be seen in the same side of a jaw at one time. The first molars cut the gimi in about two weeks after birth, and are shed about the end of its second year. The sixth mol&ra, ELEPHANT. which are also believed to be the last, are supposed to appear about the fiftieth year of the E.'s life. The molar teeth of the E. are remarkable for their great size, and for the extreme complexity of their structure, to which the nearest resemblance is found in some of the small rodents. They are composed of vertical plates of bony substance, separately enveloped with enamel, and cemented together by a third substance, called crusta jyetrosa, cortical^ or cement, more resembling bone than enamel. Each succeeding tooth is not only more complex, but occupies a greater space in the jaw than its predecessor. Although formed from a single pulp, the molar tooth of an E. resembles an aggregation of teeth ; and in the earlier stages of its growth, when the cement is not yet deposited, it seems as if many separate teeth were soldered together. As the siu-face of the tooth is worn down hy mastication, the harder enamel is exposed in elevated ridges. The whole of a tooth is not in employment at once. From the peculiar manner of its growth, the anterior part begins to be em^iloyed, and to be worn away, whilst the latter part is still in process of formation. The digestive apparatus of the E. is similar to that of the other pachydermata ; but the stomach, which is of a very leng-thened and narrow form, exhibits a peculiarity which assimilates it to that of the camel ; the internal membrane, at the extremity beyond the cardiac orifice, forming thick wrinkles and folds, the broadest of which, and nearest to the gvdlet, seems to act as a valve, making that end of the stomach a reservoir for water, capable of con- taining about ten gallons ; whilst a peculiar muscle, connecting the windpipe and gullet, enables the animal to open this reservoir at pleasure, for the regurgitation of the fluid, which is then sometimes received into the trunk, and squirted over the body, to free it from the nuisance of fl ies, or the heat of a tropical sun. The female E. has only two teats, situated between the fore-legs. The yoimg suck with the mouth, and not with the trunk. They are suckled for about two years. The period of gestation is also nearly two years, and a smgle young one is produced at a birth. The skin of the E. is very thick, of a dark-brown colour, and in the existing species, has scarcely any covering of hair. The tail does not reach to the ground, and has a tuft of coarse bristles at the end. The feet have in the skeleton five distinct toes, but these are so surrounded with a fii-m homy skin, that only the nails are visible exter- nally, as on the margin of a kind of hoof. The foot of the E. is admirably adapted for steep and rough ground, the protective skin which covers the toes allowing tlxem considerable freedom of motion. Only two existing species of E. are certainly known, the Indian [E. Indicus) and the African [E. Af/'icanus), although differences have recently been observ'ed in the E. of Sumatra, which may perhaps entitle it to be ranked as a distinct sjjecies. Ele- hants are found in all parts of Africa, from the ahara southwards, where wood and water are sufficiently abundant ; also throughout India and the south-eastern parts of Asia, and in some of the tro])ical Asiatic islands. They extend northwards to the Himalaya ; and Chittagong and Tiperah »rie with Ceylon in the superior excellence of the elephants which they produce. The Indian E. is distinguished by a comparatively high oblong head, v.rith a concave forehead ; whilst the African has a round head and convex forehead. The ears of the African E. are nmch larger than those of the Indian, covering the whole shoidder, and descending on the legs. A marked distinction of tne two species is also found in the molar teeth; those of the Indian E. exhibiting wavy parallel tranaverse ridges; whilst those of the African species have the 1 , head of African elephant ; 2, head of Asiatic elephant. divisions of the crown of the tooth fewer, broader, and lozenge-shaped. Elephants live in herds, not generally numerous, but several herds often congregate together in the same forest or at the same place of drinking. Each herd has a leader, generally the largest and most powerfid animah The leader seems to exercise much control over the movements of the herd, gives the alarm in case of danger, and seems to examine and decide for the whole herd as to the safety of proceedmg in any particular direction. On account of his tusks, the leader is very often the animal against which the eflbrts of the hunter are directed ; but the rest of the herd do their utmost to protect him, and when driven to extremity, they place him in the centre, and crowd so eagerly to the front of him that some of them must often be shot ere he can be reached. A family resemblance is usually very visible among the elephants of the same herd ; some herds are distinguished by greater stature, and others by more bullcy form and stronger limbs ; some by particularly large tusks, some by slight peculiarities of the truidi, &c. In the East Indies, distinctions of this kind have long been car-^fully noticed, and particidar names are given to elephants according to them, some being considered as high' caste, and others as low-caste elephants. An E. which by any cause has been separated from its herd, seems never to be admitted into another, and these solitary elephants are particularly troublesome, in their depredations exhibiting an audacity which the herds never exhibit ; they are also savage and much dreaded, whilst from a herd of elephanta danger is scarcely apprehended. The E. is generally one of the most inoffensive of animals, although in a state of domestication, it shews, as is well kno^JH, a power both of remembering and resenting &a injm-y. The favourite haunts of wild elephants are ia the depths of forests — particidarly in moimtainous regions— where they browse on branches, and from which they issue chiefly in the cool of the night to pasture in the more open grounds. They ara ready to plunder rice or other grain-fields, if not deterred by fences, of which, fortunately, they have, in general, an unaccountable dread, even although rather imaginary than real. A fence of mere reeda will keep them out of fields, where, as soon as the grain is removed, they enter by the gaps of tha fence, and may be seen gleaning among the stubbla ELEPHANT. When the E. eats grass, *nothinc^ can be more graceful tlian the ease with which, before convey- ing it to his mouth, he beats the earth from its roots by striking it on his fore-leg.' A cocoa-nut is first rolled under foot, to detach the outer bark, then stripped of the fibrous husk, and finally crushed between the grinders, when the fresh milk is swallowed with evident relish. The fruit of the palmyra palm is another favourite food of elephants, and they seem to have an instinctive knowledge of the time of its ripening. Sugar-canes are also a favourite food ; indeed, elephants are very fond of Bweet things. Those which are brought to Britain are generally fed on hay and carrots. The amount of daily food necessary for the E. in a state of domestication may be stated, on an average, at about two hundred pounds in weight. Elephants delight in abundance of water, and enter it very freely, often remaining in it for a considerable time and with great evident enjoyment. They sometimes swim with not only the body but the head under water, the only part elevated above it being the extremity of the trunk. The habits of the African E. appear in no import- ant respect to differ from those of the Indian elephant. It is the latter only that is at the present day domesticated ; but it is cei-tain that the African species was anciently domesticated, and the figures on many Eoman medals attest it. Elephants rarely breed in a state of domestication, although, a few years ago, the birth of an elephant took place in the Zoological Gardens of London, an occasion of much interest not only to the scieutifio but to the general public. They are generally tamed within a few mouths after they are captured ; some degree of severity being em})loyed at first, which, however, as soon as the animal has begim to respect the power of man, is exchanged for kindness and gentleness of treatment. Elephants intended for domestication are captured in various ways. It was formei'ly common to take them in pitfalls, but in this way they were often much injiired. Another method frequently practised is by the aid of tame elephants. Male elejihants chiefly are captured in this way, the decoy elephants employed being females, trained for the iJurpose. With these the himters very cautiously approach the animal they mean to cai)ture, and he generally permits them to come up to him, and is so pleased to make the acquaintance of the females, that he takes no notice of their riders and other human attendants. Two of the females take their places, one on each side of him, and whdst he is occupied with them, men, the profession of whose lives it is, and who display a wonderful expertness in the work, contrive to get beneath their bodies, and to pass ropes round the legs of the intended captive. His two hind-legs are fastened together by six or eight ropes in the form of the figure 8, another rope keeping them tight at the intersections, and a strong cable with a running- noose is attached to each hind-leg. Aboi\t twenty minutes are usually spent in fixing the necessary ?opes, profound silence being maintained if the rTocess goes on unobserved, or some of the other inters distracting the attention of the E. from those who are engaged in this work ; and when at last, becoming sensible of his danger, he tries to retreat, an opportunity is soon found of tying him, by means of the long cables which trail behind him, to some tree strong enough for the purpose. His fury then becomes ungovernable, and he makes violent and prodigious efforts to get free, throwing himself on the ground, and twisting him- self into the most extraordinary positions. It is not until he has thoroughly exhausted himself, and begins to suffer severely from fatigue, thirst, and hunger, that the next steps are taken towards taming him and making him a willing servant of man. Still more wonderful is the capture of a wild E., sometimes by not more than two hunters, who for this purpose will go into the woods, without aid or attendants, their only weapon a flexible rope of hide. With this they secm-e one of the E.'s hind- legs, following his footsteps when in motion, or stealing close up to him when at rest, or sometimes spreading the noose on the ground, partially con- cealed by roots and leaves, beneath a tree on whicb. one of the party is stationed, whose business it is to lift it suddenly by means of a cord. When arrested by the rope being coiled around a tree, the E. naturally turns upon the man who is engaged in making it fast, but his companion interferes on his behalf, by i)rovoking the animal ; and thus not only is the first rojie made fast, but noose after noose is passed over the legs, imtil all are at lasb tied to trees, and the capture is complete ; upon which the hunters build a booth for themselves in front of their prisoner, kindle their fires for cooking, and remain day and night tdl the E. is sufficiently tamed to be led away. But these huge animals are not always captured singly ; whole herds are often taken at once. This is accomplished by means of an enclosure, towards which the elephants are driven by great numbers of men encircling a considerable sj^ace, and con« tracting the circle by slow degi-ees. Weeks, or even months, are spent in this operation, and at last the elephants, hemmed in on every side except the mouth of the enclosure, enter it, and the gate is immediately closed. The modes of constructing the enclosure are different in different parts of tli€ East. Tame elephants are sometimes sent into it,, and the captives are in succession made fast to treei there, in a Avay somewhat similar to that practise'^, in capturing sincrle elephants. The E. first became kno\\Ti in Europe from its employment in the wars of the East : ' in India, from the remotest antiquity, it formed one of the most picturesque, if not of the most effective, features in the aixnies of the native princes.' Elephants havo been taught to cut and thrust with a kind oi scimitar carried in the trimk, and it was formerly usual for them to be sent into battle, covered Avitli armour, and bearing towers on their backs, whii.-h contained warriors. But the principal use of the E. in war is for carrying baggage, and for dragging guns. An E. will apply his forehead to a cannon, and urge it through a bog, througli which it would be almost impossible for men and cattle to drag it ; or he will wind his trunk round it, and lift it up, whilst horses or cattle drag it forwards. Elephants are used in the East for carrying persons on their backs, a nxmiber being seated together in a howdah^ whilst the driver {uiahout} sits on the E.'s neck, directing it by his voice and by a small goad. Elephants have always a conspicuous place in the great processions and state displays of eastern princes, and white elei)hants— albinos— are peculiarly valued. Elephants are also employed in many kinds of labour, and display great sagacity in comprehend- ing the nature of their task and adapting them- selves to it. In l)iling timber, the E. 'manifests an intelligence and dexterity which is surprising to a stranger, because the sameness of the operation enables" the animal to go on for hours disposing of log after log, almost without a hint or dii'ection from his attendant.' Of the sagacity of the E,, many interesting anecdotes are on record, as every reader of books of travels and of natmal hiatory knows. But Cuviei refuses, and apparently with justice, to ascrib* ELEPHANT. to it a degj'ee of sagacity higher than that of the dog. In a state of domestication, the E. is a delicate animal, rcfjuiring much watchfulness and care, although naturally it has a very long life, and instances are on record of extreme longevity in domestication, extending not only to more than one hundred, but almost to two hun(h'ed years. The numbers of wild elephants in some parts both of the East Indies and of Africa, are being gradually reduced as cultivation extends, and many are shot for no other reason than a desire to reduce their numl^ers, and put an end to their ravages on culti- vated gromids. A reward of a few shillings per head was claimed for 3500 destroyed in part of the northern province alone of Ceylon, in less than three years prior to 1848. It is for the sake of ivory that the greatest slaughter of elephants takes place. A ball of hard metal, skilfully planted in the eye, base of the trunk, or behind the ear, generally ends an E.'s life in an instant ; and expert sportsmen have been known to kill right and left one with each barrel. Fossil Elephants. — The E. makes its appearance in the Pleistocene strata. Its near ally, the mastodon, whose remains are found associated with it, began life earlier ; it has left its traces in Miocene deposits. Ten species of fossil elephants have been described, the remains of three of which are found in Europe. The best known of these is the Elephas primigenius, or Mammoth, the tusks of which are so little altered as to supply an ivory which, though inferior to that of the living species, is still used in the arts, esjiecially in Russia. Its tusks are, on this account, regxilarly searched for by ' ivory hunters ' in Siberia, where, in the sui^erficial deposits of sand, g]-avel, and loam, the remains occur in enormous abundance. They are also foimd in similar strata all over Europe. In Britain, the localities that have supplied these remains are very numerous. They are especially abundant in the Pleistocene deposits of the east and south-east of England. Woodward, in his Geology of Norfolk, calculatra that upwards of 2000 grinders of this animal have been dredged up by the fishermen off Happisburgh in thirteen years. The bone-caves also yield remains of this gigantic animal. The mammoth truly belongs to the geological history of the world ; it died out at the close of the period represented by the Pleistocene beds. It is the only fossil animal that has been preserved in a perfect condition for the examination of man. In all other remains we have to deal with the hard portions only — the bones, teeth, scales, &c., and frequently only with fragmentary portions, requiring the skill of a Cuvier or an Owen to make from them an approximation to the perfect animal. But the mam- moth has been preserved so that its flesh has been eaten by dogs, bears, and wolves. In 1799, a Tungu- eian, named Schimiachoff, while searching along the shores of Lake Oncoul for mammoth tusks, observed among the blocks of ice a shapeless mass, but did not at the time discover what it was. The heat of succeeding summers gradually melted the ice around it, and, in 180.3, the mammoth fell on a bank of sand. In March of the folloM'ing year, the hunter visited it, cut off, and carried away the tusks, which he gold for fifty rubles. In 1806, Mr Adams visited the locality, and examined the animal, which still remained on the sand-bank where it had fallen, but in a greatly mutilated condition. The Jakutski of the neighbourhood had cut off the flesh to feed their dogs, and the wild beasts had almost entirely cleared the bones. The skeleton was, however, entire, excei)ting one of the fore-legs, and some of the bones of the tail. Many of the bones were stiU held together bv the ligaments and by parts of the skin. The head was covered with drj' skin ; one o! the ears was well preserved ; it was furnished with a tuft of hairs. Three-fourths of the whole skin were procu ed, which was so heavy that ten persona found gi-eat difficulty in transporting it to th« Skeleton of Mammoth. shore, a distance of 150 feet ; it was of a dark-gray colour, and was covered with a reddish wool, and long black hairs or bristles. The wool was short, and curled in locks ; the bristles were of different leng-ths, varying from 1 to 18 inches. Some of this covering still remainsd attached to the skin, but the great mass was entirely separated from it. Mr Adams collected 36 pounds, although much of it had been destroyed from the dampness of the place where it had lain so long. The animal was a male, and had a long mane on the neck. The entire carcass was removed to St Petersburg, where it is now preserved. The tusks were repurchased, and added to the animal. It measures from the fore- part of the skuU to the end of the mutilated tail 16 feet 4 inches ; the height to the top of the dorsal spines is 9 feet 4 inches ; the length of the tusks along the curve is 9 feet 6 inches. Portions of the hairy covering have been brought to this country, and may be seen in the British Museum. Taking the teeth as exhibiting clearly a marked difference in the recent species, the mammoth is easily sejiarated from both by its broader grinders, which have narrower, and more numerous, and close-set plates and ridges. The existence of the E, and other genera, whose representatives are now found only in the warmer regions of the earth, in the north of Europe and Asia, led to the belief, that at the recent period in the world's history when they were its living inhabitants, a tropical tempera- ture existed in the temperate zone, and stretched further north towards the pole ; but the discovery of this perfect animal shewed that these huge elephants were adapted by their clothing to endure a cold climate, and by the structure of their teeth were able to employ as food the branches and foliage of the northern pines, birches, willows, &c. There are few generalisations more plausible at first sight than to predicate of an unknown species of a geniig what is ascertained regarding the known members of the same genus. It required a striking case, such as that supplied by the discovery of the mammoth, to shew clearly the fallacy of deductions which were almost universally received by scientific men not many years ago, which still occasionally mislead, and which may even now be met with in some popular hand-books of science. ELEPHANT. An order of the elephant was instituted in Denmark, by King Frederick II. The badge was a coUar of elephants towered, supporting the king's arms, and having at the end the picture ol 1 the Virgin Mary. ELEPIIANTA— ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES. ELEPHA'NTA, an island of six miles in circuit, stands in the harbour of Bombay (q. v.), about Beven miles to the east of that city, and ab(Mit five miles to the west of the mainland. It takes this its European name from a huge figure of an elephant near its principal landing-phice, which, however, appears to have gradually crunibled away. This colossal animal has been cut out of a detached rock, which is a])parently of basaltic origin. Further towards the interior, three temples, dug out of the living mountain, present themselves— the roofs feeing supi)orted by curiously wrought pillars of various forms and magnitudes, and the walls being thickly sculptured into all the varieties of Hindu mythology. The largest of the three excavations is nearly square, measuring 133 feet by 1304 feet ; and iinjnediately fronting its main entrance stands a bust or third-length of a three-headed deity, with a height of 18 feet, and a breadth of 23. These monuments of superstition, like the quadruped which guards, as it were, the approaches to them, are said to be rai)idly decaying — a state of things which, besides in some measure accounting for the orecution of such works, seems to be inconsistent with any very high antiquity. The island is in lat. 18° 57' K, and long. 73° E. EliEPHANTl'NE, a small island of the Nile, lying opposite to Assouan (q. v.), the ancient Syene, on the confines of Egypt and Nubia, in 24° 5' N. lat., and 32° 54' E. long. From this island, the Greek mercenaries were sent by Psammitichus I. to recall the Egyptian deserters, and it was garrisoned in the time of the Pharaohs, Persians, and Komans. The island was anciently called Abu, or the 'ivory island,' from its having been the entrepot of the trade in that jjrecious material. The most import- ant ruins are a gateway of the time of Alexander, and a small temple dedicated to Khnum, the god of the waters, and his contemplar deities, Anucis and Sate. This temple was founded by Amenophis III., and embellished by Eameses III. Another remarkable edifice is the ancient Ndometer, formerly mentioned by Strabo, and which a])pears to have been built in the time of the Caesars ; and several remaining inscriptions record the heights of inundation from the time of Augustus to Severus. This island had the honour of giving a dynasty (the 5th) to Egypt, and was evidently an important place, the inscriptions on the rocks attesting the adoration paid by Sethos I., Psammitichus II., and other monarchs, to the local deities. Other interest- ing mr^numents have been found on this island ; amongst which may be cited part of a calendar recording the rise of the Dog-star in the reign of Thothmes III. (1445 B.C.), and numerous fragments of pottery — principally receipts in the Greek lan- guage — given by the farmers of the taxes in the reign of the Antonines. The island is at present inhabited by Nubians. — Wilkmson, Topography of Tkebcs, p. 460 ; Champollion, Notice J)esa'iptive, p. 215; Champollion, Leitres Ecrites^ pp. Ill, 157, 171, 382. ELEPHANT'S FOOT, or HOTTENTOT'S BREAD {Testndinaria elephantipefi)^ a plant of tlie natural order Dioscoreacece^ of which the root-stock forms a large flesliy mass, curiously truncate, or abruptly cut off at the end, so as somewhnt to resemble an elephant's foot, and covered with a soft, corky, rou^h, and cracked bark. From this springs a climbing stem, which bears the leaves and liowers. The root-stock is used as food by the Hottentots. The plant is not unfrequently to be seen in hothouses in Britain. The name Elephant's Foot {Elephantopus) is alao given, on accoimt of the form of the root- leaves, to a genus of plants of the natural crdct Coinpositfc, sub-order Corymbiferce, one sjjecies of which {E. scaler) is common in elevated dry situiv- tions in all ])arts of India, and is used in Indiiiv. medicine in affections of the urinary organs. ELETTA'RIA. See Cardamom. ELETZ. See Jeletz. ELEUSINE, a genus of Grasses, chiefly natives of India and other warm climates, several of which are cultivated as grains. This is especially the casQ with K corocana, an Indian sjjecies, called Natcanee and Nagla Ragee, also Mand and Murwa, which has aggregated digitate spikes finally incurved. The Tibetans make a weak sort of beer, much in use amongst them, from this grain. E. slricta is cultivated as a grain-crop in the same parts of tho world, and is, lik,f the former, extremely productive. The grain called Tocusso in Abyssinia is also a species of this genus, E. Tocusho. A decoction of E. JEyyp- tiaca is used in Egypt for cleansing ulcers, and a drink made from the seeds is regarded as useful in diseases of the kidneys and bladder. E. Indica, which has been naturalized in the northern U. States, is the common crab grass, also known as dog's-tail and wire grass. ELEUSFNIAN MY'STERIES, the sacred rites \vith wdiich the annual festival of Ceres was cele- brated at Eleusis. Many traditions were afJoat in ancient times as to the origin of this festival. Of these, the most generally accepted was to the eflect tliat Ceres, wandering over the earth in quest of her daughter Proseri)ino, arrived at Eleusis, where she took rest on the sorrowful stone beside the well Callichorus. In return for some small acts of kind- ness, and to commemorate her visit, she taught Triptolemus the use of corn on the Rharian plain near the city, and instituted the mystic rites pecu- liarly known as hers. The outward method of the celebration of these mysteries is knowTi with con- siderable accuracy of detail. Their esoteric signi- ficance is very variously interpreted. The ancients themselves generally believed that the doctrines revealed to the initiat<'d gave them better hopes than other men enjoyed, both as to the present life and as to a future state ol existence. Modern specu- lation has run wild in the attempt satisfactorily to explain these mysteries. As reasonable a solution as any other seems to be that of Bishop Thirlwall, who finds in them ' the remains of a worship which pre- ceded the rise of the Hellenic mythology and its attendant rites, grounded on a view of nature, less fancifid, more earnest, and better fitted to awaken both philosophical thought and religious feeling.' The festival itself consisted of two parts, the greater and the lesser mysteries. The less important feast, serving as a sort of preparation for the greater, was held at Agree, on the Ilissus. The celebration of the great mysteries began at Eleusis on the 15th day of Boedromion, the third month of the Attic year, and lasted over nine days. On the first day (called ayurmos, the assembling), the neophytes, already initiated at the preparatory festival, met, and were instructed in their sacred duties. On the second day (called Halade, mystae, To the s^i, yg initiated/), they iniri lied themselves by washing in the sea. On the third day, sacrifices, comprising, among other things, the mullet-fish, and cakes made of barley from the Rharian plain, were offered with special rites. The fourth day was devoted to the procession of the sacred basket of Ceres (the Kala- thion). This basket, containing pomegranates, salt, poppy-seeds, &c., and followed by bands of women carrying smaller baskets similarly filled, was drawn in a consecrated cart through the streets, amid shouts of ' Hail, Ceres ! ' from the onlookers. Tho fifth day was known as the * day of the tor jhe.s,* and ELEUSIS— ELF ARROW-HEADS. K-as thought to s}'mbolize the wanderings of Ceres m quest of her daughter. On it the inystic, led by the 'daduchus/ the torch-bcu-er, \\ix\kG<\ two by two to the temple of the godi night, and were initiated in the last mys- teries!. Till this stage of the i)roceedings, they had berm only vii/dce ; but on the night of the sixth day thoy weie admitted into the innermost sanctuary of the temple, and, from being allowed to behold the Bacred things, became entitled to be called ' epoptoe,' or ' ephori ; ' i. e., spectators, or conteviplators. They were once more purified, and repeated their original oath of secrecy with an imposing and awful cere- monial, somewhat resembling, it is believed, the forms of modern free-masonry. On the seventh day, the votaries returned to Athens with mirth and music, halting for a while on the bridge over the Cephisus, and exercising their wit and satire against the spectators. The eighth day was called Epidauria, and was believed to have been added to the original number of the days for the convenience of those who had been unable to attend the grand ceremonial of the sixth day. It was named in honour of ^sculapius, who arrived on one occasion from his native city of Epidaurus too late for the solemn rites, and the Athenians, unwilling to dis- appoint so distinguished a benefactor of mankind, added a supplementary day. On the ninth day took 2>la,ce the ceremony of the ' Plemochoaj,' ' in which two earthen vessels filled with wine were turned one towards the east, and the other towards the west. The attendant priests, uttering some mystic words, then upset both vessels, and the wine so spilt Avas offered as a libation. Initiation ii^to the Eleusinian mysteries was compulsory on every freeborn Athenian ; but slaves, prostitutes, and persons who had forfeited their citizenship were excluded from the rites. During the period of the festival, none of those taking part in it could be seized or arrested for any offence. Lycurgus, with a view to destroying distinctions of class, forbade any woman to ride to the Eleusinia in a chariot, under a penalty of 6000 drachmae. The mysteries were celebrated with the most scrupu- lous secrecy. No initiated person might reveal what he had seen under pain of death, and no unmitiated person could take part in the ceremonies under the same penalty. The priests were chosen from the sacred family of the Eumolpidse, whose ancestor, Eumolpus, had been the special favomnte of Ceres. The chief priest was called the ' Hiero- phant,' or ' Mystagogue ; ' next in rank to him was the Daduchus, or Torch-bearer ; after whom came the * Hiero-Ceryx,' or Sacred Herald, and the priest at the altar. Besides these leading ministers, there was a multitude of inferior priests and servants. ELEU'SIS, a celebrated town in ancient Attica, flood near the northern shore of the Gvdf of Salamis, and not far from the confines of Megaris. It was famous us the chief seat of the Avorship of Ceres, whose mystic rites were here performed with great pomp and solemnity from the earliest authentic times till the era of Alaric. See Eleusinian Mysteries. The temple of the goddess, designed by Ictinus, the architect of the Parthenon, was the largest sacred edifice in Greece. The site of the old Eleusis is now occupied by the little village of Lefsina or Lepsina, ELEU'THERA, one of the Bahamas (q. v.), is, next to New Providence, the most populous island in the whole chain. Including its independent cayo» or kcyx^ Elenfhera has a population of al)out 5500. It is more fertile than most of its neighbours, mere especially surpassing all of them in the growth of fruit, such as the pine- apple, the orange, and the lemon. ELEUTHE'RIA BARK, a name not unfre- quently given to the bark of the Croton Elev.theriay also known as Cascarilla Bark. See CASOAr-iLLA. It is called Eleutheria (or Eleuthera) Bark, because it is chiefly gathered on the island of Eleuthera. E'LEVATED. Wings turned upwards are described in heraldry as elevated. ELEVA'TION, in Architectural Drawing, is a representation of the flat side of a building, drawn with mathematical accuracy, but without the slightest attention to effect. In Art, ag.aiii, eleva- tion is a raising of the subject beyond its ordinary character in real life. A very good instance of elevation in this sense is given by Eairholt in his Dictionary of Terms in Art, in Rembrandt's 'Adoration of the Shepherds.' The whole of the objects and surroundings of the infant Saviour are of the most homely description ; and still the light which is represented as issuing from his person gives an elevation to the scene which takes off from it entirely the character of being commonplace or vulgar. ELEVATION, in Astronomy and Geography, means generally the height above the horizon of an object on the sphere, measured by the arc of a vertical circle through it and the zenith. Thus, the elevation of the equator is the arc of a meridian intercepted between the equator and the horizon of the place. The elevation of the pole is the com- plement of that of the equator, and is always ecpial to the latitude of the place. The elevation of a star, or any other point, is similarly its heighfe above the horizon, and is a maximum when the star is on the meridian. ELE'VENTH, in Music, is the interval of the octave above the fourth. ELF, a fairy, pi. ELVES. See Fairies. ELF -ARROW -HE ADS, ELFIN- ARROWS, ELF-BOLTS, ELF-DARTS, ELF-SHOT, and ELF-STONES, names popularly given in the British Islands to the arrow-heads of flint which were in use at an early period among the barbarous tribes of this country and of Europe generally, as they are still in use among the American Indians, the Esquimaux of the Arctic regions, and the inha- bitants of some of the islands in the Pacific Ocean. It was believed that elves or fairies, hovering in the air, shot these barbs of flint at cattle, and occasionally even at men. Thus, Robert Goi-don of Straloch, an accomplished coimtry gentleman of the noi'th of Scotland, writing in 1654, tells how one of his friends, tf^m^ Ml travelling on horseback, found an fm f^^^ elf-arrow-head in the top of his boot, and how a gentlewoman of w^^^m^^Bb his acquaintance, when out riding, y^^]^^^ ^^ discovered one in the breast of her V^^a^V*^^^^ habit. He remarks that, although Y -'f^^^^f they are got by chance in the fields and on the highways, one ^^^^ who goes to look for them on purpose will search in vain. He adds that they are most com- Elf-Axrow-neao, monly met with after showers — a circumstance which probably helped them in Germany to their names of ' thimder-bolts' and 'thunder-stones,' and is easily enough explaineCL The rain, by washing away the earth in which tbfcf ELGIN— ELGIN AND KINCARDINE. have bv-cn imbedded^ makes them more readily percepti.Jc to the eye, especially if the sunshine happens to fall upon them. Cattle dying suddenly in the fielda were believed to have been struck by elf -arrows — a belief which yet lingers in Ireland, and perhaps in some secluded parts of Scotland. 'Thus, when cattle are sick,' writes Mr W. R. Wilde, in his Catalotpie of the Antiquities in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy (Dub. 1857), ' and the cattle doctor, or fairy doctor, is sent for, he says the beast has been " elf-shot," or stricken hy fairy or elfin darts ; and he forthwith proceeds to feel the animal all over ; and, by some legerdemain, contrives to find, in its skin one or more poisonous w }a])ons, M^hich, with some coins, are then placed in ths water which is given it to drink ; and so a cure is aaid to be effected.' The elf- arrow-head was occa- Bionally set in silver, so as to be worn on the person as a talisman, or had a hole drilled through it, so that it might be dipped in water, which, being thus endowed with healing virtue, was used sometimes as a wash, more commonly as a draught. As a talisman, the elf-arrow-head, was believed to be most efficacious as a preservative from poison and witchcraft. The ascription of the flint arrow-head to the elves or fairies, is but one of several instances of the disposi- tion of a people to elevate or degrade the earlier races whom they vanquished or dispossessed into mythical beings, better or worse than mankind. Thus, in Greece and Italy, the remains of the rude Btrongholds built by the Pelasgi came to be regarded Bs works of the fabled Cyclops, or one-eyed giants. So also, in Scotland, the sei)ulcliral moimds of the Bboriginal inhabitants were called ' elf-hillocks ; ' and the vestiges of ancient ploughshares which may be traced on heaths and hill- tops were called 'elfin- furrows.' Examples of ' elf-arrow-heads ' may be Been in most museums of antiquities. They fall to be more particularly described in a following page, under the head of Flint Implements and Weapons. E'LGIN, a royal burgh, the county town of Elgin or Morayshire, and a station on the Inverness imd Aberdeen Junction Railway, situated on the right bank of the river Lossie, about five miles from the sea. Pop. (1871) 7339. E. joins with Banff, Peterhead, Inverurie, Cullen, and Kintore, hi returning a member to parliament. It was prob- ftbly a royal burgh so early as the reign of King David I. (1124 — 1153), and had its privileges con- firmed by several of his successors. Its trade is Qow almost wholly retail. E. has 12 yearly fairs, and a weeldy grain market. It has a parish church, which is collegiate, 2 Free Churches, 2 United Pres- byterian Churches, 1 Baptist Chm-ch, 1 Original Secession, 1 Independent, 1 Episcopal, and 1 Roman Catholic ; with 10 schools. Gray's Hospital for the wck poor, built and endowed from a bequest of er(ueathed by the late Major-general Anderson, H.E.I.C.S. — are the principal of many public and private charities. E. is chiefly remarkable for the DC-'iuty of its situation, lying placidly in a gentle curve of the Lossie, for the salubrity of its climate, and for its history as the see of the Bishop of Moray. Its appearance, about fifty years ago, was that of a little cathedral city with an antique fashion of building, and with 'a certain solemn drowsy air about the town and its inhabitants.' That appearance is fast giving way to that of a gay modern county town, siu-rounded by elegant villas. The old toM n was partially burned in 1390 by the notorioiis Wolf of Badenoch (Alexander Stewart» Earl of Buchan) ; in 1402, by Alexander, the son of the Lord of the Isles ; and in 1452, by the Earl of Huntl}'^ — this last calamity originating the provej b, ' Half done, as Elgin was burned.' Its once raag'ii- ficent cathedral church, partly of Early English and partly of Middle-pointed architecture, dedicated to the Holy Trinity, was begun by Bishop Andrew Moray in 1224, on the transference of the see from Spjnie ; was injured by fire in 1270 ; was nearly burned down by the Wolf of Badenoch in 1390; was restored under Bishops Bur, Spyny, Inncs, and Lcighton (1390 — 1424); and from subsequent acci- dent and dilapidation is now a mere ruin. Tho other religious buildings of the olden time Avere the chtirch of St Giles, a i')icturesque example of our old parish churches, replaced 1826—1828 by the modern less interesting structure ; the monastery of the Black Friars, long since demolished ; the convent of the Gray Friars, the walls of whose church remain ; the hospital of the Maison Dieu, on the site of which is Anderson's Institution ; the Leper House, still commemorated by the gromids called the Lej)er Lands ; and the chapel of St Mary of the Castle, which gave name to the Lady Hill and Lady Well on the west of the town. The castle itself, styled of old the Manor of Elgin, whose ruins, surmounted by an obelisk — erected to the memory of George, fifth and last Duke of Gordon — crown the Lady Hill, was a residence of the Earls of Moray, for some time superiors of the burgh under our Scottish kings. ELGIN AND KINCA'RDINE, Earl of, Governor-general of India. James Bruce, eighth Earl of E.,was born in Park Lane, London, in 1811. He was educated at his father's seat in Fifeshire, and afterwards went to Christ Church, Oxford, where he was first-class in classics, 1832 ; became Fellow of Merton, and graduated M.A. 1835. He entered public life in 1841, when, as Lord Brace, he was returned at the general election on the Conservative interest for Southampton. A peti- tion was presented against the return, and the election was declared void. Before, however, a new writ could issue. Lord Bruce had succeeded his father (who enriched the British Museum by the invaluable collection of sculpture known as the 'Elgin Marbles,' q.v.) as Earl of Elgin. Those who remember his early parliamentary and pre- colonial career, state that he gave early promise of oratorical distinction, and assert that if he had thrown himseK into the politics of the day, he woidd have taken a high position as a parHa- mentary debater. By succeeding to a Scotch peer- age, however, he was, in his own words, ' expelled from the Houfe of Commons without being admitted into the House of Peers.' Being offered the gover- norship of Jamaica, in March 1842, by the Earl of Derby — then Lord Stanley — he went to Jamaica, where he administered the affairs of the island with so much ability and success, that in August 1846, the Governor-generalship of Canada was tendered to him by Earl Grey, then Secretary of State for the Colonies in the administration of Lord J. Russell, Lord E., still finding himself in the same position as a Scottish peer, accepted the office, and went to Canada. His administration of the Government of Canada will ever be a bright spot in our colonial history, and a model to future governors of English dependencies. He found Canada governed by cliques, and torn by intestine feuds. With ad- mirable tact and entire success he inaugurated a system of self-government Avhich has rendered the pro\ ince% of British America a support to the British throne in place of being a source of Aveak- ness. Under his government, Canada made such ELGIN AND KTNCARDEm-ELGIN MAEBLES. gtridea in importance and prosperity, that between 1847 (in the beginning of which year he entered upon his government) and 1855, when he returned to England, the revenue of that great British possession quadrupled itseK. During his adminis- tration, he successfully negotiated a treaty for reci- procity of trade between British America and the United States, which admitted the whole produce of British North America to be brought into competi- tion with the products of the United States in their own markets. This treaty likewise put an end to fche risk of collision on the subject of the fisheries between this country and America, which Lord E. has described as the most serious risk which had presented itself during the whole time he had been a public sen^ant. His popularity was great, not only in Canada but the adjacent states, the citizens of which offered him ovations. He was now a peer of the United Kingdom (having been Bummoned to the House of Lords in 1849), and was appointed lord lieutenant of Fifeshire. In 1857, the affair of the lorcha Arrow, and the bombard- ment of Canton by Sir John Bowring, led Lord Pahnerston to invite Lord E. to go to China as Plenipotentiary Extraordinary. An army was ecpiipped to carry out the policy prescribed by the British government, and he started on his mission. But before he could approach his destination, and when ' h** had barely left England a month, the Indian mutiny broke out. Lord E. did not hesitate R moment in preferring the safety of India to the success of his Chinese negotiations. He despatched the Chinese expedition to Lord Canning's assistance, and tKe English in India were thus enabled to hold their groimd until further reinforcements arrived. After thus consigning himself to an inaction of B£!veral months. Lord E. proceeded to China, and in 1858, in conjurction with Baron Gros, the French plcpipotentiai'/- he negotiated the treaty of Tien- tsin, which piomised to give Great Britain a freer a(;cess to China lhan she had ever enjoyed before. He found time, before his return, to negotiate a ti-eaty with Japan, under which English manufac- tur'^s are admitted at low rates of duty, and a British minister is permitted to reside at Jeddo. On his return home, he was appointed Postmaster-general. He had scai'cely time to become acquainted with his duties, before the treachery of the Chinese, in firing upon the British squadron from the Taku forts, led to the organisation of another Chinese expedition, and to Lord E.'s second mission to China. A combined English and French force penetrated to the capital, and enabled Lord E. and Baron Gros to dictate a peace under the walls of Pekin. On the expiration of Viscoimt Canning's term of service, the governor-generalship of India Was offered by Lord Palmerston to Lord E. (1861), find accepted by him. Lord E. (who Avas the repre- sentative in the main line of the great Scottish House of Bruce) was twice married : in 1841, to the daughter of Mr. Gumming Bruce, M. P. (she died in 1843), and in 1846, to the daughter of the first Earl of Durham, by whom he had a son, Victor Alexander Lord Bruce, born at Montreal, 1849, and other issue. Lord E. was K. T. (1847), privy councillor (1857), G. C. B. (civil, extra), 1858. He died in 1863. ELGIN MARBLES, a celebrated collection of ancient sculptures, brought from Greece by Thomas, Beventh Earl of Elgin, and acquired from him by the nation for the Biitish Museum in 1816, at the eum of £35,000. These sculptures adorned certain buildings on the Acropolis of Athens ; the chief portions, which are from the Parthenon or I'eniple of Minerva, were designed by Phidias, and executed by him, or imder ilia superintenderce. The^ consist of — 1. Portions of several of the statues that were placed in the east and west tympana or pediments, the most important of which are the Theseus or Hercules, Ilissus or river-god, upper portions of the torsos of Neptune and Minerva, Iris, torso of Cecrops, Ceres, and Proserpine, the Fates, heads of the horses of Hyperion, and one of the horses of Night. Of all these, the Theseus, and the head of the horse of Night, are the most perfect, the former wanting only the hands and feet and part of the nose, while even the surface of the latter is very little injured. But however mutilated, the gi'eatness in style of these magnificent works is clearly manifest, and from the merest fragment valuable instruction in art may be obtained. 2. Fifteen metopes, executed in high relief, representing the battle of the Centaurs and LapithjB. A metope is the interval between ihe triglyphs on a Doric frieze — in the Parthenon, there were ninety-two, fourteen on each front, and thu-ty- two on. each flank of the temple — and on every Metope : From the Parthenon. metope, a Centaur engaged in conflict with one ^ the Lapithje is represented in a style of tlio highest excellence in point of spirit and tnithfulnesa. 3. A large portion of the frieze of the outer walla of the cella. This remarkable work represents the solemn procession to the Temple of ^Minerva during the Panathenaic festival, and has never been equalled for elegance of composition and the variety and gracefulness of the figures. It is executed in low relief, in order to adapt it to the light, for placed within the colonn£;de, it received its light between the columns, and by reflection, from the pavement below. This exquisite frieze occupied, ELGINSHIEE— ELIJAH. Blab after slab, a space of 524 feet in length. Tbe reiLaius of it in the British Museum on slabs and fragments of marble are to the extent of upwards of ^49 feet, besides 76 feet in plaster casts, Althongli the Elgin Marbles are now acknow- ledged to be the most precious collection existing of specimens of Greek art in its purest state, yet it was only after very consideral)le hesitation* that government consented to purchase them, and then the sum awarded was not only far shoi-t of anj^thing like a fair value, if indeed a value could be put on such treasures, but Lord Elgin was left largely out of pocket after all his exertions. Again, from petty jealousy, some of the connoisseurs of the day, who had earned a sort of reputation from their collec- tions—of whom MrPajnie Knight may stand for the fcype — made strong efforts to underrate these great works ; while others, like Lord Byron, from feehngs apparently generous, but quite mistaken, because not based on fact, heaped obloquy on Lord Elgin, and opposed their acquisition. But it has been clearly proved that Lord Elgin, so far from destroy- ing, has saved these master-pieces from destruction. It was not to be expected but that foreigners would grudge this countiy such an acquisition, but cer- tainly it is remarkable that such opinions shoidd have been expressed in this country. The view adopted by a foreigner, wdio has devoted much attention to the subject, M. Viardot, author of Les Musees d^Eurojie, may be accepted as that generally taken abroad ; and it is very different from that at one time so pertinaciously maintained by many in this country. INI. Viardot remarks : 'It is said that, to justify the appropriation of the Lahore diamond, the English allege that if they bave taken it, it was merely to prevent its appro- priation by others. They may give the same excuse for their ap])ropriation of the marbles of the Par- thenon. No doubt. Lord Elgin has carried them off; and the Greeks of the present day, seeing the old temple of their Acropolis despoiled of all its orna- licnts, have a good right to curse the spoiler. But TPhen we think of the devastation these works have fio often experienced, to the total destruction of the principal statues, and the shameful mutilation of the others, and the risk these last ran of being entirely destroyed in their turn — when we consider that these precious relics of art are conserved in a place of surety, and placed in the centre of artistic Europe, one loses the desire, and almost the right to charge the Englieh with piracy and robbery. For niy part, if, in the course of my long devotion to the marbles of Phidias, a regret has come to trouble the ardent T)leasure of my admiration, it was, that 10 the robber of these marbles was not a Frenchman, and their resting-place the Museum of Paris.' — T'^t.s- conti on the SculjJ tares in the Collection of the Earl of Elgin (John Murray, London, 1816), XiZ>ra?-y of JSntcrtaining Knowledge — British Museum (London, Charles Knight). E'LGINSHIRE, MO'RAYSHIRE, or MURRAYSIIIRE, a maritime county in the north- east of Scotland, on the Moray Firth. It contains 531 square miles, and is 30 miles long and 20 milea broad, while above a tliird part is cut off on the south by a detached part of Inverness-shire. In th« south are the high and rugged Monadhliadh Moun- tains of Inverness-shire, dividing the basins of the Spey and Findhorn, and forking in the north to include the basin of the Lossie. The Lussie, 25 miles long, is the only stream entirely included in the coiuity, but the rajnd Spey and Findhorn, the latter noted for its fine scenery, skirt its east and west sides respectively. In the south, gneiss pre- dominates with a little granite; and in the north, sandstone wdth fish and reptilian remains, and small patches of oolitic and wealden strata. West of the Findhorn mouth are the sand-dunes of Culbin, three square miles in extent, some of them rising 118 feet. Great masses of peat and trunks of trees are often cast ashore near the mouth of the Findhorn. The climate is mild and dry, and the county has been called the Devonshii-e of Scot- land, the mountains of Aberdeenshire and Banff- shire protecting it from the cold moist winds of the German Ocean. The soil is open, sandy, and gravelly, and very fertile in the north, with some deep loams and clays. In 1873, a third of the county was in crop, the chief crops being oats, wlieat, and turnips. E. was anciently reckoned the gra^ nary of Scotland. Pop. (1871) 43,5*98 ; (1851) 38,959, chiefly agriculturists. The ciiief exports are grain, cattle, salmon, and timbei*. There are some manufac- tures of woollens and malt liquors. E. unites with Nairnshire in sending one member to parliament. It contains 22 parishes, and portions of parishes. In 1871, 84'87 per cent, of children, from 5 to 13 yeai-s, were receiving education. The total valuation of E. was for 1873 — 1874, £204,556. The parish schools enjoy the Dick Bequest. The chief towTis are Elgin and Forres. The ancient province of Moray included the counties of Elgin and Nairn, and parts of those of Inverness and Banff. Scandinavians early settled m it. About 1160, Malcolm IV. subdued it. The chief antiquities are Elgdn Cathedral, Spynie Castle, Duffus Castle, Pluscarden Abbey, Kinloss i^bbey, and the Norman parish church of Birnie. Burg- head, on the coast, is supposed by many to have been a Roman station, but its ramparts and ditches, now almost destroyed, were probably of more recent origin. It was the last stronghold of the Norsemen in this part of Scotland. E. was overrun in the civil wars of Montrose, 1645, &c. ELI'AS, St, a lofty mountain which occupies a conspicuous position on the north-west coast oi America, in lat. 60° 18' N., and in long. 140° 30' W. It rises about 17,860 feet, or almost 3^ miles above the sea, being visible to mariners at a distance of 50 leagues. Physically, it marks pretty nearly the point where the shore, after trending in a north- west direction, turns due west, and politically it divides itself between the territories of Prussia and Great Britain. ELI'JAH (in the Greek form, occurring in the New Testament, Elias), the greatest of the prophets of Israel, was born at Tishbe, in Gilead, on the borders of the desert. He comes upon the seen*, ia the time of Ahab, about 920 B. c. When t^at monarch, to please his Phoenician wife Jezebel, tiad Portion of Panathenaic Frieze. ELIMINATION— ELISHJ\» introduced, on an extensive scale, the worship of Baal, E. pronounced a curse on the land. The prophet liad to flee. He took refuge by the brook Clierith, probably one of the torrents that cleave the high table-land of his native region. Here he was nm-aculously fed by ravens. He then Avcnt to Zarepheth, a town lying between Tyre and Sidon. Here he lodged with a widow woman, prolonged ,her oil and meal, and brought back her son to health from the brink of the grave. Subsequently he made a tem})orary reconciliation with Ahab, and on Mount Carmel executed dreadfid venge- ance on the prophets of Baal, slaying 400 with his own hand. Such a deed enraged Jezebel to the utmost. She swore to destroy the prophet, who once more took refuge in flight. He rested not till he reached Beersheba in the far south, on the edge of the desert that leads down to Sinai. The brief allusion in Scripture to his weary wanderings is veiy touching. At last he comes to Horeb, where he has an interview with Jehovah. The passage in which this is recorded is one of the grandest and most significant in the whole of the Old Testament. He then receives certain instructions from Jehovah, among others that he shoidd select Elisha to be prophet in his room. E.'s next ajipearance is when Ahab rides forth to take possession of Naboth's vineyard : he denounces the murderous monarch, and utters an awfid proi)hetic curse on him and his wife. After the death of Ahab, he rebukes the idolatries of his son Ahaziah in a solemn and bloody fashion; and after the death of Ahaziah, we find him inter- fering in the affairs of tlie king of Judah, who had married a daughter of Ahab, and had begun to ' walk in the ways of the kings of Israel.' He denounced his evil doings, and inedicted his death. The closing scene of his life on earth is exquisitely narrated. A chariot of fire and horses of fire appeared after Elisha and he had crossed the Jordan, and * Elijah went up by a whirlwind into heaven.' His political and religious aims were carried out by his disciple and successor, Elisha. ELIMINA'TION is a process by which, where we have a number of statements concerning several quantities, we can obtain a separate statement con- cerning each. Thus, in Algebra, elimination is the operation which consists in getting rid of a quan- tity or letter which is common, say, to two equa- tions, by forming out of the two a new equation, in Buch a way as to make the quantity in question dis- appear. If three unknown quantities, for instance, are to be found from three independent equations, the first step is to form out of the three given equa- tions two new equations, so as to eliminate one of the unknown qiiantities ; from these two equations another of the quantities is eliminated in the same way, giving one equation with one unknown q\iantity, the value of which is then found. In complicated equations, elimination becomes difficidt, and often impossible. Elimination is an important process in other sorts of reasoning besides the mathematical ; in this larger acceptation, it means the setting aside ot all extraneous considerations — of everything not eaeential to the result. In astronomical observa- tions, the elimination of errors of observation is often efiected by repeating the observations several times in such a way as to cause the errors to be of opposite kinds, then adding the observed values, and taking their averag-j. — The word to 'eliminate,! is often erroneously usid in the sense of to ' elicit,' or bring to light. E'LIS, one of the ancient divisions of the Pelopon- nesus, bounded N. and N.-E. by Achaia, E. and S. by Aicadia, and W by the Ionian Sea. It was originally divided into thi\.e districts— Ccele of Hollow Elis, Pisatis, and Triphylia. Of these, the first-named was by far the largest and most valual^le, comprising as it did the broad and fei-tile plains watered by the Peneus and the Ladon, and in oduc- ing excellent crops of corn, cotton, and flax ; while the pastures by the river-];anks leared cattle and horses of proverbial excellence. This disti ict, from its fertility, was called 'the milk-cow of the Morea. Pisatis is drained by the Alpheus, and is sejiarated from Coele Elis by Mount Pholoe, a spur of Eryn.an- thus. The low grounds of this division possess great natural fertility. Most of the surface of Trijthylia is hilly, being occupied with offshoots from the great Arcadian ranges. It is separated from Pisatis by the Alpheus, on whose banks were the grove and temple of 01ymj)ic Jove, and the plain in which the great Olympic games were celebrated. Though E. had few facilities for preventing invasion, it yet suffered less from war than any other of the Greek states — an advantage chiefly due to the sacred character of the country, as the seat of the greatest of the national festivals. Their prerogative of hold- ing the Olympic gamea gave the Eleans a prestige w^hich they continued to enjoy in greater or less degree till the games themselves were sui)])ressed by the Emperor Theodosius in 394 a. d. — Elis, now Kaloscopi, the ca2)ital of the foregoing country, stood on the Peneus, and was long famous as one of the most splendid and po})ulous cities of Greece. It was at one time strongly fortified, and contained many magnificent buildings, conspicuous among which was the Gymnasium, in which it was necessary that aU athletes intending to take part in the Olym- pic games should go through a month's training before they were allowed to comj^ete. See Leake's Mo7'ea, and Curtius's Peloponnesus. ELI'SHA, a prophet of Israel, the successor of Elijah, who found him at the plough, and consecrated him to the sacred office by throwing his mantle ovei his shoulders. He exercised his functions for a period of 55 years. When Elijah was carried up into heaven, E. returned to Jericho, where he dwelt for some time. He then proceeded to Bethel, where the perplexing miracle occurred of the destruction of the 42 children by the two she-bears. After this period, he seems, besides performing an extra- ordinary number of miracles, to have taken an active part in the religious politics of his country, but he exhibited nothing of the fiery and san- guinary zeal of his master. Mild, tolerant, con- ciliatory, we hardly ever, if at all, find him rebuking the Baal-worship that was still j)revalent in IsraeL Many of the incidents in his history recall the creations of eastern fancy, such, for example, as those of the horses and chariots of fire round about E. on the hillside, of the smiting of the Syi-ian host with blindness, so that the prophet led them all unconsciously into Samaria, captive, &c. With Elijah, it has been said (see Smith's Dictionary oj the Bible: Art. 'Elisha'), the miracles are 'intro- duced as means towards great ends, and are kept in the most complete subordination thereto. But with E., as he is pictured in the Hebrew narra- tive, the case is completely reversed ; with him, the miracles are evcrj-thing, the prophet's work nothing. The man v ho was for years the intimate companion of Elijah, on whom Elijah's mantle descended, and who was gifted with a double por- tion of his spirit, appears in the Old Testament chiefly as a worker of prodigies, a predicter of future events, a revealer of secrets, and things hai)pening out of sight or at a distance.' The difticultles that thus beset the literal acceptance of the narrative of E.'s miracles have been felt by most modern commentators, and to evade these U ELIXIE— ELIZABETH. difficulties various methods, more or less satisfactory, have been employed. For several years E. was the chief theocratical counsellor of Jehoram. Under the reign of Jehu and his successors, he gradually with- drew from public affairs, and died in Samaria in the reign of Jehoash, grandson of Jehu (about 840 B, c,). It has been customary to draw a parallel l)etween E. and Christ ; and his mildness and gentleness — always excepting the story of the destruction of the children at Bethel, Avhich has perplexed all humane readers of Scripture — seem to justify this. E. is canonized in the Greek Church ; his day is the 14th of June. ELI'XIR (Lat. elixare^ to extract by boiling), a term in pharmacy which has come do\\Ti from the days of alchemy, and is applied to various prepara- tions, consisting mostly of solutions of aromatic and bitter vegetable substances in spirits of wine. The term tincture is now more common. Elixir OF Vitriol, or Aromatic Sulphuric Acid, is pre- pared from 14 fluid ounces of sulijlmric acid (oil of vitriol), 10 fluid ounces of rectified spirit, 4 oz. cinnamon in powder, 1 oz. ginger in powder. The acid is gradually added to the spirit, and the mixture being placed in a closed vessel, is allowed to digest at a gentle heat for three days ; the cinnamon and ginger are then added, and after bness and sobriety &£ manner, discoursing with hei elders with aU 12 the gravity of advanced years. Edward used to speak of her as his 'sweet sister Temperance.' During her sister's reign, this demureness was exaggerated into prudery, and the vanity which, in after-years, with ampler means at its command, displayed itself in the utmost profusion of personal decoration, then sought for distinction by excess of plainness. Her Protestantism, and the way in which court was paid to her by the Protestant nobility, caused uneasiness to Mary and her coimciL On her sister's command, she conformed to paptKsy, but the insincerity of the conformity imposed apoB no one. Upon the pretext of having been, con« cerned in Wyatt's rebellion, she was sent in 1554 to the Tower. She entered it with all the gloomy forebodings which the fate of so many royal ladies who had been recently within 7ts walls, could suggest. In daily fear for her Jde, many months passed. Indeed, the warrant for her execution was at one time prepared ; and it is unquestionable that the stern bigotry of Mary and her councilloi's, Gardiner and Bonner, would have sacrificed E., but for the fear of popular commotion. The people, however, regarded E. with great favour, and many already looked forward to the time when the death of Mary should free the court from foreign influence, and give room for a milder government. Thus the life of, E. was saved, but for some time longer she was kept a prisoner at Woodstock. During the remainder of Mary's reign, E, though occasionally at court, resided chiefly at her resi- dence of Hatfield House, in Hertfordshire, where she occupied herself with feminine amusements, and the study of classical literature, under tho learned Roger Ascham. When Mary died (17th November 1558), E. was twenty-five years of age. Her accession was welcomed alike by Catholic and Protestant. The former were, outwardly at least, the majority in Mary's reign ; but among thera there were few who really cared for the peculiar doctrines of the Roman Church, and there were many who were weary of priestly interference, foreign dictation, and cruel persecution. Like E. herself, there were many who had conformed merely to save themselves from trouble. They had obeyed the Six Articles in Henry's time ; had agreed to the Protestant settlement of Edward ; had turned with Queen Mary, and were now ready to tiu-n again with Queen Elizabeth. The Protestants, of course, who had never believed the sincerity of E.'s conformity, welcomed her to the throne. E. then began, amidst dangers and difficulties, a reign which, contrary to the expectation of all, was of unexampled length and prosperity. It would be wrong not to attribute to her influence some effect in producing the great changes which, during the next fortj^-four years, took place in England ; but so far as these changes were not produced in the natural course of the development of the nation's powers, and so far aa they bear the mark of an individual mind, they bear much more the impress of the bold yet cai tioiia judgment and clear intellect of the great minister, Cecil, than of the sovereign's will. It is to the highest praise of E. that her first act on succeeding was to consult with such a man, and that to the very last she could bend her capricious temper to his control. How the government influence was to be directed, was not long in being shewn. Till parliament should meet, E. issued a proclamation that the English language should be used in the greater part of the church service, and that the Host should not be elevated by the priest during mass. This sufH- ciently indicated into what hands power had passed, and was enouah to throw the mass of the indiflerent ELIZABETH. to the side of the Protestants, and to cause a Protest- ant majority to be returned to E.'s first parlia- ment. The acts of this parliament must be ever memorable in our history. It was then that Eng- land took its position as a Protestant i)Ower. The Book of Common Prayer, retaining, doubtless, some mixture of medieval thought, but still vivid with new energy, Avas appointed to be used in all churches ; the Thirty- nine Articles were settled as the national faith ; the queen was declared to be head of the church. Thus all allegiance to Pvome was thrown off. This revolution was soon accom- plished, and with little turmoil. The bishops, with one exception, refused to conform ; but as a sign of the times, marking how thorougldy the priesthood must have become demoralised before their pow'er was lost, it is noteworthy that of the 9000 clergy- men who held livings in England, there were fewer than 200 who resigned, rather than obey the new order of things. The pohcy of E.'s ministers was one of peace and economy. They foimd the nation at war with France and Scotland, and one of their first acts was to secure peace upon favourable terms. Ever prepared to take effectual measures to remove a life which might be turned into so dangerous a tool in the hands of Catholics. E. shrank from that course, but had not the courage and generosity to set Queen Mary at liberty. Had this course been taken, Mary woiJd have gone to France or Spain, would have made a foreign marriage, and as a foreigner woidd have lost the only sources of her real power — the sympathies of the Scotch and English Catholics. As it was, E. retained her a prisoner, and thus for years gave cause to conspiracy after conspiracy among the English Cathohcs. For a rebellion incited to set Mary free, the richest and most popular of the English nobility, Norfolk, was executed. The discovery of every new plot led to demands, on the part of parhament, for the execu- tion of Mary. The plots then took a graver aspect. The assassination of E., and the placing of Mary on her throne, became the object. On the dis- covery of Babington's conspiracy for this purpose, the popular cry was irresistible, and was joined in by Cecil and Walsingham, and others of E.'s ministers, who had sinned too deeply against Mary to run the risk of her succession to the throne. With reluctance and hesitation, the sincerity of which need not be questioned, E. consented ; and Mary, after long years of confinement, was con- denmod and executed. afterwards, they followed the same path. No war was undertaken in her reign for the sake of terri^ torial conquest. To strengthen her own throne, E. secretly succoured the Protestants in Scotland, in France, and in the Low Coimtries ; but she had few open wars. To be at peace with a government, nay, ajiparently to be ui)on the most amicable of terms with it (as E. was with the French court, while she sent assistance to the Huguenots at Ilochelle), and at the sanfe time to aid its rebellious subjects, waa in those days thought only part of the politio dissimulation without which, it was believed, no nation could be safely r^lled. To maintain the security of her own throne, and to prevent foreign interference in English matters, Avas the main- spring of E.'s foreign policy ; and she lost no oppor- tunity of weakening and finding occupation abroad for any foreign power that unduly threatened her authority. The one great blimder of England's policy waa the treatment of Mary Queen of Scots. Had E. pursued a straightforward course, when her rival was thrown mto her hands, much evil might have been spared. Some of the English ministers were This led to new evils. The participation of tna Catholic party in the plots was retaliated by perse« cution. Many suffered under an act passed in 1585, making it treason for a Catholic priest to be in England, and felony to harbour one. These cruel measures were the idtimate means of bringing upon England the most menacing foreign attack which she had suffered. Philip of Spain had long meditated vengeance against England. The greatest state 'u Europe, enriched by splendid acqiusitions in the New World, could ill brook that a power of the second rank should incite rebellion among her subjects in the Netherlands, should aid the Protestants in their desperate struggle against Alva, and allow its shipa (little better than pirates, it must be confessed) to enter the Spanish harbours, and cut out the rich laden galloons. These were the real reasons : to restore the Catholic faith, and to revenge the death of a CathoHc queen, furnished ostensible reasons. Years had been spent in preparation. In 1588, the * Invincible Armada' sailed from the Tagus, manned by 8000 sailors, and carrying 20,000 solcliers. To aid these, a land-army of 100,000 men was to be transported from the Netherlands imder the Duke of Parma. The news roused all England, and every man who could carry arms — Protestant and Catholio from 18 years of age to 60 — was enrolled in the forces. The old queen herself rode at Tilbury, 13 Fac-simile of Queen Elizabeth's Signature. ELIZABETH. energetically encouraging the army. A fleet of 200 vessels and 15,000 seamen gathered itself on the southern coasts, and waited the attack. Supe- rior skill and courage gained the victory for the English ; and what these had begun, the force of the elements completed. The splendid Armada was broken and destroyed before it could join the land- army, not a soldier of which ever "left foreign ground ; while not a seaman of the fieetg^ave those whom shipwrecks sent, ever set foot Zn En-lish groimd. E. died on 24th March 1G03, having lived nearly 70, and reigned nearly 45 years. If the life of her rival, Mary of Scotland, read somewhat like a tragedy, tlie private life of E. might afford abundant materials for comedy. Always parading her wish to live an unmarried life, E. coquetted with suitor after suitor till long after that period of life when Buch pro[)osals verge upon the ridiculous. Of her father's schemes to marry her to the Scotch Earl of Arran or to Philij) the son of Charles V. — afterwards husband of Mary — it is unnecessary to speak, for E. had personally little to say in regard to them. But phe was scarcely more than a child when her flirta- tions with the handsome Lord Admiral Seymour — the brother of the Protector Somerset — had passed the bounds of decorum. In Mary's reign, E. wag flattered with the attentions of her kinsman, the Earl of Courtenay, and she declined the hand of Phili- bert of Savoy, pressed on her by her sister's council. When queen, with some hesitation she refused the ofi'er of Philip IL, who was desirous of perpetuating his influence over England, and she began that connection with Leicester, which so seriously com- promised her character. It is certain that she loaded him with honours as soon as she had them to bestow ; allowed him to become a suitor for her hand within a few days after the sudden death of his wife. Amy Kobsart, attributed by all England to his agency ; and allowed him to remain a suitor long after his open profligacy had disgusted the nation, and had even opened her own eyes to his worthlessness. If we credit the scandal of the times, the intimacy was of the most discreditable kind. If we credit those sources of information, recently turned to more profit by Mr Fronde than by any of his predecessors, which are found in the dispatches of the Bishop of Aquila, ambassador of Philip II. in London, preserved in the archives of Simancas, not only was the moral character of E. Bullied with the darkest crime?, but even the quality for which she has ever been most honoured, her English patriotism, was mere affectation. These dispatches represent her as accessory — at least, after the fact — to the miu'der of Amy Eobsart, and as offering to Spain to become a Catholic, and to restore the Spanish ascendency in England, if Philip would support her on the throne as the wife of Leicester ; and they represent her as being restrained from giving way to the fatal consequences of her wild passion ordy by Cecil's control. That there is some oasis of truth in this revelation, it is scarcely possible to deny ; but the hatred with which Philip regarded E., after her refusal to marry him, has undoubtedly led the courtly bishop to gross exaggerations. It is undeniable, however, that had E. followed her own inclinations, she woidd have married Leicester. Her ministers, wisely for the nation, prevented this, but E. never seriously enter- tained another proposal. Cecil could prevent her marrying whom he would not, but he coidd not force her to marry whom he would. Among less distinguished suitors, the Archduke Charles of Vienna, and Prince Eric of Sweden, pressed their Buit in vain. Petitions from parliament to the Qncen to marry only excite I her maidenlv Avrath 14 and produced dignified replies that she would attend to the matter when the time came. Years passed on, and she remained a spinster. Catharine of Medici, queen-mother of France, intrigued to marry her to one of her sons, Henry of Anjou (afterwards Henry III.), or the Duke of Alcn90n, afterwards Duke of Anjou. When the foreign envoys pressed the suit of the latter, E. waa 38 years of age, and her suitor 19 ; but they ingeniously flattered her that she and he looked of the same age, for she, by her good preservation, looked nine years younger than she was ; while the duke, by his wisdom, gravity, and mature intellect, looked nine years older. This flattery, with more plausible attractions, was without effect. E.'s position gave too much scope for the develop, ment of the unamiable and ridiculous features of her character. The personal vanity displayed in her extravagant dress, her conversation, her 'high and disposed ' dancing, excites a smile, not lessened when we read of the irritable mistress boxing the ears of her councillors, cuffing her attendants, indulging in expressive masculine oaths, and amxising herself with rough masculine sports. The assertion that she was of a cruel disposition is false. That she could do cruel things when her vanity waa concerned is sufficiently attested by her ordering the right hand of a barrister, named Stubbes, to be struck off for writing a remonstrance against her marriage with the Duke of Alenyon, which she thought unduly reflected on herself ; but in her reign, the reckless waste of human life which marked the reigns of her predecessors was unknown. She was not, however, of fine feelings. Her brother coidd compliment her on the calm mind and elegant sentences with which she replied to the commmii- cation of the death of her father. On the news of her sister's death, she burst out with rhapsodical quotations from the Psalms ; and when she heard of the execution of her lover Seymour, she turned away the subject with something like a jest. By her attendants, she was more feared than loved. The one quality which never failed her, was j^er- sonal courage ; and when she chose, her demeanour was stately and royal. Religion was with her, as with a great proportion of the nation at that time, a matter more of policy and convenience than of feeling or principle. She preferred Pro- testantism, from early associations, because it gave her the headship of the church, freed her from foreign interference, and was more acceptable to her ministers and to the nation. But she had conformed in Mary's time to Catholicism with little difficidty ; and, had there been necessity for it, she would rather have reigned a Catholic than not have reigned at all. To the last, she retained in her private chapel much of the ritualism of the Roman Church ; and while refusing her Catholic sxibjects" the exercise of their religion, she entertained the addresses of Catholic suitors. How thoroughly incapable she was of apj)reciating a matter of religious principle may be gathered from the fact, that she looked upon the great Puritan movement, destined soon afterwards to play so important a part in the nation's development, as some frivolous controversy about the shape of clerical vestments. Of toleration, then well enough underetood by Bacon and the more advanced spu'its of the age, she had no concej^tion. What makes the name of E. so famous, was the splendour of her times. In her long reign, the true greatness of England began. Freed frona the possession of those French provinces which rather harassed than enriched — ^vith little domestic commotion — with no great foreign wars — vnth an almost complete immunity from religious persecution. ELIZABETH the nation turned to the arts of peace. An unequalled literature arose. The age that i)roduced Speuser, Shakspeare, and Bacon, could not be other than famous. Under Frobisher and Drake, maritime adventure began, and the foundations of our naval force were laid. Commerce, from being a small matter in the hands of a few foreign merchants, developed itself largely. The Exchange of London was opened in E.'s time; and in the charter which she granted to that Company of Merchant Adventurers, which afterwards took the name of the East India Company, may be seen one of the small beginnings of our vast colonial empire. The social condition of the people alfo greatly improved in her reign. The crowds of vagabonds which the monastic institutions Lad fostered, and who had pillaged the country in all ways on the secularisation of the monastic i)roperty, died out, or were absorbed in industrious om})loy- ments. The last traces of bondage disappeared. Simultaneously with the growth of greater comfort and intelligence in the people, parliament began to assert, with greater vigour, its constitutional rights. The right of the Commons to free speech, and to Queen Elizabeth's Tomb : In the North Aisle of Henry Vli.'s Chapel, Westminster Abbey. initiate all money bills was steadily asserted ; and ! the right of tiie Crown to grant monopolies, or to issue ])roclamations having the force of law, vigor- ously assailed. In the later years of her reign, the attf^mpts of E. to gain arbitrary power, and her caprices, had forfeited the popularity which she EO anxiously cultivated. But after her death, her fame revived ; and during the time of the Stuarts, amid the jealousy of the Scotch, the trouliles of the civil wars, and the hatred of a Catholic sove- reign, the nation looked back with fond regard to the long reign of the ' Good Queen Bess,' when reace had prevailed, and the government had been thoroughly English. ELIZABETH, St, daughter of Andreas II., king of Hungary, was bom at Presburg in 1207. At the ago of four, she was affianced to the Landgraf of Tlmringia, Louis IV,, called the Pious, and brought tu his court to be educ ated under the eyes of the parents of her future husband. She early displayed what may be called a passion for the severities of the Christian life, as it was conceived in those days. She despised pomp, avarice, ambition; cidtivated humility, and exhibited the most self -den jnng bene- volence. Her conduct, even as a gii-1, astonished the Thuringian court ; but such was the grace and sweetness of her disposition, and the excellence of her beauty, that Louis — though her affections seemed to be given wholly to God — still wished to marry her. They were united when E. was only 14. Louis himself, far from blaming the devout girl whom he had made his wife for her long prayers and cease- less almsgiving, was himself partially attracted to a similar mode of life. A boy and two girls were the fruit of their union ; but the happiness of E., in so far as it depended on anything earthly, was shattered by the death of her husband in 1227, when absent on the crusade headed by Barbarossa. Her confessor 15 ELIZABETH PETKOVNA— ELIZABETH STUAIIT. Conrad of Marburg, a narrow fanatical monk (to whose miserable teaching E. mainly owed her perverted idea of life and duty), had trained her to stifle the emotions of her nature as sinful, and the poor widow hardly dared to bewail her loss. Great misfortunes soon befell her. She was deprived of her regency by the brother of her deceased husband, and driven out of her dominions on the plea that she wasted the treasures of the state by ner charities. The inhabitants of Marburg, whose miseries she had frequently relieved, refused her an asylum, for fear of the new regent. At last she found refuge in a church, where her first duty was to thank God that he had judged her worthy to Ruflfer. Subsequently, after other severe privations, such as being forced to take up her abode in the stable of a hostelry, she was received into the monastery of Kitzingen by the abljess, who was her aunt. When the warriors who had attended her husband in the crusade returned from the East, she gathered them round her, and recounted her suffer- ings. Steps were taken to restore to the unfor- tunate princess her sovereign rights. She dechned the regency, however, and would only accej^t the revenues which accrued to her as landgravine. The remainder of her days were devoted to incessant devotions, almsgivings, mortifications, &c. There is something mournfidly subhme in her unnatural self-sacrifice. We shudder even in our S3nnpathy when we read of this beautiful ten'ler-hearted crea- tm-e washing the head and the feet of the scrofulous and the leprous. Murillo has a painting (now in the Museum at Madrid) of this act of evangelical devotion. The solemn tragedy of her brief life assumed towards its close a ghastly intensity through the conduct of her confessor, Conrad, who, under pretence of spiritual chastisement, used to strike and maltreat her -with brutal severity. The alleged cause of this was Conrad's aversion to her squandering ' her money among the poor. Perhaps he thought it should have gone to Jiim. At last her health gave way; and on the 19th November 1231, at the age of 24, E. died, the victim partly of ill- usage and partly of a mistaken theory of religious life, but as gentle and saintly a soul as figures in the history of the middle ages. She was canonised four years after her death. See Montalembert's Histoire de Sainte Elisabeth de Hongr'ie (Paris, 1836). The Eev. Charles Kingsley's dramatic poem, entitled The Sainfs Tragedy (London, 1848), is founded on the story of E.'s life. ELIZABETH PETRO'VNA, Empress of Russia, daughter of Peter the Great and Catharine I., was bom in the year 1709. On the death of Peter II. in 1730, she allowed Anna, Duchess of Courland, to ascend the throne, she herself being apparently indifferent to anything but the indidgence of her Eassions. Anna died in 1740, and Ivan, the son of er niece (also called Anna), an infant of two months, was declared emperor, and his mother regent during his minority. Shortly after this, a plot was formed to place K upon the throne ; the two principal agents in it were Lestocq, a surgeon, and the Marquis de la Chetardie, the French ambassador. The officers of the army were soon won over; and on the night of the 5th December 1741, the regent and her husband were taken into custody, and the child Ivan conveyed to Schlussel- bu_rg. The leading adherents of Anna were con- demned to death, but pardoned on the scaffold, and exiled to Siberia. By eight o'clock in the morning, the revolution was completed, and in the afternoon all the troops did homage to the new empress. La Chetardie was handsomely rewarded; and Lestocq was created fii-st physician to the empress, IProsident of the CoUege of Medicine, and privy councillor. E., however, did not possess the qualities requisite in a ruler. She wanted energy, knowledge, and love of business, and allowed herself to be guided by favourite*. In order to strengthen hex position, E. took pains to win over her nephew, the young prince Peter, the son of her sister, the Duchess of Holstein-Gottorp. She summoned him to Petersburg in the year 1742, and proclaimed him her successor. E. took part in the Austrian War of Succession, and in spite of the opposition of France, despatched an army of 37,000 men to ihe assistance of Maria Theresa, and thereby hastened the conclusion of the peace of Aix-la-Chapelij^£/5«;, and from the embers or ashes which in the earliest times were strewed over the head at times of fastmg, in token of humility and self-condemna- tion. But the more correct derivation would appear to be from the Saxon Ymhrine dagas, from the Saxon ymb, about, and rytie, a course or run- ning, the term applied to these fasts because they came round at certain set seasons in the year. — Somner, Dictionarium Saxonici. This phrase is used in the laws of Alfred the Great, and also of Canute, and con-esponds with the term used by the canonists, jejiinia quatuor temporum, the fasts of the four seasons. Mr Somner says that the embering days were 'times of old chosen and set apart for fasting and prayer for obteyning the fruits of the earth, and to give thanks for the same, whereas at those times they are either sowen, sprung up, coming in their ripenesse, or gathered into the barne, as also to obtaine the grace of the Holy Ghost, when holy orders are gi^^en and ministers made.' It is to this latter purpose that the Church of England in the present day particu- larly devotes the ember days, and a special prayer is appointed for use at those seasons. EMBERI'ZAand EMBERIZID^. See Bunting. EMBE'ZZLEMENT, the felonious appropnation by clerks, servants, or others in a position of trust, of goods, money, or other chattels intrusted to their care, or received in the course of their duty, on account of their employers. It is essential to the crime of embezzlement that the article taken should not have been in the actual or constructive posses- sion of the employer ; for if it were, the offence would amount to Larceny (q. v.). Embezzlement is not an offence at common law; hence, persons guilty of this crime were formerly suffered to escape pimishment. In consequence of a flagrant instance of this immunity (Bazeley's Case, ii. Leacli, 835), the Act 39 Geo. III. c. 85, was passed, whereby embezzlement was made a felony. This act has been repealed, but the law has since been fixed by subsequent enactments. The leading statute on this subject is 7 and 8 Geo. IV. c. 29. Einhezzlement by clerks or servants is punishable by transportation or imprisonment. See Punish- ment. If the offender be a male, he is liable to be once, twnce, or thrice publicly or privately whipped, at the discretion of the judge. Questions of much nicety often arose as to whether the facts proved constituted the crime of embezzlement or that of larceny ; but this distinction has ceased to be of any importance since the passing of the Criminal Justice Act (14 and 15 Vict. c. 100), whereby it is made competent, on an indictment for embezzlement, to convict a man of larceny, and vice versd. But it has been decided in a recent case, R. v. Gorbutt, 26 Law Journ., M. C. 47, that on an indictment for larceny, it is not competent to convict of larceny where the facts amoimt only to embezzlement. Embezzlement by bankers, brokers, factors, and otlier ttfjents, is regulated by the above statute, sect. 49, and also by the Fraudulent Trustees Act (20 and 21 Vict. c. 54). These most important statutes have rendered almost every conceivable species of U-audulent misappropriation by bankers and others a punishable offence. In particular, by the lattei statute, embezzlement by a Bailee (see Bailmeat^ is now indictable. Under this provision, a shop- keaper a}>propriating goods intrusted for repair, may be tried and convicted. Umbezzlemoit by bankrupts of any part of theii estate, or of any books, &c., relating to the same, with intent to defraud their creditors, is, by 12 and 13 Vict. c. lOG, made punishable by transportation for life. See Bankrupt. Embezzlement of letters and newspapers by servants of the Post-office, is also made highly penal by 7 Will. IV. and 1 Vict. c. 36. The embezzlement ol newspapers is punishable by fine or imprisonment ; but to embezzle a letter, subjects the offender in all cases to transportation for seven years ; and if the letter contain money or valuables, to transportation for life. Embezzlement of the Queen^s stores is punishable by transportation for life (4 Geo. IV. c. 53). In regard to this species of embezzlement, summary authorit;y is granted to comptrollers and other officers named, on proof of embezzlement of government stores below the value of twenty shillings, to fine the offenders to the amount of double the value of the article taken. In Scotland, the crime of embezzlement, or breach of trust, is punishable at common law. The dis- ' tinction between this crime and that of theft ia substantially the same as between embezzlement and larceny in England. In both' coimtries, the criterion relied upon to distinguish these crimes is the question of possession by the owner; but in Scotland the tendency of the decisions of late years has been to regard the appropriation of articles intrusted for a temporary purpose as amounting to theft. In this respect, the law of Scotland differs from that of England in regard to embezzlement by a bailee. In Scotland, the appropriation of things found without an owner would appear, according to Mr Hume, not to bo an indictable offence. Such a case w^ould unques- tionably be treated in England as Larceny (q. v.). E'MBLEM, a representation of an object intended to signify or indicate to the understanding some- thing else than that which it directly represents to the eye. The meaning of the emblem rests upon its secondary, not its primary signification. Emblem is often used in a sense synonymous with Symbol, under which, as the wider word, it will be mor© convenient to treat it. EMBLE'MATA (Gr.), the works of art with which gold and silver vessels were decorated hy the ajicients. These sculptured figures were generally executed either in the precious metals or in amber. They were called crustse by the Romans, thoiigh the Greek word was also used. E'MBLEMENTS (Fr. emblaver, to sow with hlS or wheat), gro%ving crops of cereal and vegetable productions raised by the labour of the cultivator. Fritits of trees growing on the land, and grass, are not emblements. The law has ever been mindful of the interests of the tenant who has expended his toil and capital in tilling the ground. By the feudal law, when a tenant for life died between March and August, his heirs were entitled to the profits for the whole year. By the existing law of England, a tenant for life, or other tenant, whose term may be suddenly and imexpectedly brought to a close, is entitled to reap the crop which he has sown, and to enter the lands after expiry of the term to remove the emblements. By 14 and 15 Vict. c. 25, a tenant at Rack-rent (q. v.) under tenant for life is entitled, where the tenancy deter- mines by death of tenant for life, to hold the land 29 EMBLICA— EMBRASURES. till the expiry of the current year. But if a term be brovrht to an end by the act of the tenant, he is not entitled to emblements. Thus, a tenant for life m ho commits forfeiture,, or a widow entitled to dower — M'ho, as regards dower-lands, is considered tenant for life — marrying again, are not entitled to emble- ments. On the death of a tenant, the executor, and not the heir, is entitled to the emblements. By 11 Geo. II. c. 19, emblements may be distrained for rent, and by common law they may be taken in execution. The right of life-renters in Scotland to reap tlie growing crop is somewhat similar to the English right to emblements. See Life-rent. E'MBLICA, a genus of plants of the natural order Euphorbiacece, having a fleshy fruit. E. vfficinalis is a tree found in most parts of India, with a crooked stem, thinly scattered spreading branches, long narrow leaves, minute greenisli Uowers, and a globular fruit about the size of a gall-nut. The fruit is very acid, and somewhat astringent, which qualities it retains when dry and shrivelled. It is used in India as a deobstruent and febrifuge, also for tanning leatlier, and making ink, and is generally called Eiiibllc Myrohalans, EMBO'SSING, the art of producing raised figures upon various substances, such as paper, leather, wood, metals, &c. This is usually effected by pressing the substance into a die, the kind of die and mode of applying the pressure being modified according to the nature of the design and the pro- perties of the sul)stance to be embossed. Sheet- metal is embossed by stamping it l)etween a pair of steel dies, one in relief, the other in intaglio. See Die-sinking. When the pattern is a deep one, several pair of dies are used, and several blows given with each, the metal being occasionally'' annealed. The first stamping produces a crude resemblance to the final design, of moderate depth; successive stampings bringing up more of the details, and giving increased depth. The upper die is usually raised by a rope attached over a pulley to a stirrup, in which the workman places his foot ; he draws his foot down to raise the heavy die to the required height, and then suddenly releases the pressure of his foot from the stirrup, wfeen the die descends by its own weight. While thus raising the die with his foot, he adjusts the work in its place with his hands. Smaller work is embossed with a screw-press, the lever of which is turned with one hand, while the work is placed under the dies and removed by the other. Paper and card are embossed in a similar manner, but the dies are frequently of brass, sometimes of copper electro-deposits, suitably backed. The counter-die is commonly made of soft metal, card or mill board, pressed into the metal intaglio die until a sharji impression is produced. The paper or card is well damped, and a fly-press is generally used. The leather or cloth for book- binding is embossed in this manner, the counter-die being usually made by gluing several pieces of millboard together, and gluing them to the upper bed of the press, then stamping these into the lower die until a perfect impression is obtained. The embossing press designed and constructed by Mr Edwin Hill, for impressing the medallion upon postage envelopes, is a very elaborate and beautiful machine, which inks the die itself, and with the aid of two boys, to place and remove the envelopes, embosses sixty envelopes in a minute. When large sm-faces of textile fabrics, such as table-covers, &c., have to be embossed, the fabric is compressed between rollers, one being of metal, upon which the device is sunk like a die ; the counter- roller or bed- cylinder is of paj^er covered with felt ; this yields Bu/lioi«mtlj to allow the fabric to V-a pressed into the die-cylinder. A third smooth metal roller is commonly used to press out again the impression made upon the bed-cylinder; this acts upon the bed- cylinder on the side from which the fabric emerges. Paper is sometimes embossed in thia manner ; and the flatting roller may be dispensed with if the cylinders are sufliciently accurate in their diameters for the pattern always to fall on the same place at each successive revolution. Leather embossed in high relief has been used for ornamental purposes in place of wood- carving on picture-frames, cabinet-work, &c. The dies are of tyi)e-metal or electro-deposits, and the leather ia softened or fulled, i. e., worked with water till it contracts and thickens, then it is pressed into the dies by suitable round pointed tools, like modelling tools, made of wood, bone, or copper. When dry, the leather is removed from the moidds, and by its elasticity and shrinking it will relieve from very deep and undercut designs. — Mr Straker'a mode of embossing wood diflers from all the above, and is very curious and ingenious. When wood is pressed and rubbed with a blunt instru- ment, the surface yields, and a depression of some depth may be made in it ; if the wood be now soaked in water, the depressed portion will rise again to its original level. Mr Straker takes advantage of this property thus. He rubs down the surface in those parts that are to be finally in relief, he then planes or shaves away the uncom- pressed portions until the bottom of the depressions are reached and made level with the new surface ; the wood is then soaked ; the compressed parts rise to their original level, and, of course, in doing so, rise above the portions that have been planed away, and present the required device in relief. EMBOUCHURE (Fr.), that part of a wind instrument to which the lips are applied to produce the sound. — The term Embouchure is also applied to the mouth of a river. EMBOW'ED, the heraldic term for anything which is bent hke a bow. The illustration repre- sents a sinister arm couped at the shoulder, Coimter-embowed. Embowed. embowed. Wben the arm is turned the reverse way, it is said to be counter- embowed. EMBRA'CERY, in the law of England, tne ofi"ence of influencing jurors by corrupt means to deliver a partial verdict. This offence is a species of Maintenance (q. v.). The giving of money to be distributed amongst jurors is embracery, though the money be not actually distributed. Not only persons attempting to influence the jury, but jurors themselves attempting undidy to bias the minds of their fellows, are guilty of embracery. The using indirect means in order to be sworn on a jury, is also embracery. This offence is punishable by various old statutes. At present, the crime is punishable by G Geo. IV. c. 50, which enacts, that every person guilty of embracery, and the jury consenting thereto shall be punished by fine and im- prisonment. EMBRA'SURES, in Fortification, are openings in the parapets, flanks of bastions, and other par!a of the defence- works, through which cannon a^s EMBROCATION— EMBROIDERY. poiutei. The siege-batteries of the enemy have bIso embrasures. Their use is, to shield as much as possible the guns, gun-carriages, gunnei s, and interior of the place, and yet leave spaces for the free firing of the guns. Each opening slopes outwards, so as to give a greater sweep to the gun's action. EMBROCA'TION (Gr. em, into, and hrecko, I wet), the same as Liniment (q. v.). EMBROI'DERY, the art of producing orna- mental needlework-patterns upon fabrics of any kind. This art is coeval with the earliest and rudest manufactirre of hair and woollen fabrics. It was one of the most important of the early arts in Oriental countries, where it is still practised with great skill and diligence. It is common among most savage tribes that wear any kind of clothing. The blanket-wrapper of the Red Indian is commonly ornamented with embroidery ; the Laplander embroiders upon the reindeer skin that forms his clothes patterns worked with needles of reindeer bone, and thread of reindeer sinews and (Strips of hide. It is practised as a domestic art in our own country by all classes, from the princess down to the pauper school-girl, and is carried on in large manufactories by very elaborate machinery. The Chinese are perhaps the most laborious and elaborate hand-embroiderers of modern times ; their best work is upon silk. The figures are either in coloured silk alone, or in silk combined with gold and silver thread ; the figures of men, horses, dragons, &c., being outlined with gold cord, and filled up coloured and shaded mth silk. The Persians, Turks, and Hindus also still excel in embroidery ; they use, besides silk and gold and silver thread, beads, Bpangles, pearls, and precious stones. The dress- Blippers of Turkish women of all ranks are elabor- ately embroidered, usually with a precious stone or a glass bead in the middle of the toe-part of the slipper, and a radiating pattern in gold, silver, or brass wire and silk surrounding it. The celebrated Turkey carpet is a sort of embroidered fabric. See Carpets. Some of the Oriental and Indian embroiderers include in their work a great variety of materials besides those above mentioned ; feathers are largely and very tastefully used; the skins of insects; the nails, claws, and teeth of various animals ; nuts, jjieces of fir, skins of serpents, &c., are among these. Coins, which are so commonly used as ornaments for the hair of unmarried women in the East, are sometimes also worked into their dresses with the embroidery. This is especially the case with the Turks and Georgians. The Indian women embroider with their own hair and that of animals. Tapestry is a kind of embroidery, formerly done ^vith the needle, but now chiefly with the shuttle. This kind of work is, in fact, intermediate between embroidery and weaving, and it is somewhat difficult to determine under which it should be classed, but in accordance with the definition given above, we shall only include needlework under embroidery, and tapestry wiU be separately treated. For hand-embroidery, the fabric is usually stretched upon a frame, and the design to be worked is drawn upon it, or some other contrivance is iLsed to guide the worker. If the fabric is sufficiently thin and open, a coloured drawing or engraving may be placed behind the work, and followed with the needle. A sheet of thin trans- parent paper, with lines upon it corresponding to the threads of the canvas to be worked upon, is sometimes used ; this is secured by gum or wax to tlie drawing ; and the design is copied by observing the number of small squares occupied by each colour, and filling in th.i corresponding meshes of the canvas. Berlin-work, which is a kind of embroidery, is done in a similar manner, the pattern being an engraving on which the lines corresponding to the thread are printed, and the meshes filled up with the required colours, painted in by hand by women and children, who copy it from the original design of the artist. The name has been given from the fact, that the best patterns have, since 1810, been published by Wittich, a printseller of Berlin. In France, pricked patterns are sometimes used^ one for each colour, and coloured powders are dusted through the holes upon the fabric to be worked. AU these devices render the art of embroidery a mere mechanical operation, requiring no further artistic skill or taste than is exercised in knitting stockings ; but when the embroidress draws the design in outline upon the fabric, and works in the colours with her needle under the guidance of her own taste, embroidery becomes an art that might rank with water-colour drawing or oil-painting ; and it is to be regretted that so much time should be devoted by ladies to the mechanical, and so little effort made in the direction of truly artistic embroidery. Muslin- embroidery has been very fashionable of late. This is purely mechanical work. The muslin is printed with a pattern made up of holes of differ- ent dimensions ; these are cut or j)unched out, and their edges sewn up with a ' button-hole stitch.' This kind of work is much used as trimming for ladies' clothing, for collars, and children's clothes. Machine-embroidery has been practised with con- siderable success during the last quarter century. A machine was exhibited in the French Industrial Exhibition of 1854, by M. Heibnann of Mulhausen, by which one person could guide from 80 to 140 needles, all working at the same time, and producing so many repetitions of the same design. Although the details of the construction of this machine are rather complex, the principle of its action may be easily understood. The needles have their eyes in the middle, and are pointed at each end, so that they may pass through from one side of the work to the other without being turned. Each needle is worked by two pair of artificial fingers or pincers, one on each side of the work ; they grasp and piish the needle through from one side to the other. A carriage or frame connected with each series of fingers does the work of the arm, by carrying the fingers to a distance corresponding to the whole length of the thread, as soon as the needle has passed completely through the work. The frame then returns to exactly its original place, and the needles are again passed through to the opposite set of fingers, which act in like manner. If the work were to remain stationary, the needles would thua pass merely backwards and forwards through the same hole, and make no stitch ; but by moving the work as this action proceeds, stitches will be made, their length and direction varying with the velocity and the direction in which the work moves. If 1^ needles were working, and the fabric were mcved in a straight line, 140 rows of stitching would b« made ; if the work made a circidar movement, 140 circles would be embroidered ; and so on. In order, then, to produce repetitions of any given design, it is only necessary to move the fabric in directions corresponding to the lines of the design- This is done by connecting the frame on which the work ia fixed to an apparatus similar to a common panta- graph, or instrument so constructed that one end repeats on a smaller scale exactly the movements which are given to the other. See PA>rTA graph. 81 EMBRUN— EMERALD. The free end of this is moved over an enlarged copy of the design, the movement being a succession of steps, made after each set of needles has passed through ; and thus the work is moved into the position i-equired to receive the next stitch of the pattern. This machine Avas subsequently patented in Eng- land, and many improvements have been made upon its details, but the principle of its construction re- mains the same. Although it is 2^ossibIe to embroider any design •with such machines, there are only certain designs that can be worked economically ; for to do this, the patterns must be so designed as to consume each needleful of silk without waste. The length of 8ilk required for each colour can be calculated with extreme accuracy, and the designer is usually limit jd by tliiy requirement. A greater range is, however ootrJuable by dyeing the same thread of Bilk in different colours, the length of each colour corresponding to what is required for producing the pattern ; but a large demand for each pattern is required to render this profitable. EMBRUN, a town of France, in the department of Hautes Alpes, is situated on a platform of rock in the midst of a plain, on the right bank of the Durance, 20 miles east of Gap. Seen from a distance, the town has £\n imposing appearance. The streets of E. are narrow, dirty, and irregular. It is surrounded by loopholcd ramparts and ditches* and strengthened by l)astions. The principal build- ings are the cathedral, a Gothic edilice, surmounted by a lofty Romanesque tower, and the barrack, formerly the archbishop's jxalace. E. manufactures broadcloth, counterpanes, hats, cotton-yarn, and leather. Poi>. (1872) 2161. E. occu])ies the site of the ancient Ebrodunum, ca})ital of the Catimges, and an important Roman station. The line of its arolil)ishops can, it is said, be traced to the time of Constantuie. In modem times E. has been thrice destroyed by fire : by the Moors in 966, during the religious wars in 1573, and by the Duke of Savoy in 1G92. E'MBRYO (Gr.), an organised being in a rudi- mentary condition, or the nidiment from which, under favourable circumstances, an organised body is to be developed. In botany, the term embryo is applied to the germ formed within the ovule on fertilisation, and which increases to become the principal part of the seed. The albumen or peri- sperm of the seed, being regarded as a mere store of nourishment for the embryo, is not accounted part of the embryo ; the cotyledons, however — although a large store of nourishment is often laid up in them — are considered as essentially belonging to it, along with the plicmvle, the radicle, and the connecting parts. As to animals, the term embryo is used as equivalent with foRtus, and as designating the rudi- mentary animal from the moment of impregnation cmtil the egg is hatched ; but although this takes place at very different stages of development in differ- ent kinds of animals, and consequent metamorphoses are undergone by some before they reach their perfect state, the term embryo is not applied to the larvce and pupoe of insects, or to the analogous states of other classes of animals. Eg^s contain, along with the embryo, a store of nourishment for it in the earlier stages of its development. See Repro- duction, Development of the Embryo, Egg, Fa<:TUs, Ovule, Seed, and Spore. EMBRYO'LOGY. See Development of the Embryo. EMBRYOTOMY, a division of the foetus into fragments, to extract it by piecemeal, when the 82 narrowness of the pelvis or other faulty conform»' tion oi)i)oses delivery. E'MDEN, a fortified town of Hanover, in the Erovince of East Friesland, is situated a little elow the embouchure of the Ems into DoUavt Bay, in lat. 53° 22' N., long. 7' 13' E. It lies low, but is protected by strong dykes from any inroad of i the waters of the bay. Nevertheless, occasif>nal inundations take place ; as in 1826, when the water stood up to the first floor of the houses for three months. E., which is the chief commercial town of Hanover, is surrounded by Avails and towers, is well built, has spacious and well paved streets, and houses remarkable for their appearance of comfcrt, and for their extreme cleanliness. It is intersec*'-ed by numerous canals, which are crossed by about thirty bridges. The Delf Canal runs south from the town to Doilart Bay, a distance of about two mi'es, but it can be entered at high water only, and even then is not navigable for vessels of more than 13 or 14 feet draught; all vessels of greater draught being obliged to unload in the roadstead of Delf, at the mouth of the canal. The principal building, at'd one of the finest i)ublic edifices in East Frieslan \, is the town-hall, containing a library and a curious collection of ancient arms and armour. E. stands in a district of great fertility. It has a good deal of ship-building, besides various other manufactures. From this town, from 50 to 60 ships are sent out to the herring-fishing off Scotland. E. was made a free port in 1751, came into the possession of Hol« land in 1808, and, with the whole of East Friesland, was incorporateil with tbe kingdom of Hanover in 1815. Pop. (1871) 12,588. E'MERALD (Sp. esnieralda, Fr. emeraude, Ger. smaragd, Gr. smaragdos ; the name is originally Semitic, or at least eastern, but the signification unknown), a mineral generally regarded by mineral- ogists as merely another variety of the same spetdea with the Beryl (q. v.), with which it essentially agrees in composition, crystallisation, &c., differing in almost nothing but colour. The E., wMch, as a gem, is very highly valued, owes its value chiefly to its extremely beautiful velvety green colour. It is composed of about 67 — 68 per cent, of silica, 15 — IS of alumina, 12 — 14 of glucina, and a very little peroxide of iron, lime, and oxide of chromium. Its colour is ascribed chiefly to the oxide of chromium which it contains. Its specific gravity is 2-577 — 2725. In hardness it is rather inferior to topaz. The localities in which E. ia foimd are very few. The finest have long been brought from South America, where thej- are obtained from veins traversing clay- slate, norn- blende slate, and granite, in a vaUey not far from Santa Fe de Bogota. Emeralds of inferior quality are found in Europe, imbedded in mica-slate in tho Henbach Valley in Salzburg. They are also found in the Ural ; and some old mines in Upper Egypt have also been discovered to yield them, from which, probably, the ancients obtained them. This gem, known from very early times, was highly prized by the ancients. Pliny states that when Lucullua landed at Alexandria, Ptolemy offered him ar E. set gold, wdth his portrait engraven on it. Many wrought emeralds have been fomid in the ruins of Thebes. Nei-o, who was near-sighted, looked at the combats of gladiators through aa eye-glass of E., and concave eye-glasses of E. seem to have been particularly esteemed among the ancients. As a precious stone, the E. is rarely without flaw. Its value alsj depends much on its colour. A very perfect E. of six carats has been sold for £1000. It appears not improbable that emeralds have EMERSION— EMERY. been found in the East, in localities not at present knowii, bat the name E. or Oriental E. is often given to a very rare, heaiitiful, and precious green variety of Sapphire (q.v.). E. Copper is a beautiful and very rare E, green crystallised mineral, also called Dioptase, found only in the Kirghis Steppe, and composed of about 39 j^aits silica, 50 i)rotoxide of copper, and 1 1 water. EME'RSION, the reappearance of one heavenly body from behind another, after an eclipse or occul- tation. Tlie immersions and emersions of Jupiter's first satellite are particulaily useful for finding the longitude of places. Minutes or scruples of emer- sion are the arc of the moon's orbit passed over by her centre, from the time she begins to emerge from the earth's shadow to the end oi the ecli^^se. EM'ERSON, Ralph Waldo, an American essayist and poet, was born in the city of Boston, United States, May 25, 1803, entered Harvard XJnivei"sity in 1817, graduated in 1821, and became pastor of a Unitarian congregation in Boston in 1829. This office, however, he resigned in 1832, on account of the gradually increasing differences between his own modes of thought and those of his hearers. The next year he spent in England. Since then, he has led a quiet, retired, meditative life, chiefly at Concord. Among the earliest notice- able productions of his pen were two lectures, or orations, entitled Nature and Man Thinking, delivered before the Phi Beta Kappa Society at Cambridge, United States, in 1837. In the follow- ing year appeared his Literary Ethics, an Oration ; and in 1841, The Method of Nature, Man the Beformer, the first series of his Essays, and several lectures, &c. Three years later, he issued a second series of Essays. In 184C, he published a volume of poems. In 1849, he revisited England, to deliver a series of lectures on Bepresentative Mm. When published, they were generally reckoned the most vigorous and intelligible of aU the author had then written. In 1852, in conjunction with W. H. Channing and J. F. Clarke, he published the Memoirs of Margaret Fuller (q. v.), Marchesa d'Ossoli. Enylish Traits appeared in 1856, and the Conduct of Life in 1860. There is perhaps no living writer of note regarding wliom opinions are so divided as Emerson. Some critics have not hesi- tated to place him among the profoundest thinkers belonging to the present age, while others, equally confident, have pronounced him to be in the main a sciolist and charlatan. Both of these opinions, but especially the latter, may be dismissed as absurd. No man who is himself sincere, will doubt the sincerity of the American philosopher. His entire ' conduct of life ' would be otherwise inex- l)]icable. It is true, however, that the subtlety of hia intellect, which is far more wonderful than either its breadth or dei)th, often deceives him by the facihty with which it discovers divine meanings in nature and the human soul. E. never pauses to harmonise his thoughts and convictions ; and, it nmst be admitted, has rather a theatrical jmichant for paradox. He knows that an idea is more forcible and attractive, and can be clothed in more brilliant and picturesque phraseology when it is not qualifieecially favourable, being often followed by expectoration and a rapid improve- ment in the suffocative symptoms. Emetics are to be -riven with great caution, however, in all very dei»ressed states of the system, as their primary action is to produce Nausea (q. v.), which is attended always with more or less diminution of the vital power, and often with great depression of the heart's action, amounting to syncope or fainting. Tlie principal emetics are the preparations of anti- mony, zinc, and copper; ipecacuanha in po^^der or u in wine ; squill, lobelia, and, generally speaking, the whole class of expectorants and irritants ; tlie latter of which, however, with the exception of sulphate of zinc, and perhaps mustard and water, form a dangerous kind of emetics, which shoidd never be administered when the milder kinds can be procured. EMETINE. See Ipecacuanha. EMIGRA'TION is the passing from one part of the world to another for the purpose of permanently settling in it. People gomg thus from one district of the same state to another — especially if it be a distant part, with different habits and physical peculiarities — are sometimes said to emipate, and in this way the term has been often appli id to the English and Scotch settlers in Ireland. In its established signification, however, the word now refers to those who leave the state or dominions in which they have heretofore lived, and in this sense the term applies to those going to the colonies, though these are like the United King- dom, under the authority of the British crown. In tlie country which people leave, they are called emigrants or wanderers out — in that in wdiich they settle, they are usually called immigrants. Jacob and his family were immigrants to Egypt, and their descendants became emigrants from that country when they went to inherit the promised land. The Greeks were addicted to emigration, owing, it has been said, to the many political contests which drove the v/eaker i)arty from home. Greek emigrants planted colonies on the borders of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, carrying them as far northward as France, where they established the city of Marseille. The Romans were great colonisers, but by conquest rather than emigration. They disliked leaving Italy ; and the military and civil officers necessary to rule a colony were generally the only Romans who abode in it. These even did not, in general, settle in the colonies with their famihes, but were recalled after a certain period of service, the whole arrangement much resembling that for the government of British India. The migrations of the northern tribes who overran the Roman emi)ire, are well known in history ; their wanderings may be said, indeed, to have continued down to the 13th century. Those who wandered from the north into France, where they acquired great territories, became known as Normans, and were remarkable for entirely throwing off the language and mamiers, and even aU the traditions of their original homes, and becoming the most civilised and courtly portion of the French people. But though thus changed, they still continued to wander, spreading over Britain, Sicily, and the intervening portions of Europe. The discovery of America opened a vast new field for emigration, which was taken immediate advan- tage of by the Spanish and Portuguese, and later, by the British, the French, the Germans, and the Dutch. In the 17th c, many of the English Puri- tans, persecuted in, or discontented with, their own country, found it more congenial to their tastes to live together in a new country, where they would be free from the presence of those who did not sympa- thise with them, and they thus founded the New England colonies. It is singular tliat, in the 19th c, an attempt should be made to revive the plan of emigrating for the purpose of maintaining an exclu- sive church, as, for instance, in the Englisli High (>hurch colony of Canterbury, and the Scot(;h. Free Church colony of Otago. The principal emigration fields at the present day are the vast territory of the United States of America, the British colonies in America, and the colc-iies in EMIGRATION. South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. There 13 a great distinction to be taken between colonies fit for emigration and those de[)endencies of the British crown held for other purposes. India, for instance, the greatest dependency of the crown, is totally unsuited for emigration. The British }ieople who go there, with the exception of a few merchants, gcr to form the civil and mihtary stalf which rules the country. They stay there no longer than they can help, and instead of living on from generation to generation, send home their children in early youth, families of British origin having a tendency to dege\ierate, both physically and mentally, by long residence there. It is useless for working-people to go there, as every kind of work is done in some way or other l)y the natives much cheaper than it could be b}^ Eui'opeans, and the same may be said of every colony in the hot latitudes. As a question in j)olitical economy, opinions about emigTation have oscillated violently. At one time it has been prohibited, at another encouraged by aU kinds of tempting offers held out to emigrants, while teachers of political economy have proclaimed that there can never be too much emigration. The conclusion to which we are coming in this, as in so many other questions in political economy is, that what is good for the individual members of a com- munity is good for the community collectively— if people can improve their condition by emigrating, it is as well that they should emigrate ; but if other- wise, they had better stay at home. It might seem unnecessary to promulgate a doctrine which every man's self-interest should teach him, but unfortu- nately emigration is one of the matters on which the popidace have been liable to delusions which have produced great mischief. Sometimes poor workmen have crowded in where labour was superabundant and capital deficient ; at others, men have taken their cajjital to districts where there was no employ- ment for it, and the unnaturally high price of the necessaries of life has immediately absorbed it all. young gentlemen, with nothing but showy accom- plishments, have gone to the backwoods of America, where they could only prosper by ceaseless toil in felling and clearing. Ambitious, discontented artisans have wandered to the wide pastures of Australia, where they coidd only get a scanty subsistence as hut-keepers or assistant shepherds, not having skill enough to be intrusted with the charge of stock. Such mistakes have originated from people's ignor- ance of the fate of those who have gone before, it being generally taken for granted that the emi- grant has gone away for his benefit, whereas it has often been for his ruin, and to meet an untimely death. The standard difficulty is the want of adjustment of capital to labour. This is enhanced by the circura- etance, that those who wish to emigrate are gener- ally persons feeling the pressure of })overty at home. 1 he man, however, who goes to a place where there b no capital to employ him with — either his own or some other person's — is just in the position of a shipwrecked mariner cast on the shore. It has been justly remarked, that perfect emigration shoidd consist of a transplantation of home-society with aU its several classes and institutions, including capitalists employing labour, artisans of various kinds, members of the learned j)rofessions, teachers, and clergymen. An ingenious plan for bringing about Buch a distribution was called the "Wakefield system of emigration, after the name of its inventor. The foimdation of the plan was a high charge for land — £1 per acre, the money so advanced by capitalists being employed in exporting labour. The plan failed, however, because people could get land in the Cfnited States for a quarter of the price ; and even j in Australia, where it prevailed, capitalists, Instead of buying land, ' squatted,' as it was termed, and j the government had to countenance the system, by 1 charging them a small rent or squatting licence, j There was one shaj)e, howevc.T, in which it was I found necessary for the government to interfere— ' the protection of emigrants, so far as possible, from cruelty and imposition. Conducting emigration is a trade in which a large body of men are engaged. Before he leaves his own country, the intending emigi'ant, through means of agents who take nv tluiu line of business, can not only be shipped for a distant port, but can contract for his removal inland to hia final place of settlement, and can even contract for the purchase of a 2)lot of ground, or for the sale of his labour. The temptations and the opportunities for imposition in contracts to be fulfilled so far away from the j)lace where they are midertaken, is obAdous, and the instances of cruelty and rapacity exhibited in the emigration trade are among the most atrocious that have ever disgraced human nature. These led to the appointment of a department of government called the Emigi-ation Commission, and to the passing of the Passengers' Act of 1849, which regulates the build and character of the vessels which may carry emigrants to certain points, limits the number that may be conveyed, requires the sufficiency of the provisions and other stores to be certified, and pro- vides for pi-oper medical nttendance. The total imniigration into the United Sfates from the year 1856 to 1874 inclusive, was 4,804,714, being an average of nearly 253,000 per annum. For the 14 years, from 1861 to 1874, the annual arrivals were as follows: 18G1 91,920 1SG2 91,987 1M:3 176,282 18C4 193,418 1872 404.806 18fi5 248.120 1874 313.339 ]8()7 298,358 Tot il, 14 yrs ...3,954,924 As will he seen, the greatest nimiher of arrivals wa8 in 1873, when it amounted to 459.803. Of the 313,- 339 which arrived in 1874, 50,935 were from Eng- land, 53,707 froiii Iieland, and 10,429 from Scotland. Germany contributed 87.291; Austria, 7888; Swe- den, 5712; Norway, 10,384; Denmark, 3082; Swit- zerland, 3093; France, 9643; Italy, 7596; Russia, 3960, and China, 13,776. About 33,000 arrived from the Dominion of Canada. Comparing decade with decade the tide of immigra tion is largely on the increase almost every year of the present decade, being in excess of 1869, which greatly exceeded that of any previous year since 1854, and amounted to 352,569. Of this aggregate, 253,754 arrived at the jmrt of New York; 35.586 at Huron, Michigan; 23,294 at Boston; 13,490 at San Fran- cisco ; 1 1 ,202 at Baltimore ; 4026 at Portland, INIaine ; 3424 at New Orleans; 1061 at Philadelphia, and the l euiainder at various other ports. Tlie largest propor- tion of immigrants in 1869 was from Germanv, which sent 132,537; Great Britain, 60,286; Ireland, 64,-. 938; Sweden, 24,224; B. North America, 29.918; Norway, 16.068; China, 12,874; France, 3879; Switzerland, 3650; Denmark, 3649, &c. The numerical force of emigration is influenced by material and moral disturbances in Europe as well aa by the commercial and political condition of America. Thus in 1838, the total nngration decreased to 38,914, while in 1837 it had amounted to 79,340, and in 1839 and 1840 it increased again to 68,069 and 84,066 re- spectively\ The decline was caused by the financial crisis of 1837, which shook the foundations of the busi- ness and industrj^ of the United States. The enugration from Ireland reached its highest 35 EMIGRATION OF PAUPERS— EMINENCE. point after the famine of 1846, and from 1845 to 1854 itidusive, numbered 1,512,100 souls; and from Jan. I, 1850, to Dec. 31, 1854, 904,859 came to the United States. This emigration appears to have exhausted tlie ishmd, and since 1855 tlic average is less than half that of the pi'eceding ten years. The failure of the Revohition of 1848—1849 in Europe caused the voluntary expatriation of twice as many from Germany as in previous years, and 176,986, the largest number ever received, landed at New York in 1854. From Jan. 1, 1845, to Dec. 31, 1854, 1,226,- .^yi Germans arrived in the United States, 773,449 of whom reached here during the last live years of the term named. In 1858 ami 1859 the influx of aliens was smaller than for any previous year since 1842, the commercial crisis of 1857 having alarmed many whose caj)ital M-as the lal)Our of their hands. Jn 1860, the total immigration I'ose to 105,162, but the civil war caused it to recede to 65,539 in 1861, antl to 76,- 306 in 1862. In 1867 the German immigration in- creased over that of 1866 by more than 10,000 in con- sequence of the Prussian war, and the annexation of neighbouring provinces, and the new order of things, j At the i)ort of New York, Avhich receives almost three-fourths of the total immigration, there exists an organized system for the reception and care of immi- ' grants. The 'Board of Commissioners of Einigra- ] tion of the State' has been in operation since May, 1847, and has for its object the protection of the newly arrived from fraud and impositiim, the cure of the sick and helpless, and to render aid to those seek- ing employment. The labours of the Board are be- stowed gratuitously, but a fund to aid the work is raised by a tax of $2.50 on each alien entering the port of New York, wlu(;h is paid by the owner of the vessel carrying the innnigrant. The fund, in 1868, amounted to $538,480, and in 1869 exceeded the sura of $650,000. In 1868, $330,000 of the sum was paid for nursing and maintenance of the sick in the asy- | lums and hospitals devoted to this purpose. The ; nationalities of all and destination of most of these for 1868-69 maybe seen in the following statements: Nationality. 1S68. 1869. Destination. 1868. 1869. Germany, . . . 101,989 96,841 California, . . 3.9S9 3,591 Ireland, . . . . 47.571 68,632 Canada, .... 2.7 2o 2,564 England, . . . 29,695 41, .537 Connecticut, . 3,458 3,922 14,520 24,683 Illinois, . . . . 34,6_'5 37.:n3 Scotland, . . . 7,390 10,411 Indiana, . . . 3,852 3,025 Switzerland, . 3,302 3,153 Iowa, 7,040 8,026 France, .... 2,811 1,024 Kansa.s, .... 1,0,S5 1,(332 Maryland, . . . 1,604 1,524 Holland, . . . . 1,265 1,3S7 1,342 Massachusetts, 7,604 8,158 Denmark, , . . 2,673 Jlicliigaii, . . . 7,324 6,939 Norway, .... 1,008 2,537 Minnesota, . . 5,891 6,725 993 1,540 Missouri, . . . 6,517 4,723 Nebraska, . . 1,419 1,641 699 1,032 New .Jersey, . . 5,916 7,743 Newfoundland 1 New York, . . 65.714 82,372 Australia, . . . 1 Oliio, 11,133 11,738 Urazil, .... 1 Pennsylvania, 16,926 30,746 Ciiili, 1 Rhode Island, 2,279 2,227 China &. Japan, 6 Utah, 3,155 2,325 Lima, 1 Wisconsin, . . 16,537 16,632 Of the entire number, about 6100 appear to haA-e been destined to 15 southern and southwestern states in 1868, and about 5300 in 1869. The active elTorts to turn the tide towards the south will undoubtedl}' influence the future history of immigration to the U. State-s. For a detailed account of immigration into the United States, see Animal Report of the Chief of the Jiureait of Statistics : Commerce and Navigation, ] 874. EMIGRES, the name given more especially to those persons who quitted France during the Revo- lution. After the insurrection at Paris, and the taking of the Bastile, 14th July, 1789, the princes of the royal family departed from France. They were jbl lowed, after the adoption of the constitution of 1791, by all who considered themselves aggrieved by the destruction of their privileges, or who were exposed to persecution. Nobles quitted their chiUeaus ; oflBicers, with whole companies, passed the frontiers. Crowds of priests and monks tied to escape the oath of allegiance to the constitution. Belgium, Piedmont, Holland, Switzerland, and, above all, Germany, were overrun with fugitives of every age. Only a few had been able to save their property ; the greater portion were in a state of destitution, and sank into utter demoralisation. A court had fonncd itself round the princes at Cob- lenz ; a government, with ministers and a court of justice, had beeii established, and communication was kept up with all the foreign courts luifavoiir- able to the Revolution. This conduct imbittered France, aggravated the position of the king, and drove the revolutionary party forward in their san- guinary career. Under the command of the Prince of Conde, a body of 6migres was formed, which followed the Pnissian army into Champagne. The result was that the severest laws w-ere now put in force against the Emigres. Their lands were con- fiscated. The penalty of death was proclaimed against any one who should sup]>ort or enter into commtmi cation with them. Thirty thousand jier- sons were ])laced upon the list of emigres, and exiled for ever from the soil of France, although many of them had refused to bear arms against their country. Not until after the failure of theii attem])t to land at Quiberon in 1795, did thlaces in the United Kingdom. See Eccle,siastic-U Titles AssuMPTiox Act. ETvIlH— EMOTION. E'MIR, an Arabic word, equivalent to 'ruler,' la a title given in the East, and in the Nortli of Africa, to all independent chieftains, and also to all the actual or supposed descendants of Mohammed through his daughter Fatima. The latter are very numerous throughout the Turkisl dominions, but although entitled by birth to be classed among the first four orders of society, they enjoy no particxdar privilegen or consideration ; on the contrary, they are found engaged in all sorts of occupations, and are to bersous named in the lists are thereupon summoned to attend at the assizes. EMPECrNADO— EMPEROR MOTH. EMPECINA'DO, Don Juan Martin Diaz, el, one of the leaders of the Spanish revolution of 1820, was born in 177'^. He was the son of poor parents, and entered the Spanish army in 1792. At the head of 5000 or GOOO men, he carried on a guerilla warfare against the French during the Peninsular sti'uggle, and acquired great distinction. In 1814, he was ap])ointed colonel in the regular army, and the king himself created him held- marshal ; but in consequence of i)etitioning Ferdi- uand, in 1815, to reinstitute the Cortes, he was imprisoned, and afterwards banished to Valladolid. On the outbreak of the insurrection in 1820, lie took a })romiueut ])art on the side of the constitu- tionalists, and on several occasions exhibited gi'eat courage, daring, and circumspection. After the triumph of the absolutists in 1825, he was arrested, exposed in an iron cage to the contumely of the passers-by, and finally executed on a common gibbet, amidst tlie ferocious yellings of a debased and liberty- hating populace. EMPE'DOCLES, a Greek philosoi)her of Agri- gentum, in Sicily, lived about 450 B.C. So great was the estimation in which he was held by his fellow-citizens as a physician, a friend of the gods, a predicter of futurity, and a sorcerer, or conjuror of nature, that they are said to have offered him the fiiovereiguty. But being an enemy of tyranny, he declined it, and Avas the means of delivering the community from the dominion of the aristocracy, and bringing in a democrac3% There was a tradition that he threw himself into tlie crater of Etna, in order that his sudden disappearance might beget a lielief in his divine origin ; this, however, can only be regarded as a mere fable, like the story told by Lucian, that Etna threw out the sandals of the vain philosopher, and thus destroyed the popular belief m his divinity. The statement of Aristotle is, that he died at the age of 60 ; later writers extend the period of his life considerably further, but their testimony is not equal in weight to that of Aristotle. In E., philosophic thought is bound up with poetry and myth even in a higher degree than in rarmeriides (q. v.). His general point of view is determined by the influence of the Eleatic school i upon the physical theories of the Ionic philoso- phers. He assumed four primitive independent substances — air, water, fire, and earth, which he designates often by the mythical names Zeus, Here, &c. These four elem.ents, as they were called, kept their place till modern chemistry dislodged them. Along with material elements, he afifirmed the exist- ence of two moving and operating powers, love and hate, or friendship and strife, the first as the unit- ing principle, the second as the separating. The contrast between matter and power, or force, is thus brought out more strongly by E. than by preA^ious philosophers. The origin of the world, or cosmos, he conceived in this way : In the beginning, the elements were held in a sort of blended unity, or sphere, by the attractive force of love ; when hate, previously exterior, penetrated as a rej^elling and separating principle. In this process of separation, wMch gives rise to the individual objects of nature, he seems to have assumed a series of stages, a gradual development of the perfect out of the impel feet, and a periodical return of things to the rlemental state, in order to be again separated, and a new world of phenomena formed. From the fragments that we possess of his didactic poem, it is not quite clear in hov/ far he considered fire as the substratum of strife, and water as the substratum of love, and ascribed various creations to the predomi- nance of one or the other of these iirinciples. Of his opinions on special j)henomena, may be men- tiouod his doctrine of emanations, which proceeding 40 from one thing enter into corresponding openings in other things. By this assumption in connection with the maxim, that like is known only by like, he thought to explain the nature of perception by the senses. He attempted to give a moral ai)plica- tion to the old doctrine of the transmigration of souls, his views of which resembled those of Pjrthag- oras. The fragments of E, have been edited by Sturz (2 vols., Leip. 1805), Karsten (Amst. 1838) and Stein (Bonn, 1852). _ E'MPEROR (Lat. ?m;)erator). The original siftni' fication of this, which in the modem world \zm become the highest title of sovereignty, can be understood only when it is taken in conjunction with imper turn, which in the Roman political system had a peculiar and somewhat technical meaning. The imperium of a magistrate, be he king or consul, was the power which he possessed of bringing physi- cal force into operation for the fulfilment of his behests. This power was conferred by a lex curiata, and it required this authorisation to entitle a consul to act as the commander of an army. In the case of the kings also, the imperium was not implied in their election, but was conferred separately, by a separate act of the national will. ' On the death of King Pomi)ilius,' says Cicero, ' the populus in the coiiiitia curiata elected Tullus Hostiiius king, upon the rogation of an interrex ; and the king, following the example of Pompilius, took the votes of the populus, according to their cur ice, on the question of his imperium.^ — Jiepublic, ii. 17. Now, it was in virtue of this imperium that the title iinperator waa given to its possessor. Far from being an emperor in the modern sense, he might be a consul or a pro- consid ; and there were, in fact, many imperatores, even after the title had been assumed as a pre- uomcn by Julius Csesar. It was this assumption which gi-adually gave to the title its modern signifi- cation. In republican times, it had followed the name, and indicated simply that its j)Ossessor was an imperator, or one possessed of the imperium ; now it preceded it, and signified that he who arrogated it to himself was the empeior. In this form it appears on the coins of the successors of Julius. After the times of the Antonines, the title grew into use as expressing the possessor of the sovereignty of the Roman world, in which sense Prbiceps also was frequently employed. In the introduction to the Institutes, Justinian uses both, in speaking of him- self, in the same paragraph. From the emperors of the West, the title passed to Charlemagne, the founder of the German empire. When the Carlo- vingian family ex])ired in the German branch, the imperial crown became elective, and continued to be so till it ceased — Francis II., who in 1804 had declared himself hereditary Emperor of Austria, having laid it down in 180C. In addition to the Emperor of Austria, there are now in Europe the Emi)eror of Russia and the Emperor of the French — the latter of whom, being an elected monarch, holds a position, in one respect at least, resembling that of the old emi)erors of the second Western Empire, with whom it is sometimes thought that he is not unwilling to be identified, EMPEROR MOTH {Saturnia pavonia minor), a moth of the same family {Bonibyci(hv) w^th th«. silk-worm moth, and of a genus t(? which the largest of lepidopterous insects belong. The R M- is the largest British lepidopterous insect. Ita expanse of wings is about three and a half inches. Each wing is ornamented with a large eye-like glassy and transparent spot, and such spots are exhibited by many of the genus. The Peacock Moth {iS. pavonia major), is the largest European species, and attains an expanse of five inches EMPETKACE^E— EMPOllITTM. across the wings Th3 cocoons of the E. M. are remarkable for being formed internally of stiff convergent elastic thi-eads, which readily permit the Emperor Moth, with Caterpillar, Pupa, and Cocoon. escape of the insect, but prevent the entrance of Intniders. The cocoons of this genus of moths are invested with silk, which in China and India is collected for use. See Silk and Silk-worm. EMPETRA'CE^. See Crowbeery. E'MPHASIS. See Accent. EMPHYSE'MA, an unnatural distension of a part with air. Emphysema of the cellular texture often takes place in the neighbourhood of woimds of the air-passages in the lungs, and is the consequence of an escape of air from these parts. Emphysema of the lungs is the consequence either of distension or of rupture of the air-vesicles, especially on the surface. It is rarely that emphy- sema is produced otherwise than mechanically ; but collections of fluid in a stato of decompo- sition sometimes give out gases, which penetrate and distend the textm-es with which they are in cont&ot. EMPHYTEU'SIS (Gr., an implanting), in the Roman law, a perpetual right in a piece of land, for which a yearly sum was paid to the superior or original proprietor. The emphyteusis much resembled our feudal holdings, so much so, indeed, that Craig and other Scotch writers a])ply the term to them. The sum paid to the superior was called the carbon emphyteuticus. The tenant handed down the right to his heirs, and was entitled to sell, but only on condition of giving the first offer to the dominus. The consent of the lord, however, was not necessary to entitle him to impignorate the emphyteuta for his debt. Justinian put the emphy- teusis and the ager veLfgalis on the same footing. The latter is the term applied to lands leased by the Konian state, by towns, ecclesiastical corporations, and by the vestal virgins. There were several ways in which the right ot^ emphyteusis might cease. If tlie tenant died without lieirs, it reverted to the dominus. He might also lose his right by injuring the property, l)y non-payment of his rent or public burdens, or by alienation without notice to the dominus. It was, of course, also in his power to renounce it. EMWKIC (Gr. empeirikos^ an experimentalist or searcher after facts in nature, from peirao^ I try). It is ditficult to say at what period, or in what manner, this word began to degenerate from its ori^nal meaning. Probably the idea was, that empiricLsm, or experimental science, excluded, because it did not require, the reasoning faculties for its cultivation and, therefore, the profession of empiricism came to be synonymous with vulgar ignorance. The empirics were a regular sect of ancient physicians in the time of Celsus and Galen, who gives us Pome insight into their modes of thuught and practice. They laid great stress on the unprejudiced observation of raturej and thought that, by a careful coUectioii of obsei ve(J facts forming a history, the coincidence of many observations would lead to unalterable prescriptions for certain cases. Ihe later adherents of the sohocl excluded all theoretical cTtiidy,, even that of analomy, and were guided solely by tradition and their individual experience. By an empiric in medicine ia now understood a man who, from want of theoretio knowledge, prescribes remedie? by guess according to the name of the disease or to ^dividual symptoms, without thinking of the constitution of the patient or other modifying cii'cumstances. What are called specifics are administered on this principle, or want of principla EMPrRICAL FO'RMULA, in Chemistry, is a mode of expressing the results of analysis by ele- mentary symbols. Hiere are numerous comj)ound substances, such as acetic acid, lactic acid, glucose, etc., which would all give the same result on analysis, and would be represented by the empirical formula CH2O, or one equivalent of carbon, two equiva- lents of hydrogen, and one equivalent of oxygen. The very different [jroperties of these bodies, all composed of the same elements, must be due to a different order of combination, whicli, to a great extent, may be rep- resented by rational formula as distinguished from em- pirical. Acetic acid is the hydrated oxide of acetyl, or may be regarded as a molecule of water (H2O), in which half the hydrogen is replaced by acetyl, C2H3O ; and C fT O ) this is expressed by the rational formula V O, but could not be implied by the empirical mode, either in the form of CH2O, or C2H4O2. EMPIRICAL LAWS are such as express relationships, which may be merely accidental, observed to subsist among phenomena, but which do not suggest or imply the explanation or cause of the production of the phenomena. They are usually tentative, and form stages in the ])rogress of dis- covery of causal laws. Bode's law of the distances of the planets from the sun may be accepted aa an example of an empirical law. E'MPOLI, a town of Tuscany, in the kingdom of Italy, is situated in a remarkably beautiful and fertile district on the left bank of the Arno, 16 miles west-south-west of Florence. It is a thrivdng town, is surrounded by walls flanked with towers, and although its streets are narrow, it is on the whole well built, and has some good squares. The most interesting building is the Collegiate Church, built in 1093, the tine original facade of which has suffered but little from modern improvemeni9i although the other portions of the building irgra considerably altered in 1738. This chuj-oh coiitaina several good paintings, and has also some eicePient specimens of sculptxure, among which is one by Donatello. E. has several manufactories o£ cotton, leather, straw- hats, and glass, a considerable trade in agricultural produce, and a weekly market of some importance. Pop. 6500. EMPO'RIXJM (Gr. emporion, trading-place). The word is derived from emporos, which signified in Homer's time a person who sailed in a siiip belong- ing to another, but latterly meant a wholesale merchant, as -opposed to a retailer, who was called EMPTION— EMYS. kapelos. An emporium thus came to be applied to the receptacles in which wholesale merchants stowed their goods in seaports and elsewhere, and thus corresponded to our warehouse, as opposed to a shop. E'MPTION. See Sale of Goods. EMPYE'MA (Gr.), an internal suppuration, a woi'd now applied exclusively to a collection of pus in the pleura, causing pressure of the lung, and often at- tended by hectit: fever. See Tleurisy. EMPYREU'MA (Gr. empyrerco, I kindle), the burned smell and acrid taste which result when vege- table or animal substances are decomposed by a strong heat. The cause of tbe smell and taste resides in an oil called empyreumatic, which does not exist natur- ally vti tao substance, but is formed by its decomposi- tion. EMS, usually called the Batlis of Ems, to distin- guish it from other places of the same name, a bathing-place known to the Romans, and celel>rated in Germany as early as the 14th century. It is situated a))0ut four miles from Coblenz, near the most picturesque parts of the Rhine, in a beautiful valley in tlie ])rovince ot" Ilessen, traversed by the navi- gable river Lalm, and sui roundcd by wooded bills. Top. (1875) 6104. Its warm mineral springs belong to tbe class containing soda. The only essential difference between the numerous s})rings is in the temperature varying from 24° to 4G° Reaumur, and in the greater or lesser amount of carbonic acid gas contained in them. The bathing establishments arc comfortably, and even luxuriously fitted up, and the same may be said of the hotels and private lodging-houses. EjMS, a river in the north-west of Germany, rise*- in Westphalia, at the southern base of the Teuto- burger Waid, and flowing first in a north-western, and then through the Hanoverian territories in a northern direction, empties itself into Dollart Bay, an estuary of the German Ocean, after a course of 210 mj^.es. Its chief affluents ai'e the Aa, the Haase, and the Leda. It is navigable for vessels of 100 tons as high as Pappenburg, which is 25 miles rip the river from Dollart Bay. The E. drains a basin of about 5000 square miles in extent. In 1818, it was connected by a canal with the Lippe, and thus with the Rhine, which gi'catly increased its importance with respect to commerce and navigation. E'MU {Dromaius — or Dromechis — Novce Hoi- landice), a very large bird, one of the Struthionidce or Brevipenne.% a native of Australia, and widely diffused over the southern parts of that continent and the adjacent islands. It is by some ornitholo- gists referred to the same genus with the cassowary, but the differences are very considerable ; the bill being horizontally depressed, whilst that of the cassov/ary is laterally compressed, the head feathered, and destitute of bony crest; the throat is nearly naked, and has no pendent wattles ; the feet are three-toed as in the cassowary, but the claws are nearly of equal length. The name emu or emeu was given by the older voyagers and naturalists to khe cassowary, but is now the invariable designation of tto Australian bird. The emu is even taller than Uie cassowiSry, which it resembles in the general character of its plumage. Its wings are mere rudiments hidden beneath the feathers of the body. Its colour i3 a dull brown, mottled with dingy gray; the young are striped with black. When assailed, it strikes backwards and obliquely with its feet, like the cassowary, and it is so powerfid that a stroke of its foot is said to be sufficient to break a man's leg. Dogs employed in hunting it are often injured by ito kicks, but well-trained dogs run in before it, 43 and spring at its neck. It cannot fly, but runs very fleetly. It is timid and peaceful, and trusts alto- gether to its speed for safety, unless hard pressed. In a wild state, it sometimes occurs in small flocks ; but it has now become rare in and around Emu, and Young. all the settled parts of Australia. The extinction of the species may, however, perhaps be prevented by its being preserved in a state of domestication ; as its flesh is excellent, and it is very easily domesticated, and breeds readily in that state. It has frequently bred in Britain. The eggs are six or seven in number, dark green ; the male performs the principal part of the incubation. The eggs are highly esteemed as food. The skin of the emu contains much oil — six or seven quarts are obtained from a single bird, and on this accoimt it has been much hunted in Australia. The food of the emu consists chiefly of roots, fruits, and herbage. Its oidy note is a drumming sound, which it freguently emits. EMU'LSIN", or SYNAPTASE, is a peculiar ferment present in the bitter and sweet almond, and which forms a constituent of all almond emulsions. When bitter almonds are bruised, and water added, the emidsin acts as a ferment on the araygdalin, and decomjjoses the latter into volatile oil of bitter almonds, prussic acid, grape-sugar, formic acid, and water (see Almonds, Volatile Oil, or Essential Oil of). The vegetable albumen of almonds ia almost entirely composed of emidsin ; which, when separated, is a white substance, soluble in water, and is distinguished by its remarkable power of causing the fermentation of amygdalin. It consists of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. EMU'LSION is the term applied to those preparations in pharmacy obtained by triturating certain substances with water, and where the pro- duct is a milky white opaque mixture of a gummy consistence, and composed more or less of oily particles floating in mecbanical suspension in the mucilaginous liquid. The true and oily eniulsions are those containing true oil, as the emulsion of bitter almonds, obtained by bruising the latter in a mortar with water ; and the/a^se, or not oily, where no true oil is suspended, as where camphor, balsams, or resins are rubbed up with the yolk of egg, mucil- age, or dilute spirit of wine. E'MYS, a genus of Miu-sh Tortoises, from which the whole family of Marsh Tortoises is sometimes called Emydce. The chelonians of this family are numerous, and widely diffused throughout the EMYS— ENAMEL. warmer parts of the world. They differ more in their habits than in their ai>pearance and structural characters from Land Tortoises. Their carapace, however, is more flattened, and their feet are more expanded and webbed, so that they swim ^vith great facility. They feed chiefly on animal food, as insects and molluscs, aquatic reptiles, and fishes, Bome of them even preying upon birds and mam- malia, which come within their reach. Two or three species of JSmydcs are natives of the south of Alligator Tortoise, in the act of seizing a "Water SpanieL Em-ope ; but two species are particularly abundant in North America, the Painted Tortoise [Emys picta), and the Alligator Tortoise [Eviysaura serpentina). The flesh of some, as Cistudo Europcea, is esteemed for food. This small species, about ten inches long, an inhabitant of lakes, marshes, and muddy places in the south and east of Europe, is sometimes kept in ponds, and fattened for the table on lettuce- leaves, bread, &c. ENA'MEL (Fr. email, originally esma'd, from the game root as smelt), the name given to vitrified I substances of various composition applied to the j surface of metals. Enamelling is practised (1) for ! purposes of utility, as in making the dial-plates of \ watches and clocks, coating the insides of culinary I vessels, &c., when it may be considered as belong- ! ing to the useful arts ; and also (2) for producing j objects of ornament and beauty — artistic designs, j figures, portraits, &c., when it belongs to the fine i arts. Both the composition of enamels and the ''< processes of applying them are intricate suljjects, j besides being in many cases kept secret by the inventors ; and we can only afford space for the most general indications of their nature. The basis of all enamels is an easily fusible colourless silicate or glass, to which the desired colour and the desired degree of opaqueness are imparted by mixtures of metallic oxides. The molten mass, after cooling, is reduced to a fine powder, and washed, and the moist paste is then usually spread with a spatula iil>on the surface of the metal ; the whole is then ' tsxposed in a fiurnace {Jired, as it is called) tiU the i wiaaiel is melted, when it adheres firmly to the | EQetul. The metal most commonly used as a ground for enamel is copper ; but for the finest kinds of j enamel work gold and silver are also used. | Artistic or Ornamental Enamellinc]. — This art is of I preat antiquity : it is proved by the remains found ' m Egypt to have been practised there ; from the | Egyptians it passed to the Greeks, and it was j extensively emj)loyed in decoration by the Romans ; m the reign of Augustus, the Roman architects I began to make use of coloured glass in their mosaic ' decorations ; various Roman antiquities, ornamented ! v/ith enamel, have been dug up in Britain, and it \ was adopted there by the Saxons and Ncrmans. A jewel found at Athelney, in Somersetshire, and now preserved in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, is proved by the inscription on it to havo been made by order of Alfred ; and there are vari- ous figures with draperies partly composed of coloured enamel on the sides of the gold cup given by King John to the corporation of Lynn in Norfolk. Enamelling has been practised from a remote period in the East, Persia, India, and China, under a separate and distinct development ; but tJiere is nothing from which it can be inferred thai the various methods were in use earlier than in Europe. As a decoration, enamelling was more popular, and attained to greater perfection in the middle ages, than in classic times. It was exten- sively practised at Byzantium from the 4th Tintil the 11th c, and afterwards in Italy in the Rhenish provinces, and at Limoges in the south of France, where it was successfully followed out till a com* paratively late period, in sevei'al different styles. The Byzantine and other early styles of enamel- work down to the 17th c. were generally employed in ornamenting objects connected with the service of the church, such as reliquaries, pyxes, church- candlesticks, crosiers, portable altars, the frontals ol altars, &c. ; the art was also greatly used in orna- menting jewellery, and vessels made for use or display in the mansions of the rich, such as salt- cellars, coffers, ewers, plateaux, candlesticks, &c. After this period, the art declined, until a new phase of it was invented in France, in which enamel is used as a gromid, and the figures are ];ainted with vitrified colom's on the surface of it. This is enamel- painting properly so called, the earlier styles being more of the nature of mosaics. Distingviished with reference to the manner of execution, enamel-work may be divided into four kinds : 1. Cloisonee, or enclosed, the method of the Byzantine school, in which the design is formed in a kind of metal case, generally gold or copper, and the several colom-s are separated by very delicate filigree gold bands, to prevent them rim- ning into each other. 2. Champ Leve, practised by the early Limoges school. In this process, the ornamental design, or the figures that were to be filled in with colour, were cut in the metal (generally copper) to some depth ; and wherever two colours met, a thin partition of the metal was left, to prevent the colours running into each other by fusion when fired. 3. Translucent enamel, which had its origin, and was brought to great perfection in Italy, was composed of transparent enamel of every variety of colour, laid in thin coatings over the design, which was incised on the metal, generally silver, the figure or figures being slightly raised in low relief, and marked with the graver, so as to allow the drawing of the contours to be seen through the ground, instead of being formed by the coarse lines of the copper, as in the early Limoges enamels. 4. Surface-painted enamels, which may be divided into two stages. The first stage, which is known as the late Limoge style, sprang up under Francis I. of France (1515 — 1547). In this the practice was to cover the metal plate with a coating of dai'k enamel for shadows, and to paint on this with white, sometimes set off with gold hatchings, sometimes haAdng the hands and other parts of the figures completely coloured. The designs were generally taken from well-known paintings or engravings of the period ; and the style of the designs was strongly influenced by that of the Italian artists employed by Francis I. This style soon degenerated, and gave place to the latest or miniature style, which was invented before che 43 ENAMEL OF TEETH— ENCAMPMENT. iWu^Jdle of the 16th c. by Jean Toutin, a goldsmith ftfl Bhatcaudun, and carried to the highest perfection by Jean Petitot, a miniature painter, who was born Ft Geneva, 1G07, and afterwards resided long in Eng- laitd, and then in Paris. In this the plate is covered wiih a white opaque enamel, and the colours are laid on this with a hair-pencil, and fixed by firing. The paints are prepared by grinding up coloured enamels wuth some kind of liquid, and when fused by the heat, they become incorporated with the enamel of the ground. The earlier enamellers of this school occupied themselves with miniatures, Bnuti-boxes, and other trinkets, till the period of the French Kevolution, when the art fell into disuse. It was, however, revived in England early in this century; and copies of portraits and pictures on a much larger scale than the French miniatures were executed with much success by the late H. Bone, PuA., and the late Charles Muss. Works of this description possess the obvious advantage of durability ; but those various qualities of texture, and the delicacy of colour for which good works in oil or water-colour are prized, cannot be attained in enamel copies ; and it is to be regretted that greater efforts are not made to turn enamelling to account in the way of ornamentation, for which it is so admu-ably fitted, rather than in attempts at imitating works classed strictly as within the bounds of fine art, and to put in ]>ractice the older styles of enamelling, particularly those denominated champ leve and transparent enamelling. Enamelled-ioare. — The liability of iron to oxida- tion by heat or moisture, and to corrosion even by fche weakest acids, has led to many attempts to coat it with a protecting surface. Ordinary tin ))late is the oldest and most familiar example of a partially Buccessful method. Since the beginning of the present century, many attempts have been made to cover iron with a vitreous surface, and several patents have been taken for such methods of enamelling. The chief difiiciilty in applying enamels to iron arises from the tendency of the metal to oxidise before it reaches the temperature at which the enamel fuses, and to become brittle from the oxide combming with the silica of the enamel. This action being superficial, the mischief is the greater IV proportion to the thinness of the iron. Therefore it is much easier to enamel thick cast-iron vessels than thin vessels made of sheet-iron. A glass may be made by combining either silicic acid or boracic acid with a base ; the latter fuses at a lower tempera- tnre than the former, but the glass is much dearer and not so durable as the silica glass. The enamels used for coating iron consist of a mixture of silica and borax, with various basic substances, such as roda, oxide of tin, alumina, oxide of lead, &c. The best enamel for such purposes with which we are acqiiainted, is that patented by C. H. Paris, and applied by Messi's Grifiiths and Browett of Birming- ham. It consists of 130 parts of flint-glass powdered, 20| parts of carbonate of soda, 12 of boracic acid. These are fused together to form a glass, then reduced to a very fine powder ; the article to which Ine.'^ are to be applied is carefully cleaned wdth acid, then brushed over with gum water, and the powder dusted upon it. The gum water is merely to cause adhesion. This coating is then carefully dried, and heated just to the point at which the powdered glass will fuse, and by running together, coat the surface. Messrs Griffiths and Browett have succeeded completely in enamelling their ' hollow \\ are,' which is made of sheet-iron, stamped and li-immered into the shape of saucepans, dishes, basins, &c., all in one piece, without any soldering. Clarke's, and other patent enamels, have been Buccessfijly applied to saucepans, pipes, and other 44 articles of cast iron. The writer has made many experiments upon enamelled- ware for laboratory and other purposes, and the conclusions arrived at are, that no enamelled-ware has yet been produced that will stand acids, or salts of metals that are electro- negative to ii-on ; or v^-ill bear suddenly heating to a high temperature, such as frying-pans, for example, are commonly subjected to ; but that with moderate care it may be used as saucepans and for boiling water, as dishes for baking, and may last for years. For vessels of any kind required to hold cold water, it is unobjectionable. The action of sudden heat is to expand the metal more tlian the enamel, and cause the lattei to peel off. Acids find their way through minute invisible pores, which exist in the best enamel ; and when once they reach the iron, they rajjidly spread between it and the enamel, and undermine and strip it off. This kind of action is curiously shewn by filling an enamelled vessel with a solution of sulphate of copper. The acid attacks the iron wherever pores exist, and little beads of metallic copper are deposited at all such spots ; these beads go on growing until they are large enough to be very plainly seen. This is the severest test for trying the continuity of enamelled surfaces, to which they can l)e subjected, as sulphate of copper will penetrate the glaze and body of ordinary earthen-ware. ENAMEL OF TEETH. See Teeth. ENA'RA, or ENA'RE, a lake of Russia in cno extreme north of Finland, is situated in lat. 68° 30' —or 10' N., and long. 27° 30'— 28° 45' E. It has an area of 1200 square miles, and has numerous islands. Its superfluous waters are discharged into the Arctic Ocean. ENA'REA, a country of Africa south of Abyssinia, is situated within lat. 7°— 9° N., and long. 3G°— 38' E., biit its limits have not yet been definitely ascer- tained. It is inhabited by a portion of the Gallas tril)es, who, owing to the continued communication which they keep uj) with Abyssinia, and also to the residence of many Mohammedan merchants among them, are much more civilised than the Gallas usually are. Their government is a heredi- tary and absolute monarchy. The principal rivers of E. are the Gibbe and the Dodesa. Its coffee- plantations are so extensive as to deserve the name of woods ; they occur chiefly along the banks of the Gibbe. E. is remarkable for its manufactures of ornamented arms, and of cloths Avith embroidered borders. Besides these, it exports slaves, gold, ivory, civet, and skins, into Abyssinia. The king and a small portion of the population are Mohammedans, and it is said that native Christians have been foimd here. The capital is Saka, a 'place of considerable importance, near the river Gibbe. ENARTHRO'SIS is the term used by anatomical writers to express the kind of Joint ;q. v.) which admits of the most extensive range of motion. From the mode of connection and the form of the bones in this articulation, it is commonly called the ball- and-socket joint. It occurs in the hip and shoulder joints. ENCA'MPMENT (Lat. campus, a plain) is a lodgment or home for soldiers in the field. There are intrenched camps, where an army is intended to be kept some time, protected against the enemy ; Jly^ i/i(7 camps, for brief occupation; camps of position^ bearing relation to the strategy of the commander ; and camps of instruction, to habituate the troops tC the duties and fatigues of war. Under Camp has been given an account of the maimer in which Roman camps were constructed. It is probable that the same general plan was adhered ENCAUSTIC PAINTING— ENCAUSTIC TILES. to until tlie invention of gunpowder. When cannon came to be used, however, a new arrangement of camp became necessary, to shield the army from long-range projectiles. Everything, indeed, relating to attack and defence, especially to the latter, is taken into account in choosing the locality of a camp. A healthy site, good water, security from floods, and plenty of fuel and forage, are the chief requisites in a good encampment. The British army, when in the field, usually en- camps by brigades or divisions, roads and paths being arranged before the troops arrive. The infantry, cavalry, and artillery are so placed as to defend each other in the event of a sudden attack. There is a cbain of guards all round the spot ; and the park of artillery is placed behind the troops. The suttlers and servants are in the rear of the camp, but not beyond the limits of the rear-guard. The tents of the infantry are ranged in rows perpendicular to the front, each row containing the tents (q. v.) for one company. The circular tents, now much used, accommodate fifteen men each. The cavalry- are in like manner encamped in rows; but each circular tent accommodates only twelve men. There are streets or roads between the rows of tents, of regulated width ; and the officers' tents are at a given distance behind those of the men : the subalterns' tents being nearest to those of the com- panies to which they respectively belong. As a general rule, the line of the whole encampment is made to correspond as nearly as practicable with that in which the troops are intended to engage the enemy when fighting is renewed; to which end the tents of each battalion are not allowed to occupy a greater space in front than the battalion itself would cover when in order of battle. Under most circumstances, in modem warfare, an encampment is not defended by artificial construc- tions ; the commander seeks security for his troops in streams, marshes, difficult surface of country, and numerous advanced posts. Sometimes, how- ever, more extensive defence-works are necessary ; and then we have an example of an intrenclietl camp, which becomes a fortified enclosure. The chief uses of such a camp are— to secure an army while covering a siege, or in winter- quarters, to accommodate a corps of observation while the active army is engaged elsewhere ; or to defend a position near a fortified place. Care is taken that the site is not commanded by neighbouring hills. All villages are occupied, and all obstacles removed, within a distance of half a mile or a mile. The area of ground selected is large enough to con- tain the necessary store of arms, ammunition, food, fuel, forage, and water, and to enable the troops to manceuvre. The junction of two rivers is often [Selected as a favourable spot. Vainous defence- works are constructed around or near the spot, such as coniiniious earth-works, rcdouljts, filches, &c. The position held by the allies outside Sebastopol, during the long intei-vals when the cannonading was si'spended, had many of the characteristics of an k trenched camp. Camps of instruction may be either temporary or permanent. Of the former kind was the camp formed at Chobham in Surrey in 185.3, merely for the summer months, to exercise certain regiments in evohitions. Anotlier was formed at Shornclifle in Kent in 1855, at first to receive troops of the Foreign Legion; but it has since been improved to the condition of a [)crinanent camp. The great establishment at Alder- sliott is described in a separate article, Aldershott Cami*. Since that article was written, the total CN\)cnditure has risen to nearly a million sterling, tlie camp lias been improved in all particulars, and tho small agricultural village of Aldershott has grown into an important commercial town, witM railway stations, hotels, market-house, handsome shops, &c. A large permanent camp has also been established in Ireland, on a plain called the Curragb of Kildare, and thei^e are smaller ones at Pembroke and Colchester. ENCAU'STIC PAINTING (Gr. encaustihe, in fired, or fixed by fire), a manner of painting practised by the ancients. As the name implied that fire was used in the execution, some have been led to suppose that encaustic painting was the same as enamel painting ; but notices by Pliny and other writers shew clearly that it was a species of paint- ing in which the chief ingredient used for uniting and fixing the colours was wax dissolved by heat. Various attempts have been made in modern times to revive it. About the middle of last century. Count Ci^ylus and M. BacheHer, and in 1792, Mis3 Greenland, made various experiments with this view. The count laid the result of his experiments before the Academies of Painting and of Sciences in Paris ; and the ingenious lady was rewarded with a gold pallet by the Society for the Encouragement of Arts in London ; but the success of these efi"orts seems to have been but temporary. Encaustic painting was, however, some years ago again taken up in Germany under the patronage of the late king of Bavaria, who had a number of important works executed in this way. The colours are ground, and laid on with a vehicle composed principally of wax. Miss Greenland dissolved gum-arabic in water, afterwards adding gum-mastic, which was dissolved by stirring and boiling, and when the mixtm-e had reached the boiling point, she put in the wax. After painting the j^icture, she passed a thin coat- ing of melted wax over it with a hard brush, and then drew over the surface an iron — for ironing linen — moderately heated. After the picture cooled, it was rubbed with a fine linen cloth. The Ger- man method is somewhat similar, but some other ingredients are used ; among these, potash with the wax ; and in place of an iron being passed over the surface, the wax is brought to the surface by a vessel containing fire being held at a little distance from the picture. Encaustic painting ia not likely to come into general use, for neither in imparting brilliancy to the colours, facility foT execiition, nor durability, is- it to be compared with oil-painting. ENCAUSTIC TILES, ornamental tiles mad« of an earthen- ware intermediate in quality between common tiles and porcelain, and now extensively used for paving churches, halls, conservatories, &c. They are of two kinds — plain or 'dry tiles,' and figured tiles. The former are square or triangular, and of different colours, so that when laid they may form a mosaic. The triangular are most effective; and by means of a few colours, a great variety of chromatic geometrical patterns may be produced. These ' dry tiles ' are made by placing the coloured clay in a powdered state in strong steel moulds, and subjecting it to a pressure of several himdred tons, by means of a plunger fitting accurately into the mould. A depth of three inches of powder is com- j)ressed into a tile of one inch in thickness. The bottom of the mould is usually ribbed, to give the tile a corresponding surface, in order to afford a better hold for the mortar. The compressed clay is then removed, heated in a hot chamber, fired, and glazed if required. Slabs and panels of various kinds, shirt studs and buttons, and a variety of ornamental articles, are made in this manner. See Pottery and Porcelain. The figured tiles are made in a different manner. The cLvY is worked in a moist state, but veiy 45 ENCEINTE— ENCRINITES. stiff, first into sjuare blocks. These are cut into square slices or slabs by passing a wire through them; upon this is put a facing of line clay of the colour of the ground of the pattern— another layer, of a di/Terent quality of clay, is sometimes added to the bottom, to prevent warping. It is tlien I)la(;ed in a mould, with a plaster of Paris slab lonning the top, on the under surface of which is the pattern in relief. This slab is pressed down, and thus forms a deep impression of the pattern which is to be produced in another colonr. The clay of the requisite colour to form tlie pattern is now poured, in a semi-fluid state, into this depres- Bion, and allowed to flow over the whole face of the tile; then it is set aside until dry enough to have its surface scraped and smoothed on a whirling table. By this means, the superfluous clay is removed, and the pattern is brought out quite sharp, the two colours of clay forming one smooth flat surface. The tile is then dried and fired. Tiles of this kind were used for paving churches in England, Flanders, and France, in the 16th c, and earlier, but have since fallen into disuse. Encaustic tiles are made by Minton & Co., of Stoke-upon-Trent, Eng., and enjoy the higliest reputation. To them oeloug the honour of lia\ iug restored this mcdiuival trt by following the ancient forms and patterns, and inventing new methods of producing them. Their introduction has been regarded as tlie greatest step in decorative architecture which the ceramic art lias made in England, ENCEINTE (Fr.), in Fortification, denotes generally the whole area of a fortified jdace. rro[)erly, however, it means a cincture or girdle, and in this sense the enceinte signifies the principal wall or rampart encircling the place, comprising the cui'tain and bastions, and having the main ditch immediately outside it. ENCHO'lllAL CHARACTERS. See Hiero- glyphics. E'NCKE, JoH. Franz, the well-known astron- omer, was born September 23, 1791, at Hamburg, where his father was a clergyman. After studying at Gijttingen, he sei-ved, during the campaign of 1813 — 1814, in the artillery of the Hanseatic legion, and in 1815, in the Prussian army, as lieutenant of artillery. On the establishment of peace, he left the service, and became assistant, and afterwards prin- cipal astronomer in the observatory of Seeberg, near Gotha. In 1825, chiefly at the instigation of Bessel, he was called to Berlin as successor to Tralles, in the secretaiyship of the Academy of Sciences, and as director of the observatory. While at Gotha, the astronomical prize offered l)y Cotta was awarded to E. by the judges Gauss and Olbers, for his deter- mination of the orbit of the comet of 1680. Tliis led him to solve another pro]>lem, which had been pro- posed along with the other — viz., the distance of the sun. The solution, by means of the two transits of V^enus in 1761 and 1769, is published in two sej)arate tracts {Die Entfenmng der Sonne, Gotha, 1822—1824). In 1819, he proved that the comet discovered by Pons, November 26, 1818, revolved in the hitherto incredibly short period of about 1200 days, and had been already observed in 1786, 1795, and 1805. It has since gone by the name of E.'s comet, and has appeared regularly ; the period of its recurrence being 3-29 years, or about 3^% years. See Comets. E.'s researches on this subject are con- tained in the Transactions of the Berlin Academ)/. In 1830, he undertook the editing of the Berlin Astronomical Almanac, in which he has published a number of astronomical treatises. Three volumes have appeared of Astronomical Observations at tlie Berlin Ob-'aedic oollection of ENCYCLOP^IA. knowledge, remarkable for its /^rasp and complete- ness, and which stiU lies in MS. in the Escorial of Spain. Among the earliest and most noted of the modern encyclopa3dias was that of Joliann Heinrich Alsted, or Alstedius, which appeared in Germany in two volumes in 1630. It consisted of 35 books in all, of which the first four contained an explana- tion of the nature of the rest. Then followed six on philology, ten on specnlative, and four on practical philosophy ; three on theology, j uris- pmdence, and medicine ; three on the mechanical arts ; and live on history, chronology, and miscel- laneous topics. Two important French works belong to this century — the one is Louis Moreri's Grand Dictionnaire Jlutorique et Critique, of which the first edition apjicared at Paris in 1673, and the last in 1759 ; the other, Peter Bayle's famous Dictionnaire Historique et Critique, i)ublished at Kotterdam, in 4 vols., 1697. The first encyclopjedic dictionary, so far as known, appeared in Germany as the Lexicon Universale of Hoffmann (2 vols., Basel) in 1677. Some time after thei'e appeared in France Thomas Corneille's Dictionnaire des Arts et de.s Sciences, 2 vols. (Paris, 1694). Dictionaries limited to the exi)lanation of technical terms had long ])een common throughout Em-ope ; but previous to Hoffmann's work, no attempt had been made to bring the whole body of science and art under the lexicography form. A highly successfid attempt identical in kind, and attributable in idea, it may be, to the German work just alluded to, was the Lexicon Technlctim of Dr Harris, 2 vols, folio (Lon- don, 171,0), which may fairly be regarded as the })arent of all the dictionaries of arts and sciences that have since api)eared in England. The Ct/clo- pa;dia of Ephraim Cliambers, published in 1728, in two very large folio volumes, presents tlie next marked advance in the construction of encyclo- psedical dictionaries. This one was brought out with considerable claims to originality of arrange- ment. The author endeavoiu-ed to communicate to his alphabetical materials something of the interest of a 'continuous discourse,' by an elaborate system of cross references. Another pecidiarity of this cyclopedia was, that its author, in the details of mathematical and physical science, gave only con- clusions and not processes of demonstration. It was long a very popular work. The largest and most comprehensive of the successors to Hoffmann's book in Germany, was Zedler's Universal Lexicon, 64 vols. (Leip. 1732 — 1750). In point of comprehen- siveness, this work should be classed with the encyclopaedias proper, there being almost nothing then known that may not be found in it. Perhaps the strongest impulse, if not in all respects the best, communicated by this successfid attempt of Ephraim Chambers, was given to the French mind through D'Alembert and Diderot. Their Encyclo- p$die was really, though not professedly, foun^^"*! opon E. Chambers's book, which an Englishman liamed Mills had translated between 1743 and 1745, though the French version of it never was published. The great French Lncyclopedle was written by various authors of higli literary and philosophical attainments, but of whom nearly all were tainted too much with the most im})ractica))le revolutionary ideas, besides holding for the most part extremely Bceptical opinions conceniing reli^^ion. They excluded both biography and history from its scope, yet infused into it more originality, depth, and ability than ever had a])peared before within the boards of an encyclojjajdical dictionary. It appeared at Paris in 28 vols, between the years 1751 — 1772, and was followed by a Supplement in five vols. (Am^t. 1776 — 1777), n,nd an analytical index in two vols. (Paris, 1780). The work was every- 48 where received with the greatest enthusiasm, and it secured a place in the literary history of the nation for the editors and principal writers, who are ordinarily known as the Enqjclopedists of France. They were D'Alembert and Diderot the editors. Pousseau, Grimm, Dumarsais, Voltaire, Baron d'Holbach, and Jan court. [See La Po lie's Esprit de V Encyclo I )edie (Paris, 1768) ; and Voltaire's Ques- tions sur V Encyclopedie (Paris, 1770).] D'Alem- bert's celebrated preliminarj' discourse was garljled in various i)retentious works of thi.i> class pub- lished for the most part in England ; such were Barrow's New and Universal Dictionary of Aria and Sciences, 1 vol. folio, 1751 ; and the Com- plete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, by Croker, WiUiams, and Clerk, 3 vols, folio, 1766. A some- what better, though rather illogical performance was published by a ' Society of Gentlemen ' in 1754 in four 8vo volumes, generally known as Owen's Dictionary, from the name of the publisher of it. Ilie first rude outline of the ponderous and solid Encychpcedia Britannica was laid down in the year 1771, in three volumes, but it was nothing more than a dictionaiy of arts and sciences ; it had not yet attained to its subsequent universality. Such is a brief outline of the earlier kind of encyclopjedias. 2. The first encyclopaedia proi)er that demands our attention is the Encyclopoidia Britannica, of which the 2d comparatively complete edition, containing biographical and historical articles, appeared in 10 vols, between 1776 and 1783 ; the 3d edition was completed in 18 vols, in 1797 ; the 4th edition, in 20 vols., in 1810 ; the 5ch and 6th editions (which were not true reprints), and supplements in 6 vols., appeared between 1815 — 1824; the 7th edition, in 21 vols., in 1830—1842; and the 8th and last edition, in 21 vols., 1852— 1860. The method pursued by this work, whUo thoroughly alphabetical, consists in a combination of the systematic and the particular. In few instances is any science broken up into fractional parts ; nearly all the sciences are given in treatises as they severally occur in the order of the alphabet. In some cases, however, where obscurity might result from such a plan, the other method is adopted. A marked feature of this work, is the number of complete treatises and dissertations which it con- tains by men of European name. From first to last, this Encyclopaedia has been executed and published in Edinburgh, the literary reputation of which it has helped in no small degree to increase. The next encyclopaedia that we must notice is the Encyclopyedie Methodlque par Ordre des Matleres, which was begun in 1781, and was not finished tin 1832, when it apjieared in 201 volumes. Each subject is treated in a separate volume or series of volumes, so that the work is a collection of separate dictionaries, more, extensive than any ency- clopaedic work that has yet appeared. A work of higher scientific value, however, and even of a more varied nature, has been in progress for nearly haK a century in Germany, nndertakeu originally by Professors Ersch and Gruber in 1818, and which has since continued to appear, in three several sections of the alphabet, up to the present time. There have already (1861) appeared of this gi'eat Allgemeine Encyclopddie der WissenscJuxft und Kiinste some 125 volumes. In 1802, Dr Abraham liees projected an extended and improved edition of Ephraim Chambers's Cyclop(cdla, which was completed in 45 volumes in 1819. The system of cross references peculiar to E. Chambers is very effectually carried out in this book ; but besides including a great accession of historical and bio- graphical detail, it contained a large number of papers, j)repared by competent writers, on subjects ENCYCLOPEDISTS— END. with which their life had rendered them famihar. An >ther work of considerable merit, which began to api-ear in 1810, was Brewster's Ed'mbvrcjh Enajclo- p(p.dm^ edited by tlie late Sir D.Mvid Brewster, and completed in 18 volumes in 1830. It wns, if nny- thmg, too much given up to physical science, even for the taste of the 19th century. In 1812, a great impetus was given to encyclopedic publications by the appearance of the Conversations- Lexicon of F. A. Brock haus of Leipsic. It has since gone through as many as ten editions, the last issue of it, amount- ing to 15 volumes, having appeared between 1851 an'd 1855. It has been translated into nearly all the civilised languages of Europe ; no fewer than four English works of the kiiid being professedly f oimded on it: these are the Encyclopedia Americana, m 14 vols. (Phila., 1829 — 1848) ; the Popular Encyclopedia, 1 vols. (Glasgow, 1841) ; Apple ton's new ^mer^■m?^ Cy- clopedia, 16 vols. (N. Y., 1857—1863), and annual sup- plements (1861—1869); and Chambers' Encyclopedia, 10 vols. (Edin. and Phila., 1861—1868), and revised editio« in 1870 by J. B. Lippincott & Co. The latter has been pronounced ' one of the most convenient, re- liable, and useful compends of knowledge in existence.' The next encyclopaedic work which appeared after the Conversations-Lexicon, was one projected accord- ing to an original philosophic plan by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, in 1818, and finished in 1845, in 30 volumes. This Encyclopcedia Metropolitana was arranged in four divisions : 1st, the pure sciences ; 2d, the mixed and applied sciences ; 3d, biography and history ; and 4th, miscellaneous and^ lexico- graphic articles. The contributions to the first two divisions were written by persons of i^ecognised ability, and they have nearly all been published Bcparately in 8vo volumes since the Metropolitana appeared. If the book had any fault, it was that the plan of it was too rigidly philosophical, and therefore not adapted to be consulted dictionary fashion ; for although in one sense the alphabetic arrangement, by its jumble of subjects, is most heterogeneous and irrational, it recommends itself to popidar acceptance by its extreme simplicity ; and in point of fact, no encyclopredia has ever been thoroughly popular that has not been executed on the plan of a single alphabet, in which all subjects, however various, are included. Next appeared the Penny Cyclopcedia of the Society for the Diffusion of (Jseful Knowledge, which was begun in 1833, and completed in 1843, in 28 volumes. This work was perhaps, at the time it appeared, the most useful and convenient, for the purjioses of general consultation, of any encyclopaedical treatise that had ever been issued. The English Cyclopcedia is founded on the copyright of the Penny Cyclopcedia, but is rearranged into four great divisions, which are each given in the order of the alphabet, viz., geography, natural history, biography, and arts and scic-ioes. This publication was begun in 1853, and was com- pleted in 18G1 in 22 volumes. Among a host of abridgments and smaller publications of this char- acter which have appeared in the course of the present century, may be mentioned Wilkes's Ency- clopcedia Ijondonensis, in 24 vols. 4to (Lond. 1810 • — 1829) ; the Encyclopcedia Perthensls, in 23 vols. (Edinburgh, 1810) ; and the London Ency clopcedia, '22 vols. (Lond. 1829). The French have likewise published an Encyclopedie des Gens da Monde, in 22 vols. 8vo (Par. 1833—1844) ; an EncyclojMe Moderne, which, with its Supplement, occupies 36 vols. 8vo (Par. 1857) ; and a Dictlonnaire de la Conversation et de la Jjccture, in 68 vols. (Par. 1839 — 1851), of which a new edition, begun in 1851, is still in progress. The last of these is to a large exteni- based on the Conversations- Lexicon of Brockhaus. The most notable of the other German IbO encyclopaedias are Meyer's Grosse Conversatlona Lexicon, in 38 vols., 1840 — 1852, besides 6 volumea of a Sup})lement and 8 volumes of plates, &c., in 1853 — 1855; and Pierer's Universal Lexicon, in 34 vols. (Altenburg, 1840—1840), a new and improved edition of which began to appear in 1851. In addition to these, there are at present (1861) several encyclopaedias in course of publication in other European countries; all of which are based u])ori the Conversations-Lexicon — viz., the Enciclopedia Espafiola, begun at Madrid in 1842; the Nuova Enciclopedia Popolare lialiana, begun at Turin in 1856; the Ahnenn. Dansk Konversations- Lexicon (Copeiihagen, 1849) ; and the Svemht Konversa- tions-Lexikon, begun at Stockholm in 1 845 ; besideji others in Russia, Hungary, the Netherlands, &c. 3. We have now to direct attention briefly to those books that are dictionaries or encycloptediaa for one branch of knowledge. These works have been always very numerous, both in this country and on the continent. Such are the Biographie Universelle (commenced in 1811 ; new edition, 1854, still going on) ; Chalmers's Biographical Dictionary^ in 32 vols. (1812—1817); the Bictionnaire des Sciences Medicates, 60 vols. (Par. 1812—1822); Nouveau Bictionnaire d'llistoire Naturelle, 36 vols. (Par. 1816—1819) ; F. Cuvier's Bictionnaire de» Sciences Naturelles, 61 vols, text, 10 vols, plates, (1816 — 1845); Bictionnaire de V Industrie, &c., 10 vols. (Par. 1831—1841) ; M'Cidloch's Comviercicd Bictionary (2d edition, 1834 ; last edition, 1869) ; M'CuUoch's Geographical Bictionary (1st edition, 1841 ; new edition, 1866); the Bictionary of Prac- tical Medicine, 3 vols. (Lond. 1844— 1858) ;* Cham- bers's Cyclopcedia of English Literature (1843 ; new edition, 1858) ; Creasy's Encyclopcedia of Civil Engi- neering (1847); Johnston's Gazetteer (1850; new edition, 1859). Morton's Cyclopcedia of Agriculture, 2 vols. (1851) ; the Nouvelle Biographie G&nSrale (begun in 1 853) ; Lippincott's Gazetteer of the United States (Phila., 1854); S. Austin Allibone's Criticcd Dictionary of British and American Authors, 3 vols. 8vo. (Phila., the 1st issued in 1858, the 2d and 3d in 1870) ; Lippincott's Gazetteer of the World, 1st edition (Phila., 1855, 2d edition, revised, 1866); Lippincott's (Thomas') Universal Pronouncing Dictionary of Bi- ography and Mythology, 2 vols. (Phila., 1870). Nor must we overlook the dictionaries of Dr. Win. Smith, viz. : the Dictionary of Greek and Poman Biography and Mythology, 3 vols. (1843—1848, new ed., 1849— 1851) ; the Dictionary of Greek and Poman Antiqui' ties, 1 vol. (1848) ; the Dictionary of Greek and Po- man Geography, 2 vols. (1854 — 1857); the Dictionary of the Bible, 2 vols. (1860—1851) ; and Watts' Dic- tionary of Chemistry, 5 vols. (1863—1869). These dictionaries are perhaps the most splendid specimens of encyclopedias devoted to s])ecial branches of knoAvledge that have anywhere appeared. Sec Dictionaey. ENCYCL0P:^DISTS. See E^^ cyclopedia. END. This familiar word is concerned in some important discussions, and especially in Ethics. It is in the sense of ' the thing aimed at,' the oljject, purpose, or goal of human action, that we have here to consider it. There is a fundamental contrast between Science and Art, Knowledge and Practice. Science, or Knowledge, embraces the general order of the universe, and states that order in the form by which we can take in as much as possible in one view ; it is the fidlest intellectual comprehension of the phenomena of nature that the mind can attain to. Art, or Practice, on the other hand, selects and appropriates certain items of knowledge, so aa to subserve some usefid purpose, some exigency of human life. Thus, Agi'icidture, Navigation, I>aw, Politics, Education are all branches of Practioe , 4» ENDEMIC— ENDIVE. they involve knowledge, but in strict subordination to their several purposes. The navigator stxidies Astronomy, not with a view to enlighten his under- standing as to the mysteries of the solar system and the starry sphere, but with a view to the guidance of his course in the sea. In short, to an Art (the word is not here used in the narrow sense of a Fine Art), or a department of Practice, belongs in the first place the consideration of the end. Every Art has its end, which is its distinction from every other. In most of the arts, the end is clear and "^unmistakable : we all know what is expected of a builder, a soldier, or a judge ; the only question is how to obtain the knowledge requisite for adequately performing each separate function. But there are some departments where the end itself is not agreed upon, which casts a peculiar difficulty on the 2>ractice. Thus, it was remarked under Civilisation, that the end of the whole mechanism of Human Society, including Politics, fee, is differently viewed by different minds. But it is in the one special Department of Morality that the consideration of the end is of most vital consequence. This feature of the ethical problem has been very little adverted to in modem dis- cussious, while the ancient philosophers kei)t it more prominently before them. Aristotle begins his Ethics by remarking that every art aims at some good ; most arts, as medicine, ship-building, general- ship, having limited or partial ends ; wliile some comprehend much wider ends than others. The largest end of all is the good of mankind collectively. Hence he goes on to inquire what is the highest food of man, and finds that happiness is neither *leasure, nor Honour, nor Virtue (by itself), nor Wealth, but that it is * an energy of the soul according to virtue;' activity, in opposition to Oriental notions of luxurious repose, being an essen- tial in his eyes. He has next, therefore, to inquire what 'virtue' is, according to which a man must employ his activity — a question of no easy solution. S);iil, the discussion brings out the one fact, that Morahty is a branch of Practice, but unlike most arts in this, that the end is peculiarly difficult to determine precisely. Accordingly, it is necessary to have in connection with it a set of discussions, called by Mr J. S. Mill (Logic, concluding chapter) Teleology, or the Doctrine of Ends, corresponding to what the German metaphysicians have termed the Principles of Practical Keason. The various theories of Moral Obligation differ in their statement of the end of Morality : according to one, it is the self- interest of the individual ; according to another, the interest of mankind on the whole. The most prevalent theory is the harmonising with a certain inward sentiment called the Moral Sense. See Ethics. ENDE'MIO (from en, among, and demos, the people), a term applied to diseases which afl'ect numbers of persons sinudtaneously, l^ut so as to shew a connection with localities as well as with their inhal)itants. Endemic diseases are usually spoken of as contrasted with Epidemic (q. v.) and Sporadic (q. V.) ; the first term indicating that a disease infests habitually the population within certain geographical limits, and also that it is incapable of being transferred or communicated beyond those limits ; while, on the other hand, a disease is termed epidemic if it is transmitted without reference to locality ; and sj)oradic if it occurs in isolated instances only. The theory, accordingly, of endemic diseases is, that they are in some way or other soanected with the soil — the result of terrestrial ipfiuences, or mias'ins — of poisons generated within ihe earth, or near its surface, and diffused through tlie air, so as to be weakened in proportion to the 50 distance from the source ci the poison. Snob poisons are always observed io be more virulent in smnmer than in winter — more dangerous at night, when the vapours are concentiated on tne surface of the soil, than in the day-time — more abundant in the plains, and in close confined places, than at a certain degree of elevation — more easily carried in the direction of the wind than in the opposite — and very often arrested altogether by water, or l)y a belt of forest or other luxuriant vegetation. In all these partion- lars, endemic are different from epidemic diseases, which bear no very obvious relation to the soil, and are not observed to be considerably modified either by the prevailing winds or the period of the day or night at which exposure to their influence takes place. The most marked ty])e oi an endemic disease is Ague (q. v.) or Intermittent Fever, which has all the habits mentioned a])ovo, and is to so marked a degree a denizen of particular tracts of countvy as to lead to their being in some instances almost depopulated. Many places in Italy are a prey to the aria cattiva or malaria, as it is popularly called ; and hence, no doubt, even more than for protection from human foes, the custom so prevalent in that country of building the villages on the tops of hills, so as to secure immu- nity from the poisonous vapours raised by the solar heat from the plains lying on either side at the base of the Ai)enniueg, Terrestrial miasms, or such. poisons as generate endemic diseases, are usually found in the neighbourhood of marshy flats, or of uncultivated tracts of land at the confluence of rivers, or where a delta, or a v/ide channel subject to overflow, is formed at the upper end of a lake. In proportion, too, as the heat of the sim is greater, the tendency to malarious emanations is increased ; and in the tropics, accordingly, large tracts of jungle and forest are often rendered absolutely uninhalnt- able and almost impassable at certain seasons, by the imnsible and odourless germs of inter- mittent, remittent, and even continued Fevers (q. v.), which are more fatal and immanageable than the most terrible epidemic pestilences to those who are exposed to them. Such diseases are almost always sudden in their mode of attack, and they indicate the range of their influence by the number of persons attacked ; but they are wholly free in most cases from the suspicion of commimication by Contagion (q. v.), which is so frequent in the case of epidemic diseases. The poison hitherto termed malaria is now believed to arise from the reception and growth of minute vegetable spores in the human system. Tlieir sj)rcad is almost invariably checked by drainage and cultivation of the soil ; and hence many places in Europe, formerly very pro- ductive of endemic diseases, have now ceased to be so, as in the case of the Tuscan Maremma, ami some parts of Kent and Essex, and of the Lothians in Scotland. E'NDERBY LAND, discovered by Biscoe m 18.31, lies in lat. 67° oO' S., and long. 50° E. It appeared to the discoverer to be of considerable extent, and was closely bound by field ice, but owing to stress of weather and the extreme cold, it coidd not be ajiproached within 20 or 30 miles, and Biscoe was thus unable to say whether the land he discovered was an island or a strip of continentaJ coast. E'NDIVE {Cichorium Endivia), an annual or biennial plant, of the same genus with Chicory (q. v.), said to be a native of China and Japan, but which is naturalised in thft Levant, and has long been in cultivation as a garden vegetable ; it^ blanched root-leaves beimj much used as a salad. ENDOCAKDITIS—ENDOSMOSE. and also sometimes for stewing cand in soups. The root-leaves are numerous, smooth, wavy at the maro-iu. The varieties with much curled leaves are preferred. Some of the varieties boll of themselves, and are thus blanched ; others require to be tied up. In Britain, the seed is usually sown from the middle of JNIay to the end of June, and l)y a little care and protection, plants may be kept lit for use thrcughoat most of the winter. ENDOCARDI'TIS, inflammation or disease of the internal surface of the heart, resulting in the deposit of fibrin upon the valves. See Heart, Diseases op. ENDO'GENOUS PLANTS, or ENDOGENS (Gr. endon, within, and genos, birth or origin), one of the great classes into which the vegetable kingdom is divided, the others recei\ang the corre- sponding designations of Exogenous Plants and Acrogenous Plants. The character from which this designation is derived is found in the structure of the stem, which does not increase in thickness by additional layers on the outside like the exogenous stem, familiarly illustrated in all the trees of the colder parts of the world, but receives its additions of woody matter in the interior ; and in general does not continue to increase indefinitely in thick- ness like the exogenous stem, but is arrested when a cei-tain thickness has been attained, different in different species, and afterwards increases only in length. When a transverse section is made of an Transverse and Vertical Sections of Endogenous Stem. endogenous stem, numerous bundles of vessels are Been disi)ersed irregularly in cellular tissue, the younger and softer jjarts of the stem exhibiting the cellular tissue in greatest proportion, the older and lower parts chiefly abounding in vascular bundles, which are, however, somewhat scattered in the central part of the stem, and are densely aggiegated towards the circumference, there, in the pahns generally, forming very hard wood, in some of them wood so hard that it cannot be cut with a hatchet. The stems of endogenous plants in the far greater number of cases produce terminal buds only, and not lateral buds, and are therefore un- brauchecL From the bases of the leaves, definite bundles of vascidar tissue converge towards the centre ; but these extending downwards extend also outwards, and thus an interlacing of fibres takes place, which contributes not a little to the strength and compactness of the wood in the lower part of the stem. As the fibres extend down- wards, they also become attenuated, spiral and porous vessels disappearing, and nothing but the most ligneous substance remaining. It is the har- dening of the outer part of the stem which arrests its increase in thickness. Endogenous stems have uot a distinct pith, nor any medullary rays. When the central part is soft and pith-like, yet it is not distinctly separated from the surrounding wood, and has no medullary sheath. In many endogenous plants, as in the greater number of grasses, the centre of the stem is hollow. This is uot the case at first, when the st<3m begins to grow; and when any cause makes the growth of the stem unusually slow, so that it is much stunted, it remains solid ; the fistular character of the stem is the result of its rapid growth, rui)turing the cells of the central portion, which finally disap])ear. Endo- genous stems have no canddum and no i)roper bark. There is, indeed, a cellular epidermis ; and there is also within it, and exterior to the hardest woody part of the stem, a couii)aratively soft layer of a corky substance, which is sometimes called bark, soiuetimes false bark, which does not separabt; from the wood below it without leaving myriads of little broken threads, the ends of the fil^res which have extended into it from the hardest part of the stem. In those exogenous plants which pro- duce lateral buds and branches, the fibves of the branches on descending to the stem extend on tha outside of the proper stem, between its hardest portion and th^false bark ; and in this way a great thickness is sometimes attained, as in the dragon- tree. In the Grasses, a jjlexus of fibres takes placp at the nodes, the fibres crossing from one side to the other. No British tree — and it may almost be said no tree of temperate or colder climates— is endogen ous. Almost all the endogenous trees are palms, although a few, as the dragon-tree, belong to other orders. Endogenous i)lants, however, are nimierous in all parts of the world. Among endogenous plants are many of the plants most useful to mankind, particularly palms and grasses, all the true corn- plants being included among the latter. Nutritious substances are very extensively produced both in the fruit or seed, and in other j)arts ; poisonous products are comparatively rare, altliough found in the Aracece, Liliacece, Melanthaccce, and other orders. Aromatic secretions are cliaracteristic chiefl}^ of one order, Scitaminea?. Besides palms and grasses, many of the endogenous plants are of great beauty, and many produce most beautiful flowers. Lilies and orchids may be mentioned as instances. Endogenous plants are monocotyledonous ; and the terms endogenous and monocotyledonous are there- fore often employed indiscriminately to designate the class. But Lindley distinguishes a class of Dic- tyogens (q. v.), which, although monocotyledonous, have stems approaching to the exogenous character. The leaves of endogenous plants generally exhibit parallel venation, which is indeed strictly confined to them, although a venation resembling it, or rather simulating it, may be seen in some exogenoxis plants. The seed also germinates in a peculiar manner, different from that of exogenous plants, and to which the name endorhizal has been given, the radicle being protruded from within the sub- stance of the embryo, and smTounded by a cellidar sheath formed from the integument which it breaks in its egress. ENDO'RSE. See Bill. ENDORSE, in Heraldry, an Ordinary contain- ing the fourth part of a pale. Endorsed, again, or indorsed, signifies that objects are placed on the shield back to back. ENDOSMO'SE and EXOSMO'SE (Gr. inward motion and outward motion), terms applied by Dutrochet, the first investigator, to the transfusion that takes place when two liquids or two gases of different densities are separated by an animal or a vegetable membrane. As the transmission has no necessary relation to outwards or inwards, the torin osmose, or osmotic action, is now preferred. See Diffusion. This action performs a very impoi-tant part in living organisms, and explains many pher.omena of the circulation of sap and the processes of nutrition, which were previously referred only to the wonderful u . OF ILL LIB. END YMION— ENEMY. action of \it;il energy. Thus, the blood, continually streaming through the cni)iihuy vessels, gives forth a portion to the surrouiubng cells, and so supplies them with the necessary chyle. Tliis may, however, by the ex))ansion of the cnpilhiry vessels (see In- flammation) lead to immoderate exudation. On the other hand, the blood, in i)assing by, takes up a number of worn-out constituents of the juices of these cells, and in this way serves, by the exchange which it effects, to restore the body, and to disburden it of ]>roducts which have become useless. — In plants also, osmose performs an important ])art in the pro- cess of nutrition and the motion of the sap. The substances in the cells of plants are usually denser than the fluids without, and thus a process of endos- niose takes place, by which the plant is sujiplied in tlie first instance from the soil, being incapable, however, of appropriating any nourishment which is not presented in a liquid state to t^^e fibrils of its roots ; whilst that which the roots <^,lve off by exos- mose, is supposed gradually to unfit the soil for the growth of the same kind of plant. The bursting of the capsules of some kinds of plants is owing to a process of endosmose going on in the cells, as in the fruit of the Elateriuni or Squirting Cucumber. Some of the Entozotty as tape- worms, seem to live entirely by endosmose. See Ostmose. ENDY'MION, in Greek Mythology, was a son either of Zeus or of Aethlios, and followed, according to some accounts, the occupation of a herdsman or hunter, but according to others, was king of Ells. On account of his uprightness, he is said to have received, at his own request, from Zeus, the gift of immortality, unfading youth, and everlasting sleep ; but another version is, that Zeus having taken him up to Olympus, E. fell in love with Here (Juno), and was condemned l>y her enraged husband to eternal sleep on Mount Latmos. Others, again, l)rettily fable that Selene (the Moon), charmed by the beaiity of the youth, conveyed him to Caria, and sent him to sleep on Mount Latmos, that she might nightly kiss him unobserved. The Eleans, on the contrary, declared that he died among them, and in proof of it were wont to shew his monument. The myth of E. has been hajjpily interpi-eted by Max Midler in his article on Comparative Myth- ology, in the Oxford Essays (1856). E., according to him, is one of the many names of the sun, but with special reference to the setting or dying sun, being formed from enduo, probably a dialectic variety of duo, the technical verb in Greek to express sunset. E. sleeps in the cave of Latmos, i. e., of night (from the same root as Leto or Latona, the night). So far the myth poetically describes certain phenomena of nature, the sinking of the sun in the west, and the rising of the moon, that seems to follow his depart- ing beams. But the original signification of the metaphors becoming lost, as might naturally happen vdien the words expressing them had only a local usage, it was, we may say, inevitable that people should transfer the metaphors to persons, and invent a history to supply the place of the vanished poetry. And this invention, or, more properly, explanation (for it M'as doubtless made in all good faith), is what properly constitutes the myth of Endymion. The story has been made the subject of. a poem by Keats. ENE'MA (Gr. en, in, and lemi, I enter), a medicine or fluid siibstance conveyed into the body by injec- tion, usually through the rectum or lower bowel. Sec Clysteii. E'NEMIES, Adhering to the Queen's. By 25 Edw. III. st. 5, c. 2, it is declared that if a man ' be adherent to the king's enemies in his realm, giving them aid and comfort, in the realm or elsewhere,' 62 he is to be held guilty of treason. Under this statute, the subjects of states at war with us aix) held to be enemies, though war has not been solemnly i)roclaimed. Every species of assistance, whether by joining in acts of hostility, or sending sup])lies or intelligence to the enemy, is deemed an act of adherence. To incite to hostilities the sub- jects of a state at amity with us, is not held to fall under this provision. But if the subjects of a friendly state make a hostile invasion, any British subject rendering assistance will be deemed guilty of treason under this clause. See Treason. ENEMY. An enemy, according to the civil law, is one who has publicly declared war against us, or we against him; all others are thieves or robbers. Hostes hi sunt qui nobis, aut quibus nos, publics bdlum decrevimus; cceteri latrones aut prccdones sunt. — Digest, i. IG, 118. Thus, in order to constitute an enemy, there must be a public declaration of war. This declaration must also be made by a didy organised state or kingdom, for a declaration of w^ar by any turbxdent body of men is not sufficient ; and a hostile act committed by private citizens will not justify a war, unless that act be sanctioned by the government. The purpose for which this public declaration is required, is stated by Grotius to be that it may be clearly known that the war is under- taken not as a venture, but by the will of the two people. Hostilities having been formally declared, every STd)ject of the hostile nations becomes an enemy of the opposing state, as do likewise those independent nations which attach themselves to the interests of either party. According to ancient usage, the utmost violence and cruelty was lawful towards those who were enemies of the state ; but by the humane principles which prevail in modem times, warfare is to be carried on subject to certain general niles, which are intended as much as may be to abridge the calamities of war, and to protect the rights of individuals. Thus, an army invading an enemy's country is bound to suffer, as far as possible, the peaceable inhabitants to remain mmiolested. Unnecessary devastation of the country and the seizure of property are also contrary to the laws of civilised war; and Grotius lays it down that the use of poisoned weapons, and of assas- sination, and violence to women, are to be repro- bated. On the other hand, individuals taking up arms, "".vithout the sanction of the state, in order to annoy an invading enemy, are regarded as lawless marauders. The result of this distinction is, that such persons are not treated as prisoners of war, but are subject to be summarily dealt with by the commander of the invading army. As to the right of indi^'iduals to fit out vessels for the annoyance of the enemy, see Privateering and Piracy. It appears to be a recognised principle of international law, that the property of an alien enemy residing in either of the hostile states may be confiscated. The Americans, during the war with England, asserted this right in regard to British property found in their territory. But the usage of civilised nationa for a long period has much modified the stem rule of law. It is provided by Magna Charta, cap. 30, that if merchants ' be of a land making war with us, and be found in our realm at the beginning of the wars, they shall be attached without any harm of body or goods, until it be known to us, or our chief justice, how our merchants be intreated there in the land making war against us; and if our merchants be well intreated there, theirs shall be likewise with us.' And by 27 Edw. III. c. 17, merchants of a foreign state at war with us were allowed forty days, after proclamation of hostilities, wherein to remove from the kingdom themselvee and their goods ; and if that space of time were net ENERGICO— ENGAGEMENT. Bufficiciit, forty days more were to be conceded to xhem. V^attel (iii. 4, 63) denies that the right to coutiscate the goods of an ahen enemy is a ri^ht inherent in a state by the law of nations, insisting that a sovereign having permitted foreigners to enter the state, and to continue there, had tacitly |o-omised them full liberty and security for their return. Whatever be the prriciple, there is no doiiljt that the almost \iniversal practice of modern nations has been to respect the property of indivi- duals at the outbreak of hostilities. _ Provisions azj frequently inserted into commercial treaties, stipulating that, in case of war, the subjects of the onemy shall have time to depart, and even that they (jhoidd be allowed to remain and carry on a peace- able trade. As to the practice in regard to Embargo and Letters of Marque, see those articles. The right to confiscate the debts of the subjects of a hostUe nation appears to rest on the same basis as that of the contiscation of other property. Trade between the subjects of two hostile powers is absolutely suspended during hostilities, unless per- mitted by express sanction ; and the importation of ai-ticles particidarly useful in war is contraband. All such articles, whether supplied by subjects of the enemy, or of another state, are seized and con- fiscated. See CoxTRABAND OF War ; see also Pjiize and Prisoner of War. On the subject of this article, see Grotius, De Jure Belli et Pads, lib. iii. cc. 3 to 7 ; Vattel's Laiv of Nations, b. iii. c. 4 and 5; Kent's Commentaries, vol. i. c. 3. ENE'RGICO, an Italian term in music, meaning with energy and force ; with strong articulation pjid accentuation, and a marked powerful delivery of the single notes, without losing in distinctness of execution. ENFANTIN, Barthelemy Prosper, the chief representative of St Simonism, and as such, usually styled Piire Enfantin, was the son of a banker at Paris, where he was bom in the year 1796. He became a pupil in the Ecole Fohjtechnique in 1812, but was ex})elled in 1814, in consequence of his having joined the pupils who left school and fought against the allies on the heights of Montmartre and St Chauraont. He was afterwards a commercial traveller in Pussia, then a banker's clerk, and in 1825 became director of the Caisse Hypothecair'e. About this time, he became a disciple of St Simon, whose ideas he developed, after the death of their author, in the Producteur. After the July revolu- tion, E. associated himself with M. Bazard for the active propagation of St Simonism. Bazard preached it in its relations to philosophy and politics ; E., mainly in its relations to the social state. Soon, however, a schism broke out between the two on the question of marriage and the relation of the sexes. Recognising the ' mobility ' of the affections, E. afhrmed that they ought to be ' free,' and of course pronounced against the ties of marriage. E.'s views were pushed so far, that government deemed it necessary to interfere on the grounds of public decency. The ' Supreme Father ' (as his disciples were wont rather profanely to call him) was, after a trial of two days, sentenced to two years' imprison- ment, and to pay a line of 100 francs. Being released at the expiration of a few months, E. went to Egypt, and, after an absence of two years, returned to ranee, and l>ecame a post-master and farmer in the vicinity of Lyon. In 1841, he came to Paris, and was appointed a member of the Scientific Commis- sion for Algiers, and on liis return from Africa, wrote a sensible, interesting book, entitled Colonisation de VAlf/erie (Paris, 1843). After the revolution of 1^8, ho edited the joiurnal entitled Le Credit Public, a papei retaining much of the old St Simonian character, but which had to stop in 1850 for want of funds. E. afterwards held an inijwrtant situation on the Lyons and Mediterranean Railway. Ilis princi- pal works are his Doctrine de St Simou.^ in conjunction with others (Paris, 1830); his Traiie d' Economie Folitique (Paris, 1831), and La IleU]-omotion being by selec- tion, and dependent on skill, character, and length of service. A cliief-engineer is expected to be able to make notes in the log of every particular con- f^erning tlie engines and boilers ; to draw rough sketches of the machinery, with figured dimensions fit to work from ; to understand and manage every- thing relating to engines, boilers, and furnaces ; to understand practical mechanism generally, and the principles of theoretical mechanism. The assistant- engineer is expected to possess, in a smaller degree, the siwne kinds of knowledge and skill as the chief- engineer ; and to act under his orders. The pay varies from £401 for an inspector of machinery, down to £64 for a third-class assistant-engineer on narbour s ^rvice ; the luirbour-pay varies from £143 10 £55. , 5(i The Navy Estimates for 1873 — 1874 provided for 929 naval engineers, besides 10 inspectors of macliinery. E'NGLAND, the southern and larger section of the island of Great Britain, and the most im],)ortaut member of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The geography of E. will be found under the head of Gkkat Britain, the i)reseut article being confined to a sketch of its history previous to the iniion with Scotland. Of the inhabitants of E. before the Christian era, little is known. In some of the ancient geogi'aph jrs, there are a few scattered notices of a rude poiiulation, with whom a limited commerce in tin was caiiied on by the Phoenician merchants ; and our informa- tion scarcely extends further. What is known of E. under the Roman occu])ation has already been embodied in the article Bkitannia. An accoimt of the country during the period intervening between the withdrawal of the Romans and the Norman Conquest will oe found in the article An glo-Saxons. i When William of Normandy landed in E. to ! claim the crown which Edward the Confessor had I becpieathed to him, he found that the people had raised to the tlnone Harold, the son of a po])ular I nobleman. The resources of the Saxons, however, had been wasted in domestic conflicts before the j attack of William ; and tbe battle of Hastings ! (10G6 A. D.) gave E. with comparative ease to the is^'ormans. The next twenty years saw the conquest com])leted, and nearly all the large landed estates of the Saxons j)ass, on every pretext except the true one, into the liands of the Normans. William claimed, indeed, to rule as sovereign by hereditary right, but this made little difference to the fact of conquest. All the high offices in the state and in the church passed into the hands of a new race. The Danes alone could retain either property or dignity. For long, some of the Saxons maintained an unequal resistance, retiring to the forests as tlie outlaws whose adventures furnished the materials for those favourite popidar legends, where, as in Robin Hood, the si)oiliug of the richer classes is depicted as one of the chief virtues. In the course of time, the Normans were absorbed among the Saxons, their very language disappearing, though leaving many traces. From this union arose the English people and the English language as they now exist. The union of the Normans with the Saxons was not fully effected so long as the Normans retained their foreign possessions. In King John's reign, the whole of these were lost, excepting Guienne and Poitou. Long wars under Henry III. and Edward III., and his famous son, the Black Prince, were continued, in the endeavour to regain the lost i)03- sessions ; yet gi-eat victories like those of Cressy (1346 A.D.) and Poictiers (1356 A. D.) seemed to leave no result, for no sooner were the English armies withdrawn, than the populations returned to their French allegiance. After Agincourt (1415 A. D.), Henry V., when he had forced himself to be acknowledged heir to the French throne, v. as virtually king of France, and held his corrt in Paris ; yet, in a few years more, the rebellion of Joan of Arc came at a time when E. was weakened with the Wars of tlie Roses, and (1451 A. D.) nothing of foreign ground was left to this country excepting Calais. To their efforts to conquer France, the Normau kings added others. Henry II. conquered Ireland (1171 A. D.), Edward L conquered Wales (128.5 A. d.). and had almost added Scotland to his dominions The bravery of Wallace and Bruce defeated the armies of Edward II., his successor; and thcugh the idea of the conquest of Scotland was always a ENGLAND. favourite one, an opportunity for attempting it on a great scale never again presented itself. The great struggles of tlic successors of William were with the ecclesiastics and with the barons. Sometimes in these the popular sympathies were with, and sometimes against the crown. The con- queror himself and his immediate successors had no dilSculty in maintaining the superiority of the coiu'ts of justice over the ecclesiastics ; but even a sovereign so bold and skilful as Henry IT. was forced, after the outcry occasioned by the murder of Thoraas-a-Becket (1170 a.d.), to yield the point. The right to nominate the higher ecclesiastics was also secured by the popes. The degradation of the English monarchy was at its lowest when King John consented (1213 A.D.) to hold the crown as a gift from Home. The weaknesses of this monarch had good as well as evil residts, for from him the barons won their Great Charter (1215 a.d.). From Henry II. something similar had already been gained ; but it was the Magna Charta of John which firmly established two great English principles — that no man should suffer arbitrary imprisonment, and that no tax shoidd be imposed without the consent of the council of the nation. Under Edward I., the famous Btatiite that no manner of tax shoidd be imposed without the common consent of the bishops, barons, anJ. burgesses of the realm, was passed (1296 a.d.) ; and before the time of Henry VII., the foimdations of parliamentary government had been laid. The union of tlie houses of York and Lancaster under Henry VII. begins a new period in English history. Part of his reign was disturbed by Perkin Warbeck and other pretenders to the throne, in support of whose claims the tvirbulent nobles found vent for their restlessness. But the greater part of his long reign was distinguished from preceding reigns as a time of i)eace and economy. During it, jien's minds ripened for the great events of the next reign. Henry VIII. succeeded, under the most favourable auspices. He found the alliance of his now important country courted by both of his great contemporaries, Francis I. and Charles V. But the interest of the foreign compli- cations of the reign merges in the struggle between the courts of E. and of Home. The orign'n of the contest was the divorce which Henry desired to have from Catharine of Aragon, his brother's widow, to whom he had been married by papal licence. Cranmer and the English Churcli pro- nounced the marriage to be null, but a formal decree of divorce by the head of the chitrch was then thought necessary in Catholic Europe. Pope Clement and the consistory, influenced by Spanish counsels, delayed, by every possible means, the decision of the question. E., however, was ready enough to su[)port Henry. Wickliffe and his adher- ents had done not a little to shake the attach- ment of the nation to a foreign spiritual authority, by preaching doctrines which dispensed with the necessity for it. A parliament met, when the Com- mons took the significant step of presenting a long memorial of com2)laint3 against the church. The pope, still shewing no signs of yielding, bills followed, declaring the lung the head of the chui cli ; rendering the inferior clergy amenable to the civil courts ; abolishing the payment of the first year's fruits of ecclesiastical livings to Pome ; and perhaps a more important thing than any of these, declaring that no convocation should meet unless the king should sunmion it, and that no ecclesijistical canons should have force except Avith the king's consent. To these measures the pope re- plied hy refusing the divorce, and excommunicating the king (1533 A. D.). The breach thus became irre- parable. A new act was passed giving to the magistrates the power of judging in questions of heresy. The next step was tlie suppression of nearly 400 of the smaller monasteries. Tlie subsidence of an insigni- ficant popular reaction, incited by the lower clci-gy, was followed I)y the suppression of the great abbeys. All these changes, however, touched only matters of church government. On matters of faith, Henry and his parliaments were as orthodox as the most conservative could wish. They embodied the leading doctrines of Komanism, disputed by the Protestants, in an act of parliament, known among the i>eople as ' the bloody six articles,' and enforced conformity under severe penalties. Henry was succeeded by Edward VI. His reiga was marked by the general progress which the Reformation now made from questions of govern- ment to questions of doctrine. More thoroughly than ever the power of the clergy was sapped. The Book of Common Prayer (1548 a.d.) dejmved them of the mysterious authority which the use ' of a foreign language in worship gave them in the eyes of the people, and the 42 Articles of the Church of England (1552 a.d.), the foundation of the present 39, denied, among other things, their power to work miracles in the elevation of the mass. The next reign saw the inevitable reaction. The superstitions of the populace had been too rudely handled, and — as often happens before a crisis — • there came a period of physical suffering. The con- version of cornfields into sheep-walks, induced by the high value of wool as an article of export, had thrown many out of employment ; and the country was, moreover, infested with the crowd of vagrants whom the monasteries had been wont to maintain. The popular dissatisfaction coupled these things with the Reformation. Thus the oi)portunit3' was prepared for the atrocities of the reign of Mary. The queen herself was interested, by her mother's honour and her own, to uphold the Romanist faith ; and her gloomy temper, aggravated by her unhappy childless maiTiage, believed that it did true service to God when it gave the rein to the bigotry of Pole and Bonner. In her first parliament (1553 a.d.), the w^hole legislation of Edward VI. was repealed, leaving the Church of England one in ceremonial and doctrine with the Church of Rome. Another parliament (1555 A.D.) repealed the legislation of Henry VIII., thus re- establishmg the jxapal supremacy. Everything that the refonners had done was thus undone. Still the adlierents of the Reformation were numerous, and when legislation failed to convert them, the fires of Smithfield were tried. Hooper, Bishop of Gloucester, was one of the first to suffer. La'oimer, Ridley, Cranmer, followed, and the nimiber who perished is not less than 300 by fire, "cid 100 by torture and the cmelties of confinement. Nothing more was wanted to turn the popular mind at once and for ever from the Church of Rome. The accession of the Protestant princess Elizabeth came as a relief to the whole nation. The Roman- ists themselves were weary of the policy which made E. the tool of Spain, and were sickened with the cruelties which had been enacted- Eliza- beth began by releasing from prison ail confined on charges of heresy. Parliament fcUowed (1559 A.D.) with acts restoring the royal supremacy over the church, and returning iji general to the legis- lation of Edward VI. The Prayer-book and the Thirty-nine Articles were adjusted as they still exist. Fortunately for the countrj', the ministry of Elizabeth, guided by the able hand of Cecil, was one of peace. No opportimity vas lost ol aiding the I*rotestant cause throughout Euroj)e ; but Elizabeth had almost no open wars, and her long 67 ENGLAND. reigu was disturbed by almost no domestic colli- sions. The mistake cominitted in dctaininc^ the queen of Scotland in an English prison gave a constant incitement to disaffection among the adherents of the old faith, but no sei-ious conse- (j^uenccs ensued. Towards the close of the reign, Protestant and Catholic were alike patriotic in repelling the Armada (1588 A. D.). On the death of Elizabeth, the crowns of E. and Scotland were united. The reign of James VI. does not present much that is remarkable. The plot, for which Sir "Walter Raleigh suffered long afterwards, and the Gunpowder Plot — the insignificant proportio'ns of which were so magnified for factious purposes — disturbed tlie earlier years ; and the close of tlie reign found the nation engaged in an unfoi-tunate war to assist the king's son-in-law, Frederick, Elector of Bohemia, against the P]mperor Ferdinand II. of Germany. But for the greater portion of the 23 years of the reign, there was neither foreign nor domestic war. These j'ears the king occupied industriously in rendering monarchy odious and contemptible. He lavished money u])on unworthy favourites, and to supply his extravagance, o^ienly sold the dignities of tlie ])eerage and the oth:;r honours of tJie state. His personal demeanour was vain, weak, and ridiculous; but in contrast with the insignificance of his talents was his extravagant conception of the extent of his royal prerogative. His conduct occasioned great discontent in parlia- ment, and but for his timidity, might have led to more serious consequences. The misfortunes of Charles I. were the legitimate result of the principles of his fatlier. Charles com- mitted the mistake of repeating, in the 17th c, acts whicli the Plantagenet sovereigns had done with impunity in the 14th and 15th. One of his first acts was to exact a benevolence to carry on the war. Had he been successful, this might have been over- looked, but when the bad management of the Duke of Buckingham lost the fieet off Rochelle, the indignation of the Commons was without bounds. In place of taking measures to allay this feeling, the king dissolved the parliament, and resolved to govern without calling another. In 1630, he concluded peace, and for the next seven years, in council with Strafibrd and Laud, he carried on the government. Taxes were raised as before without parliamentary authority ; and when the taxes failed, money was raised by selling to the Roman Catholics immunities from the penal laws against their worship. Nevertheless, there were limits to these methods of raising money ; and in 1637, when the king found himself involved in a war with Scotland, in conse- quence of his endeavour to introduce a liturgy there, he was compelled to call a parliament. The Com- mons refused supplies, and were again dissolved. In 1640, the king once more summoned a parliament. He found the temper of the Houses more indomitable than ever. In place of voting him sujiplies, they impeached his minister Strafford, and condemned him to death. The Commons then presented a grand remonstrance to the king, embodying all the giievances the nation had suffered since the death of Elizabeth. Matters proceeded from bad to worse, till an open rupture came, and an appeal was made to arms. In August 1642, the king erected his standard at Nottingham, w^hile the rebels took amis under the Earl of Essex. The first conflict was at Edgehill, where the loss on both sides was severe and nearly equal. The fortune of war con- tinued to vary, till at Marston Moor it turned against Charles, and at Naseby, in June 1645, he was finally defeated. He was executed on 30th January 1G49. 66 The government for th^ next four years wa« conducted by parliament. Meanwhile, Cromwell was rising into distinction, and power gradually feU from the hands of parliament into those of the military. In 1653, Cromwell had himself prO' claimed ' Protector.' He was now absolute monarcli. He governed with a firm hand, and never was E. more resj)ected abroad than during his time. In 1654, he concluded peace with Holland, and em])lo}'ed the gallant Admiral Blake in an expedition against the Spaniards, which ended brilliantly for the English navy. But the nation grew as discontented with the government of Cromwell as it had been with that of Charles. After the death of the Pro- tector in 1658, and a short intei-val during which his sou Richard held the office, parliament received with acclamations a proposal from Charles II. to return. In May 1660, the popidace clamoured with delight on the royal entry to London of him who, a few years before, had fled from Worcester for hia life. While Clarendon was minister, the government of Charles If. was well conducted. A war with Holland was brought to a successfid ending in the conquest of New York. On Clarendon's resignation, the government [>assed into the hands of the min- istry known as the Cabal. They were as profligate and as careless as the king himself. A succession of cruelties against the Catholics, for which the pre- tended revelations of Titus Oates and his imitators furnished the excuse, betokened rather the wantoxi temper of the sovereign and the nation, than any zeal for the Protestant religion. The only act which reflects much credit on any portion of the reign was the ])assing, in 1670, of the JIa'>e/is Corpus Act, designed more effectually to protect the liberty of the person. Strong efforts were made in parlia- ment after that to pass the Exclusion Bill, the object of which was to exclude the Duke of York, as a Roman Catholic, from the succession. To the great satisfaction of the king, jjarliament rejected the bill. In 1681, parliament was dissolved, and Charles II. never called another. After this there was a change for the worse in the chai-acter of the government ; from being wan- tonly indifferent, it became sullenly mischievous. Presbyterians and Nonconformists were excluded from all offices. Among other arbitrary acts, may be mentioned the recall of their charters from London and many of the other principal cities, which were only restored, with diminished privileges, on pay- ment of heavy fines. Conduct such as this made men more than ever afraid of the succession of the king's brother. A conspiracy to seciij-e the succession to the Duke of Monmouth, an illegiti- mate son of the king, was formed. Lord Howard betrayed the conspiracy, and among others who suffered death for it were Lord Russell and Algernon Sidney. When the king died, in 1GS5, James IT. succeeded amid universal dissatisfaction. Monmouth's attempt to seize the throne, however, was mismanaged, and failed. The punishment of those who had aided his rising formed an occasion for the jierpetration of great cruelties by Jeffreys, then chief justice of England. In the meantime, nothing coidd be fairer than the king's language. He issued a declaration in favour of general toleration, and announced that the penal laws against Cathohcs were no longer to be enforced. A second declaration to the same effect was issued, but he went further, and added to it an order that the clergy should read it in all churches. The Archbishop of Canterbury ana six bishops presented an address to the throne, humbly setting forth that their duty to maintain the Pro- testant establishment would not permit them U ENGLAND— ENGLAND, CHURCH OF. fpve obedience to the royal mandate. For this they were indicted as guilty of sedition. The trial of the bishops (1688 a. d.) was the turning-point of James's career. It created immense excitement, and when the jury returned a verdict of not guilty, even the soldiei's joined in the tumultuous rejoicings. William, Prince of Orange, who had married Mar3 . the eldest daughter of the king, had long been intriguing with the malcontents. He now landed in E. with a small body of troops. The soldiers,^ the leading nobles, even the king's OAvn children, joining the prince, the king fled to France. Parliament then settled the crown jointly on Wilham and Mary for life. James, with the assistance of liOuis XIV., made one effort to regain his throne. He landed m Ireland, where the lord lieutenant, TjTconnel, was devoted to his cause, and managed to raise an army. William defeated him at the battle of the Boyne ; and the contest was soon after this terminated by the second flight of James to France. So easily was the great revolution of 1688 effected. • The domestic government of William was marked by his efforts to introduce a general toleration ; but of his foreign administration, which led the country into costly wars, it is hardly possible to speak in very favourable terms. To reduce the threateninff power of France, E., in alliance with Holland and Germany, embarked in a protracted contest. Its termination at the i)eace of Kyswick, in 1697, brought to E. nothing beyond an increase of reputa- tion. William died in 1702. Under Queen Aune, the war with France was renewed, and the Duke of Marlborough's splendid victories of Oudenarde, Blenheim, and Ramilies were achieved. With these the history of E. as a separate state closes. In 1707, the long-wished-for union with Scotland was accomplished ; and after that, Great Biitain, united under one legislature, as well as under one crown, has a common interest among nations, and therefore a common history. A table of the English sovereigns is appended, beginning with Alfred, and continued, for con- venience' sake, to the present time : Anglo-Saxon Link. Bep.-JD to ReiffU. Yenn of Kcign. Alfred, king' of Wessox, Edward I., king of Wes-sex, Mercia, &c., Athelstan, king of England, Edmund I., . Ed red Edwy, ..... Edgar, ..... Edward II,, .... Ethielred, .... Edmund II., . . . ^ . 871 901 925 940 946 9.i5 959 975 97.S 1016 30 24 15 6 9 4 16 3 38 Danish Line. Canute, . Harold I., . Hardicanute, Saxon Link. 1017 1036 1039 19 3 3 E lirard III., Hirold XL, Norman Line. 1041 10G6 25 Wl Uain II., Heury I., HoDSB OF Blois. 10R6 1087 1100 21 13 35 Stepncn, . Pi,antaqen«t Link, 1135 39 Henry II., hichard I., John, llenrv III., Edward I., . Edward II., Kdward 111., . kichurd II., 1154 1189 1199 1216 1272 1307 1327 1377 85 10 17 56 05 20 50 22 House of Lancastee. IloiKn. Tear* of Heigu. . . . 1399 1413 1422 14 9 3d House of Yobk. 14R1 U8Z 1483 8f • House of Tudoe. • • . 1485 1509 1547 1553 1558 94 38 6 5 43 Stuaet Line. • • . * 1603 1625 22 24 1G49 10 STUART L*tVE» . ' . ' 1660 1685 25 3 House of Orange. 1683 14 Stuart Line. 1702 n Brunswick Line. 1714 1727 1760 1820 1830 1837 13 33 60 10 7 Henry IV., Henry V., Henry VI., Edward IV., Kdward v., Kichard HI., Hcnrv VII., Henry VIII., Kdward VI., Mary, Elizabeth, .Tames I., Charles I., . Comiiionwealth, Charles II., James 11., William and Mary, George I., George II., Geort'e 111. George IV., William IV.. Victoria, ENGLAND, New. See New Englaxd. ENGLAND, Church of. A brief sketch of the origin and early history, as well as an outline of the doctrine and form of government of this church, will be found under the head Anglo-Cath- OLic Church, or Anglican Church. See also the Articles Augustine and Dunstan. Up to the time of the Reformation, ecclesiastical affairs would be more properly described as the history of the Church in England ; from that period the Church of England dates her existence. She, however, retains so much of antiquity, and her institutions, laws, and formidaries are so interwoven with the history of the past, that it would be impossible to have any correct or connected view of them, and of her connection with tlie state, her characteristic featiire, without at least glancing rapidly over the leading events between the Conquest and the reign of Henry VIIL During the three centuries from the Norman Conquest (1066) to the preacliing of Wickliffe (1356), her history can be regarded only as a continual stmggle between the ecclesiastical and civil power, and there woidd be little else to describe than the methods by which the mitre * triumphed over the crown, and the crown invaded the rights and property of the church. In the time of WiUiam I., nearly half the country was in the hands of spiritual persons. He ejected the English clergy, and supi)lanted them with Normans ; and although he was possessed of full power over the church, yet in his reign were sown the seeds of future papal encroachments. Papal legates were then first intro- duced into England, and the ecclesiastical courts separated from the civil. From this time, the increased influence of Home may be traced to the defective titles, the usuq)ations, and the Aiolent conduct of the kings. Thus, the defective title of Henry I. made him seek popularity by recalling the primate Anselm, who had incurred the displeasure of his brother William, and had fled the country Anselm was devoted to the pope, who had espoused his quarrel, and refvised to do homage to the king for the temporalities of his see, till at k ngth Heniv ENGLAND, CHURCH OF. found himself obliged to surrender the right of Investiture. Ihus, too, Stephen's usurpation opened the way for further encroachments ; and Henry II., who found the power of Rome greatly augmented, helped to extend it further, by accepting a grant of Ireland from the pope. Then followed the opposition of Thomas-a-Becket, which arose out of the question of the punishment of ecclesiastics b}'^ the civil power. For the moment, it seemed that the quarrel was healed by the Constitutions agreed on at Clarendon ^q. v.), but it broke out more violently than ever. The pope discharged Becket from his oath, and condemned the Constitutions. Becket had fled from the kingdom; and his subsequent return, murder, and canonisation, all tend'^d to strengthen the authority of the church. It was not, however, till the reign of John, wlieu England was laid under an interdict, and the icing resigned his crown to the pope, that the papal encroachments rose to their height; and the weak reign of Henry III., which followed, did nothing to abate them. Edward I. gave a check to the power of the clergy, sub- jected them to taxation, and passed the statute of Mortmain (1279), which prohibited the transfer of land without the king's consent. There is little to be said as to innovations in doctrine during these three cent lu'ies ; l)ut it may be noted, that about the middle of this period, viz., 1213," the council of iSt John Lateran declared transu])stantiation, or the bodily presence of Christ in the consecrated elem.ents, to be a tenet of the church. It was in 1356 that a new period commenced. Wickliffe then published his first work, entitled The Last Age of the Church, directed a,gainst the oovetousnesa of the Church of Rome. His doc- la-ines corres])ond in many points with those now naught by the Church of England, but he differed •irom her in regard to the necessity of Episcopacy, fv^hich lie rejected ; he also believed in purgatory, ind permitted prayers for the dead. His chief objects of attack were the papal indulgences, and tiilie doctrine of transubstantiation. It has been observed concerning the condemnation at Oxford of VVicklilfe's opinions with respect to the latter, that ' this was the first plenary determination of the Church of England in the case, so that this doctrine, which brought so many to the stake, had but with us 140 years' prescription before the times of Martin Luther.' In a limited sense, he ui)held the efficacy of the seven sacraments. Wickliffe had a large body of followers. They were called Lollards, probably from a German word, lullen, to sing with a low voice. The storm of persecution which he escaped by death, fell upon them. Henry IV. thought it neces- sary to fortify his usxirped position assisting the bishops against the Lollards, and from this time to the Reformation, there was an uninterrupted Buccession of confessors and martyrs. Sir John Oldcastle, Lord Cobham, was the most illustrious of these sufferers. Fox gives a detailed account of nearly twenty individuals burned for heresy between the death of Lord Cobham and 1509, when Henry VIII. ascended the throne. To some extent, the blood of these martyrs was the seed of the Reformed Church ; but we must not overlook the ' hidden seed ' which was growing secretly, from the time that Wickliffe gave to his countrymen a translation of the Scriptures in their own tongue. The progress of learning, and especially the study of Greek, led to a better understanding of the sacred books, whilst the invention of printing (1442) caused a wider circulation of them. The above causes, however, would probably have proved insufficient to produce the great change which was now impending, liad not Henry VIII.'s divorce from Catharine of S])ain led to a quarrel 60 between him and the pope, which ended in the total abolition of the pajjal authority within the kingdom. Then began tlie Reformation in earnest. For the details of that great event, consult the article imder that head, and the lives of such men as Wolsey, Sir Thomas More, Fisher, Clement, Liither, Cromwell, Cranmer, Latimer, and pLidiey, &c. From this period may be dated the existence of the Church of England as a separate body, and her final separation from Rome. For the opiniona of the church in Henry's reign, two important books which were then published should be con- sulted — viz., the Bishop's Book, or the Godly and Pious Institution of a Christian Man, and the Kiwfa Book, which was a republication of the same in a more perfect form in 1543, and called lice Necessary Brudition for any Christian Man, and was called the King's Book because put forth by royal authority. A book of Articles devised by the Kinges Jlighnes Majestie to stahlyshe Christen Unitie, should also be consulted. It has been stated in the article Anglo-Catholic Church, that the reformation in doctnne did not make much progress in Henry's reign ; from these books, it will be seen that it was rather retrograde. The monks, too, who were dis- possessed at the dissolution of the monasteries, were dispersed amongst local cures, and kept ahve the old o])inions, and the lower orders were not as yet favourable to the new doctrines. Cranmer was the leader and presiding genius of the Reformed opinions ; and the youth of Edward VI. left the king pliant in the hands of the archbishop. The Book of Homilies, put forth in 1540, the New Com- munion Service and Catechism in 1548, the fii-st Book of Common Prayer in 1549, and the Forty- two x\rticles in 1553, all bear the impress of his hand, and it was these which advanced and fixed the doc- trines of the Reformation. Nor was the temporal authority idle on the same side — Bonner and Gardiner were committed to jirison, and both were deprived of their bishoprics. In fact, the way in which all the institutions of the Church of England M^ere established in Edward VI.'s reign by the help of the civil magistrate, have brought upon her the charge of Erastianism. The civil power had just delivered her from a foreign tyranny ; and when the weak health of the young king, the known sentiments of his successor, Mary, the ignorance of tiic common people, and the interested views of the old clergy, are considered, it cannot be a matter of surprise, still less of blame, that the same arm was relied upon for the establishment of the new forma of religion. Although Mary promised at her accession that she would put constraint on no person's religion, her promise was not kept. Bonner and Gardiner were restored ; the Book of Common Prayer and Cate- chism were declared heretical ; the kingdom was reconciled to the see of Rome ; a persecution of the chief reformers commenced — Rogers was burned at Smithfield, Hooper at Gloucester, Saunders at Coventry, Taylor at Hadluy. The prisons were filled with ' heretics ; ' many fled beyond sea ; some purchased safety by an outward conformity. Cran- mer, Latimer, and Ridley perished in the flames at Oxford. Cardinal Pole was made primate. One benefit was conferred on the church by Mary — she surrendered all the church lands, as well as the first fruits and tenths, which had been seized by Henry. At last the death of Mary, with which that of the cardinal was all but simidtaneous, delivered the church from its oppressors. The passin^^ of the Act of Uniformity in the first year of Elizabeth's reign, restored the Common Prayer-book to general use, and enjoined the same dresses as were in use at the ti:nc of the first Prayer-book of Edward VL ENGLAND, CnUKCII OF. Ail tlia bishops except one, Kitchin of Llandaff, refused to take the oath of uniformity, and were ejected from their sees to the number of 14 (the eleven remaining sees were vacant by deaths), and 175 other beneficed clergy were dei)rived for the same cause — no very considerable numl)er, when it is remembered that there were then 9400 benefices in England. There was some difficulty in filling uj) the vacant bishopric's, and perhaps some slight informalities. Matthew Jr'arker was made Arch- bishop of Cauterbiuy. For the refutation of the fable of the Nag's-iiead Consecration, see the article under that head. In 15G2, the Thirty-nine Articles were finally reviewed and subscribed. These, with the Book of Common Prayer, are the tests of orthodoxy in the Chui-ch of England. But what was done to satisfy the scruples of Protestant nonconformists ? An attempt in this direction was made in the reign of James 1. at the Hampton Court Conference (q. v.). The result was another review of the Common Prayer- book ; and this, with the new translation of the Bible, and the passing of the canons of 1604, were the principal ecclesiastical events of James's reign. These canons received the sanction of the crown, but not that of parliament ; they are not, therefore, binding on the laity, but they are still binding on the clergy to some extent, and they regadate the practice of tlie ecclesiastical courts, and are the only rule, on some points, to which the bisliops and clergy cnn appeal. See the articles LAUD and Scotland, Church of, for the events of Charles I.'s reign. The gi-eat rebellion overthrew both church and state. The bishops were declared ' delinquents,' robbed of their property, and abolished ; and the clergy were ejected from their benefices. Laud was put to death in 1645. The Church of England had no corporate existence during this interval. With the restoration of the monarchy, 1660, came the restoration of the church. The reaction from Puritanism to Prelacy was com- plete. Attempts were made, but with small success, to win over the Puritan leaders ; bishoprics were offered to Baxter, Calamy, and Keynolds ; but the last only accepted. The Savoy Conference (q. v.) was an imsuccessful, perhaps insincere attempt to comprehend the nonconfoi-mists in the Established Church. But the demands of the Presbyterians were most immoderate. Baxter went so far as to propose the substitution of an entirely new book of hife own composition, in the place of the Common Prayer-book. After the failure of the Savoy Con- ference, this was once more reviewed ; and a new Act of Uniformity in 1662 made its use, as it now stands, cora})idsory in ail the churches. The Church of EngLind passed through one more ciitical j)eriod before reaching that tranqiiillity in which, for upwards of a century, she slumbered too Becurely. In 1687, James II. i.tuljlished the famous Declaration of Indulgence, which filled up the measure of i)0pular discontent, and finally cost him his croWn. Although by this declaration, which was ])erfectly illegal, liberty of conscience was per- mitted to all his subjects, it was clearly und(irstood that the liberty was intended only for tlie pajusts. The nonconformists refused to accept tlie treacher- ous boom Eighteen bishops out of twenty-five refused to puldish the declaration, as ordered, in their dioceses. Seven of them — Sancroft, Lloyd, Ken, Turner, Lake, White, and Trelawny — drew up a remonstrance to the king ; they were simimoned before the privy coimcil, and sent to the Tower. The whole city was in commotion ; and great was the rejoicing when, on being l)rought to trial in Westminster Hall, they w ere acquitted. On the 5th n£ November following, 1638, the Prince of Orange landed in EnglancL It is worthy of remark, tliat out of these seven bishops three refused to sweai allegiance to him, and were joined by a consider, able number of the clergy ; these were called Non jurors. In the first year of William and Mary's reign, the Toleration Act was passed, and dissent ceased to be illegal. Another attempt was made to comprehend the nonconformists in the chirrch, but the lower house of Convocation was in no tolerant mood, and the attempt failed, but chiefly in conse- quence of the disturbances in Scotland. In 1717, Convocation was dissolved. After slumbering for nearly 140 years, it has been once more called into life and action in the province of Canterbury. See the article Convocation. That the Church of England, after fighting for ita very existence against popery on the one hand, and against Puritanism on the other, should have sub- sided into inactivity during the dull reigais of the Georges, is less a matter of surprise than of regi-et. The peaceful enjoyment of her temporalities in a dull, irreligious, not to say infidel age, may easily account for, though it cannot excuse, her idleness. But that in the rise of John Wesley, 1730, she should have failed to see a grand opportimity for herself, is a matter of both surprise and regret ; she, however, let it pass ; nor can she hope that such another will ever again present itself. The utmost that can be hoped is, that she has seen her error. The next impoi-tant event in the history of the church is the Act of Union, which came into eflfect on the 1st of January 1801, and united the churches of England and Ireland in aU matters of doctrine, worship, and discipline. The Pteformation had made some progress in Ireland under Edward VI. Five Protestant bishops were appointed iu 1550, and the English Bible and Liturgy were introduced in 1551 ; but from a variety of causes, the Peformed doctrines have never found much acceptance with the native population ; and although a Protestant church was established by law, it waa and is the church of the minority (see Ireland). In 1635, the English Articles were received ; and in 1662, the English Book of Common Prayer waa ado])ted by convocation. Before the pohticai union of the countries, the two churches were in full communion. By an act of the imperial parliament in 1833, ten of the Irish bishoprics were suppressed, and the funds thus obtained were aj^plied to the augmentation of small livings and the building and repair of churches. There are now twelve Irish bishops. In later times, two great controversies have shaken the English Church, but have led to nothing more than some internal divisions, and the secession of some members to Eome, and a few tt; the ranks of dissent. These were the Tractarian and the Gorham controversies. The former waa occasioned by some Tracts which began to be published at Oxford in 1833, the object of which was to i-evive something of the spirit of Catholio antiquity, and reform the abuses and slovenly practices which had crept into every pait of the churcli system. See Tractaeiaxism. The Gor- ham Controversy (q. v.) related to the doctrine of baptismal regeneration. The Tractarians are accused of Piomanising tendencies ; and their views, when carried to extremes, imdoubtedly lead in that direction, as is proved by the numerous secessions to that church. With the extreme Low Church party. Episcopacy is rather an expedient than a necessary form of church government. They think but little of the efficacy of sacraments, and deny that regeneration necessaiily takes place in infant ba])tism. Justification by faith, the atone- ment of the cross, and the Calvinistic doctrines on ENGLAND, CHURCH OF. election are their leadinf^ topics in preaching. See the life of Simeon and of Venn for the views of this party. What are called Broad Church views are those whinli are attributed to men of the Arnold school, and the followers of Mr. Maurice ((j. v.). Those who hold them can scarcely be called a party, and are, indeed, unwilling to be so considered ; but if their position must be defined, they might be described as a party between and somewhat antagcmistic to both the High and Low Church jjartics. The High Church i)arty insist on the authority of the church and priestliood, tlie efficacy of sacraments when rightly received, and the necessity of apostolical succession in the matter of orders, and in their general teaching they take the Prayer-book as the exponent of Scripture. They are scrujjulous in observing the rubrics, and have done much to revive the practice of daily prayer in the churches, and the observance of the festivals. Order, unity, anti(piity, and catbolicity are what they profess to liave in view. See Kitualism, in Surr."^, Vol. X. There were, in 18G9, 12,837 benefices in England and Wales, of which numy ai*e new districts, that are being continually formed out of the old large and overpoi)ulous parishes. These districts are called pei"- petual curacies, or incumbencies, and for the most part are but very slenderly endowed. The old bene- fices are either rectories, where the incimd)ent receives the (/reat or corn tithes, or vicarages, where he receives the small tithe only. The great tithes had anciently been bestowed upon the neighbouring monasteries, who undertook the cui'e of the souls, and appointe(l vicars for the purpose, who lived on the small tithes and the offeriiigs of the people. At the dissolution of the monasteries, many of the great tithes were given to laymen, and laymen now extensively hold tbem, and some to endowed colleges. The endowments were all by private beneficence, and there is no tenure so ancient as that by which the parish church holds her property. In the aggregate, the amount is very large, and was ascertained by the commission appointed in 1830 to be as follows : "Bishops, £181,631 ; deans and chapters, £360,095; parochial clergy, £3,251,159; total annual revenue, £3,792,885. The revenues of the Irish branch are stated at £1,000,000, 1)ut this is probably in excess of the truth. Since 1830 the Eng- lish revenues must have rather increased from pri- vate bene licence and the enhanced value of property. Di\'ided equally amongst the whole number of bene- fices, this -would give an average of less than £300 per annum for the joint support of incumbent and curates. It appears from the last census that there are in Eng- lan(l and Wales 14,077 churches or chapels, served by 17,320 ministers, or 123 ministers to every 100 build- ings. The church rates, amounting to £500,000 an- nually, are no part of the ministers' endowment ; they are collected from time inunemorial, and exclusively devoted to the repairs of the church fal)ric, and the warming, lighting, cleaning, etc., of the church. The Church of England has three orders of clergy : bishops, priests, and deacons. Generally, a degree at one of the English universities, or of Dublin, is re- quired in a candidate for orders ; but in Wales, and some of the more populous districts, this condition is dispensed with. There are 2 archbishops (Canterbury and York) and 30 bishops, active and retired, in Eng- land, besides 2 archbishops and 10 bishops in Ireland. The archdeacons and rural deans assist the bishops in the management of their dioceses. The patronage of the church is in a great variet}' of hands — in the crown, the bishops, the nobles and gentry, and incorporate bodies, such as colleges and cathedrals. Advowsons and next presentations may be sold as property, but a presentation may not be sold when a living is vacant. A clergyman is ' pre- sented ' to his living by the patron, he is inducted by the bishop or his appointee; he must 'read hinisell in,' i. e., he must read the Thirty-nine Articles after the morning or evening prayer within two months after induction. The Episco]ml Church in Scotland is not in union with that of England. The Anglican Church has been the scene of agitating controversies during the last decade. In 1864, a synod of South African bishops condemned one of their num- ber, Colenso, for heresy, and deprived him of his see. His contumacy continued through several years, and his case still continues unsettled. In 18C5 and 1866, efforts were instituted to aid in bringing on a closer union between the Anglican Churches and that of Rome, and were actively pursued, and societies insti- tuted for the promotion of ' the unity of Christendom,' actuated thereto by the letter of Dr. Pusey, in which he asserted that there is ' no insurmountable obstacles to the union of the Roman, Greek, and Anglican communions,' and that the latter Church 'rciidily recognizes the prinuicy of the Bishop of Rome.' In 1866, the proposed ritualistic changes in worship, and 'revision of the Liturgy,' produced much agitation, and being strongly opposed by the Archbisho)) of Can- terbury and many thousands of laymen and clergy, the government declined to propose the forming of a com- mission for that purpose. New monastic orders were, however, instituted in the Church, which it is said are on the increase. Among these the order of St. Bene- dict, over which Mr. Lyne ('Father Ignatius') pre- sided, numbered 15,000 brothers and sisters. The titles of others are the ' Order of Intercessory Prayer,* * Tlie Sisters of St. John the Evangelist,' and ' llie Con fraternity of the Blessed Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ.' In the same year, association with the Russo-Greek and Oriental Churches generally was suggested in the House of Bishops, and advances made towards a close intercommunication with the Episcopal and Lutheran Churches of Northern Eu- rope. In 1867, a ' Pan- Anglican S3'nod' was. held at Lambeth, London, at which about 80 bishops were l)resent. A pastoral address Avas adopted, exhorting against the growing superstitions of the day, su(;h as the sovereignty of the Pope and the exaltation of the Virgin ^lary, etc., but no reference was made to the subject of ritualism. A pastoral letter was also addressed to the Patriarch and Bishops of the Greek Church. This letter was replied to in November, 1869, and strengthened the hopes of those v^ ho desired the union of the Anglican and Oriental Churches. In 1 868, a resolution was offered in the House ot Commons in favour of the dis-establishment of the Anglican Church in Ireland. This was sustained by all the religious denominations in England except the Wesleyans, and the bill separating the Church from the State government became the law, July 26, 1869, and the former compelled to a reconstruction on a voluntary basis. In the* Urdtcd States there were 45 dioceses and 10 missionary jurisdictions in the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1875; 57 l)ishops, 3122 priests and dea- cons, 261,000 communicants, and the contributions to the support of the church amounted to $6,899,305. The Episcopalians were most numerous in New York, Pennsylvania, Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Jer- sey, and Virginia. The diocese of Oregon and W^ash- ington contains but 742 communicants in an area of 161,274 square miles. In England there are 2 archbishops and 26 bishop^., and 2 archbishops and 10 bishops in Ireland. The arch- deacons and rural deans assist the bishops in the man- agement of their dioceses. See Smart's Historj/ of the (JhurcJi of England^ Marsden's Dictionary of Chris- tian ChnrcJies and Sects, Fuller's and Mosheim's Church History ; the Histories of Collier, Strype, Burnet, and Clarendon, and the Works and Sei- ons of Barrow ENGLISH CHANNEL— ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Hooker, Jeremy Taylor, Lightfoot, Soutli, Tillotson, Butler, Atterbury, Sherlock, aud others. ENGLISH or BRITISH CHANNEL {La Manche or the Skeve of the French, aud the Oceanus Britannicus of the Romans) is the narrow sea which separates England and France, having on the north the English counties of Kent, Sussex, Hants, Dorset, Devon, and Cornwall ; and on the south the French provinces of Artois, Picardy, Normandy, and Bretagne. On the east, it joins the North Sea, at the Strait of Dover, where it is narrowest, being only 21 miles Avide from Dover to Cape Grisnez. From this strait it runs west- Bouth-west for 2S0 miles, and joins the Atlantic Ocean at the Chops, with a breadth of 100 miles between the Scilly Isles and Ushant Isle. With an average breadth of 70 miles, it is 90 miles -wide from Brighton to Havre ; CO miles from Portland Point to Cape La Hague ; 140 miles — its greatest breadth— from Sidmouth to St Malo ; and 100 to 110 miles west of the latter line. It occupies 23,900 square geographical miles, and includes the Scilly Isles, Channel Isles, Ushant Isle, Isle of Wight, and many islets and rocks, especially off the coast cf Bretagne. It is shallowest at the Strait of Dover, where a chalk-ridge at the depth of twelve Co thirty fathoms joins England and France. West of this, it deepens to sixty fathoms, with some banks at three to five fathoms, and some hollows five to thirty fathoms deeper than the parts around. A coarse gravel covers the bottom. The English coast-line of the E. C. is 390 miles long, with an inshore depth of twelve to fifty-five fathoms, and the French coast-line of the E. C. is 570 miles long. W esterly Avinds prevail in the E. C, and the cm-rent, though imperceptible, is always from west to east. The E. C. abounds in fish, of which the chief are pilchard, mackerel, and oysters. ENGLISH CONSTITU'TION. See Parlia- SIENT. ENGLISH DRA'MA. See Drama. ENGLISH LA'NGUAGE, which is now spoken fty upwards of 50 millions of the earth's inhabitants, 1 4 in its vocabulary one of the most heteiogeneous that ever existed ; a fact, the causes of which are to be traced in the history of England (q. v.). Ita composition and grammatical character are thus described by M. Miiller in his Lectures on the Science of Language (1861). 'There is, perhaps, no language so full of words evidently derived from the most distant sources as English. Every country of the globe seems to have brought some of its verbal manufactures to the intellectual market of England. Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Celtic, Saxon, Danish, French, Spanish, Italian, German — nay, even Hindustani, Malay, and Chinese words — he mixed together in the English dictionary. On the evidence of words alone, it would be impossible to classify English with any other of the established stocks and stems of human speech. Leaving out of consideration the smaller ingre- dients, we find, ou comparing the Teutonic with tlie Latin, or Neo-Latin, or Norman elements in English, that the latter have a decided majority over the home-grown Saxon terms. This may seem incredible ; and if we> simply took a page of any English book, and counted therein the words of ])urely Saxon and Latin origin, .the majority would be no doubt on the Saxon side. The articles, pronouns, prepositions, and auxiliary verbs, all of which are of Saxon growth, occur over and over again in one and the same page. Thus, Hickes maintained that nine-tenths of the English dictionarj' were Saxon, because there were only three words of Latin origin in the Lord's Prayer, Sharon Turner, who extended his ol^servations ovei a larger field, came to the conclusion that the relation of Norman to Saxon was as four to six. Another writer, who estimates the whole number of English words at 38,000, assigns 23,000 to a Saxon, and 15,000 to a classical source. On taking, however, a more accm-ate inventory, and counting' every word in the dictionaries of Pvo])ertson and Weljster, M. Thommerel has established the fact, that the number of Teutonic or Saxon words in English an)ounts to only 13,330 against 29,354 words which can e: tlier mediately or immediately be traced to a Latin source. On the evidence of its dictionarj , there- fore, and treating English as a mixed language., it would have to be classiiied together with Freni.h, Italian, and S})anish, as one of the Ptomance or Neo- Latin dialects. Languages, lioAvever, though mixed in their dictionary'-, can never be mixed in their grammar. Hervas was told by missionaries, that in the middle of the 18th c. the Araucans hardly used a single word which was not Spanish, though xliey preserved both the grammar and the syntax of their own native speech. This is the reason why grammar is made the criterion of tlie relationship and the base of the classilication in almost all languages ; and it follows, therefore, as a matter of course, that in the classification and in the science of language, it is impossible to admit the exist- ence of a mixed idiom. We may form whole sentences in English, consisting entirely of Latin or Piomance words ; yet whatever there is left of grannnar in English bears unmistakable traces of Teutonic workmansliip. What may now be called grammar in English, is little more than the ter- minations of the genitive singular and nominative plural of nouns, the degrees of comparison, and a few of the persons and tenses of the verb. Yet the single 8, used as the exponent of the third person singular of the indicative present, is irrefragable evidence that in a scientific classification of lan- guages, English, though it did not retain a single word of Saxon origin, would have to be classed as Saxon, and as a branch of the great Teutonic stem of the Aryan family of speech.' See Language. In tracing the growth of the English language, the history is usually divided into four leading periods: the Anglo-Saxon Period (449 A. D. — 1066 A.D.); the Semi-Saxon Period (from 1066 a. d. — 1250 A. D.) ; the Early English Period, comprising the two periods of Old and Middle English (from 1250 A. D.— 1550 A. D.); and the Modern English Period (from 1550 A. D. to the present time). As early as the 5th c, Teutonic invaders from the continent settled in this country, and drove the original Celtic-speaking inhabitants to the north and west of the island ; so that before the battle oi Hastings (1066), the Anglo-Saxon tongue had been spoken in England for at least 600 years. The final absorption, after a long conflict, by the kmgs of Wessex, or West Saxons, of the various portions of the Heptarchy, in the 9th c., went far to mako the ruling speech of the land identical with tl^at of Berkshire and Hants, the recognised centre of the predominant sept. The use, besr'des, of this So\ithem Anglo-Teuton speech as the instrument of literary communication, wa3 permanently con- firmed by King Alfred, a native of Berks. Further back than the time of this hterary monarch, few existing remains of the laugiaage permit us to go; yet, from the writings of Ciedmon, who was a North Anglian, and a few ecclesiastical MSS. of the kingdom of Northumbria, which extended from the Humber to the Firth of Forth, it has been generally concluded that at least two dialectical peculiarities must have existed in the island — a 63 ENGLISH LANGUAGE— ENGLISH LITERATURE. nortliern and a sonthern one. The Anglian or Northern dialect, it has been presumed, was, to Eonie extent, marked with Scandinavian features ; while the Saxon or Southern dialect was more purely Low-Germanic, though the Anglian was also Low- Germanic in all essentials. Some have account(;d for the partial approximation of the Anglian dialect to Scandinavian by the fact that the Danes, at a later period, effected a settlement in the north-east of England ; but, on the other hand, it is argued that * certain peculiarities of a Scandi- navian character are to be found in the Anglian, even of a date anterior to the tirst Danish occu- pation of a part of England in the latter half of the ninth century.' Some philologers, again, insist on distributing the Anglo-Saxon language into more dialects than two ; hut it will be sufHcicnt if the reader bear in mind the two which have been mentioned. Now, the question arises, which of the dialects of the Anglo-Saxon is specifically the i)arent of the English tongue ? Two answers have been given to tiiis question. It has been alleged that after the Norman Conquest, the classical Saxon of Wessex lost its temporaiy supremacy, and gra- dually gave way to a dili'erent dialect — nainely, that of the Midland counties of Engh^nd. This was the district where the universities S])rung up, and where the rich monasteries and other religious foundations took their rise ; and in support of this theory, it is argued by competent scholars, that the dialect which is most closely allied to the standard English of our day is that of Northamp- tonshire and some neighbouring counties. On the other hand, it has been maintained by no less an authority than Sir Francis Madden, and his conclusion seems not imlikely, that we must look for the real groundwork of our language in a gradual coalescence of nearly all the leading dialects of England. See his edition of Layamon's Brut, 1847. The period known as Semi-Saxon, in the history of our Enghsh tongue, dates from aliout the Conquest until near the middle of the 13th century. This was a transition era, and, like every era of the kind, one of • confusion, both to those using the lan- guage, and to those desirous of tracing its history. The monks of the time, accustomed to the use of medieval Latin, had in a great measure forgotten the grammar of the Anglo-Saxon language ; and when they attempted to write their mother-tongue, did so very badly. In fact, their language is just ungrammatical Anglo-Saxon, and very probably had its counterpart in the usus loquendi of the common people. The Saxon Chronicle, as it is called, which bears date 1173, and Laj^amon's Bnit, about 1190 or 1200, exhi])it traces of the breaking-up of the Anglo-Saxon. The inflections and genders of the substantives, the definite and indefinite declensions of adjectives, are for the most part disregarded ; a marked partiality is shewn for weak preterites and participles ; there is a constant substitution of en for m in the plurals of verbs ; and the final e is often discarded ; besides a great uncertainty prevailing in the government of prepositions. As regards the Semi-Saxon vocabidary itself, although employed in literature a century and a half after the Norman Conquest, it exhibits but few traces of Norman- French ; proving beyond question, tliat the imme- diate effects of that great change were by no means so important on the Anglo-Saxon tongue as they were at one time believed to have been. When we come to the £Jarh/ English Period, we have escaped most of the perplexities which attach themselves to the Semi- Saxon era of our language. The principles of the English tongue now assert themselves actively in contrast with those of its Teutonic origin. The Anglo-Saxon was rich in 64 inflections, which the English has contiived to get rid of. It prefers to express the various modili- cations of an idea by some relational word o*- words attached to the leading idea. During the Semi- Saxon period, as we haVe seen, the verbs suffered much less inflectional change than the substantives and adjectives ; this will be found to hold throughout the entire 250 years of the era of reconstruction. In the fine poem of Tlie Owl and the Nightingale, the Anglo-Saxon vowels a, e, v, in final syllables, are aU re])resented by e, and tlie final n of the infiintivA is beginning to disappear. In the Chronicle of liobert of Gloucester, we encounter, besides, a jjeat number of French words, which had gradually become familiar to the people, through the ju-esence of their Norman masters. The presence of French is, besides, very noticeable in the poetry of Chaucer and Gower. What fear could not accomplish, literary respect produced ; for it is no doubt to the literary men of England, rather than to iti masters, that we owe so large an admixture of French ex^iressions and of French tcnninology. Our first complete translation of the Bible belongs to this period. Piers Ploioman has but few French words, while Lydgate and Bishop Peacock have too many ; and More's Edward V. (1509), and the J\^nt Brown Maid (1500), are comparatively modern in their style and tone. As to Scotland, again, in the Anglian counties lying south of the Forth, the language in all respects was similar to its more southern neighbour, and underwent such changes as we have noted in its more Saxon com- |»eer. Barbour, a Scottish contemporary of Chaucer, wrote purer English than Chaucer did, and hia poems resembled in a striking degree the homely phraseology of Pie^s Ploivman. Regarding the north-eastern dialects of Scotland, some diversity of opinion exists. Some antiquaries are of opinion, that the large infusion of Norse or Scandinavian elements in these dialects is to be accounted for by the fact of a Norwegian kingdom having been maintained in the east of Scotland during the 11th c. for a period of thirty years; while others allege with more probability, that the language ol the north-east of Scotland is as decidedly Anglo- Saxon in its form and substance as that of Norfolk or Yorkshire. In the Modern English Period, says Professo: Spalding, 'the organisation of the English lan_gviage may be said to be complete. The laws determining the changes to be made on words, and regulatiixg the grammatical structure of sentences, had been definitively fixed, and were generally obej'ed ; aU that had still to be gained in this particular, was an increase of ease and dexterity in the application of the rules. The vocabulary, doubtless, was not so far advanced. It was receiving constant acces- sions ; and the tliree-and-a-half centuries that have since elapsed, have increased our stock of words immensely. But this is a process which is still going on, and which never comes to a stojj in tlie speech of any people ; and the grammar being once thoroughly founded, the effects of glossarial changes are only secondary, until the time arrives when they co-operate with other causes in breaking up a language altogether.' — For further information, the reader is referred to such accessible works as those of Latham, Craik, and Spalding. ENGLISH LI'TERATURE, like every other mental product, is qualified by the history of the nation to which it belongs. The great social eras of a country's history have always been found to correspond with the great intellectual eras of her growth. It will, however, be sufficient for our purj)ose to arrange the literary annals of England into three periods : 1. The period antecedent to the ENGLISH LITERATURE. Korman Conquest ; 2. The period extending from the Norman Conquest to the E?ighsh Reformation ; and 3. The period extending from the English Reformation to the present day. 1. The Peiiod Antecedent to the Conquest. — This |K'riod possesses a literature composed in three distinct languages — the Celtic^ the Latin, and the ! Anglo- Saxon. Regarding the Celtic literatiu-e, see [ Celtio Nations, Irish Literature, and Welsh i Literature. The introduction of Latin literature j into this country was considerably later than the Roman invasion of it. The cultivation of ; the letters of Rome followed as a necessary con- { sequence on the introduction of Christianity into the comitry. St Patrick is said to have been the \ first teacher of Christianity in the British Islands, j some time before the middle of the 5bh century. | Ireland was the scene of his labours ; and it is ; well known that it was by Irish missionaries, chief among whom was St Columba (q. v.), that the j first light of the gospel was attempted to be i disseminated in Scotland and the north of England, j Towards the close of the 6th c, St Augustine } landed in the south of England, and laid the i foundations of the Anglo- Catholic Church. These great evangelists, however, rather prepared the ! way for literary effort on the part of others, than I were themselvt-ii literary. The earliest names of importance that we encounter are Alcuin and \ Erigena, Bede and Alfred. After the immigration | of the Anglo-Saxons into Britain, this people began j to form a literature of their own. Their three j historical poems — the Gleeman's Song, the Battle of f innesburgh, and the Tale of Beowulf — are mainly versions of events which happened on the continent before the descent on the shores of England. The last, which is essentially a Norse tale, is the only poem resembling an Iliad which the Anglo-Saxons possess. Except the remarkable religious poems of the Northumbrian monk Cajdmon, in the 7th c, little more of any moment in verse has been handed down to us by the Anglo-Saxon people. But this people, though comparatively poor in poetry, are eminently simple and straightforward prose writers. King Alfred discarded Latin in all his communications with his subjects, and in consequence the Anglo-Saxon made an impressive start throughout the whole of England. From the Saxon Chronicle, which is made up from the MS. of several conventual records, modern scholars have derived si)ecial and valuable information. Portions of the sacred Scriptures were translated into this language, several of the leading men of the time, such as Aldhelm, Bede, and Alfred, lending their assistance. Sermons and grammars, glossaries and medical treatises, geogi-aphies and dialogues between Solcmon and Saturn, make up the file of this period ff the literature. This notice of the first period must be concluded by an allusion to the illustrious name of Alfred, who, by his enlightenment and his virtue, has rendered the 9th c, in which he fiourished, one of the brightest spots in the whole range of English literature. His favourite literary employment was rendenng works written in Latin, a language which he only knew imperfectly, into his native tongue. He did not scruple to add a picturesque story, a bit of geography, or a devout Erayer, when occasion suited, to the original text of is author. Even in his version the last of the philosoj>hic Romans, he sometimes vies with Boetliius in passages of solemn eloquence or of speculative meditation. 2. T)te Period extending from the Norman Con- quer to the Enijlish Reformation. — The Conquest had the efiFect of changing the language and manners of the court; it took but little effect on 161 those of the obstinate inhabitants of the country In a few centuries, the English peojjle compelled their Norman masters to acquire the desj)ised Anglo-Saxon ; and if there was a considerable importation of Norman-French into our literature, it was ovidng much more to such writers as Chaucer and Gower, who took what suited them from what- ever quarter, than to any lordly influence of the Norman nobility domineering over the abject necks of their Teutonic enemies. In a generation or two after the Conquest, classical and theological learning made very considerable progress. Monasteries were busy, and the English universities were both by this time founded ; while an interchange of teachers and pupils constantly went on between the English seminaries and those of France and other countries. Lanfranc and Anselm, Hales and Duns Scotus, Michael Scot and Roger Bacon, had attained to a great eminence in speculative and in physical philosophy. Doubtless their thinking was more characterised by its hair-splitting ingenuity than by its solidity, but the 13th c. stands out in a di3« tingaiished manner in England, and indeed through- out Euroiie, for its peculiar devotion to speculative studies. But all these philosophers wrote in Latin, and so did the historical writers of the time. These were William of Malmesbury, Geoffrey of Monmouth, Giraldus Cambrensis, Matthew Paris, and other chroniclers. One/)f the most curious and amusing phases through whicli our literature passed was the composition of local squibs, generally of a personal character, in rhymed Latin couplets. The ecclesiastics frequently came in for more than their share of this rude abuse. It is to Walter Mapes, a man of wit and fancy, we owe a highly popidar drinking-sonn^ of this period, beginning Mild est jpro- positum in taberna mori (' I devise to end my days* in a tavern drinking ; ' see Leigh Hunt's felicitous translation), which almost rivals in sj^irit and vigour the Jolly Good Ale and Old of two centuries later. The satire passed from the clergy, and v/as directed against the feeble king (John). De Montfort aiid the other great barons who distinguished them- selves at Runnymede, are the universal theme of popular praise. The Gesta Bomanormn, a medley of the most dissimilar elements, compiled by nobody knows who, contain tales and apologues, fables and satires, stories of pathos and of humour, worked up into a form closely resembling the French Fabliaux. These Gesta have been instrumental in suggesting some of the noblest themes to our more recent literature, and thus possess double claims on our affectionate regard. The Aferchant oj Venice, Marmion, &c., owe much to these rude tales of a bygone age. The French Fabliaux affected our literature but little before the time of Chaucer. Except the productions of a poetess, Marie of France, few of these compositions have come down to us of very great merit. The romances of chivalry, rude and spirited, pathetic and imaginative, are well worth the attention of the student of English literature; such are the fine old storj' of Haveloh the Dane, the Gest of King Horn, Bevis of Hamp' toun, Guy of Wa7'wicJc ; and last and best of all are those romances written in French, but composed by Englishmen, that celebrate the glory and fall of King Arthur and his knights of the Roimd Table, of which splendid use has recently been made by Alfred Tennyson in his Idylls of the King. But what during all this time has become of the old vernacular tongue of England as a mediitm of lite- rary expression ? Driven from the monasteries and universities, for the most part, and only slightly retained in poetry, it might have been expected to decay and die out. But such was the native vitality of the people who spoke it, that it kept its place. 6i ENGLISH LITERATURE. almost witliout a literature, only undergoing such changes as time inevitably effects upon a nascent langnai,'e. Thus the Anglo-Saxon merged into the Semi-Saxon, which grew and flourished, although it contains very little literature of much import- ance, except the Brut of Layamon, 'the English Ennius.' The 14th and 15th centuries (the period of the Early English) are of great importance, both iu the progress of English histcry and of English literat\u-e ; for although the age of Edward II. was inglorious in both, yet in the next reign the victories of Crecy and Poitiers heralded as with trumpet-blast the age of thought and of poetry, represented by Wickliffe and Chaucer, both of them brave-hearted genuine Englishmen. The translation (the first ever executed) of the Bible into English, which was completed by Wickliffe about 1380, is a v/ork of great value, not only as a monument in the religious history of our nation, but in a philo- logical point of view, being, as it is, * all but first among the prose- writings in our old tongue.' The principal book which precedes it, and the verj' oldest written in Early English, is Sir John Mandeville's accoimt of his eastern travels (1356). Somewhat later (between 1390 and 1400), Geoffrey Chaucer, the genuine father of English poetry, published his Cantei-hury Tales. A shrewd and sagacious observer, he has left behind him in these Tales a series of sportive and pathetic narratives, told with such a wonderful power of tenderness and humour, in such a simple, healthy style (although his English is largely modified by French innova- tions), that they have been the wonder and delight of all succeeding times. Laurence Minot, Richard RoUe, Langland or Longlande, author of Piers Plowman, and Gower, fitly close round Chaucer as contemporaries who wrote more or less vigorous verse. About the same period flourished in Scotland John Barbour, whose epic narrative. The Bruce, was written about 1376. The language of this poem resembles that contemporaneously employed in the south. In the follo^dng c. (the 15th), and in the early part of the 16th, occur in England the names of John Lydgate (1430), whose London Lyckpenny is Btill agreeable readin;^ ; Alexander Barclay, whose Ship of Fools was prmted in 1509 ; John Skelton, Buthor of the scurrilous satire of Colin Clout (died 1529) ; Howard, Earl of Surrey (beheaded 1546— 1547) ; and Sir Thomas Wyatt (died 1 541 ). The prose writers of this period are Sir John Fortescue, chief- ji^stice of the King's Bench under Henry VI., who flourished 1430 — 1470, and who wrote, among other things, a tract on the Difference between an Absolute and Limited Monarchy, as it more particularly regards the English Constitution ; William Caxton, who introduced printing into Britain in 1474 — the first book ever printed in this country being the Game of Chess ; Fabian, author of the Concordance of Stories, died 1512 ; Hall, an English lawyer (died 1547), who wrote a chronicle of the Wars of tlie Roses; and Tyndale, burned (1536) for heresy. In Scotland, during the same period, we encounter in poetry the names of James I., king of Scotland (murdered 1437), author of the King's Quhair, &c. ; Andrew Wyntoun, prior of Lochleven, whose On/gy- nale Cronykil of Scotland was completed about 1 420 ; Bli-id Harry, author of The Adventures of William Wallace, a work written about 1460, and long exceed- ingly popular with the Scottish peasantry ; Robert Henryson (died 1508), author of The Testament of Cres-:eid, &c. ; William Dunbar (died about 1520), whose Dance of the Seven Deadly Sins shews him to have possessed great boldness and vigour in his delineations of character ; and Gavin Douglas (died 1522), whose best work is a translation of Virgil's uEneid into Sjottiah verse. 3. The Period extending from the English Refor- mation to the Present Day. — Among the brilliant works of the Elizabethan age, there is probably none of which we may not detect germs in some of the efforts which were made in the century that preceded. In theology, the names of Latimer (burned 1555), of Cranmer (burned 1556), and ol Ridley (burned 1555), shine forth conspicuously; and it is sufficient to mention Sir Thomas Moi« (beheaded 1535), author of Utopia, a curioiia philosophical work, and Roger Ascham (died 1568), as excellent miscellaneous writers of that timet As we have already taken up the English drama under the article Drama, we need only ntentif/a here Sackville (died 1608), author of M vrour for Magistrates, &c. ; Brooke (droAvned 156o), authof of the Tragical History of Eomeus and Jidtet ; and the Scotchmen, Sir David Lyndsay, Lyon King-at-arms (died about 1557), Boece, Major, Melville, and, above all, George Buchanan (died 1582), who is universally admitted to have been one of the finest classical scholars that ever appeared in Christendom. The founding of the Scottish universities, and the dissemination, mainly through the influence of the great reformer John Knox, of grammar and parish schools throughout the country, bade fair to give to Scotland an im- portant place in the literature of Great Britain ; a result which unforeseen ecclesiastico-i)olitical troubles long frustrated. The era on which we are next to look, the Elizabethan, is the most brilliant iu the literary history of England. We may quote here the words of Lord Jeffrey : ' In point of real force and originality of genius, neither the age of Pericles, nor the age of Augustus, nor the times of Leo X., or of Louis XIV., can come at all into comparison. For in that short period we shall find the names of almost all the great men that this nation has ever produced : the names of Shakspeare, and Bacon, and Spenser, and Sidney ; of Raleigh, and Hooker, and Taylor ; of Napier, and Milton, and Cudworth, and Hoblies ; and many others — men, all of them not merely of great talents and accomplishments, but of vast compass and reach of imderstanding, and of minds tndy creative ; not men who perfected art by the delicacy of their taste, or digested knowledge by the justness of their reasonings ; but men who made vast and substantial additions to the materials upon which taste and reason must hereafter be employed, and who enlarged to an incredible and unparalleled extent both the stores and the resources of the human faculties.' Even the minor dramatists of the time, such as Marlowe and Chapman, Beaumont and Flet . her, Jonson and Drummond, are all nearly the equala of any succeeding poets that have ap])eared. In the latter half of this period a new class of poetio writers started up, who were lyrical rather thaa dramatic, and whose occasional verses, sometime* descriptive, sometimes amatory, and s(mietimes reli- gious, are characterised by a bright and delicate fancy, as if morning sunbeams glittered on their pages. These are George Wither, William Browne, Frances Quarles, and George Herbert, ' the sweet psalmist of the 17th century' (as Emerson calls him). The last forty years of the 17th c. are gener- ally known as the age of the Restoration and the Revolution. During this period, the literature of the stage was disgraced by its indecency. Charles II. and his court had brought back with them from France a love of polite profligacy, which found its most fitting expression in the comedy of intrigue. Four names stand out conspicuous as * sinners above all men in that generation ' — Wycherly, Congreve, Vanbrugh, and Farquhar. Yet theology could boast of such names as Baxter, ENGRAILED— ENGRAVING. Owen, Calaniy. Collier, Leighton, South, Tillotson, and Barrow. This was also the epoch when the great Milton, driven into the shades of obscurity by political adversities, fulfilled the uttered hope of his youth, and wrote ' something which posterity will not willingly let die.' About this time, too, Walton angled, and Butler burlesqued dissent ; Mar- vell turned his keen irony against the High Church ; Jjocke and Newton speculated and discovered ; and John Dryden, the literary chief of the time, ' found the English language (according to Dr Johnson) of brick and left it of marble.' The literary history of the 18th c, and of the reign of Queen Anne, has been variously estimated. If it was overvalued by those who lived in it, and in the age that succeeded, it has assuredly been imder- valued in our own day. It was long glorified as the Augustan age of English literature ; but amon» ourselves it has been set aside as a sceptical, utili- tarian age, when poetry could find no higher field than didactic discussion, and prose found nothing to amuse but comic and domestic narrative, or bitter and stinging satire. The truth, as usual, lies in the middle. This age was far from being superior to every era that had gone before it, and it was not quite so low as some of its hostile critics have represented. One thing, however, is beyond dispute, \'iz., that the form, both in poetry and in prose, had come to be much more regarded than the matter. Addison, Swift, and Johnson, may be taken as types of the prose writers of this century. The first for ease and grace is unmatched in any age ; the second stands equally high for rough and pointed vigour ; and the third is famous for his ponderous, finely balanced sentences, the dignity of which not unfrequently surpassed the sense. The poetry of the time is represented by Pope, and it has been gravely asked whether he was a poet at aU. He certainly versified with brilliant elegance, and the terror which his polished epigrams excited in the breasts of his enemies, shewed him to possess a force of genius which at least demands our admira- tion. Young and Akenside were perha])s animated by a higher poetic sense, but they accomplished much less ; and the same may also be said of Thomson, Gray, Collins, Beattie, and Cowper. Incomparably the greatest poet, however, of the 18th c. was Robert Bums. Richardson, Fielding, Smollett, Sterne, Goldsmith, and Mackenzie are its novelists ; Hume, Robertson, and Gibbon, its historians ; Butler, Berkeley, Clarke, Shafttedbury, Hume, Paley, and Adam Smith its philosophers. The 19th c, though full of interest for us, is, from the novelty and the variety of the intellectual character employed in it, one of the most difiicidt to analyse of the whole range of English literature. It has been a time of extraordinary activity, books have l)een multiplied to an unprecedented degi'ee, and readers have increased in an equal proportion. It cannot be doubted, however, that the first quarter pf this century is greater in literature than any Bubse(j[uent i)ortion of it. It is greater, besides, in poetry than in prose. The early names of Coleridge and Wordsworth, of Scott and Byron, oi Shelley and Keats, of Campbell and Southey, are higher than any now prominent except that of Tennyson. This is the age, besides, of novels and romances, of reviews and periodicals. Jeff"rey and S^i'dney Smith, Hazlitt and John Foster, De Quincey and Carlyle, are the great names in review-literature ; Hall, Clialmtirs, and Irving in pulpit oratory ; Stewart, Mackintush, IJenthara, Brown, Hamilton, and Mid in philosophy ; Dickens, Thackeray, Bulvver Lytton, Miss Bronte, and Miss Evans, as novehsts ; Uall;*ni, Macaulay, Thirlwall, Grote, Milman, and C&rlyle, as historians ; Ruskin, a writer on art ; Tennyson, the Brownings, Matthew and Edwin At nold, Dobell, and Smith, as poets ; and in the New World beyond the Atlantic, Washington Irving, Poe, Longfellow, Cooper, Prescott, Emerson, Bancroft, Hawthorne, Whittier, Motley, Mrs. Stowe, and others, are among the great living authors of this age or those recently dead. A considerable j)ortion of the literature of the 18th and 19th centuries is devoted to science, which can show a crowd of illustrious names too numerous to mention. Besides, in scientific works, the matter is of so much greater importance than the form, and so little attention is paid in general to the latter by scientific writers, that it is not customary to include them in a survey of literature proper. Several compends of English literature have been published within the last twenty years, which are well worthy of attentive study. Among the most judicious may be named, A Compendium of English LiteratxirCy from Sir J. Mandeville to William Cowper (Philadel- phia, 1848), English Literature oj the Nineteenth Cen- tury (^Philadelphia, 1851), and A Compendium of American Literature (Philadelphia, 1858), all by Chas. D. Cleveland. Also, Chambers' Cyclopedia of English Literature (Edin., 2 vols. 8vo., 1844 — 1853); BuychincKs Cyclopedia of American Literature (N. York, 2 vols. 8vo., 1856 ; new edition, revised, 1869). Allibone's Critical Dictionary of English Literature and British and American Aitthors, 3 vols. 8vo. (Phila., 1858 — 1870), is not properly a compendium, but a crit- ical biography of English and American literature, and a work of extraordinary labour and erudition. ENGRA'VING, in its widest sense, is the art of incising designs, writing, &c., on any hard substance, such as stone, metal, or wood. Many branches of the art are of great antiquity ; such as gem-engrav- ing, cameo-cutting, and die-sinking. The more important of these ornamental and useful kinds of engraving are described mider their proper heads. But in a narrower sense, engraving is the special designation of the art of cutting or indenting the surface of metal plates or of blocks of wood with designs, for the purpose of taking ofi" impressions or prints of the designs on paper. This department of the art arose as late as the 15th c., the earliest wood-engraving with a date being 1423, and the earliest dated engra^ing from a metal plate being 1461. Wood-engraving differs from engraving on metal in this, that on a metal plate the traces or marka which are to appear on the jiaper are cut or sunk into the plate, and when printed from are filled with ink, while the rest of the surface is kept clean ; whereas in wood- engraving they are left prominent or in relief, and the blank paiiis of the design are cut away. Hence a wood-cut acts as a type, and is inked and printed from in the usual way. Se« Printing. This makes wood- engraving peculiarly suitable for the illustration of books ; as the blocks can be printed from along vAih. the letterpress; while the impressions from a metal plate must be i taken by themselves, and by a slow process. The further treatment of the important art of Wood- engraving is reserved for a separate article ; our attention at present being confined to engraving on metal. It is beyond our scope to enter into the practical details of the various processes ; we can only aim at enabling a reader altogether ignorant of them to conceive how the effects may be produced, and to understand the terms currently used in speaking of this kind of art. The metals most commonly used for engra%'ing are copper and steel, the former having the advan* tage of being more easily worked, the latter ot greater durability. The processes of workuig an 67 ENGRAVING. essentially the same in both. The several manners or styles of engraving are distinguished as Line engrav- ing, Mezzotinto, Stippling, and Aquatinta. 1. Line-engraving — in which, as the name implies, the eflfect is produced by a combination of lines — is executed either by direct incision with the graver or the dry-point, or by a combination of incision with etching — a chemical process to be immediately descril ed. The graver or burin is usually in the f3rm of a quadrangular prism, htted into a short handle. In making the incision, the graver is piished forward in the direction of the line required, being held by the handle, at an angle very slightly inclined to the plane of the copper. A scraper is required to scrape off the barb or burr which is formed by the action of the graver and dry-point. The rubber is a roll of cloth dipped in oil, and is used to make the surface smooth. A burnisher is required to polish the plate, and erase any scratches which it may accidentally receive, and also to make lighter any part of the work which may have been made too dark. The dry-j)oiut is like a sewing- needle fixed into a handle, and is used to cut or scratch the finer lines. The graver cuts the copper clean out, the dry-point throws it up on each side ; and in some cases this is not scraped off, but made use of till it is worn off, as it gives richness to the line. In etching, the first step is to cover the plate with a composition of wax, asphaltum, gum mastic, resin, &c., dissolved by heat ; an outline of the design, made on paper in pencil or red chalk, is then ' transferred' to the surface of this composition, by being passed through a press. The subject is then drawn on the ground with the etching-point, which cuts through it, and exposes the copper. Etching -points or needles resemble large sewing-needles shortened, and fixed into handles four or five inches long ; some are made oval, to produce broader lines. A rim of wax being put round the plate, acid is poured on, and corrodes the copper not protected by the ground. If the acid is found not to have acted sufficiently, it may be applied again to the whole design, or only to portions of it, by stopping up, with a mix- ture of lampblack and Venice turpentine applied with a camel-hair pencil, what has been sufficiently bitten in. When a series of parallel lines are wanted, as in backgrounds, &c., an ingenious machine called a ruler is employed, the accuracy of whose operation is exceedingly perfect. This is made to act on etching-ground by a point or diamond connected with the apparatus, and the tracings are bit in with aquafortis in the ordinary way. 2. The process of viezzotinto is by no means so difficult as line-engraving. The plate is prepared by being indented or hacked all over by an instru- ment with a serrated edge, called a cradle, which is rocked to and fro upon it in all directions. The barb or nap thus produced retains the printer's ink, and if printed, a uniform dark surface would be the result. On this plate, after a tracing has been transferred, the engraver goes to work with tools called scrapers ftnd burnishers — those parts of the ground most imoothed being the highest lights, and the ground the least operated on producing the deepest shadows. As the work proceeds, it may be blackened with ink, applied with a printer's ball or otherwise, in order to ascertain the effect. The design is sometimes etched on the plate by the ordinary process, before ♦■he mezzotinto ground is laid. 3. Aquatint Engraving.— By this method, the effect of drawings in Indian ink is produced ; and at one time it was greatly made use of in rendering the drawings of Paul Sandby and our early water- colour painters, and particularly prints for drawing- books. In this process, which is a very complex kind of etching, the ground, which is composed of pulverised rosin and spirits of wine, assumes when dry a granulated form ; and the aquafortis acting on the metal between the particles, reduces the surface to a state that an impression from it resembles a tint or wash of colour on paper. David Allan engraved his celebrated illustrations of the Gentle Shepherd in this manner. It has now gone almost entirely out of use, having, like engraving in imitations of drawings in chalk or pencil, been in a great degree superseded by litho^aphy. 4. In engraving in Stipple, which was much in vogue in the end of the last century, the dravvdng and effect are produced by small dots, in place of lines. Hyland, Bartolozzi, and Sherwin, excelled in this style. It is well suited for portraits ; several of Raeburn's have been capitally engi-aved in stipple by Walker. It involves much more labour than mezzotinto, and is now little i)ractised. Plate-printing. — Copper-plates, engraved in any of the above styles, are ready for press as soon as they are finished by the engraver. The method of print- ing from them is very simple. Their engraved sur- face is daubed over with a thick oleaginous ink, so that the lines are effectually filled. As this dirties the whole face of the plate, it is necessary to clean it, which is done by the workman wiping i% first with a piece of cloth, and then with the palms of hia hands, rubbed on fine whiting. It may be calculated that a hundred times more ink is thus removed than actually remains in the indentations ; how- ever, such is necessary. The plate being thoroughly cleaned^ it is laid on a press (see fig.), with a pieon of damped paper over it ; and being woimd beneatA a roller covered with blanket-stuff, it is forced to yield an impression on the paper. The plate requires to be kept at a moderate warmth during the operation. The frequent rubbing of the plate with the hand to clean it, as may be supposed, tends greatly to wear it down ; and such is the wear chiefly from this cause, that few copper-plates will yield more than a few thousands of impressions in good order. The earliest, called proofs, are always the best and most highly prized. In consequence of this defect in copper, the prac- tice of engraving steel-plates, for all subjects requiring a great many impressions, has now become very common. This process was introduced by the late Mr Perkins of London, who originally softened the plates, engraved them, and then rehardened them — a practice now abandoned, as ordinary steel-plates can be worked upon by the burin, dry-point, scraper, and burnisher with perfect facility. Etching on steel-plates is executed much in the same way as in the process on copper. An engraving on a steel plate may be transferred in relief to a softened steel cylinder by pressure ; and this cylinder, after being hardened, may again transfer the iesign by rolling ENGRAVING. ft upon a fresh steel-plate; and thus the design may Uq midtiplied at pleasure. U'ustonj of Engraving. — This most important in- vention, by which the productions of art are diffused without limit, is said to have been accidental, and is claimed for Tommaso Finiguerra, who first took impressions on paper about the year 1440. His employment was executing ornamental engraving, cliiefiy on articles used in religious services, such as small portable slirines, or altar-pieces. These were generally made of silver, and the designs engraved on them were filled up with a black composition, that hardened in a short time. This cx)mpositiou was called in Italian rdello (from Lat. nigellus, dim. of niger, black), and the workers in it mellatori. It was the practice of Finiguerra, in the oourse of executing his work, to prove it by rubbing lampblack and oil into, and pressing paper over it he thus obtained an impression of his work up to a particular stage, and w-as enabled safely to carry it on till it was completed. Finiguerra's title to the invention has been disputed ; and in a recent work by J. D. Passavant, Le Pemtre-Graveur (Leip. 1860), a strong case seems to be made out for its German origin. Be that as it may, the principal early Italian engravers who followed Finiguerra, were Bacio Baldini (born about 1436, died 1515) ; Sandro Botticelli (born 1437, died 1515)— he embellished an edition of Dante's Inferno, brought out in 1481 ; Antonio PoUajuoli (born 1426, died 1498, at Florence) ; Andrea Mantegna (bom at Padua 1431, died at Mantua 1505); and Marc Antonio Raymondi (born at Bologna 1487 or 1488, died 1539), who executed his chief works at Borne. The most celebrated early German engravers were Martin Schoengauer (born at Colmar about 1455, died 1499) ; Israel van Mecheln, or Meckenen (born at Meckenen on the Meuse about 1450, and died 1523) ; Michel Wohlgemuth, who died in 1519 ; Albert Diirer (born at NUrnberg in 1471, died in 1528) ; and Lucas van Ley den (born at Leyden 1494, died 1533). The engravings of aU these artists are very valuable, not only from their scarceness, and as illustrating the early history and progress of the art, but as exemplifying many high qualities that have never been surpassed in later times. The most of them were painters, and engraved their own works, except Marc Antonio, who engraved chiefly those of Raphael, by whom he was employed, and who occasionally overlooked and directed him. All those engravers, and their immediate followers, executed their works with the graver; but soon after, engravings came to be generally executed by two processes — etching, and cutting with the graver or the dry-point. The works of these early masters are often remarkable for character and expression, as those, for instance, by Mantegna ; and for the correctness and high style of the drawing, for which qualities Marc Antonio has aever been surpassed ; also for finish of the most careful and elaborate kind, which has been carried further by Albert Diirer and Lucas van Leyden than by any other engravers. The styles of these early engravers were cultivated by numerous suc- cessors, several of whom followed their masters as closely as they could, while others diverged into something like originality : the chief names are Agostino Veneziano, about 1620 ; Nicolas Belin da Modena, and Giov. Ghisi, 1630 ; Luc. Damesz, vho died in 1533 ; Giov. Giac. Caraglio, and Marco da Kavenna, about 1640 ; Giul. Bouasone, born at Bologna in 1498, died in Rome in 1564 ; Eneus Vicus, George Vens, Hem-id Aldegraf, and Jean Sebast. Boehm, about 1550 ; Adi'ian, Charles, William, and John Collerl;, Adam and George Ghi&i^ Sutermann, Virgilius Solis, Cornelius Cort, Martin Rota, and others, ranging from the middle to the end of the 10th century. Agost. Caracci, the celebrated painter, executed many spirited engravings. Saenredam, De Bruyn, Galie, Keller- thaller, Alberti, De Goudt, C. de Pass, Sadeler, are names of well-known engravers that enter on the 17th century. Henry Goltzius is noted for the number and variety of his works, and hifl imitations of the styles of the older masters. la the plates of engravers towards the middle of the 17th, and beginning of the 18th c, a large propor- tion of the work consists of etching, the graver being chiefly used for deepening and clearing u^o the etching. This arose from the manner of working being well adapted for rendering the style of the painters of that period, whose works were distinguished for freedom of execution or touch, and clearness and transparency. The most noted engravers of this period were the Vischers, who flourished between 1610 and 1650, and engraved many of Berghem's pictures ; Bolswert, 1620 ; Lucas Vosterman the Elder, 1630 ; Suyderhoef, about 1640. These engravers rendered many of the works of Rubens in a very spirited manner. Coryn Boel — whose engravings from Teniers are in some respects superior even to Le Bas — Troyen, and Van Kessel, are worthy contemporaries. In the age of Louis XIV., a race of engravers of portraits arose, who carried execution with the graver almost to perfection. The works of the artists they engraved from were florid in style, with a great display of draper}'- and lace, and accessories in the backgrounds elaborately executed. Among these engravers the following rank highest : Gerard Edelinck (b. Antwerp 1627, d. Paris 1707)— he was one of the best engravers of the period, and specially patronised by Louis XIV, ; Masson (b. 1636, d. 1700) ; Larmessin (b. 1640, d. 1684) ; Drevet the Elder (b. 1664, d. 1739) ; Drevet the Younger (b. 1697); Gerard Andran (b. 1640, d. 1703). There was a large family of Andrans engravers, but Gerard was the most celebrated, indeed he was one of the best of the French engravers. Among engravers of talent in England may be mentioned Robert Walker (b. 1572) ; William Faithorne (b. London between. 1620 and 16.30, d. 1694) executed many excellent engravings of portraits ; George Vertue (b. London 1684, d. 1756), a good engraver, and a man of general information and taste in matters of art ; John Smith (b. London 1654, d. 1722) executed in mezzotinto a vast number of interesting portraits- In the 18th c, there w^ere numerous excellent engravers, by whose works the taste for the pictures of the Dutch school of the 17tli c. has been widely extended. Two of the most distinguished of these were John Philip le Bas (b. Paris 1708, d. 1782) and John George Wille (b. Konigsberg 1717, d. 1808). Their styles are totally dissimilar. Le Bas's plates are chiefly etched, and remarkable for spirit and sharpness of touch and transparency; accord- ingly, mostly all his works are after painters who excelled in these qualities, jiarticularly Teniers. Wille's engravings, again, are of the most caref il and elaborate description, and his best prints ai« after Gerard Dow, Terburg, Mieris, and Metzu — masters distinguished for the high finish of their pictures. He worked with the graver ; and his plates are distinguished by the precision and clearness with which the lines are cut. It w^as about the middle and latter portion of last century that engraving reached its highest point in England. The works of William Hogarth (b. London 1698, d. 1764) are of w'orld-wide cele- brity, but that is owing mainly to the excellence and dramatic interest of the pictures from wnich the engravings are made, though, no doubt, his ENGRAVING. prints, are en}j;raved in a firm, clear style, similar to that practiced by the Erench engravers of the time, several of ■\vhoni -were employed by him. It was Sir Robert Strange (b. Orkney 1721, d. London 1792), an engraver of figures, and William Woolet (b. Maidstone 1735, d. London 1785], a landscape-engraver, who imparted to English engraving those qualities and characteristics that enable us to claim a style of engraving that is national, differing from other styles, and that has orisf n ar.d been best carried out in this country. In drawing and form, Strange was rather defective; but he excelled in what engravers call colour, or the art of producing, by means of variety of line, a tcx'^m or quality that compensates for the want of colour, by giving to the engi'aving something of the richness ])roduced by colour in a picture. His imita- tion of the softness and semi-trans])arency of flesh was y)articularly successful, and superior to that of the French engravers, whose works, though in most respects admirable, failed in that respect, and had, in the more delicate parts, a hard or metallic look. Woolet treated landscape-engraving in a manner totally new, imparting to it more firmness and decision, by making great use of the graver. His works have more finish and force than fonner land- scape-engravers, but they are in some degree lial)le to the objection of hardness, in the treatment of foliage in particular. The works of these two engravers have had a marked influence on art, not only in this country, but abroad. The merit of Strange's style was acknowledged on the conti- nent ; he was elected a member of the Academies of Florence, Bologna, Parma, and Rome. At the end of last century, art had fallen very low on the continent, but a regeneration was beginning ; and in Italy, engravers were then arising, such as Volpato and Cunego, who studied and imitated the softness and, technically speaking, fleshiness of texture that distinguished the works of the British engraver ; those, again, were followed by Raphael Morghen, Longhi, Mercurii, and others, in Italy ; by Boucher Desnoyers, Forster, &c., in France ; and by MuUer, Keller, Gruner, and numerous other engravers in Germany. By them, engraving has been carried to the highest pitch. Amongst their works, the fol- lowing are chefs-cVceuvres : 'The Last Supper,' after Da Vinci, by R. Morghen ; the ' Spozalizia,' after Raphael, by Longhi; 'La Belle Jardiniere,' and other works, after Rajihael, by Boucher Desnoyers, who has engraved the works of Raphael perhaps on the whole better than any other engraver ; ' The Madonna de San Sisto,' by M.Uller, and ' The Dispute on the Sacrament,' after Raphael, of Keller. No engravings executed in this coimtry come up to the works of these last-named masters, who have engraved works of a higher class than the majority of those done by Strange, while the drawing and g-.meral treatment of their works are in a purer and more correct style. However, the engravings of Burnet, Raimbach, Stewart, and others after Wilkie and contemporary British painters, deservedly hold the highest place among works of the class to crhivh they belong, and betoken clearly the great influeLje which Strange exercised on their style. At present, few figure-subjects are executed in the line-manner, and that art has certainly fallen in this country. This may be accounted for, perhaps, by the great use made of mechanical appliances, in portions of the work, to save time, and by the preference shewn for mezzotinto- engraving as practised at present, that is, with a mixture of lining or stippling. The greater nimi- ber of Landseer s works have been engraved in that way, and it is now adopted for rendering the Works of John Phillip and Miliais, and the leading 7a artists of the day. Several, however, of Lands»eer'a earlier works have been engraved in tha line mai ner, particularly his pictures of ' Drovers leaving the Grampians,' and 'The Watering-place,' by Watt,, which are capital examj)les of line-engraving. There is no good modern school of landscupe-engrav ing on the continent ; the influence of Woolet waa entirely confined to this country, where landscape- engraving, particularly in illustrated works after Turner, has attained great excellence. Towards the end of last century, mezzotinto- engraving was practised in England with great success ; arising from its being peculiaily adai)ted to render effectively the works of Sir Joshua Rey- nolds. M'Ardell, Earlom, Watson, Smith, Valtiitin« Green, and Ward were among the best engravers ot* his works. The invention of this process is gener- ally given to Prince Rupert, others ascribe it to Dr Wren, 1662, and state that Prince Rupert morely improved on the invention. It has been i)ractised very generally from the time of its invention, but attained its highest position in Sir Joshua's time; and it is very successfully can-ied out now, in an altered manner, additional force being aimed at, by means of stippling and etching. It is well calcu- lated for producing broad effects : Turner's Jjibcr Studiorum, and the landscapes after Constal)le, are admirable examples of its cai)abilities in this way ; the efiect in Turner's plates, however, is heightened by etching. Etching has been already described as a part of the i)roces3 of engraving ; but as practised by painters, it is classed as a distinct art. The plate is prepared with a ground, and corroded in the same way ; but the treatment is more free. Not being tied to the task of literally coi)ying or translating the idea of another, like the engraver, the painter has scope to impart a spirit to his work peculiarly suggestive of what he intends to embody ; his idea is represented directly, and not at second-hand, aa it were. The etchings of Rembrandt, Paul Potter, Karl du J ardin, Adrian Vande velde, Teniers, Ostade, Berghem, Backhuysen, Van Dyck, Claude, Salvatoi Rosa, Canaletti, and other painters, are very highly valued, as conveying more completely the feeling of the i)ainter than the best engravings. Etching was more practised by the old than by modern painters ; yet Wilkie, Landseer, and other modem artists, have etched various plates, remarkable for character and spirit. English Works on Engraving — Sculpture, or thi History and Art of Chalcography and Engraving on Copper,^ by John Evelyn (Lond. 12mo, 1663; 8vo, 1755) ; The Art of Engraving and Etching, with the Way of Printing Copper -plates, by M. Faithomo (Lond. 1702) ; Sculptura Historico-technico, or the History and Art of Engraving, extracted from BaU dinucci Florent, Le Compt, Faithome, t/ie Abecadario Pittorico, and other authors (Lond. 4to, 1747, 1766, and 1770) ; An Essay upon Prints, by Gilpin (Lond, 8vo, 1767, 1768, and 1781); Strntt'a Biographical Dictionatvj of Engravers (2 vols., 4to, Lond. 1785) ; Landseer's Lectures on Engraving (8vo, Lond. 1806) ; An Inquiry into the Origin and Early History of Engraving upon Copper and on Wood, by William Young Ottley (4to, Lond. 1816). Of late years, many inventions have been intro- duced, having for their object to supersede the slow and laborious manual operations of engraving by means of machinery and other appliances. It is, however, to business and ornamental purposes that they are applicable, and not to the prodm.tion of artistic engravings of the kind treated of in this article. The subject will be noticed under I^Iachine Engraving, Medals, Glass, etc. WitfL regard to the reproduction of plates, and other apj>lications ENGRAVINGS— ENLISTMENT. galvanic electricity to engraving, see Galvanism And Magneto-Electricity. See also Puotographic Engraving. ENGRAVINGS, Property of. The property of engravings and prints is secured by statutes sim lar to those for the protection of literary f)ropei*ty. By 8 Geo. II. c. 13, the property of dstorical and other prints was declared to be invested in the inventor for 14 years. The proprietor's name must be affixed to each print, ^nd the statute imposes a penalty on printsellers ind others pirating the same. The provisions of this statute were extended by 7 Geo. III. c. 38, which secures to the widow of WiUiam Hogarth the sole right of printing and reprinting his works for tJie period of 20 years. The other acts are 17 Geo. III. c. 57, 6 and 7 WiU. IV. c. 59— which extends the former acts to the whole United King- dom — and 15 Vict. c. 12. The latter act — the object of which was to enable her Majesty to carry into effect a convention with France on the subject of copyright, to extend and explain the international copyright acts, and to explain the acts relating to copyright in engravings — reduces the duties on foreign engravings, and extends the protection of the acts to prints taken by lithography, or ' any other mechanical process by which prints or impres- sions of drawings or designs are capable of being midti]>lied indefinitely' — a clause which has now been found to cover photographs. ENGRO'SSING and REGRA'TING. An engrosser, regrater, or forestaller, is a person who buys grain, flesh, fish, or other articles of food, with the intention of selling them again at an enhanced price, either in the same fair or market, or in another in the neighbourhood, or who purchases or contracts for corn while still in the field. These practices were regarded as criminal in most coun- tries, before the laws by which trade is regulated were properly imderstood. In England, they were forbidden by various statutes, fi-om the time of Edward VI. to that of Queen Anne. These statutes were repealed by 12 Geo. III. c. 71, on the pre- amble, that it hath been found by experience, that the restraints laid upon the dealing in corn, meal, flour, cattle, and sundry other sorts of victuals, by Ereventing a free trade in the said commodities, ave a tendency to discourage the growth, and to enhance the price of the same. It was found, how- ever, that engrossing was not only a statutory but a common law offence, and a prosecution for it in the latter character actually took place in the present century. The Act 7 and 8 Vict. c. 24, for abolishing the offences of forestalling, regrating, and engrossing, was consequently passed. Besides declar- ing that the several offences of badgering, engross- ing, forestalling, and regrating be utterly taken away and abolished, and that no information or prosecution shall lie either at common law or by virtue of any statute, either in England, Scotland, or Ireland, this statute repeals a whole host of earlier enactments in restraint of trade, which had keen omitted in the statute in the time of George III., above referred to. The rubrics of these enact- Dients give a curious picture not only of the trading errors, but in many other respects of the obsolete customs of our ancestors. The first, for example (51 Henry III.), is called a ' Statute of the Pillory and Tumbrel, and of the Assize of Bread, and Ale.' Then there is an act passed in several reigns which provides for the punishment of *a butcher or cook that huyeth flesh of Jews and selleth the same to Christians.' Notwithstanding the doctrine of the Scottish law, tKat statutes may be repealed by mere desuetude, it was thought safer to include the Scottish statutes to the same effect. The earliest is 1503, c. 38, and the latest IGCl, c. 280. The statute 6 and 7 Vict. c. 24 does not ai)i)ly to the spreading of false rumours, with the intent to enhance or decry the price of merchandise, or pre venting goods from being brought to market by force or threats, which continue to be punishable as if that act had not been made. ENGROSSING A DEED. See Ingrossing-. ENGUE'RA, a town of Spain, in the province of Valencia, 43 miles south-west of the town of that name. It is poorly built, and has narrow and irregular streets. It has manufactures of linen and woollen goods, and some trade in cattle and agricul- tural produce. Pop. 5250. ENGUICHE. A hunting-horn, the rim around the mouth of which is of a different colour from the horn itself, is said heraldically to be euguiche, of the colour in question. ENHARMO'NIC, a term applied in Music wheu the name of a note is changed without any sensible difference of sound, such as Cjj! and Db, F^I and Gb. Correctly speaking, there is, or ought to be, a difference ; but on keyed instrumer.ts, such as the organ and pianoforte, there can be none, as the same key serves for both sharp and fiat, whUe with a just equal temperament the ear is in no way offended. In harmony, the principal seat of enharmonic change isj in the chord" of the diminished seventh, which, by a change of the notes, may be treated fundamentally in four different ways, without any sensible difference in the intonation. ENKHUI'SEN, a fortified town and seaport ot the Netherlands, in the province of North Holland, is situated on the western shore of the Zuider Zee, about 30 miles north-east of Amsterdam. It is built with great regidarity, and is of a circular form. The most important public building is an elegant town-house, surmounted by a lofty tower. There are also numerous ecclesiastical edifices, several salt - refineries, shi^^-building yards, and a cannon-foundry. Formerly, E. was a town of some importance — 400 vessels used to leave its harbour annually for the herring-fisheries ; at present, not more than 7 vessela are thus employed. It has still some trade iu hatter, cheese, timber, cattle, and fish. Pop. 5400. ENLI'STMENT, in the Army, is the cliief rnr^de by which the English army is supplied with troops, as distinguished from the Conscription prevailing in many other countries. Enlistmtnt was in private hands until the year 1802, middlemen j.rocuring recrxiits, and receiving a profit or commission for their trouble. This system being subject to much aVjuse, the matter was taken into the hands of the gcvernment in the above-named year, and is now managed by the adjutant-general. Formerly, a soklier enlisted for life, and could never look forward to a period of freedom ; or, at best, he could not retire on a pension while still possessed of a fair share of health and strength. This system was changed iu 1847, by an act relating to limited enliatment. If a man serves as a soldier in an infantry regimr.nt for ten years, he is then at liberty to leave the ar. ny ; but if he wishes to retire on a small pension, he must servKi a further period of eleven years, making twenty -one years' service in all. He has a choice, and, if he please, six months for deliberation, whether he will render this second period of service or not. In the cavah'y and artillery, the two terms of serWce are of twelve years respectively. If apprentices enlist, the master may recover them under certain co'iditioiva detailed in the Mutiny Act (q. A.) (which is passed every year) ; and if they state to the ma^lj'v;ratc> that 3X ENLISTMENT—: ENNISKILLEN. tliey are not apprentices, they may be punished for fraud, and are liable to serve in the army on the expiration of their indentures. If the master con- cent to the enlistment, he is entitled to part of the \)0uiAty. The Mutiny Act also provides that servants enlisting before the term of their engagement, are validly enlisted, and are entitled to wages up to the date of enlistment. Periods of imprisonment are not reckoned as part of the time of limited enlistment. A recruit enlists into some particular regiment, at his own choice, not into the general army ; but artificers, as armourers, &c., are usually fivlisted for general service, so that their ser- vices may be made available where most required. L'vcry recruit is asked whether he belongs to the militia, and whether he enlists willingly. He has to ai)pear before a magistrate, and make declaration that the enlistment is volimtary on • i:s part. Several other questions are put to him ; Bome of the Articles of War are read to him ; and he is ex})ecte I to understand his real position before the oath is adnunistered. This is intended to obviate the gi-oss alnises of the old system, under which recruits were sometimes irrevocably enlisted when drunk and almost insensible. The oath is signed by the magistrate, the recruit, and a witness, and a certificate is given to the newly made soldier. If, at this interview with the magistrate, the young man repents of his previous engagement with the recruiting-officer, he may buy himself off by paying twenty shillings as Smart-money (q. v.), and defi\ay- ing any other ex]>ense he may have occasioned. He cannot retract without paying this fine ; a simple refusal to take the oath is followed by imprison- ment. The Mutiny Act specifies many other cases in which the recruit renders himself liable to imprisonment. At the commencement of the war with Russia, or rather in 1S55, an act em})owered the crown to enlist soldiers for a shorter period than ten years, on emergency ; hut the exercise of this power is placed under certain parliamentary limitations. In the Eoyal Marines, the enlistment is usually for twelve years. ENLISTINIENT, in the Navy, is managed by the Admiralty, and is changed from time to time in its details, according to the degree of \viningness among 8eafari::g men to enter the ser\ace. In 1830, an hit was passed to give certain additional advan- tages to volunteer seamen. In 1835, another act emjjowered the crown to double the amount of bounty given to a volunteer, if he was already a gearaan. In 1847, it was enacted that such persons as were entitled, if enlisted, to double boimty, ihoidd form a select class ; and that shipowners should not be allowed to hire such persons as crews for racrchant-shi[)s, if the government thought proper to issue a proclamation to that effect. At the commencement of the war with Eiissia, In 1854, it was deemed expedient not only to give extra bounties to seamen willing to enlist, but to make a money- present to seamen already in the oavy, as an equivalent advantage. The bounty ^iven to seamen varies from time to time, accord- tog to the exigencies of the service; but recent legislation has established a distinction between Amited and continuous service. A seaman may enlist for five or for ten years, or for the period th3 ship he enters is in commission ; if for the longer period, he receives higher pay and other advantages. At the end of this longer period, he may demand hia discharge ; and, if abroad, he may claim to be l>r'>ught home free of expense. His commanding- sfPcer may, in emergency, retain his further service for six months, on payment of another increase Df pay. The crown, besides, possesses a power of compelling renewed service from seamen under certain con(litions, in case of invasion or other national peril. Other matters bearing on this subject "will be found noticeil under Bocjntv, Coast Volunteers, Impressment, and Manning the Navy. ENMANCHE, or EMANCH^. See Manchb. ENNEMOSER, Joseph, known aa a medico- philosophic writer, was bom 15th November 1787, at Hintersee, in the Tyrol, and commenced hie academic studies at Innsbruck in 1806. On thi rising of the Tyrolese against the French in 1809, Ei followed Andreas Hofer as his secretary, and honour- ably distinguished himself in battle on several occa- sions. At the close of the war, he went to Erlangen, and subsequently to Vienna, for the i)uri)ose of con- cluding his studies. Here, however, he experienced the greatest difficulty in procuring the means of subsistence, but fortunately fell in with a merchant from Altona, in whose company he travelled for some time. When Napoleon declared war against Russia in 1812, E. was despatched to England, to solicit aid for the T3rrolese in their meditated insurrection against the French domination. He was after- wards appointed by Friedrich Willielm III., king of Prussia, an officer in a regiment of volunteers, and soon gathered about him a company of Tyroleae marksmen, who were of great ser\'icr during the cam- paignis of 1813 and 1814. After the peace of Paris, E. went to Berlin, where he finished his curriculum, and in 1816 took his degree of Doctor of Medicine. In 1819, he was made Professor of Medicine at the new university of Bonn, where he lectured on Anthropology, Physical Therapeutics, and Pathology. A love of his native country induced him to settle as a physician in Innsbruck, but in 1841 he went to Munich, where he has obtained a great reputa- tion by the application of magnetism as a curative power. Among his WTitings may be mentioned, Der Macjnetismus in seiner geschichtlkhen Entvricke- lung (Leip. 1819), which is reckoned his principal work; Historisch-psychologisclie Untersuchungen iiber den Ur sprung und das Wesen der MemclUichen Seele (Bonn, 1824) ; Anthropologisclie Ansichten zur hessem Kenntnisz des Mmschen (Bonn, 1828) ; Magnetia- mus im Verhdltnisz zur Natur und Religion (Stuttg. 1842) ; Der Geist des Menschen in der Natur (Stuttg. 1849) ; Was ist die Cholera (2d edit., Stuttg. 1850) ; and Anlcitung zur Mtsmer'' schen Praxis (Stuttg. 1852). He died in 1854. E'NNIS, a parliamentary and municipal borough, in the middle of Clare county, Ireland, the capital of the county, on the Fergus, 20 miles west-north- west of Limerick. It is a neat-looking town, with some good houses. Pop. (1871) 6503. It returns one member to parliament. It has the ruins of a monastery founded in 1240 by O'Brien, Prince of Thomond. Near the town is Ennis College, one of the four classical schools founded by Erasmus Smith. E. has a valuable limestone quarry, large flour-mills, and some trade in grain and cattle. ENNISCO'RTHY, a market-town in the middle of Wexford county, Ireland, on a steep rising ground on the Slaney, 14 miles north-north-west of Wex- ford. The Slaney is here tidal and navigable for barges, and flows through a very rich, fertile, and beautiful valley. Pop. (1871) 5594. E. is a rising town, and has a large corn-trade. It arose in a Norman castle, stiU entire, founded by Raymond le Gros, one of the early Anglo-Norman invaders. Cromwell took E. in 1649 ; and the Irish rebels, stormed and burned it in 1798. E N N I S K TL L E N, a parliamentary and muni cipal borough in the middle of Fermanagh county Ireland, the chief town of the county, ol>out 7* EKNIUS— ENOCa miles west-south-west of Belfast. It is beautifully situated on the Erne ; the greater portion of it, however, is on an isle in the river between the Upper and Lower Loughs Erne. It consists mainly of one undulating street running east and west. Around, are richly cidtivated eminences and many fine mansions. Its two forts command the only pass for 50 miles into Ulster across the Erne. The chief manufactures are cutlery and straw-plait. Pop. (1871) 5836. It retiu-ns one member to parliament. E. is famous for the victory, in 1689, won by the troops of William III., under Lord Hamilton, over a auperior force of James II., under Lord Gilmoy. The banners taken in the battle of the Boyne hang in the town-hall of Enniskillen. The regiment of Eiiniakilleners or 6th Dragoons, was first instituted from the brave defenders of the town. E'NNIUS, one of the earliest Roman poets, the father of the Roman Epos, was bom at Rudise, in Calabria, about 240 years before the Christian era, and was probably of Greek extraction. He is said to have served in the wars, and to have risen to the rank of a centurion. In Sardinia, he became acquainted with Cato the Elder, and returned with him to Rome when about the age of 38. Here he gained for himself the friendship of the most eminent men, among others that of Scipio Africanus the Elder, and attained (what was then exceedingly rare in the case of an alien) to the rank of a Roman citizen. He supported himself in a decent but humble manner by instructing some young Romans of distinguished families in the Greek language and literature, his accurate knowledge of which explains the influence he hail on the development of the Latin tongue. He died when he had attained the age of 70, or about 190 B.C. His remains were interred in the tomb of the Scipios, and his bust was placed among those of that great family. E. has tried his powers in almost every species of poetry, and although his language and versification are rough and unpolished, these defects are fidly compensated by the energy of his expressions, and the fire of his poetry. His poems were highly esteemed by Cicero, Horace, and Virgil : the last, indeed, frequently introduces whole lines from the poetry of E. into his o"vvn compositions. His memory seems to have been lovingly cherished by his countrymen ; Noster Ennius, ' Our Ennius,' they used to call him. Of his tragedies, comedies, satires, and particularly of his Annales, an epos in 18 books, only fragments are Btill extant. What adds to our regret is, that it is believed his whole works were extant as late as the 13th c. (A. G. Cramer, Hauschrotiick). The frag- ments have been collected and edited by various Bcholars, among others by Hessel (Amst. 1707). The fragments of the Annales have been edited by Span- genberg (Leip. 1825). Compare Hoch, De Ennian- orum Annaliinn Frogmentis (Bonn, 1839). The few fragments of his dramas that have come down to a.s were collected by Bothe in the Poetarum Latii Scenicorum Fragmenta (5 vols.). ENNS, a river of Austria, rises at the northern [»ase of a Ijranch of the Noric Alps in the crown- land of Salzbxirg, 12 miles south of Radstadt. It first flows north to Radstadt, then north-north -east to Hieflau, after which it proceeds in a general direction north-north- west, passes Steyer, and joins the Danube 11 miles below the town of Linz, after a course of about 120 miles. Its chief affluents are the Salza and the Steyer. For the last 15 miles of its coui'se, the E, forms the boundary between Upper Austria (Ober der Enns) and Lower Austria (Untor der Enns). The scenery on the banks of the E. 33 in general bold and romantic, as it flov/s, for the most p^rt, between rirallel mouutaiu-(;hain3, which are lofty and precipitous. In its lower course it becomes navigable, but it is chiefly important from the valuable water power which it supplies. E'NOCII, the name of two different individuals in Scripture. 1. The eldest son of Cain, who built a city which was called after his name. 2. The son of Jared and father of Methuselah. A j)cculiarly mysterious interest attaches to him on account of the supernatural manner in which his earthly career terminated. We are told by the writer of Genesia that E. 'walked with God 300 years . . . and he wa« not, for God took him.' What the statement 'he was not' signified to the later Jews is explained b^ the writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews : * Enoch was translated that he should not see death.' E. and Elijah are the only human beings on record whc did not require to discharge the debt which mortals owe to nature. It may naturally be supposed that E. was a character on whom the extravagant fancy of the later Jews would fasten with unusual pleasure. As they came more and more into contact with Grecian and other culture, they felt the necessity of linking on the arts and sciences of Gentile nations to their own history, if they would continue to preserve that feeling of supremacy which was so dear to their pride as the chosen people. Hence, E. appears as the inventor of writing, arith- metic, astronomy, &c., and is affirmed to have filled 300 books with the revelations which he received, the number 300 being obviously suggested by the number of years during which he is said to have walked with God. ENOCH, Book of. This book, from which, curiously enough, St J\ide quotes as if it were history, shews how richly mythical the history of the mysterious antediluvian Enoch had become ! It was probably written originally in Aramaic, by a native of Palestine, in the 2d c. B.C. The precise date is not known. At subsequent periods, it would seem to have been enlarged by additions and inter- polations. It is divided into five parts ; and the Jirst discourses of such subjects as the fall of the angels, and the journey of E. through the earth and through Paradise in the company of an angel, by whom he is initiated into the secrets of nature, &c. ; the second contains E.'s account of what was revealed to him concerning the heavenly or spiritual region ; the third treats of astronony and the phenomena of the seasons ; the fourth repre- sents E. beholding, in prophetic vision, the course of Divine Providence till the coming of the Messiah; and the last consists of exhortations based on what has preceded. The book was current in the primi- tive church, and was quoted by the Fathers, but was lost sight of b}^ Christian writers about the close of the 8th century, so that until last century it wag only known by extracts. Fortunately, however, the traveller Bruce discovered in Abyssinia three complete MSS. of the work, which he brought to England in 1773. These MSS. jiroved to be a a Ethiopic version made from the Gre*^k one, in une among the Fathers, as was e\adent from the coinci- dence of language. The Ethiopic version did not appear till 1838, when it was published by Arch- bishop Lawrence. An English translation, iiowev ?r, by the same writer, had ai>peared in 1821, wh}oh passed through three editions, and formed the basis of the German edition of Hoffmann (Jena, 1833— 183S). In 1840, Gfrorer published a Latin translation of the work ; but by far the best edition is that of Dr A. Dillmann, who, in 1851, published the Ethiopic text from five MSS. ; and in 1853, a German translation, with an introduction and commentary, which haa I recently turned the attention of many Gennaa I scholars to the subject. n ENOS— ENSIGN. E'NOS (ancientlj, ^nos), an ancient town and seaport of European Turkey, in the province of Ruwiili, is situated on a rocky isthmus at the mouth of a gulf of the same name, about 35 miles west-north-west of Gallipoli. It is the port of Adrianople, and has some trade in wool, camels' hair, cotton, leather, silk, etc. Its harbour is com- modious, but so shallow from being choked up with sand that it admits only small vessels. Pop. 6000, jfrincipally Greeks. Tlie Gulf of Enos is about 2^ miles wide at the entrance, extends into the country for about 14 miles, and is, on an average, 5 miles broad. The town of E. is very ancient. Virgil mentions it {^n. iii. 18) as being one of the towns founded by TEneas, after the sack of Troy ; and Homer also attests its antiquity by alluding to it in his great poem {II. iv. 519). ENRIQXJEZ, Gomez Antonio (properly, Enri- or, and occasionally delirium, precede death. When connected with, or occun-ing as a sequel to influenza, laminitis, and other complaints, the small intestines are as lOiuch aflected as the large, and the peritoneal as well as the mucous coat of the bowels. This form is more common in the lighter breeds. When the patient is seen early, whilst the pidse is still clear and distinct, and not above 60, and the legs and ears warm, bloodletting is useful, as it relieves the overloaded vessels, and prevents that exudation of blood which speedily becomes poured out in the interior of the bowels. This disease Bhoutd be treated as follows : In a pint of oil, or an infusion of two drachms of aloes in hot water, give a scruple of calomel and an ounce of lauda- num, and repeat the calomel and laudanum every hour in gruel until the bowels are opened, or five or six doses are given. Encourage the action of the bowels by using every half hour soap and writer clysters, to which add laudanum so long as pain and straining continue. If the animal is nauseated and stupid, with a cold skin, and a weak quick pulse, bleeding and reducing remedies are very injurious; and the only hope lies in follow- ing up one dose of the calomel and aloes with small doses of laudanum and sweet spirit of nitre, or other stimulants, repeated every forty minutes. In all stages, woollen cloths wTung out of hot water jind a])plied to the belly encourage the action of the biwcls, and relieve the pain. Enteritis in cattle is mostly produced by coarse 7a wet pasture, acrid or poisonous plants, bad water, and overdriving. The symptoms are fever and thirst, a quick but rather weak pulse, restless twitch- ing up of the hind limbs, tenderness of the belly, and torpidity of the bowels. Calves generally die in three or four days, other cattle in a week cr nine days. Bleed early, ©i^en the bowels with « pint of oil and a drachm of calomel, which may be repeated in eight or ten hours, if no effect is produced. Give every hour fifteen drops o? Fleming's tincture of aconite in water, until eur or seven doses are given. Allow only sloppy .and laxative food, such as treacle, gruel, or a tliin bran mash ; employ clysters and hot cloths to the belly, and use two-ounce doses of laudanum if the pain is great. Enteritis in sheep mostly occurs in cold exposed localities, and where flocks are sub- jected to great privations or improper feeding. The symptoms and treatment resemble those of cattle. ENTOMO'LOGY (Gr. enfomon, an insect, logos, a discourse), the science which has Insects (q. v.)» for its subject. The mere collector of insects may be one of the humblest labourers in the great field of natural history, l)ut his labours contribute mate- rials for the more philosophic naturalist who studies the structures of these creatures, and compares theni wath one another according to the unity and the variety of design which they exhibit. And when we begin to take into account the vast number of diflerent species of insects, their gi-eat diversities of structure and of habits, their great complexity of organisation, the wonderful transformations which many of them imdergo at different stages of their existence, and the equally wonderful but extremely various instincts which many of them display, we find entomology to be a science worthy to engage the noblest mind. But besides all these things, we must remember that insects serve most imi»ortant purposes in the general economy of nature ; and that some of them are directly useful to man, some directly injurious, at least when their nimibers are at any time excessively multii)lied. Entomology, along with the other branches of natural history, was cultivated by Aristotle and other Greeks, Aristotle is the most ancient author of whose M'orks anything relating to this science novs* remains. Pliny has little on this subject but what j is copied from Aristotle ; and it can scarcely be said 1 to have been again studied as a science till the IGth I c, when attention began once more to be directed to it, although it was not till the 17th c. that much progress was made, or that any important works on entomology appeared. Insects then began to be described, not only those of Europe, but also some of the curious and splendid insects of tropical countries ; bees and other insects of particidar interest received attention ; the metamorphoses of insects began to be studied, and tlieir anatomy to be investigated. The names of Goedart, Maipighi, Swammerdam, Leuwenhoek, and Ray deserve to be particularly mentioned ; but the infant state of the science may be illustrated by the fact, that about the end of the 17th c, Ray estimated the whole number of insects in the world at 10,000 species, a number smaller than is now kno-RTi to exist in Britain alone. In the 18th c, the name of Linnaeus occupies as high a place in the history of entomology as in that of kindred branches of science. The progress of the science was much promoted by his arrangement and exhibi- tion of the discoveries of ])re\ious and contemporary naturalists; and by his system of classification, founded on characters taken from the wings, or their absence, a system prqfessedly artificial, yet so harmonising with the most natural distribution into groups, tliat some of its orders were indicated by ENTOMOSTRACA— ENTOPHYTES. Aristotle, and that it has retained and seems likely to retain it? place, modified, indeed, but not essentially changed. De Geer and Fabricius are perhaps, after Linufeus, the most worthy to be nafned of the great entomologists of the 18th centnry. At the close of the 18th and beginning of the 19th c, the name of Latreilie is iire-eminently consj^icuoiis ; and in the year 1815, a new impulse began to be given to the study of entomology in Britain by the publication of the admirable Introduction to Entomology of Messrs Kirby and Spence, a work combining in a remark- able degree the merits of being at once popular and scientific. Since the beginning of the 19th c, the nimiber of insects known and described has prodi- giously increased ; many entomologists have with great advantage devoted themselves particularly to the study of particular orders of insects ; and many valuable monographs have appeared. Entomological iiteratm-e has now become very extensive. The progress of the science has owed not a little to entomological societies, of which the Entomological Society of London may be particularly mentioned. We cannot attempt to enumerate the distinguished entomologists of the 19th c, but perhaps the names of Leach, Macleay, Curtis, Stephens, Westwood, Bmith, Walker, Stainton, Swainson, and Chuckard, deserve particular notice among those of Britain ; Meigen, Jurine, Gyllenhal, Gravenliorst, Hubner, Dufour, Boisduval, Erichsen, and Lacordaire among those of the continent of Europe ; and Say among those of Ameiica. It is to be regretted that we have not yet any comj)lete work on the-insects of Britain. The Insecta Brita?inica, of which some volumes by different authors have been published under the ausj)ices of the Entomological Society, is intended to supply the want. ENTOMO'STRACA (Gr. insect- shells), a term Introduced by Miiller, and adopted by Latreilie, Cuvier, and other naturalists, to designate the second of their two great divisions of Crustaceans (q. v.). The number of species of E. is very great. They are ftU of small size, except the King-crabs {Limulus), which in many respects differ from all the rest, and have recently been formed by some natura- lists into a sub-class of crustaceans by themselves. Many of them are minute, and exist in great numbers both in fresh and salt water, particularly in stagnant or nearly stagnant fresh water, affording to many kinds of fishes their principal food. They differ very much in general form; the number of organs of locomotion is also very various — in some Very few, in s«>me more than one hundred — usually adapted for swimming only, and attached to the abdominal as well as to the thoracic segments ; but there never is a fin-like expansion of the tail, as in some oi the malacostracous crustaceans. The antennae of some are, however, used as organs of locomotion. Some of the E. have mouths fitted for mastication, and some for suction. Not a few are parasitic. The heart has the form of a long vessel. One or two nervous knots or globules supply the place of a brain. The organs of respiration are in certain species attached to some of the organs of locomotion, in the form of hairs, often grouped into beards, combs, or tufts, or blade-like expansions of the anterior legs are subservient to the puqjose of respiration : in others, no special organs of respira- tion are known to exist. The eyes are sometimes confluent, so as to form a single mass — one eye — in the front of the head. The name E. has been given to these creatures in consequence of most of the species having shells of one or two pieces, rather homy than calcareous, and of very slender consistence, generally almost membranous and transparent. In very many, the shell consists of two valves, capable of being completely closed, but which, at the pleasure of the little animal, can also be opened so as to permit the antennai and feet to be stretched out. The study of the smaller crustaceans has recently been prosecuted with great assiduity and success, by Milne-Edwards and others ; and in consequence of the great differences existing among them, new classifications have been proposed, and the name E. has by some been restricted to those which have a mouth formed for mastication, but no special organs of respiration, forming a section which is subdivided into two orders, Ostrapoda and Gopepoda, the former having a bivalve shell or shield, the latter destitv.te of it. — But the name E. is stiU commonly employed in its former wider sense. ENTOMOSTRACA, Fossil. E. attained their maximum size in the palseozoic waters, which they tenanted in vast shoals. The Silurian Trilobit© (q. V.) was a phyllopod, and the Pteregotus (q. v.) of the old red sandstone was nearly allied to the modern limulus. Small bivalvular species are found in all strata, sometimes, as at Burdie-House, near Edinburgh, forming layers of considerable thickness, at others scattered in enormous numbers in tho dried sediments of lakes, as in the fresh- water clays of the Wealden, or fonning in some places a large proportion of chalk, with the multitudes of their thin calcareous coverings. E'NTOPHYTES [Entophyta ; Gr. enton, within, and phyfon, a plant), a term usually emploj^^ed to denote those parasitic plants which grow'- on li\'ing animals. It is seldom extended to vegetable para- sites which grow on living vegetables, whether on external or internal parts, nor is it restricted to those which are found in the internal cavities, or within the substance of animal bodies, but includes all which have their seat on living animal tissues. It does not, like the analogous term Entozoa, denote any particular class of organised beings ; some of the E. are Algce, and some Fungi, but to these two orders they are limited, and all of them belong to the lower sections of these orders ; some of them to those lowest sections in which the distinguishing characters of the two orders cannot easily be traced, so that they are referred to the one or the other on very slender grounds; those in which a colouring matter is present being reckoned algse, although it can be observed only in masses of aggregated cells, and not in the cells when ^'iewed separately, and those which even in the mass appear entirely colour- less, being considered fungi. Many of the algJB and fungi parasitic on plants are nearly allied to those which occur on animals ; thus, ergot and the kind of mildew which has proved so destructive to vines, are refen-ed to the same genus {Oidium) to which is also referred the fungus found in the diseased mucous membrane in cases of apWi.ce or thrush : and another genus [Botnjtis, q. v.) contains the fungus called Muscardiiie, or Silkworm Rot, so destructive to silkworms, together wdth the iucgus which accompanies or causes the potato disease, and many other species which infest plants. Common mould is even supposed to occur on animal tissues tending to decay, during life, as well as on dead animal and vegetable substances. Vegetable parasites occur both in man and in tfie lower animals ; not a few of them are i>eculiar to fishes, and more are peculiar to insects than to any other class of animals. The fimgi which grow oa the bodies of insects sometimes attain an extra* ordinary development : Sph rria Sinensis, which grows on a Chinese caterpillar, and to which medi- cinal virtues, probably imaginary, are ascribed in China, attains a length greater than that of the ' caterpillar itself. A similar species (S. Bohertsii) is ! foimd on the caterpillar of a New Zealand moth. ENTOPHYTES— ENTOZOA. Tha situations in which E. occur are very various. Some, like the thrush fungus already noticed, ai)pear in diseased couditious of the mucous mem- brane ; some find their place in the lungs, the ear, or other organs ; some on the skin, in the hair tollicles, and in as well as on the hair itself. The * f"ur ' which appears on the tongue when the stomach is disordered, abounds in the extremely slender untranching threads of the alga called Leptothrix bvccalis, which also vegetates luxuriantly in cavities and corners of the teeth not sufficiently visited by the tooth-brush. The lungs of birds, the gills of fishes, the intestines of insects, the wing-covers of beetles, the eggs of molluscs, all have their pecidiar vegetable i>arasites by which they are sometimes infested. It is often by no means easy to say whether the presence of E. is to be regarded as the consequence or as the cause of disease ; sometimes it may be both. Sometimes it api)ears to be certainly a conse- quence, as when tbe Sarcina (or Merismopcedia) ventriculi occurs in the contents of the stomach and bowels ; sometimes, as in the diseases called Favus, Poit'kjo, Tinea, Herpes tonsurans, Plica Polonica, Mentagra, Piti/rlasis vers'irolor, &c., it seems entitled to be regarded as the cause of tlie diseased state, and the cure of the disease seems to be accomplished by killing the parasite, often a thing of no little difficulty. Whence the germs of E. are derived is often a question to which it would not be easy to find an answer. Their s})ores are extremely minute ; but there are no plants which produce seeds or spores more abundantly than some of them do ; the gro^^'th of the plants themselves is very rajjid, and rei)ro- duction is ' very intense and rapid.' It has sometimes been imagined that epidemic diseases may be caused by spores of K conveyed through the air ; no evidence has, however, been produced to render this opinion probable. An attempt was made to establish the existence of cholera fungi or algoo, but it completely failed, ENTOZO'A. This term is applied to all the animal forms which live either in the natural cavities (as, for example, the intestinal canal), or in the solid tissues (as, for example, the liver) of other animals. The number of these parasites is so great (there being at least 20 distinct species of worms found in man, 14 in the dog, 15 in the horse, 11 in the common fowl, fee), and their occurrence so frequent, especially in some of the lower animals, that we must regard their presence, at all events in many species, rather as the normal condition, than as a morbid state due to accidental causes. It is worthy of notice, that many of the animals included amongst the E. only enjoy a parasitic existence during a part of their total life, which often, as in the well-known case of perfect insects, presents very varied and distinct phases. Thus, for example, the larvte of the gadfly {(Estrus equi) undergo their entire development in the stomach of the horse, attaching themselves by minute hooks to the gastiic mucous membrane ; they then detach themselves, pass along the intestines, and in due time are discharged, and imdergo their further changes externally ; and many similar instances might be quoted. For this reason, and addition- ally because parasites are now knowTi to belong to various classes of animals, we no longer attempt, like Linnaius and Cuvier, to forin a special group of E. ; and a reference to the Vermes intestince in the Systerna Naturce, or to the Entozoaires in the Regne Animal, at once shows that these ilhistrious naturalists grouped together animals with few or no true natural affinities. m Although most E. belong to the class of Vermes^ or Worms, this, as has been already observed, is by no means exclusively the case. Thus, even fishes may lead a parAsitic existence ; a fish of tlie genus Fia'osfer being frequently found in the respiratory cavity of the Holothuria tubulosa, or Sea-cucunibeTf and small fishes having been frequently observed in the cavity of the Asteria discoides. Amongst the crustaceans, instances of parasitism are by no means rare ; different species of Lernaa being abundant in the branchial (or giU) cavity, and on the surface of numerous lislies, whOe the LinguatuUe infest mammals, reptiles, and fishes, being found in tb« olfactory sinuses, the larynx, the lungs, the peri- toneal cavity, &c. The instances in which molluscf are found to live parasitically are few ; certain gasteropods, however, inhabit the bodies of echino- derms, holothurias, and comatulas ; and amongst the lamellibranchiates, species of modiolaria and mytnus live in the bodies of ascidians. There are several cases of polyi)S which have been observed to adopt a parasitic existence ; and finally, various protozoa are not unfrequently met with in the animal fluids ; for example, certain species of Vifjrlo, Cercomonas, and Paramecium, have been found in the intestinal evacuations in cholera and diarrhuja ; Monads have been found in the urine in cholera, and certain infusoria and rhizopoda in tlie blood of the dog, the frog, and many other animals. See Ha:matozoa. The more common kinds of E. appear to have attracted the notice of the earliest physicians and naturalists whose opinions or works have reached us. Hippocrates speaks of several worms, especially the tcenite and ascarides, infesting the human intes- tinal canal ; and Pythagoras learned in India that the bark of the pomegranate acted almost as a specific in cases of tape-worm. Aristotle noticed both the tape- worm of the dog and of man, and the Cysticercus celluloses (see Cestoid Worms) of the pig ; but utterly unconscious that the cysticercus, imder favourable conditions, became developed into a tape-worm (see Tape- worms), referred the origia of all intestinal worms to S|A>ntaneou3 generation — a doctrine that seems to have been generally adopted till the 17th c, when Hedi published (in 1684) a work on Helminthology, in which he dis- tinctly shewed that the generation of various E. followed the same laws as in higher animals, and that in many instances there were distinct males and females. The great recent discovery, that the vesicular or bladder-hke parasites, such as the different species of cysticercus and coenurus, are cestoid worms in an early stage of develoj>ment, is alluded to in Cestoid Worms, and ^vill be mor* fully noticed in the article Tape-worsis. Another point of general interest in connection with E., is the part of the body in which they are found. While most hve in the intestinal canal and other open cavities (as the larynx, bronchial tubes, &c,), others are found in the closed cavities and in the parenchymatous tissue of the liver and other solid organs. Thus (confining our remarks to the E. occurring in man), Anchylostoma duodencde^ Strongylus duodenalis, two species of AscariSf Oj-yuris vermicularis, Trichocephalus dispar, Distoma heterophyes, at least four species of Tcenia, and Bothriocephalus latus, have been found in different parts of the intestinal canal ; while Strongylus gigas inhabits the kidney, another species of Stroivjylua the lungs, a species of Spiroptera the bladder, two species of Filaria and Monostoma Lentis the eye. Trichina spiralis the voluntary muscles, two species of Fchinococcus and Cysticercus cellulosce, various parenchymatous tissues, two species of Distoma the gaU-bladder, another species the portal vein, and ENTR'ACT— ENTRY OF AN HEIR. the Filaria MedinenaiSy or guinea-worm, the sub- cutaneous tissue. Davaine, who raay be regarded as one of the highest living authorities on this subject, gives the foUowing synopsis of the E. occurring in man and the domestic animals (see his Traite des Entozoaires, Paris, 18G0). Type I. Peotozoa, including the genera Bac- teriiim. Vibrio, Monas, Cercomonas, Trichomonas, Pavamcdum. Typfc 11. Cestoidea, including the families of T.^its. The Eocene beds rest on the chalk. Like the other Ter- tiary strata, these deposits occupy small and detached areas when compared with the older measures. It is not difficidt to determine the relative position of Primary or Secondary strata, because of the great extent of particular beds, being frequently C( ntinu* ous over extensive districts. But Tertiary dei)osits are more isolated, and occur in smaller and more detached patches ; hence it is difficidt to determica the contemporaneity of the sections of the various periods, occurring as they do in diff'erent isolated localities. Their relations must be deteimined from the petralogical structure of the beds, which, how. ever, is very inconstant, or from the more satis- factory evidence derived from their fossil if eious contents. In the following table are given the geneially received divisions of this period, with the maxinuun thickness {in English feet) of the Euglish strata, aad the French and Belgian equivalent beds : SOLIAN HARP— EPACRIDACE^ u 1. Ilampsteaf series, 176 o W ' H 2. Bembridge aeries. 115 3, Osborne series, • 70 4. lieadon series, . 182 £5- 5. Bagshot series, 1270 6. London clay series, 480 7. Plastic clay series, . 160 8. Thanet sands series, 90 {Calc rie tai xlcalre laciistre supe- ur, and Grts de Von- taineblcaii. — Kupelien. ypseou.H series of Mont- iartre,Calcaire laciistre moyenne, and Calcaire siliceux. — Tongrien. (Sables moycnnes, Calcair- grossier, and I-its coquile liercs.— Laeckenien and IJVuxellien. f Wanting in France. — \ Ypresien. j Argile plastiqueet lignite. ( — L indenien superieur. j Wanting in France. — \ Landenien inferieur. Total thickness, 2542 feet. EO'LIAN HARP. See ^olian Harp. EON DE BEAUMONT, Charles Gejjevi^ive IjOUIS Auguste Andrk Timotiiee d', known as the Chevalier -mS^^ is persistent, often coloured, ^^'^ the same number of seg- ^.^^l^^^^l^— ments with the corolla, and ^^Juf^ ^^^^> is surrounded with small (Sjf^^^^^^^^^ bracts. The stamens are ^.^W^^wo^^^ fewer than in the Ericece, m!^^^^^^ usually equal In number to ■.rr^Tr Vr^^^&fc segments of the corolla, A| i^faM and alternate with them. •y^T^^f^^R^J^ The fruit is sometimes a LML^afa f^Sl^^^ capsule, sometimes a berry, 7^ (^'2^1$^^ sometimes a drupe. The M jw||^So^ leaves are simple, generally QmA^^K alternate, often crowded ; Jjn^B^^^ the flowers in spikes, in u/Jj terminal racemes, or axillary 1^1^ and solitary. — About 400 species of E. are known, fjj^ all natives of the Indian ^ Archipelago, the Soiith Sea Epacris Grandiflora. Islands, and Australia ; in which regions they seem to occupy the place of the heaths of other parts of the world. Some, particularly of the genus Epacris, are well-known ornaments of our green- houses, and are flowering shrubs of great beauty. Some produce edible berries resembling the cran- berry. See Cranberry. E'PACT, in Chronology, is the excess of the solar month above the limar synodical month ; or of the solar year above the lunar year of twelve synodical months ; or of several solar months above as many sjmodical months ; or of several solar years above as many periods, each consisting of 12 synodical months. The menstrual epact is the excess of the civil calen- dar month above the lunar month. For a month of 31 days, this epact is 1 day 11 hours 15 minutes 57 seconds, if we suppose new moon to occur on the first day of the month. The annual epact is the excess of the solar year above the lunar. As the Julian solar year is (nearly) 3G5 days, and the Julian limar year is (nearly) 354 days, the annual epact is nearly 11 days. The epact for two Julian years is, therefore, n 3arly 22 days ; for three years, 33 days ; and so on. When, however, the epact passes 30 days, 30 fuxls to be deducted from it, as making an iniercalary month. For three years, then, the epact Is properly 3 ; and for 4 years, adding 11 days, it is 14 days ; and so on. Following the ^ycle, starting fiori a new moon on the 1st of January, we find that the epact becomes 30 or 0 in the 19th year. The jpact for the 20th year is again 11 ; and so on. fhe years in the cycle are marked by Homan nimierals, 1. II. III., &c., called the Golden Numbers ; and. a table of the Julian epacts exhibits each year in tl e cycle with its golden number and epact. As the Gregorian year (see Calendar) differs from, and is in advance of, the Juhan by 11 days (the number lost on the Julian account before the Gregorian computation of time was introduced in England), and as 1 1 days is the difference between the solar and lunar years, it follows that the Gregorian epact for any year is the same with the Julian epact for the year preceding it. EPAMINO'NDAS, the most eminent of Theban generals and statesmen, and ono who for a long period elevated his country to the highest point oi honour and prosperity, was bom 414 b. c. He was descended from an ancient but impoverished family, and led a retired life till his 40th year, profiting by the instructions of Lysis the Pythagorean, who inspired him with enthusiasm for the elevated ideas which it was the object of his life to realise, E. first becomes prominent during the period when the Lacedemonians garrisoned the citadel of Thebes, and kept the inhabitants in subjection. Though he took no part in the desperate but successful stratagem by which his fellow-citizens recovered the Cadmeia in 379 b. c, he stepped forward immo« diately after into the ranks of the patriots ; and when sent to Sparta in 371 B.C. along with several others, in order to negotiate a peace between the two countries, E. displayed as much firmness and dignity as eloquence in the debate which ensued upon the question whether Thebes should ratify the treaty in the name of all Boeotia, the result of which ratification would have been equivalent to a recojrnition of her claim to supremacy over the Boeotian towns. To this the Lacedemonians demurred, and the war was again resumed ; E. was appointed commander-in-chief; and, in con- junction with his friend Pelopidas, with an army of 6000 men, defeated double that number of the enemy at Leuctra (371 B. c). Two years later, lie and Pelopidas marched into the Peloponnesus, incited several of the allied tribes to fall away from Sparta, and then turned his arms against that city, which, however, was bravely defended by Agesilaus. On his return to Thcbe?, E. was accused of having violated the laws of his country, by retaining the supreme power in his hands beyond the time appointed by law ; but was acquitted in consequence of his open and animated defence. In the spring of 368 B.C., the war was renewed with increased fury between Thebes and Sparta, and E. once more marched into the Peloponnesus, but did not accomplish much ; and on his return home, received a check from Chabrias at Corinth. To atone for this unsuccessful undertaking, he advanced with 33,000 men into Arcadia, and joined battle with the main body of the enemy near Mantineia, in the year 362 B. c. E., at the head of his troops, succeeded in breaking the Spartan phalanx, but was mortally woimded in the breast by a javelin. Being told by the physicians that he would die as soon as the weapon was extracted, on receiving intelligence that the Boeotians had gained the victory, he is said to have torn out the javelin with his own hand, exclaiming : ' I have lived long enough.' His moral purity, justice, and clemency are extolled by the ancients as much as his military talents ; and it is expressly recorded of him, that he never told a lie, even in jest. Compare Bauch, Epaminondas und Thehens Kampf um die HegariAnie (Breslau, 1834). EPAU'LEMENT (from the French, epaule^ shoulder), in siege works, is a portion oi a battery or earthwork. The siege batteries are generally shielded, at one end at least, by epaulements, forming an obtuse angle with the main line of the battery. The object is to protect tlie gun and gunners from a flanking fire. The name is often given erroneously to the parapet of the battery itself, but it applies properly to the flanking return only. Sometimes the whole of a small or secondary earthwork, including the battery and its flanks, is called an epaulement; and sometimes the same name is given to an isolated breast work intended to shield the cavalry employed in defending a body of besiegers. An epaule is the shoulder of a bastion, where EPAULETTE— EPHEMERA. one of the faces and one of the flanks meet ; and this points to the proper meaning of epaulement, as a shoulder or flanking work. E'PAULETTE, from the same French source as epaulement, is a shoulder-knot worn by com- missioned oflicers in tbe naval profession, both as an ornament and a distii.otion. In the British navy, the officers of and above the rank of lieutenant wear epaidettes of gold lace, one on each shoulder, rab-lieutenants wearing one only. Ranks and degrees are marked in a very systematic way by means of crowns, anchors, and stars worked in lilver on the epaulette, and also by the size of the «ords of the epaidette itself. This decoration was formerly universal in the British army, oflicers wearing those of gold, men of worsted ; but they were abolished at the time of the Russian war, in consequence of the danger to which officers thus rasily marked out Avere exposed from the enemy's sharpshooters. Militia officers wore epaulettes of silver cords. EPl^E, Charles Michel, Abb^ de l', one of the foimders of the system of instruction for the deaf and dumb, was bom at Versailles, 25th November 1712. He studied for the church, and entering into holy orders, became a preacher and canon at Troyes, but eventually, on account of his Jansenist opinions, was deprived of this appoint- ment. He now lived in retirement in Paris. In the year 1755, he first began to occupy himself with the education of two deaf and dumb sisters ; and, as he asserts, without any previous knowledge of Pereira's eff"orts in the cause, invented a language of signs, by which persons thus afflicted might be enabled to hold intercourse with their fellow- creatures. His first attempts being crowned with success, he determined to devote his life to the subject. At his own expense, he founded an insti- tution for tbe deaf and dumb, and laboured with unwearied zeal for its prosperity. His favourite wish, however, the foundation of such an institu- tion at the public cost, was not fidfilled tiU after his death, which took place 23d December 1789. He wrote a work, entitled Institution des Sourcls tt Muets (2 vols., Paris, 1774), which after-vyards appeared in an improved form imder the title, La Veri/abk Maniere dC Instrulre les Sourds et Muets (Palis, 1784). EPF)^i'P> A. a genus of spiders, the type of a family called EpeiruliE. They are of those spiders which liave Eixily a pair of pulmonary sacs and spiracles ; Epeira Diadcma. oims^nKrt webs with regular meshes, formed by con- centric circles and straight radii ; and are furnished with a pair of almost contiguous eyes on each side, other four eyes forming a quadrangle in the centre. Many of them are remarkable for the beauty of their colours and of their forms. Several siKJcies abound in our gardens, particularly in autumn. E diadema is one of the largest British spiders. It ia found in moors, the borders of woods, &c. ; but it is in tropical countries that the Epeiridre exist in greatest niunbers, and attain the greatest size and beauty, extending from branch to branch their lace- work, remarkable for gracefidness of design. Tho net, when loaded with wings, wing-covers, a: d limbs of insects that have been preyed upon, h often loosened, and falls down upon the cential nest or den of the spider ; and successive ncta thus falling down, form at last a ball sometimes as large as a man's head. Some of the spider cords, carried horizontally from tree to tree at a consider- able height from the ground, ' are so strong as to cause a painful check across the face when moving quickly against them ; and more than once, ' Sir J. E. Tennent says, ' in riding I have had my hat lifted off" my head by a single thread.' — Tenuent's Ceylon. EPERIES (Lat. Fragopolis or Eperesinum ; Hung. Eperjes, Slovak Presaova), an old town of Hungary, in the county of Saros, of which it is the capital, is agreeably situated on the left bank of the Tarcza, about 150 miles north-east of Pesth. It is sui-rounded with walls, is the seat of a bishop, and contains some houses of the 15th and 16th centuries, built in the style of those in Naples, with which E, was much connected in the middle ages. Its prin- cipal buildings are the Church of St Nicholas, the communal college, with 500 students and a library consisting of 14,000 volumes, and the county hall. It has manufactures of earthen- ware and of linens and woollens, and has some trade in linen goods, corn, and Tokay wine. In the vicinity are the Sovar sfiltworks, which produce 5000 tons of salt annually. Pop. 10,772, almost wholly Slavonic. EPERNAY, a town of France, in the department of Marne, is the head-quarters of the Vins de Cham- pagne, and is situated in the midst of a rich viue- growing district, on the left baidc of the Marne, 19 miles west-north-west of Chalons. It is weU built, clean, and well paved. Its environs consist, for the most part, of elegant viUas, with vaults attached, belonging to the Champagne mne-merchauts. E. manufactures large quantities of earthen- ware from a clay obtained in the neighbourhood, and called Terre de Champagne; also hosiery, refined sugar, and leather. It has a brisk trade in bottles, corks, wire, champagne, wines, etc. Pop. in 1872. 12,628. E'PHAH, a measure of cai)acity for dry goods in use among the Hebrews. It contained three English pecks and three pints. EPHE'MERA (Gr, lasting for a day), a Linnjean genus of neuroj)terous insects, now forming the family or tribe Ephemerkla;. They are allied to the Libellulidoi, or Dragon-flies, but differ from them in many very important respects. They have received their name, to which corresponds the English Dj i'- FLY, sometimes also appHed to them, from the brief duration of their existence in the perfect state, iu which, very unlike the dragon-flies, they are bebei ed to take no food, merely propagating their species, and dying. From the season of the year in which they begin to be seen, some of them are alsct called May-fly ; and by this name are well known to anglers, who use them, and artificially imitate them as excellent lures for trout. The eggs of the ephemerjB are also a favourite food of fishes ; they cohere together in a gelatinous mass. Tha larvje and pupa? are aquatic, and in these states tbe ephemerae have a much longer life than in then* EPHEMERA— EPHESU8 , perfect state, extending even to years. The iarv* and pupa) arc sufficiently voracious. The abdomen of tlie larva is furnished on each side with a set of leaflets, w^hich serve instead of gills for resi)iration, and are also used in locomotion, although there are six feet attached to the thoracic segments. The pupre diifer little from the larvjB excei)t in having rudimentary wings enclosed under scales. Both larvaa and pupae have the abdomen terminated by two or three jointed iilaments, which the perfect insect also has, sometimes very long. The body of the perfect insect is soft and slender ; the wings resemble in form those of dragon- flies, but are soft and fllmy ; in rei)ose, they are elevated vertically abore the body : the second pair of wings are much smaJer than the flrst, and in some species are altogether wanting ; the organs of the mouth are Eo soft and small as not easily to be discerned, and to be apjjarently unfit for any kind of use. Ephemerre, in their larva and i)upa states, live chieily under stones in water, or in burrows which they make in the banks of streams. When ready for their linal change, they creep out of the water to undergo it on some ])lant or other object by the water-side, generally towards sunset on some flne day of summer or autumn. After having attained their winged state, however, they cast ott" a complete plough or envelope, so perfect, that it exhibits even the limbs, abdominal iilaments, and antennae ; and these * ghost-like exuvioe' are sometimes so abundant in the neighbourhood of streams, as to cover in ' a pearly layer' the hat and basket of the angler. The multitudes of ephemerae are often ver}'^ great, filling the air as a cloud ; nay, so abundant are they at times, that their bodies have been known to cover the ground in certain districts of France, and have been gathered from particidar spots in cart-loads to be used as manure. EPHE'MERA, or FEBRTS DIARIA in Latin (from Gr. ejn and hemera, on a da}'), a fever which lasts only a single day, or part of a day, and is generally dependent on some slight local irritation. It hardly requires any other treatment than the removal of the cause, if known. EPHE'MERIS (Gr. *for the day') is a name applied to almanacs from their containing notices for each day. It is mostly confined to astronomical tables giving the daily places of the sun, moon, and planets, and other phenomena of the heavens. Such tables have become common since the days of Kepler. The first were published by Purbach for the years 1450 — 1461. Those of Regiomontanus, for 1474, were much more accurate, and his Ephem- erides met with universal acceptance. Similar publications were afterwards made by Leovitius, Origauus, Kepler, and others. The most imporfant works of the kind at present are the French Con- naksance des Temps, the English Nautical AbnanaCy tho Effmieridi di Milano, and the Berlin Astrono- nnschen Jahrbiicher. EPHE'SIANS, Epistle to tiie, is a letter A^d-'essed by St Paul, during his first imprisonment nA Rome, to the church which assembled in Ephesus (q. v.). This church had been planted by the apostle himself, and, as we infer from various cir- cumstances mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles, w/is an object of his special affection. The epistle was written almost at the same time as that to the Colossians, and consequently breathes the same spirit of exalted piety and fervid faith, besides containing many similar thoughts and exhorta- tions. It may be divided into two grand parts, the first of which is for the most part doctrinal, and the second practical. The proofs of its aenuinenesa and avthenticity have generally been considered unquestionable ; but recently De Wette, in his Introduction to a Commentary on the Ephcna.ns (2d edit. 1847), has tried to shew that this ej>istle is 8imj)ly an expansion of the grander e))istie to the Colossians, though he admits that it haii the appearance of having been compiled in the apostolio age. E'PHESUS, one of the twelve lon-c cities of Asia Minor, was situated in Lydia, near the mouth of the river Caystrus, in the midst of an alluvial plain. It does not appear to have been as old as the Trojan war, but its primitive history has been confused ])y myths. It bore a great variety of names at difl'erent times, the principal of which, besides E., were Ortygia and Ptelea. According to Strti))o, it was founded by Androclus, son of Coclrus, and this is the most probable of the accounts which have come down to us, though others held to the tradition of its Amazonian origin. It was long before p]. acquired any political importance, in spite of being a sacred city from an early period. Sub- dued first by the Lydian, and next by the Persian kings, it was included, after the death of Alexander the Great, in the territories of Lysiraachus (281 B. c), l)y whom it was greatly strengthened. Ulti- mately, it came into the possession of the Romans; and in tlie time of Augustus, when Strabo wrote, it was ' the greatest place of trade of all the cities of Asia west of the Taurus.' This was also its condi- tion when visited by St Paid, who resided here three years ; but the destruction of its great temple by the Goths, in 260 a. d., gave it a blow from which it never recovered. In 341 a. d., it was the scene of the third general council of the Christian Church. Its general history, while a city of the Byzantine emi)ire, was unimportant, and before the days of Tamerlane it had almost completely perished. — The ruins of E. comprise a stadium 687 feet long fragments of a great theatre (alluded to in the account of St Raid's preaching in the city), of an odeum or music-hall, and of various walls and towers, belonging to the Greek, Roman, and Byzan- tine epochs. Near the western extremity of the town are also some massive structures, which over- look the swamp or marsh where was the ancient harbour. These are regarded with much probability as the site of the famous Temple of Diana. This marvellous building, one of the seven wonders of the world, was originally built by Chersiphron; but after its destruction by Herostratus on the night (as is said) when Alexander the Great was bom (356 B. c), it was rebuilt by the inhabitants in a style of gi-eater splendour than before, the very women contrilmting their ornaments to secure the necessary funds; yet, notwithstanding this enthu- siasm, more than two hundred years elajised before the new edifice was completely finished. It was the largest Greek temple ever constructed. Its length was 425 teet, its width 220, the number of its columns 128, of which 36 were carved, and their height 60 feet. It had an area more than four times that of the Parthenon at Athens, and even the Olympeiuni was only about two-thirds as great. But even more wonderful than the temple itself were the numberless statues and pictures which it contained, executed by the best masters of Greece. The altar of the goiddess was principally adorned with the works ot Praxiteles. Plundered of its treasures by Nero, and burnetl (as has been mentioned) by the Goths, it was most likely finally destroyed by the Iconoclasts, in the reign of Theodosius I., who issued his celebrated edict against the ceremonies of the Pagan relig- ion 381 A. D. The site of E. is now occupied by some wretched villages, the principal of vhich is EPHOD— EPHRAEM SYRUS. Ayasaliik. — Certain cabalistic words or sayings are Baid to have been inscriljed on the figure of Diana, which being copied and carried about as charms, became known as EiJheace litoroe (Mason's Anatomie o/Sorcerie, 1G12). E PHOD, a vestment worn by the Jewish high- priest over the il/giZ or second (purple) tunic. It consisted of two shoulder-pieces, one covering the back, the other the breast and upper part of the body, not unlike the Greek eponis. Two onyx stones ■et in gold fastened it on the shoidders, and on each (if the stones were engraved the names of six tribes, ••iccording to their order. The material of which the ephod was wrought was extremely costly and magnificent : ' gold, blue, purple, crimson, and fine twined linen.' A girdle or band, of one piece with the ephod, fastened it round the body. Just above this girdle, in the middle of the ephod, and joined to it by little gold ohaius, rings, and strings, rested the square oracular breast-plate ^vith the mysterious Urim and Thummlm. See also Hiuh-Priest and Urim and Thummim. Originally intended to be worn by the high-priest exclusively, ephods of an inferior material seem to have been in common use in later times by the ordinary priests. Even David, when bringing the ark back to Jerusalem, appeared in one. There is also mention made of an ephod in several passages of the book of Judges and Samuel, where the word must needs stand either for the whole priestly apparatus of an illegal service, or simply for a statue or an idol. The Talmud understands this ephod to have been a colossal shoulder vest- ment of gold, to which divine honours were rendered. E'PHORI (Gr. 'overseers'), an order of magis- trates in ancient times which appears to have origin- ated at Sparta, and to have been peculiar to the Doric governments. When or by whom the ephori were first instituted, is a point of gi'eat uncertainty. Herodotus attributes their creation to Lycurgus, and Aristotle to Theopom})us (770 — 720 b. c). Their duty was to superintend the internal administra- tion of the state, especially affairs of justice, for which a particular building was assigned them, called the Ephorion. One of their most important functit)ns was the oversight, at least in part, of the education of youth, for we are told by Athenaius that they inspected the clothing and bedding of the young men! The ephori were five in num- ber ; they were elected by and from the people — on which Aristotle observes, that through them the demos enjoyed a participation in the highest magistracy of the state — and held their office only for one year. Their influence gradually increi^ed, for their powers were so ill defined that it was difficidt to say what was not under their cognizance and authority. Cicero draws a com- parison between the ephoralty of Sparta and the tribunate of Rome, which is not altogether un- warranted by tlie facts of the case. Ultimately, the kings themselves became subject to the super- vision of the ephori. Cleomenes, for example, was brought before them for bribery ; Agesilaus was fined, and Pausanius imprisoned ; and in extreme cases they could prefer charges against them, and have them tried before the supreme criminal court. They also transacted the negotiations with foreign powers, subscribed treaties, raised troops, 'intrusted the army to the king, or some other general,' and, in fact, acted as the executive of the state. Mnller regards the ephoralty as ' the principle of change in the Spartan constitution, and, in the end, the cause of its dissolution.' In Uan hands of the phori,e the constitution of Sparta certainly ceased to be a genuine aristcx r-acy, and be- came a sort of oligarchy ; hut this point is ijivolvcd in much obscurity and perplexity. Their authority, however, was at hist destroyed by Agis and Cle- omenes, who murdered the ephori for the time Ixh ing, and restored the old Spartan constitution (22.'» B. C). E'PIIRAEM SY'RUS, one of the most celebrated and prolific ecclesiastical writers of the Syrian Church. Several accounts of his life have been handed down to us, ljut they all Ijear more or less such a legendary character, tliat the real facts to be gathered from them are hwt scanty. It a])p(.'ars, tlien, that Ephraem (Heb. Epliraivi) was born in the easly part of the reign of Constantine the Great, 'some- where between the Euphrates and Tigi'is,' most prob- ably at Nisibis. His parents were, according to some, heathens ; and E., repudiating their idolatry at an early age, had to leave their roof. Jacob, Bishop of Nisibis, took care of the boy, and under- took his education. His progress in learning was so satisfactory that the bishop was soon able to make him teacher at his own school ; and v.hen in 325 A. D. Jacob went to the council of Niciea, E. accompanied him thither. In 363, Xisibis was ceded by Jovinian to the Persians, and E. first retired into Roman territory, then went to Anid, his mother's birthplace, and finally settled in Edcssa (Orfa), where he remained until his death. He is said to have been so poor when he first arrived at Edessa, that he was obhged to take service at a public bath, but he soon became acquainted witli hermits of the neighbourhood, and adopted their habits : he retired into a cave near the town, and led the life of a recluse. But so great were his piety and asceticism, as well as his readiness to helj) the poor and tend the sick, that he was looked upon as a saint, and his day is stiil celebrated, at different dates, in various churches. Among his usual denominations, more especially referring to his teachings and writings, are 'Prophet of the Syrians, Column of the Church, Harp of the Holy Spirit,' &c. ; and his name is never mentioned without the ' Mor ' or ' Mari ' (Lord, My Master) being prefixed. But for all that, he had no lack of enemies. His burning zeal for pi'eaching and converting led him to attack most fiercely almost every one beyond the i)ale of his peculiar creed. He spoke and wrote imceasingiy against Idolatera, 'Chaldees,' Jews, and heretics of all kinds, espe- cially Arians, Sabellians, Maniclutans, Kovatians, &c. Towards the end of his life, he paid a visit to Basil the Great, in Cap])adocian Ctesarea, who could not prevad upon hun to accept of any higher office in the church- than a deanery, though he spared no effort to maice hun bishop. Returned to Edessa, he fomid plague and famine raging there, and to his over-exertions for the relief of the sufferers his death is attributed by some. He expired in the same year with Basil, in 378. not before having given the strictest injunctions that his burial should be of the very simjdest descrip- tion. With respect to the Testament which he is reported to have dictated in his dying hour — much as it has been used for biographical purposes — we can take no notice whatever of it, as it i^ entirely spurious. The visit to Basilius, imimportant as it seems, ha* been of very great moment. The legend which surrounds this, as all other incidents of his life, w^.th a halo of miracle, records that the two men, although previously ignorant of each other's language, began to speak them fluently at this interview — BasiUua Syriac, and E. Greek. This wonderfid cu-cuni- stance first induced the learned to enter upon th^ question, whether E., half of whose volumiaoofl 07 EPHRXIM— EPIC POETRY. worka are in Greek, did really understand that language ; and further, whether he understood any language but his own, Syriac. If he did not, what view was to he taken of his Commentaries on the Bible, of which the Hebrew and Greek texts, as well as the Septuagint and the Greek Fathers, must Jiave l)cen a sealed book to him. There were, and are still, great differences of opinion on these points, but it is generally taken for granted now, that he did not undor^itand any language but his own ; that he made use of the common Syriac version, the Peshito; that his grammatical and linguistic notes nre taken from dilfereut Syriac Commentaries, and that the Greek poi-tion of his works consists partly of translations made from his Syriac after his death, or oven during his lifetime, and partly of interpola- tions. Both the praise and the blame which have been indiscriminately bestowed upon him as a writer arc exaggerated. His chief merit lies in the glowing fervour and the deep piety which he infused into all he wrote, more particularly into his elegiac hymns. Diction and form are poetical throughout, and when not soaring into the intinite, of no mean beauty. The effect is heightened by the matchless simplicity and awing grandeur of the Syriac idiom. We will now enumerate his principal works and their editions. Those (under his name) in Greek, consist of Sermons or Homihes, and Treatises of an exegetic, dogmatic, and ascetic nature. Photius records that he wrote more than a thousand such eernions ; Sozomenos speaks of ' 300 myriads ; ' but, as we said l)efore, of those that have come down to us, some are spurious, and others at least suspi- cious. Gerhard Vossius translated 171 treatises from Greek M8S. found in Italian libi-aries, into Latin, and published them at Rome, 15S9 — 1598, in 3 vols. (There is ])ut one piece in them translated from the Syriac.) They were reprinted in Cologne in 1603, 1619 (1675), and also in Antwerp, in 1619. The first Greek edition appeared in Oxford in 1709, edited from 28 Oxford MSS., by E. Thwaites. The most important of his Syriac works are, besides an infi- nite variety of homilies, sermons, poems, &c., his commentaries, or rather scholia, on parts of the Old Testament. Their value to us, however, is limited to their aiding us in explaining and fixing some read- ings of the Peshito (see Pesiiito), and in enriching our critical apparatus. That he also commented on tlie Gospels is certain, but no MS. has been found as yet, not even in a Greek or Arabic translation. As to the songs and prayers in the Syrian Liturgy ascribed to E., they are simply composed in his manner, and betray their comparatively recent origin at the first glance. The principal edition of his works in Syriac and Greek was published in 6 vols, in Rome, under the papal authority (1732—1746). The principal writers on E. are : Sozomenos, Hist. Eccl. iii. 16 ; Assemani, Proleg. and Biblioth. Orient.; Credner, i)e Proph. Min. Vers. Syr. (1827); Lenf^erke, Comm. de Ephr. Syr. S. S. Interprele (Halle, 1823) ; and De Ephr. Syr. Arte Hermen., &c. |1831). Some tastefid German translations of hymns, by Zingerle, are to be found in the Zeitachr. d. Beufschen Morgenl. Gesellsch. passim. E'PHRAIM, the younger son of Joseph by his wife Asenath, and the founder of one of the twelve tribes of Israel. It is possible that he may have received Ids name, which signifies 'double fruitful- ne/js,' from having been born during the seven years of plenty. His grandfather, Jacob, shortly before his death, pto]i}iosied the greatness of his posterity when giving him his blessing : ' His seed shall become a multitude of nations ' (Gen. xlviii. 19). Alter the Israelites had left Egypt, the tribe of tiS Ephraim numbered 40,500 (Numbers, i. 32, 33) ; but from causes not specified, and not discoverable, it had sunk, forty years later, on the eve of the con- quest of Canaan, to 32,500 (Numbers, xxvi. 37). Yet it was mider the leadershij) of an Ephraimite, Joshua, the son of Nun, that the Canaanites were subjugated, and the land possessed. This seems to have given the tribe a much higher influence than might have been expected from its numerical strength. We find Judah and Ephraim classed together a* taking their inheritance first (Josh. xv. xvi, &c.), The precise boundaries of Ephraim, as of the Qi\e\i tribes, it is impossible to determine. It occujied the centre of Palestine, was bounded on the south by Dan and Benjamin, and stretched from tho Jordan on the east to the Mediten-anean on the west From scattered notices of the Epliraimites in the earlier annals of the Hebrews, we infer that they were, on the whole, jealous of their brethren. This feeling of dissatisfaction at length broke out into rebellion in the reign of Rehoboam, and the new kingdom of Israel, rided over by Jeroboam, was for the most part merely the kingdom of Ephraim, for the laud which lay to the north of it coidd hardly be said to be actually in the possession of the tribes whose names it bore, the original iidiabitants keeping stiibbom hold of their cities and strongholds. See the article Jews. EPI, or GIROUETTE (Fr.), a species of oma- mental ironwork with -which the cones of pavilions or pointed roofy are sometimes surmounted in the renaissance style of architecture. One of the finest examples is that which surmounts the Tourelle aux Pastorals at the Hotel de Bourgtheroulde in Rouen. EPIC POETRY (Gr. epos, a word, a discourse or narrative). The two chief kinds of poetry, are Epic poetry and Lyric poetry. Epic poetry has outward objects for its subject, of which it gives an imaginative narrative. The events themselves may be partly real and partly fictitious, or they may be altogether fictitious. Lyric poetry, on the other hand, sets forth the inward occurrences of the writer or speaker's own mind — his feelings and reflections. No composition, perhaps, answers, in all its parts, to the one of these descriptions, or to the other ; but a piece or poem is classed as epic or lyric according to the element that predominates. Under each of these grand divisions, or genera, there are subdivisions, or species. The longer poems of the epic genus embrace an extensive series of events, and the actions of numerous personages. The terra heroic epic, or heroic poem, is properly applied to such works as the Iliad and Odyssey of Homer, Virgil's JEneid, Tasso's / erusalem Deliver edj Ariosto's Orlando Furioso, and others, which describe the achievements of the gods and heroes of antiquity, or of the little less mythic knights of medieval chivalry. Poems, again, like IVUton's Paradise Lost and Dante's Divina Coinmed a, are sacred epics. Byron's Childe Harold, with the length and narrative stracture of an epic, abound* in reflection, sentiment, and satire, and thus is, in substance, as much lyric as ejiic. Productions like those now named form the class of grand ej)ic3, or epic poems, by way of eminence. But there are several species of minor poems which, from their nature, must also be ranked as epics. One of these is the Idyl, a term ai)plied to what is called pastoral poetry, or to descriptions in general of natural scenery, and of the actions and manners of men in calm, ordinary life. Burns's Cottei'^s Saturday Night, Goldsmith's Deserted Village, and most of Crabbe's poems, are idyls ; so are poetical epistles. EPICHARMU — EPICUEUS. The ballad (q. v.) ifl another species of minor epic. Atta'npts at epic poetry are now rare, the spirit of the age being against that form of composition. Instead of epic poems, we have novels, which, so far as subject is concerned, may be considered as the epics of modern civil and domestic hfe. EPICHA'RMUS, a famous Greek poet, was bom in the island of Cos, in the 5th c, B.C. At first, be studied philosophy imder Pythagoi-as ; but a resi- dence at Megara, the native soil of comedy, gave him a taste for that branch of tbe drama. After the destruction of Megara, in 484 B.C., he removed to Syracuse, wliere, at the court of Hiero, he spent the remainder of his life. From this circumstance, he is often mentioned by the ancients as a Sicilian. Almost nothing else is known of his personal history except that he died at the age of 90, or, as some say, of 97. The date of his death, as of his birth, is unknoAvn. E. is called by Theocritus the father of comedy, and Plato assigns to him a place among comic wT-iters as high as that of Homer among epic poets. He certainly did a good sei-vice in exclud- ing, to a large extent, from his dramas the vidgar bufToonery which disgraced all previous comedies, and in introducing a regular plot in which the cornus or batid of revellers sustained the dialogue. None of E.'s works survive entire; but we possess several fragments and the titles of thirty-five. They embraced a wide variety of topics, mytho- logical, social, and political. From one of them, Plautus borrowed the plot of his Mencechmi, which shews a great amount of constructive skill. The fragments of E. have been collected and edited by H. P. Krurraann (Harlem, 1834), Compare Grysar, De Doriemlum Comcedia (Colon. 1828), and Muller's Dorians. EPICTE'TUS, a celebrated disciple of the Stoa, was born at Hiernpolis, in Phrvgia, about fifty years . after tbe birth of Christ. He was at first the slave of Epaphroditus, a freedman of Nero, at Rome, whose abusive treatment he is said to have endured with the composure characteristic of the sect to which he belonged. He was afterwards manumitted, and devoted himself to the Stoic philosophy. Domitian hated him on account of his principles, and banished him, along with several other jihilosophers, from Rome. E. settled at Nikopolis, in Epirus. Under the pressure of the times in which he lived, his serious moral views received a character rather of self-denial than of energy; to renounce, to endure, and not to tjet the mind upon anything beyond the power of the individual to attain, being the points chiefly insisted on. His pupil, Arrianus, collected the maxims of E. in the work entitled Encheiridion ('Handbook') and in eight books of Commentaries, four of which are lost. The peculiar excellence of the writings of E. consists in their simple and noble earnestness. That real heartfelt love of good and hatred of evil wliich we are in tbe habit of supposing an exclu- sively Christian feeling, does manifest itself very finely and bcautitully in these, yet, as Professor Bnindis says, 'there is not a trace in the Epictetea to shew that he was uctjuainted with Christianity, and still less that he had adopted Christianity, either in part or entirely.' Some of his opinions, moreover, are essentially Christian in their nature, though, of course, they are unconnected with the facts of revelation. E. believes in our ' resemblance' to God, in our ' relationship ' to him, and in our ' union ' with him through the coincidence of the 'will' and the 'soul;' he recoj;nises the contest between <;oo(l and evil, the life-struggle in tbe heart, the divine life against which the law in the mem- bers wars ; and he affirms the necessity of ' invoking God's assistance in the strife,' that the inner lif** may become pure as God is i)ure. There are several good editions of the works of E., the most complete of which is that of Schweighalisei (Leip. 1800). EPICU'RUS, AND EPICURE' ANISM. Epicurus, an illustrious Greek philosopher, was bom in the island of Samos, .341 B.C., seven years after the death of Plato. His father, Neocles, is said to hav« been a schoolmaster, and his mother, Choercstrate, to have practised arts of magic. At the age of 18^ he repaired to Athens, where it has been supposed that he may have had for his teacher Xenocrates or Theophrastus, or perhaps both, but he himself used to declare that he was self-taught. Of the older philosophers, he was most attached to Anaxagoras and Democritus, his system of pliysics being evidently built upon the atomic speculations of the latter. E.'s stay at Athens on this occasion was short. At Mitylene, in his thirty-second year, he first opened a school; and there and at Lamp- sacus he taught for five years. In 306 B.C., ha returned to Athens, and established a school of philosophy in a garden which he purchased and laid out for the purpose. From this circumstance-;, his followers were called the 'philosophers of the garden.' Although E. laid down the doctrine, that pleasure is the chief good, the life that he and his friends led was one of the greatest tem- perance and simplicity. They were content, we are told, with a small cup of light wine, and all the rest of their drink was water ; and an inscrip- tion over the gate promised to those who might wish to enter no better fare than barley-cakes and water. The chastity of E. was so incontestable, that Chrysippus, one of his principal opponents, in order to deprive him of all merit on the score of it, ascribed it to his being without i^assions. The calumnies which the Stoics circulated concern- ing him are undeserving of notice, and were at no time generally believed. E.'s success as a f/cacher was signal ; great numbers flocked to his school from all parts of Greece, and from Asia Minor, most of whom became warmly attached to their master, as well as to his doctrines, for E. seems to have been characterised not less by amiability and benevolence than by force of intellect. He died 270 B.C., in the seventy-second year of his age E. was a most voluminous writer. According to Diogenes Laertius, he left 300 volumes. Among others, he had 37 books on Natural Philosophy, a treatise on Atoms and the Vacuum ; one on Love ; one on Choice and Avoidance ; another on the Chief Good ; four essays on Lives ; one on Sight ; one on Touch ; another on Images ; another on Justice and the other Virtues, &c. Almost all these works are lost : the only writings of E. that have come dowTi to us are three letters, and a number of detached sentences or sayings, preserved by Diogenes Laer- tius, in his life of the philosopher. The principal sources of our knowledge of the doctrines of E., besides the above lettei's, &c., are Cicero, Senec*, and, above all, Lucretius, whose great poem, IH Rerum Natura, contains substantially the Epicurean philosophy. Although the majority of E."s writings referred to natural philosophy, yet he was not a pht/s/ast^ properly speaking. He stuched nature with a moral rather than with a scientifc design. According to him, the great evil that afflicted men — tlie incubua on human happiness — was fear ; fear of the goda and fear of death. To get rid of these two feara, was the ultimate aim of all his speculations on nature. The following is a brief acco\mt of his views. B« 89 EPICUEUS— EPICYCLE. regarded the universe {To Pan) as corporeal, and as infinite in extent and eternal in duration. He recog- nized two kinds of existence — that of bodies, and lhat of vacuum, or sj^ace, or the intangible nature. Of his bodies, some are compounds and some atoms or indivisible elements, out of which the compounds are formed. The world, as we now see it, is pro- duced by the collision and whirling together of these atoms. He also held the doctrine of })erception by images (Gr, eidola), which are incessantly stream- ing off from the surface of all bodies, and which are necessary to bring us into rapport with the world without. In like manner, he believed that sound- ing bodies threw off emanations, by which we are brought into sympathy with them ; and that per- ception by smell took place in the same way. In psychology, E. was a decided materialist, holding, for various reasons, that the soul is a bodily substance, composed of subtile particles, dissemi- nated through the whole frame, and having a great resemblance to spirit or breath with a mixture of heat. In seeking to understand the phenomena of the heavens, E. has no scientilic end in view; his sole object is to enable the mind to account for them to itself, without the necessity of imagining any super- natural agency at work. 'The phenomena of the heavens,' says E., * admit of various causes being assigned for their production, equally conformable to the facts learned from the senses. If, then, in thinking of any appearance, we suppose it brought about by the same cause that produces another appearance which gives no alarm or uneasiness, we are as much delivered from uneasiness as if we saw that such is the cause of it. E. did not deny that there are gods, but he strenuously main- tained, that as * happy and imjierishable beings,' they could have nothing to do with the affairs of the universe or of men. ' Beware,' he says, ' of attributing the revolutions of the heaven, and eclipses, and the rising and setting of stars, either to the original contrivance or continued regulation of such a being. For business, and cares, and anger, and benevolence, are not accordant with happiness, but arise from weakness, and fear, and dependence on others.' E. next proceeds to deal with the fear of death. Having proved in his psychology that the dissolu- tion of the body involves that of the soul, he argues that the most terrible of all e\als, death, is nothing to us, ' since when we are, death is not ; and when death is, we are not. It is nothing, then, to the dead or the living ; for to the one class it is not near, and the other class are no longer in existence.' "Whether E. actually succeeded in removing the terrors of death by his syllogism, may be doubted- The positive part of E.'s system may be noticed in a few words. He held that pleasure was the chief good, and it is from a misapprehension of the nieauiug of this word as used by E. that the term Ej^icurean came to signify one who indulged his sensual appetites without stint or measure. At the same time it is easy to see that the use of the woid * pleasure ' was calculated to produce the mischievous results with which the later Epicurean- ism was charged. According to E., the sources and tests of all ethical truth are the feelings [pathe], and there arc two, pleasure and pain. We delight in the one, and avoid the other instinctivelj'. ' When we say that ])leasure is the end of life, we do not mean tlie pleasures of the debauchee or the sensualist, as some from ignorance or from malignity represent, but freedom of the body from pain, and of the soul frnm anxiety. For it is not contimious di'inkings and re veilings, nor the society of women, nor rare 9U vinnds, and other luxuries of the table, that con- stitute a pleasant life, but sober contemplation that searches out the grounds of choice and avoidance, and banishes those chimeras that harass the mind. But, on the other hand, E. says : * If the means to which sensualists owe their pleasures dispelled the anxieties of the mind .... and enabled them to set limits to their desires, we should have no grounds to blame them for taking their fill of pleasure, wherever they could find it, provided it were attended with no pain or grief from any quarter ; for that is the only evil.' The Avhole question of ethics, then, coraea \c a calculation and balancing of pleasures and pains ; in other words, the cardinal virtue is prudence. E. rests justice on the same prudential basis as temperance. Denying any abstract and eternal right and wrong, he affirms that injustice is an evil, because it exposes the individual to disquietude from other men ; justice is a virtue, because it secures him from this disquietude. * Injustice is not an evil in itself, but becomes so from the fear that haunts the injurer of not being able to escape the appointed avengers of such acts.' The duties of friendship and good- fellowship are inculcated on the same grounds of security to the individual. Among the Romans, the system of E. was adopted by many distinguished men. Horace, Atticus, and Pliny the Younger, were Epicureans ; and the splendid poem of Lucretius must have recommended the system to many. In modem times. Epicurean- ism was resuscitated in France by Pierre Gassendi, who published an account of E.'s life and a defence of his character in 1647. Many eminent French- men have professed his principles ; among others, Molibre, Saint Evremont, Count de Grammont, the Duke of Rochefoucault, Rousseau, Fontenelle, and Voltaire. EPICY'CLE. The earlier astronomers assumed that all the motions of heavenly bodies took place in circles, the circle being held to be the most perfect of all curves ; and a necessary consequence of this assumption was, that the motions murit have a unifonn velocity. Another part of the hypothesis was, that all the heavenly bodies moved round the earth, which remained at rest in the centre. The observ^ed phenomena of the heavens, however, were soon seen to stand in glaring inconsistency with these assiunptions ; and to remedy this, it was neces- sary to have recourse to additional assimiptions. For the sun and moon, which manifestly do not always move \\'ith the same velocity, the ii'cce»- tric Circle (q. v.) was imagined. The case of the planets, whose motions were seen to be sometimes direct, sometimes retrograde, and sometimes alto- gether arrested, offered still greater difficulties ; to get over which, the idea of epicycles was hit upon. According to this hypothesis, while a planet was moving in a small circle, the centre of that small circle was describing a larger circle about the earth. This larger circle was called the deferent, and the smaller, which was borne upon it, was called the epicyde (Gr. epi, upon). In this way the motions of the planets about the earth were conceived to be something like what the motion of the moon about the sun actiially is. By assuming proper propor- tions between the radii of the deferent circle and the epicycle, and between the velocities of the two motions, it was foimd possible to account pretty satisfactoi'ily for the above-mentioned appearances and irregularities in the motions of the planets. But it is only the irregularities arising from the revolu- tion of the earth about the sun that can be at ali explained \n this way, and not shose arising from the elliptic motions of the planets abf ut the g m. nor yet the inequalities of the moon's motions. The EPICYCLOID -EPIDEMIC MENTAL DISEASES. successors of the Greek astronomers, clown to Tyclio Brahe, continued, therefore, to increase the number of epicycles, setting one circle upon another, until the hypothesis, in itself comi)licate(l, became still more so, and raade the simi)hcity of the Copernican Bystem at once striking. EPICY'CLOID is the name of a peculiar curve. When a circle moves upon a strai:^ht line, any point in its circiunference describes a Cycloid (q. v.); but if the circle moves on the convex circumference of another circle, every point in the plane of the first circle describes an epicycloid ; and if on tlie con- cave circumference, a hypocycloid. The circle that moves is the generating circle ; the other, the base. The describing point is not necessarily in the cir- cumference of the generating circle, but may be anywhere in a radius or its prolongation. This curve was first investigated by the Danish astro- nomer Romer. It has many remarkable properties, and is even useful in the practical arts. The teeth of wheels in machinery must have an epicy- cloidal form, in order to secure uniformity of movement. EPIDA'MNUS. See Durazzo. EPIDAU'RUS, a town of ancient Greece, on the eastern shore of the Peloponnesus, in the district of Argolis, was situated on a small promontory, 15 stadia in circumference, in the Saronic Gulf, in lat. ST 38' N., long. 23° 10' E. During the most pros- perous period of Grecian history, E. was an inde- pendent state. It was colonised first, it is supposed, Dy Carians (hence the older name of Ejncarus, according to Aristotle), and afterwards by Ionian s, but was subsequently invaded by a Dorian army under Deiphontes, the son-in-law of Temenus the Heracleide. This force dethroned Pitj'^reus, the Ionian king of E., compelled him and his citizens to retire to Athens, and inaugurated the Dorian rule, which preserved the ascendency at E. during the whole of the historical period. The form of government was originally monarchical, but after many \acissitudes, it eventually became and remained oligarchical. At an early period, E. became one of the chief commercial cities of the Peloponnesus. It colonised the islands of Cos, Calydnus, and Nisyrus, as well as the town of ^gina, which, during the 6th c, attracted all its commerce from the then declining mother-city. E. was chiefly famous for its temple of ^sculapius, to which patients resorted from all parts of the Hellenic world, seeking cures for their diseases. The site of this temple was a plain surrounded by mountains, about 5 miles west of the t<)wn, and which is still called Hieron, the sanctuary. E. had also numerous temples, among which were those of Artemis, Dionysus, Aphrodite, and Hera, and a magnificent theatre, at present in a more perfect state of preservation than any in the Peh)[)onnesus, and with sufficient accommodation for 12,000 spectators. E. (modern Greek, Epidavro) is now a smaU vilLvge, with scarcely 100 inhabitants, employed for the most part in raising vegetables for the Atbgnian market. The plain surrounding the village is productive and highly cultivated. Here, in January 1822, a congress from all parts of Greece assembled, and promulgated the constitution, known aa the constitution of Epidaurus. EPIDE'MIC (Gr. epi, upon, and demos, the people), a disease which attacks number's of persons €n one plice simultaneously or in succession, and which in addition is observed to travel from place to place, often in the direction of the most frequented lines of communication. Many ejiidemic diseases are also eontagiouK, and all of them suggest the necessity of careful iuquiry into the ventilation, drainage, food, drink, and habits of the persons liable to be affected In presence of an ei)idemic, it is projicr to take unusual preciiutiotis to preserve the public health (see article Health), and not unfieqncntly the organisation of a regular house-to-house visitation of the locality is calculated to do much good, by directing the minds of the poor and ignorant to their duties in respect to themselves and to each other. See Endemic for further observations on this subject; also Contagion, Infection, Fever, Cholera, &c. EPIDEMIC MENTAL DISEASES. When w« consider how ordinary and normal thoughts and emotions spread from one man to many, and sway multitudes to the same views and actions, it is no longer a mystery that morbid conditions of the mind should become at times no less epidemic than physical diseases. Such, at least, is the fact. A mental disorder may spread from man to man, and may involve whole nations. It depends for its propagation, like an epidemic disease, first uj)on external circumstances, and secondly, upon the peculiar condition or constitution of the individuals affected. Like the bodily affection, the causes which provoke the insanity and the tendency to be affected may have been in process of development for years. Both attack the weak rather than the strong ; both exist for a season, and disai)pear. In the case of the mental malad}", the external influ- ences — those which constitute the moral atmosphere — are ignorance or imperfect knowledge, the power of one mind over another, the influence of language, the diffusion of particular opinions, the tendency to imitate. It is probable, however, that physical causes exercise an important influence in the pro- duction of such general mental conditions. In 1842 and 1844, there occurred in Germany and France, among the military, epidemics of meningitis with delirium, or inflammation of the membranes of the brain, wdien no moral factors were at work, but when diet, temperature, &:c. were. But even where the origin cannot be so distinctly traced, the co-oper- ation of external as M'ell as psychical agents may be legitimately piedicated. It woxild accordingly be illogical to limit the production of the Dancing Mania (q. v.), which occasionally, during several centuries, swept over Europe, to the reaction succeeding the dread of the end of the world, which had previously prevailed epidemically. An examination of about a hundred manifestations such as that alluded to, collected from various sources, demonstrates that not merely the intoxication of joy, but the most absurd forms of belief — that dreams, delusions, superstitions, corruptions of language, all instincts and passions, even movements and cries, may assume the fonn, and, to a certain extent, may follow the laws of epidemic diseases. In far-distant ages, there are records of a histrionic plague, v/hen, after a summer of intense heat, all conceived themselves players, and traversed the streets, and sunk and died, repeating verses, and exhiljiting extravagant gesticulations ; of whole communities being stricken with nightmare, which was so general as to be supposed and called contagious. There have been epidemics of homicidal and suicidal mania. In one age, hundreds are found possessed by Satan ; in another, larger numbers con verted into wol ves ; and ill recent times, the leaping ague of Forfarshire, and i^utbursts of pyromauia in various places, remind us that there may be still in the constitution of the human mind, and in the education and the habita of life prevaihng, elements capable of reahsing the catastrojihe suggested by Bishop Butler's question : What is to prevent a whole nation becoming mad? The instances of e])idemic mental disease recorded in the following table, have been selected from a EPIDEMIC MENTAL DISEASES—EPIDERMIS. vast number of others, with a view of showing not range of the phenomenon through the powers and the frct^uency or extent of such affection, but the | propensities of our nature. Popular Name. Form of Disease. Year. Number Affected. Authority. St. Vitua'— St. John's Dance, . . . WolP-iiiadness, PosiieHsioii, Convulsionaries of St. Medard, . . AVitchcrai't, Suicide Choreamania. Lycaiithropia. Do monomania. Theomania. Pyromania. Domonopathia. Melancholia. Delusions. Panphobia. 1274. 15-23. 1642, etc. 1731. 1800. Various. 1845. Hundreds. (( Many. Thousands. Many. Many. Ilecker. Calmiel. (1 Ci Mai c. Various. Esquirol. Brierede. l<»)i8nK)nt. Edin. Jievicw, [ 1849. There appears to be no guarantee that the present and future generations shall be exempted from similar visitations, except in the universal diffusion of knowledge and sound tliinking, for it is invariably in the darkness of ignorance or in the twilight of imperfect knowledge that the moral plague comes. — Heckcr's Epidemica of the Middle A(jes; Calmiel, Dc la Folie consideree sous le Point de Vue Patholo- gique, Philosophique, Historique et Judiciaire, depuis la Ihaaissance des Sciences en Europe jusq'au dix- neuvienie Siede, &c. ; Psychological Journal^ and fassim. EPIDE'RMIS (Gr. epi, upon, and derma, the skin), a semi-transparent membrane, containing neither vessels nor nerves, and everywhere forming an external covering to the corium or true skin. See Skin. The epidermis is called in ordinary language the scarf-skin. It consists of two layers, chemically and moriihologically distinct — viz., the mucous layer, which lies immediately upon the corium, and the horny layer, which forms the outermost surface of the body. TJie mucous layer (known formerly as the rete nnicosiim. s. Malpujhianum) is of a whitish or slightly brown tint (in the Negro, dark gray or black), and is composed of smaU soft cells. The Perpendicular Section of the Skin of the Leg of a Negro : Magnified 250 diameters. 0, o, papillae of the cutis ; ft, deepest intensely coloured layer of perpendicularly elongated cells of the mucous layer ; c, upper stratum of the same layer ; horny layer. innermost of these cells, resting on the surface of the corium, are elongated and arranged perpen- dicularly ; upon these follow elongated or roundish cells in many layers, which, in proportion to their digtano(j from the corium, acquire, from their mutual pressure, a polygonal form, which may even Le recognised in individual cells. All the cells in the mucous layer are nucleated vesicles distended with fluid, and likewise contain- ing minute granules, which diminish in nvmiber in the more external cells. The horny layer forms the external semi-trans- parent part of the epidermis, which in the white races is colourless, and is composed almost wholly of uniform ce.'ls, metamorphosed into ])late3 or scales. The deepest ])lates in some degree resemble the u])permost cells of the mucous layer; but in the second or third layer we find the flattening com- mence; till at length, after a gradual series of modi- fications, we have the hard, horny scales which occur on the surface, where they are regularly cast off with more or less rapidity, and replaced by those beneath them.* The colour of the epidermis differs in different persons and in different parts of the body. It is deepest around the nipple, especially in women during pregnancy and after they have borne children. A more or less dark pigment is often deposited, in persons who are exposed to the sun, in the face, neck, back of the hands, &c. These tints are not produced by special pigment-cells, but are seated in the common cells of the mucous layer, round whose nuclei granular pigment is deposited. In the Negro and the other coloured races, it is also only the epidermis which is coloured, while the corium completely resembles that of Europeans. The perpendicvUar cells (see h in the figiu-e) are the darkest, and form a sharply marked fringe at the edge of the clear corium. To these succeed brown cells, which accumidate in the depressions between the papillaj, and as we aj^proach the horny layer, we have yellowish cells. The horny layer of the Negro also inclines to a yeUow or brownish tint. Morbid coloration of the epidermis (freckles, mother's marks, &c.) is produced in the same way as the colour of the Negro's skin. Nimiexoua instances of partially or entirely white Negices and of black Europeans, not as a consequence of change of climate but as an abnormal condition of the skin, are on record. The thickness of the epidermis varies extremely. While \ipon the cheeks, brow, and eyelids, it varies from T^th to ^th. of a line, on the palm of the hand it ranges from -^d to ^ a line, and on the sole of the foot sometimes even exceeds a line. In some j)arta of the body the horny layer is thicker than the mucous ; in other, the mucous is the thicker of the two. As the chief use of the epidermis is that of * In reptiles and amphibians, this layer is periodically cast off in a more or less entire state, a new one being previously formed beneath it ; and in man, desquama- tion in large patches often occm-s after certain diseases, especially scaxiatina. EPIDOTE-EPILEPSY. af* 'rding protection to the soft and tender subjacent ports, it attains its greatest thickness on those portions of the body (the palm of the hand and the sole of the foot) which are most exposed to pressure and friction. In plants, as in animals, the epidermis is formed of flattened cells, of which also new layers are con- tinually produced from the bark below, whilst the outer ones dry up, lose their vitality, and peel off, crack and split off, or otherwise become separated from the living organism. The cells of the epidermis are often enlarged outwards, so as to form projec- tions, sometimes very slight, sometimes elongated into Hairs (q. v.). Glands (q. v.) are also connected with the ej)idermi3, sometimes by the intervention of hairs, sometimes without, and in this way it contributes to the secretion of substances formed in j)lants by the wonderful chemistry of nature, and on which their value to man often greatly depends. The cells of the epidermis are usually filled with a colourless fluid, but resinous and waxy substances are sometimes found in them, and sometimes silica (as in grasses and Equisetaceie), sometimes carbonate of lime (as in the Gharas). The epidermis is pierced by Stomata (q. v.). When the epidermis of plants is subjected to prolonged maceration, it can often be made to separate into two parts ; one, which is more strictly called the epidermis, being the inner, lower, and thicker membrane ; the other, which is .:;alled the Pellicle or Cuticle, being very thin, and extending continuously over every part of the plant except where it is pierced by the stomata. Thus, this superficial pellicle invests even the finest hairs. In some of the Algce, it seems to constitute the whole integument. In the greater number of plants, the epidermis is thin and soft, but sometimes it is thick, and sometimes hard. E'PIDOTE, a mineral allied to garnet, composed of silica and alimiina, with a considerable proportion of lime, or of peroxide of iron, or of peroxide of man- ganese. These diversities of composition constitute three very distinct varieties ; and of these there are sub-varieties, differing in colour and other parti- culars [Pistacite, BucUonclite, Withamite, Zoisite, &c.). E. is sometimes found massive, foliated, columnar, granular, or incrusting; often crystallised. Its ciystals are prisms, variously modified. Its preva- lent colours are green, yellow, and gray, but some of the varieties are red and black. It is found in gneiss, syenite, trap, and* other rocks in a number of localities in Scotland, and in many parts of the world. EPIGA'STRIUM (Gr. epi, over, and gaster, the etomach), the part of the Abdomen (q. v.) which chiefly corresponds to the situation of the stomach, extL\'i(liug from the Sternum (q. v.) towards the Navel or Umbilicus (q. v.), and bounded on each side by the Hjqiochonders (q. v.). It is called in popular language the pit of the stomach. EPIGE'NESIS (Gr. epi, upon, and jrewms, a forma- tion), a formation upon, or in addition to, previously existing parts. The word is applied in physiology to that theory of new formations in organised beings which Bupjioses them to spring from superadded centres of vital activity, as opposed to the theory which presumes that the new is formed by a development or modification of the old structure. See liErRODUCTiON. EPIGLO TTIS. See Larynx. E PIGRAM, a word derived from the Greek, and literally signifying an ' inscription.' In point of fact, the epigrams of the Greeks were simply inscriptions on tomljs, statues, and monuments, vritten in ^erse, and marked by great simplicity of style, but having nothing in common with what now passes under the name. It was among the Romans that the epigram first assumed a satirical character. Catullus and Martial are reckoned the best Latin epigrammatists. In modem times, an epigram is understood to be a very short j)oe\n« generally from two to eight lines, containmg a witty or ingenious thought expressed in pointed phraseology, and in general reserving the essence of the wit to the close, as the serpent is fabled to keep its sting in its tail. The French excel all other nations in this kind of poetry. Their earliest epigrammatist of any note was Clement Marot (1495—1544) ; their best are Boileau, Voltaire, and Piron. The epigrams of German writers are for the most part happily expressed moral proverbs, but the Xenien of Schiller and Goethe contain not a few sharp and biting verses of a satirical character. In Britain, Pope, Burns, Byron, Moore, and other writers have shewn a remarkable power of e])igrammatin satire. E'PIGRAPH (Gr. ept, upon, and grapho, I write), a terse inscription placed upon architectural or other monuments, for the purpose of denoting their use or appropriation, and very frequently worked in and forming part of their ornamental details. E'PILEPSY (Gr. epi, upon, and lamhano, future, lepso, I seize), a form of disease characterised by sudden insensibility, with convulsive movements of the volvmtary muscles, and occasionally arrest of the breathing, owing to spasm of the muscles of respiration, and temporary closure of the Glottis (q. v.). Epilepsy was called by the ancient Greeks the ' sacred disease.' Owing to the mysterious and extraordinary character of the convulsion of ei)ilepsy, it was always, in ancient times, sup- posed to be due in a very special manner to the influence of the gods, or of evil spirits ; Hippo- crates, however, combats this idea in a special treatise, in which he maintains that epilepsy is no more and no less divine than all other dis- eases. The same idea of the specially supernatural character of epilepsy is shewn forth in the deeply rooted oriental notion of demoniac possessio». See Demoniacs. Epilepsy is often called, in modern language, the ' falling sickness,' and this name is not only descriptive of one of its most striking pheno- mena, but also points distinctly to the most obvious danger of the fit. The patient is seized, without reference to his condition or occupation at the moment, with insensibility, often so complete and sudden as to lead to serious accidents and bodily injuries ; in the most aggravated cases, he has no premonitory sensations whatever, but falls down without any attempt to save himself, and usually with a wild inarticulate cry of some kind, imme- diately after which the face is violently distorted, the head drawn towards one or other shoulder, and the whole body convulsed. These convulsions follow in rapid succession for a few minutes, and are attended by foaming at the mouth, and by great lividity, or, in some cases, livid pallor, which, with the irregular spasmodic movements of the lips, nostrils, and eyes, give a frightfully ghastly expres* sion to the countenance, and almost invariably lead the bystanders to an exaggerated idea of the imme- diate danger of the fit. The immediate danger is, in reality, not great, excepting that the sudden attack may lead to an injurious or fatal faU ; the tongue, however, may be bitten if protruded during the convulsion, or the patient may be so placed as to injure himself seriously by the repeated and unconscious movements of his body, or he may suffocate himself by accidentally falling with hia EPILEPSY. face in water, or othei-wistf closing up the mouth and nostrils, or by dragging upon a tightened neck- cloth. Care should be always taken to avoid these accidents by keeping the epileptic as much as possible within view of persons acquainted with his condition, and able to give such assistance as may be required ; as well as by warning the patient himself to avoid all places in which a fall would be especially dangerous. But when an un- Bkilled person happens to witness a fit of epilepsy, he will do well to remember that beyond the simplest And most obvious precautions against the dangers mentioned above, there is literally nothing to be done ; and any attempt to rouse the patient by violent stimuli, as ammonia apphed to the nostrils, or by dashing water in the face, or, still more, by administering medicines hastily recommended by the ignorant and thouglitless, is almost certain to do more hann than good. The tongue should be looked to, a piece of cork or other gag being, if necessary, inserted between the teeth ; the patient should be then placed on a mattress or other soft place near the ground ; his neckcloth should be removed, and the dress loosened round the chest ; the head should be, if possible, a little raised, and a free circulation of air maintained (this last precaution being very apt to be neglected in case of a crowd) ; with these tilings done, it may be safely affirmed that in the vast majority of epileptic cases nothing has been left undone which will conduce to recovery. The ordi- nary course of the fit (which usually lasts from five to twenty minutes altogether) is as follows : the convulsions gradually diminish in intensity, and the patient passes into a state of deep but motion- less stupor, with dilated pupils, and sometimes, but not always, with snoring or noisy breathing ; the foaming at the mouth ceases, the colour gradually returns, and this state leads to recovery through a more or less protracted, but apparently natural Bleep, the patient, on awaking, being often quite unconscious that he has been the subject of any anxiety, or, indeed, in any unusual condition what- ever. Although in all cases of true epilepsy there is a stage of complete Coma (q. v.), or unconscious- ness, yet the fit is often very transient, and but little attended by convulsion, being also less sudden than above described, and not necessarily causing a fall to the ground ; in some cases, also, fits of greater intensity are preceded by certain premoni- tory symptoms or peculiar sensations, which act as warnings to the patient himself, and lead him to place himself in a position of safety on the approach of the paroxysm. Havdng in view these distinc- tions (which are certainly of considerable practical im})ortance), the French language, both popular and scientific, has adopted the terms of grand mal and pd.it mal (i. e., great and little e\al), as characterising the more and less dangerous forms of epilepsy respectively. The sensations which prc^ed.e the fit in some epileptics have been termed in Latin the aura (i.e., breath) epileptica, from their supposed resemblance to a current of cold air passing over the body, and proceeding from the extremities towards the head. This desc-rijrtion does not, however, hold good in all cases ; and not unfrequently, as men- tioned above, there is no aura, or unusual sensation of any kind, preceding the fit. It must be mentioned, however, as bearing on treatment, and as being quite within the bounds of popular medicine, that some ol the most ancient authorities assert strongly the {)Ower of a tight bandage, placed suddenly upon the irab in which the aura begins, to cvit short, or even to prevent altogether, the fit of epilepsy. Although iliis alleged fact has often been regarded as doubt- ful, it has never been altogether discredited, and baa of late years been brought into renewed notice by good observers. It is even maintained that such a bandage, placed experimentally upon one or other of the limbs, and tightened on the appioach of a fit, has been found effective in some cases in which there was no distinctly local sensation ; and epileptics have been repeatedly convinced of the propriety of habitually wearing a bandage loosely applied upon the arm, which they have been able, by carefully watching their own sensations, and by being watched in turn by others, to get tightened at the proper time. There is no doubt room for fallacy in these observations, but they may safely be commended to notice, as involving no possiblw risk of mischief, and as far more worthy of extended trial than the great majority of popular remedies ia epilepsy. But the fit and its treatment form only a part o£ the anxieties which arise out of a case of epilepsy. The ultimate danger of the disease has little rela- tion to the severity of the individual fits, except in the modified sense explained above ; the frequency of the attacks being apparently much more apt tc influence the duration of life than their character. Indeed, although epileptics may survive severa. severe paroxysms at distant intervals, and recover in the end with an apparently unbroken constitution, it rarely happens that very frequently repeated attacks, even of the petit mal, are unattended by some permanent depreciation of the powers of mind or of body. The most frequent, perhaps, of all the more serious consequences of confirmed epilepsy ia Insanity (q. v.), sometimes assuming the form of acute mania or monomania following the attacks, but quite as frequently tending to gradual imbecility without any acute seizure. Sometimes the develop- ment of the epileptic insanity, or dementia, ia attended by palsy, and other indications of struc- tural disorder of the brain; in other instances, no such consequences occur, and the brain aft<;r death may be found to have very little tangible disease, or only such disease as is foimd in numerous other cases of functional derangement. Very often, even when the mind remains tolerably entire, there is loss of memory, and a certain want of acuteness and depression of spirits, which unfit the individual for the regular business of life. Disorders of the diges- tion are also not uncommon ; and there is frequently a want of tone and vigour in all the bodily func- tions, which communicates a habitual expression of languor and reserve to the'epileptic. Added to this, it can hardly be matter of suri)rise that the know- ledge of his infirmity should deeply influe.rice the mind of the epileptic,' and produce a dists.ste for active occupations, especially for such as expose him to more than ordinary observation. The causes and the radical cure of epilepsy are almost equally involved in mystery. It has been supposed by some to be dependent on an increased afflux of blood to the brain ; while by other observera and pathological authorities it has been attributed, with about equal force of reasoning, to precis(jly the opposite condition. Certain cases undoubtedly depend upon organic disease, as tumours or injuries to the brain and its membranes, more especially near the surface. Local sources of irritation in other parts of the body have also been supposed to be exciting causes of epilepsj'^ ; and cases are recorded in which the disease has been cured by the amputation of a finger or the division of a nerve. The attention of recent obsei"vers has l)een especially directed to the medulla oblongata and Spinal Cord (q. v.), as being the most probable physiological seata of a disease so decidedly marked by convulsive movements. But as yet little more than the most vague theoretical inferences can be drawn from their researches as to the cause eithei ."^ the morbid EPILEPSY— EPILOBIXTM. tendency in epilepsy or of the paroxysm. One of thb most curions and suggestive of these recent facts is tl' e experiment of Brown-Sequard, shewing that epilepsy, or a state closely resembling it, may be induced in certain animals by division of certain poi-iioD** of the spinal cord, the artificial disease con- tiuidn/), long after the primary effects of the injury have ooased. A still more curious and inexplicable phenomenon has resulted from the multiplication of Buch experiments ; for Brown-Sequard has shewn that in guinea-pigs this artificial epilepsy is some- times propagated to the offspring, becoming, hke the natural disease, a hereditary and congenital morbid tendency. On these strange facts it woidd be pre- mature to indulge in speculation in this place, but thair great impoi-tance can hardly be overlooked. The condition of the epileptic seems to be favourably affected by everything which conduces to a quiet and hopeful state of the mind, and to a vigorous conchtion of the body. The treatment of the disease should therefore, in general terms, be of the kind termed Tonic (q.v.), and shoidd be adapted with care, and after very minute and careful inquiry, to the removal of all the special bad habits, and occasional causes of depression, which tend to bring the system into a condition hdov.i par, in the indi- vidual case. Tlie influence of a happy and quiet domestic life, without unhealthy excitement, and with proper occupations, varied by amusement and exercise in the open air, can hardly be over- estimated. The mari'iage of epileptics is, however, not too readily to be sanctioned, as it has been known to be followed, not only by an increase of the disease, but by its transmission to a consider- able portion of the family. On the other hand, a too absolute rule on this subject is not without its dangers, and perhaps the practical difficulties of the question are not to be met b}"- any defined or dogmatic expression of opinion, founded on the general pathology of the disease. If the tendency exist, even slightly developed, upon both sides in buch a connection, it needs hardly be stated that the dciugers of transmission to the descendants is increased in a very great degree. Hence, inter- marriages vjithin epileptic families must be regarded as always in the highest degree imprudent. Parents and guardians are undoubtedly justified in making this disease an object of special solicitude, and reserve or concealment on this subject on either bide, in the case of a proposed marriage, should be regarded as equally dishonourable with any other form of deception in a matter so important to the welfare of society and of the parties concerned. According to one of the oldest and most respected of American physicians (Dr Jackson of Boston), the epileptic tendency may often be successfully treated by the systematic use of an exclusively vegetable diet, or by a very considerable reduction of the proportion of animal food. Among the innu- merable remedies recommended by authorities, the salts of iron and zinc have perhaps the largest amount of experience in their favour ; and Counter- irritants (q. V.) to the nape of the neck, or between the shoultlers, either by blistering, or by the use of the seton, or even the actual cautery, has been often followed by prolonf^jation of the intervals, or decrease in the severity of the fits. Dr. Chapman's application of ice, in caoutchouc bags, to the spine has proved efficacious, while the other modes prescribed have often produced temporary relief without perma- nent influence on the course of the disease. Some of the Loioer Animals are subject to epilejitic fits. The disease is common in dogs and highly bred Y>^gs. The creatures writhe wi^h involuntary spasms, and arc for the time without li^i^ht or hearing. Sometimes the muscles of the throat are so involved that fatal suffocation occTira. The attack is generally preceded by dulnesa. and lasts from ten to thirty minutes. It ia gener- ally traceable to toq)idity or irregidarity of the bowels, worms, debility, or plethora. In dogs, it ia a frequent sequel of distemper. In cattle, it usually occurs in connection with the engorgement of the first or third stomachs ; they throw themselvea violently about, bellowing loudly, but seldom die. It is rare in horses, and differs from megrims, for which it is often mistaken, but in which there are no spasms. The treatment consists in freely opening the bowels, removing worms, if any aro present, enjoining bleeding and spare diet, if the j^atient's condition is high, and generous feeding and tonics where it is low. The best preventives are carefuUy regulated diet, an occasional laxative, with a course of tonics, and especially of arsenic. EPILO'BIUM, a genus of plants of the natm-al order Onagracece, having four deciduous calycine segments ; four petals ; a much elongated, 4-sided, 4-celled, 4-valved, many-seeded capsule ; and seeds tufted with hairs at one end. The species are herbaceous perennials, natives of temperate and cold countries, and very widely diffused both in the northern and in the southern hemisphere. Some of them are very ornamental, from the beauty of their flowers. Most of the British species have small flowers, and some of them are very common in moist places. K angiistifolium, which differs from all the other British species in having the petaJa Epilobimn Angustifolium : 1, a flovrer ; 2, a longitudinal section of a tlower, shewinf ttSM arrangement of the ovules in the germen ; 3, a seed. dissimilar in shape and size, is frequently planted in gardens and shrubberies, on account of its numer- ous and beautiful rose-coloured flowers; but ita creeping roots are apt to ovenun a flower-garden. It is sometimes called French Willow, from the resemblance of its stems and leaves to some kinds of willow, and the name Willow-herb is often extended to the whole genus. It is found in very northern regions, and its leaves and young shoots are sometimes a grateful addition to the meala of the arctic traveller, although not hkely to bo relished in almost any other circumstances. The pith, when dried, yields a quantity of sugar to boil- ing water, and is used in Kamtchatka for making 1 a kind of ale, from which also vinegar is made. EPILOUUE-EPIRUa ■ E'PILOGUE (Gr. epi, upon or after, and logos, a speech) means, in oratory, the summing up or con- clusion of a discourse ; but, in conneotiou -with the drama, it denotes the short speech in prose or verse whicli frequently, in former times, was subjoined to plays, especially to comedies. The epilogue was always merry and familiar in its tone, and was intended to establish a kindly understanding between the actor and the audience, as well as to conciliate the latter for the faults of the play, if there were any, and to send them away in good-humour. One of the neatest and prettiest epilogues ever written, and one which completely realises what an epilogue should be, is tliat spoken by Rosalind at the conclusion of Shakspeare's As You Like It. EPIME'NIDES, a Greek poot and priest, bom probably at Phasstus in Crete, in the Gth or 7th c. B.C., and lived at Cnossus. His history has only reached us in a mythical form. He is said to have fallen asleep in a cave when a boy, and not to have wakened for 57 years. Like Ilip Van Winkle, he was naturally much astonished and perplexed on his return to broad daylight. His period of slumber, however, had not passed away unprofit- ably. His soul, disengaging itself from its fleshly prison, betook itself in the interval to the study of medicine and natural philosophy ; and when it had shuflled on again its mortal coil, E. found himself a man of great knowledge and wisdom. Goethe has written a poem on the subject, Des Epimenides Envachen. E. went to Athens about 596 B.C., where, by the performance of various mystical rites and sacrifices, he stayed a plague with which the inhabitants were afflicted. When he died is not known, but we may be certain that he did not live (as is fabled) for 299 years. That he wrote the epic poems attributed to him, the longest of which was on the Argonautic expedition, is considered liiyhly improbuhle. Compare Heinrich, E. aus Kreta (Leip. 1801). EPIIfAL, a town of France, in the department of Vosges, is situated in a delightfid district at the western base of the Vosges moimtains, on both banks of the Moselle, about 200 miles east-south- east of Paris. Lat. 48" 10' N., long. 6° 26' E. It is a well-built, handsome town, \vith clean, regular, though badly paved streets, and is surmounted by the ruins of an old castle, the gardens attached to which are much admired. Among its chief buildings are the parish church, an antique Gothic structure ; the hospital, formerly a Capuchin con- vent ; a museum of pictures, antiquities, and natural historj'^ ; the barracks ; and the residence of the prefect of the department. E. manufactures chem- ical products, lace, block-tin, wrought-iron, pottery, cutlery, paper, and leather, and has some trade in gram, wine, timber, &c. Pop. (1872) 10,738. EPIPHA'NIUS, St, a Christian bishop, and writer of the 4th c, was bom of Jewish parents in Palestine. He was baptized in his 16th year, and was educated among the Egj-ptian monks, who inspired him with an aversion to all liberal science. He rose gradually to the rank of Bishop of Con- Btantia (formerly Salamis) in Cypms, and continued in that office from 367 till his death in 403. His polemical zeal was consjjicuously manifested against Origen. He had proclaimed him a heretic in his writings, and in 394 he went to Palestine, the focus of Origen's adherents, and called upon John, Bishop of Jerusalem, and the two monks, Rufinus and Jerome, to condemn him. A more legitimate object of his violent opposition was the increasing worship of images. Jerome relates how he indignantly tore down an image in the precincts of a church in Palestine, as bemg contrary to the divine law. Among his writings, collected by Petavius (2 vols., Paris, 1622), the most important is his Panarion, or catalogue of all heresies (80 in number), a work which strikingly shews his unfitness for being a historian. His credulity and want of honesty are excessive. EPI'PHANY (Gr. EpipJidneia, appearance), denoted, among the heathen Greeks, a festival heid in commemoration of the appearance of a god in any particular place. The word subsequently passed into the usage of the Christian Church, and was used to designate the manifestation or appearance of Christ upon the earth to the Gentiles, with especial refer- ence to th.e day on which he was seen and wor- shipped by the wise men who came from the East This occasion is commemorated in the church on the Cth of January, the 12th day after Christmas, and hence the Epiphany is also called Twelfth Day. The Epiphany, which is said not to have been observed as a separate festival, but to havrt been included in the feast of the Nativity tiil 813, is observed as a 'scarlet day' at Oxford and Cambridge. E'PIPHYTES (Gr. epi, upon, pJiyton, a plant), often and popularly, but less correctly, called AiR« PLANTS, are plants which are not rooted in tho ground, but are attached to trees, from the decaying portions of the bark of which, or of mosses and lichena which grow upon it, they derive their nutriment, probably, also, depending upon the air for it to a larger extent than other plants do. Mosses and lichens themselves, growing upon trees, may bo called E., but the term is generally used of phanero- gamous plants. E. are not connected with the trees on which they grow in the peculiar manner of tho misletoe, Balanophora, and other tme parasites — • not sending roots like them into the wood to suck the juice of the tree. It is chie^y in warm climates that phanerogamous E. are found, and in those which are also moist. Most of them prefer shady situations. Within the tropics, they often form an interesting and remarkable feature of the vegetation. Some of the Bromdiacece (as Tilland/iia), Cactace[s. j to zero when the telescope is in the meridian of the place, it is clear that when the telescope is directed to any star, the index of the declina- fcicn circle will mark the declination of the star ; and that on tiie other circle its right ascension. If the telescope be clamped when directed on a star, it 's clear that, could the instrument be made to lOtate on its principal axis with entire uniformity with the diurnal motion of the heavens, the star wo\dd always appear in the field of view. This motion of rotation is commimicated to the instru- ment by clock-work. EQUE'STRIAN ORDER, or E'QUITES. This Wocly originally formed the cavalry of the Roman 104 army, and is said to have been instituted by Romulus, who selected from the three principal Roman tribes 300 eqnites. This number waa afterwards gradually increased to 3600, who were l^artly of patrician and i)artly of plebeian rank, and required to possess. a certain amount of property Each of these equites received a horse from the state ; but about 403 B.C., a new body of equitoid the whole instrument, even in those cases whez'e it was made by a stranger ; but the law is now otherwise, as it is clearly settled that no alteration made by a stranger will prevent the contents of an instrument from retaining its original effect and operation, where it can Ije plainly shewn what that eflect and operation actually was. To accomplish this, the mutilated instrument may be given in evidence as far as its contents appear ; and intrinsic evidence will be admitted to shcAV what portions have been altered or erased, and also the words contained in such altered or erased parts ; but if, for want of such evidence, or any deficiency or imcertainty arising out of it, the original contents of the instrument cannot be ascertained, then the old rule would become applicable, or, more correctly spealdng, the mutilated instrument would become void for uncer- tainty.' — Hughes' Practice of Conveyancing, i. 124, 125. If a will contains any alterations or erasure, the attention of the witnesses ought to be directed to the particular parts in which each alteration occur, and they ought to place their initials in the margin opposite, before the will is executed, and to notice this having been done by a memorandum, added to tlie attestation clause at the end of the will (76. p. 945). See also 1 Vict. c. 26. In Scot- land, the rule as to erasure is somewhat stricter than in England — the legal inference being that Buch alterations were made after execution. As to necessary or bond fide alterations which may be desired by the parties, corrections of clerical errors, and the like, after the deed is written out, but before signature, the rule in Scotland is, that 'the deed must shew that they have been advisedly adopted by the party ; and this will be effected by mentioning them in the body of the writing. Thus, if some words are erased and others superinduced, you mention that the super- induced words were written on an erasure ; if words are simply delete, that fact is noticed ; if words are added it ought to be on the margin, and such additions signed by the party, \Ai\\ his ^^-hristian name on one side, and his surname on the other ; and such marginal addition must be noticed in the l)ody of the writ, so as to specify the page on which it occurs, the writer of it, and that it is subscribed by the attesting witnesses.' — Menzies's Lectures on Conveyancing, p. 124. The Roman rule was, that the alterations shoixld be made by the party himself, and a formal clause was introduced into their deeds to this effect, ' Lituras, inductiones, Buperinductiones, ipse feci.' As a general rule, alterations with the pen are in all cases to be preferred to erasure ; and suspicion will be most effectually removed by not obliterating the words altered so completely as to conceal the nature of the correction. ' The worst kind of deletion,' says Lord Stair, 'is when the -words deleted cannot be 110 read (but if they are scored that they can be read, it will appear whether they be de suhstantialibus), for if they cannot bo read, they will be esteemed to be such, unless the contrary appear by what pre- cedes and follows, or that there be a marginal note, bearing the deletion, from such a word to such a word, to be of consent.' ERATO'STHENES, an eminent Greek writer, called, on account of his varied erudition, the Pldl' ologifit, was born at Cyrene 270 B.C. Among his teachers were Lysanias the grammarian, and Cal- limachus the poet. By Ptolemy Euergetes, he waa called to Alexandria to superintend his great library. Here he died of voluntary starvation, at the age of 80, having become blind, and wearied of life. As an astronomer, E. holds an eminent rank among ancient astronomers. He measured the obliquity of the ecliptic, and the result at which he arrived — ^az., that it was 23° 51' 20" — must be reckoned a very fair observation, considering the age in which he lived. Hipparclius used it, and so did the cele- brated astronomer Ptolemy. An astronomical work which goes under the name of E., but which is cer- tainly not his, is still extant, and is called Kataster- ismoi ; it contains an account of the constellations, their fabulous history, and the stars in them. It ia believed, however, that E. did draw up a catalogue of the fixed stars, amounting to 675 ; but it is lost. A letter to Ptolemy, king of Egypt, on the dupli- cation of the cube, is the only complete writing of his that we possess. E.'s greatest claim to distinc- tion, however, is as a geometer. In his attem^jit to measure the magnitude of the earth, he introduced the method which is used at the present day, and found the circumference of the earth to be 252,000 stadia ; which, according to Pliny, is 31,500 Romaii miles. But as it is not known what stadiimi E. used, it is possible that he came nearer the actual cir- cumdference than the above figures indicate. His work on geography must have been of great value in his times : it was the first tndy scientific treatise on the subject. E. worked up into an organic M'hole the scattered information regarding places and countries related in the books of travels. &e., contained in the Alexandrian Library'. He also wrote on moral philosophy, history, grammar, &c. His work on the Old Attic Comedy appears, from the remains which we possess, to have been a learned and very judicious performance. Such fragments of E's ^\Titings as are still extant have been collected by Bemhardy in his Eratosthenica (Berhn, 1822). E'RBIUM (sjTnbol E) is a rare metal, the com- pounds of which are found in a few scarce minerals, especially in gadolinite, obtained from Ytterby, m Sweden. In its compounds and properties it resembles the metal aluminium. ERCI'LLA Y ZUNIGA, Alonso, a Spanish poet, was born at Madrid, August 7, 1533. He was the third son of a Spanish jurist, and at an early period became page to the Infanta Don Phihp, son of Charles V., accompanying him on his journey through the Netherlands, and some parts of Ger- many and Italy, and in 1554, to England, on the occasion of the celebration of Philii)'s nuptials with Queen Mary. Shortly after, E. went with the army dispatched to America to quell the insurrection of the Aiiracanians on the coast of Chili. The diffi- culties with which the Spaniards had to contend- the heroism displayed by the natives in the unequal contest, and the multitude of gallant achievements hy which this war was distinguished, suggested to E. the idea of making it the subject of an epic poem. He began his poem on the spot, about the year 1 558, occasionally committing his verses, in the absence of paper, to pieces of leather. An unfornded suspiciop EREBUS— ERGOT. of hia having plotted ai insurrection ij^volved him in a painful trial, and he had actually ascended the scatlbld before his innocence was proved. Deeply wounded, the brave soldier and f-net turned to Spain, but Philip treating him with groat coldness and neglect, E. made a tour through France, Italy, Germany, Bohemia, and Hungary. For some time he ]ield the office of chamberlain to the emperor Rudolf IL, but in 15S0 returned to Madrid, where he in vaiu exerted himself to realise an independ- ence. The latter years of his life were spent in obscurity and poverty at Madrid, where he died, at what period has not been ascertained. His historic epos, "SATitten in the octo-syllabic measu.re, and entitled A7-aucana, is, with the exception of a few episodes, a faithful description of actual events. Cervantes, in his Don Quixote, compares it with the best Italian epics, and it has un- doubtedly not a little of the epic style and si)irit. The first part is the freshest in character, having been completed before the author's return to Europe, where it wa5 first published separately (Madrid, 1569). The second part api)eared nine years later. In it, E. by the introduction of episodes, yielded more to the taste of the time ; and this was BtiU more the case in the third part, which was first published, along with the two others, in 1590. In Spain, and likewise in other countries, many reprints of the poem appeared (the most elegant, 2 vols., Madrid, 1776 ; the most accurate, 2 vols., Madrid, 1828). A continuation was published by Don Diego Santistevan Osorio, of Leon (Salamanca, 1597). A German translation has been published by Winter- ling (2 vols., Nuremberg, 1831). E'REBUS — the name of one of the sons of Chaos — signifies darkness, and is used specially to denote the dark and gloomy cavern beneath the earth, through which the shades must pass in going to Hades. ERE'CHTHEUS or ERICHTHO'NIUS, and ERECHTHE'UM. Ereclitheus, an Attic hero, is said to have been the son of Hephaestus and the fiai-th, and to have been reared by Athena. One form of the tradition states that when a child he was placed by Athena in a chest, which was intrusted to AgrauJos, Pandrosos, and Herse, the daughters of Cecrops, with the strict charge that ;t was not to be opened. Agraulos and Herse, however, unable to restrain their curiosity, opened the chest, and discovering a child entwined with serpents, they were seized with madness, and threw themselves down the most precipitous part of the Acropolis. Afterwards Erechtheus was the chief means of establishing the worship of Athena in Attica. He is regarded as the founder of the Erechtheum, the temple of Athena Polias, guardian of the city. This original Erechtheum, which contained Erechtheus's tomb after his death, and which was called by his name, was burned by the Persians, but a new and magnificent temple was raised upon the same site — north of the Parthenon, and near the northern wall of the Acropolis — in the beginning of the 4th c. B.C. The second Erechtheum was a splendid structure of the Ionic order, of an oblong shape, extending from east to west, abutting in side chambers at the western end, towards the north and south, and having porticoes adorned with colimins at its eastern, its northern, and southern extremities. It is now a complete ruin. ERE'CTION, Lords of, those of the nobility in Scotland to whom the king, after the Reformation, granted lands, or tithes, which formerly belonged to the church. They were also called Titulars of Tithes, the gifts being by no means confined to the nobility. These titulars had the same rights to erected benefices, both in lands and titlies, which had formerly belonged to the monasteries and other religious houses. The grants were ni.'ide under the burden of providing competent stipends to tlie [ reformed clergy — an oldigation which was very little attended to by the grantees, prior to the I decrees arbitral of Charles L, in 1629. Ersk. B. iL tit. 10, s. 18. EREMACAU'SIS (Gr. eremos, waste, and hums, combustion) is a term originally proposed by Lieb'^ to indicate the slow process of combustion a^; ordinary temperatures, which ensues when organic compounds, such as wood, are left exposed to the air, and gradually rot away or decay. The process consists in the oxygen (0) of the air combining with the hydrogen (H) of the wood forming water (HO), and in less quantity with the carbon (C) forming carbonic acid (CO 2), leaving a brown mould or powder, called by chemists ulmin, or humus, in whicli carbon prej)onderates. E'RFURT, a town and fortress of Prussian Saxony, capital of old Thuringia, stands in a higldy I cidtivated plain, on the right bank of the Gera, I 14 miles west of Weimar. It is surrounded by i walls, pierced by six gates, and is sti'engthened by j two citadels, the Petersberg and the Cyriaksburg, j both formerly monasteries. Among the numerous churches, the cathedral and the Church of St j Severus are the finest. The cathedral is one of the most venerable Gothic buildings in Germany, and possesses, besides a very rich portal, sculptures dating from the lltli to the IGth century. Of the convents, only that of the Ursuline nuns remains. The monastery of St Augustine, famous as the residence of Luther, and in whicli his cell is still pointed out, was converted in the year 1820 into an asylum for deserted children. The other remarkable buildings are, the university, founded in 1378, and suppressed in 1816; the royal academy; the library, containing 50,000 volumes ; numerous educational establishments, a hospital, two infirmaries, &c. Pop. 43,616. Horticulture, and an extensive trade in seeds, are carried on. The principal manufactures are woollen, silk, cotton, and linen goods, yarn, shoes, stockings, tobacco, leather, &c. E. is said to have been founded in the beginning of the 5th c. by one Erpes, from whom it took its original name of Erpesford. During the middle ages, at the time of its highest prosperity, E. was strongly fortified, and contained 60,000 inhabitants. In 740, St Boniface founded a bishopric at E., and in the year 805 it was converted into an entrepot of commerce by Charlemagne. It after- wards belonged to the Hansedeague, then to the elector of Mainz, from 1801 — 1806 to Prussia, and from that time until 1813 it was under French rule. E. was finally restored to Prussia by the Congress of Vienna. In the spring of 1850, the parliament of the states, which had combined together for union, held its sittings at Erfiu't. E'RGOT, a diseased condition of the germen of grasses, sometimes also observed in some of the Gyperacece. It begins to shew itself when the ger- men is young ; different parts of the flower assume a mildewed appearance, and become covered A\-ith a white coating composed of a multitude of minute spore-like bodies mixed with delicate cobwebdike filaments ; a sweet fluid, at first limpid, afterwards viscid and yellowish, is exuded; the anthers and stigmas become cemented together ; the o\^de sweUa till it greatly exceeds the size of the proper seed, bursts its integuments, and becomes elongated and frequently curved, often carries on its apex a cap formed of the agglutinated anthers and stigmaa ERGOTISM— ERIC. Ergot of Rye. and assumes a gray, bro-vm, purple, violet, and at length a black colour, as the vis«id exudation dries and hardens. The strxicture di{Fers very much from that of the properly developed seed ; the qualities are not less different, almost one-half of the whole substance consists of fungin ; and the cells contain, instead of starch, glo])ules of a peculiar fixed oil — Oil of Ergot, to which the remarkable qualities of ergot are supposed to be chiefly or entirely due. Od of ergot forms about 35 ])er cent, of the ergot of rye. Ergot appears to have been first observed in rye, in which it becomes very conspicuous from the large size it attains, sometimes an inch or even an inch and a half in length. It is, however, not uncom- mon in A\'heat and barley, although in them it is not so conspicuous, from its general resemblance to the ordinary ripened grain. Rye -grass is often aflectcd with ergot, as are many other (grasses ; and it is of frequent occur- rence in maize, in which also it attains its greatest size. Ergot has been supposed to be merely a disease occasioned by wet seasons or other clinuitic causes. But it appears now to be fully ascertained, that it is a disease occasioned by the presence of the mycelium of a fungus ; the si)ores of which may perhaps be carried to the flower through the juices of the plant, for there is reason to think that ergot in a field of grain may be pro- duced by infected seed. jNIr Quekett, in 1838, described a fungus, a kind of Mould (q. v.), which he found in ergot, and to which he gave the name of ErgotfEtia abortifaciens. Link and Berkeley afterwards referred it to the genus Oidium; and they, as well as others, beheved it to be the true ergot fungus. The spores of this ergot mould, how- ever, vegetate readily, under proper conditions of warmth and moisture, in situations very different from that in which ergot is produced; and its presence is perhaps a consequence rather than the cause of ergot. The true ergot fungus seems to have been discovered by Tulasne, who published a description of it in 1853. That of the ergot of rye is called Cordiceps (or Claviceps) purpurea; its mycelium alone exists in ergot, but if the ergoted grains are soAvn, the fungus develops itself in its perfect form, growing in little tufts from the surface of the ergot, with stem about half an inch long, and subglobular head. Allied species appear to produce the ergot of other grasses. Ergot is inflammable ; the fixed oil which it con- tnins, indeed, makes it burn readily if brought into contact with the flame of a candle. It is a valuable medicine, exercising a specific action on the womb, particidarly during labour, and by the greater frequency and force of the contractions which it causes when cautiously administered, often most beneficially hastening delivery. Its employment for this purpose is said to have originated — in conse- quence, probably, of an accidental discovery — with a Srovincial female practitioner in France. Its intro- action into British practice dates only from 1824. 113 It is the ergot of rye which is always employed ; also called Spurred Rye, or Secale carnutum. It has been employed also as a sedative of the circula- tion, to check vaiious kinds of hjemorrhage. Ergot is administered in various forms — powder, decoction, extract, tincture, oil of ergot, &c. — In large or fre- quent doses, ergot is a poison, sometimes producing convvdsions, followed by death ; sometimes gan- grene of the extremities, resulting in mutilation or in death. Ergot of rye consists of 35 per cent, of a peculiar fixed oil, 1^ of ergotiu, 46 of fmigin, the remainder being gum, fat, albumen, salts, &c. Ergot bums with a yellow- white flame, and treated with water, yields a reddish coloured liquid with acid properties. In considerable quantities, it is a poison to the lower animals as well as to man. E'RGOTISM, the constitutional effect of Ergot of Rye (q. v.). See also Raphania. E'RIC is the Scandinavian form of the name Henricus, Enrico, and Henry of southern nations. Many kings of the name reigned se])arately in Denmark and Sweden, and some ruled over the whole of Scandinavia after the union of Calmar. The memory of the two earliest rulers of the name in Denmark merits our notice from their associa- tion with the introduction of Christianity. Eric I., who died in 8G0, protected tlie Christians in the latter part of his reign, and, under the direction of the missionary Ansgar or Anscliarius, founded the cathedral of Ribe, the first Christian clnu-ch in the land. In his time, the Northmen began those incur- sions into more southern countries, which were destined to exercise so pennanent an influence on European history. Eric II. followed in the steps of his father, and permitted Ansgar to prosecute the laboiu- of converting and civilising the people, wdiich won for him the title of the Tutelar Saint of the North. To Eric II. is ascribed the reorganisation of those guilds which finally merged in the munici* pal corporations of the middle ages, but which were, at first, a mere modification of the heathen brother- hoods of the Scandinavian heroic ages, and consti- tuted associations, whose members were a privileged class, separated by distinct laws, rights, and duties from the rest of the people. Denmark suffered in the 12th c. in an equal degree from the t vo Erics who ruled over her, for while Eric, surname d Emun, exhausted the strength of the land by the indomit- able pertinacity with which he endeavoured, by force of arms, to compel the Vandals and other piratical neighbours to accept the Christianity which he thrust upon them, Eric *the Lamb' crippled the powers and resources of the crown by his pusil- lanimous subserviency to the clergy. The three Erics (Eric VI., VII., and VIII.) who occupied the throne, with only the intermission of a few years, from 1241 to 1319, are associated with one of the most disastrous periods of Danish history. Long minorities, the suicidal practice of dismembering the crown-lands in favour of yoimger branches of the royal house, and futile attempts to restrain the ever-increasing encroachments of the church, com- bined to bring the coimtry to the brink of destruction- Eric VI. (Plogpenning) and Eric VII. (Ghpping) were both assassinated, the former at the instigation of a brother, and the latter in revenge for a private injury. Eric VIII., the last of the name before the union of Calmar, died childless, and was succeeded, in 1319, by his ambitious brother Christopher, who saw himself compelled to repay his partisans at the expense of almost all the prerogatives and appanages which stdl belonged to the crown. In Sweden, the first of the name who merits om notice is King Eric, sumamed the Saint, who ^afl EIIICE.E— ERICSSON. slain in battle in 1161, after a short reign, which tvas signalised, in that age of anarchy, by the foundation of many churches and monasteries, and by the promulgation of an excellent code of laws, known as St Eric's Lag. This law contained provisions by which a higher status in society was secured to women, by granting them a fixed proportion of the heritage of their male relatives, and cei^ain definite privileges within their house- holds. St Eric waged frequent war -with the Finns, and compelled them to adojit the outward forms of Christianity. The two namesakes and descendants of St Eric, who ruled in Sweden during the 13th c, and Eric XII., who reigned from 1350 to 1359, have little claim to our notice, for internal disturbances and wars with their neigh- bours brought about the same fatal results as those which are associated with the reigns of the Erics in Denmark during the middle ages. In 1412, on the death of the great Margaret, her relative, Eric of Fomerania, succeeded to the triple crown of Scandi- navia, in accordance with the articles of the famous treaty of Calmar. The noble heritage that had been bequeathed to Eric required a firmer hand and a braver spirit than his to keep it in check ; and his reckless disregard of treaties and oaths, his neglect of his duties, and his misdirected ambition, led, after years of dissensions, maladministration, and disaffection, to the inevitable result that Eric was declared to have forfeited the respective thrones of the several kingdoms, which proceeded to elect nders of their own. The intestine wars to which this condition of things gave rise, ])lunged the whole of Scandinavia into anarchy, and sowed seeds of dissension among the three kindred nations, which bore fatal fruits in subsequent ages. The last ten years of Eric's life were spent in the exercise of piracy in the island of Gothland, whither he had retired with his mistress and a band of followers, and from whence he sent forth piratical expeditions to pillage both friends and foes. Eric married Philippa, daughter of Henry IV. of England, whose memory is still cherished in the north, on account of the many noble deeds with which local tradition associates her name. Eric XIV., the last of the name who reigned in Sweden, had the distinction of being at once one of the worst and one of the most unhappy of the name. He succeeded, in 1560, to the throne of his father, Gustaf Vasa, who was perhaps the greatest and worthiest monarch that ever reigned over Sweden, and iimnediately on his accession, he made known the difference that was so mifavourably to distinguish his reign from that of his father, by quarrelling with his brothers, thwarting the nobles, and opposing the lower orders. His fickleness and extravagance were displayed in a succession of embassies, which were in tm'n sent to almost every European court to demand a consort for this vacillat- ing monarch, who usually changed his mind before his envoys had time to fulfil their missions. Eliza- beth of England and Mary of Scotland were more than once the objects of his matrimonial schemes ; but vshen the resources of the country had been seriously crippled by these costly and absurd expe- ditions, Eric married a Swedish peasant-girl, who ultimately acquired an influence over him which was ascribed by the superstitious to witchcraft, since she aione was able to control him in the violent paroxysms of blind fury to which he was subject. It is prob- able that Eric laboured under remittent attacks of insanity, and that to this cause may be atti'ibuted the blood-thirsty cruelty with which he persecuted those of his own relatives or attendants who fell under his suspicion. His capricioiis cruelties at length alienated the minds of his subjects, who, wearied Kith the continuous wars and disturbances in which ici his evil passions involved them, threw off tlielK allegiance in 1568, and solemnly elected his hvoihct John to the throne. For nine years, the unhap[>y Eric suffered every indignity at the hands of tUe keepers ai)pointed Ijy his brother to guard him, and in 1577, he was compelled to terminate his miseralj]? existence by swallowing poison, in obedience bo liis brother's orders. Singular to say, this half madman was a person of cultivated understanding, and he solaced his captivity with music and the composition of psalms, and in keeping a voluminous journal. ERI'CE^, or ERICA'CE^, a natural order of exogenous plants, consisting chiefly of small shrulrtj, but containing also some trees. The leaves are opposite or in whorls, entire, destitute of stipules, often small, generally evergreen and rigid. The flowers are sometimes solitary in the axils of the lea\"es, sometimes grouped in different modes of inflorescence, and are often of great beauty, in which resj)ect no order of plants excels this ; the beauty of the smallest species, and of those whicli have very small flowers, rivalling that of others which are trees profusely covered with magnificent clusters. About 900 species of this order are known, of which the greater number are natives of South Africa, which particidarly aboimds in the genus Erica, and its allies — the true Heaths (q. v,} — • although some of them are also found to the utmost limits of northern vegetation. They are rare Vv'ithin the tropics, and only occur at considerable eleva- tions. Few species are found in Australia, MfvOy of the E, are social plants, and a single species some* times covers great tracts, constituting their principal vegetation. This is most strikingly exemplified in the heaths of Europe and the North of Asia. Medicinal properties exist in some of the E., as the Bearberry (see Arbutus), and the Ground Laurel of North America {Epiga^a repens), a popular remedy in the United States for affections of the bowels and urinary organs. Narcotic and poisonous^ qualities are of not unfrequent occurrence. Sea Andromeda, Azalea, Kalmia, Ledum, Rhododen- dron, The berries of some species are edible (see Arbutus and Gaultheria), although none are much esteemed. — The Rhododendre^ have some- times been regarded as a distinct order, but are generally considered a suborder of E., containing the genera B/iododendron, Azalea, Kalmia, Ledum^ &c. The larger leaves and flowez's, and gener ally also the larger plants of the order, belong to this suborder ; which, however, contanis also many small shrubs of subarctic and elevated mountainous regions. E'RICHT or E'RROCHT, Locir, Hes in the north-west of Perthshire and soutn of Inverness- shire, in an uninhabited district, the wildest and most inaccessible in Scotland, amid the Grampian mountains. Its banks rise steeply from the water's edge. It is fourteen miles long and nearly one mile broad, and it extends in a south-west direction +'ronu near Dalwhinnie on the Dunkeld M^d Inverness road. By one outlet it joins Loch Rannoch, and by another it runs into Loch Lydoch, its waters ulti- mately reaching the Tay. Its sm-face is about 1500 feet above the sea, and it never freezes. In a cave at the south end of the loch, Prince Charles lay hid in 1746. E'RICSSON, John, a distinguished enguieer, was born in Sweden in 1803. After serving for some time as an officer of engineers in the Swedish army, he removed in 1826 to England, and continued to occupy himself with improvements chiefly on steam machinery and its applications. It is to E. that steam navigation owes the Screw-propeller (q. v.). In 1839 ho went to New York, United States, where 113 ERIE— EKIOCAULACE^. he Las lived since, and has brought out his improved caloric engine, etc. He constructed the iron-clad Monitor which successfully opposed the Merrimack in Hampton Roads, March 9, 1862. See CALORIC En- gine. E'RIE, one of the five great lakes which empty them- selves by the St. Lawrence. It separates Upper Canada and Michigan on its left from Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York on its right. It is the most southern of the five, receiving, at its north-western extremity, the waters of Lakes Superior, Michigan, and Huron, by the river Detroit, and discharging them at its north-east by the Niagara into Lake Ontario. With a length of 240 miles, E. has a breadth varying from 30 to nearly GO miles, with an area of 9600 square miles. It is 1 6 feet below Lake Huron, and 322 and 655 rcsi)ectively above Lake Ontario and the Atlantic. At its south-western extremity are several islands, whereon the native grape finds a climate more equable and an autumn of longer continuance than in the regions generally in the same lati- tude in the United States, and where it has, in consequence, been successfully cultivated for sev- eral years j)ast. It is by far the shallowest of the five great lakes. Its mean depth is stated at 120 feet ; and from this compai-ative shallowness, and the consequent liability to a heavy ground swell, as well as on account of the small number of good harbours, the navigation is peculiarly difficult and dangerous. The chief harbours on the south or United States shore, besides Buffalo and that of Erie, are those of Cleveland, Sandusky City, and Toledo; and on the north or Canadian shore, Ports Dover, Burwell, and Stanley. Lake E. receives no rivers of any conse- quence. Its commercial importance, however, has been largely increased by art. It is connected by one canal with the Hudson, and by more than one with the Ohio, while on the British side it communicates •.vitli the Ontario by means of a still more available work, the ship channel of the Welland. Its naviga- tion generally closes in the beginning of December, and the lake remains more or less frozen until March or April. The commercial importance of Lake Erie has been greatly increased within a few years by the establishment of numerous lines of railroads connect- ing its ports with the interior. The amount of busi- ness transacted thereon is almost incalculable. Lake Erie was the scene of a nava^ engagement between the British and Americans, September 10, 1813, in which the latter were victorious. ERIE, a port on the lake of its own name in the State of Pennsylvania, stands in lat, 42° 8' N., and long. 80° 10' W. Its harbour, one of the largest and best on the coast, is formed by an island of four miles in length, which, under the appellation of Presque Isle, still preserves the memory of its having been a peninsula. The belt of water Avhich is thus sheltered is known as Presque Isle Bay, and forms a natural harbour for the city. It is now protected by a break- water. It is 3^ miles long and 1 mile wide, and varies in depth from 9 to 25 feet. While much has been done to improve the natural advantages of its position, E, has been connected by means of a canal with the Beaver, a feeder of the Ohio ; and this work, independently of its navigable facilities, affords exten- sive water power to mills of different kinds. It is the terminus of the Philadelphia and Erie Railroad, and is by other lines connected with New York, Cleveland, 8cc. This port is destined to become an important cen- tre af trade. Pop. (1870) 19,646; (1880) 27,730. ERI'GENA, Joannes Scotus, a famous philoso- pher of the middle ages, was born probably in Treland and flourished during the 9tli century. Very little is known regarding his history. He appears to have resided priucipally in Erauce, at the court of Charles the Bald. In the controversies of his time, regarding predestination and transulv stantiation, he took part. His philosophic opinions were those of a Neo-Platonist rather than of a scholastic. His love for the mystic doctrines of the old Alexandrian philosophers was shewn by his translation of the writings ascribed to Dionysius the Areopagite, which proved to be a well-spring of mysticism durin;^ the middle ages. E, h^d tnat God is the essential ground of all things, from whom all things emanate, and into whom they return again. Pantheism, therefore, lurks in his system. His princi])al work is De Divlsione Naturce (pub- lished ])y Gale, Oxford, 1G81). One of its leading thoughts is the identity of philosophy and religion, when both are properly apprehended. E. uttered his opinions with great boldness, and he exhibited no less subtlety and strength of intellect in their defence. He expressed his contempt for theo- logical dogmatism, and vindicated the authority of reason over ail other authority. His words are : ' Authority is derived from reason, and not reason from authority ; and when the former is not con- firmed by the latter, it possesses no value.' Consult Hjoi't's Joh. E. odervom Ursprunrje einer ChrisUichen Pldlosophie (Copenh. 1823), Standenmayer's Joh. E, und die Wissenschaft seiner Zeit (Frankfurt, 1834), and Taillandier Scot. E. et la Philosophie Sclwlastique (Strasburg and Paris, 1843). ERI'GERON, a genus of plants of the natural order CompositcCy suborder CorymhifercB, having heads (flowers) of many florets, the florets of the ray numerous, in several rows, of a different colour from those of the disc. Two or three species are natives of Britain, the most common of which, E. acris, has a stem 16 — 18 inches high, narrow entire leaves, flower-stalks forming a kind of corymb, flowers with yellow disc and pale-blue ray. It has a powerful odour, which is said to keep away fleas, and the name Flea-bane is sometimes given to the plant. Its ashes contain about 5 per cent, of potash, for the sake of which it is sometimes collected and burned. E. Philadelphicum, a native of North America, with pale-purple ray, and a fetid smell, is valued in the United States as a diuretic. ERINA'CEUS and ERINACE'AD^. Se« Hedgehog. ERI'NNA, a Greek poetess, concerning the date of whose birth the most different statements are advanced. According to some, she was the intimate friend of Sappho (hence she is likewise called the Lesbian singer), and was bom at Rhodes, or on the little island of Telos, situated west of Rhodes ; whilo others maintain that she lived in the age of Demos- thenes ; and others again, perplexed by such a widn difference in point of time, have recourse to the hypothesis of two poetesses of this name. E. acquired such celebrity by her epic, epigrammatic, and lyrio poems, that her verses were compared with those o^ Homer, although she died at the early age of 19» The genuineness of the fragments that still exisi under her name, has been disputed on good grounds. These have been collected by Schneidewin in tha Delectus Poesis Graecce Elegiacce (Gottingen, 1838). Compare Malzow De Erinnce Lesbice vita et Heliqmis (Petersburg, 1836). ERIOBO'TRYA. See Loqtjat. ERIOCAULA'CE-^, a natural order of endogen- ous plants, nearly allied to Pestiacece, and containing about 200 known species, many of which are aquatic or marsh plants. The E. are chiefly natives of the tropical parts of America and Australia. One spe- cies, Eriocaulon septangular e, JOINTED PlPEWORT is found in the west of Ireland, and in some of the ERIODENDRON— ERLKONIG. Hebri les a little grass-like plant, growing in lakes whicli have a muclly bottom, and exhibiting small globular heads of flowers. From its botanical affini- ties, and with reference /.*fi??lv. to geographical distri- bution, no British plarit is more interesting. The E. form a remarkable feature of the vegeta- tion of some parts of South America ; but many of the species bear little resemblance to their humble north- ern congener, being almost shrubby, 4 — 6 feet high, with leafy, much-branched stems, * each brauchlet ter- minated by a large ■white ball, composed of a vast number of smaller heads, placed on peduncles of unequal length.' Many of them also grow on arid moun- tainous regions ; others in flat sandy grounds, which are flooded in the wet season. — Gardner's Travels in Brazil. ERIODE'NDROI^, a genus of trees of the natural order Stercu- liacea2, natives of tropi- JoJnted Pipewort [Eriocauton cal countries, the thick septangulare) : woody capsides of which a, tuft of leaves, flower-stalk with contain a kind of wool flowers, and part of creeping surrounding the seeds, root; 6, seed; c, bract or scale; rpi , . ° fhore- d, f-male flower; e, pistil; /, J-Jiese trees are tnere- male flower. tore sometimes called Wool-trees. The wool of B. Samanna is i^sed in Brazil for stuffing pillows. E. anfractuosum^ of which one variety, found in the East Indies, is sometimes called E. Indkum, and another found in Africa, E. Gmneense, is a tree of great height, 150 feet or more. The African variety or species is called Rimi and Bentang. Park men- tions it by the latter name. Barth says it is gene- rally to be seen growing near the principal gate of large towns in Hansa. Its wood is soft and si)ongy, chiefly used for making canoes. The seeds of E. Indicum are eaten in Celebes. They are roundish, and of the size of peas. The trees of this genus have palmate leaves. The flowers are large and beautiful ERIVA'N (Persian, Rewan), the fortified capital of Russian Armenia, situated to the north of Ararat, in the elevated pLain of Aras or Araxes, lat, 40" 10' N., long. 44° 32' E., 3312 feet above the level of the sea. It consists of the town, properly so called, and the fortress, which is surrounded on three sides by high walls, and provided with aqueducts ; a stone bridge over the Zenga, which here falls into the Araxes ; a barracks, three mosques, one of which has been converted into a Russian church, the palace of the Sardar, and a bazanr. Pop. about 15,000, who are engaged in agriculture and com- merce. E. was formerly the capital of the Persian province of Aran, celebrated for its silk. In the beginning of the 16th c, the khan Rewan, at the command of Ishmael, the shah of Persia, erected a strong fortress, which he called after his own name. An Armenian school was established at E. in 1629. but transferred to Eijmiadzin in 1631. During the last war between Russia and Persia, E. a\ as stormed by the Russian general Paskewitsch, who received the surname of Eri\\'anski ; and by the treaty of ]jeac6 concluded at Turknuuijai, 22d February, 1828, it wan given up by Persia to Russia, along with the pi'ovinco of the same name. It is now an important Russian post, as in former times it formed the bulwark of Persia against the Turks, and afterwards against Russia. In the year 1840 it was much devastated by an earthquake. E'RLANGEIS", a town of Bavaria, is situated ii the midst of a well cultivated district, on the righfc bank of the Regnitz, 10 miles north of Niirnburg. It is a handsome town, and is surrounded by walls pierced by seven gates ; its streets — a great number of which were erected after the year 1706, when a fire consumed a large portion of the town — are straight and regular. It is divided into the Old and New Towns, the latter founded in 1GS6 by Christian, markgraf of Bayreuth. E. is the seat of a university, of a gymnasium, of agi-icultural and industrial schools, and other institutions. The university, however, is the chief building. It waa founded in 1742, and is celebrated as a school of Protestant theology, is attended by between 400 and 500 students, has a library containing 100,000 vols, and 1000 manuscripts, and also zoological and mineralogical collections, &c. E. owes its prosperity to the migration thither of a number of refugees from France, who were compelled to flee on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, and who intro- duced many new branches of manufacture at Erlangen. Besides its extensive stocking and glove manufactories, which provide the greater part of Germany with their goods, P]. has great mirror and tobacco factories, and manufactures of combs and horn wave. E. became a Bavarian possession by the treaty of 1809. Pop. in 1871, 12,511. E'RLAU (Hung. Eger), an episcopal city of Hungary, in the county of Heves, of which it is capital, is situated on both banks of the river Erlau, in a delightftd valley skirted w*ith vine-clad hills. It is surrounded by old walls, pierced by six gates ; has four suburbs, in which the greater portion of the inhabitants dwell ; and although in general its streets are narrow and have a neglected appearance, it is rich in fine public buildings. The principal of these are the Lyceum, with a valuable library, and an observatory 172 feet high ; the recently built cathe'^.<*i, the episcopal palace, the Franciscan and the Minorite monasteries, a richly embellished Greek church, a county haU, and the new barracks. E. has also a gymnasium, an episcopal seminary, a normal and drawing school, a hospital founded in 1730, which possesses a capital of nearly 400,000 guilders, and other import- ant institutions. The two baths, the Turkmhad and the Bischofshad, both of which are much resorted to during the bathing-season, are supplied from two warm springs which rise from the bank of the Erlau. The cultivation of the vine is the principal occupation of the inhabitants. The E, wine, the best red wine of Himgary, is produced in considerable quantities, and is in request even in foreign countries. There are also manufactui'es of linens, woollens, hats, &c., and an important w^eekly market, wliich has a beneficial effect upon the indus- try of the town. Pop. 19,815 most of whom are Roman Catholic in religion, and Magj'^ar in race. E. owes its imi)ortance to the very old bishopric founded here by St Stephen in the beginning of the 11th c, and which, in 1804, was raised to an arch- bishopric. ERLKONIG, in German, is the name applied to a poetical, personified, natural power which, according ERMENONVILLE— ERNE. TO German poetical authorities, prepares mischief and ruin for men, and especially for children, rhrough delusive seductions. The name not con- nected Avith the root erle, is sj^nonymous with Elfen Konig. The E. was introduced into German poetry from the Sagas of the North, through Herder's translation of the Edkonig^s Dcnu/hter from the Danish, and has become universally known through Goethe's ballad of the Erlkdn ig. ERMENONVILLE, a village in the south-east of the department of Oise, in France, in the possession of the Girardin family. It is celebrated for its beauti- ful and extensive parks, and as being the resting- place of Rousseau, for which reason it is much visited in summer by stran'^^ers from Paris. It was also the residence of Gabrielle d'Estrees, the mistress of Henry IV., who inhabited a hunting-tower, part of which is still standing, and bears her name. It became still more celebrated after the death of Rousseau in 1778. During the revolution, his ashes were removed to the Pantheon, but conveyed back to E. after the restoration. It had nearly been purchased by the Bande Noire, Init a larger sum was offered by Stanislaus de Girardin, the well known Hberal deputy, and E. was preserved for the lovers of art, of nature, and of historical monuments. E'RMINE, white fur, with black spots ; the reverse of which, or a black fur with white spots, also used in heraldry, is called C outre Ermine. Ermine is commonly used to difference the arms of any mem- ber of a family who is connected with the law. A cross composed of four ermine spots is said to be a Cross Ermine. ERMINE, or STOAT [Mustela erminea), a species ofWeasel (q. v.), considerably larger than the com- mon weasel, but much resembling it in general form and other characters, as well as in habits. The E. is almost ten inches in length, exclusive of the tail, which is fully four inches and a half long. It is of a pale reddish-brown colour in summer, the under parts yellowish wliite, the tip of the tail black : in winter — in cold countries or severe seasons — the Ermine. Ermine : Summer and winter dreas. upper parts change to a yellowish-white or almost pure white, the tip of the tail, however, always remaining black. This change takes place more frequently in the northern than in the southern parts of Britain, but sometimes even in the south of England ; and when it is only partially accom- plished, the animal presents a piebald appearance, uid very often remains so during the milder winters 116 of Britain. It is in its winter dress that it is called E., and yields a highly valued fur ; more valuable, however, when obtained from the coldeft northern regions than from more southern and temjierate countries. In its summer dress it is caLed Stoat. It dis])lays indomitable perseverance in the pursuit of its prey, which consists very much of rats, water- voles, and other such small qtiadmpeds ; with young hares and rabbits, grouse, partridges, &c. The eggs of birds are as welcome to it as the birds them* selves. The E. is a native of all the northern parts of the world. Its range extends even to the south of Europe. It delights in moorish districts, and is tolerably abundant in the north of Scotland. It is from Norway, Lapland, Siberia, and the Hudson's Bay territories that the E. skins of commerce are obtained, which are used not only for ladies' winter garments, but for the robes of kings and nobles, and for their crowns and coronets. E. has thus obtained a distinct recognition in heraldry. In making up E. fur, the tails are inserted in a regidar manner, so that their rich black shall contrast with the pure white of the rest of the fur. ERNE [naliaiiitus), a genus of birds of the fainily FakonidcB, and of the eagle group ; differing from the true eagles in the greater length of the bill, in the toes and lower part of the tarsi being destitute of feathers, and generally, also, in frequenting the sea-coast and the banks of lakes and rivers to feed on fish, in feeding like vultures on can-ion almost as readily as on newdy killed prey, and in inferior courage. The only British species is the Common E. {H. albicilla), also known as the Sea Eagle ot Common Erne {ffaliceetus albicilla). White-tailed Sea Eagle. It is much more common in Britain than the Golden Eagle, is sometimes seen even in the south of England and in inland districts, occasionally visiting deer-parks to prey on very young fawns or to devour dead deer ; but is of more frequent occurrence in the north of Scotland, doing considerable injury to flocks jn Sutherlandshire, particularly during the season of young lambs. Its favourite haunts, where it roosts and makes its nest, are the shelves and ledges of stupendous prpci- pices on the coast, where its scream often mingles with the noise of the perpetual surge. It sometimes also breeds on crags beside inland lakes, as at the Lakes of Killamey, and more rarely even on trees. Eishes are certainly its favourite food, although its mode of procuring them is not well known ; but Avater fowl are also its very frequent prey. It is ERNE-ERNST I. found in most parts of Europe, and even in the islands of the Mediterranean, but is more abundant in the north of Europe and in Siberia. It is not knowni as a native of America. In size, the E. is inferior to the Goklen Eagle, being seldom more than 'J3 inches in its whole length. The general colour of the plumage is brown, the head having a paler yellowish tinge, the tail in the adult bird is pure white. The young, sometimes called the Cinereous Eagle, has a grayer plumage and mottled tail. — Another notable species of this genus is the White-headed E. (//. leucocephalus) of America, also called the White-headed Eagle, Bald Eagle, and Sea Eagle, the chosen symbol of the United States. It is a bird of about the same size with the Common E., with dark-brown plumage, and — in an adult state — the head, neck, tail, and belly white. It is found in almost all parts of North America, visiting the arctic regions in summer, but abounding chiefly in the southern states between the Atlantic and the Mississipi^i. It frequents both the sea- coast and the lakes and rivers, and may be often seen sailing through the column of spray at the Falls of Niagara. It is very fond of hsli, which it procures by wading in shallow streams, and also by compelling the osprey to relinquish prey just taken. The soaring and evolutions of the birds in the air on such occa- sions are described as sublime. The White-headed E. feeds also on lambs, fawns, poultry, &c. ; kills swans, geese, and other water-fowl ; and does not disdain to compel vultures to disgorge for its use the carrion which they have swallowed. On account of its habits and dispositions. Franklin expressed his regret that it had been chosen as the symbol of his country. The largest species of the genus is found on the north-west coast of North America ; it is the H. pelagicus of authors. Australia produces a beautiful species {H. leucogaster), and numerous species are found in other parts of the world, amongst which are some of comparatively small size, as the Pondicherp.y Kite or Brahmany Kite (H . ponticerianus) of India, which is constantly to be Been iishing like a gull in the rivers of that country, and is by the Hindus considered sacred to Vishnu. ERNE, a river and lake in the south-west of Ulster province, Ireland. The river rises in the south of Cavan county, in the small but beautifid Lough Cowna. It runs north and north-west, merging in Lough Oughter, in Cavan county, and in Lough Erne in Fermanagh county, and passes Euuiskillen and Ballyshannon. It then flows through the south corner of Donegal county into Donegal Bay. It has a total course of 72 miles. On the river, at Bally- shannon, is a salmon-leap fall, over a rocky ledge 20 feet high and 150 yards broad, and the river leaps over another rocky ledge near Belleek, 24 miles below the lower end of the loch. Lough Erne, one of the finest lochs in the kingdom, is the most attractive feature of Fermanagh county, which it bisects lengthways, and almost entirely drains. It extends 40 miles from south-east to north-west, and consists of two lakes, the upper and lower, joined by a narrower part 10 miles long, and assuming in parts the character of a river, with Euuiskillen mid- way l^etween the two lakes. The Upper Lough is 12 by 4 miles in extent, 10 to 75 feet deep, 151 feet above the sea, and has 90 green hilly islets. The Fjower Lough is 20 by 7 4 miles in extent, 100 to 2C6 feet deep, 148 feet above the sea, and has '09 similar islets. On one of the islets is a round cower. They contain salmon, trout, pike, bream, and eels. The scenery around is singularly varied and beautiful. ERNE'STI, JoH. Aug., the founder of a new Bchool of theology and philosophy, v/as born at Tennstadt, in Thliringia, 4th August 1707. H# studied at Pforta, Wittenl)crg, and Leij)sic ; but after having been appointed rector of the Thomas school in Leii>sic, in 1734, turned his attention chiefly to the old classic literature, and the studies connected with it. In 1742, he became professor extraordinary of ancient literature in the university of Leipsic, in 1756 professor of rhetoric, in 1759 professor of theology, and died 11th September 1781. E. paved the way to theological eminence by a thorough study of philology, and was thus Jed to a more correct exegesis of the biblical authors, and to more liberal views of theology in gencraL In fact, it is mainly to him that we owe the proper method of theological exposition, in so far as it rests upon correct grammatical elucidation. He shewed his ability as an accurate critic and gram- marian, in his editions of Xenophon's Memorabilia of Socrates; the Clouds of Aristophanes, Horner ^ Calllmachus, Polyhius, Suetornus, and Tacihis; but above all, by his admirable edition of Cicero (5 vols., Leip. 1737 — 1739), to which he added a Clavis Ciceronia, by way of supplement. He was also the first reviver of true and manly eloquence in Ger- many. His theological writings are numerous. The most remarkable are the Initia Doctrinoe Solidiorig^ the Institutio Interpret'is Novi Testamenti (which haa been translated into English), the Anti-Muratorlu* (1755), and the Opuscula Theologica (1792). Com* pare Bauer Formulce ac disciplince Ernestiance in- doles (Leip. 1782). Stallbaum Die Thomas-schule zu Leipsic (Leip. 1839). ERNST, Elector of Saxony, the founder of the Ernestinian line, or the elder branch of the princely House of Saxony, was the elder son of the Elector Friedrich the Mild, and of Margaret, Archduchess of Austria. When only 14 years of age, he was seized and carried ofi" from the castle of Altenburg, along with his brother Albrecht, but was speedily recaptured. This incident, known in German his- tory as the Stealing of the Princes {Prinzenraub), has been described with extraordinary vividness by Carlyle in the Westminster Review, January 1855. He succeeded to the electoral dignity on the death of his father in 1464, bu.t governed in common with his brother for 21 years. In 1485, however, E. and Albrecht divided the paternal possessions, when the former obtained as his share Thuringia, the half of the district then called Osterland, with Voigtland, the Franconian estates of the House, the electoral dignity, and the dukedom of Saxony. E. was a man who took a great interest in the welfare of his peojile. Against injustice, tyranny, and lawlessness, he was implacable. He died at Kolditz in 1486. It is next to impossible to trace the course of the Ernestinian line through the labj^rinthine mazes of the endlesa German genealogies ; it is sufiicient to say that after 1638 the Ernestinian line was represented by the Dukes of Weimar, who gradually obtained the wholo possessions of the House. Johann, Duke of Weimar, who died in 1605, left several sons, the eldest of whom, Wilhelm, became the founder of four different branches, all of which, however, were reunited under Ernst August, Duke of Weimar, who died in 1748. After 1815, the duchy of Weimar became the gi-aud- duchy of Saxe-Weimar- Eisenach, and its present ruler is of course the direct representative of the Ernestinian line. The other three families by which it is now also represented are those of Meinincren, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and Altenburg. ERNST I., surnamed the Pious, Duke of Saxe- Gotha and Altenburg, founder of the Rouse of Gotha. was born at the castle of Altenburg, 24th December 1601. He was the son of that Johann, Duke ot Weimar, mentioned in the previous article, who died 117 ERNST IV.— ERRATA. in 1605, and was thus connected -with tlie main Ernestinian line. E. was the ninth of ten brothers, the youngest of whom was the famous Bernhard VQ. V.) von Weimar. He received an excellent education from his mother, Dorothea Maria von Anhalt. After the arrival of Gnstavua Adolphus in Germany, E. entered the Swedish Hi:;rvice, and in various engagements exhibited gi'cat courage and skill, completing the victory of the Protestants at Lutzen, after the fall of Gustavus. After the battle of Nordlingen, 26th August 1634, E. withdrew from the theatre of strife, and for the rest of his life devoted him.'-.elf to restoring the prosperity of his territories, which had been frightfully devastated duiing the Thirty Years' War. He died in 1675. Of his 9 3ven sons, the eldest, Friedrich, continued the line of Gotha, while the third l)ecame the founder of the House of Meiningen, and the seventh, the founder of the House of Saalfeld. E. is a fine type of the old German Protestant prince. Zealously attached to the doctrines and government of the Lutheran Church, he exercised a constant Avatch over its reli- gious and educational interests. With the formalism, however, that often characterises ' strictly religious ' people, he compelled his children to learn the wliole Bible by heart. He was much interested in the cause of Christianity abroad, and invited to his court the Abbot Gregorius from Abyssinia, besides sending tliither on a religious embassy Joh. Mich. Wansleb of Erfiu't. He also carried on a correspondence with the king of Ethiopia and the Patriarch of Alexandria. His line became extinct by the death of Friedrich IV. in 1825. ERNST IV. (August Karl Johannes LEoroLD Alexander Eduard), Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and elder brother of Prince Albert (q. v.), was born at Coburg 21st June 1818. Both brothers received an admirable literary and scientific education. The family to which he belongs is a branch of the Ernes- tinian line, having been founded in 1680 l)y Albrecht, second son of Ernst the Pious (q. v.). When E. had completed a university curriculum at Bomi, he entered the. military service of the king of Saxony, but left it on the occasion of his marriage with the daughter of the Grand-duke of Baden. In 1844, E. succeeded his father as Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. In his opinions and aspirations, imbued with the spirit of his age, he has introduced into his little dominions many beneficial reforms, and allayed not a few long- standing jealousies. Yet one regrets to say, that his enlightened views of his duty as a ruler have not been generally appreciated by his subjects. During the stormy period of 1848 — 1849, by spon- taneous concessions on the one hand, and on the other by an energetic repression of the political anarchists, he contrived to save his territories from the perils of revolution. In the Slesvig-Holstein war, E. took a prominent part, and on the 5th April 1849 won the battle of Eckenforde. E. is a great advocate for the unity of the German nation, and has taken a prominent part in most of the efforts made in that direction. His leisure hours are devoted to music and the fine arts. His operas, Zayre ar.d Casilda, are well known in Germany, and recently (1861) he has published a pamphlet (wh^jh is virtually an autobiography) vindicating the principles on which he governs his duchy. EROS See Cupid. ERO'SION, the influence of a stream or river in hollowing out its channel. Even the smallest streams, when running over soft strata, as clay or sand, cut out channels, and remove the eroded materials. Hollows thus produced have been obseived among the stratified rocks. One that occurs in the coalfield of the forest of Dean has 118 been carefully described. Tlie trough was found to branch, when traced in the progress of mining, over a considerable area, and to assume all the a])pearances of a little stream, with small tributaries falling into it. When the hollows thus abraded are of considerable extent, ^valleys of ^.rosion^ are produced. Many of the earlier geologists held that rivers had hollowed out their own valleys. The immense amount of materials brought down by rivers, and deposited at their mouths as deltas, shews without doubt that they have contributed materially to produce inequalities on the earth's surface ; but the examination of the geological structure of valleys, plainly testifies that almost every great hydrograpliical basin has derived its form originally from some other agency, although its outline may have been subsequently altered by the continued action of currents within it. ERO'TIC (from the Greek eros, love), signifying in general whatever is marked by love or passion ; but the term is chiefly applied to poetical pieces of which love is the predominating subject. EROTOMA'NIA, a species of mental alienation caused by love. See Mania. ERPE'NIUS (Latinised from Thomas van Erpeu), one of the earliest and most eminent of European OrientaHsts, was born at Gorkum, in Holland, 7th Sei^tember 1584. At an early age, he was sent to Leyden, where he directed his attention first to theology, but afterwards more particularly to the study of Oriental languages. Having com- pleted his educational course, he travelled through England, France, Italy, and Germany; and in 1613, became i)rofessor of Oriental languages at Leyden, Here he erected an Arabic press in his own house, caused new types to be cut, and not only WTote but printed a great number of important works bearing on his favourite studies. The professorship of Hebrew not being vacant at the time of E.'s transla- tion to the university of Leyden, a second Hebrew chair was founded expressly for him in 1619. Soon after this he was appointed Oriental interpreter to the government, in which capacity he read and wrote replies to all official documents coming from the East. Such was the elegance and purity of his Arabic, as written at this time, that it is said to have excited the admiration of the Emperor of Morocco. Towards the close of his life, tempting offers of honours and distinction came pouring in upon him from all parts of Europe ; but he was never prevailed upon to leave his native country, where, in the midst of an eminent career, he died 13th November 1624. Although the present standard of Oriental knowledge in Europe is much in advance of that of E.'s day, there is no doubt that it was through him principally that Eastern, especially Arabic studies have become what they are. With hardly any better material than a few awkwardly printed Arabic alphabets, he coutrivfld to write his famous grammar [Grammatka Araoica, quinque llbris methodice explicata, Leyden, 1613 ; recent edition by Michaelis, Gott. 1771), which for 200 years till the time of Silvestre de Sacy, enjoyed an undis puted supi'emacy ; and there are many who think his Eudimenta unsurpassed, even at the present day, as a work for beginners. Among his other important works, the best known is his Proverbiorum Arabi- corum Centurice Duat (Leyden, 1614). ERRA'TA, the list of errors, with their coi rections, placed at the end of a book. From greater carefulness in correcting the sheets of a work in passing through the press, errors in sense or typog- raphy are now much more rare than formerly; in many instances, indeed, books are now produced without a single error which needs to be pointeJ ERRATICS— ERSCH. out and corrected. On the subject of eiTatca, sorne interesting particulars will be found in Disraeli's Curiosities of Literature, of which the following may be taken as a specimen : ' Besides the ordinary errata which happen in printing a work, others have been purposely committed, that the ei'rata may contain what is not permitted to appear in the body of the work. Wherever the Inquisition had any power, particidarly at Rome, it was not allowed to employ the word fatum, or fata, in any book. An author, desirous of using the latter word, adroitly invented this scheme : he had printed in his book facia, and in the errata he put, " Y ox facta, read fata." ' ERRA'TICS, the name given to the water- worn blocks of stone that have been washed out of the boulder clay, or are still enclosed in it, because they have generally been derived from rocks at a distance. See Boulders and Boulder-clay. E'RRHINES (Gr. en, in, and rhin, the nose), medicines administered locally to produce sneezing and discharge from the nostrils, in catarrh, and in various disorders of the head and eyes. Common snufF, and various other vegetable irritants in powder, have been used for this purpose. E'RROR, Proceedings in, the form by which in England the unsuccessful party in an action at law brings his case for consideration before a court of review. The successful party is entitled to issue execution immediately on the (signing of) final Judgment (q. v.), unless execution be stayed by due notice of the intention of the opposite party to bring the judgment under review. Error may be in fact or in law. If the error is in fact, the case is heard before the court before which the action was originally tried ; if the error is in law, proceedings must be taken before the Court of Exchequer Chamber (q. v.). Where a party objects to the ruling of the judge, the form is by Bill of Exceptions (q. v.) under statute of Westminster the second (13 Ed. I. c. 31). Accord- ing to the former practice, it was necessary, in order to obtain a review on the groimd of error, that an original writ, called a Writ of Error, should be issued. The writ, if the error was in fact, was styled coram nobis, where the case was in the Queen's Bench, the sovereign being presimied to preside in that court; if in the other courts, the writ was coram vohis. Writ of error is abolished by the Common Law Procedure Act ; and proceedings in error now consist of a simple memorandum of error, lodged with the officer of the court, accom- panied, if the error be in fact, with an affidavit of the matter constituting the error. The effect of proceedings in error is to stay immediate execution ; but the plaintiff in error must proceed within a certain number of days. From judgment in error in the Exchequer Chamber, an appeal lies to the House of Lords. Proceedings in error from the Coxxrt of Common Pleas of Lancaster, and from the Cova^; of Pleas of Durham, and generally from all iaterior courts of record, are brought before the Court of Queen's Bench, from which appeal lies to the Exchequer Chamber, and thence to the House of Lords. The courts of the city of London, of the Cinque Ports, and of the Stannaries of Cornwall, are exceptions to this rule. In criminal cases, proceed- ings are still by Writ of Error (q. v.). ERROR, Writ of, in civil causes. See Error, Proceedings in. In criminal causes, is an original writ from the common law side of the Court of C'hancery, addressed to the judges of a superior court, by which they are authorised to examine the record on which judgment was given Ln the inferior court, and to confirm or reverse the judgment Writ of error formerly lay for every suljstantial defect appearing on the face of thf record, for which the indictment might have been quashed ; Imt by 7 Geo. IV. c. 64, it was provided that several tech- nical defects should be cured by verdict. By 14 and 15 Vict. c. 100, every formal defect apparent on the face of the indictment must be oljjected to before the jury is sworn, and not after, and may then be amended. Writ of error now, therriorcj lies only for defect in substance ai)pearing en tho record, as where a man having been indicted for per- jury, it appears that the false statements were not made upon oath. Writ of error cannot be obtained without the fiat of the attorney-general, which is not allowed as of course, but is usually granted on due cause shewn. ERRORS. In all observations, errors must be made. The best instruments have imperfections : and no man, however equable his temperament, can always rely on his making a proper use of his senses. As in astronomy numerical correctness in the results of instrumental measurements is of the first conse- quence, it is the constant care of the observer to detect and make allowance for errors. The three principal sources from which they may arise are— - 1st, External or incidental causes, such as fluctua- tions of weather, which disturb the amount of refraction ; changes of temperature, affecting the form and position of instruments, &c. ; 2d, Errors of observation, being such as arise from inexpertness, defective vision, slowness in seizing the exact instant of an occurrence, atmosiDheric indistinctness, &c. ; and such errors as arise from slips in clamping and momentary derangements of the instrument ; 3d, Instrumental defects, owing to errors in workman- ship, and such as arise from the instrument not being properly placed — called errors of adjustment. The first two classes of errors, so far as they cannot be reduced to known laws, vitiate the resxdts of obser- vations to their full extent ; but being accidental, they necessarily sometimes diminish and sometimes increase them. Hence, by taking nximerous obser- vations under varied circumstances, and by taking the mean or average of the results obtained, these errors may be made to destroy one another to a great extent, and so far may be subdued. With regard to the third class, it is the peculiarity of astronomical I observations to be the ultimate means of detection { of all defects of workmanship and adjustment in ' instrimients, which by their minuteness elude every I other mode of detection. See Sir John Herschel'a I Outlines of Astronomy, § 138 et seq. It may be ! mentioned, however, that the method of subdmng j errors of the first two classes by the law of average I is not applicable in all cases. In certain cases, i recourse must be had to what is known as the method of least squares. See Squares, the Least ; see also Probabilities. ERSCH, JoHANN Samuel, the founder of Germau bibliography, was born at Grossglogau, in Lower Silesia, 23d June 1766 ; and exhibited from an early period a decided bias towards that branch of literature in which he afterwards obtained so high a reputation. At Halle, where he was sent to study theology in 1785, he devoted himself to historical investigations. After several vicissitudes, he obtained, in 1800, the office of hbrarian to the university of Jena. Three years later, he was called to HaUe as professor of geography and statistics ; j and in 1808, was appointed, in addition, principal I librarian. He died at Halle, 16th January 1828. E. was long engaged in miscellaneous bibliographical I work for other scholars ; but in 1818, along with ] Gruber, commenced the pubhcation at Leipsic ol 119 KRSE-EKSKINE. the Alhjemdne Encyclopddie der WlssenscJia/ten und Kiinste (Universal Encyclcprcdia of the Sciences and A.rts), a work of immense value. J?y his IJandhuch der Deutschen Liter atur se\t der Mitte des 18 Jahrh, his anf die Neueste Zeit (Handbook of German Liter- atm-e from the Middle of the 18th Century to the most recent Time, 4 vols., 1812-1814), he lirst established modern German bibliography in the technical sense of the word ; and by its com- pleteness, accuracy, and mode of arrangement, it is undoubtedly fitted to serve as a model for the imitation of other nations. ERSE (a corruption of Irish), the name given by the Lowland peoj)le of Scotland to the language spoken by tlae inhabitants of the Western Highlands, as being of Irish origin. See BRE'm and Scots. The i)roper name is Gaelic (q.v.). ERSE'K-UJVA'R. See Neuiiausel. E'RSKINE, Hev. Ebenezer, the founder of the Secession Church in Scothxnd, was the son of the Rev. Henry Erskine, minister of Chii-nside, in Berwickshire, a descendant of the nol)le family of Mar, and was born June 22, 1G80. He studied at Edinburgh, and after acting for some time as tutor and chaplain in the family of the Earl of Ivotlies, he was licensed to preach the gospel by the presbytery of Kirkcaldy in 1702. His abilities and excellent chai\acter soon brought him into notice, and in the following year he was appointed minister of Poi-t- moak, in the shire of Kinross. Here he applied himself iadefatigably to the study of the Scriptures, and Ijecame so deeply convinced that to preach ' Christ crucified ' was his grand and constant duty as a minister, that after some time the earnestness, unction, and piety which now marked his dis- courses, became exceedingly attractive to the people accustomed to the chilling 'legalism' which then predominated in the Scottish pulpit. E.'s popularity was not confined to the parish of Portmoak ; serious Christians from all parts of the country were eager to enjoy occasionally the benefits of his ministry, and on sacramental occasions, he had frequently attendants from the distance of 60 or 70 miles. In 1731, he was translated to Stirling, after having discharged the pastoral office in Portmoak for 28 years. Previous to this event, however, the reli- gious peculiarities of E. had brought him into unpleasant relations Avith some of his brethren, by the interest which he exhibited in a book called the Marrow of Modern Divinity, marked by its strong evangelicalism of doctrine and sentiment. After his transference to Stirling, E. distinguished himself by his advocacy of popular rights in the eettlenient of ministers ; and ultimately involved himself in such antagonism to the Church of Scotland, or at least to the ruling party in it of the time, that, along with other three clergymen, he was deposed in 1733. (For an account of the circumstances which led to these depositions, see United Presbyterians.) He was shortly after joined by his brother Ralph and several other ministers. They now virtually formed a distinct sect, but they still continued to occupy their parish churches. An effort was made in 1734 to restore them to tlieir legal connection with the church ; it was unsuccessful. In 1736, E. and his friends formally seceded, but still it was not till 1740 that they were ejected from their churches. Shortly after this, a furioiis, and, as it seen s to people nov/- a-days, a contemptible squabble broke out among the seceders in regard to the propriety of taking the l)urgess-oath. The vesnU, was a division of the sect into two bodies, tlie Burghers and Anti-l)urghers. See United Presbyterian Church. E. was the lender of the Burghers. lie died in 1756. 120 ERSKIISTE, Rev. Ralph, brother of the preceding, was Ijorn at Monilaws, in Northumberland, March 18, 1685, and after completing the usual course of study incumbent on a minister, was ordained to the parish church of Dunfermline in 1711. Sympa- thising with the sentiments of his brother Ebenezer, he withdrew from the judicatures of the Established Church in 1737. In the controversy concerning the burgess-oath he also took part with his brother. E. died November 6, 1752. His fame rests chiefly on his Gospel Sonnets and other religious ^orka^ which were once highly popular. ERSKINE, John, of Camock, and afterwards of Cardross, an eminent Scottish jurist, and Professor of Scots Law in the university of Edinburgh, waa the son of the Honourable John fcJrskiue of Carnock, third oon of Lord Cardross, whose descendants have now succeeded to the earldom of Buchan. John Erskine, the father, was a man of importance in his day, not only on account of the family to which he belonged, which even then had been prolific in his- toi ical characters, but in consecjuence of his personal qualities and. the positions which he held. Having been forced to quit Scotland, from his attachment to the Presbyterian religion, he retired to Holland, and became an officer in the service of the Prince of Orange. At the Revolution, he accompanied William to England, and, as a reward for his services, was appointed lieutenant-governor of Stirling Castle, and lieutenant-colonel of a regiment of foot. John E., the younger, born 1695, became a member of the Faculty of Advocates in 1719, but did not succeed as a practitioner of the law. On the death of Alexander Bain in 1737, Mr E. was nominated to succeed him in the chair of Scots Law, an office the duties of which he performed with great reputation for 28 years. For many years Mr E. made use of Sir George Mackenzie's (q. v.) Institu- tions of the Laio of Scotland as his text-book ; but in 1754 he published his well-known Principles oj the Law of Scotland, which were thenceforth used for that purpose by himself and by his various suc- cessors down to the present time. On his retirement from the professorship in 1765, Mr E. occupied him- self in preparing his more important work. The Institutes of the Law of Scotland, but it was not published till 1773, five years after his death. Mr E. was twice married — first to Miss MelviUe, of the noble family of Leven and Melville, by whom he left the afterwards celebrated clergyman, John Erskine ; and, second, Ann, second daughter of Stirling of Keir, by whom he had four sons and two daughters. As a legal writer, Mr E. is inferior to none of our Scottish jurists, with the single excep- tion of Lord Stair, who had the benefit of the more learned and wider judicial training of our earlier lawyers, who were educated in a continental school In consequence of the extent to which lands changed hands in Scotland subsequent to the rebellions, feudal conveyancing became the most prominent subject of study amongst the lawyers of Mr E.'a day, and the principles of commercial law, of which Stair laid the foundation, and which have become so important in our own time, were somewhat tlirown into the shade. The labours of Mr Bell in these departments have again brought the law of Scot- land into connection with the general current of European law and mercantile practice throughout the world. But of all those departments which Con- stitute the law of Scotland, as developed by the usages and forms of society in the country itself, there is at the present day no clearer, sounder, or more trustworthy expositor than Mr Erskine. ERSKINE, Rev. Dr John, son of John (Erskine of Carnock, the author of the Institute* EllSKINE. v/the Law of Scotland,was born June 2, 1721, studied "it the university of Edinburgh, and in 1743 was licensed to preach by the presbytery of Dunblane. in the following year, he was ordained minister of Kirkintilloch, where he remained until 1753, when he was jiresented to the parish of Culross, in the presbytery of Dimfermline. In 1758, he was translated to New Greyfriars Church, Edin- burgh ; in 1706, the university of Edinburgh con- ferred on him the honorary degree of Doctor of Divinity; and in 1767, he was promoted to the collegiate charge of Old Greyfriars, where he had j for his colleague Dr Robertson. In the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, he was for many years the leader of the popular or evan- i gelical party ; and there the openness and integ- j rity of his character secured him the confidence | and affection of his friends, and the esteem and { respect of his opponents. Between hun and Prin- cipal Robertson, the leader of the moderate party, there was a courteous and honourable friendship ; j and the funeral sermon which he preached on the death of his colleague, did equal honour to E.'s head and heart. He died January 19, 1803. E.'s writings are exceedingly numerous. They consist of essays, letters, sermons, dissertations, and j pamphlets, &c., mainly of a religious character, and ' exhibit a superior degree of ability. Sir Walter Scott, in his G^iy Mannering, gives a graphic and accurate description of his powers as a preacher. ERSKIJSTE, Thomas, Lord Eeskine, was the youngest son of Henry David, tenth Earl of Buchan ; and was born in Edinburgh, 10th January 1750. Although his father, at the period of his birth, was leduced to an income of £200 a year, he transmitted to him the blood of a race which had been prolific in men of great ability, and had been ennobled before the era of genuine history. The countess, who was the daughter of Sir James Stewart of Goodtrees, in the county of Midlothian, was not only a godly Presbyterian ai> l a skilful housewife, but a gifted and accomplished woman. After E. had attended for some time the High School of Edinburgh, the family removed to St Andrews, at the grammar Bchool of which place, and subsequently at the university, though never it would seem as a matri- cidated student, Thomas E. received the rest of Buch education as fell to his share. His desire was to study for a profession ; but his parents, who had Bent his elder brother, Lord Cardross, to Leyden, and were educating his second brother, Henry, afterwards the well-known Harry Erskine, for the Scottish bar, could not afford the expense of a third 'earned education, and sent him to sea as a mid- shipman. In this capacity he served for four years, until the death of his father, when he purchased a commission in the First Royals, and was for some time stationed at Minorca, where he employed his leisure time in the study of English literature. On his return to London, his birth, his acquirements, the elegance of his manners, and volubility of his conversation, led to his being warmly received in the best circles. It was then that he had the controversy with Dr Johnson on the respective merits of Fielding and Richardson which Boswell has recorded ; and that he published a pamphlet on the prevailing abuses in the army, which, though anony nous, was well known to be his, and obtained a great circulation. E. now grew tired of the army as a profession, in which he saw little chance of promotion ; and while in this humour, an accidental interview which he had with lord Mansfield at an aspize court, determined him to prosecute the study of law. E. was admitted a student of Lincoln's Inn, 26th April 1775, and on the 13th January 1776, ho entered his name on the books of Trinity College, Cun)britlge, as a gentleman mmnior.vr Many anecdotes are told of the privations which E. underwent when studviiig for the bar — how lio lived on * cow-heel and tri])e,' dres.sed so shaljbily as to be quite rcuuu-kable, and boasted that out of his otvn family he did not know a lord. SikIi stories, though probably exaggerated, prove that he endured considerable privations — considering his rank — in fitting himself for the legal profession. Lord Campbell says that 'during Easter and Trinity terms he excited a great sensation in the dinint^ hal3 by appearing with a student's black gown over the scarlet regimentals of the Royals; ^j?-(/6aL;Zj not having a decent suit of j^lciin clothes to put on: Though E. was aided by his aristocratic connection, his rise was still very wonderful. Without the advantage of a business training, or W'hat, i)robably even in those days, was far more important, a bxisiness connection, he rose into practice with almost unprecedented rapidity. After his first speech, the attorneys actually fiocked round him with their retainers, and in telling the story, he used sometimes to bring the number which he received before quitting Westminster Hall np to sixty-five ! His two first clients were officers in the navy — Captain Baillie, who held an office in Green* wich Hospital, against whom a ride had been obtained calling upon him to shew cause why a criminal information for a libel reflecting on Lord Sandwich's conduct as governor of the charity, should not be filed upon him; and Admiral Keppel, who was tried by a court-martial at Portsmouth for incapacity and misconduct in an encounter with the French fleet off Ushant ; and in both cases E. derived benefit from his own early con- nection with the service and the special information which he thus possessed. Admiral Keppel sent him two five-himdred-pound notes as a fee. From this time forth, E.'s good-fortune as an advocate was uninterrupted. In 1783, he was returned to parliament for Portsmouth. Four years and a half after he was called to the bar, he had cleared £8000 to £9000, besides paying his debts, he had got a silk gown, business of at least £3000 a year, and a seat in parliament, and had made his brother Lord Advocate. In parliament, on tiie other hand, he failed so egregiously in his first si)eech as to leave scarcely any hope in the bosoms of his admirers, and what is very singular, his failure and Lord Eldon's took jAace the same night. To some extent the phenomenon was accounted for by Sheridaii'a remark when he said to him: 'Erskine, you are afraid of Pitt, and that is the flabby part of your character.' But notwithstanding his political mortifications, his professional career went on with increasing brilliancy. In 1786, he was made Attorney-general to the Prince of Wale-^, by whom he was warmly patronised, but towards him and every one else he exhibited that manly independence which was the best part of his character. The fact of his appearing as counsel for Thomas Paine ia more to his credit, than even the brave and honest speech which he made in his defence ; whilst his removal in consequence from his oflice is, as Lord Campbell has said, a lasting disgrace to those fr'„m whom the measure proceeded. Throughout the political trials which occurred in this country at that troubled period, he enacted the same manly part. When E. was proposed for the woolsack, an office far beyond his legal attainments, the king, George III., in consenting exclaimed : ' What ! whaU well ! well ! — but remember he is your chancellor, not mine.' Yet his decisions as lord-chancellor, according to Lord Campbell, ai'e not so much l>ad as superjicial, though by some equity practitioners they are spoken of as the Apocryjplui. E. was EKYNGO— ERYTHKiEA. eiif^aged in the defence of Queen Caroline. He died 17 th November, 1823. ERY'NGO {Erynfjium), a genus of plants of the natural order Umhelliferce, having simple umbels, which resemble the heads of composite flowers, a leafy involucre and leafy calyx, and obovate, scaly fniit destitute both of ridges and vittte. The species are numerous, mostly natives of the warmer tem- pei'ate j^arts of the world, with alternate, shnple, or divided leaves, which have marginal spines. One species only is common in Britain, the Sea Eryngo, or Sea Holly [E. maritimum), which is frequent on sandy sea-shores ; a very stiff, rigid, and glaucous plant. E. campestre has also been found in England aud Ireland, but is very rare. Its root was formerly Sea Holly [Eryngium maritimum) : (», a floret ; h, a petal ; c, a stamen ; d, the pistil. much employed in some parts of Europe as a tonic. That of E. maritimum is used in the same way, and possesses the same proj)erties, being sweet aud aromatic. It is sold in a candied state, and was formerly reputed stimulant, restorative, and aphro- disiac. Shakspeare makes Falstaff allude to the snowy colour and supposed properties of this now almost disused sweetmeat, for the preparation of which Colchester has long been famous above all other i>laces. E. root has also been used as an aj^erient and diuretic. Linnteus recommends the blanched shoots of E. maritimum as a substitute for asparagus. E. ftxtidum, a native of the warm parts of America, is called Fit-weed in the West Indies, a decoction of it being much used as a remedy in hysterical cases. E. aquaticum, a native of low wet jilaces in North and South America, is called E-attlesiiake Weed and Button Suakeroot. The root is diaphoretic and expectorant, and has a epurious reputation as a cure for the bite of the rattlesnake. ERYSIMUM, a genus of plants of the natural Crder Cruciferce, tribe Slsymbrieoi. The pod is four- elded. E. cheiranthoides, a branching annual, about 18 inches high, with lanceolate scarcely toothed leaves and small yellow flowers, is found in many parts of Europe, and also in North America. It is not uncommon in waste places and cultivated grounds in Britain, but njay perhaps have been ©riginally introduced for its medicinal use. Its seeds wei a formerly much employed as an anthel- mintic, from which it has the name of Worm-seed. It is also called Treacle Mustard, because it was employed as an ingredient in the famous Venice 12i Treacle. E. per/oliatum is cultivated in Jai)an for the fixed oil of its seeds. Some of the plautt Erysimtmi Cheiranthoides : a, root; b, a branch, in which flowering has recently Ijegun; c, the summit of a branch in a more advanced state, shewing the fruit ; d, the calyx ; e, the parts of fructification, diTested of floral enveh)pes ; /, a flower. formerly referred to E. are now included in other genera, as Sisymbrium (q. v.) and Alliaria (q. v.). ERYSI'PELAS (Gr. derivation uncertain), an inflammatory and febrile disease of the skin, attended by diff"used redness and swelling of the part affected, and in the end either hy desquamation or by vesication of the cuticle, or scarf-skin, in the milder forms, and by suppxiration of the deeper parts in the severer varieties of the disease (phleg- monous erysipelas). Erysipelas affects, in a largo proportion of instances, the face and head ; it is apt to be attended with severe and tyjjhoid fever (yee Fever), and often with great disorder of the nervous system, arising in some instances from inflammation of the membranes of the brain. In other parts of the body, severe or phlegmonous erysipelas is apt to be siicceeded by protracted and exhausting suppura- tions, and sometimes by diseases of the bones, or inflammations of the internal organs. Erysij)elaa is frequently an Epidemic (q. v.) disease; it is ako very apt to recur in a person who has been attacked once or oftener ; and this is especially true of the form which affects the face. It is seldom that depletion is allowable in erysipelas, but the bowels should be well cleared out in most cases, and a Diuretic (q. v.) given, after which the treatmenfc consists for the most part in watching narrowly the progress of the case, keeping up the strength as well as possible, and obviating special dangers as they occur. In some cases, iron is used as a specific remedy. ERYTHE'MA (Gr. eruthaino, I redden), a minor form of Erysipelas (q. v.), presenting the sanvs tendency to diffusion and redness, but not sc much swelling, and little disposition towards suppuration, or even vesication. Erythema is chiefly dangero'ia when it presents itself in a wandering shape, attended with slow consuming fever. The muriated tincture of iron, in doses of twenty drops in water every hour or two, has been regarded as a specific in this disease, as well as in erysipelas. Some forms of erythema are distinctly connected with constitu- tional diseases, as gout, rheumatism, syphilis, &c., and depend for their cure on the removal of the cause. ERYTHR^'A. See CE>'TAURy. ERYTHEINA— ESAU. ERYTHTII'NA. See Coral Flower. ERYTHRO'NIUM, a genus of bulbous-rooted plants of the natural order Liliacece, with drooping flowers and the segments of the perianth reflexed, E. dens canis, the Dog-tooth Violet, so called because of the resem.olance of its little white bulbs to dogs' teeth, is a well-known ornament of our flower-borders in spring. It is a native of the central parts of Em-ope and south of Siberia. Anthelmintic proi)erties are ascribed to the bulbs. Those of E. Americanum are emetic. ERYTHROPHL^'UM, a genus of trees of the natural order Leguminosae, sub-order Mimosece. E. Guinssnse, a native of Guinea, is a very large tree, 100 fost high, remarkable for the great quantity of red jui 36 which every part of it contains, and inter- esting on account of the employment of this juice by the natives for an ordeal to test the innocence or guilt of a person accused of crime. The juice is swallowed in large draughts, and those who remain uninjured by it are supposed to be innocent. ERYTHROXYLA'CE^, a natural order of exogenous plants, allied to Malpighiacece. They are trees or shrubs, with alternate simple leaves, stipules, flowers growing from amidst scale-like bracts, calyx of five sepals, corolla of five petals, each petal having a curious appendage — a plaited scale — at the base, ten stamens united at the base, a 3- celled ovary with two cells empty, and the third containing a single ovide, three styles, and the fruit a drupe. Nearly 100 species are known, natives of warm coimtries, and chiefly of tropical America. To this order belongs the Coca (q. v.). The wood of some of the species is bright red ; that of Erythroxylon (G-r. red "wood) suherosinn is used in Brazil for dyeing, and a permanent red is obtained from it. That of E. hypericifolium is the Bois dliuile (Oil-wood) of Mauritius. E'RZBERG. See Eisenerz. ERZERU'M, or EEZROU'M, properly Erset^um, a strongly fortified towm in Turkish Armenia, in lat. 39° 55' N., long. 41° 20' E., not far from the northern source of the Euphrates. It is situated in a high, but tolerably well cultivated plain ; its site being 6800 feet above the level of the sea. The climate is cold in winter, but diy in summer. E. is the residence of an Enghsh, a Russian, and a French consul ; and in 1854, was believed to contain upwards of 40,000 inhabitants, consisting of Turks, Arme- nians, and Persians, who carry on a brisk trade, and have thus attained to a degree of prosperity imusual in the East. The copper and iron wares of E. have acquired a wide celebrity. Situated at the junction of the important highways lead- ing from Trebizond, Transcaucasia, Persia, Kur- distan, Mesopotamia, and Anatolia, E. forms an entrepot of commerce between Em-ope on the one hand, and the interior of Asia, and particidai'ly Persia, on the other. The streets, the houses of which are built of mud, wood, or sun-dried bricks, are narrow, crooked, and filthy ; and ruins of forti- fications and of buildings formerly magnificent, overj-where meet the eye. The town consists of the fortress, strictly so-called, and four suburbs. The fortress, w hich is enclosed by a high wall, has, on the west, a citadel called Ijkaleh, with many curious monuments, and a mosque of Christian origin. The fortress also contains 15 mosques, the residence of the chief magistrate, some caravanseras, and a few elegant houses belonging to the higher order of officials and Mohammedan merchants. The suburbs boast 24 mosques, several Armenian churches, and a number of Large bazaars and caravanseras. E. imports shawls, silk goods, cotton, tobacco, rice, indigo, &c. ; and exports corn, sheep, and cattle, horses, mules, and gall nuts. The native manufac- tures here have been in part superseded by British manufactures, of which it is estimated GOOO bales, valued at £.300,000, are annually retailed in the bazaars. E. is a very ancient town. Its Armenian name was Karin or Oarin Khalalch (the city of the district of Garin), whence the Arabian califs called it Kali-K'alah. Anatolius, the general of tlie Emperor Theodosius II., erected here the fortress of Theo- dosiopolis, in the 5th c, to the north-west of the Syro- Armenian trading town of Arseii. When this place was destroyed by the Seljuks, the inhabit- ants retreated to the fortress of Theodosiopolis, to which they gave the name Arsen-er-Rum, i. e., Arsen of the Ptomans (or Byzantines), whence the modem Erzerum. After 1049 it was a thrivirg emporium; but in 1201 it fell into the hands ot the Seljuks, when 100 churches were destroyed, and 140,000 inhabitants lost their lives. In 1242, it came into the possession of the Mongols ; and, finally, in 1517, into that of the Turks. It stiU, however, continued to be the most important city in the country, and at the commencement of the 19th c. had a popu- lation of 100,000 inhabitants. In the war of 1829, between the Turks and Russians, the taking of E. by the latter decided the campaign in Asia. It was restored to the T\irks at the peace of Adrianople. E'RZGEBIRGE (' Ore Mountains '), the name given to the chain of mountains, rich in metals, stretching in a south-westerly direction, on the confines of Saxony and Bohemia, from the valley of the Elbe to the Fichtelgebirge, in long. 12° 20' E. In the south, it rises to a height of from 2000 to 2500 feet, forming a steep wall of rock ; in the west, it forms broad, slaty plateaux, and gradually slopes down towards the Saxon side to the level dis- tricts of Altenburg and Leijisic. In consequence of this formation, the streams flowing southward are small, while the north side of the chain, which ia well wooded, presents a series of romantic, and occa- sionally fertile and thickly peopled valleys, watered by the Mulde, the Pleisse, and their numerous tributaries. The town of Gottesgabe, the site of which is the highest in Germany, is sitiiated towards the south of the E. range, in long. 12" 54' E., at an elevation of 3162 feet. The Keilberg, the highest point of the range, is 3802 feet above the level of the sea. The E. is chiefly of the gneiss -granite forma- tion, in which most of the metal strata are to be found. Porphyry and basalt likewise appear. E'SAU ('hairy' or 'rough'), the eldest son of Isaac, and twin-brother of Jacob. As E. grew up, he became ' a man of the field,' a cunning hunter, and his father's favourite. He seems to have beeu a wild, rough, hearty Bedouin, or son of the desert, thinking nothing of to-morrow, but living with joyous carelessness from day to day. This is apparent from the manner in which he allowed Jacob to defraud him of his birthright, although it carried with it, besides many temporal advantages, the Covenant-blessing itself. After this transaction, E., when 40 years of age, married two Canaanitish women, ' which were a grief of mind imto Isaac and to Rebekah' (Gen. xxvi. 35). Then follows tfcfl narrative of Jacob's personation of his brother, and his seeming irrevocably the blessing to himself. E. now swore to kill his brother, whereupon Rebekah sent Jacob to his uncle Laban in Padanaram. E. next married his cousin Mahalath, the daughter of Ishmael ; and appears to have established himseK in his wife's country, to the south of Palestine in Mount Seir. Here he lived probably as a predatory chief. When Jacob was returning from Padanaram, E. encountered him with 400 of his Bedomns. The meeting was a touching one. The wild l)jrderer at ESCALADE— ESCHELLES. Escalop-Shell. least was in earnest. * Esau ran to meet him, and embraced him, an'l fell on his neck, and kissed him' (Gen. xxxiii. 4). His anger had long died ont. E. next appears at the burial of his father Isaac, whom he seems to have loved with the warm and simple iffection of a child of nature, and having obtained his share of the property, ' went into the country from the face of his brother Jacob' (Gen. xxxvi. 6). Fi-oni E. the region of Momit Seir took the name of Edom (q. v.), and his posterity are generally called Edomites. E'SCALADE (Fr. from Lat. scala, a ladder), in siege operations, is a mode of gaining admission within the enemy's works. It consists in advancing over the glacis and covert- way ; descending, if necessary, mto the ditch by means of ladders ; and ascending to the parapet of the curtain and bastions by the same ladders differently placed. The ladders are either procured on the spot, or are sent out with the siege-army. A convenient form is in pieces of 12 feet length, fitting end to end by means of sockets. A firing-party is usually told off, to keep down the fire of the enemy upon the esca- laders, especially a flank fire lengthwise of the ditch, which might sweep them off with terrible rapidity. The leaders of an escalade constitute a * forlorn hope.' ESCA'LOP-SHELLS are often used in heraldry to signify tliat the bearer has made many long voyages by sea. As the Pilgrim's (q. v.) emblem, they were commonly given to those who had been to the Crusades ; they came to be regarded as indicating either that the bearer or his ancestor had been a Crusader. The escalop-shell was the emblem of St James the Great, and is generally met with in churches dedicated to him. The more ordinary form of the name is Scallop-shell (q. v.). ESCAPE WARRANT is a warrant issued by a judge for the apprehension of persons who have escaped from the Queen's Bench or Fleet prisons. This poAver is conferred by 1 Anne, s. 2, c. 6, followed by 5 Anne, c. 9. The warrant may be issued by any judge of the court wherein the action was tried, or judgment and execution obtained, upon oath in writing, of the escape of the party, made before himself, or before one of the commis- fiioners to take oaths. The apprehension may be effected on Sunday. The person apprehended is committed to the charge of the sheriff of the county, who is made responsible for his safe keeping. ESCA'PEMENT is the term applied to that part of the machinery of a watch or clock by which tlie onward revolving motion produced by the moving power, whether weights or spring, is brought into contact with the regulating movement of the pen- dulum or balance-wheel. See Horology. ESCARP', in Fortification, is the side or slope of the ditch next the rampart, and of the parapet itself. When the ditch of a fortress is dry, the escarp is usually faced with mason-work, to render it difficult of ascent ; and behind this facing {revetemcnt) there are often passages or casemates for defcnoo. In temporary fortifications, the revete- tmnt is sometimes of wood ; and in field-works, palisades at the foot, or fraises on the herme or edge of the ditch, are held sufficient. The escarp is always made at as large an angle as the nature of the soil will allow ; the design being to offer the greatest possible obstacle to an assailant. E'SCARS are large heaps of gravel, consisting eliiefiy of carboniferous limestone, that were accurau- lated during the Pleistocene period. They occur in Central Ireland, but are identical with the osar of Sweden ; and under the name of kames, they are not unknown in Scotland. The gravel is often heaped into narrow ridges 40 to 80 feet high, and from I to 20 miles long. ESCAUT. See Scheldt. E SCHAR (Gr. eschara), a slough or portion of dead or disorganised tissue. The name is commonly applied to artificial sloughs produced by the apf h* cation of Caustics (q. v.). ESC H ARCTIC (Gr.), causing an eschar. Sc-ff Caustic. ESCHEA'T (Fr. echoir, from Lat. cadere, to fall or happen), an incident of the feudal law whereby, when a tenant in fee-simple died, leaving no heir capaljle of succeeding, the land reverted to his lord. By the earlier usages, this effect took place where there was no rei)resentative of the vassal in the seventh degree, which, according to later custom, i was extended to male descendants infinitum {Lib. Fend. i. 1, s. 4). According to the law of England, I escheats are of two kinds — propter defectum sancjuiniSf i and -propter delictum tenentis. The former was in accordance with the feudal usage ; so that if the j owner of an estate in fee-simple dies without leaving j an heir, and without having disposed of his estate ! by deed or will, the land revei'ts to the overlord, who j in the present day is almost invariably the sove- reign, except in copyhold estates, which escheat to the lord of the manor. The most frequent instance of I escheat is in the case of the death of a bastard, who, having no relations but descendants, the lands on his death intestate and without issue, must revert to the crown. Esclieat projjter delictum tenentis is pecu- , liar to the English law. It happened where a tenant in fee-simple had been guilty of treason or felony, in which case, not only his estate in possession, but any estat-^ wliich might devolve upon him by the rulea I of descent, escheated to his lord ; so that all who might succeed through him were cut off from the inlieritance. This i-ule a|)plied to all felonies, and I was productive of much hardship. By modern legis- I latiou, it has been proA-ided that attainder for ' felony shall not operate as a bar to inheritance^ excejit in case of treason or miu-der (54 Geo. III. c. I 145, 3 and 4 WiU. IV. c. 106, 13 and 14 Vict. c. 60). This species of escheat is to be distinguished [ from forfeiture of lands to the crown for treason, which prevailed in other countries besides England. See Forfeiture. Escheat in Scotland is of two kinds: 1. Forfeiture to the crown by those convicted { of treason, and 2, forfeiture of goods by a debtor. I The law of Escheat in the United States differs from the English in several particulars. As it exists in N. I York — and there is a general conformity in the other states — the ultimate proprietor of lands is deemed to be j the people, and property escheated for want of heirs reverts to the state. Escheated lands are held subject I to all encumbrances that they would have had they i descended. Conviction for any criminal offence ex- ' cept treason produces no forfeiture of lands or personal property ; and where the punishment is imprisonment for life, the heirs take as by immediate descent, as they would have done upon natural death. In case of outlawry, the lands of the outlaw are forfeited to the state during the life of the offender. The lands of an illegitimate who dies intestate do not necessarily es- cheat, but descend to his mother if living, or, if she be deceased, to her relatives. The title to property pur- chased or inherited by an alien, there being no heirs, is valid against all other claimants until judgment has been rendered by some court declaring the escheat. ESCHELLES, Les, a village in Savoy (formeily a Sardinian, now a French state), is situated on the ESCHENBACH— ESC UETAL. Giiier, 12 miles south-west of Chambcry. The valley beyond this village and on the road to Chambery is blocked up by a huge limestone rock 800 feet high, over M^hich travellers formerly used to climb by means of ladders, and hence the name given to this village. Through this mass of lime- stone the public road now passes by means of a tumiel, wliich is 25 feet high, of equal width, and 1000 feet long. The tunnel was projected and com- menced b}' Napoleon I., and finished in 1817 by the king of Sardinia. E^SCHENBACH, Wolfram von, a celebrated p(*t of the middle ages, was born in the second half of the 12th c, of a noble family, which derived its name from the village of Eschenbach near Ansbach. He received the honour of knighthood at Henneberg, and passidd his life in knightly fashion. In 1204, he came to the court of Hermann, landgraf of Thuringia, where he shone among the poets of the time, at the so-called Wartbiirg-war (a rivalry of the German minstrels held at Wai-tburg in 1206 or 1207). Hermann's successor, Liidv/ig the Pious, appears to have shewn E. little favour, in consequence of which he withdrew from the Thuringian court towards the close of his life. He died some time between 1219 and 1225, and was buried in his native village. E.'s poems ai-e partly original, and partly fashioned after French and Proven9al models. His rich fancy, deep sentiment, and vivid power of representation, as well as his elegant mastery of language and versification, give something of an epic character to his works, the principal of which are Parcival, composed before 1212, Wilhelm von Orange, and Titurel. Besides these, we have several love-songs of his. E. exercised an important influ- ence on his time, but subsequently was almost forgotten ; and it is only recently that he has been restored to his place of honour. The first critical edition of his works was that by Lachmann (Berl. 1833) ; they were translated into modern German by San-Mai-tre (2 vols., Magdeb. 1836—1841). The best translation of Parcival and Titurel was exe- cuted by Simrock (2 vols., Stuttg. 1842). E'SCHER, JoH. Heinr. Alfred, a distinguished Swiss statesman, was born at Zurich, 20th February 1819, and studied at Bonn and Berlin. In 1842, he was created Doctor of Law at Zurich ; and spent the two following years in Paris, devoting his attention chiefly to studies connected Vvdth Roman law. On his return to Zurich, E. became a lectiirer in the High School, the subject of his lectures being chiefly the political law of the Swiss confederacy. In 1844, he was elected member of the great council of the canton, and was thus drawn into the arena of practical statesmanship. Even at that early period, his sentiments were decidedly liberal. In January 1845, along with six others who shared his opinions, he published the famous summons to the popular Msembly in Unterstrass fur the expulsion of the Jesuits. His election into the Council of the Interior bo 1845, and into the Council of Education in 1846, Opened a wide field for his administrative talents in his native canton. The reorganisation of the schools in the canton of Zurich, according to the demands of the time, is chiefly his work. In December 1847, he became president of the great council ; and in his opening speech, recommended the complete reform of the confederacy, and the greatest possible centra- lisation. In 1848, he was sent as a deputy to the Federal Diet ; and, along with M. Munzinger, was charged with the negotiations entered into between Switzerland and Austria, in regard to the canton of I'essin. In December of the same year, on the introduction of the directorial system, E. became president of the newly elected Council of Regency. Since that time, education, the reorganisation oi church policy, the law establishing the free choice of teachers and clergy by the congregations, havfl been the points to which his legislative and admin- istrative energies have been chiefly directed. E'SCHOLTZ BAY, a portion of tlie Arctic Ocenn in Alitska Territory, forms the innermost jiiirt of Kotzehue Sound, the first great inlet to the north- east of Behring's Strait. It is about long. 161° W., being l)arely on tlie outside of the polar circle. It is worthy of notice chiefly on account of its fossil remains, which, though common on the northern coast of Siberia, are comparatively rare on that of the new continent. ESCHSCHO'LTZIA, a genus of plants cf the natural order Papaveracece, of which E. CaH/oriiica and other species, natives of Cahfomia, have now become very common in our flower-gardens, making a showy appearance with their large deep yellow flowers. The genus is remarkable for the calyx, which separates from the dilated apex of the flower- stalk, being thrown off by the expandin,^ flower, and much resembling in its form the extinguisher of a candle. E'SCHWEGE, a town of the electorate of Hesse* Cassel, is situated on the left bank of the Werra, 25 miles east-south-east of Cassel. It consists of an old and new town, and a suburb; is surroimded with walls pierced by six gates ; and is well built. The only building of note is the castle, which was long the residence of the landgrafs of Hessen- Rotenberg. E. has manufactures of woollen and linen fabrics, numerous tanneries, and several oil and other mills, also some trade in fruit and victuals. Pop. (1871) 7377. E'SCORT. See Convoy. ESCU'DO DE VERA'GUA denotes at once a river and an island on the Atlantic side of Central America — the latter being at the mouth of the former. They are situated a little to the east of the boundary between New Granada and Costa Rica. The island is in lat. 9° N., and long. 81° 30' W. ; and the river, being only 15 miles long, derives its importance, if any, from the narrowness of thy belt which here separates the two oceans. ESCURIAL (the coiTcct title is El Real sitio DE San Lorenzo el real de Escorial), a famous monastery of 'New Castile, in the province of Madrid, and situated 30 miles north-west of the town of that name. This solitary pile of granite has been called the eighth wonder of the world, and at the time of its erection surpassed every building of the kind in size and magnificence. It owes its origin (at least, so it is said) to an inspired vow made by Philip II. dm-ing the battle of St Quentin. On that occasion, he implored the aid of St Lorenzo, on whose day, 10th August 1557, the l^attle was fought ; and vowed that, should victory be gi-anted to him, he would dedicate a monastery to the saint. The E. is built in the form of a gridiron, in allusion to the instrument of St Lorenzo's martyrdom, and forms a huge rectangidar parallelogram 744 feet from north to south, and 580 feet frcni east to west, and divided into long com-ts, which indicate the inter- stices of the bars. Towers at each angle of thia parallelogram represent the feet of the giidiron, which is supposed to be lying upside down ; and from the centre of one of the sides, a range of biiilding abuts, forming the royal residence, and representing the handle. The E. was begun in 1563, and finished in 1584, and was intended to serve as a palace, mausoleum, and monastery. It has a splendid chapel with three naves, 320 feet h>ng, and 320 in height to the top of the cupola. The Panthcoif^ ESCUTCHEON— ESLA. i)T royal fcirab, is a magnificently decorated octagon chamber, 36 feet in diameter by 38 feet bigh, in tbo eight sides of ■which there are numerous black marble sarcophagi. Kings only and the mothers of kings are buried here. The E, is an immense building ; it is stated that it has 14,000 doors and 11,000 windows, and its cost was 6,000,000 ducats. Its library, previous to the sack of the E. by the French in 1808, contained 30,000 printed and 4300 MS. volumes, maiidy treasures of Arabic literature, of which a catalogue, but not a good one, was drawn up by Casiri in his Bibliotheca Arahico-IIispamca (2 vols., Madrid, 1700—1770). They were, however, at that time removed to Madrid ; and on being sent back to the E., it was discovered that the library consisted only of about 20,000 volumes — a third of the whole having been lost. The French also plixndered the place of its valuable collection of coins, medals, and pictures. The E. is now, says Ford, ' a mere shadow of the past,' and is only Baved from going to ruin by grants of public money, which are occasionally made to keep it in repair. ESCU'TCHEON, in Heraldry, is synonymous mth Shield (q. v.). ESCUTCHEON OF PRETENCE, or INES- CUTCHEON, is a small shield placed in the centre of the larger one, and covering a portion of the charges on the latter, in which a man carries the arms of his wife when she is the heiress of her family. It is said to be carried surtout, or over-all. Sometimes also a shield over-all is given as a reward of honour ; thus, the Earl of Stirling did bear two coats quarterly, and over-all an inescutcheon of Nova Scotia, because he was the first planter of it. — Mackenzie, Heraldry, p. 82. E'SDRAS, Books of. (The word Esdras is the Greek form of Ezra, and indicates that the books BO named do not exist in Hebrew or Chaldee.) In the Vulgate, the first book of Esdras means tlie canonical book of Ezra ; and the second, the canonical book of Nehemiah ; wliilst the third and fourth are what we call the first and second books of Esdras. But in the Vatican and other editions of the LXX., what we call the first book of Esdras comes first, and is followed by the canonical book of Ezra, which is termed the second book of Esdras. In all the earlier editions of the English Bible, the order of the Vulgate is followed. The Geneva Bible was the first to adopt the classification now used, according to which Ezra and Nehemiah give their names to two canonical books, and the two apocryi)hal become first and second Esdras. As regards the first book of Esdras, it is for the most part a transcript — and not a very accurate one — of Ezra and a portion of Nehemiah, together with the two last chapters of 2d Chronicles. It is impossible to ascertain anj^thing regarding its age or author- Rliip. Josephus quotes it extensively in his Anti- quities, even when it contradicts Ezra proper, a fact which indicates that it was highly valued by the Jews. It may perhaps be interesting to notice that the hackneyed phrase. Magna est Veritas et prevalebit (Truth is great, and will prevail), is taken from the 41st verse of the 4th chapter of this book. The second book of Esdras, or Revelation of Esdras, is wholly differ/^nt in character from the first, and it has even been doubted whether it is the work of a Jewish or of a semi-Christian writer. Lawrence and Hilgenfeld argue for its being composed 28 — 25 B.C. ; Lucke, shortly after the death of Ciesar (44 B. c.) ; while Gfrorer, Bauer, and Wieseler assign it to a period as late as the reign of Domitian (81 — 96 A, D.). The opinion which has the woightiest evidence in its favour is, that the book was originally the con> position of a Jew. but that it has been largely I interpolated by Christian writers. The book was ' probably written in Egypt, and forms part of what j has been called the * Apocalyptic Cycle ' of J ewish literature (see Revelation of St John). It consista I of a series of angelic visions and revelations made I to Ezra, regai'ding the mysteries of the moral world, j and the final triumph of the righteous, who, how- j ever, are to be but 'a very few.' The descriptiona ; are occasionally very striking, and even sublime, j and if the doctrinal portions contain the original views of a man hving before the apostolic era, the j source of the Pauline phraseology can in pai-t be I discovered. I ESENBE'CKIA, a genus of trees of the natural ' order Diosnuicetn. The bark of E. fehrifwja is said to be equal in its effects to Peruvian Bark. It is a I tree forty feet high, a native of the south of Brazil. I ESK (Gaelic, iiisg^ water), the name of several I small Scotch rivers. The Dumfriesshire Esk is i formed by the confluence of the Black and White [ Esk, which rise on the borders of Selkirkshire, near j Ettrick Pen, the centre of the Southern Ilighkinds, and run each 10 miles south-south-east. The united stream runs 35 miles south, and forms for a mile the boundary between Scotland and England. For the last 8 miles it runs south- south-west in Cumber- land, and finally falls into the head of the Solway Firth. It flows in a Silurian, Carboniferous, and Permian basin, tlirough some charmmg scenery, past Langholm, Canobie, and Longton. The upper part of the valley of this E., which is \Wld and pastoral, is called Eskdale Muir. — The Edinburgh- shire North and South Esk rise in the north of i Peeblesshire, between the Pentland and Moorfoot j Hills, and both run north-north-east through a 1 beautiful tract in the east of Edinburghshire, the north branch, 20 miles long, passing Roslin and ; Hawthornden, and the south branch 15 miles long. The two branches unite in Dalkeith Park, and run 3 miles north into the Firth of Forth at Musselburgh. The basin of the two streams is chiefly Carbonifer- ous. — The Forfarshire North and South Esk. The North Esk rises in the Grampians, in the north of the county, and runs 25 miles south-east into the sea, 4 miles north of Montrose. At Ganacliy Bridge it runs hali a mile through a sandstone gorge 20 to 30 feet deep. In the lower half of its course it divides Forfarshire from Kincardineshire. ; The South Esk rises in the Grampians of the west [ of Forfarshire, and runs 40 miles south-east and east, crossing the valley of Strathmore. It passes Brechin, and ends in the tidal basin or lagoon of ! Montrose. The basins of both consist of gneiss, j mica-slate, clay-slate, and old red sandstone. I E'SKI-DJU'MNA, a town of European Turkey, in the province of Bulgaria, is situated 20 miles west I of Shumla. Lat. 43° 15' N., long. 26° 35' E. Pop. I 6000. I E'SKI-SA'GRA, a town of European Turkey, in the pro\'ince of Rumili, is situated at the southern base of the Balkan Moimtains, 70 miles north-west of Adrianople. In the vicinity are numerous gardens and orchards, and also several mineral springs, which are in great repute. The manufac- tures are carjiets, coarse hnens, and leather. Pop. 15,000 to 20,000. E'SLA, a river of Spain, and an important affluent to the Douro, rises in the piw^nce of Palencia, Old Castile, from the southern base of the Asturias mountains, 10 miles north-west of the town of Valle- buron. Throughout the whole of its course it flows south-west, and joins the Douro 1.5 miles below tho town of Zamora. It is 125 miles in length. Its waters, which are joined by numerous streams, ar« ftell stocked with fish. ESMERELDA— ESPARTERO. ESMERE'LPA. (signifying Emerald in Spanish) denotes a river, a town, and a mouutaiu -chain, all in America. — 1. The river is in Ecuador (q. v.), rising near the city of Quito, and entering the Pacilic after a course of 110 miles, in lat. 1' 5' N., and long. 79° 40' W.— 2. The toM^n stands 10 mdes fi'om the mouth of the river, containing about 4000 inhabitants. — 3. The mountain-chain stretches about 170 miles easb and west in Minas Geraes, an inland province of Brazil, about the middle of tlie length of the country. ES'NE, E'SN'A, or E'SNEH, the hieroglyphic Sen, and the Greek LatopoUs or Lattdnpolis — the city of the Latus fish or Latus nohUls, from the fish there worshipped— is a small and badly built town of Upper Egypt, and is situated on the left bank of the Nile, in lat. 25° 15' N. The central portion of E. has edifices of coloured bi'ick. It contains about 4000 inhabitants, of whom 1500 are Coi)ts, and has some manufactories of blue cotton, and pottery. There are famous ruins at E., which consist of a sandstone temple, with a portico of four rows of six columns, which appears to have been founded by Thothmes III., whose name is seen on the jambs of a door. The temple, however, seems to have been restored or principally constructed by Ptolemy Euergetes (246 — 222 B.C.), and the pronaos was erected in the reign of the Emperor Claudius (41 — 54 A.D.), and completed in that of Vespasian. The intei-ior is of the date of Trajan, the Antonines, and Geta, whose name, erased or replaced by that of Caracalla, is there found. The great temple was dedicated to Chnumis, Satis, and Har-Hek. It has a zodiac hke that of Denderah, formerly thought to be of the most remote antiquity, but now known to be no older than the Romans. A smaller temple with a zodiac, erected in the reign of Ptolemy Euergetes, formerly stood at E'Deyr, 2\ miles north of E., but it has been destroyed. At E. is also a stone quay, bearing the names of M. Aurelius. This city was the capital of a nome, and the coins struck in it in the reign of Hadrian, 127 — 128 a. d., represent the fish latus. — Champollion, Not. Descr. p. 283; Wilkinson, Mod. Egypt, ii. p. 268 ; Tochon D' Annecy, Medailles. ESO'CID^, a family of malacopterous fishes, which is now regarded as including only the Pikes (q. v.), but in which the flying fishes {Exocoetus) and other fishes, now constituting the family Scom- berasocidce (q. v.), and of the order PharyngognathSj were until recently included. ESOTE'RIC (Gr.) is a term derived from the ancient mysteries, in which it was applied to those doctrines that were designed for the initiated, in contradistinction to those that were imparted to the uninitiated, which were termed exoteric. It is now used in various relations of an analogous kind. ESPA'LIER, a term borrowed from the French, and signifying a railing on which fruit-trees are trained as on a wall. Such railings are very variously constructed — sometimes of wood, some- times of iron, sometimes of upright rails held together by a horizontal rail at top, sometimes chiefly of horizontal rails with upright posts for their support. Espaliers may be very conveniently and cheaply made of strong iron wire, sustained by upright iron or wooden posts, as in ordinary wire -fences. They vary in height from four to about eight feet, according to situation and the size of the garden. They have the advantage of securing the friit in a great measure from the effect of winds, which often shake off great part of the crop of standard trees whilst still unripe : and from the fuL exposure to sun and air, excellent fruit is J roduced, although there is no reflected heat as fr(>Tii a wall, w>ich is therefore still superior. Espaliers are very common in gardens in Britain, and add at once to the beauty and the productive- ness of a garden, the ground not being overshadowed as by standard trees, although, of course, the roots of the trees render it unsuitable for many crops to some distance on both sides of the espalier. Esx)a liers are often used to separate flower-borders from plots occupied by culinary vegetables. Apples and pears are considered more siatable for esrjaliera than any other kinds of fruit trees commonly culti- vated in Britain. The treatment is generally similar to that of wall trees, but the training is usually by horizontal branches. It is not unusual, when trees have become old and their branches thick and firm, to dispense with great part of the rails necessaiy in their earlier training. ESPARTE'RO, Joaquin Baldomero, ex-regent of Spain, Count of Luchana, Duke of Vittoiia, &c., was born in the year 1792, at Granatida, in La Mancha (Ciudad Real), where his father, Antonio Espartero, followed the occupation of a cartwright. E. was intended for the ecclesiastical jirofession, and in 1806 went to the university of Almagro, but two years later, on the invasion of Spain by the French, he entered the Sacred Battalion {Batallon Sagi^ado), so called from being composed almost entirely of students. After the close of the War of Independence in 1814, he went to South America, where he fought against the insurgents ; but after the victory gained by Bolivar at Ayacucho, Decem- ber 9, 1824, had put an end to the Spanish nde on the contment of America, E. returned to Spain. In 1832, he declared himself openly in favoiir of the succession of the daughter of Ferdinand VII. ; and on the breaking out of the civil war after the king's death, he soon rose to the rank of lieu- tenant-general. In August 1836, he succeeded in saving the city of Madrid, and became successively general-in-chief of the army in the north, viceroy of Navarre, and captain-general of the Basque provinces. When the army of Don Carlos appeared before Madrid on the 12Lh September 1837, E. had again the glory of saving the capital. His successful campaign of 1839, which resulted in the expulsion of Don Carlos from Spain, procured him the title of Grandee of Spain, and Duque de la Vittoria y de Morella. In 1840, the queen-mother Christina was compelled to resign her office of regent, and on the 8th of May 1841, E. was appointed by the Cortes to supply her place until the queen (Isabella) should have reached her majority. E. guided the helm of the state with energy, firm- ness, and ability; but in 1843, an imscrupulous and unprincipled combination of parties naturally inimical to each other, the Republicans and the Moderados, brought about his fall. E. sailed for England, where he resided for four years. In 1847, he returned to Spain, and lived quietly at Logroiio till 1854, when the wretched despotism and pro- fligacy with which the name of Christina is asso- ciated, caused an insurrection of the people, and compelled the queen-mother to leave the kingdom. E. was again called to the head of the govern- ment, and conducted the affairs of the nation for two years; but in July 1856, he was supplanted by General O'Donnell. Subsequently he took no part in political agitation. His career shows that he was not astute enough to manage parties. An honest man, a gallant soldier, and a sound-headed constitutionalist, he nevertheless did not possess that tact and fore- sight which are necessary to all politicians, but es- pecially to those of Spain — the land whore the prog- i-ess of liberty and knowledge is circumvented at every step. He died Jan. 9, 1879. See J. S. Elorez, Espartero Ilistoria de sa Vida Militare y PoUtica (3 vols., Madrid, 1843—1844). 127 ESPARTO-ESPY. ESPA'RTO {Stipa or Macrocldoa tenacissima), a grass nearly allied to the well-known and beautiful Feather-grass (q. v.), a native of the south of Europe, and particularly abundant in some parts of Spain. It is much used by the Spaniards for making sandals, mats, baskets, ropes, nets, sacks, &c., for which it is adapted by the great strength of its fibre. ESPE'JO, a small town of Spain, in the province of Cordova, and 20 miles south-east of the town of that name, is situated on the slope of a hill. It is comparatively well built, with wide and regular streets. It has an ancient castle of the Duke of Modena Cell. E. has some manufactures of linen and woollen goods, and some trade in gi'ain, cattle, and wool. Pop. 5284. ESPIISTASSE, Julie Jeanne ElevOnore de l', one of the most fascinating women of her time, and one who combined sparkling gifts with a heart susceptible of the strongest atFections, was born at Lyon, 19th November II'A'I, and was the illegitimate daughter of a Madame d' Albion. After the death of her mother. Mademoiselle de I'E., who had received an excellent education, went to live at the house of her brother-in-law, the Marquis de Vichy- Chamroud, in whose family she held the position of fjouvernante. In 1752, she left her brother-in-law's house, and went to Paris in the quality of demoiselle de compagnie to the Marquise du Defland (q. v.). The two ladies lived together for a time most agreeably, until it became evident that the charms of the young and beautiful demoiselle had enlisted on her side the admiration of the circle in which Du Deffand had foi-me;'ly been the chief attraction. Even D'Alembert, the famous encyclopedist, who hitherto had been the moit constant admirer of Du DefFand, now manifested an entire devotion to the younger and more fascinating Espinasse. A rupture between the ladies w^as the consequence. The friends of E., however, obtained for her, through the Due de Choiseul, an annuity from the king. It is said that D'Alembert sought her hand in vain. She died 23d May 1770. Her Lettres, &c. (Paris, 1809) bear witness to her remarkable cultivation. ESPINEL, Vincent de, a Spanish poet and musician, was born at Ronda in Granada, 28th December 1551. He studied ac Saiamanca, after- wards entered into the army, and travelled as a soldier through a great part of Spain, France, and Italy, meeting with the adventm-es which he relates in his Relaciones de la Vida y Aventuras del Escudero Marcos de Ohregon (Madr. 1618, later 1804; in Ger- man, by Tieck, Bres. 1827). He afterwards returned to his native country, entered into holy orders, and received a benefice in Ronda, his native town. He was subsequently chaplain in the royal hospital at Ronda. The last years of his life were spent at Madrid, in the retirement of the monastery of Santa Cakilina, where he died in 1634. He published a book of poems (Madr. 1591), containing chiefly Ijo-ics, and a translation of the Epistola ad Pisones, the Ars Poetica of Horace. He was, if not the inventor, the Improver of the ten-line octosyllabic stanza. Verses written in this form have, since E.'s day, been called in Spain Espinelas. He was a performer on the guitar, to which he added the fifth string. ESPINHA'CA (Serra do), a mountain-chain of Brazil, extends in a direction generally parallel with the coast, from the right bank of the San Francisco to the head-waters of the Uruguay. Its northern part fonns the eastern limit of the basin of the former river. The Serra, as a whole, is said to be rich in diamonds. ESPI'RITU SA'NTO, besides having been long applied by the Spaniards to their imaginary con- tinent in the southern hemisphere, denotes various 128 actual localities. — 1. E. S. is a small maritime pro- vince of Brazil, extending in S. lat. from 18° 30' to 21 ' 20', and lying immediately to the north of th6 metropolitan province of Rio Janeiro. This province contains also a town and a bay of its own name. — 2. E. S. is the largest and most westerly island of the New Hebrides, being in lat. 15° S., and long. 167° E. It is said to measure 65 miles by 20. — 3. E. S. is a cape of Tierra del Fuego, in lat. 52° 38' S., and long. 68° 37' W.— 4. E, S. is a considerable town near the centre of Cuba. It contains about 9982 inhabitants, fully one-half being wliites, — 5. E. S. is a bay of the Gulf of Mexico, forming j^art of the almost contiimous back-water of Texas. It is in lat. 28° 30' N., and long. 97° 30' W. Towards the open sea, it is breasted by Matagorda Island, and on the side of the mainland, it receives th« Guadaloupe. ESPLANA'DE (in Fort.) is the open space inten- tionally left between the houses of a city and the glacis of its citadel. It requires to be at least 800 paces broad, that the enemy, in case of his getting l)ossession of the town, may not be able to assail the citadel under cover of the nearest houses. For this purpose, the citadel must command the espla- nade, and be able to send a direct lire into the streets opening uj)on it. In old works on fortifica- tion, the term is often applied to the glacis of the counterscarp, or the feN>pe of the parapet of the covered way towards the country. ESPRINGAL, or SPRFNGAL, in the military engineering of the days before the introduction of gunpowder into European warfare, was a machine for throwing missiles. These missiles were either large darts called mucJiette^, or arrows winged with brass, and called viretons, from their whirling motion when shot forth. The espi-ingal probably resembled in some degree the machine engraved in Balista. ESPRIT D'lVA, an aromatic liqueur made in Switzerland, from a plant caJed Genipi [Achillcea moschata, or Ptarmica moschata; see Achillea). Like the Swiss tea, made from the same plant, it possesses sudorific properties. ESPY, Ja]\ies p., one of the most original and able meteorologists of the present century, was the son of a farmer in Western Pennsylvania, where he was born in 1784 or 1785. He received a supe- rior education, and, during the earlier part of his career, was one of the best classical and mathe- matical instructors in Philadelphia. E.'s attention was first strongly turned to science by the writings of Dalton and Daniell on meteorology. After some time, his enthusiasm became so great, that he resolved to give up teaching, and to rely for the means of prosecuting his meteorological researches upon his slender savings and the success of his lectures on the subject, which, fortunately, turned out to be far more attractive than the average of popular lectures. His first course was delivered before the Franklin Institute of Pennsylvania. E.'s theory of storms (with which his name is specially connected) drew general attention to itself, espe- cially in the United States. See Storms. A memoir on this subject gained for him, in 1836, the Magellanic premium of the American Philoso- phical Society of Philadelphia. In 1841 appeared his work on the Philosophy of Storms, regarding which the Report of the Academie des Sciences (Paris) says, ' that the theory on which it is based alone accounts for the phenomena In a word, for physical geography, agriculture, naviga- tion, and meteorology, it gives us new explana- tions, indications useful for ulterior researches, and redresses many accredited errors.' Later in his life, E. became Professor in the Philadelphia High ESQUIMAUX— ESQUIMAUX DOG. School, and afterwards in the Franklin Institute of that city. He travelled extensively through the United States, lecturing on his favourite theory of storms, and studying the laws of climate, vmtil he acquired the popular title of the ' Storm-king.' After the organisation of the Smithsonian Institution Bt Washington, he was commissioned by Dr Henry, ita superintendent, to pursue his researches. It was in the halls of the Smithsonian that bis experiments on the rate of cooling of gases of different densities when expanded were made. The cooling effects of expansion on dry and moist air also formed the subject of nice experiments. The results of these experiments have thrown much light on the forma- tion of cloud and rain, and the propelling power of winds. They afforded materials for his elaborate and valuable rei)orts on meteorology, presented to the senate of the United States. Four of these reports were published at the expense of govern- ment. The last was issued in 1857, which embodies all his matured opinions on meteorological pheno- mena. This is by far the most valuable work on the principles of the science at the present day. He died in Cincinnati, Ohio, 24th January 18G0, at the residence of his nephew. E'SQUIMAUX, or ESKIMOS, is the name of a nation inhabiting the coasts of all the seas, bays, inlets, and islands of America north of the 60° of N. lat. ; from the eastern coast of Greenland, in long. 20°, to the Strait of Behring, in long. 167° W. On the Atlantic, they are to be found along the entire coast of Labrador to the Strait of Belle- isle, and down the east side of Hudson's Bay neai-ly as far as James's Bay ; while on the Pacific they reach as far as the peninsida of Alaska. They are also to be met with on the Asiatic side of Behring's Strait, and though few in nimiber, may be regarded as the most widely spread nation in the w^orld, occupying, according to Mr Gallatin, not less than 5400 miles of coast, without including the inlets of the sea. ' The Eskimo,' says Dr Latham, ' is the only family common to the Old and New World — an important fact in itself, and one made more important still by the Eskimo localities being the only localities where the two continents come into proximity.' Nothing, however, has as yet come mt of a consideration of this fact in the way of tracing, with absolute certainty, a connection between the E. and any well-defined Asiatic race. The name lisoii, Esquimciux ov Eskimo, does not helj) us in any such attempt, being from an Algonquin or Abenaki word, signifying ' eaters of raw flesh.' This is not the native name, for they call themselves * Inviit,' or ' people ;' the Scandinavians of the 10th c. called them ' Skroellingar,' or ' wretches ; ' w'hile the seamen of the Hudson's Bay shij^s designate them as ' Seymos,' or 'Suckemos' — appellations, a^ccording to Pdchardson, 'evidently derived from khe vociferous cries of Seymo or Teymo with which the poor people greet the arrival of the ships.' The E are usually reckoned by ethnologists to belong to the Mongolian race, but Duponceau and Gallatin fiiid a strong resemblance between them and the Bed Ii dians of North America, which is the view alsc jaien by Prichard — the last mentioned regard- ing them as a kind of link between the Northern Asiatic and American family of nations. Latham, on the other hand, pronounces them to be Mongolian in physiognomy, with flat nose, projecting cheek- bones, eyes often oblique, and skin more brown than red or copper coloured ; thus presenting a marked txjntrast to the North American Indians. Their language, however, is, he acknowledges, American in respect to its grammatical structure, being com- posed of long compound words, and regidar, though remarkable, inflections. With respect to the com- plexion of the E., Sir John Bichardson is of a diffe* rent opinion from any of these authors, describing it as nearly white, when relieved from the smoke and dirt with which it is usually incrusted. Many of the young women, he considers, may even be called pretty, when this operation has been performed. ' The young men,' he says, ' have little beard ; but some of the old ones have a tolerable show of long gray hairs on the ujjper lip and chin, which the Keel Indians never have, as they eradicate all stray hairs. The Eskimo beard, however, is in no instance so dense as a European one.' In stature, the E. are usually represented as not being more than five feet in height; but the authority just mentioned describes them as ranging from five feet to five feet ten inches, and even more. They are broad-shouldered, and, when seated in their boats, look tall and muscular, but, when standing, appear to lose some of their height, from the shortness of their lower extremities. The E. live usually throughout their long lines of coast in small villages, containing about five or six families each. The men occupy themselves entirely in hunting, while the women perform the domestia drudgery, which consists principally in i)reparing the food, of which both sexes consume a large quan- tity. This is almost entirely of an animal nature, bvt not without variety, embracing the reindeer, geeso and other birds, the seal, walrus, salmon-trout, and various other kinds of fish. They are ex])ert huntera and fishers, and, aided by their dogs, make consider- able havoc among the arctic animal tribes. "Where whales are common, August and September are devoted to the pursuit of these animals, and great joy is manifested when they capture any of them, as from the blubber of these they get their svipply of oil for lights in the long winter reason. Of vege- tables, they scarcely taste any except in the autumn, * Carbon is supplied to the system by the use of much oil and fat in the diet, and draughts of warm blood from a newly killed animal are considered as contributing greatly to preserve the hunter in health.' The habits of the E. are filthy and revolting in the extreme. A great part of their food is con- sumed without any attempt at cooking it, and they drink the blood of newly killed animals as the greatest delicacy that could be oflered them. In the short summer, those who can aff'ord it live in tents ; l)ut in the winter they all equally live in snow- hiTts, the stench of which, from the offal with which they are stored, and the filthy oil that gives them light, makes them insupportable to the Euioiiean. The dress of both sexes is nearly tlie same, con- sisting of the skins of animals, reind»?er, birds, and even fish — whatever conduces most to warmth, without much regard to appearance ; but in their winter abodes they usually wear n(jthing excej)t trousers. Their religion consists principally in superstitious observances, bxit they believe, we are told, in two greater spirits, and many lesser ones. The Moravian mission in Greenland, commenced by the benevolent Hans Egede (q, v.), in 1721, has succeeded in converting many of them to Christianity ; and they are represented by the missionaries to be a mild and teachable people, easily led by kindness to distinguish between what is morally right and wrong. Where the missionaries, however, have rot penetrated, our arctic vo^^agers generally speak <^f them as honest among them- selves, but incorrigibly dishonest, and prone to lying and exaggeration, in their intercourse ^vith strangers. ESQUIMAUX DOG, a kind of dog extensively spread over the most northern regions of North America and of Eastern Asia ; large, powerful, with long rather curling hair, tail much curved over the back and very bushy, short and pointed ears, aai I2n ESQUIRE— ESS AAD -EFFENDI. nomewhat wolf-like aspect. These dogs are much naad lor drawing sledges. They are very sagacious, Esquimaux, Dogs, and Sledge for one person. •docile, and patient. The colour is generally black and white, brown and white, or dingy white. ESQUI'RE (Fr. escuier, a shield-bearer, from Lat. scutum, a shield). The esquire in chivalry was the Bhield-bearer or armoiu'-bearer to the knight, and hence was called armiger in Latin. He was a can- didate for the honour of knighthood, and thus stood to the knight in the relation of a novice or appren- tice, pretty much as the page did to him. In this capacity he was spoken of as a bachelor, just as the knight-bachelor came latterly to be distinguished from him who had already attained to the higher honours of chivalry. When fidly equipped, each knight was attended by two esquires. The esquire was a gentleman, and had the right of bearing arms on his own shield or escutcheon, which is surmounted by a helmet placed sideways, Avith its vizor closed, to distinguish him from a knight or nobleman. He had also the sword, the emblem of chivalry, though he was not girded with the knightly belt. His spurs were silver, to distinguish them from the golden spurs of the knight ; and when the king created esquires of old, it was by putting silver spurs on their heels, and collars of S. S. round their necks. Those who received this honour directly from the sovereign were in general the esquires for the king's body, or those whose duty it was to attend him in his capacity of a knight ; an office now nearly obsolete. Tenants of the crown who held by knight's service wore a class of feudal esquires generally supposed to con-espond to the simple ritters or knights of G-er- many, as ojjposed to the ritters who were gesddagen or dubbed, inasmuch as these English esquires were entitled to claim the rank of knighthood. . Though the title of esquire has now come to be given without discrimination to all persons above the rank of a tradesman or shopkeeper, the following seem to be those whose claim to it stands on the ground either of legal right or of long-established courtesy : 1. All the untitled sons of noblemen ; 2. The eldest sons of knights and baronets ; 3. The sons of the younger ftons of dukes and marquises, and their eldest Bons. AU these are esquires by birth. Then there are esquires by profession, whose rank does not descend to their children; and esquires by office — ag., justices of the peace — who enjoy the title only during their tenm-e of office. To the former class belong officers in the army and navy, barristers ami doctors of law, and doctors of medicine, but not surgeons. ESQUIROL, Jean Etiennb Dominique, one of ISO the greatest physicians for the insane of modem times, was born at Toulouse, 4th January 1772. H«i served in the military lazaretto at Narbonne in 1794, obtained his degree of Doctor in 1805, and wa? appointed physician to the Salp6tri(ire at Paris in 1811. After 1817, he delivered clinical lectures on the diseases of the mind, and their cures ; in 1818, his exertions secured the appointment of a commission, of which he became a member, for the remedy of abuses in mad-houses ; in 182.*i he became inspector-general of the University ; and ia 1825, first physician to the Maison des Alieii^^. In the following year, he was also appointed pn'ncipal physician of the Private Lunatic Asylum at Cliar- enton, which he had organised with admirable skill. At the July revolution, he lost all his publia offices, and withdrew into private life> He dieci 12th December 1840. E. combined, in a trUy rare and wonderful manner, the qualifications requisite for a physician of the body and a physician of the mind. By his humane and moral treatment of the insane, he often effected the happiest cures. His writings embrace all the questions connected with the treatment of insanity. E. also paid great atten- tion to a very important subject, viz., the con- struction of suitable buildings for the insane ; and most of the modern lunatic asylums in France, such as those of llouen, Nantes, and Montpellier, have been built according to his suggestions and advice. His most important work is Des Maladies Mentalea considerees sous les Rapports, Medical^ Ilygicnique ei Medico-legal (2 vols., Paris, 1838). ESQUIROS, Henri Alpiionse, a poet and romaucist of France, a late representative in the Legislative Assembly, was born at Paris in 1814. He made his literary debut as an author in 1834, when he published a volume of poems, entitled Les Ilirondelles, which although highly praised by M. Victor Hugo, had but a very limiiied sale. Les Hirondelles was followed by two romances, Le Magi- cien (1837) and Charlotte Corday (1840). About this time he also published a philosophic and demo- cratic commentary on the life of Christ, under the title of the Evang'de du Feuple (1840). For the publication of this work, E. was prosecuted, and sentenced to eight months' imprisonment and to a fine of 500 francs, 30th January 1841'. In the same year he published his Chants d\m Prisonm'er, written in prison. He also wrote three little works between 1841 and 1842 — these were Les Vierges Martyr es, Les Vierges Folles, and Les Vierges Sages. His Ilistoire des Montagnards appeared in 1847. After the revolution of February 1848, E., wl om his writings, and the prosecutions of which they had been the object, recommended to the extreme i)ai-ty was elected a member of the Legislative Assembly. Distinguished by his radical opinions, he was included, after the 2d December 1851, among the number of members to be expelled ; on which he retired to England. His La Vie Future au Point de Vue Socialide appeared in 1857 ; and his La Morale Universelle, his L^Angleterre et la Vie Anglaise, and his La Neerlande et la Vie 11 oU landaise in 1859; the last of which has been trans- lated into English by Lascelles Wraxall, and is just published (November, 1861) by Chapman and Hall, under the title of The Dutch at Home. ESSAAD-EFFENDI, Mohammed, a Turkish historian, was born at Constantinople, 16th Decem- ber, 1790. He is surnamed Sahaf-Zudeh, 'son of the bookbinder,' on account of his fatlier having })een president of a corporation of bookbinders and libra- rians. At the age of 18 he became a teacher; in 1825, he was appointed historiograplier to tlie Otto-* man empire. In 1831, the superintendence of the ESSEN— ESSENES. Tatawin-i-wekaii (Table of P>ents), the official jour- nal of the empire, was ])laced in his hands. In 1835, he was employed by the late Sultan Mahmoud on an embassy to Mohammed, the son and successor of the king of Persia. E. has also the titles of Grand Judge of Roumelia, Inspector-general of Schools, and member of the Council of Public Instruction. The works of E. comprise, among others, the Uss-i- Tzafer (the Establishment of Victory), a work which has been translated into French, and published by M. Causin de Perceval, with the following title : Historic Summary of the Destruction of the Jani- zaries by the Sultan Mahmoud in 1826 (Par. 1833). E'SSEN, a town in Rhenish Prussia, situated between the Rhur and the Emscher, 20 miles north-east of Dusseldorf, stands in the midst ci a rich coal and iron district. The town is sur- rounded by the high chimneys of the steam-engines used in working the mines. As it has risen only very recently to its present importance, its archi- tectural beauties are not great ; it has, however, an imposing cathedral, containing many curious reli- quaries, crosses, &c. E. owes its prosperity to the inexhaustible coal-miues in its vicinity. In 1856, E., with. Werden, a small town in the immediate neighbourhood, produced 36,160,650 bushels of coal, one- sixth of which was sent to Holland. In the neighbourhood are great ironworks, a steel manu- factory, containing 9 steam-engines, 150 furnaces, employing 900 workmen ; an iron-foundry with 300 workmen ; also extensive establishments for making machines and manufacturing zinc; with copper-mills, steam-mills, and manufactures of cloth and paper. Pop. 20,811. Although the industrial activity of E. is oidy of recent growth, the town itself is very old, and can trace its origin to the famous Benedictine nunnery of the same name, founded as far back as 873 A. D. ESSENCE DE PETIT GRAIN is obtained by distillation from small iniripe oranges, about the dize of a cherry, and is used as a perfume in the same manner as Orange-flower Water. E'SSENCES are solutions of the essential oils in alcohol, and may be prepared (1) by adding recti- fied spirit to the odoriferous parts of plants, or to the essential oils, and distilling ; or (2) simply by adding the essential oil to the rectified spirit, and agitating till a uniform mixture is obtained. Thus the essence of lemons is merely a solution of the volatile oil of lemons in rectified spirit. ESSE'NES (Essenoi, Essaioi), a small religious fraternity among the Jews, whose name and origin, as well as character and history, are alike involved in obscurity. Still, in the wide field of the history of the Semitic religions, there are not many subjects of inquiry of greater importance, or calculated to inspire a deeper interest. The Essenes bore one of the most momentous parts in the development of Judaism. Christianity stands in so close connection with them, that John the Baptist and Christ himself have been pronounced to have originally issued from their ranks. More gurprisini; than all, out of Essenism, in the stage of Sabieism, has sp^'img Islam itself, and in this last development of its tenets and i^ractices are still preserved some of its principal rites. It is but natural that from the days of the Fathers to our own, an infinite number of wiiters, more or less qualilii'd for the task, shoidd have endeavoured to throw light on this mysterious brotherhood, but with success far fruin satisfactory. The reason of this is obvious enough- Joseplius, Philo, Pliny, S'jlinus, Eusebius, and the Fathers generally, were • c-on.si(h;red the sources, and the only sources, fi'om wluch the genuine history of this fraternity covdd be deduced. Of these, Pliny indeed has a geographical notice, which cannot be traced to either Philo or Josephus; but the rest have so evidently derived their shallow and contradictory accounts indirectly, and tnrough corrupted channels, from those two writers, that they lose all claim to consideration. Of the two books of Philo in which information regarding the Essenes is contained, one {De Vita Conternplativa) is proved to have been written about three centuries after Philo's death by a Chiistian monk as a panegyric on ascetic monachism. The other {Quod Omnis) is, to say the least, of doubtful genuineness, and is, moreover, at variance with Josephus. As to Josephus himself, it is now pretty generally allowed that his Essenes stand in much the same relation to the historical Essenes as tha ideal inhabitants of the Germania of Tacitus stand to the real Germans of his time. Strange that for so many centuries the real and genuine sources — the Talmudical writings — should never have been thought of. These, together with Josephus and Philo, Pliny, and the Arabians Macrisi and Abul- farag, will perhaps better enable us to form an idea, not only of the real state of this community, but, what is of no less moment, to trace the process by which they gradually arrived at their peculiar mode of life and worship. We need not remind the reader that we must strictly confine ourselves here to an epitome of facts and conclusions. We have to premise, that exception must at the outset be taken to the opening statement of Joseplius, that there were three difii"erent ' sects ' among the Jews : the Pharisees, the Sadducees, and the Essenes — a statement which has been copied and accepted from that day to the present. The Sadducees were a political party, nothing more or less, and, as a matter of course, held religious views antagonistic to, or rather they did not accept the traditions of, their adversaries, the Pharisees, who, again, forming as they did, the bulk of the nation, cannot rightly be called a sect. Least of all were the Essenes such. They were Pharisees of stronger convictions, and carried out the Phaiisaic views with a consistency which made them ridi- culous even in the eyes of their own mother-party (Sota, 26, a.) ; neither were they known by the nam as of Essenes, this being a very late designation, derived either from a Chaldee word Sacha, and meaning Bathers, or Baptists; or from Asa, meaning Healers. The Mishna, Beraitha, and Talmud speak of these advanced Pharisees in general as Chasidim {Assidaioi, Pious Men), Nazirim (Abstinents), Toble Shachttrith (Plemerobaptists), Banai (Builders), and Chaberim (Friends). The Arabic book of Maccabees calls the Essenes simply Assidaioi, and Macrisi speaks of ' Nazirs, Essenes, and Baptists ' as all being ' Asaniun,' or Essenes. The Nazirhood, a kind of voluntary priesthood., enjoining abstinence from wme, flesh, and othei- sensual enjoyments, had, in the troid:)lous times oi anti-Syrian agitation, and the genei'al upheavin.^ o£ society, found numerous adherents {Tosifta Nazir^ c. 4 ; Talm. Babli Berach. 48, a. 1 ; Mace. ii. 49 ; Jos. Antiq. xviii. 1) ; and gradually there sprang up (contrary to the Bible, which restricts this asceticism to a certain period) a host of men calling themselves ' Nazirs for ever ' — Nazire olam {Nazir, 4, a.). Pharisees of a spiritual and contemplative bias, with no natural taste for the confiicts and activity of political or public life, or wearied, per- haps, with the vanity of human aims, took this vow of Nazirship for life, and constituted themselves into a sort of religious club. Levitical purity iu its strictest and highest sense made them draw closer and closer the innumerable '■fences ' which tha traditional law had erected round the biblical law. 121 ESSENTIAL 0IL5— ESSEQUIBO. Any one, friend or foe, could, at any moment, by having touched something impure, disturb this purity for the time, and necessitate new and endless purifications. Thus it became necessary, or at least expedient, that those among them who could break all ties of friendship and family, should retire into a solitude net easily approachable by a stranger to their commimity. Food, again, could not be pre- pared save by those of the brethren who knew and stfictly obeyed the hy|)er-traditioual injunctions. Their dress, every implement of daily use, had to be made under similarly stringent laws of purity. A tatural consequence of this their exalte ^ notion of outward priesthood, was — the different phases of woman's life taken into consideration — their general celil acy. (The explanation given by Josephus — the fear of the corruption of both towns and women — is entirely gratuitous, and utterly in discordance with the Jewish notions of the time.) In this state of voluntary isolation, trading was out of the ques- tion ; they tilled the ground, and lived on the fruits of the earth. Taking their meals, and these of the coarsest and plainest description, in common, they idealised the table into an altar, and, prayer having been said, they remained standing silently round it during the repast. That they had no individual property, follows of course, and their communistic motto, which the Mishna (Aboth) has preserved to us — ' Mine is thine, and thine is mine ' — explains itself. We need not enlarge further on their small eccentricities — on the white linen garment, the apron (kenaphaim), the scoop or shovel ; they are one and all, signs and symbols of Levitical purity, the scoop reminding us of a certain Mosaic ordinance during the wanclerings in the desert, the apron becoming necessary from the frequent ablution of their hands. Every morning, they bathed, like the priests who ministered in the temple, in pure spring water. They abhorred blood as a source of impurity, and for this reason, probably, some of them abstained also from going up to the temple, where sacrifices were daily offered; others we find present at a festival in the temple (Succah, 51, 53). Their offer- ings were sent alive under the care of messengers. But these were but outward signs of purity, stepping- etones to inner piety, to commmiion with God, which was only to be acquired, according to their notion, by solitude and an ascetic life. The belief in the efficacy of the most rigid simplicity and will- ing self-sacrifice, they held in common with the Pharisees; their horror of oaths, their frequent prayers, their occupation with mystical doctrine, were their own. Untroubled by the noise of war or the strife of parties, leading a life diA'ided between the bath, ablutions, contemplation, and prayer; despising the body and bodily wants ; what more natural than that by degrees they should be led into a kind of mystical enthusiasm and fanati- cism. They allegorised, they symbolised ; and their efforts culminated in seeing the unseen. Absorbed in the attempt to fathom the • mj^steries of the nature of God, one of their principal occupations fras the study of the name of God ; of that unpro- ni>ua "jeable name which only the High-priest dared utter once a year in the Holy of Holies during the most awful and solemn service on the Day of Atone- ment. The knowledge of that name in four, in twelve, and in twenty-four letters, would give them the jiower of prophecy and of ' receiving the Holy Ghost.' Angelology, derived from the Magi, formed a pro- minent feature of their creed. In course of time, they w'ere looked upon by the vulgar as saints and workers of miracles. A wonderful l)ook of cures {SepJier li^/itoth), which Talmudic, Arabic, and Byzantine authorities alike ascribe to Solomon, was 132 in their hands, and with this, * by the aid of certain roots and stones,' by the imposition of hands, and certain whisperings— a practice strongly condemned by the Pharisees (Synhedr. 90, a.)— they cast out demons, and healed the sick. Philoso]>hy they regarded in so far only as it treated of the existence of God. Jehovah is the original light; from Him proceed a number of spirits (the Platonic Ideas), and at their head stands the Wisdom, or Loijos, into which, after death, the soul is again absorbed. Theit code of Ethics was threefold— the love of God, of virtue, and of man; their scale of perfectibility reaching its acme in the communion with the Holy Ghost (Ruach Hakodesh), (Mishn. Sota, 09). In fine, mixing up, in the strangest manner, the most exalted and the most puerile notions, they became the forerunners of the Christian Gnostics and of the Jewish Cabbalists, and, it may b^, of many secret, still existing orders, who may have derived from this source their ceremonies and the gradations of initiation. They seem never to have numbered more than 4000, including even those Nazirs or Essenes who remained in their own families. Their colony appears to have been established chiefly near the Dead Sea, and it is undoubtedly this colony which has served Josejihus as a basis to his romantic Essene republic. But, however distant from each other they might be, a constant intercommunica- tion was kept up through a body of delegates, or angels (Malachim). As they had sprung from the Pharisees, so they again merged into them — part of them, we should rather say; the remaining part became Therajjeiitae, or Christians. See Thera- PEUT^ and Jewish Sects. The Talmud gives a distinct account of their ceasing to exist as a sepa- rate community (Bechorot, 27), and so soon aftei- their extinction did they fall into oblivion, that m the third century we find a J e-wash Sage asking who these HemerobajHlsts had been (Berachot, 22, 1). Much has been written and said of a certain literature which they possessed; on this we are unable to decide, deprived as we are of all trust- worthy authority. One fragment only remains; it is quoted in the Talmud (Jerusch. Berachoth. End) in the following words : ' It is written in the book of the Chasldim, If thou leavest it (the divine law) for one day, it will leave thee for two.' In addition to the Talmud and Midrash, we refer the reader to Joseph. Antiq. xv. 10, xviii. 1; Jeiu. War, ii. 7, 8; Philo, Quod Omnis Proh. lib. § 12; Plinius, Hist Natur. v. 17; Eiiiphan. Hares. xxix. ; Hieron., C3a-ill., Chrysost., &c. Beckermann, Geschichtl. Nachr. axis derti Alterth. iiber die Ess., &c. (Berl. 1821); Gratz, Gesch. d. Juden (Leip. 1856) ; Franhel in Zeitschr. far die Relig. Inter., &c., iii. (Berl. 1844), &c.; and Monatsschr, Fiir Gesch. und Wissensch., &c. ii. (Leip. 1852), &c. ; Sprenger, Leben u. Lehre Moliammads (Berl. 1861). ESSE'NTIAL OILS. See Oils. ESSEQUI'BO, the most westerly of the great rivers of British Guiana, enters the Atlantic near the territory of Venezuela, in lat. 7° N., and long. 58° 40' W. It forms, at its mouth, an estuary of twenty miles in width ; and it is favourably dis- tinguished from the Demerara and the Berbice by the absence of a bar. It appears to excel the other streams of the country as well in length and volume as in its navigable facilities, and to be practicable for large ships up to its first falls — a distance of 60 miles from the sea. The greater part of ita course of 450 miles is through forests of the most gigantic vegetation. Its basin, speaking generally, corresponds with the county of the same name.. This subdivision of the colony is inferior, uulesn ESSEX— ESTABLISHED CHURCH. m purely natural resources, to either of the two others in vahie and importance — Denierara and Berbice respectively containing the principal settle- ments, George Town and New Amsterdam. E'SSEX, a maritime county of the south-east of England, having the North Sea on the E. ; the Thames estuary, dividing it from Kent, on the S. ; Middlesex and llertford on the W. ; and Cambridge and Suffolk on the north. Its greatest length from north-east to south-west is G3 miles, and the greatest breadth from east to west is 54 miles. It has 1,060,549 statute acres, nine-tenths being arable or in grass, and a twentieth in wood. The surface towards the Thames and sea is flat, marshy, and broken into peninsulas, creeks, and islets. The coast-line is 85 miles long. Some of the marshes extend four or five miles inland. At one part, two to two and a half miles' breadth of sand is dry at low water. Some cliffs at the Naze are 35 feet high. The centre and north of the county are beautifully diversified and richly wooded, the highest point being Langdou Hill, 620 feet above the sea. Besides the Thames, the other chief rivers are the Stour, 50 miles long ; Blackwater, 46 miles ; Lea, Roding, Crouch, and Chelmer. The east of the county is mostly on London clay, with limestone beds near Harwich. In the north-west, chalk appears. In the middle and north, there is much diluvium, with chalk fragments. Crag occurs near Norwich, and stones of phosphate of lime are found here and there. The climate is moist on the coast, but clear, healthy, and with little rain in the interior. There are frequent cold fogs in spring and autumn. The soil is mostly a fertile loam on marly alluvimn. The county is almost wholly agricultural. The cliief crops are wheat, barley, oats, beans, potatoes, saffron, caraway, and hops. Essex wheat is superior. Great numbers of calves are fattened for the London market, and there are large sheep-flocks. Essex has valuable oyster-fisheries and silk manufactures. Pop. in 1861, 404,644; in 1871, 466,427. The county is almost entirely in the diocese of Roch- ester. Essex returns six menihers to parlia- ment. The chief town^are Chelmsford, the capital, Colchester, Maldon, and Harwich. E. was once forest-land, and the seat of a powerful tribe, the Trinobantes, whose famous chiefs, Caractacus and Boadicea, were overthrown by the Romans. E. constituted part of the Roman Flaola Ccesariensls. It has afforded many Roman remains, and a Roman road once passed through Colchester, which was ah important Roman station. The Saxon kingdom of Essex or East Sexe (527 — 823), included London and parts of Middlesex, Hertford, Bedford, and Essex. ESSEX, Robert Devereux, Earl of, son of Walter Devereux, first earl of E., was born at Netherwood in Herefordshire, lOtli November 1567; entered Trinity College, Cambridge, at the age of ten, where he remained for four years. Lord Bur- leigh, to whose guardianship he had been intrusted, introduced the handsome and gifted youth at cornet in 1584. Here, by his agreeable manners, his appear- ance, and takiits, he established himself among trtjops of friends, and gained the special favour of Elizabeth. In 1585, he accompanied the Earl of Leiccfeter to Holland, where he distinguished himself at the battle of Zutphen, and on his return to Eng- land was made Master of the Horse and Knight of the Garter. After the death of Leicester, E. con- tinued to rise in the favour of Elizabeth, who loaded liim with honours. In 1591, he commanded the forces sent to the assistance of Henry IV. of France against the Spaniards, but achieved no success. The next few years v/ere spent in endeavouring to get the letter of Burliugh — the wisest, the most prudent, and the most politic of all Elizaboth's advisers, Iv 1596 he was appointed joint-commaiider with Lord Howard in the expedition against Sjjain, to which Burleigh was strongly opposed; and though E. dis- played all his wonted courage, and contributed to the capture of Cadiz, which caused immense loss to the Spaniards, yet the expedition resulted in nothing, and E. had to defend himself against various accu- sations on his return. In 1597, he was made Earl Marshal of England, and, on the death of Lord Bur- leigh, Chancellor of Cambridge. In 1598 occurred the first fatal mistake in E.'s career. Presuming upon Elizabeth's admiration and feminine fondnesi? for his person, he differed from her about some trifling matter, and angrily and rudely turned his back upon her m the presence of some of the council, and her majesty, whose language was hardly more delicate than her father's, gave him a vigorous box on the ears, telling him to ' go and be hanged.' A violent quarrel ensued, which, though apparently smoothed up, was never really so. E. was afterwards, in 1599, sent to Ireland — part of which at that time was in a state of rebellion — as lord-lieutenant of that country; but here his government was ill-advised and ineffectual, and after a few unimportant under- takings, he concluded a truce with the rebels, which was regarded at coui-t as high treason. In order to confront his enemies, he hastened back to Loudon, contrary to the queen's express commands, and forced his way into Elizabeth's bedchamber. Justly offended, the queen deprived him of his dignities, and commanded that he should be called to account for his behaviour. E., advancing from one degree of foolhardihood to another, tried to excite an insvu'- rection in London. He was imprisoned, tried, and found guilty. Elizabeth long delayed signing the warrant for his execution, in the hope that he would implore her pardon. He was beheaded on the 25th February 1601, after defending himself with pride and dignity. E. was rash, bold, and presumptuous ; but brave, generous, and affectionate, and the friend and patron of literary men. ES-SIOUT. See Siout. E'SSLINGEN, a manufacturing town of Ger- many, in the kingdom of Wurtemberg, is situated near the right bank of the Necker, in the centre of a pleasing and fertile district, seven miles east-south- east of Stuttgart. It consists of the town proper, and five suburbs, and is surrounded by strong walls, and fortified by towers. The chief buildings are the Frauenkirche — a sj)lendid edifice in the purest Gothic style, built in 1440, and surmounted by a spire 230 feet high- the old and new town-houses, and the old castle. It has the greatest machine- making trade of the kingdom, has manufactures of a wine called Esslingen champagne, of woollens, and cotton and woollen yarns, lackered iron, silver- plate and tin wares, and i)aper, with a good trade ia wine and agricultural produce. Pop. (1871) 17.941. E. was founded in the 8th c, and received in 1209 the rights of a free city of the German empire. The long and bloody quarrel which existed between it and the House of Wui'temberg was brought to an end at the peace of Lungville (1802), when E., with its territory was assigned to the duchy of WUitemberg. ESSOUAN, or ESWAN. See Assouan. ESTABLISHED CHURCH, a church estab- lished and maintained by a statt -or the teaching of Christianity in a particular form within its boun- daries. Subsequent to the Pvcfonnation, many of the opinions which had given sanctity to the Churcn of Rome still kept possession of men s minds ; amongst these was the notion, that the c\\i\ go* vernment of each state was ound to maintaiu a ESTABLISHED CHURCH— ESTATE. particular form of Christianity. Tlie same fallacious reasoning, which in more recent times has led to the search for one absolutely best form of civil govern- ment, was at work then with reference to the church. The Koman Catholic Church Avas not the best form — of that the Protestant states had become con- viccsd — but all forms were not therefore indifferent ; and if one was better than another, and another bettcT than that, there must be an aljsolutely best, which the st<",te Avas bound to discover, and when discovered, tf< substitute for that which had been atolislied. The idea that the good or bad qualities of forms of government, whether civil or ecclesi- astical, so long as they did not violate the funda- mental doctrines of Christianity or morality, were relative, and not absolute, and that whilst one might be the best for men in one stage of development or of one particular temperament, another might be the best for those who differed from them in these respects, did not belong to that ago. Each Protes- tant state consequently established a church, con- formity to the tenets of which it enforced, not only upon those who as ministers were henceforth to enjoy the property wdiich in Koman Catholic times had been devoted to the sjiiritual interests of the community, but verj'- often on its own civil servants and advisers. The benefit of the arrangement was, that, to a greater or less extent, the means which the comminiity had set apart for its own spiritual improvement were protected from the spoliation of pi'ivate indiAnduals ; and this benefit was secured more effectually the more com})letely the new church took the place of the old — in England, for example, better than in Scotland ; but as each of the Protestant states had substituted one fonn of church- government for another, and as the same form had not been adopted by them all, the idea of there being one form which was absolutely preferable to the others, though not abolished, was rudely shaken. In England, Queeu Elizabeth had stated in her cele- brated declaration, that she, as head of the church, * would not endure any varying or departing in the least degree' from the doctrines of the Episcopal Church of England as set forth in the Thirty-nine Articles ; and yet Presbyterianism was established in England in 1649. In Scotland, where Presby- terianism had at first taken root, Episcoj^alianism had more than once become the law of the land. The effect of such occurrences was to counteract the belief in any oi.-^ form as the form for all Chris- tendom, and to facilitate dissent and the formation of sects. The pastors of these sects Avere not at first recognised by the law as entitled to any of the privileges of Christian ministers. Whatever they might be to theu' owoi flock, to the state they were laymen, and their churches were mere secular lecture-rooms, or, at most, places of meeting for private devotion. See Nonconformists, Dissent- ers, Church, &c. Gradually this view became modi- tied, and the civil consequences attaching to sacred rites, when performed by a clergyman of tlie estab- lishment, were extended to them when performed by dissenters. See Marriage. But though many of the privileges, and all the liberties belonging to the established church, have now been extended to dissenting bodies, including Roman Catholics (see Roman Catholic Emancipation) and Jews (see Jew), the established churches of the three divisions of the United Kingdom, are alone supported by the state, and are still guarded from spoliation by the Coronation Oath (q. v.) of the sovereign. With the exception of the grant to the Roman Catholic college of Maynooth, and the Tieginm Doinim (q. v.) to the Presbyterian ministers in Ireland, there is no endow- ment of other sects from the public funds, as in France ; and the emoluments of the established 131 church, though modified in their distribution by the labours of the Ecclesiastical Commissioners (q. v.), have not yet been appropriated to any other than religious uses in connection with that church. The cause of established churches is very generally maintained on the ground of the alleged duty ot the state to provide for the religious instruction of the whole body of the people, as most essential to their moral welfare, and so to the general prosperity of the community. It is furthei argued, in support of the same cause, that civil rulers, or the people aa associated in a free state, are nnder a moral obliga- tion of the highest kind, to acknowledge God, his law, and his ordinances Concerning which, and other arguments, for and against established churche'% as far as it belongs to the scheme of this work to give notices of them, the reader is referred to the article Voluntaryism. It may here, however, be observed, that the arguments just mentioned do not necessarily infer, even when admitted to the utmost, that the state is bound to support in any exclusive way a particular sect or denomination, xinless, on the further assum])tion that religious truth and worth belong to that denomination alone. Nor does the endoivment of a church by the state necessarily follow from the fullest adoption of the principles thus con- tended for. And, on the other hand, it is a p(>int which may very reasonably be disputed, how far the common argimients against state endowments are applicable to those endowments which were not originally bestowed by the state, but wdiich the state has, from a very early })eriod, recognised as belonging to the chiirch ; a description which will be found to comprehend great part of the existing endowments of established churches. The exclusive possession of them by a particiilar denomination, and their rightful a])propriation to religious uses, are, however, distinct questions. ESTA'TE. In the law of England, an estate in lands, tenements, or hereditaments, signifies such interest as the tenant hath tlierein ; so that if a man grants all his estate in Dale to A. and his heirs, everything that he can possibly grant shall pass thereby. — Blackstone, Comm. ii. 10.3. The first division of estates is into legal and equitable. By the former is signified the estate which a man has by the common law ; by the latter, the interest which has been created by the operation of a coui-t of equity. See Equitable Estates, Uses, Trusts. Legal estates are considered in England with refer- ence to the quantity of the estate, the time of enjoy- ment, and the number of persons who may unite in the enjoyment. Under the first head, estates are either freehold or less than freehold. Freehold estates, again, are divided into freeholds of inherit- ance, or Fees (q. v.) ; and freeholds not of inherit- ance, or for life. An estate for life may be for the life of the person to whom it is granted, or for that of another person, or for more than one life. A person holding an estate for the life of another is called tenant pur autre vie. An estate pur autre vie being a freehold, descends, in case of the death of the tenant during the term, to his heir, and not to his executor. An estate by the Courtesy of England (q. v.), and an estate in Dower (q. v.), are estates for life. A conveyance to A. B., without mention of heirs, makes the grantee tenant for life. • An estate to a woman during her widowhood, or to a man until the occurrence of a specified event, as till he receive a benefice, will be construed to be an estate for life. Tenants for life are entitled to take Estovers (q. v.), but they must not commit Waste (q. v.). 'J'he representatives of a tenant for life are also usually entitled to take the Emblements (q. v.) on the expiry of the term. Estates less than free- hold are called also chattels real. This species of ESTATE TAII^ESTELLA. estate, on the death of the tenant, pasnes, like other Chattels ( j. v.) to the executor, and not to the heir. They are divided into estates for years, estates at will, and estates on suiFerance. See Leases. Estates, with reference to the time of their enjoyment, may be either in possession or in expectancy. An estate in possession comprehends not only an estate in the actual occupation of the tenant, but one from which he has been wronj^fully ousted. In this latter case, the hiw regards the rightful tenant as having the actual estate, to which is attached the Right of Entry (q. v.). An estate in expectancy may be either in Reversion or Remainder (q. v.). Estates of this character form a large portion of the rights to land in England, and are the subject of some of the most subtle learning of the English law. With reference to the number of persons entitled to the enjoyment, estates may be in severalty, in joint-tenancy, in co-parcenary, or in common. An estate in severalty is where the sole right to the estate is in a single person. See Joint- Tenancy, Coparcenary, Tenancy in Common. ESTATE TAIL. See Entail. ESTATES OF THE REALM. The three estates of the realm are not King, Lords, and Commons, as is popularly believed, but the Lords Spiritual, the Lords Temporal, and the Commons. The ancient parliament of Scotland consisted of the king and the three estates of the realm, by which latter was meant — 1st, the archbishops, bishops, abbots, and mitred priors ; 2d, the barons, under which head were comprehended not only the nobility, but the conmiissioners of shires and stewartries ; and 3d, the commissioners from the royal burghs. All these assembled in one house, and formed one meeting, by a majority of the votes of which all matters, whether legislative or J'udicial, were determined.— Ersk. b. i. tit. 3, s. 2. 5ellV Dictionary. See States. E'STE (ancient Ateste), a town of Venice, is beautifully situated on the southern slope of the Euganean Hills, 17 miles south-south-west of Padua, .-t is an old town, and has a decidedly Lombard appearance, many of the houses being supported by arches. It has several interesting buddings, among which the chief are theRocca, or castle of Este, with ft grim-looking donjon tower, overhanging the town, and the chui'ch of San Martino, in the Romanesque style, surmounted by a campanile, which slopes as mut;h as the Leaning Tower of Pisa. Both church and tower have been sadly disfigured by an attempt to modernise them. E. manufactures silk goods, saltpetre, hats, and earthenware and has numerous silk-mills and whetstone quarries in the vicinity. Pop. 8000. E STE, one of the oldest and most illustrious families of Italy, which, according to the historian Muratori, owed its origin to those petty princes who governed IXiscany in the times of the Carlovingians, »nd who were in all probability of the race of the Longobards. The first whose figure is more than a mere shadow is Adalbert, who died about 917 A. d. The grandson or grani nephew of Adalbert, named Obt rto, was one of the Italian nobles who ofi"ered the crown of Italy to Otho of Saxony. He is after- wai'is styled Comes soon, palatii^ and appears to have been one of the greatest personages in the realm ; he married a daughter of Otho's, and died about 972 a.d. In later times, the family of E. received from the emperors several districts and counties to be held as fiefs of the empire. The family divided, at an early period, Into two branches, the German and Italian. The fo>;mer was founded oy Welf or Guelfo IV,, who received the inves- titure of the duchy of Bavaria from the Emperor Henry IV. in 1070. The Houses of Brunswick and Hanover, and consequently the sovereigns of Great Britain, also called Este-Guelfs, are dci^ceaded from this person. In the 12th, 13th, and 14tli centuries, the history of the E. family, as heads of the Guelf jtarty, is interwoven with the destinies of tlie other r'diug families and small republics of Northern Italy. During this period, they first gained posses- sion of Ferrara and the march of Ancona (1208 A. D.), and afterwards of Modena and Regi^io (1288 — 1289), and were widely celebrated as the ])att on3 of art and literature. One of the most illi strioua was Azzo VII., who encouraged Provencal trouba- dours to settle at his court at Ferrara, and also founded schools in that city. Alfonso 1. (died 1534) was equally distinguished as a soldier and a statesman, and was celebrated by all the poeta of his time, particularly by Ariosto. His second wife was the notorious Lucrezia Borgia. His quarrel with the Popes Julius II., Leo X., and Clement VII., was unfortunate, as an interdict was laid ujion hini for his adherence to the league of Cambray, and hia papal fiefs declared to be forfeited. After the siege of Rome, in 1527, the duke was restored to hia former possessions by Charles V. His successor, Ercole or Hercules II., who married Reuate, daughter of Louis XII. of France and Anne of Brittany, attached himself to Charles V. He and his brother, a dignitary of the Cathohc Church, were also liberal patrons of art and science ; the latter erected the magnificent Villa d'Este at Tivoli. The next prince, Alfonso 11. (died 1597), w-ould have been noways inferior to the preceding but for his immo- derate love of splendour, his inordinate ambition, and the cruelty he displayed towards the poet Tasso, whose eccentricities, however, it must be confessed, were enough to try the patience of any reasonable mortal. Alfonso IV., who flourished in the lattor half of the 17th c, was very fond of the fine arts, and founded the Este gallery of paintings, liinaldo (died 1737), by his marriage with the daughter of the Duke of Brunswick-Lunenburg, united the Ger- man and Italian Houses, separated since 1070. The male line of the House of E. became extinct on the death of Ercole III. in 1803, his possessions iiaving been previously seized by the French invaders, and annexed to the Cisalpine Republic. His only daughter married the Archduke Ferdinand, third son of Francis, emperor of Austria. Their eldest son, Francis IV., by the treaty of 1814-1815, was restored to the territoi'ies which had belonged to his maternal ancestors, comprising the duchy of Modena; and, on his mother's death, obtained the duchies or Massa and Carrara. He was succeeded by his son, Francis V., 21st January 1846. The connection which the family of E., like others of the snudl Italian principalities, had formed with Austria, gave it, of course, pro- Austrian sympathies, the result of which has been fatal to its popularity and dynastic existence. In 1860, the sentiment of Italian unity and independence, which for the previous 15 or 20 years had been steadily fostered by tlie policy of Sardinia, triumphed in a universal explosion of national feeling, which swept Italy clean of all her petty I'ulers, and subsequently united the peninsula under the single authority of Victor Emmanuel as king of Italy, Rome becoming the capital of the kingdom in 1870. ESTE'LLA, .an ancient city of Spain, in the province of Navarre, is pleasantly situated on the left bank of the Ega, about 27 miles south-west of Pamplona. It is a weil-buQt, clean town, with several squares, and has, in the environs, a variety of agreeable promenades and pleasure-grounds. It has two interesting churches, both old, and one of them, San Juan, a tine building with a very lefty tower* ESTEPA— ESTHONIA. The manufactures are woollen and linen fabrics, brandy, and earthenware. A tolerable wine is made in the vicinity. E. has some trade in fruits, wool, hardware, and grain. Pop. about 6000. Here Don Carlos was proclaimed king in November 1S33 ; find here, in February 1839, six of his officers were treacherously betrayed and executed without even a form of trial. ESTE'PA, a town of Spain, in the province of Seville, and GO miles east-south-east of the town of that name. It is, on the whole, well built ; has imr squares, and nximerous religious edifices, among which are the churches of Santa Maria and San Sebastian ; the former, a noble specimen of Gothic, liaving three naves, and a richly ornamented interior. It has manufactures of coarse cloth, baize, and oil, with a trade in grain, fruits, oil, brandy, wool, and cattle. In the vicinity are marble and building- «tone quarries. Pop. 8133. ESTEPO'NA, a inaritune town of Spain, in the province of Malaga, and 25 miles north-north-east of Gibraltar. It is well and regularly built ; its streets wide, clean, and well paved. It supplies Gibraltar witVi fruits and vegetaliles ; and its chief industrial features are its fishing, linen- weaving, and manufactures of leather. Pop. 9400. E'STERHAZY, an ancient Hmigarian family, afterwards raised to tlie rank of princes of the empii'e, the representative of which is at present the richest landed proprietor in Austria. The family divided into three main branches — the Esesznek, Altsohl or Zolyom, and Forchtenstein lines. A descendant of the last family, Nicholas de Esterhazy, born in 1765, travelled over a great part of Europe, and resided for a considerable time in England, France, aud Italy. He founded the splendid collection of pictures at Vienna. He also made a choice collection of drawings aud engravings. When Napoleon, in 1809, entertained the notion of weakening Austria by the separation of Huugaiy, he made overtures to Prince Esterhazy respectmg the crown of Hungary, which, however, were declined. The great Haydn composed most of his works at the court of Prince Nicholas. His gon. Prince Paid Anton d'Esterhazy, born in 1786, entered at an early age on a diplomatic career. After the peace of Vienna, he went as ambassador to the court of Westphalia. From 1815 to 1818, he represented the Austrian government at London. He filled the same office between 1830 and 1838, and distinguished himself by his diplomatic tact and ability. In 1842, he returned home, and con- tinued to exert himself in the cause of political and literary progress. In March 1848, he became Minister of Foreign Affairs, in the cabinet presided over by Batthyani ; but when the struggle between Austria and Hungary broke out, he exhibited more prudence than heroism by retiring from public affairs altogether. Died July 1866. Prince Nich- olns Piiul Charles Esterhazy, born 25th June 1817, married Lady Sarah Villiers, daughter of the Earl of Jersey. E'STHER (the word signifies ' the planet Venus ') is the I*ersian name of Hadassah, daughter of Abi- hail, the son of Shimei, the son of Kish, a Benjamite. She is represented in Scriptiire as an ori)han, and as having been brought up by her cousin Mordecai, an officer in the household of the Persian monarch Ahasuerus. Her history, as recorded in the book of Esther, is well known and extremely interesting. When the misconduct of Vashti had cost her her * royal estate,' all ' the fair young virgins ' of the kingdom were gathered together, that Ahasuerus might choose a successor. He selected Hadassah, who received the name of E. on a(,coimt of her loveliness. The ^eat event of her life was tb« saving of her Jewish countrymen from the horrors of that universal massacre planned by the malice of Haman, and consented to by the thoughtless cruelty of an Oriental despot. The details of this event are too famUiar to require narration. It is sufficient to say that K's success was signal ; and the feast which she and her cousin Mordecai appointed in memory of their deliverance — viz., tho feast of Purim (i. e., of Lots), is, in consequence, cele- brated with great enthusiasm. E. is not mentioned in profane history, whence it has been inferred by some that she was not exactly the wife of Ahaauoua (Xerxes), but rather the favourite of bis haieaL to which she undoubtedly belonged; for, as we read (ii. 8), E. was consigned * to the custody of Hegai, keeper of the women.' This hypothesis ia rendered j^robable by the fact, that the Persian kings did not choose wives from their harem, but from the principal Persian families, or else from the daughters of foreign potentates. ESTHER, Book of, one of the very latest of the canonical works of the Old Testament, and commonly, but without a shadow of evidence, sup- posed to be written by Mordecai or Ezra. This is the view of Ahenesra, Clement of Alexandria, Augustine, Gerhard, and others. The Talmud assigns the authorship to the members of the Great Synagogue, a semi-mythical body, who are made use of by Jewish rabbis and Christian divines as a sort of heus ex nmchina to solve every difficulty. According to the opinions of the most learned and unprejudiced critics, the date of its composition must be placed after the downfall of the Persian monarchy. The language is much later than that of Ezra and Nehemiah, and the fact of occasional explanation of Persian customs fits the peilod oi the Seleucidie better than an earlier one. The Hebrew text is that which has been followed in the English version ; but the Septuagint is fuU of late interpolations and additions by Alexandrian Jews. The book is held in the highest reverence by the Jews ; so much so, that Maimonides declared that, in the days of the Messiah, eveiy Jewish scri])ture woidd be forgotten except the book of Esther and the Pentateuch. The book is not written in a theocratic spirit, like the rest of Jewish literature. Nothing is directly attributed to God ; in fact, his name is not once mentioned. Neither is there the remotest trace of religious feeling of any kind. Luther, in his usual off-hand hasty way, expressed his contempt for the book, in spite of the admiration which the Jews bestowed on it, censuring it for its 'heathenish extravagance,' and declaring that, in his judgment, it was *more worthy than all of being excluded from the canon.' The absence of all recognition of God, perplexed some of the ancient Jewish commentators, who therefore invented the hjrpothesis, that the book was originally a part of the Persian chronicles, probably executed by JSIor- decai ; and that, being mtended for the heathen^ the sacred name was wisely left out ! ESTHO'NIA, called by the inhabitants Ibem- selves Wiroma (i. e., the Border-land), a Eussian government, and one of the Baltic Provinces (q. v.), extends immediately south of the Gulf of Finland ; has an area of 7597 square miles, and a population of about 300,000. It was conquered (1182—1241) by the Danes, who sold it to the Teutonic knights in 1346. It came into the possession of the Swedes in 1561, bat was tJiken from them by Peter the Great in 1710, and by the treaty of Nystadt, was finally secured to Russia in 1721. One- third cf the entire sui*face, which is in general flat, is under cultivation and produces great quajitities of rv» ESTOC— ESZER. and barley ; the remaining two-tliirds are chiefly composed of sandy tracts and marshes, strewn in many places with large blocks of granite ; there are also extensive forests of birch and pine. The government of E. is divided into four circles; its priccipal town is Reval or Ilevel (q, v.). The inhabitants are divided into Esthlanders and Esths. The former are a mixture of Swedes, Germans, and Russians, and comprise the nobles and the to\vu-popvdations. The latter belong to the Finnish race, and are the original possessors of the soil. Their language is soft and musical, and is divided into two leading dialects, that of Revel and that of Dorpart. They also possess a literature rich in splendid national songs. See Keus, Esthnisclie VolksUeder (Reval, 1850—1851). They are indus- tiious, kind-hearted, and in the main religious and attached to the Protestant doctrines. A great part of Livonia is peopled with Esths, the entire number of whom in the Baltic provinces is about 650,000. ESTO'C (Italian), a small dagger worn at the girdle, called in Elizal^ethan times a Tucke. ESTOILE, or STAR, in Heraldry, differs from the Mullet (q. V.) by having six waved points ; the mullet consisting of five plain points. ESTO'PPEL, an impediment or bar to a right of action, arising from a man's own act. It is called an estoppel or conclusion, because a man's own act or acceptance stoppeth or closeth up his mouth to allege or plead the truth. — Co. Litt. .352 a. Estoppels are of three kinds — 1. By matter of record, where any judgment has been given in a court of record, the parties to the suit are estopped from afterwards alleging such matters as would be contradictory to the record. 2. By matter in writing. Thus, a party who has executed a deed wall be precluded from afterwards denjdng, in any action brought upon that instrument, the fact of which it is evidence. 3. By matter in paijs, as by livery, by entry, by acceptance of rent, &c. — by any of which acts a man is barred from pleading anything to the contrary. The principle of estoppel is that what a man has once solemnly alleged is to be presumed to be true, and therefore he should not be suffei-ed to contradict. The doctrine of estoppel prevails in America as vrell as in England. In Scotland also, the same principle is recognised, under the name of Personal Exception (q.v.). ESTO'VER (Fr. esfoffcr, to furnish), an incident to the estate of a tenant for life or for j^ears. It is the right which the tenant has to make use of the wood on the estate for certain definite purposes. Estovers, or botes (Saxon), are of three kinds— house- bote, which is twofold — viz., estoverium cedijicandi et ardmdi, a right to wood for fuel and repairs of the house, ploughbote, estoverium arandi, wood for ploughs and carts ; and haybote, estoverium claudendi, vrood for repairing hedges and fences. — Co. Litt. 41 b. ESTREA'T (Lat. extractum), in English Law, a true extract copy or note of some original writing or record, and specially of fines or amercements, as entered in the rolls of a court, to be levied by bailiffs or other ofticers. When, however, it is applied to a Recognisance (q. v.), it signifies that the recognisance itself is estreated, or taken out from among the other records, and sent to the Exchequer. — Blackstone, Comm. iv. 253. If the condition of a recognisance be broken, the recog- nisance is forfeited ; and on its being estreated, the parties l)ecome debtors to the crown for the Bums in which they are r-ound.— ArcJibold, Crim. Practice, 78. The Court of Exchequer has power over pejvalties and forfeitures incurred at assizes, ui'J jan discharge or compound them at its discre- tion ; but that court has no power over recognisancea forfeited before justices of the peace. ESTREMADU'RA, previous to the new distri- bution of the country, a province of Spain, situated between Portugal and New Castile, and watered hy the Tagus and the Guadiana. It is bounded on the N. by Leon, on the S. by Andalusia, and, since 1833, has been divided into the two provinces of Badajos and Caceres. It has an area of 14,.329 square miles, and contains (1870) 734,377 inhabitants Although a continuation of the high table land of New Castile, E. is not, like it, a uniform plain, but is mountainous on the north and south, and is well watered, the slopes of the hills being covered with wood, and the valleys with rich grass. Not- withstanding the fertility of the soil, the land has lain desolate and uncultivated ever since the expid- sion of the Moors in the 13th century. This ia chiefly to be attributed to tljf Mesta, or right of pasture, which causes the lan^i to be regarded aa the common property of the possessors of flocks. The breeding of goats, swine, horses, asses, and mides is much attended to. Silk and honey form no inconsiderable branches of trade. Corn is still imported. The mines, which were formerly very productive, are no longer wrought. Commerce is confined almost entirely to a contraband trade with Portugal. Tlie inhabitants are poor, ajid, from the want of roads, isolated from the rest of Spain, and consequently in a low state of civilisation. They make excellent soldiers, however, and have produced a series of brave conqulstadores and generals. ESTREMADURA, next to Alemtejo, the largest province of Portugal, has an area of 8834 sq. miles, and including the capital, Lisbon, contains 835,880 inhabitants. The greater part of the country ia hilly, but the hills do not attain any great elevation. To the west of the estuary of the Tagus are the granite mountains of the feerra da Cintra, varying from 1500 to 1800 feet in height, ana terminating in the Cabo de Roca. To the south of the Tagua are Ixarren moors, partly broken by moi-asses, and the limestone chain of Arrabida, rising to a height of 1000 feet, and terminating in the Cabo de EspicheL Many districts are extremely fertile, others are barren and uncidtivated. The Tagus, which is only navigable as far as Abrantes, receives the waters of the Zezeres, the Sorraya, and the Caidia, and ia strewn with islands at its mouth. The chief pro- ductions of the country are wine, oil, fruits, corn, and cork ; but even the sandy plains are covered with cistus, rosemary, myrtles, and other flowej-ing and fragrant plants. The breeding of cattle is not much attended to. The minerals are marble, coal, and sea- salt. This province has been frequently visited by earthquakes. ESTREMO'Z, a fortified town of Portugal in the province of Alemtejo, is 23 miles north-east of Evora, and about the same distance east of Elvas. It ia built round the base of the hill on which its omje formidable castle, erected in 1360, is placed. It ncv ranks as the f oiu-th or fifth stronghold in PortugaL E. is famous for its manufactures of earthenware ; its jars, which are made of a porous clay, and Live the property of keeping water singularly cool, are of elegant shape, and are used all over the peninsula. The earthenware manufactures of E. seem to have continued unchanged since Roman times, as imtil the present day the forms into whi'^h the jars are cast are purely classical. In the neighbourhood of E. is a marble quarry. Pop. 6500. E'SZEK, a royal free town of Slavonia, on the right bank of the Drave, twelve miles ai)0ve ita confluence with the Danube, is the chief to^\^l ol the district of Veroecze, and is the most prosperoiui ETAMPES— ETHER. trading town of Slavonia. Since the Drave began to be uavij^ated doNvn wards to E. by steamers, the town has driven a prosperous trade in corn, wood, pigs, u*on, deals, wine, and flax. The fortress of Eszek, known in Roman times under the name of Mursia, is protected by a fort situated on the left bank of the Drave. In the fortress the counnander's dwelling and the town-house, and in the lower town the county buildings, are specially worthy of menti(ja. During the Hungarian revolution, the (■own was at first held by Count Casimir Batthyanyi, but capitulated, after a siege of several weeks, to the Austrian general, Baron Trebersberg. Pop. 17,24 7, more than one half of whom are Roman Catholics, the rest being Greek Catholics, Protes- tants, and Jews. ETAMPES (anc. Stampcp), a 'to\vn of France, in tihe department of Seiue-et-Oise, is situated 32 miles south-south- west of Paris, on the Orleans Railway, tt consists mainly of one street, about four miles long. The chief buildings are the ecclesiastical edifices. E. possesses a })ublic granary, capable of containing 1400 tons of wheat. In and around E. there are upwards of 40 flour-nulls, constantly employed in providing for the Paris market ; con- Biderable quantities of garden-stutF also ai'e sent from this neighbourhood to the capital. Pop. 8000. ETANG DE BERRE, a salt-lake of France, in the south of the department of Bouches-du-Rhone, communicates with the sea by a narrow channel, called Tour-le-Bouc, and is 11 miles long by 9 broad at its widest part. This lake contains great quan- tities of eels and other fish. Salt-works are in operation on its banks. ETAWAH, a town of the Doab, stands near the left bank of the Jumna, about 70 miles below Agra, in lat. 20° 46' N., and long. 79° 4' E. Tliough it is, on the whole, a dreary and mean place, yet it presents some remains of ancient grandeur, more partioidarly many of those ghats or flights of stairs which facilitate the approach to the river for the purpose of ritual ablution. It contains (1872) 30,549 inhal)itants; and its prosperity, such as it is, is owing chiefly to its position at the junction of the two roads which lead to Agra from Cawnpore and Calpee. ETA'WAH, the district of which the town above mentioned is the capital, belongs to the sub-presi- dency of the North-west Provinces. It lies entirely in the basin of the Jumna, and almost exclusively within the Doab, stretching in N. lat. from 26° 21' to 27° 9', and in E. long, from 78' 46' to 79' 49', and containing 1674 square miles, and about 700,000 inhabitants. The district was at one time famous for the murderous fanaticism of the Thugs, 67 cor] ses of their strangled victims having been found in the wells during a single year. ETCHIXG. See Engraving. ETCHING UPON GLASS. See Glass. B'l'H ELBERT, king of Kent, and fourth in direct dspscmt from the great Hengist, was born in the yivt 552, and succeeded to the tlirone in about the «'glith year of his age. The re])resentativpi of the firfjt Sakon king who nded in England, and envious on th.it account of the title of Bretwalda, then ■snjoyt^d by Cealwin of Wessex, E. rashly undertook an ex])eia, Egy{)t, Libya, and Carthage. Thus it grew so rapidly, that about 1000 B.C. it counted among the most powerful states of the ancient world ; and about 760, having ever since Sesostris been tributary to Egyi)t, it succeeded, under Sabacus, in shakirg off the Egyptian yoke, and continued, in its turn, to hold Egypt for aboxat eixty years. During the reign of Psammetichus, 240,000 Egyptians settled in Meroe, which, the gi'eater part of the immigrants being artisans, traders, &c., rose stiU higher. Many new cities were built, and the state w as in the most flourishing condition, when it was conquered by Cambyses, about 530 B.C. He fortified the capital town, and called it Meroe. After the destruction of Thebes by Cam})yse3, most of the inhabitants of that city took refuge there, and made the country still more Egyjjtian. Ergamenes transformed its theocracy into a military 'monarchy, in the 3d century. Under Augustus, Meroe was conquered, and a Queen Candace is mentioned as his vassal. Under Nero, nothing but ruins marked the place of this once powerful and highly civilised state. Up to this day, remnants of mighty buildings, covei-ed with Bcul])tures — representations of priestly ceremonies, battles, &c.— and half- defaced inscriptions hewn in i-i'i rocks, besides rows of broken sphinxes and colossi, are frequently met with in those parts. Their religion, art, form of government, and civilisation, generally iDcing — in their chief features at least — so identical with the Egyptian as to have given rise to the question, which of the two nations imparted their knowledge to the other, we will refer the reader for these points to the article Egypt ; and will proceed now to say a few words on the history of the descendants of the ancient Ethiopians — the inhabitants of the present Habesch, or Abyssinia — as we derive it from their very poor and scanty native chronicles. According to these, the son of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba (Makeda as they, Balkis a^i the Arabian historians call her), named Menilehek, was the first king of the Ethiojuans. Few kings' names occur up to the time of Christ, when Ba/en occu- pied the throne. The missionary Frumentius (330) found two brothers (Christians) reigning — Abreha and Azbeha. During the time of the Greelc emperor Justin (522), King Elezbaas destroyed the state of the Homerites in Asia, in order to revenge their persecutions of Cliristians ; and was canonised. From 960 to 1300, another dynasty, the Zagoean, held the chief power, all the members of the Solomonic dynasty, save one, having been murdered by Esal, who made her son icmg. In 1300, Ikon- Amlak, a descendant of this one scion of the house of David, who had fled to Sheba, regained I)ossession of the country, and made Sheba, instead of Axum, the seat of government. To this day, his family niles the country. Frequent revolutions within, more especially brought about by the religious squabbles imported by the Pori/Uguese towards the end of the 15th c, and a host of enemies all around — the most formidable of whom were wild nomad tribes of the desert — forced the kings more than once to apply for foreign help ; amongst others, that of the Turks in 1508 ; and the affairs of the modern state have at all times been anything but prosperous. Special mention is made of King Zara- Jakob (Constantine), 1434 — 1468, who sent an embassy to the church-councU at Florence ; of Aznaf-Saged (Claudius), 1540 — 1559, during whose reign Christoph. de Gama from Portugal lived in Ethiopia, and made common cause with him against his enemies. This king also wrote a confession of faith, in which he defended his church both against Jesuits and the charge of leaning towards Jiidaism. Socinios (1605 — 1632) openly professed Roman views ; but his son Facilides soon expelled the Jesuits and their friends from the country, and put an end to the Roman influence. Among these friends was also Abba Gregorius, later the friend of the great Ethiopolo- gist Ludolf, who, having made his acquaintance at Rome, induced him to migrate to Gotha, where he also remained until his death. Under Joaa (1753 — 1769), the Gallas, a nomad tribe, hitlicrto the mightiest and most dangerous enemies of the Ethiopians, not only gained admission to all the offices in the state, but acquired almost absolute power. One of them (Susul Michael), holding the place of Rilsh, or prime- minister and chief-com- mander of the troops, proved a veiy great friend to Bruce, to whom he also intrusted the government of a province. Since Salt's visit, the country remains convidsed Math internal revolutions, sedi- tions, &c., there being several pretenders in the field. The taxes of the country are mostly paid in kind — raw material, metal, horses, &c. The king resides but rarely in the city, and for the most part remains with his soldiers in the camp. His o&ciaJ name is Negus, or, in full, Negus Nagass Za-itjopja, King of the Kings (?f Ethiopia — afiudtug to the ETHIOPIA ETHIOPS. chiefs of the towns and provinces. The soldiers re- ceive no pay, but rely on plunder, and are said to be very valorous. See art. Abyssinia. Eniigrauts, as were beyond doubt the earliest settlers in Ethiopia, from the other side of the Arabian isthmus, it is but natural that the structure of their language, as well as that of their own bodies, should bear traces of their Shemitic origin. The reason of this emigration is contained in the \ ery name of this language, which is called Geez — free, affording a nnost striking parallel to the desig- nation Franc — French. Free places of habitation were what they came in search of. The name Ethiopian, or, as they call it, Ithiopjawan, they adopted from the Greeks at a very late period. This their oldest language, Leshana Geez, was suppressed by a royal decree of Ikon-Amlak, in the 14th c, and the Ainharic adopted a-s the court language. Ever since, it has, with exception of the province of Tigre, where it is still spoken (with slight idiomatic changes), remained the Leshana Mazhaf, the lan- guage of books and of the church. It is exclusively used in writing, even of ordinary letters, and the educated alone imderstand it. Its general structure comes as close to that of the Arabic as a dialect can and must. A great many of its words are still classical Arabic ; others resemble more the Hebrew and its two Chaldee dialects, the Aramaic and Syriac ; others, again, belong to African dialects ; and many, as the names of the months, are Greek. It has 2G letters, 22 of which bear the ancient Shemitic stamp, and exhibit the greatest likeness to the Phoenician, the common original alphabet ; and sevea vov/els, including a very short e, which sounds precisely like the Hebrew SchSwa. These vowels are represented by little hooks, and remain insepar- ably attached to their respective letters ; and as the Geez, imlike all its sister-languages, is never written without vowels, the alphabet becomes a syllabary with 182 characters. Another difference exists in its being written from left to right — a circumstance from which some have concluded that the Greeks introduced writing in Ethiopia ; for- getting, in the first place, that Greek itself was frequently written from right to left, and that Zend, certain cuneiforms, hieroglyphs, &c., are like- wise written from left to right. We cannot enter here into the grammatical niinutiie of the language ; we will only mention that out of the ten conjuga- tions, eight are Arabic ; that there is a double infinitive, but no participle and no dual ; that the formation of the so-called plural, and of declension generally, point to that very remote period when the Hebrew and Arabic made use of the same gram- matical processes. There are no diacritical marks employed in writing ; the letters are not combined, and the words are separated by two dots. Although there can be no doubt of the existence of a rich literature in a flourishing country like Ethiopia anterior to Christ, stiU, owing both to frequent internal convulsions, and the misguided zeal of the early Christian missionaries, who here and elsewhere considered it their first duty to destroy all the ancient records of which they could get hold, nothing but a few half-erased inscriptions nave survived. The earliest existing document of post-Christian literature is a complete translation of the Bible, probably by Frumentius. See Frumentius. The Old Testament, probably a translation from the Alexandrine version of the LXX., consists of four parts : 1, the Law or Octateuchos (five books of Moses, Joshua, Judges, Ruth) ; 2, Kings ; 3, Solo- mon ; 4, Prophets, and two books of the Maccabees. The New Testament consists of — 1, Gospels ; 2, Acts ; 3, Paulus ; 4, Apostolus. A very peciiliar t-ook, Jlenor.h, belongs also to the literature of the Old Testament. See Enoch. The New Testament comprises likewise another book, Senodas, contain- ing the pseudo- Clementine or apostolical constitu- tions. The Ethiopians have a liturgy {Kanon Kedaso — Holy Kanon) and a symlx>Iico-dogmatical work [Ilaimanota Abau — Belief of the Fathers), con- taining portions of homilies of the Greek Fathers, Athanasius, Basil the Great, Chrysostom, Cyril, Gregory of Nyssa and Nazianzen. Besides tliese, they have martyrologies, called Synaxar. They employ in this their sacred literature a peculiar kind of rhythm without a distinct metre. Any number of rhyming lines forms a stanza, without reference to the number of words constituting the verse, or of verses constituting the stanza. They also use certain phrases as a refrain — not unliks the manner of the mediaeval Hebrew Pizmon. See Jewish Liturgy. As to genei-al literature, they have neither a written book of laws, nor a gram- mar of their own language, nor, in fact, any- thing worth mentioning, except a Chronicle of Axum and Chronicles of Abyssinia. They are very fond, however, of riddles, wise saws, and the like, so fascinating to the Eastern mind. They have a Dictionary, but most of its explanations and translations are utterly wrong. No wonder the learned in Europe should have been sorely puzzled by such a language, and that they should, after long consideration, have pronounced it to be either ' Chaldee ' or ' Indian,' while Bruce held it to be the language of Adam and Eve. Potgen, a Cologne church-provost, happening to be at Rome at the beginning of the 16th c, there made the acquaint- ance of native Ethiopians, and became the first to enlighten the world on the natxire of this occult language. After him came the Carmelite Jacob Marianus Victorius from Reate, who wrote Institw tlones Linguce Chalda^ce S. jEthiop. (Rome, 1548), an entirely worthless book ; then Wemmers, who in 1G83 published an Ethiopian gi'ammar and diction- ary. The principal investigator, however, is Hiob Ludolf fromGotha, who, aided by the Abba Gregoriua before mentioned, and supported by his own extra- ordinary linguistic talents and indomitable energy, acquired such a power over this language, that not- withstanding the number of eminent Orientalists, such as Piatt, Lawrence, Dom, Hupfeld, Hoffmann, Roediger, Ewald, Isenberg, Blumenbach, &c., who have since his time bestowed much attention upon it, his books still hold the first place. It is hardly necessary to add, that the Ethiopian is one of the most important and indisi^ensable languages to the Shemitic scholar, containing as it does a great many words and forms of a date anterior to the separation of the different Shemitic dialects. Among the most important Ethiopian books printed in Europe are the Psalms, edited with a Latin translation by Ludolf (Frankfort, 1701) ; the New Testament, in two volvunes (Rome, 1548) ; the book of Henoch (Lond. 1840) ; Ascensio Isaice Yatis^ with a Latin translation by Lawrence (Oxford, 1819) ; Didascalia, or apostolical constitution of the Abyssinian Church, vnth an English translation by Piatt (Lond. 1834, &c.).— Ludolf 's works are— Gram* matica ^Ethiopia (Lond. 1661) ; Lexicon JEthiopicum (Frankfort, 1699) ; Ilistoria jEthiopica (Frankfort, 1681). See also Heeren, Historical Researches; CaiUiau, Voyage d Meroe ; Salt, Bruce, RuppeU^ &c., Travels. E'THIOPS, or ^'THIOPS (Gr. aido, I bum, and ops, countenance ; being of a black or burned coun- tenance), is a term applied by the ancient chemista to certain oxides and sulphides of the metals which possessed a dull, dingy, or black appearance. Thua, Ethiops Martialis was the mixture of protoxide and peroxide of iron, known as the black oxide ; Elhiops 143 ETHMOID BONE-ETHNOLOGY. Mineral^ or Ethiops Narcoticus, the black gray sul- phuret of mercury procured by triturating in a mortar u mixture of mercury and sulphur ; and Ethiops per se was obtained by agitating commercial mercury for weeks or months, when the oxygen of the air slowly formed the black oxide of mercury. ETHMOrD BONE, The (so called from ethmos, a sieve), is one of the eight bones which collectively form the cavity of the cranium. It is of a somewhat cubical form, and is situated between the two orbits of the eye, at the root of the nose. Its upper surface is perforated by a number of small openings (whence its name), through which the filaments of the olfac- tory nerve pass downwards from the interior of the &kull to the seat of the sense of smell, in the upper part of the nose. It consists of a perpendicular cen- tral plate or lamella, which articulates with the vo- mer and with the central fibro-cartilage, and thus assists in forming the septum or partition between the two nostrils. The lateral masses present a very com- plicated arrangement, and are so planned as to give in a small space a very large amount of surface, on which the filaments of the olfactory nerve are spread. In comparative anatomy, we find a direct ratio be- tween the development of these masses and the acute- ness of the sense of smell. See Nose and the Sense of Smell. ETHNO'LOGY (Gr. ethnos, nation or race, and logos, discourse) is the science that treats of the varie- ties in the human race ; their most marked physical, mental, and moral characteristics, when compared one with the other ; their present geographical distribu- tion on the globe; their history traced l)ackwards, Avith the aid of written documents and natural or monumental remains, to the earliest attainable point ; and finally, the languages of the various nations and tribes of mankind, whether still spoken or extinct, classified and compared with the view, by their means, of determining the chief points of resemblance or dissimilarity among the nations of the earth. Ac- cording to this definition, framed after the latest and best authorities, it is a science that involves in its study that of comparative physiology, also of geogra- phy, history and archaeology, and comparative philol- ogy. It is therefore a mixed or composite science, embracing a variety of subjects formerly not thought to belong to it, but now deemed necessary for its suc- cessful cultivation. It has been often confounded with ethnography, in which is implied a simple de- scription of the nations of the earth ; but ethnology takes a wider range, and while it comprehends tlie former, embraces much besides ; indeed, in its widest sense, it is now understood as involving a discussion of the important questions : 'What is species?' and * What is variety?' also, of the doctrine of hybridity, and of the difficult problem concerning the origin of mankind ; that is to say, a sifting of the evidence for or against the absolute unity of the human race. Ethnology, however, is a science still comparatively in its infancy ; and although it has made considerable progress since the researches of Camper and Blumen- bach, especially in this country, owing to the inde- fatigable exertions of Dr. Pritchard, it is to be hoped that, as in the case of other sciences — geology, for in- stance, and comparative philology, also of modern growth— when it comes to be better understood and more widely cultivated, apart from prejudice of what- ever kind, its limits will be more accurately defined, and the study of it narrowed to a more reasonable area than it at present occupies. As it is, there is no alternative but to treat of the subject according to the definition given above, which our space obliges us to do as briefly as possible. No one can look at an Englishman, a Red Indian, and a Negro, without at once noticing the differ- ences between the three, not only as regards the colour of their skin, but the shape of the skull, the texture of the hair, and the character of the several features, as eyes, lips, nose, and cheek-bones. What strikes the ordinary observer chiefly is, of course, the difference of complexion ; but the anatomist ia fully as much interested in the shape of the skuU, The first thoroughly scientific writer who endea* voured to lay down a method of distinguishing between the different races of mankind by a com. parison of the shape and size of the skull was Peter Camper, a distinguished Dutch anatomist of last century. He laid down a technical rule for ascertaining the facial line, and determining the amount of the facial angle, which he has thua described : ' The basis on which the distinction of nations is founded may be displayed by two straight hues, one of which is to be drawn through the meatus auditorius to the base of the nose, and the other touching the prominent centre of the forehead, and falling thence on the most advancing part of the upper jaw-bone, the .head being viewed in profile. In the angle produced by these two lines may be said to consist not only the distinctions between the skulls of the several species of animals, but also those which are found to exist between different nations ; and it might be concluded that nature has availed herself, at the same time, of thia angle to mark out the diversities of the animal king- dom, and to establish a sort of scale from the inferior tribes up to the most beautiful forms which are found in the human species. Thus, it will be found that the heads of birds display the smallest angle, and that it always becomes of greater extent in proportion as the animal approaches more nearly to the human figure. Thus, there is one species of the ape tribe in which the head has a facial angle of 42 degrees ; in another animal of the same family, which is one of those Simise most approximating in figure to mankind, the facial angle contains exactly 50 degrees. Next to this is the head of the African Negro, which, as well as that of the Kalmuk, forma an angle of 70 degrees ; while the angle discovered in the heads of Europeans contains 80 degrees. On this difference of 10 degrees in the f.acial angle the superior beauty of the European depends ; while that high character of sublime beauty which is so striking in some works of ancient statuary, as in the head of Apollo, and in the Medusa of Sisocles, ia given by an angle which amounts to 100 degrees.' Camper's method, however, although ingenious, was found practically to be of little use, and waa soon abandoned for the vertical method, or norma verticalis, of viewing the human skull, invented by Blumeiibach. The object sought in comparing and arranging skulls being to collect in one survey the greatest number of characteristic peculiarities — ' The best way,' says Blumenbach, ' of obtaining this end is to place a series of skulls with the cheek-bones op the same horizontal line resting on the lower jaws ; and then viewing them from behind, and fixing the eye on the vertex of each, to mark all the varieties in the shape of parts that contribute most to the national character, whether they consist in th« direction of the maxillary and malar bones, in the breadth or narrowness of the oval figure presented by the vertex, or in the flattened or vaulted form of the frontal bone.' Founding upon this mode of admeasurement applied to a large collection of skulls of different nations, accumulated by himself, Blumenbach classified the human family into tb* following five varieties — viz., the Caucasian, Mon- golian, Ethiopian, Malay, and American. In the first of these — which he made to include the CaucaaiaQJi ETHNOLOGY. or Circassians Proper, the Celts, the Teutons, the Shemites, the Libyan family, the Nilotic family, and the Hindustanic family — the skidl is large and oval, the forehead expanded, the nasal bones arched, the chin full, and the teeth vertical. In the second — '•They were neither nomades nor savages, nor do they display in their crania either of the forms principally belonging to races in those diHcreat states of existence. They had all heads of an 1 oval or elliptico-spherical form, which are ohrjerved which embraces the Chinese and Indo-Chinese, the i to prevail chiefly among nations who have their natives of the polar regions, the Mongol Tartars, ; faculties developed by civilisation.' As tiiey can- and the Turks — the skull is oblong, but flattened at not, however, by any means be made to compre- the sides, the forehead low and receding, the nose bend all the types of man, after the Egyi)tian3, ho broad and short, and the cheek-bones broad and flat, with salient zygomatic arches. In the third— embrac ing the Negroes, Kafirs, Hottentots, Australians, describes the great body of the nations of Africa, embracing tril^es sunk in the lowest state of degra- dation ; and after the Aryans, or Indo-Europeaua, Alforians and Oceanic Negroes — the skidl is long and the people of High Asia, chiefly nomades, inha- narrow, the forehead low, the nose broad and flat, [ biting \dst steppes, and never rising in the scala ttie cheek-bones prominent, the jaws projecting like | of civilisation beyond the condition of wandering a muzzle, the lips thick, and the chin small. In } shepherds, though in this capacity possessing some Uie foTirth — embracing the Malays and Polynesians j wealth, and acquainted with the use of clothing, generally — the skull is high and square, the forehead i tents, and W' agons. ' These classes of nations,' low, the nose short and broad, and the jaws pro- j he observes, ' have difi'erent physical characters, jecting. In the fifth — embracing the American I Among the African savages we find the prognaUioiL4 family and the Toltican family — the skuU is small, j fonn of the head and all its accompaniments ; and with the apex higli, and the back part flat, the j these traits display themselves in proportion to the forehead receding, the cheek-bones high, the nose I moral and physical degradation of the race. In aquiline, the mouth large, and the lips tumid. I Northern Asia, most of the inhabitants have the This classification of the human family, with the pyramidal and broad-faced skulls.' Ptefening ouj" added characteristics under each class, of complexion, ! readers to the articles Aryan Pace, Egypt, and hair, and eyes, is, upon the whole, the most popular, j Shemitic Nations respectively, for detailed infor- Blumenbach having taken considerable pains to : mation on the subject of these three grand divj- elaborate it, and present it to the world in a form ' sions of mankind, we shall here only notice Dr Prichard's subdivisions of one of them, namely, the Aryan race. The great Aryan or Indo-European race, which extends itself from the mouth of the Ganges to the British Islands and the northern extremities of Scandin.avia, divides itself, according to Prichard, into two branches — viz., the parent stock in Asia, and the colonies that it successively sent forth into Europe. The Asian branch comprises : 1. Hindus; 2. Persians ; 3. Afghans ; 4. Baluchi and Brahui ; 5. Kurds ; 6. Armenians ; and 7. Ossetines. Tlio collective body of the European nations are now generally regarded as a series of colonies from Asia. The proof turns mainly on a comparison of languages ; the ancient Sanscrit being regarded by the most acceptable to scientific inquirers. Later researchcs_ however, have proved it to be not quite tenable. Thus, Cuvier reduced the five classes of Blumenbach to three — \'iz., the Caucasian, Mongolian, and Ethiopian, treating the Malay and American as subdivisions of the Mongolian. Jacquinot does the same. Dr Prichard, who brought to the study of ethnology not only a large acquaintance with physiology, but a considerable knowledge of lan- guages, admits a greater number of varieties than Blumenbach, but divides his Caucasian class into two independent groups, which he calls the Syro- Arabian or Semitic, and the Aryan or Indo- Ger- manic. Moreover, he objects to the term Caucasian, as representing the notion that mankind had their origin on mountain heights. For himself, Prichard ' competent judges as the parent not only of the holds with the view that it was rather on the Greek and Latin languages, but of the Teutonic, banks of large rivers and their estuaries that the primitive nations developed themselves. ' The with its several ramifications of the Slavonic, Lettish, Lithuanian, and even Celtic. Dr Prichard hiinseil cradles or nurseries of the first nations, of those : was the first to point out the aflSnity of the Celtio at least who became populous, and have left a name celebrated in later times, appear to have been extensive plains or valleys, traversed by with the Sanscx'it, Greek, Latin, and Teutonic, in a memoir published by him in 1831, on the Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations. Later philologers have navigable channels, and irrigated by perennial and confirmed the view taken by him, and he is perhapp fertilising streams. Three such regions were the i correct also in the conclusion, that they were the scenes of the earliest civilisation of the human race, of the first foundation of cities, of the earliest political institutions, and of the invention t)f the arts which embellish human life. In one of tl'.ese, the Semitic or Syro- Arabian nations ex) hanged the simi)le habits of wandering shep- herds for the si)lendour and luxury of Nineveh and Babylon. In a second, the Indo-European or Japetic people brought to perfection the most alaborate of human dialects, destined to become in S>fter-times, and under different modifications, the mother-tongue of the nations of Europe. In a third, the land of Ham, watered by the Nile, were invented hierogl}^)hical literature, and the arts in which Egjrpt far 8uq)assed all the rest of the world in the earlier ages of history.' Dr Prichard, in his well-known Natural History of Man, commences with a description of these three divisions of the human race, not as discriminated one from the other by the form of the skull, but as comprising nearly all the civilised communities, and indeed mo8t»of the tribes of people known to antiquity. 16« first great immigration of the Aryans into Europe, who were afterwards conquered, and their numbers considerably reduced by fresh advancing colonies from the same parent hive. But there are other nations or tribes of Europe which no efforts of the philologists have succeeded in tracing to the Aryan stock ; such are the Lapps, Finns, Tschudes, and Ugrians of the North, and the Euskaldunes, now principally represented by the Basques in the West. To these, Dr Prichard has given the aj)pellation of AUoi)hylian (Gr. alios, another, and pkule, tribe), thereby signifying their independence of the Aryan stock. The progenitors of these tribes were probably the inhabitants of Europe, prior to the first Aryan immigration. After these several races, Dr Prichard treats of the native tribes of the austral seas and the great Southern Ocean, and finally, of the nativ^e inha- bitants of America. In every case, he carefidly describes the physical appearance or structm-e, the geographical habitat, history, and migrations (if any), the language, uud the moral and psychical attnbute? 146 ETHNOLOGY. of the nation or tribe immediately broiight nnder notice. His information has generally been obtained from the best sources, and hence bis works may be regarded as a storehouse of knowledge upon the Bubject of ethnology. But both before and since Blumenbach and Prichard, there have been several classifications of the human race proposed, the simplest of which is perhaps that of Dr Latham, into 1. Mongolidaj ; 2. Atlantidoe ; 3. Japetidae. This writer is properly regarded as the chief living exponent of the science of ethnology in this country. Following in tiie track of Prichard, and possessing, like hi.a, a considerable acquaintance with physiology and nistory, he distances him altogether in the department of comparative philology. His contri- b .itions to the science of ethnology, borrowed from this particular branch of study, are consequently of the highest value. But there is one important question, with respect to which the suffrages of the Ijest philologers are rather with Prichard than with Latham — viz., the origin of the Aryan or Indo Euro]>eiin race. Prichard, as we have seen, refers it to Asia, while Latham claims it for Europe. Other classifications might be mentioned ; but these we shall leave, especially as the best autho- rities, even those of rival schools, do not at present raucli insist on classification ; probably from a con viction of the hopelessness of laying down any definite scheme in which all coidd be brought to agree, in the existing state of the science. That a classification will at last come, when more facts shall have been accumulated, there is every reason to believe ; but this will scarcely happen before one great question at least shall have been set at rest, which now divides the cidtivators of ethnology into two hostile camps. This question is the all important one : ' What is species ? ' Men may go on classifying, but what do tliey classify? Is it species, or is it varieties? Prichard and Latham in this country, with a large band of followers, maintain that the numerous tribes of men upon the earth constitute essentially but one epecies ; that they have all sprung from a single pair ; and that the differences obsers^able among them, even in the extr^ne cases of the European And the Negro, may all be accounted for by the iutiuences of climate, food, and other cu'cumstances »n)erating through a long series of ages, and which thus produce the peculiar characteristics that no one can fail to notice in a comparison of one with the other. It is a well-ascertained fact in respect of the animal and vegetable kingdoms generally, that although by the union of two species hybrid animals and hybrid plants may be produced, especially in the domestic state, still there is no p()Y;er of reproduction among the hybrids them- selves ; in mules, for instance, and the offspring of tlie dog and the wolf, also in various tribes of birds ; nature appearing to have set her ban upon any permanent invasion of her law with respect to the distinctness of species. With the races of man, however, this is not the case. The European and the Negro intermarry, likewise the Spaniard and the iodiau of South America ; both have offspring, and that off3])ring is quite as capable of reproduction as individuals of the same parent nation. Whence it is argued, that all nations and tribes of men are originally of the same sj)ecie3. The diversities among them, say Prichard and his school, are not greater than \v^e continually see among the different iDreeds of dogs, horses, sheep, and oxen, which are never- theless universally regarded as nothing more than varieties. Indeed, within the historical period, and so lale even as since the discovery of America in tho loth c, such marked changes have taken place 146 in the animals transported to that continent from Europe, that they would scarcely seem to have descended from the same stock. And if this has been the case among the lower auimalo within such a limited period as that mentioned, is nothing to be allowed for the influence of cliciate ana other agencies in modifying the aspect cf man, and producing those varieties observable in him after a long lapse of ages ? Man, although a cosmopolite, and subduing all things to himself, 'capable of living under every clime, from the shores of the ley Sea, where the frozen soil never softens under his feet, to the burning sands of eqriar torial plains, where even reptiles perish from he^f and drought,' is nevertheless himself to a certain extent the creature of the circumstances by which he is surrounded. ' He modifies the agencies of the elements upon himself ; but do not these agencies also modify him ? Have they not rendered him in hia very organisation different in different regions, and imder various modes of existence imposed by physi- cal and moral conditions ? How different a being is the Esquimaux, who, in his burrow amid northern ices, gorges himself with the blubber of whales, from the lean and hungry Numidian, who pursues the lion under a vertical sun ! And how different, whether compared with the skin-clad and oily fisher of the icebergs, or with the naked hunter of the Sahara, are the luxurious inmates of eastern harems, or the energetic and intellectual inhabitants of the cities of Europe ! ' Notwithstanding all these differences, however, inasmuch as no impediment whatever exists to the perpetuation of mankind when the most dissimilar varieties are blended together, ' we hence derive a conclusive proof, unless there be in the instance of human races an excejjtion to the universally prevalent law of organised nature, that all the tiibes of men are of one family.' Thia conclusion of Prichard, based upon physiological grounds, is strongly supported by Dr Latham with arguments drawn from philology. Dr Latham, taking it as a matter of fact that all the languages of mankind have had a common origin, argues from it in favour of an original unity of race. Thia common origin of languages, however, is a thing by no means proved; for although Klaproth, Fiirst, and Delitzsch have taken great pains to establish an affinity between the Sanscrit and the Hebrew, M. Renan and other excellent authorities regard the attempt as unsuccessful, and, even were it other- wise, ' the Chinese,' says a late writer (Farrar, Essay on the Origin of Language), 'must always remain a stumbling-block in the way of aU theoriea respecting a primitiA^e language. Radical as is the dissimilarity between Aryan and Semitic languages, and wide as is the abyss between their grammatical systems, yet they almost appear like sisters when compared Avith the Chinese, which has nothing like the organic principle of grammar at all. Indeed, so wide is the difference between Chinese and Sanscrit, that the richness of human intelligence in the formation of language receives no more striking illustration than the fact, that these languages hi\ir© absolutely nothing in common except the end at which they aim. This end is in both cases the expression of thought, and it is attained as well in Chinese as in the grammatical languages, although the means are wholly different.' Having thus made the reader in some degree acquainted with the views of Drs. Prichard and Latham on the subject of ethnology, we now pro ceed to inform him of the totally different views and conclusions of the American school of ethnology. This school was founded by the late Dr. Morton, of Philadelphia, an erudite and active man of science, who laboured for many years in forming ETHNOLOGY. a collection of human crania of all nations, and of ! ancient as well as modern ages, with the design of still further carrying out Blumenbach's researches into the varieties of mankind by a comi^arison of crania, according to the method he had proposed. This collection of crania was begun in 1830, and at the time of Morton's death in 1851, amounted to the large number of 918 human crauia, to which were afterwards added 51 ; and it, besides, included 278 crania of mammals, 271 of birds, and 88 of reptiles — in all, 1606 skulls, being the largest collection of the kind ever formed, and which, fortunately for the purposes of science, is now deposited in the Museum of the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia. Simultaneously with this accumulation of crania, Dr Morton carried on his researches in ethnology, not, however, in the restricted sense in which he began, following Blumenbach's classification, but availing himself of the latest discoveries of Prichard, and the other English and continental \vriter3. One of the results of his labours was the publication, in 1839, of a handsome work, entitled Crania AmeH- cana, which was followed in 1844 by the Crania jEgyptiaca, in the collection of which he had been much aided by Mr G. \i. Gliddon. ' In this work,' says his biogra})her, Dr Patterson, ' Morton found himself compelled to differ in opinion from the majority of scholars, in regard to certain points of primary importance.' The great question of the unity or diversity of mankind in their origin was one that early forced itself upon his attention, and the conclusion at which he arrived, after much patient investigation, was in favour of the latter view. He was slow to publish any opinion on the subject, probably reserving it for a work upon which he was engaged, to be entitled the Elements of Ethnolo(jy. His opinion, however, was well known to his friends. In a note to a paper in SiUiman's Journal for 1847, he says: *I may here observe that whenever I have ventured an opinion on this question, it has been in favour of the doctrine of primeval diversities among men ; an original adaptation of the several races to those varied circumstances of climate and locality which, while congenial to the one, are destructive to the other ; and subsequent investigations have confirmed me in these views.' In a letter to Dr Nott, dated January 1850, he lays down the following proposi- tion : ' That our species had its origin, not in one, but in several or in many creations, and that these diverging from their primitive centres, met and amalgamated in the progress of time, and have thus given rise to those intermediate links of organisation which now connect the extremes together. Here is the truth divested of mystery; a system that explains the otherwise unintelligible phenomena so remarkably stamped on the races of men.' His latest utterance upon the subject is contained in a letter written to Mr G. R. Gliddon, in April 1851, only a fortnight before the WTi'ter's decease, which concluc'es as follows : ' The doctrine of the original diversity of mankind unfolds itself to me more and more w,th the distinctness of revelation.' His views U|)on this and other points of dispute among etlinc)h)gi3^a have been since embodied in a remark- able work, entitled Types of Mankind; or, Eihno- loijunl RtAcarclies based upon Ifie A ncient 3Io7cumentSy Painthiffs, Sculpture!^, and Urania of Races^ and njjon their Natural, Oeotjraphical, Philological, and Bibli- cal Jlistory ; illuHtrated by select ionn from the inedited Pape7's of aS', G. Morton., M.l)., and by additional con- tribuiions from Profcsaor L. AyasKiz, W. Usher, M.D., and Professor Jf. .S. Patterson. By J. C. Nott, M.D., and G. K. Gliddon (Philadelphia, 1854). In this com- posite work, pcrhaj)s the most remarkable feature is the paper contr-.buted by the celebrated naturalist, I Professor Agassiz, in suj)port of Dr Morton's theory as to the original diversity of the human races. The paper by Agassiz is entitled, Sketch of th6 Natural Proirinces of the A nimal World, and tJieir Relation to Uie Difj'erent Types of Man. It waa drawn up by the writer from a conviction that much might be gained in the study of ethnography by observing the natural relations between the different races of man and the plants and animals inhabiting the same regions. The sketch given by him is intended to shew, that 'the boundaiies within which the different natural combinationa ot animals are known to be circumscribed Ui>ou the surface of our earth coincide with the natural range of distinct types of man. Such natural combinations of animals circumscribed within definite boundaries are called Faunoi, whatever be their home — land, sea, or water.' There are eight regions of tli« earth, according to Agassiz, each contaJning its own faunae, and its own peculiar type of man ; and his main conclusion from a consideration of these several faunee is as follows : ' That the diversity among animals is a fact determined by the will of the Creator, and their geographical distribution part of the general plan which unites all organised beings into one great organic conception ; whence it follows that what are called human races, down to their specialisation as nations, are distinct primor- dial forms of the tj^e of man.' Messrs Nott and Gliddon, in their work quoted, appeal triumphantly to this theory of Agassi^s in support of their \'iew as to the primitive diversity of the races of man- kind ; and in a subsequent M'ork, Indigenous Races of the Earth (Philadelphia, 1857), have inserted a further communication from the writer, in which, whde he reiterates his formerly expressed opinion, that the races of man, so far as concerns their geographical distribution, are subject to the same circumscription as the other members of the animal kingdom, he observes : ' Even if this fact stood isolated, it would shew how intimately the plan of the animal creation is Hnked with that of manJcind. But this is not aU. There are other features, occurring among animals, which require the most carefid consideration, inasmuch as they bear precisely upon the question at issue, whether mankmd originated from one stock or from several stocks, or by nations. These features, well lal0^vll to every zoologist, have led to as conflicting views respecting the imity or plurality of certain types of animals as are prevailing respecting the unity or plurality of the origin of the human races. The controversy which has been carried on among zoologists upon this point, shews that the difii- cidties respecting the races of men are not peculiar to the question of man, but involve the inves- tigation of the whole animal kingdom — though, strange as it may appear, they have always been considered without the least reference to one another.' This theory of Agassiz, it must be stated, has been much controverted, as lilcewise the opmions gener- ally of Dr Morton and the American school of ethnology, partly on biblical, and partly on scien- tific grounds. Indeed, from the confiict of opinions as to the origin of the human race, if the solution of this question were the sole object of ethnologyj the science might be said to be in a very unsatis* factory state. But this is not the case. The question at issue is one that may well be left in abeyance for the present. Without it, the field of inquiry is sufficiently wide, and is well cidtivated by skilled labourers, who continuaU}-- bring the product of their researches in phyuiolog}'', geo- graphy, archreology, and comparative philology tr» enrich and fructify the newly turned-up soil. ETHYL-ETIENNE. Subjoined is a tabular view of the diflFerent races vi mankind, according to the classification of Dr. Latham : 1, MONGOLID^. Physical Characteristics. — Face broad and flat ; frontal profile retiring or depressed ; maxillary profile moderately prognathic or projecting, rarely orthognatic ; eyes often oblique ; skin rarely a true white, rarely a jet black ; irides generally dark ; hair straight, and lank, and black, rarely light- ColooTtid, sometimes curly, rarely woolly. Lan- guages — aptotic and agglutinate, rarely with a true lunalgamate inflection. See Languagk. Distribu- tiut ; and from others, streams of lava. In 1673, iMi immense volume of salt (?) water rushed down ihe Hioui tain : by some, it is supposed to have been ejected from the crater, but it is more probable that it arose from the sudden melting of the snow^s which covered the summit of the mountain. The last great erupl 'ion took place in 1852. Immense clouds of ash-gray dust were ejected, covering the whole of fhe surrounling countr3\ From two new mouths on the eastern flank th^re issued vast torrents of lava, one taking the direction of Zaffarana, the other floAving towards Giarra. The one stream •was two miles broad, and at one time as much as 170 feet deep. It moved at the rate of about GOO feet in the hour ; but when it descended abnipt cliffs on the mountain side, it was precipitated like a torrent in fiery cascades. The minerals peculiar to volcanic rocks occur at E., such as chrysolite, zeolite, selenite, alum, nitre, vitriol, copper, mercury, and spicular iron. ETOLIA. See iExoLiA. E'TON, a towTi in the south of Buckinghamshire, on the left bank of the Thames, 42 miles south- south-east of Buckingham, and 22 miles west-south- west of London, near the Slough station of the Great Western Eailway. It lies opposite to Windsor, in Berkshire, with which it is connected by a bridge over the Thames. Though in separate counties, these two towns really form one. E. chiefly con- sists of one long well-paved street, and is mainly dependent on the coUege. Pop. (1 87 1 ) 28 1 6, exclusive of the Eton boys. ETON COLLEGE is one among the most famous educational establishments in England. It was founded in 1440 by Henry VI., under the title of ' The College of the Blessed Mary of Eton beside Windsor.' The original foundation consisted of a provost, 10 priests, 4 clerks, 6 choristers, 25 poor grammar-scholars, a master, and 25 poor infirm men. The king provided for the estabhshment out of his own demesne lands and the estates of certain alien priories. A supplementary charter was granted in 1441, in which year also the College buildings were commenced. Henry was very solicitous that the work should be of a durable kind. Some of the buildings were finished in 1443, and were handed over by the royal commissioners to the provost, cle^k. and scholars. Political troubles of various .'tinds retarded the completion of the buildings Jail 1523. Bishor Waynfleete was the first head- raaater, and aft^^rw^ards a munificent supporter of she Oollege. The institution passed through much peril in the reign of Edward IV., and again in the wmc of the Commonwealth ; but it surmounted the dangers, and the increasing value of its estates brought in a large income. The present foundation consists of a provost, 7 fellows (one of whom is vice-i)rovost), 3 conducts, 7 clerks, 10 lay-clerks, 70 scholars, and 10 choristers, besides officers and servants. Most of the scholars are, at the age of 17, elected to valuable scholar- ships at King's College, Cambridge ; several smaller Bcholarships at other colleges, both at Oxford and Cambridge, together with sundry exhibitions and prizes, are also open to them. Among these is a prize for the French language, given by the late Prince Consort. The scholars are lodged within th« College walls. The main portion of the establishment, however numbering nearly 900, consists of the oppidaiia^ students who live out of the college, and whose friends pay liberally for their education. The tuition is the same for them as for the collegcra or scholars. There are an upper and a lower schocl, managed by a head-master and lower master, wiib a large staff of assistants. Considerable discussioji has taken place within the last few years concerning the kind of education received at Eton, the cost at which it is obtained, and the enormous incomes derived by some of the officials. The course of education has not undergone much change, except that the study of mathematics has been recently (1848) made a necessary part of the school l)usiness; it is still of the medieval character, which regards Greek and Latin as the basis of all good education ; and does not bestow much attention on modern science. There is, however, great prestige connected with the College ; and the Etonians, in their after- career, generally look back with affection upon it. The chief buildings of the College consist of the chapel, the hall, the library, the schools, the provost's and master's apartments, and the lodg- ings of the fellows, surrounding two quadrangles ; together with the boys' library and sleeping ai)art- ments, in a cluster called the New Buildings, attached to the northern side of the older group. The chapel is mostly of stone, the other buildings of brick ; and the effect of the whole is very pictur- esque, as seen from the terrace of Windsor Castle, on the other side of the Thames. The chai)el is an especially beautiful object. The houses of the masters are generally fitted up for the reception of oppidans as boarders. ETRURIA, TYRRHE'NIA, TU'SCIA, desig- nated, at a period anterior to the foundation of Rome, nearly the whole of Italy, together with some of its most important western islands. Its northern part, from the Alps to the Apennines, was known under the name of Etruria Circurapadana ; its southern, from the Tiber down to the Gulf of Psestum, or, according to some, to the Sicilian Sea, under that of Etruria Campaniana ; while the central portion, bounded on the N. by the Apennines and the river Macra, S. and R by the Tiber, and W. by the Tyrrhenian Sea, was called Etruria Propria. The two first, however, did not long remain Etrus- can territory, but were either reconquered by the surrounding tribes to whom they had originally belonged, or fell into the hands of new immi- grants. No historical records of that brief period of any moment having yet come to hght, they do not claim our attention ; while Etruria Proper, scanty though our information about it stiU be, deserves our interest in the highest degree. For its physical featiu'es, we refer the reader to Tuscany, Lucca, and the Transtiberine portion of the present Papal Dominions; and have only to remark, that vast expanses of that coimtry, which now are either covered with deep forest, or are shvmned on account of the malaria, were in those times fruitful, densely peopled regions. For political, or rather adminis- trative purposes, Etruria Proper was divided into twelve sovereign cities, or rather cantons, among which the most important were Tarquinii (Corneto), the cradle of the royal family of the Tarquins, who at one time wielded the sceptre of Rome ; Caere (Agylla, Cervetri), which, during the war of Rome with the Gauls, offered a refuge to the Komao Flamen Quirinals and Vestal Virgins ; Veii, the ETRURIA. greatest and most powerful city of Etruria, with 100,000 inhabitants, which carried on seven wars with Rome ; Chisium (Kamars, Chiusi), the chief of which, Porseua, as principal commander of the Etruscan troops, dictated a humiliating peace to Rome after she had expelled the Tarquins ; Perusia (Perugia), destroyed in the Perusian civil war (40) ; Arretium (Arezzo), birth])lace of Maecenas. Of other not sovereign places may be mentioned Luca (Lucca), Pisie (Pisa), on the Arnus, with the Portus Pisauus, now Leghorn, and Elorentia (Firenze, Florence), on the Amus. To what nation the inhabitants — called Etruscans (= Ext(?ri, strangers) or Tuscans in the Roman, Tyrrheni or Tyrseni {Turrenoi, Tursenoi) in the Greek, and Raseua (Tesne Rasne) in their own lan- guage—originally belonged, and what country they came from, is a question which was debated many hundred j'-ears before Christ, and is not settled j^et. AU the most ancient writers, save one of the most trustworthy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, implicitly follow Herodotus, who — confoimding them, perhaps, as is his wont, with the Lydian Turrenoi, or inha- bitants of the city of Tyrrha — pronounces them to be Lydians, although there is not the slightest similarity bet ■veen these two nations, and althovigh Xanthus, the Lydian historian, knows nothing what- ever about a fabled famine of eighteen years' dura- tion in Lydia, followed by an emigration to Italy under a Prince Tyrrhenus. Dionysius himself offers no opinion ; he calls them an indioenous race — which means nothing ; and it is surprising that some modern investigators shovdd, despairing of a rational solution of the old riddle, have fallen back upon this evasive theory of * autochthons.' Thucydides, in first mixing up the Torrhebian pirates with the Pelasgian fiUibusters, gave rise to the most hopeless confusion about their very name. As to the innumerable theories and hypotheses that have Deen put forward since his day, we will only men- tion that while Ciampi and Collar hold them to be of Slavonic origin, Freret calls them Celts ; Micali, Albanese ; Lami, Pfitzmaier, and Stickel, Semitics ; and others variously make them Goths, Scandi- navians, Basques, Assyrians, Phoenicians, Egjq^tians, and Armenians. The most rational and generally accepted opinion is that of Niebuhr — modified more or less by Ottfried Miiller, Lanzi, Lepsius, Steub — of their being, when they first appear in history, a mixture of an eastern tribe, which had settled for a while in the Rhaetian Alps (the Tyrol of to-day), and Pelasgians, whom they had found in their new Italian seats ; these latter having, in their turn, since their immigration, mixed with the Umbrians, the oldest historical inhabitants of those parts. But, as we said before, this is only the most rational opinion that rose out of an ocean of wild speculation : so far from any authentic proofs ha\'ing been brought forward in its support, the question stands to-day precisely where it stood when Dionysius wrote : — 'The Etruscans do not resemble any people in lunguage and manners.' Immense as was their influence on Roman, and, fact, on European civilisation, very little is known with respect to their political history. Chiefly oulti eating the arts of peace, they still seem, long after their heroic period, to have been powerful enct^gh to scare away any invader, and tliis prob- ably is the reason why historians have so little to record of them ; but their decline may be said to Ktand in an inverted ratio to the rise of Rome. The 7th and earlier half of the 6th c. B. c. had been the most powerful and flourishing epoch of the Etruscan Btate in its widest sense — which then probably had been in existence for four or five hundred years. Whether they had put then- Tarquiuii as govei-nors over conquered Rome, or whetlier, on the contrary, the reign of this P^trnscun family would denote the subjugation of Southern Etruria by Rome her- self, is not quite clear ; but the expulsion of the last Roman king, Tarqninius (Tarchon), called Superhus, was followed, about 507 u. c, by a war between the Etruscans, under Porsena of Clusium, and the Romans, which, although ending in a most igno- minious peace, dictated within the walls of Rome, did not bring about the restoration of the Tar- quinian dynasty. From the wars between Veil and Rome, which began in 486, and ended — inter- rupted only by an occasional armistice — '395 P.. C, with the destruction of Veil, dates the gradual but sure extinction of Etruria as an indei>endent state. The Gauls advancing from the north, the Etruscans were forced to conclude a foi-ty years' truce with their adversaries at any price ; but these over, and "the Romans being engaged with the Samnites, the Etruscans recommenced the hostilities more liorccly than ever. In the course of this last war, the Romans succeeded, 309 B.C., imder Q. Fabius Maximus, in twice defeating them, and Fabiua crossed the Ciminian forest— the frontier sacred from time immemorial; and when, 283 B.C., P. Cornelius Dolabella had beaten both them and their Gallic auxiliaries in a decisive and sanguiuaiy battle at the Vadimonian Lake, Etruria became a Roman province ; and about two hundred years later, the Lex Julia conferred upon her inhabitants, as a reward for their fidelity, the right of citizen- ship. Up to that time, they had succeeded in keep- ing up their own singularly distinct creed, customs, traditions, language — their nationality, in fact ; when Sulla, 82 B. c, infuriated by the part they had taken against him, liberally bestowed great portions of their land upon his veterans ; and some fifty years later, Octavianus planted his military colonies there. This wrought and completed the transformation of that mysterious conglomeration of heterogeneous races and tribes, hitherto called Etrurians, into Romans. Once more, well-nigh 2000 years after its extinction, the kingdom of Etruria (Hetruria)' rose before the eyes of the world. The peace of Luneville re-created it, and conferred it on the hereditary prince, Louis of Pai-ma ; after whose death, his widow, the Infanta Louisa of Spain, administered the government for their son, Charles Louis, up to 1807, when it became a French province. From 1809, it again bore the name of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany; and to TusCANv — which in our days forms a pro-sauce of the Italian kingdom, as it did of yore — and to Italy, we refer for its modern history. We have spoken above of twelve cities as forming the confederacy of Etruria Proper. Similar con- federacies of twelve cities were established, inde- pendently of each other, in the two other Etrurian. The cities themse res, however, cannot be fixed now in all cases. From the fact of more than twelve autonomous ones being recorded in Etruria Proper, it would appear that some among these twelve confederates, or populi, possessed more than one capital city, each populus, however, bcincj limited to one representative vote in the general council. The members of the confederacy were bound to appear regularly at an annual religiou-a assembly near the temple of Voltumna, a locality which we are as yet unable to point out. Here great fairs were held for the people ; common opera- tions of war being discussed by the principes, and a general-in-chief for the ensuing year elected from their number. Each city or canton, in the earher times at least, had a king (Lucximo, Lauchme = Inspired), chosen for life, who at the 8 ime time acted as high-priest ; and a hereditary uobiliby, which nloA<» ETRURIA. was elitjible to the higher offices of state. Next to them, in the political and social scale, came the peoi)le, properly so called — free, not subject person- ally to the nobility; lowest stood a great number of clients or bondmen, probably the descendants of subjected original inhabitants. On the whole, the federal interdependence between the cities was far from close. Single cities carried on wars in which the others took no part ; and when the confederacy resolved on general action, there were always some membt^rs which, for some reason or other, stood aloof. It ai)pears from this that the Etruscan con- *olis or city, chooses a head,^or rather high-[)riest, and enters into a more or less* intimate alliance with its neighbouring cities ; but, beside that kiu^ of its own, recognises a common chief only in time of war. The F]truscans were, as a people, less warlike than any of their neighbours, especially the Romans, and (ionspicuous is their want of anything like cavalry. Theirs was also the nn-Italic custom of hiring noldiers, and their energies seem principally to have been directed to the more profitable occupations of trade and agriculture. One of the chief articles of their commerce was amber, which Germans brought from the Baltic to Etruria Circumpadana, whence it was conveyed to Greece by sea. In the western parts of the Mediterranean, they were formidable as pii-ates ; while they were Avelcomed by the Cartha- ginians and the Greeks of Magna Graecia, as im- porters of indigenous products of nature and art, which they exchanged for the wealth of the East and South. That their commerce within Italy must have been very extensive, appears from the fact, that all the states of Central Italy adopted their system of coinage, based, like their tables of weights and measures, and many of their political institutions, on the duodecimal system. The striking contrast between the Etruscans and their Italic and Greek neighboiurs, which appears in. the short thickset frames, the large heads and bidky extremities of the former, and the slender limbs and graceful harmony in the whole structure of the latter, and which runs with equal distinctness through tlie intellectual lives of the three nations, manifests itself nowhere with greater power than in their religions. Equally distant from the abstract, clear rationalism of the Latins, and the plastic joy- fulness of Hellenic image-worship, the Etruscans were, as far as their dumb fragments shew — for what we llnd on them of human words we do not understand — chained in a dark and dotard mysti- cism, such as a blending of a half-forgotten Eastern symbol -service with barbarous religious practices of northern savages, grafted upon archaic Greek notions, might j^roduce. In their Pantheon, the predominance belongs to the evil, mischievous g"od3 ; their prisoners are welcome sacrifices to the eavenly powers ; they have no silent depths where the ' good spirits ' of their departed dwell, but a hell of the most hideous description, and a heaven where permanent intoxication is the bliss that awaits the virtuous. They divide their gods into two classes, and they place them in the most northern, and there- fore most immovable point of the world, whence they can best overlook it. The upper section is formed by shrouded, hidden gods (Involuti), of uncer- tain numlier, who act awfidly and mysteriously, and twelve lower gods of both sexes, called Consentes, Complices. Tinia (Zeus, Jupiter) is the chief of these latter, and stands between the two divisions of the gods, receiving orders for destruction from the upper ouea, while the lower ones form his ordinary council, am', olxiy his behests. Nine of these (Novensdes) 162 hur- lightnings at various times and with peculiai effects. The three of these deities which seem to have been the principal objects of worship were Tinia himself, armed with three different kinda of lightning, Cupra (Hera or Juno) and Menrfa (Minerva, Pallas Athene). Gods most peculiarly Etruscan are Vejovis, an evil Jupiter, whose thun- derbolts have the i)ower to deafen, and Nortia, the goddess of Fate, also called Lasa Mean. Besides these, they put a host of demons over the different portions of the creation : — the heavens, the earili, and the lower regions (Penates, Lares, and Manea% Their deities have generally wings ; and before tlie Assyrian bulls had come to light, some antiquaries established from this a connection with the Hebrew winged cherubim. Characteristic in the highest degree is their * disciptina,* or art of 'divination. This had been revealed by Tages, a grandson of Jupiter, who was dug out near Tarquinii, in the shape of a childlike dwarf with gray hair — a most striking caricature of these both childish and senile practices — and who died immediately after having communicated these mysteries. They were at first the property of the noble families ; but in the course of time, as others were initiated, and schools for j)riests were founded, these mystical and awe- striking teachings came to be written down. It is saddeumg to observe here again in what monstrous insanities the spirit of man occasionally revels, and that, too, in the i)rovince of what is noblest and highest— religion. The 'disciplina' was developed into an exact science, fully as minutely and casuisti- cally sharpening its points and splitting its hairs as Hindu or Mohammedan theology would. It taught what gods hurled the different kinds of lightning ; how, by the colour and the peculiar quarter of the sky, the author of the bolt might be recognised ; whether the evil denoted was a lasting or a passing one ; whether the decree was irrevocable or covdd be postponed ; how the lightning was to be coaxed down, and how it was to be buried. This was the speciality of the Fulgurales. The Haruspices had as their share the explanation of portents, prodigies, monsters, the flight and cries of birds, the entrails of sacrificial animals ; while others ministered in the holy rites at the foundation of cities, the building of gates, houses, &c. Their ceremonies (a word derived from their town Caere) were endless and silly, but the show and pomp with which their priests knew how to surround these juggleries, and from which the Romans largely borrowed, made them acceptable in the eyes of the herd ; and although Rome herself, with all her augurs, called Etruria ' the mother of superstition,' there was a certain odour of tithes and fees about these rites which made many anxious to ' preserve religion in its primeval purity.' In the entire absence of anything like a genuine Etruscan account, even the outlines of the relation between their religion and that of the Greeks oa the one hand and the Romans on the other arc exceedingly difficult to trace ; so much, however, ii certain, that they adopted and assimilated msnvj points of archaic Greek theology, and clothe! them in a garb of their own, and that this process waa gone through and repeated still more completely by the Romans, in their turn, with respect to the religious notions of the Etruscans. The articles on Greek and Roman religion will furnish further infor- mation on this point. The high degree of civilization which the Etrus- cans possessed long before Rome was heard of ia testified by innumerable works of masonry and art. Tlie Etruscans were of an eminently practical turn of mind, and domestic, like the north. Trusting to their priests for reconciliation with the gods, who ETRURIA. always seemed irate, but whose angry deirees could easily be foreseen and averted, they set to work in developing the inner resoiurces of the country, and in making tke best use of their intercourse with foreign countries. They thus became eminent in agriculture, navigation, military tactics, medicine, astronomy, and the like ; and in all these, as well as in some of the very minutiae of their dress and furniture, the Romans became their ready disciples and imitators. The division of the year into twelve months, of the months into kalends '4nd nones and ides, the designation of the numerals, were Etruscan ; from the same source were derived the toga prcBiexta as well as the pomp of triumphs, the lictors and apparitors, down to the ivory cunile chairs. The towns of the Etruscans were clean and healthy, owing to their perfect system of drainage and sewerage ; they tunnelled and exca- vated, they embanked and irrigated, they turned swamps into cities, changed the course of streams, and excelled in all kinds of usefid public and private works. Their ideal was not the beautiful or the spiritual, but a comfortable, and, if possible, luxurious existence. As a special proof of their love for their own hearth, a quality probably imported from the north, we might adduce their invention of the atrium, the common sitting-room of the family, where the master of the house sat sur- roimded by his penates and the figures of his ancestors, while the wife and her handmaidens plied the labours of the loom or the distalF. As in the Germanic nations, woman stood in high estimation. She was the companion, not the slave of the hus- band, and thus had certainly not a little share in the softening of their primitive wildness, and in counteracting the sombreness of their creed. That we find them even in their tomb-jiaintings engaged in convivial carousings, dancing, races, athletic games, and tnat they liked their very worship accompanied by the sound of flutes, horns, and trumpets, only she ,vs that that glorious sky of theirs, their intercourse with the nations, their wealth and culture, had gradually caused their antique and gloomy austerity to wear off, even as it wore oflf with the ilomans and other peoples ; for to assume with some that the boisterous scenes to which we allude were caused more or less by the despair arising from the loss of their independence, would be going somewhat too far. Licentiousness is the sure forerunner of the fall of a nation, but a whole people does not take refuge in enjoyment when their all is lost. We know little of Etruscan Hterature ; it seems to have consisted mostly of rituals, religious hymns, and some historical works. Whether the Fesceunines, certain mocking-songs, sung in alternate verses, with musical accompaniment, at nuptials, originated with them or not, is not decided. We have alluded to the high proficiency of this people in architecture ; they were, in fact, so renowned in this craft throughout the antique world, that, as Solomon called Phoenicians to Jeru- salem to build his temple, so the Romans sought ia Etruria the framers of their grandest masonic structures, such as the Cloaka Maxima, the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitol, &c. The peculiarly fantastic, and, withal, powerful mind which speaks in all their institutions, equally pervades their architectural productions ; but, at the same time, everything they built, they built either for practical or pious purf>oses. We cannot here enter into a discussion of their manner as it appears in various epvichs, but it never reached anything like a distinct national completeness, their eagerness to profit by forei(;n examples not allowing them to develop it to the full unalloyed. Of their walls and gates, temples and porticoes, theatres and ampliitheatres, bridges and sewers, gigantic, and, in the earliest times, Cyclopean — evidently erected, in Eastern fashion, by hosts of slaves — very little is extant in so complete a form as to give us an exact insight into their mode of construction ; and were it not for their tombs, our knowledge would be exceedingly limited. The^e form one of the most peculiar fea- tures in Etruscan antiquities. Hewn in rocks, either below the ground or in the face of a cliff, they were adorned outside with a somewhat Egyptian fayade of a temple or a house, which the insides themselvei most exactly reproduce, with all their internal decorations, furniture, and utensils. Of the paintings which run round the walls, and which are ouj safest aijd most complete guides to the mner life of this nation, we will say more presently. We must not, in conclusion, omit to mention that their temples bore in primitive times, and always retained, in some measure, so far as we can judge, the unfinished character of ',\xe wood-buildinga of northern mountain tribes — a square, half-house, half- fortification, overloaded with quaint ornamen- tation. In their plastic and pictorial arts, Winckelmanu has established three distinct styles — to which Dennis has added a fourth — viz., the Egyptian, with Babylonian analogies, the Etruscan or Tyrrhene proper, the Hellenic, and that of the decadence. Characteristic of the first style are the prev^aieuce of straight lines, right angles, faces of an oblong, contracted oval, with a pointed chin, eyea mostly di-awn upwards, the arms hanging close to the side, the legs close together, the drapery long, in straight parallel lines, the hair disposed in tiers of curia. In this style, the attitude is constrained, the action stiff and cramped. The progress shewn by the second style is the greater attention bestowed on the delineation of the muscles, which swell out in disproportionate prominences on the now almost entirely nude body. The two remaining styles explain themselves. Their statuary, as it apj)ear3 chiefly on sarcophagi and cinerary urns, suggests likewise an Egyi:)tian origin. The figures are those of their own mystical and awful Hades, instead of the Bacchic processions of Greece and Rome. The grouping follows rather a pictorial than a plastic principle ; the motion is hasty and forced ; but the features of the deceased, hewn on the lid, have aU the rude accuracy of a spiritless portrait. Statues of deities in wood and stone have indeed been foimd, but very rarely. Of high renown were their ornaments and utensils in balked clay (terra cotta), in the manufacture of which objects the Veientes were especially famous. Rome, at a very early period, possessed of this material a quadriga and the statue of Summanus, made by Etruscans. Of the art of working in bronze, the Etruscans were supposed to be the inventors : that they brought it to a very high degree of perfection, is evident from the examples which remain to us. £tatueg and utensils were manufactured and exported in immense quantities, not only to Rome, but to every part of the known world. Of figures oil a large scale still extant, we may mention tlif renowned She-wolf of the Capitol, the Chimsera ii. the Museum of Florence, the Warri-)r of Todi in iiia Etruscan Museum of the Vatican ; a portrait-statua of an Orator, with the inscription Aule ^leteH, in Florence ; and the Boy with the Goose at Leydeu. The various objects of ornament and use, found in great numbers in tombs, such as candelabra, cups, tripods, chaldrons, couches, discs ; articles of armour, as helmets, cuirasses, &c. ; musical instru- ments, fans, cists or caskets, are most of them models of exquisite finish and artistic skill. Their gems are as numerous as those of Egyx^t, and, like ETRURIA. them, cut into the form of the scarahceus or beetle. They were exclusively intaglios, and of cornelian, eardonyx, and agate. On these the Etruscan artists represent groups fi-om the Greek mythology, or the heroic cycle, bereft, as they seem to have been, of heroic legends of their own. They arc most frequently found at Chiusi and Vulci, and were worn as charms and amulets. Special mention should be made of the metal specula, or mirrors, with figures scratched upon the concave ! side, the fi'ont or convex side being highly polished, These ranged over all the phases of Etruscan art, and are especially and peculiarly Etruscan. None but Etruscan inscriptions have ever been found upon them. Tliey will, no doubt, prove eventually of the highest importance, not only by enabling us to follow the gradations of artistic devclojjnient step by step, but by furnishing us with lists of names of gods and persons, and, it may b«» of objects. Etruscan Mirror from Vulci, with Phuphluns (Bacchus), Semla (Semele), and Apulu (Apollo). Half size. After a drawing by Mr George Scharf. Of the vases and urns which are found in innu- merable quantities in Etruscan tombs, we cannot treat here, as they are admitted on all hands to be, with very few exceptions, Greek, both in design and workmanship ; we must refer the reader to the ttpticial article on Vases ; but a few words may be wadded on the before-mentioned tomb-paintings. They are found chiefly in the cemeteries of Tarquinii and CJlusium ; and they are all the more important, as they lead us with minute accuracy from the very cradle of the individual, through the various scenes of his entire life, to its close ; and this throughout the existence of the nation itself, beginning before the foundation of Rome, and ending in the Emi)ire; while we follow the style in its gradual development from the Egyptian to Gra3co-Roman perfection. One of the annexed specimens, taken from a tomb at Corneto, represents a death-bed scene ; but most of the other i)aintings, especially at Tarquinii, are of a very different description, as the other specimens 164 shew. Life in its merriest aspects gleams m the most vivid of colours all round — dancing, feasling, loving, hunting. The Etruscans of later times had learned in the school of the Hellenes to dread death less, and to think of the other world as one of continued joyfulness. We conclude with the Etruscan language. Brevity on that point will be the more pardonable, as our real knowledge of it is next to none. Scarce as the inscriptions themselves are, still one might have supposed that our days, whicl^ have seen the riddle of the cuneiform character solved, might have decided ere now whether the Etmscan be ' aboriginal ' or Celtic, Slavonic or Albanese, Greek or Rliffltian, Latin or Semitic, Turanic or Armenian, hieroglyphs, or any other of the languages which the ditt'erent savans have pronounced it to be. Our present information with respect to this peculiar idiom consists in the following items : It has twenty-one letters, like the ancient Greek, and ETRURIA. reads from right to left. In transcribing words from other lan^iages, it softens its gutturals and aspirates, and mterchanges cognate letters, most frequently transforming d into t — for instance, Odysseus = Utage ; Polydeukes = Pultuke ; Adria = HatrL The most frequent termination is e : Peleus becomes Pele; Tydeiis, Tyde. 'Aifil' and *Avil ril' probably mean *he lired,' or 'he lived years,' since we find these words always followed by numerals. ThiB question of their language is naturally identical supposes the whole to be a manifesto or solemn accusation of some expelled Ilasena against the Clensi (Clusii). 'Py*?^ n^h -in bah ul'Amme I'areta tanna I'at hu 'This we have put up as a sign for the land and the peoples therein.' Of the very numerous writers who have treated with that of their origin, and tliey will both ha.\e to be settled finally together. In the meantime we may, without prejudice, say that there is something very seductive about Stickcl's Semitic explanation of some of these inscriptions. We subjoin, in order to give the reader an opportunity of judging of the character itself, and also for the sake of curiosity, the first and part of the second line of a large inscription found in 1822, at Perugia, with a Hebrew transcript, and Stickcl's Semitic translation, lits on Etruria and Etruscans, we will mention Diodorus, Strabo, Dionysius, Athenseus, Cincius in his Annals, Cato in OrigineSy Varro in De Lingua Latina. Aulus Coecina's De Etrusca Disciplina, as well as the Emperor Claudius' twenty books of Tyrrhenian history, are lost, but some portions of them have survived, embodied in contemporaneous and later works. In modem times, we have Dempster, ii'/rwr 2a Ee{jalis (Florence, ]'''23 — 1724); Gori, Musevm Ehmscum (Florence, i;37 — 1773); Inghirami, Monumenti Eti-uschi (1821 — 1826) ; Micali, Storia degli antidd popoli 1 taliani ; Ottfried MU]ier, ETSCH- [— ETTY. Die Etrusker (Breslau, 1828) ; Micali, Monumenti [nediti, &c. (Kome and Paris); Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (London, 1849) ; Abeken, Kugler, Lenoir, Hittorf, Amaduzzi, Monimsen, Bnnsen, Gerhard, &c., and the Transactions of the many arch£eological societies and institutes. ETSCH. See Adig4 ETSHMIA'DZIN", a remarkable Armenian con- vent in Erivan, a Transcaucasian province of Russia, and a])Out 16 miles west of the town of Erivan. It is of great extent, is surrounded by a wall 30 feet iu height, and 1^ mile in circuit. This wall encloses f:everal distinct churches, each of which is presided over by a bishop, is cruciform in shape, and is surmounted by a kind of cupola crowned by a low spire. For many centuries, this has been the seat of the Catholicos (the head or patriarch of the Armenian Church). This patriarch presides at the synodical meetings, but cannot pass a decree without its having the approval of the moderator, an official appointed by the Russian emperor, in whose hands the control of the convent virtually rests. In the convent library there are 635 manuscripts, 462 of which are in the Armenian language. ETTMULLER, Ernst Moritz Ludwio, an able writer on German antiquities, was born 5th October 1802, at Gersdorf, near Lobau, in Upper Lusatia, and studied medicine at Leipsic from 1823 to 1820, but subsequently the language and history of his native country. In 1830, having taken his degree of Ph.D. at Jena, he began to deliver lectures there on the German poets of the middle ages ; but in 1833 he was called to the ZUrich Academy as teacher of the German language and literature. E.'s literary activity has been exhibited chiefly in the editing of the hterary remains of the Middle High-German, and older Low-German dialects. To the former helongh.\& SantOswaldes Leben (Zurich, 1835); Hade- louhes Lieder und Spriiche (ZUrich, 1840); HeinricICa Von Meissen des Frouwenlobes Lieder, Lelc/ie, und Spriiche (Quedliub. 1843) ; Frawen Helclien Silne (Zurich, 1846) ; HeinridCs Von Veldecke Eneide (Zurich, 1852). Of poems composed in Low German he published, among others, Theophilics (Quedlinb. 1849); and Wizldwes IV., des Fiirsten Von Biigen^ Lieder und Spriiche (Quedlinb. 1852). In 1850 appeared, under his editorship, an Anglo-Saxon chrestomathy, entitled Enqla and Seaxna Scdpas and bdceras ; and in the following year his Lexicon Anglo- Saxonkum, -which supplied a want long felt in Germany. At an earlier period in his literary career, E. paid great attention to the old Norse literature, and in this department we have from him an edition of the Voluspd, &c. K has also written poetry, as well as edited it. His Deutsche Stamm- Iconige appeared at Zm-ich in 1844, his Kaiser Karl d. Or. und das Frdnkische Jungfrauenheer in 1847, and his Karl d. Or. und der Heilige Ooar in 1852. E'TTRICK, a pastoral vale in the south of Selkirkshire, watered by the Ettrick river, which rises amid bleak hills in the south-west corner of this county near Ettrick Pen, 2258 feet high, and rims 28 miles north-east, and falls into the TweecL Its chief affluent is the Yarrow, which runs 25 miles from the west, through one of the loveliest of Scotch vales, and the scene of many a plaintive song. Ettrick Forest, a royal hunting tract, swarming ^vith deer till the time of James V., included Selkirkshire and some tracts to the north- In Ettrick Vale, at Tushielaw, dwelt the celebrated freebooter or king of the Border, Adam Scot, who was summarily executed by James V. The district derives some note from two persons in modem times — Thomas Boston (q. v.), a Scottish divine, who was minister of the parish of Ettrick ; and J ames Hogg, the Scottish poet, who, having been originally a shepherd in this part of the country became known as ' the Ettrick Shepherd.' ETTY, William, R.A. This distinguished artist was born at York, March 10, 1787. His father was a miller and spice-maker. Before he was twelve years of age, he was apprenticed to a printer, and served out his dreary term of seven years, the irksome drudgery of which he himself often after- wards was in the habit of narrating, occasionally soothed by dreams of, on some future day, bein^ an artist. Freed at last, and assisted by Bovaa relatives, in 1805, at the age of 18, he entered on the study of art, and, after a year's probation, was admitted as a Royal Academy student. His career is very interesting and instructive. It exhibits one gifted with enthusiasm for art, high resolutions, and great industry and perseverance, for a series of years invariably surpassed by many of his fellow- students, and, as has been recorded, ' looked on by his companions as a worthy plodding person, with no chance of ever becoming a good painter.' Neither prizes nor medals fell to his share as a student ; and for several years his pictures were rejected at the Royal Academy and British Insti- tution Exhibitions. It was only after six years of hard study that he obtained a place for a I)icture in the Exhibition of the Iloyal Academy; and his works only began to attract notice in 1820, when the artist was 33 years of age, and as he himself has said, ' having exhibited nine years to no purpose.' But the circumstance of E.'s genius being so long unappreciated, did not so much arise from his works evincing no talent, as from his class of subjects, and those technical qualities for which his works are remarkable, not being appreciated at the time ; for long before his pictures were saleable, his powers were highly ajipreciated by his professional brethren. On his return from Italy in 1822, where \x% had been studying the great Venetian colourists, he was elected an Associate of the Academ}'. In 1824, his cheJ-cV oeuvre, ' The Combat — Woman pleading for the Vanquished,' was purchased by an artist, John Martin. In 1828, he was elected Academician by the members of the Royal Academy ; while in the same year the Royal Scottish Academy testified its high appreciation of his talents by purchasing the most important of his efforts, the historical work illustrating the history of Judith and Holo- fernes. Testimonials so high soon had their eflfect ; E.'s pictures came into great request, and brought large prices, and he was enabled amply to repay those who, trusting to his energies, had assisted him when he entered on the contest, in which, after so arduous a struggle, he gained so much honour. He always cherished a love and rever- ence for York, his native city, and had retired there some time previous to his death, which took place on November 30, 1849. K had an exquisite feeling for colour, which ho most assiduously cultivated by studying the works of the great Venetian masters, and constantly painting from the life ; and though, in his drawing, carelessness and incorrectness may often be observed, it is never vidgar, and often possesses much eleva- tion and largeness of style. He generally chose •subjects that afforded scope for colour, in which the nude and rich draperies were disi>layed. He executed nine pictures on a very large scale, viz. : ' The Combat ; ' series of three pictures illustrating the delivery of Bethulia by Judith ; ' Benaiah slaymg two Lion-like Men of Moab ' — these five, which are the best of his large works, were pur^^hased by the Royal Scottish Academy, and are nov» in the Scot- tish National Gallery — ' The Syrens,* now in the ETYMOLOGY— EI CALYPTUS. Manchester Institution ; and three pictures illustrat- ing the history of Joan of Arc. His smaller works are numerous. Besides his lareje works above referred to, he sent for exhibition to the Eoyal Academy and British Institution, between 1811 and 1849 inclusive, no less than 230 j)ictures, many of them composed of numerous figures, and all remarkable for exquisite colour. The following may be parti- cularly noted : ' The Coral-finders ; ' ' Venus and her youthful Satellites arriving at the Isle of Paphos ; ' ' Cleopatra's Arrival in Cilicia ; ' a com- position from the eleventh book of Paradise Lost (♦ Bevy of Fair Women ') ; ' The Storm ; ' ' Sabrina ; ' * The Warrior Arming ; ' ' Youth at the Prow, and Pleasure at the Helm ; ' * The Dance,' from Homer's description of Acbilles's Shield ; ' Britomart redeems Fair Amoret ; ' ' Dance on the Sands, and yet no Footing seen ; ' * Amoret Chained.' — Compare E.'s Life by Gilchrist (Bogue, London, 1855). ETYMO'LOGY (Gr.) is that part of grammar that treats of the derivation of words. It embraces the consideration of the elements of words, or letters and syllables, the different kinds of words, their forms, and the notions they convey ; and lastly, the modes of their formation by derivation and com- position. Etymological inquiries have formed a favourite pursuit from the earliest times. In the book of Genesis, nimierous indications are given of the denvation of proper names. Homer also attemi)ts etymologies of the names of gods and men, which, however, can only be looked upon as more or less ingenious fancies. The grammarians of Alexandria and Varro among the Romans tried to base their etymologies on something like principle ; but the wildest conjectures continued to be indulged in, and the results were little better than guess-work down to a very recent period. As philology extended its sphere, and became acquainted with the languages and grammarians of the East, who far excelled those of the West in this particular, etymology took on a new form. It no longer sought the relations of the words of a single language exclusively within itself, but extended its view to a whole group, e. g., the Teutonic, or wider still, to a whole family, as the Indo-European, or Aryan (q. v.), and became a new science under the name of Comparative Grammar. See Language. Btymologicum Marjnnm is the name of a Greek lexicon, the oldest of the kind, professing to give the roots of the words. It appears to belong to the 10th c. ; the author's name is unknown. The etymologies are mere guesses, sometimes right, often wildly absurd ; but the book is valuable, as con- taining many traditions and notices of the meanings of old and imusual words. There is an edition by Sohiifer (Leip. 1816) ; one by Sturz, called Etymo- logi'mm Gudianum (Leip. 1818) ; and another by G?i;iford (Oxf. 1849). EU, a tolerably well-built town of France, in the dojjartment of the Lower Seine, in Norman iy, situated near the mouth of the Bresle, 93 miles lorth-north-west of Paris. It is remarkable for its tine Gothic church, and for the Chateau d'Eu, a kiw building of red brick, with high tent-shaped roofs of slate. E. has manufactures of sail-cloth, ropes, soap, lace, and silk. Pop. 4416. In the 11th and 12th centuries, E. was in the possession of the counts of the same name, a collateral branch of the Norman royal family. After various vicissitudes, it was purchased by Mademoiselle de Montpensier in 1G75, whose fanciful taste has perpetuated itself in the architecture and decoration of the chateau. At a later period, it came into the possession of the Duke of Maine, from whom it passed to the Duke of Penthibvre the maternal grandfather of Louis Philippe, who succeeded to it in 1821. Louis Pliilippe expended large sums on the embellishmenl' of the chJlteau, and especially on its magnilicent park and the unique portrait-gallery. It has recently acquired a new historical association through the visits of the queen of England in 1843 and 184.5. The eldest son of the Duke of Nemours (bom 29th April 1842) received from his royal grandfather the title of Count d'Eu. Compare v atout, Le Chdteau d'Eu, Notices Historiques (5 vols., Paris, 1836), bin Eesidences Royales (Paris, 1839). EUBCE'A (ancient, ^'wJoia; Turkish, ^*7ri/)o; ItaL Negroponte), the largest island in the J^gean Sea, forms a portion of the present kingdom of Greece. Until recently, it was called Ne^ropont. It is bounded on the N. by the Trikeri Channel, and on the W. by those of Talanta and Egripo. it extends in a direction parallel to the mainland ; is 105 English «.tatute miles long, and 30 miles in extreme breadth, although in one part its breadth is scarcely four miles. At the narrowest part, it is connected with the mainland by a bridge. The island is intersected by a chain of mountains, nmning north-west and south-east, and attaining in the centre, in the range of Mount Delphi, an elevation of about 4500 feet. Copper and other metals are obtained in the island, which also contains numerous hot springs. The pastures are excellent, and the declivities of the moimtaina covered with forests of fir-trees. The climate ig salubrious, the valleys well watered and very fertile, but little cultivated. The chief products are cotton, oil, wine, wheat, fruit, and honeJ^ The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in the breeding of cattle ; they export wool, hides, and cheese, as well as oil and grain. The chief towns are Chalcis (q. v.) on the north, and Carystos on the south coast, the latter having a population of 3000. E. was peopled in the early historic times chiefly by Ionic Greeks, and afterwards by colonists from Athens, who formed a number of independent cities or states. These were Rt first monarchical in their constitution, but at a later period democratic. They soon rose to power and prosperity. After the Persian wars, however, E. was subjugated by the Athenians, under whose rule it continued till they, in their turn, were sub- dued by Philip of Macedon. By the llomans, it was finally imited with the province of Achaia under Vespasian. In 1204, it came into the possession of the Venetians, and received the name of Negroponte. In the year 1470, the island was taken by the Turks, in whose hands it remained till 1821, when the inhabitants rose to vindicate their independence at the call of the beautiful Modena ]Ma\irogenia. It now forms a portion of the modem kingdom of Greece, and has a popuJation (1870) of 82,541. EUCALY'PTUS, a genus of trees of the natural order 3Iyrtacece, sub-order Leptospermece, containing a large number of species, mostly natives of Aus- traha, and which, along with trees of nearly allied genera, form one of the most characteristic features of the vegetation of that part of the world. The genus occurs also, although much more sparingly, in the Malayan Archipelago. The trees of this genus have entire and leathery leaves, in which a notable quantity of a volatile aromatic oil is usually present. The leaves, instead of having one of their surfaces towards the sky, and the other towards the earth, are often placed with their edges in these directions, so that each side is equally exposed to the light. Many of the species abound in resinous secretions, and are therefore called Gum-trees in Austraha. Some of them attain a great size ; some are found with trunks from eight to sixteen feet in diameter ; a plank 148 feet in length was exhibited at the 157 EUCHARIST— EUDOCIA. Great Exhibition of 1851. They are of very rapid growth ; and their timber, when green, is soft, so that they are easily felled, spht, or sawn up ; but when dry, it becomes very hard. It is used for a great variety of purposes, amongst which may be mentioned ship-building. The bark of many of the species abounds in tannin, and has become to some extent an article of commerce. Some kinds of it are said to be twice as strong as oak-bark. The bark of some is remarkable for its hardness ; whilst some throw off their outer bark in longitudinal strips or ribbons, which, hanging down from their stems and branches, have a very singular appear- ance. — Among the resinous secretions of this genus is the substance called .Botany Bay Kino, which is used in medicine as a substitute for Kino (q. v.). It is the produce of E. resini/era, a species with ovato- lanceolate leaves, known in Australia as the Red Qmi Tree and Iron Bark Tree, a very lofty tree, ftttaiuing a height of 150 — 200 feet. When the bark is wounded, a red juice flows very freely, and hardens in the air into masses of irregidar form, inodorous, transparent, almost black when large, but of a beaiitifid ruby red in smaU and thin fragments. Botany Bay Kino is said to consist chiedy of a peculiar principle called Eucalt/pthi, analogous to tannin. About sixty gallons of juice may sometimes be obtained from a single tree, or, in the course of a year, as much as five hundred pounds of kmo. — E. robusta, Stringy Bark Tree, also a lofty tree, yields a most beautiful red gvim, which is found Idling large cavities in its stem, between the concentric circles of wooci — E. mannifera yields, from its leaves, an exudation resembling manna, less nauseous, and of similar medicinal properties. It contains a saccharine substance, different from mamiite, from glucose, and from aU previously known kinds of sugar. Another similar exudation, from the leaves of E. dumosa, is sometimes seen spread over large districts like snow, and used by the natives as food. Other fipecies also yield exudations of this kind, which are described as sometimes dropping from the leaves in port the strength of British Protestantism has been in some measure brought. The E. A. seeks, by various means, to promote the cause of 'Evangelical Protestantism,' and to oppose 'Infidelity, Popery, and other forms of superstition, error, and profaneness, especially the profanation of the Lord's Day.' It has also ven- tured to remonstrate against the persecution still practised in some Protestant countries of the north of Euro])e both against Protestant dissenters and Roman Catholics, and thus has sought to extend the influence of the principles of toleration. The meetings which have been held under its auspices in continental cities have also led to much tem- perate and friendly discussion on various important questions. Great meetings of the E. A. were held at Paris in 1855, at Berlin in 1857, at Geneva in 1861, and at New York in 1873. The E. A. adopted as its basis a brief statement of the points of doctrine on which its members must hold ' what are usually understood to be evangelical views.' This gave rise to objections against it on the part of some who would gladly have joined it, but for an apprehension of compromising principles to which they did not think due place was given. The High Church party in the Church of England, and in the churches of Germany, Sweden, &c., have been consistent opponents of the Evangelical Alliance. It is of course equally opposed, on other grounds, by rationalists. Its basis excludes those who, although otherwise holding evangelical doctrines, deny 'the divine insti- tution of the Christian ministry, and the authority and perpetuity of the ordinances of baptism and the Lord's Supper.' Few Americans were formerly con- nected with the E. A., owing to difficulties arising out of the question of slavery. EVANGELICAL ASSOCIATION, a religious body which was organised in 1803 among Germans in the United States of North America, and has considerably extended itself both in that country and in Canada, being no longer chiefly confined, as it was at first, to German immigrants and their descendants using the German language. Its 170 doctrines are a modified Calvinism ; its church government a modified episcopacy. EVANGELICAL UNION, the name assumed by a religious body constituted in Scotland in 1 S43 by the Rev. James Morison of Kilmarnock ind other ministers whose doctrinal views had been condemned in the United Secession Church, to which they previously belonjc^ed, and the con;,Te- gations adhering to them. They were soon af ter- wards joined by a number of ministers and con- gregations of similar views, previously connected with the Congregational Union or Independents ol Scotland, and have since extended themselves con- siderably in Scotland and the north of England. Their doctrinal views are those which, from the name of Mr Morison, have now become known in Scotland as Morisonian. See Morisonianism. Their church-government is Independent, but in some of the congregations originally Presbyterian, the ofBce of the eldership is retained. A notable practice of this denomination is the very frequent advertising of sermons and their subjects. EVA'NGELIST, literally, a bringer of good tidings. It designates, in the New Testament, a person appointed by an apostle to itinerate among the heathen, and so prei)are the way for resident instructors. The evangelist, therefore, had no ])articular flock assigned to him, and is to be dis- tinguished both from bishops and ordinary pastors. Later in the history of the early church, the evan- gelist figures, according to Eusebius, as 'a deliverer of the written gospels to those w'ho w^ere ignorant of the faith.' This may possibly imply that he acted as a colporteur, by distributing copies of the gospels, or that he read them to the heathen, and so made them familiar with their contents. — The word evangelist is also used to denote the four writers of the life and gospel of Jesus Christ, these being evangelists (' bringers of good tidings 'j par excellence. E'VANS, Lieutenant-general Sir De Lacy, G.C.B., born at Moig, in Ireland, 1787 ; entered the army as ensign in 1807 ; in 1812, joined the 3d Light Dragoons, with whom he saw much Peninsular service. In 1814, he was present as brevet lieutenant-colonel of an infantry regiment at the captm-e of Washington, the attack on Bal- timore, and the operations before New Orleans. He was next at Waterloo. In 1830 — 1831, he sat for Rye, and in 1833 was elected on the Liberal interest for Westminster, which he represented until 1841. The cause of the young queen of Spain was believed by the English ministry to be identified with that of freedom and constitutional government, and an order in council was issued in 1835, authorising the raising of 10,000 men for service in Spain, and expressing the king's desire that his subjects should take part with the queen of Spain, his ally, by entering the new corps. The com- mand of the British auxiliary legion was offered to E., and he was allowed by his constituents to accept it without vacating his seat for Westminster. E.'s principal military exploits at the head of the British Legion were the storm and capture of the Carlist lines of Ayetta, near St Sebastian, in 1836 ; the storm and capture of Irun ; and the capture of Oyarzun and Fontarabia. For these services, he received the grand crosses of St Feidinand and Charles III. At the general election for 1841, E. was defeated for Westminster, but was re-elected in 1846, and con- tinues to hold his seat (1861) by an undisputed tenure. He was promoted to .he I'ank of maior general of the British army in 1846, and obtained the colonelcy of the 21st 'Foot in 1853. On the declaration of war against Russia, he was appointed EVANSVILLE— EVAPORATION. to command tlio second division of the army sent out to the Crimea, with the rank of lieutenant- general. His division was hotly engaged in the battle of the Alma, and E. received a severe con- tusion of the shoulder. On the 2Gth October, during tlie siege of Sebastopol, his division was attacked by a force of GOOO Kussians. E. met the enemy with grijat gallantry, and drove them back into the town. In February 1855, E. attended in his place, and rocoived the public thanks of the House of Com- mons, through the Speaker, for his services in the Crimen. He ^vas rewarded by the crown with the Grand Cross of the Bath, and by the Emperor of the French with the Grand Cordon of the Legion of Honour. He also received the degree of D.C.L. from the university of Oxford. He took a frequent part in debates on matters of army administration. In politics, he has always belonged to the party of ' ad- vanced Liberals.' He died January 9, 1870. E'VANSVILLE, a flourishing town of Indiana, in the United States, stands on the right bank of the Ohio, about 150 miles south-west of Indiana- polis. It is very advantageously situated for trade. From E. downwards, the na^^gation is seldom interrupted either by drought or by ice ; and here terminates the Wabash and Erie Canal, the longest woik of the kind in the American republic. Thus, the place connects the Lower Ohio at once with the inland lakes and with the Gulf of Mexico. Coal and iron ore abound in the vicinity. Pop. in 1860, 1,1,484; in 1870, 22,830. EVA'PORATION, the conversion of a fluid or solid into vapour. Steam, vaj^ours of alcohol, cam- phor, iodine, &c., are familiar instances. All fluids are surrounded by vapour at common temperatures ; but for every substance there is a limiting tem- perature, below which no evaporation takes place. The pressure, or tension, of a vapom- depends mainly upon the nature of the substance evai)orated, and the temperature to which it is raised. The full amount of vapour, however, is not produced instantaneously, and therefore, in general, time is an element in the question as well as temperature. See Diffusion. The Boiling-point (q. v.) is the temperature at which vapour is freely given off — i. e., at which the tension of the vapour of a substance is equal to the atmospheric pressure. Dalton gave an empirical law, which, however, is only at all approximate for temperatures near the boiling-point : ' The tension of the vapour of a substance rises in geometric, as the tempei'ature rises in arithmetic, progression.' It is sufficient for our present purpose to notice, that the tension increases very rapidly with the tempera- ture. Some curious consequences result from this. Thus, water boils at 212° F., under a pressure of 30 inches, or at that temperature l;he tension of its vapour is one atmosphere. At 162'' F., or 50° below its boiling-point, its vapoi\r has a tension of 10 inches of mercury, and it wiU therefore boil, if j)laced in the receiver of an air-pump, as soon as two-thirds of the air h ave been extracted. If a little water be boiled in an open flask till the •team has displaced a great part of the contained air, and the 11 ask be then tightly corked, the water will- gradually cool. If the flask be now dipped in cold water, boiling recommences, the cold water having (50udensed some of the vapour, and so diminished the pressure on the contained liquid. Dip the flask m hot water, and the boiling ceases. These appear- ances may be obtained several times in succession. A fluid cannot be heated above its boiling-uoint. at the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere ; but if it be heated ni a closed vessel, the tension of the vapour produced is to be taken in addition to the former pressure, and the boiling-point rises with it. Thus, when the pressure is equivalent to 2 aimo si)heres, the boding-point of water is raised 40° F At such temjjeratures, its solvent powers are greatly increased. Many mijKU-ais wiiich are found in fine crystals are supposed to have been deposited from water v/hich had dissolved them in large quan- tities, under the combined influences of pressure and temperature. Papin's Digester (q. v.) depends upon this principle. The amount of evay)oration from a fluid depends tipon many circumstances. As, exce})t in the case of actual boihng, it takes place only at the surface, the amount of surface exposed is an important consideration where rapid and copious evaporation ia requii'ed, as in steam-boilers, salt-i)ans, &c. When, on the contrary, it is desirable to j)revent evaporation as much as possible, a layer of od, preventing direct contact with the air, is of great use. The rate of evaporation depends also on the pressure, and varies, according to Daniell, nearly inversely as the latter. His experiments, which appear trustworthy, were made in an exhausted receiver, and the vapour was removed as it was formed. In the conversion of a fluid into vapour, a quantity of heat disappears ; i. e., is required to produce and maintain the gaseous state. Thus, the temperature of steam at SO inches is the same (to the ther- mometer) as that of the boiling water from which it comes off ; but the heat necessary to convert a pound of water at 212° into steam at 212° would raise nearly 1000 pounds of water from GO" to 61°. See Heat. When, therefore, a fluid evaporates, the vapour carries off heat from the fluid, and thus evap- oration produces cold. This, of course, is matter of daily observation. Porous earthenware jars are em- ployed to cool water in summer in this climate ; and in India, ice is produced by exposing water in shallow pans, laid on straw, to the combined effects of evap- oration and radiation at night. On the same principle depends Sir John Leslie's method of freezing water. The water is placed in a flat porous dish, over a large surface of strong sul]thuric acid, and the whole covered with the receiver of an air-pump. When a good vacmma has been produced, there is, of coiu-se, as we have already seen, a rapid evaporation, and the acid eagerly absorbing the vapour as it is formed, the pro- cess goes on witliout further working of the pvunp, till the residual water has become a solid cake of ice. A most extraordinary example of this produc- tion of cold is afforded by the freezing of water on a white hot plate — by no means a difficidt experi- ment. A platinum capside is heated nearly to whiteness by a lamp placed underneath ; a little water, mixed with sulphurous acid, Avhich is an extremely volatile liquid (indeed it is gaseous at ordinary temperatures and pressures), is poiired upon the plate. The acid instantly evaporates, and the cold produced freezes the water, which can be dropped from, the hot plate on the hand as a lump of ice. Another remarkable instance of this occurs in the formation of solid carbonic acid. The liqxiid acid ia forced by the pressure of its own vapour in a fine stream into the air from a nozzle in the strong iron vessel in which it is contained. It evaporates so rapidly in air that a portion of the stream is frozen, and the delicate snowlike mass can be collected by proper apparatus. Having thus briefly examined some of the cif- cumstances connected with evaporation, we may proceed to mention some of its important bearings on meteorology. In this respect, it is one of the most effective of all the gigantic i)roc esses that are continually going on around us. Watery vapour is continually rising invisible in the air ; meetinr with EYR-EYENING SCHOOLS. a colder stratum of the atmosi)herc, or the cold ridge of a mountain, -.1 becomes condensed into mists or clouds ; the finv. particles of these unite into larger groups, and fall as rain, hail, or snow — to be again evaporated by heat from the moist ground, or from rivers, lakes, and seas. Even when other- wise invisible, its presence may be detected by its deposition as Dew (q.v.), and, according to Clausius, in the blue of the sky, and the gorgeoiis tints of sun- rise and sunset. There is little doubt of its being also intimately connected with the scintilhition of the fixed stars. See Scintillation. Atmospheric electricity is largely due to evaporation, directly as well as indirectly, on account of the amounts of vapour contained in different currents of air. It is matter of everyday observation how much the drying of the ground, or evai)oration generally, is promoted by a brisk 'A^ind. This linds its explanation m the constant removal of the va])our as it is formed, the diffusion of the vapour taking place into com- paratively dry air instead of the moist atmosphere into which it would take place in a calm. See E.AIN and Atmospheric Electricity. EVE (Heb. Chaiwah, i. e., the living), the name, according to the Hebrew narrative, of the wife of the first man, and so the mother of the human race. See Adam and Eve. EVE'CTION", a lunar inequality resulting from the combined effect of the irregularity of the motion of the perigee, and alternate increase and decrease of the eccentricity of the moon's orbit. Sec Lunar Theory. E'VELYN, John, a well-knowTi \ATiter of the 17th c, was born October 31, 1620, at Wotton, the seat of the Evelyn family, in Suri-ey. He was educated ttt the free school of Lewes, and subsequently at Balliol College, Oxford. In 1040, he entered the Middle Temple, and in the following year, prompted by the ommous appearance of public affairs, and after having witnessed the trial of Strafford, he set out for the continent, returning, however, in the B.utumn of the same year. In 1642, upon offering his serWces to Charles I., he was accepted as a volunteer in Prince Rupert's troop, but m 1643 he again went to the continent, where he mainly lived during the following eight years. After 1652 he settled in England, where he lived studiously and in private till the Restoration, after which he was much employed by the government. On the organi- Bation of the Iloyal Society, he became one of the first members, and was an industrious contri- butor to its Transactions. He succeeded in 1699 to the family estate at Wotton, and there, after a long, studious, and highly usefid life, he died 27th February 1706. His pen seems to have been constantly employed, and that upon a great variety of subjects. Art, architecture, gardening, conxmerce, &c., were aU treated of by E., and in such a manner as to pro- duce the most beneficial results on his own time. His inrineipal works are — Sculptura, or the History and Art of Chalcography and Engraving on Copper, 1662 ; Silva, or a Discourse of Forest Trees, cC-c, 16C4 ; and his Memoirs (first published in 1818). It is to the last of these works E. owes the celebrity he now enjoys. The Memoirs are written in the form of a diary, by one who had accustomed himself to habits of close observation, and continued dui'ing a period of about 70 years — and these the most dramatic in the recent history of England. They are of inestimab'a value. Sir Walter Scott said that *he had never seen a mine so rich.' A new edition was published in 1850, and another in 1854. EYENING PRIMROSE. See (Engthera. 172 EYENING SCHOOLS maybe divided into two classes : 1. Those which, either ic the form of lectures or lessons, caiTy further the education received at school ; 2. Those which exist to supple- ment the defects of early training, or, it may be, to give the simplest rudiments of elementary instruc- tion to adults who are under the disadvantage of being pupils for the first time in tlieir lives. The former are found chiefly in comiection with riecha- nics' institutes* (which are now very numero-is in Groat Britain, and form one of the most impoitait educational agencies we have), existing day school/, and congregational organisations ; the latter more frequently fall under the head of parochial mis- sionary work, or are connected with factoriea. These latter constitute the class of evening schools which engage the largest share of interest in the present condition of England, and which present the greatest difficidties in worldng. Tlic total number of evening scliools of this hum- bler class in operation (under government inspection) in England and Wales ■was, in 1874, about 2060* of these, 1560 were conducted by the Church of Engl.uid, 325 by dissenting Protestant denominations, 163 by Roman Catholics, and 15 by school boards. Tlie total number of scholars in attendance was G6,388, of whom 48,511 were male. In Scotland, primayy evening schools are not so usual as in England ; and this is no doubt to be greatly attributed to the more general diffusion of education among children of the poorer classes. Considering the large proportion of the present adult popidation unable to read or write, the number of evening schools is miserably inadequate. But the necessity for their institution has not yet been sufficiently felt by the country, to lead to their taking a much more important place in the educational machinery of the nation than they have hitherto done. Her Majesty's inspectors, the Royal Commissioners (1861), and the clergy of all denominations, strongly recommend their greater extension. * If the education of the country were in a good state,' say the commissioners, 'evening schools would be nearly universal, and would serve to compensate the scantiness of the instruction given in day schools, by giving more advanced instruction to an older cla^s of scholars.' State Aid, and Voluntary and Paid Teachers. — Many educationists have come to the conclusion, that the hope of retaining children in school mitil they have obtained as much instruction as is requisite for their guidance in life, is a vaiu one, and consequently look to evening schools as an indispensable part of a national system of education, and consider them entitled to look to the state for encouragement and support to an equal extent with day schools. Bishoj) Hinds was the first publicly to suggest that evening schools fairly come within the si)here of state action, in a letter to Mr Senior, printed in 1839. The recent inquiries have brought out that the majority of those who frequent existing evfening schools have never received any elementary instruction, or have forgotten what they once knew, and that a large proportion are either adults or adolescent young men and women. They attend for the purpose of learning to read, write, and cypher. Though in many instances, especially where no fee is charged, the irregularity and unpunctuality of the attendance are great, yet in the majority of cases there is an earnest desire on the part of the pupils to benefit by the instruction they receive. It is a question of some national importance how far schools of thii *The Workinj^man's College in London, and the School of Art,«^ iu Edinburgh, both belong to thia clasft EVENING SCHOOLS— EVERETT. Bupplementary class should be left to the action' of private philanthropy. It is also a question, to some extent implied in the other, wliether the peculiarly delicate work required in evening schools is not more efficiertly discharged by voluntary than by paid laboure 1. As to the first question, it may be safely said, that all would desire to see those wholesome chamiels of benevolence which connect the poor and the rich free from government interference ; but if, in our devotion to a theory, we neglect the work, it becomes the duty of the state to Be.'; to it, to the extent of encouragement at least, if not of direction. Since Bishop Hinds' letter, to which we have referred above, the education committee of the privy council have recognised this duty, and have given aid to a small extent to all evening schools complyixig with certain conditions, and in connection with day schools. By the revised code recently issued by the privy council, evening schools of this class are allowed to claim from the parliamentary grant Id. for every attend- ance of a pupil above twelve attendances. The schools miist be taught by certificated masters, and lay persons are alone recognised. To all those schools frequented for the purpose of confirming or extending previous knowledge, this new code will be of great assistance, as there is a tendency to engage trained teachers for such schools ; to those which are chiefly frequented by adults wholly igno- rant of the simplest elements, and chiefly conducted by voluntary teachers, it will afford little or no advantage, because the conductors will not be able to claim so lai-ge a simi as would suffice to pay the salaries of certificated masters. Nor, perhajis, is it desirable to interfere with this particular class of evening schools ; it is of more importance, so far as state aid is concerned, that the education of the primary school should be confirmed by the establish- ment of evening schools for hoys aiid girls. There 's active benevolence enough abroad to overtake the ignorance of the adult population, if properly stimidated by the various religious bodies. The proposed new arrangements as to payment may also lead to the greater separation of such schools into schools for boys and girls above 13 and under 18, and schools for adidts. It is found that boys and men, girls and women, do not work well together. 2. As to the second question : in those evening schools which are only a continuation of the day school, the same method will generally be found to suit as in the primary schools ; and therefore it seems advisable that they should be conducted by paid certificated teachers, acting under managers (as in the case of ordinary day schools), and claiming grants from the privy council. Those schools, again, which are frequented by adults, who come to receive the elements of reading, wiiting, and arithmetic for the first time, require more delicate handling, an(i a greater consideration of individual character and wants than are requisite in a school attended by boys and girls. In such cases, voluntary effort nn'Jer the influence of religious or merely philan- thropic motives appears to be the best agency. The ignorance of method displayed by such teachers, and the irregidar manner in which many of them hang to their work, are no doubt serious difficulties ; but they may be overcome by the institution of diocesan or other unions, in imitation of the East Lancashire Union of evening schools under the presidency of Sir J. P. K. Shuttleworth, with each of which might be connected an organizing master, who should itinerate among the schools, giving the benefit of his superior knowkidge of metliod. J^ubjecls a-^id Method. — As to subjects to be taught, we have little to say to that class of evening schools which continue the work of the day school. It is be presumed that practical instruction (and what else should be aimed at in such schools?) will embrace the elements of those sciences which be; r most directly on life. We refer to social economy and the laws of health. Evening schools of the humbler and more urgent sort will necessarily con- fine themselves to reading, writing, and arithmetic, inventing such methods of teaching those subjects as will most directly touch the intelligence and engage the interest. The short period of attendance requires that much be done rather than mxiny things. Through a well-constructed course of reading-booka (unfortunately, there is no reading series for aaurcs worthy of mention), all the general culture and specific information attainable will best be given. If such reading-books do not furnish adequate information on social economy in its domestic and its wider social relations, and on the laws of health, they sadly misunderstand their j^osition in educational literature. Instruction in writing and arithmetic should be given in such a way as will naturally connect itseK with the lives and daily necessities of the learners. But this is not the place to treat of the subject of method. History. — Although we have directed attention to the fact, that Bishop Hinds was the first in this countiy to advocate state recognition for evening schools, he was by no means the first to feel the necessity that existed for them. The first school established exclusively for advdts was at Bala, in Merionethshire, in 1811, by the Rev. T. Charles. In 1812, a similar school was set on foot in Bristol by William Smith and Stephen Prout, a school which led to the establishment of the ' Bristol Institution for instructing adults to read the Holy Scriptures.' In 1813, writing was included in the school pro- gramme ; and in 1816, a society of the same kmd was founded in London. In the com'se of a few years, thirty towns possessed similar schools. Tha first evening school proper for instructing boys and girls who had to work all day for a livelihood, was founded in 1806 at Bristol, by the 'Benevolent Evening Schools' Society.' The present statistics of evening schools have been already given. In other countries of Europe, evening schools, where they exist, have mainly in view the continu- ance of the education already received in primai'}^ schools. In France, however, the wants of untaught adults have been provided for by the establislmient by law of evening schools suited to them. In all the states of Germany, provision is made more or less in the country districts, and always in the large towns, for continuing the instruction given in the primary schools. Schools for those who wish to learn reading and WTiting for the first tima seem scarcely to exist, probably because they are not needed. The schools which do exist have a greater affinity to our Mechanics' Institutes than to any other kind of institution in this country. The instruction is given on Sundays and holidays, and in many places also on one or two evenings in the week. But Sunday instruction seems alone to have been originally contemplated. The subjects taught are the ordinary branches, with geography, free-hand and geometrical drawing, geometry, and in some cases the elements of natural science and the laws of health. These institutions are supported by the funds of the commune or district; in seme cases supplemented by the state. E'VERETT, Alexander Hill, an American diplomatist and author, was bom at Boston, in Massachusetts, 19th March 1792, and entered Harvard College in 1802. In 1806, although the youngest of the a'u-vni, he graduated w_th the -23 KVEEETT— EVEESLEY. hif^hest honours. After practising for some time ns a lawyer, he was appointed United States ambassador at the Hague in 1818, and went in the same capacity to Spain in 1825. Four years afterwards he returned to the United States, where he became proprietor and editor of Tlie North American Review (1830 — 1835), and also occupied a seat in the legislature of Massachusetts. In the winter of 1840, he resided, as a confidential agent of the United States government, in the Island of Cuba. He sailed for China as minister- plenipotentiary for that empire in 1845, and died at Canton, June 28, 1847. E. was a man of gi-eat versatility of talent and of extensive erudition. Politics and belles-lettres, political economy and poetry, statistics and {esthetics, alternately engaged his thoughts and pen. His writhigs are — Europe, or a General Survey of the Political Situation of the Principal Powers, &c. (London and Boston, 1822) ; New Ideas on Population, &c. (London and Boston, 1822) ; America, or a Genei^al Sw^ey of the Political Situation of the several Poivers of the Western Continent, &c. (Phila. 1827), in which he labours to shew that Kussia and the United States must in the long-run share the continent between them ; Critical and Miscellaneous Essays (two series, Boston, 1845 and 1847). These are on a vast variety of subjects, and are probably the most interesting productions of his pen. E. also published a volume of poems in 1845. EVERETT, Edwakd, a younger brother of the preceding, was bom in 1794 at Dorchester, near Boston, Massachusetts, entered Harvard College in 1807, and took his degree in 1811. He was for Bome time a Unitarian clergyman in the town of Cambridge, and in this capacity had the reputation of being one of the most eloquent and pathetic preachers in the United States. In 1815, he was elected professor of the Greek Language and Litera- ture in Harvard College ; and to qualify himself more thoroughly for his work, he \asited Europe, where he residet^. for four years, and had a distin- guished circle of acquaintance, including Scott, Byron, Jeffrey, Eomilly, Davy, &c. M. Cousin, the French philosopher and translator of Plato, pronounced him 'one of the best Grecians he ever knew.' In 1820, E. became editor of The North American Review; and in 1824, a member of the United States Congress, sitting in the House of Representatives for ten years. In 1835, he was appointed governor of Massachusetts ; and in 1841, minister plenipotentiary to the court of St James's. While in England, he received from the universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin the degree of D.C.L. On his return to America in 1845, he was elected president of Harvard College ; on the decease of Daniel Webster, he became secretary of state ; and in 1853, the legislature of Massachusetts chose him as a member of the senate of the United States. In 1854 he resigned his seat in the senate, and soon after laboured assiduously in aid of a fund for the purchase of Mt. Vernon and the burial place of Wash- ington for the American people. In 1860 he was Union Conservative candidate for the Vice Presidency. When Mr. E. perceived the war inevitable, he gave his influence in favor of the Federal Government. He died January 15, 1865. E'VERGREENS are those trees and shrubs of which the leaves do not fall off in autumn, but retain their . freshness and verdure throughout the winter, and perform their functions during more than one season. Evergreen leaves are generally of thicker and firmer texture than the leaves of deci- 1(1 ^us trees and shrubs They have also fewer pores 174 or Stomata (q. v.), and these confintd to their under surface. Evergreen leaves are sometimes very small, as in firs and heaths ; sometimes pretty laige, as ia rhododendrons, laurels, magnolias, &c. E., both trees and shrubs, have always been much sought after by the landscape gardener, and for j)urpose3 of ornament and shelter. Some orders of plants consist exclusively, or nearly so, of E., whilst in others they exist only as exceptional si)ecie8. Most of the Coniferce are E. ; and the sombre green of })ines, firs, cypresses, &c., is a prevalent cTiaracteristic of northern scenery both in summer and wnnter; whilst the undiminished thickness of the foliage afibrds winter shelter to animals which could not so well exist in forests composed merely of decidu- ous trees. Holly and ivy are amongst the finest British E. ; the box, privet, and different kinds of bay and laurel, rhododendron, phyllirea, myrtle, &c., are also familiar to every one. As instances of genera in which some species are evergreen and others deciduous, may be mentioned barberry and cytisus. JMany fine new ornamental E. have recently been introduced. As suitable for imparting a lively appearance, boughs of E. are largely employed in Great Britain to decorate the walls of public places of assemblage, triumphal arches, &c., on festive occasions. EVERLA'STING FLOWER, the popular name of certain plants, the flowers of which suflEer little change of appearance in drying, and may be kept for years without much diminution of beauty. Tliey are plants of the order Camposifce, having their flowers (heads of flowers) surrounded with an invo- lucre ; the scales of which resemble the petals of a corolla, but are rigid, membranous, and contain little moisture. Some species of Cudweed (q. v.) {Gnaphalium) are often called E. F., and the other plants which bear the name belong to nearly allied genera, but particularly to the genus Helichrysitm, which contains a great number of species, mostly natives of Africa. //. arenarium is frequent on dry sandy soils in many parts of Europe and the central latitudes of Asia. It is covered with a gray felted down, and has yellow flowers, which, when rubbed, emit a faint aromatic odour. It is often worn on the continent of Europe as an ornament in the hat, particularly by wagoners. //. angusti- folium and H. Stcechas — shrubby species, natives of the south of Europe— have larger yellow flowers. Some of the species have a powerful and plt^asant aromatic odour. No species of Helichrysum is a native of Britain. Several kinds of K F. are fre- quently to be seen in our gardens, others in green- houses. The French call them Immortelles, and in France they are often woven into circular wreaths, and placed beside recent graves, as emblems of immortality. E'VERSLEY, Viscount, ex-Speaker of the House of Commons. Charles Shaw Lefevre, born in 1794, is descended maternally from the Lefevres, who came to England from Rouen on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. He was educated at Winchester and Trinity College, Cambridge, called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1819, entered parliament in 1830 as member for Downton, and represented Hants from 1831 to 1857. In 1839 h6 was chosen Speaker of the House of Commons ; and re-elected in the parliaments of 1841, 1847, and 1852. He retired from the office in 1857, with a peerage and a pension of £4000 a year. During the eighteen years of his Speakership, he suggested and carried out many improvements in the forms and procedure of the Lower House, tending to the dispatch of business. Tall, and dignified in person, affable and accessible to the younger members, tc EVESHAM- -EVIDENCE. whom he was ever ready to impart the results of his knowledge and experience, profoundly versed in the laws of debate and practice of the House, he was admirably qualified, by nature and training, to enjoy the distinction of ' first commoner of Eng- land,' and to preside over the greatest deliberative assembly in the world. His impartiality was never questioned, and his retirement from the Lower House was universally regretted. He was appointed governor and captain of the Isle of Wight, and governor of Carisbrooke Castle in October 1857. E'VESHAM, originally Eovesham, a municipal and parliamentary borough in the south-east of Worcestershire, on the right bank of the navigable Avon, 15 miles south-east of Worcester. It lies in a beautiful and fertile vale, in which are many market-gardens and orchards. It has some manu- factures of agricultural implements. Pop. (1871) 4887. It sends two members to parliament. An abbey was foimded here about 700 ; and there still exists a bell-tower, 28 feet square at the base, and 110 feet high, erected by Bishop Lichfield immedi- ately before the Reformation. Here Prince Edward, afterwards Edward L, defeated Simon Montfort, Earl of Leicester, in 1265. EVI'CTI(.»N, in the law of Scotland, is the dispossessing one of property, whether in land or movables, in virtue of a preferable title in the person of him by whom the eviction is made. The same expression is used in England as to property in land ; but while the tenant is merely deprived of possession, it is called Ouster. E'VIDENCE, Legal. Evidence is either parole or written, the former consisting of the statements of witnesses appearing personally in court, and which statements must be attested by an oath or solemn declaration ; the latter consisting of records, deeds, tind other writings. The tendency, both in England and Scotland, of late years, has been to abolish all restrictions on the admissibility of witnesses, and to bring the rule practically to what Blackstone stated it to be in the'^ry, viz., ' all witnesses that have the use of their reason are to be received and examined.' The ground on which witnesses were formerly excluded was untrustworthiness, arising either from the character of the witnesses or their interest in the %\ut. Under the former head fell those who were legally Infamous (q. v.); whilst the latter included, first, the pArty to the suit himself, and then all who were connected with him by the ties of family, or even of business, in any appreciable degree. Gradu- iilly, however, it came to be seen that, though witnesses subject to these objections were less valuable than others to the party adducing them, it by no means followed that their testimony was of no value at all, and that the safer course in all cases was to examine them, and then to allow their testi- mony to be invalidated by proof of their interest in the cause direct or indirect, or of their having been convicted of such crimes as to render it unlikely that they should speak the truth. The objections have thus become objections not to the admis- sibility or competency, but to the credibility of witnesses. The first of the very important statutes by which these changes were effected was 9 Geo. I v. c. 32, which permitted Quakers and Moravians to substitute a solemn affirmation for an oath ; admitted the party whose name had been forged as a witness in prosecutions for forgery ; and pro- vided that no misdemeanour (except perjury) shaU render a party an incompetent witness after he hafl undergoue the pimishinent. Then came the Scotch Act 3 and 4 Vict. c. 59, afterwards referred to, and the Erglish Ant 6 and 7 Vict. c. 85, which rovided that no person offered as a witness shall creafter be excluded, by reason of incapacity from crime or interest, from giving evidence either in person or by deposition on any issue or in(]uiry civil or criminal, but shall be admitted notwith- standing he may have an interest in the matter in question, or in the event of the trial or [)ro- ceeding, and notwithstanding that he may have been previously convicted of any crime or offence. The same principle was extended by 14 and 15 Vict. c. 99 to the parties to a cause, who are not only competent, but compellable to give evidence on behalf of either or any of the parties — subject only to exception where the question tends to crimi- nate the person examined, or where it is i)ut in any action for breach of promise of marriage, or any action or proceeding instituted in consecjuence of adultery. By 16 and 17 Vict. c. 83, the former stat. 14 and 15 Vict. c. 99, was amended to the effect, that the husband or wife of the party shall be in thS same position with the party him- seK — subject only to these exceptions, first, that the husband or wife cannot give evidence for or against each other in criminal proceedings, or proceedings in consequence of adultery, and that they cannot be compelled to disclose matters which they have learned by communications from each other during the marriage. The statutes by which the corresponding changes were effected in Scotland were 3 and 4 Vict. c. 59, 15 and 16 Vict. c. 27, and 16 and 17 Vict. c. 20. The Oath (q. v.) to * speak the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth,' is administered to witnesses in England on the New Testament, in Scotland, holding up the right hand. Quakers and members of other denominations who object to the use of an oath, as formerly observed, emit a solemn Affirmation (q. v.) ; and persons who are not Christians are sworn, or otherwise bound over to speak the truth by such forms as are conceived to be appropriate to their respective creeds. The test of the amount of religious belief which will suffice to render a witness admissible, has been generally considered to be a belief in future rewards and punishments ; but there is no decision which fixes the point, and in England, belief in a God whose rewards and punishments extend only to this life is considered sufi&cient (Starkie, 4th ed. p. 116; Dickson, p. 849). There seems reason to think, how- ever, that this restriction is removed by 1 and 2 Vict. c. 105, which provides that all persons shall be bound by the oath administered in the form and with such ceremonies as such persons shall declare to be binding. It is a general rule of the law of evidence, that a witness is not bound to criminate himself, and he may consequently decline to answer any question that tends to expose him to punishment as a criminal, or to penal liability, or to forfeitiu-e of any kind. If the effect of the question be merely to establish that he owes a debt, or is otherwise subject to a civil suit, the exception will not hold, and he will be boimd to answer it (46 Geo. III. c. 37). The rule in England is, that a counsel, attorney, or solicitor is not bound, or even entitled, to di\ailge the secrets of the cause with which he has been intrusted; and the recent Scottish Act 15 and 16 Vict. c. 27, s. 1, preserves the same exception with reference to agents who shall at the time when so adduced be acting in that capacity. Neither can official persons be called upon to disclose matters of state, the publication of which might be prejudicial to the community. All other professional persons, however — lawyers not engaged in the cause, physi- cians, surgeons, and divines, must divulge all secreta relevant to the issue with which they have become 17& EVIDENCE— EVIL. acquaintecl, even in the strictest professional confi- dence. See Confessional. Neither will a servant nor private friend be allowed to Avithhold a relevant act, though of the most delicate nature. One witness in England is suflicient in law, if the jury are willing to accept a fact on his testimony, and in long chains of evidence it is often impossible that more than one witness should be adduced to make out some of the links of it. In general, however, there will be some fact or circumstance which wUl act as a supplementary adminicle, if the testimony be reliable ; and it is this fact which has rendered the practical effect of the opposite rule, which demands two witnesses, in Scotland, not very different. The want of a second witness is usually supplied by a witness to circumstances which are corroborative of the evidence of the first; and where the one witness is not so corroborated in England, he will rarely be believed. It is a rule that none but the best evidence shall be adduced, which means that secondary shall not be substituted for primary evidence where the latter is accessible ; a rule founded on the presumption that such a substitution is probably prompted by a sinister motive. This ride applies to written as well as oral testimony, and excludes copies of documents, just as it excludes the ' hearsay ' of witnesses. See Oath, J ury, Witness, Deed, Testing, &c. The best works on evidence in English are Starkie (English), Greenleaf 'American), and Dickson (Scotch). E'VIL may be generally defined as that which is opposed to the divine order of the universe. It requires only a superficial observation to perceive, that there are many apparent exceptions to the pervading harmony and happiness of creation : there are convulsions in the physical world; there are suffering, decay, and death throughoiit the whole range of organic existence ; and the appellation of evil is commoidy applied to such phenomena. In the face of the human consciousness, such phenomena appear to be infractions of the general order and good, and it pronounces them evil. How far the internal feeling of wrong has been quickened and educated by such outward facts, it Avould be difficult to say, but, beyond doubt, they have exer- cised upon it a powerful influence. Every form of religion testifies to the recognition of evQ in the external world, and superstition in aU its shapes mainly rests upon it. But it is in the sphere of moral life alone that the conception of evil can be said to hold good. After the light of science has explored the secrets of nature, and shevm how all its apparent anomalies are merely manifestations of a comprehensive harmony, the idea of evil is dispelled from the material and merely organic creation. ' Whatever is, is best,' is seen to be everywhere the law of this creation. There remains, however, the ineradicable feeling of evil in human life and manners and history. There is in the moral consciousness of man a sense of violated order, of transgi-ession of divine law, or what is called sin, which is evil in its essential form. This fact of evil is everywhere appealed to by the Christian religion ; it is the aim of this religion to deliver men from its power and misery. Every ethical and judicial code is based upon its recog- nition, and is designed to protect human society from its injurious consequences. It cannot be better or more clearly defined than in the language already given, viz., the transgression of the divine law revealed in conscience and in Scripture. The question of the origin of evil has been greatly discussed, and received various answers. The sim- plest and most direct of these answers is that which maintains a double origin of things, or a system of dualism. This conception lies at the bases of many 17" forms of religion ; it may be said to be the funda- mental concejjtion of all mere nature religions. Interpreting the obvious appearances of nature, they embody in divine personalities its contending manifestations of light and darkness, benignity and terror. The opposition of Ormuzd and Ahriman in the old Zoroastrian faith is one of the most con- spicuous examples of this religious dualism. Mani- cheism, which spread so widely in the 4th and 5th centuries, and the Syrian gnosticism from which it sprung, are also historical illustrations of the same principle. The dualistic theory of the origin of evil, how- ever, coidd not obviously maintain itself with the advance of specidation and the spread of Christian truth. It was no less clearly a postulate of the cultivated reason than a dictate of divine revela- tion, that the world proceeded from C me absolutely Divine Creator, holy and good, of whom, and through v/hom, and to whom are i*ll things. It was necessary, therefore, to recorcile the appearance of evil with this fundamental admiitjion. The doctrine of the Fail, eftpejially in the later form of development wlich corrects it with the existence of a devil or evil spirit, tempting man in the shape of the serpent, was supposed to explain the appearance of evil in human history. Being tempted of the devil, man sinned, and so feU from his obedience to the divine law. This is the doctrine of orthodox Christian theology, and the answer which it gives to ^e inquiry, how sin came into the world ? And imny minds never think of carrying the inquiry further. It is clear, however, that this explanation of the historical origin of evil leaves the question of its real and absolute origin unsettled. The devil being assumed as the cause of man's sin, the further question arises, whence the devil? Is he an absolute per- sonality? in which case we are landed in tbe old theory of dualism ; or is he, according to tbe traditionary Christian conception, a fallen angel ? in which case the question just returns, whence the spring of evil in him ? There is no real explanation gained by this removal of the question ; it is still the same difficulty — whence the origin of evil in the creation of an all-perfect being, almighty as well as all-vvise and good ? Speculation may please itself with ingenious answers to this question, but in truth it admita of no satisfactory solution. Some, for example, have argued that evil, like darkness or cold, is an indispensable element of alternation or contrast in liimian life. All individual reality is only the pro- duct of opposite forces working together. Character could only arise from the interaction of opposing ethical influences of good and evil. In nature, we have attraction and repulsion, rest and motion, positive and negative electricity ; why should it be different in the sphere of morals ? Here, too, there must be polarity. Good can only exist in contra- distinction to evil ; the one no less than the other is necessary to constitute the drama of hrmian life and history. Others, again, have argued, that evil is the result of what is called metaphysical imperfection. God alone can be perfectly good. The creature, in its very nature, is limited, defective ; and evil is nothing else than the evidence of this limitation in man. It is not something real or positive, but only a privation. It is in morals what cold and darkness are in physics, a pure negation. Thus have argued such profound thinkers as Augustine and Leibnitz. But it requires but little penetration to see that such arguments, however ingenious, and so far well founded, do not meet the essential diflficulty of the problem. If evil be, accord- ing to such views, a necessary element of hujnan ^ife, EVIL— EVOLUTE AND INVOLUTE. ia the one case, in order to develop its activity, in the other case, as cUnging to its creaturely limi- tations, then plainly it is not, in the orthodox sense of the word, evil. It is not, and cannot be a contradiction of the true idea of human life, and at the san'.e time a necessary element of it. Whatever necessarily belongs to life, must help its true develop- ment, and not injure and destroy it; must be good, in shoi-t, and not evil. Such theories, therefore, only solve the problem by eliminating the fact. The origin of evil must remain for ever inscrutable ; nor 1-3 it wonderful that it should. It is only in its ultimate sense conceivable as a quality of moral freedom, and moral freedom in man or any cieated being is a profound mystery. It is something which * we apprehend, but which we can neither comprehend nor ooomunicate.' EVIL, King's. See Scrofula. EVIL EYE. Both in ancient and modern times, the belief that some persons have the power of iniuring others by looking upon them, has been widely diffused. The Greeks frequently speak of the Ophtlialmos Baslcanos (or evil eye), which they conceived to be specially dangerous to children ; and the Romans used the verb fascinare to express the same fact. Pliny speaks — not on his own authority, however — of 'those among the Triballians and TUyrians, who with their very eyesight can witch {effascinent), yea, and kill those whom they look wistly upon any long time ; ' and Plutarch states, on the authority of Philaretus, that ' the Thybiens who inhabited Pontus were deadly, not only to babes, but to men grown, and that whomsoever their eye, speech, or breath would reach, were sure to fall sick, and pine away.' Menalcas, in Virgil [Ed. iii. 102), also complains that some evil eye has fascinated his young lambs — Nescio quis teneros oculus mihi fascinat agnos. The principal amulet used by the ancients was the "phallus or fascinurriy as the Romans called it, which was hung round the neck of children. Of course, this superstition, like aU others, flourished in Euroi^e during the middle ages. See Reginald Scot's Dis- coveinj of Witchcraft ; the Opusculum de Fascino of John Lazarus Gutierrez, a Spanish physician, pub- lished in 1653 ; and the Tractatus de Fascinatione of John Christian Froramann, a physician of Saxe- Coburg, published in 1675. In the British Isles, also, the belief in the power of the evil eye is of old date, and is by no means dead, at least in Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland, In these countries (as elsewhere), it was once a very common super- stition that cattle were subject to injury in this way. Witches had the power to a malignant degree ; and various charms, such as tv/ining mountain-ash among the hair of the cow's tail, were used to avert or destroy their noxious influence. In the East it w IS and is no less prevalent. The Persians have Yarii lis methods of discovering the special kind of fascination by which a person is afflicted ; and Dallaway, in his Account of Constantinople (Lond. 1797), affirms that ' nothing can exceed the supersti- 4io3 of the Turks respecting the evil eye of an enemy Wr infidel. Passages from the Koran are painted on thj outside of the houses, globes of glass are sus- pended from the ceiling, and a part of the super- fluous caparison of their horses is designed to attract attention, and divert a sinister influence.' Hobhouse, in his Travels, bears equally conclusive testimony to the prevalence of this superstition in the Turkish empire, not among Mohammedans only, but also among Christians ; while Lane, in his Modern Egyp- tio.ns (1836), gives an account of the precautions taken by the Egyptians to avoid the influence of c-il eye. The American Indians partake of the 16i same belief ; and it ifj not improbable that if the ^la^ tor were still more profoundly investigated, it woulJ be found that every nation that exists, or lias existed, with anything like a developed system of superstition, believes or has believed in the reality of fascination in some form or other. The universality of this superstition goes far to prove that it has what may be called a natural origin ; and, indeed, when we consider that the cTje is the most expressive organ of the soul or mind of man, that through it are shot forth, as it were, into the visible world of the senses, the hidden passions, emotions, and desires of our nature, we wUl not wonder that in the ' times of ignorance,' when men could give no rational or scientific account of almost any physiological phenomena, if connected with psychology, the eye should have been super- stitiously imagined to be a centre of malignant influence. The eye is, in point of fact, as potent as superstition dreams : the error lay not in the recog« nition of its power, but in exjilaining the mode of its operation. The person who felt himself under the spell of a powerfid gaze, was too agitated to calmly consider the cause of his terrors, and attributed to another results for which he himself was mainly responsible. It was really he that gave to the eye of his fellow-creature its baleful influence ; and he quailed less before the force of character which it indicated, than before the fearful fancies with which his own timiditj' had invested it. For this disease, wherever it has existed, or does yet exist, there ia no cure but that solid culture of the understanding from which comes a true strength of will and brain. See Fascination by Serpents. E'VOLUTE AND I'N VOLUTE. See Curvatcrb and Osculating Circle. The evolute of any curve is the locus of the centre of its osculating circle, and relative to its evolute, the curve is called the involute. This is the simplest definition that can be given of an evolute and involute, which are relative terms. There is another, hov^ever, which may represent the relation of tlie ci^rves more clearly to those who are not mathematicians. If on any curve a string be closely Avrapped, and if the string be fastened at one of its ends, and free at the other ; and then if we unwind the string from the curve, keeping it constantly stretched, the curve which would be traced out by a pencil fixed to the free end of the string, is called the involute of that from which the string is unwound, and relative to it, the latter is called the evolute. It is clear tha«; the involute might otherwise be described by fasten- ing a string at one extremity of the evolute, and wrapping it thereupon, keeping it always stretched. From either definition, it is clear that a norm.-^-l to the involute at any point is a tangent to *-ho evolute, and that the difference in length between any two radii of curvature to the involute is eq»al to the length of the arc of the evolute intercepted between them. The nature of evolutes M^as fir^it considered by Huyghens, who shewed that the evolute to a common cycloid is another equal cycloid, a property of that curve wliich he employed in making a pendulum vibrate in a cycloid. To describe the involute of a circle, proceed as follows ? Let a be the centre of the circle, and h the extremity of the string to be unwound from its circum- ference. Divide the circle, or part of the circle, according to the length of curve required, into any niimber of equal parts, as c, d, e, &c. ; through these, from a, draw radial lines ; from the points where these touch the circle, draw, at right angles to the lines ac, ad, &c., other hues, as in the (ha^am. With the distance ch as radius, from the point c, describe an arc 61, cutting the line cl in 1. From the point d, with rfl, describe an arc 1 2, cutting tha 177 EVOLUTION AND INVOLUTION— EVREUX. line i2 in 2. From e, with e2, describe an aVc 2 ,3, cuttwig the line e3 in 3. With radiiis /3, from /, describe an arc 3 4, ciitting fA in the point 4. Pro- eced in this way, descril>ing arcs which pass through the points 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. The involute will thus be formed. EVOLU'TION AND INVOLU'TION, algebraical terms, the former signifying the extraction of roots, and tlie latter tJie ramnq to powers. When any immber is multiplied by itself, the product is called its square, or second power. If we midtiply the square by the number again, we get the cube, or third power; and so on. This process is called involution. Evolution is the inverse process, by which a number being presented, we may ascertain a particular root of it, say the fourth ; or that number which, being multiplied into unity a particular number of times, say four times, the product will be the number presented. Both subjects will be found treated in all algebraical text-books. Evolu- tion is more particidarly considered under the head ElXTRACTION OF EoOTS. EVOIiU'TIONS, in military matters, are the movements of troops in order to change position. The object may be to maintain or sustain a post, to occupy a new post, to improve an attack, or to improve a defence. All such movements as march- ing, counter-marching, route-marching, changing front, forming line, facing, wheeling, making column or line, making 6chelon or square, defiling, deploy- ing, &c., come under the general heading of evolu- tions. More minute descriptions of these and other motions will be given under Tactics, Military AND Naval. Other things being equal, the best evolutions are those which occupy least time and least space. The word evolution equally applies to the movement of ships in a fleet. E'VORA (ancient Ehora), a city of Portugal, capital of the province of Alemtejo, and, after Coimbra, and perhaps Thomar, the most interest- ing city in the country, is beautifully situated on a fertile and elevated plain, 48 miles west-south- i west of Badajoz, and about 80 miles east of Lisbon. It was once a place of considerable strength ; but its ramparts, and the towers which flanked them, its citadel, its forts, and its watch-towers, are now in a hopelessly ruinous condition. The town itself is not well built, it3 streets are narrow and winding, and its houses old and badly planned. It has a cathe- dral, a large Gothic edifice, founded in 1186, the choir of which, rebuilt in 1721, is in the Italian style, and is richly adorned with marbles of various colours. E. has been the see of an archbishop since 1541 ; has an archiepiscopal library, containing upwards of 50,000 volumes ; and several pictures of {Treat merit, attributed to Gran Vasco. It has manufactures of ironware and leather, and a well- attended annual fair. Pop. about 12,000 178 E. is a very ancient city. Quintus Sertoriua took it in 80 B.C. It was also conquered by the Moors in 712, but recovered from them in 1166. The Roman antiquities of E. are unrivalled in the Peninsula. Among these, the temple of Diana, used as a slaughter- house for some time previous to the year IS^M, exhibits in its fine Corinthian columns admirable* pro}>ortion and delicacy of sculpture. There is also an a(|ueduct, 1200 paces in length, erected by Quintua Sertorius; but the most beautiful Roman relic, and one of the most perfect pieces of ancient architectui* in existence, is tlie tower which rises in the city at the extremity of tlie aqueduct. It is 12 feet 6 inchai in diameter, and is surroimded by eight columni of the Ionic order. Ionic pilasters decorate the second story, and the top is crowned with a hemi- spherical dome. It is wholly constructed of brie If, and covered with cement of sucii a durable natiu b, that, although this delicate structure has existvd since 70 B.C., few parts of it seem to have hQi,n impaired by time. EVREMOND, Charles Margotelle de St Denis, Seigneur de St, an author and wit of the 17th c, was born at St Denis-le-Gut.8t, in Nor- mandy, April 1, 1613. He entered the army about the age of 15, l^ecame an ensign in less than a year, and in 16.'}7 had the command of a company of foot. About this time, he gained the favour and friendship of Turenne, Grammont, the Prince of Conde, and others of high rank, all of whom were delighted with the wit and cheerfiduess of his conversation. Having talked himself into the esteem of these men, it was not long, however, imtil, by the same means, he brought himself under their displeasure. In 1661 his unbridled indulgence in raillery com- pelled him to take refuge in England. Many attemi)ts were made at the French court to induce Louis XIV. to recall St E., whose accomplishments, gaiety, and wit rendered him the delight of aU who had not smarted from his sarcasm, but Louia remained immovable, until 1689, when he granted the exile permission to return. It was now, how- ever, too late. St E. had by this time surrounded himself with an admiring circle of the wits and beauties of the English court, and resolved to remain where he was. He died in his 91st year, in September 1703. St E.'s works, comprising comedies, classical essays, &c., were first correctly published by Des Maizeaux, with a life of the author (Lond. 1705). The works are also translated into English by the same editor. EVREUX (anciently Mediolanum, and more recently Eburovices), an episcopal city of France, in the depai-tment of Eure, of which it is the capital, is pleasantly situated in a valley on the Iton, a feeder of the Eure, 60 miles west-north-west of Paris. It is weU built, its streets regular, and the environs prettily laid out in promenades, gardens, and vineyards. The principal building of R i« the cathedral, which dates from the 11th cettoiy. The other buildings of note are the abbey ch'uch of St Thaurin, originally built over the tomb of St Thaurin, the first bishop of E., and having a shrine executed in the 13th c, which once contained his relics ; the Bishop's Palace, built in 1484 ; and the Tour de VHorloge of the same century. E. has extensive manufactures of bed ticking, woollen stuffs, cotton yarn, leather, vinegar, and a trade in itv manufactures, and in grain, seeds, timber, and liquors. Population, 12,877. E. is remarkable for the numerous sieges which it has sustained. It was taken by Clovis from the Romans ; was sacked and plundered in 892 by the Northmen, under RoUo ; was burned bv Henry L ol EVKEUX — EWALD. Euglivnd in 1119; and in 1194 and 1199 it was twice ca]>turt'd by Philippe Anguste, king of France, into whose liands, after a short time, it permanently came. It was frequently taken and recovered in the wars between France and England during the reigns of Heury V. and Henry VI. of the latter country. ViEiL EvREUX {Old Evreux), a ^^llage near E., md the supj»osed site of the ancient Mediolanum, lias some ancient remains of a theatre, an aqueduct, •,nd fortifications. EWALD, Georo IlEiisrRTCii August von, one of the grentesfc of modern Orientalists, was born 16th November 1803, at Gottiiigen. He exhibited a pre- dilection for Oriental literature even in his school- cays. He studied at the university of his native 1 1 ice, and while still a student, wrote a work on the Com{)Osition of Genesis {Die Compodtion der Genesis, Braunschw. 1823). In 1823, he became a teacher at the Wolf enblittel g3annasium ; in 1827,extraordinar3'-, and in 1831, ordinary, professor of philosojjhy at Gottiugen ; and in 1835, was appointed nominal professor of the Oriental languages. Travels in search of Oriental MSS. led him, in 1826, 1829, and 183G, to Berlin, Paris, and Italy. After the death of Eichhorn, the critical exegesis of the Old Testa- ment was included in his duties as professor of the Oriental tongues. The first, and i)erhaps the most important fruit of his new labours, was his Gritical Grammar of the Hebrew Language {Kritisclie Gram- mat ik der Hebr. Spradie, Leip. 1S27), an abridgment of which was published at Leii)sic in 1835, under the title of Grammar of the Hebrew Language {Gi^am- malih der Ilehr. Sin-ache; 5th edit. 1844); and a still simpler epitome in 1842, entitled Hebrew Grammar for Beginners {Ilebr. Spracldehre fi'ir Anfdnger). Before this, however, E. had acquired a high repu- tation by his work on Canticles {Hohe Lied Salo7no''s, Gott. 182G); his Commentary on the A\^ov:x\ypse {Com- mentarius in Apocah/psin, Lei]). 1828); his Poetical Books of the Old Testament, in 4 vols. {Die Poeti- echen Biicher des Alten Bimdes, Gott. 18.35—1837); and his Prophets of the Old Testament, in 2 vols. {Die Pwpheten des Alten Bundes, 2 Bde. Stutt. 1840). Between the years 1843—1850, E. published at Gottingen an important work in 4 vols., on the History of the People of Israel until the Time of Christ {Geschichie des Volkes Israel bis aiif Christus), and a subsidiary volume on the Antiquities of the People of Israel {Die Alter tliiuner des Volkes Israel). The Geschichte des Volkes Israel, together with its two continuations, The History of Christ and his Time {Geschichte Christus und seiner Zeit, 1857), and The History of the Apostolic Age, &c. {Geschichte des ApostoUschen Zeitalters bis zur Zerstdrung Jeru- salenis. 1858), is regarded as E.'s greatest work. But J elvish history and literature did not limit the sphere of E.'s wonderful activity. His lectures at Gottingen embraced the literature of the Arabic, Persian, Aramaic, and Sanscrit tongiies, and gave birth to such w^orks as that on "the Metres of the Arabian Songs {De Metris Carminum Arabic- vrum, Leip. 1825); on Some of the Older Sanscrit Metres {Ueber elnige ciltere Sanscrit- Metra, Gott. 1827), an epitome of the Arabic author Wakidi's work on Mesoi)otamia {De Mesopotamice expugnatce Histcria, Gott. 1827), and a Grammar of Arabic, entitled Grammntica Critica Linfpire Arabicce cum brevi Metrorum Doctrina, 2 Bde. (Leip. 1831 — 1833). In 1832, Yj. published at Gottingen several very hnportant Dissertations on Oriental and Biblical Literature (^AbhandUnigen zur orient, und hibliachen Literature, and planned the well-known periodical, Journal for the Knowledge of the East {ZeitscJirift fur die Kunde des Morgenlanda). E., however, Avas uot only a scholar and a philologist, but a man of strong political convictions. Having, a'ong with six of his colleagues (the others were tlie brothers Grimm, Dahlnuinn, Gervinus, Weber, and Albrechc;, protested against the abolition of constitutional law and liberty in Hanover by the new sovereign, Ernest Augustus (])reviously Duke of (Cumber- land), he was dismissed from his situation, 12th December 1837, and went to England to investi gate its public libraries, whence he was called to Tubingen in 1838, as professor of theology. Here he remained for ten years, and, partly on account of the catholicity of his views, and the imjieriousma^ of his temper, was involved in many strifes. In 1841, he was ennobled by the king of Wiirtemburg. In 1848 E. returned to Gottingen, where he estalj- lislied a Year-book of Biblical Science {Jahrbach cUr biblischen VVissenschaft), in which, as well as in his work on the Synoptic Gospels (Die drei erstem Evangelien, Gott. 1850), and works on the Epistle.** of Paul {Die Sendschreiben des Apostles Patdns Uber- setzt and erkldrt^ Gott. 1857), he strove to give a firmer basis to New Testament criticism and exegesis. Subsequently E. paid great attention to Ethiopic lit- erature, a result of which was bis valuable Disserta- tion on the Book of Pmoch {Uber des yEthiopiscl^ien Baches Henoch Evtutehuug, &c., Gott. 1856). He also published Das Sendschreiben an die Ilebriler und Jacohos* Riindschrelbpn (1871), and Sieben Send- schreiben des Neuen Bundes (1871). The distinguish- ing peculiai-ity of E. as a theologian and critic was his love for the concrete forms in which divine truths are revealed in history, and his dislike of tbe abstrac- tions into which they are refined away by over-specu- lative theologians. He regarded it as the especial glory of the Jewish people, that they never lost sight of the concrete, as the Persians and Hindus, for ex- ample, did, with whom the realities of religion van- ished into the most intangible dreams, but kept it ever before them until, in the fulness of times, there was born in •their midst Jesus of Nazareth, the Perfect and Only One, in whom humanity reached its spiritual consummation. E.'s position in the variegated field of German theology is not easy to define. He refused to class himself or to be classed with any party. He was equally opposed to the extreme left represented in Tu- bingen, and to the extreme right represented in the modern Lutheran movement headed by Hengstenberg, denouncing, with an eloquence unequalled in any the- ological chair in Germany, the ' heathenism ' of Luther- ans, Komanists, and Kationalists. He died May 1875. EWALD, Johannes, one of the best lyi-ic poets of Denmark, was born at Copenhagen on the 18th November 1743, and died in the same city in 1781, after a life of checkered adventure, trouble, and privation. At the age of 11, on the death of his father, E. was admitted into the Slesvig College. In his l(3th year, when his friends were about to send him to the university of Copenhagen, the restless impatience of restraint w^hich had always character- ised him, led him to make his escape to Germany, w^here he entered as a private soldier in the arm^ of Frederick the Great of Prussia, from which tLt soon deserted to the Austrians. His bravery havina attracted the notice of his superiors, he w^as offered a commission, but this he refused to accept, as it woidd have obliged him to become a Catholic ; and having induced his friends to purchas*^ liis discharge, he returned to Copenhagen in 1760. after- having taken part in the great cam])aigns of 1759 — 17G(). He now began the study of theology, bat a disappointment in love drove him to abandon it, and give his attention solely to poetiy. The first production of E. which attracted general notice, was the funeral ode wldch he WTote on the death of Frederick V. of Denmark in 1767, and which exliibited so much original genius, that it at one* EXAMINATION OF A BAN'KRUPT— EXAMINATIONS FOR THE PUBTJC SERVICE. raised the young poet to the rank of one of the best writers of his country. This successful attempt was ra]^i(lly followed by the appearance of numerous tragedies, operas, and songs, which are remarkable for great lyrical beauty. In 1770 appeared the prose tragedy of Rolf Krar/e, which gives evidence of a careful study of Sliakspeare and the Eng- lish dramatists of the Elizabethan age. Although Balder's Doed (1773), which breathes the heroic spiiit of the ancient bards of the north, and exhibits •the specially national tendency of E.'s genius, is .^garda?! by some critics as his chef-d^ (£uvre, ^'xakerne^ 'The Fishermen' (1780), probably deserves to rank equally high, when considered as a mere lyrical production. His hal>its of dissipation, and the decided opinions which he expressed in refer- ence to politics, brought him into difficulties of every kind, while his infirmities of temjier, and irregvdarities of conduct, estranged the affection of his nearest relatives, and in the latter years of his unhappy life he was often indebted to the charity of strangers for the means of subsistence. Some of his nautical songs have been raised to the dignity of national odes, and many of his occasional pieces rank among the sweetest poems of his country. He was engaged at the time of his death in compiling an autobiography, and in bringing out the comjdete edition of his \^'Titings, which finally appeared in 1792. His works have also been edited by F. L. Liebenberg (Cojien. 1850 — 1855) ; and a life of E., compiled from hitherto unpublished materials, has recently appeared from the pen of F. C. Olsen, of Copenliagen. EXAMINATION OF A BANKRUPT. See Bankruptcy. EXAMINATION OF A PRISONER, in Scot- land. See Declaration. EXAMINATION OF A WITNESS. See Evidence. ^ EXAMINATIONS FOR THE PUBLIC SERVICE. Up to the year 1855, all the junior appointments in the several branches of the Civil Service w^ere made upon a system which was practically one of simple and unchecked nomination. Examinations nominally existed in a few of the departments, but they had degenerated into an unmeaning form. The departmental examiners, who were taken from other duties for this temporary purpose, and were closely connected with the particidar department, were too much afraid of the clamour of individuals to be very stringent in their requirements, and keep up the standard of examina- tion. In one important board, not a single candidate had been rejected for twelve years. The consequence was, that persons were often appointed who were objectionable on account of age, broken state of health, and bad character, as well as from want of proper intellectual qualifications. Changes in the Civil Service have been made /icuietimes by the legislature, sometimes by the >3s:ccutive, but chiefly, as in the present instance, by \hi\ latter. Some years ago, a commission was Ap]»ointcd to consider plans for its entire reorgan- isation. This commission, v/hich included the names of Sir Charles Trevelyan and Sir Stafford North cote, made its re])ort in 1853, and strongly recommen led competitive examinations, as the mode of making the appointments in the first instance. In the following year, a plan for improv- ing the system was promised in the Queen's Bpeech, but nothing further was done. In May 1855, an order in council was issued, appointing tlie present Civil Service Commissioners, and defining their duties. This order is still in force, and directs the commissioners to examine into and certify the 180 qualifications of young men nominated to juaiof situations in the Ci^^l Service. Before granting the certificate, they are to ascertain the four following things : the age, health, character, and the know- ledge and ability of the Candida cpa. All the details as to each of these points — such as limits of age, and the subjects of examination — are settled at the discretion of the heads of the several departments ; while the decision, on individual cases, rests solely with the commissioners. As the nature of the requirements expected from the candidates de])ends on the heads of the several departments, considerable variety may be expected in the different branches of the service. As the system has not yet reached a settled state, the exact details of the examination for the various otficea must be sought from time to time in the latest of the annual reports of the Civil Sei-vice Commissioners ; but the following general account of its present state may be given here. Leaving out of account labourers and artisans, the persons employed in the public service may be divided into two great classes : the first including all those who may be called by the general name of clerks, and whose occupation is mainly of a sedentary, and more or less of an intel- lectual character ; the other embracing all the inferior appointments — such as excise officers, tide- waiters, and letter-carriers, wdiose emi^oymenta require in a special degree physical strength ?.nd activity. For the latter class, the examination is of a purely elementary character, and is for the most part confined to reading, writing, spelling, and arithmetic. The principle of competitive examin- ations has not been applied, and is not intended to be applied, to this class of public servants, but their health and moral qualifications are strictly investigated. As to the first class, the system is still in a state of transition. It will be observed that the order of 1855 directs the commissioners to examine young men who have been nomiimted. Under tliis order, three varieties of examination are now in operation. The first is a simple test examination. When a vacancy occurs, a single person is nominated by the head of the department or other projjcr authority, and this person is afterwards submitted to examina» tion. The second is a system of limited competition. When a vacancy occurs, several persons are nomi- nated, and being submitted to examination, the appointment is obtained by the best of this limited number. The third is the system of oj^en competi- tion, which has been employed in the cases where the right of nomination has been wholly surrendered. A simple test examination seems to have been all that was contemplated in the order of 1855, bat since that time there has been a steady advance towards competitive examinations. Resolutions have passed the House of Commons recognising the advan- tages of competition, and a parliamentary committee, appointed in 1859, has reported in favour of pro- ceeding further in that direction. At present, the principle of open competition prevails in the Indiap. Civil Service, in the Medical Service and Pullio Works Dejiartment in India, and in the scientific branches of the Military Service. The principle of limited competition prevails in about three-fourths of the higher departments, while in the remainder of these, and in all the lower grades of the service, from tide-waiters downwards, there is a simple teat examination. The number of nominations to which the order in councd has been applied from 1855 to the end of 18G0 is 13,491. Of these, 9962 were nominations of one only, to whom, therefore, as explained above, a simple test examination was applied. Tlie comniis- sioners rejected 2289. Out of these 2289, all but EXAMIXATIOXS FOR THE FUBLIC SERVICE. 920 failed either in arithmetic or spelling ; some, of couise, in ether subjects also. It may therefore be said that more than 2000 pei-sons deticient in the ordinary rudiments of a good education have been nomiuated to the Civil i5er%'ice in six years, and excluded by the examination. During tlie same period, about 600 of tliose nominated were ineligible on account of age, health, or character. In compar- iug the numl^er of certificates granted vnth the miml^er of rejections in each year, it ai)pears that the proportion of the latter has dimini^ed in the "attcr years. Up to lSo9, the far greater proportion of aU appointments made under the new system has been made by nomination of a single i:)erson followed by a test examination. But the experience had in the working of the system has conN-inced the co m mis- Bioners and the parliamentary committee of the wisdom of advancing in the direction of competition. The minimum standard is dithcidt to maintain. It causes delay and inconvenience by the rejection of cantlidates, and the necessity of pro^-idilig others. The rejections throv*- unpleasant discredit on the patron, and if frequent, it is ascribed not to the unlit- aess of the candidates, but to the standard being fixed too high. The candidate is aggiieved at the loss of an appointment which he had looked on as his ovm, and the patron is likely to shai-e the feeling. In the competitive system, these evils do not exist. The nimiber of competitoi-s will itself keep up the standard ; the candidate is not rejected as imfit, but only gives way to one fitter ; and the standard cannot be said to be fixed too high, for the fact of candidates coming forward shews that the prize is worth the trouble'^of attainment. On these grounds, the commissioners recommend the gi'adual introduc- tion of open competitive examinations into all the departments of the service, but in the meantime think it a safer cotrrse to continue and extend the system of hmited competition. Ex}>erience, however, has she%vn that the latter is often a sj^stem of com- petition more in name than in reality, and that some conditions are recpiisite to make it effective. In 1859, 1107 persons were nominated to compete for 258 situations ; of these, only 397 were com- petent, the remaining 710 being wholly imfit for any appointment. The real competition took place between 397 persons. The experience of 1860 con- firms this view. In a competition for 42 clerkships at the Admiralty, of 66 candidates, only 2-4 were competent, being less than the number of situations ; 80 that competition in that case woidd have given woise results than a simple test examination. With Uie view of rendering it more eflfective, the parha- mentary committee of 1859 have recommended some moaitications in the system, which the commissioners intend to carry oivt. In future, no candidate will be admitted to enter into the competition who has not previously passed the test of fitness ; and the competition for each vacancy \vill take place among at le own land for that of the other. In order to a valid exchange, five things are necessary: 1. The two sub- jects must be of the same nature, as lands for lands, chattels for chattels, but not real for personal estate. 2. The parties must take an equal estate ; thus, an estate in fee cannot be exchanged for an estate taiL 3. The word 'exchange' must be used. 4. There must be entry, and if either party die before entry, his heir may avoid the exchange. 5. Since the statute of Frauds (29 Car. II. c. 3), if the interest be larger than a term for three years, the exchange must be in writing. A mutual warranty and right 01 entry was formerly implied in an exchange. Thia effect of the deed has been taken away by 8 and 9 Vict. c. 106, s. 4. By the 8 and 9 Vict. c. 118, EXCHAIsGES-EXCHEQUEIl. t, 92, called the Common Enclosure Act, the commissioners are empowered to make exchanges for the better cariying out of the purposes of the act. A deed of exchange closely resembles in its particulars an Excambion (q. v.) in Scotland. EXCHA'NGES, Military, are certain arrange- ments made between officers of the English army. An officer may exchange, or change ])laces, in the Guards, or Line, with another of equal rank in any regiment of the above corps, by mutual consent, and cn payment of such a sum as shall represent the difference of value between the commission vacated and that assumed. As each of the exchanging officers enters his new corjis at the bottom of his rank, exchange benefits officers, especially those unable to purchase promotion, who remain in their original regiment, by advancing them towards the top of the list, and therefore nearer to promotion on a non-purchase vacancy occurring. An officer on fuU-pay may exchange with another on half-pay, provided a youuger life be not thereby added to the half -pay list, and subject always to the con- tjent of the Secretary for War. If the rank be one of those which are purchasable (see Commls- SiONS, Army), a payment of money from one officer to another is necessary to complete an exchange between full-pay and half-pay ; the amount having relation legally to the regulated, actually to the market value of each kind of commission, as noticed in the article just cited. Exchanges are ordinarily arranged by the army agents. EXCHE'QUER, Chancellor of the. The office of Chancellor of the Exchequer, in modern times, will be accurately described when we say that he is the first finance minister of the Crown. Strictly Bpeaking, he is the under-treasurer, the office of Lord High Treasurer being now vested in the Lords Commissioners of the Treasury. When the Prime Minister is a member of the House of Commons, he sometimes holds the office of Chancellor of the Exchequer. The judicial functions of the Chan- cellor of the Exchequer may now be considered matter of history. See Exchequer, Court of. When the chief baron and the barons are equally divided in opmion, he may be required to rehear the cause with the barons, and to give his opinion. But the last instance in which this was done was in 1735 ; and though the decision which Sir Robert Walpole gave is said to have given great satisfac- tion, the custom is not Idiely to be reverted to. EXCHEQUER, Court of, one of the supreme courts of common law in England. The Court cf Exchequer was originally the court wherein all matters relating to the royal revenues were adjudicated upon. It is said (Madox, Hist, of Fx. L 177) that as early as the reign of William the Conqueror a Court of Exchequer was in existence. This was probably nothing more than a branch of the Aula Regia, or great council of the nation ; but cn the subdivision of that court in the reign of Edward I., the Court of Exchequer acquired a scpaiate and independent position. The special dtity then assigned to the court was to order the revenues of the crown, and to recover the king's debts and duties. The court was then denominated the Smccarium, a word derived, it is said, from ecaccns or scaccum, a chess-board ; and it was so called becauise a checkered cloth was anciently wont to be laid upon the table of the court (Madox, Hist, of Ex.), a practice which, until the late act, prevailed in the Court of Exchequer in Scotland. The court formerly consisted of two divisions, an equity, and n common law or plea side. Lord Coke {Inst. iv. 118) appears to doubt whether the equitable juris- diction of the court can be traced back further than iS4 the statute 33 Henry VIII. c. 39. This equitable jurisdiction of the Exchequer was abolished by 5 Vict. c. 5, and transferred to the Court of Chancery. On the first institution of the court, the business was chiefly confined to matters connected with the royal revenue, but a privilege was conceded to all the king's debtors and farmers, and all accountants of the Exchequer, to sue and implead all manner of persons. This privilege was exercised by mearjs ot a writ of qico ninus (now abolished by 2 Will. IV. c. 39), wherein it was set forth that the pl'iintiff, being a debtoi of the king, was, l)y reason of wrong done to him by the defendant, deprived off the means of discharging his deht to the crowL {quo m'/nus sufficiens cxistit). The benefit of this writ was by degrees extended to all the lieges, on the fiction that they were crown debtors. By this means the Court of Exchequer acquired a concurrent jurisdiction with the other courts of common law. The judges of the Exchequer consisted originally of the lord treasurer, the chancellor of the Exchequer, and three ])uisne judges ; these last were called barona of the Exchequer. The title of baron is said by Mr Selden {Tit. of Hon. 2, 5, 16) to have been given to the judges in the Exchequer because they were anciently made of such as were barons of the king- dom. The chancellor of the Exchequer sat only on the equity side of the court. The last occasion on which he was called upon to exercise his judicial functions was in the case of Naish v. the East India Company, when the judges were equally divided in o]union. This case occurred in Michaelmas term 1735, when Sir Bobert Walpole was chancellor of the Exchequer, and his judgment is said to havo given general satisfaction. The court now consists of five judges — viz., the chief baron, and four barona of Exchequer. From this court an appeal lies in Error (q. v.) to the Court of Exchequer Chamber. The Court of Exchequer Cliamher was originally a court of all the judges in England assembled for decision of matters of law (Coke, Inst. iv. 110, 119). Lord Campbell states, that the lord chancellor was in the habit of adjourning cases of extraordinary importance into the Exchequer, that he might have the opinion of the twelve judges {Lives of the Chan' cellors, i. 10). But the ordinary jurisdiction of the Court of Exchequer Chamber is as a court of error, in which capacity it reviews the judgments of the three courts of common law. This court was estab- lished by 31 Edw. I. c. 12, for the purpose of reviewing the decisions of the common law side of the Court of Exchequer, and was composed of the judges of the other two courts — viz., the Queen'a Bench and the Common Pleas. By 27 Eliz. c. 8, it was enacted that the judges of the Common Pleaa and Exchequer shovdd form a second Court of Exchequer Chamber, for review of certain cases in the Queen's Bench. And now, by 11 Geo. IV., and 1 Will. IV. c. 70, the Court of Exchequer Chamber is constituted the court of re\dew for all proceedinga in Error (q. v.) from the courts of common If.w, the judges ot two ot the courts always forming the court of appeal for the proceedings of the third. The Court of Exchequer Chamber is also, by 1 Will. IV. c. 70, constituted the court of review fo- criminal cases on writ of error from the Queen's Bench. In Scotland, before the Union, the Exchequer was the king's revenue court. It consisted of the treas- urer, the treasurer-depute, and as many of the loixls of Exchequer as the king was pleased to appoint (Ersk. i. 3, 30). The Scottish Court of Exchequer was continued by the 19 th article of the treatA"^ of Union, until a new court should be established, which was effected by 6 Anne, c. 26. A primitive jurisdiction was conferred on the court as to ques» tions relating to revenues and customs of excise and EXCHEQUER BILLS— EXCISE. as to all honours and estates real and personal, and forfeitures and penalties arising to the crown within Scotland. But questions of title to lands, honours, &c., were reserved to the Court of Session. The j?idges of the coui-t were, the high treasurer of Great Britain, the chief baron, and four other barons, and English barristers as well as Scotch advocates were allowed to practise in the court. In cases of difficulty, and where there was a collision of juris- dictions, it was fomierly not unusual to hold confer- ences with the barons ; and the form of desiring the conference was to send the lord advocate, and, in his absence, the solicitor-general, to request a meet- ing, though it has been doubted whether they were boimd to carry the message (Shand's Practice, 27). By 2 Will. IV. c. 54, it was provided that successors should not be appointed to such of the barons as should retire or die, and that the duties of the court should be discharged by a judge of the Court of Session. And now, by 19 and 20 Vict. c. 56, the Court of Exchequer is abolished, and the jurisdiction transferred entirely to the Court of Session. The Court of Exchequer Chamber in Ireland was established by 40 Geo. III. c. 39. It consists of the cliief justices, chief baron, and the rest of the justices and barons, or any nine of them. EXCHEQUER BILLS, biUs issued at the Exchequer under the authority of acts of parlia- ment, as seciu'ity for money advanced to the government. They contain an engagement on the part of the government for the payment of the principal sums advanced with interest. These bills form the chief ppH of the unfunded debt of the country. They \. ^r** first issued in the reign of William III., in the year 1G96, and were drawn for various amounts from £100 to £5. At that time they bore interest at the rate of threepence per day on a Lvaidred pounds (Macaulay, Ilistortj of England, iv. 700). The interest was reduced to Id. during the reign of Anne. During the war 1793 — 1814, the rate ■>f interest was usually Z\d. At present, it is generally from 1 l^d. to l^d. per £100 per diem. Holders of these bills are exempt from all risk, except that arising from the amount of premium or discount they may have given for them. The bills pass from hand to hand as mr^ney, and are payable at the Treasury at par. They may also be paid to government in discharge for taxes. When it is intended to pay off outstiinding Exchequer bills, public notice is given by advertise- ment. The advances of money to the government by the Bank of England are made on Exchequer bills. These bills are a convenient means whereby the government can meet a sudden demand for unusual expenditure. Thus, during the pressure of tlie Indian mutiny (18.56 — 1858), the amount due on Excliequer bills greatly exceeded that of the years which immediately preceded and followed. Amount of Exchequer bills unprovided for during each of the following four years was: (1870—71) £5, .391, 000; (1871—72) £5^155,100; (1872-73) £4,829,100; (1873 — 74) £4,479,600. EXCrPIENT (Lat. excipio, I receive), an inert or isligLtly active substance, introduced into a medical prescription as a vehicle, or medium of administration for the strictly medicinal ingredients. Thus, conserve of red roses, or bread crumb, is used to make up pills ; sulphate of potass, or white sugar, in medicinal pow- ders ; water, mucilage, Avhite of egg, and many other substances, in fluid mixtures. EXCrSE, the name of a tax on commodities, from the Latin excisns, cut oft", as being a portion of the VHlue of the conimodity cut off and set apart for the revenue l)eforc the commodity is sold. This is ftct its actual uature, bowevei', for the manufac- ' turer who looks to a profit on his outlay does not give part of the value to the revenue; he merely counts the tax as i)art of his cx])enditure, which he intends to get back with a prodt, so that it con- stitutes an addition to the ultinuite price which the I)urchaser or consumer has to pay. A tax on com- modities sold and bought is a very obvious one, adopted in almost every country where taxes have been raised otherwise than on the land or by the head ; but it has generally appeared in the simple shape of a toll on goods brought to market, and the complicated arrangements for offici.ully watchitg the ])rocess of a numufactux'e through all ts stages, for the puri)ose of seeing that none of the dues of the revenue are evaded, is of comparatively modem origin. It had been for some time successfully practised in Holland, when the Long Parliament, who were looking about for a fruitful source of revenue, observing how productive it had been there, established an excise on liquors in England in 1643. It was continued at the Restoration by the same statute which abolished aids, escuages, and the other feudal exactions, along with the Coui-t of Wards established for enforcing them, and the royal preiogatives of purveyance and pre- emption. The excise may thus be considered the price paid for the abolition of the biu-dens of the feudal system. Though always unpopidar, the excise in some form or other has ever since con- tinued to be a material element in the taxation and revenue of Britain. In the earlier part of last century. Sir Robert Walpole entertained the notion of enlarging its productiveness while miti- gating its proportional pressure, by the bonding system, which suspends the exaction of the duty imtil the goods are sold, and thus leaves the manu- facturer all his capital to be devted to produc- tion. See Warehousing System. But the rumour of an enlargement of the unpopular excise duty created a general excitement, and the memorable cry of ' Liberty, Property, and no Excise ' compelled Walpole to abandon his project. An excise, when compared with other taxes, has its good and its bad features : it is a method of extracting money for national purposes from per- sonal expenditure on luxuries, and is especially serviceable when fed from those luxuries the use of which in excess becomes a vice. On the other hand, it renders necessary a system of inquisitorial inspection not only very offensive to all free people, but very open to abuse and fraud ; while at the same time excessively high duties, and duties on commodities strictly of domestic manufactiu-e, lead to smuggling and all its demoralising consequences. The evils of an excise w^ere formerly aggravated by the practice of farming the duties — that is, by letting them to the highest bidder, whose interest it became, hke any other contractor, to make the greatest possible profit by his speculation, and con- sequently to exact the duties in the most rigoroui manner. In every well-regulated revenue systera, it is of course only fair to all parties that the daty as the law lays it on shoidd be fuUy exacted ; but in the ago of farming, the arrangements were all slovenly, and there was much latitude of power in the hands of the farmers. The farming system became very oppressive in France, especially in the f/abelle or excise on that necessary of life, salt. It is a curious fact, however, that when the farming of the excise was abolished in Scotland by the Union, the people grumbled, saying they were easier luule; the farmers, their own neighboiu^, wdio acted on the principle of ' live and let live,' than under the officers sent down from England, who rigidly collected the impost. An excise works most easily when it ia laid o» 185 EXCITANTS— EXCOMMUNICATION. some comniotlity banished from domestic production and crejitctl l)y maiiui'iicturers on a larcr share — some- times far the greater part — of the market price. The social influence of such an arrangement is very dillercnt from that of the old candle and salt duties, which made it the function of the exciseman to p< unce on a farmer's family melting the surplus tallow of the last killed sheep, or of a fisherman boiling sea- water to ])rocure salt for his j)otatoes. The manufacturer, however, though he has the benelit of the bonding system, feels the excise regu- lations to be a pei-]>etual drag and hinderance in his 0[>erations, since there are nndtitudes of miniite chicory, which was excised for the purpose obviating the adiilteratiov. of coffee. E'XCITANTS, or SlI'MULANTS, are these pharmaceutical preparations Avhich, acting through the nervous system, tend to increase the action of the heart and other organs. They all possess more or less of a pungent and acrid taste, and give rise to a sensation of warmth when placed on a tender part of the skin. The class is a very unmercua one, and the application of excitants or stimnliuit* to the human subject should always be nnder thfl supervision of a qualified medical practitioner. EXCLU'SION BILL, a proposed meao.cre fof excluding the Duke of York, afterwards James II., fi'om the succession to the throne, on account of his avowed Catholicism. A bill to this effect passed the Commons in 1679, but was thrown out by the operations which he cannot perform without sending Upper House As the new parliament summoned special notice to the excise department, or having an officer actually present. This renders it neces- sary, too, that all the steps of the process should not merely be defined as between the manufacturer and the ofhcer, but shotild be set forth in an act of in 1G81 seemed determined to revert to this measure, it was dissolved, and Charles ruled henceforth without control. See Charles II., James II. EXCOMMUNICA'TION is exclusion from the fellowship of the Christian Church. The ancient parliament; and hence deviations for tlie purpose of I Komans had something analogous in the exclusioi. economy, or by way of exj)eriment, become difficult, and sometimes impracticable. As difficulties with which the producer has to contend, these things rccjuire him to lay on the selling ju'ice of the com- nunlity a larger addition, by reason of the excise, than the actual amount of the duty. No method of taxation requires a nicer adjust- ment to the social condition of a country than an excise. Thus, in England, in the year 1746, a duty of 2().s. a gallon was laid on spirits, with the view of sup])ressing the vice of drunkenness, which, on the other hand, it greatly increased, for the law became a dearoperly excisable besides liquors is j The capitularies of Pepin the Less, irv the 8!i]i 0.f EXCRETION— EXE. ordained that the greater excommunication should be ftUowed by banishment from the country. The Romau Catholic Church pronounces tlie sentence of excoLnmunication with many circumstances of ternble solemnity, and it contains a prohibition to all Christian })erson3 of all intercourse with the |!ersou excommunicated, and of extending to him even the most ordinary social offices. The latest ' examples ' made by the pope were Napoleon I. in 1809, and Victor Emmanuel, king of Italy, in 18G0 ; neither of whom, however, was excom- municated by name, the pope having confined himself to a solemn and reiterated publication of the penalties decreed by his predecessors against those who unjustly invaded the territories of the Holy See, usurped or violated its rights, or \dolently impeded their free exercise. Pope Innocent III., in the Lateran Council (1215), declared that excommunication put an end to all civil rights and dignities, and to the possession of any property. The excommiuiicatiou of a sovereign was r(;garded as freeing subjects from their alle- giance, and in the year 1102, this sentence was pronoimced against the Emj)eror Henry IV., an examine which subsequent popes likewise ventured to follow. But the fearful weapons with which the popes armed themselves in this power of excommunication, were rendered much less effective through their incautious employment, the evident worldly motives by wiiich it was sometimes governed, and the excommunications which rival popes hurled against each other during the time of the great papal schism. The Greek Church also makes use of excommunication, and every year at Constantino])le, on a certain Sunday, the greater ban is pronounced against the Roman Catholic Cluirch. — The Reformers retained only that power of excommunication which a])peared to them to be inherent in the constitution of the Christian society, and to be sanctioned by the Word of God ; nor have any civil consequences been generally con- nected with it in Protestant countries. To connect such conseqiiences with excommunication in any measure whatever, is cei*tainly inconsistent with the principles of the Reformation. Nevertheless, in England, until the 53d of Geo. III. c. 127, and in Ireland, until the 54th, c. 68, persons excommuni- cated were debarred from bringing or maintaining actions, from serving as jurymen, from appearing as witnesses in any cause, and from practising as attorneys in any of the courts of the realm. All these disalnlities were removed by the statutes al)ove named ; and the excommunicated were declared no longer liable to any penalty, except •such imprisonment, not exceeding six months, as the court pronouncing or declaring such person excommunicate shall direct.' In the Roman Catholic Church, the power of ercommunicating is held to reside, not in the con- gi 3gation, but in the bishop ; and this is believed to be ID exact accordance with the remarkable pro- ceeding commemorated in the First Ei)istle of St Paul to the Corinthians (1 Cor. v. 3-5), and with all ■jhe cailiest recorded examples of its exercise. Like ill the other powers of the episcopate, it is held to belong in an especial and eminent degree, to the Romar bishop, as primate of the church ; but it is by no means believed to belong to him exclusively, nor haa such exclusive right ever been claimed by the bishops of Rome. On the contrary, bishops within their sees, archbishops while exercising visitatorial jurisdiction, heads of religious orders within their o^[n communities, all possess the power to issue excommunication, not only by the ancient law of the church, but also by the mfist modern discipline. As U thfi i)rolubition of intercourse with the excom- municated, a wide distinction is made bct'.vocn thos* who are called 'tolerated' and those who are 'not tolerated.' Only in tlie case of tlie latter (a case extremely rare and confined to hercsiarchs and other signal offenders again.st tlie faith or public order of the church) is the ancient and sca'ip- tural prohibition of intercourse enforced. With tlie 'tolerated,' since the celebrated decree of Pope Martin V. in the Council of Constance, the faithful are X)ermitted to maintain the ordinary intercourse. It is a mistake, likewise, to ascribe to Catholics the doctrine, ' that excommunication may be pronounced against the dead.' The contrary is expressly laid down by all canonists (Liguori, Theolo'jia Moralis, lib. vii. n. 13, 1). In the cases in which this is said to have been done, the supposed ' excommunica- tion of the dead' was merely a declaration that the deceased individual had, wldle living, been guilty of some crime to which ejcommunlcation is altad,id hy the clmrch laws. Catholic writers, moreover, explain that the civil effects of excommunication in the medieval period — such as incapacity to exercise jiolitical rights, and even forfeiture of the allegiance of subjects — were annexed thereunto by the civil law itself, or at least by a common inter- national understanding in that age. Examjjles are alleged in the law of Spain, as laid down in the Sixth Council of Toledo — a mixed civil and ecclesi- astical congress — (638) ; in the law of France, as admitted by Charles le Chauve (859) ; in the Saxon and in the Swabian codes ; and even in the English laws of Edward the Confessor ; all which, and many similar laws, proceed on the great general principle of these medieval monarchies, viz., that orthodoxy and communion with the Holy See were a necessary condition of the tenure of supreme civil power; just as by the 1 Will, and Mary, s. 2, c. 2, profession of Protestantism is made the condition of succession to the throne of England. Hence, it is argued, the medieval popes, in exccmmunicating sovereigns, and declaring their subjects released from allegiance, did but declare what was, by the public law of the jjeriod, the civil effect of the exercise of what in them was a spiritual authority. By the discipline of the Roman Catholic Church, kings or queens, and their children, are not included in any general sentence of exco^xmunication, unless they be specially named. i^:XCRETION. See Secretion. EXCULPA'TION, Letters or, in the law Scotland, are the warrants granted to the accused party, or panel as he is called, in a criminal prose- cution, to enable him to cite and compel the attend- ance of such witnesses as he may judge necessary for his defence. These letters are issued as a mattei of course, on application at the Justiciary Office, if tne prosecution be in the High Court, or to the sberiff c^erk in cases of Sheriff Court libels. If there be any special defence, such as alibi, a writtec statement of its nature along with the articles to be fomided on, and a list of the witnesses to be called, must be lodged with the clerk of courf the day before the trial. EXE,- a river of the south-west of England, risen in Exraoor, in the west of Somersetshu-e, and flows 19 miles south-east to the borders of Devonshire, and then 35 miles south through the east part oi that county into the Enghsh Channel at Exmouth, The lower rive miles form a tideway a Jiiile broad at high water, with wooded and picturesque shores, and navigable for large vessels. The chief tributaries are the Barle, 24 miles long, Batham, Loman, Culm, Dart, Creedy, and Chst. The E. passes Didverton, Brompton, Exeter, and Topsham. It has a clear and merry current thi'ough wooded and romuit'c val'^H. F>CECUTION-EXECUTION OF CMMINALS. fCXECU'TION, in the la./ of Scotland, signifies tlie attestation by a Mcssenger-at-arms (q. v.), or other officer of the law, that he has given a citation, or carried through a Diligence (q. v.), in terms of the warrant of the judge. It corresponds to an affidavit of service of writ or summons in the common law courts, and of a bill or claim in Chancery. Execu- tions must be subscribed by the messenger or other executor, and by one or two witnesses ; and where the execution consists of more pages than one, each page, or at least each leaf, niu t be so attested. Tlie witnesses are witnesses to tit fact of service, not merely to the sul)scription oi vhe messenger; and tbe execution ought strictly to bear tliat they are witnesses to the premises. Till tue ■'oassiu!?;; of recent acts (1 and 2 Vict. c. 114, kc. ; scv* Evidence), two witnesses were necessary to all exe mtions, but one is now sufficient, except in cases of ^ oinding, where o are still required. (Bell's Law Dktioiianj, and authorities cited.) EXECUTION, Criminal. See Cai-ital PuNisn- MENT. EXECUTION, Military and Naval, usually takes ])]ace by hanging or shooting, according to the rank of tlie offender and the nature of the oiTence. In some rare instances, blowing from the diouth of a gnn has been resorted to. For ])arti- CTilars of the acts for which death is awarded, see Punishments, Military and Naval, and Mutiny AlCT. EXECUTION OF CRIMINALS. See Capital Punishment. Executions take place publicly in the iJnited Kingdom, and, as far as known, all other countries, with tlie exception of the United States, Bavai'ia, and the colony of Victoria, where they take place within the precincts of the prison, in the sight of certain officials and others who are imdted to be ])resent. As one of the main objects of capital punishments is to strike terror by exani[)le, this method of private executions, as it may be called, Qecessarily fails in an essential feature ; but this defect is held to be more than compensated by tlie prevention of what is in reality a brutalising public spectacle. In London, executions took place for the most part at Tyburn until 1783, when a scaffold erected in front of Nev/-gate prison became the common place of execution. ' The gallows was built with three cross-beams for as many rows of sufFevvfs ; and between February and December 1785, ninety- six persons suffered by the " new drop," substituted for the cart. About 1786, here was the last execu- tion followed by burning the body ; when a woman was hung on a low gibbet, and life being extinct, fagots were piled around her and over her head, £re W9,s set to the pile, and the corpse burned to ashes. On one occasion the old mode of execution was renewed : a triangular gallows was set up in the road opposite Green-Arbom" Court, and the cart was drawn from under the criminal's feet.' — Timbs's Curiosities of London. To render executions more impressive, they were in some cases ordered to take place near the scene of guilt ; but this is now seldom practised. As in London, the ordinary place of execution in most towns in Great Britain and Iniiand is outside the prison. At Edinburgh, execu- "iions took place chiifly in the Grassmarket, until 1734, when they were transferred to a platform &.1 the west end of the Tolbooth or ancient prison, a building removed in 1817. Executions now take place on a scaffold erected in the open street, near the site of the old prison. The interval between sentence and execution is now in most places about three -^veeks, the nature of the crime not making •ny difference in tliis respect. In all parts of the British Empire, the convict imder sentence of death 18/ is allowed to make choice of the spiritual adviijtjr who shall attend on him ; and generally, everything; that humauicy can suggest is done to assuage the bitterness of his fate. ' At one time, the bodies of murderers after execution were, in terms of their sentence, delivered to professors of anatomy foi dissection ; and it woidd appear that in some instances the mangled coi*pse was made a kind of pu1)lic show. Such took place on the execution of Earl Ferrers, 1760. The body having been con- veyed from Tyburn in his lordship's landau -and- stt to Surgeon's Hall, was, after being disembowelled and laid open in the neck and breast, exposed to public view in a first-floor room. A print of the time depicts this odious exhibition. The ordering of the bodies to be dissected, having led to great abuse, was abolished in 1832 ; since this period, the bodies of executed murderers are l)uried within the precincts of the prison, and the bodies of other male- factors are given to their friends. See Anatomy (in Law). It was also at one time customary to hang the bodies of certain malefactors in chains after ex ecu- tion — as, for example, the bodies of jiii'ates were so hung on the banks of the Thames — but this usage, revolting to public feeling, is likewise abandoned. From the improved state of the criminal law, death- sentences are now of comimratively rare occurrence, and still more rarely are such sentences executed, for, except in cases of deliberate and aggravated murder, the extreme se \tcuce of the law is now usually commuted by th> crown into penal servi- tude for life. The secret-'ry of state, however, to whom practically belongs the attribute of mercy, exercises his power in thi>, respect with obviously much care and discretion. The pardoning power of governors in the United States is said to be greatly abused. In the progress of manners, a great change has taken place in the public attendance at executions. Formerly, persons belonging to the higher and middle ranks were habitually present at these dismal exhibitions ; many hiring windows at a consider- able sum for the occasion. Literature furnishes us with various instances of persons of cultivated mind attending regularly from a morbid love of the spectacle; George Selwyn was fond of seeing executions. His friend Gilly Williams, writing to him of the condemnation of John Wesket (January 9, 1765) for robbing the house of his master, the Earl of Hamngton, says : ' Harrington's porter was condemned yesterday. Cadogan and I have already bespoke places at the Brazier's. I jiresume we shall have your honours company, if your stomach is not too squeamish for a single swim.' — Selwyn's Gorresjmndence, vol. i. p. 323. The Eail of Carlisle, writing to Selwyn, speaks of having attended the execution of Hackman, .i murderer, April 19, 1779. — Ibid.vol. iv. p. 35. James Boswell, the biographer of Johnson, had a passion for seeing executions, and even for accompanying criminals to the gallows. He was indulged with a seat in the mourning coach to Tyburn, along with the above- named Hackman, the ordinary of Newgate, and sheriff's officer. Visiting Johnson on the 23d of June 1784, he mentions that he has just come from the shocking sight of fifteen men hanged at Newgat*. Boswell's Johnson, vol. viii. p. 331, Croker's edition. At executions, there are still considerable crowds, but they consist chiefly of the lowest and most depraved of the population. During the excesses of the French Revolution, the executions in Paris were enjoyed as a sj)ectacle by crowds of female Jacol)ins. From the circumstance of these furies employing themselves with knitting needles while attending daily at the scaffold, they became familiarly known aa the Tricoteuses (Knitters). Some further information EXECUTION OF DEED— EXECUTIOXER. concerninj[>- executions will be found in Drowning, Gallows, Guillotine, Hanged Dhawn and Quartered ; Hanging, INTaiden, Newgate, Par- ricide, I'lRATE, Pressing TO Death, and Tyburn. EXECUTION OF DEED, the perfonnance of the ceromonies required by law in order to make a deed binding and effectual. These ceremonies in England consist in signing, sealing, and deliverinfi'. According to the ancient common law of England, signntiu'e Avas not necessary to a deed. By 20 Car. 11. c. 3 (statute of Erauds), signing was required for almost all deeds. But it is still a question which has not been positively decided whether, when a seal is used, it is necessary that the parties should sign. When a party, from any cause, is unable to write, it is usual for him to place his mark in the place of signature. But a marlc is unnecessary, and giguature by another, at request of the party, is enough. Sealing is the most ancient form of authen- tication of deeds. In England, deeds are technically known as deeds under seal. A seal is absolutely essential to tlie validity of an English deed, but any species of seal is sufficient, and in practice a common wafer is usually appended. Delivery is the third requisite to authenticate a deed. Delivery may be made either to the grantee or to another person for him. In the former case, the deed becomes absolute; in the latter, it is called an Escroio, and does not acquire its full effect till the conditions are fulfilled. Witnesses are not absolutely required to a deed in England, but in practice it is usual that one or moi-e mtnesses should sign. As a rule, a deed must be read, if required, by a party to it ; and if not read, it is void as to the party requesting. Where a person is ordered m Chancery to execute a deed or other instrument, and is in prison for failure to comply with the order, the court may make an order that the instrument be executed by the officer of the court ; and the execution having been 60 made, the instrument is equally valid as if signed by the jiarty. The execution of wills in England is regadated by 7 Will. IV. and 1 Vict, c. 26. By this statute it is required that every will shall be signed at the foot or end by the testator in presence of two witnesses. See Will. In Scotland, sealing was formerly an essential requisite for execution ; but that practice was by 158i c. 4 dispensed with in regard to registered deeds, and has long fallen into disuse. The solemnities of execution are now regidated by the old acts 1540 c. 117, and 1681 c. 5. By the former of these acts, the signature of the maker of the de^d is required, and by the latter, the presence of two witnesses is made essential. In order to a valid execution of a deed or will in Scotland, it is necessary that the maker should sign in the presence of two witnesses, or should in their presence acknowledge his signatiu"e, and that the witnesses slioidd then sign their own names, writing after them the word ' witness.' In case the maker of the deed cannot write, the deed is signed in his presence by two notaries, in presence of four witnesses. But in case of a will, one notary and two witnesses are sufficient. A deed thus witnessed is received as conchisive proof of the facts which it sets forth. Subscription by initials has been permitted in Scotland. But this mode of execution is irregidar, and where it has been adopted, proof has been required that de facto the signature was so made. There is one exception to the nde that witnesses must attest the signatiu-e — viz., that of a deed or other instrument the whole or the essential parts of which are holograph of the tes- tator. This instrument is valid without witnesses. Bills and promissory-notes, receipts and mercan- tile accounts, do not require to be holograph or »tteate»«-7's Part (q. v.), after deducting debts. But should ho receive a legacy, he is bound to inq)ute that towar la payment of his claim. EXE'CUTORS, in Scotland, the heirs i>f rnohilibus of a person deceased. They are the wlu.le next of kin in the nearest degree in hlood ; hut where the heir to the heritage is one of the nearest of kin (e. g., the oldest son), he is not entitled to share in the movables without collation (q. v.). The order of succession among executors is first descendants ; then collaterals, or brothers and sisters, and their children ; and lastly, ascendants, i. e., the father and those claiming through him. But the mother and her family, till recently, were not allowed to succeed to her own child ah iiite,slato. This harsh rule was so strictly carried out, that where there were no relations by the father, the crown succeeded as ultimus lueres, to the exclusion of the mother. By 18 Vict. c. 23, the law of succession to movables has been in some degree altered. On the death of an intestate leaving no issue, his father, if he survive, is entitled to take one-half of the movable estate, in preference to ])rotliers and sistere. If the father be dead, the mother takes a third. No further provision, however, is made for the mother in case she is the only sundving relative. It is to be presumed, therefore, that the other two- thirds would sti.H go to the crown. See SuccE.ssioy, Movable. EXE'CUTOHY DEVISE, in English Law, is such a limitation of a future estate or interest in lands or chattels (though, in the case of chattels, it is more properly a bequest) as the laAV admits in the case of a will thoiigh contrary to the rules of limi- tation in conveyances at common law (Blackstone, Comm. ii. 334). By common law, a freehold cannot be limited on a freehold, as an estate to A and his heirs ; but if he die before he attain the age of 21, then to B and his heirs. Nor can an estate be given to commence at a time uncertain, as to A when he returns from Borne. But though these limitations would be void in a deed, common law will sustain them as executory devises. This form of limitation is restrained by the law against Perpetuities (q. v.), which requires that the estate must take effect within a life or lives in being and twenty-one years after. The law will not interpret a limita- tion as an executor}'- debase, if it can be otherwise sustained. Whenever, therefore, a future interest in land is so devised as to fall within the rides laid down for the limitation of contingent remainders, such devise will be construed as a contingent remainder, and not as an executory devise (Cndse, Digest, vi. 369). An executory devise, unlike a remainder, cannot be defeated by any act of the first taker or devisee ; when, thei'efore, an absolute power of disposition is in the first taker, the limita- tion over is not an executory devise. Within the period allowed for these estates, an executory devise constitutes a species of estate tad ; and for this purpose, it is frequently used in America. EXEGE'SIS (from Gr. eks, out of, and egeomai^ I lead) properly signifies the exposition or inter- pretation of any writing, but is almost exclusively employed in connection with the interpretation of Sacred Scripture, to which, therefore, the subjoined EXEGESIS— EXELMANS. remarks specially apply. The expositor or inter- preter is called an exegete. To interpret a writing, means to ascertain thoroughly and fundamentally what are the conceptions and thoughts which the author designs to express by the words he has used. For this purpose it is necessary, in regard to books written in a foreign language, that the exegete shoald know well, first, the precise signification of the words and idioms employed by the writer. This is termed (jrammatico-plLilolofjical exegesis. In the next place, he must be acquainted with the things denoted by these words, and also with the history, antiquities, and modes of thought of the nation. This termed historko-anthpmrian exegesis. Both togetner constitute grammxitlco-liislorical exegesis. When only an exposition of the sj'stem of thought contained in a AVTiting is sought after, this is termed dodiinal or dogmatic exegesis ; while the investiga- tion of a secret sense, other than that literally con- veyed by the words of a writing, is termed allegorical exegesis. But if a writing is regarded from a prac- tical point of view, and in reference to its bearin;^ upon life and manners, the exposition is termed moral exegesis. The complete and coherent exegesis of a writing forais what is called a commentary, biit, if restricted to certain difficult words or knotty points, the elucidations ai-e termed scholia. The scientific exhibition of tlie rules and means of exegesis is called Hermeneutlcs (q. v.). In the earhest ages of the Christian Church, the allegorical method of exegesis prevailed. By the Alexandrian school in particular, it was greatly abusetL Origen, however, the gi'catest of this school, deserves high crc(bt for endeavouring to secure a basis for grammatical exegesis, by a sharp separation of the literal, the moral, and the mystical sense of Scripture. Besides the Alexandrian school, the Syrian historico-exegetic school had many adher- ents in the East. Among these may be mentioned Cyril of Jerusalem, Ephraim Syrus, John Chry- sostom, and Theodorus of Mopsuestia. First, towards the end of the 4th, and during the 5th centuries, a narrowing of the principle of the free interpretation of Scripture begins to be observable," through the rapid develojiment of monkery and the hierarchical system ; in consequence of which, the importance of the classic writers was undervalued, and the study of them idtimately abandoned in the Western Church, while a feeling of superstitious reverence, wholly unintelligent and unscriptural, grew up for the letter of the *Word,' and exegesis, if employed at aU, was employed simply to bolster up preconceived views. By and by, independent exegesis was supplanted by the well-known Catence, consisting of expositions of books of Scriptirre Btrung together from the writings of the older church Fathers. In the East, the first of these was got up by Procopius, 520 a.d.; in the West, by Primasius, 550 a.d. Although much was done for the exegesis of the Old Testament by eminent Jewish scholars, such as Solomon Jarchi, Aben- Esra, and David Kimchi, Christian theologians for the most part, knowing only the text of the Vulgate, stuck, during the dark ages, to the inter- pr stations of the Fathers. First in the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries, eflForts were made by indivi- dual scholastics, especially by Abelard, St Bernard of Clairvaux, Thomas Aquinas, and Nicholas of Ljrra, to re-introduce something like a grammatico- historical exegesis of Scripture. But it was mainly to the great revival of letters in the 15th c, and the humanistic scholars whom it produced, such as Laurentius Valla, Erasmus, &c., that an advance in exegesis was owing. The Complutensian Polyglott also exercised a great and beneficial influence. Shortly after, the Keformation gave an unpulse to exegesia, so powerful, that it is felt 192 at the present day ; and, indeed, its effect ia far more visible in the recent biblical criticism of Germany than it was in the days of Luther himself. Tlie desire for the unfettered exegesis of Scripture strongly animated the reformers, but, in fact, the long black night of ignorance — known as the dark and middle ages — has influenced them too, and disquali- fied them for framing at once a comprehensive exegetical science. It required a couple of centuries to recover from the effects of medieval ignorance. The more important Lutheran exegetes are : Luther, Melancthon, Brenz, Joach. Camerarius, Strigei, Chemnitz, «&c. ; of the Reformed or Cahinistic school may be mentioned Calvin, Zwingli, (Ecolom- padius, Bucer, Beza, Bullinger, Grotius, Clericus, &c.; and of the Roman Catholics, especially Paul Sar|)i. During the 17th c, the exegesis of Scripture was for the most part at a stand stdl, but about the middle of the 18th c. it suddenly revived. This revival is due principally to Joli. Aug. Emesti (q. v.), ' and J. Sal. Sender (q. v.), who established new princi2)le3 of criticism and hermeneutics, through which grammatico-historical exegesis once more began to make its appearance. The laboiu-s Q\ Wetstein and Kennicott in regard to biblical MSS were of immense service. Since tlieir day, on to thu present, criticism has been constantly at work on the %VTitings of the Old and New Testament. Cognate languages have been more and more profoundly studied ; the antiquities of the East, of Egypt, Assyria, Arabia, and other countries, have been investigated, and brought to bear on the subject ; the manners and customs which prevail in these lands, and which, in some of them, have prevailed from time immemorial ; the laws that determine the growth of civilisation in nations, and enable us to enter into and comprehend the condition of mind pecidiar to races in a primitive stage of development, and to appreciate their modes of thought, and to weigh the value of their literary and religious records — all these have received, and are still receiving careful attention at the hands of numerous scholars, so that it is not too much to say that we are at the present day better fitted — so far as outward helps go — to understand the real meaning of Scripture, than those who have lived at any other period subsequent to ibs composition. Among the eminent names in the recent development of biblical exegesia are F. A. Wolf, J. Dav. Michaelis, Eichhom, Gcsenius, Wahl, Bretschneider, Winer, Rosenmliller, Hitzig, Hirzel, Ewald, Umbreit, De Wette, Knobei, Lucke, Paidus, Meyer, Olshausen, Hengsteuberg, &c. The influence of the grammatico-critical, and critico- historical exegesis of modern Germany, is oiAf beginning to make itself felt in this country. The most important contribiitions to the science recently made by British scholars, are those by Conybearo and Howson, Alford, A. P. Stanley, Jowett, &c. EXELMANS, REivrY Joseph Isidore, Comte, a distinguished French general, was bom at Bar-le-duc, 13th November 1775. He entered the army in 1791, was promoted to the rank of captain in 1799, served with distinction in the campaign of Naples under Macdouald and Championnet, and in 1801 was attached as aide-de-camp to the staff of Murat. In 1808, while with Murat in Spain, he was arrested, and sent to England, where he remained a prisoner for three years. He was with Napoleon in the Russian campaign in 1812, for his brilliant conduct in which, the Emperor created him general of divi- sion, September 8th of the same year. E. seems to have been equally esteemed imder every successive government. On the fall of Napoleon, he was iot some time banished from France, but was permitted to return in 1819. In 1831 Louis Philippe restored his titles and rank. Louis Nauoleon named him EXERCISE— EXHIBITION. Grand Chancellor of the Legion of Honour, and on March 11, 1851, raised him to the dignity of Marech al de France. On the 21st July 1852/E. had a Lad fall from his horse, from the effects of which he expired on the following night. E'XERCISE, a very important element of medical Regimen (q. v.), both in the preservation of health and in the cure of disease. To ])reserve all the functions of the body in health, it is necessary to securft their dne and regular action "or exercise ; to allow of complete inaction of any part or function, is to initiate disease, and probably even structural change, or atrophy. Hence the development of the miiscalar system, of the secretions, and even of the mind and its organ, the brain, require the more or less regulo,r use of exercise, either in the form of productive and useful work, or by means of arti- ficially devised methods calculated to serve a like purpose in regard to the economy. Thus, scholastic education is exercise for the mind ; Gymnastics (q. v.), for the body. Both these means enter largely into enlightened medical practice, though they are often too much neglected. Exercise, to be beneficial, must be attended \nth rest, to allow the tissues which are worn away during vital action to be restored ; but rest of one part or organ is often best secured by bringing others into activity ; so that, except during sleep, there is rarely a necessity for a comj^lete and simultaneous disuse of all the faculties, or even of those most immediately under our control. The best regulated life is that which secures due and proportionate exercise at intervals for all the functions, mental as well as bodily. E'XETER (the Ccer-Isc of the Britons, the Jsca Damnoniorum of the Romans, Exanceder of the Saxons), a city, episcopal see, separate county, parlia- mentary and municipal borough, and river-port, in the south-east of Devonshire, and the capital of that county. It lies on an acclivity on the right bank of the Exe, 10 miles north-west of its mouth, 170 miles west-south- west of London, and 73 miles south-west of Bristol. It is on the whole well built and clean, and has two main lines of street meeting near the centre. There are some fine squares and terraces. The Guildhall has a singular portico, added in 1593, and projecting into the street. Exeter cathedral, a cruciform structure, magnificent in its ornamentation, was erected 1 112 — 1478. It measures 408 by 140 feet, and has a nave 175 feet long, with two aisles, a transept ending in two Norman towers 145 feet high, a choir, 13 chapels, and a consistory couii;. The west front has a profusion of niches and carved figures, and the west window has beau- tiful tracery. In the choir is a dark array of oaken stalls and canopies, besides the bishop's throne — an exquisite airy fabric towering 52 feet to the roof of the choir. In one of the towers is the great Tom of Exeter or Peter's Bell, 12,500 lbs. weight, and a large curious antique clock. E. has a large floating ship- Vf admirably arranged specimens illustrated ever/ industry followed by the most industrious and / ijilosopliical people of Europe. In Belgium, also, h small industrial exhibition was held in 18GI at Bruiacls, consisting chiefly, however, of articles of use, in which tastefid tiesign was the chief consideration. Such is a very brief outline of the history of these exhibitions, which now form a prominent feature in this era of the history of civilisation. The fulness of their effects is still to be seen, but, judging of the beuefici.'il effects they have already produced, it is not too much to say, that they aj)pear destined to help most largely in diffusing a love of industry, and a peaceful emulation over the whole globe. Commerce may have its weak points, even its meannesses, but it cannot be denied that few of the occupations of man are more humanising, or tend more to teach the value of peace and good- will ; and if this be conceded, certainly nothing can more assist it than these great gatherings, in which each nation shews its own specialities, and gives to others the ideas which it has accumulated through its centuries of progress in industrial art. Like the social interchange of tliouglit, this interchange of inventive genius brings out new talents; and succeeding generations will reap a rich harvest of results from our industrial exhibitions. For an ex- tended notice of the English exhibition held in London in 1862, and the great French exhibition (L'Exposition Universelle) held in Paris in 1867, the reader is re- ferred to the Supplement, Vol. X, of this Encyclope- dia. At this display, the American exhibitors took 3 grand prizes, 17 gold, 66 silver, and 94 bronze medals, for numerous products unexcelled by other nations. See Official, Descriptive, and Illustrated Catalogue of tlie Great ExJiibition q/lSol (3 vols.); also Reports by the Juries (2 vols.); and likewise the magnificent set of works printed for the commissioners (13 vols, foho). E'XMOOR FOREST, a moory, mostly unculti- vated waste, consisting of dark ranges of hills and lonely valleys, 14 square miles in area, in the west of Somersetshire and north-east of Devonshire. It is bordered by deep wooded glens. The hills rise in Dunkcry Beacon to 1668 feet, in Chapman Barrow to 1540, and in Span Head to 1510. Devonian slates, with some new red sandstone in the north, form the substratum. It is covered with heath, interspersed with juniper, cranberry, and whortleberry, with much meadow-land. Throughout this tract there is a native breed of ponies, known as Exmoor ponies, reputed to be stout and hardy. Since 1851, E. has become an iron-mining district. The river Exe, and its tributary the Barle, rise in Exmoor. Lt is subject to winds and mists. E'XMOUTH, a town in the east of Devonshire, on the left bank of the mouth of the Exe, 10 miles south-east of Exeter. It stands at the base and on the slope and top of a hill rising from the sandy estuary of the Exe. It is noted for its mild climate. From about 1700, it was the chief watering-place on the Devon coast, till the rise of T'orquay. There is a fine promenade on a sea- wall 18 feet high. The Haldon ridge of hills on the east, 800 feet high, protects it from the east winds. Here Sueno the Dane landed in 1003. It was taken by the royalists in 1646. Pop. (1871) 7538. EXMOUTH, Edward Pellew, Viscount, a famous naval commander, ./as l^orn at Dover, April 19, 1757. He entered the navy when 13 yeara of age, and first attracted notice by his gallant conduct in the battle on Lake Champlain, Octol>er 11, 1776. In 1782, he attained the rank of post-captain. In 1793, having been appointed to the command of the Nymplie, a frigate of 36 guns, he encoun- tered, and, after a hard-fought battle, captured La Cleopatre, a French frigate, wliich carried the siame nmnber of guns. For this victory, he was knighted. In 1799, he received the command of the Irnpetueux^ 78 guns, and was sent to the French coast, where many of his most brilliant actions took place. In 1804, Sir E. Pellew was advanced to the rank if Rear-admiral of the Red; in 1808, to that of Vice- admiral of the Blue; and in 1814, he was raised to the peerage, with the title of Baron Exmoutli of Canonteign, Devonshire, with a pension of £2000 a year. In 1816, he was sent to Algiers, to enforce the terms of a treaty regarding the abolition of Christian slavery, which the Dey of Algiers had violated. With a combined fleet of 25 English and Dutch vessels, he bombarded the city for seven hours, and inflicted such immense damage, destroy- ing all the Algerine fleet and many of the public buildings, that the Dey consented to every demand. E., who had been woimded in the leg and cheek in this action, received on his return to England the thanks of both Houses of Parliament, and was pro- moted to the rank of viscount, 10th December 1816. In 1821, he retired from public service, loaded with honours. He died 23d January 1833. EXOCETUS. See Flying-Fish. E'XODUS ('the departure'), the name given to the second book of the Pentateuch. It may be regarded as composed of two parts — the first historical, and the second legislative. The historical extends to the end of the 18th chapter. It embraces a narrative of the various preparations, natural and supernatural, made under the providence of God for the deliverance of the Israelites from their bondage in Egypt, and also describes the accom- plishment of their deliverance, and the journeyiugs of the people in the wilderness as far as Mount Sinai. The legislative is devoted to a minute and elaborate account of the institution of the theocracy. The book presents us with three aspects of Hebrew history. We have, first, a picture of a people enslaved ; second, of a people redeemed from bond- age ; and third, of a people sanctified and set apart to the service of God. The period embraced by the history of the book is usually reckoned at 142 or 145 years, which number is obtained as follows; From the death of Joseph to the birth of IMosea, 60 or 63 years; from the birth of Moses to the departure from Egy|)t, 80 years; and from the departure out of Egypt to the erection of the tabernacle, 1 year. It cannot be denied, however, without wildly violating all the ordmary laws of the increase of population, that this is much too short a period to account for the existence of such a number of Hebrews as left Egypt — ^az., 600,000, exclusive of women and children— i. e., in all, -at least 2,500,000. Those who went down into Egj^t with Jacob were ' threescore and ten souls,' and is 215 years, these, though prohibited from intermarry- ing with the Egyptians, had amounted to between two and three millions. The -wTiter of Exodus, indeed, says (chapter xii., verse 40) that ' the sojourn- ing of the children of Israel, who dwelt in Egypt, was 430 years,' adding that they left the land ' even the selfsame day ' on which they had entered it. This statement, however, does not seem to harmonise with the author's previous narrative^ 196 EXODUS— EXOGENOtJS PLANTS. md is certainly inconsistent with the language of the Apostle Paul, who says (Gal. iii. 17) that the law was given 430 years after the covenant with Abraham, which took place about 215 years before Jacob and his sons Avent down into Egypt, so that, according to this view, the Israelites could only have been in Egypt 215 years. This is the number commonly accepted; but it is not won- derful that some writers should affirm that 'it would be more satisfactory if we could allow 430 years for the increase of the nation in Egypt rather than any shorter period.' A still longer period would undoubtedly afford additional satisfaction ; and Bunsen, in his JUgypten's Stelle in der Welt- yeschichte, endcavoui's to shew that the Israelites were in Egypt for fourteen centuries instead of two, and that the mxniber 215 only indicates the period of oppression, the time when they were ' evilly entreated.' This conclusion is, of course, arrived at by the application of principles of criticism not gene- rally recognised in the schools of British theology ; but there seems no avoiding the conclusion, that the usual chronology is hopelessly wrong. May it not be that the interval which elapsed between the death of 'Joseph and all his brethren, and all that generation' (Exodus i. 6), and the period when there arose up a new king over Egypt which knew not Joseph (Exodus i. 8), was nuich longer than we suppose? The passage itself in Exodus seems to favo\ir this idea ; for the intervenmg verse (Exodus 7) speaks of the children of Israel ' increasing and multipl^ang, and waxing exceeding mighty, and filling the land,' without any reference at all to the time occupied in this ])rocess ; and such words are certainly more applicable to a series of centuries than of years, while centuries, besides, would harmonise better than years with the state- ment that the Egyi)tiau king knew not (i. e., had forgotten all about) Joseph. The only grave objec- tion to this otherwise extremely j^robable hypo- thesis, is its incompatibility with the statement of St Paul; an objection, however, which Luther woidd not have found insiu-mountable, for in an exactly similar case he said of the inspired Stephen that 'he was no historian, and did not trouble himseK about particulars.' — Zu Apostelyesch, vii. Bd. 1, 1160. In explanation of the chronological difficulty, the confusion resulting from the use of letters as numerals in Hebrew MSS. has been urged; and this is notoriously a fertile source of error and contradiction, which rationalistic critics have not sufficiently kept in mind. To adduce such a reason, however, would be unavailing in the present case ; for if it could be proved that the period stated in Exodus may have been abbreviated through the negligence of some careless transcriber, or otherwise, and thus an approximation be made to the four- teen centuries of Bunsen, this would only place the writer of the Pentateuch in more visible antagonism with St Paul himself. The date of the exodus is fixed by Usher at 1491 B.C. ; by the Septuagint, at 1614 8.C. ; by Hales, at 1648 B.C. ; by Wilkinson, about 1495 B. c., in the reign of Thothmes HI. ; and by Bunsen, as late as 1320 or 1314 B.C., in the reign of Menephthah, in the latter of which years Manetho gives what appears to be the Egyptian version of the event. The genuineness and authenticity of the book of E. have been shari:)ly criticised in modern times ; but in fact, as early as the time of Josephus {Ant. ii. 16), there were Jews M'ho looked upon the miracle of the crossing of the Red Sea, &c., as fabulous. Among the theologians who have questioned the integrity of E., are Von Lengerke, Stahelin, De Wette, and Knobel, all of whom find traaa« of an older and a later author, the former of whom they call Elohistic, and the latter Jehovistic. Their objections have been readied to by Plengstenberg, Hilvernick, &c., who endeavour to shew that the distinction is artificial, and the attempt to follow it out in detail a failure. See Pentateuch. EXO'GENOUS PLANTS, or EXOGENS (Gr. exo, outwards ; gennao, to produce), are those in which the woody substance of stem increases by bundles of vascular tissue added externally. The exogenous stem contains a central Pith (q. v ), from which medullary rays proceed to the Bark (q. v.), and the bark is very distinct from the fibro- vascular or woody part whicii it surrounds. The exogenous is thus very different in structure and manner of growth from the endogenous or the acrogenoua stem. Amidst the cellidar substance of the young stem, when it has developed itself from the seed, woody cords are seen connecting the cotyledons, and afterwards \'^ \ leaves, when these appear, with the root, in the central axis of which they join. A section of the stem exhibits the cellular substance traversed by vascular bimdles (woody fibre), which in the section are more or less wedge-shaped, radi- ating from the centre, but yet not prolonged into the centre itself, which, even to the greatest age of the stem, remains occupied by the cellular pith. Additional bundles are interposed, as groAvth proceeds, diminishing the proportion of cellular substance in the stem, yet without these bundles ever becoming so compacted together as to cut off the communication between the cellular centre of the stem and its bark, which is maintained by means of the medullary rays, often, indeed, imperceptible to the naked eye, but always present even in the hardest and most close-grained wood. The woody layers which are formed in successive years, as new leaves and branches are developed, are formed amidst the Cambium (q. v.), into which the woody fibres of the new leaves descend, between the bark and the former wood. Thus the concentric circles are formed, usually one for each year's growth, distin- guishable even in the most matured timber, and by which the age of trees is very commonly computed. The beginning of each new layer is generally marked by a greater abundance of porous vessels, the open- ings of which are conspicuous in the transversa section. In pines, the line of separation between the layers is marked by greater density of texture, and often by deeper colour. The age of trees cannot, however, be calculated with perfect certainty from the concentnc circles of the stem, as any circum- stance which temporarily arrests the growth in any summer, may produce an effect similar to that ordi- narily produced by the change of seasons ; whilst in the.- trees of tropical coimtries, at least where the wet and dry seasons are not very marked, concentric circles are often not to be discovered. The structure of the branch of an exogenous tyre perfectly corresponds with that of the stem. The vascular bundles of the stem or branch form a loop where a leaf begins, and those of the leaf and its axillary bud spring from the loop. The roots of exogenous plants have not a central pith like the stem, but in a few trees, as the horse-chestnut, the pith is prolonged to some extent into the root. Anomalies are not imfrequently to be met with in the structure of exogenous stems, and particu- larly among the twining woody plants of tropical countries. There are also very many herbaceous plants, in which, although the structure agrees with that of an exogenous tree in its first year, no furthei development is ever attained ; whilst in many, even this is very imperfectly reached ; but yet these are on other accounts unhesitatingly classed with exogenous plants. The exogenous stem and dicotyledonoi;» EXORCISM— EXPENSES OF A. LAWSUIT. 8i:ed are so constantly found together, that the desigi.atiou exogenous plants is often applied to that great division of the vegetable kingdom, which is also called dicotyledonous. See Botany. Exog- enous plants are also characterised by a particular mode of germination, with reference to which they are caUed exorhizal (Gr. exo, outwards; rhiza, a root), the radicle simply lengthening, and not having to br.-eak through tlie coat of the embryo. The Itiaves of exogenous plants generally exhibit a net-work of veins, instead of the parallel veins characteristic of endogens, and a greater proportional breadth of leaf usually accomjiauies this reticulated yenation. Exogenous plants are far more numerous than endogens. All the trees and shrubs of Britain, and those of temperate and cold climates generally, are exogenous, as well as very many herbaceous plants of these parts of the world, and many trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants of the tropics. Almost all trees, except palms and a few L'diacea;, Pandanacece, and tree-ferns, are exogenous. E'XORCISM (from exorJcizo, to conjure), i. e., conjiiration in the name of the gods, the term used by the Fathers of the church to denote the act of conjuring evil spirits, in the name of God or Christ, to depart out of the person possessed. The first Cliristians adjured evil spirits in the name of Jesus Ohiist, who had conquered the devil ; but as the opinion was at the same time entertained, that all idolaters belonged to the kingdom of Satan — who Buffered himself to be worshipped under the form of idols — it was customary to exorcise heathens pre- vious to their receiving Christian baptism. After Aiigustine/s theory of original sin had found accept- ance in the 5th c, and all infants were regarded as belonging to Satan's kingdom, exorcism became feneral at the baptism even of Christian children, 'olio wing the practice of the Roman Catholic Church, Luther retained exorcism, but it was laid aside by the Reformed Church. Although aban- doned by illustrious and orthodox Protestant theolo- gians, such as Chemnitz and Gerhard, or deemed unessential, and in modern times done away with by the ' Protestant ' Church, the practice has been recently revived by the Old Lutheran or High- Church party. In the Catholic Church, the function of exorcism belongs peculiarly to one of the so-called 'minor orders.' See Orders. Our Lord having not only himself in person (Matt. ix. 32, Mark i. 25, Luke iv. 35, viii. 29) cast out devils, but having also given the same power to his disciples, it is believed to be |K'-rmanent in the church. Of its exercise in the early church, both in relation to ' energumens,' or persons possessed, and in the administration of baptism, there are numerous examples. Tertullian and Origen speak of it as of ordinary occurrence, and the council of Carthage, in 255, alludes to its use in baptism. The rite of exorcism is used by the modern church in three different cases : in the case of actual or supposed demoniacal possession, in the administration of baptism, and in the blessing of the chrism or holy oil, and of holy water. Its use in cases of possession is now extremely I'are, and in many diseases is prohibited, unless with the special permission of the bishop. In baptism it precedes the ceremony of applying the water and the bap- tismal form. It is used equally in infant and in adult baptism, and Catholic writers appeal to the earliest examples of the administration of the sacrament as evidence of the use of exorcism in both alike The rite of baptismal exorcism in the Roman Catholic Church follows closely the Scrip- tural model in Mark viii. 33. The exorcisms in the blessing of the oil and water resemble very closely the baptismal form, but are more diffuse. EXOSMOSE. See Endosmose. EXOSTEMMA, a genus of American trees and shrubs of the natural order Clnckonac-a'., nearly allied to Cinchona. Several species yiehl feltri- fugal barks, which, however, do not contain tha cinchona alkaloids. The most valued of these barks are Caribbee Bark (q. v.) and Saint Lucia Bark, the latter of which is the jjroduce of E. Jloribunda, a native of the more mountaiuoua parts of the West Indies. EXOTE'RIC. See Esoteric. EXO'TIC PLANTS, o\ EXOTICS (Gr. cominr from abroad), cidtivated plants originally derived from foreign countries. The term is most frequently applied to those of which the native country differs so much in soil or climate from that into which they have been conveyed, that their cultivation is attended with difficulty, requiring artificial heat or other means different from those requisite in the case of indigenous plants. The cultivation of many such exotics is carried on with great success in our green- houses and hothouses ; but there are a few which, notwithstanding all the care of the gardener, can almost never be made to fiower, and others which, although they flower, seldom produce ripe fruits and seeds. Nor are difficulties of this kind experienced only in the cultivation of those which belong to warmer climates than our own, but sometimes even with the natives of colder regions; thus, the deli- cious fruit of the Ruhns arcticus, alnrndant in the most northern parts of Europe, is scarcely ever to be seen in the gardens of Britain, although the plant grows with sufficient luxuriance. EXPANSION. See Heat. EXPECTA'TION (Lat. expedatio, a waiting, or looking out), i. e., the treatment of disease without active remedies, by simply observing its progress and averting its consequences through physiological means ; as, for instance, when a Fracture (q. v.) is treated by kee[>ing the ends of the broken bone in their proper place, until the natural processes of repair are completed. Expectation is in this and other cases obviously a quite different thing from inaction, or the systematic doing of nothing, with which it has been sometimes confounded. EXPECTATION OF LIFE. See Probability. EXPECTATION WEEK is the name given to the period elapsing between Ascension Day and Whitsunday, because during this time the apostles continued praying in earnest expectation of the Comforter. EXPE'CTORANTS (Lat. ex, out of, and pediis, the breast), medicines given to carry off the secre- tions of the ak-tubes. See Bronchi, Bronchitis. The principal expectorants are antimony, squill, ipecacuanha, senega, balsam of tolu, lobelia, grxa ammoniac, asafojtida, galbanum, &c. EXPECTORA'TION (see Expectoraxts.), the mucus or other secretion discharged from the air- passages. The examination of expectoration is ol the utmost value in the diagnosis of diseases of th-r. chest, as will be seen in their separate descriptioa., See Chest, Diseases of; Bronchitis; Pneumonia; Consumption, &c. EXPENSES or COSTS OF A LAWSUIT. The arrangements adopted in England with refer- ence to charges exigible from the parties to lawsuits are stated under Costs. In Scotland, these charges are commonly spoken of as expenses, and in the present article we shall, consequently, confine ourselves to the Scottish practice. In additica to demanding payment of the sum claimed, or performance of the alleged obligation where it haj no reference to a pecuniary transaction, the piursuer ci EXPERIMENT-EXTENSION. m action, at law in Scotland almost always asks tlie court to pronounce decree in his favour for the expense of the proceedings which lie has found it, or may find it, necessary to institute. On the other hand, the defender usually demands the expense attending his defence ; and the general rule is, that the party found ultimately to be in the wrong has decree pronounced against him for the expense which he has occasioned to his opponent, as well as for the subject-matter of the suit. A^it IS quite usual for a party to succeed in one branch of his action, and to fail in another ; or to occasion Oa^iecessary expense by the vmskilful or careless mode in which he conducts some portion of it, even though on the whole he be in the right ; the adjustment of the amounts incurred by the parties respectively often involves not only much nicety of calculation, but questions of very considerable legal difficulty. In so far as the adjustment of expenses is a matter of calculation, it is effected by the auditor of the Court of Session, or of the inferior courts. See Auditor, Sheriff Courts. In BO far as it involves questions of law, these, if not previously decided by the judge, must be carried back to him from the auditor. If either j^arty means to object to the amount awarded to him by the auditor iu his report, he must lodge with the clerk of the process a short note of his objections without argument. A copy of this note must be furnished to the agent for the ojiposite party, and the court, or the Lord Ordinary, before whom the action depended, may direct the objections to be answered either vivd voce or in writing. Should the objector fail to make good his objection, the expense of discussing it will be laid on bim. If the objection has been stated to the auditor, and he has reported it to the court, it does not follow that the expense of discussing it will be laid wholly on the objector, even if unsuccessful. AVhere an appeal to the House of Lords has been actually presented, and ser^dce of an order thereon has taken place, a motion for expenses is incompetent, but a mere intimation of an appeal is not enough to prevent decree for expenses being pronounced. If the agent who has conducted the cause wish it, the decree for expenses will be pronounced in his favour ; and the party found liable will not be allowed to plead a counter-claim against the client, as by that means he might prevent the agent from recovering what he very probably has disbursed. The taxation of expenses is said to be between party and party, and not between agent and client; that is to say, the losing party has to pay only the expenses which have been neces- sarily incurred in discussing the question between the parties judicially, not the unnecessary expenses which the overanxiety of the successful party may have led him to incur to his own agent. Practically, there are very few cases in which the expenses recovered do cover all the bond-Jide claims of the agent against his client, which is the chief reason why litigation is always attended with expense, ©ven to the winning party. EXPE'RIMENT and observation are the means fey which we extend and confirm our knowledge of ©atm-e. An experiment is properly a proceeding by which the inquirer interferes with the usual course of a phenomenon, and makes the powers of nature act under conditions that, without his inter- ference, would never, perhaps, have ])resented them- selves ail together. The introduction of experiment distinguishes the modern method of investigating natui'e from that of ancient times and of the middle ages. It is by this means that physics and chemistry have made such rapid strides within the last two centuries. Through experiment, the investigator becomes master of the phenomena he is considering ; 19a for he can contrive to set aside the unessential circumstances that so often conceal the real rela- tions and conditions of things, and make these come out into the light. Experiments exhibited during a lecture on any branch of science are made, not Tfith a view to the discovery of truth, but to aid in the exposition of truths already discovered ; they are sometimes called demonstrative experiments. EXPE'RT (Lat. expertus, from ex and peritus, specially skilled), a man of special practical expe- rience or education in regard to a particular subject —a word commonly applied (after the French) to medical or scientific witnesses in a court of justice, when selected on account of special qualifications, as in the case of an analysis of the contents of the stomach in suspected poisoning. The term is similarly applied to a person professionally skilled in handwriting, for detection of forgery of dueds and signatures. EXPO NENT AND EXPONENTIAL. When it was wanted to express the multiplication of unity for any number of successive times by the same number or qiiantity, e. g., 1x5x5, or 1 x a x & x a, it was found a convenient abbreviation to write 1x5^^ and Ixa', or simply, 5^^ and a'; and the numbers, 2 and 3, indicating how often the opeiation of multiplication is repeated, were called exponents. But the theory of exponents gradually received extensions not originally contemplated, and has now an extensive notation of its own. Thus, a'' = 1, a* = a, a"' = — j, a* = ti/a, ai = %/% = or the cube root of the square of a. Also a* is the a:th power of a, x being any number integral or fractional ; and, a continuing the same, x may be so chosen that a' shall be equal to any given number. In this case, X is called the logarithm of the niunber repre- sented by a*. Considered by itself, a' is an expo nential. Generally, any quantity representing a power whose exponent is variable, is an exponential, aa a*, X', If, &c. Exponential equations are those which involve exponentials, such as a* = b, x' = c. EXPOSURE OF INFANTS. See Infanticide. EXPRESSIO'NE, Con, or ESPEESSIVO, Italian terms in music, meaning with expression ; impassioned, with pathos. Where the word appears at the beginning of a composition, the piece must be executed throughout with feeling. * Expressione' frequently appears above certain passages which alone are to be performed so, while the harmony in the accompaniment goes on quietly. EXTE'NSION, in Logic, is a word put into contrast with another term. Comprehension, and the two mutually explain each other. A general notion is said to be extensive according to the extent of its application, or the number of objects included under it. Thus, Figure is a term of very great extension, because it contains in its compass many varieties, such as round, square, oblong, polygonal, &c. In like manner, Eiuopean is more extensive than German, man than Eviropean, animal than man, organised being than animj.1. The highest genera are formed by taking in a wider range of objects. Matter and Mind are the most extensive classes that we can form. For, although a higher genus is sometimes spoken of, viz., Existence ; to call this a class is to generalise beyond real know- ledge, which does not begin till we have at least tvro actual tilings to contrast with each other. What can be contrasted only with non-existence, non entity, or nothingness, is not genuine knowledge; no property can be affirmed of it upart from the thing itself. Matter, in its contrast to mind, is a real cognition ; and vice versa, mind in its contrast to matter. These, then, are the most eytensivp EXTENT— EXTRACT OF MEAT. terms that have any real knowledge attached to them. But this property of extension is gained by dropping more and more of the })eculiarities of tlie included individuals ; * organised being,' in order to include both plants and animals, must drop from its signification what is peculiar to each, and mean only what i^ common to both. In short, these very extensive notions have a very narrow signification ; it is the less extensive that have most meaning. The meaning of ' Man,' or the number of attributes implied in this generic expi-ession, is large. Every- thing that goes to a human being — the human form ind organisation, the mental attributes of reason, speech, etc. — is expressed by this term, which is on that account said to be more Comprehensive than animal or organized being. Thus it may be seen that the greater the extension, the less is the com- prehension : and the greater the comprehension, the less is the extension. An individual is the term of greatest comprehension, and of least extension. * Socrates ' comprehends all that is common to men and to philosophers, together with all that is peculiar to himself. On the logical uses of this distinction. Bee Sir W. Hamilton's Lectures on Logic, i. 140. EXTE'NT, in English Law, a writ issuing out of the Court of Exchequer to compel payment of debts to the crown. In oixler to warrant the issue of this writ, tlie debt must be a debt of Ilecord (q. v.). Extents are in chief or in aid. The former are issued against the crown debtor, and under it the body, land, and goods may aU be taken at once. An extent in aid is issued at the suit of a crowTi debtor against a person indebted to the crown debtor. On this writ, the chattels only of the person against whom it is issued can be attached. Writs of extent in aid were at one time made the means of great abuse ; persons who were not crown debtors were in the practice of assigning debts to the crow^n, and there- upon obtaining a writ in aid. This practice was stopped by 7 James I. c. 15, forbidding assignments to the crown. Persons then resorted to other means, such as taking the debt in name of the crown, or getting themselves appointed bailiffs for the crown, and in that character procuring the issue of the w^it. At last, the practice was finally stopped by 57 Oeo. III. c. 117, by which it is enacted that the amount of the crown debt shall be endorsed on every extent in aid, and that any overplus beyond the crown debt shall be paid into court to be disposed of as the court shall direct. By the treaty of Union, extents were introduced into Scotland on revenue matters ; but the sheriff is only entitled to take the debtor's movables. EXTENT (in Scotland). There were no taxes in feudal times. The king was supported by the rents of his property lands, and by the occasional profits of superiority — ward, non-entry, marriage, escheat, and the like — which were known by the general nams of Casualties (q. v.). Beyond these, and the expenses which the discharge of his ordmary duties to his superior imposed on him. the vassal was not fub]"? to be taxed. But to this rule there were some exceptions. When it became necessary to redeem the king from captivity, to provide a portion for his eldest daughter, or to defray the expense of making his eldest son a knight, a general contribution was levied. One of these occasions occurred when Alexander III. betrothed his daughter Margaret to Eric, the young king of Norway, and engaged to give her a tocher of 14,000 merks. This sum was far beyond the personal resources of the king, and consequently fell to be levied by a land tax — land and its fruits being then the only appreciable species of property. But if the tax was to be levied fairly and equally, this could be done only by ascertaining the value of the wholo lands in tlie kingdom, as had been done in England in the time of Edward I. (4 Edw. 1. i. anno 1276). Whether this was the first occasion on which a general valuation of all the lands of Scotland liad been made, as Lord Karnes thought {Law Tractty tract xiv.), or whether there had Ijeen earlier valua- tions of the same kind, as others have sup])03cd (Cranston v. Gibson, May IG, 1818, Fac. Coll.), is still a subject of dispute amongst anticpuiries. It is certain, however, that the valuation here spokeu of was long known as tlie old extent. As such, it is spoken of in the act or indenture of 15th July 1326, by which the parliament of Scotland agreed to give to King Ilobert Bruce the tenth penny of all the rents of the laity during his life. In this latter act it was provided tliat such lauds as had been wasted by the war should be revalued by an incpiest before the slierifi", and the retour, or formal verdict, was so framed as to contain a statement Ijotli of the present value of the lands, and of what they were worth ' in the time of peace.' In almost all cases, the new was considerably mider the old valuation, a fact which shews how widespread must have been the devas- tation of that terrible war. The same deplorable fact is brought out by the Extent taken with a view to raise the sum necessary for the ransom of David 11. On this occasion, the new extent of the temporal lands scarcely amounted to £25,000, whereas the old extent exceeded £50,000 (Cranston V. Gibson, ut sup.). But this state of matters was reversed when James I. succeeded in restoring peace and prosj)erity. Indeed, even before the iuiluence of his personal qualities could have been felt, the condition of the country must have improved, because the extent which was taken in 1424, for the purj^KJse of redeeming him from captixaty, shews in general an advance upon that even of the time of Alexander III. In several later cases (1481, 14S8, 1535), in which grants were made to the crown, the assessments were levied from temporal lands by a series of new extents, according to present vahie. During the minority of Mary, the assessments, ' which were heavy and nvunerous, were levied according to an old extent, but it is doubtful whether it was the extent of Alexander III., or of David II., or a later one than either. The extents of which we have s2»oken did not apply to church lands. The share of the subsidies applicable to them was levied according to the value of the bene- fices as settled by ' Bagimont's Koll,' which was made up in the time of Alexander III. by Bene- mundus de Vicci, vvilgarly called Bagimont. Crom- well introduced a more equitable rule of assessment, and fixed precisely the ratio to be laid upon each county ; and his system was adhered to, with little variation, after the Restoration (Act of Conven- tion, 23d January 1667). The rent fixed by these valuations, commonly called the valued rent, was that according to which the laud-tax and most of the other public and parochial assessments wer«j imposed till the passing of the recent Valua.t'Dn Acts, 17 and 18 Vict. c. 91, 1854, and 20 and 21 Vict. c. 58, 1857. See Valuations of Land. E'XTRACT OF MEAT is obtained by acting upon chopped meat by cold water, and gradually heating, when about one-eighth of the weight of the meat dissolves out, leaving an almost tasteless insoluble fibrine. The extract of meat contains the savoury constituents of the meat, and is a light nutritious article of food. See Beef-tea and Broth. It may be concentrated into small bulk, and when desired, may be afterwards treated with water, anM being heated, forms an agreeable, light, and nutritivf soup. • EXTRACTION OF KOOTS— EXTRAVASATION. EXTRA' CTION OF ROOTS. See Evolution. Tlie roots which have in practice to be most fre- quently extracted arc the square and cube roots. It is proposed to exphiin the rule for their extraction as it is given in books of arithmetic. And iirst of the square root. The square of a + & is a'' -j- 2a6 + U^, and we may obtain the rule by observing how a ->r b may bo deduced from it. Arrangiu; the expression according to jiowers of some letter a, we obferve that the sqnai'e root of the first term is a. + 2rt6 + U^i^a + h a" 2a + h) 2ah +V Subtract its square from the expression, and the remainder is 2ab + b^. Divide 2a/> by 2a, and the result is b, the other term in the root. M\dtij)ly 2a -h b by b, and subtract the i)roduct from the remainder. If the operation does not terminate, it shews that there is another term in the root. In this case, we may consider the two terms a + b already found as one, and as corresponding to the term a in the preceding operation ; and the square of this quantity having been by the preceding process subtracted from the given expression, we may divide the remainder by 2(a + b) for the next term in the root, and for a new subtrahend multii)ly 2(a + b) + the new tenn, by the new term ; and the process may be re])cated tiU there is no remain- der. The rule for extracting the scjuare root of a number is an adaptation of this algebraical rule. In fact, if the number be expressed in terms of the radix of its scale, it is seen to be a concealed algebraical expression of the order we have been considering. Thus, N = a?-" + Z>7-""' + . . . + q. The number 676 in the denary scale may be written 5 x lO''^ + 7 X 10 + C ; and treating it as an algebraical ex2ires- eion, we should find its root to be 2 x 10 -f 4, or 24. The only part of the arithmetical rule now requiring explanation is the rule of pointing. As every number of one ligure is less than 10, its square must be less than 10" ; generally, every number of n ligures is less than 10" (which is 1 followed by n cijjhers) ; but also every number of 7i figures is not less than 10""^ and therefore its square is not less than 10-""2 — which is the smallest number of 2n — 1 ligures. Also, lO"" is the smallest number of '2n -f 1 ligures. It follows that the square of a number of n figures has either 2)i or 2n — 1 figures. If, tben, we i)ut a point over the units place of a number of which the root is to be extracted, and point every Becond figure from right to left, the number of points will always equal that of the figures in the root. If the number of figures be even, the number will be divided into groups of two each ; if odd, the last group will contain only a single figure. The rule for the extraction of the cube root of a number is deduced from that for the extraction of the cube root of an algebraical expression in the game way as in the case of the square root. The cube of {a + b) is + M + + h\a + b Sa'^) + ^ab"^ + 6» Za'b + 3a?>« + 6' Hence the rule in algebra. Arrange the expression according to descending powers of a, the cube root of the first term a* is a, the first term of the root. Subtract its cube from the expression, and bring down the remainder. Divide the first term by .3a-', and the quotient is b, the second term of the root. Bv»btract the quantity '6d^b + 'Sah- + b^. If there is 10 remaiixler, the iDot is extracted. If there »0() is, proceed as before, regarding a + & as one term, corresponding to a in the first operation. Let, for example, a + b = a^, then Sa^ ^ is the new tnal divisor. If c be the new term or third figure of the root, then the quantity to be subtracted to get the next remainder is 3a^ H + Sa^c^ + c^, and so on till there is no remainder. The rule of pointing in the extraction of the cube root may be proved, as in the case of the square root, by shewing that the cube of a number of n figures contains 3« — 1, or 3/i — 2 figures ; and, therefore, if we jtuli a point over the units place, and on each third figm-e, we shall have as many perioda as there ara figures in the root. It may be observed that a rule for the extraction of any root of a number may be got from considering how, from the exi^ansion of a + 6 to the «th power, or a" + na""'6 +, &c., the root a + 6 is to be obtained. See Evolution and Involution. EXTRA'CTIVE MATTER is the term ai)plicd to certain organic matters resembling humine, found in soils during the decay of vegetable matter, and which are jjrecipitated during the concentration of water solutions. E'XTRACTS, in a technical sense, are medicinal preparations of vegetable principles, got either by ])utting the i)lants in a solvent or menstruum, and then evaporating the liquid down to about the consistency of honey, or by expressing the juice of the plants and evaporating ; this last is properly inspiasated juke. Extracts, therefore, contain only those vegetable principles that are either held in solution in the juices of the plants themselves, or are soluble in the liquid employed in extractii.^ them, and at the same time are not so volatile as to be lost during evaporation. Now, as many extractive matters are more or less volatile, it makes a great difference whether the oi^eration is conducted at a low or at a high temperature. Extracts are called vxitery or alcoholic according as the menstruum employed is water or spirits. Ether is also used in extracting. Different plants of course afford different extracts, some being of the nature of bitters, others being used as pigmentrS, tannin, &c. Extracts are liable to great uncertainty in point of strength and composition, and require to be prepared with great care. Evaporation in vacuo is found to be a great improvement. EXTRADI'TION, the giving up, by authority of law, a person accused of a crime, to the foreign jurisdiction within which it was committed, in order that lie may be tried there. Extradition is usually the subject of international treaty. A treaty or convention for this purpose was entered into between this country and France in 1843, and between this country and the United States of America the same year. Cases have frequently occurred where warrants have been granted, and their execution by the criminal officer aided by the authorities of countries with which we have no such convention. The authorities at Hamburg and Antweq), and in Russia, have given English offend en over to the custody of the officer, or placed them oo board a British vessel. On other occasions, they have convicted them, and punished them there, receiving a certified copy of the depositions aa evidence of the crime committed in this countiy (Oke's Magisterial Synopsis, p. 724 ; and Oke's Magts- terial Formalist, where the forms of warrants wiD be found for the guidance of justices). EXTRA VASA'TION is the escape of any of the fluids of the liviug body from their proper vessels {vas) through a rupture or injury in their walls, Excrementitious matter thus sometimes escapes into the abdomen through a wound or ulceration of th« EXTREME UNCTIO^^— LYCK. bowels. But the terra is oftenest used in speaking of the escape of })l()Otl from injured blood-vessels. Extravasation is distinguished from exudation by this, that in the last the vessels remain entire, and the efTusion tj^kes place by liltration through their walls ; nor docs more than a part of the blood so escape, the blood globules being retained, while in extravasation perfect blood is etFused. Many kinds of extravasation are immediately fatal, such as that of urine or of gall into the abdomen, or of blood from the vessels of the brain in many cases of apoplexy. The dark colour resulting from a bruise is owing to extrav^asated blood from ruptured capillary vessels. EXTREME UNCTIOIS', a sacrament of the Roman Catholic Church, which, as the other sacra- ments supi)ly spiritual aid in the various circum- stances of life, is believed to impart to the Christian in death grace and strength to encounter the struggle, as weU spiritual as bodily, of the dying horn-. The rite of unction in different forms is common to several of the sacraments ; the name * extreme' is given to that of the present sacra- ment, because it is reserved for the last act of the Christian career. The council of Trent declares this sacrament, although 'promulgated' in the well- known passage of St James v. 14> 15 (which Protes- tants regard as having more to do with the general belief in the sanative properties of oil), to have been ' instituted ' by Christ. The Fathers frequently allude to the rite of unction, and although many of these allusions certainly refer to the unctions of baptism and confirmation, yet Catholics rely on several passages of Origen, Chrysostom, Coesarius of Arhis, and Pope Innocent I., as decisive regard- ing the unction of the dying, as also upon the fact that in the various separated churches of Oriental Christians — Greek, Coptic, Armenian, and Nestorian —the rite is found, although with many ceremonial variations. In the Roman Catholic Church, the sacrament is administered by the priest, who, * dipping his thumb m the holy oil, anoints the sick person, in the form of the cross, upon the eyes, ears, nose, mouth, hands, and feet ; at each anointing making use of this form of prayer : " Through this holy unction, and his most tender mercy, may the Lord pardon thee whatever sins thou hast com- mitted by thy sight. Amen." And so of the hear- ing and the rest, adapting the form to the several senses.' — Challoner's Catholic Christian Instructed. Extreme unction is reputed by Catholics one of the sacraments 'of the living;' that is, it ordinarily reqnires that the recipient shoidd have previously obtained remission of his sins by absolution or by perfect contrition ; but it is held to remit, indi- recthj, actual sins not previously remitted, and also (although not infallibly, but according to the mercifid designs of Providence) to alleviate, and even to dispel, the pains of bodily disease. The holy oil which forms the ' matter' of this sacrament must be blessed by the bishop — a ceremony which is performed with great solemnity once each year by the bishop, attended by a number of priests, on Maundy-Thiu'sday. The oil so blessed is reserved for use diu-ing the year. In the Greek Church, the ■acrament is administered by several priests con- jointly. In its most solemn form, seven priests unite in its administration ; in ordinary circxmi- Btances, it is conferred by two. The Greek form of words also differs, although not substantially, from that of the Latin Church. The Greeks call this sacrajnent 'The Holy Oil,' and sometimes 'The Od of Prayer.' EXTREMITY. See Skeleton. EX^JMAS, comprisinf Great Exuma, Little iflxuiD^, aul the Exmna Keys, form part of the group of the Bahama Islands. They contain about 2000 inhabitants, who are em])loyed })artly in agri- culture, including at one time the growing of cotton, ]>ut chiefly in .salt-making. In the hist-named business, the E. rank second among all the sul)- divisions of the group, having exi)ortcd, in 1851, 115,350 bushels of salt. Next to iS'assau in New I'rovidencc, Little I^xuma is the most considerable port of entry in the Bahamas. EXU'VI-^, a term applied to organic rem/iine, now seldom employed, but frequently used by Ih* older geologists. EYALET is, next to a province, the largest and most important of the divisions of the Turkish emjure, which contains in all 36 eyalets. These are again divided into livas or sanjaks, the livas into cazas or districts, and the cazas into nahUjcs or communes, containing villages or hamlets. Each eyalet or general government, as it may be called, ia administered by a jDasha, who is governor, and the general name for whom is vali or viceroy. The governors of the eyalets belong to the Dignities of the Sword, and are ])ashas of two tails ; and when they are raised to the rank of vizier, as is frequently the case, they become pashas of three tails. EYCK, Hubert and Jan van, two iUustrioua painters of the old Flemish school. Much dis- cussion has arisen as to the time of the birth and death of these brothers, and the various dates assigned range from 1350 to 1400. Some maintain that Hubert was born in 1366, and Jan in 1370 ; while Kugler — in general a good authority on ancient art — states the dates* to be 1366 and 1400, making Hubert 34 years older than Jan. Their birthplace was Maas-Eyck, and they chiefly resided at Bruges and Ghent, and became the founders of the Flemish school of painting. The honour of being the inventors of oil-painting is claimed for them, though sufficient evidence has V-een adduced to shew that it was practised previously. Before their time, the cusi u, hd\vever, particularly in Italy, was to paint wi :h gums or other substances of an adhesive nature dissolved in v.^ater ; and if not the inventors, they were at least the first who brought into notice and perfected the mode of mixing colours with oil or some medium of which oil was the chief ingredient ; while, for transparent and brilliant coloiu-ing and minute finish, their works have never been surpassed. Till the death of Jan, the brothers generally painted in con- junction : one of their most important works was an altar-piece vrith folding-doors, representing the Elders adoring the Lamb — a subject taken from the Apocalypse — painted iarJodocus Vyts, who presented it to the cathedral of St Bavon, in Ghent. The two centi'al di\asions of this picture are all that now remain in the church at Ghent. Some of the wings are in the Gallery at Berlin. The master- pieces of the brothers are for the most part in the cities of Ghent, Bruges, Antwerp, Berlin, Mimich, and Paris. In the National Gallery, Loudon, there are three pictures of Jan van E., which, though small, well exemphfy the high qualities of his workc These are portraits of a Flemish merchant and hia \\dfe, standing ia the middle of an apartment, with their hands joined— signed and dated 1434 : of the portrait of a man in a cloak and fm--coUar, with a red handkerchief twisted roimd the head as a turban — painted, according to an inscription on the lower part of the frame, October 21, 1433 : and portrait of a man with a dark-red dress, with a green head-covering— signed and dated 10th Octo- ber 1432. Hubert died in 1426, and Jan in 1441 Compare Waagen, Uber Hub. und Jan van Eyck (Bieslaw, 201 EYE. EYE, Anatomy and Physiology of the. In this article we shall consider: 1. The structure of the human eyeball, and of certain accessory parts or appendages which serve to protect that organ, and arc essential to the due performance of its functions. 2. The most striking modifications which this organ presents in some of the lower animals. 3. The spe- cial uses of the various parts of the eye considered as an optical instrument ; and 4. The action of the retina. 1. The globe of the eye is placed in the anterior part of the cavity of the Orbit (q. v.), in which it is nslJ if- position by its connection with the oi)tic nerve postiri jrly, and with the muscles which surround it, and by the eyelids in front. It is further sup- ported behind and on the sides by a quantity of loose fat, which fills up all the interstices of the orbit, and facilitates the various movements of which the eye is capable. The form of the eyeball is nearly spherical ; but on viewing the organ in profile, we see that it is composed of segments of two spheres of different diameters. Of these, the anterior, formed by the transparent cornea, has the smaller diameter, and is therefore the most prominent ; and hence the antero- posterior slightly exceeds (by about a line) the transverse diameter. The radius of the posterior or sclerotic segment is about -j^ths, and that of the anterior segment about ^ths of an inch. When the eyes are in a state of repose, their antero-posterior axes are parallel ; the optic nerves, on the other hand, diverge considerably from their conmiissure within the cavity of the skull to the point where they enter the globe ; consequently, their direction does not couicide with that of the eye. Each nerve enters the back of the globe at a distance of about |th of an inch on the inner side of the antero-posterior axis of the eye. The eyeball is composed of several investing membranes, and of certain transparent structures, which are enclosed within them, and which, together with the cornea (one*of the membranes), act as « Fig. 1. A longitudinal section of the coats of the eye. />, the nc.eiolic, thicker behind than in front; 2, the cornea; 8, the choroid; 6, the iiis; 7, the pupil; 8, the retina; IC,, the anterior chamber of the eye; 11, the posterior ei.dinber ; 12, the crystalline lens, enclosed in its capsule; 18, the vitreous humour, enclosed in the hyaloid membrane, and in cells formed in its interior by that membrane; 15, the sheath ; and 16, the inferior of the optic nerve, in the centre of which is a small artery. (The other numbers in the figure refer tc parts not noticed in this article.) refractive media of various densities upon the rays of light which enter the eye. The outermost coat of the eye is the sclerotic (from skleros, hard). It is a strong, dense, white, fibrous structure, covering about four-fifths of the eyeball, and leaving a circular deficiency anteriorly, which is occupied by the cornea, Posteriorly, it is 202 perforated by the optic nerve, and it is there contlriu- ous with the sheath which that nerve derives from the dura mater, the fibrous investment of the brain and spinal cord. Near the entrance of the ner\ e, its thickness is about ^jfth. of an inch >^ from this it diminishes to about -i^th. ; but in front it again becomes thicker, from the tendinous insertions of the straight muscles which blend with it. Thib coat, by its great strength and comparatively unyielding structure, maintains the enclosed parts in their proper form, and serves to protect them from external injuries The c wnea (so called from its homy appearance) ia a transparent structure, filling up the apei'turc^ left in the anterior part of the sclerotic. Its circumference is overlaid by the free edge of the sclerotic:, which in some parts presents a groove, so as to retain it more firmly ; and the connection by continuity of texture between the two structures its so close, that they cannot be separated in the dead body v/ithout considerable maceration. The cornea, in consequence of its greater con- vexity, projects beyond the line of the solerotic ; the degree of convexity, however, varies in different persons, and at different periods of life. It is thicker than any part of the sclerotic, and so strong as to be able to resist a force capable of r apturing that tunic. Although beautifully transparent, and appearing to be homogeneous, it is in reality coiiposed of five layers, clearly distinguishable from one another — viz. (proceeding from the front backwards, 1. The conjunctival layer of epithelium. It is in this epithehum that particles of iron, stone, &c., forcibly driven against the eye, usually lodge, and it is a highly sensitive membrane. 2. The anterior elastic lamina forming the anterior boundary of the cornea proper ; it is not more than -^TrW^li of an inch in thickness ; and its function seems to be that of maintaining the exact curvature of the front of the cornea. 3. The cornea proper, on which the thickness and strength of the cornea mainly depend. 4. The posterior elastic lamina, which ia an extremely thin membrane, in which no stinjcture can be detected. It probably contributes, like the anterior lamina, to the exact maintenance of the curvature of the cornea, so necessary for correct vision. 5. The posterior epithelium of the aqueous humour, which is probably concerned in the secretion of that fiuid. For further details regarding these different layers, we must refer to Todd and Bowman's Physiological Anatovnj, vol. ii. pp. 17 — 21. The choroid coat is a dark-coloured vascidar membrane, which is brought into view on the removal of the sclerotic. Its outer surface, which is nearly black, is loosely connected with the sclerotic by connective tissue, in which are con- tained certain nerves and vessels — termed the ciliary nerves and vessels — which go to the iris. Its inner sur'ace is soft, villous, and dark-coloured. In front, it is attached to the membrane of the vitreous humour (see fig. 3) by means of the ciliary processes, which consist of about sixty or seventy radiating folds. These are alternately long and short, and each of them is terminated by a small free interior extremity ; and they are lodged in corresponduig folds in the membrane of the vitreous humour. In other parts, it is loosely comiected with the retin.'u The choroid is composed of minute ramifications of vessels — especially of veins, which, from their whirl-like arrangement, are termed vasa vorticosa — of connective tissue, and of pigment cells, which usually approximate to the hexagonal form, and are about -nrjnr^li of mch. in diameter. In albinos, this pigment is absent, and hence their eyes have a EYE. pink appearance, wliich is due to the unconcealed blood in the capillaries of the choroid and iris. Fig. 2. Choroid and iris, exposed b}' turning aside the sclerotic. e,c, ciliary nerves going to be distributed in iris; d, d, smaller ciliary nerves ; e,e, veins known as rasa vorticosa; /), ciliary ligament and muscle ; k, I, converging fibres of iris ; o, optic nerve. The iris may be regarded as a process of the choroid, with which it is continuous, although there are differences of structure in the two membranes. Fig. 3. The iris and adjacent structures seen from behind. 1, the divided edge of the three coats, the choroid being the dark intermediate one; 2, the pupil ; 3, the posterior surface of the iris ; 4, the ciliary processes ; 5, the scalloped anterior border of the retina. It is a thin flat membranous curtain, hanging ver- tically in the aqueous humour in front of the lens, and perforated by the pupil for the transmission of liglit. It divides the space between the cornea and th3 lens into an anterior (the larger) and a posterior {the smaller) chamber, these two chambers freely oonmmnicating through the pupil (see fig. 1). The outer and larger border is attached all round to the line of junction of the sclerotic and cornea, while the inner edge forms the boundary of the pupil, which is nearly circular, lies a little to the inner side of the centre of the iris, and varies in size according to the action of the muscular fibres of the iris, so as to admit more or less light into the interior of the eyeball ; its diameter varying, nnder these circumstances, from about -^d to -irijth of an inch. It is muscular in its structure, one fct of fibrt\j being arranged circularly round the I)upil, and, when necessary, effecting its cent action, while another set lie in a radiating direction from within outwards, and by their action dilate the pupiL These fibres are of the unstripcd or in/oluntary vari-' ety. The nerves which are concerned in these movfr nicnts will he presently noticed. The varieties of colour m the eyes of different individuals, and of different kinds of animals, mainly depend upon the colour of the ;)igment which is deposited in cells in the subs'<;anr'e of the iris. Within the choroid is the retina, which, vJthough continuous with the optic nerve— of whi ;h it ia usually regarded as a cuplike expansioi — (bffers very materially from it in structure. Before noticing the elaborate comi)osition of Ihiii part of the eye, which has only l)eeu revealed bj) recent microscopical investigation, we shall briefly mention those points regarding it which can be established by ordinary examination. It is a d';licate semi- transparent sheet of nervous matter, lying imme- diately behind the vitreous humour, and extending from the optic nerve nearly as far as the lens. On examining the concave inner surface of the retina at the back of the eye, we observe, directly in a line with the axis of the globe, a circidar yellow spot [limhus luteus), of about -j^tli of an inch in diameter, called, after its discoverer, the yellow spot of Som- merhig. As there has been much discussion regarding the structiu-e and function of this spot, we ma^r observe that Dr Todd and Mr Bowman, two of our most eminent English microscopists, after seve- ral examinations, regard it as a small mound or projection of the retina towards the ^dtreous humour, with a minute aperture in the summit. The only mammals in which it exists are man and the monkey. Its use is imknown, but vision is remarkably perfect at this spot — a circumstance v/hich, however, may pos- sibly be accoimted for by the fact, that it is singu- larly free from blood- vessels, which curve round it, and apparently avoid it. The structure of the retina, as revealed by the microscope, is in the highest degree remark- able. Although its great- est thickness (at the entrance of the optic nerve) is only about y^^jth of an inch, and as it extends anteriorly, it soon ^ vertical section of the humca retina. the layer of rods and conet (Jacob's membrane) ; 3, the external granular layer ; 3, the intervening layer between 2 and 4, the internal granular layer ; 5, finer granular layer; 6, layer of nerve-cells; 7, fibres' of the optic nerve; 8, limitary membrane. inch, the following layers from without inwards may be distinguished in all parts of it. (1.) The layer of rods and conjs, freqiiently termed, from its discoverer, the m'm brane of Jacob ; (2.) Ta- granular layer, including the parts indicated by 2, 3, 4, 5, in the figure ; (3.) The layer of gray nerve substance; (4.) The expansion of the optic nerve; and (5.) The limitary membrane. These varioni 203 EYE. Btructurefi are shown in fig. 4, which is copied from Kolliker and Midler's memoir on the structure of the retina. Details regarding the nature of these •various layers are given in Kulliker's Manual of Human Histoloyi^ i^ntl in Todd and Bowman, op. cit. It now remains for us to describe the transparent media which occupy the interior of the globe, and through which the rays of light must pass before they can reach the retina, and form on it the images of external objects. We shall consider them in the order in which the rays of light strike them. Immediately behind the transparent cornea is the aqueous humour which lills up the anterior and posterior chambers which lie between the cornea and the lens. As its name implies, it is very nearly pure water, with a mere ti-ace of albumen and chloride of sodium. As no epithelium exists in fi'ont of the iris, or on the anterior surface of the lens, it is most probably secreted by the cells on the posterior surface of the cornea. The crystalline lens lies opposite to and behind the pupil, almost close to the iris, and its posterior Burface is received into a corresponding depres- Bion on the forepart of the Aatreous humour (see fig. 1). In form, it is a double-convex lens, with surfaces of unequal curvature, the posterior being the most convex. It is enclosed in a transparent capsule, of which the part covering the anterior Bm-face is nearly four times thicker than that at the posterior aspect, in consequence, doubtless, of greater strength being required in front, where there is no support, than behind, where the lens is adherent to the vitreous meml)rane. The micros- copic examination of the substance or body of the lens reveals a structiure of wonderfid beauty. Its whole mass is composed of extremely minute elon- gated ribbon-like structures, commonly called the fibres of the lens, which are regarded by Kolliker as thin-ioalled tubes, with clear, albuminous contents. These fibres are arranged side by side in lamelljB, of which many hundred exist in every lens, and which we so placed as to give to the anterior and posterior Burfaces the appearance of a central star, with meridian lines. The lens gradually increases in density, and, at the same time, in refracting power, towards the centre ; by this means, the convergence of the central rays is increased, and they are brought to the 6ame focus as the rays passing through the more circumferential portions of the lens. (According to Brewster, the refracting power at the surface is 1-37Q7, and at the centre 1-3990.) According to Berzelius, the lens contains 58 per cent, of water, 36 of albumen, with minute quan- tities of salts, membrane, &c. In consequence of the albumen, it becomes hard and opaque on boiling, as We familiarly see in the case of the eyes of boiled fish. In the adult, its long diameter ranges from ^d to |ths, and its antero- posterior diameter from |th to ^th of an inch ; and it weighs three or four grains. The vitreous humour lies in the concavity of the letina, and occupies about four-fifths of the eye pos- teriorly. Its form is shewn in lig. 1. It is enclosed in the hyaloid membrane, which sends nimierous processes inwards, so as to divide the cavity into a series of com])artments, and thus to equalise the pressure exerted by the enclosed soft gelatinous mass. Between the anterior border of the retina and the border of the lens, we have a series of radi- ating folds or plaitings termed the ciliary processes of the vitreous body, into which the ciliary processes of the choroid dove-tail. The vitreous humour contains, according to Berzelius, 98 4 per cent, of water, with A trace of albumen iiud salts, and hence, as might 204 be expected, its refractive index is almost identical with that of water. The appendages of the eye now claim our notice. The most important of these appendages are the muscles within the orbit, the eyelids, the lachrymal apparatus, and the conjunctiva, to which (although less important) we may b,dd the eyebrows. The muscles by which the eye is moved are four straight (or recti) muscles, and two oblique (the superior and inferior). The former arise from the margin of the optic foramen at the apex of the orbit and are inserted into the sclerotic near the cornea^ above, below, and on either side. The superioir oblique arises with the straight muscles ; but after running to the uj)per edge of the orbit, has its Fig. 5. The muscles of the eyeball, the view being taken from the outer side of the rl{?ht orbit. 1, a small frag:nient of the sphenoid bone at the back of the orb-!., containin,? the foramen, throuph wliich, 2, the optio nerve passes ; 3, the plobe of the eye ; 4, the levator palpebree muscle; 5, the superior oblique nriuscle ; 6, its cartilaginous puUej'. attached to the upper edge of the orbit; 7, its reflected tendon; 8, t1ie inferior oblique muscle, the little knob near the figure 8 being a detached fragment of the superior max- illary bone, from -wliich it arises; 9, the superior rectus; 10, the internal rectu'^, partly concealed by the optic nerve ; 11, 12, the two ends of the external rectus, the intermediate portion having heen removed; 13, the inferior rectus; 14, the tunica albuginea, formed by the expansion of the tendons of the four recti muscles. direction changed by a pulley, and proceeds back- wards, outwards, and downwards (see fig. 5). The inferior oblique arises from the lower part of the orbit, and passes backwards, outwards, and upwards. The action of the straight muscles is sufficiently obvious from their direction : when acting collec- tively, they fix and retract the eye ; and when acting singly, they turn it towards their respective sides. The oblique muscles antagonise the recti, and draw the eye forwards ; the superior, acting above, directs the front of the eye downwards ana outwards, and the inferior upwards and inwards. By the duly associated action of these muscles, the eye is enabled to move (within definite limits) ia every direction. The eyelids are two thin movable folds placed in front of the eye, to shield it from too strong light, and to protect its anterior surface. They are com- posed of (1) skin ; (2) of a thin plate of fibro-cartilage, termed the tarsal cartilage, the inner surface o£ which is grooved by thirty or forty parallel vertical lines, in which the Meibomian glands are imbedded ; and (3) of a layer of mucous membrane, continuous, as we shall presentl}'' see, with that which lines the nostrils, and which joins the skin at the margin of the lids, in which the eyelashes (cilia) are arranged in two or more rows. The upper lid is much the larger ; and to the posterior border of its cartilage, a special muscle is attached, termed the levator palpebrce superioris, whose object is to elevate the lid, arrd thus open the eye ; while there is another muscle, the orbicidaris palpebrarum, which surrounds the orbit and eyelids, and by its con- traction closes the eye. The Meibomian glands secrete a sebaceous matter which facilitates the free EYE. motion of the lids, and prevents their adhesion. The eyelashes intercept the entrance of foreign The appendages of the eye. 1, the cartllag'e of the upper eyelid ; 2, its lower border, shewing the openings of the Meibomian glands ; 3, the cartilage of the lower eyelid, also shewing on its border the openings of the Meibomian glands; 4, 5, the lachrymal gland ; 6, its ducts; 7, the plica semilunaris; 8, the caiuncula lachrymalis ; 9, the puncta lachrymalia, openiny; into the lachrymal canals ; 10, 11, the superior and inferior lachrymal canals; li, the lachrymal sac ; 13, the nasal duct, terminating at 14 in the lower meatus of the nose. particles directed against the eye, and assist in shading that organ from an excess of light. The lachrymal apparatns consists of the lach- rynaal gland, by which tlie tears are secreted ; two canals, into which the tears are received near the inner angle of the eye ; the sac, into which these canals open ; and the duct, through which the tears pass from the sac into the nose. The gland is an oblong body, about the size of a small almond, lying in a depression in the upper and outer part of the orbit. The fluid secreted by it reaches the surface of the eye by seven or eight ducts, which open on the conjunctiva at its upper and outer part. The constant motion of the upper eyelid induces a continuous gentle current of tears over the surface, which cany away any foreign particle that may have been deposited on it. The fluid then passes through two small openings, termed the puncta lacrymalia (see 9 in fig. 6), into the canals ; whence its further course into the lower portion of the nose is sufhciently obvious from the figure. The conjunc- tiva (or mucous coat) which covers the front of the ej'eball, and lines the inner surface of the lids, passes down and lines the canals, sac, and duct ; and is thus seen to be continuous "with the nasal mucous membrane, of which it may be regarded as an offshoot or digital prolongation. See Mucous Membrane. ' We shall conclude this sketch of the anatomy of i the human eye by a brief notice of the nerves going [ to this organ and its appendages. I Into each orbit there enters a nerve of special tense — viz., the optic nerve, a nerve of ordinary aensation — viz., the ophthalmic branch of the fifth I nerve, and certain nerves of motion going to the [ muscular tissues, and regulating the movements of i the vaiious parts — viz., the third, fourth, and sixth nerves. As the optic tracts from which the optic nerves originate are noticed in the article Brain, we shall merely trace these nerves from their chiasma I or commissure forwards. This commissure results I >ut as it is, the blind spots do not correspond when the eyes are directed to the same object ; and hence the blank which one eye would present is filled up by tlie other eye. Mariotte, early in the last century, first described the existence of these blind spots. Any one may satisfy himself of their existence by tha following simple experiment. Let two small black circles be made \\\)oii a piece of paper, about four or five inches apart, then let the left eye be closed, and the right eye be strongly fixed upon the left-hand circle. If the paper be then moved backwards and foi'wards, a point will be found at which the right- hand circle is no longer visible, although it reappears when the paper is either brought nearer or removed further. Although no other part of the retina possesses the complete insensibility presented by the blind sjiot, it is probable that its anterior portionj have very little to do with vision. Wlien using only one ej^e, we direct it towards the object we wish tf* inspect, in such a way as to throw the image to thi» back of the globe ; and when the eye is thus fixed, objects near the boundary of the field of vision are less distinctly seen than those at its centre. The extent of the field of vision for a single eye, the head being fixed, has been calcidated by Di Young. He found that the eyeball was Capable of a movement of 55 degi-ees in every direction, so that a single eye may have perfect vision of any point within a range of 110 degrees. We have not yet referred to the longitudinal range, or greatest distance of human vision ; indeed. EYE— EYEBRIGHT. this range varies so extremely that it is difficult to ajssigu an arbitrary limit to it. Many uncivilised races, as the North American Indians, and the L'lhabitants of the vast Asiatic steppes, possess powers of sight vi^hich would appear almost incredible if they had not been thoroughly and frequently corroborated. Our information is more definite regarding the limits of human vision in regard to the minuteness of the objects of which it can take cognizance. Ehrenberg has carefully studied this su.Sject, ai.d has arrived at the following results. Ti e side of the smallest square magnitude usually i^isible to the naked eye — either of white particles on a black ground or conversely — is about xir^^ of an inch ; and with the greatest condensation of light and effort on the part of the observer, squares with a side as small as -^^th of an inch may be recog- xiised, but without sharpness or certainty. Bodies smaller than these, when observed singly, cannot be iiscerned by the naked eye, but may be seen when placed in a row. Much smaller particles may, how- ever, be distinctly seen, if they powerfidly reflect light ; thus, gold-dust, which in none of its diameters exceeded y^Wth of an inch, is easily discernible in common daylight. The delicacy of vision is far greater for lines than for minute areas, since opaque threads of -^^th. of an inch may be discerned when held towards thii light. Various topics which the reader might perhaps have expected to find noticed, such, for instance, as * single vision with two eyes,' 'the appreciation of solid forms by the sense of vision,' ' correct vision with an inverted image on the retina,' &c., which belong fully as much to metaphysics as to physiology, will be discussed in a future article on Vision. In the meantime, we may refer those who desire inform|,tion on these points to Professor Bain's treatise on The Senses and the Intellect, EYE, Diseases of the. The diseases of the eye enumerated by the surgeon are very numerous, partly from the variety of the tissues and parts of which it is formed, partly because the exposed situation and transparency of the eye enable the diseases to be seen. Nearly all its parts are liable to inflammation and its consequences. See Ophthalmia. The eyelids are liable to various diseases, as growths of several kinds, most of which the surgeon may remove ; inflammation, as blear- eye (ophthalmia tarsi) ; to be misdirected inwards or outwards, Eiitrop'mm and Ectropion (q. v.) ; and the up])er eyelid may fall down (ptosis) from palsy of the common motor oculi nerve. The eyelashes may grow in upon the eye (trichiasis), and produce gerious results. When plucked out, they grow again; and if they still grow in upon the eye after this palliative treatment has been tried several times, the surgeon has to cut down on their roots, ai d d jstroy them. The duct which conveys away the tears to the nose is liable to inflammation and obstrnction, causing watery eye. See the article J.ACHiiYMAL Organs. The cornea is liable to opacity in various degrees. The mere nebula, or cloudy condition, either limited or general, may pass off, and leave the cornea again clear ; but the white mark, which is the cicatrix or scar of an \dcer, is ()ormanent, although it may become smaller by the disappearance of the surrounding liaze. The pupil may be closed as the result of iritis, or of operations for cataract, and an artificial pupil may be made by either of the three methods — incision, excision, or separation — but the operation is seldom attended with success. For opacities of the crystalline lens, see Cataract. For an account of diseases of the nervous parts of the eye, see Amaurosis. Various a^ections of vision may arise from peculiar or altered conditions of the refracting humours of the eye— as 170 near-sightedness (myopia), far-sightedness (presby- opia), the appearance of Ijodies (muscie) floating in or before the eye ; and there may be doul>]e vision (diplopin), with both eyes or Avith one. For furtlicr on this point see Vision. Tlie paits between the eye imd its hony orbit may be the seat of inflnnima- tion, abscess, or tumour, making the eye protrude. 'J'he niovcmcnts of the eyebjills may he {iffected from palsy of tlie motor nerves, or from contraction of the lateral recti muscles, causing inward (»r out- wai-d squinting. See Squinting. 'J'lie eye may lose all feeling, from palsy of the fifth pair of nerves. The whole of the same side of the face, nostrd, and mouth, will be in the same condition, and the eye becomes inflamed and disorganised. Substances thrown against the eye may injure it. Quicklime is rapidly destructive to the eye, slaked lime and mortar less so. When one of these, or any other caustic, has got into the eye, sweet oil is the best thing to introduce, until the surgeon arrives to remove them. If it is oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid) that has been the cause of the injury, a weak solu- tion of soda may be used in the first place to neutralise the acid. In gunpowder explosions near the eye, besides the bu.rn, the particles are driven into the surface of it, and will cause permanent black stains over the white of the eye, imless they are carefully removed at the time. When chips of glass, stone, &c., are driven into the interior of the eye, there is little hope of it being saved from destruc- tive inflammation. When only partially simk into the cornea, as is often the case with sparks of hot iron, or ' fires,' as they are called, the rubbing of the projecting part on the eyelid causes great pain, and the surgeon has not much difficulty in removing them. Most commonly these, or other ' foreign bodies,' as particles of dust, sand, seeds, flies, &c., merely get into the space between the eyebaU and the lids, almost always concealed under the upper, as it is the larger, and sweeps the eye. They cause great pain, from the firmness and sensitiveness oi the papillary surface of the lid, soon excite inflam- mation, aud their presence, as the cause, is apt to be overlooked. The lid must be turned round to find them. To do this, pidl the front or edge of the lid forwards by the eyelashes, held with the finger and thumb, and at the same time press doAvn the back part of the lid vnth. a small pencil or key. The lid will readily turn round, when the body may be seen about its middle, and may be removed with the corner of a handkerchief. Another plan, which the person himself may try, is to pull forward the upper lid by the eyelashes, and push the lashes of the lower lid up behind it, when the foreign body may be brushed out. After the bodies are removed, a feeling as if they were stiU there may remain for some time. EYE, a parliamentary and mimicipal borough in the north of Suffolk, near the source of the Waveney, 20 miles north of Ipswich. Its streets are rather narrow and irregvdar. Pop. (1871) 2396. It sends one member to parliament, the parliamen- tary borough including eleven parishes. Eye, in Anglo-Saxon, means island ; the river surroimding the town. There was formerly a castle and priory here. EYEBRIGHT {Euphrasia), a genus of plants of the natural order Scrophulariacece, having a tubular calyx, the upper lip of the corolla divided, the lower of three nearly equal lobes, the cells of the anthers spurred at the base, a two-celled capsule and striated seeds. Some of the species are root- parasites. The only British species is the Common E. {E. officinalis), a little plant of at most six or ei^ht inches in height, with ovate serrated leave^ EYE-PIECE— EZRA. and white or reddish flowers streaked with purple, ftp})earing singly in the axils of the leaves. It is very abundant in many pastures, and even on high mountains, where — as in J^n> If once in gx'eat repute as a ^^(-M ^[f^ar n cure for ophthalmia, and ^^I^'^i^l/j^ II is still much used in rustic il ^^F^^ ij practice for diseases of the, ^^w^#^>\ m. ^y^' H^ot on the corolla, something like a pupil, "^^whl^^^MYcfX gave it much of its reputa- ^^^P^^^^ /iv whilst the fanciful ^S. /7 doctrine of signatures pre- Y/ I) f V vailed in medicine ; but it 11 > has been found really effica- Coramon Eyebright cious in catarrhal inflam- {Eaphrasia officinalis), mations of the eye, and in other catarrhal affections, ft is a weak astringent. It is the Euphrasy of Milton, with which he represents the archangel Michael as purging the visual nerve of Adam. EYE-PIECE, the name given to the microscope by means of which the image of the object formed in the focus of a telescope is observed. See Telescope. EYLAU, usually called Prussian Eylau, a town in the government of Konigsberg, and 22 miles south of the town of that name, contains about 3000 inhabitants, and is celebrated for the battle fought there between Napoleon and the allies — Russians and Prussians — under Bennigsen, February 8, 1807. The French force amounted to about 80,000, and the allies numbered 58,000, but were superior in artillery. The battle was opened soon after day- Ught by a furious attack made by the French left on the Russian right and centre, which, however, proved utterly unsuccessful, the attacking corps being all but completely destroyed. The murderous struggle was repeatedly renewed, and the promise of victory alternated now to the one side and noAV to the other. Night closed upon the whole allied line pressing onward and driving the French before them. Nevertheless, the victory is generally claimed by the latter, chiefly because the allied forces, unable to recruit their strength, were ordered to retreat from the field on the night of the battle, and to retire upon Konigsberg. The loss of the allies is estimated at about 20,000, while that of the French must have been considerably greater. EZE'KIEL (meaning ' God will strengthen,' or * strength of God '), one of the Hebrew prophets, was the son of the priest Buzi, and along with Jehoiachin, king of Judah, was carried captive, when still a young man, to Mesopotamia, by order of Nebuchadnezzar, about 598 b. c. He was a member of the Jewish community which settled on the banks of the river Chebar, and first appeared as a prophet about the year 594 b. c. His pro- phetic career extended over a period of 22 years. The (late of his death is not recorded. — The book of Eiekiel consists of three great parts: the first (chapters 1—24), composed before the final conquest of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, announces tho complete overthrow of the kingdom of Judah, on account of its increasing unfaithfulness to God; the second (chapters 25 — 32) threatens the surround- ing nations, which were exulting maliciously over the ruin of Judah, with divine punishment ; and the third (chapters 33 — 48) prophesies the future deliverance of the Hebrew nation, and the rebuild- ing of Jerusalem. This last portion is generally believed to contain several Messianic predictions, three of which are considered specially remarkable (chaps. 36—37, 38-39, and 40—48); and it is beyond all question that only under a world-vidde dispensation like the Christian, can the glorioui visions of the prophet receive a historical realisation. The book is full of magnificent but artificial sjrm* holism, and of allegories difficult to imderstand; whence Jerome calls it ' a labyrinth of the mysteries of God ; ' but here and there, as in chapters Ist and 2d, it contains visions that indicate the posses- sion on the part of E. of a most vivid and sublime imagination. E.'s authorship of the book has been questioned. The Talmud says, it was written by the Great Synagogue, of which E. was not a member ; and I']wald, believing that traces of later elaljoration are quite obvious, suggests that the collection and combination of the various prophecies into a book may not have been the prophet's own doing. The opinion of most critics, however, is, that a prophet who was so much of a literary artist as E., was more likely to have completed the book himself than to have left such a work to others. The text is far from being in a perfect condition. It is partly corrupted by glosses, has partly been retouched by later hands, and may often be amended by the Septiiagint version. The best commentaries on the book of Ezekiel are those of Hiivernick (Erlangen, 1843) and "Hitzig (Leip. 1847). E'ZRA, a Jewish lawgiver of the 5th c. before Christ. He was descended from a distinguished priestly family, and was resident in Babylon in the reign of Artaxerxes Longimanus. With this monarcli he seems to have been in considerable favour, and in the year 478 b. c. obtained permission to return to Jerusalem with a band of his country- men amoimting to 1754. His services to the new colony in regard to their civil and religious con- dition were very important. He endeavoured to re-impose more strictly thi law of Moses, forbidding marriages v/ith heathen women, and disannulling such ties where they had been formed. He also introduced into Jewish literature the square Chaldee character, instead of the old Hebrew or Samaritan one, which had been customary till then ; but the tradition that he re- wrote from memory the sacred books burned at the destruction of the temple, deserves no regard; and it is likewise a mere tradition that as president of the so-called Great Synagogue (an assemblage of Jewish scholars) he arranged and completed the canon of the Old Testa- ment. See Bible. — The book called by his name, along with the book of Nehemiah, formed, among the Jews, the first and second books of Ezra. It records events which extended over a period of nearly 80 years, and divides itself naturally into two parts. The first six chapters embrace a period of 21 years, and relate the history of the first return from the Babylonish captivity ; the rest of the book chronicles the second return under Ezra the priest, in the reign of Artaxerxes Longimanus. The book is partly written in Chaldee, and is probably the work of various authors. THE sixth letter in the Latin and Engli^ alphabets, corresponding to the Vau of the Hebrew, and the Digamma (q. v.) of the old Greek alphabet. See Alphabet. F and v are called lahio-dentals, from the organs employed in producing them ; they belong to the class of conson- called Aspirates (q. v.), and bear the •ame relation to each other that exists between the nnaspirated labials p and h. In Latin, /had a pecu- liar sound, different from that of Greek (p, as we learn from Cicero and other Latin writers. What the soimd was, we do not exactly knoAV, but it approached to the nature of a strongly breathed h, as is indicated by the fact, that in the Sabme dialect it sometimes takes the place of h, as Sab./mts = Lat. hirciis (a he- goat) ; and the Latins made use both of faba and haba for * a bean.' This affinity is also shewn in modern Spanish, where h takes the place of the Latin /; as Lat femina, Sp. hembra; fl becomes, in Spanish, 11, as Lat. Jlamma = Sp. llama. F, in English and other Teutonic tongues, corres- ponds to ^ in Greek and Latin; as Lat. and Gr. pater = Eng. father; Gr. pod-, Lat. ped- = Eng. foot; Lat. pise- = Eng. fish; Gr. pur = Eng. fire; Lat. vidp- = Eng. ivolf. In some words, v takes the place in German of / in English ; as Ger. vater = Eng. father; Ger. vier = Eng. four. In the Aber- deenshire dialect, / takes the place of wh, as fat for loliat ; fup for whip. This seems to be a relic of the Teutonic pronunciation oi w {— v), still to be observed in the Cockney pronunciation of vill for will, ven for when; but why the sharpening of the labial into / should be confined to one circumscribed district of Scotland, and to the case of w followed by h, it is hard to say. F in Lat. and Greek becomes & in Eng. ; as Gr. and Lat. fer- = Eng. hear ; Lat. fraier = Eng. brother. See Letter B. More remarkable are the interchanges between / and the series d, th, t. Lat. forts = Gr. thura, Eng. door ; Lat. fera = Gr. tJier, Eng. deer ; Eng. red. Sans, ruthira, Gr. eruthros, Lat. rutilus, rufus, ruber. In Eussian, Feodor, Afanasja = Theodor, Athanada. In words originally common to both Greek and I^atin, the Greek (p is represented in Lat. by /; as Gr. (pY,y,7) = Lat. fama. But in spelling Greek words with Ijatin letters, the Romans, after the time of Cicero, were careful to represent ip, not by /, which had a somewhat different power, but bj ph. This mode of spelhag words derived from Greek is still adhered to in E.nglish, German, and French, although the distinction in sonnd has long been lost sight of. The distinction began to disappear in the Latin itself in tiie time of the later Roman emperors, when inscriptions shew such spelling as Afrodite for Aphrodite ; and this simplihcation is followed in modem Itahan, Spanish, and Portuguese. Ph is sometimes erroneously used in words having no connection with Greek ; as Adolphus, for the reutouic Adolf or Adalolf — i. e., * noble woK.' F, in Music, is the fourtli fiot« of the natard diatonic scale of C, and stands in proi)ortion to C as 4 to 3, and is a perfect fourth above C as fund»« mental note. F major, as a key, has one flat at its signature — viz., B flat. F minor has four flats the same as A flat major, of which it is the relative minor. FA AM, or FAHAM {Angrcecum fragram), an orchid, native of India and the Mascarene Isles, much prized in the East for the delightful fragrance of its leaves, which is owing to the presence of Coumarin (q. v.), and resembles that of the Tonka Bean and of Vernal Grass. In the Isle of Bourbon, an infusion of F. leaves is in great repute as a cure for pulmonary consumption and as a stomachic. In France, it has been successfully employed, under the name of Isle of Bourbon Tea, as an expectorant, anti- spasmodic and stomachic. FABACE^. See LEGTOnNOS^. FA'BER is the name of two artists, father and son. John F., the elder, was born in Holland, where he acquired a knowledge of the art of mezzotinto-engraving. Subsequently, he came to England, and died at Bristol, May 1721. His works do not exhibit much talent. — The younger F., also called John, obtained, however, a high reputation as an engraver in mezzotinto. His principal works are the portraits of the Kit- Cat Club, and the Beauties of Hampton Court, several of which are executed with great freedom, vigoior, and beauty. F. lived in London, where he is believed to have died in 1756. FABER, Rev. George Stanley, a learned and volmninous divine of the Anglican Church, was the eldest son of the Rev. Thomas Faber, and was bom 25th October 1773. He entered University College, Oxford, in 1789, where he achieved a brilhant academical reputation. Before his 21st year, he was elected FeUow and Tutor of Lincoln College. In 1796, he took his degree of M.A. ; was Bampton Lecturer for 1801, in which capacity he delivered the lectures subsequently published under the titlft of Horce Mosaicce ; and in 1805 became vicar of Stockton-on-Tees, in the coimty of Durham. After several changes, he received from Bishop Van Mildert, in 1832, the mastership of Sherbum Hospital, near the city of Durham, where he died 27th January 1854 F. wrote upwards of forty works, several of which, especially those upon prophecy, have enjoyed a very extensive popularity. AU his writings are marked by ' strong mascuhne sense, extensive classical eradition, and a hearty love of hypothesis.' The principal are — The Geniiu and Object of the Patiiarchal, the LevUical, and tht Christian Dispensations (1823, 2 vols.); The Diffi cidties of Infidelity (1824); The Sacred Calendar of Prophecy (1828, 3 vols.) ; The Primitive Doctrim of Election (1836), reckoned by some critics the most valuable of all F.'s writings; TJie Primitive Doc- trine of JiLstification (1837); and Eight Dissertations FABIUS— FABLIAU. upon the Prophetical Promises of a Mighty Deliverer (1845, 2 vols.). FA'BIUS, the name of one of the oldest and most illustrious patrician families of Rome. Three brothers of thiw name alternately held the office of consul for seven years (485—479 b. c). In 470, the Fabii, under K. Fabius Vibulanus, migrated to tlie banks of the Cremera, a small stream that flows into the Tiber a few miles above Kome. Here, two years after, they were decoyed into an ambus- cade by the Veientes, with whom they had been at AA'ur, and, with the exception of one member, who had remained at Rome, and through whom the race was perpetuated, the entire gens, consisting of 306 men, M'ere put to the sword. The most eminent of the Fabii were Quintus Fabius Rullianus — supposed to have been the first who obtained for himself and his family the siirname of Maximus — and his descendant, Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, named Cunctator, the Delayer. The former was the most eminent of the Roman generals in the second Samnite war, and was twice dictator, and six times consul. The latter, who, in the course of his career, was five times consul, and twice censor, was elected dictator immediately after the defeat of the Romans at Trasimenus. The peculiar line of tactics which he observed in the second Punic war obtained for him the surname by which he is best known in history. Hanging on the heights like a thimdercloud, to which Hannibal himself compared him, and avoiding a direct engagement, he tantalised the enemy mth his caution, harassed them by marches and counter- marches, and cut off their stragglers and foragers, while at the same time his delay allowed Rome to assemble her forces in greater strength. This policy — which has become proverbial as 'Fabian policy' — although the wisest in the circumstances, was neither appreciated in the camp nor at home ; and shortly after, Marcus Minucius Rufus, Master of the Horse, was raised to an equal share in the dictator- ship, a position, however, which he occupied but for a short time. During his fifth consulship, Fabius recovered Tarentum, which had long been one of Haimibal's important positions. He died in 203 B.C. C. Fabius, surnamed Pictor, executed upon the walls of the temple of Salus — dedicated by the dictator C. Junius Bnitus Bubulus in 302 — the earliest Roman paintings of which we have any record ; and his grandson, Q. Fabius Pictor, was the first writer of a Roman history in prose. FA'BLE (Lat. fabula) is a word "of twofold signification. First, it is . employed by some writers in a general sense to denote any fictitious narra- tive, as, for example, the incidents in an epic or dramatic poem. At one time also, when the myths of the Greeks and Romans were thought to be satisfactorily accounted for by regarding them S3 conscious inventions of the ancient poets and E-riests, it was customary to speak of them as fables, but this application of the term is now abandoned by scholars. See Myth. According to the second and more frequent signification of the Avord, it denotes a special kind of literary composition, either prose or verse, in which a story of some kind is made the vehicle for conveying a universal truth. It differs from a parable in this respect, that while the latter never transcends in conception the boimds of the probable or the possible, the former always and of necessity does. The story of the ' Good Samaritan ' imagined by the Saviour, is a parable ; if it was not true, it might have been, for it con- tains nothing either improbable or impossible ; but when Jotham went up to the top of Mount Gerizim, and spoke to the men of Shechem about the trees 8X2 going forth to anoint a king over them, lie made use of a fable proper. The peculiarity, therefore, of the structwe of the fable consists in the transference to inanimate objects, or, more frequently, to tlie lower animals, of the qualities of rational beings. By the very novelty and utter impossibility of the representation, the interest of the hearer or reader is excited, and thus its symbolic meaning and moral become transparent to him, at least u the fable is well contrived. The ancient fabulists were simple, clear, and earnest in their representa- tions. They seem to have sprung up in the East. Among the more celebrated are Bidpai (q. v.), or Pilpai, and the Arabian Lokman, who is said to have lived in the time of King David. Among the Greeks, the greatest imme is that of ^sop (q. v.), whose fables, at a much later period — the precise time is not exactly known — were versified by a certain Babrius (q. v.). Among the Romans, Phffidrus cleverly imitated ^sop, but with consi- derable modifications, thus giving a certain amount of independent value to his work. It is perhaps worth mentioning here, that the well-kno%vn fable of the Town Mouse and Country Mouse, told by Horace, is of purely Roman origin, and is probably the only one in existence of which that can be affirmed. Leaving the classical period, and before entering on the dark ages, we encounter the name of Aphthonius, who flourished in the early part of the 4th century, and who wrote indifferent fables in Greek prose; and still later, the name of Flavins Avianus, who composed forty-two, no better, in Latin elegiacs. During the dark ages, the fable in various forms appears to have been cultivated in the monasteries, although nothing meritorious has survived ; but in the middle ages, it acqiiired fresh life and vigour. An edition of the fables current in Germany in the time of the Minnesingers has been published by Bodmer. The oldest known German fabulist is Strieker, who lived about the middle of the 13th c. ; but the famous medieval fable oJ Rtimke Fuclis (q. v.), or the History of Reynard the Fox, stretches in some of its numerous primitive forms much further back. In later times, most nations have cultivated the fable ^dth more or lesa success. We may mention among the English, Gay; among the Germans, Hagedorn and Gellert, and Lessing; among the Italians, Pignotti; and above all, among the French, La Fontaine, whose fablea are remarkable for their arch and lively humour, their delicate sarcasm, their sagacity, and felicity of expression. Now, however, the fable has gone entirely out of fashion, and there seems little chance of its reappearance. FABLIAU, plur. FABLIAUX (from the Latin fabulari, fahellare, to speak or to tell), was the name given in the old French literature to a class of short metrical narratives, intended merely for recitation, and which had for their subject-matter the talk and news of the day in the middle ages. The narrator of such news was called a faUeor (plur. fabliere), in opposition to the chanteor, or singer proper, who composed poems not only for recitation, but also for singing. Besides the fabliaux, the department of the fableor embraced the Romam d'aventui'e (in short imstrophied couplets), usually called conies, whence their author or reciter also bore the name of conteur ; and the dits, or sayings, the special cultivator ol which was termed a diseur. As the fabliaux were fundamentally distinguished from the more genuine forms of poetry by the everyday character of their subject-matter, so the mode of treatment which their authors adopted was also more anecdotical, epigrammatic and witty — the wit being richly spiced with scandal. They appear to have maintained FABRETTI— FABRICIUS. a sort of ironical and parodistic antagonism to the idealism of the epica of chivalry. In these fabliaux, the essential character of the French people manifested itself, and that opposition of the real to the ideal, of the understanding to the imagination, which, after the time of Francis I., began to characterise French literature generally. Thus they lashed not only the priesthood and the nobility in their actual degeneracy, but from the very character of their satire, they engendered a conteinpt for the religious-chivalric spirit itself, and for all ecclesiastical and knightly notions and ceremonies^ The oldest fabliaux are not of French origin ; they are a fruit of the Crusades, and were brought to France from the East, but they received a national colouring, and soon took root in the West. From them sprung the drama of France. One of the most fecund fabli^re was Rutebeuf, who flourished in the reigns of Louis IX. and Philippe III., whose works were published by Jubinal (2 vols., Paris, 18.37). He was a true Parisian, and the prototype of Villon, La Fontaine, and Voltaire. The best collections of fabliaux and contes are those of Barbazan (3 vols., Paris, 1756), of Meon (2 vols., Paris, 1823), and of Jubinal (2 vols., Paris, 1839— 1843). FABRE'TTI, Rapfaele, a distinguished anti- quary and archjeologist, was born at Urbino 1618, and was attracted at an early period to anti- quarian studies by the great classical remains of Rome. Under Pope Alexander VII., he became papal treasurer, and subsequently was appointed chan- cellor to the papal embassy at Madrid. A residence of 13 years in Spain enabled him to explore all the antiquities of the kingdom, and to carry his studies to a point which rendered indispensable his return to Rome, the great parent fount of ancient learning. He was there made judge ; and under Innocent XII., became keeper of the papal archives of the castle of St Angelo, a post which afforded the widest scope to his favourite pursuits. About this time, he wrote his two important works : De Aquis et Aquaductibtis Veteris Bomce (4 vols., 1680, reprinted with notes and additions in 1788), and Syntagma de Columnd Trajani (Rome, 1683). His treatise entitled Inscrip' tionum Antiquarum Explicatio (1699) throws invalu- able light on the discoveries made by himself in the catacombs ; and his erudite investigations concerning the reliefs known as the Iliac Tables, and the grand subterranean canals of the Emperor Claudius, are equally full of interest to science. His rare collec- tion of inscriptions, &c., is deposited in the ducal palace of Urbino. F. died in 1700. FABRIA'NO, a city of Italy, in the province of Macerata (formerly part of the Papal States), is situated at the eastern base of the Apennine range, 28 miles west o^ Macerata. It has a cathedral, and several convents, but is chiefly worthy of mention on account of its great paper manufactures, which were established in 1564. F. has also numerous tanneries and powder-mills, and manufactiires of hats and cloth. Pop. 7030. FABRIANO, Gentile da, an Italian painter, who flourished in the early part of the 15th century. He was born — it is not exactly known when — at Fabriano, and received his first instructions from his father, who appears to have been a man of superior culture, as he taught his son the elements of physics and mathematics. F.'s first teacher in art was, it 18 supposed, Allegrette de Nuzio. Subsequently, be went to Florence, and studied imder Fiesole. Among his earliest works of note is a fresco of the Madonna in the cathedral of Orvieto. In 1423, he painted an ' Adoration of the Kings ' for the church of the Holy Trinity in Florence. This picture is one of the most admirable belonging to the school of Giotto. To the same period belongs a Madonna with Saints (now in the Berlin Museum). F. afterwards went to Venice, where he greatly increased his reputation by a picture of the bloody engagement between the fleet of the Republic and that of the Emperor Barbarossa off the heights of Pii ano. Tha Venetian senate was so delighted with the piece, that it conferred on the fortunate artist the dignity of a patrician, and a X)ension of a ducat per diem for life. Unhappily, this work has perished. Fcpg Martin V. now called F. to Rome, and emj)loye<1i him, along with Vittore Pisanello, in adornijQ|» the church of San Giovanni Laterano. As hia share of the work, he painted various incidents in the life of John the Baptist, five prophets, and portraits of Pope Martin himself and ten cardinals. He died, while engaged on this building, some time after 1450. F.'s pictures indicate a cheerful and joyous nature. He had quite a childlike love of splendour and rich ornamentation, but is never extravagant or excessive in his colouring. FABRI CIUS, or FABRFZIO, Girolamo, com- monly named from his birthplace F. ab Acqua- PENDENTE, a Celebrated anatomist and surgeon, was born in 1537, and died in 1619. He was the son of humble parents, who, notwithstanding their poverty, sent him to the university of Padua, where, in addition to the usual instruction in the classics, he studied anatomy and surgery under the celebrated Fallopius with suuh success, that on the deaOi of the latter in 1562, F. was appointed to fill the vacrnt professorship. He continued to hold this office for nearly half a century, dui-ing which period his high character for eloquence, general erudition, and professional knowledge, attracted students from all parts of the civilised world to the university of Padua. Amongst these students was our couu^.ry- man Harvey (q. v.), who attended his prelections in 1598, and who, as A\dll be seen in our notice of his life, derived from F.'s observations on the valves of the veins the first clue to his gi-eat discovery. He was a most laborious investigator of nature ; and we find him comparing and contrasting the same organ in man, and in several of the lower animals, on a more methodical plan than had been attempted by any of his predecessors. In this way he treated of the eye, the larynx, the ear, the intestinal canal, the development of the fa?tus, and many other subjects. The improvements which his knowledge of anatomy enabled him to introduce into the practice of surgery were very great ; and his Opera Chirurgica, which embraced every complaint curable by manual opera- tion, was so higlily valued^ that it pafised through seventeen editions. He was greatly esteemed by his fellow-citizens, for we find that the Venetian republic not only erected for hira a spacious anatomical amphitheatre, in which his name wa* inscribed, but at the same time conferred npoE him an annual stipend of a thousand crowns, and created him a knight of the order of St Mark, A few years before his death, he retired, with an ample fortune, from all professional duties, and died (some believe he was poisoned by his relatives) at the age of 82, in his villa on the banks of the Brenta, wliich still bears the name of the Montagu c ola d'Acquapendente. We have not space for a list of his numerous anatomical and surgical works. Upwards of a century after his death (in 1723), the celebrated anatomist Albinus collected and pub- lished a complete edition of all his anatomical and physiological works. FABRICIUS, JoH. Christian, a Danish ento- mologist, born at Tondern, January 7, 1745, and died at Kiel in 1807. He studied at Copenhagen, 213 FABRONI— FACTOR. Ediuburgli, Leyden, and Freybur<^, and finally went to l^^psala to attend the classes of Linnoius. A v,'arni friendship was cemented between master and pupil, and throughout his life F. was zealously employed in developing and applying the ideas and method of the great Swede. In 1775 F. was appointed to the chair of Natural History at the University o£ Kiel, and from that time he devoted himself to the prosecution of his entomological studies, and to the fuller development of a system of classification of insects, based upon the struc- ture of the mouth. Although his system has been found inapplicable to many families of insects, the observations on which it was based have tended materially to the extension of this branch of science. The Systema Entomologke (Copenh. 1775), in which F. expounded his views, constituted a new era in the history of entomolofiy, while his Genera Insect- orum (Kiel, 1776), Mantissa Insectorum (Copenh. 1787), and Entomologia Systematica (Copenh. 1702), opened hitherto unexplored fields of inquiry to the entomologist. F. was the author of several able treatises on the policy, statistics, and economy of Denmark, which wei-e prepared by him in his capa- city of councillor of state and Professor of Rural and Political Economy at Kiel. F.'s death was said to have been hastened by the grief which he expe- rienced in consequence of the political misfortunes of his country. FABRO'NI, Angelo, an excellent biographical writer, was born at Marradi, in Tviscany, 7th February 1732, educated at Faenza and Rome, and in 1773, was appointed tutor to the sons of Leopold, Grand Duke of Tuscany. He died 22d September 1803. His Vitce Italoi-um Doctrina Excellentium qui Scecido XVI 1. et XVIII. Jloruemnt (20 vols., Pisa, 1778 — 1805), is one of the best Italian works of its kind, and contains quite a treasure of information ; while his Laurentii Medicei Vita (2 vols., Pisa, 1784), and Vita Magyii Cosmi Medicei (2 vols., Pisa, 1788 — 1789), are reckoned model biographies. FACADE (Fr,), the exterior front or face of a building. This term, although frequently restricted to classic architecture, may be applied to the front elevation of a building in any style. It is, how^ever, generally used with reference to buildings of some magnitude and pretensions ; thus, we speak of the front of a house, and the fagade of a palace. The back elevation of an important building is called the rear facade, in the same Nvay as in England the back of a house is called the ' hack front.'' An edifice may have any niimber of facades when it shews a face or front in each direction. An eleva- tion of the side of a building is called the lateral fayade. The sides of a court or coi-tile are also called fa9ades, and are distinguished as north, south, &c. fa9ade3. FACCIOLA'TI, Jacopo, an Italian philologist and critic, was born at Torreglia, not far from Padua, in 1682. He was educated in the religious jieuunary at Padua, where he became successively Professor of Theology, Professor of Philosophy, and SujTerintendent-general of the classes, or rector of the institution. F. directed his attention chiefly to the J evival of the study of ancient literature, and with this object, brought out a new edition of the Lexicon Septem Linguarum, called, from its original author, the monk Arabrosius of Calepio, the Calepine Lexicon. He was assisted in this work by his pupil, Forcellini, to whom is mainly owing the conception of a totally new Latin dictionary ; an arduous undertaking, which F. continued till his death in 1769, and which was afterwards completed by ForcelHni in 1771. F. and Forcellini, assisted by several others, likewise published a new edition of Nizoli's Thesaurus Ciceronianus. F.'s Latin epistles and orations are remarkable for the Ciceronian elegance of their style, and his notices on several philosophical writings of Cicero for their solidity, clearness, and taste. FA'CET, a term employed to denote the plane surfaces of crystals, or those artificially cut upon precious stones. FACIAL ANGLE. See Angle. FACI'LITY, in the legal terminology of Scotland, is a condition of mental weakness short of that which will justify Cognition (q. v.), but which calls for the protection of the law, which is exercised by means of a process called Interdiction (q. v.). Tho object of interdiction is to prevent the facile person from granting deeds to his own prejudice, and after it has taken place, he cannot contract without the consent of his interdictors. Even without interdiction, the deeds of a facile person, if to his prejudice, may be set aside, if there be proof of his having been circumvented or imposed on ; and Erskine says that ' where lesion in the deed, and facdit}'' in the granter concur, the most slender circumstances of fraud or circumvention are suffi- cient to set a deed aside.'— B. iv. tit. 1, s. 27. See Fraud, Lesion, Insanity. There is no corre- sponding term in English law, and the remedy of interdiction is unknown, but weakness of mind approaching to idiocy will of course form an important element in proving fraud. FA'CTOR, in Mathematics. The numbers 6 and 4, multiplied together, make 24 ; hence 6 and 4 are called factors of the product 24. Most ninnburs are products of two or more factors ; thus 10=2 x 5 ; 12 = 3 X 4, or 2 X 6, or 2 X 2 X 3. Every product can be divided by any of its factors without remainder ; a factor, therefore, is often called a divisor, or measure. 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, are all factor? or divisors of 24. Numbers that have no factor or divisor above vmity, such as 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, . . . 23, &c., are called Prime Numbers (q. v.). FACTOR, in its most general sense, is the term applied to any one who is employed to do business for another. Factory difi"ers from the mandate of the Roman law in not being gratuitous. In mer- cantile transactions, the sale of goods is generally effected either by factors or brokers, both of whom are agents, remunerated generally by a commission. But the powers of factors are higher than those of brokers, inasmuch as the former are intrusted with the possession of the goods, and authorised to sell them as if they were their own ; whereas the latter have no possession or apparent ownership, but act not only really but ostensibly as agents. Factors frequently act on the principle of the del credere commission (q. v.), receiving, that is to say, a higher remuneration in consideration of undertaking to guarantee the solvency of the purchasers. At com- mon law, a sale or other transaction by a factor was bad, if it was not fully warranted by the nature of the authority which he derived from his principal ; but this doctrire has been modified by several statutes which have been passed for the protection of strangers dealing with persons intrusted with the possession of goods, the extent of whose authority they had no means of ascertaining. By 6 Geo. IV, c. 94, called the Factors' Act, it was provided that any person in possession of a bill of lading is to bfc deemed the true owner of the goods therein described, so far as to give validity to any contract or agree- ment made with him regarding them. 7 and 8 Geo. IV. enacts that if any factor shall, for his own benefit, and in violation of good faith, dei)Osit oi pledge any goods, or order for their delivery, he shall be guilty of a misdemeanour. In 1842 th« FACTOR-FACTORIEa powers of 6 Geo. IV. c. 94 were defined a^'d extended by 5 and 6 Vict, c. 39, w^hich enacted that bond fide advances to persons intrusted with the possession of goods or documents of title, though known to be agents, should be protected ; bond fide deposits "n exchange were also protected, but it was provided that there should be no lien beyond the val'ie of the goods given up. The agent's respon- sibdity to his principal is not diminished, but it is provided that if he shall make consignments contrary to the instructions of his principal, he shall be guilty of a misdemeanour. In Scotli ad, the term factor is applied to an agent managing heritable estates for another, letting farms, draudng rents, and the like, in which sense it is nearly synonymous with the English steward, a term which, in Scotland, again, is employed to denote an agent whose powers are of a far more limited kind than those of a factor, and who generally acts under him. If a factor pay money into a bank on his own account, he takes the risk of the bank's fadure. A factor cannot delegate his powers, but he may employ a third party to aid him in their discharge. He binds his principal to any engagement which he contracts within his powers. Factory may be recalled, and falls by the death of the principal ; but actions already begun may go on, and those done in ignorance of the revocation or death are binding. Revocation is implied in the appointment of a new agent to do the same act. The mandate of factory subsists notwithstanding the supervening insanity of the mandant. Factors may be empowered to gi-ant leases and pursue removings, but for these acts special powers are required. Writers to the Signet in Edinburgh, and writers in country towns, frequently act as factors for the neighbouring landed proprietors. But all the great landowners had formerly, and many of tliem still have, factors resident on their estates. See Agent. FA'CTORIES are establishments where large numbers of persons co-operate in the production of some article of consumption, the principle of the division of labour being in all cases applied, and generally machinery to a greater or less extent. The factory-system is opposed to the practice of indi%ddual labour at the homes of the artisans. Every production of art requires a longer or shorter series of operations, often varying considerably in their nature. The hand-worker performs most of these himself ; one and the same person makes the complete article. In a factory, every article goes through as many hands or machines as there are separate processes required ; each workman performs only one, and that always the same, process. The chief advantages of this way of proceeding are the following : Loss of time is avoi ded in passing from one operation to another, a loss which is the greater, the greater the difference in the nature of the oper- ation. The workman, confined to one thing, m itself usually simple, not only learns it sooner, but attains a quickness and skill that one distracted with a variety of operations can never attain ; 3>esides, the constant occupation with one kind of work leads the workman to light upon improve- mente in tools and machines so as to increase their rapidity of execution and their precision. As only few of the processes are very difficult, it is possible to turn to some account less skilful workmen, and even children, and to assign to each person that kind of work at which he is most effective. All parts of the work, too, that are quite uniform in the case of each article, can generally be done by inachinery. Lastly, in factories, there is more opportunity of turning to advantacre ail kinds of refuse. A necessary consequence of these advantages is, that the coat of i)ro( I action is less on the facto.7- systcm than in the other wixy ; and more than that, the articles theuisclvcs, when of a nature adapted to this mode of jiroductiou, are better, and of a unifonuity otherwise unattainal>ic. Wherever a comparatively homogeneous material has to be made into a large number of uniform articles, there the factory-system is in its proper place. The best examples are spinning, weaving, cloth-printing, pin and needle making, &c. But even in the manufac- ture of complex articles composed of different kinds of material, the factory- system may be pursued with advantage whenever the number of the articles required is great, and the separate parts of such a kind that a great number can Ije made exactly alike. This is the case with watches, weapons, locks, &c. Such a manufacture divides itself into as many separate employments as there are i>ai-ts in each article, and the putting together and adjust- ing forms another. The degree of complexity is carried still further in such cases as the manufacture of carriages, where operations of the most hetero- geneous kind have to concur. In some cases, factories do not concern themselves with the put- ting together of the parts, but merely produce them for hand-workers and special professionists, as is the cas(. in watch-making. In making clothes and sho^s and the like, where each individual article requires special adaptation, factory work is not so suitable. How far it is advisable in any case to employ machinery, depends on the nature of the work, the cost of the machinery, the scale on which operations are to be carried on, &c. Nowhere have the factory-system and the employment of machinery been carried further than in America. In Cincinnati, for instance, one establishment in 1854 produced 200 dozen chairs a week, another 1000 loedsteads, most of the work being done by machinery ; and one boot and shoe factory used 600 bushels of shoe-pegs. Even the killing of pigs is done on this grand scale, one establishment killing and pickling 12,000 hogs and 3000 oxen in a season. — Factories cannot succeed in great numbers except in localities where the population is sufficiently dense to afi"ord a sufficient choice of hands, and also to cause a comparatively low rate of wages. Other conditions of a good locality for factory production are abundance of water-power or the presence of coal for steam power, nearness to the raw material, and good communications. While the rise and extension of the factory -system, when looked at from the point of view of r laterial economics, must be pronounced a decided improve- ment, it cannot be denied that, socially and politic- ally considered, it has its dark side. The greater the capital and the training necessary for carrying on an extensive estabhshment, the less pros^ject the workman has of ever raising himself to irtdepen- dence. The chasm that separates the mill-owner from his dependants is infinitely greater than thai which exists between a master artisva and hia journeymen. The hope of gradual advancement afforded in the last case supplies a po Aerfui moral support and means of discipline ; t'lO im passable gidf in the other acts as a stumViag-biock and temptation. Factory-workers are c^jpecially dis- posed to enter heedlessly into mar iage, as they require to make no provision fc r a v. orkshop, tools, and other outlay once necessai/ for enteiing life ; while they have the prospect of the wife, and soon of the children, as contributors to the support of the family. It may, at all events, be affirmed, that the increase and accunndation in masses of the class called proletaires, who have no provision for a week but the labour of that week, is favom-ed by tho factory-system. Moreover, the employment of wii» FACTOEY ACTS— FACULTIES. and child ns fellow-labourers endangers the old and sacred bonds of the family ; the father can no longer remain, to the extent that he ouglit to be, master of the house of which he is no longer the sole support ; and how much the family affection is thus weakened, is painfully exhibited in the ill- treatment of the younger children, who are prema- turely pui; to labour, and literally robbed of their childhood. At the same time, it cannot be allowed that th(\a© evils are incapable of remedy ; legislation and publi j opinion can here do much ; nor must it be forgottf a that the evil is not peculiar to factory labour, bu^^ is a feature of the whole of our more recent industrial economics. The greatest abuses of the kind in England are found in the mining dis- tricts, and among the small domestic manufacturers. The M avy circumstances that give rise to the evils aflford the means of obviating them, if they were only t«,ken advantage of ; for, the larger the estab- lishmtnt, the more good can an owner do for his pboplo, and the less it is possible to conceal abuses. It cannot with justice be charged against factory labour that in itself it has a demoralising tendency. Whatever In'ings togetl.er numbers of human beings increases, no doubt, o])portunities and temptations to aberrations, especially in the inter- course of the sexes ; but not more so in the case of a factoiy than in that of all large towns, and even less so than in some other cases of assemblage, as armies and garrisons. FACTORY ACTS. From motives of humanity, several statutes have been passed in recent years for regulating the hours of work, preserving the health, and promoting the education of young persons employed in mills and factories. The leading act is 7 and 8 Vict. e. 15 ; though much had already been done by the old statute 42 Geo. III. c. I'A, and by 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 103, commonly called the Factory Act, amended by 4 Will. IV. c. 1. By these last- mentioned acts, night- work — that is, between half-past eight in the evening and half-past five in the morning — w^as, with some exceptions, for- bidden in the case of persons under eighteen years of age ; whilst their hours of labour were limited to twelve in the day, including one and a half hours for meals. The employment of children under nine was prohibited, except in silk-mills ; and under thii-teen the hours were restricted to eight a day, or ten in silk-mills. Holidays were allow^ed, and certificates of health required from a surgeon or physician previous to the admission of a child, into a factory, under certain penalties. By 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 103, also, inspectors of factories were a})pointed, and their powers and duties for its enforcement defined. Amongst the duties of the inspector was included that of seeing that every child wathin the restricted age was placed at school ; and in case of the parents or guardians of the child omitting to pro- vide for his education, to order the employer to pay to hiiM (the inspector) one penny in every shilling of the Tpeekly wages of the child, to be applied to that purpose. By 7 and 8 Vict. c. 15, the powers and duties of inspectors were more accurately set forth. Kegulations are laid down for the protection of children working in web-spinning flax-mills, and it is enacted that the mill-gearing shall not be cleaned while in motion, and that the machinery ehall be guarded. A child is defined to mean a Cerson under thirteen ; and a young person, one etween the ages of thirteen and eighteen. An abstract of the act and relative notices must be hung up in every factory. As to the time of chil- dren's work, it is provided that they shall not be employed more than six hours and thirty minutes in any one day, or seven in silk factories ; but they uiyy be employed ten hours in one day on three 216 alternate days of the Aveek, provided that they be not employed in any manner in the same, or any other factory, on two successive days, or after half- past four on a Saturday. On the vacant days, the children are to be sent to school for five hours, provided the day be not a Saturday, when no school attendance of any child shall be required. Women above the age of eighteen are to be employed aa young persons ; and work for all children and young persons is to cease on Saturday at hali-i)ast four. In addition to the regulations of the former act, il is provided regarding meal times, that the hours allowed shall be betvveen half-past seven in tin morning and half-past seven in the evening, and that one hour shall be befoi*e three o'clock. No child or young person shall be employed more than five hours before one o'clock withoat an interval for meal-time of at least thirty minutes. All young persons are to have their meal-times at the same hour, and are not to be allowed to remain in any of the rooms used for manufacturing pro- cesses. Eight half-holidays are to be given in every factory, in addition to Good-Friday and Christmas- day, and the sacramental fast- day in Scotch parishes. By the subsequent act, IG and 17 Vict. c. 102, it ia required that no person under thirteen shall be employed in a factory before six o'clock in the morning or after six in the evening ; or on Saturday after two o'clock ; but between September 30 and April 1, children may for one mouth be employed on any day but Saturday from seven in the morning till seven in the evening. By 8 and 9 Vict. c. 29, the powers of inspectors and the regulations in respect to the employment of women and children, are extended to calico-works ; and rope-Avorks aro expressly exempted from them by 9 and 10 Vict, c. 40. By 10 Vict. c. 29, the hours of labour for young persons, and women above the age of eighteen, are reduced from tweh^e, which the factory act had fixed, to ten after 1st May 1848 ; and by 13 and 14 Vict. c. 37, it is enacted that the same persons shall not be employed before six in the morning or after six in the evening, or after two o'clock on a Saturday. Meal-times must be between half-past seven in the morning and six in the evening. There are partial exceptions to the hours specified in the acts, for the recovery of lost time; and by 13 and 14 Vict. c. 37, children above eleven are to be viewed as young persons when employed in winding and throwing silk. 19 and 20 Vict. c. 38, limits the pro\dsions of 7 and 8 Vict. c. 15, as to mill-gearing, to those parts with, which children and young persons and women are liable to come in contact, either in passing or in their ordinary work in the factory. FA'CULjE (Lat. facula, a torch), iu Astronomy, are spots, brighter than the rbst of the surface, which are sometimes seen on the sun's disc. See Sun. FA'CULTIES, Court of, a court established by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 21, s. 4, whereby authority is given to the Archbishop of Canterbury and his successors to grant dispensations, faculties, &c., by himself, or his sufficient and substantial commissary or deputy, for any such matters not being repugnant to the Holy Scriptures and the laws of God, whereof before such dispensations, &c., had been accustomed to be had at the see of Rome. Up to the time of passing this act, the pope, notwithstanding the statutes which had been passed restraining his authority, continued to exercise his power, and to draw a considerable revenue for indulgences, &c. The chief officer of the court ia called magister ad facultates. The sittings of the court have always been held at Doctors Commons (q. v.). On its first institution, there were various matters in which the dispensing power was called into exercise — such as the power tu bold FACULTY— FAGGING. tw.'or more livings (see I'luralism), and the per- mission to eat flesh in lient, &c. But of late years the matter whicli has chiefly occupied the court has been the granting licence to marry without publication of banns. See Licence, Maeriage, Dispensation. FACULTY. See University. FACULTY, a name applied to certain apti- tudes or powers of the mind, especially those of the intellect. Eeid considered that the characteristic of a faculty was its primitive character, as opposed to the acquired powers, or habits. Sir W. Hamilton remarks on this distinction as follows : ' Powers are actir>e and passive, tiatural and acquired. - Powers natural and active are called faculties. Powers natural and passive, capacities or receptivities. Powers acquired are habits, and habit is used both in an active and passive sense.' — Reid, p. 221. Hence, in discussing the intellect, whatever are considered its primary or fundamental functions, are its facvdties. Perception, Memory, Reasoning, Imagmation, are the leading intellectual faculties, according to the older metaphysicians, who followed the popular classiflcation. These would not now be considered as giving the ultimate analysis of the intellect. Conscience, or the moral sense, has some- times been called the moi^al faculty. See Intellect. FACL^LTY, Grant of, by the Ordinary, an order by the bishop of a diocese to award some privi- lege not permitted by common law. A facidty is necessary in order to effect any important alteration in a church, such as the erection of a gallery or of an organ. Without a facidty, a person is not entitled to erect a monument within the walls of a church. But a monument having been put up, though without a faculty, cannot be removed till a faculty or order to that eff'ect has been obtained. By the common law of England, every parishioner is entitled to a seat in church, but no one has a claim to any particular seat, unless the right has been given by a faculty. See Pews. FACULTY OF ADVOCATES. See Advocates. F^'CES, or SOLID EXCREMENTS, are the matters which an animal ejects from the lower end of the intestinal canal, and in greater part, consist of those portions of food which, on passing through the alimentary canal, have been rejected as com- paratively worthless in the ofiice of nutrition. In the higher animals, the faeces generally contain about three-fourths of their weight of water, the remaining one-fourth consisting, in greater part, of organic remains ; in the case of the ox, sheep, and other herbivorous animals, of undigested woody fibre. In the human subject, the quantity of fasces yielded daily by an average healthy man is 5 to 6 ounces ; the pecidiar brown colour is due to the presence of decomposing biliary matter, and the odour to jxartially changed nitrogenous substances resembling casein. The following table gives the composition of human and ox faeces : matter, and its high agricultural value. See Gctano. The following taljle gives the comix)sition of th« faeces of the boa constrictor : Human. Water 73-3 Organic remains, . 7 0 Biliary and nitrogenous matter, . . . 149 Albumen, ... 09 Extract, . . .2-7 Baits, , . 1-2 Oz. Water, Woody fibre. Wax, . Supar, Albumen, . Kesin and Salts, . 70 00 . 0-76 300 . 2 00 1-74 For use as man tire, these faeces are of little value as compared with guano, dissolved bones, or super- phosphates, and, indeed, the principal effete matters of importance to the agriculturist are resident in the urine or liquid excrement of the higher ani- mals. In the case, however, of birds and reptiles, the urine and faeces are voided together more or less moist, and iiencc the richness of such excremeutitious Uiiciicid. . . . . Anmionia, . . * Potash, .... Sul|iliate of potash, . PhoBphato (if lime, &c.. Mucus and colouring matter, . 9f) 16 170 . 345 0-96 . 0-80 294 100 00 FAED, John, a popidar Scottish painter, wvm born in 1820 at Burley Mill, in the stewartry ci Kirkcudbright, where his father was an engineer and millwright. His love of art was manifested at an early period, and when hardly entered on his teens, he was in the habit of making tours through the villages of Galloway, painting miniatures. In 1841, he came to Edinburgh, where his talents ultimately won him a high reputation. The first picture of F.'s that obtained great popularity was ' The Cruel Sisters,' the subject of which was taken from an old Scottish ballad. It was exhibited in 1851. Since then, F. has executed, among other works, ' Shakspeare and his Contemporaries,' ' Keason and Faith,' 'The Cotter's Saturday Night' (probably the most widely admired of all his efforts),. ' Tarn o* Sbanter,' and ' The Soldier's Return.' FAED, Thomas, brother of the preceding, was born at Burley Mdl in 1826, and has also followed the career of an artist. One of his earliest efforts was a drawing (in water-colours) from the Old Eng- lish Baron. In 1849, he became an Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy, and shortly after executed a very attractive work, entitled 'Scott and his Friends at Abbotsford.' In 1852, he removed to London, where his ' Mitherless Bairn,' exhibited in 1855, was declared by the critics to be ' the pictui-e of the season.' Of his subsequent works, we need only mention, ' Home and the Homeless,' and ' The First Break in the Family,' the latter of which is remarkable for its simple and homely pathos. FAE'NZA, a town of Italy, in the province of Ravenna, and 20 miles south-west of the to-\vn of that name, is situated on the left bank of the Lamone, in a beautiful and highly cultivated plain. It is surrounded with walls, is well built, and is in the form of a square, divided by four great streets, which meet in the centre. The streets of F., though in general narrow, contain good buildings, among which the chief are an imposing cathedi-al, a fine market-place, surrounded with arcades and adorned with a fountain, and numerous palaces and eccle- siastical edifices. It is the seat of considerable manufactures of glazed and coloured earthenware vessels, which in Italy are called 'Majolica,' and in France ' Faience ' (q. v.). Linen has a high place in the products of the town. Pop. 35,592. F., the ancient Faventia, was at one period a towa of the Boii, was afterwards a municipium under the Romans, and was annexed to the States of tits Church in the 15th c. by Pope Alexander VI., in which condition it remained tdl 1860, when, -witb the Emilian provinces, it was annexed to ihi kingdom of Italy tmder Victor EmmanueL FA'GGING is the name given to a usage pecu^ai to the gi-eat public scliools of England, the nature of which wiU be presently described. The origin of the practice cannot be traced. No school statute* refer to it, no school traditions speak of a time when it was not. The statutes of Eton College rather indicate precautions against it, for they ordain that there be thirteen poor youths in the establishment to work for the college ; but in Edward IV.'a time the college was much impoverished by roy;d depredations — the fellowships were cut down froai ai7 PAGGIXG. ten to seven, and these pauperes junior es ubolished. However, be the origin what it may, the institution, as we have said, exists, and in very nearly the same form, in all the public schools — that is to say, Eton, Harrow, Westminster, Winchester, and ]lugby. Its main features are, in every case, much as follows: In each school there are two limits, the upper limit, extending to the bottom of the first one or two forms (the public school designation of classes), below which a boy may not fag ; and the lower limit, Comprisin^^ the last four or five of the lowest forms, above which a boy may not be fagged. The boys between these limits, as also those who, although comprised within the lower limit, have been more than a certain time in the school, are devoid alike of rights and duties in connection with this practice. The serAaces of a fag are of two kinds — the one com- E rising his duties to a special master, to whom he has een assigned ; the other consisting of those due to the whole of the upper boys. The former comprise Buch tasks as preparing his master's breakfast, stoking his master's fire, carrying his master's messages, and smuggling into the house little forbidden delicacies for his master's consumi)tion, and in this instance, if detected, bearing his master's punish- ment. Those services which a lower boy owes to the whole of the upper boys, consist of attendance at the games. In the cricket season, the fags perform the functions of a net, and stand behind the wickets to stop the balls while their seniors arc practising ; and at all seasons they are liable to the drearier task of waiting attendance on the racket-players, and retrieving the balls which have been ' skyed ' out of the court. All cases of difficulty arising out of fagging are within the jurisdiction of the head-boy in the house, or the head of the school, and are settied by reference to him. Such are the main features of fagging at the present day — the idea Eervading the institution being, that no boy should e liable to the performance of any duties really menial, but only such as, in the absence of the practice, would naturally be performed by each boy for himself. Many of the abuses of this practice, which have from time to time been discovered and suppressed, afibrd whimsical illustrations of the peccant ingenuity of boy- nature. lu one school, a senior boy once had a study, but was not studious ; he might have let it out to a younger boy in want of a crib to read in at a rent of some five or ten shillings a term, but his mind soared beyond such paltry dealings ; he conceived vaster and grander ideas of the management of his property : he set up a tap. He smuggled into his room a nine-gallon cask, called a ' governor.' There was a rapid suc- cession of governors, and a brisk demand for beer ; BO he appointed his fag, a fine stout lad, as deputy- tapster to receive the coppers. The deputy grew attached to both his governors, and flourished long and happily in the faithful discharge of his duties. Another instance consisted of an equally whimsical and widely dixterent exercise of power. A sixth- form boy, of High Church principles, made his fags, two very nice well-conditioned yomig scholars, get up early and come to his room every morning before school [or prayers. So prominent a feature in the constitution of English public schools as the institution of fagging, has, of coiurse, received much criticism from educa- tional reformers. The well-known author of the letters from Paterfamilias to the Cornlull Magazine, himself an Etonian, and one of those rare instances of a public-school man dissatisfied with the recollec- tions of his school-life, speaks of the practice with the greatest bitterness. 'Fagging,' says he, 'now happily almost obsolete, was also based upon the breeches-pocket question. I used often to doubt, when called off from my studies, whilst a lower boy at Harchester, to mend my master'o fire, to prepare his meals, or to brush his clothes, whether a system which permitted and upheld such practices could really be beneficial to him or to me ; but I never had any doubt that it was very beneficial to our tutor, inasmuch as it spared him the wages of some two or three servants, whose menial work was per- formed by the lower boys. Of course, the ingenuity of our masters discovered plenty of excellent argu- ments in support of practices so convenient to them- selves ; our parents used to be told that carrying coals for the upper boys, and toasting their muffins, made us helpful and docile, and took the nonsense out of bumptious lads ; but such arguments would have applied just as aptly towards establishing the propriety of setting yoimg noblemen and gentlemen to assist the scullion, or to sort out the dirty linen for the wash.' These are certainly sharp words, but doubtless many persons may be found to sympathise Avith a gi-eat deal of the censure contained in them. They will tell us that much vigilance is necessary to prevent the abuse of the power of exacting casual service on the part of the senior boys, and that the rules of fagging, such as they are, give no adequate security against serious vexation and waste of a small boy's time. They say that the favourite apology, on the ground of its taking the conceit out of those who have been spoiled at home, is falla- cious; that football and parsing are sufficient cura- tives of this evil tone of mind ; and that if the necessity to render service to a senior takes the conceit out, the subsequent priAalege of the early exercise of power only too rapidly pours it in again. They deny, also, the validity of one very favoiuite assertion of the upholders of the system, that the relation between master and fag often, and indeed generally, gives rise to very pleasant intimacies between the upper and lower boys, and intimacies very beneficial to the latter. On the contrary, they maintain that no case of attachment between master and fag can be pointed to which would not have existed under any circumstances, and that this relation may often be found to have marred what would otherwise have been a very friendly recollec- tion. The advocates of the system tell us, on the other hand, that the attendant evils are greatly exaggerated, and in some cases purely fictitious, while it is in many respects of very great, if not essential, service to the existence of a public school. They deny that it has been originated and upheld by the tutors from purely commercial considerations, as asserted by Paterfamilias ; for, as has been already said, no really menial services are exacted of any boy, but only such as each boy might reasonably be expected to perform for himself, inasmuch as, in point of fact, many men at the universitj'-— not choosing or not being able to afiord a gyp — do really prepare their own breakfast, stoke their own fires, and go on their own errands. That while abuses do occasionally occur, everything is against the prob- ability of their frequency or extent, as the utmost facility exists on the part of the juniors for bringing their grievances before the proper authorities, ana obtaining speedy redress. They say that, as a fact, the services of a fag are so light that he does not care or think about them, and they appeal in support of this statement to the tone in which the boys themselves are in the habit of referring to the subject. See the Etonian, a periodical published by some Eton boys 30 or 40 years ago ; and the Trium,' virate, a similar and more modern periodical from Harrow School. But the principal argument in the defence of the system must always rest, its sui)porters tell us, upon the security afforded by it against bullying. In public schools, where the ages FAHRENHEIT '-FAIR ISLE. of tlie noys vary from ten to twenty, a much greater liberty is given to the hoys, and mucli greater confidence is reposed in them, tlian in private schools — the idea being, that their characters can only be truly formed by as unrestricted intercourse as possible among themselves, not hampered by the constant presence of a superior. Tliis constant presence of a master is, therefore, replaced l)y the traditions and constitution of the school, in which each boy has his assigned position, and his definite fights and duties; a constitution, therefore, which each boy feels a personal interest in u})holding. Such a society necessarily requires a provision for the relation between older and younger boys, between the weaker and the stronger ; for, in the absence of this, the ordinary aspects of barbarism would be presented, and brute force be alone pre- dominant. Such a provision, acceptable and intel- ligible to the boys, and reasonable in itself, is believed to be found in the fagging system. By this system, it is affirmed, provision is made alike for the claims of age and intellect, inasmuch as it is scarcely possible that any very stupid boy should fag, while no very old boy ever can be fagged. These are the chief features of the fagging system at puljlic schools, ^nd the principal argiunents by which it is supported and condemned. FA'HRENHEIT, Gabriel Daniel, the improver of the thermometer, was born at Danzig about the end of the 17th c, and was originally designed for the commercial profession. His inclination for natural philosophy induced him to quit that busi- ness, and having travelled through Germany and England for the purpose of enlarging his know- ledge, he settled in Holland. In 17*20, he first conceived the idea of using quicksilver instead of spirits of w"ine in the construction of thermometers, by means of which the accuracy of the instrument was very much improved. See Tjiermometer. In 1724, F. was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London ; and the Philosophical Transactions of that year contain several papers by him on points in natural philosophy. He died in 1740. FAIENCE, or FAYENCE, a general term for all sorts of glazed earthenware and porcelain. The origin of the name is disputed. Some derive it from Fayence, a small town of Provence, others from Faenza, a c?<-.y of Italy ; while certain writers con- sider that the isle of Majorca is at least the place where it was originally manufactured, in proof of which they appeal to the fact, that the Italians still call Faience Majolica or Mayolina. FAI-FO, a seaport of Anam (q. v.), is one of the more considerable marts of the empire. It stands on a rivQr near its mouth, communicating with Tiiron, 1 5 miles to the north, by means of a canal. It exj)Oits sugar and cinnamon, its principal trade being with China. It contains 15,000 inhabitants, who are mostly Buddhists. FAINEANTS ROIS (the ' Do-nothing Kings'), the sarcastic designation of the later Merovingian wvereigus of France, under whose name the famous Maj'ors of the Palace really governed the country. The first of the Do-nothing Kings was Thierry III., nominally monarch of Burgundy, Neustria, and Austrasia ; the others were Clovis HI., Childebert III., Dagobert IIL, Chilperic IL, Thierry IV., and Childcric III. The last of these was dethroned in 730 A. D., and he being shut up in a monastery, Pepin c< Bref, Maj'or of the Palace, caused himself to be formally proclaimed king. This was the end of the Merovingian dynasty ; it is curious that Louis V., the last of the Carlovingians, and a descendant of Pepin le Bref, also received the contemptuoua e})ithet of Faineant, as zhose monarchs had who were dethroned by his atcestors. FAI'NTING, or SY^nCOPE (Gr. f^jn, and ko'ptn, 1 fall down), is a condition in which, from a sudden mental or bodily impression, the circulation of })loo(l is temporarily arrested or very much dimi- nished in force and volume, the respiration and the functions of the nervous system being likewise sus- pended. The indications of fainting to a bystander are chiefly a sudden pallor, accompanied by loss of power over the limits, with disappearance of the pulse and movements of respiration; the eyes are com- monly half open or closed, the countenance blood- less, but quite at rest, and not indicative of suffering or disturbance : the flaccid, motionless condition of aU the limbs also tends to distinguish simple fainting from epile])sy, and the other diseases attended with spasm ; whilst the vanishing of the colour, and the suppression of the pulse, make a marked distinction between fainting and Catalepsy (q. v.), and other forms of Hysteria (q. v.) ; with which disorders, however, fainting may in some cases be associated. The mode of origin of fainting, and the study of its phenomena, alike lead to the conclusion that it ia primarily an impression upon the nervous system, very much of the same nature as the Collapse, or shock of a severe bodily injury ; this reacts, in the first instance, on the heart, and through the circulation on all the other functions of the body. Fainting may end in death, if too prolonged, or if associated with disease of the internal organs, and especially of the heart ; hence a particular variety of fainting has been separately studied, and named Syncope anginosa, or otherwise Angina pectoris. See Heart, Disease of. Ordinarily, a person who faints from mental emotion, a hot and close atmos- phere, or other transient cause, is readily restored by being laid on the back with the head low, and surrounded by abundance of cool fresh air. Any tight articles of dress shoidd be loosened, and a stream of cold air, or a little cold water, should be directed to the face and neck, so as to rouse the respiratory movements. It is common, also, to apply ammonia or aromatic vinegar to the nostrils ; but a more effective way of exciting the respiration is to compress the ribs, and allow them to expand again alternately, so as to imitate the natural movement. Care should be taken to ascertain that there is no obstruction in the throat or air-passages, as suffocation from mechanical causes has been mistaken for fainting, and the real origin of the mischief overlooked, with fatal consequences. Should all other means fail. Galvanism (q. v.) will sometimes succeed in restoring the respiration and heart's action. FAIOUM. See Faytoi. FAIR. See Fairs. FAIR or BENMORE HEAD, a promontory of the north coast of Antrim, Ireland, opposite Rathlin Isle, which is four miles to the north-west. It rises 636 feet above the sea. The lower 300 feet consists of carboniferous strata, overlaid by greenstone columns, 20 to 30 feet thick, and rising 280 to 300 feet high. It is perpendicidar to the sea, but slopes to the land. The table-laud on the top is covered with rich pasture, and presents fine views of the neighbouring coast, Rathlin Isle, and the Argyleshire Highlands, 16 miles distant. On the promontory are two smaU lochs, 500 feet above the sea. FAIR ISLE, a soUtary isle in the Atlantic, 25 miles south-south-west of Fitful Head, in the south of Shetland. It is 4 by 24 miles in extent, and rises 708 feet abov t the sea, with high rocky cliflfe and promontories, one of which, the Sheep Craig, PAIRBAIRN— FAIRIES. 1 rises 480 feet. The isle is accessible for ships only ttt one point on the sonth-east. It affords copper ores, and hand-shaped sponges called 'trowie gloves.' I*op. about 300, cliiefly fishers. At Stromceiler Creek, was wrecked, in 1588, the Duke of Medina Sidonia, admiral of the Spanish Armada. He escaped, after most of his crew were murdered. FAIRBAIRN, Sir William, was born at Kelso, in Roxburghshire, in 1789. Having learned a little reading, writing, and arithmetic at the parish school of Mullochy, in Ross-shire, and afterwards got some six months' instruction from an uncle, he was apprenticed to an engine-wright at Percymain Colliery, North Shields. When his apprenticeship terminated, F. wrought for two years in London, and then visited many places in England, Wales, and Ireland, working a short time at each, in order to observe the various practices of different localities. Eventually, he commenced business on his own account in Manchester in 1817. It was a struggle in which, without money or connections, only great abilities and perseverance would have succeeded. The first great improvement introduced by F. was the substitution of iron for wood in the shafting of cotton-mills, and the substitution of li^^lit for heavy shafting where metal was already in use. This exchange economised the cost of machinery, and enabled the motion to be speeded from 40 to 160 revolutions per minute. F. was amongst the earliest of the iron ship-builders, and has originated various improvements in their construction. The firm has built more than a hundred vessels, varying from the smallast size up to the war-frigate of 2600 tons. In 18.34 — 1835, F. and Mr E. Hodgkinson were imdted by the British Association for Advancement of Science to seek out the cause of certain supposed defects in the iron produced by hot-blast furnaces, and a very interesting report thereon appears in the Transactions of the Association. Neai'ly at the same time, F. tested the strength of the various kinds of iron of Great Britain, the report of which appears in the Transactions of the Philosophical Society of Manchester, and contains much useful information for engineers. Another report, pub- lished in the Ti'ansactions of the Royal Society, gives the tenacity of boiler-plates of various thick- nesses, and determines the best mode of riveting. He also made a long series of experiments on the resistance of hollow tubes or cylinders to collapse from outward pressure, leading to valuable practical results. The first idea of a tubular bridge across the Menai Strait is due to Robert Stephenson, but its realisation is due to F. more than to all other men. Stephenson's idea was a circular tube, sup- ported by chains; but the Britannia and Conway bridges are rectangular structures, strengthened by a series of cells at the top and bottom, and without chains or any other support from pier to pier. The present form results from a long series of experi- ments upon model tubes — circular, egg-shaped, and rectangular, which were conducted entirely for a long time by F., and latterly, with the aid of Mr E. Hodgkinson, as a mathematician, to deduce a law from the tabulated results of experiments. F. has erected more than a hundred bridges upon this principle. See Tubular Bridge. F. is a Fellow of the Royal Society ; Corresponding Member of the Institute of France; LL.D. of Edinburgh; and was President of the British Association for the Advance- ment of Science, 1861—1862. His son Thomas was chairman of the Art Treasures Exhibition at Manchester, 1857, and is a Commissioner for the Exhi- bition 1862. He declined knighthood, but was made a baronet in Oct., 1869. F. has published the follow- j]g works: On Canal /Steam Navigation ; The Strength 220 and other Properties of Hot and Cold Blant Iron; The- Strength of Iron at Different Temperatures; The Strength of Locomotive Boilers; The Effect of Itepeated Meltings on the Strength of Oast Iron ; Tlie Irons of Great Britain ; The Cohesive Strength of Different Qualities of Iron and Stone; The Strength of Iron Plates and Riveted Joints; The Conway and Britannia Tubular Bridges; Tlie Application of Iron to Buila- ing Purposes; Tice Strength of Hollow Globes ami Cylinders, when Exposed to Pressure from Without ; Useful Information for Engineers, 1st and 2c series ; A Treatise on Mills and Millwork; and severi.1 otheif papers. See Smiles' Lives of Engineers, 1861, aud Industrial Biography, 1864. Died August, 1874. FxVIRFAX, Edward, the translator of Tasso'a Jerusalem Delivered, was a natural son of Sir Thomas Fairfax, of Denton, in Yorkshire. The year of his birth is not known. He spent his life at Fuystone, in the forest of Knaresborough, in the enjoyment of many blessings which rarely befall poets — competence, ease, rural scenes, and an ample command of the means of study. F. was alive in 1631, Init he is supposed to have died shortly after. His celebrated translation of Tasso was made in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, to whom it is dedicated. The first edition bears the date of 1600. For poetical beauty and freedom, it has been the theme of universal praise. Dryden ranked F. with Spenser as a master of English, and Waller said that he derived from him the harmony of his numbers. F. also wrote a treatise on Demonology, in which he was a believer — a credulity which was probably of no little use to him in the translation of a work full of the machinery of enchantment. Hence Collins says regarding him — Prevailing poet, whose undoubting mind Believed the magic wonders which he sung. This treatise is still in manuscript. FAIRFAX, Thomas, Lord, general of the parlia- mentary troops in England during the civil wars under Charles I., was the son of Ferdinand, Lord Fairfax, and was born in 1611, at Denton, in York- shire. He studied at St John's CoUege, Cambridge, and afterwards served as a volunteer in Holland, under Lord Vei'e, whose fourth daughter, Anne, he married shortly after his return to England. On the outbreak of the civil war in 1642, F. warmly espoused the cause of the parhament, and was appointed cavalry-general under his father, who commanded the parliamentary forces in the north. He distinguished himself so much by his valour, prudence, and energy, that in 1645, when the Earl of Essex resigned his office of general of the parliamen- tary forces, F. was appointed in his room. In a short time, Cromwell, who had been appointed lieutenant- general, obtained unbounded influence over him; and from this time, although nominally head of the parliamentary forces, he really played a secondai^ part. At last, in June 1650, he refused to march against the Scots, who had proclaimed Charles IL king, and Cromwell was appointed commander-in- chief in his stead. F. now withdrew into private life, and did not come forward again until after the death of Cromwell, when he showed a zeal for the restoration of the king, gathered troops for that pur- pose, to assist General Monk against Lambert, and was appointed one of the delegates despatched to the Hague in 1660 to promote the return of Charles U. He died at Bilburgh, near York, 12th Februaiy, 1671. F. had a slight turn for literary pursuits, and wrote several works, prose and poetic, among others, one entitled Short Memorials^ which was published in 1699. FAI'RIES' ELVES (Ger. elbe or elfe; Sw. elfi Dan. ellefolk ; Old Norse, alfr ; all allied apparently FAIRIES. to Lat. alb{ns), wliite, and signifying a bright, Ijenign spirit ; Fr. f/ie ; Ital. /at(i), supernatural beings, generally of diminutive size, a belief in whom has been among the superstitions of the greater i)ortion of the Euro])ean nations. The etymology of the word /(dry is doul)tful ; some derive it and the Fr. fee from a Celtic word [/aer, to charm or bewitch ; others associate the Fr. fee and the Ital. fhta (a friendly goddess or spirit) with Lat. fatum, fate ; others, again, trace fairj/ to the peri of the Persians (pronounced /eri by the Arabians), holding it to have been brought to Europe by the Crusaders. Be this as it may, the Celtic fees or fairies are undoubtedly relics of those matres and matrome, which appear on Gallo-Roman inscriptions as objects of popular belief. After the transfusion of the Teutonic and southern nations, the northern elves (which were originally of two kinds — the light elvvis, or elves proper, and the dark elves, or dwarfs) became mixed u]> with their Celtic kindred the fairies in inextricable confusion. It is generally difficult to give any scientific definition of the natm-e of a superstition, because its phenomena are continually varying according to time, place, and other conditions. The fairy superstition especially defies definition, because it was the peculiarity of the creatures to whom it referred that they followed no regular law, human or divine, but obeyed the impulse of their own caprice ; hence every fairy taie differs from another. Still, there are distinctions and specialities that can be made out from the examination of a large number of these narratives. In the first place, the superstition peculiarly belongs to modern Europe. We find nothing like it among the idolatries of the heathen referred to in Scripture, nor does the word occur in the English Bible, or its equivalent in the original texts. In classical mythology, there is nothing nearer to it than the nymph of the fountain or grove among the Greeks. In the next place, it may be determined that the varieties in the superstition corresiK)nd, in some measure, with those of the phj'sical geography of the dis- tricts in which it prevails. In those parts of the world where there are mountains, mists, dangerous morasses, cataracts, and stormy oceans, all supersti- tions, being a belief in supernatural agencies, are naturally exaggerated, and, from the dangers to which the people are liable from the agencies they deem siipernatural, the belief takes deep root in their minds. Accordingly, in flat and well cultivated countries like England, the fairy superstition is simple and homely, connecting itself with matters of domestic routine, such as the sweeping of the dwelling-house, the skimming of the milk, the preservation of the butter, and the like ; while in Scandina%'ia and the Highlands the fairy people ftre connected with storms and convulsions, betray people to their death, fly away with them into the mfinite cloud-land, or lead them through endless carerns within the earth. It has been observed, as a further distinction, that the fairies of the German or Teutonic tribes are more harsh, fierce, uncomely or deformed than those of the Celtic nations, which have a tendency rather to the aerial and the graceful. Still, there is so great an amount of common characteristic in the superstition through- out Europe, and its peculiarities have been found so much more emphatieaUy displayed in Scandinavia than elsewhere, as to have suggested to some the view, that the superstition is a remnant of the old mythology of the northern nations, communicated by them to a greater or less extent in all the countries over which their vikings carried their ravages. T^iere is a further distinction — at least in this tovntiy — between the fairies of poetic and heroic literature and those of popiilar belief- -the fornicT being princes and j)rinces8e8 of chivalry, rnly dis- tinguished frorn human beings by their suj,erhuman sui)eriority in all the qualities which elicited resiject in the age of chivalry ; while those of pojiular belief are small in stature, sometimes decrej»it, and endowed with di3j)Ositions generally more allied to malignity ; than magnanimity. It is common to all classes of them to be deemed under the condemnation of th« I religion of the gospel, and to be either conditionally or unconditionally excluded from the alxjdes of the righteous in the next world. In Ireland and tlie Highlands, they have been spoken of as a wandering I remnant of the fallen ani^els. It is sometimes a symptom of geniality and kindliness in a people j when their fairies are sui)posed to be cajialde of I earning their own redemption. Sometimes they are I supposed to be human b sings, metamorphosed or i disembodied, and this form of the superstition has i made fairyland a place of purgation for those Avhose sins have condemned them to it. The analogy is I carried out in the belief that the services of the living can extricate the souls so situated ; but it : is rather through dexterity and courage than piire I piety that the feat is achieved, and the rescues from fairyland form some of the most wild and i exciting of the elfin narratives — as, for instance, the strange, wild ballad of Tamlane, There is still another broad distinction into those that dwell in the upper air and those that dwell within the bowels of the earth, while a third class frequent the waters. The surface of the earth on j which mankind reside is not deemed the proper I place of any class except on special occasions. I The Scandinavians called the fairy inhabitants of i the air white elves ; those of the earth, black, j Whatever was genial, light, playful, and benevo- { lent in the superstition, clustered round the I former ; the latter did aU the work that was j dark, cruel, and rapacious. Naturally enough, the black or subterranean kind frequented mining districts, where they might be seen extracting the I ore for themselves, and thus unwittingly leading j the miner to rich veins of metal. They might be i seen in an occasional peep through an apertiu'e of a j hill in their underground retreats, in chambers 1 supported on jasper columns, where they were j stowing away their hampers of gold and silver — for they were generally held to be very affluent. Some i of the most exciting tales about the German gnome, I and the Irish leprechaun, who was a creature of [ the same kind, are founded on the efi^orts of adven- turous mortals to get possession of their riches. There exists a legend, occurring in nearly identical terms in several countries, which connects some piece of valuable plate belonging to a church with the underground faii'ies. The story of the horn of Oldenburg is a type of these narratives. The pictures of it represent it as a beautifid drinking vessel, in the shape of a horn, exquisitely decorated with the finest fancifid silver-work, in the style contemporary with the richest Gothic architecture. The legend is, that one day, Otho of Oldenburg, being exhausted -with hunting, and very thirsty, exclaimed : ' 0 God, would that 1 had a cool drink ! ' Thereupon there appeared before him, as if coming out of the rock, a lovely maiden, who offered him a drink in the fairy horn. He made off with it, and j saved himself from evil consequences by bestowing it on the church. Hence these relics are generally in churches ; but one of them is, or lately was, in the possession of an English family, and as their prosperity was traditionally believed to depend on retaining it, it was called ' The Luck of Eden HalL' Puck and the pixies belong to the same class of beings. Of the ell- folks of Scandina\'ia, tb* 321 FAIRIES— FAniS. male is old and ill-favoured, but tlie evil element in the ell-woman or ell-maid consists in her beauty, which enables her to be very dangerous to foolish young gentlemen, whom she waylays either by her own proper charms, or by personating the objects of their affections. In Ireland, and also in the border country of Scotland, the fairy superstition has been the theme of innumerable poetic legends and mystic traditions. T. Crofton Croker, in his Fairy Legends and Tradi- tions of the South of Ireland, 3 vols. 1828, presents a full and amusing account of the Irish fairies or elves, which he describes as ' a few inches high, airy, and almost transjiarent i body ; so delicate in their form that a dew-drop, vvhen they chance to dance on it, trembles indeed, but never breaks. Both sexes are of extraordinary beauty, and mortal b(!ings cannot be compared with tliem.' They do not live alone, or in pairs, but always in large societies, and are governed by a queen. The same author adds : ' They are invisible to man, parti- cularly in the day-time, and as they can be present and hear what is said, the peasantry never sjieak of them but with caution and respect, terming them the good people, or friends. They have their dwell- ings in clefts of rocks, caves, and ancient tumidi. Every part within is decorated in the most splendid and magnificent manner ; and the pleasing music which sometimes issues from thence in the night, has delighted those who have been so fortunate as hear it.' There are Irish fairies, however, of more special character. Among these are the Banshee, or female spirit who watches a particidar family ; the Cluricaune, an elf of evil disposition, who usually appears as a wrinkled old man, and has a knowledge of hidden treasure ; and the Phooka, a spirit of diabolical disposition, who sometimes appearing as an eagle or a black horse, hurries the person he gets possession of to desti'uction. Of similar varieties are the Scottish elves : the Brownie, or domestic spirit nearly corresponding to the Ban- shee ; the Kelpy, a kind of water-horse, being little different from the Phooka ; and the Cluricaune being as regards figure somewhat analogous to the being sung by Leyden in his charming ballad, ' The Court of Keeldar' {Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border) : * Brown dwarf, that o'er the muirland strays, Thy name to Keeldar tell ! ' * The Brown Man of the muirs, who stays Beneath the heather-bell.' According to Irish as well as Scottish fairy super- etition, the elves, though in the main harrnless, or at most tricky, have the bad reputation of stealing away young children from the cradle, and substitut- ing for them a changeling who bears a resemblance to the stolen infant, but is an ugly little creature, and never thrives. On this theft of a female infant, who is carried to Fairyland, but in the course of years returns to her parents, James Hogg foimded his fine ballad of ' Kdmeny ' {Queen's Wake). It need hardly be added, that in the progress of general intelligence, the fairy superstition has dis- appeared in Scotland as well as in the greater part of Ireland, and now is as little a matter of credence as is the belief in England of that useful drudging fiend, Eobin Goodfellow. Besides being embalmed La imaginative Hterature, the fairy has a perpetual memorial in the small exquisitely shaped arrow- heads found so abundantly in northern countries, ^here they were long known as elf- arrows, or bolts with which the more malignant fairies sometimes slew or injured cattle and hiunan beings ; thus, when a poor man's cow or heifer was suddenly affected with some deadly and incomprehensible illness, it was said to be ' elf-shot.' See Elf- arrow- he a t>m. 222 For the most comprehensive account in the English language of the various shapes as^sumed by this superstition, the reader is referred to The Fairy Mythology, by Thomas Keightley. FAIRS (Fr. folre, from Lat. forum, & market place, or ferioi, holidays), great periodical marketi, some of which are chiefly devoted to one kind al merchandise, while others, of a wider scope, afford opportunity for most of the sales and purchases of a district. Fairs have long been regularly held in most parts of Europe, and in many parts of Asia; but as they belong rather to a state of things which is passing away, than to modern civilisation, thfy have not been established or have not acquirtcl the same importance in America. In Eujojte, they appear to have ori^rinated in the church festivals, which were found to afford convenient 0})por» tunities for commercial transactions, the concourse of people being such as took place upon no other occasion. This origin of fairs is commemorated in their German name Messen, which is derived from the word employed to denote the most solemn part of the church service. See Mass. Some festivals, from circumstances of place and season, speedily acquired a much greater commercial importance than others, and began, therefore, to be frequented by buyers and sellers even from remote parts o<" the world. When the ordinary means of communication between countries and of the exchange of commo- dities were very limited, fairs were of great use. Princes and the magistrates of free cities found it to their advantage to encourage them, and many privileges were granted to them, which in some places still subsist. Courts of summary jurisdiction — commonly called pie poudre, from the dusty feet of the suitors — were established distinct from the ordinary courts of the county or city, for the deter- mination of questions which might arise during the fair. In connection with all this, the practice was necessarily adopted of publicly proclaiming the com- mencement and duration of the fair, and this stiU subsists where scarcely any other vestige remains of the old privileges of fairs, and where they have ceased to be of any real use to the commimity, and might, perhaps, with advantage to all the interests of society, be now abolished, as in the case of some of the annual fairs still held in the great cities of Britain. In Western Europe, the goods exposed for sale at fairs are chiefly those in respect of which there is a frequent change of fashion. Provisions are seldom an article of merchandise in them ; and while in some parts of the continent persons of all ranks still wait for the great yearly fairs to make their principal piirchases of clothing and of manufactured articles of every description — such things as corn, wine, spirits, tea, coffee, sugar, tobacco, oil, &c., are seldom seen in themu It is otherwise, however, in places on the outskirts of civilisation; and almost all the produce of great provinces is sold, and all that their inhabitants require is bought at such fairs as those of Kiachta and Nishnij -Novgorod. The British fairs really of much use at the present day are chiefly those at which cattle are exposed for sale : of these some held on the borders of the Scottish Highlands, and elsewhere in Scotland, are frequented by buyers and sellers from all parts o£ the kingdom, and bring together the breeders of cattle and the graziers, by whom the animals are to be fed for the butcher. Such are the fairs or trysts, as they are called, at Falkirk, Doune, Edinburgh, &c. At other great yearly fairs in the south of Scotland, lambs and wool are sold ; and fairs chiefly for the sale of the annual produce of pastoral dis- tricts are common in almost all parts of the world. The greatest fairs in the world are the Easter ard FAIRY RINGS— FAITH. Michaelmas fairs at Leipsic. These are not to be confounded with the Leipsic Book-fair, which is chiedy an occasion for the settlement of accounts among booksellers and publishers. Next to the Leipsic fairs, those of Frankfurt-on-the-Maine are the most important in Germany. The fairs of Frankfurt-on-the-Oder, and of Brunswick in Ger- many, of Zurzach in Switzerland, Pesth in Hungary, Sinigaglia in Italy, Bergamo in Lombardy, Beaucaire and Lyon in France, and Nislinij -Novgorod in Russia, are among the most important in Europe. After the great fairs of Leipsic, that called the Fair of St Peter and St Paul at Nishnij -Novgorod is the greatest in the world, and is frequented by buyers and sellers from different parts of Europe, and of Northern and Central Asia. The fairs of Tanta in Upper Egyjit, of Kiachta in the south of Siberia, of Irbit, also in Siberia, of Mecca in Arabia, and of Hvirdv;ar in Western India, are also of very great importance, and are the most considerable fairs out of Europe. That of Kiachta is a sort of barter- market, where almost all the commercial trans- actions between the Russian and Chinese empires take place. The fairs in Britain have latterly simk for the most part to insignificance, and in many instances have entirely disappeared. They were gatherings adapted to a comparatively backward state of society, when the provincial stores of goods were few, and the means of communication defec- tive. The prevalence of good roads, populous towns with dealers in miscellaneous wares, and other toketis of advancement, have superseded the neces- sity for the orcUnary class of fairs, and in coiise- quence they have in some cases degenerated into scenes of merriment, such was Bartholomew Fair, London, now extinct ; also Greenwich Fair, Glasgow Fair, and Donnybrook Fair, near Dublin ; this last being likewise either extinct, or nearly so. The boisterous merriments at these fairs were of old the devices employed as likely to attract a great con- course of people ; hence each fair had its sport or drollery — football, wrestling, yawning, cudgel-play- ing, throwing at cocks, sack-races, flying dragons, grinning through horse-collars, mock-giants, mon- strous iishes, soaped pigs, smoking-matches, eating hot hasty-pudding, whistling, wheelbarrow races. M. Bottin, the author of a statistical View of the Fairs of France, says that on examining his work it will appear that they were placed for the most part on the frontiers of the kingdom, or on the marches of ancient provinces ; or at the foot of high moun- tains, at the beginning or end of the snow- season, which for months shuts up the inhabitants in their valleys ; or in the neighbom-hood of famous cathe- drals or churches frequented by flocks of pilgrims ; or in the middle of rich pastures. A fau' in the north of Scotland, held in June, when the nights are very short, began at sunset, and ended an hour after sunrise : it was called ' Sleepy jSIarket.' FAIRY RINGS are spots or circles in pastxires, which are either more bare than the rest of the field, or more green and luxuriant. Frequently a bare ring appears, like a footpath, with green grass in the centre, and the circle which the ring forms, or of which it might form a part, is often some yards in diameter. These rings began to attract the attention of men of science in the latter part of the last century, and various hypotheses were suggested to account for them. Some imagined that they might be the effect of lightning. Dr Withering appears to have been the first to ascribe them to the growth of mushrooms. Dr WoUaston further inves- tigated the subject, which has more recently been very fully investigated by Professor Way ; and it is now perfectly ascertained and universally admitted, that fairy rings residt from the centrifugal develop- ment of certain kinds of fungi, especially of Agaricus oreades, A. f/ambosus, A. coccineus, and A. personaluH. The Common Mushroom {A. cam- pestris) shews a tendency to grow in the same manner. Probably the spot where the agaric has already grown is unfitted for its continued nourish- ment, and the mycelium (spawn) extends outwards to new soil, the fungus unfitting the soil to which it extends for the immediate nourishment of grass, but enriching it afterwards by its own decay. Tha mycelium of many fungi has certainly a tendency to extend outwards from a centre ; and decayed fungi, containing not a little of the phosphate of pctasL^ are a highly stimulant manure for grasses. Fairy rings of large size sometimes occupy the same situ- ation for many years. The circle is almost always imperfect, some accidental circumstance ha\'iiig arrested the growth of the mycelium on one side. FAITH is used by theologians in various senses. It is sometimes taken to denote the mere assent of the understanding to a set of facts or of propositions set before it ; it is more peculiarly used to express the living reception by the heart of the 'truth as it is in Christ.' Some diAanes have enumerated no fewer than four kinds of faith : 1. The faith of miracles, or that immediate persuasion of the Almighty presence and power of their Master, which enabled the early Christians to work miracles — a persuasion, apparently, which might exist and issue in astonishing residts without being associated with moral excellence. 'Though I have all faith,' says St Paul, ' so that I could remove mountains, and have not charity, I am nothing.' 2. Historical faith, or the assent of the understanding to truth the evidence of which is irresistible, such as we have described above. 3. Partial or temporary faith, such as owv Lord implies in his exposition of the parable of the Sower, and as appeared to ani- mate those who, after having followed after Christ, turned back and walked no more with him ; and 4. Saving faith, or the persuasion of Christian truth wrought in the heart by the Holy Spirit. These distinctions are rather theological refine- ments than anything else ; the proper and char- acteristic meaning of the term faith in Scripture has little to do wdth any of them except the last. ' Faith,' says the writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews, * is the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen.' It is a A^sion, quality, or capacity of soul whereby spmtual truth is appre- hended, and spiritual life engendered. The distant is brought near by it, and substantially appropri- ated ; the imseen is felt to be a reality. Faith is the organ by which the soul passes beyond the present and the visible to the eternal and the invisible. Still more characteristically, perhaps, faith is the living affection which binds the Ckristian to Christ as a Saviour. 'Faith is a sa\dng grace whereby we receive and rest upon Christ alone for salvation, as he is freely offered to ns in the gospel' This ia its highest and most comprehensive meaning, out of which aU the others come. ' ^\^lat shall I do to be saved ? ' asked the Philippian jailer of Paii ' Believe on the Lord Jesus Chiist,' he replied, ' and thou shalt be saved.' And it is remarkable how frequently it is Cln-ist or God — a li^nng person — rather ^ than any mere truth or series of truths which is represented as the proper object of Ckris- tian faith. ' Ye believe in God ; believe also in me.' 'We beheve in him that raised up Jesus our Lord from the dead.' 'Abraham beheved God, and it was accounted to him for righteoixsness.' 'Come imto me all ye that labour and'are heavy laden, and I will give you rest.' Faith, therefore, in this its highest view, is nothing but trust in God and in Christ. This is 223 FAITHORNE-FAKIR. the faith which ' worketh by love,' and ' overcometh the world' — the faith of which St Paul and St John alike speak. The faith mentioned by St James in apparent conflict with works is different ; it seems to have been a mere reli^ons distinction. • Thou hast faith, and I have works. One jjarty put forth faith as their religious badge — another works. The spiritual or true meaning of either the one or the other was little regarded. Faith, in the distinctively Christian sense, can only exist by the operation of God's Holy Spirit. 'For by grace are ye saved, through faith; and that not of yourselves ; it is the gift of God.' Ortho- dox divines greatly insist on the necessity of this operation of the Spirit of God, yet not so as to exclude the active co-operation of man. The Pelagian and Antinomian extremes respectively throw out - —the former the divine, the latter the human ele- ment. Orthodoxy combines the two, attributing to God the effective agency, but to man a real and voluntary concurrence. Some of tlie principal theological controversies connected with faith, and not here already mentioned, will be noticed under Justification. FAITHORNE, William, a very eminent English engraver, was born in London in the early part of the 17th c, but the exact date is not known. He was a pupil of Mr (afterwards Sir Pobcrt) Peake, printer and printseller. On the outbreak of the civil war, he followed his master, who had taken up arms for King Charles. Both were taken prisoners at Basing- House. F. was sent to London, and impi-isoned in Aldcrsgate, but after some time was released, and obtained permission to leave the country. He went to France, where he increased his proficiency in the art of engraving, and i-eturning to England about 1650, commenced business as a printseller near Tem])le Bar. He also engraved steadily for the booksellers at the same time. About 1680, he gave up his shop, but still pros- ecuted his art, besides executing portraits in crayon, and painting in miniature. He died in May, 1691. F.'s engravings are for the most part portraits. Walpole has given a pretty full list of them, a few of which we may mention, such as the portraits of 'Thomas Hobbes,' a:tat 76; 'Henrietta Maria;' ' Cromwell ;' ' Prince Bupert ;' ' Sir Thomas Fairfax;' and 'John Milton,' ajtat 62. At first F. imitated the Dutch and Flemish manner of engraving; but his residence in France appears to have considerably modified his earlier style. F. is also an author, having published in 1662 a treatise on engraving, dedicated to his old master, and entitled The Art of Oraveitig and Etcliing^ wherein is expressed the true Way of Oraveing in Copper. Also the Man- ner and Method of that famous Callot and M, Borse in their several Ways of Etching. FAKI'R, a word derived from the Arabic fahhar (poor), and designating a member of an order of mendicants or penitents, chiefly in India and the neighbouring countries. In Persia and Turkey, the word is also used for Moslem priests and dervishes (see Dervish). The origin of Fakirism, an institution which reaches back to the most remote antiquity, is lost m mythical darkness. The common account of the son of a mighty rajah, who, expelled from his home and country by the cruelty of his father, made a vow, half in revenge, and half in contrition, henceforth to roam a beggar through the world, and to win proselytes to a life of poverty and self- mortification, as the one most befitting in man, and most pleasing to the Deity, can hardly be called historical. The same yearning for rest, for peace, and pious contemplation, for escape from the noise and turbulence of the world, which has everywhere 224 and always led still and pensive minds into seclu- sion and solitude, nuist naturally have been more pow^erful here, in a land which yielded almost of itself, and in abundance, all that was necessary for the sustenance of man — in a climate of flower and sunshine, where a hermit's calm retreat might well rise before the wearied eye in all the soft sunset hues wdiich surround the abode of the recluse in the Ramayana, or in the Sakoontala. But constant seclusion and ceaseless meditation here, as else- where, produced in all but exceptional minds their sad results. Piety is no longer enough; sanctity is the goal. Thus, abstinence becomes mortiric^i- tion and self-torture ; mental rajjose, mystic self- absorption, or frenzied exaltation. This leaning the Hindus to a life of asceticism was fostered by their primeval religion, which enjoins varioui exercises of penance and mortification upon thd three higher castes in general, but upon tho Brahmins in particular. These, having passed through different stages of regeneration, end by becoming Sanyassis (' who have left everything '), and are dead to the law. The world and its usages have no more any claim iipon them; even religious ceremonies are no longer necessary to the ' United with God.' They go naked, or in filthy rags, receive the meanest food only, and that without either demand or thanks. Their ethical code consists in the observance of truth, chastity, internal i)urity, constant repentance, and contemplation of Deity. After these models Fakirism seems chiefly to liave been framed, and its adherents were not only pious men, but occasionally saints, workers of miracles, and healers of all ills, especially epilepsy and sterility. The halo which from the first surrounded Fakirism, and the ready worship offered by the people, attracted to its ranks, at a very early date, many whose motives were anything but pure, and who, under a garb of humility and mendicity, collected fabidous treasures. Strabo already distingaiishcs these vagabonds from the more honest members of their class, and if we may trust the travellers of our ow^n day, the more respectable element has now altogether disappeared. Their number is variously stated. In the time of Tavernier's visit, there were more than 1,200,000 Hindu, and 800,000 Moham- medan fakii's in the East Indies, and their present number is said to exceed 3,000,000. Papi describes the Mohammedans as guilty of the greater follies. At times, especially in their return from distant pilgrimages, they are even dangerous, as the killing of an unbeliever is supposed to be an infallible introduction to the glories of paradise. They live either separately as hermits or solitary mendicants, or unite in large gangs, carrying arms and a banner, beating drums, and sounding horns as they approach a town or village. Their appearance is disgusting in the extreme ; they go naked, besmeared with the dung of the holy animal, the cow. Some bedeck themselves with the skins of serpents, some with human bones ; others array themselves in the garb of women. Their fearfxd shrieks, and the hideous rollings of their eyes, add to the disgust of their appearance. Imitating madmen, they generally end by becoming madmen. The height to which self- torture is frequently carried by these wretched fanatics, and of which we meet with signs even so far back as the Ramayana, where a penitent is described as perpetually sitting with upraised arms between four fires, the sun forming the fifth, is so appalling that himian nature shrinks from the mere description. Some pass their whole lives in iron cages, laden with heavy chains ; some clench their fists till their nails grow through the hand ; others hold aloft both their arms till they become likn withered branches: while others, agaiu, tie theix FALAISE— FALCOJ^^ ID^ hands and feet together, and roll head over heels for thousands of miles. Not the least sad feature m all this is, that these religious antics are not contined to men, but that youths, and even childi^en wf tender age, are occasionally initiated therein. FALAISE, a town of France, in the department of Calvados, is situated on a lofty i)latform border- ing on a i)recipice, or falaise, whence its name. It is ''situated on the Ante, a feeder of the Dive, 22 miles south- south- east of Caen. It has three Bubarbs, one of them, Guibray, a mile to the east, rivals the town itself in size and population. The buildings of interest are the ecclesiastical edifices, the hospital, the i»ublic library, and, more than all, the old and ruined castle, once the seat of the dukes of Normandy, and the birthplace of William the Conqueror. In the castle, the chamber in which the Conqueror was born is still shewn, as well as a tower called ' Talbot's ' Tower, which is supposed to have been built by Talbot when Lord Warden of the district, after the capture of F. by Henry V. of England. F. has manufactures of cottons, hosiery, and bobbin-net. At Guibray, an important annual fair is held, at which great numbers of horses and cattle are sold. It takes place between the 10th and 25th of August. Pop. (1872) 7634. FALCHION. See Swokd. FALCON {Falco), in the Linnrean zoology, a genus of birds, including all the diurnal birds of prey, now known as the family of Falconidce; but in its present use as a generic name, limited to nearer accordance with its popular use, as a desig- nation of those species which, in the language of falconry, were styled noble birds of prey. The true falcons are characterised by a bill curved from the base, the upper mandible hooked at the point, and the cutting edge of the upper mandible furnished with a strong projecting notch, or tooth. The claws are also sharp, curved, and strong ; and in accordance with all this powerful armature, tlie whole frame is very robust and nmscular. The legs are rather short, and have great power in striking or seizing prey. The keel of the sternum (breastbone) is very large, and adapted for the attachment of powerful muscles ; the furcula and coracoid bones (see Birds) are also very strong, so as to afford a sufficient resisting base for very powerful action of the wings. The wings are long and pointed, the first and third quill-feathers of equal length, the second rather the longest, the first and second quill-feathers emarginated near the tip. The true falcons are bolder in proportion to their size than any other Falconidae — even eagles. Their acuteness of vision is wonderful ; and they have very great powers of flight. A F. is known to have traversed the distance between Fontain- bleau and Malta, not less than lo50 miles, in 24 hours ; and as these birds do not usually fly during the night, its flight was probably at the rate of 70 or 80 miles an hour. They soar to a prodigious height in the air, always endeavouring to outsoar any bird of which they may be in ])ursuit, and to swoop down upon it from above ; although it is far more difficult for them to rise vertically in a calm atmosphere than for birds of short and rounded wing, and they either rise obliquely — often also making their onward flight in a series of arcs — or avail themselves of the wind, and by flying against it, are borne aloft as a boy's kite is. The species are pretty numeroiis ; some of them are of very wide geograi)hic distribution, whilst others are gjculiar to certain countries or climates. The ritish species are the Gyrfalcox (q. v.), or Jerfalcon {F. Gijrfnlco), also known — althoiigh, tjerhaj>s, with diff"erence of variety — as the Iceland F. 171 and Greenland F. ; the Peregrine F. (q. v.) [F. peregrinus), of which the female is 7>ar excellencd the F. of falconers (see Falconry), and the male is the Tercel, Tiercel, or Tercelet ; the Hobby (q. v.), (F. subbuteo) ; the Red-footed F., or licd-legged F. (F. rujipes), a small species, much reaemblijig the Hobby ; the Merlin (q. v.), (F. cesalon) ; and the Kestrel (q. v.), or Windhover (F. tinnunculus). For the species chiefly used in falconry sea Falconry. Very closely allied to the true falcons are the species constituting the genus Hitrax, very small, but remarkable for strength and courage, natives oj the East Indies. The upper mandible lias two notches. In the Harpagons {Harpagus or Bidem) of South Amei'ica, both mandibles have two notches. Non3 of these, however, are equal to the true falcona in length of wing. For particulars regarding the Falconidse, aa subservient to field-sports, see Falconry. FALCO'NE, Ancillo, an eminent Italian battle- painter, born at Naples in 1600. A fellow- student of Salvator Hosa's at Spagnoletto's studio, he himself subsequently became the founder of an academy of much resort. In accordance with his turbulent impulsive nature, he flung himself into the political struggles of the times, and dui-ing Masaniello'a outbreak, organised his numerous scholars and dependants into a secret band, which inflicted deadly retaliation on the Spaniards. On the suppression of the insurrection, F. fled to France, but subsequently returned to Naples, where he died in 1663. The works of this painter, representing chiefly military scene:v aie few in number, and costl}^ in price ; they arc prized for their extreme fidelity to nature, as much as for their harmony and brilliancy of coloiu-, and their variety of expression. FA'LCONER, William, was born in Edinb^irgh about 1730, and was one of a family of whom all, excepting himself, were deaf and dumb. He went early to sea, serving his apprenticeship on board a merchantman ; and before he was 18 years of age he was second mate, in a vessel in the Levant trade, which was shipwrecked off Cape Colonna, himself and two others being the only portion of the crew saved. He published The SJiipwreck in 1762, and during the next year he entered the navy as mid* shipman in the Royal George. When peace came, he resided in London, where he wote a satire on Wilkes, and compiled a Xautical Dictionary. He proceeded to sea in September 1769, as purser in the Aurora frigate; reached the Cape of Good Hope in December ; and perished with his companions— the Aurora having gone dovrn — in the Mozambique Channel. F. wrote several poems, but TJie Shipicreck is the one on which his fame rests. It abounds in nautical language, and has the rare merit of being interesting. It is not a great poem, but it has always had its readers and admirers. In the second edition, the author added the characters of Albert, Pvodmond, Palemon, and Anna — characters bearing the same relation to actual sailors that Alexis and Chloe bear to actual shepherds and shepherdesses — and to soma extent destroyed that singleness of impression which was the chief merit of his work. FA'LCONET, a name used in the loth and 16th centuries for the smallest class of cannon. The ball weighed from 1 lb. to 3 lbs., and the gun from 5 c\vt. to 15 c^^'t. FALCONI'D^, a family of diurnal birds of prey (see AcciPiTREs), corresponding with the Liuuajan gen\is Falco, and exhibiting those characters of mus« cuJar vigour, armature of beak and talons, and power 226 FALCONID^— FALCONRY. of flight, wliicli are to be found in their highest j)erfection in the true Falcons (q. v.), and in a scarcely mfei'ior degree in the Eagles (q. v.). The species are nuni'-irous ; the British Museum alone contains specimens of almost 200 unquestionably distinct species ; but very many supposed species have been named and described by ornithologists, which, in the progi'ess of science, have been ascertained to owe their distinctive characters merely to age and sex. The female is generally larger than the male ; and Head and Foot of Braidlian Eagle. the plumage of the young different from that of the adult. There are, in the diiferent groups, consider- able diversities in the ciu'vature and strength of the bill, which also has the cutting edges of the man- dibles either notched, festooned, or plain ; the legs and toes also exhibit diversities as to length, strength, *;iathering, &c. ; and in some groiips, the w^ngs are much longer, and at the same time more pointed, than in others. This is particularly the case with the true falcons, as contrasted with eagles, hawks, buzzards, kites, harriers, &c., and, in the language of falconry, the former — having the second quill-feather longest, and the tirst nearly equal to it— are called noble birds of prey (see Falconry), being those usually domesticated and trained for the service of man ; the latter — having the fourth quill-feather longest, and the first very short — are called ignoble birds of prey, even Eagles receiving this designation. The F. are distribiited over all parts of the world ; and almost all kinds of vertebrate animals, except the largest quadrupeds, are the prey of some^ of them. Some also devour insects. Ldie the FelidcB among ravenous quadrupeds, the F. do not willingly feed on carrion, but generally seize and kiD their own prey. As in the Felidce, also, there is a pro- vision for the preser^^ation of the claws from being biunted by unnecessary contact with the ground, or with any hard substance, the F. contracting the toea so as to elevate their claws. The F. generally live in pairs. The Lammer-geyer (q. v.) connects this family with tlie Vultures ; the Secretary (q. v.), whilst in many respects agreeing with the F., is peculiar in 3ome of its characters. FAXCONRY, the term applied to the art of training certain of the falcon tribes to the pursuit and capture, on the wing, of birds such as the heron, pai.-tridge, lark, rook, magpie, wild-duck, pigeon, &c. In ancient times, this sport was called Hawking, a term still preserved in many places, md which, perhaps, is the more strictly correct the two. Now a days, Falconry is the term ^26 applied to the sport and all that pertains to it; Haioking to its actual practice in the held. F. is of very ancient origin, and has been traced back, as an Eastern sport, to a period anterioT to the Christian era. In Britain, it seems to have been followed before the time of the Heptarchy; and in the celebrated Bayeux tapestry, Harold is figured with a hawk upon his hand. It seems, how* ever, to have been practised in Eastern countries, and in Central Europe, long before it became established in Great Britain ; and to such a height did the sport reach in Germany, that nobles, and even kings, seem to have devoted to it the grea part of their time. As an instance of this, tba Emperor Frederic II. of Germany was a passiona.te admirer of the sport, and is said to have writt'2u a treatise on F,, published by J. G. Schneider ia 1788 (2 vols. Leip.). In England, after the Norman Conquest, F. seems to have taken rapid strides, being much indulged in hy kings, nobles, and ladies ; and in those days the rank of the individual was indicated by the particular species of hawk carried on his wrist. Thus, an earl carried a Peregrine Falcon. In the 17th c, the sport declined; in the 18th c. it partially revived, but again fell off about the year 1725, when the art of shooting birds on the wing came into fashion. In the present day, an attempt is l)eing made in several quarters in England to restore this noble sport, and already its restoration is being attended with growing success. In India, Persia, and other Eastci-n countries, F. is stiJl eagerly practised, the methods there followed being for tlie most part nearly similar to those of Great Britain. In F., two distinct kinds of hawks are used — the long-winged or true falcons, and short-winged. The first (noble birds of prey) are represented chiefly by the Gyrfalcon and Peregrine ; the second by the Goshawk and Sjiarrow-hawk ; and though for certain purposes the male is superior, as a rule the females of each si)ecies are much more highly esteemed for sporting purj)oses, from their being larger and more powerful. ' Long-winged ' hawks may also, as a rule, be distinguished from the ' short-winged,' by their having a ' tooth ' or notch on the upper mandible ; from the second feather of the wing being either longer, or as long, as the third ; and from their impetuous ' stoop * at their prey. The Gyrfalcon (q. v.) is the largest species, but from its extreme rarity in the British Islands, is seldom used. The Peregrine Falcon is the bird in greatest favour with falconers, and if taken from the nest, as is usually the case, and carefully trained, affords better sport than any other British species. We shall therefore confine our remarks, for the most part, to the sport as it is practised mth this bird. No hawk is fit for sporting purposes untQ it has undergone a careful process of training. The young hawk is more easily trained than that whioh has been caught in a wild state, but in either case, a number of operations require to be gone fchrougb before the sportsman ventures to take his falcoa into the field. Taken from her nest on some high and dangerous cliff when nearly fledged, the eyess^ or yoimg falcon (with her companion-fledglings, usually two in number), is carefully conveyed to the falconer's home : there she is kept in an open shed in a nest of straw, and fed several times a day upon fresh beef, with an occasional change of birds or rabbits. At this somewhat critical period, she should never be handled except to put on the jcsam and bells (see fig. 1), which afterwards become per- manent fixtures. Her powers of flight, too, being as yet very limited, she depends upon her master lor FALCONRY. regular 8ui)pliea of food, and soon learns to come for her meals at kifl calL Her meat is usually fixed Fig. 2.— The Lure. Big. 1. — Leg and Foot of Hawk, shewing the method of Attaching the Bells and Jesses : a, tbc end ot leahh ; i, h, \he jesses; c, the bell ; d, the bewit; e, the varvels v,f silver, with owner's name and address en [graved. to an apparatus xermed the lure (see fig. 2), and thus the hawk is early accustomed to that import- ant instrument, the further uses of which are explained below. By degrees her powers of flight are sti-ength- ened, and she is per- mitted to fly at large (returning to the lure at her master's will to be fed, or in hawk- ing language, to remain at hack) for several weeks, during which time her meals are gradually reduced to one a day. While at hack, she sometimes becomes wild, wanders far from home, and kills game for her- self; and when this is ♦^he case, she is usually caught by enticing her to a bow-net, close to which a pigeon or some meat is fastened to the ground. After being ' taken up ' from hack, she is kept at the blocJc (see fig. 3) — the etand upon which she sits — for a few days before her regular training begins. At this time, also, hawks require a bath twice or thrice a week. The first of the principal operations in training is Jwoding, an operation which, if successfully per- formed by the trainer during his earlier efforts, paves the way for overcoming many subsequent difficulties. It demands the greatest patience and the tenderest manipidation. The hood is a cap of leather (see fig. 3), made to fit the head of the falcon in such a manner as totally to obscure the light, a single aperture only being left, through which the beak protrudes, and a slit behind, through which are passed the braces or ties that secure the hood to the head. By shutting out the Hght, the hood is serviceable in tending to make, the hawk quiet and tractable, but to accustom the falcon to submit to its use requires much time and great management. When, after great perseverance, this is achieved, the hawk is said to be ^made to the hood,' during wnich process she also learns to sit balanced upon the fist. Besides tending to induce docility by hiding the light, the hood is of further service in suutting out from view any object which might cause the hawk to flutter or bait off" the fist or cadr/e on its way to and from the field, &c. Hence the hawk is carried always hooded — the short- wing<'d only being exempt. To the falcon's legs lire attached two small hollow globes of thin metS, called hells; these, again, are fixed to their plaua by leather straps called bewita; and both, together with the jesses, become permanent fixtures even during the bird's flights. Jesses are two leathern straps, five or six inches in length, attached to each leg immediately below the bf^Us ; the jessed Fig. 3. — Hooded Peregrine Falcon on its block : One end of the leash is attached to the jesses, the other to • ring driven into the side of the block ; and thus the hawk is prevented from escaping. again, are themselves attached to another leathern strap, called the leasJi, about four times the thick- ness of a boot-lace (see fig. 1), by two rings or varvels; and the bird being thus caparisoned, the falconer winds the leash through his fingers, and so prevents the falcon's escape while on his wrist. Instead of varvels, some falconers follow the Dutch plan of using a swivel; the former method, however, is now considered the best. A long cord, called the creance, is further attached to the leash, and is used for the purpose of giving the bird greater freedom during her training than that afforded by the leash alone. The lure is a bunch of feathers attached to a cord and tassel, and in the centre of the feathers is usually a piece of spliced wood, to which a piece of meat may be attached. By accustoming the hawk to feed off the lure, or to come to it at a certain call or whistle to be fed when Fig. 4.— Tabur Styoto on the ynng, the lure becomes an important adjunct to the falconer's apparatus; as by it he is enabled to entice his bird back aftei 227 FALCONRY. an unsuccessful chase. On such occasions, the falconer reclaims his bird by swinging the baited lure round and round his head, accompanying the action by some well-known call. Four Arings tied together make a good lure. The tabur stydce and drawer were formerly used for the same purpose fl.3 the lure, but were made in the form of a stick. In Europe, hawks are carried on the left M'rist ( whi le in the East they sit upon the right) ; and to protect the falconer's hand from being injured by the bird's claws, a glove of stout buckskin leather is used. And here it may be remarked, that the claws and beak of wild caught or haggard falcons, are usually pared or coped. If the bird to be trained, instead of being a nestling, happens to be a wild one, the difficulties of training are immeasur- ably increased, and can only be overcome by days and nights of " unwearying exertion. If it proves unusually restless and difficult to tame, it is kept on low diet, is prevented from sleeping for several days and nights, and has cold water poured upon it by means of a sponge, &c. By these and other means, the falcon gradually loses much of its restiveness, and submits with tolerable readiness to the processes of training. For training tne ejjess, or young falcon, to the lure, as preparatory to entering at game, Sir John Sebright says : ' Take the hawk out while very hungry, and let an assistant swing the lure round his head steadily, and at full length of the cord ; upon this the falconer casts off his hawk with the usual whistlo or halloo, still holding the creance, and the assistant suflers the lure to fall to the ground, for fear of injury to the hawk, by strik- ing it in the air with the two strings attached. \Vlien this lesson is perfect, the assistant, instead of suffering the Im'e to fall, withdraws it, and dis- appoints the hawk, which flies by him, and then returns, when he may be suffered to strike the lure and feed upon it. In process of time, the creance may be removed, and the hawk enticed to the lure from a considerable distance, and may then strike it in the air (if the lure is a liglit one), while swinging round the head of the assistant. After a still greater time, the hawk becomes so perfect that she w^ill circle round the head of the falconer, waiting for the hire to be thrown, and is then said to " wait on " perfectly. When the hawk is i^eeding on the lure, the falconer should encourage her, and suffer her to finish without alarm, by which she will be shewn that she may do so without fear, and will readily suffer herself to be taken after flying. She should also be accustomed to horses, men, and dogs.' Having ' made the ha-wk' to tJie fist, the hood, and tlte lure, slje is next 'entered' at her game (the quarry). This is done by tying a long cord or creance to the varvels of the jesses, and flying the haAvk from the hand at a bird thrown out to it, also restrained by a cord. The hawk is next flown several times without a creance at birds shortened in their flight, after which it is ready to be entered at wild quarry. In case of failure, however, a live biid, similar to that at which she is floAvn, should be carried to the field, and thrown out to her in a creance by way of encouragement. The heron is, and always has been, a favourite object of pursuit in British F., the period of the year best adapted for the sport being the breeding season. Having previously ascertained the feeding-place of that bird, the hawking party makes for the spot, usually towards evening, if possible in a direction down-wind from the heronry, so as to intercej)t the bird in its up-wind flight homewards. When a heron is seen to pass, a couple (a cast) of hawks are nnhooded and 'cast off,' and the chase commences. The heron, seeing the falcons approach, disgorges itJ food, to lighten itself, and immediately ascends in the air ; the hawks, eager in pursuit, and quicker of wing, speedily make upon it, and strive to g:ain a greater elevation by a series of beautiful gyrations. When one of the hawks succeeds in rising above the heron, it stoops, that is, descends swiftly, and in a direct line, upon the game, aiming a stroke with its outstretched legs and talons at its body ; this the heron almost always succeeds at first in eluding, by a ra])id and sudden movement aside. The second hawk, which by this time has also soared, then stoops, while the first is regaining its former altitude; and so on for many successive times, till one hawk at length clutches the heron or hinds^ iipon which her companion joins her, and the three, buoyant by the motion of their wings, descend gently to the earth. The falconer's imperative duty is now to be up or near the spot where the three l)ii ds are descending, to divert the attention of the hawks before they reach the ground, and entice them from the quarry to him, by means of live pigeons as lures. This is very necessary, as the heron is extremely dangerous, and has been fre- quently known to injure the hawks with its sharp beak when on the ground, though it is all but per- fectly harmless while in the air. When the heron'a wounds have been dressed — for this bird is rarely killed in such encounters — a ring with the captor'a name is usually affixed to its leg, after which it ia set at liberty, and so becomes available for future sport. The falconer's usual cry of encouragement to his hawks upon the springing of the quarry, ia ' Hooha-ha-ha-ha ! ' His cry when the quarry ia killed, is ' Whoop ! ' A falcon takes its prey either by tearing or raking it with the hind claw of each foot at the instant of passing, or by clutching the victim with its talons, and when she thus succeeds in binding to her quarry, she slowly descends with it to the ground. The supposition that the hawk strikes its quarry with the beak or breastbone in its swoop, is a mistaken one. Besides the Peregrine Falcon, the Merlin is trained for F., and is extremely bold. This bird, however, is flown at small game, chiefly larks. The Gos- hawk, though it does not soar and stoop, fiiea direct at its game : it is used chiefly for pheasan^.s, rabbits, hares, &c., in an enclosed comitry. The Sparrow-hawk, from its extreme boldness, is a great favom'ite, but is flown at smaller kinds of birda only, such as blackbirds and thrushes, &c. The Hobby is seldom or never used. The following are the principal terms used in falconry. A falcon's legs, from the thigh to the foot, are termed arms; toes, 2>^tty singles; claws, pounces; wings, sails; tail, train; cro]), gorge; lower stomach, pannel; feathers, hair, &c., ejected at the mouth, the castings. A young hawk from the nest is an eyess or eyas ; one that can hop, but not fly well, a brancher ; a nestling hawk reared at liberty, is a hack-haivk ; a young hawk able to take game, a soar-haivk; a mature wild hawk is a haggard or hlu4 hawk ; young hawks taken in their migrations, are passage-hawks, or red hatoks — the term red being applied merely as a title of distinction between the young hawk and the eyess or nestling, the colours of the two being in reality the same. The training of the passage-hawk and haggard is termed reclaiming; fluttering, is baiting; fighting with each other, crabbing; sleeping, jouking. The prey is termed the quarry. When the hawk strikes her quarry in the air and clings to it, she binds; when she flies off with it, she cari-ies ; when she plucks it, she deplumes. Dead game is thi pelt. Stooping or swooping is the act of descending with closed wings from a height at prey. Direct FALEME— FALKIRK. flight, Avithoat soaring, is rdldng off; changing from one bird to c^nother, checking. Wlien game tiies into a hedge, it puts in. When the hawk is moulting her featliers, she is mewing ; after her first moult, she is mtermewed ; with complete plumage, summed ; when in good condition, she is enseamed ; when out of condition, seamed. Mending the feathers artificially (an operation frequently performed when one has been accideutally broken) is termed imping; blunting bill and talons, coping. When the falcon is obediently Ilying round in the air, ohe waits on her master ; flying long- winged hawks from the wrist, is termed flying out of the hood ; a couple of hawks is a cast. The cadge is a frame of wood -with four legs. It is carried by means of straps, which pass over the bearers' (the cadgers') shoulders, and is used, when there are several casts of hawks, to be taken to the field The block (see fig. 3) is a round piece of wood, such as would be made by sawing a foot of wood out of a felled larch- tree of some twenty years' growth; and upon this the hawk sits when out of doors. Through the bottom of the block runs an iron spike, which being driven into the ground, secures the block to its place, and so prevents the hawk from dragging it away. Falcons are very pugnacious, and if not carefully kept separate, would soon kill each other. The screen or perch is a perch guarded by a falling piece of canvas, to support the hawks in case of their leaping down ; upon this, the hawks are placed at night in an apartment called the 7news. The best works on the subject are those of Tur- berville and Latham, respectively, as old treatises ; and that of Sir John Sebiight, as comparatively modern. Of the more recent treatises. Falconry in the British Isles, by Salvin and Brodrick (Lond. 1855), and Falconry, its Claims and Practice, by Freeman and Salvin (Lontl 1859), are the best authorities. The village of Falconswaerd, near Bois-le-Duc, in Holland, has for many years furnished falconers to almost all Europe. Sir John Sebright says : ' I have known many falconers in England, and in the service of different princes on the continent, but I never met with one of them who was not a Dative of Falconswaerd.' FALE ME, one of the most important tributaries of the Senegal (q. v.), into which it falls, in lat. about 14° 40' N., and long. 11° 48' W. Its course has not yet been fully explored. FALE'RII, a city of ancient Etruria, was situated west of the Tiber, and north of Moimt Soracte. Its earliest historical appearance is in 437 B.C., when, according to Livy, the inhabitants (who were called Falisci) joined wnth those of Veii in assisting the Fidenates against the Romans. The Falisci were among the most dangerous enemies of Rome, and were the last of the Etrurians who submitted to its power. Their city was at last destroyed by the Komans (241 B.C.), and they themselves were com- pelled to choose a new site a few miles off. Here a Koman colony was settled in the time of the trium- ▼irs, whence the place took the name of Colonia Junorda Faliscorum. But this Roman F. does not appear to have ever acqiiired any importance, for the temple which anciently attracted so many pilgrims, stood on the site of th*» older town. During the middle ages, however, a new city sprung up on the ruins of the Etruscan F., which finally obtained the name of Civita Casiellana (q. v.). Ruins of the Roman or later F., consisting of a part of the ancient wa,Il8, are still visible. FALE'RNIAN WINE, so called from Falernus Agcr, the district in whicli it was grown — and which lay in the northern poj-tion of Campania, between the Massican Hills and the nortnern bank of the Vulturnus — was one of the favourite wines of the Romans. It is described by Horace as, in his time, surpassing all other wines then in repute, and seems to have been in great favour with the poet himself. In the time of Pliny, however, as he him- self informs us, Falemian wine had already, owing to a want of care in its cultivation, begun to decline in quality ; and the wine then esteemed the beaii was a variety grown in the Falernian neighbourhood- and called Faustianum. FALIE'RI, Marino, a celebrated Venetian, wm born about the year 1284. He was elected in 1354, at the age of 70, Doge of Venice, and was the third of his name called to this supreme dignity, but was decapitated in the following year for ms daring con- spiracy against the rights of the commonwealth, which, previous to his election, he had zealously served in the capacities of commander of the forces, commander of the fleet, and ambassador. At the siege of Zara, in 1346, he defeated an army of 80,000 Hmigarians, vigorously pursuing at the same time extensive siege-operations, and in the course of the war, having assumed the command of the fleet, captured Capo d'Istria. Subsequently, he became ambassador of the republic to Rome and Genoa. Of an ungovernable and implacable temper, his bitter resentment seems to have been roused by a grossly offensive libel on his fair and youthful wife, the author of which, a yoimg patrician named Michele Steno, owed some grudge to the doge. The punishment awarded to the young noble by a patri- cian tribunal seemed to F. wholly inadequate to the offence by which his ducal dimity had been outraged, and in order to avenge this double slight, he organised an audacious plot, with the object of overthrowing the republic, and massacring the heads of the aristocracy, to be followed by his owTi assumption of sovereign rights. The conspiracy was, however, revealed on the eve of its execution, and F. was arrested. He suffered death by deca- pitation on the 17th of April 1355, on the very spot where, a year previously, he had been ten- dered universal homage as supreme magistrate of the state. In the hall of the great council, which contains the portraits of all the doges, the space allotted to that of F. is draped with a veil of sable, and bears the following inscription : ' Hie est locus Marini Faletro, decapitati pro criminibus.' A faithful representation of the plot, and of its chief confederates, is given in Byron's drama of 3Iarino Falieri. FA'LKIRK, a Scottish parliamentary burgh, situ- ated on a rising ground in the midst of a po^^Tlous mineral and manufacturing district in Stirlingshire, near the old Roman wall of Antoninus, with no pretension either to beauty of situation or to archi- tectural or otlier elegance. Fop. in 1871, 10.338, In 1600, it was made a bnrgh of barony by King James VI., in favour of Alexander Lord Li\^g- stoue, afterwards Earl of Callander, in whose favour also it was in 1646 created a burgh of regality by King Charles I. In 1715, it passed to the crown by the forfeiture of the Earl of Linlith- gow and Callander; and it was not tiU the nass- ing of the Reform Bill in 1832 that it was na^le a parliamentary burgh, and received a mumcipal constitution, with a council of twelve, including a provost, three bailies, and a treasurer. It unites with Airdrie, Hamilton, Lanark, and Linlithgow, in sending a member to parliament. It has nine yearly fairs, an extensive inland trade, various local manu- factures, and charitable institutions. Its parish church— the Eglais Bhrec, Varia Capella, or Speckled Kii'k of our chartularies and of local tradition — haa 229 FALKIRK— l ALKLAND ISLANDS. one or two monuments of some antiquity, but was itself rebuilt in the year 1810. The church, church lands, and barony belonged of old to the Abbey of Holyrood. Near F., in 1298, Sir William Wallace made his masterly retreat from the disastrous battle (see Falkirk, Battle of) in which he lost his brave companions in arms. Sir John Graham and Sir John Stewart, both said to be interred in the parish churchyard. The inscribed stone alleged to cover the grave of Sir John Graham is ai)j)arently more modern than his time. In 1746, the neighbourhood of F. was the scene of another battle, in which the royal troops were defeated by those of Prince Charles Edward. It is now chiefly noted for its well-known cattle trysts, at which stock is yearly sold to the amount of about £1,000,000. In the immediate vicinity are the well- known Carron Iron Works, the Forth and Clyde Canal, and the Etlinburgh and Glasgow and Scottish Central Railways. FALKIRK, Battle of. Wallace had followed np his victory over the English near Stirling in 1297, by taking possession of some of the more important fortresses of Scotland. In the following year. King Edward, having returned from Flanders, summoned ft great army to meet him at York, and marched northward to Roxburgh, and thence along the east coast of Scotland and the shore of the Firth of Forth. It was not till the day of the battle, the 22d July 1298, that Edward first saw the enemy. The Scottish infantry, much inferior in numbers to the English, were arranged in four circular bodies on a small eminence near Falliirk, and were armed with lances, and with bows and arrows. The cavalry, numbering only 1000 men, were placed in the rear. This array was charged by the English cavalry. The Scottish footmen bravely withstood the onset of the well-appointed English horse ; but the cavalry, dismayed by the preponderating numbers of the enemy, rode from the field without striking a blow. Thus left without support, the spearmen aud archers were compelled to yield, and the retreat became general. The loss on the Scottish side is said to nave amounted to 15,000 men. The results of this defeat were, that the military power of Scotland, such as it was, was broken ; and Edward returned to England master of all the important strongholds of the south. FA'LKLAND, a royal burgh of Scotland, in the county of Fife, is situated at the north-eastern base vf the Lomond Hills, 22 miles north of Edinburgh, and 10 miles south-west of Cupar. The east Lomond Hill rises so abruptly behind the town as to intercept the rays of the sun from it for several weeks during wanter. F. was in early times a manor of the Earls of Fife. It passed from them to the crown in 1425, and was made a royal burgh by James II. in 1458. Within the town are the remains of Falkland Palace — a large tower (in the same style as the north-western tower of Holyrood) above a vaulted doorway leading into the courtyard, built about 1500, and two sides of a quadrangle, built hetvi sen 1530 and 1550, fine and interesting examples 0* Scottish architecture. The palace was a favourite residence of King James IV., and after his death, in 151.3, his widow, the impetuous sister of King Henry VIII. of England, was here kept in restraint for a soason. Here her son, King James V., died in 1542. The last king who occupied the palace was Charles [1., who passed a few days in it in 1650. Of the more ancient castle in which David, Duke of Rothesay, was imprisoned and starved to death by the Duke of Albany, in 1402, no traces now remain. F. is frequently alluded to in the verses of Sir David Lindsay. Pop. (1871) 1283, who support themgelvea mainly bj handloom weaving. «90 FALKLAND, Lucius Gary, Viscount, waa born, it is believed, at Burford, in Oxfordshire, in 1610, and educated first at Trmity College, Dublin — his father, Henry Cary, Viscount Falkland, being at that time lord-deputy of Ireland — and afterwards at St John's College, Cambridge. Even dunng hia father's lifetime, he enjoyed an ample fortune, left him by his grandfather. His earlier years were wholly devoted to study, and to the conversation of learned men, among whom he himself, by all accounts, must have occupied a first place. Hia residence (Burford) was only ten miles from Oxford, and her3, according to Clarendon, 'he contracted familiarity and friendship with the most polite and accurate men of that university. The praise which that historian bestows on him is extraordinary ; but F. is one of those historical personages whose character and abilities we must take on the word of friends and panegyrists, if at all, for his deeds and writings are not equal to his fame. In 1C33, he was made one of the gentlemen of the privy- chamber to Charles I., and took part in the expedi. ti Acquapendente. He published numerous works in various depart- ments of medicine, of which the most important is his Ohservationes Anatomiccs, in lihros quinque dlgestce, 1561, in which he corrects many errors into which his predecessor, Vesalius, had fallen. He was the first to describe with accuracy the ethmoid and sphenoid bones, and the minute structure of the ear (the canal along which the facial nerve passes, after leaving the auditory, is still known as the aqiieduct of Fallopius) ; the muscles of the soft palate, and the vUli and valvulae conniventes of the small intestine. In some of his supposed discoveries, he had been long anticipated ; for example, the tubes passing from the ovary on either side to the uterus, and which bear his name, were known to, and accurately described by, Herophilus and Ptufus of Ephesus, 300 years before our era. In addition to his ana- toirdcal fame, he had a considerable reputation as a botanist. He was the superintendent of the botanical garden at Padua ; and a genus of plants, Fallopia. has been named after him. A complete edition of his works, in four folio volumes, was published in 1600. FALLOUX, Frederic Alfred Pierre, Vicomte DE, a French author and statesman, was bom at Angers 11th May 1811. His family was distin- guiahed for its legitimist zeal, and at the Restora- tion was rewarded by receiving letters of nobllitj. Young F. first drew attention to himself by twa works penetrated by an ardent love of the old Bourbon order of things — UHMoire de Louis XVI. (Paris, 1840), and UHisloire de Saint Pie V., Pape^ de VOrdre des Freres precheurs (Paris, 1844). These indicate the level of his political and religious faitlu In the elections of 1846, he was chosen deputy for the department Maine-et-Loire. In religion, ho advocated the ideas of Montalembert ; in politics, those of Berryer, but united with his legitimist sentiments a love of liberty and education strangely incongruous with the historic character of hia party. After the revolution of February 1848, he exhibited much energy as a member of tho Constituent Assembly, was one of those who organ- ised the resistance to the insurrection of the 15th May, and, as reporter on the national workshops, pronounced for their immediate dissolution. He was also one of the most ardent promoters of the expedition to Pome, which has since entailed so much trouble and even danger on the govern- ment of France. After the election of liOuia Napoleon to the presidency, F. was appointed Minister of Public Instruction, an office which he held only for ten months. Since the events of the 2d December 1851, he has retired from public life altogether, to a country-seat in the neighbourhood of Angers, where he occupies himself wdth agricid- tural pursuits. In 1857, he was admitted a member of the French Academy, and in the same year piiblished at Tours his Souvenirs de Charite. — F. has a brother, a canon at the court of Pome, who flatters himself that he possesses the veritable handkerchief of St Veronica, bearing the imprint of the Saviour's countenance. FA LLOW (from the same root as Ger. fahl or falbt Lat. fulvus, expressing a pale dun, tawny colour). This word sometimes signifies waste, untilled land ; but usually it is applied to land that is ploughed and otherwise stirred for a season without beiug cropped. The most of the wheat raised by *,he Romans was sown after the land was fallowed ; indeed, the usual rotation was fallow and wheat alternately. It was only fertile soils that could long supjDort such an exhausting syb^-.em ; hence resulted the decreasing produce which the later Roman agricultural authors so often speak uf and lament. The fallowing of land was introduced into all the countries which fell under the dominion of the Romans. During their sway in Britain, it soon exported large quantities of wheat ; and for centuries after the Romans left it, no other mode of cultivating the land was followed. It may here be observed, that wherever the system of fallowing, without giving manure to the crops, is practised, it necessarily supposes that the soil is at least moderately fertile. This system is most successful on argillaceous sods, which are retentive of organic manure. It must be borne in mind that the chief use of fallow is to liberate the plant-food which is already stored up in the sod as organio matter. The ploughing and stirring, by admitting air, promotes decomposition, in the same manner as the turning over of a dunghill does ; it also destroys the roots of the weeds that impoverish and choke the crops. It was long before fallowing was introduced to any extent in Scotland; but about the beginning of the present century, it was largely practised. Owing, however, to the draining of the sod, and the extension of the green-cropping system, it is now confined to the most retentive clay-soils, where it afibrds the only means of thoroughly cleaning the land. In a rotation of beans, clover, oats, fallow 236 FALLOW CHAT— FALMOUTH. «rheat, aad barley, each field is subjected to a pro- cess of fallowing once in every six, seven, or eight years, according to circumstances. Fallow-fields usually receive a deep furrow in atitumu. Lying exposed through the winter, the frost pulverises the surface. In spring, when the weather becomes dry, the cultivator or the plough opens up tlie soil, and the process of extirpating the weeds goes on. Sometimes as many as three or four furrows are given in summer before the seed is sown ii\ autumn. In ohl cultivated countries, land is commonly so much reduced in its organic matter, that fallows receive dressings of farm-yard mauiu'e, rape-dust, or guano, to obtain fertility. Since tlie general introduction of green crops, the term fallow has departed in some measure from its original meaning. These crops are sown on what was formerly the fallow-break, and are now often styled fallow-crops. The land, no doubt, receives in some measure a fallowing, as the green croj)S are cultivated by the plough during their groAvth. Bastard-faUowing is a term which is used m Scotland when hay-stubble is ploughed up in the end of summer, freed from weeds, and sown with wheat in autumn. Where no express stipulation on the subject has been introduced into the lease, it has been held in Scotland, that, as the outgoing tenant might have taken a crop from the land, which, in accordance with the most approved principles of agriculture, he ought to leave fallow, and as the iiicoiniug tenant reaps the advantage in case of his abstaining from doing so, he is entitled to claim its value (Purves, December 3, 1S22. See Bell's Principles, s. 1263). ' This decision,' says Mr Hunter {Landlord and Tenant, iL p. 458), 'has been deemed to have fixed the law.' In conformity with the same principle, it has been rided, that if the outgoing tenant received prepared fallow, the like should be left by him. A tenant who, on entering to his farm, had received a certain extent of fallow, prepai-ed with manure, free of expense, was held bound to leave the same amount of fallow and manui-e as he had received, and to be entitled to claim payment only for the surplus (Brown v. College of St Andrews, 11th July 1851). But where a portion of land has been expressly reserved in the lease for fallow and green crop, for which the tenant was to receive merely a certain Bum per acre for ploughing, the rights of the parties are settled by the contract, and the tenant can claim no additional sum for fallow (Sherifi" v. Lord Lovat, I3th December 1854). FALLOW CHAT. See Wheatear. FALLOW DEER {Dama vulgaria or Cervus Dama), a species of deer well known in Britain, being very commonly kept in parks, as it is also in most parts of Eiu'ope. It is probably a native of the countz-ies around the Mediterranean, and has been introduced by man into the more northern farts of Europe, where it is, however, now in some places to be found wild in forests. It is doubted vhether it has not been introduced by man, at a remote period, from the North of Africa even into the south of Europe, in all parts of wl^ch it is now at least completely naturalised. How far its geographic range extends eastward, is not very certainly known. It is represented in the sculp- tures of Nineveh. Its introduction into Britain is ascribed to James VI. of Scotland, who is said to have brought it from Norway when he brought home his queen, Anne of Denmark, and after his accession to the Eng.ish throne, to have transported it to Enfield and Epping. Thousands of F. D. now ei'iat ix some oi the English parks. They 236 generally receive some attention and suj^plies ol fodder in winter. In size, the F. D. is smaller than the stag or red deer, from which it also differs m its broad palmated antlers, its longer tail, and its smoothoi Fallow Deer {Cervus Dama). and finer hair. In colour, it is generally yellowish- browm in summer ; darker, or even blackish-brown in winter ; more or less spotted with pale spots, particidarly in summer and when young ; but in one variety the spots are very marked ; in another dark-coloured variety they are not to be observed even in the young. The buttocks are always white, and a dark line passes along the back. The under parts are wdiite. White F. D. are some- times to be seen. The female has no horns. The male is called a Buck (Fr. daim), the female a Doe (Fr. daime), the young a Fawn (Fr. faon). The name F. D. is derived from its colour. See the article Fallow, in Agriculture. When the F. D. and red deer are kept in the same park, the herds seldom mingle, nor do hybrids occur. The F. D. loves the shelter of woods. The flesh of the F. D. is one of the most esteemed kinds of venison. The remains of fossil species nearly allied to the F. D. occur in some parts of Europe. Not remotely allied to it is the great fossil Irish FAk (q. v.). FA'LMOUTH, a parliamentarj'^ and municipal borough and seaport in the south-west of Cornwall, on a west branch of the estuary of the Fal, 14 miles north-north- east of Lizard Point, and 269 miles west- south-west of London. It chiefly consists of a narrow street, a mile long, on the south-west of the harbour, and of beautiful suburban terraces and villas on the heights behind. The harbour, one oi the best in England, is formed by the estuary of the Fal, which is 5 by 1 to 2 miles in extent. It is 12 to 18 fathoms deep, and affords shelter to 500 vessels at a time. The mouth is defended on the west by Pendennis Castle, situated on a rock 198 feet high, and which resisted a siege by Cromw^ell for six months ; on the east, by Mawes Castle, hoth built by Henry VIII. Pop. (1871) 5294. With Penrhjm, it returns two members to parliament. In the year 1873, 3913 vessels, of 1,285,000 tons, entered the port. There is a great pilchard- fishery oflF the neighboxiring coasts. The chief exports are tin, copper, pilchards, and fuel. Here orange and lemon trees jdeld plenty of fruit on open garden- walls. F. arose in the middle of the 17th c, Sir Walter Raleigh having at an earlier period drawn public notice to its capabilities, and it has been, since that time, a chief rendezvous for fleets and mail-packets proceeding to foreign countries. FALSE, KaLii] OF— FALSE PRETENCES. FALSE, Rule of, or FALSE POSITION, is a mode of reckoning in cases where a direct solution of the question is impracticable. Any number is chosen at hazard, as that which is soiight ; this false position of course gives a false result, and from the amount of the error, it is ascertained by proportion That the assumption ought to have been. Kv. What number is that whose half exceeds its third by 12 ? Assume 96 at random ; 48 — 32 gives IG, which is too great ; .-. 16 : 12 : : 96 : 72, the number required. This method is now mostly superseded by the use of equations. FALSE AND PRETENDED PROPHECIES, with intent >^ disturb the public peace, are punish- able by several old statutes. By 33 Henry VIII. c. 14, this crime is made a felony ; but by 3 and 4 Ed. VI. c. 15, continued by 7 Ed. VI. c. 1 1, and by 6 Eliz. c. 15, the punishment is restricted to one year's imprisonment, and forfeiture of £10 for the first offence; and for the second off'ence, imprison- ment for life, and forfeiture of all chattels. These statutes a]>ply to a particular class of prophecies — viz., prophecies ' upon or by the occasion of any arms, fields, beasts, badges, or such other like things accustomed in arms, cognizances, or signets ; or upon or by reason of any time, year, or day, bloodshed, or war, to the intent to make rebellion, &c.' This description refers to predictions founded upon the heraldic bearings of particular families, which, in the state of public feeling at the time when the statutes were passed, might have been productive of discontent and sedition. The statutes are unre- pealed, but are not likely in the present day again to be put in force. FALSE BAY, an inlet which may be referred either to the Atlantic, the Southern, or the Indian Ocean. It washes the east side of the mountainous district of South Africa, which terminates in the Cape of Good Hope, and extends eastward along the coast as far as False Cape, measuring about 22 miles in length, and about the same in breadth. F. B. is, of course, sheltered from the north-west monsoon, to which Table Bay — the harbour of Cape Town — is exposed, an advantage which is more especially possessed by Simon's Bay, at its north-west extremity. Hence, besides periodically receiving trading- vessels from Cape Town for tem- porary protection, it is permanently the station of the naval force of the colony. FALSE IMPRISONMENT. Every confine- ment of the person is an imprisonment, whetx/er it be in a common prison or a private house, or in the stocks, or even by forcibly detaining one in the public streets (Coke, Inst. ii. 482). A man is liable tor detaining the person of another, not only without cause, but without legal cause. Thus, where a man givos another in charge for committing an offence, the former is liable to an action for false imprison- ment, if he fails to substantiate his case. Police- ofiBcers, also, are liable for apprehending a man without a competent warrant, or without reasonable ffuspicion. But where a felony has been committed, an officer is entitled to arrest on suspicion. Not only constables but private persons may arrest a man who commits a felony in their presence. A person who has falsely imprisoned another is liable to a criminal prosecution, and also to a civil action. In tfie former case, he may be punished by fine and imprisonment ; in the latter, he must pay such damages as are awarded. Any one detained with- out sufficient cause is entitled to apply for a writ of Habeajt Corpus (q. v.) to procure his liberation. In Scotland, this species of offence is called Wrongous Imprisonment (q. v.). FALSE NEWS or RUMOURS. Spreading false news to make a discord between the sovereign and nobility, is a misdemeanour, and punishable hy the common law of England with fine and imprison- ment. By statute of Westminster the first, c. 34, this penalty is confirmed. 1'his statute is said by Lord Coke to have been passed in conse(juence of the rebellion of Simon de Montfort (Coke, Ir.st. iL 226). The law before the Conquest had been more severe, and required that the author and spreader of false rumours should have his tongue cut out, if he redeemed it not by estimation of his head (or capi- tation tax). One of the articles against Cardinal Wolsey was founded on this i^rinci})le of common law. ' Also the said cardinal has busied and endea- voured himself by crafty and untrue tales against your nobles of your realm.' — Coke, Jmt. iv. d% The feeling of the present day is more in accordance with the axiom of Tacitus, Convicia, si irasceris, tua divulgas, spreta excolescunt (If you seek to revenge slanders, you publish them as your own ; if you despise them, they vanish). FALSE PRETENCES, Obtaining Money by. By the common law of England, a man is not punish- able as a criminal who has induced another, by fraudulent representations, to part with the property ' of money or goods, unless the loss occasioned by the I deception be of a public nature. Larceny or theft i was the only species of wrongful abstraction of j articles of value which was recognised, and where the consent of the owner to the transaction was obtained, no matter how fraudulently, the loser was left to a civil action for his relief. To remedy this defect in the law, the 33 Henry VIII. c. 1 was passed, whereby it was enacted, that if any person should falsely and deceitfully obtain any money, ; goods, &c., by means of any false token or counter- feit letter made in any other man's name, the : offender should suffer any punishment short of death, at the discretion of the judge. This statute, however, only reached the case of deception by use , of a false writing or token ; the 30 Geo. IL c. 24 i w^as therefore passed for the purpose of including all false pretences whatsoever. Further alterationa I were made by subsequent statutes, until, by 7 and 8 Geo. IV. c. 29, the previous legislation on the : subject was consolidated. This is now the ruling j statute in regard to false pretences. The genera] ; principle is that, ■wherever a person fraudulently represents as an existing fact that which is not an existing fact, and so gets money, &c., that is an offence within the act (Reg. v. Woolley, i. Den. C. C. 559). The false pretence must relate to some present fact, and therefore a promise merely to do some act is not such a false representation as will sustain a conviction. It is not necessary that the i deception should be by words or WTiting, but any j act tending to deceive, will bring a person within the i statute. Thus, a man at Oxford wearing a cap and goAvn, in order to induce a tradesman, of whom he ordered goods, to believe that he was a menber of the university, is sufficient to warrant a con\nction. The deception practised, however, must not be simply as to the quality of an article, for this is regarded as merely a dishonest trick of trade, and not criminally punishable ; it is also necessary that the owner should be deceived by the pretence ; and where a tradesman is induced to part with goods to a regular customer, making a false statement, not on account of the statement, but from his belief in the credit of the party, the transaction is not pmiish- able under the act. By 24, 25 Vict. c. 96, ss. 88- 90, it is enacted that it shall be no bar to a conviction that the crime, on being proved, amounts to larceny and that it shall not be necessary to prove an mtent to defraud any particular person ; that the delivery of money, &c., to another person, for the benefit ol 237 FALSE RETURN— FALUN. Iiie party using the deception, and also the obtaining (Signature to, or destruction ot, a vahiable security, fee., by a false representation, shall subject the offender to punishment. The same statute, ss. 46 and 47, contains a salutary provision, that any person 8/ttempting to extort money by threatening to accuse another of certain felonies, or of an infamous crime, may be transported for life. In Scotland, this offence is known as Falsehood, Fraud, and Wilful Imposition. Each species of the offence which in England is punishable under the statute, in Scotland is indictable at common law. Thus, false personation, as where a man, in the assumed character of an exciseman, received money as a composition for smuggled goods, has been held to warrant a conviction of falsehood. So, also, where the decei)tion consists in fictitious appearances ; as where a man, by fitting his shop with false bales, induced another to trust him with goods. Obtaining money by begging-letters, and the common practice of chain-dropping, fall under this denomination of crime. FALSE RETURN, Acnoi^ for. Wliere a sheriff makes a false return to a WTit, the party injured may maintain an action against him for damages. Thus, a return of non est inventus to a writ of capias, when the defendant might have been apprehended, or a return of nulla bona to a fieri facias, when there were goods which might have been seized, renders the sheriff liable in damages to the amount of loss occasioned by his negligence. FALSE SIGNALS. By 7 Will. IV. and I Vict, c. 89, s. 5, the exhibiting any false light or signal, with intent to bring any ship or vessel into danger, is made felony, and punishal)le Avith death. The felonious intent may be proved by declarations made by the accused, or by circumstances which fairly lead to the conclusion of a guilty purpose. The punishment of death is recorded, but is not in fact carried out. FALSE SWEARING. By 19 and 20 Vict. c. 79, «. 178 (Bankruptcy, Scotland), any person giiilty of falsehood in any oath made in the pursuance of the act, shall be liable to a prosecution at the instance of the Lord Advocate, or of the trustee in the sequestration, with consent of the Lord Advo- cate. But in the latter case, the prosecution must be authorised by a majority of the creditors present at a meeting called for the purpose. The person, on conviction, is liable, in addition to the punishment awarded, to forfeit, for behoof of the creditors, his whole claim under the sequestration. In England a bankrupt is not put upon oath ; but on making a false declaration, he is deemed guilty of a mis- demeanoTir, and punishable with the penalty of perjury. FALSE VERDICT. The remedy in cases where it was alleged that a false verdict had been returned, was formerly by means of a writ of attaint. This writ originally lay only in cases where the jury had returned a verdict on their own knowledge of the facts, and proceeded on the assumption that, in returning a false verdict, they were necessarily per- jured. The case was heard before twenty-four men, jfcnd in case the original verdict was found bad, the jxuors incurred the penalty of infamy and forfeitm-e of their goods. By statute of Westminster the first, c. 34, a writ of attaint was allowed upon an inquest ; i. e., where cases had been decided upon evidence adduced. In this case, the evidence pro- duced on the second inquiry could only be such as had been laid before the first jury, as it woiUd have been manifestly unjust to pimish jurors on fresh evidence which they had not heard. Writ of attaint was abolished by 6 Geo. iV. a 50, s. 60. 2S8 FALSE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Th« use of false weights and scales is an offence at common law in England, and punishable by imprisonment. In Scotland, by 1607 c. 2, the users of false weights are punishable by confiscation of movables. FALSEHOOD. See Fraud. FA'LSET, or FALSE TTO, a term in singing for the highest register of a man's voice, which joins the natural or chest voice, and which, by practice, may be so blended with, the chest-voice as to make co perceivable break. FALSIFYING RECORDS. The injuring or falsifying any of the documents of a court of justice is, by several modern statutes, made a serioua offence. Any person obliterating, injuring, or destroy- ing any record, WTit, &c., or any original document be] onging to any coiu-t of record or of equity, is guilty of a misdemeanour, and may be transported for seven years (now penal servitude), or be pimished by fine or imprisonment, with or without hard labour, 7 and 8 Geo. IV. c. 29. By 13 and 14 Vict c. 99, any person em])loyed to furnish certified copies wilfully certifying any document as a true copy, kno^ving the same is not so, is guilty of a misdemeanour, and may be imprisoned for eighteen months. This act does not extend to Scotland. By 1 and 2 Vict. c. 94, any person employed in a public record office certifying any writing to be a true copy, knowing the same to be false in any material part, is giulty of felony, and may bo transported for life. FA'LSTER, a Danish island in the Baltic, south of Seeland, lies between lat. 54° 30' and 54° 58' N., and between long. IT 45' and 12° 11' E. It is sejiarated by the strait called the Gronsund from the island of Moen, and by that called the Gidd- borgsimd from the island of Laaland, together with which F. forms the stift or i)rovince of ^Laaland, a province which contains in all 63.5 square miles, and which has about 200,000 inhabitants. F. is abont 26 miles long, and 16 wide at its widest part, and has an area of about 178 square miles. It is flat, remarkably fruitful, and well cultivated, so that it resembles an attractive garden, and maintains in all about 23,000 inhabitants, who employ themselves chiefly in agriculture and cattle-breeding. The chief town is Nykjobing, on the Guldborgsund. It is very old, has a castle and a cathedral, has some commerce and shipbuilding, and a population (1870) of .3645. The only other place of any note is S^ubbek- jobing. FA'LUN, or FAHLUN (called also Gamla Kopparberget, i.e., the ' old copper-mine'), is a town of Sweden, capital of the Tan, or jirovince, of the same name, formerly the province nf Dalecarlia. It stands on the north-western shore of Lake Runn, 120 miles north-M^est of Stockholm, and has long been, and stUl is, famous for its copper-mine«, though the quantity of ore now obtained from them is much smaller than formerly. The greatest yield was about 1650, when no less than 3000 tons were annually got ; this, however, declined, in 1690, to 1900 tons; while at present it is only about 400 tons. Gustavua Adolphus used to call the mines the * treasury of Sweden.' The excavations are immense, extending for mdes underground, and containing vast chambers, where Bernadotte, the late king of Sweden, gave splendid banquets, on which occasions the mines Avere brilliantly lighted up. F. is an old town, regularly built, but has on the whole a gloomy effect, as its houses, which are of wood, have become blackened by the fumes which arise from the numerous smelting furnaces of the tOAvn. These fumes, though destructive to all vegetable life m the neighbourhood, do not seem to aft"ect the health of FALUNS— FAMILIAR SPIIUTS. the inhabitants ; on the contrary, it is resorted to for safety during the prevalence of contagious diseases. F. has a High School founded by Queen Christina, a n useum, an institution for instruction in the 8(16 ice of mining, several cotton and flax- spinning mills, and some manufactures of blankets and carpets — which are made from cow-hair — tobacco- pipes, leather, &c. Pop. 4618. FALUNS, a term given by the agriculturists of Touraine to shelly sand and marl, which they spread over their lands as a fertilising manure, and employed by geologists as the name of the deposits from which those materials are obtained. They are loosely aggregated beds of sand and marl, in which are shells and corals, some entire, some rolled, and others in minute fragments ; occasionally, they are so com- pacted by calcareous cement as to form a soft build- mg- stone. They occur in scattered patches of slight thickness in the lower part of the valley of the Loire, The animal remains contained in them are chiefly marine, and have the stamj) pf a more tropical faur^a than the Mediterranean. A few land and fiuviatile moUusca are found mixed with the oceanic forms, and with these are associated the remains of terrestrial quadrupeds, as Dinotherium (q. v.). Mas- todon (q. v.). Rhinoceros (q. v.), &c. It is probable that the falun-beds were deposited near the shore in shallow water, and at a time when the temperature was warmer than it is now. About 25 per cent, of the organic remains are said to belong to recent Bpecies. The strata form the typical beds of Lyell's Miocene Period (q. v.), the middle division of the Tertiary rocks. FA 'MA (Gr. Pheme), the goddess of rumour, appears in the works of the earliest poets. Sophocles makes her the child of Hope ; Virgil, the youngest daughter of Terra, the sister of Enceladus and Coeus. Terra produced her to avenge herseK upon the gods for the defeat of her sens the giants, as F. would everywhere proclaim their evil deeds. Ovid describes her dwelling as a palace of sounding brass with a thousand entrances. FA'MA CLAMO'SA, in the ecclesiastical law of Scotland, is a wide-spread report, imputing immoral conduct to a clergyman, probationer, or elder of the church. A fama clamosa, if very clamant, may form the ground of process by a presbytery, without any specific complaint being brought before them, or there being any particular accuser. In these circumstances, the presbytery act for the vindication of their own order, and in behalf of the morals of the community. Should the inquiries of the presbytery lead them to the conviction that the rumour is not without foundation, they will serve the accused party with a libel, and thus bring him for trial before them. (Hill's Church Frac. 49 ; Cook's Styles ; and Wood On Libels.) FAMI'LIAR SPIRITS, a term employed to denote certain supernatural beings, in attendance upon magicians, wizards, witches, conjurors, and other skilful professors of the black art. The word 'familiar' is in all likelihood derived from the Latin famulus (a 'domestic,' a 'slave'). The belief in such spirits goes far back into the history of the race. We read of them in the time of Moses, who admonishes his countrymen to ' regard not them that have familiar spirits' (Lev. xix. 31), which would imply the prevalence of the superstition among the Egyptians. The word in the original rendered ' familiar spirits ' is oboth ; it is of frequent occurrence in the Hebrew Scriptures, and literally iignifiea ' leathern bottles ; ' thereby indicating the antiquity of the idea, that magicians were wont to imprison in bottles the spirits whom their spells bad subdued (whence om 'bottle-imps' and 'bottle- conjurors ') ; the origin, again, of which grotesque belief is perhaps to be sought for in the circum- stance that mystical liquids kept ^'n viala have been immensely in vogue among the conjurors of all ages and countries. It is not clear, as some think, that we can include Socrates among those who shared this vulgar superstition, for although he spoke of his attendant 'dajmou' in very ambiguous terms, the opinion of all enlightened critics is, that he meant by the word nothing more and nothing less than what Christians mean by the presence of a divine light and guide in the heart and conscience. But according to Delrio — a greafc authority on this subject — the belief in familiar spirits in the grosser and more magical form did exist among the ancient Greeks, who, he affirms, designated such beings Paredrii, ' companionSj ae being ever assiduously at hand. The story of the ring of Gyges, king of Lydia, as narrated by Herodotus, is held by Heywood (see Hierarchk oj the Blessed Angels, &c.) to prove the existence of the belief in that country also ; and it is quite certain that during the middle ages the belief in ' enchanted rings ' containing familiar spirits was widely diffused throughout Europe, the magicians of Salamanca, Toledo, and those of Italy, being especially famous for their skill in thus subjuga,t- ing and imprisoning demons. Asia, in fact, would seem to have been the original home of the belief in familiar spirits, which has long been established as a cardinal superstition of the Persians and Hindus, and which appears in perfection in the Arabian Nights. The ' slave of the lamp' who waits upon Aladdin is an example in point. Whether the belief in familiar spirits sprung up independently among the nations of Western Eurape, or was trans- planted thither by intercourse vatli the East, does not clearly appear. A favourite form assiuned by the familiar spirit was that of a black dog. Jovius and others i-elate, that the famous Cornelius Agrippa (q. v.), half philosopher, half quack, was always accompanied by ' a devil in the shape of a black dog ; ' and add, that when he perceived the approach of death, he took a collar ornamented with nails, disposed in magical inscriptions, from the neck of this animal, and dismissed him with these memor- able words : Abi, perdita Bestia, quce me totum per- didisti — ('Away, accursed beast, who hast ruined me whoUy for ever'). Butler, in his Iludibras^ speaks highly of this animal : Agrippa kept a Stygian pug I' the garb and habit of a dog That was his tutor, and the cur Read to the occult philosopher. And taught hini subtly to maintain All other sciences are vain. The readers of Goethe, too, will remember that Mephistopheles first appears to Faust and Wagner during their evening walk in this shape ; but, in truth, the earliest instances of such transmigration are much older at least, if medieval tradition can be credited, for it assures us that Simon Magna and other ancient magicians had familiar spirits who attended them in the form of dogs. Curiously enough, in spite of the servitude to which the attendant imps were reduced by the potent spells of the magicians, they were popularly supposed, during the middle ages, to have their revenge at last, by carrying with them into eternal torment the souls of their deceased masters. This idea of divine retribution overtaking the practisers of magic is. however, not foimd out of Christendom. The Jews think not the less but the more of Solomon because he was, as they say, one of the greatest of magicians and a similar feeling in regard to ' wonder-workers FAMILIARS— FAN. pervades eastern nations generally, though it is to be noticed that the latter are often represented as vsing their power malignantly. See Magic. FAMILIARS. See Inquisition. FA'MILY (Lat familia). Thought we are in the habit of regarding the life of antiquitjs and more particularly that of Greece, as less domestic than that of Christian Europe (and probably M'ith reason), the idea of the family or house (Or. wJcos), as the nucleus of society, as tbe political imit, was there very early developed. Aristotle speaks of it as the foundation of the state, and quotes Hesiod to the effect that the original family consisted of the wife and the labouring ox, which held, as he says, to the poor the position of the slave {PoUt. i. 1). The complete Greek family then consisted of the man and his wife and his slave; the two latter, Aristotle says, never having been confounded in the same class by the Greeks, as by the barbarians (lb.). In this form the family was recognixed as the model of the monarchy, the earliest as well as the simplest form of government. When, l)y the birth and growth of chilth-en, and the death of the father, the original family is broken up into several, the heads of which stand to each other in a co-ordinate rather than a strictly subordinate posi- tion, we have in these the prototypes of the more advanced forms of government. Each brother, by becoming the liead of a separate family, becomes a member °of an aristocracy, or the embodiment of a portion of the sovereign power, as it exists in the separate elements of which a constitutional or a democratic government is composed. But at Rome the idea of the family was still more closely entwined with that of life in the state, and the natural power of the father was taken as the basis not only of the whole political, but of the whole social organisation of the people. In its more special aspects, the Roman idea of the family will be explained under Patria Potestas. Here it will be sufficient to state that with the Romans, as with the Greeks, it included the slave as well as the wife, and ultimately the children ; a fact which indeed is indicated by the etymology of the word, which belongs to the same root as famulus, a slave. In its widest sense, the familia included even the inanimate possessions of the citizen, who, as the head of a liouse, was his own master {sui juris) ; and Gaius (ii. 102) uses it as synonymous with patrimonium. In general, however, it was confined to persons — the wife, children, grandchildren, and great-grand- children, if such there were, and slaves of a fuU- blo^vn Roman citizen. Sometimes, too, it signified all those who had sprung from a common stock, and would have been members of the family, and under the potestas of a common ancestor, had he been alive. See Agnate. In this sense, of course, the slaves belonging to the different members of the family were not. included in it. It was a family, in short, in the sense in which we speak of ' the royal family,' &c., with this difference, that it was possil)le for an individual to quit it, nnd to pass into another by adoption. See ADOPTION. Sometimes, again, the word was used with reference to slaves exclusively, and, analogically, to a sect of philosophers, or a body of gladiators. See Smitli's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. The whole social fabric is based on the grouping of human beings in families ; an arrangement which is in harmony with all the conditions and wants of human life, and which tends to foster those habits and affections that are essential to the welfare of mankind. A prosperous community must be an aggregate of happy families ; there being little true happiness in tlie world that is not intimately con- nected with domestic life. The fornial bond of thf family is Marriage (q. v. ; see also Polygamy) ; and an essential condition of its right development sbtjnia to be a distinct abode, which shall be not a ir.ere shelter, but a house or Iiome, affording a certain measure of comfort and decency, according to the standard prevalent in the community. See Oenitu and Design of the Dovie.stic ComtUution, by Rev. Christopher Anderson (Edin. 1826). FAMILY OF LOVE. See Agapemone. FA'MINE, Port, an abortive settlement of Spain, on the northern side of the Strait of Magellan, ia situated in lat. 53° .38' S., and long. 70 58' W. It owes its name to the death, by starvation, of th-a Spanish garrison ; and it is said to be now a penai colony of the republic of Chili. Some voyagers, however, liave spoken of the neighbourhood as • covered with flowers,' and ' decorated with luxu- riance,' and capable of being made, so far as soil ia concerned, ' one of the finest regions in the world.' FAN, an instrument or mechanical contrivance for moving the air for the sake of coolness, or for winnowing chaff from grain. In the East, the use of fans is of remote antiquity. The Hebrews, Egyp- tians, Chinese, and the miscellaneous population ol India, all used fans as far back as history reaches. At the present day, it is customary, in the better classes of houses in India, to suspend a large species of fan from the ceiling, and keep it in agitation with strings, pulled by servants, in order to give a degree of coolness to the air. See Punkah. Among the oldest notices of winnowing fans are those in the Scriptures. There the fan is always spoken ol as an instrument for driving away chaff, or for cleansing in a metaphorical sense ; and such notices remind us of the simi)le processes of husbandry employed by a people little advanced in the arts. It was a long stride from the use of a simple hand-instrument for winnowing to that of the modern mechanism employed for a similar purpose. See Fanners. As is observable from the collection of Egyptian antiquities in the British Museum, the fan as an article of female taste and luxury is of quite aa old date as the instrument is for commoner pur« poses. Terence, a writer of Latin comedies, who lived in the 2d c. B. c. makes one of his characters speak of the fan as used by ladies in ancient Rome : Cape hoc fabelhim, et ventulum huic facito — 'Take this fan, and give her thus a little air.' From this Roman origin, the fashion of carrying fans could scarcely fail to be handed down to the ladies of Italy, Spain, and France, whence it was in advanced times imported by the fair of Great Britain. Queen Elizabeth, when in full dress, cur- ried a fan. Shakspeare speaks of fans as connected with a lady's ' bravery ' or finery : "With scarfs and fans, and double charge of bravery. It is proper to say, however, that the fan was in these and also in later times not a mere article of finery. There were walking as well as dress fans. The walking or outdoor fan which a lady carried with her to church, or to public promenades, was of large dimensions, sufficient to screen the face from the sun, and answered the purpose of the modem Parasol (q. v.). In old prints, ladies are seen carry- ing these fans in different attitudes according to fancy. The dress fan, which formed part of a lad^s equipment at court ceremonies, drums, routs, and theatrical entertainments, was of a size con.iderably less than the walking fan, and altogether more elegant. Of these dress fans there exist numerous specimens bequeathed as heirlooms from one gener- ation to another; indeed, there are few ladies who FAN PALM-FANARIOTS. cannot shew several of different eras throughout the ISth c. ; some being in good preservation, while in others the gilded stars and cupids which delighted the eyes of great-grandmothers have a mournfully tarnished appearance. In the finer kinds of these old fans, the open part of paper is painted with pretty rural scenes and groups of figures in the style of Watteau (q. v.). All were probably of French manufacture. The more costly fan imported from China was and still is altogether of ivory, highly carved and pierced ; but it wants the lightness and flexibility which were essential !n the ordinary management of this article of the toilet. Strictly speaking, the fan was used less for the piu-pose of cooling than for giving the hands something to do, and arlso for symbolically expressing certain passing feelings. In the hand of an adept, the fan, by peculiar movements, could be made to express love, disdain, modesty, hope, anger, and other emotions. Gay, speaking of Flavia's accomplishments, says : In other hands, the fan would prove An engine of small force in love. Considering the coarseness of language, even in tke higher circles, in the early part of the 18th c., we cannot wonder that the fan should have been indispensable to a lady going into company. It was held up to shield the countenance when anything too shocking for female ears was uttered. Pope has an allusion to this use of the fan : The modest fan was lifted up no more. And virgins smiled at what they blushed before. Steele, in a paper in the Tatler, No. 52, August 9, 1709, gives an amusing account of Delamira, a fine lady, resigning her fan when she was about to be married. One of her female acquaintances, having envied the manner in which this charming and fortunate coquette had played her fan, asks her for it. Delamira acknowledges the wonderful virtues of the fan, and tells her that ' all she had above the rest of her sex and contemporary beauties was wholly owing to a fan (that was left her by her mother, and had been long in the family), which, whoever had in possession, and used with skill, should com- mand the hearts of all her beholders ; " and since," said she smiling, " I have no more to do with extend- ing my conquests or triumphs, I will make you a present of this inestimable rarity." ' Two years later, Addison, in a j)aper in the Spectator (No. 102), gives a humorous account of the tactics of coquettes in the use of fans : ' "Women are armed with fans as men with swords, and sometimes do more execu- tion with them ; ' then he goes on to describe how ladies are instructed to handle, discharge, ground, and flutter their fans — the whole being a pleasant BJ.tire on the fan-manoeuvring in the reign of Queen Anne. Later in the 18th c., fans served another import- ant purpose. At dancing assemblies in London, Bath, and elsewhere, it was usual for the gentlemen to select their partners by drawing a fan. All the ladies' fans being placed promiscuously in a hat, each gentleman drew one, and the lady to whom it belonged was his allotted partner. Mrs Montagu, in one of her letters, refers to this custom : ' In the afternoon, I went to Lord Oxford's ball at Mary-le- bone. It was very agreeable. The partners were chosen by their fans, but with a little supercherie.'' Of the trick or fraud which this authoress deli- cately veils under a French term, the beaux of that period were far from guiltless. A lady's fan was almost as well known as her face, and it was not ditficult, with a little connivance, to know which to draw. At Edinburgh, where it appears to have 172 been the practice to select a jiartucr for a wliole sea- son, the fans of the ladies were carefully studied. Sir Alexander Boswell alludes to this species of stnit- ugem in one of his poems : Each lady's fan a chosen Damon bore, With care selected many a day before ; For unprovided with a favourite beau, Tlie nymph, chagrined, the ball must needs forego. In Italy, Spain, the West Indies, and also some parts of the United States, fans are largely in use for giving the sensation of coolness during hot weather, and for this purpose they may sometonea be seen in the hands of gentlemen as we'll as ladies. In Spain, the old fashion of fan-flirting api)eaz-s to be still in vogue. A late traveller in that country says : ' I was vastly interested in the movements of the ladies' fans at church. All the world knows that Spanish fans are in perpetual motion, and betray each feeling, real or assumed, that ]>assea through the mind of the bearer. I felt convinced I could guess the nature of the service at every par- ticular moment by the way in which the fans were waving. The difference between a litany and a thanksgiving was unmistakable ; and I believed that minuter shades of devotion were also discoverable.' — Vacation Tourists (1861). With other changes in manners, fans are no longer used in English fashionable circles for the frivolous purposes noticed in their past history; they still continue, however, to form an article of ceremonial dress at dinner and other evening parties. In embellishing them, foreign as well as native art is exerted on a scale commensurate with their price. From the superior kinds, composed of ivory and silk, costing twenty guineas, down to those of wood and paper, which are sold at Is., tliere are varieties to suit every toilet and pocket. Lately, fans made tastefully of feathers, also fana constructed of straw and variously coloured ribbons, have been among the novelties of fashion. In the case of a general court mourning, ladies are enjoined to use ' black paper fans.' The manufacture of fana of various kinds is carried on in England, France, Belgium, Spain, and other European countries, like* wise in the United "States ; and now, as formerly, the fan is an article of exj)ort from China to many parts of the world. w. c. FAN PALM, a name common to all those palma which have fan-shaped leaves, as the species of Mauritla, Lodoicea (Double Cocoa Nut), Hyphcem (Doum Palm), Corypha, Livistona, Chavicerops, &c The only truly European palm, Chanicerops humilU (q.v.), is a F. P., as is also the North American Palmetto. The Talipot Palm {Ooti/jyJia umhraculi' fera) is sometimes called the Great Fan Palm. The Palm_yTa I*alm is another fan palm. The fan-shaped leaf is produced by an abbreviation of the midrib of a pinnated leaf. FANA'RIOTS, the general name given to the Greeks inhabiting the Fanar or Fanal in Conatan* tinople, a quarter of the city which takes its name from the beacon (Gr. phanarion) situated in it. They first appear in history after the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, and appear to have been originally descendants of such noble Byzantine families as escaped the fury of the barbarians. Afterwards, however, the class was recruited by emigrants from diS"erent parts of the old Byzantine empire. Subtle, insinuating, intriguing, they soon took advantage of the ignorance of the Turkish governors, and made themselves politically indis- pensable to their rulers. They filled the offices of dragomans, secretaries, bankers, &c. One of them, named Panayotaki, at a later period, was appointed Dragoman to the Divan, and hig successors obtained 241 FANCY— FA]S"G. Btill jxrcatcr honours. Through their influence, the ucr.'Uive office of Dragoman of the Fleet -was called ill to existence, which gave them almost unlimited •)o\ver ill the islands of the Archipelago. Besides, jvor.i them were chosen until the outl)reak of the revolution in 1822, the Hospodars of Wallachia and Moldavia, while, in addition, the disposal of most of the civil and military posts under the Turkish government was in their hands. In spite of their power, however, the F. never exhibited much patriotism they were animated by the petty motives of a caste, and when the war of liberation broke out r.mor.g their countrymen, they took no part in it, Ir. the present altered state of affairs m Turkey, they have no political influence. See "Marco Zalloni's Essai sar les Fannriots (Marseille, 1824; 2d ed. 1830). Consult also Finlay's Jlisforv of the Greek Revolution (Edin., Blackwood and Sons, 1861). FANCY. See iMAGiNAxroN. Fy>.NDA'NGO, like the Bolero, is an old Spanish national dance, in ^ time. It is danced most grace- (nllv )u the country, usually to the accompanmient of a guitar, while the dancers beat time with castanets, a custom borrowed from the l^Toors. It {)i-oceeds gradually from a slow and uniform to the iveliest motion ; and notmthstanding the simplicity of the pas^ vividly expresses all the graduations of the passion of love, in a manner sometimes bordering on licentiousness. The people are so passionately fond of it, that the efforts of the clergy have never been able to suppress it. FANEUIL HALL, a spacious public haU ia Boston, Massachusetts, erected in 1742 by Petor Faneuil, and presented by him to the town, la its original condition as so gifted, the building con- tained a hall for public meetings, with lesser apart- ments above, and a basement used as a market. In 1761, it was destroyed by fire, and rebuilt. Durina the revolutionary struggle with England, the hafl was so often used for important political meetings, that it became known as 'the cradle of American liberty.' In 1805, the building was increased in height by an additional story, and also increased iu width. It is now an edifice about 80 feet square ; the hall contains some fine paintings ; and the basement is no longer used as a market. The cut ^vve. gi'ven, which is taken from an original drawing, represents this interesting historical edifice as it existed in 1768. FANFARE is the French name of a short and lively military air or call, executed on brass instru- ments. It was brought by the Arabs into Spain, whence it passed into Mexico and the New World. Fanfaron, derived from fanfare, is the name given to a swaggering bully or cowardly boaster, probably because of the empty noise he makes when ' blow- ing his own trump»et,' or threatening timid people, iiud the tei-m a}»plied to his idle braggadocia and vaj)ouring vaunts ia Fanfaronnade. FANG (Ang.-Sax. and Ger., anything caught or taken, from the verb fangen, to catch). In the terminology of the law of Scotland, a thief ta^'jn with the famj is one apprehended while carrying the stolen goods on his person. It is not very long since this word foi-med par^. of the common speeck of Scotland : Snap went the shears, then in a wink, The/aw^/ was stowed behind a bink.' MorisorCs Poems, p. 110. In England, also, the verb fang was stiU in use in Shaksj^eare's time: 'Destruction fang mankind!' [Timon of Athens, iv. 3); and 'Master Fang,' in Jfenry IV., is named after his office. Wc still use the phrase 'in the fangs' for in the clutches; and the fangs of a dog or of a sei-|>ent are its teeth with \vhi(;h it catches or holds. FANl'f EES— FAN-TRACERY VAULTINa. FANNERS, a macLine employed to winnow grain. In passins; through the machine, the grain 18 rapidly agitated in a sieve, and falling through a strong current of wind, created by a rotatory fan, the chaff is blown out at one end, and the cleansed particle!! fall out at an orifice beneath. The appa- ratus is composed chiefly of wood, and though ordinarily moved by the hand, it is sometimes connected with the driving power of a thrashing- mill. The fanners superseded the old and slow pi'ocess of ^^dnnowing, which consisted in throwing ap the grain by means of sieves or shovels, while a current of wind, blowing across the thrashing- floor, carried away the chaff. ' A machine for the winnowing of corn v/as, as far as can be ascertained, for the first time made in this island by Andrew Rodger, a farmer on the estate of Cavers in Rox- bxirghshire, in the year 1737. It was after retiring from his farm to indulge a bent for mechanics, that he entered on this remarkable invention, and began circulating what were called Fanners throughout the country, which his descendants continued to do for many years.' — Domestic Annals of Scotland, by R-. Chambers, vol. iii. Strangely enough, there was a strong opposition to the use of this useful mstrument ; the objectors being certain rigid sectaries in Scotland, who saw in it an impious evasion of the Di\Tne -wall. To create an artificial wind, was a distinct flying in the face of the text, * He that formeth the mountains, and createth the wind.' — Amos iv. 13. Apart from the folly of the objectors, who carried their fancies to the extent of persecution, we are amazed at their apparent neglect of the fact, that the winnov/ing of corn by artificial means, in which fans performed a conspicuous part, is mentioned repeatedly in the Old Testament. See Fan^. The advantages in using the fanners soon overcame all prejudices on the subject, and the objections to the use of the machine are now remembered only by tradition, and by a passage in one of the imperishable fictions of Scott. In the tale of Old Mortality, Mause Headrigg is made anachronously to speak to her mistress about ' a newfangled machine for dlghting the corn frae the chaff, thus impiously thwarting the will o' Di\ane Providence, by raising A\dnd for your leddyship's u&e by human art, instead of soliciting it by prayer, or patiently waiting for whatever dispensation of wind Providence was pleased to send upon the shieling-hill.' FA'NO (Lat. Fanum Fortunes, so called from the temple of Fortvuie which the Romans erected here in commemoration of the defeat of Asdrubal on the Metaurus) is the name of a town and seaport of Italy, in the province of Urbino e Pesaro, finely situated in a beautiful and fertile district on the shore of the Adriatic, 30 miles north-west of Ancona, and near the mouth of the Metaurus. It is well built, is surrounded with walls and ditches, has a cathedral dedicated to St Fortunato, and niunerous churches containing many valuable paint- ings, among which are several of the best works of D ;menichino, and an excellent ' Annunciation ' by Guido. The remains of a triumphal arch of w'lite marble, raised in honour of Augustus, form perhaps the chief object of classical interest at Fano. Pop. 8960, who carry on considerable trade in corn and oil, and in silk goods. Here, in 1514, Pope Julius II. established the first printing-press with Arabic letters known in Europe. The port of F. was once well known to the traders of the Adinatic ; its commerce, however, has declined, and the harbour become, to some extent, choked up with, sand. FANS, The, a race of aborigines in Equatorial Africa, residing on the tributaries of the Gaboon river, and said to be cannibals ; the accounts of thia savage race are, ho vv ever, still im})erfect, and what is mentioned respecting them wants confirmation. FAN SH AWE, Sm Richard, was born in 1608 at Ware Park, in the county of Hertford ; studied at Jesus College, Cambridge ; and in 1626, became a member of the Inner Temple. On the outbreak of the civil war, he took part with the king ; and in 1648, became treasurer to the navy under Princ*) Rupeit. He was taken prisoner at the battle ol Worcester ; and on his release, withdrew to Breda in Holland, where Charles II. was holding his court in exile. After the Restoration, he was appointed ambassador at the court of Madrid, where he died in 1666. F. was an author of considerable reputa- tion. His most celebrated work, now very rare, is a translation of Guarini's Pastor Fido, the lyrical passages of which are rendered with remarkable skill and elegance. The volume in which it appeared was published in 1664, and contains other pieces in prose and verse. FANTA'SIA, in Music, the name of a composition of a similar character to the capriccio ; also given to extempore effusions performed by a musician who possesses the rare gift of producing, as it were, off- hand music like a well-studied, regular composition. Hummel was more celebrated for his extempore fantasias on the pianoforte than even for his pub- lished compositions. Frederick Schneider was equally great for his free fantasias on the organ. FANTOCCI'NI. See Puppet. FAN-TRACERY VAULTING, a kind of Late Gothic vaulting (15th c), so called from its resem- blance to a fan. The ribs or veins spring fi-om one point, the cap of the shaft, and radiate ^vith the same curvature, and at equal intervals, round the surface of a curved cone or polygon, till they reach the semicircular or polygonal ribs which divide the roof horizontally at the ridge level. The spaces between the ribs are filled with foils and cusps, resembling the tracery of a Gothic window ; hence the immefan-traceri/. The spaces between the out- lines of the fans at the ridge level, are called by Professor Whewell [German Churches) ridge lozenges, lu Henry VII.' s Chapel, Westminster, one of the From King's College Chapel, Cambridge. best examples of this kind of vaulting, these lozenge* are occupied by pendants, which produce a most astonishing effect, looking like arches resting on 2U FAN-TRACERY VAULTING— FARADAY. nothinj^. They are, however, sujjportetl with great ingenuity by internal ai'ches, rising high above the visible vaulting. This is one of tlie toum-dc-force which astonish the vulgar, but are only adopted when art has reached a low level, and has in a great measure given place to artidce. l^m-tracery is a very beautiful kind of vaulting, and is peculiar to England, where it oi'iginated, and where alone it was practiced. Among the finest examples are Henry Vll.'s Clinpel at V)'ostminster ; St. George's, Windsor ; and King's Collc'ge Chapel, Cambridge. Fan-tracery is also fre- quently usc(l in the vaulting of cloisters, as at Can- tei-lnuy, Cliester, etc. FA'RADAY, Michael, D.C.L., 1S32, one of the most distinguished modern chemists and natural philosophers; a splendid instance of success obtained by patience, perseverance, and genius, over obstacles of birth, education, and foj-tune. He was bora in 1704, near London, his father being a blacksmith. He was early apprenticed to a book- binder; yet even then he devoted his leisure time to science, and amongst other things, made experi- ments with an electrical machine of his own con- struction. Chance having procured him admission, in 1812, to the chemical lectures of Sir H. Davy (q. v.), then in the zenith of his fame, he ventured j to send to Da\'y the notes he had taken, with a [ modest expression of his desire to be employed in some intellectual pursuit. Davy seems to have at , first endeavoured to discourage him, but finding ! him thoroughly in earnest, soon engaged him as ' his assistant at the Royal Listitution. He travelled with. Davy to the continent, as assistant and j amanuensis. On their return to London, Da\y j confided to him the performance of certain experi- [ ments, which led in his hands to the condensation | of gases into liquids by pressure. Here he first ; shewed some of that extraordinary power and j fertility which have rendered his name familiar to every one even slightly acquainted with physics, and Avhich led to his appointment, in 1827, to Sir j H. Davy's post of Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Institution. We shall give a brief summary of his more important discoveries and published works, arranging the different subjects according to their position in various branches of science, rather | than in their chronological order. In chemistry, we have his treatise on Chemical Manipulation, 1827 ; 2d ed. 1842, even now a very valuable book of reference. His Lectures on the Non-metallic Elements, and Lectures on tlie Chemical j History of a Candle, delivered at the Royal Insti- tution, were published within the last few years. As discoveries or investigations of a high order in [ this branch of science, we may mention — New | Compounds of Chlorine and Carbon, 1821 ; Alloys of Steel, 1822 ; Compounds of Hydrogen and j Carbon, 1825; Action of Sulphuric Acid on Naph- thaline, 1826 ; Decomposition of Hydrocarbons by j Expansion, 1827 ; and the very valuable series of j experiments made in 1829 — 18.30, on the Manufac- ture of Glass for Optical Pur])oses, which resulted in one of his greatest discoveries, to be afterwards ! {flientif ned. I As piactical applications of science, his Prepara- ! tlon of the Lungs for DiWn^, and VentUation of Light-house Lamps, are conspicuous, as are also his celebrated letter on Table-turning, and his lecture on Mental Education. To enumerate only the most prominent of his publications on physical science, we may commence with the Condensation of the Gases (already referred to) ; then we have Limits of Vaporisation, Optical Deceptions, Acoustical Figures, Regelation, Relation of Gold and other Metals to Light, and Conservation of Force. Of these, the condensation of gases into 244 liquids and solids, though previously effected by others (and F. has ever been the foicmost ti> acknowledge another's jmority), he has really mitde his own, not only by the extent and accui-acy of his exj)eriments, but by the exquisite experimental methods by which he effected the results. His ideas on regelation, and its connection with the motion of glaciers, have not met with universal acceptance, though (see Heat, Ice, Glacier) there is no dispute as to his being correct in his fax:ts. In regard to Conservation of Force, there can be uc doubt that he has been led into a fiJlacy, by mistaking the technical use of the word force (iiee Force), for in his article on the subject he describes experiments made with the view of proving tha conservation of statical, not dynamical force, whereas the doctrine of conservation asserts merely the conservation of ' energy,' which is not statical force. He may be right also, but if so, it will be by a new discovery, having no connection whatever with ' conservation of energy.' His Christmas lectures at the Royal Institution, though professedly addressed to the young, con- tain in reality much that may well be pondered by the old. His manner, his unvarying success in illustration, and his felicitous choice of cxi)ression, though the Rubjects are often of the most abstruse nature, are such as to charm and attract all classes of hearers. Besides two sets (already mentioned) on chemical subjects, we have his Lectures on the. Physical Forces, a simple work, but in reality most profound, even in its slightest remarks. But the great work of his life is the series of Experimental Researclie^ on Electricity, published in the Philosophical Transactions during the last thirty years and more. Fully to understand all the discoveries contained in that extraordinary set of papers, would require a knowledge of all th^t has been discovered during that time as to Electricity, Magnetism, Electro-magnetism, and Diamagnetism. We may merely mention the following, almost all of which are discoveries of the first order. They are given in the order of publication, which is nearly that of discovery : 1. Induced Electricity, 1831, comprehending and explaining a vast variety of phenomena, some of which have already been applied in practice (especially as Magneto-electri- city) to light-houses, electro-plating, firing of mines, telegraphy, and medical purposes. Electric currents derived from the earth's magnetism. 2. The Electro- tonic State of Matter, 1831; 3. Identity of Elec- tricity from Different Sources, 1833; 4. Equivalents in Electro-chemical Decomposition, 1 8.34 ; 5. Electro- static Induction — Specific Inductive Capacity, 1838; 6. Relation of Electric and Magnetic Forces, 1S38 ; 7. The Electricity of the Gymnotus, 1839; 8. Hydro-electricity, 1843 ; 9. Magnetic Rotatory Polarisation, 1846, effected by means of the optical glass already mentioned; 10. Diamagnetism and the Magnetic Condition of all Matter, 1846; 11. Polarity of Diamagnetics, and the Relation of Diamagnetism to Crystalline Forces, 1849; 12. Relation of Gravity to Electricity, 1851. This, ai before remarked, is F.'s attempt to prove a con- servation of statical force. The results are all negative, but are none the less worthy of careful study; the mode of experimenting detailed in the paper, and the precautions taken and required, render it a model for every physicist. 13. Atmo- spheric Magnetism, 1851. An attempt to exjilain the diurnal changes of the earth's magnetic force by the solar effect on the oxygen of the air ; a very interesting paper. We have omitted many things well worthy of notice even in so slight a sketch as this, but F.*a name will be found in these pages in connectior FARCE— FAREL. with something new in nearly every branch of pliysics. lie died in August, 1867. FARCE, a dramatic piece of a low comic char- acter. The dilTerence between it and comedy proper is one of degree, and not of kind. The aim of both is to excite mirth ; but while the former does so by a comparatively faithful adherence to nature and truth, the latter assumes to itself a much greater licence, and does not scruple to make use of any extravagance or improbability that may serve its purpose. It does not, therefore, exhibit, in general, a refined wit or humour, but contents itself with grotesque rencontres, and dialogues provocative of no and jollity. The name is differently explained. In any case, it comes originally from the Latin farcire, to stuff; but while Adelung says that, in the middle ages, farce signified in Germany certain Bongs, which were sung between the prayers dming divine service, others derive it from the Italian farstty this from the Latin farsum (stuffed) ; while Paolo Bernardi states that it comes from a Pro- vencal word farsum, meaning a ragout, or mess of different ingredients, an opinion which has this to Bay for itself, that the dramatis fersoncB, Jack- pudding, &c., were generally named after special dishes or mixtures. The first farces are said to have been composed by the society of the Clercs de Bazoche in Paris, about the year 1400, as a contrast to the ecclesiastical plays performed by the reli- gious orders. The most widely celebrated and the oldest is the Farce, de Maitre Pierre Pathelin, which some consider to be a composition of the 13th c, but which was more probably executed by one Peter Blanchet, about 1480. Svibsequently, Molifere elevated and refined the farce into pure comedy, in his Medecln Malgre lui, Malade Imaginaire, Les Fourberies de Scapin, and other inimitable produc- tions. In England, the origin of the modern farce dates from about the commencement of the 18th century. It then began to be regarded as some- thing distinct from comedy proper, and to consti- tute a special theatrical entertainment. Of all the numerous farces which have been performed before English audiences, only those of Samuel Foote haA'^e kept a place in literature. FARCY in horses depends upon the same causes as Glanders (q. v.), which it usually precedes and accompanies. The absorbent glands and vessels, usually of one or both hind limbs, are inflamed, tender, swollen, hard, and knotted. The vitiated lyinph thus poured out softens, and idcers, or farcy buds appear. Unlike the ulcers of glanders, they are curable, but require time and care. They must be scarified with the hot iron, which, to prevent their spreading, may also be gently run over the adjacent sound skin. Good feeding and comfortable lodgings are essential, and if they do not interfere v/ith the appetite, give tonics, such as a drachm each of sidphate of copper and iodine, repeated twice a day. FARDEL -BOUND, a disease of cattle and «h?,ep, consists of impaction of the fardel bag, or third stomach, with food, which is taken in between the leaves of this globular stomach, there to be fully softened and reduced. When the food is unusually tough, dry, or indigestible, consisting, for example, of overripe clover, vetches, or rye- grass, the stomach cannot moisten and reduce it with sufficient rapidity ; fresh quantities continue to be taken up, until the overgorged organ becomes paralyzed, its secretions dried up, and its leaves affected with chronic inflammation. The slighter cases so common amongst stall-fed cattle are 'loss of cud,' indigestion, and torpidity of the bowels, la ocverer form, there is also fe\er, grunting. swelling up of the first stomach, and sonictimea stupor or epilepsy. The overgorged stomach can, moreover, be felt by pressing the closed fist upwards and backwards underneath the false riljs on the right side. 'J'he sytni)toms often extend over ten days or a fortnight. J^irgatives and stimulants are to be given. For a full-grown beast give, in three or four bottles of water or thin gruel, i lb. each of common and Epsom salt, 15 ground croton Ijeans, a drachm of calomel, and two ounces of ginger. If no effect is produced, i-e})eat this in 12 or 15 hours. Inject soap and water clysters every hour, withhold aU solid food, and allow only sloppy mashes, treacle and water, or thin linseed tea. An occasional bottle of ale, with an ounce or two of ginger, often expe- dites the action of the physic, and wards off" nausea and stujjor. FAREHAM, a town and sea-bathing place in the south of Hampshire, on a creek at the north- west end of Portsmouth liarljoui-, 12 miles east- south-east of Southampton, and 9 miles north- north- west of Portsmouth. It has manufactures of earthenware. Pop. about 6500. FAREL, GuiLLAUME, one of the most active promoters of the Reformation in Switzerland, was born in the year 1489 in Dauphin^. He studied at Paris, and was at first distinguished by his extravagant zeal for the practices of the Catholic Church. ' Truly,' says he in one of his letters, ' the papacy itself was not so papistical as my heart.' Intercourse with the Waldenses, and with his friend Lefevre d'Etaples, induced him to study the Scriptures ; the result was his conversion to Pro- testantism, and F., who was by nature vehement even to indiscretion, immediately commenced to proselytise. The chief scene of his laboiu's was France and Switzerland. At Basel, 15th February 1524, he opened his career of controversy and evangelisation by publicly sustaining 30 theses on the points in dispute between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. In less than two months, he was compelled to leave, mainly on account of a quarrel between himself and Erasmus, whom, on account of his moderate or trimming policy, F. had compared to Balaam. F. next went to Strasbourg, and afterwards to Montbeliard, where his icono- clastic way of preaching the gospel excited the alarm of his friends, several of whom, CEcolam- padius among others, censui-ed him sharply for his violence. His zeal was next manifested in the canton of Bern. It was also chiefly through his exertions that the towns of Aigle, Bex, Olon, Morat;, and Neuchiitel followed the example of Bern in embracing the Reformation. In 1532, he went to Geneva, where his success was at first so great, that on account of the agitation excited, he had to leave the city. He returned in 1533, was again compelled to withdraw, but once more entered it in 1534. This was his year of triumph ; the Reformers filled the churches, and the Catholic clergy, who had made themselves odious to the citizens by abetting the despotic schemes of tho Duke of Savoy, retired to Lausanne and Fribourg. In August 1535, the town coimcil of Geneva for- mally proclaimed the Reformation. F., however, was a missionary, not a le^slator, and the organi- sation of the Genevan dhurch passed into the hands of Calvin (q. v.). The severity of the new ecclesiastical discipline produced a reaction, and in April 1538, the two reformers were expelled from the city. F. took up his residence at Neuch^tel, whci-e the reformed church was in a state of deplor- able disorder. He composed its differences, and di'ew up a constitution, which it acoepted, after long and stormy debates, in 1542. In Septembei' FAREWELI^FARINX of the same year, we find him fighting the battle of the Ileformation at Metz. After his return to Neuchntel, he frequently visited Calvin, whose authority in Geneva had been completely restored. It was on one of these occasions that he was present at the burning of Servetus, and though not, comparatively speaking, a bigoted Calvinist, he allowed his orthodoxy on that occasion to choke his humanity, exclaiming, as the unliappy heretic uttered his last })rayer to God from the flames: *See what power the devil has over one who has t'allen into his hands.' In 1557, along with Beza, he was sent to the Protestant princes of Germany to implore their aid for the Waldenscs, and on his return — inexhaustible in his activity — he sought a nsw sphere of evangelistic labour in the regions of the Jura Mountains. When trembling upon threescore-and-ten, he married a young wife, very much to Calvin's disgust, who sarcastically speaks of him under the circumstances as 'our poor brother.' But neither his newly formed domestic ties, noi the infirmities of age, could quench his missionary zeal. In 15G0 — 15G1, he i)roceeded to his native Dauphin6, and passed several months at Gap, preaching against Catholicism with all the ardour of his youth. In November 15G1, he was thrown into prison, but was shortly after rescued by his friends. In 1564, he paid a visit to the dying Cahan ; his strength, however, was now nearly exhausted, and on the 13th September 1565 he expired at Neuchiltel, leaving a son named Jean, who survived him only three years. F. was a man of extensive scholarship, and wrote largely, but his works very inadequately represent the genius of the man. Compare Kirchhofer's Das Leben Wilhelm Farels (2 vols., Zurich, 1831—1833), and C. Schmidt's Etudes sur Farel (Strasbourg, 1834). FAREWELL, Cape, the southern extremity of Greenland, lies in lat. 59° 49' N., and long. 43° 54' W. It is generally beset with ice, which, according to recent authorities, appears to come from the north-east, and to sweep round into Davis' Strait. Hence it is but little known ; and, in fact, the Danish traders, in passing to and from the settle- ments on West Greenland, seem uniformly to maintain an offing of more than 100 miles. FARI'A Y SOUSA, Mangel, a Portuguese historian and poet, was born of an ancient family at Caravella, in the province of Entre Minho e Douro, 18th March 1590, and studied at the university of Braga. For some time he was in the service of the Bishop of Oporto, but shortly after 1613 he went to Madrid, where, however, he did not long remain, as he foimd no opportunity there of improving his circumstances. In 1631, he obtained the office of secretary to the Spanish embassy at Rome, where his extensive acquirements procured him the notice of Pope Urban VIII. and of all the learned men of the city. After some time, he returned to Spain, riuvd died at Madrid 3d June 1649. F.'s writings are partly in Spanish, and partly in Portuguese. Of the foT'mer, we may mention, Dlscursos morales ^ politicos (2 vols., Madr. 1623—1626), Epitome de las llistorias Portuguesas (Madr. 1628), Comentarios soh'^e la Lusiada (2 vols., Madr. 1639), Asia Portu- guesa (3 vols., Lisbon, 1666 — 1675), Europa Portu- guesa (3 vols., Lisbon, 1678 — 1680), Africa Portuguesa (Lisbon, 1681), and the greater portion of his poems, "which he collected under the title of Fuente de Aganippe o Rimas Varias (Madr. 1644 — 1646). These poems consist of sonnets, eclogues, canzones, and madrigals. F., however, composed about 200 Bonnets and 12 eclogues in the Portuguese language; aud it is m-'inly by these, and also by three theo- 2ii retical treatises on Poetry, that lie has influenced the development of the poetic literatiu-e of Portugal, in which lie was long regarded as an oracle. Kis poetry exhibits talent and spirit, but is on the whole tasteless and bombastic. F. is not to be confounded with another Portuguese autlior of the same name, who was born at Lisbon in 1581, and died at Evora in 1655, and who was one of the most learned numismatists of his age. FARI'NA is the term used by many writers on bees, instead of pollen, to denote the pollen oi flowers collected by bees for feeding their larva. See Bee. FARI'NA, a Latin term for meal or flour, which has been adopted into the Enghsh and other lan- guages, and is very frequently employed both in scientific and popular works. The terra farina ia also frequently extended to many substances, which agree with the meal of the corn-plants or Cerealia (q. v.), in containing much starch, and food made of such substances is often called farinaceous, its qiialities more or less resembling those of the food derived from the cerealia. Of the different kinds of farina, those produced by mere trituration of the seeds of grasses (corn), hold the first place for imi^ortance and usefulness. Most similar to them are those obtained in the same manner from certain other seeds. See Cerealia. The farina of the diff"erent kinds of Pulse (q. v.), or seeds of leguminous plants, has considerably different ])roperties. For the qualities, chemistry, commercial importance, &c., of the different kinds of meal, see Meal. — Other farinaceous substances, consisting chiefly of starch, are obtained from roots — often from tubers — of plants of very different natural orders ; some kinds also, as sago, from stems. Cassava meal, which contains, along with starch, much vegetable fibre and protein or albuminous substances, is commonly called farina [Farinha) in many parts of South America, where it is a princii)al article of food. Fossil farina, mountain milk, or Agaric mineral^ is a deposit of silicified animalcules, obtained from China, &c. In 100 parts, it consists of silica 50^, alumina 26|, magnesia 9, water and organic mattei 13, with traces of lime and oxide of iron. FARI'NI, Carlo Lihgi, an Italian author and statesman, was born in 1822 at Russi, in Ravenna, in the north of Italy. Having, with great success, studied medicine at Bologna, F. first became known by several publications belonging to the science of medicine, and soon afterwards by contributions to various scientific periodicals. In 1841 and 1842, having mixed himself up with politics, he was obliged to leave the Roman States, and change his residence repeatedly until he finally settled at Turin. The amnesty following shortly upon the accession of Pio Nono, opened to F. not only his native country, but also a new career, through the liberal system inaugurated by the supreme pontiffl In 1847, he was called into the reformed ministry, as a substitute to the home secretary ; in 1848, he was present in the suite of Carlo Alberto at VoIl,a, and after the flight of the king, protested against the proclaiming of a republic. During the short ministry of the unfortunate Rossi (q. v:), F. was director-general of the sam'tary and prison depart- ment at Rome, from which post, however, he retired as soon as the reaction under Antonelli began to be established. Upon the occupation of Rome by the French, F. became once more an exile, but for a short time only, for in Piedmont he found a home as well as public honours. In 1850, he held the seat of Minister of Public Instruction in the cabinet of Victor Emanuel II., nnd on retiring from olSce, was named a member of the supreme FARIS ECCHIDIAK--FARM. council ; and hns ever since sat as a member of parliament. When, after the overthrow of the Bourbon princes, as also of the papal government in the Le<^ations (1859), Central Italy resolved to annex itself to the kingdom of Victor Emanuel, by means of universal suffrage, it was F. who directed the popular mind with such admirable success that, on the day of ballot, not one vote was delivered asking for a separate kingdom. As governor of Central Italy, he showed an undaunted courage against the threats of Austria, and exhib- ited a thoroughly consistent moderation against tlie imrul}' promptings of the Mazzinians. Tlie Rame qualities accompanied his measures when the newly acquired kingdom of Naples was to be reorganised. It has been said that ' Fariui was the mind of Italy, as Garibaldi was its sword.' Among his literary productions may be mentioned, II Stato Romano (The Roman State), translated into English under the superintendence of the Right Honourable W. E. Gladstone (London, 4 vols., 1859) ; Storia cVItaUa (History of Italy), a continuation of Botta's celebrated work. F. was also a constant contributor to Count Cavour's Risorgimento. FARIS ECCHIDIAK, an Arab poet and litte- rateur, was born about the year 1796. In religion, he is a Syrian Christian. He studied at Cairo under the ulamas of the mosque of El-Azhar, and in 1836 procured for M. Fresnel some very valu- able commentaries upon the poem of Slicmfara. He was afterwards invited to Malta by an English missionary society, who wanted his services in their Oriental printing establishment. The dedi- cation of a poem to the Bey of Tunis aboiit 1847, induced that monarch to send a war- vessel to Malta, for the purpose of bringing F. to Tunis, where the poet obtained a distinguished reception, and many rich presents. Subsequently, he ^vent to England, where he was em|)loyed in revising the text of a translation of the Bible into Arabic, by the Society for the Propagation of the Scriptures. In 1851, he published in London the New Testament in Arabic. He subsequently resided in France for a consider- able time, and published there, along with M. G. Dugat, in 1854, a French grammar m his native tongue for the use of the Kabyles of Algeria. His principal work is entitled La Vie et les Aventures die Fariah (Paris, 1855) ; it contains a narrative of his own travels, with critical observations on the Arabs and other peoples whom he visited. Some of his own poems are also interspersed. F. returned to London the year before the publication of this work. On the outbreak of the Crimean War, the sultan appointed him one of his dragomans or interj>reters, but he has never discharged the duties of his office. F. is said to possess in manuscriiDt a collection of poems, called The Divan, which are highly spoken of by those who have seen them. FARM (of uncertain derivation), the term usually employed in Britain to signify a piece of land, either in pasture or in cultivation, held in lease by a tenant from the proprietor. In the United States, the term farmer is often applied to a person who owns as well as cultivates land. The tenure on which land is held by farmers diflfers in different countries. In some parts of continental Europe, the farmer hires the land on the principle of a kind of partnership with the proprietor. See Metayer. In England, land is usually let for a certain annual rent, and either by a yearly term, or at the good--wiU of the landlord. In Scotland, the process of land- letting is on a footing remarkably advantageous for tenant and proprietor, as well as serving the best interests of agriculture, and on this account it is i;:-adually beiag Introduced into England. Under the head Lease will l>e presented the details of Scottish tenantcy ; a few leading features need here only 1)0 adverted to. 'J'he Scottish fanner is pre- sumedly u capitalist, able to work the land in the best manner. He is given a lease of 19 years, during which period he has entire possession of the land, and from the length of tenure is encouraged to sink money that will be ami)ly repaid to him i>y increased crops. He cannot sublet, but his lease is heritalde by one of his family. The landlord at the outset erects fann-buildings, constructs fences and roads, and otherwise puts the farm into a proper condition — the whole of which operations may cost him from £2000 to £4000. Receiving his farm in this state, tlie tenant is bound to keep it so, and to deliver it up in a properly tenantable condition at the con- clusion of his lease. By these explicit arrangements, the outgoing tenant can make no claim for improve- ments either from the landlord or from his successor the incoming tenant, who is merely called on to pay for such crops as happen to be on the gi'ound ; and this is settled by arbiters mutually chosen. See Fallow. Contests about tenant-right, such aa occur in Ireland, from the practice of assigning to farmers the duty of erecting buildings and making permanent improvements, are thus totally unknown in the Scottish system. The method of paying rent for farms in Scotland is not uniform. In some districts the annual rent is a fixed sum, but in other places it is a common practice to pay partly a fixed sum, and to leave another portion to be paid in grain, or rather the money value of so much grain according to the average market prices each year, as determined by a jury in every county. See FiAES. This last plan is the fairest for all parties, but some farmex's prefer to pay a fixed sum-total, and so speculate on a rise in markets. In whatever mannei the rent is adjusted, it is stipulated to be paid, as jj early as jDOSsible, in two equal portions, ;it Whitsunday (May 15) and Martinmas (November 11), but in practice the landlord gives three mouth.s' credit on each occasion — the Whitsunday rent being exigible at Lammas (August 4), and the Martinmas rent at Candlemas (Febi-uary 2). At all times, however, the landlord has a right of Hypothec (q.v.) over the crops, and can take measures to avoid being defrauded of his proper claims. Usually, the very best feeling subsists between landlord and tenant, and extreme measures are of rare occm-rence. Pursuing this abstract of the Scottish system, the landlord usually binds his tenant to farm or cidtivate the land according to the most approved systems in use in the district. Such a coiu'se is no doubt necessary, to prevent the abuses that might arise from negligence or ignorance ; but the restric- tions have often been carried too far, and have formed barriers in the way of imi^rovements. It is not, perhaps, very easy to define what is liberal and what stringent, as practices vary according to circumstances of soil or locality. So far as regards mere cropping, it wovdd not be much amiss, how- ever, on most arable farms, to forbid more than one-half of the land being in white crops during the last four years of the lease. Green crops, it may be stated, do not prevent exhaustion so much as they prevent the land being oveniin with weeds. It is perhaps not superfluous to observe here that leases should be written in clear and concise language, and as far removed from ambiguitj^ as possible. The size of farms is regulated by many circum- stances. On land adapted for green cropping, and remote fi'om towTis, large farms form good subjects for capitalists, and consequently prevail. Stiff clay soils are rather against extensive culture. Where crops are grown that require much hand-labour- fai'ms become small in size. Flax, rape, vines, and FARM— FARM BUILDINGS. rn;irkct-L;ar(lcn i)ro(luce all tend to lessen the size of I'arnis. In new countries, too, where there is no tiiave labour, farms are mostly small ; for labour beinc: high, it is too precious to be profitably em- ployed on a large scale where the prices of produce are small. Grazing farms, whether in the High- lands or Australia, form good outlets for large capitalists. Under the modem system of farming in Britain, not less than £10 of capital per acre is required to farm green-crop land. Where cattle are pastured on arable lands instead of sheep, it requires still more capital. Highland grazings require from 1 to 3 acres to maintain a sheep throughout the season. The rent varies from 2s. to lO.s. a head for each sheep kept ; the value of each sheep being from £1 to £2 a head, according to the kind and age of the stock. The profits of farming fluctuate quite as much as those of any other trade. Strict personal super- intendence is one of the first requisites of success. Without this, the details will be neglected, and loss will ensue. 10 per cent, on the capital invested is a good return. Formerly, it was thought that arable land should yield a gross produce equal to three times the rental. One part went for rent, one for expenses, and the other for profit. But no such absolute nde can be laid down ; for while, as in other trades, some are making large profits, others are losing money. Skill and attention are the qualities which command sxiccess in farming as in other things. A farmer necessarily possesses large numbers of animals — horses, cattle, sheep, pigs, and poultry. These have all to be reared and tended, and demand no little care and experience. Proper seeds must be selected ; and the proper cultivation of the land for the different crops necessitates a suc- cession of processes which require to be r.ctended to. These, however, will be taken up uuder their respective heads. FARM BUILDINGS. Eacli farm must possess II residence for the farmer, cottages for the servants. •»ud buildings for the stock and crop. The /arm- house should be commodious and plain, with an extent of accommodation about equal to that which those have who are engaged in commercial pursuits in town employing the same amount of capital The cottages for the servants should also be plain and roomy, and internal convenience should be more studied than outward ornament. Proper offices are essential to the economical disposing of the produce of the farm. The corn crops are usually thrashed there, and a large pcrtiou of the green crojjs is consumed by stock, whicU must be well provided with shelter from the colJ, When few turnips were raised, and few cattle fedj large open courts were best suited for converting the straw into manure. Now, however, in many cases, the excrements of the stock are sufficient for wetting all the straw, and hence has arisen the practice of feeding in covered courts and in boxes. In this case, the solid and liquid excrements are carted out along with the straw, which acts the part of a sponge. This is no doubt an excellent w^ay of manufacturing home-made manure ; it takes a considerable quantity of straw, however ; and as more green crops are raised and consumed on tha farm, sufficient straw cannot be got to absorb all the liquid ; hence, a saving of the straw is efiected by stall-feeding, when the excess of liquid must be collected into tanks, and otherwise disposed of. When it is remembered that ammonia cannot be purchased in the market at the present time under £60 per ton, the utility of husbanding this material when it is freed as the excrements of the stock decompose, must be self-evident. If the sohd excrements are kept in a compressed state, no fermentation takes place ; and if the manure is of good quality, it should be applied to the fields at once. Liquid manures should be carted out, or distributed by pipes, when the plants are in a growing state, otherwise part will be washed out of the soil. Covered farmyards are rapidly extending over the country. It is the cheapest and best way of erecting farm-offices. Our cut repre- sents a bird's-eye view of a * farm- steading,' for a Isometrical View of Covered Homestead. (arm of 500 acres, and a model of which was com- mended by the judges of the Berwick cattle-show in 1854. The steading is on the covered principle, all the vai-ious departments being under one roof. It will be seen by the ground plan that the food- preparing 2-w houses are ranged as convenient as possible to tnose in which the food is to be consumed, and that the relative positions of every other department have been carefully studied. This is the great point to be at- tended to in the formation of all homesteads, whethe* open or covered. FARM-SERVANTS— FARMING'S ISLAND. Vtntilalion. — Without good ventilation, a covered homestecid must be a nuisance. All the apartments ftre so arranged that, unless fresh air circulate through them, and they are kept perfectly clean, there must constantly be unwholesome cliluvia in the interior— the foilness of one apartment being communicated to another. The system of venti- lating this farmstead is certain to give most satis- factory results, if only ordinary care be taken to keep the different houses as clean as they ought to be. The arrangements are briefly as follows : Under each feeding-passage is built a circular air-shaft, 30 inches in diameter ; in connection Mith these there are feeding- mouths with gratings on the outside of the building ; inside, there are numerous finely perforated gratings ; by sliding- valves, wrought by a cord and pulley, the supply of air is regvilated. Besides these, there are gratings every 10 or 12 feet along the exterior walls, per- forated so as to admit near the floor a consider- able quantity of air. The roof, too, is provided with ventilators with vertical S})ars, and openings are left here and there in the sarking, to act as induction and eduction tubes. The numerous perforated apertures throughout the building wall admit twice the quantity of air required for the respiration of the animals, and are so under com- mand that they will neither admit flies in summer, nor too large a supply of cold air in winter. A covered steading, somewhat similar in construction to the above, has been erected at Glen, in Peebles- Bhire, where the ventilation of the enclosed cattle- courts, &c., is admirable. We would only remark, that to carry out this principle of ventilation is somewhat expensive. A cheap and yet efficient system of ventilation for cattle is to cover the yards with pan-tiles without plaster or lath. Those who wish to see farm-offices economically erected, at the same time combined with the most perfect ventilation, we woidd recom- mend to visit some that have been lately built on the property of Lord Kinnaird, Rossie Priory, Perthshire. As a general rule, farm-steadings are erected at too great an expense. For further infor- inati(m, see Tlie Book of Farm Buildingft, by Henry Stephens, F.R.S.E., and R. Scott Bm-n '(Edin. Black- wood and Sons, 1861). FARM-SERVANTS. The introduction of large farms caused a wide difference to arise between the condition of master and servant. The latter has no doubt had his condition meliorated, though much remains yet to be done. Large farms effect economy in the amount of labour, and where these superseded the small holdings or pendicles, a certain number of the population had to betake themselves to the towns or the colonies. This latter process had the effect of diminishing the population in the country districts. The general advance, however, which has taken place in the wages of the laboui'ing-classes has been happily ehared in by farm-servants. They have now the j D leans of increasing their physical comforts, and in general, wherever better cottages have been built, farm-servants have proved more trustworthy. Wages vary much, according to the locality. In the strictly agricultural county of Dorsetshire, they ; range from 8s. to 10.9. a week. In the manufac- I turing districts, such as in Yorkshire, on the other ' hand, they run up to 15«. to I65. a week. In Scot- land, ploughmen are generally paid partly in pro- duce, but taking everything into account, wages will amount to nearly ISs. a week all the year i through for good hands ; each family being pro- ' »'idcd with a house at a short distance from the ' f&rm-offi-;es. See Botiiy. Female farm-servants receive froio £8 to ^ 10 a year, with food. FARMI':R, Richard, D.D., a well-known scholai of the last century, was Ijorn at Leicester, August- us, 17.35, and was entered a pensioner of J<]nirnanuel College, Caml^ridge, in 175.'{. In 17(50, he took hia degree of M.A., ami was appointed classical tutor of his own college. It is not known when he took orders, but, while he held the oflice of tutor, he acted as curate at Swavesey, a village eight miles from Cambridge. In 1706, he i)uljlished his once famous Essay on the Learnim/ of SJialMpcare (reprinted in 1789 and in 1821), the purpose of which was to shevi the sources whence the great dramatist derived hir knowledge of the ancients. F. ])roved that it Ma* from translations, and that Shaksjjeare has often cited the phraseology, and even the eiTora, of tht translators. In 1775, he was elected to the master- ship of Emmanuel College, and in 1778, chief -librarian of the university. In 1780, he obtained a i)rebendal stall at Lichfield, but in 1788, resigned it for the office of canon residentiary of St Paul's. He died September 8, 1797. FARMERS- GENERAL (Fr. fermiers-geM- raux) was the name given before the Revolution of 1789 to the members of a privileged association in France, who farmed or leased the public revenues of the nation. This peculiar system of tax-gathering dates from an ancient period. For each class of imposts there was a special administrative board, presided over by one of the farmers-general, or by one of his assistants. At first, the leasing of the public revenues was based on the competitive system, and determined by the estimates handed in ; but latterly, every formality, every preliminary guarantee of this natxire disappeared, and the leasing wholly depended on the favour or jobbery of the govern- ment officials. The minister of finance selected the fanners-general at his pleasure, but his choice was always regidated by the present, or rather bribe {pot' de-vin) offered to him ; and which, we may presume, was never inconsiderable, inasmuch as its value was fixed by the minister himself. Generally, shares in the concern were assigned by the king to his favourites, male and female. The number of farmers-general was ordinarily 40, but shortly before the Revolution it had risen to 60. The lease was signed by a salaried deputy, who was responsible to the king alone. The king occupied the position of a creditor towards the farmers-general, and could coerce them into payment of the stipulated sum as a just debt ; the farmers-general, on the other hand, occupied a similar position towards their subordinates. The entire sum which it was necessary to place in the national treasury — or, in other words, the annual national revenues — amounted to 180 miUions of livres. The rest was enormous profit, for we are certainly within the mark in estimating it at seven million of livres. The powers, rights, and duties of the farmers-general were defined by special decrees ; but however severe may have been the fiscal lawa against fraud and contraband, it is notorious that, shortly before the Revolution, abusts of the most flagrant description -had demoralised the system and the men. The consequence was inevitable. During the Revolution, most of these odious tax-gatherer^ perished on the scaffold, the innocent among them being occasionally confounded with the guilty — the real capitalist with the selfish and greedy adventui*er. Even the virtues and the learning of the illustrious Lavoisier could not save him. Farmers of the revenue are an instituti(m of ancient origin. The Roman publicani (q. v.) were officers of this kind ; and duties of various kinds were at one time farmed in Great Britain. See Excise. FARMING'S ISLAND, an island reported to l>« 249 ,1 FARNE— FARO. In the North Pacific Ocean, north of the Sandwich Islands, in lat. 30" 49' N., and long. 159" 20' W., was formally taken possession of, for the Queen of Eng- land, on the 8th February, 1861, by Iler Majesty's steamer Albert. The harbour was called English Harbour, and a point on which there is a settlement was termed English Point. FARNE, FEARNE, or FERN ISLES, or the Staples, form a group of 17 islets and rocks, some being visible only at low tide, two to five miles off the nortli-east coast of Northumberland, opposite Bamborough. On one of tlie isles is tlie tower of a priory, built to the memory of St, Cutlibert, who epent the last two years of his life here. There is a hole called the churn, through which the sea rises. The passage between tlie isles is very dangerous in rough weather. Two of the islets have each a light-house. Here the Forfarshire was wrecked in 1838 (see Darling, Grace), and here, in 1843, the Pegasus met the same fate, and 60 persons were drowned. FARNE'SE, the name of an illustrious family in Italy, whose origin can be traced to the middle of the 13th c, when it possessed the castle of Famcto, near Orvieto. Many of its members have filled the highest offices in the church. In 1534, Cardinal Alessandro Farnese was raised to the papal see under the title of Pope Ptiul III. (q. v.), and as his gi-eat aim was the aggrandisement of his family, he erected Parma and Piacenza into a duchy, which he bestowed on his natural son, Pietro Luigi. Pietro was one of the most dissolute men of his period, and after many tyrannical attempts to limit the privileges of the nobles, he was assassinated 10th September 1547. He was succeeded by his son OiTAYio (born 1520, died 15S5), who married a natural daughter of Charles V., and whose reign was marked by an unbroken peace, and by various efforts made for the good of his subjects. Alessandro Farnese, son of Ottavio, w\as born in 1546., He served his first campaign under his uncle, Don John of Austria, and distinguished himself at the battle of Lepanto, in the year 1571. He after- Wards followed his mother into the Low Countries, then in a state of insurrection, and aided in obtain- ing the victory at Geinbloux, 31st January 1578. He was made governor of the Spanish Netherlands by Philip II., and carried on the war against the Prince of Orange. The ill success of the expedition against England, to the command of which he had been appomted by Philip II., grieved him the more from the contrast it presented to his former suc- cesses. On his return to the Netherlands, he was api^ointed commander-in-chief of the army des- patched to the assistance of the Catholics in France, and compelled Henry IV. to raise the siege of Paris. Being, however, ill supplied with provisions and money by Philip, and insufficiently supported by the League, he was forced to yield to the superior prwer of Henry IV., and died soon after at Arras, IB 1592. F. was really an able warrior, and though lexere in his discipline, was aluiost worshipped by his soldiery. Ranuocio, his son and successor, did n& possess the brilliant qualities of his father : he was sombre, austere, greedy, and proud. A con- spiracy was hatched against him, and Ranuccio was seized, and thrown into prison. He died in 1622. — Odoardo, a natural son of the preceding, was a prince remarkable for the elegance of his manners, and also, according to Muratori, for his magnificence, magnanimity, and liberality. He died in 1646, at the age of 34. — The family became extinct in the person of Antonio F., who died in 1731. The name of the Farnese family has been bestowed 350 upon several celebrated works of art. Thejje ire — 1. The Farnese Palace at Rome, an eJifice raised by Pope Paul III,, before his acccssior) to the holy see, after the design of Antonio da San O'^llo. It is in the form of a quadrangle, and was co7^;^>1.3ted by Michael Angelo. The palace is one of the fit? jf.fc in Rome. Th6 antique sculptures for which it war. f jrmerly renowned are now in the Museum at Naples ; a few classic works, however, are still to be seen in the great hall. The gallery contains the frescoes of Annibal Caracci, which are very valuable, as exhibiting in the most comi>lete manner the new line of art wlii3h he struck out. In a room adjoining the gallerj', are some mythological fresco-paintings by Domenichino. 2. The Farnesina is a very elegant palace in Traste- vere. It owes its celebrity chief!;, to the frescoes of Raphael ; b\it it also contains fr }sooeph, and their creed, gave it at different periods different characteristics ; but it may be pronounced to have been a recognised institution with all the more civilised nations, especially those of Asia, throughout s.11 historic times. We find it in high estimation among the ancient Parsees of Irania. It formed a prominent feature in the ceremonies of the Mysteries of Mithras ; and found its way, together with these, over Armenia, Cappadocia, Pontus, and Asia Minor, to Palestine, and northward to the wilds of Scythia. The ancient Chinese and Hindus, and princii)ally the latter, in accordance with their primeval view— which they held in common vnth the Parsees- - of heaven and hell, salvation and damnation, oi the transmigration of the soul, and of the body as the temporary prison of a fallen spirit, carried fasting to an unnatural excess. Although the Vedas attach little importance to the excrucia- tion of the body, yet the Pavaka, by the due observ- ance of ■which the Hindu believer is purified from all his sins, requires among other things an unin- terrupted fast for the space of twelve days. Egy|)t seems to have had few or no compulsory general fasts ; but it is established beyond doubt, that for the initiation into the mystei-ies of Isis and Osiris, temporary abstinence was rigorously enforced. In Siam, all solemn acts are preceded by a period of fasting, the seasons of the new and full moon being especially consecrated to this rite. In Java, where abstinence from the flesh of oxen is part of the religion of all, Buddhists and worshippers of Brahma alike, the manner and times of the observance vary according to the religion of the individual. Again, in Tibet, the Dalai-lamaites and Bogdo-lamaites hold this law in common. That Greece observed and gave a high place to occasional fast-days — such as the third day of the festival of the Eleusinian mysteries, and that, for instance, those who came to consult the oracle of Trophonius, had to abstain from food for twenty-four hours — is well known. It need hardly be added, that the Romans did not omit so important an element of the festivals and ceremonies which they adopted from their neigh- bours, though with them the periods of fasting were of less frequent recurrence. See Thesmophoria. As to the Semitic races, although we find the people of Nineveh xmdergoing occasional fasts, to which even animals were made to conform, yet the Mosaic law set apart one day only in the whole year for the purpose of fasting. The 10th day of the seventh month (Tishri), called 'the Day of Atonement' (Yom Kippur), or, as the holiest of the whole year, ' the Sabbath of Sabbaths,' was ordained for 'the chastening of the JSfephesh,^ which the traditional law ex])lains as meaning the strictest and most rigorous abstinence from all food or drink, as also from w^ashing, anoint- ing, the putting on of sandals, &c., from the sun- set of the ninth to the rising of three stars on the 'Evening of the tenth day. In process of time, five days of compulsory fasting were added, in connnemoration of certain davs of humiliation and national misfortune, viz.: the 17th of the fourth month (Tainus), as the anniversary of the taking of Jerusalem both by Nebuchadnezzar and Titus ; the 3d of the seventh month (Tishri), Mhen Ishmael had killed Gedaliah, the Jewish governor 173 appointed by the Babylonians f.Jer. xli. 2) ; tb« lOth of the tenth month (Tebetli), in reinem- brance of the siege of Nebuchadnezzar; th(; )3Lh of the twelfth month (Adai-), the fast of Esther, and the day most rigorously kept, next to tho great Day of Atonement : — the l)th of tbe fifth month (Ab), the anniversary of the destruction of the first temple by Nebuchadnezzar, and of tho second by Titus. That the people had at all tim(;s been prone to attach great importance to the use of this penance as a visible sign of outward contrition, is clear from that ordinance of the Mosaic law which puts into the hands of the head of a family the power of confining self-imposed vows of abstinence within due limits. The community loved to ex]iress their penitence for sin, or their grief on the death, of great men, by occasional fastings. They were also considered an efficient means of averting the di\Tne wrath, of insuring victory over an enemy, or of bringing down rain from heaven. Besides, fasting was not unfrequently resorted to by those who wished to free their minds from all hindrances to meditation, as in the forty days of Moses (Exod. xxxiv. 28), or the fast of Daniel (Daniel, x. 2 and 3). This fast of Contemplation, as it might be called, seems also to have been the mc»del imitated by the Cal)balists, some of whom are known to have fasted from Sabbath to Sabbath. In later times, when, after the destruction of the temple, sacriricea had ceased, fasting, as causing a decrease in the flesh and fat of the individual, was considered to be in some degree a substitute for the animal which had formerly been offered up by the priest. From a means to repentance and iiiward purifica- tion, which purj)ose alone it had been originally intended to serve, it became an end and a vii-tue in itself ; an abuse, indeed, neither imknown nor unde- nounced even in the days of the pro])hets. If we add to this the endless chain of dire calamities and ever-renewed persecutions of w'hich the Jews have been the victims for many a long century, the ever- increasing number of their fasts commemorative of deaths and tribulations will be far from suri^rising.' Most of these, however, which were suj^eradded from time to time, soon fell into oblivion. Over and above the six already mentioned, but few entire days are now observed by the orthodox, and these merely of a local character. Fasting, with the Jews, always implies entire abstinence, aiid last-s, except on the Day of Atonement and the 9th of Ab — when the sunset of the previous evening is the sign for its commencement — from the break of the day to the appearance of the first three stars. Sackcloth and ashes, the garb of the penitent in ancient times, are no longer worn ; but as the special holiness of the Day of Atonement is cele- brated by various solemnities (see Festivals), so the deepest mourning over the loss of temple and country is ^'isibly expressed by many ceremonies in the Jewish synagogues and homes on the 0th or Ab, On that day also, to add the individual to the national sorrow, the cemeteries are generally ^asited (see Jewish Rites). Of several half-days of fasting that have survived, we will mention the first two Mondays and the first Thursday in the second month (lyar) and in the eighth month (Ciieshwan), (sheni vachamishi vesheni), in celebration of the two meeting-points of summer and winter ; as also, several days before the New-year or Day of Judgment, and before the Day of Atonement. The indi-.-idual is bound to celebrate by fasting the anniversar}- of the death of his parents, his ov\ii wedding-day imtii the performance of the marriage-ceremony, and the birth of his first-bom male child (up to iti» thirteenth year — w^hen the duty falls upon the latter himself), on the day preceding the Pesach (PaahaJ FAST . in commemoration of the sparing of the Israelite first-born in Egypt. For the several hours' fasts on the two New Years' Days, and on the first six days of the Feast of Tabernacles, we refer likewise to Festivals, and we will only add in conclusion, that the Sabbath causes the postponement of any fast — that of the Day of Atonement only excepted — which may happen to be coincident with it ; and that ciiildren — girls up to their twelfth, boya to their thii-teenth year — pregnant women, and the aick, are exempted from the observance. In the time of Christ, fasting, as we have seen, was held in high estimation. The Mondays and Thursdays — the market-days, on which the judges oat, and the law was read in the synagogues —were especially set aside for this purpose by the Pharisees. The Essenes fasted even more frequently. The Sadducees alone took exception to this rite, and were therefore considered ungodly. Christ himself neither approved nor disapproved of the c\istom, but, as in all matters of ceremony, allowed his disci[)les, Jews and Gentiles, to act according or contrary to their old habits. He is distinctly against such a commandment, and even excuses those who did not fast. His own abstinence from food for forty days was like that of Moses, entirely an individual act; and against a volimtary and limited imitation of such abstinence, to which the spirit raiglit move a man, no objection whatever was to be taken.* During the first centuries of Christianity, these voluntary fasts were frequent enough ; the new converts adhering in most cases to their old rite, and only taking care to change the days, which had been days of abstinence in their former religions, for others. Besides, they were considered a befitting preparation for holy acts and feasts, for ordin- ation and baptism. The time mostly celebrated annually in common by all were the forty hours fiom Friday afternoon to Sunday morning, during which time Christ lay in the sepulchi'e. But not before the end of the second century was anything like an ordinance promulgated with respect to fast- ing in the nev; religion. It was first Montanus who, as the Paraclete, introduced, among other laws of excessive severity and rigour, fasting, as an inhi- bition upon the faithful. The Wednesdays and Fridays, as the days when Christ was taken prisoner and crucified, were made days of strictest abstin- jnce from all food ; while on the other days of the week, dried, uncooked victuals only were allowed. Asceticism and monachism had their share in the gradual development of the doctrine of the necessity of mortifying the flesh, and as a natural ijonsequence, in the growth and diffusion of the custom of fasting. Yet, in the first six centuries, the difference in the various Christian communities * Roman Catholics, however, maintain that aU the words of our Lord, which to Protestants appear to discountenance the obligation of fasting, are directed sxclusively against th" ostentatious and self-reliant fasts of the Pharisees. They evt i understand the language which he used in condemning the practice of the Pharisee fasters, as containing a direct exhortation to his own discipies — not that they should absta,in from fasting — een early and generally observed. To this was added the Wednesday, as the day on wbich the death of Christ was resolved upon. These two days received the name of Stations; a term borrowed from the stationes of the Eoman soldiers, in accordance with the views held by the ascetics and monks, that they were the warri^i'S of Christ. At a synod in Spain in the beginning of the 4th c, the Saturday was superadded, but this innovation met with great oi)position, especially in the East, where Jewish notions regarding the Sabbath had obtained a more permanent recogni- tion. 2. Vigils, originally night-services observed by the first Christians on the eve of Sundays and festivals, partly in imitation of the Jewish custom of celebrating the entrance of the sabbatii and of festivals on the evening of the previous day, and * It is only just to add, however, that here agail Catholics dissent strongly from the Protestant view ol this history. They admit that the followers of Monta- nus did introduce greater rigour and frequency into their fasts ; but they deny that before the time of Montanus the practice of fasting was not fully recog- nised in the Christian Church, and regarded as strictly obligatory. The very earliest allusions to the forty days' fast of Lent (tessaracoste) regard it as an estab- lished and recognised institution. The veiy first fathers who allude to it, speak of it as ' handed down and observed by the church ; ' and so far is its origin from being ascribable to the influence of Montauism, that, on the contrary, the earliest relaxations which tho church admitted were a reaction against the cxcessivf and intolerable rigour of that fanatical sect. FAST. paHly m fear of the danger to which a service in tlie daytime woidd have exposed the early converts. Although these night-services became unnecessary in the cit-days oi all the principal places in Scotland. These are generally one in each year, appointed by the kirk- session of the Esta])lished Church of the parish, orbv concurrence of kirk-sessions in towns, but g(!neraliy by use and wont fixed as to their date. The fast- day is always some day of the week preceding the Communion Sunday, or Svuiday set a]>art in the Presbyterian churches for the disi)ensation of the Lord's Supper, It is usually appointed as a day for ' fasting, humiliation, and prayer.' Rusiness i.s generally suspend(jd, shops shut as on a Sunday, and churches opened for public worship. By an act of parliament passed not many years since, factories are j)rohibited from carrying on work on the parish fast-day, but in consequence of the seek siastical divisions in Scotlarul, it has become more- common than it once was for agricultural and other kinds of work to be carried on. The fast-day of ft, large town is always a busy day on the railways, many taking advantage of it for excursions, and making it a day of amusement ; too many, also, a day of dissipation and revelry. That it is right to keep up the annual fast-day in these circumstances is doubted by many who themselves conform to its religious observance, although of that observance fasting does not now generally form a part. Many, however, doubt if it ever was a good institution ; alleging that it is inconsistent with the frequent celebration of the Lord's Sui)per, which the}' deem right and desirable, and to which there is a growing tendency. The Scottish P^eformers, as ap])ears from the First Book of Discipline, contemplated the ordinary celebration of the Lord's Supper at least once a month ; and the fast-daj'-, as it now exists m Scotland, derives its origin from a later period. A few words remain to be said of the Moham- medan fasts. Islam, as an offspring of Judaism and Christianity, adopted this custom with many others from both churches. During the whole month of Ramadan, in which the Prophet brought the Koran from heaven, eating, drinking, smoking, smelling perfumes, &c,, are strictly forbidden from daybreak till sunset ; for the intervening nights, however, all these restrictions are removed. There are, besides, many voluntary fasts, expiatory like the 10th of Moharram, corresponding to the Jewish Day of Atonement, or for the averting of the Di\ane wrath in sudden calamities, or as an indem- nification for the omission of certain pious acts, as the pilgrimage, &c. See Jews, Mohammedanism, Monks. Besides the Bible, Schulchan Aruch, Koran, and the Fathers generally, we refer to the following authorities on this subject : Bingham, Orig. vol. ix. 1, 21 ; Fabricius, Bihllogr. Antiquaria, c. 11 ; J. A. Muratori, De Quatuor 2'emporum Jejimiis, &c. ; J. Dalloeua, De Jejuniis et Quadragesima, 1654 ; Schbne's Oeschichtsforschungen., Th. 1 ; Briefe iibeT d. Gottesd. d. viorgenl. Kirche, \ on Dr K v. Muralt (Leip. 1838); Siegel, Altchristl. Alierthilmer ; Dassel, De Jure Tempor. Quadrages., 1G17 ; Walch, D« Jejunio Quadragesimcdi (Jenae, 1727); Homborg, De Quadragesima Veterum Christianorum et ritibus in ea quondam usitatis diss, qua etiam de recentio:* Papist., Grcec, Buss., Syrian., Georgian., Maronit. Jacohit., FATHEES OF THE CHURCH. when in matters of faith the most perfect and uu- s^ver\'ing unanimity reigns among tliem, then, and then only, the Holy Ghost is to be considered to speak tin-ough them. See Rule of Faith ; Infallibility. Immense as is the range and variety of their writings, ascetic, apologetic, polemical, exegetical, moral, historical, or dogmatical, so also is the diversity of their individual value. Nothing can be further from historical justice than either the whole- Bale laudation or condemnation of these writers as A body ; but whatever stand we may take, we can- not but p.ee that they are of the utmost moment. Stretching as they do over the entire extent of tbiit peiiod which forms the turning-point lietween the antique and modern world, they faithfully and often unconsciously portray that awful change, of V/-bich tliey were in no small degree the instm- ments — the gradual wane of old faiths, and of an old civilisation, and the slow and struggling rise of that which was to replace thtnu ; while they preserve the most minute and trifling details with the same accuracy as the most momentous event, as each happened to bear upon their subject. The philosopher, the historian, the antiquary, each and all will find their writings, as a whole, to contain an inexhaustible fund of instruction. Of no loss interest, perhaps, are their works in relation to the writers individually. These, issuing from all pai-ts of the then known world, from all ranks, all creeds, could not but impress the stamj^ of their nationality and callings, besides that of their youth or age, vigour or feebleness, upon their writing — Jew, Greek, lloman, African, Si)aniard — orator, i«oet, lawyer, statesman, priest, they all bring with them that which was their own before they embraced the new faith : their dialectic power, their fantastic poetry, their graceful s])eecii, their stern austerity. What Greek sul)tlety did theoretically for the development of dogma in Origen and Athanasius, that Ivoman thoroughness did practically for the erection of the hierarchy in Leo the Great and Gregory III. ; while from Egypt came asceticism and monachism, the ascendency of spiritualism over sensualism is owing to those who came from the northern coast of Africa. How far Platouism, and especially neo-Platonism, Aristotle and Greek philosophy generally, are found devehiped in these works, and infused into the new faith by the former teachers of the academies them- selves, who mostly retained their old philosophical garb, upon this, as well as ixpou many other points, we mvist forbear to enlarge. We will now proceed to take a brief survey of these writers — referring for fm-ther information to the special articles on the more eminent among them. According to the now generally adopted method of dating them from the 1st to the 7th c, they are divided into tM^o distinct periods, the first of which goes down to the Council of Nicsea, 325 a. d. Of those who head the list, the Apostolic Fathers — so called from their supj.-osed connection with Christ and tha apostles— very little need be said, as their writings, which are mostly of an ascetical character, kave co'j..^. down to us in a corrupt and mutilated gtatC; a ad as the writers themselves owe their chief celebiity to the times in which they happened to livr-.. We have here Barnabas, the son of Teostes, anc'. the companion of St Paul (Acts ix. 27 ; xii. 25) ; Clement, supposed to have been the third Bishop of B.ome ; and the Clement mentioned by St Paul (Philii)p. iv. 3) ; Hennas, identical perhaps with the Hermas of St Paiil's Epistle to the Romans (xvi. 14) ; Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch ; Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna ; Papias ; Dionysius the Areopagite, &c. Next follow the Apologists, or those Fathers whose chief aim was the defence of the new faith against the Roman state, and non -Christian authors, and who were the first to make their scientific culture, and more especially the Platonic philosophy, subservient to Christianity, for this purpose : Quadratus the 'Evangelist,' a travelling missionary; Aristides, an Athenian philosopher ; Justin Martyr, the well-known author of the two Apologies and the Dialogue with Try|)ho (or rather Tarphon) ; Tatian of Assyria, who, having examined the different forms of worship, aa well as the systems of philosophy prevalent in his time, felt satisfied with none but Christianity, and became a disciple of Justin, and a vindicator of the philosophy of the barbarians ; Athenagoras, who addressed his Apology to the Emperor Marcus Aure- lius, and his son Commodus, and wrote a Defence of the Doctrine of the Resurrection ; Theophilti.s, Bishop of Antioch ; Miltiades, &c. Next come the Church Fathers of Asia Minor, men of more prac- tical and peaceful tendencies : Hegesippus, perhapa an Ebionite ; Irenoeiis, Bishop of Lyon and Vienno, who wrote a refutation of the Gnostic system ; Hippolytus, his disciple, of unknown birthplace and renowned name. In the North African Church, the development of which is of the utmost moment, inasmuch as its language, dogmas, and laws were adojited by the greater part of the Christian world in the West, we find Tertullian of Carthage, the rhetorician and advocate, a man of profound mind and vast influence ; Cyprian, the author of the Testimonies in favour of Chi'ist ; Commodian, the writer of the Rules of Living; and Arnobius, a rhetorician of Sicca, in Numidia. The first comparatively barren, though otherwise highly important church, is the Roman. The pre-eminently practical Roman mind looked more to the outward growth and wellbeing of the church than to literary excellence, and thus Ave have only two distinguished authors- to be noticed here — the Presbyter Caius, known as an op])onent of the Montanists ; and the Presbyter Novatian, who wrote a treatise on the Jewish laws respecting food. The church which, more than any other, endeavoured to combine speculation with faith, and which gradually became, through its high degree of cidture and erudition, the very centre of Christianity, is the Alexandrian. And here we have Pantsenus ; Clement the Alexandrine, chiefly known by his Stromata or Elements of the Gnosis ; Origen, called Adamantinus, the eminent Neo- Platonist, born 185 A. D., in Alexandria, one of the most influential writers of the whole Christian Church ; Herculas, with his disciple Dionysius, » liberal and moderate man ; Gregory, the workei of miracles ; Pamphilus and Julius Afric-anus, the first Christian chorographer. In the second period, which dates from the Nicsean Council, and comes down to Gregory II., 604 A. D., a period altogether superior, on accoimt of the great number of intellectual and erudite men who devoted their lives and labours to the church, we have to distinguish the Greek from the Latin Fathers. A mong the former, we have again to draw a line between those of the Alexandi'ine school — like Eiisebius Pamphili, the Herodotus oi the church ; Athanasius, the father of . orthodoxy ; Basil the Great, Doctor Ecclesiae, and his brother Gregory of Nyssa ; Gregory of Nazianzen, called the Theologian, byway of eminence ; Didjonus ; and Cyrillus, some time Patriarch of Alexandria, the chief prosecutor of Nestorius — and those of the Antiochian school, where we find Ephraem Syrus, ' the prophet of the Syrians ; ' Cyril of Jerusalem, the converted Arian ; John Chrysostom, of brilliant elo({uence ; Diodorus, Bishop of Tarsus, one of the chief founders of the Antiochian school ; and Theo- doretus, Bishop of Cyrus. Besides these we find of Greek Fathers who belonged to neither school — Epii)hanius, the violent adversary of Origeu FATHOM— FATS. Socrates Scholasticus, the continuator of Eiiselnns's Ecclesiastical History ; Philostorgins, au Ariau Church historian ; Logomenus ; Evagrius ; Macarius the Elder, chiefly known through his miracles and combats with the devil ; Procopius of Gaza, the rhetorician ; and Joannes Scholasticus, famous through his collections of canonical law. Among the j^atins, we have to enumerate first the African lathers : Fabius Victorinus ; Augustine of Tagaste in Numidia, the greatest dogmatist of the Western Church; Pope Gelasius I. (492 — 496), who finally fixed the canon of the Bible for the Roman Church ; Bad the Bishops Fulgentius, Junilius, and Facundus. Of 8[)aniar(ls, we have Prudentius the poet ; Paulus Orosius, whom Augustine used as his messenger to the East in his controversies with Pelagius. Of Gaids there are Hilarius Pictaviensis, Bishop of Poitiere about 350, the Athanasius of the West ; Paulinus of Nola ; Sidpitius Severus, friend of Martin of Tours ; Vincent of Lerins, once a soldier, who wrote imder the name of Peregrin us ; Sidonins Apolliuaris, Bishop of Clermont ; Gennadius, the author of an ecclesiastical hterary history ; Enno- dius from Aries, who exerted himself to unite the Eastern and the Western Church ; and Gregorins Turonensis, who WTote Historia Ecdesiastica Fran- corum, the basis of Prankish history. From other countries we have Sedulius, an Irishman ; Joannes Cassianus, a Scythian ; and Mercator, of unlcnown birthplace. We conclude with the Italians them- selves : Lactantius Firmianus, the Christian Cicero ; Jidius Firnisius Maternus of Sicily ; Ambrose, Metropolite of Milan, who raised his see to such a power that it dared to resist Rome herself up to the 12th century; Eufinus of Aquileia, defender of Origen against the charge of heresy brought against him in the West ; Eusebius Hieronymus, undoubt- edly the most learned of all the Latin Fathers, and who mastered also the Greek and Hebrew languages, collected in Palestine the most valuable notes for the elucidation of the Scriptures, and also corrected the Latin edition of the Vulgate ; Pope Leo I. ; Boethius ; Aurelius Cassiodorus, whose Historia Tripa7tiia, in twelve books, served for a thousand years as a compendium of ecclesiastical history ; the two poets, Arator and Venantius Foi-tunatus ; and Pope Gregory L (509 — 604), is regarded by Protestants as having first given the Western Church its peculiarly Roman Catholic stamj? by developing the idea of the Eucharist into a Theophany, and making it the centre of the wor- ship. His works, especially his letters, are invalualile for the study of his own times, especially for the history of the conversion of the West. On the MSS. of the Fathers, we refer to Petri Larnheccii Commmtarii de Bihliotheca Ccesarea Viiidobonensi. The editions of the works of the Fathers are of two classes — those of the individual Fathers, whose writings are the most voluminous and of highest dogmatical im.portance, and the general Patristic collections, which comprise the writings of the less volimiinous or minor Fathers. In the former ©I31SS, the first place, beyond all dispute, belongs to the celebrated Benedictine editions, by the members of the great Maurist congregation of the French Benedictine order (see Benedictines), of which community the task of editing the Fathers came to 1)6 considered as the recognise'^ work. Tlie Benedictine editions of the greater Fathers, with the exception of two or three, still maintain the very highest place in the estimation of the learned. Of the collections of the works of the Fathers (which, for the most part, consist of writers not published separately), the most important are those of La Bigne, Galland, Rossler, Walch, Zinnnerman, *nd Migne, the last still in progress. Cardinal Mai j has also made considerable additions to the Patrisiio collections in his Bibliotheca Patruvi, Spicihiuium Bonianum, and Classici Auctores, as have the Bene- dictines of Solesme in the Spicilegium Solesmense. FATHOM, a measure of six feet, pnncipally used in reference to marine soundings, and in micea. Originally, a fathom was taken as the width to which the two outstretched arms extended. FA'TIM\DES, or FA'TIMITES, the name cf an Arabian dynasty which reigned for nearly two centuries over Egypt. Its founder was MahacL** Obaidallah, who liourislied from 910 to 934 a.d. He asserted that he was descended from Fatima^ the daughter of the Prophet, and Ismael, a grand- son of Ali. He thus won over to his side all the adherents of the widely diffused Ismaelites, an extravagantly schismatic sect of Mohammedans in Africa, and overthrew the race of the Aghlabides, who ruled at Tunis. His successor extended hia j dominion as far as Fez, and his descendant, Moezz, in the year 970, conquered Egyi)t, expelled the reigning family, removed his court thither, founded Cairo, assumed the title of Calif, thus proclaiming himself the lawful successor of the Prophet, and subdued Syria and Palestine. After the death of Moezz, the F. maintained their high position for aomQ time ; but gradually degenerated, and resigned all the cares of government into the hands of their viziers. Their power now rapidly declined, and their vast territories melted away. In religious matters, the F., because they were raised to power by the followers of Ali, took upon themselves the protection of the Shiite sect, and the establish- ment of the Ismaelitic doctrines. Between the years 1002—1021, the Calif Hakem-Biamr- Allah persecuted the orthodox Mohammedans or Sunnites, as well as Jews and Christians. He founded ai> academy at Cairo, and endowed it largely, but con- nected with it a secret society for the diffusion of Ismaelitic opinions. In the first stages, the no^aco was shewn the untenable nature of the precepts of the Koran ; in the sixth, the advanced student found that religious legislation must give way to the claims of philosophy ; in the seventh, a mystic pantheism was proved to be the true philosophy ; and finally, in the ninth, the initiated discovered that he was not required to believe anything, and might do whatever he pleased. His system, with considerable modifications, found a home among that peculiar people the Druses (q. v.). After the death of Adhid, the last of the F., in 1171, the founder of the dynasty of the Ayubides, Sal^h- ed-din (Saladin), took possession of Egypt. FATS are those oily substances which are solid at ordinary temperature. They do not differ essen- tially from the liqiud oils. See Oils. FATS, Animal. There is considerable difference of opinion amongst chemists regarding the exact nature of the fats occurring in the animal body. According to most chemists, they are composed of an admixture of three separate fats — margarine, stearin e, and oieine, of which the two former are solid, and the latter fluid, at ordinary temper atvirea. Heintz, who has carefully studied these bodies, declares, however, that margarine is not a simple fat, but a mixture of stearine and palmitine (a solid fat occurring in palm-oil) ; and he considers himian fat to be a mixture of stearine, palmitine, and oieine. For the chemical characters of these substances, we refer to the articles Margarine, Oleine, Palmitine, and Stearine, and we proceed at once to the con* sideration of the physiological relations of the fat. Fat, usually enclosed in vesicles, is found very extensively in the animal kingdom. It is abundant in many larvae, and occurs more scantily in most 2G3 FATTY ACIDS-FATUITY. iusects. It is met Avith iu the mollusca, and is conipiiratively abundant in all the divisions of the vertebrata. In most lisli, it occurs throughout the body, but is especially abundant in the liver, where it is found iu the hepatic cells, and not in its own characteristic vesicles. In reptiles, it exists chiefly in the abdomen. In birds, we especially find it about the peritoneum, and under the skin. In mammals, it is very generally diffused, but the greatest quantity is under the skin, in the omentum, and round the kidneys. The quantity of fat in the human body varies considerably^ at different periods of life. In the earlier stages of ftetal existence, we find scarcely any fat ; in new-born children, there is usually a considerable quantity of this substance dei)osited under the skin, and the organism continues rich in fat till the age of puberty, when a marked diminu- tion of the sul)stance occurs. It again increases about middle life, and then occasionally occurs in great excess; ioi example, three or four inches of fat are not unfrequently found under the skin of the al)domen in cori)ulent persons. Extraordinary deposits of fat in some particular part of the body are observed in. certain races of men and animals. One of the most remarkable »'xamj)les of this peculiarity is afforded by the Hottentot women, in whom the fat accumulates in the gluteal region to such an extent as to give a most remarkable jirominence to that part of the body ; and a somewhat analogous deposit exists in a variety of sheep {Ovis sleatajyi/ga, the fat-buttocked Bheep), in which a large mass of fat, sometimes attaining a weight of forty pounds, is developed on the buttocks, and takes the place of a tail. The origin of the fat in the animal body must tmdoubtedly be chiefly referred to the fat taken with the food. It has, however, been proved by the most careful investigations on various animals sub- mitted to the process of fattening, on bees fed with cane-sugar, or with honey containing scarcely any wax, and on the larvre of the insects inhabiting galls, that the animal, like the vegetable organism, has the power of forming or prodnchig fat, far more fat being found, iu these experiments, in the body of the animal, than could be referred to the fat taken in the food. The excess must therefore have been formed either from the non-nitrogenous portion of the food, such as starch and sugar ; or from the nitrogenous matters, such as fibrin, albumen, &c. In the case of the bees, it was distinctly proved that the fat was formed from sugar; while in the case of the larvjB of the gall-insect, it was similarly ehewn that it was produced from the starch which forms the interior of the gall in which the animal lives ; and as we have no corresponding evidence of the convertibility of ffbrin, albumen, &c., into fat (although such a conversion is by no means improb- able), we must for the present regard the non- nitrogenous foods as the chief fat-formers next to fat itself. The physiological value of the fats is due partly to their physical, and partly to their chemical characters. The U53S of the fat deposited beneath the skin are, first, to protect the body from external shocks by a uniform diffusion of pressure through the whole adipose tissue; and, second, to keep up the heat of the body, by materially checking, through its very slight conducting power, the loss of free heat by radiation. This use of the fat is most clearly seen in some of the lower animals (the seal, whale, &c.), which are ex^^osed to very low lemperatures. Another physical use of fat is to promote the mol)ilit/ of various organs. Hence, in cases of 204- extreme emaciation, it always remaiUb in the parta where motion is most essential, as the heart, and the orbit of the eye. Another of its important physical properties is that of rendering other bodies supple, and diminish- ing their brittleness. In this point of view, the use of fat is very conspicuous in the bones. Tlie chief chemical use of the fat is its power of exciting and supporting the animal heat. In tJis oxidation of the fats in the animal organism, whether the process be gradual or rapid, i large amount of heat must necessarily be liberated; and that the^'^ are oxidised, and for the most pari reduced to carbonic acid and water, is evident, because they neither appear in any quantity in the excretions, nor, as a general rule, accumulate beyond a cei-tain i)oint in the organism. An accumulatioa of fat thus serves as a reservoir of combustible matter in time of need. This is especially evident in tlie case of hybernating mammala. as, for example, hedgehogs, in which an enornwus quantity is deposited just before the hybernating period : during this period, it gradually disappears, its carbon bein;^ slowly consumed in the respiratory process, and keeping up the animal heat. Fat is, moreover, one of the most active agents in the metamorphosis of animal matter. Lehmann ascertained that a certain, although a small quan- tity of fat was indispensable to the complete gastrio (Ugestion of niti'ogenous food, a fact which is con- firmed by the observation that in experiments on artificial digestion, the solution of substances used as food is considerably accelerated by the presence of a little fat. The occurrence of fat in the milk and in the egg, as also in all highly cellular organs (as, for example, the liver), is a clear indication that this substance i)lays an important i)art in the process of cell-formation; and no animal cell or cell-yielding l^lasma has ever been observed in which fat is not a constituent. An undue accumulation or increased growth of the fatty tissue gives rise to the condition known as Obesity (q. v.). FATTY ACIDS. See Oils and Fats. FATU'ITY, or DEME'NTIA, consists in the impaii uient or extinction of certain mental powers, or of all. Esquirol has quaintly but descriptively said that the idiot and imbecile are poor who have never been rich, but that the fatuous or dements are rioh who have been made poor. This impoverishment is sometimes so extreme, and the sufferer is so little influenced by consciousness as to lose a knowdedge of his own existence ; and so little by imjjressiona through the external senses, and by the instincts of the sensory ganglia, as to be equally ignorant of the existence of others. Life is vegetative merely. This dei)rivation may be partial or complete. It may appear as a weakening of sensibility. This is not the tolerance of powerfid or painful im- pressions, or indifference to such, springing from abstraction or engrossment of the attention, but positive extinction of perception ; or it may presenft the more common form of enfeeblement of intelli- gence, of memory ; of the will, where the patient ia apathetic, j\assive, plastic. The disease may involve the affections and the moral sense, and abrogate the power of decision, and all spontaneity of action and thought. Incoherence in ideas and words may be made to constitute another form, although genei-all}' regarded as a chai*acteristic ; whether it amounts merely to forgetfulness, or to confusion or irration- ality, to inconsecutiveness and inability to express instincts and wishes. Delusions and hallucinations may co-exist with these conditions, but, like the real impressions received by this class of tlie insane FAUCHER— FAUPJEL. they are feeble, fugacious, and uniufluential. Under all these aspects, the essential element is privation of power ; and this is met with as a specific mental disease, arising from obvious causes, unassociated with general alienation, acute in its nature, and rapid in its progress. It is mobt frequently the dis- ease of youth, of the period of puberty, contempor- aneous with growth, with debilitating and exhaustive processes, and depending, in all probability, as in the other forms, upon insufficient nutrition of the braiu. At this age, the injiu-y is reparable, and what may be designated juvenile dementia, has the rare distinction of being curable. More frequently, it is the sequel of mania, melancholia, and severe affections of the nervous system. The deterioration here arises from actual changes in the nervous structure, which render healthy nutrition impos- eible ; so that, although mitigation, and sometimes to a marvellous extent, is within reach of treatment, recovery is believed to be impracticable. Again, it is an affection of old age ; and although senile dementia may seem but an exaggerated state of dotage, it is accompanied by such marked physical changes, as to leave no doubt that it originates in circumstances differing widely from that gradual degeneration of the tissues which is evidenced by the ' second childishness and mere oblivion.' Lastly, tliis state may follow fever, when it is transitory, and generally of brief duration. Fatuity is one of the few morbid mental conditions recognised in our legal code, even by name, as relieving from the consequences of criminal acts, and as disqualifyhig for the administration and disposal of property. Esquirol, Des Malad. MenL, torn. ii. p. 219. FAUCHER, Leon, a French publicist and states- man, was born at Limoges, 8tla September 1803; studied at first philology and archaeology, in which branches of knowledge he acquired some reputation ; but about the period of the July revolution (1830), betook himself, with genuine enthusiasm, to jour- nalism and political economy. He became succes- Bively editor of the Temps, the Constitutionnel, and the Courrier Frangais. These functions occupied him from 1830 to 1842, during which period he published many articles on questions of political economy. In 1843, he began to write for the Revue des Deux Mondes a series of articles on the indus- trial condition of England. The whole were collected into two volumes, which appeared in 1845, under the title of Etudes sur V Angleterre, and constitute the most weighty and substantial of aU his produc- tions, though Englishmen reckon the author greatly in error in many points. At the general elections of 1846, he was elected for the manufacturing city of Hheims, where his opinions on tariffs were highly appreciated. In the Chamber of Deputies, he voted with the dynastic opposition. A ready but by no means brilliant speaker, he came forward as one of the leading advocates of free-trade, and published in the Siecle, and in the Revue des Deux Mondes, a Qimaber of essays on national economy, character- ised by their vigorous and spirited argumentation. After the revolution of 1848, he sat both in the Constituent and Legislative Assemblies for the department of Maine. When Louis Napoleon was chosen president, F. became first Minister of Public Works, and subsequently Minister of the Interior ; but when the President proposed to appeal to univei- sal suffrage, F. gave in his resignation, and, after the coup d'etat, he withdrew from political life. F. died 14th December, 1854. A large number of his most valuiible contributions to the science of ])olitics will be found in the collection of the Economistes et Puhlir cistes Conternporaim, and in the Bibliotheque des ^ci- tnces Morales et rolitiqucs. FAULT, the term in Mining and Geology for any interruption in the continuity of the strata coui)led with the displacement of the beds on either side ol the line of fracture. See Dislocation. FAUN. Faunus was a mythical personage, an ancient king of Italy, who instructed his subjects in agriculture and the management of flocks, and was afterwards worshipped as the god of fields and of shepherds. The festival of the Faunalia, held on the 5th December, referred to the protecition he exer- cised over agriculture and cattle. Fauna was liis female complement. He was also worshipped as a prophetic divinity. As deity of the woods, and of flocks and herds, he corresponds to the Greek Piin ; the idea also arose of a ]jlu]-ality of Fauni or Fauns, like the Greek Satyrs, who were represented as mon- ster deities with short horns, pointed ears, tails, and goats' feet, and to whom all terrifying sounds and appearances were ascribed. FAUNA, a term employed to designate animals collectively, or those of a particular country, or of a particular geological period. Thus, we speak of the fauna of Great Britain, the recent fauna, the fossil fauna, the fauna of the Eocene period or formation, etc. The term bears the same relation to the animal kingdom that Flora does to the vegetable. Its derivation is from the mythological fauns, regarded as the patrons of wild animals. In the fauna of any country are included only those animals which are indigenous to it, and not those which have been introduced. FAURIEL, Ci^UDE Chakles, a French philolo- gist, historian, and critic, was born at St Etienne, in the department of Loire, 21st October 1772, studied at the College des Oratoriens at Tournon, and afterwards at Lyon, and in 1799 was ap]:>ointed to a situation under Fouch6 ; but, destitute of all political ambition or predilections, and passionately fond of learned studies, F. resigned his oflice in 1802, and devoted himself to the calmer pursuits of literature. He made himself familiar with Sanscrit, Arabic, and the treasures of classical antiqu.ity and of the middle ages ; and although he did not write much, comparatively speaking, yet the value of what he did write cannot easily be over-estimated. M. Renan may exaggerate when he affirms that F. ' put in circulation the greatest number of ideas' of any contemporary writer ; but even the Germans allow that in many points of literary history, criticism, and philology, F. was twenty years in advance of his age. After the July Revolution, he was appointed a professor at the Sorbonne ; in 1836, he published his cliief work, Histoire de la Gaule Meridionale sous la Domination des Conquerants Germains (4 vols., Paris), which is reckoned one of the best specimens cf historical investigation and art produced in modern times. Worthy of notice, also, particularly on account of its remarkable historical introduction, is his edition of the Provencal rhymed chronicle, entitled Hlsfcire de la Croisade confre les Heretiques Alhirjeois (Paris, 1837). F. also contributed several important essays to the literary jom-nals of France, of which, perha] »9, the best known was that on the origui of the Ejtic of Chivalry in the middle ages. He died at l^aria, 15th July 1844. Two years after his death appeared a collection of his professorial lectm-es, under the title of Histoire de la Poesie Provengale (3 a^oIs., Paris, 1846), m which F. endeavours, with great erudition and originality of criticism, to shew that to the Provencals must be attributed the compo- sition and primitive development of the greater portion of the romances of chivahy, including those which describe the contests of the Chiistiaua and Moors in Spain, and those which form tna 260 FAUSSE-BRAYE— FA USTINA. Charlemagne cycle, thus finding the origin of the old Spanish and German poetrj' on the soil of France. F.'s vieus have, however, met with considerable oppo- sition. FAUSSE-BIIAYE, in Fortification, a low ram- part encircling the body of a i)luce, and raised about three feet above the level grountl. This work has mostly been discarded by modern engineers, exccjjt •when used in front of curtains, under the name of Tenailles (q. v.). The French engineers gave this title to tlie work, as an adaptation from the Italian term Fossa Brea, which had its origin from the fausse-bi-aye being commonly in the ditch, in front of the main wall. Tlie fausse-braye had the advantage of giving an additional tier of guns for defensive purposes ; but the still greater disadvan- tage of affording facilities for the scaling of the parapet. FAUSSE TtlVTERE (in English, Fahe River) is a lake of Louisiana, United States, which deserves notice chiefly as an index of the physical character of the country. Till about a cent\iry and a half ago, it was a channel of the Mississippi — a fact which prol)ably is still expressed in its name. Here, as in other alluvial formations, the beds of the running waters are undergoing incessant changes. FAUST, or FUST, Joiiann, the chief promoter of the invention of printing, a rich citizen of Mayence, died in the year 14G0. See Gutenberg. FAUST, Dr, according to tradition, a celebrated dealer in the black art, frequently confounded with the preceding, was born at Knittlingen, in Wiirtem- berg, or, as some say, at Roda near Weimar. He flourished during the latter half of the l^th and the beginning of the ICth centuries, and is said to have studied magic at Cracow. After haAnng spent a rich inheritance left him by his uncle, F. is alleged to have made use of his ' power' to raise or conjure up the devil, with whom he entered into a contract for twenty-four years, obtaining during that time his fill of earthly pleasure, but at its termination sur- rendering body and soid into the hands of the Great Enemy, The devil gave him an attendant spirit or demon, called Mephistopheles, though other names are given him by the later tradition] sts, with whom he travelled about, enjoying life in all its forms, and astonishing people by working wonders, till he was finally carried off by the Evil One, who appeared in terrible guise, between twelve and one o'clock at night, at the \'illage of Rimlich, near Wittenberg, though several other ])laces lay claim to that very questionable honour. Some have doubted, consider- ing the monstrously mythical form in which his v^areer has come down to us, whether such an indi- vidual as F. ever existed; bvit it is now generally believed that there was a basis of fact, on which tradition has built its grotesque superstructure, Gones, indeed, asserts that one George SabeUicus, who disapjieared about the year 1517, is the real F. ; but Philip Melancthon — the man of all the reformers whose word in regard to a matter of fact would most readily be trusted— says that he had himself conversed with Dr Faustus. Conrad Gesner ^1501) is equally positive ; and Luther, in his Table Talk, speaks of Dr F, as a man lost beyond all hope. The opinion that prevails, and which is reckoned to be intrinsically the more probable, is that some man of this name, possessed of varied knowledge, may p jssib>> have practised jugglery (for the wandering feavans of the middle ages had all a touch of the qu ick about them), and thiis have been taken by the ignorant people for a dealer in the black art, and one who maintained a secret and intimate rela- tion with evil si)irits. His widely diffused celebrity not only occasioned the wonders worked by other ' 266 so-called necromancers of an earlier age — Albertuu Magnus, Simon Magus, and Paracelsus — to be attri- buted to him, but likewise many ancient tales and legends of a marvellous character were gradually transferred to him, till he finally ai)pears as the very hero of magicians. But while, on the one hand, the narrative of F.'s marvels afforded amusement to the P';o])le, on the other, they were made use of tor ii struotion by the clergy, who pointed out, in the frightfid fate of F., the danger of tampering with the ' black art ; ' and the abominableness of a life sunk in sensuality and vice. The myth of hiia received a manifold literary treatment. First come the Volksbiicher (or people's books), which record F.'s enterprises and feats. The oldest of these now known appeared at Frankfort in 1588. Then came an ' improved ' edition of the same, by Widmann, entitled Wahrliafthje Ilbi'orie.n von denen grduUchen Siinden Dr J oh. F.\s (True History of the Horrible Crimes of Dr John F., Hamb, 3 vols., 1599) ; and iu 1695, a work was published at Niirnberg by Pfitzer, based upon that of Widmann. The oldest of these books was translated into all the civilised languages of Europe. Impostors also published books of magic under the name of F., such as Faustus rjrosser und gevHdii(jer Hollenzwang (Faust's Great and Potent Book of Spells), FausterCs Miraculhinst (Faust's Art of Performing Miracles), and DreJfacJie milmzwang (The Threefold Book of Spells). These wretched productions are filled throughout with meaningless scrawls and figures, interspersed with texts from the Bilde scandalously misapplied ; but in the belief of the vidgar, they were supposed capable, when properly understood, of accomplishing prodigies. That the poetical art shoidd in due time have seized on a subject affording so much material for the fancy to work upon, was inevitable ; and consequently, German literature abounds in elegies, })antomimes, tragedies, and comedies on Faust. Since the end of the 17th c, the Piippmspid (Puppet-show) of Dr F. (first published at Leii^sio in 1850) has been one of the most po])ular pieces in Germany. It forms the transition from the rude magic tales concerning F., to the later philosophic conception of the Faust-myth, which has become the most perfect poetical expression of the eternal strife between Good and Evil in the soul of man. The first writer who treated the story of F. dramatic- ally was the English writer Chiistopher Marlowe^ about the year 1600 (German translation by W Miiller, Berlin, 1818) ; but the grandest work on the subject is Goethe's Faust, tlie first part of which appeared under the title of Dr F., ein Trmiersjyid (Leip. 1790), and afterwards in a remodelled form, under the title of F., eine Tragodle (Tubingen, 1808). The second part was published after the author's death, at Stuttgart in 1833. Besides Goetlie's drama, may be mentioned Lessing's masterly fragment, F. und die Siehen Geister (F. and the Seven S])irits), G. F. L. Muller's Dr F.'s Leben (Dr F.'s Life, Manlu 1778), and Klinger's F.\s Leben, Thaten, und Holleri' faltrt (F.'s Life, Doings, and Descent into Hell; Petersb. and Leip. 1791). The plastic art has also found a fit subject in Faust. In Auerbach's cellar at Leipsic, where F. is said to have performed many of his feats, are two rude daubs of the year 1525, representing F. and Mephistopheles riding out of the cellar on a wine-barrel. Rembrandt and Christoph von Sicliem have also illustrated the story of F., and, in modern times, Cornelius and Retzscli have done the same. See Peter's Die LUeraiur der Faustsage (The Literature of the Faust Myth), 2d cd. Leip. 1857. FAUSTINA, mother and daughter. The former, Annia Oaleria, usually spoken of as Faustina Senior^ was the wife of the Roman emperor, Antoninus FAUSTINUS L— FAVRR Jr'ius, and died 141 A. D. ; the latter, known as Faustina Junior, was married to his successor, Marcus Am'elius Antoninus, and died at a village near Mount Taurus in 175 a.d. Both, but particu- larly the younger, were notorious for the profligacy of their lives, which their exemplary husbancis in vain endeavoured to check. After their deaths, institutions for the relief of poor girls were founded both by Antoninus and Marcus Aurelius in honour of th^ n, and were called ^puellce alimentarice Fau.i- tincB.^ Marcus Aurelius, in his Meditations, speaks highly of his wife, and an attempt has been made by Wieland to defend her against the imputations of the historians of the emperors. FAUSTI'NUS I., emperor of Haiti, known, before his elevation to the throne, as Faustinus Soulouque, a negro originally of very humble circum- stances, was born in St Domingo in 1789. In his earlier years, he acted as servant, and afterwards as adjutant, to General Lamarre. He subsequently served imder Presidents Petion and Boyer, and by the latter was raised to the rank of captain. After the year 1844, when the Haitian Hepublic — of which General Boyer was then president — was dissolved, a struggle for the supreme power ensued, in which F. played an important part. In 1817 he was appointed by the senate President of the Eepublic. On the 16th April 1848, a dreadfvd massacre of the mulattoes in Port-au-Prince took place at his instigation. This, and similar measures, struck terror into the hearts of his opponents. In August 1849, he had himself proclaimed Emperor of Haiti, a title which he enjoyed for about ten years ; but a revolution having broken out in 1858, and a republic having been declared, F. was forced to abdicate, 15tb Jan. 1859. He died 6th Aug. 1867. FAUVETTE, a French name, partially adopted in the English language, for some of the little song- birds of the family SylviddcB or Warblers, having straight slender bills slightly compressed in front, the ridge of the upper mandible curving a little towards the tip, and the legs not long. They mostly 'belong to the genus Curruca, as the Blackcap, the Pettychaps or Garden Warbler, the Whitethroat, &c. ; and to the genus Salicaria, as the Sedge Warbler, the Reed Warbler, &c. The Dartford Warbler {Mdizophilus ProvinciaUs) is also called Fauvette. They are all very lively little birds, continually flitting about in pursuit of insects, mostly frequenting bushy places ; and some of them, particularly those of the genus Salicaria, preferring watery situations where reeds abound. FAVA'RA, a town of Sicily, in the south of the island, in the province of Girgenti, and four miles south-east of the town of that name. It has rich sulphur-mines, and a poinilation of 11,400. FA V ART, Charles Simon, a French dramatist, was born at Paris 13th November 1710, and first became known by his La Chercheuse cP Esprit, performed in 1741. In 1745, he married Made- moiselle Duronceray, herself a dramatic writer of VUSiQ note, and a singer of remarkable talent, and ir. the same year became director of the Opera- Comique. The fine taste and judgment of F. and his wife soon obtained for their theatre a great reputation. It was they who made the first attempt to harmonise the costume of the actors and actresses with their impersonations, and to put a stop to the ridiculous practice of decking o\it soubrettes and country -girls in the attire of coiuii-ladies. So powerful, however, was the oppo- sition excited against them by the jealousy of the other theatres, that the Opera-Gomique was closed ua the first year of its existence. After some time spent with Mar6chal de Saxe during his campaign in Flanders, F. and his wife retunied to Paris, where the former continued to write opcias. His wife died in 1772, and he 12th May, 1793. F.'s success as a writer was very great. He may be reckoned the father of the comic o])era, and the hajjpy successor of Le Sage, Piron, etc. The number of his jiieces amounts to about sixty, of which the most celebrated are Comment VEajorit vient auz Fille.s, Le (Joq du Village, Bantien et Bastienne, Ninnette a la (Jour, Lei Trois Sultanes, and L^Amjlais d Bordeaux. Hia works have been published several times. Ad edition in ten volumes was pu})lished at Paris in 1810, under the title of Thedtre de Monsieur ei Madame Favart. A very interesting book, entitled Les Memoires et la Correspondence de Favart, giving delightful glimpses of the literary and theatrical world of the 18th c, ■« as published at Paris m 1809 by his grandsom FA'VERSHAM, a municipal borough and seaport in the north of Kent, on a navigable creek, opposite Sheppey Isle, 8 miles west-north-west of Canter- bur3^ It chiefly consists of four streets in an irregidar cross. It has a valuable oyster-fishery, employing 200 to 300 persons. It sends much agricultural produce to London by hoys. The creek admits vessels of 150 tons. In the vicinity are some of the most important gunpowder factories in the kingdom. Pop. (1871) 7189. Under the name of Favresfield, it was a seat of the Saxon kings, where Athelstan, in 930, held a Witenageniote. It has the remains of an abbey founded by King Stephen, where he and his queen, Matilda, are buried. St Crispin is said to have been appren- ticed to a shoemaker here. Near F. are some chalk caverns, with columns. In 1869, 2567 vessels, of 161,529 tons, entered and cleared the port. FAVIGNA'NA, the chief of the .^^gades, a group of islands in the Mediterranean, ofl" the west coast of Sicily, lies at a distance of six miles from the Sicilian shore, and is about six miles long, with an average breadth of two miles. It has a town of the same name, with two castles, and a population of 3900. F. is fruitful, has good pasturage, and produces excellent wine. FA'VOSITES, a genus of lamelliferous cora.4>, found in Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous strata. They were social corals, closely packed together, no space being left between the walls of the different corallites. As in the other palajozoio corals, the lamellae are developed in multiples of four, and the older portion of the stony base is partitioned ofl" by horizontal tabidse. FAVOURS, or MARRIAGE FAVOURS, bows of white satin ribbons distributed at marriages in Great Britain, and usually pinned on the breast of all concerned, attendants and postilions included. The favours of those more immediately interested are sometimes enriched with orange blossom. This is an old usage, connected with the love-knot of ancient northern nations, which is not likely soon to disappear; it forms almost the only remaining token of merriment in ;he nuptial ceremonial. See Brand's Popular AntiqiAtim, edited by EUis, article ' Bride Favours.' FAVRE, Gabriel Claude Julks, a French advo cate and deputy, was born at Lyon, 31st ^March 1809. He is the son of a merchant, studied for the bar, and passed at Lyon in 1830. His pohtical opinions were and are intensely republican, and when pleading for his clients, in the course of the niunerous political lawsiuts which he was employed to carry on, F. not iinfrequently placed the state solicitors, and even the judges, in a very mbarrassing position, by the boldness of his sentimt-nts. As the defender of the Mutuellists at Lyon in .831, FAVUS— FAYETTEVILLE. was in danger of losing his life ; this, however, did not prevent him from appearing before the House of Peers, in 1834, as the defender of those y\ho had been impeached in A])ril, and commencing his Bi)eech with Je suis licpublicaiu. Since 1834, F. has been a member of the Paris bar. In the February- revolution of 1848, F. was appointed Home Secre- tary, in which capacity he wrote the notorious circular for which Ledru-Rollin's administration was Bo severely reproached, investing the commissioners of the rei)ublic with dictatorial authority in the pro- vinces. As a member of the Committee of Foreign Affairs, and for some time under- secretary to the same, he took an active part in the labours of the Assembly. After the election of the 10th December, F. shewed himself a persistent antagonist of the President, Louis Napoleon, and after the flight of Ledru-E,ollin, became the orator of the Mountain. The coup tVetat virtually closed his political career. He refused to take the oath of fidelity to the imperial government, and betook himself again to his professional duties. In 1858, he defended Orsini, on his trial for a consj)iracy to murder. F. is greatest in political repartee, and though long accustomed to the rough arena of public strife, liis language is noted for its Attic elegance. He is the author of several political brochures. FA'VUS (Lat. a honeycomb), a disease of the skin, chiefly of the hairy scalp, characterised by yellowish dry incrustations of more or less roundish form, and often cup-shaped, composed of the Sporules and Mycelia (q. v.) of a vegetable growth belonging to the order of Fmigi (q. v.). The discs of favus are produced with great rapidity, and s])read rapidly, if not attended to at the first, over the whole scalp, destroying the bulbs of the hair, which becomes very short and thin, and then falls out altogether. Favus is a disgusting and unsightly, but hardly a dangerous disorder ; it is, beyond doubt, conta- gious, but only spreads where cleanliness is greatly neglected, and is therefore almost imknown among the better classes. It is far more common among children than among adults, and seems to be more frequent in Scotland than in England, and more frequent also on the continent than in either Eng- land or Scotland. The cure is sometimes attempted by a variety of medicated and simple ointments, and by pulling out the hair by the roots, or epilation^ as it is called ; but it seems hardly possible in inveterate cases to get rid of the disease without a veiy long persistence in habits of the most scrupidous clea,nli- ness, and therefore the cure is seldom permanent, though easily attained for the time. Favus is almost always followed by permanent baldness of the parts affected ; unlike Ringworm (q. v.), which is a minor disease of the same order. The Favus fvmgus, A chorion Sclioenleinii, is nearly allied to the fungus which has recently proved so destructive to vines, and has by some botanists been i)laced in the same genus, Oidium. FAWKES, Guy (properly GinDo), the head Ci the conspiracy known by the name of the Gunpowder Plot, was born of a Protestant family in Yorkshire, in the year 1570. He became a Roiaan Catholic at an early age, and served in the Spanish army in the Netherlands. Inspired Avith fanatical zeal for his new religion, on his return to England, he entered into a plot with several Catholic gentlemen for blowing up the king, his miristers, and the members of both houses at the oi)eaing of parliament, 5th November 1605. Guy F. was taker with the burning match in his hand, tried, and after having been put to the torture, was jHiblicly executed January 31, 1606. In remem- brance of this event, in most English towns, but K68 l)articiUarly in London, a grotesqiie figure, stuffed with straw, is carried al^out the streets on the 5th of November, and finally committed to the flame* Guy Fawkes's Signature before and after torture. A political and religious signification was again imparted to this custom by what was called ' the papal aggression' in the year 1850, when the figure of Cardinal Wiseman (q. v.) was substituted for that of Guy Fawkes. FA'Y, Andras, a Hungarian author, was born in 1786, at Kohany, in the county of Zemplen. After having studied philosoj)hy and law at the Protestant college of Saros[)atak, F. was called to the bar. He held a situation for some time in the coimty of Pesth, which, however, he afterwards relinquished, in order to be able to devote himself altogether to literary pursuits. After two volumes of poetry. a])peared the collection of Fables {Mesek, Vien. 1820), and with the issue of that work F. obtained a decided reputation. The fables are like those of Pliaedms and La Fontaine, but in prose. Richness of invention, simplicity of design, and truth of character, are the chief qualities for which the Mesek have become a household word among Hungarians. Among F.'s dramatic works may be mentioned the tragedy. The Two Bathorys (A Ket Bdthory, Pesth, 1827) ; the comedies. Ancient Coins {Hegi Penzek)t and Hunters in the Matra {Mdtrai Vaddszoh). The novel, The House of the Beltekys [A^ Belteky-liaz, Pesth, 1832), is rather of a didactic kind, but exhibits many features of Hungarian domestic life. Besides these, F. has been a constant contributor to literary and scientific periodicals, and had also his share in some of those pamphlets by which great social questions, as, for instance, female education, savings- banks, &c., were brought to a successful issue in Hungary. In reading F.'s works, we are frequently reminded of Dean Swift. From 1825, which year may be said to have been the beginning of a new poli- tical life for Hungary, up to the year 1840, F. was foremost among the leaders of the liberal opposition in the county sittings of Pesth ; but on the appear- ance of Kossuth, the strides of pubhc hfe growing more and more rapid, F. gradually retired from the region of political controversy, turning his inventive mind to social improvements. The first savings- bank of Hungary (at Pesth) is entirely F.'s work. His literary works were published in eight volumes at Pesth, 1843 — 1844. He is a directing member of the Himgarian Academy of Sciences. FAYA'L, one of the most important of tne Azores (q. v.), contains about 37 square miles, and about 25,000 inhabitants. As one must infer from such density of popidation, the island is fertile. In its centre is a mountain 3000 feet in height ; and on its south-east coast a convenient bay with good anchorage. Its principal town, Horta, stands on this bay in lat. 38° 30' N., and long. 28° 41' W. FAYETTEVILLE is the name of a flourishing city of North Carolina, United States of America. Standing on the left bank of the Cape Fear River, about 140 miles from its mouth, F. marks the head of its natural navigation j while, by means of loclui FAYtTM— FEATHER GRASS. anrl iams, it communicates likewise with the upper basin of the river. While the interior sends down co?i, the immediate neighbourhood is covered with forests of pine, which are traversed in all directions by 350 miles of plank-road, and yield not merely timber but tar and turpentine. The Cape Fear, moreover, gives abundance of water-power, which is larg^y applied to the manixfacture of cottons and flour. F. has an arsenal of nearly 50 acres in extent. Pop. in 1870, 4663. FAYUM, the name of an Egyptian province, surrounded, in the form of a basin, by the Libyan Desert, and connected merely by a narrow valley with that of the Nile, between lat. 29°— 30" N., and 30° — 31° E. This peculiar depression of the desert extends about 30 miles from north to south, and about 40 miles from east to west, its lowest point lying 100 feet below the banks of the Nile at Benisuef. F. is one of the most fertile provinces in Egypt ; producing, in addition to the ordinary useful plants of the country, roses, apricots, figs, vines, olives, &c. in great quantities. This fertihty, j-a a province the soil of which is naturally arid and saudy, is the result of irrigation. A canal from the Nile was, at an early period, carried westward through a gorge in the Libyan hills, which here skirt the western bank of the Nile, and after dividing into numerous branches, lodged its Avaters in a depression in the north-west, thus forming, it is said, the Lake Moeris (q. v.). The ancient capital of the province, called Krokodilopolis, and at a later perior' Arsinoe, stood on the easterrf shore of Lake Mceris, and upon its ruins stands the present town, Medinet-el-Fayftm, still a place of considerable size, and the cliief town of the province. FEAL AND DIVOT is a Predial Servitude (q. v.) pecvdiar to the law of Scotland, in virtue of which the proprietor of the dominant tenement possesses the right of turning up and carrying off turf from th^ servient tenement for the pur])ose of building fences, roofing houses, and the like. This, as well as the servitude of fuel, implies tlie right of using the nearest grounds of the servient tenement on which to Iry and dry the Turf Peats (q. v.) or feal. These servitudes do not extend beyond the ordinary uses of the actual occupants of the dominant tenement, and cannot be taken advantage of for such a pur- pose .'^ to burn limestone for sale. They are not included in the servitude of pasturage, but must be constituted either by express grant, or by posses- sion following on the usual clause of parts and pertinents. Ersk. ii. tit. ix. s. 17. The etymology of these words has been much disputed. Feal or fail is said to come from the Suio- Gothic wall, any grassy part of the surface of the ground ; and Jamiebon derives divot from dehe (Sax. del/an or delven), or, as another alternative, says that it may have tjeen formed by the monkish writers of old charters from de/odere, to dig the earth. The former is the more probable conjecture. FEALTY (Lat. fidelitas) is the fidelity which a man who holds lands of another owes to him, and con- tains an engagement to perform the services, or to pay the dues for which the land is granted. It was embodied in an oath, by Avhich the tenant bound liim- Belf on entering to the lands. In taking the oath of fidelity, Littleton says, s. 91, that the tenant shall not kneel, nor shall make such humble reverence as in homage. The only object of fealty in modern times is to keep up the evidence of tenure Avhere no other services are due ; but even to this effect it has gone into desuetude. FEAR, Mania of, or PANPHOBIA. There are many morbid manifestations of the instinct of cautiousness. Sudden fear in sleep, horrible dreams^ nightmare, sleep-walking, have been regarded m symptoms of a special disease. Actual terror ivove irregular circulation in the sensory ganglia ; tho sense of falling or drowning in cardiac ai'fcctions incubus from disturbance of the circulation in the larger vessels by repletion, plethora, or position,^ where there is the super-addition of a delusion t«' the feeling of apprehension, — all are allied and dis tinguished by involuntaiy and excited cautiousness. It IS not only, however, when the intelligence may be supposed to be dormant, and the instincts awake, that such exaggerated fears paralyse minds other- wise sane and sound. Jlurat, 'the bravest of the brave,' and James I. of EagWd, learned if not wise, were subject to vague, u uconirollable panics, which for a time unmanned them. The condition is often found associated with disease of the heart, as a con- sequence and concomitant rather than a cause. Tho presence of the habitual dread of evil, the fear of death, the sleepless and breathless anxiety during darkness, or solitude, or silence, as well as the sudden, wild, ungovernable panic, point to the existence of organic or functional diseases of the heart ; and conversely, excited or irregular action of the organ, murmurs, angina, lead the astute psychologist to predicate fear as a characteristic of the mental condition. It precedes, and is believed to produce chorea, cancer, and scirrhus. Proximately, however, it depends upon alterations in the cajjillary circida- tion, or nervous structure of the brain. Its charac- teristic is involuntary, irresistible, blind terror, which arises and continues without an adequate cause, and which is not influenced by reason or religion, not even by the removal of the supposed object of alarm. The disease has appeared epidemically during commercial panics, during the horrors of cholera and plague, and in that singular affection called Timoria, which is marked by debility, tremor, and terror, and has been traced to the effects of the damp, unhealthy regions in Sardinia and Sicily, where it exclusively occurs. Panphobia is hereditary, and has been traced through three successive genera- tions. In reviewing the unobtrusive members of an asylum family, the [)allid, startled, staring, flickering countenances may be detected as those of patients labouring under fear. They resemble melancholies in pallidity of skin, but in place of courting they shrink from sympathy ; though horror-stricken by gloom, they hide in corners, they escape, they shriek in desperation, they climb trees, and appar- ently inaccessible places ; and encounter real in order to elude fancied dangers ; or they are motionless, paralysed. They fear and flee from enemies, police, demons, death, punishment; indescribable agonies themselves. — Feuchtersleben, Principles of Medical Psychology, p. 281 ; Arnold, Observations on Nature, Kinds, Causes, and Prevention of Insanity, &c., vol. i. p. 257. FEASTS. See Festivals. FEATHER, a river of California, and a feede» of the Sacramento, runs through one of the richest gold-fields in the state. It receives the Yuba near Marysville, which appears to mark the head of navi- gation — the distance down the F. and the Sacra- mento to the harbour of San Francisco being about 100 miles. FEATHER GRASS {Stipa), a genus ot grasses remarkable for the long awns which give a pecu- liar and very gracefid appearance to the species, mostly natives of warm temperate climates. In some of them, the awn is beautifully feathered. This is the case in the best known species, the Common F. G. [S. pennata), a very doubtful native of Britain, but found on diy hiUs in the middle and FEATHER GRASS-FEATHERS. i-eather Grass {Stipa pennata). ionth of Europe. It is perennial, easy of cultiva- tion, and a favourite ornament of our gardens. When >?aHiercd before the seeds are ripe, its feathery awns — sometimes a fouc in length — remain attached, so that tufts of F. G. ret.^in their beauty iliroughout •winter, and form one of the most pleasing and familiar decorations of rooms. They are often dyed, to givo variety to the de- coration, but are never more beauti- ful than in their natural yellowish- white colour. The feathery awns not only assist in the diffusion of the seed, •which is carried by the wind to great distances, but in a very interesting manner help to tix it in the soil. The seed alights verti- cally, the furrowed base of the awn becomes twisted, so that its furro^ws form the threads of & ecrew, the feathery portion becomes horizontal, the wind acts on it, and the seed is screwed into the ground — a reverse action being prevented by stiff hairs which act as barbs. — The Esparto (q. v.) of Spain is nearly allied to the Common Feather Grass. FEATHERS, a complicated modification of the tegumentary system forming the external covering or plumage of birds, and peculiar to this class of animals. Not- withstanding the varieties of size, strength, and colour, all feathers are composed of a quill or baiTel, a ; a shaft, bb ; and a vane, beard, or web, cc, on either side of the shaft, the vane con- sisting of barbs and barbules. The quill by wiiich the feather is attached to the skin is wider but shorter than the shaft, and forms a semi-transparent, homy, cylindrical tube, which termin- ates below in an obtuse ex- tremity, presenting an orifice termed the lower umbilicus, e. A second orifice, leading into the interior of the quill, and termed the upper umbilicus, /, is situ- ated at the opposite end, wiiere the two vanes meet and unite. The ca-vdty of the quill contains a series of conical capsules fitted one upon another, and united by 9 central pedicle ; and the whole structure presents a remarkable combination of strength and lightness. The shaft is always of greater length than the qnill, and tapers gradually to its free extremity ; it is llattened at the sides, is more or less convex t>n the back, and presents a longitudinal groove Inferiorly. It is composed of white, elastic, spongy structure, which is covered by a thin homy sheath. 270 feather. At the point of junction of the shaft and quill, we usually observe — except on the feathers of the wings and tail — a small supplementary shaft given off, which is furnished with barbs or fibres, and ia termed the plumule or accessory plume. In the ostrich it is altogether absent ; in the rhea, it is re})resented by a tuft of down ; in the emu, pn the other hand, it equals the original feathers in size, so that the quill supports two shafts ; and in the cassowar^^ there is a second plumule of considerable size, so that the quill presents three distinct shafts. The vanes or webs are composed of niimeroua barbs or small fibres arranged in a single series along each side of tlie shaft. They are fine prolongations of the outer coat of the shaft, are of a flattened form, and lie inclined towards the apex of the feather, with their fiat sides towards each other, and their margins in the direction of the external and internal sides of the feather. The barbs are broader near the shaft than at the free apex, and in the large wing-feathers the convexity of one ia received into the concavity of another. They are, however, generally kept in position by the barbules, which are minute curved filaments arising from the up])er edge of the barb, much as the latter arises from the shaft. There are two sets of these bar- bules, one curved up"wards, and tlie other down- wards, and those of one barb hook so firmly into those of the next, as to form a close and compact surface. In the ostrich, the barbides are well developed, but are loose and separate, and it in this arrangement which giv«e to the feathers of this bird their soft, plumous appearance. Feathers present numerous gradations of &tmc- ture. In the cassowary, the wings, instead of being provided with ordinary feathers, are furnished with five cylindrical stalks destitute of barbs, so that here we have merely the quill and shaft. On the breast of the wild turkey there is a tuft of feathers resembling long black hair. In the Dasijlophus Cumingii, the feathers of the crest, breast, and throat are changed, at their extremities, into round, horny lamella?, looking like shining black spangles ; and in the common waxwing or Bohemian chatterer, some of the wing-feathers present at their extremities small horny expansions, resembling red sealing-Avax, both in colour and consistence. Besides the common feathers, the skin of many birds, especially of aquatic species — in which plumules rarely exist — is covered with a thick coating of down, which may be described as con- sisting of very minute feathers, each of which composed of a very small soft tube lying in the skm, from the interior of which arises a minute tuft of soft filaments, without any central shaft. This downy covering secures warmth without weight, like the soft fur at the base of the hair of arctio mammals. In most birds, the skin also bears a good many scattered hair-like appendages, which indicate their relations to the ordinary feathers by the presence of a few minute barbs towards the apex. Feathers are developed in depressions of the skin, lined by an inversion of the epidermis which sur- roimds the bulb from which each feather springs ; they grow, much in the same manner as hairs, by the addition of new cells from the bulb, which becomes modified into the horny and fibrous stem, and by the elongation of previously existing cells. They are, when first formed, li\'ing vascular parts, growing by nutrient vessels ; but when they are fidly formed, the vessels become atrophied, and the feathers become dried up, and gradually die from tlie summit to the base. For a full account of the development of the different parts, we must refei to Professor Owen's article, ' Aves,' and to P'-ofessoi FEBRIC QLA— FEBRONIANISM. Huxley's article, ' Tegumeutary Aj)pendages,' in the Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology. Feathers grow with great rapidity, and in some birds attain a length of more than two feet. They are ahnost always renewed annually, and in many Bpecies oftener ; hence it may readily be conceived how mncli vital energy must be exhibited in their development, and how critical the period of moult- ing must be. Tlie plimiage is generally changed several times before it attains the state v/hich is regarded as characteristic of the adult bird ; these changes may occupy a period usually rangmg from one to five years. Not^^^thstanding theii* extra vascular nature, feath- ers, as is well known, undergo a change of colour after they are completely formed. In yearling birds, the winter plumage, which succeeds the autumnal moult, gradually assumes brighter tints, the new colour commencing at the part of the vane nearest the body, and gradually extending outwards till it pervades the whole feather. Dr Weinland, an American naturalist, is of opinion, from a compari- son ^.L bleached specimens in museums, with recent ones taken from the bird, that the brightness and fading of the colours are due to the increase or dimi- nution of an oily matter. Thus, the microscopic examination of the vane of feathers from the breast of a fresh merganser shewed numerous lacunce con- taining a reddish oil-like fluid ; some weeks after, the same feathers having become nearly white from exposure to light, disclosed air-bubbles instead of the reddish fluid. If this fluid is an actual oil, as is most probably the case, it could make its way into the non-vascular tissue by mere physical imbi-- bition ; and on the varying quantities of this oil the variations of plumage would depend. The property possessed by the plumage of most birds, of keeping the surface protected from mois- ture, is well known. This is due to two causes. Most birds are provided with an oil-gland at the base of the tail, whose secretion is distributed over the feathers by means of the bill ; and, additionally, the shedding of water is partly due to a thin plate of air entangled by the feathers. The feathers vary in form in different parts of the body, and alFoixl zoological characters for the distinction of species. Hence, they have received distinct names, such as piimaries, secondaries, tertiaries, &c., in ornithology. These terms are explained in the article Birds. The chief uses to which feathers are applied in the arts are three — pens, due to the peculiar elasticity of the barrels ; bed-feathers, due to the combined softness and elasticity of the barbs ; and ornam,ent, due to the graceful forms and delicate tints of the whole feather. The mode of preparing the barrels for pens is described under Quills. Bed-feathers were used in England in the time of Henry VII. ; but it is not known how much earlier. At the present day, goose-feathers are preferred, the white rather than the gray. What are called foultr-y feathers, such as those of the turkey, duck, and fowl, are less esteemed, on account of their deflcient elasticity. Wild-duck feathers are soft and elastic, but contain an oil difficult to remove. The following is one among several modes of pre- paring feathers for beds. Clean water is saturated with quickUme ; the feathers are put into a tub ; the lime-water is added to the de])th of a few inches ; the feathers are well stee])ed and stirred for three or four days; they are taken out, drained, washed in clean water, dried upon nets, shaken occasionally while drying, and finally beaten to expel any dust. The larger esta})lishments, how- evei, now i)repare bed-feathers by steaming, which is founl to be a more profitable and efficient pro- cess. The dovm, which is of so light and exquisite a texture as to have become the symbol of soft- ness, is mostly taken from the breasts of birds, and forms a warm and delicate stuffing for beds, pillows, and coverlets. The most valuable is" that obtained from the eider-duck, descriljcd under Eider. Feathers used for head-dresses, or other pur- poses of ornament, are selected according to the forms and colours which they display. 'Hie ontrichy a very valuable kind of feather, may be taken as an exam))le of the way in which ornainental feathers generally are prepared by the p^«>ias.s'u'r. The mode of catching the bird itself is noticed under OSTRICH; it suffices here to state that the hunters endeavour to avoid injuring the feathers by blood or blows. When brought to England, the feathers are assorted according to quality ; those from the back and above the wings are the best, the wing-feathers next best, and the tail-feathers least valued. The feathers of the male are rather more prized than those of the female. They are cleaned for use by repeated soakings and washings in water, sometimes with and sometin^es without soap. There is also a process of bleaching by means of burning sulphur. When dried by being hung upon cords, the feathers pass into the hands of the dresser, who opens the fibres by shaking, gives pliancy to the ribs by scrap- ing them with bits of glass, and curls the filaments by passing the edge of a blunt knife over them. If the feathers, whether of the ostrich or any other bird, remain in the natural colour, little more has to be done ; but if a change of tint be required, the feathers easily take dye-materials — such as saffiower and lemon-juice for rose-colour or pink, Brazil-wood for deep red, Brazil-wood and cudbear for crimson, indigo for blue, turmeric or weld for yellow, &c. A process of bleaching is adopted before the dyosing, except for black. The kinds of feathers chiefly used for ornament are those of the ostrich, adjutant, rhea or American ostrich, emii, osprey, egrett, heron, antrenga, bird of paradise, swan, turkey, peacock, argus pheasant, ibis, eagle, and grebe. White ostrich feathers are prei)ared chiefly for ladies' head-dresses; and black for the Highland regiments and for funereal trappings. The white and gray marabout- stork feathers, imported from Calcutta, are beautifully soft and light, and are in request for head-dresses, muffs, and boas ; the white kinds will sometimes sell for their weight in gold. The flossy kinds of rhea feather are used for military plumes, and the long brown wing feathers for brooms and brushes. Osprey and egrett feathers are mostly used for military plumes by Hussar troopers. Bird of Para- dise feathers are much sought after by Oriental princes for turban -plumes. Cocks' feathers are used for ladies' riding-hats and for military plumes. Dr Macgowan, who was United States consul at Xingpo a few years ago, has described, in the Ame^^ican Journal of Science and Art, an ingenious process which the Chinese adopt for combining brilliant- coloured feathers with bits of coloured metal into garlands, chaplets, frontals, tiaras, and ether cm*^ mental articles. FEBRI'CULA (Lat. a little fever), sometimes called also Ephemera (Gr. a fever of a day), a fever of short duration and mild character, having no distinct tyi}^ specific symptoms, by which it can be distinguished and described. See Fever. FE'BRIFUGE (Lat. fehris, a fever, and fugo, 1 drive away), medicines calculated to remove or yut short Fever (q. v.). FEBRO'NIAN'ISM,in Roman Catholic theology, a system of doctrir»e antagonistic to the admitted S71 FEBRUARY— FEDEliAL GOV iLivNMENT. claims of the Roman pontiff, and asserting the inde- ! pendence of national churches, and the diocesan rights of individual bishops in matters of local discipline and church government. Tl\e name is ' derived from the nom de guerre, Justin us ' Feb- j ronius,' assumed by John NichoUas von Hontheim, ; coadjutor archbishop of Treves, in a work on those subjects, entitled De Prcesenti Statu Ecclesi(je, which he published in the year 1767, and which, with its several successive volumes, led to a violent and | protracted controversy, and elicited the severest ; censures of the Roman tribunals. See Hontheim, Gallican Church. | FE'BRUARY, the second month of the year, has ' ordinarily 28 days, but in leap-year it has an addi- ! tional or intercalary day. Among the Romans, it had originally 29 days in an ordinary year, but when \ the senate decreed that the eighth month should bear tlie name of Augustus, a day was taken from February, and given to August, which had then only 30, that it might not be inferior to July. The name is derived from the circumstance, that during this month occurred the Roman festival called the Lupercalia, and also Februalia, from fehruare, to purify. j FE'BRUUS (connected with Lat. februare, to ! purify) was the name of an old Italian divinity, [ whose woi'ship was celebrated with lustrations during the month of Fel^ruaiy. The ceremonies institiited in his honour were l)elieved to have the effect of pi-oducing fertility in man and beast. ' F., whose name in the Etruscan language is said to have signified god of the lower world, was also j worshipped as such by the Romans, and identified j with the Greek Pluto. | FECAMP, a manufacturing town and seaport of France, in the department of Seine Inferieure, is J situated in a narrow valley, flanked on either side \ by steep cliffs, at the mouth of a stream of the j same name on the English Channel, 23 miles north- east of Ha\Te. It consists mainly of one long street. I Its principal building is the handsome church of Notre Dame, in the early pointed style, and dating from the 14th century. The harbour is frequented by colliers from Newcastle and Sunderla^id, and by Baltic timber-ships and fishing-vessels. F. has j cotton-mills, sugar-refineries, tanneries, ship-build- ] ing yards, and some linen-cloth and hardware I manufactures. Pop, (1876) 12,074. FF/Gl LA, or FiECULA, is a term applied to ' starch obtained from various sources, but in France is generally restricted to the starch of the potato. See Starch. FECUNDA'TION, or FERTILISA'TION, 5n plants, takes place according to laws similar to those which prevail in the animal kingdom. In | plants, however, the organs of reproduction are not permanent as in animals, but fall off — the male organs generally soon after fecundation, the female after the ripening of the seed. The male seminal Bubstance, called 2^oUen, never exists in a fluid state, but always in that of granules of various forms (pollen grains), which consist each of one cell, Avhose j covering is of various thickness, and contains the | impregnating substance. After the dehiscence of the anthers the pollen gets into contact with the, stigma of the pistil, which in its lowest and thickest ! part (the ovary or germen) contains the rudiments of the future seeds (ovules). The inner layer of the cell-covering of the pollen grain separates from the outer and thicker layer, as if it came out of a bag, and continuing to be elongated by growth, is can-ied down through the style to the germen, where it reaches the foramen or small opening of the embryo sac, and comes into contact with the ovule, or even 372 in many cases penetrates into the ovule itssif between its cells. By this time, one or other of the cells of the ovide has become considerably more enlarged than the other cells, and what is called the am/lion has been formed, in the mucilaginous fluid of which {protohlasma), after the contact of the I)ollen-bag, through the dynamic operation of its contents, a cell-gann or cytohlast is soon developed. This cjrtoblast is the first commencement of a new and distinct cell, which divides into two ccIIh. These increase, by continually repeated separation of new cells, into a cellular body, which forms tho more or less perfect embryo of a new plant, li the organ from which the pollen has proceeded, and the organ which contained the ovule, belong to the same plant or to plants of the same specif^, the embryo arising from this fecundation bccomea a plant of the same s])ecies. But if the j)ollen by M'hich the fecundation is effected comes from a }>lant of another species than that to which the plant belongs in whose germen the embryo is formed, the seed resulting from this fecundation will not, when it grows, ])roduce plants of the same sj)ecies, but hybrids, intermediate between the i)arent ])lants, and with various degrees of resemblance to one or other of them, l)ut not perfectly correspond- ing with either. litmce the production of hybrids, and multiplication of varieties of plants in gardens, by what is called the artificial impregnation of the stigma of one j)lant with the jwllen of another, which, however, must be of an allied species, hyl)rid- isation being confined by the laws of nature within very narrow limits. See Reproduotiox. FEDERAL GOVERN xMENT (Lat. foederaius, bound by treaty, from foedvs, a treaty). When several states, otherwise independent, bind tliem- selves together l)y a treaty, so as to present to the external world the aspect of a single state, without wholly renouncing their individual powers of internal self-government, they are said to form a Federation. The contracting parties are sovereign states acting through their representatives ; and the extent to which the central ovenides the local legislatures is fixed by the terms of the contract. In so far aa the local sovereignty is renounced, and the central power becomes sovereign within the limits of the federated states, the federation a})])roaches to the character of a Union ; and the only renunciation of sovereignty which a federation as such necessarily implies, consists in abandoning the power which each separate state otherwise would possess of forming independent relations with foreign states. * There are,' says Mr Mill, ' two different modes of organising a federal imion. The federal authorities may represent the governments solely, and their acts may be obligatory only on the governments as such, or they may haA'e the power of enacting laws and issuing orders which are binding directly on individual citizens. The former is the plan of the German so-called confederation, and of the Swiss constitution prevnous to 1847. It was tried in America for a few years immediately following the war of independence. The other principle is that of the existing constitution of the United States, and has been adopted within the last dozen years by the Svnss confederacy. The federal congress of the American Union is a substantive part of the goveniment of every individual state. Within the limits of its attributions, it makes laws which are obeyed by every citizen individually, executes them through its own officers, and enforces them l^y its own tribunals. This is the only principle which has been found, or which is even likely to produce an effective federal government. A union l^etween the governments only is a mere alliance, and subject to all the contingencies which render alliances FEE AND LIFERENT— FEE, ESTA.TE IN. precarious.' — Repreaentatlve Government, pp. 301, 302. One of the chief difficulties which arise iu organising a federal government, consists in discovering by what means disagreements between one or more of the local governments and the central govern- ment as to the Lmits of their respective powers, are to be disposed of. The arrangement by which this object was sought to be effected in America, of which M. de Tocqueville expressed his admir- ation, is thus explained by Mr Mill : ' Under the more perfect mode of federation, where every citizen of each particular state owes obedience to two governments— that of his own state, and that of the federation — it is evidently necessary not only that the constitutional limits of the authority of each should be precisely and clearly defined, but that the power to decide between them in any case of dispute should not reside in either of the govern- ments, or in any functionary subject to it, but in an umpire independent of both. There must be a supreme com-t of justice, and a system of subor- dinate courts in every state of the union, before whom such questions shall be carried, and whose i'udgment on them, in the last stage of appeal, shall »e final. Every state of the xmion, and the federal government itself, as well as every functionary of each, must be hable to be sued in those courts for exceeding their powers, or for non-performance of their federal duties, and must in general be obliged to employ those courts as the" instrument for enforcing their federal rights. This involves the remarkable consequence, actually realised in the United States, that a court of justice, the highest federal tribunal, is supreme over the various govern- ments, both state and federal, having the right to declare that any new law made, or act done by them, exceeds the powers assigned to them by the federal constitution, and, in consequence, has no legal validity.'— (P. 305.) 'The tribimals which act as umpires between the federal and state govern- ments naturally also decide all disputes between two states, or between a citizen of one state and the government of another. The usual remedies between nations, war and diplomacy, being pre- cluded by the federal union, it is necessary that a judicial remedy should suj)ply their place. The supreme court of the federation dispenses inter- national law, and is the first great example of what is now one of the most prominent wants of civilised society, a real intei'national tribunal.' Such is the constitution of the greatest and most completely organized federation that the world has ever seen — a model republic, which, though threatened with de- struction by the enemies of civil and personal liberty, has survived the shock of intestine Avar, and, purified from the defilement of slavery, has emerged stronger and more secure in the affections of the people. FEE AND LI'FEHENT (in the Law of Scotland) — ^the first of which is the full right of proprie- torship, the second the limited right of usufruct during life — may be held together, or may co-exist in different persons at the same time. The settling of the limits of the rights which in the latter case tUey respectively confer, is of veiy great practical importance, and, from the loose way in which both expressions have been used by conveyancers, by no means free from difficulty. ' In common language,' nays Mr Bell, * they are quite distinct ; liferent importing a life-interest merely, fee a full right of property in reversion after a liferent. But the proper meaning of the word liferent has some- times been confounded by a combination with the word fee, so as in some degree to lose its appro- priate sense, and occasionally to import a fee. This seems to have begun chiefly in destinations "to husband and wife, in conjunct fee and liferent and 174 children in fee ; " where the true meaning is, that each spouse has a joint liferent while both live, but that each has a possible fee, as it is 'mccrtain which is to survive. The same confusion ^f terms came to be extended to the case of a destins tion to parent and child — "to A. B. in liferent, and the heirs of the marriage in fee " — where the word life- rent was held to confer a fee on the parent. It came gradually to be held as the technical meaning of the words " liferent to a parent, with fee to his children nascituri," that the word liferent meant a fee in the father. Finally, the ex})ression came to be held as strictly limited to its proper meaning by the accompanying word "Alleuerly" or some similar expression of restriction ; or where the fee was given to children nati and nominatim ; there being in that case no necessity to divert the word liferent from its proper meaning, or, on a similar principle, where the settlement was by means of a t]-ust created to take up the fee.' [Prin. s. 1712.) FEE, Estate in, the largest estate in land in point of quantity of estate known to the law of England, being a Freehold (q. v.) of inheritance. Estates in fee are divided into fee-simple and fee- tail. A fee-simple is defined by Littleton (1, a.) to be a lawfid and pure inheritance. In order to create an estate in fee-sim])le by deed, it is necessary that the word heirs should be used ; for a gift by deed to a man for ever, or to a man and his assigns for ever, creates only an estate for life. But words of perpetuity annexed to a gift to a man by will are construpd as carrying an estate in fee. The ])ro- pinetor of an estate in fee-simple enjoys the fullest rights of property over his estate, which he may alienate or burden at pleasure, and out of which ho may grant estates of a lower kind, as for life or years. He is owner of the soil 'a ccelo usque ad centrum,'' and is therefore entitled to every product of the land, as timber, &c., and to all minerals and other valuable productions found beneath the sur- face. On his death, the estate descends to his right heirs, except in the case of fees held by coriiora- tions, which descend to their successors in office. Where a man claims an estate in fee-simple in pos- session in a corporeal Hereditament (q. v.), he ia said to be ' seised in his demesne as of fee.' Estatea in fee-simple are divided into fee-simple absolute, qualified or base, and conditional. A qualified oi base fee differs from a fee-simple absolute by haAang a qualification annexed which may determine the estate, as where it is granted to a man and his heira 'tenants of the manor of Dale.' If, therefore, at any time the holder of the estate ceases to be the tenant of Dale, the estate, which depended on tha^^ qualification, determines. A conditumal fee was limited to a particular clas-s of heirs, to the exclusion of others, as to a man and the heirs-male of his body. On failure of heirs- male of the body of the grantee, an estate of this kind reverted to the grantor or his heirs. But although the estate was thus limited, by the termi? of the deed, to a particular series of heirs, the judges previous to the reign of Edward I. held that the gift was a fee-simple on condition of the birth of heirs of the body of the grantee, and that on the birth of an heir of the body, the condition on which the estate was held was purified. The estate did not indeed become ipso fado a fee-simple absolute, but the grantee was held entitled to sell the estate, to forfeit it for treason, and to burden it witli encumbrances. But if the estate was not sold, and descended to the heir, he continued to hf)ld a fee- simple conditional. This state of things led to tht famous statute De Donis ConditionaUhus (13 Ed. 1 c. 1), whereby it was enacted that estates shoulo be held secundum formam doni. Estates created FEE-FUND— FEIGNING OF DISEASE. jy this statute wei'e called estates in fee-tail. See Entail. The original mode of transferring an estate in fee was by Feoffment (q. v.), but the statute of Frauds 29 Char. II. c. 3) requiring that writing should be used in all transfers of land, estates in fee must now be conveyed jy deed or ^vill. The proprietor of an estate in fee-simple in the present day is, as has been said, absolute owner of the freehold, which he holds without owing duty or service to any one, except the allegiance due to the sov ereign, who is regarded as supreme lord of all thy lauds in the kingdom. But originally this was not so ; an estate in fee is in its nature a feudal benefice, a feud, and the owner of the fee held his estate subject to all the services incident to the feudal state. But these duties have been by degrees entirely abolished in England. See Feudal Sys- tem, Tenures. In Scotland, the feudal usages in regard to land are still retained to a very great extent. The two distinct rights of superior and vassal continue to subsist. An estate in fee in Scotland must be held by one of the thi-ee existing tenures — viz., feu, blanch, or burgage, and is subject to tlie Casualties (q. v.) attaching to these rights. See Heritable Rights. FEE-FUND, in Scotland, is the fimd arising from the payment of dues of court on the tabling of summonses, the extracting of decrees, and the like. Out of this fund, the clerks and other inferior oiiicers of the court are paid. If the fund is at any time insufficient for the purposes to which it is applied, the deficiency is supplied out of the moneys provided by the acts 7 and 10 Anne for keeping up the Scottish courts of law. Tlie collector, since the passing of 1 and 2 Vict. c. 118, is appointed by the erown at a salary not exceeding £400 per annum. FEEJEE. See Fiji. FEELING. See Emotion. FEES. Neither barristers nor physicians can recover their fees by legal proceedings against their clients or patients, except under a special contract. The ground of this ride is, that they are regarded not as payment, but as an expression of gratitude for ser\dces the value of which cannot be appre- ciated in money. The oi-igin of the rule in the case of the advocates, is traced to the relation which subsisted between patrons and their clients in ancient Rome. When the former appeared as the defenders of the latter, they practised, as Blackstone says (iii. 29, Kerr's ed.), gratis, for honour merely, or at the most for the sake of j>-aining influence ; and so likewise, it is established with us that a counsel can maintain no action for his fees, which are given, not as locatio vel conductlo, but as quiddam honorarium; not as a salary or hire, but as a mere gratuity, which a counsellor cannot demand without doing wrong to his reputation. The rule at Rome was maintained even under the emperors, and Tacitus mentions {Ann. hb. ii. c. 5) that it was directed by a decree of tlie senate that these lionoraria shoidd not in any case exceed 10,000 sesterces, or about £80 of English money. It has further been decided in England, that no action lies to recover back a fee given to a barrister to argue a cause which he did not attend (Feake, 122). But special pleaders, equity draftsmen, and conveyancers, who have taken out certifijates to practise under the bar, and there- fore are not counsel, may recover their reasonable charges for business done by them (Poucher v. Non.'ian, 3 B. and C, 744). Another rule with reference to the fees of barristers and advocates is, that they are i)aid before they are earned ; a rule which, by removing fron its members all pecuniary 274 interest in the issue of suits, has done much to maintain the independence and respectability of the bar. As regards physicians, the nde that a fee cannot be recovered by an action at law, was applied in the case of Chorley v. Bolcot, Juno .*i0, 1791 (4 T. R. 317). But if either a barrister or a physician acts under a special agreement, ' as if a physician, who is my friend, hearing that my son is sick, goeth to him in my absence, and helps and recovers him, and I being ijiformed thereof, promise him in consideration, &c., to give him £20, an action will lie for the money,' Veitch v. Russell (Q. B. R. 1842, p. 934) ; and the same was decided regarding a barrister, in Egan v. the Guardians of the Kensington Union, tried before Lord Denman, C. J., at the sittings in Middlesex, after Hilary term, 1841. Members of the inferior branches of both professions — attorneys, solicitors, &c., on the one hand, and surgeons, dentists, cuppers, and the like on the other — are all entitled to raise action for theii fees. In Scotland, the same rides prevail as in England with reference to both professions. In France, though the delicate sense of honour of the bar has always been preserved with quite as much care as in England, the rule is somewhat diflerent In law, an action for the recovery of fees woidd be maintainable in that country by an advocate ; but 'in Paris, the rule of the ancient bar, founded on the disinterestedness which was its cliaracteristic, and according to which any judicial demand of payment of fees was strictly forbidden under pain of erasure from the table (of advocates), has been religiously preserved.' — History of the French Bar^ by Robert Jones, 1855. The practice in France, however, seems to be for the fees of advocates to be paid afterwards, though any bargain with the client or his agent that their amount shall depend on the issue of a trial, is regarded as dishonourable; and on several occasions the bar has vehemently resisted regulations calling on them to acknowledge receipt of their fees, as wounding their sensibility. There can scarcely be a stronger proof of the value of what seem in themselves to be trifling and pedantic pieces of etiquette, than the dignified and independent position, which, from its scrupiilous sense of honour, the French bar has maintained during all the political revolutions which the country has undergone. FEHERVAr (SZEKES), the same as the Latin Alba liegia, or the German Stuhlweissenhurg, is one of the most ancient royal free towns of Hungary, situated in a marshy district about 40 miles south- west of Pesth. 'Under the Arpadian kiii^s, it was the metropolis of the realm, and the residence of the sovereigns, who have been often crowned and buried there. On many occasions, the diets also were held in F., where twelve kings— among which are St Stephen, and the great Mathias Corviiius — lie buried. It is the seat of a bishop, and contains a population of 21,000, chiefly Roman Cath olics, and all of the Magyar race. Water is su2)plied by an artesian well. FEI'A, a large lake of Brazil, lies on the mari- time border of the province of Rio Janeiro, and is distant 150 miles, to the north-east, from the city of the same name. It is so near to the Atlantic that it has been connected with it by means of a canal. F. is about a degree to the north of the southern tropic. FEIGNING OF DISEASE is much practised in the army and na\y, and also by convicts and others anxious to escape from discipline, or procure a discharge from compulsory service. In the army, it is technically called malingering. The detectioD of feigned disease, of course, necessarily belongs to FEINT— FELID^ the biglily educated physician, and is impossible without a thorough knowledge of the reality, unless, indeed, the imitation be very coarse and badly studied. The diseases most commonly simidated are epdepsy, catalepsy,' convulsions, blindness, deaf- ness, palsy, insanity, indigestion, neuralgia, rheuma- tism, palpitation of the heart, and generally all disorders Avhich may exist without leading to any distinct external appearances, leers of the legs, however, have often been made, and kept open artihcially through the application of irritant sub- stances ; and vomiting or coughing up of blood is very easily simulated, if the supposed patient can get access to the necessary materials in the slaughter- house or elsewhere. The detection of such impos- tures is easy or not according to the 02)portunities and knowledge and skill of the deceiver, as compared with those brought to bear on the discovery of the fraud. Many men in the public services, and women affected with hysteria, have become so expert as to deceive even men of high character and skill. The writer has known of an instance in which a man submitted to successive amputations of the arm upwards, nearly to the shoulder, for an ulcer pro- duced and kept open at will by local applications ; and a case has been lately recorded by Dr Murchison in the Medico-chirurgical Transactions, in which there is no reasonable doubt that a large opening into the stomach was the result of caustic substances deliberately applied to the abdomen, with the view of exciting sympathy. FEINT (from the Fr. femdre), in military or naval matters, a mock attack or assault, usually made to throw an enemy off his guard against some real design upon his position. See Fencing. FEITH, Rhijnvis, a distinguished Dutch poet, who ranks next to Bilderdijk (q. v.) as a reviver of the national poetry, was born 7th February 1753, at ZwoU in Overyssel, studied law at Leyden, and returned to his native town in 1776, where he held the office of burgomaster. He died 8th February 1824. F. tried almost all kinds of jwetry. In his earlier productions, he shewed an excessive inclination for the sentimental; but in 1792 appeared his Het Graf (The Tom))), a didactic poem, which, though not free from the weakness referred to, is yet on the whole happily conceived, and contains some admu-able passages. His De Ouderdom (Old Age), Eublished in 1802, is deficient in plan. Among is lyrical pieces, Oden en Gedichten (Odes and Mis- cellaneous Poems, 4 vols., Amst. 1796 — 1810), are several marked by a high enthusiasm and warmth of feeling. Of his tragedies, the best known are Thirza (1791), Jolmnna Gray (1791), and hies de Castro (1793). Along with Bilderdijk, he recast in a nobler form Haren's famous patriotic poem, De Geuzen (Les Gueux, or the Beggars), which celebrates the first Btruggles of the Dutch for independence. Of F.'s prose works, the most imijortant are Brieven over verscheide?i Onderiverpen (Letters on Different Sub- jects, 6 vols., Amst. 1784-1790). These Letters, by their polished style and refined criticism, did much to imj)rove the literary taste of Holland. FE'LDMANN", Leopold, a German writer of comedies, was born at Munich in 1803, of Jewish parents, to whose faith he remains attached- Apprenticed in 1815 to a saddler, and afterwards to a cobbler, he soon gave evidence of his deter- mmation to be a poet by sending, in a pair of shoes, which he had mended, a poetical expression of his devotion to their fair wearer. For this his master Kent him back to school, where in 1817, when only in his 14th year, he wrote a play, Der Falsche Evd (The Falso Oath), which was actually prodiiced on the stage. After spending a few years in business at Pappenheim, and subsequently in Munich, he was induced, by the reputation which he gained from some humorous pieces, entitled Genrehikler, to devote himself entirely to literature. In 1835, his IloUen-lkder (Hell-Songs) appeared ; and his first comedy, Der Solui aiif Reiseii (The ^:'on on his Travels), was acted in Munich with applause. While travelling thereafter for five years, cliicfiy ia Greece, he wrote 'Pictures of Travel' for Lewald'a Europa, and the correspondence for the AUjjmieim Zeitung. In 1841, his comedy was produced ia Vienna, and since 1850, he has been emj^loyed as histrionic teacher in the National Theatre of that capital. F.'s works, which are numerous, aro reckoned among the best specimens of modern German comedy, pleasing by their cheerful humour, and happy emi)loyment of contemporary ideaa and events, though complained of as deficient iu artistic finish. F. has published a collection of his comedies in six volumes {Deutsche Orifjinallustspiele (Original German Comedies), Wien, 1844 — 1852). FELEGYHA'ZA, a town of Little Cumania, Hungary, is situated on the railway between Pesth and Temesvar, 67 miles south-east from the former. It has an extensive trade in grain, fruit, wine, tobacco, and cattle. In the neiglibourhood, several Roman urns have been found. Pop. 19,420. FELICU'DL See Lipari Islands. FE'LID^, or FELI'N^, a famdy of digitigrade carnivorous quadrupeds (see Carnivora and l)iGi- tigrada), corresponding to the genus Fells oi Linnajus, and sometimes collectively called cats or the cat tribe. They are, generally speaking, the most carnivorous of aU the Carnivora, holding the same relative place among quadrupeds that the Falconidce do among birds. Their organisation is admirably suitable to their habits. They have a very lithe muscular frame ; the body is rather long, and remarkably flexible ; the limbs generally short. Few of the species possess much fleetness, but most of them excel in climbing and in leaping. When moving rapidly over the surface of the ground, they generally advance by a series of zigzag bounds, rather than by direct running. They are mostly inhabitants of forests, and many even of *the larger species live much among the branches of ti'ees, although some of the largest do not leave the ground. They all advance stealthily on their prey, which all of them kill for themselves, and devour in a perfectly fresh state, and generally whilst stdl warm and quivering. When they have approached within a sufficient distance, they complete the seizure by a spring, many of them uttering a roar or yell as tbey do sOj and thus rendering their victory more secure by the consternation which paralyses the object of their attack. Their move- ments are extremely noiseless, owing to the soft velvety pads with which then- toes are provided. Their claws are strong, much curved, very shar]), and retractile ; being withdrawn by special muscles and ligaments into sheaths when not in use, and their points even turned upwards, so that they are not blunted by imnecessary friction, and do not interfere with the movements of the animal by accidentally hooking objects which are in the way. The last bone [pJuilanx) and joint of the toe exhibit peculiarities requisite for the extension and retrac- tion of the claws. The lore-feet have five toes, tho hind-feet four. The head of the F. is charactej-ised by great breadth of skull, whilst the muzzle is short, and sometimes even rounded ; the jaws are moved by very powerful muscles, and the articula- tion of the lower jaw is such that it has no rotatory motion ; the teeth also being so shaped, and those of the two jaws so fitting to each other, that they 275 FELID^-FELIX. cnt like scissors — the lower teeth shutting within the upper — and are not at all adapted to the trituration of food. There are six small incisors in each jaw, followed on each side by one very large i-aoine tooth, adapted for prehension; and this by Characteristic Feattires of the Felidse : 1, tiffpr's head; 2, shewing the dent tion ; 3, portion of tongue; 4, right lore p^w, shewing claws ; 6, claw, shewing terKions. two i)rjEmolars, or false molars, which, particularly in the lower jaw, are compressed and sharp-edged, their edges rising to a central summit, with infenor lateral cusps, so that flesh between them is sub- jected to a cutting action in various directions. Finally, there is on each side of each jaw one true molar, and in the upper jaw of many species, a second time molar. The cro\A'n3 of all the teeth are covered with enamel. The toncjue is rou^h, with horny papillae directed backwarcls, by which it is fitted for cleaning the bones of the prey. The Htomach is simple, the intestines short, and digestion rapid. The senses of sight and hearing are extremely dcute ; the eyes are adapted to seeing both by day and by night ; the sense of smelling is also very acute, although apparently not equal to that of dogs ; the sense of taste is sup[>osed to be less acute ; the bulbs from which the long whiskers arise appear to possess the sense of touch in great perfection, and the whiskers thus become useful in the progress of the animal through entangled thickets. The F. agree so much in form and structure, that many naturalists still refuse to divide the Linnaean genus Feds. None of the F. are gregarious. Almost all of them, when taken young, seem capable of domestication, but in general they are little to be trusted. The opecies are numerous. They are distributed ove ' Europe, Asia, Africa, America, and the islands adjacent to these continents ; but none are found in Australia, where their place is supj)lied by the carnivorous marsiipial quadrupeds. The largest species are chiefly foxind in warm climates. No species is known to be common to the Old and New worlds, although some are very nearly allied. Vast numbers of the larger F. were brought from Africa and the East for those savage sports and shows in which the ancient Eomans delighted. Five hundred lions were slain in five days at the opening of Pompey's theatre, and five hundred panthers have been let loose at once in a similar Konian arena. The wealth of Indian princes has also boen often spent in fights of such beasts. The i)rincipal F. are noticed in separate articles, as liTON, TioER, Jaguar, Pctma, Leopard, Panther, Cat, Tiger-cat, Lynx, Cheetah, Ounce, Caracal, Skrval, Ocisi ot, &c. 276 FE'LIX, Antonius, a Eoman procurator ol Judfea (51 — C2 a.d.) in the time of the Apostle Paul, was a freedman of the Emperor Claudius I. The circumstances under which he received hia appointment are related differently by Tacitus and Josephus. His government, jiolitically considered, was in some respects good. According to Josephus and other authorities, he cleared the country of robbers, and vigorously suppressed the chaotic seditions of the Jews ; but his cruelty, lust, and freed were unboundecL His wife was DrusiJla, a eautiful but renegade Jewess, whom he had induced to abandon her first husband, and to form a questionable connection with himself. It was therefore not at all wonderful that F. should tremble as Paul reasoned of ' righteousness, temper- ance, and judgment to come' (Acts xxiv. 25). He was recalled to Rome, 62 a.d., on account ol the accusations preferred against him by the influ- ential Jews of Caisarea, and narrowly escaped the sentence of death. FE'LIX (Pope) I.— IV.— Felix I, reckoned the 2Cth in the succession of popes, succeeded Dionysiua in the see of Rome probably in the year 209. Hia pontificate is chiefly interesting as an early example of the relations of the Christian Church to the Roman empire, and of the recognition by the state of the civil rights of Christians. In the pontificate of Felix's predecessor, Dionysius, Paul of Samosata, Bishop of Antioch, had been deposed by a council held in that city. Paul having resisted the sen- tence, the matter was laid before Felix, Dionysiua being now dead ; and, as Paul held possession of the church and church buildings, the bishops were obliged to claim the interfereiice of the Emperor Aurelian, who was passing through Antioch on hia retuni from Palm^Ta. Aurelian retiu-ned a decision which is often appealed to in modern controversy, to the efi"ect that the buOdings should belong to the po'son ' to whom they should be adjudged by the bishops of Italy and Rome.' Felix afterwartUi suffered martyrdom in the persecution of the same emperor, Aurelian, probably in 274. — Felix II. occupied the Roman see duiing the banishment of Liberius, in 355. It is agreed on aU hands that his first appointment was intrusive, but much diversity of opinion exists as to his subsequent career. In reply to a petition for the recall of Liberius, it was proposed by the Emperor Constantius that Liberius and Felix should exercise jurisdiction jointly; but this proposition was rejected by the Romans, and Felix appears to have been compelled to retire from the city. According to the Liber Pontificalis, he suffered martyrdom in the end, at the hands of his former patron, Constantius ; but this is not confirmed by any contemporary authority. — Felix III. occupied the see of Rome from 483 till 492. He was a native of Rome, and of the family from which afterwards sprung Pope Gregory the Great. His pontificate is historically memorable, as presenting the first commencement of the disruption of the Greek and Roman churches. The contemporai'y occupant of the see of Constantinople, Acacius, as well as the imperial court, M'as a favourer of the Monophysite party, who refused to accept the decision of the council of Chalcedon. See MONO- PHYSITES. By their influence, the patriarch of Alexandria was deposed, and replaced by the monophysite, Peter Mongus. The deposed patri- arch having appealed to Rome, Felix sent two legates to Constantinople to require his restoration ; and the legates having failed in their trust, and Acacius still adhering to the heterodox party, Felix assembled a council at Rome, and excommunicated not only the offending legates, but also Acacius FELIXIANS-FELLOWS. himself, the sentence being pinned by a monk upon the back of the patriarch's robes while he ■was actually officiating in the church. Felix had previous]^'- rejected the Henoticon, or Decree of Union, published by the Emperor Zeno. The schism thus inaugurated was not healed till the year 519. The only literary remains of this poatiff are the letters and other acts of this controversy. He died February 24, 492. — Felix IV., a native of Bene- vento, succeeded John I. in 526. His pontificate presents no noteworthy event. He died in 530. — Felix V. (anti-pope). See Amadeus. FELI'XIAXS, a Spanish sect of the latter part of the 8th c, so called from Felix, Bishop of Urgel. See ADOPTiA^f Controversy. FE'LLAH (plural, El Fellahin), an Arabic word meaning peasant or agriculturist, specially applied to the agricultural or labouring popula- tion of Eg;y^t by the Turks, in a contemptuous sense, as ' clowns,' or ' boors.' They form the great bulk of the population, and are descendants of the ancient Egyptians, intermingled with Syrians, Arabs, and other races who have been converted to Islam. In their physical conformation and features, they differ among themselves, those of the northern provinces of the Mediterranean being of whiter hue, while at Assouan they are almost black. They are described as having a large skidl, facial angle almost 90 degrees, oval face, arched eyebrows, deep eyes, projecting lips, large mouth, thin beard, short nose, large chest, and small beUy ; arched back, and small hands and feet, and being of mean height. They form the fourth class of the population, and are distinguished from the Bedouin or free Arabs, who have entered the country later than the Saracenic conquest, and the Arabs of the tovnis and villages. Their dress consists of a shirt and linen drawers, over which is a larger blue shii-t {herie), girdled by a leather or stuff belt, which is exchanged in the winter for a coat with sleeves {zabout). On their head, they wear the tarboush, turban, or a black or gray cap ; the women tattoo themselves, and are nubile at an early age, being often married at II years, mothers at 12, and grandmothers at 24. The food of the Fellahin consists entirely of vegetables, which they eat in a crude state, dhourra bread, and beans. Even rice is too dear for them and animal food unattainable. Their drink is limited to the waters of the Nile and coffee, and the only luxury which they enjoy is the green tobacco of the country ; yet on this diet they are robust and healthy, and capable of much labour and fatigue. In their social position, they are inferior to the Bedouin, who, although they will marry the daughters of the Fellahin, will not give to them their own in marriage. They appear to exhil)it the moi'al qualities of the ancient Egyptians, being intelligent, grave, and calm, docile, pliable, and sober on the one hand; and idle, jealous, quarrelsome, satirical, licentious, and of unbending obstinacy, on the other, and inherit the traditional hatred of their ancestors to the payment of taxes, ■which are often only extorted by the bastinado. Their political condition is most miserable. Each vUlage is governed by a Sheik-el-Beled, who is responsible to the Nazirs and Mam ours, or district ofBceis, for the conduct of the inhabitants, and their due pajnnent of taxes. So oppressive, indeed. Is the taxation and extortion, scarcely of the produce falling to their lot, that it would not be possible for them to live if it were carried to a higher pitch, and none cultivate the lands with dihgence unless compelled by their superiors. — Giidd OjJ, Types of Mankind, p. 319 ; Lepsius, E'ji/pt \ and Ethiopia, p. 76; Lane, Manners and Cusfoms of Modern Egyptians, pp. 125, 12G, 192, 193; Cllot Bey, Aper^u generale, i. pp. 159, 160. FB'LLENBERG, Philip Emanuel von, the founder of the institution for the improvement of education and agriculture at Hofwyl in the canton of Bern, in Switzerland, was born at Bern in 177i. His father was a man of patrician rank, and in con- sequence, a member of the government. From him F. received a very careful education; but it was hia mother, a great-grand-daughter of the famous Dutch admiral, van Tromp, who inspired him with tha ardent desire of being useful to his fellow-creatures. In 1789, he went to the university at Tubingen, for the purpose of studying law, and subsequently travelled in various parts of Europe, taking up his quarters not in the hotels of the large towais, but in the cottages of the peasantry, that he might know at first hand the real condition and the manners of the poor, as well as the kind of education received by those whose life was to be spent in agricultural pursuits. When the revolution of 1798 broke out in Switzerland, F. took part in it for some time ; but the faithlessness and want of public spirit on the part of the Bernese government induced him to withdraw from political life altogether, and to devote himself solely to philanthropic schemes. He now purchased the estate of Hofwyl, near Bern, and soon after entered into an alliance with Pestalozzi, the educationist. Their different char- acters, however, rendered such a union impracti- cable, and they found it necessary to sei^arate. F. now proceeded with redoubled zeal to increase the produce of his estate by new improvements, to influ- ence the neighbourhood by his example, and to make his experiments known to the world by his agricultural treatises. At the same time, he founded an asylum for forsaken children. He also opened a school of theoretical and practical agriculture, and comiected with it an institution for the education of the children of the higher classes. The establish ment at Hofwyl acquired for its founder a very great reputation, and pupils hastened to it from all quarters. Many foreign princes visited it, and on their return to their own countries, founded similar institutions. In the year 1830, F. founded a school of art, and some years later, an infant school. He died 21st November 1844. The institutions at Hofwyl were continued for some years by his son Wilhelm, and then entirely given up. Comparo Hamm, F.^s Leben und Wirken (Bern, 1845). FE'LLOWS, Sir Charles, an antiquary of considerable reputation, was born at Nottingham in 1799. In the beginning of 1838, he commenced those travels in the East by means of which hia nama has been brought so prominently into public notice. His researches were chiefly confined to the western peninsula of Asia Minor, and to the coiu-se of the ancient Xauthus, in the south of that peninsula. Commencing his investigations at Patara, at tha mouth of the Xanthus, and proceeding inland along the valley of that river, he discovered, only nine miles from the coast, the ruins of the city of Xanthus, formerly the capital of Lycia. Fourteen or fifteen miles higher up the river, he met with the ruins of another city, which, from insci-iptions, he found to be the ancient Tlos. Ha\Ting made drawings of some of the fine remains of architectm-e and sculpture which he found in the ruins of these cities, and copies of some of the inscriptions, F. returned to England, and published A Journal written during an Excursion in Asia Minor, by CJuxrles Fellows, 1838 (Lend. 1839). In 1839, he again visited Lycia, and in the course of another excursion, he discovered the ruins of no less than FELLOWSHIP— FELON AND FELONY. thirteen cities, each of Avhich contauied -works of ai't. Another journal, entitled An Account of .'Discoveries in Lycia^ bring a Joiirnal Icept during a Second Excursion in Anla Minor (Lond. 1841), Avas the result of this journey. In 1841, an exi)e- dition left England for the purpose of selecting works of art from the ancient cities discovered hy F., who aecojiipanied the expedition, and directed its operations. Authorised hy a firman from the flultan, they made their selections, and returned in thf- spring of 1842. Another expedition sent out hy the trustees of the British Museum brought home twenty oases of marbles and casts in 1844. These rtmiiins Lave been deposited in the British Museum in what has been called the Lycian Saloon. In 1845, F.'s labours were rewarded by the honour of knight- hood. The other works of F. are — 7V/e Xanthian Marhls: their Acquisition and Transmission to England (1843); An Account of the Ionic Trophi/ Monurtient Excavated at Xanlhus (1848); a re-issue of his earlier Journals under the title of Travels and Jiesearches in Asia Minor, particularbj in the Pro- vince of Lycia (1852); and Coins of Ancient Lycia before the Beign of Alexander ; vnih on Essay on the liclative Dates of the JAjcian Monuments in the British Museum (1855). He died in 1860. FE'LLOWSHIP, IN A University. As the history of this institution will be treated under University, we shall here only mention its leading characteristics, as it exists in the two great universi- ties of England — Oxford and Cam])ridge. In these ancient and celebrated scats of learning, the fellow- ships were either constituted by the original foiniders ^f the colleges to which they belong, or they have been since endowed. In almost all cases, their holders must have taken at least the first degree of Bachelor of Arts, or student in the civil law. One of the greatest changes introduced by the- commis- sioners under the University Act of 1854, was the throwing open of the fellowships to all members of the imiversity of requisite standing, ])y removing the old restrictions by which many of them were confined to founder's kin, or to the inhabitants of certain dioceses, archdeaconries, or other districts. Fellowships vary greatly in value. Some of the best at Oxford, in good years, are said to reach £700, or even £800, whilst there are others which do not amount to £100, and many at Cambridge which fall short of that sum. Being paid out of the college revenues which arise from land, they also vary from year to year, though from this ai-rangement, on the other hand, their general value with reference to the value of commodities is preserved nearly unchangeable, which woidd not be the case if they consisted of a fixed payment in money. The senior fellowsliips are the most lucrative, a system of promotion being established among their holders ; but they all confer on their holders the privilege of occupying apartments in the college and generally, in addition, certain per- quisites as to meals or commons. Many fellow- %hi]'S are tenable for life, but in general they are fc-Tt'eited should the holder attain to certain pre- ferments in the church or at the bar, and sometimes in the case of his succeeding to property above a certain amount. In general, also, they are forfeited by marriage, though this disability may now be removed by a special vote of the college, permitting tlie fellow to retain his fellowship notwithstanding his marriage. With the single exception of DoAvning College, Cambridge, in which the graduates of both universities are eligible, the fellowships are confined to tlie graduates of the university to which they belong. FELLOWSHIP. See Partnership. FE'LO DE SE, in Enolish Law, is where a uan, cf the age of discretion, and compos mentis, voluntarily kills himself. 'No man,' says Sir M. Hale {PI. of ihe. Cr. 411), 'hath the absolute interest of himself, but Is^, God Almighty has an interest and propriety in him, and therefore self-murder is a siu against God ; Id, The king hath an interest in him, and therefore the injimction in case of self-murder is felonice et voluntarid se interfecit et murderavit contra pacem domini regis.'' A man or woman is considered of full age in regard to capital offences at the age of fourteen. A lunatic killing himself during a fit io not guilty of felo de se ; but a merely melancholy and hypochondriacal temperament is not such a stats of mind as wiU relieve a person from the con8(>« quences of this offence. Where two persons agree to die together, and in pursuance of this design one or both die, it is suicide, or felo de se. And in some cases, where one maliciously attempts to kill another, and unwittingly kills himself, this is said (Hawkins, P. C. c. 27, s. 4) to be felo de se. But as a general rule the act must be voluntary. Therefore, if death ensue from a rash act not intended to kill, as where a man cuts off his hand to prevent a gangrene, and the act is followed by death, this is not felo de se. Foi'merly, the law punished this offence by infiicting ignominy on the body of the offender, which was ordered to be bmied by night at four cross-ways, and that a stake should be driven through the body. But by 4 Geo. IV. c. 52, this ignominious mode of burial is abolished, and it is provided that a felo de se shall be privately buried at night in a burial-groimd. All the chattels, real and personal, of a felo de se are forfeited to the crown. In Scotland, the crime of self-murder is known as Suicide (q. v.). FE'LON AND FE'LONY. The etymology of the word felon has given rise to much difference of opinion. By the majority of the most reliable lexi- cographers, it is supposed to have a common root Avitli fail, and its original signification was supposed to be a vassal who failed in his fidelity or allegiance to his superior, thus committing an offence by which he foi'feited his fee or feud. From this it came to signify traitorous or rebellious, and was gradually generalised till it reached its popular meaning of a crime of so heino\is a nature as to infer a capital punishment. The characteristic distinction of a felony, in the opinion of all legal writers, is, that it is a crime which occasions the forfeiture of the offender's goods. ' Felony,' saj^s Blackstone, ' in the general acceptation of our English law, comprises every species of crime which occasioned at coraiuon law the forfeiture of lands and goods. Treason itself, says Sir Edward Coke, was anciently comprised under the name of felony And to this also we may add, that not only all offences now capital are in some degree or other felony, but that this is likewise the case with many other offences which are not punishable with death — as suicide, where the party is already dead, manslaughter, and larceny, all which are felonies, as they sul)ject the commit- ters of them to forfeitures. So that, upon the whole, the only adequate definition of felony seems to be, that which is before laid down — viz., an offence which occasions a total forfeiture of either lands or goods (or both) at the common law, and to which capital or other punishment may be sujjer' added, according to the degree of guilt.' — Stephen's Com., vol. iv. p. 81. From this statement it appears that the popular notion that capital punishment is inseparable from the idea of felony, is, as Blackstone elsewhere remarks (Stephen, ut sup. p. 83), an error. As to the present law of forfeiture in cases of felony, see Forfeiture of Lands. FELSPAE— FELT, FELTING. FE'LSPAR (Ger. fddspath, field-spar), a minercal extremely abundant in almost all parts of the world. It is a principal constituent of many rocks, as granite, gneiss, greenstone, trachyte, &c. ; and clays seem very genei-ally to have resulted, at least in great part, from its decomposition. It occurs hoth massive and crystallised, in rhomboidal, pyramidal, and prismatic crystals, often having their edges and angles truncated, and thus very variously modified. There are many different lands of F., which mineral- ogists have recently attempted to arrange in mineral epecies, distinguished by physical and chemical characters, and also by geognostic position, and by tbe groups of minerals Avith which they are asso- ciated. For these mineral species new names have been invented, Orthodafte, OUgoclase, AUnte, Lahra- dorite, Sec. All the felspars are anhydrous silicates of alumina, and of an alkali or lime. Orthoclase, and the other more silicious felspars containing potash, abound chiefly in granite and the pbitonic rocks ; the less silicious, containing soda and lime, characterise the volcanic rocks — ' as labradorite the basaltic group, glassy felspar .the trachytic' All the kinds of F, are so hard as not to be easily Bcratched with knife, and are fused with diffi- culty. Some of them are soluble, some insoluble in acids. — The kind known as Commox F, — referred to Orthoclase — is generally white or flesh-coloured, has a glassy and somewhat pearly lustre, is trans- lucent at least on the edges, and has an uneven or splintery fracture. Crystals four or five inches long are found in Aberdeenshire. This variety, under the name of Petunse or Petunfze, is used by the Chinese in the manufacture of porcelain ; along with some of the quartz which is associated with it in the rock. It is used, with other materials, as a flux ; and alone to form an enamel or glassy cover- ing, without which the porcelain would absorb moisture and grease, and woidd be imfit for any except mere ornamental purposes. — Adularia is a transparent and almost colourless variety of F., often cut as an ornamental stone, the finest varieties, of which one is known as Moonstone, being prized almost as gems. A variety, found among rolled stones in Ceylon, and remarkable for the reflection of a pearly light, has been sometimes confounded with Cat's Eye. — Avanturine F. is similar to the variety of quartz called Ava'nturine (q. v.) in the y)lay of light which it exhibits, and which is said to be owing to minute crystals of specular or titanic iron. It is much esteemed as an ornamental stone. A variety with golden yellow specks, caUed Sunstone, is very rare and very beautiful : it sells at a high rice. — Labradorite exhibits rich colours and a eautiful opalescence, on accoimt of which it is much used for ornamental purposes. — A blue variety of F., found only in Styi-ia, and a green variety, sometimes called Amazon Stone, are also esteemed as precious stones. — All the finer varieties of F. are chai acterised by a soft beauty, which well compen- SQtea for the want of that brilliancy which belongs to the true goms. Kaolin, or Porcelain Clay, is regarded as a decom- pr>8ed felspar. — To F. also are referred, as chiefly 0<'in])osed of it, or apparently derived from it, FdJ stone. Trachyte, Claystone, Clinkstone, Pitch- Stone, Obs'dian, and Pumice. FE'LSTONE, a name introduced by Professor Sedgwick to designate those rocks which are com- nosed, either in whole or to a large extent, of felspar. When they consist of a compact and ap]>arently amorj)hous felspar, they are known as Trachytes — a varietv of this rock, which sjJits into small slabs, that rmg with a metallic sound, is called Phonolite. Trachyte, with distinct crystals of felspar scattered khrough it, becomes felstoue porphyry ; when the rock is in a vitreous condition, and has a resinous lustre^ it is I'itchstone. Even in the most comi)act fclstoncs minute crystals may be 'Ictccted, and these some- times increase in size till we have varieties which are completely granular and crystalline. FELT, FELTING, a fabric formed witliout weaving by taking advantage of the natural tendency of the fibres of hair and wool to iiiterluco with and cling to each other. The hatters' tradition concerning the invention of felt affords as good an illustration as any we can find of the jirinciple of this manufacture. In most lioman Catholic countries, the hatters celebrate as a festival the 23d of November, St Clement's Day, as they formerly did in this countvy ; and it is stated that St Clement, when on a pilgrimage, j)ut carded wool between his feet and the soles of his sandals, and found on his journey's end that the wool was con- verted into cloth. Although this tradition is very questionable, as the manufacture of felt is of far more ancient origin, there can be no doul)t that if carded wool were thus continually trodden, and at the same time moistened, it would become felt, and all the manufacturer's processes of felting are but modifications of such treatment. This matting or felting of the fibres of hair and wool results from their structure, for, when exa- mined by the microscope, the hair of all animals is found to be more or less jagged or notched on its surface ; in some animals it is distinctly barbed ; and this structure is so directed that the teeth or Ijarba all point towards the tip of the hair. See Hair. If a piece of human hair (in which this structure ia less marked than in most animals) be held between the finger and thumb, and rubbed in the direction of its leng-tli, it will invariably move between the fingers in the direction of its root ; for the skin, while moving towards the tip of the hair, slides freely upon it, but moving in the other direction, agamst the inclination of the barbs, it brings the hair with it. It will be easily understood that when a number of hairs are pressed together, those which lie in opposite directions to each other and in contact will inter- lock at these barbs or teeth, and thus resist any effort to tear them asunder. When once this close contact and interlocking is established between any two or more haiis, they remain attached, but the others that are differently arranged, or not in con- tact, will still be free to move upon each other ; and therefore, if subjected to continual blows, pushing, and pressure, like the treading of the feet in walking, the unattached hairs will be continually shifting i;ntil they reach others in suitable positions for clinging together, either by crossing obliquely or by lying in the same line, and overlapping at their ends or any other portion. When the hair has a natural tendency to curl, the felting is still more readily brought about by the additional interlacing. This is the case with wool to such an extent, that when free from grease it cannot be retained in the straight carded condition required for spinning and weaving. When it is required to be felted, the natural grease has to be removed. This tendency to felt is shewn in the hard lumps formed in wool- mattresses that have been long used. Tht* beaver-hat maker produces his felt by taking a few ounces of the mixed fur, distributing it in an even layer by twanging a bowstring against the heap, and then condensing this into a telt by a sort of kneading process with his hands. For further information, sec Hat. The felt now extensively used for carpeting and other purposes is made by machinery, chiefly from the waste wool from the weaving-mills. Many patents have been taken out for the various detaiLi of felting-machinery, but the main principle is the FELTRE-FEME COVERTE. same in all. The wool is carded more or less per- fectly, and steamed or moistened with hot water, and passed between beaters, which act like the pilgrim's feet in the maimer already described. When used as druj^get for covering carpets, or as a substitute for carpet, the felt is printed by means of blocks with various patterns, or simply dyed. Felt is also used for padding coats and other gar- ments, sometimes for cloaks and capos ; for table- covers, some of which are beautifully embossed pud printed; for carriage-linings, upholstery work, polishing cloths, pianoforte hammers, and various other purj)oses wliere a coarse or thick cloth is required. A sirai)le kind of saddle, cwt out of very thick felt, is in common use in South America. The ' felted sheathing ' used as a non-conducting covering for retaining the heat in steam-boilers, is a substance intermediate between felt and paper, being composed of the commonest woollen refuse froni paper-mills, &c., made into a semi-pulp, and beaten to prod^'oe a partial felting. This when dried hardens, and though i)0ssessing but little tenacity, and unfit for the wear of friction, is, from its compactness, better adapted than ordinary felt for the piu'poses to which it is applied. Asphalted BooJinf/-fdt is a very coarse felt satur- ated with pitch, asphalt or coal-tar— usually the latter, on account of its cheapness ; it is retailed at one penny per foot, and used for covering sheds and other buildings. A more expensive kind, free from coal-tar, is called Inodorous Felt, and used as a lining for damp walls upon which paper has to be hung. Asphalted felt is also used as a flooring for griuiaries and similar buildings, and has been recom- mended for public schools, to prevent the noise from the shuffling of the children's feet. FE'LTRE', a town of Northern Italy, in the Venetian territory, is situated near the right bank ;>f the Piave, 44 miles north-north- west of Venice. It suffered severely from the attacks of the Goths in the 5th centmy. The chief buildings are the cathedral, the college, ecclesiastical seminary, and gymnasium. F. has some trade in corn, wine, and oil. Pop. 6U00. FELU'CCA, a small class of vessel used in the Mediterranean. It is propelled by from iO to Felucca, 7.G oars, and by lateen sails. It has frequently a rudder at each end, to be ap])lied as occasion demands. ])uring the French war, feluccas were armed with a heavy gun )r two, and sent out as 2r0 gun-boata against our ships, when becalmul near the Spanish ports ; from their speed in smooth water, and the difficulty of hitting them, they were very ti'ouble- some antagonists. FEME COVERTE {faemina viro co-operta). In the language of the law of England, a woman by her marriage becomes subject to her husband, who has the control of her person, and is entitled to fix her resi- dence. This control in the husband is admitted to a certain extent in criminal cases to excuse a nuirried woman from guilt ; hence the term coverte — under cover, authority, or protection. The general j)rinciples of American law, as respe«';tff married women, may be expressed as follows : 1 st. In the sale of the property of the wife, the consent and united act of the husband are required to render it valid. In the execution of a deed of conveyance of any kind, touching the interest of the wife, it is required that she be joined with the husband in the act, and that she be separately examined to ascertain and certify that the act was free and voluntary. She may hold a separate property, which will be protected from the improper in- terference of her husband. The law protects the wife against the neglect and desertion of her husband, and secures for her, as far as possible, her claims upon him for sup])ort. For gross violation of the marriage con- tract, the statutes of sundry states provide that she r.hall be entitled to a decree of the court for divorce, and for alimony. See Divorce. A husband and wife may contract with each other in some states, and may pass and convey property through the medium of a trustee. A devise may be made by a husband to a wife, and in Ohio a wife may make a will iDecjueathing any i)roperty to her husband. The general rule is this : a husband becomes entitled, upon marriage, to all the goods and chattels of the Avife, the rents and pi'ofits of her lands ; and liable for her debts, and to perform her conti'acts ; and if he survives her, is en- titled to enjoy her real property. This has been in some measure modified by our statutes. As to th« personal property of the wife, at marriage in her own right, and not as trustee, etc., it vests immediately and absolutely in the husband. He may sue and recover her claims, or release or compromise them, as he pleases. The laws of several states of the Union have materially modified the common law in I'espect to the rights of husband and wife as to property, and have made the amplest provisions for her protection : 1. In Ohio the husband cannot convey or encumber the real estate of his wife, which belonged to her at the time of marriage, or shall come to her by gift or inher- itance, or be purchased wi*^h her separate property during coverture, or held in her name by a trustee, unless by her consent and by her deed, executed in the required manner. 2. Her household furniture, brought with her at marriage or inherited thereafter, is not liable for her husband's debts. 3. At the death of the husband, the laAv of Ohio secures to the wife, and children under 15 years, a liberal allowance out of the estate and a year's support, even against creditors. 4. She has right of dower in one-third of all the real estate of her husband at his decease, and to remain in the mansion-house one year after his death if hei claims of dower be not sooner satisfied. 5. She is en- titled to a large amount of specific personal property, free from levy by execution for the debts of her hus- band, and also a homestead not to exceed $500 in value. The husband is not liable for the contracts of the wife after mai'riage, and, as a general rule, her con- tracts ai-e void unless contracted by his authority; but his authority is presumed unless the wife go beyond what is reasonable and prudent. If the wife elope from her husband and live in adultery with another man, the husband is not bound for her support ; nor is he when she leaves him without cause, so long as she remains absent. The husband is liable for the FEMERN— FEMGERICHTE. fraud of the wife, committed during coverture, and after marriage the wife cannot be sued for her pre- vious debts, but the husband must be joined with her in the action ; and he may, in certain cases, be- come liable to pay her debts contracted before mar- riage, even after her death. After her death suit can- not be brought against the husband, but the right of action survives against the wife, and a judgment against her can only be satisfied out of her individual property. By the married Avomen's acts of the Legis- lature of Pennsylvania of April 11, 1848, the separate estate of a woman is not made so exclusively her own as to exclude her husband's use of it as the head of the family, or enable her to invest it in any way she please without his consent. It is to be construed so as to protect the wife's estate from being encumbered or conveyed for her husband's debts, or taken by his creditors against her consent; but it does not give the woman the absolute right of her property as & feme sole Avithout her husband's consent. For the laws of England regarding the rights of married women, see former editions of this work, and for those of Scotland, see Majhj and Wife. See also, Afiahjsis of American Laio, by T. W. Powell, Phila- delphia, 1870. FE'MGERICHT^: (derived from the old German Fern, pmiisliment, and Gericht, court of justice), spoken of as the Holy Feme (or Fehme), and also known as the Westphalian or Secret Tribunals, v<'exe among the most remarkable phenomena of the j middle ages, and supplied the place of the regu- j lar administration of justice, then in a deplorable | condition. The origin of these courts has been j ascribed to Charlemagne, who, it was i)retended, had instituted them to prevent the relapse into Paganism | of the Saxons who had been forcibly converted to j Christianity. It is more probable, ho^vever, that | they were a relic of the ancient German free courts | of justice, the preservation of which may have been j favom-ed in Westphalia by special circumstances. [ When Henry the Lion was put under the ban of j the empire, and deprived of his possessions in 1170, Westphalia, which then comprised nearly the \ whole district between the Rhine and the Weser, | was granted to the Archbishop of Cologne ; and \ from this time the secret tribunals gained in import- j ance. In the general confusion which then pre- vailed in Germany, when all laws, both civil and ecclesiastical, had lost their authority, and the fabric of society seemed on the point of toppling j into ruins, the Femgerichte were organised for j the purpose of arresting and controlling the inci- j pient anarchy that threatened to bring chaos back j again, and of inspiring Math feelings of salutary \ terror, through the agency of their mysterious ' f)owers and solemn judgments, all rapacious and j awless persons (but especially the feudal barons), i who — on account of the impotence of the ordinary legal checks — committed crimes with impunity. In | the causes, therefore, vdiich led to their forma- j tion, and in their general design, the Femgerichte \ resemljle the Hanseatic towns. They soon acquired ! tremendous influence, the emperors themselves ! having recourse to their assistance against power- ful and rebellious nobles. It was in the 14tli and 15th centuries, however, that they attained the summit of their dread authority, when they began to extend the)nselves over the whole of Germany. Beneficial as in many instances they proved to be, they could not fail, in the long-run, to degenerate, and to be fre(^uently emj)loyed as a cloak to self- interest and malice. It is therefore by no means 6ur})rising that many voices were raised against them, and that in 1461 various p/inces and cities of Germany, as well as the Swiss confederates, I fcrnj :d \inious for affording justice to every iudi- [ vidual, and preventing any from seeking it from the secret tribunals. Particular classes likewise obtained imperial letters of protection against the pretensions of these triljunals. The emperors them- selves, however, could go no further than to make some unavailing attempts to introduce im]>rove- ments into the constitution of the Femgerichte, aa the latter were bold enough to oppose the imperial authority, and even summoned the emperor Friedricb III. to appear before them. Their influence came to an end only when the public peace {Landfriede) was established in Germany, and an amended form ofi trial and penal judicature was introduced. The last real Femgericht was held at CeH^^ in Hanover, ia the year 1508. A remnant of the iastitution, how- ever, existed in Westphalia until the year 1811, at which time it was performing the function of a society for the suppression of vice, when it was abolished by an order of Jerome Bonaparte. Be5'ond the limits of Westphalia, notwithstanding all their endeavours, the Femgerichte never succeeded in fully establishing their authority ; and even in the Red Land, as Westphalia was called (probably from the colour of the soil), they were restricted by the imperial privileges on which they founded their authority. The members of the Feme were called Wiasende, * the knowing ones,' or the initiated. It was neces- sary that they should be born in wedlock, be of the Christian religion, lead a blameless life, and bind themselves by a tremendous oath * to support the holy Feme, and to conceal it from wife and child, father and mother, sister and brother, tire and wind, from all that the sun shines on and the rain wets, and from all that is between heaven and earth.' Originally, none but an inhabitant of the ' Red Land,' possessed of real property, could be admitted a member of the Wissende ; at a later period, this ride was relaxed. From the general body were elected officers called Freischoffen (fre9 justices), who were assessors of the court, and. executors of its sentences. The presiding judge was called the Fre'iffraf (free count). The general superintendence and presidency of the secret tribunals belonged to the lord of the land — i. e., in Westphalia, to the Archbishop of Cologne. The highest office, however, as supreme president, was nominally held by the emperor, who was usually elected into the uuml)er of the Wissende on the occasion of his coronation at Aix-la-Chapelle. The court of a Freigraf was called Freiding (a free court of justice), and the place where he held court a Freisluld (free bench or court). One of the most celebrated free courts had its seat at Dortmund. The sittings of the tribunal were either open or secret. The former were held by day in the open air, and decided in ci\dl disputes : the secret tribunals took cognizance of those who had been unable to prove their innocence in the open courts, as well as of those who were accused of heresy, sorcery, rape, theft, robbery, or murder. The accusation was made by one of the Freisc holl'en, who declared, upon oath, that the accused had committed the crime. The citation was secretly affixed, wdth symbolical signs, to the door of the accused, who was to meet the Wissende at a certain hour and place, and be conducted by them before the tribunal. The accused could now clear himself by an oath, but the accuser and witnesses could oppose this with another. If the accused coidd now bring forward six witnesses to swear in his favour, the accuser could strengthen his oath with 14 witnesses ; and it was not till after 21 witnesses had made their affidavit in his favour that sentence of acquittal necessarily followed. The persona convicted, as well as those who refused to obey th« 2»l FENCES— FENCIKG. summons, were given over to the Freischoffen. The first Freischoffe who met him was bound to hang him on a tree, or, if he made any resistance, to ])ut him otherwise to death. A knife was left by the corpse, to show that it was not a m artier, l)ut a pun- ishment inflicted by one of the Frcischolfcn, Com- pare Wigand, Das Fehmgcricht Wcstfalen^s (Hamm. 1825), and Usener, Die li\eiund Jieimlichen Oerichte Westfalen's (Frankfort, 1832). FENCES, in Agincultnre, serve the twofold purpose of enclosing animals on pastnre-gronnds, and of protecting land from straying animals. They Rre formed of a great variety of materials, and of Veiy different structure. In conn tries where wood or stones are scarce, more especially where they have been long settled, hedges, formed of various kinds of plants, are common. These, when well kept and managed, give a clothed and pictiiresqne appearance to the landscape. The hawthorn is the favourite hedge-plant in this countr3^ Sec Hepopzs. When stones are used as fences, they are l)uilt as walls. The form and mode of building varies with the nature and quality of the stones, and the degree of taste and nicety required. Aberdeenshire forms its walls or dykes surrounding its fields "vWth the granite boulders that are strewed over the surface of the country. The graywacke affords slaty stones, which give the walls their i)cculiar form in other parts, and so with the various kinds of sandstone. In new countries, where wood is abundant, the fences are all of this material. The snake-fence, named from its zigzag form, is made hy merely lay- ing the ends of trees above each other, and requires no other means of fixing. As wood becomes more Valuable, it is made into stobs and rails. The etobs are driven into the ground from two to three yards apart, and from four to five rails are nailed across, according to the purpose it is meant to serve. The stob and rafter fence is made by driving the stobs from three to four inches apart, and binding the whole by a rafter or rail nailed across the top. This is one of the strongest of wooden fences, but requires more material than the other. Iron or wire fencing has come much into use of late. Vast stretches of waste land in this country, as well as i)astures m Australia, have been enclosed by means of wire-fencing. Strong \\^res are stretched on posts firmly secured in the ground, from 100 to 200 yards or more apart. Intermediate or lighter posts are put in at from two to three yards' dis- tance. After the -wares are fully stretched, they are fixed to the smaller posts ; when of wood, by means of staples, or threaded through, when of iron. Laio regarding Fences. — In England, it is held to be the duty of the occupier of lands to repair and uphold fences, and not of the landlord ; and without any special agreement, the landlord may maintain an action against the tenant for not domg so. Though a tenant from year to year is not bound to put the fences and other buildings on his farm into repair, he must not do anything that amounts to waste, or a breach of the rules of good husbandry. He cannot cut and sell hedgerows, or if he does so, he must make up the hedges and fences according to the couvse of good husbandry. ' If there be a quickset fence of white thorn, and the tenant shut it up, or suffer it to be destroyed, this is destruction ; but cutting up quicksets is not waste, if it preserves the spring.' — Woodfall On Landlord and Tenant, pp. 45G, 457, and cases cited. Where, in answer to a declaration against a tenant for not using premises in a Inisbandlike manner in repairing fences, on his implied obligation to do so, the tenant pleaded that the fence became out of repair by natural decay, and that there was no proper wood which he had a right to cut for repairing the fences, and that the plaintiff ought to have set out proper wood for the purpose of repairs, which he had neglected to do. the plea was held to be bad, because it did not aver any request to the plaintiff so to do, or a custom of the country in that respect. — Wliitfield v Weedon, 2 Chit. 68/). By 7 and 8 Geo. IV. c. 29, ss. '^3, 40, 44, the destruction of fences is 'declared to be punish- able summarily with a fine of not more than £5; or in the case of a deer-park fence, with £60. Tho statute is limited to England. United States. — A lawful fence in most of the states of the Union is defined as any structure of wood or stone of the nature of a fence, close, strong, and suffi- cient to prevent the passage of horses, cattle, sheep, and, in general, also swine. Division or partition fences are required to be erected and kept in repair at the joint expense of the owners of property to Ite pro tected. In Maine, Massachusetts, New York, also in Ohio and the north-western stfites. Fence-viewers arc chosen, to whom questions in dispute relative to the rights and duties of owners of fences are referred. The lieight of fences considered lawful varies in the different sections of the Union, but in general in New England and the north-western states, post-and-ruil fences must be at least 4^ feet high, and worm fences, not ridered, at least 5 feet. In New Jersey, a fence must be 4 feet 2 inches if of posts and rails, boards, brick, or stones, but 4^ feet if of any other material. In Pennsylvania, Maryland, South Carolina, Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Missouri, Tennessee, Kentucky, and Texas, a fence must be 5 feet high, and in Cali- fornia, if of rails, 5^ feet. In Georgia, all fences must be six feet high. In Maine, Mas.sachusetts, Vermont, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, owners of land are not bound to fence against cattle on the high- ways, while in Connecticut, IS^ew York, South Caro- lina, Georgia, Alabama, Florida, and Tennessee, they are refjuired to protect their property by a lawful fence, or fail to obtain damages for injury by trespass. In New Hampshii'e and Ohio, railway companies are obliged to maintain a lawful fence along their line of road. In Ohio and Wisconsin planters are permitted to protect their young hedges by fences six feet be- yond the precise line of road, upon which also a hedge may be planted. In these latter states, any person who shall open an enclosure, or leave the fence-bars or gate open, shall be fined, on conviction, not more than $100, or be imprisoned not exceeding thirty days, if prosecuted within one year. For a digest of the hnva of the states respecting fences, see Hedges and Ever- greens, by Dr. J. A. Warder, New York, 1858. FENCIBLE, a word, of doubtful origin, mean- ing defensive. Eegiments raised for local defence, or at — and only for — a special crisis, used to be denominated 'Fencible.' In the last French war. the local, as distinguished from the general militia, was called fencible, and many of the volunteer corps styled themselves the ' Royal shire Fencible Infantry.' The only regiment of this character still bearing the title is the ' Eoyal Malta Fencible Artillery,' although the Ceylon Kifle Eegiment has also essentially the character of fencible. FENCING may be described, for a generaJ definition, as the art of defending one's own body or assailing another person's in fair fight by the aid of a side- weapon — 1. e., by a sword, rapier, or bayonet. Technically, fencing is usually limited to the second of these ; and works on the art touch only on attack and defence with the foil in pastime, and the ra|?ier in actual personal combat. The present opportunity will, however, be taken to introduce the elements of single combat ^^^th foil, sword, and bayonet. The objection formeHy existed that instruction in fencing encouraged a FENCING. propensity to duellmg ; but as tliat absurdest of absurd customs has entirely ceased — at least in Britain — to demand its annual victims, no sucli objection now holds. Fencing may therefore be safely learned and taught as an elegant and manly accomplishment, developing gi-acefuluess and acti- vity, while it imparts suppleness to the limbs, strength to the muscles, and quickness to the eye. This regards fencing with the foils (the rapier has disappeared with the duels which employed it) ; but instruction in fencing with the sword and bayonet, while conferring the same advantages, has in addition the recommendation of helping to fit the student for taking an active part in any general national defence that political circumstances might render necessary. The Foil (q. v.) is a circular or polygonal bar of pHable and very highly tempered Bteel, mounted as any other sword, and blunted at the point by a ' button,' to prevent danger in its use. From its nature, the foil can only be employed in thrusting, and, being edgeless, it can be handled •without liability to cutting wounds. The length of the blade should be proportioned to the height of the person using it — 31 inches being the medium length for men, and 38 inches from hilt to point the maximum allowable. As a protection against accidental thrusts, the face is generally guarded by a ^\'ire-mask. The two portions of the blade are known as the ' forte ' and the ' feeble ; ' the first extending from the hilt to the centre, and the other from the centre to the point. In drawing, advance the right foot slightly to the front, take the scabbard with the left hand, raise the right elbow as high as the shoulder, seize the hilt with right hand, nails turned inward, and hav- ing drawn the foil, pass it ^vith vivacity over the head in a semicircle, and bring it do^wii to the guard (of which presently) with its point towards the adversary, not higher than his face, nor lower than his lowest rib. Simultaneously with the weapon being brought into position, the left hand with lingers extended should be raised to a level with the head, as a counterpoise in the various motions to ensue. In establishing the position of guard, the right foot must be advanced 24 inches Defore the left, the heels in a straight line, and each knee slightly bent, to impart elasticity to the movements, but not too much, lest the firmness of the position be diminished. In fencing, there are three openings or entrances — the inside, comprising the whole breast from shoulder to shoulder ; outside, attackable by all the thrusts made above the wrist on the outside of the sword ; and the loio parts, embracing from the arm- pits to the hips. For reaching and guarding these entrances, there are five positions of the wrist — prime, seconde, tierce, carte (quarte), and quinte. The most important, and those to commence with, are carte and tierce, from which are derived the subordinate positions of carte over the arm, low carte, and flauconnade or octave. To engage is to cross swords with j'^our adversary, pressing against his with sufficient force to prevent any raanceu\Te taking you unawares. To disengage is to slip the point of your sword briskly under his blade, and to raise it again on the other side, press- ing in a direction opposite to that of the previous case. The guard in each position is a passive obstnic- tion to the o})posin^ thnist ; the parade is an active obstruction, in which the Sfiiard is first assumed, and the blade then pressed outward or inward by a turn of the wrist against the adversary's sword, BO that when thrust at your body it shall be diverted from its aim, an(l held off. The parade not 7 therefore be regarded as a mere extension of the guard If the parade were called the 'parry,' it woiild convey its meaning more readily to English ears. Another, and perhai)S more approj)riate name for thrust, is the ' lunge ' or ' longe,' as the thrust is almost always accompanied l)y a lunge forward of the right foot, to give at once greater force and longer command to the blow. The following are directions for the principal guards and thrusts, which may also be seen depicted roughly in the sketches below. Carte, Guard. — Turn wi'ist with nails upwards ; hand on a line with lower part of breast; arf/i somewhat bent, and elbow inclined a little to t'.ie outside ; point of foil elevated at an angle of about 15°, and directed at upper part of adversary's breast. Thrust. — Being at the guard in carte, straighten the arm, raise the wrist above the head, drop the foil's point to a line \vith the adversary's breast, throw first the wrist, and then the whole body, forward by a lunge with the right foot of two feet from the ' guard,' the left foot remaining firm. The left hand should be dropped during the lunge to a level with the thigh, and to a position distant about a foot from the body ; it will then afford a good counter- poise to the sword-arm. Duiing the whole action, the body must be perfectly upright. When per. formed briskly, it appears that the point and foot are advanced simultaneously, but in fact the point has, or should have, prioiity, in order that the instantly following limge may drive it home. Most of these observations concerning thrust in carte apply equally to all other thrusts. Fig. 1.— Carte. Carte 'over the arm is a variety of this thrust. The sword is driven outside the adversnry's blade, from the carte position, but in the tierce line. Low Carte. — Engage adversary's blade in carte, then drop point under his wrist, in a line to his elbow, and thi-ust at his flank, the body being con- siderably bent. Flanconnade or Octave. — Engage adversary's blade in carte, and bind it mth yours, then carry your point behind his wrist and under his elbow : ^^-ith- out quitting his blade, plunge your point to his flank. Tierce, Guard — As in carte, the nails and wrist being somewhat more do\\-nward, and the arm stretched a little outward, to cover the outside. Parade.— Move arm, from the guard, ol)liquely downward to the right about six inches, and c ppose the inside of the adversary's blade. Thrust. — From the guard, turn wrist with nails dow-iward, the same height as n carte, the inside of the arm in a line wath the right temple ; then thrust and lunge as in carte. Seconde, Parade. — Nails and wrist downward, hand opposed outward, and blade, pointing low, should form an angle of about 45° with th3 ground. 282 FENCING. Tliriiat— Tlie same as tierce, but delivered under the ad-jersary's wrist and elbow, to a point between Kg. 2.— Tierce. his rifrlit armpit and riglit breast : the body to be more bent than in carte or tierce. Fig. 3. — Seconde. Prime, Parade. — In using prime to parry^ the thrust in secOnde, pass yoiu- point over the adver- sary's blade, lower it to the waist, keeping your wrist as high as yovir mouth, nails downward, elbow bent, and body held back as far as possible. The left foot should also be drawn backward a few inches, te remove the body further from the hostile point. Thrust. — An extension movement from the parade. Fig. 4.— Prime. ^tn^r. Parade; — Wrist in high carte, aword-point low, and oppose adversary from the forte of the outside edge ( f your blade. Thrust. — Make a feint on the half-circle parade, with the wrist in carte ; disengage your point over the adversary's blade, and thrusi directly at his flank. 11 a/.f -circle. Parade — One of the principal defen- sive pardAloa : straighten arm, keep wrist in line 284 with shoulder, nails up : by quick motion of wrist sweep point from right to left in a circle covering Fig. 5.— j to the shoulder. This position is called 'point,' and con- stitutes an extens'ion of the weapon in a direction parallel with either of those pre\dously taken. _ As there were four ' guards,' so there are four poiuts, which are shewn in fig. 8. The barrel is in Bach may suggest. In contending with a swordsman, the action of changing from right to left, when at Rg.8. case upward, and the motions for eacli are similar, except in pointing from ' 2d point,' when the rifle, seized by the right hand round the small of the butt, is thrust straight up above the head to the full extent of the arm, the left hand falling along the thigh, and the legs being straightened so as to form an isosceles triangle. ' Shorten arms ' is a useful motion, both as a defence and as a pre]iaration for a strong attack. It consists in carrying the butt back to the full extent of the right arm, while the barrel (downwards) rests upon the thick part of the left arm. The body is thrown upon the right leg, and the left straightened. This powerful position is seen in the annexed cut. In all the guards and points, and also 'shorten arms,' the bayonet may be turned directly to the front, to the right, or to the left, as circumstances 286 the 'high' or 'low,' is sufficient defence against Uie ordinary cuts of the latter. Among the treatises consulted for this article have been the works on fencing by Angelo and Roland, as well as the shorter instructions issued by the military authorities. FENELON, Francis de Salionac de la Mothe, was bom, August G, 1651, in the chflteau Fenelon, province of Perigord, now included in the depart- ment of the Dordogne, of a family which has given maiiy celebrities both to the church and to the state in France. His education was conducted at home up to his l?th year, when he was transfeiTcd to Cahors, and afterwards to the Plessis College in Pai'is. At the close of a most blameless collegiate career, he selected the church as his profession, ixcd entered, in his 20th year, the newly founded seminary of St Sul])ice, then under the direction of the celebrated Abl)e Tronson, where he received holy orders in 1075. Unlike but too many eccle- siastics of his own rank at that period, he gave his wdiole hpart to his sacred calling. For some time after his ordination, he was employed ii* attendance at the hospitals, and in other parochial duties of the parish of St Sulpice ; and in the year 1678, he was named director of an institution recently founded for the reception of female converts to the Roman Catholic faith, in Paris. During his tenure of this office, he Vv^rote his first work, On the Education of Girls, which is still a standard authority ; and the gentleness, moderation, and charity with which he discharged his duties towards the young con- verts, led to his appointment as head of a mission, which, on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, was sent to preach among the Protestant population of Saintonge and Poitou. In 1688, he resumed his duties in the Maison des Nouvellea Converties, at Paris ; and in the following year, he was named by Louis XIV. to the highly confideutial post of preceptor of his grandson, the young Duke of Burgundy. F.'s management of this most important and delicate tnist shewed how well he understood the true nature and objects of education. All his own instructions, and all the exercises enjoined upon his pupil, were so contrived, as, while they imparted the actual knowledge which it is the ordinary busi- ness of a master to communicate, at the same tine served to prepare the mind and the heart of the puf lU for what was to l)e the real business of his life, by impressing upon him a sense of the responsibility which awaited him, of the great principles of truth and justice upon which these responsibilities are founded, and of the hollo wness and futility of all earthly glory, power, and happiness, which do not rest upon this foundation. To this wise design of the preceptor we are indebted for many works still popular in educational use; for the Fables, for thf ,1 FENELOK Dialogues of the Dead, tor the History of the Ancient Philosophers, for the genn at least of tlie I'ele- machus, and for the Life of Charlemay^ie, the manuscript of which last work, unfortunately, was burned in the fire which destroyed the archi- epiacopal palace of Canibray in the year 1697. As an ackuowledgjiient of these great merits, he was presented by the king, in 1694, to the Abbey of St Valery, and in the following year, to the Arch- bishopric of Cambray, which he only accepted on the ex])ress condition, that for nine months of each year he should be exempted from all duties as E receptor of the prince, and left at liberty to devote imself exclusively to the care of his diocese. It is to this period of F.'s life that the history of the unhappy controversy about Quietism belongs. With- out entering into the details of this singidar revival of the ancient Mysticism (see jNIysticism), it be enough to say that two separate schools of Quietism are to be distinguished, the moral character, or at least the moral tendency, of Avhich was exceedingly different. See Quietism. In one of these, the common mystic princi])le of the absorption of the Boul in the love and contemplation of God, led to the conclusion, tbat the sold, in this state of absorp- tion, became entirely passive ; that it was thence- forth independent of the external world ; that it Buffered no contamination from the material actions of the outer man, and that no acts of virtue, not even of prayer, were any longer required. See MoLiNOS. The other school, while it maintained the theory'- of passive contemplation and love, yet repu- diated the dangerous and immoral consequences which were deduced therefrom. It was exclusively the latter and less objectionable form of Quietism, the professors of which for a time claimed, although not the patronage, yet at least the indulgent con- sideration of Fenelon. He formed, in the year 1687, the acquaintance of the celebrated Madame Guyon, who may be regarded as the foundress of the French Bchool of Quietism. See Guyon. The extraordinary piety and exemplary life of this remarkable woman, and his own natural bias towards the tender and lofty spirituality which she professed, ai)pear to have blinded F. to the true nature and to the practical consequences of the system which she followed. Fully convinced of the unfairness of much of the outcry which was raised against her, and which made her responsible for all the principles of the grosser Quietism of Molinos, his generous mind was perhaps attractefl to her cause by the very injustice of her opponents. He advised her to submit her works to the judgment of Bossuet, who was then in the zenith of his fame, and with whom F. was in the most friendly relations. In the condemnation of the book of Madame Guyon by this prelate, F. acquiesced ; but as she made a formal submission to the church, he refused to join in any condemnation of herself personally. Nevertheless, when a commission was appointed to examine the whole affair, F., although not a member, took a part in the proceedings ; and he even suggested certain changes in their report, which he subscribed in common with the rest. To the articles prescribed for her signature by this com- mission, Madame Guyon readily subscribed ; but it was further considered necessary not only to publish a condemnation of her several works, but also to prepare a special exposition of the tnie doctrine of the church on these qiiestions. When the work of Bossuet on this subject was completed, he submitted it to F. for his approval. This F. not only refused to give, but even composed his ovm. Maxims of the faints in the Interior Life, in explanation and defence of certain at least of Madame Guyon's doctrines. He submitted his book to the Archbishop of Paris, and introduced into it some modifications which were suggested by the diocesan censors, ciieerfully agre^ ing to the stipulation of the archbishoi), that it should be kept l^ack from publication until the comj>letiou of the rival treatise of Boss iet, On the States oj Prayer. An unfortunate violation of this engage- ment, committed without the knowledge, and in th^ absence of F., was the last of a long train of causes which led to the painful and disedifyire rupture between these two great prelates. F. a book was received with much clamour, that of Bossuet waa universally approved ; and in the controversy which ensued, all the weight of the displeasure of the court, which F. had provoked by the covert strictures ui>on the existing state of things, in wliich he was believed to have indulged in his works of fiction, was brought to bear against him. He was ordered to submit his book to the judgment of an ecclesiastical tribunal, of which Bossuet was a member. F. refused to accept Bossuet as judge, on the gi-ound that he had already i^rejudged the cause ; and in the end he appealed to the judgment of the holy see. Unfor- tunately, even while the affair was ])ending at Borne, the controversy was still maintained in France. Bossuet published a succession of jiamphlets. Several of the bishops who had espoused the side of Bossuet, issued pastorals in the same sense. F. defended himself vigorously against them all in several publi- cations, explanatory as well of his principles as of thf» personal imputations in which some of his adversaries" did not scruple to indulge. The last blow against the ancient friendshi}) of the great rivals was struck by Bossuet in his celebrated lielation sur le Quietlsme. F. was wounded to the heart. The copy of Bossuet's pamphlet which first came into his hands is stiU preserved in the British Museum ; and the margin is literally filled with remarks, annotations, replies, denials, and rejoinders, in the smgularly delicate and beautiful handwriting of the indignant arch- bishop. The copy now in the British Museiun ia most probably one which, as we learn from his cor- respondence, he sent to his agent at liome, and on the margin of which he corrected, for the guidance of his friend, the many false and exaggerated charges of his gi-eat antagonist. The substance of these replies he gave to the public in a most masterly defence, WTitten, printed, and published within little more than a fortnight from the appearance of Bos- suet's Relation. From this point, the controversy assumed a more personal, and therefore a more acrimonious character ; and it was maintamed on both sides tdl the long delayed decision of the pope brought it to a close, March 12, 1699, by a brief, in the usual form, condemning the Maxims of the Saints, and marking with especial censure 23 pro- positions extracted from it. The conduct of F, under this blow constitutes, in the eyes of his fellovr- churchmen, one of his highest titles to glory. He not only accepted, without hesitation, the decision of Rome, but he took the very earliest occasion to publish from his own pulpit the brief of his condem- nation ; he issued a pastoral address to his flock, to apprise them of the judgment of Rome, and of his own cheerful acquiescence ; and he presented to his cathedral a magnificent piece of church-plate, a gold ostensory, in which the Angel of Truth is represented trampling under foot many erroneous works, the most prominent of which bears the title of Maxiins of the Saints ! Bossuet is said to have been greatly touched by the conduct of his noble adversary, and to have earnestly desired a reconciliation. But the adverse influence of the king, Louis XIV., and of the court, stood in the way. The jealousy with which the political pi'inciples of F. were already regarded was heightened about this time into open hostdity by the appearance of his Telemachus, which was printed from a copy surreptitiously obtained bv FENESTELLA— FENUGREEK. his servant, and which the king regarded as bnt a masked satire upon his own court : Sesostris being Bupposed to represent the Grand Monarque him- self ; Calypso, Madame de Montespan ; Protesilaus, Louvois ; and Eucharis, Mademoiselle de Fontanges. Louis's anger knew no bounds. F. was strirtly restrained within his diocese ; measures were taken to give tlie condemnation of his book every character of publicity; and what wounded him most of ail, all intercourse Avith him, whether personal or by letter, was forbidden to his old and much-loved pupil, the Didce of Burgundy. From this date, F. lived exclusively for his flock. He founded at Cambray a seminary for his archdiocese, which he made his own especial charge. He was assiduous in i preaching, and in the discharge of the other duties of his office ; and the fame of his benevolence, charity, and enlightened li])erality is attested by the order given in the campaign of 1709 to spare the palace and the stores of the Archbishop of Cambray. The only later controversy in which he a})pears is the revival of the Jansenistic dispute in the well- known form of ' The Case of Conscience' (see Jan- senism), in which F. engaged earnestly on the side of orthodoxy. Notwithstanding the prohibition of his grandfather, the yoimg Duke of Burgundj'^ retained all his old affection for his preceptor ; and the highest hopes were entertained as to tlie future career of the pupil of such a school. These hopes were unfortunately cut short by the premature death of the duke in 1712. F. survived him but a short time. He died Jantiary 7, 1715. The works of F. are very voluminous. The latest collected edition extends to twenty 8vo volmnes, and em})races every variety of subjects — theolr>gy, philosopliy, history, literature, ancient and modern, orator\% especially the eloquence of the pulpit, asceticism, and spirituality in all its branches. His correspondence is verj^ extensive and most interest- ing. Of his early sermons (one of which was delivered in his 15th year), a volume was printed in 1744. Of his mature discourses, two only have reached us in a finished state. They are of the very- highest order of sacred eloquence. Of the rest, we can only jiidge from the skeletons which it was his habit to pre])are with great exactness, and of which very many have been preserved. His literary and historical works, many of which were composed for the instruction of his pupil, are filled wdth allusions and suggestions illnstivative of the principles of government and of the relative duties of sovereigns and subjects, far in advance of the time in which he lived. His work the Temporal Power of the Medieval Popes presents that doctrine in a form which divests it ol many of those characteristics which are most objectionable in the eyes of Protes- tants ; and even his sjiiritual writings in general may be read, and indeed are not unfrequently read, not only without offence, but even with positive advantage, by Christians of all denominations. See Card. Gaussett's Vie de Fenelon, 4 vols. 12mo ; also ihe Vie de Bosmet of the same author. See also the Life prefixed to the collected edition of the (Euvres de Fmelon ; the voluminous correspondence contained in that collection ; and above all, the Vie de Fenelan, recently published, by one of the Sulpician congrega- tion (M. Gosselin), in four large 8vo volumes. FENESTE'LLA, or FENESTEELLA, a genus of Polyzoa, resembling the recent ' lace coral,' very common in Palaeozoic rocks, ranging from the Lower Silurian to the Permian. Thirty species have been described. FE'NNEC, or ZERDA {Megalotis), a genus of CanidcB, peculiar to Africa, resembling foxes in generU form and in the bushy tail, but having eyes 886 adapted for diurnal and not for nocturnal vision, and remarkably large ears. The species are small and beautifiU. They feed partly on dates and othcx vegetable food, also on eggs, and on insects, which they adroitly snap as they pass. FE'NNEL {Fanfiiculum), a genus of umbelliferous plants, allied to DiU (q. v.), but distinguished by the cylindrical strongly ribbed fruit. The floweis are yellow. All the species are aromatic, and have much divided leaves with thread-like segments. The best known is the Common F. {F. vulgare), a native of the south of Europe and of some parts of Englar d. It is a biennial, three or four feet high, and is culti- vated in gardens, chiefly for the sake of its leaves, which are boiled, and served up with mackerel, with salmon, and occasionally wdth other kinds of fish ot are employed to form a sauce for them. — Sweet F., Italian F., or Cretan F. {F. dulce), is a plant of much humbler growth, and annual, much cultivated in the south of Europe, but too tender for the climate of Britain. The young si)routs from the root are sweeter and less aromatic than those of Common F Fennel {Foeniculum vulgarc) : o, a tiower. and when blanched, are a very agi-eeable salad an'l I potherb. The fruit (seed) is longer and paler than i that of Common F., has a more agTceable odour and flavour, is the favourite aromatic condiment of the Italians, and is used in medicine as a carminative i and aromatic stimidant. Oil of F., an aroniatio, j stimulant, and carminative essential oil, is also made from it. — Cape F. [F. Capense), found in the interior of the Cape of Good Hope, has a thick, aromatic, escident root. — The Panmuhooree of India {F. pamnorium) is a species of F. much cultivated in ita native country for its sweet, warm, and aromatic fruit, which is much used as a carminative, and in curries. — The Giant F. of the south of Exirope is a plant of a different genus (Ferula), and abounds in a fetid juice. It is indeed closely allied to asafoetida, but forms a favourite food of buffaloes in Apulia, where it particiilarly abounds. The dry dead stem is fuU of a white pith, which is used in Sicily as tinder. FENS. See Bedford Level. FE'NUGREEK [Trigonella), a genus of plants 4 the natural order Papilionacece., sub-order Legurmn- 08ce, allied to clover and melilot. The leaves have FENYES— FEOFFMENT. three obovate leaflets and scytlie-shaped stipules. The flowers generally have the keel very small, so that the wings and standard present the appearance of a tripetalous corolla. The Common F. [T.foinum GroECum) is a native of the south of Europe, and of Borae parts of Asia ; it is much cultivated in India as a fodder-i)lant, and derives its name [Fcenum Cfrcscum, Greek hay) from its iise as fodder in Greece. Fenugreek [THgonella fcenum GrcBCum). Its pods are many-seeded, and cylindrical ; its seeds have a strong peculiar smell, and an oily bitter taste ; the flour made from them is used for emollient poultices, but only in veterinary practice. The seeds of F. were formerly held in great esteem in medicine. — Another species [T. incisum), growing spontaneously in many parts of India, is much used as fodder for cattle. The legumes of the Esculent Trigonella {T. esculeiita), also an Indian plant, are used as human food. One species only, the Bird's Foot F. {T. ornithopodioides), is a native of Britain, a small plant, gi'owing in sandy pastures near the Bea, and not very common. FENYES, Elek (Alexius), a Hungarian geo- grapher and statistical author, was born in 1807 at Csokaj, in the county of Bihar. After the usual career of studies in philosophy and law, F. became barrister-at-law as early as 1829 ; but instead of frequenting the law-courts, he began travelling all over the country, with the purpose of making bimaelf thoroughly acquainted with the state of the Hungarian kingdom, of which there had never before been an authentic survey. The first fruits of F.'s enterprise appeared in 1840, under the title, Huigary and its Annexed Parts, Oeographicalbj and Statistically considered (6 vols., Pesth). The great prize of 200 ducats was awarded to the author by the Hungarian Academy. The Statistics of Hungary, in 3 vols., followed (1843) ; General Atlas for Hungary (1845); Description of Hungary (1847); Geographical Dictionary cf Hungary {1851) — all of which were published at Pesth. The whole of F.'s works are written in the Magyar tongue, but several of them have been translated into German, and repeatedly published. Besides that these works are the first true expounders of the state of Hungary, it is also generally admitted that, as to their completeness, solidity, and exaot- ness, they will bear a comparison with the best of kindred works in European literature. During the national government of Hungary (1848), r. was made the chief of the statistical section. After a respite of several years, from failing health, F. is a^rain busily engaged in the periodical press, and IS editor of the Farmers' Journal (A Falusi Gazda). FEODO'SIA, or THEODO'SIA. See Kaffa. FEO'FFMENT [infeudare], the oldest, and for a long period the only, method for the conveyance of land known in England. Feoffment consisted in the formal conveyance of the land from the f coffer to the feoffee, the former stating distinctly the measure of the estate conferred, whether it was in fee, in tail, or for life. Where no mention of the diiration of the estate was made, the gift was presumed to be for life. This conveyance of the land, in order to be complete, required to be accompanied by delivery of Sasine (q. v.). Livery of sasine wa? of two kinds — viz., by deed, and in law. In the former case, the parties being actually upon the land, the feoffor, Ijy delivery of a twig or a turf, testified his conveyauco of the land. In livery in law, the parties being in sight of the land, the feoffor referring to the land gave possession to the feoffee. This mode of feoff- ment was ineffectual unless the feoffee entei'ed into possession during the life of the feoffor. Livery in deed might be effected by attorney ; but livery in law only by the parties themselves. In the earliest times, these ceremonies completed the conveyance. But by degrees the practice of embodying the trans- action in a deed was introduced. When a deed was used, it became customary, but not essential, to endorse on the deed the fact that livery of sasine had been made. By the statute of Frauds (29 Car. II. c. 3), it was declared that no estate created by livery of sasine, unless accompanied by WTiting, signed by the party or his agent, should be of any effect, except as an estate at will ; aud by 8 and 9 Vict. c. 106, s. 3, a feoffment is void unless accom- panied by deed. The law formerly gave so gi-eat an effect to a feoffment, that even when the party ostensibly making the conveyance was not lawfully seised in the estate, the feoSment was sustained. This was called a tortious conveyance ; the party in whose favour it was made was said to have acc^uired an estate by wrong, the rightful owner was disib.ised, and was left to his right of Entry (q. v.). But by the act last mentioned, this tortioiis effect of a feoff- ment was removed. It must be observed that the practice of feoffment above described, and which haa existed in England from time immemorial, differed materially from the old form of investiture in use in strictly feudal times, and from that which still pre- vails in Scotland. In England, the transaction was simply a conveyance by the actual holder of the land to a new tenant, testified by certain ceremonies, but requiring no confirmation by a third party to complete it. But by feudal usages, every holder land was the vassal of some superior lord, to whon\ he owed suit and service, and without \vliose consent he could not even part vdth. his land ; hence no conveyance was complete "without the reception of the new tenant by the lord paramount as his vassal. In like manner, to this day, in Scotland, no transfer of heritage is complete wathout the formal confirma- tion of the superior ; and although by recent legis- lation the old feudal usages, which for two centuries have existed as landmarks, telling us of a system now passed away, have been abolished, yet the fact of acceptance by the superior, and the performance of the pecuniary services attendant on that accept- ance, are still preserved. See Infeftment, Saslnk, Feudal System. 389 FER OLIGISTE-FEllDINAND. Feoffment to Uses. — ^This was an application of the feudal form of feoffment in England in order to effect a conveyance in trust. The common law courts, adhering to feudal rules, refused to recognize any interest in the land but that of the person actually infeft ; but where a feoffment was made to one man to the use of another, the equity courts gave effect to the transaction by compelling the party infeft to hold in trust for the third person, called the cestui que use, who was said to have an equitable estate, in contradistinction to the legal estate which remained in the feoffee to uses. By the statute of Uses, it M'as enacted that in all such conveyances the actual legal estate should pass to the cestui que use. See Uses. FER OLIGISTE is a mineralogical term applied to a variety of anhydrous red oxide of iron (FegOg), otherwise called Specular Iron Ore. The famous Swedish, Russian, and Elba iron are in greater pai-t prepared from this iron ore. Si)ecular iron ore is mostly confined to crystaline or metaniorphic rocks. See Iron, FE'R^ (Lat. wild), in the Linntean system of zoology, an order of Mammalia^ nearly corres- ponding to the Carnaria (q. v.) of Cuvier. FE'R^ NATU'R^ (Lat. of a wild nature). Those animals which flee the dominion of man, whether beast, bird, or fish, and retain their natural freedom, are thus characterised in the Roman law. According to that system, such animals became the property of any one who might catch them, irrespec- tively of the ownership of the soil on which they were taken, on the principle that ' natural reason gives to the first occupant that which has no owner.'* — IpM. ii. tit. i. s. 12. But this regidation did not prevent the prohibition of trespass. ' Of course, any one who enters the ground of another for the pur- pose of hunting or fowling, may be prohibited by the proprietor, if he perceives his intention of enter- ing' {lb.). This right on the part of the proprietor did not affect the property of the animal taken, though it gave him an action against the trespasser. If a wild animal escaped from its captor, his proprie- torship instantly ceased, and the animal might again be appropriated by its captor. This occurred even though the animal was not out of sight, if it could not be pursued without great difficulty. Even a wounded animal was not the property of the sports- man till it was caught, though the point which is decided in this sense {Imt. ii. tit. i. s. 13) is yaid to have been one on which difference of opinion had prevailed. Except in so far as it is modified by the Btatutes, which will be explained under Gajvie-laws, these provisions form part of the common lav/ both of England and Scotland. Animals which are said to be ferae naturae, or of a wild and untamable dispo- sition, any man may seize upon and keep for his own use or pleasure ; but if they escape from his custody, though without his voluntary abandon- ment, it naturally follows that they return to the common stock, and any man else has an equal right to seize and enjoy them afterwards (Stephen's Blackstone, i. 161). The law of Scotland followed the law of Rome so closely in this, as in other respects, that the passage from the Institutes of Justinian above referred to was translated into one of the oldest collections of Scottish laws — that, viz., contained in the Cromortie MS., the date of which may be assigned to the latter part of the 14th c, and which certainly is not later than the reign of liobert III. (Irvine's Game-lmvs, p. 20, and statutes published by the Record Commission, Appendix v. p. 385) ; see also Stair, ii. 1, 5, and 33 ; and Ersk. ii 1, 10. Under animals, feraj naturae, the law of Ikome included bees, unless included in a hive, or t3cej>, aa it is still called in Scotland, or unless the 290 proprietor be in pursuit of them, and has kept them in sight. See Bee. Domestic animals, thoudi they stray, do not cease to be the proj)erty >f those to whom they have belonged ; but as regards animals which have a tendency to return to a state of nature, the rule of the Roman law wan, that property in them continued so long as they Lad the intention of returning {animum. revertendi), or rather, one would imagine, the habit of doing so. This rule applied to peacocks and i)igeons, l^ut not to fowls and geese ; with reference to which it was provided, that though they should be frightened and take to flight, they were still yours, though yon might have lost sight of them, and that whoever detained them with a view to his own profit, was guilty of tlieft. See DOVECOT; Warren ; Forest Laws; Fishes, IJoyal. FE'RDINAND I., emperor of Germany, 1556 — 15G4, was born in Spain, 1503. He waa the son of Philip I., and brother of Ciiarlea V., whom he succeeded in the empire in 1556, having been previously elected king of Rome. F. had married, in 1521, Anna, daughter of Ladislaus VI., king of Bohemia and Hungar3\ When her brother Louis fell in 1526 in battle Avith the Turks, leaving no issue, the crown w'as claimed by F. in right of his wife. This involved him in a long and bloody struggle with a rival, John of Zapolya, who laid claim to Hungary, and who, as well as his son Sigismund, was supported by Soliman, sultan of the Turks. F. at last gained the upper hand, bought off the Turks by a yearly tribute, and finally secured Hungary and Bohemia to the House of Austria. When he was elected emperor, the con- cessions he had made to the Protestants caused the pope, Paul IV., to refuse to acknowledge him. That pope dying, his successor, Pius IV., was more complaisant ; but the electors resolved that for the future the consent of the pope should not be asked ; and this was carried out. F. nfade several attempts to reconcile the Protestants and Catholics, and urged, though fruitlessly, the reformation of abuses on the Council of Trent. He died in 1564, leaving the reputation of a prudent and enlightened ruler, and was succeeded by his son, Maximilian IL FERDINAND II., emperor of Germany, 1619 —1637, was bom at Gratz. 9th July 1578. He was grandson of Ferdinand I., his father being Charles, Archduke of Stjnria, the younger brother of Maximilian. F.'s mother, Maria of Bavaria, early inspired him with hatred against the Protest- ants. He was educated by the Jesuits at Ingol- stadt, along with Maximilian of Bavaria; and at Loretto, he had taken a solemn oath, before the altar of the Mother of God, to reinstate Catholicism as the sole religion of his dominions, at any cost. As soon as he succeeded to the goverrunent of his own duchy of Styria, he set about putting down Protestantism by force. He attempted the same in Bohemia and Hungary, of which countries he had been elected king during the lifetime of Matthias Corvinus ; but though at first unsuccessful, and even in danger of losing his dominions, he ultimately managed, with the aid of the Catholic league and of the Elector George I. of Saxony, to subdue them. Bohemia lost all its privileges. By hanging, confiscation of property, and the banishment of innumerable families, the wretched land was reduced to obedience; and the introduction of the Jesuits, and rigorous persecution of Protestants, re-estab- lished Catholicism. Meanwhile, F. had been elected emperor of Germany (1619). The war, which properly ended with the subjugation of Bohemia, was at the same time transferred to the rest of Germany, and took the character of a religiuaa FERDINAND. war —the famous ' Thirty Years' War ' (q. v.). The two imperial generals, Tilly and Wallenstein, were opposed by a confederacy of the Protestant states of Lower Saxony, with Christian IV. of Denmark at their head; but the confederates were defeated by Tilly at the battle of Lutter, in Brunswick, and forced to conclude peace (Lubeck, 1G29). Confident in the ascendency which he had acquired, F., in the same year, issued an Edict of Restitution for the whole of Germany, taking away from the Protestants nearly all the rights they had acquired by a century of struggles ; and the troops of Wal- lenstein and of the league were immediately set to work to carry it out in several places. But further proceedings were soon arrested by the dismissal of Wallenstein, on which the diet of the empire at Regensburg had insisted; and by the opposition of llichelieu, who put every wheel in movement to curb the power of the House of Austria. At this time also, a formidable opponent to the schemes of the emperor appeared in the I)erson of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden (q. v.). After the murder of Wallenstein, the connivance at which is an ineffaceable blot on F.'s memory, the imperial commander, Gallas, gamed, 1634, the battle of Nordlingen, which had the effect of detaching Saxony from the Swedish alliance ; but the ability of the Swedish generals, for whom Austria had none that were a match, and the open part that France now took in the contest, brought back the balance of victory so far to the Protestant arms, that when F. died, February 15, 1637, he had given up the hope of ever attaining his objects. His reign is one of the most disastrous in history; for Germany owes him nothing but bloodshed, and misery, and desolation. FERDINAND III., emperor of Germany, 1637— 1657, the son of Ferdinand II., was bom 11th July 1608. He was not so much under Jesuitical and Spanish influence as his father. Having accom- panied the armies in their campaigns after death of Wallenstein, he had witnessed the miseries of war, and was inclined for peace; but the con- flicting interests of the individual belligerents hindered any unity of view, and made it necessary to proceed with the contest. Thus was this miser- able war protracted, ever extending in circuit, and increasing in devastation owing to the growing licentiousness of the soldiery. At last, in 1643, a congi'ess met at Munster to arrange terms of peace, which was concluded in 1648, and is known as the Peace of Westphalia. At the diet of the empire, 1653 — 1654, the last presided over by an emperor in person, F. effected important alterations in the administration of justice. He died, 2d April 1657, shortly after concluding an alliance with Poland against Sweden. His son, Leopold I., succeeded him in the German empire. FERDINAND I., emperor of Austria (1835— 1848), eldest son of Francis I. by his second marriage with Maria Theresa of the House of Naples, was bom at Vienna, 19th April 1793. He was from the first of a weak constitution, and was unf ortimate in those to whom his education was intrusted. Yet he shewed on all occasions a goodness of heart, which was fostered by the example of his uncle, the Archduke Charles, to whom he was much attached. While crown-prince, he travelled through his Italian provinces, Switzerland, and part of France, and took great interest in manufacturing industry. In 1835 he succeeded his father on the thi-one. It was expected from his character that he would inaugurate a more liberal policy than his prede- cessors had pursued, but the absolutist principles {nat seemed destined to rule for ever the Austrian cabinet, triumphed, and Metternich was allowed to carry on the government. It now became obvioua that F. sadly lacked moral decision, and his ' goodness ' exhausted itself in numerous acts of clemency and benevolence. Nevertheless, during his reign, the industry of Austria made a great advance, and the great network of railroads" and highways was begun. The insurrection in Galicia, 1846, led to the annexation of Cracow to Austria. No country was more affected Ijy the European movement that began in the winter of 1847— 1848 than Austria, though the revolutionary storms thnt shook the empire cannot be attributecl to any van b of goodwill to his people on the i)art of Ferdir and, but only to a comjilete want of political wisdom. On the disturbances breaking out in Mai-ch, h(- c m- sented to the dismissal of Metternich, the appoint- ment of a responsible ministry, and granted the outlines of a constitution. In May, he retired with, his court to Innspruck, but was induced to return to the capital in August. At last, the October insurrection in Vienna made him again leave the palace of Schonbrunn, and retire to Olmlitz, where, on 2d December 1848, he abdicated in favour of his nephew, Franz Joseph. Subsequently he resided at Prague until his death, June 29, 1875. He mar- ried, 27th February 1831, Caroline, daughter of Vic- tor Emanuel I., king of Sardinia, but left no children. FERDINAND the Catholic, 5th of Castile, 2d of Aragon, 3d of Naples, and 2d of Sicily, was born 10th March 1452. He was the son of John II., king of Navarre and Aragon ; and in 1469 married, at Valladolid, Isabella, sister of Kenry IV. of Castile. Even in the lifetime of his father, events were paving the way for the subsequent union of the two kingdoms of Castile and Aragon. On the death of Henry IV. of Castile in 1474, the Cortes refused to acknowledge the legitimacy of his daughter Juana, and proclaimed Isabella and her husband F. joint- sovereigns. A war ensued, in which they were completely successful. In 1479, F. becoming king of Aragon on the death of his father, the two kingdoms of Aragon and Castile were united in the persons of F. and Isabella. Isabella, however, as long as she lived, maintained her position as queen of Castile, and allowed her husband no other share in the government than the privilege of affixing his signature to the decrees, and of uniting his arms with her omu. F.'s whole reign was an uninterrupted series of successfid wars. In Castile, he distinguished himself by the effectual suppression of the banditti, who had become foraiid- able in the confusion resulting from the civil wara. This he accomplished by re- organising and putting in force against them the hermandad, or brother- hood, a kind of Spanish militia, composed of the citizens and the coimtry-people. But F., whose craft and vigour were quite MachiaveUan, was not content with taking strong measures against the Castilian outlaws ; he also resolved to break the power of the feudal nobility, and made good use of the hermandad in carrying out this design. Cities and towns were encouraged to make them- selves independent of the nobles, who were depri\"ed of many important privileges. Among othei humiliations, they were subjected to the ordinary tribunals of justice. The establishment of the Inquisition in 1478 — 1480, although primarily and mainly intended to further 'religious' ends, like- wise helped to lessen their influence. F. also strengthened his power by vesting in himself and his successors the grand-mastership of the military orders of Calatrava, Alcantara, and Santiago. la all his schemes, F. was ably seconded by his queen Isabella, and by the celebrated Cardinal Ximenes, The year 1492 was the most bi'illiant in his reign. FERDINAND. and is one of the most important in the history ol: the material progress of the workl. It was signal- ized by the discovery of America by Christopher Colmnbus, though the honour of luuing aided the great navigator belongs not to F., but to Isabella. The same year witnessed the capture of Granada, and the retreat of the last Moorish monarch into Africa. F., who had a true Spanish hatred of heresy, immediately issued an order for the expulsion of the JeAVS from the conquered kingdom ; and, in consequence, 160,000 — some say 800,000 — of his D3W subjects were compelled to scatter themselves over Europe. This act was neither Mdse nor Christian, but it was in accordance with the reli- gious barbarism of the age, and especially of Spain. It was followed, several years after, by the persecu- tion and expulsion of the Moors — an act still more unwise than the former, for the Moors of Granada were unquestionably the most industrious, civilised, and refined inhabitants of the Peninsula. F. was as successful abroad as at home. He was victorious over Alfonso V., king of Portugal ; while his general, Gonzalvo de Cordova, twice wrested Naples from the French — the second time in 1503 — after which it remained permanently in F.'s ])ossession. In the following year, Isabella died ; and in 1505, he married Germaine de Foix, a niece of Louis XII. of I'rance. He took part in the famous league of Cambrai formed against Venice in 1508 ; made himself master of various towns and fortresses in Africa; and in 1512, conquered the kingdom of Navarre ; thus becoming monarch of Sj^ain from the P_yi-enees to the Rock of Gibraltar. He died at Madrigalejo, January 23, 151G ; and was succeeded by his grandson, Charles V. To F. and Isabella Spain owes her unity and greatness as a nation ; and, in the no less skilful hands of their successor, she exercised an imperial intluence over Europe, which it required Luther and the Reformation to check. See Prescott's History of the lielgn of Ferdi- nand and Isabella of Spain (1838). FERDINAND VII., king of Spain, born I4th October 1784, was the son of King Charles IV. and the Princess Maria Louisa of Parma. Although he had the advantage of excellent preceptors, especially the Canon Escoiquiz, in his youth, yet the machina- tions of the notorious Godoy, minister of Spain, prevented him from enjoying any opportunities for the intelligent exercise of his facilities. A deliberate attempt was made by his mother and Godoy to degrade him into a lover of mere animal pleasures, that their influence and authority might be un- restrained. F. soon conceived an aversion to the minister, which was increased by his marriage in 1802 with the amiable and accomplished Maria Ajitonietta Theresa, daughter of Ferdinand L, king of the Two Sicilies. This lady, who endeavoured to maintain her husband's dignity, died, 21st May 1806, of grief, as is supposed, at the insidts offered to her by Godoy, the king himself, and above all by the queen. Suspicions of foul play, however, were ertertained by Ferdinand. Mainly for the purpose of gratifying their hatred towards Godoy, a number of t\ie nobles, headed by the Duke of Infantado, assembled round the crown-prince. A false step that the latter now took proved the beginning of geat misery to Spain. By the advice of the Canon sGoiquiz, he wrote a letter to Napoleon, in which he expressed a wish to marry the eldest daughter of Lucien Bonaparte. This letter fell into the hands of the minister himself, and the prince was in consequence arrested in the Escorial, 28th October 1807, and declared a traitor by a royal proclama- tion, written in Godoy 's OAvn hand, and addressed to the Council of CasLile. The animosity of the people towai'ds the minister led to the revolution of Aranjuez, and the king abdicated in favour of F. 19th March, 1808. Almost immediately after, however, Charles wrote to Napoleon, declaring his abdication to be forced. Napoleon, who had designs of his own upon Spain, refused to recognize F. as king, but sent him an invitation to meet him at Bayonne. In spite of all warnings to the contrary, F. repaired to Bayonne, at which place he arrived on tlie 20th April, and was received with distinction by Napoleon. Meanwhile, however, the French troops under Murat had marched across the Pyrenees, and taken possession of the Spanish capital. The wretched squabbles and recriminations that now took j)lace between Charles and his son, and which were encouraged by Napoleon, ended in F.'s renounc- ing the crown of Spain unconditionally, receiving for himself and his posterity an annual income of 600,000 francs from the crown revenues of France, ard likewise the palace and parks of Navarre. The chilteau of Valen^-ay, belonging to Prince Talley- rand, was assigned to him as a residence, along with his brother Don Carlos, his uncle Don Antonio, the Canon Escoiquiz, and the Duke of San Carlos. Here his proceedings were watched with the utmost \ngilance; and it was not till the end of the year 1813, when the splendid series of British triumphs in the Peninsula had made a longer occupation of the country by the French impossible, that Napoleon offered to reinstate him on the throne of Spain. On the 14th of March, F. returned to Spain, where he was received with every demonstration of loyalty and affection. Very unfortunately for Spain, and also for his own comfort, F. had, in the meantime, learned to associate liberalism with Jacobinism, and both with Bonapartism, so that, on his reaccession to power, he threw himself into the hands of the clergy and the reactionary portion of his nobility. Even before his arrival in Madrid, he refused to swear or accede to the constitution of the Cortes, as interfering too much with the free exercise of regal authority, though he promised another in its pk.ce. From the moment, however, that he assumed the reins of government, a series of transactions took place which excited the astonishment and disgust of all liberal-minded politicians in Europe. Instead of the promised constitution, there com- menced a fearful system of persecution against all who were suspected of holding lil^eral opinions ; and executions, imprisonment, exile, and confiscation of property reigned in all parts of the kingdom. The monastic orders, the Inquisition, and the rack were restored, and every expression of opinion rigorously repressed. At length, in January 1820, an insurrec- tion broke out, and F. was compelled to restore the constitution of the Cortes of 1812; but the French government interfering by force of arms, absolutism was restored in Si)ain in 1823. In 1829, F. married the notorious Maria Christina. She was his fourth spouse. By the first three, he had no chikb-en. Maria, however, bore him two childi-en : Isabella IL, the present queen of Spain, and the Infanta Maria Louisa, who married the Duke of Montpensier. By the influence of Maria Christina, F. was induced to abrogate the Salique law excluding females from the throne, and to restore the old Castilian law of cognate succession. This step led to a dangerous combination among the adherents of the king's brother, Don Carlos, even during the lifetime of the former, and after his death, to a civil war. See Dox Carlos, Espartero, &c. On the 20th June 1833, the deputies, Cortes, and grandees of the kingdom took the oath of fealty, and did homage to the Princess of the Asturias, and F. died on the 29th September of the same year. FE RDINAND L, king of the Two Sicillca was the son of Charles III. of Spain, and bora J'ERDINAND— FERGUSO^. 12th January 1751 When Charles ascended the 'Spanish throne in 1759 F., though a minor, suc- i'eeded him on that of Naples under a regency. Aiter his marriage, in 176S, with Maria Carolina, daughter of the Empress Maria Theresa, he fell completely under her influence, and lost all his former popularity. The queen and her favourite minister Acton (q. v.) ruled the kingdom. F. joined England and Austria against Fi'auce in 1793, but in 1801 was forced to enter into a treaty with the First Consul. A subsequent violation of this treaty compelled him, in 1806, to take refuge in Sicily, under the protection of the English. A French army marched into Naples, and took pos- session of the kingdom, which Napoleon bestowed fiist on his brother Joseph, and afterwards on Miirat. F. was reinstated by the congress of Vienna, and entercxi Naples, after Murat's flight, in June 1815. His queen had died in 1814. During the revolu- tion of 1820, he was obliged to introduce the Spanish constitution of 1812, but abolished it next year with the help of Austrian arms. He, however, expelled the J esuits, and abolished superfluous con- vent^s ; acts that may, perhaps, partly atone for his bloody persecution of the republicans in 1800, and his general antipathy to enlightened })rinciples of government. He died January 4, 1825 ; and was succeeded by his son Francis I., who died in 1830. FERDINAND II., king of the Two Sicilies, was the son of Francis I. by his second Mdfe, Isabella Maria of Spain, and was born 12th January 1810. He succeeded his father in 1830. Th3 country was in the most \ATetched condition ; and all eyes were turned to the young king, the beginning of whose reign was marked by various acts of clemency towards political enemies, and also by the introduction of reforms in the economy and government of the country. But it was not long before he began to listen to foreign counsels, which saw danger for the whole peninsula in liberal measures. From that time, Naples became the scene of incessant conspiracy, insurrection, bloodshed, and political prosecutions. Ferdinand yielded to the storm of 1848, and granted a consti- tution to both parts of his dominions ; he was even obliged to take part in the war against Austria in Northern Italy. The Sicilians mistrusted, ^yad with reason, the king's proceedings, and declared that he and his family had forfeited the Sicilian crowTi. F. followed the constitution so far as to call the chambers together, but quickly dismissed them, impatient of any interference with his authority. Alter the subjugation of Sicily in 1849, when the reaction began to set in all over Italy, he hastened completely to set aside the new constitution ; while all who had taken any part in state reforms were subjected to those cruel persecutions that the Letters of Mr Gladstone hav^e held up to the execra- tion of the world. F. died 22d May 1S59, and was succeeded by his son Francis II. FERDINAND III., Grand Duke of Tuscany, and Archduke of Austria, was born at Florence, 6th May 1769. In 1790, he succeeded his father, Leopold IT., in the government of Tuscany, when the latter obtained the imperial throne at the death of the Emperor Joseph II,, Leopold's brother. F.'s rule in Tuscany was one of combined mildness and ability ; and during his reign were inaugurated many judicial, economical, and legislative reforms : sominerce was protected and encouraged ; hospitals and asylums founded, good roads opened through the state, and the greatest attention bestowed on the welfare of his subjects, which an eidightened and good prince could exercise. A lover of peaceful progress, he remained strictly neutral in the lirst coalition against France, and was the first sovereign in Europe to recognise and treat diplomatically with the French riei)ublic in 1792. In 1703, intimi- dated l>y the combined menaces of the Russian and British cabinets, F. was constrained to reiui- quish his neutral policy, and become a i)a3sive member of the coalition formed Ijy the above nd. 1707), Institutes of Moral Philosophy (Loud. 1769), Histor y of the Prorp'&ss and Termination of the Boman Republic (Lond. 1783), and PHnciples of Moral arid Political Science (Lond. 1792). The work by which he is best known is his History of the Boman Bepublic; this, together with the Essay and Insti- tutes, have gone through a number of editions. All liis works hove been translated into Gennan and French, and the Institutes has been used as a text-book in several foreign universities. F. was distinguished for the decision and manliness of hia character. 893 FERGUSON— FERMATA. FERGUSON, James, was born (1710) near Keith, ft vilhige in Banffshire, Scotland. Ilis father being a poor day-labourer, he enjoyed only three months of instniction at school, and his subsequent acquire- ments were the result of liis own iiisatiable thirst for knowledge. His tastes lay principally for oractical mechanics and astronomy ; and while Lee})ing sheep, to which he was early sent, he was constantly employed in making models of mills, &c., and at night in studying the stars. After working at v.xrious country emi)loyments, he took to drawing yatterna for ladies' dresses, and copying pictures and prints with pen and ink. He then su})ported himself and his parents by drawing portraits, first in Edinburgh, and afterwards (1743) in London ; his leisure time being all the while given to as,tronomical pursuits. In 1748, he began lecturing on astronomy and mechanics with great acceptance. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1763, and received from George Hi. a pension of £50. He now gave up portraits, and devoted himself to lecturing and writing on his favourite 8ul)joct3. He died in 1776. F. was held in high esteem for the worth and amiability of his character, as well as for his extraordinary and self- taught acquirements. Few men have done more to promote a knowledge of the results of science, among those who have not the advantage of regular scientific training. His principal works are — Astronomy explained upon Sir Isaac Neivton''s Principles (1756 ; Sir David Brewster's ed., 2 vols. 1811) ; Lectures on Mechanics, JlydrosicUics, Pneumatics, and Optics (1760) ; also edited by Sir Da\'id Brewster in 1805 ; and Select Mechanical Exercises, with an Autobiography (1773). FERGUSSON, Robert, a Scottish poet, was bom at Edinbiu-gh about the year 1750, and received his education at the university of St Andrews, where he was in possession of a bursary foxinded by a person of his own name, and resided four years. Subsequently, he removed to Edinburgh, and was employed in the office of the commissary clerk. His poems were chiefly contributed to Ruddiman's Weekly Magazine, and gained him considerable local reputation. Unhappily, this reputation proved his ruin. His society was eagerly sought ; and in that convi^'ial time, he was led into excesses which permanently injured his health. He fell into a religious melancholy, and finally, throuc^h an acci- dental fracture of the skull, became totally deranged. He died on the 16th October 1774, at the age of twent}"-four. - F.'s poems are distinguished by considerable humour, fancy, and purity of language, and he possessed great mastery over Lowland Scotch. He sketches with liveliness contemporary life and inci- dents, and much of our knowledge of old Edinburgh is derived from his verses. His fame however, rests quite as much upon his unhappy life and early death, and upon the circumstance that he 'vas to some extent the forerunner of Burns, as »ipon the essential merits of his verse. Burns «^mired his works, was indebted to them for hints, railed him ' his elder brother in the Muses,' and ■when he came to Edinburgh, erected a memorial- stone over his grave. FE'RI^ (Lat.), holidays during which political and legal transactions were suspended in ancient B,ome, and slaves enjoyed a cessation from labour. Feriie were thus dies nefasti, the opposite of the dies fosti. See Fasti. Daj'^s which were consecrated to a ]>ai'ticular divinity, on which any public cere- mony was celebrated, and the like, were ferife. In contradistinction to these which were ferus pidAicce public holidays), there were ftrioi privatce, which were observed by single families, in oomm jmoi-ation of some particular occurrence of importance to them or their ancestors. Birthdays, days of purification after a fimeral, &c., were also observed as family ferire. The public ferisB were divided into those which were always kept {stativce) on certain days marked in the calendar ; and those which were kei)t by command of the consuls or other superior magistrates on the occasion of any public emergency. ' The maimer in which all public feriae were kt.p< bears great analogy to our Sunday. The people generally visited the temples of the gods, and offered up their prayers and sacrifices. The most serious and solemn seem to have been the fer»(B imperativce ; all the others were generally attesid^d by rejoicings and feasting.' See an elaborate article by Dr Schmitz in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Boman Antiquities. In Scotland, those days during which it was not lawful for courts to be held, execution to proceed, or any other judicial step to be taken, used to be called feriat times, but the expression is obsolete. FERMA'NAGH, an inland oounty in the south- west of Ulster province, Ireland. It is 45 milea long, and 29 broad. Area, 714 square miles, 5 arable, 7V "wood, and above ^ in water, including Up]ier and Lower Lough Erne. There are other smaller lakes, as Loughs Melvin and Macnean. The surface is mostly a succession of abrupt mountains and hills, rising in Cuilcagh 2188 feet, and in Belmore 1312 feet. Tlie scenery varies from the richest vales to the wildest uplands. The chief rocks are mountain limestone, with many cavities and under- ground water-courses, millstone grit, and old red sand?toue. Some coal, iron, and marble occur. The chief rivers are the Erne and its tributaries, the Colebrooke, Woodford, and Amey. The soil in the low grounds is a deep rich loam, but in the limestone and sandstone districts, it is cold and thm. The climate is mild ?.nd moist. Marsh-fever prevails in summer and autumn in the low tracts near Lough Erne. In 1872, 106,091 acres were in crop; oats, barley, wheat, potatoes, turnips, and hay being the chief products. The chief exports are oats, batter, and eggs. F. is divided into 8 baronies and 23 parishes. It returns 2 members to parliament. Principal towns: Enniskillen, Lis- naskea, and Lontberstown. Pop. (1851) 116,047; (1871) 92,688. In 1872, there were 96 national schools, with 14,925 scholars. The chief antiquities are raths or rude hill-forts, and some ecclesiasticj>J ruins. FERMAT, Pierre de, a French mathematician, was bom at Toidouse in 1590, and at an early period, in conjunction wdth his friend PascaJ, hit upon a very ingenious mode of considering figurate numbers, upon which he subsequently based his doctrine of the calcidation of probabilities. F. employed himself greatly with the properties of numbers, and made many acute discoveries in regard to their composition and analysis. He al3'> squared the parabola in a much simpler way than Archimedes at an earlier period had done, and made many other discoveries in geometry*. His method of finding the greatest and least ordinates of curved lines was analogous to the method of the then unknown differential calculus. In addition to his scientific attainments, F. possessed an extraor- dinary knowledge of ancient and modern languages. He died at Toulouse in 1665. A collection of F.'s works appeared at Paris in 1679. FERMA'TA, in Music, is the name given to a pause or resting-point, generally marked by the sign ^ . The notes over which this sign is i)laced are prolonged beyond their true length. Th* FERMENTATIOi^— FERMENTED AND DISTILLED LIQDORS. fermata is frequently found near the end of a part of a composition, which aflbrds an opportunity for the singer or player to introduce an extempore embellishment. FERMENTATION is the term applied to the change which occurs in one organic substance when intluenced by another in a state of decay or putre- faction. The process was originally understood to include all the changes which matter of plant and animal origin undergoes when disunited from the living force, but is now restricted to certain of the changes. Thus, there are many substances, such as etarch and sugar, w^hich have no power of them- Sb'ves to pass into decay, or change in composition thi ougli lengthened periods of time ; whilst there is another class of substances, including albumen, fibrin, and oaseine, as well as gelatinous tissues, mucus, &c., which, when exposed to moderately heated air in a moist condition, more or less rapidly begin to putrefy or decompose. The latter substances, viz., those which spontaneously pass into a state of change, are called ferments, and when they are brought in contact with sugar, &c., which otherwise would not be altered, they cause the latter to be broken up into simpler compounds ; it is this process that constitutes fermentation. Yeast consists of microscopic egg-shaped balls, which develop into cells and feed upon the substance undergoing fermen- tation. In the commercial beer-ycast, the cells of Torvula crevisice and PenicilUum glaucum may be distinguished by aid of the microscope ; and the for- mer appears to be as necessary to the production of the vinous as the latter is in exciting the lactic fermenta- tion. The ferments are believed by some naturalists to exist in organic matter, and that, whenever a plant or an animal dies, the process of fermentation proceeds more or less rapidly. The most important kind of fermentation is that known under the designation of vinous, and which forms part of the processes in the preparation of alcohol, beer, wine, etc. It con- sists in the action of a peculiar ferment called Yeast (q. v.) upon a saccharine liquid, when the glucose or directly fermentable sugar (C6l:Ii206) is decomposed into two atoms of alcohol, each (CiHeO), and two atoms of carbonic acid, each composed of (CO2). In this change it will be observed that the yeast, whilst it causes the change, does not unite,' directly or indirectly, with any of the constituents of the sugar. The vinous fermentation proceeds best at a tem- perature ranging from 60^ to 80° F., the mean and more desirable being about 70" F. The process itself causes the development of heat, and recours3 must be had, therefore, to large airy rooms, where the fermenting tuns or vessels are arranged, and also to the circulation of cold water in pipes distrib- uted round the interior of the vessels, and in contact with the liquid. See Beer. The lactous fermentation takes place in milk when it begins to sour. In this the PeuicUlium glaucum acts the part of a ferment, and causes the change in the sugar of milk, which is in part resolved into lactic acid (CsHeOs). The latter then curdles the caseine, and the milk becomes clotted. When the milk still further sours, and the material is kept at a tempei-ature of 77° to 86° F., the butyric acid fermen- tation takes place, in which the putrefying caseine changes the sugar (q. v.) of milk into butyric acid (CiHsO,). The viacous or mucous fermentation occurs when the juice of the beet root, dandelion, ash tree, etc., is allowed to decompose at a temperature of 90" to 100° F., when a i)eculiar mucous ferment px-esent causes the sugar to decompose into mannite and a gummy, mucilaginous substance, alcohol, and various gases. The same kind of fermentation occurs when boiled reast or boiled gluten is added to ordinary sugar. The remaining processes of fermentation are the arnyydalous fermentation, yielding, amongst other matters, the Essential Oil of Bitter Abnonds {({. v.) ; the sinapous fermentation, which occurs in mustard when moistened with water, and during which the pungent oil of mustard is devcloj)ed ; and the acetoiu fermentation, which is, however, not a true instance of fermentation, as the oxjgen of the air is required to complete the change. Much diversity of opinion yet exists respecting the existing cause of fermentation, but living organisms appear essential to the process. FERMENTED LIQUORS are alcoholic bever- ages made by fermentation of saccharine fluids and juices ; the principal being the different kinda of ale or heer, made by fermentation of an infusion of malt, chiefly of barley, but also sometimes of other kinds of grain ; and loine, made by fermentation of grape- juice. Cider is made by fermentation of the juice of apples ; perry, of that of pears ; palm-wine^ by fermentation of the sap of different kinds of palm. Fermented liquors, commonly called wines, ■ are also made from the juice of various kinds of fruit, as currant wine from that of the red currant ; and from the juice of some roots, as parsnip wine from that of the parsnip, &c. The sap of the American Aloe, or Agave (q. v.), yields the fer- mented liquor called Pulque, much used in Mexico. A wine is made from the sap of the birch, and that of some other trees is used for a similar purpose. Mead is a fermented liquor made from honey. From every fermented liquor, a kind of sjnrit may be obtained by distillation. FERMENTED AND DISTILLED LIQUORS, Statistics of. Under the headings Beer, Spirits, and Wine, will be found particulars as to the history, manufacture, &c., of these liquors. All that is contemplated in the present article, is a statement of the quantities manufactured and consumed in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1801, the consumption of spirits, British, colonial, and foreign, in the United Kingdom was 8,800,840 gallons. In fifty years, it had considerably more than trebled, having risen in 1851 to 28,760,224 gallons. In the same time, the population had risen from 15,506,794 to 27,452,262. In the former period, therefore, the consumption was at the rate of little more than half a gallon per head, while in the latter period it amounted to more tuan a gallon. There would seem, however, to have been something exceptional in the year 1801 to reduce the consump- tion to the low point we have mentioned, as in the previous year, the consumption was nearly 12 million gallons, and in the succeeding year, more than 154 million gallons ; and in no year during the half century did it fall so low as in 1801. The con- sumption at the two periods was di\'ided over the three countries as follows : England, 1801, 6,150,983 gallons— namely, 2,555,920 Bntish ; 1,687,839 colo- nial ; and 1,907,224 foreign. In 1851, 13,916,313 gal- Ions— namely, 9,595,368 British ; 2,542,395 colonial and 1,778,550 foreign. In the former period, the consumption of each indi\ddual was less than three- foui-ths of a gallon ; in the latter, nearly seven-ninths of a gallon. Scotland, 1801, 930,490— namely, British, 295,931 ; colonial, 349,237 ; and foreion, 285,322. 1851, 7,090,894— namely, British, 6,830,710; colonial, 179,883; and foreign, 80,301. The con- sumption per head in Scotland in 1801 was thus only three-fifths of a gallon, while in 1851 it was 2| gallons. Ireland, 1801, 1,719,367— namely, British, 355,106 ; colonial, 1,057,316 ; foreign, 306,945. 1851. 7,753,017 — namely, British, 7,550,518 ; colonial, 158,147 ; foreign, 44,352. In the former period, the consumption per head was two-thirds of a gallon in the latter, about 1^ gallon. But there is everj FEEMO— FERN^Us^DO PO. reason to believe that the consumption in 1801 was much larger in the United Kingdom generally than the statistics indicate. Between the periods we have mentioned, the duty on British spirits varied considerably. In England, in 1802, it was .Os. 4^d. per gallon; in 1819, it had risen to lis. 8id.; and in 1851, it stood at Is. lOd. In Scotland, in 1802, the duty was 3s. lOl^d. per gallon ; it rose to 9^. 44r^. in 1815; and in 1851, was 3s. Sd. In Ireland, in 1802, it was 2s. lO^d. ; in 1815, it had risen to 65. l^cZ, ; in 1851, it stood at 2s. 8d. The duties in the three countries have now been equalised, the sum fixed being at lirst 8s. per gallon, since raised to JO^., at which it now (1873) remains. The total number of gallons of proof-spirits distilled in the United Kingdom in 1860 was 28,289,731 — namely, in England, 7,868,525 ; in Scotland, 13,946,536 ; Ireland, 6,474,670. The number of gallons on which duty was paid in the United Kingdom in 1860 was 21,873,384, the duty amount- ing to £9.702,807. Of this sum, £4,493,212 was paid in England on 10,108,522 gallons; £2,863,811, in Scotland on 6,428,549 gallons; £2,345,783 iu Ireland on 5,3;i6,313 gallons. Of the whisky dis- tilled in Scotland in 1860, 4,621,283 gallons were exported into England, and 771,637 gallons into Ireland ; Scotland receiving in return from England 7352 gallons, a-id from Ireland 4904 gallons. Ireland Bent to England 1,087,347 gallons, and got back in return 72,228 gallons. Of foreign spirits, there were imported into the United Kingdom in 1860, rum, 7,353,114 gallons, of Avhich 3,729,419 were entered for home consumption ; brandy, 2,342,540 gallons, 1,463,636 being for home consmnption ; and Geneva, 635,408 gallons, 261,208 for home consumption. The quantity of wine entered for consumption in 1802 was 5,449,710 gallons, upon which a duty of £1,723,339 was paid; in 1851, 6,280,653 gallons \reie entered for consumption, and a duty of £1,776,246 was levied thereupon. In 1860, 12,483,362 gallons were imported, chiefly from Spain, Portugal, and France, of Avhich 7,358,192 were retained for home consumption, 4,356,779 being white wine, and the rest red. The quantity of beer manufactured in Great Britain and Ireland can only be arrived at approxi- mately, the duty being leviable on the malt, and not on the liquid made from it. The general estimate, however, is, that two bushels of malt produce one barrel, or 36 gallons of beer. In 1867, the quantity of malt brewed in the United Kingdom was 50,915,798 bushels, equal to 25,457,899 barrels, or 916,483,364 gallons of beer. A revenue of £6,816,386 was de- rived from this vast waste of barley, and another rev- enue of debasement, vice, and crime, the extent of which is incalculable. Alcohol in any form is a fruit- ful source of demoralization and crime. FE'RMO, a town of Italy, capital of the delega- tion of the same name, is situated on a rocky height 4 miles from the Adi-iatic, and 32 miles south- south-east of Ancona. It is well-built and fortified, surrounded with walls and ditches, is the seat of an archbishop, and has a cathedral, a university (not, however, of any importance), and an elegant theatre. It has some trade in corn and wool. Pop. 9130. In the immediate vicinity are the ruins of the ancient Firmum, whose name F. inherits. Firmum had been a Pwoman colony from the year 264 B.C. FERMOY, a town in the east of Cork county, Ireland, chiefly on the right bank of the Black- water, 19 miles north-east of Cork city. Its origin dates from the 12th c, when it was the seat of a gi-eat (vistercian abbey ; but its present importance, which commenced in the end of last century, is due to Mr (aftervvarda Sir John) Anderson, who int.-o- duced mail-coaches into Munster. The hills to the south of the town rise in Knockinskeagh 1388 feet. F. is handsomely built and regularly laid out. A large ecclesiastical establishment (Uoman Catholic), consisting of a church, a bishop's house, two convents with large schools, and a college with nearly 100 students, has recently been erected on a hill rising from the Blackwater. A bridge of 13 arches, built in 1689, crosses the river. Infantry and cavalry barracks for 3000 men crown the heights on the left bank of the river, and command one of the chief approaches to Cork. F. has a trade in agricultural produce. Pop. (1861) 8705; (1871) 7611, of whom about 5000 are Ciitholics. FERN, Male, a name given, in consequence of an erroneous notion, long since exploded, to a fern very common in the woods of Britain and of the conti- nent of Europe, the Aspidhim filix mas of some botanists, and Lastrcea Jilix mas and Nephrodium filix mas of others. The fronds are bi2)innate ; the pinnules oblong, obtuse, and serrated ; the sori near the central nerve, orbicular, kidney-shaped, and fixed by the sinus ; the stipes and rachis chaffy. If Common Male Fern. not one of the very finest of our ferns, it is certainly a chief ornament of many of our woods, and a plant of very considerable beauty. The subterranean stem (rhizome) is officinal. It is about a foot long, and of the thickness of a quill, almost inodorous, with, a nauseous sweet taste, becoming astringent and bitter. It was anciently used as an anthelmintic, and its use has been revived, especially in cases of tapeworm, m which it is believed to be very efficacious. Its anthelmintic powers are due to a thick, almost black volatile oil which it contains, and which is now itself also used in medicine. FERN, Sweet [Comptonia asphnifolia), a shrub of the natural order Amentacece, sub - order M7jriceoe, a. native of the mountain-woods of North America, forming a small bush with linear pinnatifid, fem- bke leaves. Its leaves have a powerful aromatic fragrance when rubbed. It is tonic and astringentj and is much used in the United States as a domestic remedy for diarrhoea. FERNA'NDO PO, an island on the west coast of Africa, in the Bight of Biafra, is situated about 20 miles from the nearest point on the shore, and is about 44 miles long and 20 miles broad. The appearance of this island from the sea is exceedingly picturesque and beautiful. It is traversed by a mountain ridge, which, in Clarence Peak, rises to the height of 10,650 feet, and is fertile, well watered, and in many parts thickly wooded. Besides swarms of monkeys, some of which are of great size, the TERNAN-NUNEZ— rEllITS. bland contains many goats and sheep in a state of rature. The climate, always excessively hot, is tendered more intolerable, during the rainy season, by a pestilential wind from the continent. The native population, who are of negro race, are said to amount to from 10,000 to 12,000 in number, and to inhabit iifteen villages. The English, with the consent of Spain, into whose hands E. P. had fallen, made an attempt in 1827 to form a settle- ment on the island, l)ut abandoned it in 18.34. In 1844, it was again taken possession of by Spain. The colony has a population of about 900, most of whom are liberated Africans. FERNAN-NUNEZ, a small town of Spain, in the province of Cordova, and 10 miles south of the town of that name. It has some linen and woollen manufactures. Pop. 5500. FERN'S {Filices), an order of acrogenous or cryp- togamous plants, divided by some botanists into several orders ; whilst some make Filices a sub-class, and include in it Lycopodiacece, Marsileacece, and Fquisetacece. See these heads. F. are either her- baceous perennial plants, or more rarely trees, the root-stock or the stem producing leaf-like fronds (often called leaves), which are sometimes simple, sometimes pinnated, or otherwise compound, exhibit great variety of form, and are generally coiled up icireinate) in bud (see accomi^anying illustration). Ceterach Officinarum. rhe fronds are traversed by veins, generally of uniform thickness, which are simple or forked, or netted, sometimes produced from the sides of a midx-ib or primary vein, sometimes from a primary vein on one side, sometimes radiating from the base of a frond or segment of a frond. The fructi- fication takes place either on the lower surface or on the margin of the fronds, and arises from the veins. The spores are contained in capsules or Bpore-cases {thecce, sporanrjla), \vhich are often Burrounded with an elastic ring,' and are either naked or covei'cd with a membrane {Involucre or indiislum), and are generally clustered in round or elongated or kidney-shaped masses {sori). The margin of the frond is sometunes folded so as to cover the spore-cases, and sometimes, as in the Flowering Fern {Osmunda) (q. v.), the fertile part of the frond is so transformed that its leaf-like fjjaracter entirely disappears, and it becomes a spike or panicle. The spore -cases burst at their circum- ference, or longitudinally, or irregularly. Moving spiral filaments exist in F., but their functions iu connection with reproduction are not well known Ferns : Shewing the Sori on the back of the Fronds. The reproduction of F. has been the subject of much investigation and discussion, and sujjposed discoveries of sexual organs have been announced, but satisfactory evidence of their nature has not been obtained. — The number of known species of F. is about 2500. They are found in all parts of the world, but are fewer towards the poles than within the tropics, and fewer in continental than in mari- time countries, abounding exceedingly in moim- tainous tropical islands, as in Jamaica. Many of them delight in moisture and shade, altliough some are found in the most exj50sed situations. Some of them resemble mosses in size and appear- ance ; whilst Tree Ferns (q. v.) resemble palms, and sometimes attain a height of forty feet. A few are climbers. One climliing species [Lygo- diam palinatum) is found in North America as far north as Boston. — F. are divided into PolypodieoB^ HymenophjjUece, Gleicheniece, SchizcecB, Osimmdece, Dancece, and Ophioglossece, of which sub-orders (or orders) the first, second, fifth, and seventh alone contain British species, and the first contains a great majority of all ferns. — The root-stocks of some F. contain so much starch that they are either used as food, or food is prepared from them, particularly those of the Tara (q. v.) Fern in New Zealand and Van Diemen's Land, and those of Aspidium (or Nephrodium) escuUntum in Sikkim and Nepal ; also the stems of some of the tree-ferns, as of Gyatliea tmdidlaris in New Zealand, and Alsophila spinulosa in India. The young and tender froads of some F. are occasionally used as pot-herbs in the Highlands of Scotland, Norway, the Himalaya, &c. The fronds are generally mucilaginous, slightly aromatic and astringent. Those of some sj^ecies of Maidenhair (q. v.) are used for making capillaire ; whdst the bitter and astringent root-stocks of some F. are occasionally used in medicine, as those of the Male Fern (see Fern, Male) and the Peruvian Polypodium Caliguala, particularly as anthelminticSi The fronds of a few species are delightfully fra- grant. — The cultivation of F. is now in many places successfully conducted on a somewhat extensive scale, both in the open air and iu hothouses ; aJid to such an extent has the occupation of fern-collect* ing reached, that many excellent treatises on this subject alone have been written and elaborately illustrated. Amongst others, we may mention British Ferns (Is.), published by Routledge, London, as an excellent handbook ; while the magnificent Nature-printed work, published in 2 volumes, royal 8vo, by Bradbury and Evans, supplies all needful information. Wardiau cases, filled with them, nave also become common, and are most pleasing orna- ments of apartments. The princij)al species will b« noticed under their particular heads. FEROZfi PORE— FERRAEL FERO'ZE PORE (so called from its founder, Feroze To^^hluk, who reigned in Delhi from 1351 to 1388) stands about 3 miles from the left or south- east bank of tbe Sutlej, in lat. 30" 55' N., and long. 74" 35' E. At one time a large and important town, as its massive fortifications and extensive ruins still indicate, it hjvd sunk into poverty and insignificance before it actually came, in 1835, into the possession of tbe English. Since then, the place has regained much of its former consequence, holding out, with its wdde streets and its colonnaded bazars, the promise of a grand emporium of commerce. Politic- Ally, too, F. P. has become prominent under British supremacy, having been a starting-point, whether for war or for negotiation, in many of our dealings "With Afghanistan and the Punjab. In connection with this feature in its history, the city contains a monumental church in honour of the memory of those, both privates and officers, nho fell in the various conflicts witli the Sikbs. The population in 1868 was 20,592. — Tbe district of tbe same name bas an estimated area of 2696 square miles, and a popula- tion (1868) of 549,253. It is now for tbe most part eitber barren or covered with jungle, but the ruins of towns and villages indicate tbat it must have been at one time both more fertile and more i)opulous. FERO'ZE SHAH, a village apparently \\athin the district of Feroze Pore, and. situated about 10 miles east-south-east of the town of that name, is in lat. 30'' 52' N., and long. 74° 50' K, lying about 12 miles from the left bank of the Sutlej. It claims notice mainly as the scene of the second in order of the fom- great battles of the first Sikh war. The conflict in question, which lasted two days, took place in December 1845, ending in the rout of the natives and the capture of their intrenchmcnts. The British army was commanded by Sir Hugh Gougli and Sir Henry Hardiiige ; and, as in the victory of Moodkce, gained only thi-ee days before, it sustained hea\'y loss. FEROZE SHAH CANAL, a work, including its branches, of 240 miles in length, demands detailed notice as well for its historical intei-est as for its economical value. It dates back as far as 1356, owing its origin, as well as its name, to Feroze Toghluk, king of Delhi. Viewed as a whole, it leaves the riglit bank of the Jumna in lat. 30" 19' N. ; and, after sweeping round so as to skirt Sirhind, a territory on the Sutlej, it rejoins its parent stream at Delhi in lat. 28° 39', thus measur- mg, in mere difference of latitude, 100 geographical miles. This artificial water-course, intended prin- cipally for the purposes of irrigation, seems to be equally creditable to native enterprise and native skill. But, as nothing of the kind appears to be permanent in the East, this noble channel was so much neglected, that, in the beginning of the 17th c, it was cleared out by Vizier Ali Murdan Khan, who, in point of fact, was the first to carry it, through its lower half, back into the Jirmna. Finally, the entire line has, during this 19th c, been again repaired and improved by the British govern- ment In the light of the drought and famine of 1860, the importance of such undertakings as the Fcsroze Shah Canal can scarcely be overrated. FERRANDl'XA, a town in the south of Italy, in the province of Basilicata, stands on a height on the right bank of the Basento, 35 miles east-south- east of Potenza. Good wine is produced in the neighbourhood. Pop. about 6000. FERRA'RA, the most northern of the Italian provinces that are washed by the Adriatic. It extends immediately south of the Po, between the main branch of which, and the Po di Primar), it is for the most part enclosed. As one of the old 298 delegations, it had an area of 1180 square miles, with a population amounting to 24 4,524 ; but according to the official Slatistica AdminiMrativa del Itegno d'ltalia, published at Turin in 1861, the province had undergone certain modifications, and its population in 1871 stood at 215,369. Tbe area consists, for the most part, of swamp and lake; and many rivers and canals intersect it. Between the Po di Volano and the Po di Primaro, tbe marshes become very extensive, and receive the name of ]''alli di Comaccio. This province produces great quantities of fish, affords good i)astures, and carries on a great trade in corn and hemj). It was at one time a dukedom under the House of Este, but on the failure of a legitimate male heir, Pope Clement VIII. wrested it from this family, and annexed it to the States of the Church in 1598. It became part of the kingdom of Italy in 1860. FERRA'RA, an ancient city of Italy, capital of the pi'ovince of the same name, is situated in a low marshy plain in the delta of the Po, and about 4 miles south of the main branch of that river, 28 miles north-north-east of Bologna, and 40 milea north-west of Ravenna. F. was first made a walled city by the exarch of Ravenna about the close of the 6th c, and in the following century (661 A.D.) became the seat of a bishop. In the middle ages, it was the great commercial emporium of Italy, and the seat of a court renowned throughout Eurojje ; but now the city has a peculiarly deserted and melancholy appearance ; gi-ass grows on the pavements of ita broad and regular streets, and its churches and palaces are either rapidly falling, or have already fallen into decay. It is surrounded with walls, and is sti'cngthened by bastions and a fortress. The old castle, or ducal palace, once the residence of the Dukes of Este, but recently, until 1860, occupied by the papal legates, rises like a huge rock, is strengthened with corner-towers, and surrounded by a ditch. Its ecclesiastical edifices, which are very numerous, and of which the churches of Santa Maria degl' Angeli and of San Benedetto are the most remarkable in point of architecture, are rich in paintings by the great masters of the Ferrara and Bologna schools. Besides their valuable paintings, these churches contain numer- ous sculptured monuments of famous pereons ; the churcu of San Francesco has a curious echo, sixteen reverberations. The university, founded in 1264, was reoi-ganised in 1402, closed in 1794, and reopened in 1824. It is in high repute as a school of medicine and jurisprudence, and is attended by about 200 or 300 students. It has an excellent library, which, besides a variety of MSS., missal paintings, and old editions of jirinted works, con- tains several of the works of Tasso and Ariosto in their own hand. F. is si)ecially remarkable for its art associations. Under the patronage of the Dukes of Este, it produced a school of painters who rank high in the history of art ; while in literature the name of F. is immortalised through its connection with those of Tasso, Ariosto, acd Guarini. At the j^eriod of its greatest prosperity, F. had about 100,000 inhabitants, but in 1873 ita population was oi^ly 72,447. In 1849, the Austrians took possession of the town, but were compelled to abandon it at the commencement of the Italian campaign in June 1859. In Apiil 1860, F., ^vith the state of which it is capital, was formally annexed to the kingdom of Italy imder Victor Emanuel. FERRAHI, Gaudenzio, sprung from a family which followed a career of art as if by inheritance, was born at Valdugia, in the JSIilanese, in FERRATES— 1 /JRRIER. A scholar of Andrea Scotto and Perugino, and the chosen associate and friend of Raphael, his own creations may be said to have caught some inspir- ation from each of these three great masters, while they also unmistakably reflect genius of a bold, unshackled originality. The chief characteristics of F.'s style are correct and vigorous delineation, extreme vividness and delicacy of colouring, noble grace of form and attitude, and unsurpassable art m the classic disposal of drapery. Being one of the most laborious artists of his day, he has executed innumerable paintings both in fresco and in oil, the greater part of which are possessed by the Lombard galleries. His most comprehensive work, the frescos at Barallo, in Piedmont, rejireseuts the Passion ; the ' Martyrdom of St Catherine,' to which he owes his brightest fame, is in the Milanese collection of paintings. He died in 1549, having formed some good scholars, the chief of whom is Andrea Solario. FE'RRATES are combinations of ferric acid (FeO-i), a weak unstable compound of iron and oxygen with bases. See Iron. FERREI'RA, Antonio, one of the classic poets of Portugal, was born at Lisbon, 1528. He was educated at Coimbra, where he occupied himself with the study of the Italian and Latin authors, more especially Horace, whom he almost rivalled in conciseness, but not in elegance of expression. After holding for some time the oflice of a professor at Coimbra, he obtained a civil appointment of some importance at the court of Lisbon. He carried to perfection the elegiac and epistolary styles, ali-eady attempted with success by Sa de Miranda, and transplanted into Portuguese literature the epi- thalamium, the epigram, ode, and tragedy. His Iiies de Castro is the second regular tragedy that appeared after the revival of letters in Europe, the lirst being the Sophonisba of Trissino. It is still regarded by the Portuguese as one of the finest monuments of their literature, for its sublime pathos and the perfection of its style. The works of F. are not numerous, as his official duties left him little leisure. He died 1569. All his w^orks are distinguished by soundness and depth of thought. His expression is strong rather than sweet, is extremely animated, and full of that fire which elevates the mind and warms the heart. His efforts after brevity, how- ever, frequently led him to sacrifice harmony to thought. His Poemas Lusitanos were first jiub- lished at Lisbon, 1598, and the Todas as ohras de Ferreira in 1771. Compare Sismondi's work. La Litterature du Midi (Paris, 1813), and Bouterwek's Gescliichte der neuern Poesie und Beredsamkeit (12 vols. Gott. 18U1— 1819). FE'RRET {Mustela faro), an animal of the weasel family {Mustelidce), so nearly allied to the Polecat (q. v.), that many regard it as a mere domesticated variety. It is of rather smaller size, the head and body being about fourteen inches long, the tail five inches and a half, the muzzle rather longer and more pointed, the head rather narrower ; and the colour IS very diflferent, being yellowish, ^dth more or less of white in some parts, there being two kinds of hair, the longer partly white, the shorter yellow. The eyes are pink. It is, however, miueh more suscep- tible of cold than the polecat, and requires careful protection from it in climates where the polecat is a hardy native. It was imported into Eui'ope from Africa, and was well known to the Romans, being anciently erapiL^'ed as it still is, in catching rabbits, for which piirpose it is often sent into their bur- rows muzzled, or * coped,' by means of a piece of string, to drive them out into nets, or, with a string attached to it, it is allowed to seize a rabbit in the buvrows, and is then drawn out, boiling it fast. The usual phm, however, is to let the F have free range of ral)bit liolcs unmuzzled. Ferrets are generally kept in boxes, and attention to warnth Ferret {Mustela furo). and cleanliness is essential to their health. Ttiey are capable only of partial domestication, acquiring a kind of familiarity with man, and submitting M-ith perfect quietness to his handling, but apparently never forming any very decided attachment ; and they never cease to be dangerous if not carefully watched, especially where infants are within their reach. If allowed any measure of freedom, they are ready to attack poultry, and kill far more than they can devour, merely sucking the blood. They generally breed twice a year, each brood consisting of six or nine. The female sometimes devours the young ones, in which case another brood is speedily produced. FE'RRIDCYA'XOGEN is a compound organic radical which has not been isolated, but which forms with potassium a well-known compound used in the arts, called the ferridcyanide of potassium or red prussiate of potash. In the preparation of this salt, a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium is acted on by a stream of chlorine gas until the colour of the liquid passes from yellow to deep red, and thereafter, on evaporation and cooling, fine red crystals are obtained. The Chlorine (CI) acts upon the ferrocyanide of potassium, or yellow prussiate of potash (K4re2Cy6 = 4KCy.2FeCy), removing one equivalent of potassium (K), forming chloride of potassium (KCl), whilst the remaining constituents combine, and produce ferridcyanide of potassium, or ferricyanide of potassium (K3Fe2Cy6 = 3KCy.Fe2Cy3). The latter is known commercially in red crystals, readily soluble in water, and yields a fine deep Pries- sian blue (Turnbull's blue) when mingled with solu- tion of protosulphate of iron (green vitriol), and hence is used largely in dyeing and calico printing. There are numerous ferricyanides. FERRIER, James F., LL.D., a metaphysician, was born in Edinburgh, November 1808. After studying at Oxford, where he took the degree of B.A. in 1832, he was admitted to the Scottish bar in 1833. In 1842, he was elected to the chair of History in the university of Edinburgh, and in 1845 to that of Moral Philosophy in the university of St Andrews, Mr F. early attracted notice by some metaphysical essays, which appeared ir. Blackwood's Magazine; and in 1854 he i^ublished the Institutts of Meta- physics, in which he endeavours to construct a system of idealism in a series of propositions, demon- slrated after the manner of Euclid. In 1855 — 185a 299 FERPdER— FERKY. he edited the collected works of his fiithcr in-law, the late Professor John Wilson, of the University of Ed'n- tonrgh. He died in 1864. FERRIER, Susan Edmonston, aunt of the former, a successful novelist, was born iu Edinburgh in 1782, and died in 1854. Her father, James Ferrier, one of the principal clerks of the Court of Session, and the colleague in that office of Sir Walter Scott, lived on terms of intimacy with the wits and literati of his day in Edinburgh, and Miss F.'s talents and quick powers of observation were early called into play in the midst of the literary society in which her youth was passed. Her first work. Marriage, appeared in 1818, and this was followed by The Inheritance (182-4), and Destiny (1831). The merit of these tales, which are characterised by genial wit, a quick sense of the ludicrous, and considerable ability in the delineation of national peculiarities, is sufficiently proved by the' fact, that they have stood their ground, notwithstanding the enormous nimiber of works of liction which have flowed from the press since their publication. Miss F. enjoyed the esteem and friendship) of Sir Walter Scott, who, in the days of his strength, repeatedly gave expression to his appreciation of her talents, and who derived consolation from her sym}»athy in the seasou of gloom which darkened the close of his life. FB'RRO, or HIE'RRO, the most western of the Canary Isles, was formerly considered the most westerly point of the Old World, and for this reason geographers at one time took it as the point of dcjiarture in reckoning longitudes, as is still done by the Germans and others. Hence, in all probability, originated the present hemispherical division of the maps of the world, F. being taken as the boundary-line. The English, however, have adopted the meridian of Greenwich as the first meridian, and in this their example is followed by the Dutch, and in sea-charts generally ; area, 82 square miles ; pop. 4400. The meridian of F. is 18° 9' west of that of Greenwich. See Loxgitude. FE'RROCYA'Ts^OGEN is a compound organic radical, generally regarded by chemists as existing in ferrocyanide of potassium, or the yellow prussiate of potash, but which has not j^et been obtained iu a separate state. The i)rincipal compound of ferrocyanogen is the ferrocyanide of potassium, wliich is prepared by heating to redness in a covered iron pot a mixture of 3 parts by weight of nitro- genised matter, such as dried blood, hoofs, parings of hides, scrapings of horn, or the fi.esh of old or diseased horses and other animals, 3 parts of carbonate of i)otash, and one part of iron filings. The carbon, nitrogen, and iron combine together, and form feiTOcyanogen (FeCgNa = FeCyg, or Cfy), which, at the same time, unites with the potassium, and produces ferrocyanide of potassiima, or yellow prussiate of potash (2K,Cfy). The com- pound which is obtained from the heated iron vessel is impure, but by repeated solutions in hot water, and recrystallisation on cooling, the salt is obtained pure ia fine large tabular crystals of a lemon-yellow colour. The ferrocyanide of potassium is largely used in dyeing and Calico-printing (q. v.) in the production of many shades of Prussian blue ; and when it is treated with sulphuric acid, and subjected to heat applied, hydrocyanic or prussic acid (HCgN = HCy) distils off from the mixture. The ferro- cyanide of ])otassium is characterised by giving no indication of the presence of iron in its radical on the application of any of the tests for iron. It gives a light- blue precipitate on the addition of a Bolution of proto-sulpliate of iron ; a dark blue inecij)itatc with percLdoride of iron ; a iiiddy brown 800 precipitate with sulphate of copper; and a white precipitate with acetate of lead. FE'RROL, a strongly fortified seaport town of Spain, in Galicia, is most advantageously situated on a narrow arm of the sea, 14 miles north-east of the town of Corunna. It was originally a fishing- tov/n, until selected for its natural advantages as a seaport by Charles III., who erected here what was at one time the finest naval arsenal in tlie •vorld, and destined it exclusively for the Si)anish royal navy. The entrance to the harbour, formed by d narrow inlet from the Bay of Betanzos, admits the a])proach of only one ship-of-the-liue at a tiiie, and is defended by the castles of San Felipe and Palma. The town is defended by walls and fortifi- cations, is, on the whole, regularly built, and has several squares and pleasing alauiedas or i>ublic walks. The arsenal, in which fifteen ships-of-tlie- line coidd be simultaneously built, covers a great space ; and though now in a somewhat ruinou3 condition, is still the most important in Spain. F. has manufactures of hats, naval stores, hardwares ; and exj)orts corn, brandy, vinegar, and fish. Pop. (including the garrison) 1G,G40. . FE'RROTYPE, a term applied by Mr Robert Hunt, the discoverer, to designate some photo- graphic processes, in which salts of iron play an important jjart. The term is also applied by photog- raphers to a cheap and instantaneous method by which a positive picture is fixed, by the collodion pro- cess (q. v.), on thin sheets of iron. The process has become very popular in America. FERRU'GINOUS is a term employed in chemis- try to denote the presence of iron in natural waters, minerals, &c. It is synonjonous -with the term chalybeate. See Chalybkyte Waters. FERRY (from Sax. /arau, Ger. fahren, to move, proceed, allied to the Lat. /ero. Eng. hear), a passage by boat across water. By the law of England, a man ma}'- have a right to keep a boat and to ferry passengers for a consideration, just as he may have a right to hold a fair, either by royal grant, or by ^prescription, from which a royal grant at some previous time will be presumed. No other title, unless conferred by act of parliament, will suffice, for no fair, market, or ferry can be set up without licence from the crown either actual or presumed. The possessor of such a title n<'.ed not necessarily be the proprietor of the soil on which the market is held, or of the water over which the right of ferry is exercised. In the latter case, he need not be the proprietor of the soil on either side of the river, though he must possess such rights over it as \W11 enable him to embark and disembark his passengers. As fulfilling his part of the bargain with the public, the owner of a ferry ia bound to keep a boat fit for the purpose of carrying passengers, whilst on the other hand he has a right of action not only against those who refuse br evade payment of the toll or passage money, but against those who disturb his franchise by setting up a new ferry so near as to diminish his custom. — Stephens, i. pp. 663, 664. It has been more thaa once decided, that the erection of a second ferry in sxich circumstances is a nuisance to the owner of the old one, wh8 is bound to keep his ferry in readi- ness for the use of the Queen's subjects, a burden which is not shared by his rival (North and South Shields Ferry Co. v. Barker, 2 Exch. 136). The rule in Scotland as to rival ferries is the same ; but a grant of ferry from the crown to one heritor does not prevent his neighbours from keeping private boats for the transport of themselves and their families and servants. Where ferries have not been giveii out by royal gift, either express or presumed FERTILISATION OF PLANTS -FESCUE. as above described, they are inter regalia, i. e., they beloug to the crown for the public benetit. lu this case, they are under the management of the trustees of the roads connected with them, or are regxdated by the justices of the peace for the county, or by special acts of parliament. By 8 and 9 Vict, c. 41, certain rules are laid down for the regulation of ferries. The act is confined to Scotland. Common rowing-boats are generally used for ferrying foot-passengers, but when horses and carriageo have to be taken across, a flat-bottomed barge, with an inclined plane at one end, to rest •flpon the shore, for landing and embarking, is generally used. This is either rowed across or pulled by a rope. When the current is stiong, and the river of moderate width, the latter is best. The rope stretched across the river passes through rings or over pulleys attached to the barge, and the ferrjTuen move the barge across by pulling the rope. The chief advantage of the rope is to restrain the barge from drifting in tlie direction of the stream. With a small boat, this is obviated by the ferryman rowing obliquely, as though he were steering for a point higher up the river ; thus he moves through the water upwards to the same extent that the water moves over the land down- wards ; and by a composition of these motions, and his tending to the other side, he is carried directly across. Broad estuaries are now traversed in many places by steam-ferry. Bafts are sometimes used for ferrying. On the Kile, a sort of raft is made of inverted earthen-pots full of air. For further information on the crossing of rivers, see Fords and Fording. Flying-hridge is the name given to a kind of ferry-boat which is moved across a river by the action of the combined forces of the stream and the resistance of a long rope or chain made fast to a fixed buoy in the middle of the river. The boat thus attached is made to take an oblique position by means of the rudder; the stream then acting against the side, tends to move it in a direc- tion at right angles to its length, while the rope exerts a force in the direction towards the buoy. If these two forces be represented by the sides of a parallelogram, the actual coarse of the boat woiild be in the direction of the diagonal (see CoMPOsi-noN AND Besolutjon of Forces) ; but as the length of the rope remains the same, the boat must continue always at the same distance from the buoy, and therefore its course is a curve, a portion of a circle, of which the buoy is the centre, and ''he rope the radius. The course of the boat and the action of the two forces are strictly analo- gous to the path of a rising kite, and to the forces of which this path is the resultant. The holder of the kite corresponds to the buoy, the wand to the tidal stream, and the tail to the iiidder. Flying- cridges are used for miHtary purposes, and the modes of adapting them to the varying circum- stances of the width of rivers and the velocity of their currents, forms a part of the study of mili- tary engineering. An important element in the problem, is the determination of the right point of attachment for the rope. In the case of a wide river, the rope or chain requires ^o be of consider- able length, and miist be supported by movable buojrs or by small boats. FERTILISA'TION OF PLANTS. See Fecun- dation. FESA, or FASA, a town of Persia, in the province of Fars, 80 miles soxith-east of Shiraz, is situated in a mountain defile, is of considerable size, and is said ir\ have a pojmlation of 18,000. It has manufac- tares of silken, woollen, and cotton fabrics, and some trade in a superior kind of tobacco which ia grown in the vicinity. FE'SCENNINE VERSES, a brancn of the indigenous poetry of ancient Italy, were a sort of dialogues in rude extempore verses, generally in Saturnine measure, in which the parties rallied and ridiculed one another. It formed a favourite amusement of the country-people on festive occa- sions, especially at the conclusion of harvest and at weddings. As was to be expected, it often degene- rated into licentiousness, that at last required the curb of the law. The Fescenniue verses are usually considered to be of Etruscan origin, and to have derived their name from the Etrurian town Fescen- nium ; but there is little probability in this ety- mology. Verses of this sort were and are popular to this day all over Italy. The name is more likely connected with fascinum, fascination, enchantmeni;, or the evil eye, against w^hich the chanting of verses may have originally been intended as a protection. FESCUE {Festuca), a genus of grasses, very nearly allied to Brome-grass (q. v.), and having in some species a loose, in some a contracted panicle ; the spikelets many-flowered, with two unequal ghimes, which they much exceed in length ; each floret having two lanceolate palese, the outer palea rounded at the back, and acuminate or awned at the summit ; the stigmas growing from the apex of the germen. The species are numerous, and are very Fescue Grass {Fcstuca pratensis) ; o, germen and etigmas ; b, a spikelet. widely diffused over the world, both in the northern and southern hemispheres. Among them are many of the most valuable pasture and fodder grasses. None are more valuable than some of the British species. — Me^vdow F. (F. j^ratensis), a species with spreading panicle and linear spikelets, from two to three feet high, common in moist meadows and pastures of rich soil, in Britain and throughout Europe, in Northern Asia, and in some parts of North America, is perhaps excelled by no meadow or pasture grass whatever. It ia suitable both fo; 2iu PESS— FESTIVALS. fclfcjmate husbandry and for permanent i)asture. — •St :kei> F. {F. loliacea) — hy many botanists regarded as a variety of Meadow F., althougb it departs from the bal)it of the genns in having the branches of the f»aiiicle reduced to a single s})ikelet, and forming a two-rowed raceme or spike — is regarded as an excellent grass for rich moist meadows. — Hard F., {F. dui iuftcula), a grass fiom one foot and a half to two feet high, with a somewhat contracted panicle, mostly on one side, is one of the best grasses for lawns and sheep-jiastures, particularly on dry or Bandy soils. Several varieties are known to seeds- men and farmers. — Creei'INO F. or IIku F. [F. rubra) is probably a mere variety of Hard F., being distinguished chicHy by its extensively creeping root, which i)articularly adapt it to sandy })astures, and to |)lac'^s liable to occasional inundations. — Shf.kp's F. {F. ovhut) is a smaller grass than any of these, not generally exceeding a foot in height, and often much less, abundant in mountainous pastures, and especially suital)le for such situations, in which it often forms a principal ])art of the food of slieep for many months of the year. It is common in all the mountainous parts of Europe, and in the Hima- laya, it is also a native of North America, and species very similar, if not mere varieties, aljound in the southern hemisphere. Its habit of growth is much tufted. — Tall F. {F. tlatior) is a grass of very dillerent ai)pearance, four or five feet high, with si)reading much branched panicle, growing chiefly near rivers and in moist low grounds, and yielding a great quantity of coarse herbage, which, however, is relished by cattle. — Of foreign species, which have been introduced into Britain, F. .hdero- phylla best desei'ves notice, a tall species with narrow root-leaves, and broad leaves on the culm ; a native of France and other parts of the continent of Europe, and pretty extensively cultivated in some countries, particularly the Netherlands. — All these species are perennial. — Some small annual species occasionally form a considerable part of the pasture in dry sandy soils, b\it are never sown by the farmer. — A Peruvian species (F. quadridetitata), called Picfonil in its native country, and there used for thatch, is said to be poisonous to cattle. FESS. The fess in heraldry consists of lines drawn horizontally across the shield, and containing the third part of it, between the honour point and the nombril. It is one of the honourable ordinaries, and is supposed to represent the waist-belt or girdle of honour, which was one of the insignia of knight- hood. Per Fess. — A shield, or charge in a shield, is said to be party per fess, when it is horizontally divided through the middle, or, as the French say, simply cotipe. Fesswise is said of a charge placed in fess ; that is to say, horizontally across the shield. FE'SSLER, Ignaz. Aurelris, a celebrated Hxm- garian historian, was born in 1756, in the county of Soprony or Oedenburg. During a long life full of adventures, F. served successively the Emperor Joseph [I., the King of Prussia, and the Emperor of Russia ; and also held the office of Professor of Oriental Languages at different universities. He died at St Petersburg 15th December 1839. Among his woiks of a lasting value are — Attila (Breslau, 1794), Mathias Corvinus (2 vols. 1793; 2d edition, 1806, Breslau), and the History of the Hungarians, &c. {Oeschichte der Unrjern und deren Landsassen, 10 vols., Leip. 1812 — 1825). His autobiogra])hy, untitled Recollections of my 70 Years' Pilgrimage [Ruckhlicke auf me'ine 70 jdhrige Pilgerscha/l, Breslau, )826 ; 2d edit. Leip. 1851), is also a very interesting work. Deep learning, coupled with a rare beauty 3(VJ of style, render F.'s works (all written in German) attractive in the highest degree. FE'STIVAL PLAYS. See Morai ities, Miracle Plays, Mysteries. FE'STIVALS, or FEASTS {Lnt. festiim, probably from the same root as fast (q. v.) ; according to some, from Gr. hestia, hearth), a term denoting certain periodically recurring days and seasons set aside by a community for rest from the ordinary labour of life, and more or less hallowed by religious solem- nities. Originating within the narrow circle of the family, and commemorating momentous events affect- ing one member or all, these pauses became more frequent, and of "wider scope, as the house gradually expanded into a tribe, a people, a state. The real or imaginary founders, legislators, heroes, became objects of veneration and deification, and the salient ei)ochs of their lives the consecrated ei)ochs of the year. National calamities or triumphs were, in the absence of annals, best remembered by corresponding general days of humiliation or exultation. Earliest of all, however, did the marked stages in the onward march of nature : s])ring and autumn, seed-time and harvest-time— symbols of life and death ; the sol- stices — turning-points of summer and winter ; the new moon and the full moon ; the termination of cycles of moons and cycles of years, i)resent them- selves as opportune halting- j)Iaces for man himself. No less were the all-important periodical rises of fertilising rivers, and the anniversaries of importa- tions and inventions of new implements for the better cultivation of the soil, or tending of the flocks, belittingly celebrated. The inherent human tendency towards referring all things of graver import, life and death, abundance and want, victory and defeat, to a higher power, could not but infuse a religious feeling into epochs so marked. Fostered and guided by i)riests and lawgivers, this property of our nature erelong found its expression in common sacriflces, prayers, and ceremonies, consecrated to the various superior and minor deities who presided over and inhabited the elements of the visible and invisiblo creation, and who, working all the changes within them, acted, each in his sphere, as a partial pro\-i- dence over man. . According to the event which called them forth, these festivals were mournful or joyoiis, jubilant or expiatory. Even when sorrow was to be expressed, the mortification of the body did not always suffice, but plays, songs, dances, and processions full of boisterous mirth, were resorted to — as in the festivals of Isis at Busiris, of Mars at Papremis, in the Adonia of Egypt, Phoenicia, and Greece — because the divine AiNTath or sorrow was, like that of man, to be changed into satisfaction. Besides the relation betw^een the common tutelary deity and those he protected, the bond also by which the otherwise disconnected members of the body politic were held together was, by means of these festive gatherings, periodically brought in view, and invested with gi-eater strength and importance. Apart, however, from this their his- torical, astronomical, religious, and political end, festivals served another purjjose — that of growing civilisation. It was the glowing spirit of emulation which, stimulating the gifted in mind and body to strive for the festive laurel in contests of genius and skill, in honour of the gods, and in the face of all the peoi)le, matured all that was noble and brilliant within the community. Archaic rudeness and rustic extravagance became refined grace and classic har- mony. The stirring drama, the glorious anthem, the melodious dance, the elegant game, which accompanied the festive sacrifice of some nations at their highest stage of development, had arisen out of those very mimicnes and shouts, rude FESTIVALS. and savage beyond expression, of generations not *ong before them. Enthusiastic, wikl, metaphysical Egypt i/ivested the countless days consecrated to her deified stars, plants, animals, and ideas ; to the Nile, to Ammon, Kneph, Menes, Osiris ; to Horus, to Neitha, to Ptah, with a mystery, sensuality, and mournfulness always exaggerated, sometimes monstrous. The Hindu, no longer daring to offer human sacrifices, shews his odd and cruel mate- rialism by throwing into the waves, on his festival of rivers, some of his costliest goods, gold, jewels, garments, and instruments ; while in the licentious- ness and debaucheries perpetrated on the festival of Shiva, the god of procreation, or on the Bacchantics of the goddess Bliavani, he exceeds even those of the Eg^'jitians on their Neitha feasts at Bubastis, and the Greek worship of Venus in her Cy|)i-ian groves. Phoenicians and Assyrians, Babylonians and Phrygians, according to the little we know of their religions and manners, appear to have feasted, thanked, propitiated, mourned all at different times, and in the way most befitting their several natures, even in the case of those gods and festivals which thoy had in common. The ancient Persians alone of all nations had no festivals, as they had no temples and no common worship. These ' Puritans of Polytheism,' who worshipped the sun only, and his representative on earth, fire, scorned show and pomp, and large religious gatherings. A striking contrast to them is formed, in another hemisphere, by the ancient Mexicans, who M'ere found to possess one of the most richly developed calendars of festivals, scien- tifically divided into movable and immovable feasts. As a strange and singidar phenomenon among festivals, we may also mention here that ' of the Dead or Souls,' celebrated among the wild tribes of North America. At a certain time, all the graves are emptied, and the remains of the bodies buried since the last festival are taken out by the relatives, «ind thrown together into a large common mound, amid great rejoicings and solemnities, to which aU the neighbouring tribes are invited. Greece had received the types of civilisation, religion, and art from Egypt and the East generally, but she developed them all in a manner befitting her glorious clime and the joyous genius of her sons. At the time of the Iliad, two principal festivals only — the harvest and the vintage — seem to have been celebrated (ix. 250) ; but they increased with Buch rapidity, that in the days of Pericles they had reached the number of a thousand ; some indeed being an epitome only of their memorable feats of arms, others restricted to one town, or pro- vince, or profession, or sex, or to a few initiated, or recurring only at intervals of several years ; but there were still so many kept by the whole people, that ancient writers bitterly denounce them as merry beginnings of a sad end, as the slow but sure ruin of the commonwealth. Their forebodings proved true enough; and yet Greece would certainly never have reached the highest place among nations, as far as hterature, the arts, and philosophy are concerned, had it not been for the constant contests attached to her many festivals. She resisted Asia, because her citizens were always alert, always ready. The religious part of the festival — homage offered to personifieut not beyond the sea, even if he had pei-petrated crime. In other respects, the condition of the serAdle seems to have differed, little from that of the indigent free slaves who had a sjiecial wergild, half of which fell to the master and half to the kin.' (Thorpe's Lappenberg, ii. p. 320,) It is ju-obable that the vast majority of the servile class in Anglo-Saxon, and even in Norman times, consisted of persons of Celtic blood. (Pal grave ut sup. p. 26.) In proof of this fact, Lappenberg remarks that their numbers diminish as we recede from the Welsh border and from Cornwall, the places in which the Celtic or original British population is knowai to have taken refuge. The social elements which coimteracted and mitigated the influences of feudality in medireval life, were monarchy, the church, wdiich vigorously promoted the emancipation of the unfree, and above all, The gromng wealth, power, and importance of the commons. In order to free himself from the rude and insolent dictation of his great feudal rassals, the king, in almost every European state, coui-ted the alliance of the town communities, who had remained more in the condition in which they had been left l)y the Romans than the inhabit- ants of the country, and who were consequently all along more or less opposed to the growth and influences of feudality. See Municipium. By their aid, even before the formation of standing armies, something approaching to executive power was placed ia the hands of the sovereign. He was thus enabled to appoint and enforce the decrees of iude])endcnt judges of his own, who in the earlier time were generally churchmen, and thus greatly to circumscribe the power and influence of all classes of feudal proprietors over their dependents. Though the period of bloom of the feudal system vt as, aj we have said, from the 9th to the L3th centuries, in most of the countries of Europe, it everywhere, itt many of its features, long survived the latter period- Even considered as a social, and not merely as a legal institution, in which latter capacity it still exists, it was in many respects in vigour in Scot- land down to the year 1747, when militaiy tenures were abolished by statute, as dangerous to public tranquillity. FEU DE JOIE, or * running-fire,' a discharge of musketry into the air, made in honour of a victory or other great occasion. It commences with the right-hand man of the line, who discharges his rifle, and is followed successively, at scarcely per- ceptible intervals, by the men on his left, until the extreme left of the line is reached. The efTect much depends on the regularity with which the slight interval between the discharges is preserved. FEU'ERBACH, Paul Joiiann Anselm, Ritter VON, one of the most distinguished criminal jurists of Germany, was born at Jena 14th November 1775. Brought up at Frankfurt-on-the-Maine, where his father was an advocate, and educated in the gymna- sium there, he went in 1792 to Jena, where he culti- vated his mind by the study of philos »phy, and then devoted himself to positive law. In 1798 he appeared as criminal jurist in a work On the Crime of Hi/jh Treason, and in the following year he began to deliver lectures in the university of Jena. In his lectures and published writings, he introduced into criminal jurisprudence a new method of treatment, which was systematised in his Compendium of Ger- man Penal Law [LeJirhuch des Gemeinen, in Deutsch* land (jeltenden peinlichen Privatreclds, Giessen, 1801 ; 14 Aufi. von Mittermaier, 1847). This celebrated work placed F. at the head of a new school of jurists, who maintain that the decision of the judge in every case ought to be determined solely by an express deliverance of the penal law, never by his ovm dis- cretion, and who on that account obtained the nama of Rigorists. In 1801 F. was appointed ordinary professor in Jena, but in 1802 accepted a call to Kiel. In 1804 he was removed to the university of Land- shut ; but next year, having received a commission to prepare a penal code for Bavaria, he was trans- ferred to Munich as privy referendary for the minis- terial, judicial, and poKce departments; and in 1808 was appointed privy-councillor. The new penal code which he planned for Bavaria {Strafgesetzhuch f i'ir das Konigreich Baiern, Munchen, 1813), received, after a few modifications, the royal approval, and was taken as a basis in the emendafuon of the criminal law of several other countries. During tliis period also, he published his Remarkable Cases in Criminal Law {Merhwardige Criminalrechtsfdlle, 2 Bde., Giessen, 1808 — 1811), which first led the way to a deeper psychological treatment of such cases. In 1812, he published a work on Trial by Jury, to which a second volume, on the Judicial Procedure of France, was added in 1825, as the result of a visit to Paris in 1821. In 1817 he became second president of the Court of Appeal in Bamberg, and afterwards first president of the Court of Appeal at Anspach for the Rezat district. In 1832 he jjublished a work on the unfortunate Kaspar Hauser, whose mysterious fate had strongly attracted his interest. He had just edited a collection of his miscellaneous writings, when he died at Frankfort- on-the-Main, 25th May, 1833. An interesting life of F. has been Avritten by his son Ludwig (teben imd Wirken A7iselm von FeuerbacJts, 2 Bde., Leip. 1852). F. left, besides three daughters, five sons, who have all distinguished themselves in German literature. FEUERB A.CH— FEVER. FEUERBACH, Ltjdwio Andreas, German philosopher, fourth son of the preceduig, was born at Anspach, 2Sth July 1804. After studying theology for two years at Heidelberg under Paulus and Daub, in 1824 he was attracted to Berlin for the purpose of hearing Hegel, and soon after he abandoned theology, with the view of devoting himself entirely to philosophy. In 1828 he became privatdocent in the university of Erlangen, but in a few years quitted the academical chair, and gave up his whole time to literary labour. In a small anonymous work {Gedanken ilher Tod und Unsterhlichkeit, Nlirn- berg, 1830), which attracted little attention when it appeared, he indicated that he had already gone beyond the standpoint of his master Hegel, by com- bating the doctrine of immortality. During the next few years, he published three works on portions of the history of philosoph}^ treating severally of the period between Bacon and Spinoza, of Leibnitz and of Pierre Bayle. But these historical works only paved the way to a critical investigation into the nature of religion and its relation to philosophy, the results of which have been given to the world in several works well known to speculative theolo- gians. The most celebrated of these is his work on the Nature of Christianity {Das Wesen des Chrisien- thums, Leip. 1841 ; 2 Aufl. 1843), which has been translated into English. Starting from the Hegehan doctrine, that the Absolute comes to consciousness only in htmianity, F. denies to it any existence beyond the human consciousness, maintaining it to be merely the projection by man of his own ideal into the objective world, on which he feels his dependence. All authority above man, and conse- quently all moral obligation, is therefore consistently regarded as a delusion proceeding from man himself, and the highest good is explained as that which is on the whole most pleasurable. Yet even this highest good is further explained as consisting in resemblance to that ideal humanity which man creates for himself, and w^orships as God. . A kind of ideal theism is therefore retained by F. ; but when his doctrines were adopted by the mass of German communists, they degenerated, perhaps logically, into an actual atheism, which ignored any moral or social law imposed on the individual from any other source than himself. — The works of F. have been collected, with additions and corrections to bring them into accordance with his later views {F:8 Sdmmtliche Werke, 8 Bde., Leip. 1846 -1851), He published a work entitled Theogouie in 1857. He died in 1872. FEUILLANS, Congregation of, a reform of the Cistercian order, remarkable as forming part of the great religious movement in the Roman Catholic Chmch during the 16th c, contemporary with and probably stimulated by the progress of the Refor- mation. The author of this reform was Jean de la Barriere, abbot of the Cistercian monastery of FeuiUans, who, painfully struck by the relaxation of its discipline, laid down for liimself a new and much more austere course of life, in which he soon found many imitators and associates among the brethren of his order. The rule thus reformed was, after considerable opposition from the advocates of the old rule, approved, with certain modifica- tions, by Pope Sixtus V. ; the reformed congre- gation, however, being still left subject to the authority of the abbot of Citeaux ; and a con- vent was founded for them by Henry HI. in the Rue St Honore, Paris. Tho subjection to the abbot of Citeaux was removed by Clement VIII. in L')95 ; and Urban VII., in 1630, se])arated the congregation into two branches, one for France, and tlic other for Italy, each under a distinct (;nneral. The rules of both these branches were subsequently modified about the middle of the same century. The celebrated revolutionary club of the Feuillants took its name from this order, the convent of which, in the Rue St Honore, was the place of meeting for the members of the club. It was founded in 1790 by Lafayette, Si^yes, Larochefoucauld, and others holding moderate opinions. The club was at first called tire 'Company of 1789,' and was intended to support the constitution against the idtra party. It reckoned among its menabers individuals of all classes, who took the constitution of England as their model. This opposition served, however, only to accelerate the revolutionary movement. On the 27th January 1791, on Coimt Clermont Tonnerre being elected president of the club, a l)opular msurrection broke out against it ; and, on the 28th March, the assembly in the cloister was forcibly disj)ersed by a raging mob. FEUILLETON (Fr.), literally a small leaf, signifies that portion of a political newspaper set apart for intelligence of a non-political character, for criticisms on art, literature, &c., and usually separated fi'om the main sheet by a line. The feuilleton is an invention of the Journal des Debuts, which, since the year 1800, has held an important place in the sphere of literary criticism. By degrees, the belles-lettres element began to pervade it ; and the result was a species of light journalistic litera- ture, in which Jides Janin became the acknow- ledged king. In the years immediately preceding the February revolution, entire romances were spun out in the feuilleton. The Constitutionnel, in par- ticular, made large j)ecuniary profits by the social romances of Eugene Sue, which it published in this manner. The French system has been imitated in England and Germany, though with less success than in France. FEVE'DA, an island of British Columbia, ia situated in the Gulf of Georgia, between Vancouver Island and the continent. It is in lat. 49° 41' N., and long. 124° W., measuring 32 miles in length by 2 in average breadth. It possesses a snug little harbour, which appears to be all the more valuable on account of the superior quality of the fuel v/hich abounds on the spot. Its formation is understood to be wholly of limestone. FEVER (Lat. fehris, from fei^veo, I grow w^arm, or perhaps from febmo, I cleanse), a form of disease characterised princij)ally by increase of the tem- perature of the body, which, however, requires to be estimated according to the state of the internal parts, rather than the external ; the sm-face of the body, and particularly of the extremities, being not unfrequently cold rather than warm. Having regard to the heat of the surface only, fever haa commonly been considered as passing through three distinct stages, more or less maa ked : 1, the cold or shivering stage ; 2, the hot stage ; 3, the sweating stage. This description is perfectly correct in most cases, but it requires to be qualified by the remai-k, that even m the cold stage of fevers, it is now well ascertained that the blood and the interaal organs have an elevated temperature, as estimated by the thermometer introduced into the cavities of the body. In the cold stage of fever, accordingly, and even in the most violent ague, when the teeth are chattering with cold, and the whole surf^.ce is pale and clammy, the state of the system \ well expressed by the aphorism of Virchow (th, most ingenious and comprehensive of the modern exponents of the pathology of fever), to the effect that ' the outer parts freeze while the inner burn.' Increased heat of the body, therefore, is the most essential, perhaps the only essential phenomenon of FEVER-FE VERFEW. fever. The other symptoms are loss of appetite, tliirst, restlessness, and va<^ue general uneasiness, often headache, and diffused pains in the back and limbs ; a frequent pulse, which is sometimes also full and hard ; a furred tongue, often with red margin ; a flushed face and suffused eyes ; vitiated secretions, and general derangement of the functions, with great debility of the voluntary inOT'ements of the limbs. The disease often com- meuces with a shivering, or rigor, as it is techni- cally called ; this leads through the ooli stage to the hot, which usually follows i)retty rapidly, and is attended by all the febrile phenomena in their liighcst degree ; the skin being often very puugently warm to the hand, dry, and harsh ; by and by, the pores appear to open, moisture begins to bedew the surface, and the pungent heat dis- appears : the disease is then about to pass into its third or sweating stage, which ushers in the convalescence. For the special symptoms of par- ticular fevers, see Typhus and Typhoid Fevkks, SfiiALL-Pox, Scarlet Fever, Measles, Ague, IxTERMrriENT and. Rejmittent Fever, Yellow Fever. Besides being thus the leading fact in a number of specific diseases, fever is also associated with many other forms of disease as a secondary or Bubordinate phenomenon, connected with an inflam- mation or other distinctly local disease. Thus, in Pneumonia (q. v.) or Enteritis (q. v.), fever is as much a part of the symptoms as pain or any other ; and even in some chronic or long-standing diseases, as in Consumption (q. v.), a slow and consuming type of fever (see Hectic Fever) is found to be very generally present. Indeed, there is no condi- tion which rules so large a part of the physician's duty, whether in the way of distinguishing diseases or of curing them, as this constitutional state. Fever is also very generally prevalent after surgical operations and injuries, of which it constitutes one of the leading dangers ; and in midwifery practice, it is well known as constituting a large ])art of the risks of the puerperal stace, whether in the slighter form commonly called a weed, or in the more dreaded and fatal, often ei)idemic, form of Puerperal Fever (q.v.). The family of fevers is thus seimrated pretty naturally into two large groups, in one of which the fever is the greatly predominating fact, and deter- mines the specitic character of the disease : the local disease (if present) being quite subordinate, and usually secondary in point of time ; the other, where the opposite order prevails, and the fever is obviously secondary. Hence the distinction em- bodied in medical language between idiopathic (i. e., eelf-originatmg, spontaneous) and syviptomatic or secondary fcA'ers. Fevers are also distinguished, with reference to their mode of diffusion, as Epi- demic (q. V.) and Endemic (q. v.) ; or with reference to their supposed cause, as contagioiis, infectious, malarious, pneumonic, rheumatic, &c. ; or with reference to their incidental symptoms and their peculiarities of course and teniiination (the presumed specific phenomena attracting, of course, particular attention), as eru})tive (see Exanthemata) or non- eruptive, bdious, gastric, enteric, mucous, putrid, malignant, typhoid, &c. Among these distinctions, based upon the course of the fever, one demands particular notice, as involving an important law of febrile diseases generally, and of a largo class of fevers of warm climates in particidar. Periodic increase and dimi- nution, or paroxysms of longer or shorter duration, with intervals of more or less perfect relief from all the symptoms, are characteristic of most diseases of tiiis kind, but especially of those arising from 310 malaria, i. e., emanations from the soil, educed under the influence of solar heafc. The duration of the paroxysms and of the intervals, the complete intermission, or more partial remission, of symjjtoms, become in such cases the characteristic facts that mark the tijpe, as it is called, of the fever, which is accordingly distinguished as intermittent, remit- tent, or continued ; and, according to the length of the periods, Tertian, Quartan, Quotidian, &c. (q.v.). The true patholcg}-, or ultimate essence of the febrile state, is still a subject open to question ; but it is in accordance with modern physiology to regard fever as connected with some complex derangement of the functions on which the animal heat is kuov^-n to depend — viz., the nutrition of the textures, or the vital changes constantly in operation between the blood, on the one hand, and the ultimate atoms of solid texture, on the other, llecent observations have shewn that, in the paroxysm of ague, the waste of the nitrogenous tissues is in excess ; and further, the curious result appears to be anived at, that for almost every grain of excretion representing this excess of waste in a given time, there is a proper* tional increase of the temi)erature of the blood, according to accurate thermometric observations. If such observations are corroborated and extended, it will pi-obably appear that the cause of fever is to be found in an increased destructive decomposition of the atoms of texture through the oxygen absorbed at the lungs and circidated with the blood ; perhaps under the influence of a derangement of nervous system ; which has been shewn by experiment to have a very marked control over the generation of animal heat. The treatment of fever %vill be considered under the separate forms already referred to. FE'VERFEW {Pyrethrum parihenium or Matri- caria partheniiim), a perennial jilant, found in waste places and near hedges in Britain and many parts of Europe. It is botanically allied to Chamomile (q. v.), and still more nearly to Wild Chamomile {Matricaria chamomilla), and much resembles these plants in its Wild Chamomile {Matricaria OhamomiUa). a, floret of the ray; h, floret of the disc; c, fruit, showing tha toothed membrauous pappus. properties, but differs in appearance, the segments ol its leaves being flat and comparatively broad, and its flowers smaller. Its habit of growing is erect, its stem much branched, and about 1 — 2 feet high. It has a strong, somewhat aromatic smell. It was once FEVERWORT-irrAKi^. a popular remedy in ague, and from time immemorial has been used as an emmcnagogue. It is employed in infusion, and is stimidant and tonic. A double variety is not uncommon in gardens.— Of the same ^enus wdth F. is the Mayweed {P. inodm-um or M. modora), with leaves more resemblirg those of chamomile, but almost scentless, and large flowers, with v/hite ray and yellow disc, very common in cornfields and waste places in Britain and thi'ough- out Europe. FE'VERWORT [Triostmm perfolkitum), a per- ennial plant of the natural order Caprifolicvceoi, having an erect, round, hairy, listular stem, from one to four feet high, opposite ovato-lanceolate entire loaves, axillary whorls of flowers, with tubular 5-lobed corolla, and leathery 3-seeded berries. It is a native of North America, where its dried and roasted berries have been occasionally used as a substitute for coffee ; but it is chiefly valued for its medicinal properties, it'j roots acting as an emetic and mild cathai'tic. It is sometimes called Tinker's Weed^ from Dr. Tinker, who first brought it into notice. FEZ (At. Fas), the chief and most northerly province of the empire of Marocco, occupies the country between the Atlas Mountains and the Mediterranean. Ifs population is estimated at about 3,200,000, consisting of Berbers, Moors, Arabs, Negroes, Jews, and a few Europeans. The i)roviuce is divided into fifteen districts. — Fez, the capital of the province, in lat. 34° 6' N., and long, about 5' 0' W., was founded by Muley Edris II., in the year 808 A.D., and was reckoned during tlie middle ages — when it was the capital of the kingdom of Marocco — one of the most magnificent and largest cities in the Mohammedan world. It is said to have contained about 90,000 dwelling-houses, and about 700 mooques, and was celebrated for its splendid public buildings, schools, and scientific institutions. On the removal of the court to Marocco, about the middle of the 16th c, F. gradually fell into decay. It is still, however, a place of considerable importance. The situation of F. is eingidar; it lies in a valley, formed by surround- ing hills into a sort of funnel, the higher parts of which are covered with trees, orange groves, and orchards. It is divided into Old and New F. by one of the upper branches of the Sebu, and has a population variously estimated at from 20,000 to nearly 90,000 souls. There are 100 mosques, of which the most important is that built by the Sultan Muley Edris, which contains his monument, and is an inviolable refuge for criminals, however guilty. On account of its numerous mosques and relics, it is regarded as the Holy City of the western Ai'abs. It has seven well-attended schools. The old palace of the sidtan is large, but is now falling into decay. In other respects, the external aspect of F., with its numerous baths, caravanseras (of which there are about 200), and bazaars, resembles that of Mohammedan towns in general ; the mul- titude of hotels and shops alone imparting to it a peculiar and more European character. A consider- able trade is still carried on, by means of caravans, with the adjoining countries on the south and east, extending as far as Timbuktu. F. carries on manufactui'es of woollens, sashes, silk-stuffs, girdles, slippers, fine carpets, &c. Its artisans are also skilful workers in gold and jewellery. FEZZA'N (more correctly, Fii,CSA>i, an extensive oasis in the north of Africa, in 2-1" — 31' N. lat., tnd 12 — 18° E. long. It lies south oi the regency oi Tripoli, and has a popidation variously estonated at from 75,000 to 150,000 souls. Tlie north is for the most part hills, but the hills are composed «f perfectly bare, black quartz sandstone, with no rivers or brooks among them, and the south ia mainly a level waste of dry sand. Not more than a tenth of the soil is cultivable. In the neighbourhood of the villages, which are situated maiidy in the wadies, wheat, barley, etc., are cultivated. Camels and horses are reared in considcruble numbers. Lions, leopards, hyenas, jackals, wild cats, porcu- pines, vultures, ostriches, buzzards, etc., are found in abundance. The inhabitants are a mixed race, of a brown colour, in many respects resembling the negroes, but are generally well formed. The original inhabitants belonged to the Berber family but since the invasion of the country by the Arabs in the 15th c, the tra/;es of this native North African element have gradually become very faint The language spoken is a corrupt mixture of Berbei and Arabic. The people are far behind in civilisa* tion, and occupy themselves with gardening and the manufacture of the most indispensable necessaries of life. Considerable trade is carried on by means of caravans between the interior of Africa and the coast. F. is the Phazania of the ancients, against which the Romans, under Cornelius Balbus, under- took a campaign about 20 b. c. During the classic period, as well as in the middle ages, it waa governed by its own princes who were at first independent, but afterwards became tributary to the pashas of Tx-ipoli. In the year 1842, F. was conquered by the Turks, and since that time has remained a Turkish pashalic. Mm-zuk, the capital of F., is a well-built town, with broad streets and a population of 2800. Merchandise to the value of £21,000 annually changes hands here, and of that amount the slave-trade forms seven-eighths. Murzuk is now the great starting-point from the north for the interior of Negroland. Compare Earth's I'raveh in Central Africa (Loud. 1857), and also the descrip- tions given of Fezzan by Denham, Clapperton, Oudney, Richardson, Dr Vogel, &c. FIAR. See Fee and Liferent. FIARS (a word said by Jamieson to be of Gothic origin, and to exist in the same form in Icelandic). The fiars prices in Scotland are the prices of the different kinds of grain of the growth of each county for the precedmg crop, as fixed by the sentence of the sheriff, proceeding on the report of a jury summoned for the pur- pose, before whom the evidence of fannera and corn-dealers is produced. The values thus officially ascertained serve as a rule for ascertaining the prices of grain in all contracts where they are not fixed by the parties ; and in many sah s it is agreed to accept the rates fixed by the tiars. Ministers' stipends, in so far as they cons' st of grain, and crown dues, are also f aid by the fiars prices of the county for each year. With a view to the lattei', fia.rs, in former times, were struck in exchequer. An error in sticking the fiars wiU not afford a ground of suspension. The form of procedure in ' striking the fiars,' as it is called, is regulated by Act of Sederunt, 21st Dec. 1723, renewed 29th February 1728. The time fixed by this act for summoning the jury is between the 4th and 20th of February, and the verdict must be returned before 1st March, old style ; which is gene- rally considered too early, as before that time not much grain of the previous crop has been brought into the market. Mr Barclay, sheriff-substitute of Perthshire, in his Digest, gives the follown'ng account of this difficult and delicate process as practised in his county. 'In Perthshire, the fiirs court is held on the last Friday of February, or the first Friday of March. The jury consists of eight heritors, a few farmers, and some ne itral parties, especially one or two able to check the calculationa. FIASCO— FIBRE. An expeiienced accountant is sworn, and acts as such, but is not on the jury, and is paid a fee from the county rates. The list of the jury is shifted every alternate year, thereby ^^iving sufficient release from duty, and yet securing i)ersons skilled in the practice. Some years ago, it was arranged to take no juror who either paid or received rents according to the fiars ; but this greatly limited the choice, and was complained of, and abandoned. All considerable dealers in Perthshire victual, whether resident in Perthshire or elsewhere, are uniformly Bummoned, and in addition, every person whoso name is given in by whatever i)erson interested.' Aa grain is commonly sold according to weight, one shilling being generally allowed on wheat for every additional ])Ound- weight on every bushel ; on an application by the farmers, it was agreed to determine the classification by taking a certain weight as the point of division. The first thing which the jury do is consequently to determine the point of Aveight. The witnesses are then sworn to the schedules, which they receive after harvest, and in which they insert every separate quantity of grain sold, with the dates and prices diAaded into Brst and second classes, according as the judgment of each witness dictates, and tlie weight of each parcel. The residts of the separate scliedules are inserted by the accountant in a general schedule, whicli is summed up by the accountant, such mem- bers of the jury as are capable assisting him. The result constitutes the fiars prices for the year. The Bame mode is not adojited in England ; but weekly averages of all grain sold at public markets are ascertained and published in the Gazette, and this is without respect to the produce of particular counties. 9 Geo. IV. c. 60 ; 5 and 6 Vict. c. 14 ; 0 and 10 Vict. c. 22. See Historical Accoimt of the. Striking of the Fiars in Scotland, by George Paterson, Esq., Advocate, 1852. FIA'SCO, a term borrowed from the Italian theatre, and now naturalised in France and Ger- many, besides being occasionally used by English writers. It signifies a failure to please on the part of an actor or singer, and is thus the opposite of furore, although why the word, which simply means a bottle, should come to be thus applied, is more than anybody knows. In Italy, it is not uncom- mon to hear an audience cry out, ' Old, old, fiasco,^ even when the singer has only made a single false note. FI'AT, in English Law, a short order or warrant of some judge for making out or allowing certain piocesses. FIBER. See Musquash. FI'BRE (Lat. fibra), a term of very common iise as applied to objects of a stringy or thread-like character, whether of the animal, vegetable, or min- eral kingdom. Minerals are often described as of a fibrous structure or appearance, in which there is, how^ever, no possibility of detaching the aj^parent fibres from the general mass, or in which they are inflexible and brittle if detached : but a more perfect example of mineral fibre is found in Amianthus, a variety of Abbestus (q. v.). For the scientific use of fibre with regard to the animal kingdom, we refer to the article Muscle ; for its scientific use with regard to the vegetable kingdom, to Vege- table Tissue and to Wood and Woody Fibre. In its more popular, but perfectly accurate use, it Includes the hair or wool of (]uadrupeds, the silken threads of the cocoons of silk-worms and other insects, the fibres of the leaves and of the inner bark of plants, and the elongated cells or hairs connected with the seeds of plants, the ordinary Biaterials of cordage and of textile fabrics. 312 Of mineral substances, amianthus alone, has been used for textile fabrics, and that only to a very limited extent. Animal and vegetable fibres have, from the earliest ages, supplied man with cordage and with cloth. How the invention took place, can only be matter of conjecture. The animal fibres used for textile purposes are chiefly of the two classes already mentioned— (1) the wool or hair of quadrupeds, and (2) the silk of the cocoons of insects. To these may be added (3) the Byssus (q. v.) of molluscs, but this class contains only the Byssus of the Pinna (q. v.) of the Medi- terranean, an article of ancient and high reputation, but more of curiosity than of use. The skins and intestines of animals, although sometimes twdsted or plaited for various uses, can scarcely be reckoned among the fibrous materials* afforded by the animal kingdom. For information regarding the fibres obtained from the cocoons of insects, see Silk and Silkworm. It is to the first class that the greater numl)er of different kinds of animal fibre used for textile purposes belong; and the wool of the sheep far exceeds all the rest in importance. See Sheep and Wool. But the wool or hair of other quadrupeds is also to some extent used, as of the Goat (see Goat and Angora), the Al[)aca (q. v.), the Camel (q. v.), the Bison (q. v.), the Musk Ox (q. v.), the Yak (q. v.), and the Chinchilla (q. v.) ; all of which, except the last — and it has but a doubtfid claim to be mentioned — are, like the sheep, ruminants. The hair of comparatively few animals is sufficiently long for textde purposes, or can be procured in sufficient abmidance to make it of economic iinportance. The warmth of cloth- ing depends much on the fineness of the hair, and on other characters in which wool particularly excels. The useful vegetable fibres are far more numerous and various than the animal. They are obtained from plants of natural orders very different from each other ; none of them, however, belonging to the class of acrogenous or cryptogamous plants. They are obtained also from different parts of plants. Those which are derived from exogenous plants^ are either the fibres of the inner bark (or Bast, q. v.), as flax, hemp, &c., or hairs of the fruit, as cotton. The useful fibres of endogenous plants sometimes also belong to the fruit, as coir or cocoa-nut fibre, and the unimportant fibre of cotton-grass. The spathe of some of the palms is sometimes also sufficiently fibrous and strong to be used for bags, &c., without separation of its fibres ; the fibres of the interior of the stem of old cocoa-nut palnis are sometimes used for coarse purposes ; the fibrous character of the stems of the slender palms called rattans, of bid- rushes, &c., fits them for Vkdcker-work, for plaiting into chair-bottoms, and the like ; the roots of the Agaves (q. v.) yield fibres useful for various pur- poses ; but generally, the more valuable fibres obtained from endogenous plants are those of their leaves, either of the leaf-stalks — as Piassaba fibre and Gomuto or Ejoo fibre, both produced by palma — or of the blade of the leaf, as Pine-ai)ple fibre, Pita Flax, New Zealand Flax, Bowstring Hemp, &c. The fibres of the leaves of endogens being parallel to each other, are easily obtained of sufficient length for economical purposes ; whilst the reticulated fibres of the leaves of exogens, even if long enough, which is comparatively seldom the case, cannot be separated for use. The bast fil)res of exogens, liowever, are often of sufficient length, and easily separable. Their separation is generally accom- plished by steeping in water, or by frequent l)edew- ing with water, so as to cause a partial rotting of the other parts of the bast and of the bark which covers it. But the fibres of endogens being in FIBRE-FIBRINE. general discoloured and injured by this process to a much greater degree than those of exogens, mere mechanical means are usually preferred for their separation, such as beating, ])assing between rollers, and scraping. The fibres of many leaves are separ- ated by bcraping alone. The hbres of fnnts, as cotton, exist in nature in a separate state, like the wool or hair of animals, and require merely to be collected and cleaned. A complete enumeration of the kinds of vegetable fibre applied to economical purposes would not be easy. Flax, Hemp, and Cotton have long had the pre-eminence. To these have recently been added New Zealand Flax, Jute, Sunn or Sunn Hemp, Coir, Pita Flax, Abaca or Manilla Hemp, Bow- string Hemp, China Grass, Piassaba, and many others. New kinds are continually being brought under notice, and to this industrial exhibitions and industrial museums have most beneficially contri- buted. New kinds, however, do not immediately command the attention they deserve. *If a new product is sent into the market,' says Dr Royle, *few of the regiilar customers will buy it, as they want that to which their machinery and manufac- tures are suited.' But for the judgment and enter- prise of Mr Salt, it might have been long ere alpaca wool had obtained its present place among the materials of our manufactures ; and there is much reason to think that many vegetable fibres, now little regarded, may yet in like manner be exalted to importance. For the use of vegetable fibres in the manufacture of paper, see Paper. Fibrous Plants. Without attempting a com- plete enumeration of plants which yield fibres employed for economical jmrposes, we give the following as a list which may be useful. Many of the subjects will be found treated in separate articles, or more fully noticed under the natural orders. The most important are indicated by capitals. I. Exogenous Plants. 1. Fibres of the Fruit. Nat. Ord. Malvacece. COTTON, produced by species of Gossypium. ' Sterculiacece. Silk-cotton, or vegetable silk, the produce of Bombax villosum, kc. Asclepiadacece. The silk-like down of the seeds of Virginian Silk {Asclepias Syriaca). 2. Fibres of the Inner Bark or Bast. Nat. Ord- Malvacece. Deckanee Hemp [Hibiscus can- nabinus). — Other species of Hibiscus, Al- thcca cannabina, Sida abutilon, &c. - Sterculiacece. A number of species of different genera ; some of them cultivated to a small extent. ■'■ TiliacecB. JuTE {Cor chorus oliiorius, G. cap- sularis, kc.) — The bast of some trees of this family, as the Linden or Lime [Tilia Europcea, kc.) is used for mats, ropes, &c. See Bast. Linacea;. FLAX, the produce of Linum mi- tatissimum. ■ Lcffuminosce. — Sunn, Jubbvilpore Hemp, &c., the produce of species of Grotalaria. Spanisli Broom [Spartium junccum). Bokhara Clover (Melilotus arborca). Dhunchee {Sesbania aculcata). Species of Cytisus (as Common Broom), Butea, Parkinsonia, Bauhinia, kc. — ■■ Asclepiadacece. Jetee {Marsdenia tenacis- sima). Yercum or Mudar (species of Calotropis). Virginian Silk (Asclepias Syriaca, A. debilis). Other species of several genera. — Apocynacece. CanacUan Hemp {A]^'*cynum, oannabinum). Nat. Ord. XJrticeai. Common N(Htle {Urtica dioiea) and other species of Urtica. Species of Bielimrria, one of them yieldiDg China Grass Pibrc. Cannabinacece- HEMP [Cannabis saliva). Hop (// umulus lupulus). Moracece. The bark of some species of Fig. — ' Conifcrcc. Inner bark and roots of some species of Pine and Fix. Unknown. Buaze. n. Endogenous Plants. Nat. Ord. Liliaceoe. New Zealand Flax, fibre of leaves of Phormium tenax. Bowstring Hemp, fibre of leaves of species of Sanscviera. Fibre of leaves of species of Ahii and of Yucca. AmaryUidcce. Pita Flax, fibre of leaves *^ Agave Americana. Fibre of leaves of specicJ of Fourcroya. Musacece. Abaca or Manilla Hemp, and Plantain Fibre, obtained from leaves of species of Musa. Bromeliaccce- Pine-apple Fibre, Curratow^ &c., fibres of leaves of species of Broraclia, kc. PandanacccB. Fibres of leaves of Screw-pines. Palmacece. CoiE or cocoa-nut fibre, from husk of cocoa-nut. Fibre of cocoa-nut stem. Gomuto or Ejoo fibre, from leaf- stalks of Gomuto Pahn [Arenga sacchari- fera). Piassaba, from Atfalea funifera and Leopold- inia Piassaba (the Chiquichiqui Palm). Other fibres from leaf-stalks, kc, of many pahns. Cyperacece. Fibre from leaves of Eriophorum cannabinum (see Cotton-grass). Mats, chair -bottoms, &c., made of different Cypo'acece. GraminecB or Grasses. Esparto [Stipa tena- cissima). Moonja [Saccharum munja). FI'BRINE is an organic compound, occurring both in animals and plants. In its chemical com- position it closely resembles albumen and caseine, and it was until recently believed that these three substances possessed a common radical, to which the name j^roleine (from proteno, I am first) was given, the proteine being regarded as the primary basis of all the tissues of the body. Hence we frequently find fibrine described as one of the proteine bodies. Fibrine is mainly distinguished from the allied substances, albumen and caseine, by its separation in a solid state, in the form of extremely delicate filaments or lamellse, from any fluid in which it ia dissolved, very shortly after the abstraction of the latter from the organism. Animal fibrine, which is of the greatest physio- logical importance, occurs principally in the blood, the lymph, and the chyle. In order to obtain it in a state of purity, we beat or stir the blood with a bundle of twigs, to which the fibrine adheres in strings. The impure fibrine thus obtained is then rinsed with water, boiled vdth alcohol and ether, — to remove fatty iri»\tters — and dried. In healthy venous blood, it scarcely ever amounts to 3 in lOOC parts, its average quantity being 2 'S. Small, how- ever, as its amount is, it varies more than any othei constituent of the blood, and in acute inflammatory diseases sometimes exceeds its average by five or six times. Moreover, arterial blood contains more fibrine than venous blood. In the lymph and chyle, it occiu-s in considerably less quantity than in the blood. In inflammatory exudations, we find fibrine in the contents of the serous cavities — as. for 813 FIBROUS TISSUE— FICIITE. example, of the pleura and peritoneum — and on the mucous meuibrane (as in croup); in these cases, it usually occurs in a state of spontaneous coagula- tion. There are good physiological reasons for believing that tibrine is formed from albumen, and not directly from the food ; and as Hbriue contains a little more oxygen than, albumen, it has been inferred that it is formed from the latter by a process of oxidation. As, however, more tibrine is found in the blood in pneumonia— when a considerable portion of the lungs is rendered impervious to air— than in almost any other disease, we are inclhicd to adoj)t the opposite hypothesis, that the augmentation of the fibrine in inflammatory blood is caused by an insufficient supply of oxygen. When oxygen is abundantly introduced into the blood, the fibrine rapidly undergoes further transformations; on the other hand, when, in consequence of imj)edelanation of the introduction of fictions into legal systems is to be found in Dr Colquhoun's Summary of the Roman Civil Law, 2027. It involves, he says, 'less ditficulty to adhere to known and admitted forms, and gradually to accommodate them to the changed state of society, than to upset all the incidents connected with them by a sudden change, which must ever tend to unsettle the law and practice of the courts. AJl nations have therefore fd. The equiva- lent rank in the navy is that of admiral of the fleet. Formerly, a captain -general was occasionally appohited, who had rank higher even than a field- marshal. FIELD-MOUSE, a name popularly given to certain species both of Mouse and of Vole. See these articles. FIELD-OFFICERS, in the Army, are such as are competent to command whole battalions — viz., majors, lieutenant-colonels, cjolonels — in contradis- tinction to those merely intrusted with company duties, as captains, lieutenants, and ensigns. FIELD OF VIEW is the whole space within which objects can be seen through an optical instru- ment ; more strictly, it is the space within which the image of an object may be seen by whole pencils. That part of the image which is seen by I)artial pencils of the liglit from the object specidum or lens is called the ragged edge, and usually a diaphragm is employed to cut it off from the view of the observer altogether. FIELD -TRAIN, a department of the Royal Artillery, consisting of commissaries and conductors of stores, responsible for the safe custody of the ammunition, for the formation of proper depots of Bhot, &c., between the front and the base of opera- tions, and that a due proportion shall be constantly at the service of each gun during an engagement. FIELD-WORKS are intrenchments and other temporary fortifications thrown up by an army in tliC field, either as a protection from the onslaught of a hostile force, or to cover an attack upon some stronghold. Field-works will be more particularly described under the article Fortification (q. v.). FIELDFARE {Turdus pilaris), a species of Thrush (q. v.), in size about equal to the blackbird, but with greater len^h of wing ; the general colour gray, the feathers tipped with a brownish black elongated spot ; the throat and breast reddish yellow, streaked and spotted with black ; the fore part of the back and wings of a rich brown colour , the tail slightly forked and nearly black ; the under parts white. The F. is a vei-y common Tvinter visitant of Britain, although it rarely breeds even la Fieldfare {Turdus pilaris). the northern parts of the island. It arrives from more northern regions when the winter has fully come, and departs again towards the end of spring. It is well known to youthful sportsmen, and afi"orda much employment for their guns during the Christ- mas holidays, when it may generally be found in small flocks — often along with its smaller congener, the redwing— in fields, if the weather is mild, feeding on worms, snails, &c., or, in severe weather, about hedges, thickets, and woods, wherever hawa and other such fruits or seeds are abundant. Its winter migrations extend southward as far at least as the islands of the Mediterranean. It is one of the summer songsters of the north of Europe and of Siberia ; its song is soft and melodious, but is much less familiar to us in Britain than its call-note, which is harsh. It is extremely plentiful in Nor- way, where its nests are very generally built in spruce firs, and, contrary to the ordinary habits of thrushes, in society ; numerous nests being often to be found in the same tree, and ' two hundred nests or more being frequently seen within a very smaU space.' The F. is easily tamed, and sings well in captivity. FIELDING, Henrv, born April 22, 1707, was the son of General Edmund Fielding, connected with the Earls of Denbigh. He was sent to Eton, and was afterwards transferred to the university of Leyden, to prosecute legal studies. Returning to London, he began to write for the stage, and worked with so much industry that between 1727 and 1730 he produced nearly a score of comedies and farces, which were forgotten with nearly as much speed as they were produced. He married in 1736, and falling heir to a small estate, he, with hia young wife, retired from London- But his was not a Fortunatus's purse, and his hand was continually in it ; and in three years after his marriage, he was back in London a student at the Temple. He was called to the bar at the usual time, but gout inter- vening, steady practice was rendered impossible. Happily, a way of escape was at hand. Richardson published Pamela ; the town was ringing with it ; and F., whose strong, healthy, imconventional nature revolted from the moral priggishness of * Virtue Rewarded,' resolved to write a counterpart, pur- porting to be the adventui-es of Pamela's brother, Joseph Andrews. This work, begun in a satirical mood, and intended merely to quiz Richardson, deepened as it proceeded, and flowered out into ' humorous adventure. The exquisite character of FIELDING— FIESCHl. Parson Adams took the world bj surprise, and rernuius one of the permanent glories of English fiction. I'lie next important work undertaken by him was Juiutthan Wild, a mastei'-pieee of irony, which has never been suliicientlj' appreciated, and which doubtless suggested to Mr. Thackeray the Bcopc and conduct of Barry Lyndon. The rebellion of 1745 induced F. to undertake the direction of the Jacuhite Journal, in support of the Hanoverian succession; and s^hortly after, as a reward for his loyalty, he was, through the influence of Lord Lyttelton, promoted to a jiension, and to the ])lace of justice of the peace of Middlesex and West- minster. While engaged in magisterial duties, he produced Tom Jones, his most famous fiction, which the world has never ceased to read, nor critics to admire. His next work was Amelia — less striking and masterly than its predecessor, but quieter in style, and enriched with scenes of domestic tenderness. Shortly after its publication, he was attacked by dropsy, jaundice, and asthma, a com- plication of disorders which bafiied the skill of the physicians. Seeking relief, he left England for Lisbon on the 2Gth June 1754, and died there on the 8th October of the same year, at the early age of forty-seven. F. was the first great English novelist, and he remains to this day one of the greatest. Tom. Jones is a miracle of invention, charactei', and ^vit. It contains the most amusing scenes and adventures, the most siiarkling delineations of life, high and low, the most aljundant satire. Everywhere, the author's manliness, "shrewd sense, and scorn of meanness and hypocrisy, are apparent. If defects may be hinted, it may be Baid tliat F.'s nature was more robust than delicate; that it M'as deficient in the sentimental and poetic Bide ; and, as a consequence, that his ideal of woman is not high, and his descriptions of the tender passion either commonplace or extravagantly rap- turous. The love-scenes between Tom and Sophia, anl the episode of the 'Man of the HiU,' which is meant to be passionate and poetic, are perhaps the only portions of the gi'eat novel which readers Bki]». It is to be regretted that all F.'s works ai'e disfigured by coarseness of circumstance and expression ; but that w^as the fault of the time as much as of the man. He was coarse, as he wore ruffles, drank claret, and hated the Pretender. He 6et himself to paint society as he saw it, and we must forgive the coarseness for the truthfiduess of the picture. FIELDING, Copley Vandyke, an English oainter in water-colours, was born about 17S7, and began to exhibit in 1810. For many years he held the ofSce of President of the Society of Painters in Water-colours, and was generally recognised as the representative of that branch of art in England. He died at Worthing, in Sussex, March 3, 1855, in his G8th year, and after a career of steady prosperity. Possessing remarkable mechanical dexterity and knowledge of effect, F. painted with what severe critics would call fatal facility. He contributed about a score of pictures annually to the exhibition of the Water-colour Society. But, to do him justice, he always exhibited a certain easy finish of treatment, which was perhaps of itself a kind of secondary talent. Although his range of subjects was but limited, yet within it he was almost unrivalled. As a painter of marine effects, and of the landscapes of down and glade, it is thought by many that he has had as yet no equal. FIEKDING COURT (Fierding Thing), a district court in use among the early Gothic nations. This coui-t was established for the purpose of rendering Bjieedy justice in small matters. There w*^re four of 318 these courts in every hundred, each presided ovtf by a separate judge, whose jurisdiction extruded to all causes where the matter in dispute did not exceed the sum of three marks. Stiernhook, De Jure Ooik lib. i. c. 2. FI'ERI FA'CIAS, Writ of, an English writ for enforcing the judgment of a court of law against the goods of a debtor. It may be sued out as soon as final judgment has been signed, or, in case of a trial out of term, in fourteen days after verdict, unless, on special cause shewn, a judge order speedy execution. But a writ of fieri facias cannot be enforced after a Capias ad satisfaciendum (q. v.) has been issued. The sheriff, in executing this writ, may not break open doors ; hut having obtained ])eaceable entrance, he may break open inner doors, cupboards, and trunks. The officer in execution having taken possession, may leave an assistant in charge, by whom an inventory of the goods is made. He is entitled to remain ou the ])remises a reasonable time, in order to remove the goods ; but if he continue longer wdthout permission of the o-svner, he is liable to an action for trespass. By 8 Anne, c. 14, if goods are removed from land or premises let on lease, the party removing them must pay the rent and taxes. A creditor may not take, in execution, manure, hay, &c., where, by the covenants of the lease, the tenant is prohibited from removing them (56 Geo. III. c. 50). Growing crops, if seized in execu- tion, and sold, are liable for rent accruing after the date of the seizure, as long as they remain on the ground (14 and 15 Vict. c. 25). By 1 and 2 Vict, c. 110, money, bank-notes, bills of exchange, and other securities, may be taken under a writ of fieri facias. By 8 and 9 Vict. c. 127, a creditor is not entitled to take w^earing-apparel and bedding or tools where the value of the whole does not exceed £5. Such fixtures as belong to the heir, and not to the executor, cannot be taken under this writ. The goods of the party only who is named in the writ may be seized ; and if the officer take goods belonging to a stranger, he la liable to an action for damages. By 1 and 2 Vict, c. 110, decrees and orders in Chancery have the effect of a judgment in a court of law, hence, fieri facias and other common law writs proceed upon the former as well as the latter. Fieri facias de bonis ecclesiasticis is a writ directed to the bishop of the diocese, requiring him to attach the ecclesiastical goods of a clergyman within bis diocese, in satisfaction of the judgment of a court of law. FIE'SCHI, Count Giovanni Luigi, a member of one of the most illustrious Houses of Genoa, waa born about the year 1523. Jn addition to the lustre of ancestral fame, his name has attained a tragic historical celebrity in connection with a remarkable conspiracy of which he was the chief. Andren Dox'ia, a famous admiral, sprung from a race hereditarily at feud with that of F., having expelled the forces of Francis I. from the state, had restored the republican form of government, but at the same time, by his vigorous administration, effectually held in check the ambition of the nobles. Count F. organized a plot, having for its object the death of Doria, and his nephew Giannettino, the object of F.'s special hatred, and the establishment of an oligarchic form of government. Instigated by the approval of France and Rome, and supported by an alliance with the Duke of Parma, F. speedily enrolled a formidable array of accomplices, his three brothers among the foremost. Crowds of his own feudal retainers were secretly armed and assembled from the various hereditary lands of the House ; three galleys, purchased mth the connivance FIESCHI— FIFESHIRE. of the pope, were fully equipped, and all being in readiness, the attempt was fixed for the 2d of January 1547. Doria, 'i spite of repeated warn- ings, refused to ascribe treacherous or subversive designs to F., whom he regarded as a fast friend and partisan. Complete success seemed at first to ;;rown the conspirators ; the gates of the city were forced, the fleet captured, Gianettino assassinated, Doria in flight. F. had but to appear and dictate, but he was nowhere to be found ; and the strangest episode of this wild drama is the sudden disappear- ance of its hero. In stepping from one galley to the other in the darkness of night, F. stumbled, and falling overboard, was borne down by his ponderous armour, and miserably drowned in the harbour, or, according to some, stifled in the slime. FIESCHI, Joseph Marco, known by his attempt on the life of King Louis Philippe, was born in Corsica m the year 1790. His early life contains nothing of note. A profligate career appears to have reduced him to great poverty about the year 18.35, when he conceived the idea of assassinating the kmg. The immediate cause of his diabolical design was the suppression of a situation which he held, by order of the prefect of the Seine. Disguising his crime under the cloak of political enthusiasm, he leagued with himself one or two obscure persons, of pothouse politics, who hated the government of the Citizen King. These were Pierre Morey, a Badd5er; Pepin, a grocer; and Victor Boireau, a maker of lamps. F. sketched the plan of an infernal machine with twenty barrels, that could be simultaneously discharged; got one made, and placed it in a house of the Boulevard-du- Temple. The review of the National Guard held there, 28th July 18.35, afforded F. the opportunity he desired. On the approach of the king and queen, he fired his machine. Eighteen people were killed, among whom was Marshal Mortier, who fell dead beside his sovereign. Louis Philippe, however, himself escaped with a mere scratch, and was able fco continue the review. F. was immediately seized, and along with his accomplices, was tried, con- demned, and executed, 16th February 1836. FIE'SOLE (anciently, Fcesulcn), one of the most ancient Etruscan cities, is situated on the crest of a hill, at about three miles' distance from Florence, '.>f which it may be said to be the parent city. iVom the heights of F., the view presented by Florence and the neighbouring valleys is gorgeous in the extreme. We find F. first mentioned in 225 B.C. during the great Gaulish war. Hannibal encamped here after crossing the Apennines. The city was next destroyed by Sulla in the Social War (90 — 89 b,c,), who afterwards despatched thither a military colony. At the invasion of Tuscany by the Goths, F. also fell under their dominion, and being by nature and art a formidable stronghold, was numerously garrisoned by the barbarians. The growth of Florence during the middle ages gradually reduced it to insignificance. It is now a place of about 2500 inhabitants. The only vestige of Etrus- can structures still remaining is the cyclopean city wall, constnicted of huge blocks of stone, many portions of which are wonderfully perfect. The site of the Etruscan fortress is now occupied by a convent, and interesting fragments of the foundations are often brou,ght to light. The amphitheatre and other remains belong to the Roman age. The very ancient church of St Alexander, supposed to have originally served as a pagan temple, contains an altar dedicated to Bacchus, the inscription of which U, how^ever, illegible, owing to a fissure in the middle. Coins an I other relics have been repeatedly dug up. FIESOLE, Fra Giovanni da, one of the most eminent regeneratoro of Italian art, also known by the title of II beato Arirjelicxj, was l)orn at Mugello in 1387. In 1407, he entered the Dominican order, and, together with his brother, consecrated his artistic abilities exclusively to sacred aims, illus- trating various works of devotion with l)cautiful miniature designs. These early artistic efforts aro remarkable for their rich effects of colouring, gorgeous illumination, and exquisite elaboration of the most minute ornamental details. Having achieved a high re])utation as fresco-i)ainter by some noble compositions with which he endfjwed his own and other convents, he was commissioned hj Cosmo de' Medici, with the decoration of tho church of Santa Annunziata and the convent San Marco, Each cell of the convent was adorned with a fine fresco of large dimensions, and amidst other paintings, one can still distinguish F.'s 'Annuncia- tion.' The fame of this work induced Pope Nicholas V, to summon him to P^ome, and intrust him with the execution of a series of illustrations taken from the life of St Laurence, destined to embellish the private chapel of St Laurence in the Vatican. See Giangiacomo Romano, Le PUture delta Cappello di Nicold v., &c, (Rome, 1810). So rigid a disciplin- arian was F., that no private or public work was ever undertaken without the formal consent of his superiors being obtained, and to them all pecuniary remuneration was transferred. The archbishopric of Florence, spontaneously offered him by the pope, was humbly declined. He died in Rome in 1454. The gallery of Florence possesses several pictures of F., still undimmed in brilliancy of colouring. One of these, the ' Birth of John the Baptist,' is a conception full of simple and winning grace. Some of the largest easel-compositions of this artist at present adorn the gallery of the Loiivre; among those in the antechamber are the ' Coronation of the Virgin,' and the ' Miracles of St Dominico.' One supreme aim pervades all the creations of F. — that of arousing lofty devotional feeling through the contemplation of the beautiful in art. FIFE, an ancient wind-instrument of military music, in which the melody is produced by blowing through a hole in a reed or tube, while the escape of air is regulated by the fingers stopping or open- ing a number of other holes in different parts of the pipe. It has a compass of two octaves, from D on the fourth line of the treble clef to D above in altissimo. The fife figures in the scidptiu-ed memorials of the Argonautic expedition, and from that time to this has maintained its place as a simple yet effective instrument for inartial pur- poses. It was common \dth. English troops till the reign of James I,, but was then discontinued ; to be re-introduced by the Duke of Cumberland at the siege of Maestricht in 1747. It is a universal favourite in the navy, and many a stirring air on drums a^id fifes has cheered the British sailor to deeds of daring. In the infantry, there is a Jifer to each company, and a fife-major to each battalion, the former receiving the daily pay of Is. \d., the latter, who is a non-commissioned officer, Is. FIFE-NESS, a promontory of Scotland, the eastmost point of Fifeshire, in lat. 56° 17' N,, and long. 2° 35' W. On the north, in the sea, are the dangerous Carr Rocks, with an iron beacon 35 feet high, which required six years to construct. F. is in view of the Isle of May and Bell Rock lights. In the Ness, trap rocks jut through the carboniferous strata, and the rocks contain small caves. FIFESHIRE, a maritime, almost peninsular county of the east of Scotland, between the Firth ol 31U FIFTEENTH— FIG. Fortk on (lie south .and the Firth of Tay on the north. It is 44 miles in extreme length from north- east to south-west, and 18 at its greatest breadth; area. 503 square miles ; coast-line, 85 miles, mostly- rocky, and having many good ports. The surface is a succession of cultivated vales and hills. The hills rise in the West Lomond, 1713 feet, and Largo Law, 1020. The chief rivers are the Tay, Forth, Eden (20 miles long), and Loven (12). F. rests on old red sandstone, with trap rocks in the north, and carboniferous strata, with trap, in the south. There are many coal and iron mines, and lime quarries. The climate is dry, healthy, and mild on the Forth ; but the valleys in the north are much exposed to the full sweep of the east and north-east gales. The Boii is a rich loam, or wet clay on till. The Howe of Fife, on the Eden, is mostly sandy and gravelly, and not very productive. In 1872, six-sevenths of the surface were in croj), the chief crops being oats, wheat, barley, turnips, llax, and beans. F. has a greater number of pi'oprietors, gentlemen's seats, and plantations, in proportion to its size, than any other Scotch county, and its coasts are thickly studded with towns and villages. The chief manufactures are linen, sea-salt, and malt liquors. The chief exports are coal, lime, and fish. F. contains Gl parishes. Pop. (1871) 160,310. In 1851 there was a population of 153,. 546; 219 places of worship (77 Established Church, 49 Free, 45 United Presby- terian); 397 public day schools, with 23,145 scholars. It returns one member to parliament. The chief towns are Cupar, the cou.nty town, Dunfermline, St Andrews, Kirkcaldy, East and West Anstruther, Burntisland, Crail, and Dysart. The ancient ' King- dom of Fife' was the most cultivated, as well as the most warlike, of Scotch counties. It contains striking monastic, feudal, and palatial ruins at St Andrews, Dunfermline, Falkland, and Lindores ; many Celtic, lloman, and military remains, and a round tower at Abernethy. Many of the events connected with the Scottish Ueformation took place here. FIFTEENTH, a stop in English organs tuned two octaves above the diapasons, the lowest C pipe of which is two feet long. FIFTH MONARCHY MEN. Among the strange and whimsical forms of opinion which the religious and political fermentation of the 17th c. brought to the surface of society, and embodied in the shape of religious sects, were those of the Fifth Monarchy Men. The date which has been assigned to their first appearance is 1654. Notwithstanding the ridicule with, which they have often been over- whelmed, there seems nothing in their tenets more objectionable than we find in those of many of the other sects of the period, and there is no reason to believe that the practices of their leaders exceeded in absurdity, or equalled in impiety, those of Rob- bins, Reeve, Muggleton, and other apostles of the Ranters. In common with most persons who hold the literal inteqjretation of prophecy, they believed in the four great monarchies of Antichrist marked out by the prophet Daniel ; and quite consistently with Christian orthodoxy, they added to them a /iflh — viz., the kingdom of Christ on earth. So far, there was nothing pecidiar in their views. But their error was twofold. 1st. They believed in the immediate, or at least in the proximate, advent of Christ (a tenet which was common tu them -^-ith the «arly church) ; and 2d. They held that the fulfilment jf God's promise to this effect must be realised by the forcible destruction of the kingdom of Antichrist. Every obstacle which opposed itself to the setting nj) the Messiah's throne was to be thrown down, and what these obstacles were was a question for the solution of which the only criterion which presented itself was their own fanatical prejudices and hatreds. It is obvious that such doctrines in such times must have given rise to practical as well as speculative disorder. The Fifth Monarchy Men became extinct as a sect shortly after the Restoration ; a fact which, by depriving them of exponents of their own body, may have exposed them to misrepresentation (Marsden's History of the Later Puritans, p. 387). In politics, the Fifth Monarchy Men were republicans of the extremest section ; and when their conspiracy to murder the Protector, and revolutionise tho government, was discovered in 1657, their leaders, Venner, Grey, Hopkins, «fec., were imprisoycd in the Gate House till after the Protector's death. x\mongst their arms and ammunition which waa seized, was found a standard exhibiting a lion couchant, supposed to represent the lion of the tribe of Judah, with the motto, 'Who will rouse him up?' — Niel's Puritans, vol. iv. p. 186. See also Carlyle's CromwelVa Letters and Speeches, vol. iii. p. 31. FIG {Ficus), a genus of trees and shrubs belong, ing to the natural order Moracece, and distinguished by having the flowers — male and female mixed — within an almost closed top-shaped fleshy receptacle, which enlarges to form the fruit, and enclosea numerous one-seeded carpels, imbedded in its pulp. There are more than 100 species, some of them very large trees. Almost all belong to tropical and sub' tropical countries, of the vegetation of which they often form a most important feature. They abound in India, in every jungle and hilly situation, to the most northern Himalaya, and some of them are cultivated about every village. Both F. religiosa (the Peepul) and F. llumphii are held in veneration by the Hindus. The most notable species art* tho Common Fig (see below) ; the Banyan (q. v.) , the Peepul (q. v.), Bo Tree or Sacred Fig of India , the Sycamore (q. v.); and the East Indian Caoutcl nio (q. V.) Tree. The leaves of some species are enti.'<^, those of others are lobed. Several species of fig exhibit the character for which the banyan m particular has become celebrated, of sending roota straight down to the ground from their spreading branches, and thus multiplying the apparent stems, by which a vast canopy of branches and foliage is supported. The East Indian Caoutchouc or India Rubber Tree is remarkable for the exposure of its roots, which appear in masses above ground, extend- ing on nil sides from the base like great writhing snakes. Some figs are creeping or trailing shrubs, with slender stems, covering lieaps of stones, oi ascending trees like ivy. — Besides the Common Fig, many species yield edible fruits, although none ot them are nearly equal to it in value. Amongst them are the Peepul {F. religiosa), F. Benjamina, F. pumila, F. auriculata, F. JRumpJiii, F. Bengalensis, F. aspera, F. racemosa, and F. granatum, all East Indian, also the Sycamore of Egypt. — The milky juice of some species is bland and abundant, as of F. Satis- sureana, which has therefore been ranked among Cow-trees. In other species, the milky juice is very acrid. That of the Common Fig produces a burning sensation on the tongue. That of F. toxicaria, a native of the Malayan islands, is used for poisoning arrows. — Lac (q. v.) is gathered from some species. — The leaves of F. politoria are so rough that the}^ are used for polishing wood and ivory in India. The juice of the fnut of F. tinctoria is used in Tahiti tc dye cloth : the colour is at first green, but being acted on by the juice of a Cordia, it becomes bright red. The bark supplies cordage, of which fishing- nets are made. The Common Fig (Ficus Carica) is a native ot the East, as the specifiic name Carica (from Caria) FIGARO— FIGUF.ATE NUMBEES. imports ; but it is now cultivated throughout the whole of the south of Europe, and is even found naturahsed there. Its cultivation has also extended to many warm countries. In North America, it is seldom to be seen further north than Philadelphia ; Common Fig [Ficus Carica) : t*, male flower, masnitied ; b, male flower, natural size; c, lemale flower, magnified ; d, female flower, natural size. and i-6 is not sufficiently hardy to be a common fruit tree in Britain, although even in Scotland figs may occasionally be seen ripened on a wall ; and in the south of England fig-trees are sometimes grown as etandards, and a few small fig orchards exist. Pro- tection is always given in some way during winter. Near Paris, and" in some other parts of the continent of Europe, fig-trees are so trained that the branches can be tied in bundles and laid along the ground, when they are covered with litter an(l earth. The fig is a low deciduous tree or shrub, with large deeply lobed leaves, which are rough above, and downy beneath. The branches are clothed with short hairs, and the bark is greenish. The fruit is produced singly in the axils of the leaves, is pear-shaped, and has a very short stalk ; the colour in some varieties is bluish-black ; in others, red, purple, j^ellow, green, or white. The varieties in cultivation are numerous. In warm climates, the fig yields two crops in the year — one from the older wood (midsummer shoots of the preceding year), and a second from the young wood (spring shoots of the same year) ; but in colder regions the latter never comes to perfection. Fig- trees are propagated by seed, by suckers, &c. ; very frequently by layers or by cuttings. In Britain, they are often to be seen in hothouses, and grow well in pots. Dried figs form an important article of food in the Levant ; in more northern regions, they are used for dessert, or for medicinal pnqjoses, bein^ applied to gumboils and other sores, and also adimnistered in pulmonary and nephritic affections, Rnd to relieve habitual constipation. The pulp contains about 62 per cent, of a kind of sugar called Sugar of Figs. Fi^s are either dried in the sun or in ovens built for the purpose. Great quan- tities are annually imported into Britain from the Mediterranean. The best are mostly brought from Smyrna, and are known as Turkey Jigs, of which those called ELeme or Elemi are most highly BBteemed- Figs of inferior quality are imported in considerable quantities in the form of jig-cake, pressed along with almonds into cakea some- what like small cheeses. In the Levant, Portugal, 177 and the Canaries, a spirit is distilled from fermented figs. FI'GAKO, a dramatic character introduced on the Parisian stage in 1785 by Beaumarchais (q. v.) in his Burbler de Seville and his Marlage de Figaro These plays, in which F., who coolly outwits every one, is first a barber and then a valet-de-chambre, secured for their author a brilliant reputation not only in France, but also in Germany, where many translations and adaptations of the pieces appeared. Mozart, l^aesiello, and Kossini also made them the basis of classic operas. Since their publication, the character of F. has stood as a type of cunning, intrigue, and dexterity. After the restoration oi the Bourbons, a hterary periodical, distingviished for its satirical talent, assumed the name. FIGEAC, a town of France, in the department of Lot, is situated in a valley surrounded by finely wooded hills on the right bank of the Selle, 32 miles east-north-east of Cahors. It is irregular, its streets are narrow, and badly planned, and its houses in general not well built, but the antiquity and quaintness of many of its buildings give it a picturesque and interesting appearance. It has two beautiful Gothic churches, one of them, that of St Sauveur, has a choir of the 11th, a general super- structure of the 15th, and a modern front of the 19th century. F. owes its origin to a Benedictine monastery, founded by Pepin in 755 A.D. It haa some cotton manufactures, and a trade in wine and cattle. Pop. 6820. FIGHTING FISH [Macropodus pugnax or Ctenops pugnax), a small fresh- water fish, of the family AnabantidcB (q. v.), a native of the south-east I of Asia, and particuhu'ly of Slam, Avhere it is very j commonly kept as goldhshes are in Britain, but on ! account of its pugnacity. Two of these creatures I when brought together, often rush immediately to j combat, or it is even enough to introduce a lool-dng- glass into the water, and the fish hastens to attack its own image. Fish-fights are a favoui'ite amuse* j ment of the Siamese ; the licence to exhibit them I yields a considerable annual revenue ; and an extra* ordinary amount of gambling takes place in con- I nection with them ; not merely money and jiroperty, I but children and liberty being sometimes staked, i The F. F. has the anal and dorsal fins prolonged into tapering points. When the fish is quiet, ita j colours are dull ; but when it is excited, they glow ! with metallic splendom-, and ' the jirojected gill- { membrane, waving like a black frill around the j throat, adds something of grotesqueness to the general ai^pearance.' FIGUE'RAS, a town in the north-east of Spain, is situated near the French frontier, in the province of Gerona, in a fruitful district, 20 miles north-north- east of the town of Gerona. Its streets are gloomy, but it has beautiful promenades. On a height near the to^vn is the citadel of S. Fernando, the strongest fortress of Spain, and the key of the Pyrenees on their south side, with accommodation for 20,000 men. This foitress has been so frequentlj'- taken by the French, as to give rise to the remark, com- mon enough among the Spaniards, that the citadel of S. Fernando, in time of peace, belongs to Spain but in time of war to France. Pop. 8350. FI'GULINE. See Potter's Clay. FIGURANTES is the term applied in the ballet to those dancers that do not come forward alone, but dance in troops, and also serve to fill up the scene and form a background for the solo dancers. FI'GURATE NUMBERS. The nature of 321 FIGUKE— FIJI ISLANDS. fi[ aratc numbers will be understood from the foUow- in„' table : I. 2, 3, 4, 5. 6, 7, &c. I. i, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, &c. II. 1, 4, 10, -20, 35, 56, 84, kc. IIL 1, 5, 15,35, 70, 12G, 210, &c kc. kc. The natural numbers are here taken as the basis, and the first order of figurate numbers is formed from the series by successive additions ; thus, the 6th number of the first order is the sum of the first fi\e natural numbers. The second order is then formed from the first in the same way ; and so on. If instead of the series of natural numbers, whose difi'ercnce is 1, we take series whose ditlerences are 2, 3, 4, &c., we may form as many different sets of figurate numbers. Thus : 1. 3. 5, 7, 9. &c. I. 1,4, 9,16, 25, &c. II. 1. 5, H ^c. III. 1, 6, 20, 50, 105, kc. kc. kc. Or— 1. 4. 7. 10, 13. fee. I. 1, 5, 12, "22, 35, kc. II. 1, 0, 18, 40, 75, kc. III. 1, 7, 25, 65, 140, kc. kc. kc. The name Jigurate is derived from the circumstance, that the simpler of them may be represented by arrangements of equally distant points, forming geometrical figures. The numbers belonging to the first orders receive the general name of j^olugonal, and the special names of triajigular, square, j^ento-- go7ml, &.C., according as the difference of the basis is 1, 2, 3, &;c. Those of the second orders are called pyramidal numbers, and according to the differ- ence of the basis, are triagonally, quadragonallj'-, or pentagonally p^yramidal. The polygonal numbers may be represented by points on a surface ; the pyramidal by piles of balls. The general formida for polygonal numbers, from which any particular one may be found by substi- f.uting the proper values for w and 7' is, (r - 2) 71^ - (r - 4:)n 2 where n = number of the term required, r = the denomination (3 if triagonal, 5 if pentagonal, &c.). FIGURE, in general, is the outline or si'irface of a body determining its form or shape. In Arith- metic, figure denotes a numerical character such as 1, 2, 3, &c. Figure, in Geometry, denotes a surface or space enclosed on aU sides, and is superficial when enclosed by lines ; solid, when by surfaces. See Regular Figures, Similar Figures, &c. FIGURED BASS, in Music, is a bass part with figures placed over the notes, which indicate the harmony to be played to each note, and serves as a guide to the accompanist. Ludovico Viadana is said to have been the inventor of figured bass in the J 7tli century. FIGURE-STONE. See Soap-stone. FI'GWORT [Scrophularia), a genus of plants of the natural order Scrophulariacece, ha\nng a nearly {;lobose corolla, with a small 5-lobed limb ; the owest lobe reflexed ; and four stamens wnlth an additional rudimentary one. They are mostly herbaceous plants, and natives of the temperate parts of the eastern hemisphere, not possessed of much beauty either in flowers or foliage. The roots of some are purgative and emetic. The leaves of the Knotted F. {S. nodosa), a common plant in moist grounds in Britain, are used for fomentation of ttunours, repellent powers being ascribed to them. f nd in the form of an ointment in cutaneous ' liseases. A decoction of them is used to cure scab in swine. They have a fetid odour when bruised, and their taste is acrid. The tuberous root was formerly esteemed in scrofula, but perhaps only on account of a supposed resemblance to scrofuioun tumours. FIJI, FEEJEE, or VITI ISLANDS, a group of islands of volcanic origin, in the South Pacific Ocean, situated in lat. 15° 30'^— 20° 30' S., and long, 177° — 178° W. They were discovered by TasmaE, the Dutch navigator, in 1643. There are altogethe? about 225 islands, 80 of which are said to be inha- bited. The principal are — Viti Levu, or Great Fiji, and Vanua Levu (Great Land), the former having an area of about 90 miles by 50, with an estimated population of 50,000, and the latter extending over 100 miles in length, with a breadth of 20 miles, and a population of about 30,000. The total population of the group has been variously stated at from 130,000 to 300,000. Of the other islands, the most imi)ortant and best known are Ovolau, the residence of most of the whites ; Yuna, or Somosomo ; Kan- davu, Koro, Mljau, and Taviuni. Shoals and reefs surromid the islands, making the access to them very dangerous. Earthquakes are common, and destructive hurricanes are periodical. The tempera- tiu-e ranges from 60° or 70° to upwards of 120° ; but the mean is set down at about 80°. On Vanua Levu, there are several hot springs, ranging from 200° to 210°. The soil, which is of a deep yellov/ loam, and well watered, is exceedingly fertile, even to the very summits of the mountains, which, in Great Fiji, reach an elevation of more than 4000 feet. The chief vegetable productions are the bread-fruit tree, the banana, plantain, and cocoa-nut. The yam and the taro are extensively raised, and great care is bestowed on the culture of the yangona (kava), from which an intoxicating liquor is obtained. The sugar-cane, arrow-root, nutmeg, caraway, capsicum, tea-plant, &c., flourish. Cotton grows wild, two kinds of tomato are found, and the botany, so far as can be judged, is rich. The domestic animals seem to be limited to a few fowls and hogs. The agricultural implements of the Fijians are of the most primitive character ; but in manufactures of a rude kind they are further advanced than other Polynesians. The natives are of middle size, strong limbed and short necked ; complexion between a copper colour and a black, and hair dark, curly, and bn-shy. They are horrible cannibals, and ship- wrecked mariners frequently fall victims to their insatiable appetite for human flesh, though they are said to prefer coloured to white men, objecting to the latter that ' they smeU too much of tobacco.' The Fijians are di\aded into various tribes, each governed by its own chief, whose rule is absolute, and to whom, in a variety of ways, the most abject homage is tendered. Of late years, great efforts for their conversion have been made, especially by Wesleyan missionaries. In 1857, there werta 54,281 attendants upon the religious services con- ducted by these missionaries. Compare Williams and Calvert's Fiji and the Fijians (2 vols.. Lend. 1858). A letter in the Athenceum (February 22, 1862), and dated 'Levuka, Fiji, August 2, 1861,' affords still more recent information concerning these islands. From this source, we learn that in order to escape from the insupportable exactions and tyrannies of the Ton^iese (the boldpst and most ambitious of all the Polynesians), who have planted hostile colonies in Great Fiji, the king and chiefs of this island formally offered to cede it to Great Britain. Her Majesty's consul, Mr Pritchard, at once hastened to England with the news, and on his return intimated to the Fijians that Hor M FIL^'^GIEPJ— FILE, FILING. Majesty's government had taken the cession into favoiri'ahie consideration. Tlie Icing and chiefs there- upon solemnly ratified their offer, but the offer was formally declined by the British government on the 11th of July, 1862, It is making rapid progress in civilization. 'Men of capital,' says the writer in the Athen(f7mi,' arc beginning to flock hither; flourishing plantations of sugar, coffee, and cotton are established, and extensive tracts of land have been purchased for sheep runs.' FILANGIE'RI, Gaeiano, one of the most dis- tinguished judicial writers and reformers of his century, was born of noble parentage at Naples in 1752. Having early abandoned the career of arms to which he was originally destined, he devoted his intellect to the study of morals, politics, and legis- lation. In 1774, the promulgation of some wise judicial reforms, limiting the arbitrary jurisdiction of courts, having met with considerable opposition from these legal officials, young F. published a defence of the royal decree, and at once attracted the favourable notice of court and minister. In 1777, he was appointed court-chamberlain ; and in 1780, published the first volume of his great work, La Scienza della Leriislazione. The first part is devoted to an analysis of the essentially fixed ethics of legis- lation, and of those principles which are modifiable according to local and national exigences ; the Becond treats of the two great problems of all poli- tical economj'-, wealth and population ; the third, of criminal law in its widest extent ; the fourth, of (»ublic instruction ; and the fifth, which considers ecclesiastical and religious law, was on the eve of being published, when its author, in 1788, was prematurely cut off at the age of 36, leaving in this work an incomplete but splendid monument to the noble sense of justice and the exalted humanity of its author. The best Italian edition, which also includes his Opuscoli Scelti, is in / Classici Italiana (6 vols. 8vo, Milan, 1822). FILA'RIA. See Gthnea-worm and Thread- worm. FILBERT. See Hazel. FILE, FILING. A file is a steel tool, having its surface covered with teeth or serratures, and used for cutting dowai and shaping metals and other hard substances. There is little doubt that in the earliest stages of metal-working, when bronze implements first superseded those of stone, rough stones were used for the purposes to which files are now applied ; nevertheless, the use of files dates from high antiquity. They are mentioned in the Old Testament in the first book of Samuel, xiii. 21, also in the Odyssey. Files are made of almost every conceivable shape, to suit the very varied purposes to which they are applied — flat, sqviare, round or rat-tail, trian- gular, half-round, feather-edged, &c., besides being variously bent, in order to get at intricate work. Nearly all these files are made thicker in the middle, or ' bellied,' the object of which wiU be explained under Filing. Files require to be made of the very best steel; which is first forged into the required shape, and is then called a ' blank.' The blanks are then finished more accurately to the required form by grinding, planing, or filing. The blanks thus prepared and well softened (see Tempering) are next handed to the cutter, who sits astride on a low bench or stool, and has before liim a stone anvil, with a flat piece of pewter laid upon it. The blank is held upon the tmxW, wit\i its tang towards the cutter, by means of a long loop of leather- strap, into which the cutter places his foot. He then cuts the teeth by striking witli a hammer a short stout chisel, held obliquely at an angle of about 12" or 14" from the perpendicular. The object of this will be easily understood, for if the chisel were perpendicular, a fuxTow like the letter V would be indented, and an equal burr struck up on each side ; but, instead of this, a cutting tooth like that of a saw, but with less obliquity, is required ; this is effected by the obli- quity of the chisel, and a burr is thrown up on one side only — viz., towards the tang. The astonishing regularity observable in the dis- tance betw^een the teeth is secured in this way : ! The cutting is commenced at the point of the file ; I the chisel is then diuwn backwards, laid upon tho i blank, and slid forwards till it reaches the burr ! raised by the last cut ; the blow is now struck, I and another tooth and burr produced, which serves i as a guide for the next cut ; and so on. The i distance between the teeth thus depends on thn ! force of the blow and the obliquity of the cut ; for the heavier the blow, the greater the ridge or burr, and the obliquity determines the distance of the cut from the burr ; the skill of the workman consists, therefore, in the precise regulation of the blows Most files are double cut — that is, they have two series of courses of chisel-cuts, which are oppositely I inclined at an angle of about 55° to the central line I of the file. The second course is made in the same ] manner as the first, but with lighter blows, and is j usually somewhat finer than the first. This angular crossing converts the ridges into pointed teeth. Files used for soft metals which are liable to clog the teeth, are single cut — that is, they have but one course of cuts. Taper files have the teeth finer towards the point. Easps for wood are cut with pointed chisels ; each tooth being an angular pit with a strong burr, instead of a long furrow. The newly cut teeth in the soft steel are preserved from injury by being laid M^ow the softer pewter block before referred to. The rapidity with which the bloM'^s are struck varies with the fineness of the file ; 60 or 80 cuts are commonly made per minute. Files have to be very carefully hardened and tempered. If heated too strongly, or made too hard, the steel is so brittle that the teeth tear off ; if too soft, they wear down rapidly, and the file soon becomes useless. Great care is also required in keeping them straight, as the sudden cooling neces- sary for hardening is very apt to warp the steel. At- first sight, it would appear, frcgn the simplicity and continual repetition of the movements required in ^le-cutting, and the precision and regularity of the work, that it is an operation specially adapted for machinery. Many attempts have been made to cut files by machinery, but with only partial success ; the chief difficulty arises from the necessity of modi- fying the force of the blow to suit the hardness of the steel. It is practically impossible to supply a large number of blanks all of exactly the same hard- ness ; and if the machine be adjusted to suit the hardness of one blank, it may strike too heavy or too light a blow for the next ; whereas the wori-maa feels at once the hardness of the steel he is working upon, and adjusts his blows accordingly. Filing. — To the uninitiated, this may seem » simple operation of rubbing one piece of metal upon another, and requiring only muscidar strength ana no skill. This is far from being the case, for a skilful workman w^ill, in a given time, with a giveu amount of muscular work, cut away a far greater quantity of metal ^\dth a file than one who is un- skilfid, for he makes every tooth cut into the work, instead of rubbing over it. To do this, he must adapt the pressure and velocity of motion of tho file to the coarseness of its teeth, and the hardness, 323 FILE— FILLAN. brittleness, and toughness of the material he is work- in^ upon. To Jile Jlat, that is, to avoid rounding the sharp edges of a narrow piece of work, is very difficult, and some years of continual practice is required before an apprentice can do this well, especially in 'smoothing up' or finishing work before polishing, and there are some who never succeed in filing, emoothiug, and polishing without rounding the edges of fine work. The power of doing this constitutes the main test of skill among mathematical instru- ment makers and other metal-workers. The flattest surface can be obtained by laying the work, where its form admits, upon a piece of cork held in the vice, and filing it with one hand, the pressure on the file being communicated by the forefinger. It is mainly to aid the workman in filing flat that the rounded or bellied form is given to files ; this partially compensates the tendency of the hands to move in a curved line with its convexity ^^pwards when they move forward and apply pres- sure, as in the act of filing. FILE (Fr. Jile, a row, Lat. Jilnm, Ital. Jila, filo), in a military sense, is used to signify any line of men standing directly behind each other, as rank refers to men standing beside one another. In ordinary formations of the j^resent day, a battalion stands two deep, or in two ranks — front and rear — wherefore a file consists of two men. Sometimes, however, the battalion may be formed much more solidly, as in a square, when the file comprises a far larger number. The number of files in a company describes its width, as the number of ranks does its depth: thus, 100 men in 'fours deep' would be spoken of as 25 files in 4 ranks. FILIA'TION", the coiTclative of paternity. In the law of Scotland, the filiation of a child is the process by which its paternity is detenniued. The general rule that the father iSj)ie whom the marriage points out {pater est quern nuptloi demonstrant), is a presumption which may be overcome by shemng its imjjossibility in point of fact — as, for exami)le, where the husband is impotent, or where he has been absent from his wife during the period between the eleventh solar and the sixth lunar month preceding the birth. As regards natural children, a copula more than ten months before birth does not filiate, but it forms an important adminicle of proof, which, till the passing of 16 Vict. c. 20, it was held might be completed by the oath of the mother. As to the effect of that sta^lite on the previously existing law, see Evix>ENCE, and Semi Plen^a Probatio. FILICA'JA, ViNCENZO, a lyrical poet of Italy, was born at Florence, of an ancient but impoverished familj in 1642. Deeply wounded, while yet a youth, in his affections, he resolved to dedicate his undivided genius to heroic, martial, and sacred themes, forswearing all amatory compositions for the future, and perversely consigning his exquisite love inspirations to the flames. In six sublime i)des, F. celebrated the deliverance of Vienna in 1683 from the besieging forces of the Turks, chiefly jffected by the heroism of John Sobieski, king of Poland, and of Charles Duke of Lorraine. On the publication of the odes in Florence in 16S4, F. became, almost in sjjite of himself, famous, and attracted the notice of Queen Christina of Sweden, an ardent admirer and munificent protectress of Italian letters and genius. Relieved from harassing pecuniary embarrassments by the liberal patronage of Christina, F, was enabled, with undisturbed powers, to devote himself to composition, some of Lis most touching verses being addressed to his royal benefactress. Patriotic sonnets, the grandest of which is a lament over the internal weakness ail of Italy— /toZm, Italia, 0 tu cui feo la sorfc— and heroic odes, severely classic in form, are the chief works of Filicaja. His career as patriot, citizen, and man, won him reverence and love as univeraal as was the admiration accorded to his Avorks. In advanced age, he was appointi-j judge and senator, and in 1702 was called to one ot the highest magis- terial offices in Florence, where he died in honoured peace, September 24, 1707. His works, under the title of Poesie Toscane di Vimenzo da Filicaja^ Senatore Fiorentino e Accademico della Crusca, were published after his death. The best edition is that of Venice (2 vols. 1762), containing both the Italian and Latin verses of the author. FI'LICES. See Ferns. FI'LIGREE, from the Italian flir/rana {flo, a thread or wire, and grano, a grain or bead), the old filigree-work being ornamented with small beads. The name is now applied to delicate wire-work ornaments, usually made of gold or silver wire, wiiieh is twisted into spii-als and other convoluted Filigree Ornaments: From a drawing by M.Mariana, in the Florence Exhibitloa (1861), forms ; and these spirals, &c., are combined to form a sort of metallic lace- work, which is shaped into brooches, earrings, crosses, head ornaments, and others of a very light and elegant character. This work is chiefly done in Malta, Sardinia, the Ionian Islands, and some parts of Turkey. It sometimes receives the general name of Maltese work. FI'LIPO-D'ARGIRO, San, a town of SicHy, in the province of Catania, and about 30 miles west- north- west of the town of that name, stands on the right bank of the Traina, in an exceedingly fertile district. It contains a ruined Saracenic castle, and several religious edifices. Saffron of good quality, and in considerable quantity, is grown in the vicinity. Pop. 7300. San F. stands on the site of the ancient Sikelian city of Agyrium, the birth- place of Diodorus Siculus the historian, and which, about 400 B. c, is said to have had 20,000 citizens. FI'LLAN, St. Two Scoto-Irish saints of tha name of Fillan appear in the church calendars, and have left their mark on the topography of Scotland and Ireland. (1.) St. Fillajn, or Faolan, surnamed the Leper, had his yearly festival on the 20th of June. His chief church in Scotland was at the east end of Loch Erne, in Perthshire, where * St. Fillan's Well' was long believed to have FILLET— FILLMORE. Bupernatural powers of healing. A seal; in the rock of Dunlillan still keeps the name of ' St Fillan's Chair;' and two cavities beside it are said to have been hollowed by St F.'s knees in prayer. His Irish church is at Ballyheyland (anciently called Kill- helan or Kill Faelain), in the barony of Cullenagh, in Queen's County. (2.) St Fillan, the abbot, the son of St Kentigerna of Inchcaileoch, in Loch Lomond, lived in the 8th c, and had his yearly festival on the 7th or 9th of January. His church in Ireland was at Cluain Maoscna, in Fartullach, in the county of Westmeath. His chief church in Scotland was in Perthshire, in the upper part of Glendocliart, which takes from him the name of Strathtillan. Here, a well- endowed priory, dedi- cated in his honour, was repaired or rebuilt in the beginning of the 14th century. King llobert Bruce made a grant of money to the work, in gratitude, Erobably, for the miraculous encouragement which e was said to have received on the eve of Bannock- burn from a relic of the saint — one of his arm- bones enclosed in a silver case. Another relic of St F. — the silver head of his crosier, or pastoral staff —has been preserved to our time. It is called the *Coygerach' or ' Quigrich,' and appears in record as early as the year 1428, when it was in the here- ditary keeping of a family named Jore or Dewar, who were believed to have been its keepers from the time of King Robert Bruce. They had half a boU of meal yearly from eveiy parishioner of Glen-, dochart who held a merk land, and smaller quan- tities from smaller tenants ; and they were bound, in return, to follow the stolen cattle of the painsh- ioners wherever their traces could be found within the realm of Scotland. The Quigrich, besides its virtues in the detection of theft, was venerated also for its miraculous povrers of healing. In 1487, the right of keeping it was confirmed to Malice Doire or Dewar by King James III. in a charter, which was presented for registration among the public records of Scotland so lately as the year 1734. Sixty years later, the Quigrich still commanded reverence ; but its healing virtues were now only tried on cattle, and its once opulent keepers had fallen to the rank of farm-labourers. It was publicly exhibited in Edinburgh in the year 1818, before being carried to Canada, where it now is, in the hands of a descendant of its old custodiers, a farmer named Alexander Dewar. He puts such a value on the relic, that he has hitherto refused to part with it for less than £400 sterling, or 1000 acres of Canadian land. It has been recently figured and described by Dr Daniel Wilson in a paper in the Canadian J our- nal, No. xxiv.j reprinted in a pamphlet, with the title of I'he Quigrich, or Crosier of St Fillan (Toronto, 1859) ; and in the Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, vol. iii. part ii. p. 233, plate jcxvi. (Edin, 1361). A linn in the river Fillan or Dochart, in Strathfillan, was long believed to work wondei-ful cures on insane persons, who were immersed in the stream at sunset, and left bound hand and foot till sunrise in the ruins of the neigh- bouring church of St Fillan. A hand-bell, which bore the name of St Fillan, was also believed to work miracles. FILLET, in Archi- tecture, a small space IiUcts. or band like a narrow ribbon used along with mo\ilding8. a, a, a (see fig.) are examples of fillets, both in classic and Gothic architecture. FILLET, in Heraldry, is an ordinary which. according to Guillim, contains the fourth part of the chief. FI'LLIBUSTERS, another name for the piratica adventurers whose origin and history arc treated of under Bucaneers (q. v.). Recently, it has become familiar to English ears as the designation of certain lawless adventurers belonging to tho United States, who have attempted vjolently to possess themselves of various countries in jS'oi'th America. The plea urged by these persons hjvs generally been, that such countries were a Jjrey to anarchy and oppression, and could only attain to prosperity by annexation to the United States, and the introduction of 'democratic' instituticns, and obedience to law, while themselves lawless adven- turers. The most notorious of these fillibusters was the late William Walker, whose expedition against Nicaragua in 1855 was so far successful that he kept his ground in that country for nearly two/ years. At last, he was driven out by a com- bination of the various states of Central America. He was subsequently captured and shot, September 12, 1860, at Truxillo, in Central America, in the coiu-se of another piratical expedition. FILLMORE, Millard, an American statesman, the thirteenth president of the United States, was born in Cayuga county, New York, on the 7th of January 1800. His history presents a remarkable example — not, however, unparalleled in America — how one who, Avithout the advantages of early education, and without any aid from influential connections, may rise to the very highest position in the government. His jjarents removed, near the close of the last c, from New England to Cayuga county, which was then a wilderness. Young F. reached, it is said, the age of 10 without ever having seen a grammar or a geography. In 1821, he removed to Erie county, in the western part of New York, making the journey principally on foot. Soon after, he entered a law-office in Buffalo, and, while pursuing his legal studies, supported himself by teaching a school. He commenced the practice of law at Aurora, in Erie county, and in a few years rose to eminence in his profession. He was elected in 1829 to the state legislature, and in 1832 was chosen a representative to Congress. Here he distinguished himself by the faitMulness and ability with which he discharged his public duties. He was elected in 1832 by the anti- Jackson i^arty, and was re-elected as a Whig in 1836, 1838, and 1840. In 1841, Mr F. was ajjpointed chairman of the committee of Ways and Means, after the speaker- ship, the most responsible as well as the most honourable position in the House of Representa- tives. Under his auspices and direction, the cele- brated tariff of 1842 was prepared and carried through the House. In 1848, he was elected to the vice -presidency of the United States, with General Taylor as president, and entered upon the duties of his office in March 1849. General Taylor having died in July 1850, Mr F. succeeded to the presi- dency for the unexpired portion of the term of foul' years. Although his party was a minority in both houses of Congress, his administration was marked by a number of useful measures, but by his signa- ture to the act for the rendition of fugitive slaves to bondage he forfeited the esteem of the f rienils of liberty. Among his most important measures may be mentioned the expedition sent out under Com- modore Perry for the purpose of opening the porta of Japan to American commerce — an luidertaking which was, at least for the time, eminently success- ful. When he retired from office on the 4th of Mai-ch 1853, he left the country in the enjoj-ment of a high degree of prosperity. He was the 33«> FILTER, FILTRATION. candidiitc of the American party for the presidency in 1856 ; but in the contest which followed, having failed to move with the progress of opinion, he received no electoral votes except those of Maryland. After liis retirement from public life, Mr F. resided at Buf- falo (which bad previousl}^ been his home for some years) until his death, Avhich occurred on the 8th of March, 1874. FILTER, FILTRATION. _ When solid matter 13 suspended in a liquid in which it is insoluble, it may be separated by various means. Under the article Fining, various methods of causing such suspended matter to collect together and sink to the bottom or float on the sui'face, and thereby clearing the liquid, are described. The process of filtration consists in passing the liquid through som3 porous sid)stance, the interstices of which are too small to admit of the passage of the solid par- ticles, the principle of the action being the same as that of a sieve ; but as the particles of fluids are ''mmeasurably small, the pores must be extremely minute. One of the simplest forms of fdter is that com- monly used in chemical laboratories for separating Erecipitates, &c. A square or circular piece of lotting-paper is folded in four, the corner where the four folds meet is placed downwards in a funnel, and one side is partly opened, so that the pajier forms a linmg to the funnel. The liquid passes through the pores of the paper, and the solid matter rests upon it. The chief advantages of this filter are its simplicity, and the ease with which the solid matter may be removed and examuied. A simple water-filter for domestic purposes is sometimes made by stufiing a i)iece of sj)onge in the bottom of a funnel or the hole of a flower-pot, and then placing above this a layer of i)ebbles, then a layer of coarse sand, and above this a layer of pounded charcoal three or four inches in depth. Another layer of pebbles should be placed above the charcoal, to prevent it from being stiiTcd up when the w^ater is poured in. It is obvious that such a filter will require occasional cleaning, as the suspended impurities are left behind on the charcoal, &c. This is best done by renewdng the charcoal, &c., and taking out the sponge and wash- ing it. By a small addition to this, a cottage-filter may be made, which, for practical use, is quite equal to the most expensive filters of corresponding size. It consists of two flower-pots, one above the other ; the lower one is fitted with the sponge and filtering layers above described, and the upper one with a sponge only. The upper pot should be the largest, and if the lower one is strong, the upper one may stand in it, or a piece of wood with a hole to receive the upper i)ot may rest upon the rim of the lower one. The two pots thus arranged are placed upon a three-legged stool with a hole in it, through which the projecting part of the lower sponge passes, and the water drops into a jug placed below. The upper pot serves as a reservoir, and its sponge stops the coarser impurities, and thus the filtering layers of the lower one may be ased for two or three years without being renewed, if tho upper sponge be occasionally cleaned. Care must be taken to wedge the upper spofige tightly enough, to prevent the water passing from the upper j)ot more rapidly than it can filter through the lower one. A great variety of filters are made on a similar principle to the above, but constructed of orna- mental earthenware or porcelain vessels of suitable shape. It would occupy too much space to enter upon the merits of the filters of different makers, esi)ecially as there is really very little difference bobween them in point of etficiency, and nearly all the domestic filters that are offered for sale are well adapted for their required purpose. In pur- chasing a filter, the buyer must not be satisfied with merely seeing that the water which haa passed through it is rendered perfectly transparent — this is so easily done by a new and clean filter — but he shoidd see that the filter is so constructed as to admit of being readily cleansed, for the residual matter must lodge somewhere, and must be some- how removed. When large quantities of water have to be filtered, this becomes a serious difficidty, and many ingenious modes of overcoming it have been de\dsed. In most of these, water is made to CLscend through the filtering medium, in order that the impurities collected on it may fall back into the impure water. Leloge's ascending filter consists of four compartments, one above the other ; the upper part, containing the impure water, is equal in capacity to the other three. This conmiunicatea by a tube with the lower one, winch is of small height. The top of this is formed by a piece of porous filtering-stone, through which alone the water can pass into the third compartment, which is filled with charcoal, a-nd covered with another plate of porous stone. The fourth compartment, immediately above the third, receives the filtered water, which has be«n forced through the lower stone, the char- coal, and the upper stone. A tap is affixed to this, to draw off the filtered water, and a plug to the second or lower compartment, to Leloge's Filter r remove the sediment. i, 2, 3, 4, the four compart- In the diagram shewing ments; oft, the first porous this filter in section, the figures 1, 2, 3, and 4 indi- cate the corresponding com- partments. At /, the top of the tube by which the first and second com- partments communicate, a sponge may be jjlaced to stop some of the grosser impurities. Since 1831, when this filter was contrived, a number of ascending filters have been patented, many of them being merely trifling modificatiotis of this. Bird's Syphon Filter is a cylindrical pewter vessel containing the filtei'ing media, and to it is attached a long coil of flexible pe^^i;er j^pe. When used, the cylinder is immersed in the water-butt or cistei-n, and the pipe uncoiled and bent over the edge of the cistern, and brought doMTi considerably below the level of the water. It is then started by applying the mouth to the lower end, and sucking it till the water begins to flow, after which it con- tinues to do so, and keeps up a large supply of clear water. This, of course, is an ascending filter, and the upward .ressure is proportionate to the differ- ence between the height of the water in the cistern and that of the lower end of the exit tube. See Syphon. Sterling's filtering tanks are sbte cisterns divided into compartments, the water ei'tering the first, then passing through a coarse /liter to a second, and from there through a fiiier filter to the main rece])tacle, where the filtered water is stored and drawn off for use. A common water-butt or cistern may be made to filter the water it receives by the following mea.nB: Divide the cistern or butt into two compartments, an upper and a lower, by means of a water-tight partition or false bottom ; then take a wooden box stone of third or filiering coMipartment ; cd, the exit filtering stone of d; e, the plug to remove for ckanini^ out second compaitment; /, a loose sponfre at entrance of Communicating tube. FILTER, FILTRATlOi^. or small barrel, and perforate it closely with holes ; St a tube into it, reaching to about the middle of the inside, and projecting outside a little distance ; rill the box or barrel \vith powdered charcoal, tightly rai .'imed, and cover it with a bag of felt ; then fit the projecting part of the tube into the middle of the false bottom. It is evident that water cau only i;as3 from the upper to the lower compartment by goii^g through the felt, the charcoal, and the tube, and thus, if the upper part receives the supply, and th3 water for use is drawn from the lower part, the whole vnll be filtered. It is easily cleaned by removing the felt and washing it. Various means of compressing carbon into solid oorous masses have been patented, and filters are made in which the water passes through blocks of this compressed carbon. Most of these are well adapted for the purpose, but their asserted supe- riority over filters composed of layers of sand and charcoal is doubtful. A very elegant and con- venient portable filter for soldiers, travellers, and others who may require to drink from turbid ponds and rivers, was constructed of Ransome's filtering stone, and is also made of the compressed carbon. A small cyhuder of the stone or carbon is connected with a flexible India-rubber tube in such a manner that the cylinder may be immersed in a river, the mouth applied to a mouth-piece at the other end of the tube, and the water drawn through the filtering cylinder. The filtration of water on a large scale will be treated of under Waier-supply. Some very interesting experiments were made by Mr H. M. Witt, to ascertain whether soluble matter, such as common salt, is in any degree removed from water by filtration. Theoretically, it has been assumed that this is impossible, since the filter only acts mechanically in stoj)ping suspended particles; but the residts of Mr Witt's experiments shew that from five to fifteen i)er cent, of the soluble salts were separated by sand-filters such as above described. This is a curious and interesting subject, well worthy of further investigation. Another most important matter, on which a series of accurate experiments is required, is to ascertain to what extent soluble organic matter may be decomposed by filtration, especially by charcoal filters, and to ascertain how long charcoal and other porous matter retains its property of acting on organic matter in watery solution. The power of dry char- coal in decomposing organic matter in a gaseous Btate is well established (see below), and it is also well known that fresh charcoal acts powerfully upoii organic matter in solutions, but the extent to whi( a this power is retained in the charcoal of a filte/ in continuous action has not been satisfactorily aso'irtained. This is of the highest importance, as it sometimes happens that water of brilliant trans- parency, and most pleasant to drink, on account of the carljonic acid it contains, is charged with such an amount of poisonous organic matter as to render its use as a daily beverage very dangerous. Char- CC-il obtained from burning bones is still more efficacious than charcoal from wood. A filter of amimal charcoal will render London porter colourless. L-oam and clay have similar projjerties. Professor Way found that putrid urine and sewer-water, when passed through clay, dropi)ed from the filter colourless and inoffensive. When a liquid contains mucilaginous or other matter having viscous properties, there is consid- erable difficulty in filtering it, as the pores of the medium become filled up and made water-tight. Special filters are therefore required for syrups, oils, etc. Such liquids as ale, beer, etc., Avould be exceedingly difficult to filter, and therefore they are clarified by the processes described under TiNiNO. Oil is usually passed through long ba^^i made of twilled cotton cloth (Canton flannel). These are conunonly 4 to 8 feet long, and 12 to Ih inches in diameter, and are enclosed in coarse Ci?'jvus bags, 8 or 10 inches in diameter, and thus the inner filtei'ing-bag is corrugated or creased, aiid a largo surface in proportion to its size is thus presented. Syrups are filtered on a small scale by confectionerfj, &c., by passing them through conical flannel bags, and on a large scale in the created hag- filter just described. Thick syrups have to be diluted or clarified with white of egg, to collect the sediment into masses, and then they may be filtered through a coarse cloth strainer. Vegetable juices generally require to be treated in this manner. The simple laboratory filter has to be modified when strong acid or alkaline solutions, or sub- stances which are decomposed by organic matter, require filtration. Pure silicious sand, a plug of asbestos, pounded glass, or clean charcoal, are used for this purpose. Bottger recommends gun-cotton as a filter for such purposes. He has used it for concentrated nitric acid, fuming sulplim-ic acid, chromic acid, permanganate of potash, and concen- trated solutions of potash and aqua regia. He says that properly prepared gun-cotton is only attacked at ordinary temperatures by acetic ether. Filtering paj^er for laboratory purposes reqiiires to be freed from inorganic impurities that are soluble in acids, &c. ; this is efi'ected by washing the paper with hydrochloric acid, or, when thick, with nitric and hydro- chloric acid, and removing the acid by washing thf roughly with distilled water. When a considerable quan- tity of liquid has to pass through a filter, it is some- times desirable that it should be made to feed itself. In the laboratory, this is done by inverting a flask filled with the liquid over the filtering funnel, the mouth of the flask just touching the surface of the liquid when at the desired height in the funnel. As soon as it sinks below this, air enters the flask, and some liquid falls into the funneL On a large scale, self-acting filters are fed by the common contrivance of a ball-cock and supply-pipe. A ir Filters. — The extraordinary powers of char- coal in disinfecting the gaseous products evolved from decomposing animal and vegetable matter, have been made available by Dr Stenhouse in con- structing an apparatus for purifying air that is made to pass through it. A suitable cage, containing charcoal in small fragments, is fitted to the opening from which the deleterious gases issue, and is foimd to render them perfectly inodorous, and probably innocuous. The first application of this was made in 1854, when a charcoal air-filter was fitted up in the justice-room of the Mansion House, London, the window of which opens above a large urinal, th« smell of which was very offensive in the room. Tho filter at once destroyed the nuisance, and ' although six years have elapsed, the charcoal has never required to be renewed.' 103 of such filters have been applied to the outlets of the sewers of one district of the city of London, and no bad smell ia observable where they are placed, and no obstruc- tion offered to the ventilation oi the sewers. They have been applied with like residts in two or three county towns. The subject is fully treated by Dr 327* FIMBRIATED -FINDER OF GOODS. Stenhouse in a letter to tlic lord mayor, published by Churcliill (London), Charcoal respirators are small air-filters of the same kind applied to the mouth. See Respirator. FI'MBRIATED (Lat. fimbria, a border or hem) is said, in Heraldry, of an ordinary having a narrow border or edging of another tincture. FINAL JUDGMENT. The meaning of tliis term in the law of Scotland having led to some dispute, an Act of Sederunt (q. v.) was jxassed on the 11th July 1828, declaring it to be applicaljle to a case in which ' the whole merits of the cause have been disposed of, although no decision has been given as to expenses, or, if expenses have been round due, although they have not been modified or decerned for.' The inii)ortance of the definition arises from the fact, that only final judgments can be can-ied by advocation from the inferior to the superior courts. ' The whole merits of the caxise' has been held to mean, not only the merits of the action to which the advocator is a par-ty, but also those of any other conjoined with it. If the parties in the conjoined action will not proceed to have it determined, the advocator ought to a])ply to the mfeiior jiidge, stating his intention to advocate, and praying him to call on the parties to proceed with the conjoined process ; and, failing their doing t50, to disjoin the causes, which disjunction will render an advocation competent. Sliand's Practice, i. p. 454. In Advocations (q. v.) and Suspensions (q. v.), if the record be closed, and the ])roof con- cluded in the inferior court, the case may be taken at onco to the Inner House without a judgment of the Lord Ordinary, 13 and 14 Vict. c. 30. In order to warrant an appeal to the circuit court in a civil cause (where otherwise competent) not only the merits must have been disposed of, but the expenses modified and decerned for. FINA'LE, the name given to that part of a musical composition which finishes the act of an opera ; also to the last movement of an instrumental composition, as in the symphony, quartet, quintet, sonata, &c. The character of the finale, in purely instrumental works, is always lively. In the opera, it depends on the subject, while in some operas the finale consists of an aria alone, as in Mozart's Figaro, instead of the usual full concerted music iox soli and chorus. FINA'NCE, a French word incorporated -with our language, means the art of managing money matters, the person who professes this art being called a financier. Finance, in the plural, is often used for money itself, but still with a reference to the purpose to which it is to be applied, as where the finances of a country are said to have imi)roved or fallen off — that is to say, have become abund- ant or scanty according to the expenditure of the country. Sometimes the word is applied to private wealth, but it is properly applicable to public funds. We use it in this country rather in a political and economic sense than officially, but in France there haA'e been, from time to time, comptrollers-general of finance, coi\ncils of finance, bureaus of finance, &c. Many statesmen have been spoken of as great financiers, from the talent which they have shewn for adjusting national revenue and expenditure, as Colbert, Turgot, and Necker in France, and Godolphin and Peel in Britain. As a branch of statesmanship, finance is intimately connected with other branches. In questions of national policy • — such as, whether a state can go to war or not —the financier is the person who is expected to count the cost, and say how the necessary funds are to be obtained. In the question, whether an Jui popular or oppressive tax is to be abolished, the X28 financier is an authority on the question, whether the government can do without it. Hence, there is a special connection between finance and taxation, which has become closer and stronger since the progress of political economy has shewn that the taxes which are the most productive, and even the most easily collected, are not always the best, looking at the gain or loss of a nation, in the long-run. Turgot said that finance was the art of plucking the fowl without making it cry. On thip notion, the principle of indirect taxation achieved its popularity. For instance, customs duties seem to fall on no one. The importer and the retailei add them to the price of the article, and tho ultimate purchaser only knows that the article is dear without exi)eriencing the sense of hardship felt by one who pays out money directly in the shape of a tax. But many indirect taxes have, on the other hand, bpen found to affect the triule and the wealth of communities to an extent which has made them very deleterious in comi)arison with direct taxes. See further on matters connected with finance the heads Customs ; Debt, National ; Corn Laws ; Excise ; Free Trade ; Taxation ; Revenue. FINCH (Ger. Finh ; for the origin of the word, see Chaffinch), the popular name of a great num- ber of species of little birds of the order Inses.^ores, and tribe Conirostres. Many of them have great l)owers of song, and are called Jlard-hilled Sonrj- birds, in contradistinction to the Warblers {Syl- viada;) or Soft-billed Song-birds. The name F. is sometimes used as equivalent to FringilVubz (q. v.), either in its more extensive or more restricted ap})li- cation ; but the limits of its popular use are very indeterminate, and some birds are equally known aa finches and as linnets, or as grosbeaks, &c. The word F. often forms j^art of the popular name of birds of this family, as bullfinch, chaffinch, haw- finch, pine-finch, &c. FINDER OF GOODS. The finder acquires a special property in goods, which is available to him against all the world except the true owner; but before appropriating them to his own use, he miist use every means within his power to discover the owner. It has been decided that if the property had not been designedly abandoned, and the finder knew who the owner was, or, with due exertion, could have discovered him, he was guilty of larceny in keeping and appropriating the articles to his own use. Armourie v. Delamirie, 1 Str. 505 ; Merry v. Green, 7 M. and W. G23. In the latter case, in which a person purchased, at a public auction, a bureau, in which he afterwards discovered, in a secret drawer, a purse containing money, which he ap])ro- priated to his own use, Mr Baron Parke thus laid down the law. ' The old rule, that " if one lose h'' goods, and another find them, though he conven; them amnio furandi to his own use, it is ne larceny," has undergone in more recent times some, limitations. One is, that if the finder knows who the owner of the lost chattel is, or if, from anv mark upon it, or the circumstances imder which it is found, the owner could be reasonably ascertained, then the fraudulent conversion, animo furandi, oop- stitutes a larceny. Under this head fall the cases* where the finder of a pocket-book -with bank-) lot'^s in it, with a name on them, converts them o.nifnto furandi ; or a hackney-coachman, who abstracts the contents of a parcel which has been left in nis coach by a passenger whom he could easily ascei* tain ; or a tailor, who finds and applies to his own use a pocket-book in a coat sent to hiin to repair by a customer whom he must know. All theee hava been held to be cases of larceny ; and the present w FESTDHOKN"— FINIAL. an instance of the same kind, and not distinguisli- able from them' (Pp. 631, 632). FI'NDHORN, a river rising on the west side of the Mnnadh Liadh Mountains, in the east of Inver- ness-shire. It runs north-east through the counties of Inverness, Nairn, and Elgin, in the valley of Strathdearn, passes Forres, and enters the Moray- Firth at the village of Fiudhorn by a lagoon three by one and a half • ^iles in extent, after a course of about 90 miles. Its waters abound in salmon and trout. Its liasin consists of gneiss in the upper part, and of old red sandstone in the lower. At one place, it rose nearly 50 feet in the great floods of August 1829, known as the ' Moray Floods,' and did m\ich damage. West of the mouth of the F. are the Culbin Sands, in one part 118 feet high, and covering 9500 acres of a formerly fertile tract. FINE OF LANDS, in England, fictitious pro- ceedings formerly in common use in order to transfer or secure real property by a mode more efficacious than an ordinary conveyance. A fine is defined by Coke, quoting from Glanville, an amicable composi- tion and final agreement by leave and licence of the king or his justiciaries ; and such indeed it was in its original eff"ect, and it was called a fine because it put a termination {Jr7iis) to all litigation between the parties, and those claiming through them, in regard to all matters touching the suit. The proceedings in a fine were shortly as follow : The pariy to whom the land was to be conveyed commenced a fictitious suit against the vendor. But the case was no sooner in court than the plaintiff asked leave to agree or Bettle with the defendant. This leave having been obtained, a covenant was entered into whereby the vendor or defendant, called the cognizor, recognised the right of the plamtiff, called the cognizes^ to the lands, of which he admitted that the plaintiff was wrongfully kept from the possession. These pro- ceedings, which at fi -st were real, were afterwards adopted universally without having a shadow of foundation in fact. This solemn farce having been comjileted, a note of the fine, being an abstract of the covenant, the names of the parties, and the parcels of the land, was entered on the rolls of the court ; and the business was concluded by what was called the foot of the fine, setting forth the parties, the time and place of agreement, and before whom the fine was levied. The whole was embodied in indentures commencing hcec est Jinalis concordla. It was necessary that a fine shoidd be levied openly in the Court of Common Pleas, or before the chief- justice of that court, or before two or more com- missioners appointed in the countiy. Fines were of four kinds, which need not be specified here. In order that a fine should have fidl effect, it required to be levied with proclamations, L e., open proclama- tion of the transaction in court. A fine so levied cut off the right even of strangers who failed to assert their claim during the period allowed by law ; hei>ce an estate was said to be barred by fine and non-claim. A fine levied by a married woman had the effect of cutting off all right she might have in the lands, and was the only mode by which a married woman could convey lands ; and in order to protect her from undue influence, she was privately examined as to the voluntary nature of the trans- action. A fine levied by tenant in tail cut off the listatH tail, but did not affect remainders ; hence, though a fine was sometimes used to bar an entail, the usual method was by common Eecovery (q. v.). But while a recovery was the most eflectual method of baning an entail, it required the consent of the tenant in possession, VS'here, then, that consent could not be obtained, or whertj the tenant in tail was at tho same time tenant in fee in remainder, a fine was a convenient mode of barring the entail. The statute De Donls prohil)ited fines as a means of bamng entails, but this restriction was removed by 32 Hen. VIII. c. 30. Tbe old law as to fines has been abolished by the Fines and Recoveries Act, 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 74, This act was passed for the purpose of abolishing the cumbrous machinery used in the transfer oi land according to the ancient f(jnns and fictions. The act abolishes all the fictions formerly in use. In regard to fines and recoveries heirs of entail, it j:>ermits every tenant in tail of freehold land whether in jiossession, in remainder, or contingency, to dispose of the hinds for an estate of fee-simplo absolute, or any less estate, by any of the ordinary conveyances, except a will, at common law, or under the statute of Uses (q. v.). The conveyance must be registered in the Court of Chancery within six months after its execution. But where there is an estate of freehold prior to the estate tail, the act requires that the consent of the tenant of the free- hold shall be necessary in order to give full eflect to the conveyance. This person is called the protector of the settlement. Where a conveyance is made without consent of the protector, it has the efi"ect of barring those only who would succeed under the heir by whom it is executed. This is precisely the effect which under the old law belonged to a recovery without the consent of the tenant to the prcecipe, and of a fine levied by a tenant in tail ; so that the statute, while it abolishes the fictions, sustains entails as family settlements to the limited eflect which they formerly possessed. In regard to fines by married women, the act provides that a Feme Coverte (q. v.) may dispose by deed of any lands, or of money subject to be invested in the purchase of lands. It is necessary, unless specially dispensed with by the court, that her husband should concur in the conveyance, and that she should acknowledge it before a judge of one of the superior courts at Westminster, or a Master in Chancery, or two of the commissioners appointed for that purpose under the act. FI'NGAL'S CAVE. See Staffa. FINGER-BOARD, that part of a stringed musical instrument, as in the violin, violoncello, guitar, &c., which is made of ebony-wood, and glued on the neck of the instrument, and shajied on the top somewhat round, to suit the position in which the strings lie on the nut and the bridge. At the lower end, the finger-board projects over the sounding-board of all those instruments played with the bow, while in the guitar species the finger-board is glutd down on both neck and sounding-board. The strings are stretched along the finger-board from the nut at the top to the bridge at the lower end, and are pressed down by the fingers of the left hand, to make the different notes in music ; while the right hand produces the soimd either by a bow or tlxe points of the fingers. FINGERS. See Hant5. FINGERS- AND-TOES, the popular name of » disease in turnips, called also Anbury (q. v.). FI'NIAL, an ornament, generally carved to resemble foliage, which forms the termination cf pinnacles, gables, sj)ires, and other portions of Gothic architecture. There are traces of foliated termina- tions, both in stone and metal, on the pediments cf classic buddings (see Acroterion), but it was not till the 12th c. that the finial proper was introduced. During the latter part of that century and the whole of the 13th c, finials of the most perfect form and * of infinite variety were used as the crowning orna- ments of every salient point in the buildings of the FINING— FINISTEEE. period (see fig. 1). The architects of the 14th c, in finials, as in other ornaments, imitated more closely the forms of natural foliage ; but their finials had neither the variety of design nor the vigour of outline of those of the preceding century (see fig. 2). In the 15th and 16th centuries, the finials became more and more meagre in form, and are frequently only four crockets set upon a bare pyramidal terminal. Some variety of effect is often obtained Finials : 1, from Bishop Bridport's Monument, Salisbury Catheriral ; 2, York Minuter ; 3, Maulbroun, Germany ; 4, Crew Hall, Cheshire ; 5, Autjsburg. during this period by surmounting the finial with a gilded vane. Tliis is common in Tudor and domestic architecture (fig. 3). Finials were carved both in stone and wood, and in the latter material with great delicacy and minuteness. In connection vrith metal- work, finials of metal were used, and whatever the material adopted, its natural capabilities were made a source of special beauty. The fiaial is one of the most effective ornaments of Gothic architectm-e, and when that style was succeeded by the revival of classic, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, our forefathers coidd not persuade themselves to part ^vith the finials to their buildings. We thus find in Elizabethan architecture a great variety of finials ; they are, however, almost entirely of a geometric form, and without foliage (fig. 4), and are frequently, especially when teiminating wooden gables, combinations of finial and vane partly wood and partly iron (fig. 5). In the stricter classic which succeeded the Elizabethan, some traces of the favourite finial still remain in the balls, obelisks, &c., used as terminations, and also in tlie shields and supporters (themselves a remnant of feudalism) which form the crowning ornament of gate-piers, pedestals, &c. FINING, the process of clearing turbid liquors, Buch as beer, wine, &c. The simplest mode of fiuing is by passing the liquor through a porous substance that retains the solids and allows the clear liquid to pass through (see Filter) ; but this method is only applicable to particles mechanically suspended in a limpd liqtiid. When the liquid contains mucilaginous or other matter, that readily clogs the filter, some other means of fining must be used. Such is the case with all malt liquors and most wines when turbid. When in good condition, these do not usually require fining, as the suspended matter agglomerates, and sinks to the bottom shortly after the fermentation is completed. When this 830 does not take place, some means of promoting such action are usiially adopted. One of the simplest is to add soluble albumen, such as white of egg, to a portion of the liquid, and after beating it well in this, to add the mixture, and stir it into the whole of the liquid. Upon the application of heat, the albumen coagulates and contracts from its diffusion into a scum, enveloping and drawing together the suspended matter. The scum is then easily removed. This method is adopted for syrups and other liquids that may be heated without mischief. In making clear soups, the albumen of the meat performs this function. As alcohol coagidates albumen, it niay be used for fining wines and cordials without the application of heat. It is generally used for red wanes. Malt liquors are usually fined by means of gelatine, either isinglass or cheajjer substitutes being used. One pound of isinglass is soaked in three or four pints of water, or sour beer, then more sour liquor added as the isinglass swells, until it amounts to about a gallon. The jelly thus formed is next dissolved in seven or eight gallons of the liquor to be fined. This solution, having the consistence of a syinip, is called ' bi'cwers' linings,' and about a pint to a pint and a half is added to a barrel of ale oi porter, or to a hogshead of cider or wine. The action of this depends upon the combination of the gelatine with the astringent matter (tannic acid) of the liquor, forming thereby an insoluble solid, which sinks to the bottom, and cairies with it, like the coagiJating albumen, the suspended matter ; but as the flavour of malt liquors partly dei)end8 upon the astringents they contain, the fining afiects the flavour; the astringents also help to preserve the liquor, and hence their retnoval is in this respect disadvantageous. Malt liquors thus fined do not ' stand well on draught.' The use of gelatine for fining red wines is objectionable, as in most of these the astringent flavour is an esteemed quality, and therefore albumen is preferred. Other methods of fining are adopted. Sugar of lead is sometimes added, and afterwards one-half its weight of sulphate of potash dissolved in water. By this means, an insoluble sulphate of lead is preci^utated, which in subsiding carries down other matters with it. This is a dangerous process, tho salts of lead being poisonous. If properly conducted, the whole of the lead may be precipitated, hxit a casual mistake in tlie quantities might cause the death of many people. Ox-blood is used in the same manner as albumen and isinglass. Lime, alum, alcohol, and acids act by coagulating albumen &c., contained in the liquor. Plaster of Paris, clay, and even sand, are sometimes used to carry down the suspended matters. A strip of isinglass or a piece 01 dried sole-skin is often used for fining coffee, and it acts in the manner above described. Liquors that are unusually difficult to fine are called ' stubborn ' by coopers and cellarmen. FINISTERE, or FINISTERPvE (Lat. Finis terrce^ 'Land's End'), a department at the western extre- mity of France, comprehending a part of the former duciiy of Bretngne, has an area of 2648 square miles, find a population in 1872 of 642,963. It is traversed from east to west by two low but picturesque chains of hills. Its coast is very rugged and broken, its shores bristling with dangerous granite rocks, and fringed with many islands. The soil, one-third of which is occupied by sandy tracts and marshes, is moderately productive; and, owing to tho vicinity of the sea, which washes the northern, western, and southern shores of the department, the climate is mild and humid. Corn, hemp, and flax are grown in considerable quantities. In the valleys, smiling meadows everywhere occur. The silver and lead mines of F. are very valuable ; those of PouillaoueD FINISTERRE— FINLAY. and Hueigoet being about the ricliest in France. Its priucii)al rivers are the Aulne, the Elorn, and the Odet. The first of these is connected by a canal with the Blavet, and forms part of the great line of communication by water from Brest to Nantes. This department is divided into the following five arroudissements : Quimper, Brest, Chfiteaulin, Morlaix, and Quimperle. Quimper is the chief town. FINISTERRE, Cape, or LAND'S END, is the name given t<^ a promontory at the north-western extremity of Spain, in lat. 42' 54' N., and long, about 9'' 20' W. It is the Promontorium Nerium of the ancients. FI'NLAND (Fin. Suomesimaa, land of lakes and marshes) is a grand duchy of Russia, lying between 69° and 70° N. lat., and between 21° and 33 E. long., is about 750 miles from north to south, and has an average breadth of about 185 miles. Accord- ing to the Russian census of 1851, the population was 1,636,915, and it has maintained a pretty con- stant rate of increase; in 1870 the population amounted to 1.774,342. The area of F. may be estimated at about 135,000 square miles, of which nearly one-third is occupied by marshes and lakes. The largest of these sheets of water, independently of Lake Ladoga, which belongs pai-tly to the Russian province of Olonetz, are Lakes Puruvesi, Payane, Enara, and Saima; the last of these, which is about 180 miles in length, constitutes a portion of the system of water-communication which has been established betM'een the central parts of the country I and the Gulf of Finland. The lakes are especially I numerous in the soxith-west of F., where they are | almost all united together by rivers and waterfalls, j round the central lake of PyhiijUrvi The surface is j a table-land, from 400 to 600 feet above the level of the sea, with occasional higher elevations. There are, however, no mountain-ranges, and hence the rivers are unimportant ; but in the north the country 1 is intersected by a sandy ridge known as the ! ' Maanselkae,' which merges, under the name of the | Lapintunturit Mountains, into the great Lappo- Norwegian Alpine chain. The coast-line is generally low, but to the south it is skirted by numerous rocky islands, separated from the laud by nari'ow channels, difficult of navigation, but well adapted for purposes of defence against hostile attacks from the sea. The principal geological formations are friable gi-anite, hard limestone, and slate. The forests of F. are still very abundant, although they have been recklessly cut down in many parts of the country for the sake of their ashes, which are used to stimulate the soil, whose natural poverty requires to be counteracted by frequent manuring. Pine and fir predominate, but birch, beech, oak, &,c., thrive in the south parts of the country, where some good pasture -land is to be met with. Since the incorpor- ation of F. with Russia, agriculture has declined, and fishing and cattle-breeding increased in import- ance. The most valuable exports of F. are, however, the products of its forests, as timber, pitch, potash, tar, and rosin, for although it still yields some grain, the supply is scarcely greater than the home demaud, although, when it belonged to the Swedish crown, F. was regarded as the granary of Sweden for barley and rye. Wheat and oats are but little grown. Few fruits ripen except hardy berries ; and in the extreme north, vegetation is almost limited to mosses and liverworts. F. yields some copper, iron, hme, and slate, but it produces scarcely any salt, which constitutes one of the principal articles of imjiort. Reindeer, wolves, elks, beavers, and various kmds of game abound ; while the numerous lakes, and the adjacent gulfs, supply the inhabitants with an abundance cf salmon, lierruig, and other fisn. The climate is rigorous, and winter, which lasts seven or eight months, is succeeded by a brief spring, which passes almost suddenly into a short but hot summer of six or seven weeks, succeeded in its turn by a rainy season, which ushers in the return of cold weather. In the north, the sun is absent during a part of December and January, and almost perpetually above the horizon during the short summer. F. is divided into eight lienes or governments — Nyland, Abo-Biorneborg, Tawastehuus, Wiborg, Kiiopio, St Michel, Wasa, Uleaborg, which are included in the three diocesea of Abo, Borgo, and Kuoj)io, and contain in all 214 parishes. The predominant form of religion is the lAitheran, but the Greek Church has of late years been gaining ground. The courts of law are held at Abo (the ancient capital), Wasa, and Wiborg; and there is one university, which was founded in 1640 at Abo, but removed from thence to the present capital, Helsingfors, in 1829. The highest administrative authority is vested in the imperial senate for F., consisting of 18 members, nominated by the emperor, and presided over by the governor- general of Finland. The army, which numbers only 679 men, has the privilege of serving in distinct corps, without being incorporated in the general forces of the empire. The naval force also forms a distinct squadron, under its own national flag. The early history of F. is shrouded in obscurity, and little is known of the people before the 12th c, when Eric the Saint, king of Sweden, exasperated by their piratical inroads, undertook a crusade against them, and compelled them, by force of arms, to profess Christianity. The hold which the Swedes then acquired over the country was never wholly lost till 1809, when Sweden secured peace mth Russia by the cession of all F. and the island of Aland ; before that time, however, the Russians had at various epochs wrested portions of the Finnish territories from the Swedes, while F. had been for centuries the perjietual cause and scene of wara between the two nations. The Swedish language had taken such deep root in F., that the efibrts of the Russian government to displace it in favour of the native Finnish have hitherto met wdth only partial success, and in many parts of the country, the peoi)le still openly prefer their old masters. The inhabitants, who call themselves Suomes, and are denominated Tschudes by the Russians, have, however, no affinity of race ^dth the Swedes, and may be regarded as differing from all other European nations, excepting the Lapps and the Finmarkers, to whom they are very probably allied. See Finns and Finnish Literature. — For further information, see Gerschau, Versuch einer Gesch. Finland (1821); Ruhs, Finland (Stockh. 1827); Friis, Beskrivelse over de norske Finlapper (1841); Gylden, Histor. ock statls. Antechiing. om Stdderna i Finland (1845) ; Stockfleth, Bidrag til Kiinds. om Finneme i Norge ; Topelius, Finland frcemstdlldt i Teckning (1860). FINLAND, Gulf of, the eastern arm of the Baltic Sea, between 22° and 30° E. long., and between 59° and 61' N. lat. Its coasts are entirely Russian territory. It receives the waters of the great lakes Onega and Ladoga. The water of the gulf is not deep, and only very shghtly salt. The topography of the GuK of F., which has been thoroughly elucidated by Struve, forms an inter- esting part of the great work of the Russian survey of the Baltic. FINLAY, George, a distinguished historian, wa« born in Scotland about the commencement of th* present century. Circumstances induced him to take FINMARK- FINNS. up h\s residence in Athens, wliere he patiently nnd industriously devoted himself to the study of the later Greek history. The fruits of his labour and researches are contained in his History of Greece under the Iioman.% 146 B.C. to 717 a.d. (London, 1843; 2d ed. 1857) ; History of Greece from its Conquest by the Crusaders to its Conquest hy the 7'urks, and of iJie Eynpire of Treh'^ond, 1204—1461 a.d. (London, 1851) ; History of Lte Byzantine and Greek Em- pires, 716—1453 A.D. (London, 2 vols., 1853—1854) ; History of Greece under the Othoman and Venetian Dominion (1854) ; and History of the Greek Revolu- tion (Edin. Blackwood and Sons, 1861). F. is not regarded as a })liilosopliical historian, in the highest sense of the term ; but he wms earnest and indefati- gable in his endeavours to obtain a solid and accu- rate conception of the times about which he wrote, and was thus enabled to tlivow a flood of new li<>;ht on the obscurity of modern Greek history. F. also ex- hibits a profound kno\vledps ; but the former, during the succeeding ages, became so far civilised as to exchange a Domadic life for one of agricultural pursuits ; while the Lapps have ever continued to be barbarous nomades, as well as the Siberian tribes of the same race — namely, the Woguls and Ostiaks. The Finns, as well as their brethren the Beormahs, or Finns of the White Sea, had probably undergone this change long before the time when they were visited by Otther, the gaest of Alfred. When the Finns were conquered by the Swedes, they had long been a settled people, but one of curious, and singular, and isolated character.' The Finnish lanqiiage, like that of the other Ugrian nations, belongs to the Turanian family of languages, and hence offers some striking points of resemblance to the languages and dialects of the Turks, Tartars, Mongols, Mandshurians, Tungusians, and even Magyars or Hungarians. In Finnish, the nouns are not inflected, but an additional word is required to denote the variations of case, number, and sex. The prepositions and pronouns are suffixed to the words they modify. The verbs have only two tenses, joast and present ; the future being expressed by adding to the present some word indicating a future action or state of being. Bask considers the Finnish to be the most harmoni- ous of tongues. Many Swedish, and a few Russian words have, of course, become incorporated with the language, in consequence of the social and political relations of the F. with those two countries. The F. of our time are doubtless the same race as the Feniii of Tacitus, and the Phinnoi of Strabo and Ptolemy, though not occupying the same geo- graphical area. * The nearest approach to a name at once general and native,' says Dr Latham, 'is Suomelaiset, meaning swamp, morass, or fen people ; the term Finn and Finlander being of foreign origin.' With respect to the social habits, morals, and manners of the F., all travellers are unanimous in praising them. They are of a cheerftd disposition, aflfectionate towards each other, and honest and honourable in their dealings vvdth strangers. They are also cleanly in their persons, being much addicted to the use of the vapour-bath, to which circumstance may be attributed the strongly marked difference in physical appearance between them and the stunted Lapps, to whom, in language as well as many other respeots, they stand closely related FINS (allied to Lat. pinna or penna, see letter F), organs adapted for swimming or locomotion in water. The limits of the application of the term are rather vague. It is always applied to the locomotive organs of fishes, when they possess special organs of locomotion, as almost all of them do; and equally to those organs (the pectoral and ventral fins) which are homologous to the limbs of other vertebrate animals, and to those tthe vertical fins) which may be said to be super- added to them, and to belong to fishes alono ; equally also to those which are furnished with rays, having a membrane stretched on them, as is generally the case in all the fius of fishes, and to those which consist, as in some fishes, of a mere fold of the skin, and which, when they exist in fishes, are in reality not very much organs of locomotion. The name fins is given to the locomo- tive organs of Cetacexi, but not to those of any other Mammalia, even when, as in the case of the hind feet of seals, they approach very nearly to the character of the fins of fishes. Nor is it ever given to the webbed feet of birds. But it ia often given to the swimming organs of inverte- brate animals, as to the expansions of the m.antlH whi'^^'- serve this purpose in the Cephalopola. and which are entirely destitute of rays. FI'NSBUKY, or FEN TOWN, a parliamentary borough of Middlesex, forming the north part of London (q. v.). FI'NSCALE. See Red-Eye. FI'NSTERAA'RHORN, the highest peak of the Berneso Alps. See Alps. FINSTERWALDE, a small town of Prussia, in the province of Brandenburg, is situated on an affluent of the Black Elster, 40 miles north of Dresden. It has manufactures of cloth and machinery ; spinning and weaving are carried on. Pop. (1871) 7370. FI'ORIN. See Bent Grass. FIR, a name often used in a sense co-extensive with the widest sense of the word Pine (q. v.), and therefore so as to include a large portion of the Conifers (q-v.), or at least the whole of the Linnjean genus Pinus. But the name fir is often also used in a more restricted signification, and the trees so designated are those forming the genua Abies of some authors, Abies and Picea of others, which the greater number of botanists have now agreed in separating fi'om PintLS. The Scotch Fir, however, is a true Pine {Pinus sylvestris), and wiU be described along with its congeners. See Pine. — The genus Abies is distinguished from Pinus by the flat rounded apex of the scales of its cones, and by leaves not in clusters of .definite number. Some botanists include the species of Larch (q.v.) and Cedar (q.v.) in the genus Abies; but if these bo separated, no species with clustered leaves remain in this genus, which then contains only the different kinds of Spruce Fir and of Silver Fir, or species most nearly allied to those which ordin- arily bear these names. All of them are ever- green. The Spruce Firs form the genus Abies of some authors, distinguished by short solitary leaves, scattered all round the branchlets, and by the scales of the (pendulous) cones being attenuated at the apex, and remaining fixed to the axis of tho cone. The Silver Firs form the genus Picea of some, distinguished by the deciduous scales of the (erect) cones. It being supposed, however, that the Linnsean names had been given tlirough mistake, and that the common Silver Fir is the true Abies of the ancients, and the Norway Spruce their Picea, Link has attempted, but without being followed by many, to restore these names to their ancient use, and to denominate the genera accordingly. — The Norway Spruce {Abies excelsa or Pinus Abies) is a noble tree, sometimes attaining the height of 180 feet, with long cylindrical pendulous cones, denticulate scales, and scattered, green, crowded, suddenly pointed, almost quadrangular leaves. It is the Fichte of the Germans, called also Rothtanne cr Schwarztanne. Like the other kinds both of Spruce and Silver Fir, it exhibits the peculiar character FIR. of the Conifvrce more perfectly than many of the trsjt Fines do, in its perfectly erect stem, from ♦"^hich proceed almost whorled horizontal branches. CJommon, or Norway Spruce Fir {Abies excelsa) : Copied from Selby's British Forest Trees. it is a very beautiful pyi-amidal tree, and when old, its long branches droop towards the ground. It forms entire forests in the middle and north of Europe and in Asia, chiefly upon elevated ridges, although it prefers moist places. It loves districts of primitive rock. In some i)laces, it is found even v/itkin the Arctic Circle. It is not a native of Britain, but has long been very generally planted, although too often it is merely made a nurse for other trees, and is not allowed to attain a consider- able age or size. It is of rapid growth, but is believed to live to the age of 400 years. It yields Cone of Norway Spruce Fir : «f, branchlet and cone ; b, scale, with seeds ; r, a seed. fc*« same products as the Scotcb Fir, resin, tuipen- tine, tar, and lampblack (see these heads) ; but more resin than turpentine. The true Spruce Rosin flows spt mtaneously from the baiic. The purest pieces arc whitish or pale yellow, are sold under the name of Common Frankincense, and used for ointments and plasters, and when melted yield the common Burgundy Pitch (q. v.). The bark of the spruce is a good and cheap non-conductor o* heat : 334 the cones are an excellent substitute for tanners' bark. In Sweden and Norway, the inner bark ia made into baskets ; and the long and slender roots, split and boiled with alkali and sea-salt, are dried, and twisted into cordage, which is used both for vessels and by farmers. The wood is used for fuel and for house-building ; it also supplies masts and spars for ships. It is the White Christiania Dea.l and Danzig Deal of the market, and is very large ly imported into Britain from Norway and the Baltia It is whiter, lighter, less resinous, and more elaatio than the timber of Scotch Fir. The sapwood, wh ilst still in a gelatinous state, is sweet, and is eaten fresh in Sweden and Lapland; and the inner bark, in times of scarcity, is mixed with a little flour or meal of some kind, and baked into bread. The young shoots, still covered with their bud-scales, are in many parts of Europe used for fumigation. The leaf-buds are also employed medicinally in cases of scurvy, rheumatism, and gout. The pollen is oft^u sold by apothecaries instead of the dust of the Club- moss or Lycopodivm. — A very superior variety of thia fir is known as the Red Norway Spruce. Dwarf varieties are cultivated amongst ornamental shrubs. — The Black Spruce {Abies nigra), of which the Red Spruce (sometimes called A. rubra) is regarded as a mere variety caused by difference of soil, and the White Spruce {A. alba), form great woods in North America. The Black Spruce is found as far north as lat. 65°. Both species are now common in plantations in Britain. Both have quadrangular leaves ; those of the Black Spruce are of a dark glaucous green, those of the White Spruce are of a lighter colour. The cones of the Black Spruce are short, ovate-oblong, obtuse, and pendulous, vnth. rounded scales ragged at the edge ; those of the White Spruce are oval, and tapering to a point with entire scales. The Black Spruce is a valuable timber tree, supplying yards of ships, &c., but its planks are apt to split. The White Spruce is smaller, and the timber inferior. From the Black Spruce the Essence of Spruce is obtained, which is so usefid as an antiscorbutic in long voyages, and is used for making spruce-beer. Spruce-beer is also made by adding molasses or maple sugar to a decoction of the young branchlets, and allowing the whole to ferment. From the fibres of the root of the White Spruce, macerated in water, the Canadians prepare the thread ^^dth which they sew their birch-bark canoes ; and the seams are made water-tight with its resin. — From the twigs of the Oriental Fir {A. Orien- talis), a native of the Levant, a very fine clear resin exudes, which is known by the name of Sapindus' Tears. This fir has very short quadrangular leaves, densely crowded, and uniformly imbricated. — The Hemlock Spruce of North America {A. Canadensis) forms great part of the forests of Canada and of the Northern States of America, extending north- wards as far as Hudson's Bay. Its timber is not much esteemed, as it splits very obliquely, and decays rapidly in the atmosphere ; but the bark is valued for tanning. The leaves are two-rowed, flat, and obtuse. The cones are scarcely longer than the leaves. The young trees have a very graceful appearance, but the older ones are generally much disfigured by remaining stumps of their lower branches. — A. dumosa of Nepal is very much allied to the Hemlock Spruce. — A. Douglasii is a noble tree, attaining a height of 250 feet, which forms immense forests in the north-west of America, from lat. 43° to lat. 52°. The bark, when the tree is old is rugged, and 6—9 inches thick. It abounds in a clear, yellow resin. The timber is heavy, firm, and valuable; the growth very rapid. — A. Menzies^ii^ a native of North California, veiy similar to I A. Douglasii in gereral appearance, also jjroduces FIR— FIRDUSI. timber of excellent quality. — A. Brunoniana, a Himalayan sj)ecies, forms a stately blunt pyramid of 120 — 150 feet in height, with brandies spreading like the cedar, and drcoping gracefully on all sides. It is found only at considerable elevations. The wood is not durable, but the bark is very useful. — The KnuTROwor Himalayan Spruce [A. Smithiana, called also A. Morlnda and A. Khulrow) much resembles the Norway Spruce, but has longer and mere pendulous branches. The wood is white, and not highly esteemed, although it readily splits into planks.— The Mount Enos Fir [A. Cephalonica), a native of Cephalonia, attaining a height of 60 feet, and a diameter of three feet, yields durable and very valuable timber. — All these species have been introduced into Britain, and some of them seem likely soon to be pretty common in our plantations, as well as others from the rorth-west of America and from the mountains of As: a, as A. Wlttmanniana, kc, noble trees, and apparently quite suitable to the climate. — The common Silver Fir [Picea pectinata, or Abies or Piuus picea) has erect cylin- drical cones, 5 — 6 inches long, and two-rowed leaves, with two white lines upon the under side. It forms considerable woods upon the moim tains of Central Europe and of the north of Asia, and attams a height of 150—180 feet, and an age of 300 years. It is not a native of Britain, but large trees are now to be seen in very many places. The wood is white, contains little resin, is very soft and light, and is employed for the ordinary purposes of coopers, turners, and joiners, and in ship and house carpentry, also for making band-boxes and for many fine purposes, especially for the sound- ing-boards of musical instruments. The same resinous and oily products are obtained from the Silver Fir as from the Spruce and Scotch Fir, Silver Fir {Picea pectinata) : Copied from Selby's British Forest Trees. but (f superior quality. It yields the beautiful clear tur])entine kno\vn as Strasburg Turpentine. Very similar to the Silver Fir, but generally of much smaller size, and indeed seldom much above thirty feet iu height, is the Balm or Gilead Fir Picea or Abiis bahamea), a native of North America, from Virginia to Canada. The wood is of little value, but the tree yields Canada Balsam (q. v.). Besides these, a number of other species of Picta are found in the western parts of North America, and in the Himalaya, some of which are trees of great magnitude, and yielding excellent timber, aa Cone of Silver Fir : a, branchlet and cones ; b, a scale ; c, a seed. P. grandis, a Calif ornian tree of 170 — 200 feet in height— P. amabilis, a species much resembling it — P. nobilis, a majestic tree, which forms vast forests on the moxmtains of Northern California — P. brae- teata, a Californian species remarkable for its slender stem, which rises to a height of 120 feet, and yet is only about one foot in diameter at the base, and likewise for the manner in which the middle lobe of each bractea of its cones is produced so as to resemble a leaf — P. Webbiana, the Himalayan Silver Fir, which, in its native regions, fills the upper parts of mountain valleys, and crowns summits and ridges at an elevation of upwards of 10,000 feet, a tree of great size, 35 tee<- in girth, and with a tnmk rising 40 feet before it sends out a branch. Most of these have been introduced into Britain with good prospect of their succeeding well in oxvi climate, and other species, as P. Plcfda, a native of the Altai Mountains, very nearly resembling the Silver Fir, P. N ordmann'iana, P. Fraserii, &c. — P. religiosa is a tall and elegant tree, a native of the mountains of Mexico, with slender branches, which are very much used by the Mexicans for adorning churches, and cones shorter than those of any other Silver Fir. P. Jezoensis is a new species recently introduced from J apan. FIRDUSI, FIRDOWSI (Tusi), Abu'l-Kasim Mansur, the greatest epic poet of Persia, was born between 304—328 h., or 916—940 a.d., at Shadab or Rizvan, near Tus in Khorassan. Whether the name Firdusi (from firdus, garden, paradise) was given to him because his father (Fachreddin Ahmad) was a gardener, or on account of the 'Paradise of Poetry' which he had created, is matter of controversy. All that is known of his early life is, that when a boy he was very indiistrious, and also that 'he loved to sit for days alone on the bank of a river.' At the age of between thirty and forty, he went to Gazneh, where Mahmud the Gaznewade, a great admirer and patron of poetry and the arts generally, then resided. Erelong, F. had an opportunity of displaying both his talent and his extraordinary knowledge of ancient Persian history and legendary lore before the sultan himself, who was so pleased with an episode (the story of Sijavush) -WTitten by him at his majesty's order, that he at once paid him a gold dirhem for each couplet, and shortly after- wards sent him a great number of fragmentary ancient chronicles and histories of Persia, that he might versify them, and thus 7arry out the task once attempted by Dakiki — viz., to write a poeticaJ FIRE— FIREARMS. history of the Persian kings from the creation of the world to the end of the Sassanide dynasty (630 A. D.) — the reward to be a dirhem a line. F. spent thirty ycnrs over the work, and j^roduccd the famous Book of Kin(js {ShaJi Naiaeh), consisting of 60,000 double lines. Without going so far as many critics have gone, we may fairly rank it among the greatest epics of all nations : the Iliad, the Ilahabhd- rata, the Nlbelungen. Truth and fiction, history and fairy lore, all the most gorgeous imagery of the East and its quaintest conceits, together with the homeliest and most touching descriptions of human joy and human sorrow, of valour and of love, the poefc has formed into one glowing song. Though abounding — in strict adherence to its sources— in impossibilities and anachronisms (such as Alexander the Great being a Christian, Ki-Khosroo holding the Zend Avesta in his hands — some hundred and twenty years before it was brought to light — Abraham being Zerduslit, &c.), it yet contains not 1 little that is of real historical value, quite apart from its being the most faithfid mirror of its own times. See SiiAii Nameii. But while F. was • weaving his poetical carj^et,' his enemies had not been idle. Unable to attack his genius and his honesty, they attacked his religious opinions; and the sultan, inlUienced by bigotry and avarice, sent the poet, instead of 60,000 dirhems of gold, so many dirhems of silver. F. was at a public bath when the messenger arrived A\dth the money, and on discovering that it was silver, and not gold, Mahmud had sent him, he di vided the amount into three portions, and gave one to the attendant at the bath, anotlxcr to the messenger, and the third to a man who brought him a glass of sherbet. He then burned several thousand verses which he had written in praise of the sultan, as seqiiel to the Sliah Nanieh, and composed one of the bitterest satires against him, which he handed over, well sealed, to the king's favourite slave, to give it to him when he might be seized mth one of his fits of despondency, as it contained a beautiful panegyric on him. Dreading the sultan's rage, he fled precipitately, first to Tus ; persecuted here, he next went to Bagdad, where Kadir Billah, the calif, received him with all honour. But the unrelenting anger of Mahmud followed him thither, and he removed to Tabaristan, which again he had to leave, to seek another place of refuge. After eleven years of restless wanderings, he was at last allowed to return to his native place, a broken, wretched old man. Mahmud is said to have repented his cruelty at last, and to have sent a caravan loaded with the costliest goods to F., to entreat his forgiveness, and induce him to become once more the star of his court. But while the king's messengers entered one gate of the city, F.'s bier was carried out to his last abode by the other, 1020 A.D. (411 H.). His only daughter — an only BOD of his had died long before him at the age of 37 vears — refused the sidtan's present, and certain buildings were erected instead, in honour of the dead poet. The great popularity which the Shah Nameh has always enjoyed in the East, is to a certain amoimt also the cause of the uncritical state of the texts. Every transcriber shaped and moulded certain passages, or even episodes, according to his ow^n fancy, so that not two out of the innumerable copies are quite alike. Nor are the 60,000 couplets extant in any one instance, the utmost number, including all the most palpable interpolations, never exceed- ing 56,600. The first complete edition of the text, with a glossary and introduction, was published by Turner Macan (Calcutta, 1829, 4 vols.). Another edition, with a French translation, was published by Mohl (Paris, 1840, &c). Champion published some 8M English extracts in 1788. F. also wrote anothor poem, Yumf and Zule'ikha, which has been edited by Morley, and a Divan, or collection of poems. Many European Orientalists have written on F. ; among others, Hammer, Wahl, Gon-es, Schack, lluckert, Morley, Ouseley, Atkinson, Nasarianz, &c. FIRE. For the superstitions connected with fire, see Beltein, Need-fire, and Sun and Fire Worship. FIRE, in Armorial Bearings, is used to denote those who, being ambitious of honour, perform brave actions with an ardent courage, their thoughts always aspiring as the fire tends upwards. A fiame of fire is more frequently used as a charge in France and (xcrmany than in this comitry ; but we have fire-balls or bombs, fire-beacons, firebranda fire-buckets, &c., in abundance. FIRE, Ordeal by. See Ordeal. FIRE, St Anthony's. See Erysipelas. FIRE AND SWORD. By the law of Scotland, though decree may be given in a civil action against an al)sent defender, no criminal sentence can bo pronounced unless the accused be present. But to resist a criminal citation, is to rebel against the law of the land, and in former times might be treated as treason. In this view, letters of fire and sword were occasionally issued by the privy council (Stair, iv. 89). These letters were directed to the sherifi'of the county, authorising him to call in the assistance of the country, and to proceed to the extremities which the terrible words fire and sword indicate, should such proceedings be necessary for apprehend- ing the accused i)arty. Lord Stair describes this remedy as the ' last legal execution, warranting all manner of force of arms that is competent in war.' The same course might be resorted to where the decree of a court was resisted ; and the object with which letters of fire and sword were more frequently issued than any other, was to enable the sheriff" to dislodge refractory tenants who retained possession contrary to the order of the judge, or the diligence of the law. By t)ie modem practice, the judge may, of course, always call in the aid of the military to apprehend an accused party, or to enforce a decree where the ordinary means have proved unavailing. FIRE ANNI'HILATOR. An apparatus bearing this name was patented by Mr Phillips in 1849, and attracted a good deal of public attention, as it was expected at the time that it wovild supersede the ordinary Fire Engine (q. v.). The object of this invention was to extinguish fires by jiouring into the midst of the conflagration streams of carbonic acid, sulphurous acid, and other gases which do not support combustion. A bottle containing sulphuric acid was placed immediately over a mixture of chlorate of potash and sugar, which, again, was sur rounded by a mixture of charcoal, nitre, and gy[)sum. On breaking the bottle, the sulphuric acid drops upon the chlorate of potash and sugar, which, as ia well known to chemists, produces immediately an intense combustion of the sugar ; the heat from this fires the surrounding mixture, and dense volumes of the above-mentioned gases are evolved. The F. A., as at present made, simply throws out, with great force, an abundance of spray and carbonic acid. FI'REARMS may be defined as vessels— of whatever form — used in the propulsion of shot, shell, or bullets, to a greater or less distance, by the action of gunpowder exploded within them. They have played so great a part in the world's story, that their invention, development, and science deserve careful analysis. At a more advanced period, an obvious division of the subject into cannon FIREARMS. uiortars, and small-arms presents itself ; but in the infancy of the invention, and amid the obscurity enshrouding it, we can only seek to inquire into the origin of firearms generally. The invention of gunpowder bears so directly upon the gradual introduction of firearms, that it will be well to consider the two discoveries concur- rently. The widely prevalent notion that gun- l)owder was the invention of Friar Bacon, and that cajmon were first used by Edward III. of England, must be at once discarded. It is certain that gunpowder differed in no conspicuous degree from the Greek fire of the Byzantine emperors, nor from the terrestrial tJiunder of China and India, where it had been known for many centuries before the chivalry of Europe began to fall beneath its level- ling power. ' Nitre,' says Sir George Staunton, ' is the natural and daily produce of China and India ; and there, accordingly, the knowledge of gunpowder seems to be coeval with that of the most distant historic events.' The earlier Arab historians call saltpetre ' Chinese snow ' and ' Chinese salt ; ' and the most ancient records of China itself shew that, when they were written, fireworks w^ere well known, several hundred years before the Christian era. From these and other circumstances, it is indu- bitable that gunpowder was used by the Chinese as an explosive compound in pre-historic times ; when they first discovered or applied its power as a propellant, is less easily determined. There is an account of a bamboo tube being used, from which the 'impetuous dart' was hurled a distance of 100 feet : this was at a very early period, but it is diffi- cult to say precisely when. It is recorded, however, that in 618 B.C., during the Taing-ofF dynasty, a cannon was employed, bearing the inscription : ' I hurl death to the traitor, and extermination to the rebel.' This must almost necessarily have been of metal. We have also curious e^ idence in regard to the armament of the Great Wall ; for Captain Parish, who accompanied Lord Macartney's mission, reported that ' the soles of the embrasures were pierced with small holes, similar to those used in Europe for the reception of the swivels of wall- pieces. The holes appear to be part of the original construction of the wall, and it seems difficult to assign to them any other purpose than that of resistance to the recoil of firearms.' If this surmise be correct, the use of jingalls would be carried back to three centuries at least before the Christian era. Stone mortars, throwing missiles of 12 lb. to a distance of 300 paces, are particularly mentioned as having been employed in 757 a.d. by Thang's army; and in 1232 a.d., it is incontestable that the Chinese besieged in Caifong-fou used cannon against their Mongol enemies. Thus, the Chinese must be allowed to have established their claim to an early practical knowledge of gunpowder and its eflects. It seems likely, however, that the principles of firearms reached Europe from India rather than Cliiua, and that countiy has equal, if not superior, claims to the first acquaintance with the art. The ancient Sanscrit writings appear to point very plaiidy to the operation of some primitive sort of cannon, when, in recording the wars of the Egyp- tian Hercules in India, it is stated that the sages remained miconcemed si)ectators of the attack on their stronghold, till an assault was attempted, when they rei)uised it with whirlwinds and thunders, hurling destruction on the invaders ; and a Greek historian of Alexander's campaign testifies that the Hindtls had the means of discharging flames and missiles on their enemies from a distance. ITiese Ind'an philosophers seem, from the writings I7a of Ctesias and .^lian, to have also possessed an unquencliable fire similar to that employed later by the Greeks. Passing from these very early times, in which there is reason to believe that some sort of great gun was employed, we come to tho compara- tively recent date, 1200 a.d., when tludr use ia established beyond a doubt, for Chased, the Hindu bard, writes (in stanza 257) that the culivers and cannons made a loud report when they were fired off, and that the noise of the ball was heard at the distance of about ten coss, which is more than three* quarters of a mile. In 1258, the vizir of tlie king of Delhi went forth to meet the ambassador of Hulaku, the grandson of Genghis Khan, with 3000 carriagea of fireworks (in. the sense of weapons, probably » sort of rude muskets). In 1368, 300 gun-carriagea were caj^tured by Muhammed Shah Bahmiani. The use of cannon had so far advanced in India by 1482, that they were even used for naval purposes ; sheila having been employed two year§ earlier by the sovereign of Guzerat. In 1500, the Portuguese had matchlockmen to contend with, as well as heavy ordnance. Pigafetta, in 1511, found the town of Borneo defended by 62 pieces of cannon mounted on the walls. So much for the antiquity, and appar- ently common use of firearms in China and India, at times long antecedent to any knowledge of them in Europe, and during the period at which they were scarcely develo])ed in an effectual degree. Most of the pieces discovered in India, and supposed to be of early manufactm^e, are composed of i)aralle] iron bars welded together, and very often they had a movable breech-piece. The knowledge of gimpowder and firearms may be presumed to have extended in a westerly direc- tion through the Arabs, whom we find using them possibly in 711 a.d., under the name of manjanika, and certainly very early in the 14th century. The Byzantine emperor, Leo, introduced ' fire-tubes ' between 890 and 911, for use in connection with Greek fire ; and there can be little doubt that these were a sj)ecies of cannon, probably of small bore. In Spain, both Moors and Christians used artillei"y as early as the 12tli century. Friar Bacon was conspicuous among his contem- poraries for his general learning, and we have nc evidence to shew whether he discovered the ingre- dients of gunpowder independently of foreign aid, or whether he derived the knowledge from some ancient manuscripts ; the latter, however, seema the more likely conclusion, as Sir F. Palgrave brought to light in the Bodleian Library a letter from a Spanish friar. Brother Ferrarius, who waa a contemporary of Bacon, in which the materials of Greek fire are detailed, differing only in proportions, and in these but slightly, from real gunpowder. That the latter was identified of old vriiii Greek fire, is shewn by the name ' Crake,' applied to the first cannon used. This word, which still survivea in ' cracker,' is pointed out by Sh* F. Palgrave to be nothing more than a Norman corruption of ' Grec' Bacon's announcement dates from 1216; but the powder of his time, as made in the West, was not readily explosive, since the materials were but roughly cleared of impurities, and then mixed together on a slab; and probably little use could be made of it as a propellant until the i)rocess of granulating had been introduced by Bei-tholdua Schwartz in 1320. Immediately after this dis- covery, cannon of small size appeared in the armoury of almost every state, as if their use had been knowm previously, although no practical eifect had been given to the knowledge, on account, of the badness of the powder manufactured. These cannon generally consisted of a smaller barrel or chamber to receive the charge, which fitted iuto a largex FIREARMS. Fig. 1. From the Santlni Manuscripts. one containing the projectile (see fig. 1). It may be safely assumed that these weapons, if terrifying Irom their noise, were tolerably harmless — at least to the enemy — in their practice. In 1326, the Florentine republic ordered the making of iron shot and cannon for the defence of its villages. In 1327, Edward III. used ' crakeys of war' against the Scotch ; in 1339, ten cannons were employed in the siege of Cambray. By 1346, vai'ious improvements had heen made; and we find in the same year the consuls of Bruges witnessing experiments by one Peter, a tinman, who had constructed a cannon with a square bore, to throw a cubical shot of about eleven pounds ; his bolt passed both walls of the toAvn, and unfortunately killed a man on the other side. We have the authority of Villani for believing that Edward III. had three cannon at Cr6cy ; but tlie cannon then made were, from the little knowledge of casting, limited to about tlie size of modern duck-guns, and, as has been re- marked, three very inferior muskets could have had but little to do with putting 50,000 men to flight. Up to this time, European ordnance had been kept back by the rarity and high prices of sulphur, saltpetre, and iron, the last having been so scarce in England, that it was thought neccssaiy to forbid its expoi'tation by a statute of 28 Edw. III. Still, crude as was their form, and small their nximbcr, firearms had established a Arm footing in Christen- dom ; their mission of civilisation, and, paradoxical as it may appear, of humanity, had be^un. With the first killing discharge, the doom or feudalism had gone forth. Plated armour no longer availed against the weapon of the peasant ; and the mailed chivahy, the sinews of previous battles, who had trampled with their iron heels upon popular rights, uo longer could carry all before them, but, like other soldiers, were now as loath to be slain by unseen foes as the veriest villein in the host. The people discovered their powers of contending with the noblesse ; by degrees, they rose for liberty, and suppressed the tyrannies of the petty lords who had long held them as mere bondsmen. In war, again, as artillery became more general, so the slaughter of battles diminished, for an army out- manoeuvred was an army at the enemy's mercy, and therefore beaten; whereas, pre\nously, in the hand-to-hand fights where victors and vanquished mixed pell-mell in single combat, a victory could only be really won when there were no foes left to slay. A battle as great as that at Crecy might now be gained with a loss to the vanquished of not more than 1000 men, instead of the 30,000 who are said to have fallen victims to the English sword or bow. Dating from the reign of Edward III., the employment of cannon and bombards in siege operations became more or less general. Froissart records that the Black Prince took bombards, cannon, and Greek fire to the reduction of the castle of Romozantin in 1356, but it does not appear that he availed himself of firearms at the battle of Poitiers in the same year. The bombards seem to have been short, capacious vessels, from which stone balls were shot with small charges to a short distance, and at considerable elevation ; they were essentially the parents of the present bombs or mortars (see fig. 2). The cannon (canna, ft reed), on the other hand, were, for some time at least, of extremely small bore, scarcely larger than muskets of the 18th c; they discharged leaden Dullets, and would have probably been used as m hand-weapons, but for their cumbrous and heavy workmanship, which necessitated small carriages. Arms of tnis description are doubtlesa those Fig. 2, from the Chroniques de St Denis, Fourteentii Centuiy. Fig. 3, Bombard of the Fifteenth Century, from Froissai-t. Fig. 4, Cannon of the Fifteenth Century, from Les Vigiles de Charles VII. referred to as having been brought by Richard II. to the siege of St Malo, to the number of 400 pieces, where they are said to have kept up an incessant fire day and night on the town without success. In the 15th c, armies for siege operations were usually accompanied by great and small guns, the latter being intended to keep down the fire of the besieged while the large bombards were being loaded, an operation requiring no small time. These guns were gradually improved, but it was not until th© reign of Henry VIII. that the founders succeeded in casting iron ordnance, to the entire exclusion, thenceforward, of cannon formed of square or rounded bars welded together. England had even then become famous for the workmanship of its ordnance. The accompanying sketch (tig. 5) of a gun found in the wreck of the Mary Hose, which sunk at Fig. 5. Spithead in the above king's reign, will shew that & degree of excellence had been attained in the manu- facture of artillery, little inferior to that which has lasted till our own day, when rifled ordnance are rapidly superseding cannon of smooth bores. Still, so late as Henry's reign, although great guns were found very serviceable in siege and naval opera- tions, where the defences of those days offered but a trifling resistance to their power, they appear to have been looked upon rather as an encumbrance than an advantage with armies in the field. This is attributed partly to the heavy character of tho guns themselves, and especially of their carriages, but more particidarly to the badness, or rather absence, of the necessary roads for their transport. In 1522, it is recorded in the state jjapers that tho ' kinges orclonauns [were] unable to pass ovei Stanes More towards Carlile.' As time passed on, the details of the manufacture were improved, the general principles remaining the same ; the size of the guns increased, while th<» proportionate weight of the carriagei; diminished, limbers (q. v.) were added, and the equipage of a gun gradually perfected and lightened. With increased calibre, to which augmented range was usually added, the number of cannon — at one period enor- mous — taken with an army was by degrees reductd, FIREARMS— FIREBALLS. antil now a certain standard proportion between artillery and infantry is ordinarily maintained. Of course, this proportion differs with the opinions of various coimnanders ; but the greatest modern generals have always acted on the maxim, that it is wasteful to send a soldier on any duty of danger which a ball can be made to perform. As a weapon of offence, Vauban doubted the utility of heavy or'lnance when he applied the Ricochet (q. v.) system of tiring. Napoleon may almost be said to have won his battles by artillery, for he rarely if ever brought his infantry into action except as supports, until a way had been opened for them, or a panic caused, by the massed fire of large batteries of guns. The Duke of Wellington also devoted the greatest attention to his ordnance- train ; while, refen-ing to recent events, the cami)aign of Lord Clyde in Oude is a remarkable instance of the use of artillery being pushed with abundant success to its greatest limit. Cannon of widely varying bores have at different times been cast, and the various sorts became so numerous in continental armies, as at one time to cause much inconvenience from the large quantities of ammunition which it was necessary to carry. Gustavus Adoljjhus set the example of reducing his guns to a few standard calibres, and the same Improvement was immediately adopted systematic- ally in the French and other armies. The caimon recently in use in the British army are detailed under the article Cannon ; but the action of government has tended for some years to call in all the guns which are not of a few general standards, such as 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 32, and 68 pounders, and 8-inch gims. These, with the various sizes of Armstrong guns, which have a special sort of ammunition, represent now nearly all the ordnance on the British batteries. For a more particular explanation of the several sorts of cannon and their parts, see Gunnery, Cannon, Carronades, Howitzer. The mortar differs from all other guns in its solidity of form, its shortness, and its large bore. The object is the projection of shells by a more or less vertical fire, with the intention of breaking through and destroying, by weight and explosion together, roofs of magazines, public buildings, and so on, or of sinking a shell deep into earthworks of a fortress, in which it shall explode as a most deadly mine. The different sorts of mortar will be described under Mortar. The mortar arose naturally out of the old bombard, and doubtless deviated by degrees more and more from the cannon. Fig. 6 shews a bombard or mortar designed in the 15th century. In very early days, we read in Arabian authors of a cylinder hewn in the rock at Alexandria, and used as a mortar. Such a cylinder, and of large size, is still to be seen at Gibraltar, where it was employed in the last siege against the Spanish, when it was made to discharge voUeys of large stones, which spreading at times to a distance of 500 yards, constituted a formidable means of defence. In the British service, the calibre of solid-shot guns is described by the pounds which the shot weigh ; m the case of guns for hollow shot or snell, atid of mortars, by the inches in the diameter of the bore. In some continental armies, the power of the gun is reckoned by the weight of a stone ball fitted to the bore. Fig. 6. From Leonardo da Yinci. A gun is a frustrum of a right cone, with a cylinder (bore) removed around the axis ; from which it follows that the thickness of metal is gieatest at the breech, where it has to withstand the effect of ignited powder in its most condensed, and there- fore most powerful state. Guns are first cast in loam or dry sand, then turned to the required shape, and lastly bored with the minutest accuracy Formerly, they were cast with the bore already formed ; but the direction was rarely exactly cor- rect, and the sui'face scarcely ever strictly even. Some additional particulars of their manufacture will be given under Gun-factories, Royal ; and the science of artillery will be summarised under Gunnery. An article on firearms woidd be incomplete without some allusion to the progress made in small-arms. In the 15th c, the smallest sort of cannon were probably at times mounted and used as hand-gu.ns. From this the step to the arquebus was rapid ; that weapon developed as years passed into the clumsy matchlock ; that into the firelock and flint-musket ; then the percussion-musket ; and lastly, into the beautiful rifles of our own day. For diminutives, small arquebuses were made to do duty as horse-pistols ; genuine pistols succeeded them ; these were gradually improved and reduced in size, till they have culminated in the saloon pistol, available for a waistcoat-pocket ; and the deadly re/olver, which quadruples a man's defen- sive power. All these weapons are described under their respective heads — Arquebus, Matchlock, Musket, Pistol, Revolver, Rifle, Many valuable works have been written on fire- arms from the days of Leonardo da Vinci and Tartaglia to the present. Among those consulted for this article have been Etudes sur le Passe et VAvenir de V Artillei'ie of the Emperor Napoleon III. ; Our Engines of War, by Captain Jervis ; Major Straith's Treatise on Artillery; General Chesney On Firea^'ms, &c. FIREARMS, Proving of (in Law). In consu- qnence of the frequency of accidents from the bursting of insufficient barrels, the legislature has interfered, not to regulate their manufacture directly, but to prevent all persons from using or selling them until they have been regidarly proved in a public proof-house. The first act for this purpose, which was passed in 1813, was soon after superseded by the fuller and more complete one (55 Geo. III. c. 59). By this statute, a fine of £20 is imposed on any person using, in any of the progressive stages of its manufacture, any barrel not duly proved; or any person delivering the same, except through a proof -house ; and on any person receiving, for the purpose of making guns, any barrels which have not passed through a proof- house. These penalties are to be levied on convic- tion before two justices, and the like penalties on persons counterfeiting the proof-marks. The statute does not extend to Scotland or to Ireland, and arms manufactured for Her Majesty, are exempted from its operation. By 10 Geo. IV. c. 38, repeal- ing 6 Geo. IV., the malicious and unlawful use of firearms in Scotland is punishable at law. See Game. FIREBALLS are projectiles occasionally dis- charged from guns or mortars, for the purpose either of setting fire to, or of merely illuminating some work, against which hostile operations are directed. ITie usual ingredients are — ^mealed powder, 2 ; saltpetre, 14 ; sulphur, 1 ; rosin, 1 ; tnrpentine, 2^ ; with pitch, tow, naphtha, &c., as circumstances dictate. The use of fireballs has, however, been in great measure superseded by the introduction of rockets (q. v.) FITtEBOTE-FIRE-ENGINE. Rud incendiary shells (q. v.). Akin to the fireball, was the fire-arrow of ancient warfare, which con- eisted of tow steeped in pitch, rosin, or some inflam- mable mixture, wrapped round the shaft, and fired aliglit among an enemy's works or troops. Greek fire was also discharged in many cases on large arrows surrounded by tow and shot from halistcB. FIREBOTE, the right of a tenant for life or years, according to English law, to cut wood on the estate for the purpose of fuel. See Estover. FIllEBIlICK. See Brick. FI'RECLAY is the variety of clay which is employed in the construction of gas-retoi-ts, glass- pots, firebricks, crucibles, &c., which require to withstand high temperatures. It is found chiefly in the coal measures ; and the more famous kind is the Stoneb ridge, which is found in a bed about four feet thick. It also occurs largely near Glasgow, Newcastle-on-Tyne, and in Belgium and France. The principal constituents of fireclay are silica and ahimina, accompanied by small proportions of iron, lime, magnesia, water, and organic matter, as may be observed from the following table : No. 1. No. 2. No. S. No. 4. No. 5. Silica, . Alumina, . Oxide of Iron, . Lime, Magnesia, . Organic Matter and Water, > C4 10 2315 1-85 0 95 1000 61 10 31 3.) 4-G3 1-4(5 1 54 10-47 48 5.5 30-25 4-06 1 GG) l-9li" 10-67 69-25 17 90 2-97) 1-30) 7-50 83 29 810 1- 88 2- 99 3- 64 Fireclay is found abundantly, near and at the surface of the groimd, and is readil}' reduced to powder by travelling wheels. When kneaded with water, and fashioned into vessels and other articles, it is dried, and is then generally subjected to a strong heat, which drives off the water and organic matter, causes the silica to unite more firmly with the alumina, &c., and leaves a more or less porous material, which can withstand very high temperatures. The Passau crucibles are merely dried, and are not fired like Hessian crucibles and other fireclay wares. The larger the percentage of silica (sand) in the clay, the more refractory are the articles fashioned from it ; and hence sand is often added to clay to increase its fusing-point and refractory powers ; but a certain proportion of alumina, &c., is required to serve as a flux, to cement and hold together the particles of sand. The pioportions of sand and clay are determined by the temperature to which the manufactured article is intended to be exposed ; and the fireclay of crucibles or bricks, which are serviceable at a comparatively low temperature, as in the lining of limekilns, woidd become soft, and yield in glass or porcelain furnaces. FIRP2DAMP is the miners' term applied to light carburetted hydrogen or coal-gns when it issues from crevices in coal-mines. See Gas. FIRE-EATING, a name usually given to a variety of feats performed by jugglers with flaming substances, melted lead, red-hot metal, &c. Evelyn, writing under date October 8, 1672, thus describes fire- eating in his day : ' I took leave of my Lady Sunderland. She made me stay dinner at Leicester House, and afterwards sent for Richardson, the famous fire-eater. He devoured brimstone on glowing coals before us, chewing and swallowing them ; he melted a beer-glass, and eat it quite up : then taking a live coal on his tongue, he put on it a raw oyster ; the coal was blown on with bellows till it flamed and sparkled in his mouth, and so remained till the oyster gaped, and was quite broiled ; then he melted pitch and wax with sulphur, which he drank down as it flamed ; I saw it flaming in his mouth a good while ; he also took up a thick piece of iron, suc-h as laundresses use to put in their smoothin^- boxes, when it was fiery hot, held it between hia teeth, then in his hand, and threw it about like a stone ; then he stood on a small pot, and bendiag his body, took a glowing iron with his mouth from between his feet, without touching the pot or ground with his hands ; with divers other prodigious feats.' About 1818, Signora Josephine Girardelli, who described herself as the ' original Salamander,' performed astonishing feats of this kind in London and other places in England. According to the accounts of her, ' She commences her performances by passing plates of red-hot iron over her legs ; she then stands with her feet naked on a plate of red-hot iron, and afterwards di-aws the same plate over her hair and across her tongue,* &c. About the same time appeared in Paris M. Chaubert, whose astonishing powers of resisting heat attracted the attention of the National Insti- tute. Among other things performed by this person, was his going into a common baker's oven, with a leg of mutton in his hands, and remaining with the oven closed until the mutton was comjdetely dressed. Another of his performances was standing in a flaming tar-barrel until the whole of it was consumed around him. He subsequently exhibited in London. Many of the feats of this kind are undoubtedly mere tricks, or illusions, produced by sleight of hand ; others are capable of scientific explanation. There is nothing more wonderful in stuffing blazing tow into the mouth — a common form of mountebank fire-eating — than in eating flaming plimi-pudding, or in dipping the finger into spirits and letting it burn like a candle. It is also well known that the tongue, or the hand dipped in water, may be rubbed with impunity against a white-hot bar of iron ; the layer of vapour developed between the hot metal and the skin prevents contact and jjroduces coolness (see Spheroidal Condition op Liquids). Snch performances as those of M. Chaubert are explained by the well-known power of the living body to maintain its nohnal temperati;re, for a time, independently of the external temperature (see Animal Heat). FIRE-ENGINE, a machine employed for throw- ing a jet of water for the purpose of extinguishing fires. This name was formerly applied to the steam-engine. Machines for the extinguishing of fires have been used from a very early date. They were employed by the Romans, and are referred to by PHny ; but he gives no account of their construc- tion. Apollodorus, architect to the Emperor Trajan, speaks of leathern bags, with pipes attached, from which water was projected by squeezing the bags. Hero of Alexandria, in his Treatise on Pneumatics — wT-itten jjrobably about 150 years before tlie Christian era— proposition 27, describes a machine which he calls ' the siphons used in conflagrations.' It consisted of two cylinders and pistons connected by a reciprocating beam, Avhich raises and lowers the pistons alternately, and thus, with the aid of valves opening only towards the jet, projects the water from it, but not in a continuous stream, as the pressure ceases at each alternation of stroke. The accompanying coi)y of Hero's diagram explains itself. Little or nothing is known as to the extent to which engines of this kind were ]n'ac- tically used. We have accounts of ' instruments for fires,' and ' water syringes useful for fires,' in the building accounts of the city of Augsburg, 1518 ; and in 1657, Casimr Schott describes a fire-engine used in Nuremberg, which must have beea almost FniE-ENGINE. identical in construction with that described by Hero. It had a water-cistern, was drawn by two horses, was worked by 28 men, and threw a jet of water, ao inch in diameter, to a height of 80 feet. It was not until late in the 17th c. that the air-chamber and hose were added ; the first being mentioned by Perraiilt in 1684, and the hose and suction-pipe being invented by Van der Heide in 1670. In England, hand-squirts were used up to the close of the 16th century. They were of brass, and contained three or four quarts of water. Two men held the handles at the sides, while a third forced up the piston. The nozzle was dipped in a vessel of water after each discharge, then raised, and the water again forced out. So clumsy an apparatus could have been but of little service in the fearful conflagrations to which our old wood-built towns were so subject. With the addition of the air-chamber and hose, and some improvement in the details of construc- tion, the 'siphons' of Hero became the modern fire-engine. The principle of the action of the air- chamber, and of its connection with the pumps, &c., will be easily understood by the aid of the annexed liagram, where a represents in section a piston ascending, d the other piston descending, / the pipe or hose communicat- ing with the water-supply, g the hose that conveys the issuing stream to the fire, he the level of the water in the air-chamber, e the space above filled with compressed air. The rising , piston raises the water from / to fill its cylinder ; the descending piston forces the water contained in its cylinder into the bottom of the air-chamber, and thereby compresses the air in s. The pistons rise and descend alternatel,y. The ••ompressed air reacts by its elasticity, and pressing upon the surface be, forces the water through the hose fj. In the space e, above be, the whole of the air tll!it formerly filled the chamber is supposed to be compressed. Assuming this to be one-third of its ariginal bulk, its pressure will be about 45 lbs. to the •quare inch, and this pressure will be contimious ^ind nearly steady, if the pumps act with sufficient Zorce and rapidity to keep the water at that level. As air may be compressed to any extent — and its elasticity is increased in exactly the same proportion — the force that may be stored in the compressed air is only limited by the force put upon the pumps, and the strength of the apparatus. Under propo&:*;ion 9 of the same work, in which *tbe siphons used in conflagrations' are described, Hero describes and figures the air-chamber as *a hollow globe or other vessel, into which if any liquid be poured, it will be forced aloft spontaneously and with much violence, so as to empty the vessel, though such upward motion is contrary to natiire.' The globe is rejjresented with a single ]>iston attached for compressing the air. Thus, aljout 1800 years elapsed before proposition 9 and proposition 27 of this work were put together for so obvious and useful a purpose as the fire-engine, although the book was tolerably well known to the mathe- maticians of the period ; and when they were put together, it was i)robably done by a practical man, who had never heard of the name of Hero. The more recently constructed fire-engines include contrivances for preventing the entrance of mud and gravel, and for getting readily at the valves in case of their being out of order, while the cistern is dispensed with, a hose being carried directly to th« water-supply. They are usually drawn by two or four horses, though smaller engines are made to be drawn by hand or by one horse. The hose is of leather, fastened by metal rivets, instead of the sewing formerly used. In the United States, cotton is woven into a tube by machinery constructed for the purpose. Two such tubes are fitted one within the other, and held together by a solution of India- rubber, which, on consolidating, forms a water-tight layer. The fire-engines of the London Fire Brigade establishment have usually 7-inch barrels with 8-inch stroke, and throw about 90 gallons of water per minute. Their weight, with implements, fire- men, and driver, is about 30 cwt. These are found more convenient for general purposes than larger engines, as they can be drawn at a gallop by two horses for a distance under six miles. Four horses are used for greater distances. When a large engine is required, two of these may be joined together, and throw 180 gallons per minute. The pumps are worked by levers, with long horizontal bars attached, to enable a number of men to work together upon the same pumps. Many larger engines than these have been constructed, and steam has been success- fully applied. The first application of the steam fire-engine was made when the Argyle Rooms in London were burned in 1830. Several floating fire-engines for conflagrations near the Thames have been constructed and worked by steam ; one of these is capable of throwing 1400 gallons per minute. A floating engine was used with consider- able effect when the Houses of Parliament were burned ; b\it at the fire of the warehouses near London Bridge (1861), the fiuy of the combustion, when at its maximum height, was so gi-eat, that the combined eff"orts of all the London engines, whether worked by steam or by hand, had no perceptible effect in subduing it. For all ordinary fires, the hand-engines above referred to are the most useful, as they can be brought to the spot and set in action immediatelj^ whereas some time must always be lost in getting up the steam, and in bringing to the locality of the fire the larger steam fire-engine. The saving of a few minutes ia often of more importance than doubling the quantity of water. These more powerful engines are there« fore only likely to be used for great fires, where the smaller engines, after working for some time, are found to be insufficient. It has been questioned whether, in cases of very intense combustion, a comparatively small stream of water has any subduing effect at all — some assert that it may even increase the conflagration. It appears that carbon, in a state of intense incandes- cence, is capable of decomposing water by combining with its oxygen to form carbonic oxide; this gaa, 8ii FIRE-ENGINE— FmE-E;]CAPES. Bs well as the hydrogen liberated from the water, is itself combustible; and it is asserted that the heat generated by the combination of these two gases ex- ceeds that Avhicli is lost in decomposing the water, and expanding it to the gaseous form. This, how- ever, is doubtful, for the subject has not yet received a sufficient amount of exact investigation to Avarrant any decided conclusion either way. For working fire-engines, an organised body of iirermn are required. In London, the fire insur- ance companies fomierly had separate establish- lueuts of fire-engines and firemen ; \mt in 1825 some of them united, and by 1833 all the important companies combined, and the London Fire-brigade was formed, under the management of the late Mr Braidwood, whose death in the discharge of his duties at the great fire just referred to was justly deplored throughout the country as a national loss. The men of the brigade wear a uniform, with strong helmets and metal epaulets, to protect them from the blows of falling beams, &c. They Lave about twenty stations in the metropolis, with from one to four engines, and a pro2)oi-tionate staff of men at each. The courage and skill of the men in making their way through and about burning buildings, for the purposes of directing the stream from the hose, or for saving life and property, and the general efficiency of the whole organisation, are worthy of the highest praise. Most of our pro\dncial towns now have a fire- brigade upon the same model as that of London. The fact that Paris has seven times as many firemen as London, is a tolerable proof of the amount of work the London firemen are called ujion to perform. At Paris, as on the continent generally, the fire-engines and firemen are under government control ; and the sapeiirs pompiers, or firemen, are empowered to enforce the assistance of any people they can find in the streets. As the insurance companies in England pay a fee to the first person who gives notice of a fire at the engine station, there is always a su])ply of volunteers from among cabmen and people in the streets, besides policemen, to per- form this important service ; and in like manner the pumji-bars of the fire-engines are always fully manned. In many continental towns, fire-watchmen are stationed in commanding situations, such as church- towers ; and their duty is to ring a fire-bell, or otherwise give the alarm, immediately upon observ- ing a conflagration. In the cities of the United States, very efficient fire companies exist. These were for- merly volunteer associations of citizens, and are still in many places chiefly sustained by a class of men who regard the excitement and adventure sufficient reward for their toil. But the excesses of many of the more rude members have induced the establish- ment of responsible paid fire-departments, with steam fire-engines, in several of the larger cities of the Union, which have proved highly advantageous. In Constantinople, there are two fire-towers, one cn each side of the Golden Horn, with watchmen «>ontinually stationed there. A large wicker-ball is Siaulsd up to the side of the tower as a signal, and the cry of * There is a fire at Scutari, Tojjhane,' or whatever be the qviarter of the city in which it occurs, is raised and taken up by the patrol, who strike the pavement with their iron-bound staves as they repeat the cry. In a few minutes, the alarm is thus spread throughout the whole city. Even though the fire be at Scutari, on the oi)posite side of the Bosporus, the whole of Constantinople is roused in this manner. The patrol compel the inhabitants to assist in extinguishing the fire ; and the method usually adopted is to pull down the houses to the leeward, and thereby isolate the conflagration. According to the old custom, if tlie fire lasted above an hour, and was three times proclaimed, the sultan had to appear in person, to encourage the firemen and people in the work. This custom is said to have been sometimes the cause of fires, the people taking this method of mak- ing their grievances known to the sultan himself. At present the pasha of the district is summoned in such cases. FIRE-ESCA'PES. An immense number of contrivances have been at different times proposed for enabling people to escape by windows and house-tops from burning buildings. They are of two distinct kinds — one for affording aid from outside, and the other for enabling those Avithin tlie house to effect their own escape. Of the latter, tho simplest is a cord that should be firmly attached to the windoAV-sill of every sleeping- apartment, and coiled up either in a box on the floor, or under a dressing-table, or other suitable place. A rope one-quarter or three-eighths of an inch thick, and knotted at intervals of about a foot, is well adapted for the purpose. A good quarter-inch sash-cord Avill support from three to four cwt. or more if new, and will cost from 6d. to 2,?., according to the height of the room. A man with tolerable nerve may let himself doAvn by means of such a cord, either by placing his feet against the wall and bringing ' hand over hand' doAvn upon the knots, or by clinging Avith his feet and knees to the rope as well as with his hands. A man may let down a woman or child by means of a sack at the end of tho rope, or simply by fastening them to the end, and letting the rope pass through his hands, aided if necessary by the friction of the AvindoAV-sill, if it be alloAved to bend over it. A rope coiled upon a drum inside a dressing-table, Avith a Avinch-handle to uncoil it, is another form. A pulley fixed to tlie window- sill, over AA'hich nms a rope Avith a chair or simple board to sit on, is a Avell-known contriA^ance. Some means of escape from every sleeping-room should be provided, and the inmates shc?iJd be thoroughly prepared by knowing beforehand how to act in case of a fire cutting off communication with the usual means of outlet. In a roAV of houses Avith projecting balconies, a board of sufiicient length to reach from the balcony of one house to the next may be kept in each room, or even a rope might be thrown across with the aid of a stone or limip of coal, &c., tied to one end. An exit by the roof or from the AvindoAA' on to the parapet affords a ready means of escape from a top-story, and shoidd ahvays be proA-ided in tall houses. In case of emergency, when no provision has been made, the cord holding the sacking of the bedstead may be undone, or the bedclothes and curtains tied together to form a rope; or as a last resource, the bedding may be throAvn out of windoAV to form a cushion to alight upon in case of the cord or bed- clothes being too short to reach the ground; or if there be no time to extemporise such cordage and it shovdd be necessary to drop directly from the window, in this case, it would be better to hang by the hands from the window-sill and then drop, than to jump direct, as the height of the fall would be somewhat diminished thereby. In all such cases, presence of mind and coolness is of the utmost importance, and may render very simple and slender means of escape more effectual than the most complete and elaborate would be Avithout these qualities ; and presence of mind may be to a great extent acquired chiefly by being mentally l)repared, and, if possible, by rehearsals of what should be done in case of danger. Fire-escajies, to be used from without, consist either of simple ladders kept m churches, -oolice- office^ rmEFLY— FIIIET.0 CK. or other convenient stations, or a series of lad- ders that can be jointed together ; of poles with bask( ts attached ; of ropes ^\^th weights at one end, that they may be thrown or shot into windows ; of combinations of ladders, ropes, bags, baskets, nets, The fire-escape now generally adopted by the Society for the Protection of Life from Fire is a light carriage or framework on wheels, to which a series of ladders, &c., are attached. It is thus described by the society : ' The main ladder reaches from 30 to 35 feet, and can instantly be applied to most second-floor windows by means of the carriage-lever.' This projects on the opposite side to the ladder like the shafts of an ordinary carriage, and works upon the axle of the wheels as a fulcrum. ' The upi)er ladder folds over the main ladder, and is raised into position by a rope attached to its lever-irons on either side of the main ladder ; or, as recently adopted in one or two of the escapes, by an arrange- ment of pulleys in lieu of the lever-irons. The short ladder for first-floors fits in under the carriage, and ig of the greatest service. Under the whole length of the main ladder is a canvas trough or bagging made of stout sail-cloth protected by an outer trough of copper- wire net, leaving sufiicient room between for the yielding of the canvas in a person's descent. The addition of the copper-wire is a great improvement, as, although not afl"ording an entire protection against the canvas failing, it in most cases avails, and prevents the possibility of any one falling through. The soaking of the canvas in alum and other solutions is also attended to ; but this, while preventing its flaming, cannot remove the risk of accident from the fire charring the canvas. The available height of these escajies is about 45 feet ; but some of them carry a short supplementary ladder, which can be readily fixed at the top, and which increases the length to 50 feet.' This society has upwards of 70 of these fire- escapes stationed in difi"erent parts of London. They stand in the roadway, and are each under the charge of a conductor during the night. Almost every house in London is within two or three minutes' run of one of these. Since 1836, when the operations of the society first commenced, they have saved upwards of 500 lives. At one fire, nine lives were saved by one man and fire-escape. Fire- escapes of similar construction are now stationed in some of our provincial towns. When required, they are run to the burning house, the main ladder standing nearly upright all the while. It is then directed to the required window at a consider- able inclination, and the attendant ascends the ladder, and helps the inmates either to descend by it, or if they are unable to do this, he lets them down by the canvas trough, which forms an inclined plane, along which they may easily and safely descend with the aid he is enabled to afi"ord them. FIREFLY, a name common to all winged luminous insects, at least to all that possess much luminosity. Except the lantern -fly (q. v.), they are all coleopterous, and belong to two nearly allied tribes, Lampy- rides, to which the glowworm (q. v.) also belongs, and Elaterides, to which belong our ski])jack beetles, and of wliich the larvae are too Firefly (Lampyris Italica). well-known to farmers as wire-worms. The male glowworm, which alone is winged, has too little 'umuiosity ever to receive the name of F., but the fireflies of the south ol Europe {Lampyrin Itnliray^ and of Canada {L. cormca), are nearly allied to it, See Glowworm. Fireflies, vulgarly known as light- ning-bugs, abound in the United States, and in almost all the warmer parts of the world, and the brilliancy of the spectacle presented l)y them when glancing about in numbers amidst the darkness of night, has been often described with enthusiastic admiration. Mr Gosse says of the Canadian F. : ' The light is of a yellow colour, very ditlerent from the blue gleam of the English glowworm : from thi» circumstance I at first took them for candles in the woods, and though told what they were, at every one that appeared, the same idea would come acrosa my mind. . . . They more frequently give out the light while flying, than when crawling or resting, though we may often observe the intermittent gleam as one crawls up a stalk of grass, or rests on the leaf of a tree. They fly slowly, and as they fly, emit and conceal their light with great regidarity at intervals of two or three seconds ; making inter- rupted lines of light through the air, gleaming slowly along for about a yard, then suddenly quenched, and appearing again at the same distance ahead. The msect is a pretty beetle, with soft elytra, of a light- brown colour, marked with red, and handsomely striped ; the light i)roceeds from the last three seg- ments of the abdomen, which are of a delicate cream colour by day. At night, these three segments are bright at all times ; but at the regidar intervals I have mentioned, they flash out with dazzling sj)lendour. If this part be plucked off and crushed, many patches of brilliance occur for a few momenta among the flesh, but they gradually die away.' He further describes these fireflies as appearing in great numbers in summer evenings, over wet and marshy ground, millions of them above a river, or over the surface of a large field, like stars on a clear winter night, but flashing and disappearing, and moving about in mazy evolutions. — But still more brilliant are the fireflies of more tropical regions, belonging to the tribe Materides, as the F. of the West Indies {Elater noctilucus), which gives out its light chiefly from two eye-like tubercles on the thorax. The light is so powerful, that the smallest print may be read by it ; and this becomes quite easy if a few of the insects are enclosed in a small glass vessel. They are not mifre- quently employed — parti- cularly' in St Domingo — to give light for household purposes ; and they are used for purposes of decora- tion on festival-days by women, who attach them to their dress or to their hair. One which had been accidentally brought alive to Paris, once astonished and alarmed the Faubourg St Antoine. These insects are caught in some parts of the West Indies — a torch being used to attract them— and brought into houses to destroy mosquitoes, which they eagerly pursue and devour. See Luminosity OF Organic Beings. FI'RELOCK, the name applied on its introduc- tion, in 1690, to the old musket, which produced fire by the concussion of flint and steel, to distinguish it from the matchlock previously in use, which haa been fired by the insertion of a lighted match at tha powder-pan. Writers of the earlier part of tha 18th c. called firelocks 'asnaphans ; ' a word obviously corrupted from the Dutch snapliaan, and leading to the inference that they were brought to England bj 343 Firefly [Elater noctilucne). FIRENZUOLA— FIRE-PROOF SAFES AND REPOSITORIES. William TIL and his Dutch auxiliaries. Their first inventioa is, howev^er, involved in obscurity. The weapon was superseded before 1830 by the percus- sion musket ; which, in its turn, has now yielded to the rifle (q. v.). FIRENZUOLA, Angelo, an author distinguished for the Attic choiceness of his language, was born at Florence in 1493. Having completed at Perugia the studies which he commenced in Florence, he f)roceeded to Rome in anticipation of a brilliant egal career, but shortly abandoned the eternal city, disappointed in hope and shattered in health. It seems well authenticated, that he finally enrolled himself among the monkish brotherhood of Vallora- brosa, and rose to considerable influence, in spite of the extreme licence of morals, and hcentiousness of writing for which he was noted. The date of his death is doubtful, but it is generally placed between 1542 and 1544. His chief works are a spirited paraphrase of the Golden Afis of Apuleius —in which he is generally considered by his coun- trymen to have far excelled the original in nerve and beauty of language ; I Discorsi degli Anirnall — containing some soun(l lessons of just legislation to the riding powers, the censure being skilfully veiled by means of his animal orators ; / licu/iona- menti, a work in close imitation of the Decameron both as regards the impurity of sentiment, and classic j)urity of language ; // Traltato della hellezza delle donne, an eulogistic discussion concerning the charms of the gentle sex, to whom he was inordi- nately devoted. His works were published in Florence after his death. The best edition is that of Florence (1763, 3 vols.). FIRE-POLICY. See Insurance. FIRE PROOF BUILDINGS. The problem of constructing warehouses, dwelling-houses, Sec, that Bhall be proof against all risk of conflagration, has not yet been solved. The liability to conflagration n^ay be greatly diminished by the construction of a building, but cannot be entirely averted ; and therefore, in all 'fire-proof buildings containing furniture or other combustible materials of any kind, the ordinary precautions against fire shoidd be strictly observed. It is well to state this at the outset, as, unless it be understood, a so-called fire- proof building may be more dangerous than an ordinary one, especially in warehouses, &c., intrusted to the care of watchmen and others, who, relying upon the supposed immunity the name expresses, are Kable to neglect many precautions they would not fail to observe in a building believed to be dangerous. The most destructive fire that has occurred in London since 1666 was the recent one at Cotton's Wharf, the \» arehouses of which were what is called 'fire- proof.' The great fury of this conflagration depended on the nature of the goods that were stored. It is scarcely possible to beheve that such combustibles as tallow, turpentine, &c., could have been stored in the vicinity of saltpetre, unless there had existed some faith in their practir^al isolation from each other by the fire-proof divisions of the building, as it is so well understood that saltpetre, though incombustible of itself, intensifies to an immense extent the com- bustibility of all combustibles, by supplying them with undiluted oxygon when heated in contact or within a moderate distance of them. ^ The nearest approximation to fire -proof construc- tion may be obtained as follows : the walls should be of stone or brick, and any ties, lintels, &c., required in the construction should be of iron. The staircases should be of iron or stone, and the floors or landings of tiles, concrete, or stone. Wherever w jod is inevitably used, it should be prepared with silicate of soda (see Fire-proofing). Instead of wooden joists to support the floors of each story, arched stone or brickwork should be used, and this should be put together with sufficient care to be independent of the mortar. The roof should be constructed in like manner, wooden rafters being entirely excluded. The doors should he of iron, and the security would be much increased if the doors between any two apartments con- taining combustible materials were double, with a space between them equal to the thickness of tlie walls. Of course, it is not practicable to carry oat all these precautions in a dwelling-house, but the danger from fire may be considerably diminished by attending to some of them. Wooden staircaseo are especially dangerous. The most imj)ortant conditions for a w^arehouse are, that each apartment shall be separated from the next by stout walla of non-conducting materials, and more especially, that each shall be as nearly as possible air-tight ; and whenever, from the nature of the goodj, ventilation is required, it should be obtained l)y periodically opening the doors and windows. If this latter condition is fulfilled, any fire woiUl extinguish itself, unless there be along with tlie combustible goods some oxygen-giving substance, such as saltpetre, chlorate of potass, or other nitrates or chlorates. At first sight, it may appear that a warehouse built entirely of iron, would he eff"ectaally fire-proof, but this is far from being the case. In the first place, iron conducts heat more readily than any other material used in building ; secondly, cast-iron is liable to crack and split when suddenly heated or cooled. Iron supports may, under some circum- stances, be even more objectionable than wood, for if the water from a fire-engine were to play upon a heated cast-iron girder, it would probably give way immediately, w^hile a stout wooden beam might be extinguished before being burned through. When buildings supported l)y iron girders are burning, they are far more dangerous to firemen than those with wood, as the experienced fireman can form a pretty accurate judgment of the time that burning wooden beams will stand, and may move about in their vicinity to direct the stream of water to where it is most needed, but iron girders split and fall without visible notice. It is on this account that floors of arched masonry are recommended above. In great fires, the heat is sufficient to fuse iron. Without going to the expense of making ware- houses and manufactories absolutely fire-proof, certain precautions not of a costly nature might be usefully adopted, for the purpose of merely checking the progress of conflagration untd the arrival of fire-engines. Among these simple measures, may be included iron doors hinged on stone between diff"erent departments ; a sufiicient deaffening not easily destructible between the ceiling of one story and the floor of that above ; and stone stairs. For rendering timber difficult of combustion, see Fire-proofing. FIRE-PROOF SAFES AND REPO'SITORIES are used as receptacles for deeds, paper-money, account-books, and other valuables. They are now regular articles of commerce, and are to be found in almost every counting-house, lawyer's ofiice, jeweller's or watchmaker's shop or warehouse, and are indispensable to banking and such-like establish • ments. Our forefathers used oaken chests secured with iron straps and studs for similar purposes. That which formerly contained the crown jewels of Scotland, and is still exhibited in Edinbui'gh Castle, is a good example. Subsequently, iron chests made simply of stout cast or wrought iron were used FIKE-PROOFING- ^— FIRE-RAISING. liiTj modem safe has double walls and doors of BV. it iron plates, and the space between the plates is lilled with some substance that shall resist the transmission of the heat which would be readily coi»ducted through solid iron. The materials used for these linings are very various — sand, dried clay, charcoal, ashes, bone-dust, alum, gypsum, &c. The safes of Messrs S. Mordan & Co., which are largely used by bankers, are lined with a mixture of equal parts of saw-dust and ahmi. Some makers include small vessels containing liquids, the vessels burst when heated, and the hquids exert some cooling effect. Alvmi acts in nearly the same manner. It contains 24 equivalents of water, or nearly haK its weight. At 212', ten equivalents are driven off in vapour ; at 248°, ten more ; and at 392°, the four remaining equivalents are volatilised. It is a mistake, however, to suppose that any of these linings can render such a safe really fire-proof ; and this is admitted by the more scrupulous manufacturers, who carefully abstain from using the designation of * fire-proof.' In a series of experiments, conducted at enormously high temperature — that of an ii'on fur- nace — the contents of several small safes, lined re- spectively with cement as generally prepared, with oi-dinary plaster of Paris, and with alum, were de- stroyed ; while in a safe lined with plaster and gela- tine, thereby holding a much larger proportion of water, the contents Avere found uninjured, the heat within not having attained even to that of boiling water. It is evident from these experiments that pro- tection against fire is in proportion to the quantity of water that may be parted with, unrestrained by chemi- cal affinities, and not to the non-co^iducting quality of the lining. Papier-mache has, however, very recently been much commended as an improved non-conducting medium for lining safes. A steam fire-proof safe, in the air-chambers of which are placed metallic vessels of water, closed by simple steam valves which will allow the escape of steam, has proved valuable. See Annual of Scientific Diacovery for 1864. See LOCKS. FIRE-PROOFIXG. Attempts have continually been made to render cotton, linen, and other textile fabrics, timber, &c., incombustible ; but at present they have been but partially successful. There are many means by which fabrics may be prevented from flaming, their combustion being reduced to a Blow smouldering ; and the many recent cases of fatal results from the present extravagant dimensions of ladies' dresses have rendered the adoption of some such protection against fire very desirable. By moistening the fabric with a solution of any saline substance, which, upon drying will leave minute crystals deposited in or between the fibres, its inflammability will be greatly diminished, but the salt imparts a degree of harshness to the fabric, and in many cases weakens the fibres. Alum, sulphate of zinc, and sulphate of soda have been used, and are effectual to prevent flaming, but they weaken he filire. Common salt does the same. Phosphate and sidphate of ammonia are less objectionable on this account, but the former decomposes by contact with the hot iron in ironing. Tungstate of soda has been proposed, and is said to have no injurious effect on the filire. Sulphate of ammonia, chloride of Ammonium (sal ammoniac), and borax, are among the best fitted for domestic use, though they are not nnobjectionable. For made-up clothing, borax is, perhaps, the best, as it is most effectual in its action, and is the least injurious to the appearance of the article, though it is stated to have some weakening effect on the fibre; this, however, is only perceptible in case of a tearing strain, and wiU not perceptibly damage such articles as ladies' under- clothing^, or anything else onl}'- subject to ordinary wrear. Word has been treated in a similar manner. Milk of lime, alum, sal ammoniac, sulj)hate o\ ammonia, chloride and sulphate of zinc, su][jhuret of lime and baryta, &c., have been used, and its injlam- wahiUty, but not its comihvMibil'dy, is destroyed. Like the fabrics, when similarly treated, wood smoulders slowly. The most efficient protection to wood ia silicate of soda. If planks of moderate thickness be brushed three or four times over, on each side with a strong solution, they are rendered almost incom- bustible ; they will only burn when very intenselj* heated. The silicate fuses and forms a glass which envelopes the surface, and even the internal fibrec of the wood, if it be sufficiently saturated, ind thus seals it from the oxygen of the air. FIRE-RAISING, in the law of Scotland, is the equivalent term for Arson (q. v.) in England. If any part of a tenement, however small, has been set fire to wilfully, this crime has been committed. It is quite indifferent where the fire has com- menced, and the offence is frb^^uently perpetrated by setting fire to furniture, or to other objects either within or without a house ; but it is not regarded as completed, and is punished as a separate crime, of which we shall speak afterwards, unless the fire has communicated itself to some part of a build- ing. If the fire originated in carelessness, how- ever gross, it is not wilful fire-raising, but a minor offence, punishable with fine and imprisonment. But if the intention was to injiu'e the proprietor of a tenement by burning, not his house, but an object in its neighbourhood — e. g., a haystack — and the fire was accidentally communicated to the house, the offence is the same as if the fire had been ap2)lied to the house directly. The infliction of capital punishment for the offence of fire-raising is now in desuetude. Where a man burns his own house without endangering the life of any one, he has not committed the crime of fire-raising, hwt he may be punished criminally, if the act was done for the purpose of defrauding the insurers. Till recently, it was the rule in Scotland, that where fire was the result of inevitable accident, it freed a carrier or innkeeper from responsibility for any goods that were destroyed in his custody, unless where fraud or collusion could be shewn ; but the law in this respect has been altered by the Mercantile Law Amendment Act, 19 and 20 Vict. c. 60, which provides, s. 17, that after the passing of the act (1850), 'AH carriers for hire, of goods within Scotland, shall be liable to make good to the owner of such goods all losses arising from accidental fire while such goods were in the possession or custody of such carriers' — thus equalising the law of S'^.otland with that of England. Attempting to set fire to hoiises, crops, &c., is a distinct crime from Arson (q. v.), or the actual destruction of property by fire. By 9 and 10 Vict. c. 5, it is enacted, that if any one shaU attempt to set fire to a house, &c., with such intent that the offence, if committed, would be felony, and liable to be transported for life, he may be transported for fifteen years (now penal servitude), or imprisoned for two years. The attempt to burn gi-owiug crops of corn, &c., is a felony by 7 and 8 Geo. IV. c. 30$ and punishable by transportation for seven years, or by imprisonment. These offences are also misde- meanours at common law. By 24 and 25 ^'ict. c 97, s. 8, the attempt to set buildings on fire is punishable by penal servitude for fourteen years, or imprisonment for two years ; if a male imde» sixteen, to be whipped. In Scotland, an attempt to commit A^nlful fire« raising (q. v.) is an offence at common law. It ia not necessary to constitute this offence that the fire should have consumed any part of the building, &c. Furniture— as a mattress— partly con sum so, 345 FIRE-SHIP— FmiVIAMEN T. a lighted peat thrust under a stack without igniting it, are sufficient to warrant a conviction. Inciting others to commit fire-raising is an indictable offence ; and, in some old cases, persons have been punished for the mere threats to commit the offence, without being guilty of any overt act. The English Act 9 and 10 Vict. c. 25, declares that whoever shall maliciously, by the explosion of gun- powder or other explosive substance, destroy or damage any dwelling-house in which there is any person at the time, is guilty of felony, and shall be subjected to transportation for life, or not less than fifteen years, or to an imprisonment not exceeding three years. Blowing up a building with intent to murder, and thereby endangering life, or casting upon any person any explosive or corrosive fluul whereby grievous bodily harm is occasioned him, and similar offences, are declared subject to the eame punishment. Attempting any of these offences subjects the perpetrator to a minor punishment. The manufacturing or having in. possession any explosive substance, or dangerous or noxious thing, or any machine or iusti'ument for the purpose of committing any of the above offences, is a misdemeanour, liable to imprisonment not exceed- ing two years. Male offenders imder eighteen years of age, convicted under the act, may be whipped. FIRE-SHIP, a vessel, usually an old one, filled with combustibles, sent in among a hostile squadron, and there fired, in the hope of destroying some of the ships, or at least of producing great confusion. Livy mentions the use of such by the Khodians, B.C. 190; but among the first occasions in modern times when they are known to have been employed, were by the Dutch in the Scheldt during the War Fire-Ship. of Independence in the Netherlands, and, shortly after, by the Enslish in 1588, against the Spanish Armada. The Chinese tried them against the British fleet before Canton in 1857, but uns access- fully. The service of navigating one of these ships into the midst of an enemy, there firing it, and then attempting to escape, is always fraught with great risk of failure and disaster. FIREWORKS. See Pyrotechny. FIRE-WORSHIPPERS. See Guebees. FIRISHTA, Mohammad Kasim Hindu Shah, a celebrated Persian historian, born towards the end ot the IGth c. (1570?), at Astrabad, on the Caspian 816 Sea. At a very early age, he went with his father (Gholam Ali Hindu Shah) to India, where we find him, when twelve years old, at Ahmednng^ur, in the Deccan, sharing the instruction whi(3i the latter gave to Prince Miran Hussein Nizam Shah, He afterwards became captain in the body-guard of Murteza Nizam Shah ; and when this king was deposed by his own son, F.'s former fellow-student — who, in his own turn, was deposed and murdered in less than a twelvemonth afterwards — F. went to Bijapore (998 h., 1589 A.D.), where Ibrahim Adil Shah II., the reigning monarch, received him with great honour. He also appears to have conferred a military rank upon him, as, soon after hia arrival, F. is mentioned as taking part in an action against Jumal Khan, in which he was wounded and taken prisoner, but ere long he made his escape. His death is supposed to have taken place shortly after the year 1612. His great work is the Tarikhi Firishta, or History of the Mohammedan Power in India, which he finished in 1018 h. (1609 A.D.). Twenty years were spent in its prepara- tion, and the number of books used for, and partly embodied in it — special histories of certain periods and provinces — amounts, according to F. himself (Introduction), to thirty-five ; but twenty others besides these are quoted in the coiu'se of the work. It consists — besides a preamble or introduction on the Progress of Mohammedanism in India, and a final treatise on the geography and the climate of India — of 12 divisions, treating of the kings of Ghizni and Lahore, Delhi, the Deccan, Guzerat, Malwah, Candeish, Bengal and Behar, Mooltan, Sinde, Cashmere, Malabar, and of the saints of India. Written with an impar- tiality, simplicity, and clearness rare in an Eastern work, this history has become a standard work on the subject, into which it was the first to enter at length. Single portions of it have been translated by Dow, Scott, Stewart, Anderson, &c. ; but the whole work, edited first by J. Briggs (Bombay, 1831, fol. 2 vols.), was also translated by him (London, 1832, 8vo, 4 vols.). A fuller account of F.'s Hfe and writings, by the same, will be fomid in the second volume of the Transactions of the Asiatic Society. FI'RKIN (dim. from four, the fourth part of a barrel), an old measure of capacity containing nino gallons (old ale and beer measure). But previous to the year 1803 it had two values, being estimated at eight gallons in old ale measure, and at nine in old beer measure. The firkin is equivalent to 9| imperial gallons. See Gallon. FI'RLOT (according to Jamieson, from Ang.- Sax. feorth and lot, the foiu'th part), an old Scotch dry measure, of which there were four in a Boll (q. v.). Though differing in value for different sub- stances and places, its relation to the boU remained invariable. See Peck. FIRM. See Pajitnership. FI'RMAMENT, a word in use of old to signify the vault of heaven. The term found its way into English from the Vulgate, which renders the Sep- tuagint Stereoma, and the Hebrew Eakia, by the Latin Firmamentum (Gen. i. 6). Rakia (from the verb ralca, to beat or strike out) signifies whatever is expanded or stretched out, and was specially employed by the Hebrews to denote the hemisphere above the earth, compared (Exod. xxiv. 10) to a splendid and pellucid sapphire. Els- -where (Ez. i. 22-26) it is spoken of as the 'floor' on which the throne of the Most High is placed. Hence it foUowa that the notions of solidity and expansion were both contained in the Hebrew conception of the FIRMAN— FIKST-FRUI TS. Srniaiaent. The blue ethereal sky was regarded as a solid crystal sphere, to which the stars were fixed (compare the ccelo affixa sidera of Pliuy, ii. 39 and xviii. 57), and which was constantly revolving, carrying them with it. This sphere or firmament divided ' the waters which were under the fir- mament from the waters which were above the firmament ; ' and the theory of the phenomena of rain, &c., was, that there were 'windows in heaven' — L e., in the firmament, through which, when opened, the waters that were above the firmament descended. •The same day were all the fountains of the great deep broken uj), and the windows of heaven were opened,' Gen. vii. 11. The view entertained by the Greeks, and other early nations, was essentially the same. In the progress of astronomical obsen'-ations, it was found that many of the heavenly bodies had independent motions, inconsistent with the notion of their being fixed to one sphere or firmament. Then the number of crystalline spheres were inde- finitely increased, each body that was clearly inde- pendent of the rest having one assigned to it, till a complex system was introduced, capable of being fuUy understood only by the philosophers who formed it. See Ptolemaic System. It was long before men formed the idea of the possibility of a body being maintained in motion in space without a fixed suj^port, and considering the number of phenomena of which the hypothesis of a crystalline firmament offered an apparent explanation, we must regard it as ha\dng been in its day a curious and ingenious sj)eculation. FI'E.MAN', a word of Persian origin, signifies an Order, and is used by the Turks to denote any official decree emanating from the Ottoman Porte. The "right of signing any firman relating to affairs connected with his special department is exercised by every minister and member of the divan, but the office of placing at the head of the firman the thocjrai — a cipher containing the name of the sultan in interlaced letters, and which alone gives effect to the decree — is committed to the hands of a special minister, who is called nichandji-effendi. The name applied to such decrees as have been signed by the sultan himself is hatti-sherif. The name firman may also signify a more formal kind of Turkish passport, which can only be granted by the sultan or by a pasha. — A written permission to trade is called in India a firman. FIRST-BORN" (Heb. Bekm\ Gr. prototohos, Lat. 'primogenitus), in scriptural use, signifies the first male offspring, whether of man or of other animals. By a principle of the Mosaic law, and indeed of the common law of nature, it was established that the firstlings of all the produce of creatures, whether animate or inanimate, were in some sense due to the Creator as a recognition of His supreme dominion. See First-Fruits. Under the title aiising from this recognition are to be classed many observances regarding the first-born of animate beings, whether rational or irrational, which pre- vailetl among eastern nations generally, or which are si)eciully established by the Mosaic law : 1. The first-bom male, whether of men or of animals, was devoted from the time of birth to God. In the case of first-born male children, the law required that, within one month after birth, they should be red^yamed by an offering not exceeding in value five shekels of silver (Exod. xiii. 13). If the child died before the expiration of thirty days, the obligation of redem])tion ceased ; but if that term were completed, the obligation was not extinguished by the subse- 'jueut death of the infant. This redemption took place according to a fixed ceremonial. The first- born male of animals also, whether clean or imclean, I was equally regarded as devoted to God. The first- born of cleiin animals, if free from blemish, was to he delivered to the ])riests within twelve months after birth, to he sacrificed to the Lord (Dcut. xv. 21) ; nor was it permitted to any but the j)riests to partake of the flesh of such victims (Nu>n. xviii. 18). If the animal were blemished, it was not to he sacri- ficed, but to be eaten at home (Deut. xv. 22). The first-born of unclean animals, not being a fit subject for saci'ifice, was either to be put to death, or to bo redeemed with the addition of one- fifth of its value (Lev. xxvii. 27 • Num. xviii. 15). If not redeemed, it was to he sold, and the price given to the i)rie.sts. 2. Primogeniture, both by the patriarchal and l)y the Mosaic law, had certain privileges attached to it, the chief of which were the headship of the family, and a double portion of the inheritance. Before the time of Moses, however, it was in the power of the father to decide which among all his sons should he considered the first-horn. Moses ordained that the right should invariably belong to the first-born in point of time. Among other nations, considerable variety existed as to the succession of children to the inherit- ance of their parent. The Greeks, especially the Athenians, excluded the females of a family so rigorously from the inheritance, that in the event of a father dying intestate and without heirs-niale of his body, the nearest male kinsman succeeded to the estate. The later Romans, on the contrary, placed daughters on the same footing with sons as to the division of intestate property. The Mohammedans gave the daughters a certain share of the father's estate, but only one-half of that assigned to the sons. All the nations of Germanic descent restricted the succession, especially in land, to heirs-male. But the Visigoths in Spain admitted females, except in certain contingencies. The rights of the first-born in English and Scotch law are noticed under Succession, Primogeisituiie, &c. In France, the law of primogeniture fell at the Revolution, in common with many other relica of the feudal system. How far the results of the change have been beneficial, is still a moot- ques- tion among political economists. In t]\e state of Virginia, also, after the American rei''olution, a similar change took place ; and that the change has beeu in accordance with public opinion in that state may be inferred from the fact, that a I)arent now commonly makes, by mil, the same disposition of his property as that which would be ])rovided by the law itself in the case of Vus dying intestate. FIRST-FRUITS (Heb. resliith, Gr. protogenne- mata and aparchai, Lat. prhnit'm), that poHion of the fruits of the earth and other natural produce, which, by the usage of the Jews and other ancient nations, was offered to God, as an acknowledg- ment of His supreme dominion, and a thanksgi\^ng for His bounty. Among the Jews, the institution of first-fruits comprised both public and private offerings. Of the former class, there were three principal offerings : the first was at the opening of the corn- harvest. On the tlay after the Passover Sabbath, the 16th of the month Nisan, a sheaf of new corn, which was cut and gathered with much solemnit}^ was carried to the Holy Place, and tliere waved before the altar (Lev. xxiii. 5 and foil.) ; nor was it permitted to commence the harvest-work till after this solemn acknowledgment of the gift of fruitful- ness. Again, at the Feast of Pentecost, two loavea of leavened bread, made from the flour of the new harvest, were waved, with a similar form of worship, before the altar (Ex. xxxiv. 22). Thirdly, at the Feast of Tabernacles, in the 7th month, was held 111 PIKTH-FISCHART. ti»e great feast of the gathered-in harvest, the final aokiiowledgraeiit of the bounty of God in the fruits of the year (xxiii, 16). Besides these public offerings of first-fruits on the part of the entire people, individual Jews were bound to private offerings, each upon his own behalf. 1. A cake of the first dough of the year was to be offered to the Lord (Num. xv. 21). 2. The ' first of all the fruits ' were to be placed in a basket, and carried to the appointed place, where the basket was to be offered with a prescribed form of words, commemorative of the sojourn of Israel in Egypt, and of his deliverance by the strong hand (Deut. xxvi. 2 and foil.). All these offerings were divided into two classes — the first, which were called Bkurim, comprised the various kinds of raw produce, of which, although the law seems to contemplate all miits, seven sorts only were considered by the Jewish doctors to fall under the obligation of first- fruit offering — viz., wheat, barley, grapes, figs, pome- granates, olives, and dates. The law lays down no rule as to the quantity of the first-fruit offering ; and it would be tedious to enter into the many questions regarding it which have been raised by the commentators. It was customary for the offerers to make their oblations in companies of twenty-four, and with a singidarly striking and effective cere- monial. The second class of first-fruit offerings were called Terumoth, and comprised the produce of the year in the various forms in which it is prepared for human use, as wine, wool, bread, oil, date- honey, dried onions, and cucumbers. As to the quantity of these offerings, and the persons on whom the obliga- tion fell, there are many discussions, for which we must refer to the biblical authorities. Under the kings, and again after the captivity, much laxity crept into the observance of this practice, which Nehemiah laboured to revive in its primitive exactness. Offerings analogous to the Jewish first-fruits became usual very early in the Christian Church, as is clear from a passage in Irenaeus [Adv. Hcer., b. iv. c. 17 and 34) ; but the extent to which it prevailed, and the amount and general character of the oblation, are exceedingly uncertain. It appears to have been merged in the legal provision established by the emperors. The medieval ecclesiastical impost known under the name of priinitice, or first-fruits, and some- times of annates or annalia, was entirely different. By the word, in its medieval and modern sense, is meant a tax imposed by the popes on persons presented directly by the pope to those benefices which, by the canonical rules, or in virtue of privileges claimed by them, fall within the papal patronage. Persons so presented were required to contribute to the Roman see the first-fruits (that is, the income of the first year) of their benefice. During the residence of the popes at Avignon, when the papal necessities compelled the use of every means for eking out a precarious revenue, the impost was sought to be extended to every benefice ; and this claim was the subject of many contests, especially in Germany and in Eng- land, where the claim, so fur as regarded direct papal presentation, had existed from the reign of King John. Henry VIIL, by two successive statutes (25 Henry VIIL c. 20, and 26 Henry VIIL 0. 3), withdrew the right of first-fruits from the pope, in order to transfer it to the king ; and he established a special court for the administration of first-fiuits, which, however, was soon disused. In the reign of Anne, the revenues arising fi'om this impost in England were vested in a Board, to bo applied for th3 purpose of supplementing the incomes of small benefices (2 Anne, c 11). A .S4.S similar change was introduced in Ireland by the 2 Geo. I. c. 15 ; but in the latter kingdom the payment was entirely abolished by the 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 27. In France, this tax was abolished by the 'Pragmatic Sanction' enacted at Boiirges in 1438, and subsequently by the Concordat of Leo X. with Francis 1. in 1512. In Spain, it ceased partially in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, and finally under Charles V. In Germany, it formed one of the first among the Centum Grava- mina presented to the emi)eror in 1521, and tbd claim ceased altogether from that period. FIRTH. See Frith. FISCHART, John, a very extraordinary Gennan author, was born either at Mainz or Strasburg, probably about the year 1545. Regarding his life, we know very little. He was by profession a jurist, but his writings exhibit an immense learning and reading in all the dejiartments of human knowledge. About 1570, he made a journey to England. Towards 1580, he was living at Strasburg in terms of close friendship with the eminent book-printer, Bernhard Jobin. During 1581 and 1582, he was advocate to the Imperial Chamber at Speier, and in 1585 became bailiff of Forbach, where he probably died about 1590. Of the very numerous writings which appeared 1570 — 1590, j^artly under his own, and pai-tly under various hctitious names, about fifty have been proved to be on the whole genuine, though disfigured by interpolations. In respect to others, however, the authorship is doubtful. The original editions of almost all F.'s works are extremely rare, but new ones have recently been published. His most celebrated works are based on foreign models, particularly Rabelais, but there is no sei-vile imitation manifested: a free creative genius works plastically on the materials. To this class belong his AUer Prahtlk GrossmuUer (1573), A ssen then rlich Naiipengehorlich e Geschichtklitteru n g von U. S. W. (1575). Podagrammisch Trostbiich- lein (1577), Bbienkorh des Heyl. Bomischen Imen- schwarms (1579), and Der Ileiiig Brotkorh (1580). These -writings are wholly satirical. With the most inexhaustible humour, he lashes, now the corruptions of the clergy, now the astrological fancies, the dull pedantry, or other follies, public and private, of the time. Next to these stands the outrageously comic work of F,'s — quite original in its conception — entitled Flohatz, Weihertratz (1574). Essentially different in its homely and simple tone is his Das glilckhafft Sckiff von Zurich, written in verse, and published in 1576 (new edition by Hailing, 1829). Similar in point of style a'-e his Psalmen und Geisdkhe Lieder (1576; new edit. Berlin, 1849). The rest of F.'s niunerous writings, partly in prose, partly in verse, are of unequal merit, singularly varied in style and contents ; the prose works being in general more complete than the poetic What gives so high a value to F.'s satirical humour, is the warm and genuine feeling which he exhibito for the moral foundations of all public and private life — viz., religion, * fatherland,' and the family, a feeling which betrays itself in his wildest mirth. His works are, moreover, one of the richsst sourcea from whence to draw information with regard to the manners of his time. But perhaps the most extraordinary thing about F. is his treatment of the language. No German author can be compared with him, not even Jean Paul Richter himself. He coins new words and turns of expression, without any regard to analogy, but nevertheless displays the greatest fancy, wit, and erudition in his most arbitrary formations. The fullest collection of his writings is in the royal library at Berlin. Fof a critical account of the investigations concerning FISH— FISHERIES. F. and his works, see Volmar in Ersch and Graber'a E'ncydopoedie (s. 1, vol. 5). FISH, a naval term of various application. The f^h is an apparatus of pulleys employed in dragging the flukes of the anchor towards the bow after it has been hoisted to the cat-head. — Fish-front, or paunch, is a long piece of oak, or fir, convex without, concave within, securely fastened on the injured portion of a sprung mast or yard, to which it imparts rigidity. Side-Jishes are long pieces of timber dove-tailed on the opposite sides of a made mast, to give it a circular form and the requisite diameter. FISHER, John, Bishop of Rochester, was born in 1456 at Beverley, in 'if orkshire, educated at Michael House College (now incorporated "v^ith Trinity College), Cambridge, where he took his degree in 1491, and of which he became master in 1495. Margaret, Countess of Richmond, mother of Henry VIL, charmed by the report of his virtues and learning, next appointed him her chaplain and confessor. In 1501, he was elected chancellor of the university; and in 1502, became first Margaret Professor of Divinity. Two years later, he obtained the bishopric of Rochester. For many years after this appointment, he laboured diligently for the welfare of the church and the universities. The Reformation of Luther found in him — as might have been expected from his devout ecclesiasticism — a strenuous, if not an able opponent. In 1527, a rupture took place between him and Henry in regard to the divorce of Queen Catharine. F. refused to declare the marriage unlawful. From this period, he figures in the politico-religious strifes of his time as a stanch adherent of the papacy. He opposed the suppression of the lesser monasteries in 1529, and the acknowledgment of Henry as head of the church in 1531, and thereby excited the dis- like of the party of progress in the English nation. His credulity — many would apply a harsher term — in reference to Elizabeth Barton (q. v.), the 'Holy Maid of Kent,' involved him in a still more perilous antagonism to the king. He was imprisoned; and on refusing to take the oath affirming the legality of Henry's marriage with Anne Boleyn, he was committed to the Tower, April 26, 1534, where he was treated with great barbarity. A kind but inconsiderate act of Pope Paul III. now hastened the destruction of the old man. His Holiness, as a reward of his faithful services, sent him a cardinal's hat in May 1535. When Henry was informed of this, he exclaimed : ' Mother of God, he shall wear it on his shoulders, then ; for I will leave him nevei a head to set it on.' His ruin was now certain. He was accused of high treason, and after a brief trial, was condemned, and executed, 22d June 1535. F. was one of those unfortunate per- sons who, with abundance of personal virtues, find themselves opposed to the overwhelming tendencies of the times in which they live. FISHERIES. The capture of various kinds of fish for the purpose of trade has always been exten- SiTely carried on in maritime coimtries, and in those which are watered by large rivers ; and has been the means in many instances of adding greatly to their prosperity. In Great Britain and Ireland, especially, this purs\iit affords remunerative employ- ment to a large proportion of the population, and forms an unequalled nursery for sailors to recruit the royal navy. The art of capturing fish, like other arts, has been brought only by degrees to its present perfection. In remote ages, fish were caught in the rudest manner by men who lay on the rocks, ready to shoot them with arrows, or transfix them with spears. Even yet, in places which are only partly civilised, fish are taken with blankets or sliocp- skms ; and a roughly made sjiear, known as a leister, is still used in the country districts of the United Kingdom in the illegal ^pture of salmon. Advancing intelligence, however, and the use of fish as an article of barter for other kinds of food, soon led to more effective modes of capture. Persons who dwelt on the sea- coast began to exchange fish for animal food killed by the inland hunters, and in this way initiated a com- merce which is now represented by a vast amount of capital and enterprise. The importance of fisheries, as bearing on the food-supplies of nations, inland as well as maritime, and as forming a remunerative outlet for labour, can scarcely be overestimated, more especially as fish lias ever been in the greatest demand by all classes of the people, and has been in use for human food from the most remote periods. Previous to the Reformation, it was in universal demand in Britain, being the prescribed diet during the fasts apj)ointed by the church. One great peculiarity of this source of wealth is that, with slight exceptions, the sea-liar\'est (if we may so call it) is ripened, without trouble or expense for the fisher, who only requires to provide the means of gathering it ; and that, under certain regulations, it is free to all comers. River fisheries, except in the case of salmon, are, so far as commerce is concerned, comparatively unproductive in Great Britain ; and Locldeven is the only British fresh- water lake the produce of which is worth men- tioning. But the great continental rivers abound in excellent fish, which in the aggregate are of very considerable value. The principal fisheries of Great Britain are those connected with the capture of salmon, herring, shell- fish, cod, soles, turbot, mackerel, &c. Immense quantities of these fish are in constant demand, and the various lines of railway, that Ijranch inland from the coast, afford a rapid means of transit, and have in consequence considerably enhanced the value of sea-produce, which in former years was lost for want of a sufficiently rapid conveyance to those seats of population where it would have found a ready sale. In fact, it is affirmed by those who have studied the subject, that the increased demand for fish, consequent upon the increased facilities for its transit, has so affected the fisheries as to render them less productive than formerly, when the demand was more limited. It is difficult to obtain reliable statistics of the diff"erent fisheries, as, excepting the government Board for Scotland, there is no recognised authority on the subject. The following fig-ures, bearing on the herring-fisheries of Scotland, which are the most important of the fisheries of the United Kingdom, are taken from official returns made by the commis- sioners for the fishing of 1860. The total quantity of herrings cured dimng that year was 681,193| barrels ; the total quantity branded, 231,9134 barrels ; and the total quantity exported, 377,970n barrels ; being an increase over the preceding year of 189,706 barrels in the quantity cured, of 73,2374 iii the quantity branded, and of 104,991 in the qitantity exported. From the fishery statistic accounts, we find that, in the year 1860, 12,721 boats, manned by 42,430 fishermen and boys, were engaged in the herring, cod, and ling fisheries of Scotland and the Isle of Man ; and that the total estimated valuf* of the boats, nets, and hues employed in these fisheries during the same period was £750,196. The greater portion of the herrings are salted or cured, and in this state they are sold in very large quantities, not only in Great Britain, but FISHEKIES. In her colonies and in other foreign countries. At Hamburg and oflier continental seaports, there are merchants who deal largely in cured herrings, and employ agents to visit the various British ports, in order to secure a supply. Accurate statistics of the quantity of herrings which is annually cured in Scotland may be consulted in the various returns of the Fishery Board. The following figures represent the number of barrels cured annually for the last ten years : 1852, 498,788 ; 1853, 710,344 ; 1854, 036,532 ; 1855, 7GG,703 ; 1856, 580,000; 1857, 550,000; 1858, 630,000; 1859, 500,000; 1860,637,000; 1861 (supposed), 680,000. The principal seats of the herring-fishery in Great Britain are at Wick, in Caithncss-shire, Scotland, and at Yarmouth, in England ; but it is also can-ied on in many ])laces along the coast. The annual consumption of herrings in London will give a good idea of the total quantity of that fish required for general consumption throughout the kingdom. Upwards of 300,000 barrels of fresh herrings, of 700 fish to each barrel, are annually used in the great metropolis, 265,000 baskets of bloaters, of 150 fish per basket, and not less than 60,000,000 of red herrings. Large quantities of the pilchard and of the sprat are also consumed, the annual value of the latter being estimated at upwards of £100,000. A visit to Billingsgate affords the best means of obtaining a proper notion of the food-wealth of the sea. Here tons upon tons of all kinds of fish are daily distributed. The average quantities per annum of white fish estimated to have passed through Billingsgate in the course of the last five years are as follows : Haddocks, 3,000,000 ; whitings, 18,500,000 ; soles, 100,000,000 ; cod, 500,000 ; plaice, 35,500,000 ; mackerel, 25,000,000. So great is the demand for white fish throughout the kingdom, that many fishermen run as far north as the Orkneys to obtain them ; and welled vessels in 1861 tried the experiment of carrying live cod all the way from Rockall, a very distant fishery (situated in lat. 57' 35' N., and long. 13" 40' W.), where there is an abundant supply of large fish, such as cod, but hitherto with little success. One vessel took on board forty score of live cod at this depot, but on arriving at Great Grimsby only three score of these were foimd to be alive, for which a sum of £24 was obtained. Most of the cod- smacks carry their cargo alive as far as Gravesend ; but they dare not venture further up the Thames, as the fish would not live in its fold waters. The Irish Beas are famed for the fine quality of their white fish ; the haddocks of Dublin, in particular, have a great reputation. In Scotland, a vast proportion of the haddocks are slightly smoked, and sold as ' Finnans,' which form a well-known breakfast deli- cacy in all parts of the comitry. Large quantities of cod and ling are caught, split up, and sold in a dried state. The most valuable white fish, individually con- sidered, is the aldermanic turbot, which brings a high price. Eels are also caught in large quantities at all seasons, and fetch a remunerative price jln the London fish-markets. With reference to cod and ling, the annual returns published by the Board of Fisheries in Scotland shew that, in the year 1860, 115,688 cwt. were cured dried, and 4339^ barrels cured in pickle ; and that the total quantity exported was 32,221 cwt. cured dried. As regards crustaceans and shell-fish, Mr Mayhew, in one of his elaborate works on London, states their annual consumption as follows : Oysters, 495,896,000 ; lobsters (averaging 1 lb. each), 1,200,000 ; crabs (averaging 1 lb. each), 600,000 ; shrimps (324 to » pint), 498,428,648 ; whelks (227 to half-bushel), 4,943,200 ; mussels (1000 to half -bushel), 50,400,000; cockles (2000 to half-bushel), 67,392,000 ; periwinkle$ (4000 to half-bushel), 304,000,000. These numbera are applicable to a bygone time, and would roquu-e to be considerably augmented to represent the present consumption of these delicacies in London. This branch of the trade represents, according to some economists, an annual sum of about £300,000. The lobster, being by far the most valuable of the crustacean kind, is most assiduously nursed in ponds, so as always to be ready for market. Mr Scovell of Hamble, near Southampton, keeps f thousand or two always on hand, and steam- vessels are employed to bring them alive from the most distant parts of tho coast : these boats are built exclusively for this pur- pose, and have immense wells in thi^m to hold the living freight. The lobsters are not once brought to London, but are kept ready in perforated boxes, on the Essex side of the Thames, to answer the demand as it arises. Norway supplies at least two- thirds of our lobsters. Mr Saunders, the extensive lobster salesman of Lower Thames Street, used to estimate the daily consumption of lobfters in Great Britain at 40,000. There is also an enormous demand . for oysters, and a considerable proportion of our maritime population earn a comfortable livelihood by breeding and dredging them. At Whitstable, in Kent, and at various jilaces in Essex, there are depots for breeding and storing oysters. The ' spat ' is procured and grown in the course of four years into a marketable commodity of much value. The ^Vhitstable Oyster Company received for oysters, in 1859, the sum of £62,000 ; £50,000 of this sum being for native, and £12,000 for other kinds of oysters. The oyster is found in great abundance on the British coasts, there being famous fisheries for it both in Scotland and Ireland. In America, and other countries also, it is a common mollusc. See Oyster. Whilst sea-fisheries are open to all who have the means of working them, salmon-rivers are for the most part private property. The owners of particidar streams usually form themselves into an association chiefly for the protection of the fish during the spa\vning season. The usual method is for the * lairds ' to let their fishings to tenants, who are called * tacksmen,' and whose interest it is to capture and sell all the fish they can find. The rents obtained are, in some instances, very large, and form a handsome addition to the land- revenues of the proprietors. Before the invention of packing in ice, and previous to the introduc- tion of steam-boats and railways, salmon used to be sold in the markets at the price of two- pence per pound. When the increased demand for it, created by these facilities of conveyance, caused it to attain its present price, tacksmen were tempted to overfish their streams, and the consequence has been the exhaustion of particular rivers. An elaborate report on the state of the English salmon-fisheries, presented to parliament in 1861, contains ample proofs of the universal falling off in the rivers of England and Wales. It is intended, however, under the auspices of the commissioners of the English salmon-fisheries, to take active steps to have them re-peopled with fish. The Scotch and Irish salmon-fisheries have also sufi'ered from the efiects of overfishing, and various legislative measures and other means have of late years been tried with a view to avert the extermination of this valuable fish. See Salmon, Pisciculture. The following statement of the number of boxes of salmon received in London for the ten years ending in 1860, will afford an index to the value ol the British salmon-fisheries. Each box contained FISHERIES. 112 lb. The Englisli rivers are included in tlie Welsh : Scotch. IrUb. Dutch. Norwegian. Welih. 1850 13,940 2,135 105 54 72 1851 11 ',593 4,141 203 212 40 1852 13,044 3,6il2 176 3(6 20 1853 19,485 5,052 401 1208 20 1854 23,194 6,333 345 None. 128 1855 18,197 4,101 227 None. 59 1856 15,438 6,568 63 5 500 1857 18,fi54 4,904 622 None. 220 1858 21,564 6,429 973 19 499 1859 15.630 4,855 922 None. 260 1S60 15,870 3,803 849 40 438 Total 186,609 51,923 4891 1844 1956 It is impossible, from the paucity of reliable information, to do more than roughly estimate the imount of capital employed in the British fisheries. Their annual value is, however, believed to be not less than £5,000,000. That of the sea-coast and lake and river fisheries of the United States is estimated at about $100,000,000. The food-fisheries of France are now becoming co-extensive with those of Britain, so far as the capture of sea-fish and crustaceans are concerned ; and in the cidtivation of those less important fishes which thrive best in lakes, canals, and rivers, they excel us, for while we only cultivate these for purposes of amusement (see Angling), the French people make them an article of commerce, and derive large sums of money from their sale. At one time, the whole fresh-water fisheries belonging to France were not of so much value as one of our salmon streams; but by means of artificial cidtivation and careful nursing, they have been much incre.ased in value, and, by the care of the governmt'." V. are being yearly extended. The fresh- water fisheries of France are of great extent, Bome of the fishponds in that country extending to upwards of thirty thousand acres. According to an official summary of the value of the fresh- water fisheries of France, dated 1860, the state exercises the right of fishing over 8135 miles of canals and water-courses ; and individual proprie- tors exercise similar rights over 930 miles of canals and rivers, 114,889 miles of small water-courses, and 493,750 acres of lakes and ponds. In Paris, the annual consumption of fish gives for each individual a mean estimate of 27 lb. of sea-fish, and I lb. of fresh- Vv'ater fish. Among the other foreign fisheries most worthy of notice are the river-fisheries of Germany, where the culture of the Danube salmon and other fresh-water fish is assiduously carried on. In the Mediterranean, various kinds of fish are taken, the jne ot greatest value being the tuimy. The anchovy and sardine are also taken in large quantities. An account of the great eel-fishery at the mouth of the Po, on the Adriatic, has already been given in. this work. See Comacchio. The Dutch are as industrious upon the sea as they were at the time when they founded Amsterdam, and a large pro- portion of the popiilation of Holland are engaged in their fisheries, which are still a source of wealth to that kingdom, particularly the herring-fishery, which engages about twenty thousand people. The Norwegian fisheries afford large quantities of lobsters and turbots, and in 1866, 25,7.56 persons were employed in capturing about 40,000,000 cod. The Newfoundland fisheries, which are principally for cod, have existed for upwards of three centuries. Sir Francis Drake was the first person who fished there on behalf of England, and the fish he sent home soon excited a spirit of enterprise in the country, which led to the dispatch of a larjre number of ships and the extension of the fishery. The island is surrounded by the cod- banks, and the capture and cure of this fish form the staple occupation of the peoi)le. See Newfoundland. The oil-fisheries are not now so important as they were at one time, the invention of gas and the discovery of other lubricants having rendered us independent of whale oil. The success of the whale-fisheries has also fluctuated so much as to prevent modem capitalists from embarking very largely in the trade. The only novelties thafe distinguish the whale-fishery of the present day are the introduction of steam-whalers, and, in some instances, of vessels wintering in Greenland ; but, with all these advantages, our whalers barely pay their expenses, and the fishery, as compared with former yeai'S, exhibits a considerable falling-off. In the year 1814, the total catch of the British ships engaged in the fishery, 143 in munber, was 20,000 tuns, and in the following year, the Hidl ships alone had 7987 tuns, exclusive of black oil. The series of years from 1813 to 1830 were remarkably pros- perous, there being scarcely a broken season in the whole of that period. Formerly, London sent out a whaling fleet of twenty ships, and the Hull squadron in 1807 amounted to sixty-three vessels. The total whaling fleet numbered at one time 159 ships, but to-day it barely amounts to a tenth of that number. The seal is now largely captured for the purpose of obtaining its oil. See Whale, Cacholot, Seal, Geeeni,and, &c. The South-Sea or sperm-whale fishery is principally in the hands of the Americans, who pursue this branch of com- merce most successfully. The quantity of sperm- oil yielded by the fishing of 1861 was 68,932 barrels, or nearly 7000 tuns. FISHERIES, Laws regardtng. As it is quite impossible, within the limits of the present w^ork, to give any detailed account of the provisions which the legislature have introduced for the purpose of promoting and protecting our fisheries, we shall content ourselves with pointing out the principal objects which our policy has had in view with reference to tiiis very important subject. 1. From a very early time, statutes have been passed both in England and Scotland, for the puq^ose of protecting the breeding of fish, and preventing the destruction of the spawn or fry. Of these the first in the statute book is 13 Edw. 1. s. 1. c. 47, and the latest, 14 and 15 Vict. c. 26. _ 2. A feeling of the interest which the whole com- munity has in the development of the fisheries, has led to a system of advancing public moneys for their encom-agement ; for this purpose, commissioners have been appointed, through whom money is advanced on loan. The last act having this object in view is 19 and 20 Vict. c. 17. 3. Bounties were formerly paid upon the taking and curing of fish of various descriptions, and on the vessels employed in various branches of the fisheries ; but this method of encouraging the fisheries has been abandoned. The last statute relating to this subject is 7 Geo. IV. c. 34. 4. A treaty was entered into in 1839 between her Majesty and the late Xing of the French, and carried iato effect by act of parUameut (6 and 7 Vict. c. 79, amended by 18 and 19 Vict, c- 101), concerning the fisheries in the seas between the British Islands and France, By this conven- tion, the limits within which the general right of fishing is exclusively reserved to the subjects of the two kingdoms respectively, are fixed at three miles' distance from low- water mark. With respect to bays, the mouths of which do not exceed tem miles iu width, the three-mile distance is measured FISHES. from a straight line dra"WTi from headland to head- laud. 5. In 1854, a similar treaty was conclnded between her Majesty and the United States of America, relating, inter alia, to the rights of fishery between the British colonies in North America and the United States. This treaty was carried into effect by 18 and 19 Vict. c. 3. C. The trade in fish, as regards the cities of London and Westminster, is regulated by acts of j)arlj anient, the chief objects of which are to secure a supi)ly of fresh fish, and to prevent forestalling of the same. The first of these acts is 22 Geo. II. c. 49, and the last 4 and 5 Will. IV. c. 20. 7. Fresh fish of British taking, imported in British bottoms, may be lauded without report or entry, nnder IG and 17 Vict. c. 107, s. 49. 8. Persons employed in the fisheries, in such manner and under such circumstances as are laid down in 50 Geo. III. c. 108, are exempted from impressment. 9. The fisheries of Ireland are regulated by recent acts, of which the earliest is 6 and 7 Vict. c. 108, and the latest 1.3 and 14 Vict. c. 88. 10. By tlie Scotch Act 21 and 22 Vict. c. 69, fees are imposed on the branding of barrels under the acts concerniug the herring-fisheries. See Herrings, Salmon, &c. FISHES, EoYAL — i.e., those which at com- mon law are the property of the crown — are the whale and the sturgeon, when either thrown on shore, or caught near the coast. The ground of the privilege is said to have been the superior value of these fishes. They were considered too precious for a subject, just as the Swan (q. v.), which was a royal bird, was too good for any table but the king's. * Our ancestors,' says Blackstone, ' seem to have entertained a very high notion of the importance of this right, it being the prerogative of the kings of Denmark and .the dukes of Normandy ; and from one of these it was probably derived to our princes. It is expressly claimed and allowed in the statute J)e Frcerogativa Begis (17 Edw. II. c. 11), and the most ancient treatises of law now extant make m, the gill-hd, gill-cover, or operculum, with two subordinate pieces, called the sub-operculum and inter-operculum, articu- lated on the temporal bone, and j)laying ou the pre-operculum, a bony plate placed befo*'e them in the head. It is by the motion of these b^ny plates that the water is expelled which is taken in by the mouth, and which, after passing amongst tho gills, and supplying them with air, passes out by the gill-orifices at the back of the head. Besides these opercidar plates or bones, a series of flattened rays, connecting them with the bone of the tongue, and called the branchiostegal rays, aid in forming the gill ca^^ties. In the branchiostegal rays, distinctive characters of fishes are often found. The brain of fishes differs very considerably from that of other vertebrate animals. See Braln. In general, they possess the nerves and organs of all the senses, although the senses of touch and taste are commonly supposed to be more dull than in many other animals ; and a few fishes, liAdng chiefly in mud, or in the waters of caverns, are destitute of eyes, and consequently of sight, although even they possess oj^tic nerves, and seem sensitive to light. But in most of them, the eyes are large, and vision is evidently very acute ; and some have cirri or barbules near the mouth, filaments proceeding from some of the fin-rays, &c., Vvdiich are regarded as delicate organs of touch, adapted to the wants and habits of the particular species. The eyes are covered by the skin, modified in its character, and have no eyelids ,nor nictitating membrane. They are very variously placed in different kinds. There is no external ear. The mouth is the only organ of prehension. It is very different in different kinds — sometimes very small, sometimes extremely large, sometimes forming a sucker by which the fish can both fix itself and pump up the fluids of the animal on which it preys. The snout is aiso abbreviated, prolonged, or other- wise modified in very various ways. The teeth are far more various in form, number, position, and structiu-e, than in any other class of animals. They never have any roots, but are fixed to the bone* 353 FISHES. which support them; they fall off, however, and are replaced. Some fishes have no teeth ; some have very small teeth ; some have teeth in gi*eat number, but so fine as to resemble the hairs of a brush ; some have short thick teeth ; some have long shaq) teeth, either straight or crooked ; some have teeth so flat and closely set that they resem])le a regular and beautifid pavement ; and the teeth of fishes are sometimes situated not only on the jawbones, but on the vomer or bone extending along the middle of the roof of the mouth, and indeed, also, on other parts of the palate to tne very throat, and very commonly on the tongue. The food of fishes is various : a few subsist ou vegetable food of different kinds, but most of them on animal food, of which there is no kind that docs not seem to be particularly agreeable to some of them, from the mere animalcule or the most minute crustacean to the flesh of the mammalia. In general, they are excessively voracious, and seem to spend most of their lives in seeking food. Many of them prey on other fishes, and many seem equally willing to devour otlier species or the younger and weaker of their own. Some of them swallow their food almost or absolutely alive ; others subject it to processes of comminution, trituration, and masti- cation in the mouth. Salivary glands are not found in fishes, although they exist in some of the verte- brate animals. The digestive process seems to be performed very rapidl3^ The stomach and intestines vary very much in different kinds. The kidneys are in general extremely large, extending thi'ough the whole length of the abdomen. The air-bladder is found in many fishes, but not in all ; and is present or absent in different fishes even of the same genus or family. See Air-bladder. Its uses, and its connection with the habits of particular species, have as yet been but partially ascertained. Fishes are oviparous (egg-producing) ; a few are ovo^dviparous (eggs hatched within the body, and young produced alive). The chief reproductive organs are generally two elongated lobes of a fatty Bubstance, milt, in the males, and of rudimentary eggs, roe, in the females. Impregnation usually takes place after the roe or spawn is deposited, the male accompanying the female to the place of 8i>awning. In some Cartilaginous Fishes, it takes place before the deposition of the eggs ; and male sharks and rays are furnished with organs called claspers, the use of which is well indicated by the name. The fecimdity of fishes is generally very great, and their eggs very small in proportion to the size which they ultimately attain, although this is not so much the case in the Cartilaginous Fishes already mentioned. Some of the fishes most valuable to man, as the salmon, herring, and cod, are remarkable for their fecundity. Nine millions of eggs have, according to Leuwenhoek, been ascertained to exist in the roe of a single cod ; and provision is thus made both for the preservation of the species amidst all the dangers to which the spawn and the young are exposed, and for the wants of man. The spawn of fishes is deposited in very different situations, according to the different kinds — as by some on aquatic plants, by some on beds of sand or gravel ; but many species leave the depths of the ocean in order to deposit it in shallower waters, and some, usually marine, ascend rivers for this purpose. Very few fishes take any care of their eggs or young ; but there are remarkable exceptions to this rule, and some of the gobies and sticklebacks are known to fcerd their young with great care. Sticldebacks also construct nests. See Stickleback. It is not long since this curious {act w^as discovered, although 351 these little fishes have been so long familiarly known ; and it is therefore not improbable that many other fishes may have the same habit. The growth of fishes is very rapid when supplies of food are abundant, but becomes slow in less favourable circumstances, or is arrested for a long time, in a manner to which there seems i.> be nothing similar among other vertebrate animals. The skin of fishes is generally covered with Scales (q. v.), which, however, are sometimes minute and imbedded in the skin, and sometimes altogether wanting. The scales are either homy or bony, and are generally imbricated, like the slates of a roof, their free ends backwards ; but sometimes form bony plates, fixed by the whole of their lower surface. They usually exhibit beautiful symmetrical markings and inequalities of surface of various kinds, and in some are covered with a thick coat of enamel. The differences of character in the scales have been made the foundation of a classification of fishes l)y Agassiz, by whom all fishes are distributed into the four orders of Cycloid, Ctenoid, Placoid, and Ganoid Fishes (see these heads), having respec- tively jycloid, ctenoid, placoid, and ganoid scales ; a classification which has been found particularly convenient with reference to fossil fishes, although other systems maintain their ground against it as preferable for recent species. It is not, however, wholly artificial, for a relation can be very generally traced between the character of the scales and the general structure and economy of a fish. The scales of a row extending from the head to or towards the tail on each side of the body of Osseous fishes in a somewhat waved line, called the lateral line, are pierced for the transmission of a slimy matter, with which the whole body is lubricated. The colours of fishes depend upon a substance . consisting of smaU polished laminae, secreted by the skin. As fishes need no covering, like fur or feathers, to prevent the dissipation of their animal heat in the surrounding medium, their scales must be regarded chiefly as defensive armour. Some of them are also defended by large bony plates, which are either on the head alone or also on the body, and some by spines connected with the fins, gill-covers, &c. Few have any other offensive weapons than their teeth, but the spine attached to the tail of some rays is a remarkable exception, as is also the elongated snout or beak of the sword-fish, saw-fish, and a few others. But a much more remarkable kind of armour — probably both offensive and defensive — is possessed by a few fishes, in an electrical apparatus, by w iiich they can give severe shocks. It is also an inte- resting fact, that the electrical apparatus is quite different in different fishes possessing it, the Gj^m- notus or Electric Eel, the Torpedo, and the Electric Silurus or Malapterurus. See Electricity, Animal. Many fishes are gregarious, swimming in shoals, which in some species consist of immense mul- titudes. Some also make periodic migrations ; salmon, for example, ascending our rivers, and herrings and pilchards visiting our coasts, but the long migration formerly ascribed to these fishes is now doubted or disbelieved. The occasional, over- land migrations of eels, and tlie more frequ'Jiit overland migrations of some tropical fishes, cannot but be regarded with peculiar interest ; and the instinct is very wonderful by which, when fleeiiij? from a pool that is about to be dried up, they direct their course towards a place where water is more abundant. This faculty is, however, rare, although possessed by tropical fishes both of the eastern and western hemispheres ; but more generally the fishes 1 destined to iniliabit tropical ponds which are b'abla FISHES— FISH-H0OK& to be dried up, are capable of living dormant, imbedded in the mud, tiU they are liberated again by the rains, when they reappear in their former multitudes. Of the uses of fishes to man, by far the most imjwrtant is that of supplying him with food. Fishes form an article of food in almost all coun- tries, and in some a principal part of the food of the inhabitants. Many fishes are highly esteemed for the table, which are not procured in sufficient abundance to be a principal part of food in any country. Some fishes, on the contrary, are impala- table ; and some, mostly tropical, are poisonous, whilst others are poisonous only at particular sea- sons. — The skin of some Cartilaginous Fishes yields SH4.GREEN (q. V.), and the au'-bladder of some fishes yields Isinglass (q. v.). The minute laminas which give brilliancy of colour to some, and the similar substance found in the air-bladder of others, afford the materials of which artificial pearls are made. • — Oil useful for lamps is obtained from a number of fishes, and the medicinal value of cod-liver oil is now well known. The classification of fishes most generally adopted is that of Cuvier, who divides them into Osseous Fishes (having true bones), and Cartilaginous Fishes (q. v.) ; and divides Osseous Fishes into Acauthopterous Fishes {Acanthopterygii, q. v.), and Malacopterous Fishes {Malacoplerygii, q. v.). The system of Agassiz has already been noticed. That of MuUer and Owen difiers from both. Fossil Fishes. — The medivim in which fishes live, and the hard and almost indestructible natui-e of some portions of their skeletons— as their teeth, spines, and scales — would lead us to anticipate their frequent occurrence in the Sedimentary rocks ; but inasmuch as the soft parts of the animal are liable to speedy decomposition, the remains of fish must often exist in a fragmentary and scattered con- dition. Thus, the teeth in the shai'k, the spine defence in the sting ray, and the scales in the bony pike, would survive the total destruction of the cartilaginous skeleton as well as the soft portions of these fish, and would alone remain to testify to their existence. The earliest ichthyc remains are of this frag- mentary character. They have been obtained from the ' Ludlow rock,' a member of the Upper Silurian eeries, and consist of spines and portions of skin, that have been thickly covered with hard tubercles and prickles, like the shagreen of the shark's skin. The spines most nearly resemble the d* )-sal spine of the dogfish ; they are small, flattened, and elightly curved. Along with other similar frag- mentary remains, they have been placed under tlie BomeA'hat indefinite generic title Onchus. The minute, compressed, conical, and glistening bodies, called Conodonts, obtained in great numbers from the Lower Silurian measures in Eussia, and considered by their describer. Pander, to have been the teeth of fishes, belong certainly to veiy different animals. Their small size and peculiar forms, and the entire margin of the hollow base by which they were attached, shew them to have been the denticles from the lingual ribbon of shell-less molluscs, which have left no other traces of their existence than these remarkable Conodonts. The Ludlow bone-bed contains the earliest noticed fish lemains. No idea of the nuznerical importance of jisliea at this early period can be satisfactorily formed ; yet these remains being confined to a single tliiu bed, and occurring rarely even in that, would seem to indicate that tho Silurian seas were but thinly tenanted by these earliest sharks. In the immediately succeeding Devonian rocks, th^ir uumhers largely iucreasetL The ichthyo- dondites, or fossil spines of this period, have been referred to fourteen different genera. Numerous species of true ganoids have been determined from their well-preserved enamel scale.n, which occur singly or in confused groups, and frequently also associated with the head, fins, and tail, so as to present a faitliful 'nature-print' of the fish upon the rock. See Dipterus, Dipl acanthus, &c. But the most remarkable and characteristic fossils of tliis period are the Buckler-fishes, whose head and part of their body were covered v/ith bony l)lates, giving them so singular and anomalous an ai)pearance, that some of them were originally considered crustacean. They are almost confined to the Old E,ed Sandstone series, a single species (found in Permian strata) being the only cepha- laspid that is known later. See Cepiialaspis» CoccosTEUS, Pterichthys, &c. Fish remains are of frequent occurrence in the Coal-measures. Upwards of twenty species of plagiostomous fishes have been determined from the spine defences, some of which are very large and powerful. The frequency with which the peculiar teeth of the cestracionts are met, shew that they must have been common in the carboniferous seas. Ganoids were also abundant. See Pal^oniscus, Holoptyciiius, &c. In the Permian period, the forms are similar to what exist in the older strata. Up to the last Permian deposit, the fish have all possessed hetero- cercal tails ; but with the Secondary rocks, the homocercal tail not only aj)pears, but becomes the more frequent form. Numerous species and many new forms appear in the Trias and Oolite. Sharks are remarkably abundant in the Cretaceous strata ; but the Chalk is specially remarkable from containing the earliest discovered remains of the true bone-fishes — those covered with ctenoid and cycloid scales. In the Tertiaiy strata, the character and pro- portion of ichthyc remains exhibit a condition iu the inhabitants of the water very similar to what at present prevails. The cartilaginous orders decrease, and are replaced by osseous fishes, such as the salmon, cod, turbot, and herring— fishes which ai'e of much greater value to man than those they superseded. FISH-HOOKS. A considerable amount of skill is required for the successful manufacture of these simple articles. There are two kinds in the market, the English and the Limerick fish-hooks, the latter are in the highest repute among anglers. The English fish-hooks are made chiefly at Red ditch, in Worcestershire. Steel-wire is cut into the reqidred lengths, and softened ; then the ends of three of these are inserted into shcJlow holes of a sort of rest or standard, and thus supported, the barbs of all three together are cut up by the skilful pressure of a stout knife ; they are then pointed, and turned by pressing them agamst a little ridge of sheet-brass let into a block of wood, and having the requisite curvature. The other end is next flattened oxit, by laying it on a small anvil, aiid striking a blow with a hammer. This is done to ])revent the silk ligature from slipping over the er.d- The finer worm-hooks have the shanks filed, in order that the silk dressing may not enlarge the shank so much as to prevent the slip])ing of the worm over it. They are then hardened, tempered, and bluetL The Limerick hooks are made by cutting the steel, which is made from the best malleable iron, into lengths for two hooks. The ends are then forged out to the shape of barb and point, and the barb is undercut with a file from the solid forged end, instead of being cut and turned iq) with a knife. This constitutes the chief sujtcriority FISH-LOUSE-FISTULA. of the Limerick hooks. They are shaped to the re- quired curve by grasping them in circular pliers, and bending the wire with a turn of the wrist. FISH-LOUSE, or SEA-LOUSE, names com- monly given to the entomostracous crustaceans of the order Siphonostovia. All the creatures of this order are of small size, and parasitic on fishes, aquatic batrachians, &c., on the juices of which they live, although they have also the power of swimming freely in the water, some of their legs being adapted to this purpose, and, indeed, they can swim with extreme rapidity, making use of this power to gain that place where they may obtain food at the expense of other creatures. They do not begin life as parasites, the females depositing their numerous eggs on stones, plants, &c. They are animals of singular form and appearance. The genera Argulus and Caligus are now regarded as the Rsh-Louse : 1, Oaliffus (female) ; 2, Argulus, natural size ; 8, Argviui, magnified. types of two families. In the former, there is a curious sucking disc on each side of the beak or proboscis, although there are also jointed members terminated by prehensile hooks. In the latter, the hooks of the anterior pairs of feet are the principal organs of adhesion to the slippery bodies of the fishes from which food is to be drawn; and the abdomen of the female is furnished with two remarkably long tubes, the functions of which are not perfectly ascertained. The bodies of all of them are transparent, or nearly so. Some of the Caligidce are common on many of the British sea- fishes ; Argulus foliaceus on fresh- water fishes, and even on tadpoles. Sickly fishes often become the victims of multitudes of these creatures. The name fish-louse is sometimes given also to the Lernceidce, but they are very difi'erent. FISHIKG-FROG. See Angler. FISHING-TACKLE. See Angling. FISHPONDS. See Pisciculture. FISK, or rise, a term often to be found in Scottish law-books. It is derived from the Latin iiscua^ literally, a wicker-basket, which came ulti- mately to signify the privy purse of the emperor, as distinguished from the public treasury, which was called cerarium. In Scotland, it signifies gene- rally the crown's revenues, to which the movable estate oJ a person denounced rebel was formerly 36G forfeited. It still gives his name to a very import- ant ofiicer, the Procurator Fiscal (q. v.), or jmblio prosecutor in the first instance, by whom all crimes are prosecuted before sheriffs and other inferior judges, and whose duty it is to report to crown counsel — i. e., to the Lord Advocate, or his deputes — all cases which, from their aggravated character, require to be tried by a higher court. See PuBUO Prosecutor. FISSIRO'STRES (Lat. split-beaked), a tribe of birds, one of the tribes into which the great order Imessorea is divided. It is characterised by peculiar width of gape, and the bill is depressed or horizon- tally flattened, short, and often furnished wath strong bristles at the angles ; the birds of this tribe being insectivorous, and generally subsisting by catching insects on the Aving, to which this structure of bill is beautifully adapted. The powers of flight are generally great, but the legs are short and weak. Swallows and goat-suckers are familiar examples of this order. FISSURE LLIDiE, a family of gasteropodoua molluscs, of the order Scutibranchiata. The shell much resembles that of the limpet family {Pat el- lidce), but has either a hole at the apex, or a slit at the front margin. The hole at the apex charac- terises the genus Fismrella (Keyhole Limpets), and Fissnrella : 1, the animal ; 2, the shell. the slit appears in the genus Emarglnula, Thesa openings of the shell are subservient both to the passage of the water requisite for respiration, and the discharge of the excrements. The fissurellidaj resemble limpets in their habits, and are found either on the sea-shore or at no very great depth. They are widely distributed over the world. Several species are British. FI'STULA, in former times, was applied, in its etymological meaning of a -pipe, to such Abscesses (q. V.) as had contracted to narrow, hard, open passages in the soft texture of the body {^ee Tissue), lined by a kind of false membrane, giving rise to a thin discharge. At the present time, however, the term fistula is generally limited to the opening of such a passage when in close contact with a mucous membrane. Thus it is common to speak of salivary, urinary fistula, &c. ; and the most common and troublesome kind of all is the fistula in ano, in connection with the lower bowel, or Rectum (q. v.). The treatment of fistula should only be intrusted to experienced surgeons ; but there are always quacks in abundance willing to undertake it, and hold out flattering hopes of ua early cure without proper surgical procedure. For the cure of salivary or urinary fistula, all that is generally necessary is to restore the patency of the ducts, which is done by passing instrumenca along them. Should a fistula, however, be situated where it is surrounded by muscular fibres, as at the FISTUL ARID^E— FIVES. orifice of the lower bowel, it is necessary to divide these muscidar iibres, so as to leave the part at rest while nature repairs it. As the sinus, which is the continuation inwards of the fistula, is lined with imperfectly organised lymph, it is -generally necessary to stimulate the part .by the introduction of lint, either alone or saturated with some irritant, such as the sulphate of zinc, which, when mixed in the proportion of 1 — 3 grains to each ounce of water, and coloured with lavender, makes the famous red lotion of the shops. At times, however, fistulae require more elaborate treatment, and are extremely difficult to close, especially those which result from loss of tissue between two adjacent mucous canals ; fortunately, however, modern surgery is able to remedy these alio. It is necessary to make the edges of the orifice once more raw, and to bring them in contact, but formerly the wound used rarely to unite, as the stitches produced such an amount of irritation. Now, however, by the use of silver or iron wire, according to the taste of the surgeon, the parts can be kept together long enough to insure union ; and thus, by the ingenuity of American surgeons, especially Marion Sims of New York, and others in this country, certain diseases of women, arising from protracted labours, and formerly rendering the unfortunate subjects of them miserable and unfitted for any of the duties of life, may be now remedied by a skilfully performed, but almost painless pro- ceeding. FISTULA'RID^, AULOSTO'MID^, or PLUTEMOUTHS, a famdy of acanthopterous fishes, remarkable for the conformation of the head ; the skull being elongated into a tube, at the extremity of which are the mouth and jaws. The ipecies are all marine ; they are widely distributed ; Snipe or Trumpet Fish [Centriscus scolopax). only one, the Snipe-fish, Sea-snipe, or Trumpet-fish {Ceiihiscus scolopax), is found, and that very rarely, in the British seas. These fishes are not to be confounded with the Pipe-fishes, which have a similar elongation of snout, but are otherwise very difierent FISTULI'NA, a genus of fungi allied to Boletus (q. V.) ; the under surface {hymmium) at first covered with minute warts, which ultimately form tubes. F. hepatica is common in Britain and throughout Europe on old oak, walnut, and chestnut trees ; it occurs also on ash and beech. It is semicircular, of very regular outline, with a lateral stem, or none ; its colour red ; its substance fibroiis arid fieshy, much resembling beet-root. When old and beginning to decay, it looks like a mass of liver. It sometimes attains a great size. Dr Badham describes a specimen nearly five feet roimd, and weighing eight pounds. Mr Berkeley mentions one which grew on an ash pollard, and weighed nearly thirty pounds. This fungus is much esteemed in some parts of Europe as an esculent ; it is whole- Som«» and nutritious ; and the abundance in which It may often be procured, makes it the more worthy of regard ; whilst there is almost no possibility of confounding it with any dangerous fungus. Ita taste resembles that of the common musluroom but Fistulina Hepatica. is rather more acid. * When grilled, it is scarcely to be distinguished from broiled meat.' It furnishes itself with abundance of sauce. FITCHET. See Polecat. FITCHY, or FITCHE. Crosses are said, in Heraldry, to be fitchy when the lower branch enda in a sharp point. Crosses are supj^osed to have been so sharpened to enable the primitive Christians to stick them into the gromid for devotional purposes. FITS, a name popularly applied to Convulsions (q. v.), or, indeed, to any sudden seizure of disease implying loss of consciousness, or any considerable change in the condition of the mind. FITZ is an old Norman word signifying 'son,* evidently from the Lat. Jilius (Fr. Jils). Like the Scotch Mac, the Irish 0\ and the Oriental Ben, it is prefixed to proper names to signify descent, as in the Norman names Fitzwilliam, Fitzwalter, Fitz- gerald. A later application of it has been to denote the natural sons of royalty, as in Fitzroy, Fitzjamea, and Fitzclarence. The Russian termination witch ia a disguised form of the same word. FIU'ME (in the Illyrian language, ReJca or Riha ; Latin, Fanum St Viti ad Jiumen), an important seaport of Austria, is situated at the efflux of the Fiumara into the Gulf of Quarnero, in the Adriatic, 40 miles south-east of Trieste, across the Istrian peninsula, in lat. 45° 20' N., and long. 14° 26' K F. has quite the character of a German town, is adorned with many handsome buildings, and consists of an old and new tovcn, which together contain about 14,000 inhabitants. It has manu- factures of tobacco, rosoglio, wax, paper, chemicals, and a flourishing trade in ship-building. F. has a fine freestone quay, with a light-house, but has little commerce. It has becin a free port since 1722; and in 1849 was severed from Hungary with the territory to which it belongs and made a portion of the Austrian crownland of Croatia. FIVES, a popular game in England, and ono especially enjoyed by school-boys, and in certain ban\acks where there is a ' court,' by soldiers. The game existed at a very early period — 14th c. — both in France and England, being termed 'palm-play* in the former, and 'hand-tennis' in the latter; its present name is derived from its being played usually by five on each side. The method of playing the game is very simple : a good roomy court ia requisite, bounded by a high wall at one end, and against this wall a ball is propelled by striking it with the open hand. The players arrange themselves either five against five, as is usually the case, or in fewer nimibers, and begin the game by one meml>ei striking the ball against the wall, and causing it to rebound anywhere beyond the floor- score. FIXED AIR-FIXTURES. which is about two yards from the wall ; one or the opposite party then strikes the ball as it rebounds, and if it does not touch the wall higher than three feet from the ground, his stroke goes for nothing, and the opposite ])arty score one. The ball may be struck either from a direct rebound before it reaches the ground, or after it has ' dap])ed ' or hopped from the ground once. Fifteen is usually fame. When the i)layers are skilful, the ball is ept going by the alternate strikers for many laintites at a time, and the game is thus rendered exciting both for players and onlookers. FIXED AIR was the name given to Carbonic Acid (q. V.) by Dr Black, who was the first to cbserve that the solid substance, carbonate of magnesium (Mg^CM )3), could, when heated, evolve car- bonic anhydride (COa), proving that the latter was a fixed air while in union with tlie magnesia. FIXED BODIES is a term applied in chemis- try to those sul)stances wliich remain fixed, and are not volatilised at moderately high temperatures. FIXED OILS are those oils which, on tlie application of heat, do not volatilise without decomposition. See Oils. FIXED STARS. See Stars. FIXING, in Photography. \Mien a picture has been obtained through the agency of light, by the exposure of a sensitive surface suitably prepared, and the subsequent development of the latent image, there remains in the deei)est shadows of the picture a portion of the sensitive material, unacted u])on by light. The removal of this unaltered sensitive material by an appropriate solvent, is termed fixing, tho\igh the term clearing would jierhajjs be prefer- able, fixing being more strictly accurate in the case of the Daguerreotype process (q. v.), where the picture is literally to the silver-plate by the deposition of a him of metallic gold, of extreme tenuity, from a boiling hot solution of Sel D'or (q. v.). For particulars of failures arising from imperfect fixation or clearing, see Photography. FI'XTURES, in the Law of England, are those personal chattels (q. v.) which are let into the soil, or otherwise actually affixed to the freehold ; a definition which is sufficiently accurate to aflford a principle for the solution of the questions which arise between landlord and tenant as to the right of the former to retain, or of the latter to remove — but a principle, the application of which is attended with many practical difficulties. If the chattels be entirely clear of the soil, they are not fixtures at all, and may be carried oft" at pleasure like any other species of personal property. The general rule as to what constitutes a fixture legally immovable is, that it must be either let into the earth, or cemented or otherwise united to some erection previously attached to the ground, so that it would be waste to remove it afterwai-ds (Woodfall, pp. 466, 467). But it must be remarked, that a tenant may in all cases construct any erection he may make in such a manner as that it shall not become a fixture. Thus, if he evcu erect buildings — as barns, granaries, sheds, *nd mills — upon blocks, rollers, pattens, pillars, or plates, resting on brickwork, they may be removed, although they have sunk into the ground by their own weight (Ik 467). To this rule various excep- tions have been made in favour of what have been called trade-fixtures, or fixtures put up for the purjwse of carrying on a trade ; and the statute men- tioned below has greatly modified the law as to those erected for agricultural purposes. It is difficult to state the limits of the exception with reference to trade-fixtures with any approach to accuracy. The following is perhaps as near an approach as the varying circumstances of each individual case will admit of. ' Whenever the following circumstances occur, it may be confidently pronounced that there the tenant may safely remove the article. Thus, things which the tenant has fixed to the freehold for the })ur})oses of trade or manufacture, may be taken away })y him whenever the removal is lu'^ contrary to any prevailing practice ; where the articles can be removed without causing material injury to the estate, and where of themselves they were of a perfect chattel nature before they were put up, or at least have in substance that character indej)eudently of their union with the soil— or, ia other words, where they may be removed without being entirely demolished, or losing their essential character or value ' [lb. p. 468) ; see also the case of Ilellawell v. Eastwood, 0 Excheq. Rep. 812. Nurserymen have been allowed to remove trees and shrubs which they have ])lanted expressly for purposes of sale, but not to plough np straw- berry-beds, out of the ordinary course of manage- ment of the nursery -groimd. Neither can they remove hot-houses, green-houses, forcing-i)its, or other erections of that description ; and in no case can i)rivatc ])crsons sell or remove fruit-trees, though planted by themselves (Amos and Ferand on Fix/ures, .34.'], 2d edition). The provision of the common lav/ of England with reference to agri- cultural fixtures has been modified by 14 and 15 Vict. c. 25, s. 3, which provides, that if any tenant of a farm or land shall, with the consent in ^mting of the landlord for the time being, at his own cost, erect any farm-buildings, either detached or other- wise, or put up any other building, engine, or machinery, either for agricultural purposes or for the purposes of trade and agriculture (which shall not have been put up in pursuance of some obli- gation in that behalf), then all such building, engines, and machinery shall be the proi)erty of the tenant, and shall be removable by him, not- withstanding the same may consist of separate buildings, or that the same, or any part tliereof, may be built in or permanently fixed to the soil, so as the tenant making such removal do not in anyAvise injure the land or buildings belonging to the landlord, or otherwise do put the same in like plight and condition as tlie same were in before the erection of anything so removed, p)ovided that no tenant shall be entitled to remove any such matter or thing without giving to the landlord or his agent one month's previous notice in viriting of his intention so to do ; and thereujion it shall be lawful for the landlord, or his agent, on his authority, to elect to purchase the matters and things ])roposed to be removed ; and the right to remove the same shall thereby cease, and the same shall belong to the landlord ; and the value thereof shall be ascer- tained by two referees, one to be chosen by each party, or by an iimpire to be named by such referees, and shall be paid or allowed in account by the land- lord who shall have so elected to purchase.' This act is confined to England ; but in questions of fixtures, as JNIr Hunter observes, the common law of England having been deemed practically authori- tative in Scotland, the clause affords valuable matter for consideration, as shewing what has been held advisable in England {Landlord and Tenant, p. 290, 3d edition). In Scotland, it has been customary, in agricultural leases more particularly, to determine the respective rights of landlord and tenant by positive stipulation, and, for this reason, fewer j)oints have been decided by the courts than in England. As regards urban tenements, the rule seems to be, that the tenant may remove whatever he has fixed up for ornament or domestic use — e. g., han^jiuga. *LACCUS— FLAG OF T PROPHET. wainscot, stoves, &c., but not such erections as have become part of the tenement, and constitute per- manent imj»rovements. Thus, he cannot remove a conservatory fixed to and coTnmimicating with rooms in a dwelling-hoube by windows and doors. FLA'CCUS, C. Valerius, a Roman poet, who flourished in the 1st c, and is supposed to have died 88 A. D. Absolutely nothing is known regarding his hfe. He is the author of an epic poem on tiie Argonautic expedition, which in its extant form is incom.plete. Some modern critics, Wagner among others, praise it extravagantly, and place the author next to Virgil ; but the more general opinion of sound scholars is, that the work is rather a specimen of learned mediocrity than of genuine inspiration. The editio prbiceps of the Argouautica appeared in 1472, Of modern editions, may be mentioned those of Wagner (Gott, 1805) and Lemaire (Paris, 1824). An English metrical translation was published by one Nicholas Whyte as eai'ly as 1565. Similar translations exist in French, Itahan, and German. FLACOURTIA'CE^, a natural order of exo- genous jilants, allied to Passion-tiowers, consisting of shrubs and small trees, almost exclusively con- fined to the warmest parts of the globe. Many of the species, particularly of the genus Flacourtia, produce pleasant, sweet, or subacid fruits. Fla- courtia inermis is much esteemed and cultivated in the Moluccas. Arnotto (q. v.) is produced by a tree of this order. FLAG, a popular name for many endogenous plants with sword-shaped leaves, mostly growing in moist situations. It is sometimes particularly appry- priated to the species of Iris (q. v.), or Flower- de-luce ; but is given also very indiscriminately to other jilants of similar foliage, as the Acorus calamus (see AcoRUS), which is called Sweet Flag. FLAG (common to the Teutonic languages, and derived from a root signifying to fly), a cloth of bght material, capable of being extended by the wind, and designed to make known some fact or want to spectators. In the army, a flag is the ensign carried as its distinguishing mark by each regiment ;^ and also a small banner, with which the ground to be occupied is marked out. In the navy, the flag is of more importance, often constituting the only means vessels have of communicating with each other, or with the shore. For this purpose, devices of conspicuous colours (usually black, white, red, yellow, or blue) are hoisted at the mast-head or at the gaff. The flags having three forms—viz. 1, tho Squara Flag ; 2, the Pennant ; 3, tho Burgee. A vsry few patterns in each shape give sufficient Conl)inations of three or four flags to express any letter or word in the language. The flag is also a iign of the rank of the i)rincipal person on board a Vijssel, as the 'Royal Standard,' containing the urms of the United Kingdom, which is only hoisted wlien a member of the royal family is on board ; the Anchor of Hope, on a red ground, denoting the Admiralty ; the pennant, which specifies the admiral s squarit:.in, white enpipn ; 3, Bfitaia, blue ensign; 4, Prance; 5, Paissia; 6, Frussiii ; 7, Italy; 8, Helgium ; 9, Holland; 10, Austria; 11, United States; 12, Spain; 13, Portugal; 14, Greeee; 15, Tuikey; 16, Den mark; 17, Brazil; 18, Sweden. A white flag is accepted throughout the world as a token of peace; a red flag, as defiance; and a black flag denotes a pirate ; a flag of i^lain yellow usually signifies that the vessel bearing it is in q\iarantine. See also Union Jack. FLAG OF THE PROPHET (Sanjak-Sherii) is the sacred banner of the Mohammedans. It was originally of a white colour, and was composed of the turban of the Koreish, captured by Mohammed. A black flag was, however, soon substituted in its place, consisting of the curtain that hung before the door of Ayeshah, one of the Prophet's wives. This flag, regarded by the Mohammedans as their most sacred relic, first came into the possession of the followers of Omar at Damascus ; it afterwards fell into the hands of the Abbasi ; then passed mto those of the califs of Bagdad and Kahira ; and, at a later period, was brought into Europe by Amurath III. It w!is covered with forty-two wrappings of silk, deposited in a costly casket, and preserved in a chapel in the interior of the seraglio, where it in guarded by several emirs, with constant prayer^. FLAG-CAPTAIN— FLAGEOLET-TONES. The banner unfolded at the commencement of a war, and likewise carefully preserved, is not the same, al- ttiough it is believed by the people to be so. FLAG-CAPTAIN, in the Navy, is tlie captain of the axlmiral's ship in any squadrou, and is ordinaiily his nominee. I'LAG-LIEUTE'NANT is an officer who, in the navy, performs such duties for an admiral as would devolve upon an aide-de-camp in the army. He communicates the admiral's orders to the various Bhi]>s, either personally or by signal. FLAG-OFFICER, in the British Navy, is an a^lniiral, vice-admiral, or rear-admiral. He is so called from his right to cany, at the mast-head of the ship in which he sails, a hag denoting his rank. For an admiral, the flag is borne at the main ; for a vice-admiral, at the fore ; and for a rear-admiral, at the mizzen : the flag being, in either case, red, white, or blue, according to the squadron to which the officer belongs. FLAG-SHIP, the ship in a fleet which bears the achniral's flag, and therefore forms a sort of centre to which all other vessels must look for orders. It is usually the largest vessel in the fleet. FLA'GELLANTS, the name given to certain bodies of fanatical enthusiasts, who, at various intervals from the J 0th to the 16th c, made their ai)pearance in the different countries of Europe, proclaiming the arts, and want tka boldness and decision of the earlier styles. These mouldings are frequently abutted on the pillars, or conti- nued down them with- out any caps ; and when there are caps, they are small and without effect. See fig. 2. When mould- ings join, they are fre- quently run through one another, so as to appear to interlace. The efi'ect is intricate rather than beautiful, suggestive, like the rest of the style, of ingenuity in stone- cutting rather than art. The doorways and windows are sometimes large and fine (as in fig. 1) ; but whil these are highly enriched, the general surface of the building is left too plain. There are many large buildings in France executed in this style, but it is usually portions only which are fine, not tlie general eftect. Some of the spires of this period are also very beautiful. The north spire of Chartres Cathedral, for example, is considered one of the finest in France. FLAME is a particular form of Combustion (q. v.) or burning. Ordinary combustion consists in the oxygen of the atmosphere combining with some combustible substance so rapidly as to give out light and heat. When the combustible is either originally a gas, or becomes so by the heat, the combustion takes the form of flame. Flame, then, is the burning of a gas. In most cases, the gas of flame is a com2)ound of hydrogen and carbon, with minute particles of solid carbon suspended in it, and is formed from the fuel (coal, tallow, &c.) being decom- posed by the heat. The heat and light of flame vary with the gas : hydrogen produces great heat, but little light. The lighting power of a gaa depends upon the jiroportion of carbon it contains, the j)articles of which become glowing hot before being consumed. The flame of a lamp or candle, or simple gas-jet, consists of a hollow cone, in the centre of which there is no combustion. The central space appears dark only by contrast with the luminous cone which surrounds it. It consists, in reality, of transparent invisible compounds of carbon and hydrogen, which are constantly rising in vapour from the wick. If a glass tnhe, open at both ends, be held obliquely in the flame of a candle, with its lower extremity in the dark central space above the wick, it will conduct away a poi-tion of the combustible vapour, which may be kindled like a gas-jet at its upper end. as repre- sented in fig. 1. This dark portion of the flame may be called the area of no conbuMion. The lumuious cone which envelops the dark space is the area of partial combust ioju Tha oxygen FLAMENS— FLAMDOAN WAY. Fig. 2. a, area of no com- bustion ; 6, area of partial combustion ; e, area of complete combustion. of the atmosphere penetrates to this depth, but not in sufficient quantity to oxidize or burn both the carbon and the hj'drogen ; it therefore unites with tike hydrogen, for which it has the stronger attrac- tion, and leaves the carbon free. The outer cone is named the area of complete combustion, because there the carbon meets with sufiioient oxygen to burn it entirely. The light is produced in the area of partial combustion, where the carbon is set free from the hydrogen in the form of solid particles, and is heated to white- ness by the combustion of the hydrogen. The combustion of the carbon in the outer cone, by which it is converted into car- bonic acid gas, produces heat, but so little light as to be barely traceable. That cai'bon exists in a solid state in the white part of a flame, is readily shewn by holding a piece of white earthen -ware into it, which becomes coated witli carbon in tlie form of Boot. No soot is deposited in the dark or no-com- bustion area of the iiame, because there the carbon is in chemical combination with hydrogen, forming a gas. The carbon becomes solid only when the hydrogen deserts it, as it were, to unite with oxygen. The highly illuminating power of compounds of hydi'ogen and carbon is thus traced to the fact, that t/ieir hydrof/en and carbon do not burn sinmltaneouslt/, but siicccss'weli/, and in such a ivoy that tlie one lieats the oOver white hot. It is quite possible to make them burn simultaneously ; but when they do, the light evolved is very feeble. This takes place in the *Eunsen ljurner,' in which air is allowed to mix with the gas before combustion. FLA'MENS were priests in ancient Rome devoted each to some special deity. There were fifteen in all. The chief of these {Flamines Majores) were the flamens of Jupiter, of Mars, and of Quirinus, who were always patricians ; the remaining twelve {Fla- mines Minores) were chosen from the plebeians. The flamens were elected at first by the Comitia Curiata, but afterwards by the Comitia Tributa, and were installed into their ofiice by the supreme dignitary of the Roman pagan religion, the Pontifex Maximus. The flamen of Jupiter was a privileged person ; he was not required to take an oath, was attended by a lictor, his house was an asylum, and he had a seat in the senate. But all this was attended by numer- ous superstitious restrictions : he might not have a knot on any part of his attire, nor touch flour, or leaven, or leavened bread ; he might not touch or name a dog, or mount a horse, or be a night out of the city, &c. His wife, called Flaminica, was Bubjected to similar restrictions, and when she died, the flamen was obliged to resign. The majority of Roman writers attribute the institution of flamens to Numa. FLAMI'NGO {Phoenicopterus), a genus of birds which until recently was placed by all naturalists among the Grallatores (Waders), but is now gener- ally ranked among the Palmipedes, and even referred to th'i family of Anatidie. The bill is large, deeper than broad, and suddenly curved downwards near the middle, so tha';, as the bird wades and seeks its food, effcher in th« water or in the mud, it makes iifie of the bill in a reversed position, the upper mandible being lowest. The edges of both man- dibles are furnisned with small and very fine transverse laminae, which serve, like those in tlie bills of the ordinary Anatidce, to prevent the escape 8SJ of the small crustaceans, mollusca, worms, small fishes, seeds, &c., which are the F.'s food, and to separate them from the mud with which they may be mingled. The upi)er surface of the tongue is also furnished on both sides and at the base with numerous small flexible liorny spines, directed back- wards. Unlike the ordinary Anatidce, flamingoea have great part of the tibia, as well as the taraus, naked, in this resembling all the Waders. They lire birds of powerfid wing, and uy either in strings or in wedge-shaped flocks like geese, a single bird leading the way for the flock. Th<=-y seldom make use of their webbed feet for swimming, to which the length of their legs is not well adapted, the use of the membrane being rather to su])port them on soft muddy bottoms. When feed- ing, they keep their feet in almost con- stant motion, as if lo stir the mud. Flamingo {Phoenicopterus ruber). Hundreds may some- times be seen feeding together in the shallow waters or salt marshes of tropical coasts, chiefly of Asia and Africa, or on the banks of rivers or inland lakes, and by their large size and rich colours making a brilliant spectacle. They make their nests in marshes, scraping together a heap of mud, on the top of which is the nest; and it is said that the long legs of the female F. often hang do^vn into the water during the incubation, not beint' easily disposed of otherwise. — There are several species of F., but very similar to each other, both in appearance and habits. One species only visits the south of Europe, the Common F. {P. ruber), a bird measiu-ing fully four feet from the tip of the bill to that of the tail, and six feet from the tip of the bill to the claws ; the male, when in full phimage, is of a rose-red colour, with deep purple wings; the female, and the young for several years, are less brilliant, the yoimg at first being whitish, and the red first appearing on the wings. — The American F. {P. Americanus or Chllensis) is of a more orange tint, and is abundant on many parts both of the eastern and western coasts of America. FLAMI'NIAN WAY {Via Flaminia), the great northern road of ancient Italy, leading from Rome to Ariminum {Rimini) on the Adriatic. It was constructed by C. Flaminius during his rensorship (220 B. c), and was designed to secure a free com- munication with the recently conquered Gaidish territory. The F. W. was one of the most cele- brated and most frequented roads of Italy both during the period of the Republic and of the Empire. Its importance may be estimated from the fact, that when Augustus (27 B. c.) appointed persons of consular dignity road- surveyors for the other highways of his dominions, he reserved the care of the F. W. for himself, and renewed it throughout its whole length. Its genei al direction was northerly. Leaving Rome, it kept for the most part at no great distance from the Tiber till it reached Narnia {Narni), where it struck off in a north-easterly direction, passing Interamna (Terni) and Spoletium {Spoleto), and reaching the foot of the Apennines at Forum Flaminii. Crossing the central ridge of the Apennines, at Ad ICnsom (L» FLAMSTEED— FLANDERS. Schieggia ?), it again proceeded in a northerly direc- tion, pursuing much the same line of route as the modern road from Foligno to Fano, and reached the Adriatic at Fanum Fortunaj (Fano), whence it wound along the coast to Ariminum (Rimini), where it ended, or rather where the name ceased ; for the Via Emilia (see Emilian Peovinces) was just a continuation of it. The whole length of the road from Rome to Ariminimi was (according to the Jerasalem Itinerary), 222 miles, and according to the Antonine, 210 miles. Remains of it still exist at various places, and assist the antiquary in tracing its direction. FLAMSTEED, John, the first astronomer-royal of England, for whose use the Royal Observatory at Greenwich (called Flamsteed House) was built, was born near Derby, 19th August 1646, and early devoted himself to mathematical and astronomical pursuits. While yet a youth, he mastered the theory of the calculation of eclipses ; and his calculations of some remarkable eclipses of the moon were the means of introducing him to the notice of the eminent scientific men of his time, among others to Sir Jonas Moore, then Surveyor-general of the Ord- nance, through whom, and in connection with whose department, he was appointed astronomer to the king in 1675. The year following, the Observatory at Greenwich was built, and F. began that series of observations that constitute the commencement of modern practical astronomy. He formed the first trustworthy catalogue of the fixed stars, and fur- nished those lunar observations on which Newton depended for the verification of his lunar theory. Extracts from the papers of F., found in the Obser- vatory by Mr Francis Baily, and published by authority of the Admiralty in 18.35, brought to light a very sharp quarrel that had taken place between F. and Newton and Halley with regard to the piibli- cation of the results of F.'s labours. The Ilistoria Goelestis Britannica, his great work, in three vols., giving an accoimt of the methods and residts of astronomical observation up to his time, was begun to be printed before his death in 1710, but was not published till 1725. It may be mentioned that F., while following his scientific pursuits, qualified himself for holy orders, and in 1684: was presented to the living of Burslow, in Surrey, which he held till his death. FLANCHES, or FLANQUES, in Heraldry, are composed of arched lines drawn from the up})er angles of the escutcheon to the base points. The arches of the flanches almost meet in the centre of the shield. The Flanches are an ordinary little used in Scotch heraldry. FLANCONNADE, a thrust in Fencing (q. v.). FLA'NDERS was formerly the name of an extensive and almost independent territory niled by 'counts,' and embracing, besides the present Belgian pro\ances of the same name, the southern portion of the province of Zealand in Holland, and Bome of the departments in the north-east of Ji'rance. Ciesar found this district inhabited by the Morini, the Menapii, and the Nervii, and having conquered these tribes, he annexed the country. Under the rule of the Franks, the river Scheldt, which flowed through the district, formed the boun- daiy line between Neustria and Austrastia, in conse- quence of which the northern and south-western part of the territory comi)rised under the term r., although ite population was decidedly Germanic, came to belong to France, while the south-east, although to a large extent non- Germanic, was after 1007 included in the German Empire. F. obtained its name from the Vldnderfjau (pa(/iis Flandren^is. the district around Bruges and Sluis), whose counts had l)ecn made wardens cf the nortli-eastem coasts of France at the period of the incursions of the Normans, in the latter half of the 9th century, and wlio extended the name of their hereditary ])osse»- sions to the whole district which they governed. The first count or markgraf of the country is said to have been Baldwin, surnamed Bras de Fer (Iion- Arm), who married Judith, the daugliter of Kin^ Charles the Bald of France, and widow of Ethel wult, king of England, and afterwards received the newly created ' mark ' or county, in 864, as a hereditary fief from his father-in-law. He extended his terri- tories by the addition of Artois, which was held by his successors until Philippe Auguste reunited it to France. He died in 879, but not until he had inaugurated the industrial greatness of F. hy intro- ducing into it a great number of workmen skilled in the manufacture of woollen and other goods. Baldwin IV., or the Bearded, one of the successors of Baldwin Bras de Fer, received in fief from the Emperor Henry II. the burgraviate of Glient, Wal- chei en, and the islands of Zealand, and thus became a prince of the German empire. He was succeeded by his son Baldwin V., or the Pious (10.%— 1067), who increased his possessions by the addition of the German territory between the Scheldt and the Dender, belonging to the duchy of Lower Lorraine. To this he added Tournay, the supremacy over the bishopric of Cambray (to wliich, till the erection of the new bishopric of Arras, the county of Flanders had been ecclesiastically subordinate), and the (iounty of Hainault. During the Middle Ages, F. figured prominently in the political affairs of Europe — the counts of F. being more powerful and wealthy than many European kings. Baldwin IX., the founder of the Latin kingdom at Constan- tinople, died in 1206, leaving two daughters, one of whom died without children ; the other bequeathed HainaiUt to John of Avenues, her son by her first marriage ; and F. to Guy Dampierre, her son by a second marriage. Meanwhile, the industrial prosperity of the cities of F. had become so great, that the citizens began to feel their own j^ower, and to claim independence. They formed republican communities like the free cities of Germany, with this difference, that they admitted the nominal suzerainty of the counts. But they were not afraid to take up arms in defence of their liberties against their nominal masters. Witness the insurrection headed by Jakob van Artevelde (q. v.) against the cruel government of Count Louis I. On the marriage of Marguerite, the daughter and heiress of Louis IL, Count of Flanders, to Philip the Bold of Burgundy, the country was united to the Burgundian terri- tories in 1384, and afterwards shared the fortunes of that duchy. The dukes of Burgundy brcught great part of the former duchy of Lower Lorraine under their dominion, and thus laid the foundation for the subsequent imion of the states of the Nether- lands, in which F. continued to form one main component part. On the death of Charles the Bold, these territories passed, in 1477, to the House of Hapsburg, by the marriage of his daughter ]Mary to tlie Archduke Maximilian. After Burgundy had passed with King Philip II. to the Spanish lino of the House of Hapsbnrg, the territory of F. \s'a3 considerably diminished, as not only was the ])ortion called Dutch Flanders transferred to the Estates- general by the peace of West})halia, but, in the time of Louis XIV., France seized ui)on ancthei l)ortion of F, as also a part of Hamault, Cambray, and Artois, and was contirmed in her possession by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, of Nimeguen, and of Utrecht. By the last, and by the treaty of }»eace concluded at Rastadt, the remains of the Spanish Netherlands again fell into the hands of the House 363 rLAm)ERS— FLATTERY. of Austria. In 1794, F., like the other provinces of Belgium, was incorporated with the French Kei)ubiic, and afterwards with the Empire, and formed the departments of Lys and Escaut ; the Congress of Vienna, however, conferred these portions on the new kingdom of the Netherlands, with which they remained united till the formation of the kingdom of Belgium (q. v.). The Belgian portion of F. is now divided into the provinces of East and West Flanders (q. v.). — Compare Praet, Histoire dea Comtes de Flandrcs, et de VOrvjine das Communes Fhmandes (Brussels, 1828) ; Le Clay, llvitoire des Comtes de Flamlres jusquW VAvmement des Dues de Bour- gogne (2 vols., Paris, 1843) ; Kervyn van l^etten- Loven, Histoire de Flandres (6 vols., Brussels, 1847 —1851), &c. FLANDERS, East, a province in the north-west of Bel^uium, is bounded on the E. by the provinces of Antwerp and Brabant, on the S. by that of Hainault, on the W. by that of West Flanders, and on the N. by the Dutch province of Zealand. It hns nn area of 1146 scpiare miles, and ii population which amounted in 1870 to 837,726, or 731 to the square mile. East F. is the most populous i)rovince of the most populous country in Europe. See Belgium. It is watered mainly by the Scheldt, and by its affluents the Lys and the Dender. The surface is low and level. The soil has been rendered extremely fertile by means of spade cidtivation and an excellent manuring system. Besides the oi'di- nary varieties of grain, potatoes, llax, hemp, and hops are produced in great quantity. The district in the north-east of the jirovince, between the towns of Antwerp and Ghent, is celebrated as a flax- growing quarter. The manufactures are chiefly lace, damasks, linens, woollens, bobbin-net, silk, and cordage ; sugar-refining, brewing, and distilling are also carried on. Chief towns, Ghent, Alost, and Dendermonde. FLANDERS, West, the most western province of Belgium, is bounded on the N. by the North Sea, and on the W. and S. by France. Its area is 1237 square miles, and its population in 1870 amounted to 668,976. Its chief rivers are the Lys and the Iser; but it is watered by numerous smaller streams, and is intersected by many impoi'tant canals. Its surface is flat, with sandy hills in the south and along the coast ; and its soil sandy, but well cultivated and productive. It has fewer products and manufactures than East Flanders. Chief towns, Bruges, Courtrai, and Ostend. FLANGE, a rim or projection upon a tube or cylinder of metal or other material, to serve as a bearing, or aflbrd means of fixing it ; for example, the projecting rim on the tires of the wheels of railway-carriages is called a flange. FLANK (the side), a word used in many senses in military matters. Flanks of an army are the wings, or bodies of men on the right and left exti-emities, prepared to close in upon an enemy who shall attack the centre. Flank Jiles are the soldiers marching on the extreme right and left of a company or any other body of troops. Flank company is the com- f)any on the right or left when a battalion is in ine ; the grenadier and light infantry companies usually occupy these positions, and are known as flank companies, whether with the remainder of the regiment or not. A flanking party is a body of horse or foot employed in hanging upon and harassing the flank of an enemy's force. — Flank, as applied in For- tification, will be best described under that article (q. v.). The flanks of a frontier are certain salient points in a national boundary, strong by nature and art, and ordinarih'^ projecting somewhat beyond the general line. The 3ffect of these flanks is to protect 'o6i the whole frontier against an enemy, as he dare not penetrate between them, with the risk of their garrisons, reinforced from their own territories, attacking his rear, and cutting off communication between him and his base. Silistria and Widin were flanks of the Turkish frontier during Omar Pasha's campaign in 1863 and 1854. Similarly, in the event of an invasion of England from the coast of Sussex or Kent, Portsmouth and Chatham would be formidable flanking garrisons, which would almost necessarily have to be subdued before the invader could march on London. In evolutions, ' to flank ' is to take such a posi- tion with troops as either to aid one's own army in an attack on the enemy, by leading the latter to suppose that his flanks are in danger in his present position, or to prevent him from advancing on one's comrades by thi'catening his flanks if he should do so. To ontflank is to succeed by manoeuvi'es in com- manding the flank of an enemy who has been, on hia part, endeavouring to flank one's own force. FLANNEL (Welsh, givlanen, from gwlan, wool, allied to Lat. lana), a woollen fabric, differing from broadcloth and most other woollen fabrics in being woven of yarn more loosely twisted, and having less dressing. The best flannel is made in the neigh- bourhood of Welshpool and Newtown, in Wales, from the wool of the Welsh mountain-sheep, and is commercially known as Welsh flannel. Large quantities are also made in West Lancashire, West Yorkshire, and the neighbourhood of Leeds. A more closely spun and woven flannel, used for cricketing and rowing shirts, &c,, and dyed and printed with various colours and patterns, is made in the west of England cloth-making district, in the vicinity of Stroud, in Gloucestershire. Fine light flannel of this kind is made in France and Belgium ; some of this is twilled, and approaches nearly in quality to French merinoes, but is much softer. The demand for this sort of fancy-shirting flannel has of late become considerable, and has led to the production of many varieties, which, though bearing the name of flannel, vary so materially from the original Welsh flannel, that they can scarcely be included with them under any general definition. Coarse flannel, called Galways, is made in Ireland, and is chiefly used by the peasantry of the coimtry. FLAT, a musical character, shaped thus b, which, w^hen placed before a note, lowers that note half a tone. When placed at the beginning of a piece of music, it denotes that all the notes on the line or sjiace on which it is placed, with their octaves above and below, are to be played flat. FLAT-FISH, a popidar name of the fishes of the family Pleuronectidce (q. v.), as the flounder, plaice, sole, turbot, halibut, &c. ; v/hich have the body much compressed, and the sides unsymuietrical, swimming on one side. It is sometimes extended in its signification so as to include ska.tes and other fishes of the Ray (q. v.) family, which are very different, being cartilaginous fishes, quite symme- trical, and swimming on the belly, although, like the Pleuronectidce, generally keeping close to the bottom. It is never applied to the much compressed symmetrical fishes, such as the dory, which swim in the ordinary posture of fishes, the dorsal edge ujjwards, the ventral downwards. FLA'TTERY, Cape, a hcacUand of Washington territory, on the Pacific coast of the United States, marks the south side of the entrance of the Strait of Juan de Fuca. It is in lat. 48° 24' N., and in long. 124° 40' W.~ Another headland of the same name is found on the east coast of Australia, in lat. 14° 52' S., and long. 145° 20' E. It is about 30 miles to the north of Endeavour Bay. FLATULENCE— FLAX. FLA'TULENCE, distention of the stomach or bowels by the gases formed during digestion. 8ee INDIGESTION. FLAVINE, or FLAVIN", is a yellow colouring matter employed in dyeing, and imported in the condition of extract. It is understood to be the colouring matter of bark (quercitron bark), and is used in place of quercitron bark. When treated with hot water, flavine yields a yellow turbid solu- tion, which, on settling, deposits a yellow-brown powder. When employed in dyeing, the cloth is first treated with an aluminous mordant (see Calico- PEInting) ; and on subsequent immersion in the solution of flavine, a fine yeUow colour is fixed on the cloth. The colouring power of the extract flavine as imported is so gi'eat that one ounce is equal in dyeing qualities to one poimd of quercitron bark. FLAX {Linum), a genus of plants comprising the greater part of the natural order Linacece ; an exogenous order allied to Geraniacece and Oxalidece, and consisting of aimual and perennial herbaceous plants, with a few small shrubs. There are about ninety known species of this order scattered over the globe, but most abundant in Europe and the north of Africa. Their leaves are simple, entire, without stipules, and generally alternate. The Common Flax or Linjc {^L. usitatissimum) is an Common Flax [Linum usitatissimum). annual ; a native of Egypt, of some parts of Asia, and of the south of Euroi)e, not truly indigenous in Britain, although now naturalised, and often occur- riug in cornfields, which is the case also in many parts of the world. The most common variety of khe fiax plant has a very slender erect stem, two or three feet high, branching only near the top, so as to form a loose corymb of flowers. The leaves are small, distant, and lanceolate ; the flowers of a beautiful blue, rarely white, rather broader than a ■ixpence; the petals slightly notched along the margin ; the sepals ovate, 3-nerved, ciliated, desti- tute of glands ; the capsules scarcely longer than the calyx, not bursting open elastically, but firmly retaining their seeds, which are dark brown, glossy, oval-oblong, flattened, with acute edges, pointed at one end, and about a line in length. Another variety, however, is cultivated to some extent in many parts of Europe, so difiFerent, that some botanists account it a distinct species [L. humile or L. crepi- tre of flax is the ultimate material from which paper ia made, and linseed oil is used in the manufacture of j)rinters' ink. No i)lant not yielding food is more useful to man than the flax plant. It has been cultivated from the earliest historic times. It is mentioned in the book of Genesis as one of the productions of Egypt in the time of the Pharaohs ; and it has been recently ascertained by microscopic examination, that the cloth in which the mummies of Egypt are enveloped is linen. Solomon purchased linen yarn in Egypt. Herodotus speaks of the great flax trade of Egypt. Great quantities of flax are gro^\^l in that country at the present day ; its cultivation is also very extensively carried on in some parts of Europe and of North America. The proportion of flax to other crops in Britain is probably smaller at present than it was at a former period, but an increase of its cultivation has been strongly recommended by persons whose opinion is entitled to great regard, and particularly in Ireland, where, however, it is more extensively cidtivated than either in England or Scotland, It has the advantage of gi^^ng emplojonent not only to an agricultural but to a manufacturing j^opula- tion. Flax is more extensively and more succcbs- fully cidtivated in Belgium than in any other Eiu-opean country, particularly in Southern Brabant, Hainaidt, and West and East Flandei-s, in which the most beautiful flax in Europe is produced, employed for the manufacture of the famous Brussels lace, and sold for this piu-pose at abou'' £100 to £180 per ton, the crop when prepared foi the market sometimes exceeding in value the lane on which it w^as produced. The village of Bebeque is distinguished for the production of this precious flax. The greatest care is bestowed on its cidti* vation, and to this its excellence is probably in a great measure to be ascribed. Not a weed is to b« FLAX— FLAX-DRESSING. Been, and the care and labour are equal to those of gardening. Flax is extensively grown in the countries on the southern shores of the Baltic, and both the fibre and seed are largely imported from them into Britain. Besides the flax raised at home, Great Britain annually imports from 80,000 to 90,000 tons of this material. Flax has been cultivated from time immemorial, as a winter crop, in India, but onlj for its seed, and not at all for its fibre. This remarkable circumstance is supposed by Dr Iloyle to be owing to the exist- ence of tlie cotton plant in that country, the fibre of which more readily offers itself to view on the bursting of the pod. But Dr Royle also states his opinion, that the climate of the greater part of India is unsuitable for the production of the fibre of flax; and the variety cultivated in India is only about a foot or eighteen inches in height, much branched, and yielding a very worthless fibre, whilst it is loaded with capsules, and the seeds yield a larger proportion of oil than those of flax grown in Europe. It is sometimes sown as an edging around fields. Much depends on the thickness of sowing. Flax must be so\vn thick to yield a fine fibre ; but when intended to produce a fibre for coarser purposes, the plants ought to have more room. For the liuest fibre, also, they must be pulled before the seed is ripe ; but a coarser fibre and a crop of linseed are often much to be preferred by the farmer. The crop is silwixya jmlled up by the roots. The diminished cultivation of flax in Britain, after agriculture began to improve, is to be ascribed in part to the prevalence of the opinion, that it is a very exhausting crop for the land. This has been said to be particularly the case when the seed is ripened. But the introduction of new maniu'es has rendered this objection less important than it formerly was ; and it has been found that the refuse of flax itself is not a bad manure, and that the water in which it has been steeped is a good liquid manure. The water of flax-steeping pits or ponds is often strong enough to kill the fish of rivers into which it is allowed to flow. The capsules {bolls) of flax are torn off, after it is pulled, by a sort of combing called riopiuig (see Flax-dressing), Great care is requisite to dry them, and to keep them perfectly dry. For the subsequent processes, see Linseed. Besides the common flax, several other species are occasionally cultivated for their fibi-e, but are com- paratively of very little value. The Linacece are, in general, plants of elegant appearance and with nowers of miich beauty; Bome cf them have flowers larger than common flax, and some are not unfrequent ornaments of our green-houses. Radiola viillegrana. All-seed, is one of the smallest of British phanerogamous plants. Purging Flax {Linum catharticum) is a graceful little annual with branching stem, opposite leaves, and small white flowers, common in fields and meadows throughout Britain and most parts of Europe. It possesses purgative and diuretic pro- Eerties, owing to the presence of a substance which as been called linin. As a domestic medicine, a handful of the fresh herb is often administered, infused in whey ; and it has a po2)ular reputation in rheumatism. FLAX, New Zealand, a valuable fibre quite different from common flax, and obtained from the leaf of an endogenous, instead of the stem of an exogenous plant. The plant yielding it is Phormium tenax, often called New Zealand Flax, and sometimes Flax Lily and Flax Bush. It belongs to the natural order Liliacece, and ia a perennial plant, a native 368 of New Zealand and Norfolk Island; its leaves resemble those of an Iris, are from two to six feefc long and one to two or three inches broad. The flowers are produced in a tall branched j)anicle ; are numerous, brownish yellow, not very beautiful ; the fruit is a three-cornered capsule with numerous compressed jet-black seeds. The fibre of the leavea is both very fine and very strong, and was used by the New Zealanders, before their country was discovered by Europeans, for making dresses, rojjes, twine, mats, cloth, &c. New Zealand Flar ui New Zealand Flax {Phormium tenax). imported into Britain for making twine and ropes ; and the plant is cultivated in its native country. Its cultivation has also been attempted in some parts of Europe ; but the winters of Europe, except in the south, are too cold for it. To (obtain the fibre, the leaves are cut when they have attained their full size, and usually macerate do not touch, thus preserving the fibre while break- ing the boon. In continental countries, scutclung is almost invariably performed by hand, the flax being held in a groove made in an upright stand, and struck by a flat blade. Machine-scutching ia much more certain and expeditious than Land- scutching, and is, in consequence, fast superseding it in this country. After passing through the breaking-machine, the flax is subjected to the action of a series of knives, attached to the arms of a vertical wheel ; these knives strike the flax in the direction of its length. The process is gone through three times before the flax is ready for the market. Although machine-scutcliing is expeditious, it is not capable of that j^liant adaptation to the varying nature of the flax to be operated upon, which is obtained in hand-scutching. The efi"ect of machine- scutching is to produce fineness by reducing and impairing, rather than sustaining, the character of the fibre — namely, the length and fineness of its ' staple ' or fibre. To remedy these defects, scutching by means of revolving brushes has been introduced. This divides the fibre without tearing it. The sub- sequent nmnufacturing operations will be noticed under Linen and Linen Manufacture. FLAXMAN, John, the greatest of Enghsh sculp- tors, was born at York, 6th July 1755. At the age of 15, he became a student in the Boyal Academy, but never worked in the studio of any master. In 1782, he married Miss Ann Denman, a lady of supe- rior gifts and graces, who soon began to exercise a beneficial influence u])on his studies. Accompanied by her, he went in 1787 to Italy, where, by degrees, he attracted the attention of all lovers of art. This was still more the case after his retiirn to London in 1794. He was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy in 1797 ; Royal Academician in 1800; and, in 1810, was ai)pointed Professor of Sculpture to that institution^ After the death of his wife in 1820, he withdrew from society, and died 7th December 1826. F.'s most celebrated works are his ' Outlines to Homer's Odyssey' (Rome, 1793), and 'The Iliad' (Lond. 1795), and his illustrations of Dante and ^schylus. Many of his works display wonderful grandeur of composition, and a pure and noble style. He was one of the first of those who, following the example of Winckelmann, strove to penetrate to the true spirit of antique art, in oppo- sition to the false taste of the time. The study of vase-paintings, and of the Pompeian miu-al jDictures, then just re\aved, led him to abandon the sickly mannerism of his predecessors for the severe simplicity of the antique, and he may with justice be styled the author of modem rilievo (see Altc- RiLiEVO). His works are not, however, all of equal value, and, in general, it may be said that his skdl in modelling was not equal to his inventive genius. The poetry of his conceptions is of a high order, F. contributed much towards bringing the outline style, now so popular, into general use. Of hia sculptures, the best known in England are his bas- relief mommient to the poet Collins at Chichester, the monument to Lord ^tansfield, and that to the Baring family at JMicheldeau Church, in Hampshire. His model for the shield of Achilles, taken frota 367 yLEA— FLECKNOE. the 18th book of the Iliad, is particularly worthy of admiration. F.'s private collection is now in University College, London, in the gallery known as Flaxman Hall. FLEA {Pulex), a Linnaean genus of apterous insects, now commonly regarded by entomologists OS constituting a distinct order, Suctoria, Sip/ion- aptera, or Aphaniptera. The species are not numer- ous, and little subdivision of the genus has been attempted. It has been suggested as probable, that further investigation may lead to a recognition of the fleas as belonging to some of the larger orders, with parts modified to suit their parasitical life. All the species are very similar to the Common Flea. {P. irritam), which is plentiful in all parts Common Flea [Pulcx irritans), magnified. of the world, living by sucking the blood of man, and of some species of quadrupeds and birds. It abounds partirvilarly in the nests of poultry, pigeons, and swallows, and wherever sand and dust accu- mulate in the chinks of floors, &c ; it is to l>e found also plentifully in beds, wherever cleanliness is neglected. The abundance of fleas in some countries is an intolerable nuisance to travellers, and also to residents. Such is said to be particularly the case in many parts of Australia, where the general dryness and warmth encourage their growth to an extent against which the precautionary measures of housewives are almost entirely una- vailing. The female flea is rather larger than the male, but the sexes are otherwise very similar. The head is small, very compressed, rounded above, and has on each side a small round eye. The mouth | has two lancet-likf, mandibles, the maxillae being | represented by two conical scales, the mandibles and | maxillae forming a suctorial beak, with a slender j bristle-like tongue, the whole enclosed between two three -jointed plates. The thorax consists of three i segments, the second and third of which bear a j scale on each side ; the scales are regarded as | rudimentary wings. There is no marked diA-ision | between the thorax and the abdomen, which con- j gists of nine segments, much larger than those of I the thorax, but much compressed. The whole i bxiy is covered with a tough integument. The j activity of the flea, its power of leaping, and | its extraordinary strength, are well known. Its strength has sometimes been applied to the draw- ing of miniature carriages, cannon, &c., which the public have been invited to witness through a magnifying-glass, as an amusing spectacle. Fleas undergo a complete metam(^rphosis. The female lays about a dozen eggs of a white colour, and slightly viscous. The larva is a Uvely little worm, at first white, afterwards reddish, and destitute of feet. When about to change into a pupa, it encloses itself in a little silk cocoon, from which emerges the perfect flea. Cleanliness and careful attention are the principal means of keeping beds and houses free of fleas ; but where these are foimd insufficient, as is apt to be the case in some climates, and in cottages where there is much 868 wood- work with gaping joints, certain strongly aromatic plants are employed, of which the odouns appear to be detestable to them, as the difiereut Compositce known by the name of fleabane, and also wormwood, the merits of which last are thus extolled by Tusser : * While wonnwood hath seed, get a handful! or twaine, To save against March, to make flea to refraiiie ; "Where chamber is sweeped, and wonnwood is strown, No flea for his life dare abide to be known.' Other species of fleas infest particular animals, aa the dog, fox, mole, &c. — The Chigoe (q. v.), or Jigger of the West Indies, nearly allied to the true fleas, ia far more troublesome than any of them. FLEA'BANE (PuUcaria), a genus of plants oi the natural order ComposltcB, sub-order Coryinhiferce^ having hemispherical imbricated involucres and yellow flowers ; the whole plant emitting a peculiar aromatic smell, sometimes compared to that of soap, wliich is said to be eflicacious in driving away fleaa. Fleabane {Pulicaria dy»enterica) i a, root; h, top of stem, with leaves and flowers; e, acnntu^ with pnppu-i; d, pistil ; e, a floret of the disc ; /, a etanaen* g, a floret of the ray. Two species are foimd in England, one of which (P. dysenterica), common in moist places, with oblong leaves, stem 12 — 15 inches high, cottony, and bearing panicled flowers, has a considerable reputation in diarrhoea and dysentery. The Kussian soldiers, in the expedition to Persia under General Keith, were much troubled with dysentery, which was cured by this plant. — Conyza squarrosa, also called fleabane, belongs to a nearly alhed genius. FLECHE, La, a town of France, in the depart- ment of Sarthe, is agreeably situated on the right bank of the Loir, 24 miles south-south-west of Le Mans. It is a well-built town, and has three prin- cipal streets, which are wide and well paved. It* principal building is the military school, with a library of 15,000 volumes, destined for the education of the sons of poor officers, or of soldiers who have highly distinguished themselves. The building now occupied by the school was once a royal palace, and was built by Henry IV. It was subsequently given by him to the Jesuits, and used by them as a Jesuit college. Here Prince Eugene, Descartes, and Picard the astronomer, were educated. F. has some trade in com, hay, and wine, also manufactures of linen, hosiery, and gloves. Pop. (1876) 7468, FLE'CKNOE, Richard, the date of whose birth is unknown, is said to have been an Irish Roman FLEET— FLEET PRISON. Catholic priest. He came to London, mingled in the wars of the wits, and wrote several plays, all of which are now forgotten. He died in 1G78. F. came under the lash of Dryden, whose satire, entitled Mac Flecnoe, is partly the model of Pope's Dunclad (q. v.), and will be remembered as long as the great satirist is remembered. From those who are acquainted with our extinct literature, we have the assurance that F. has been hardly dealt with ; that though he did not rise to the rank of Dryden as a poet, he was the author of several fugitive pieces, not without grace, fancy, and happy turns of expression. Among his dramatic pieces are Ermina, or the Chaste Lady; Lovers Dominion (printed in 1C54, and dedicated to Cromwell's favourite daughter, Mrs Claypole) ; and The Mar- riage of Oceanus and Britannia. His Miscellanea, or Poems of all Sorts, appeared in 1653. FLEET (that which floats), a collection of ships, whether of war or commerce, for one object or for one destination. The diminutives of fleet are 'division' and ' squadron.' In the royal navy, a fleet is ordi- narily the command of an admiral or vice-admiral. FLEET MARRIAGES. The practice of con- tracting clandestine marriages was very prevalent in England before the passing of the flrst mar- riage act (see Marriage). The chapels at the 8avoy and at May Fair, in London, were long famous for the performance of these marriages ; hnt no other place was equal in notoriety for this infamous traffic to the Fleet Prison. It must be observed, that before the passing of the 26 Geo. II. c. 33, there was no necessity in Eng- land for any religious ceremonial in the perform- ance of marriage, which m.ight be contracted by mere verbal consent. Hence it was not in virtue of any special privilege existing within the liberty of the Fleet that marriages at that place became so common ; but rather from the fact, that the persons by whom they were performed, having nothing to lose either in money or character, were able to set at defiance the penalties enacted from time to time with a view to restrain this public nuisance. The period during which these marriages were in greatest repute was from 1674 to 1754. The first notice of a Fleet marriage is in 1613, in a letter from Alderman Lowe to Lady Hickes, and the first entry in a register is in 1674. Up to this time, it does not appear that the marriages contracted at the Fleet were clandestine ; but in the latter year, an order having been issued by the ecclesiastical commissioners against the performance of clandestine m^arriages in the Savoy and May Fair, the Fleet at once became the favourite resort for those who desired to effect a secret marriage. At first, the ceremony was performed in the chapel in the Fleet ; but the applications became so frequent, that a regular trade speedily sprung up. By 10 Anne, c. 19, s. 176, marriages in chapels without bann.i were prohibited under certain penalties, and from this time, rooms were fitted up in the taverns and the hovises of the Fleet parsons, for the purpose of performing the ceremony. The persons who celebrated these marriages ■were clergymen of the Church of England, who had been consigned for debt to the prison of the Fleet, These men, having lost all sense of their holy calling, employed touters to bring to them such persons as required their ofiice. The sums paid for a marriage varied according to the rank of the parties, from half-a-crown to a large fee where the liberality and the purse combined to afford a large reward. During the time that this iniquitous traffic was at its height, every species of enormity was practised. Young ladies were compelled to marry against their will ; young men were decoyed 180 into a union with the most infamous characters i and persons in shoals resorted to the parsons to be united in bonds which they had no intention should bind them, and which were speedily broken to 1)6 contracted with some new favourite. The sailors from the neighbouring docks were steady j>atrons of this mode : it was stated by the keeper of one of the taverns, that often, when the fleet was in, two or three hundred marriages were contracted in a week. Persons of a more respectable character also at times resorted to the Fleet. Thus the Hon. Henry Fox .was here married to Georgina Caroline, daughter of the second Duke of EicJimond. Pennant thus describes the neighbourhood of the Fleet in his time : ' In walking along the street in my youth, on the side next the prison, I have often been tempted by the question : " Sir, will you be pleased to walk in and be married ? " Along this most lawless space was hung up the frequent sign of a male and female hand conjoined, with " maniagea performed within " written beneath. A dirty fellow invited you in. The parson was seen walking before his shop, a squalid, dirty figure, clad in a tattered plaid night-gown, -with a fiery face, and ready to couple you for a dram of gin or a pipe of tobacco.' — London, p. 193. Registers of these marriages were kept by the various parties who officiated. A collection of theoe books, purchased by government in 1821, and deposited in the Consistory Court of London, amounted to the inci'cdible number oi between two and three hundred large registers, and upwards of one thousand smaller books, called pocket-books. These registers were not received as evidence in a court of law [Doe d Davks v. Gatacre^ 8 Carr. and P. 578), not because the marriage was invalid, but because the parties engaged in the cere- mony were so worthless that they wero deemed undeserving of credit. Various attempts were made to stop this practice by acts of parliament. By 6 and 7 Will. HI. c. 52, and again by 7 and 8 Will. III. c. 35, penalties were imposed on clergymen cele- brating any marriage without banns ; but these provisions were without effect upon men who had nothing to lose. At length, the nuisance became intolerable, for, owing to the difficidty of proving these marriages, respectable parties, who in folly had entered into them, found it often impossible to establish their marriage, and the greatest confusion was in consequence produced. The act of the 26th Geo. II. c. S3, was therefore passed, which struck at the root of the matter by declaring that all mar- riages, except in Scotland, solemnised otherwiso than in a church or public chapel, where banna have been published, unless by special licence, shoidd be utterly void. This act met with strenuous opposition in the House of Commons, especially by Mr Fox, who had been himself married in the Fleet, but ultimately it was passed into a law. The public, however, were unwilling to surrender theix' privilege, and on the 26th March 1754, the day before the act came into operation, there were no less than 217 marriages entered in one register alone. See Bum's History of Fleet Marriages, to which we are indebted for many of the above particulars, FLEET PRISON, a celebrated London jail, which stood on the east side of Farrin^don Street, on what was formerly called Fleet Market. The keeper of it was called the Warden of the Fleet. It derived its name from the Fleet rivulet, so named from its rapidity, which flowed into tlie Thames. By the Act 5 and 6 Victoria, the Fleet Prison and the Marshalsea were abolished, and tlieir functions transferred to the Queen's Bench, under the new name of the Queen's Prison. The Fleet was the I king's prison so far back as the 12th c, and a recep- ! tacle for debtors since about the same period. The FLEETWOOD— FLEMISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. followers of Watt Tyler burned it in the reign of I\ich:ir(l 11. In the 16th and 17th centuries, it acquired a high historical interest from its having been the prison of the religious martyrs of the reigns of 5iary and Elizabeth, and of the political victims of the Courts of the Star Chamber and High Commission in that of Charles I. On the abolition of the Star Chamber in 1641, it became a place of confinement for debtors and persons committed for contempt from the Courts of Chancery, Exchequer, and Common Pleas. During the 18th c, it was the Bcene of every kind of atrocity and brutality, from the extortion of the keepers and the custom of the ■warden underletting it. The Fleet was several times rebuilt ; the last building was erected after the burning of the older one in the Gordon riots of 1780, tlie predecessor of which had been destroyed in the great tire of London in 1G66. Latterly, it usually contained 250 prisoners, and kept ward of about GO outdoor detenus for debt, privileged to live within the rides. FLEETWOOD, or FLEETWOOD-ON-WYRE, a small but thriving town, seaport, and military station of England, in the county of Lancashire, is situated on a promontory at the mouth of the estuary of the Wyre, about 20 miles south-west from Lancaster. It is a modern town, and owes its origin and importance to its facilities for railway and steam-vessel communication. It is handsomely laid out, has an excellent harbour, and is a favourite resort for sea-bathing. A government school of musketry, which promises to be for the north of England what Hythe and Aldershott are for the south, is now in full operation here. It has a staff of instructors, and quai-ters for 300 men and GO officers; besides a substantial hut-encamj)- nieut, about a mile from the town, for 200 men and 14 officers, where there are quarters for married soldiers, hospital, lecture-rooms, &c., and a large tract of hind for rifle practice. In 1872, 707 vessels, of 186,991 tons, entered, and 636, of 185,038 tons, cleared the port. Pop. (1871) 4428. FLEMISH LANGUAGE AND LITERA- TURE. The Vlaemisch or Flemish is a form of Low German still spoken in the Belgian provinces of East and West Flanders, Limburg, Antwerp, North Brabant, and in some parts of Holland and the Walloon provinces of Belgium. So little change has taken place in this dialect, that the form of speech in which the Council of Liptines drew up (in 742) the creed, in which pagans were made to express their renunciation of idolatry on being converted to Christianity, requires only the alteration of a few letters to make it intelligible to a modern Fleming. Flemish has much affinity with the Frisian, and constitutes, together with modern Dutch (which was originally identical with it, and now only differs from it in a few orthographical and otherwise unessential particulars), the national tongue of the whole of the Low Countries. The most ancient record of Flemish, is a fragment of a translation in prose of the Psalms a thousand j^ears old. In the 13th c, public deeds began to be drawn up in the vernacular, which are perfectly intelligible in the present day (as the Ordinance of Henry I. of Brabant, 1229, in the Brussels Booh of Privileges). In the same century, J. van Maerlant, the ' father of B'lemish poets,' author of The Historical Mirror, Wapen Martin, BymbilJ, Sec, and W. van Uten- liove composed numerous poems, and translated from the French and German, and very probably from the Latin. Willems and other critics believe that to the Flemish must be ascribed the honour ef the original and entire poem of Reinairt Vos, iho first \}OiXt of which they refer to the middle of 970 the 12th c, while the second part is attributed to W. van Utenhove, and sujtposed to have been written about 1250. The 14th c. was remarkable for the numbers and excellence of the Flemish Sj:>rekkers, Ztgijers, and Vinders, or wandering poets, some of whose works liave been published by Blommaert ; and for the origin of the Chambers of Rhetoric, which exerted a marked influence on the progress of literature during succeeding ages, and became the arbiters of literary and dran)atio fame through the Netherlands generally. In the 16th c, the French element gained ascendency, and the old Flemish lost much of its original terseness and purity. Numerous translations of the Scriptures appeared; among the most remark- able of which are the Psalms by Dathenus (1556), and by Marnix (1580), the author of the Roomsche Biekorf (1569). The translation of the entire Bible was not effected tiU 1618, when the General Synod of Dort decided to employ learned men capable of giving a correct version from the Hebrew and Greek texts ; and this great work was finally completed by two Flemings, Baudaert and Walona and two Dutchmen, Bogermann and Hommius. Strenuous efforts were also made, at this period, to give greater freedom to the Flemish language ; and hence this original Flemish version of the Bible has become a standard in regard to the construction and orthography of the language. Hooft, Vondel, and Cats are the three men whose names stand foremost among the Flemish writers of the 17th century. Hooft was a poet, but he is best known by his History of the Netherlands, which is held in high esteem by his countrymen. Vondel, who was one of the leading men of his day, made hia tragedies the vehicles of hurling the most cutting satire on every obnoxious measure of the govern- ment ; and his works still maintain their groimd. He had great versatility of powers ; and in his latter years, his talents were directed to the exaltation of Catholicism, to which he had been converted. Cats was essentially the poet of the people ; and for 200 years, liis works, popularly known as the Household Bible, have been cherished alike among the poor and wealthy. Although Cats was a skiljful lawyer, an active statesman, and a profound scholar, he found time to compose a great number of works, as the ZorgvUet; Trouvxring (the Wedding Ring); HoU' welyck (Marriage), which exhibit the most intimate acquaintance with the everyday-life of his country- men. His Moral EmUevis have recently (1859) been translated into English, and published by Messrs Longman & Co. The 18th c. was barren of poetic genius in the Low Countries, but it produced several good philologists, as Stevens, Huydecoper, and Ten Kate, the latter of whom is the author of a work on the Flemish language, which has served as a fundamental authority for modern writers. The arbitrary measures of the French government, under Napoleon, against the official use of Flemish, had the effect of crushing for a time the very spirit of nationalism, while it completely annihilated native literature ; and it was not till dfter the revolution of IS-'iO, that the Flemish language regained its footing in the Belgian provinces. Tiiig revival of the national form of speech is mainly due to the unremitting efforts of such waiters aa Willems, Bilderdijk, Cornelissen, Blommaert, Con- science, Delecourt, Ledeganck, &c., whose works have imparted fresh vigour, and greater granunatical precision to the Flemish. In 1841, on the occasion of a linguistic congress held at Ghent, the members of the government for the first time publicly recog- nised the existence of the Flemish element in the people, and addressed the meeting in the national dialect. The last thirty years have confirmed this FLEMMING— FLESH-FLY. «oovenient ; and while the best foreign works have Oiien rendered into Flemish, the writings of Blom- maert, Conscience (q. v.), and other native authors have been translated into many of the European tongues. See Sleecx on the History of the Flemish, and its Relation to other Languages ; Willems (1819 — 1824), Verhandl. ov. d. Nederduyt. ; 0. Delepierre, History of Flemish Literature (18G0). FLE MMING, Paul, one of the best German poets of the 17th c, was born October 15, 1609, at Hartenstein, in the principality of Schonburg, where bis father was minister. He studied medicine at Leipsic, but was induced by the distractions of the Thirty Years' War to retire to Holstein in 1633. In the same year he accompanied the embassy sent by the Duke of Holstein to Russia, and in 1635, was attached to the more splendid embassy sent out to Persia. He returned in 1639, married, and resolved to settle as a physician in Hamburg, but died there 2d April 1640. F. stands at the head of the German lyi-ic poets of the 17th c. His Geistliche und weltliche Poemaia (Jena, 1642) contain many exquisite love songs, which, for more than a century, remained unequalled in finish and sweetness. Others are distinguished for enthusiasm of feeling, ardent patriotism, andmanly vigour, while his sonnets are marked by strength and thorough originality. F.'s longer poems describe the adventures of his joarney, occasionally at least with great spirit, though they are not free from the weaknesses of his time. His beautiful hymn. In alien meinen Thaten, composed before his journey to Persia, proves his genius as a writer of sacred songs. His life, with his select poems, was published by Schwab (Stuttgard, 1820). Compare Knapp, Lvangelischer Liederschatz (Stuttg. 1837), and Mliller in the Bibliotheic Deutscher Didder des 17 Jahrhundert (3 vols., Leipsic, 1822) ; and Varnliagen von Ense, in the 4th voL of the Biographische Denkmale. FLE'NSBORG, the most populous and consider- able town in the duchy of Slesvig, at the extremity of the Flensborg Fjord, an inlet of the Baltic, and 19 miles north of the town of Slesvig. Pop. 21,325. It is the capital of a bailiwick of the same name, which included the north part of the district supposed to have been the country of the Angels, or Angli. F. is said to have been founded in the 12th c, and named from its founder, the Knight Flenes. In 1284 it received municipal rights from King Val- demar. F. is pleasantly situated, and has a good harbour. It has sugar refineries and distilleries, and manufactures of cloth, paper, soap, and tiles of superior quality. The trade is considerable. F. owns between 200 and 300 ships, many of which are built in its own yards. A railway, 43 miles long, connects F. with Tonuingen on the Eyder. FLERS, a town of France, in the department of Ome, north of France, 35 miles west-north-west of Alencon. It has an old castle, which was burned down in the Chouan war, but which has been recently restored. F. has considerable manufactures of linen, fustian, and especially 'of ticking. Pop. (1872) 7983. FLESH is the ordinary terra for muscular tissue. After the removal of the blood-vessels, nerves, con- nective (or cellular) tissue, &c., the flesh is found to consist of various textural elements, which are described in the aiticle Muscle (q. v.). Numerous analyses have been made of the miiscular sub- stance of various animals. In Dr Day's translation of Siinon's Animal Chemistry, published by the Bydenhcim Society, there are analyses of the flesh of mail, the ox, calf, i»ig, roe, pigeon, fowl, caqs and tro'it. The following ta])le gives tlie determinations of the individual constituents of the flesh of oxen, or, in ordjiia?.y language, of beef freed, as far as possible, from blood-vessels, etc., and may be regaided as fairly representing the composition of flesh generally : I'er cent Per rent. Witter varies from 74-0 to 800 Solid constituents vary If 2G 0 H 20-0 1000 The latter beinpr made up of Muscular fibre which varies from 16-40 » 17-70 Gelatigenuus aubstance II 0 GO «t 1 90 Albumen II 2-20 „ 300 Creatine If II 0 07 II 0 14 Creatinine undetermined. Inosic acid do. Fat II If 1-50 to 2 80 Lactic acid (CsHsOs.HO) II II OGO 1, 0 68 Pli()>«phoric acid It II C CG „ 0-70 Potash II II 0 50 „ 064 Soda II 0 07 II 009 Chloride of sodium II II 0 04 II 0 09 Lime II ti 0 02 II 0 03 Magnesia II O Oi II 0-08 Long as the above list of substances is, it does not include all the ingi-edients of flesh. In the freshly expressed muscular juice, which exhibits a strong acid reaction (from free lactic acid, and from acid plios})hates of the alkalies), we also find small quantities of Sarcine or Hypoxanthine (q. v.), and of formic, butyric, and acetic acids — which may, however, be mere products of decomposition; very minute quantities of m-ic acid, and sometimes a trace of urea, which, however, occurs in very appre- ciable quantity in the muscles of persons who have died of cholera, and in very considerable quantity in the flesh of the plagiostomous fishes, while in outlier fishes not a trace of it can be detected — an apparent anomaly to which at present we see no clue ; and in the juice of the heart of mammals, and in smaller quantity in their other muscles, a kind of sugar termed Inosite (q. v.). Bernard has recently discovered Glycogen (q. v.) in the muscles of the embryos of various animals. In regard to the inorganic constituents of the juice of flesh, Liebig directs especial attention to the fact, that this fluid ' in all animals is i)articu- larly rich in potash, and that it also contains chloride of potassiiun, with only traces of chloride of sodium ; while in the blood only proportionally small quantities of the salts of potash and prepon- derating quantities of the salts of soda and of common salt, are present.' He further notices the constant excess of the phosphates over the clilorides, and of the phosphate of lime over that of magnesia in the former fluid, as points of physiological im- portance. The value of these investigations will be shewn in the article Metajmorphosis of Tissue (q. v.). It is worthy of notice, in connection both with physiology and dietetics, that the dried flesh of the ox is identical in its idtimate composition with dried blood, as is shewn by the follo\ving analywa^ which were made by Professor Jjyon Playfair : Beet Ox-bIoourpose first calcined, then thrown into cold water, and afterwards powdered. The origin of F. is a subject of considerable difficulty. Silicious deposits are sometimes a purely chemical operation, as in the case of the silicious sinter formed round the geysers of Iceland, from the evaporation of water largely charged with silex. But at the bottom of the sea, as no evaporation could take i)lace, some other agent than springs of water saturated with silex must have su]ij)lied the materials. It is a fact of considerable im])ortance in this inquiry, that almost all large masses of limestone have thin silicious concretions, or flints. Thus, chert is found in carboniferous and other limestones, and menilite in the tertiary limestones of the Paris basin. The conditions necessaiy for the deposition of calcareous strata seem to be those required for the formation of silicious concretions. The materials of both exist in solution in sea- water, and as it needed the foraminifer, the coral, and the mollusc to fix the carbonate of lime which formed the chalk deposits, so the silex was secreted by innumerable diatoms and sponges, and their remains most probably supplied the material of the flint. The discovery by Dr Bowerbank and other micro- scojiists of the S])icules of sponges and the frustules of diatoms in almost every specimen of F., has clearly shewn that F. to a large extent, if not entirely, owes its origin to these minute organisms. It is, however, difficult to account for the changes that have taken place in these materials subsequent to their deposition. FLINT, a parliamentary boroiigh and seaport in the east of Flintshire, North Wales, formerly the capital of the county, on the left side of the estuary of the Dee, 191 miles north-west of London by rail, and 124 miles north-west of Chester. It foi-ma a rectangle like a Roman camp, and is surroinided by now nearly obliterated ramparts and intrench ments. The Dee estuary is some miles wide here, but is shallow and narrow at low water. A^esscls of 300 tons reach the town. The principal exports are coal and lead from mines in the vicinity, which afford the chief employment. Pop. (IS?!) 4269. It unites with seven other places m sending one member to parliament. Roman reliu^ and traces of Roman lead smelting Avorks have been found here. On a low freestone rock in a tidul niarsh are the remains of a castle, built by Heuij II.. imd FLINT— FLINT IMPLEMENTS AND WEAPONS dismantled in 1G47. The (loul>le tower or keep is 40 feet in diameter, and includes two concenti ic walls, each 6 feet thick, witli .m intervening gallery 8 feet broad ; within, is a circle 20 feet in diameter, with four entrances. Deterioration of the channel of the Dee has made F. in a great degree a port of Chester, and here larger vessels, especially with timber, are discharged, and the cargoes floated up the Dee in smaller vessels, the timljcr in rafts. FLINT, a river of Georgia, one of the United States of America, unitcis ou its right with the Chattahoochee, at the south-west angle of the state, to foi-m the Aij^ialachicola, which, after a course of 100 miles, enters the Gulf of Mexico. The F. itself is about '.i()0 miles long, being practicable for steam-boats u[) to Albany, about 250 miles distant from the sea. FUNT, Timothy, Rev., an American clergyman and author, was born, in 1780, at Kcading, Massa- chusetts, and graduated at Harvard College. In 1802 he became minister of the Congregational Church j in Lunenburg, county of Worcester in that state, I where he remained till 1814. In the following year, I he became a missionary for the valley of the Missis- i sippi, where he was engaged in itinerant preach- ing and teaching a school. In 1825, he returned to the northern states; and in 182G, published his Becol lectio)) s of Ten Years jmssed in the Valley of the Mississippi (Boston, Svo). The same year api)eared j from his pen a novel, entitled Francis Berrian, or j the Mexica)i Patriot, purporting to be the autobio- graphy of a New England adventurer who acted a I consjticuous part in the first Mexican revolution, ' and in the overthrow of Iturbide. In 1828, he issued two works : A Co))densed Geography and Histo)-y of the Western States in the Mississippi Valley (Cincinnati, 2 vols. Svo) ; and Arthur Clen- nin(f, a novel (Philadelphia, 2 vols. Svo). Another novel, George Mason, or The Backwoodsman, and a romance in 2 vols., Tlte Shoshonee Valley, appeared at Cincinnati in 1830. In 1833, he edited several i numbers of the Knickerbocker Magazhie, and was j subsequently editor for three years of The Westei'n \ Monthly Magazi)ie. His other works are : hidian \ Yiars in the West (1833, 12mo) ; Lectures on Natural - History, Geology, Chenilstry, a)id the Arts (Boston, j 1833, 12mo) ; translation of Droy's V Art d'etre ' lleureusc, with additions by translator; and Bio- \ graphical Memoir of Da)ilel Boone, tlte first Settler \ of Kentztcky (Cincinnati, 1834, ISmo). In 183"), he ' contributed to the London Athenamm a series of i Sketches of the Literature of the United States. He died at Salem, August 16, 1840. — His son, MicAii P. Flint, published a volume of poetry, entitled The Hunter and other Boons. FLINT GLASS. See Glass. FLINT IMPLEMENTS AND WEAPONS, believed to have been used by the primitive inhabit- iints, have from time to time, in more or less munber, been turntxl up by the plough and the spade, dug cut fiom ancient graves, fortifications, and dwelling- places, or fished up from the beds of lakes and livers, in almost every country of Europe. They do not differ, in any material respect, from the flint implements and weapons still in use among uncivil- ised tribes in Asia, Africa, America, and the islands j of the Pacific Ocean. The weapons of most fre- q\ient occurrence are arrow-heads (see Elf- arrows), I spear-points, dagger- blades, and axe-heads or Celts j |q. v.). The more common implements are knives, j chisels, rasps, wedges, and thin curved or semi- circular plates, to which the name of 'scrapers' has ! been given. There is great variety, as well in the ; eize as m the shape, even of articles of the same kind. 7'here ia equal variety in the amount of skill | or labour expended in their manufacture. In somo instances, tlie llint has been roughly fashioned into something like the rctpurcd form by two or three blows; in others, it has been laboriously cliii»i>ed into the wishod-for shape, which ia (jfteu one of no little elegance. In yet auotlier class of cases, the llint, after being duly shaped, has been ground smooth, or has even received as high a polish aa could be given by a, modern lapidary. Exami)lea of all the varieties of flint weapons and imjjhjnients will be found in the British Museum, in tlie Museum of the lioyal Irish Academy at Dulilin, in the Museum of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland at Edinburgh, and above all, in the M useum of the Iloyal Society of Antiquaries at Copenhagen, which is e8i)ecially rich in this class of remains, Kepre- sentations of interesting or characteristic typea may be seen in the Catalogue of the A nltaological Museum at Edinburgh in 1856 (lidin. 1859) ; iii Ml Wilde's Catalogue of tlte Antiquities in the Mu^seum of the Boyal Irish Academy (Dubl. 1857—1861); in Worsaae's Nordiske Oldsager i det Kongellgt Museum i Kjobenhavn (Copen. 1S59) ; and in M. Frederic Troyon's Habitations Lacustres (Lausanne, 1860). Geological discoveries have recently invested flint implements with a new interest. At Abbeville, ai Amiens, at Paris, and elsewhere on the continent, flint weapons, fashioned by the hand of man, have been found along with remains of extinct species of the elephant, the rhinoceros, and other mam- mals, in undisturbed beds of those deposits of sand, gravel, and clay to which geologists have given the name of ' the drift.' They so far resemble the flint implements and weapons found on the surface of the earth, but are generally of a larger size, of ruder worlunanship, and less varied in shape. They have been divided into three classes — round- pointed, as in fig. 1 ; and sharp -pointed, as in fig. 2, both being chipped to a sharp edge, so as to cut or pierce only at the pointed end ; and oval-shaped, as in fig. 3, with a cutting edge all round. The first and second classes vaiy in length from about four inches to eight or nme inches ; the third class is generally about four or five inches long, but examples have been found of no more than two inches, and of as much as eight or nine inches. In no instance has any fliiit implement discovered in the drift been found either polished or ground. The French anti- quary, M. Boucher de Perthes, was the first to call attention to these very interesting remainSj in his Antl/piites Celtiques et Antediluvioines (Paris, 1847 — 1857). But it has since been remembered that imj)lements of the same kind were found in a similar position at Hoxne, in Suffolk, along \\ith remains of some gigantic animal, in 17G7, and at Gray's Imi Lane, in London, along with remains of an elephant, in 1715. Both these English examples are still preserved — the first in the Museum of the Society of Antiquaries at London, the second in the British Museum, and they are precisely similar in every respect to the examples more recently foimd in France. To what age these remains should be assigned, is a question on wdiich geology seems scarcely yet prepared to speak with authority. But, in the words of Mr John Evans, in his essay on ' Flint Implements in the Drift,' in the A7-cha'ologia, vol. xxxviii. (Lond. 1860), 'thus much appears to be established beyond a doubt, that in a period of antiquity remote beyond any of wliich we have hitherto found traces, this portion of the globe was peopled by man ; and that manlcind has here witnessed some of those geological changes by which the so-called diluvial beds were deposited. Whether these were the result of some \ioIeut rush 176 FLINTSHIRE— FLOATING BATTERY. of waters, such i\s may have taken place when " the fonntuins of the great deep were broken np, and the windows of heaven were opened," or whether of a more gradual action, similar in »,iiaracter to some of those now in operation along the course of our brooks, streams, and rivers, may be matter of dispute. Under any circumstances, this great fact remains indisputable, that at Amiens, laud which is now 160 feet above the sea, and 90 feet above the Somme, l\as, since the existence of Rint Implements from the Valley of the Somme — Eednood. k^in, been submerged nnder fresh water, and an u«ineous deposit from 20 to 30 feet in thickness, a )[)ortion of which, at all events, must have subsided from tranquil w\ater, has been formed upon it ; and this, too, has taken j)lace in a country the level of which is now stationary, and the face of which has been little altered since the days when the Gauls and the Romans constructed their sepulchres in the soil overlying the drift which contains these relics of a far earlier race of men.' FLI'NTSHIRE, a maritime county of North Wales, bounded on the E. by Cheshire and the river Dee, on the S. and W. by Denbighshire, and on the N. by the Irish Sea. The main portion of the county is 25 miles long by 10 broad, and the larger of the two outhang portions, which lies toward the Bouth-east of "the main part, is 10 miles by 5. F. is the smallest of tlie Welsh counties, its area being only 184,905 acres, of which yth is arable. The coast, 20 miles long, is low and sandy, but on the Dee estuary fertile. A hill-range, parallel to the Dee, runs through the length of the county, and rises in Garreg to 825 feet. Another range along the south- west border of the county rises in Moel Famma, 1845 feet. The chief rivers are the Dee, Alyn, and Clvvyd. The chief strata are Permian, Carboniferous, and Devonian. Coal, and ores of iron, lead, silver, ropper, and zinc are the chief mineral jiroducts and exports. F. supplies a fourth of the )ead produced in Britain. The soil is fertile in tlie plains and Z7C vales, and the staple produce is wheat, oats, T)arley, potatoes, cattle, cheese, and butter. Cotton is the main manufacture. The London, Chester, and Holy- head Railway skirts the east and north shores. F. contiuns 5 hundreds and 32 parishes. Pop. (1871) 76,245. About 21 5 places of worship (1 10 Methodist, 41 Episcopal). F. sends two members to parliament. The chief towns are Flint, formerly the county town ; Mold, St Asaph, Holy^vell, Rhyddlan, and Hawarden. F. has traces of Roman lead-mines, is traversed by Wat and OfFa's Dykes, and has some ancient castle and ecclesiastical ruins. In F., in the 7th c, Saxon invaders massacred 1200 Christian monks of the monastery of Bangor. In 79G, the Saxons defeated the Welsh here with dreadful slaughter, which event gave rise to the still jKJpular plaintive air of Mor/a Rhyddlan. FLINTY SLATE, of which there are beds in some parts of Scotland, and in many other countries^, is an impure quartz, assuming a slaty structure. It contains about 75 per cent, of silica, the remainder being lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, &c. Its frac- ture is rather splintery than shell-like. It is more or less translucent. It passes by insensible grada- tions into clay-slate, with w'hich it is often in most intimate geological connection. Lydian Stone (q. v.) is a variety of tlinty slate. FLOATING BATTERY is a hulk, hea-nly armed, and made as invulnerable as possible, used FLOATING BATTERY— FLOATING ISLANDS. In defending harbours, or in attacks on marine fortresses. The most remarkable instance of their em]»loynient was by the French and S^ianiards against Gibraltar, in the memorable siege which lasted from July 1779 to February 1783, when ten of these vessels, carrying 212 large gnns, were brought to bear on the fortress ; they had sides of Floating Battery used in the Russian "War, 1854 — 1855. great thickness, and were covered with sloping roofs, to cause the shot striking them to glance off inno- cuously. But their solidity and strength were unavailing against the courage and adroitness of the defenders, under the gallant General Elliot, who succeeded in destroying them with red-hot cannon- balls. Steam floating batteries of iron were con- Btructed for the war with Russia in 1854, both by the Biitish and French governments ; but, notwith- Btanding that they rendered good ser\ace before Kinburn, they have since been generally discarded for other than purely defensive purposes, as too cumbrous for navigation, and too suffocating from the smoke that collected between their de^ks during action. — The iron-plated frigates now (1876) made (such as the Warrior) can scarcely be regarded as floating l)attci-ies, being rather fx'igates of splendid build, rendered almost impenetrable by sheets of U'on overlying their sides. FLOATING ISLANDS exist in some lakes, and more rarely in slow and placid rivers. Not unfrequently, they are formed by the detachment of Jiortions of tlie bank ; the interlaced roots of plants orming a fal>ric sufficiently strong to endure the occasional buffeting of waves, and to support soil for herbage or even trees to grow in. Floating islands aro often formed by aggregation of drift- wood in the creeks and bays of tropical rivers, and being wafted into the channel of the river when it is Hooded or by the wind, are carried down to the 8ea, with the soil that has accumulated, and the vegetation that has established itself upon them. They are sometimes seen at a distance of 50 or 100 miles from the mcmth of the Ganges, with living trees standing erect upon th'-m. Portions of the alluvial soil from the deltas of rivers, held together by the joots of mangroves and other trees, are Bomctimes also carried out to sea after typhoons or hurricanes, and ships have, in consequence, becu involved in unexpected dangers, as amongst the icebergs of colder latitudes. Imagination has always invested with a peculiar interest the Straggling plots, which to and froe doe rome In the wide waters ; and ancient legend did not fail to notice the floating islets of the sacred Vandimonian Lake, which were large enough to bear away cattle that were tempted upon them by their fresh green grass ; and the island of the Cutulian waters, which carried on its surface a dark and gloomy grove, and was constantly changing its place. A small lake in Artois, near St Omer, vi remarkable for the number of its floating islands, aa are also the marshy lakes of Comacchio near the Gidf of Venice. Among the largest in the world .are those of the Lake of Gerdau, in Prussia, which furnish pas- turage for 100 head of cattle ; and that of the Lake of Kolk, in Osnabruck, which is covered with beau- tifid elms. Loch Lomond was long celebrated for its floating island ; it, however, can no longer boast of one, as it has long since subsided and become stationary. Floating islands are found in some lakes of Scotland, and also in Ireland, and consist for the most part of large floating masses of peat. Pennant gives a description of one which he saw in Breadal- bane, the surface of which exhibited plenty of coarse grass, small willows, and even a little birch tree. More interesting to the scientific inquirer, as pre- senting a phenomenon not so easily explained, are those floating islands which from time to time appear and disappear in the same spot, of wliich there is one in the Lake of Derwentwater in Cum- berland, one in the Lake Ralaug in the province of Smalande in Sweden, and one in Ostrogothia. That in Derwentwater is opposite to the mouth of a stream called the Catgill ; and the most probable of the many theories which have been proposed to account for it is that which ascribes it to the waters of the stream, when flooded by rains, getting beneath the interlaced and matted roots of the aquatic i>lant3 which there form a close turf on the bottom of the lake. This floating island, when it rises above the water, is most elevated in the centre, and on its being pierced with a fishing-rod, water has spouted up to the height of two feet. The marshy ground of the vale of Cashmere, and particularly around the city of Cashmere, containing many lakes, and liable to inundations, exhibits a peculiar form of human industry in its numerous Floating Gardens, em2)loyed chiefly for the culti- vation of cucumbers, melons, and water-melons. These floating gardens may be described as })ortiona of the marshy ground artificially n)ade to float, by cutting through the roots of the reeds, sedges, and other plants about two feet below the surface, upon which mud is then spread. The floating of the garden secures the soil and crop from destruction by inundations. Floating gardens existed on the Lake of Mexico before the conquest of JNIexico by the Spaniard*. The Mexicans had made great i)rogTess m the art of gardening, and particularly in the cultivation ol flowers, which were much used both in their festi- vities and in their worship. How they were induced to attempt the formation of floating gardens, and at what period it was first done, are mere matters of conjecture. The shallowness of gieat j)art of the lake was favourable to the success of the attempt, and perhaps the gr?xlual receding of its watei-s may be reckoned among the reasons of the gradual diminution of the number of the floating gardens, which have almost ceased to be reckoned among the wonders of the world. The Abb6 Clavigero, in his History of Mexico, describes them as lonned of wicker-work, water-plants, and mud ; as some- times more than 20 poles in extewt; the largest ri FLOATSTONE— ] FLOOR-CLOTH. unes commonly having a small ti'ce in the centre, and sometimes a hut for the cultivator ; and as employed for the cultivation both of flowers and culinary plants. Humboldt confirms this descrip- tion, but states that the real floating gardens, or chinampas, are ra})idly diminishing in number. The existing chinampas are in general not floating gardens, but plots of ground with very wide ditches between them, formed by heaping up earth from the ditches in the swamps or shallows at the side of the lake. Great part of Bangkok, the capital of Siam, con- Bists of floating houses. See Bangkok. FLOA'TSTONE, a variety of quartz, consisting of fibres— delicate crystals — aggregated so that the whole mass is sponge-like, and so light, owing to the air confined in the interstices, as to float for a while on water. It is found in a limestone of the chalk formation near Paris, in imbedded masses, or incrusting flint nodules. FLOBE'CQ, a small town of Belgium, in the province of Hainaiilt, 20 miles north-east of Tournai. It has extensive manufactures of linens, has breweries, salt-works, oil and flour mills, and has iwo fairs annually. Pop. 5258. FLO'DDEN, Battle of. On the 24th January 1502, a ' perpetual peace ' was concluded between England and Scotland. In the course of a few years, however, a series of petty quarrels had done much to bring this peaceable arrangement to a ter- mination ; and in 1513, on the invasion of France, Scotland's ancient ally, by Henry of England, a war broke out between the two countries. James IV., the chivalrous but rash king of Scotland, summoned the whole array of his kingdom to meet on the Borough or Common Moor of Edinburgh, which extended from the southern walls of the city to the foot of the Braid Hills, and which was then * a field sj^acious, and delightful by the shade of many stately and aged oaks.' Here an army, it is said, of 100,000 men assembled. With this force James crossed the border on the 22d August 1513 ; but instead of advancing at once, and achieving a decisive success, he lingered in the neighbour- hood of the Tweed until his army had become reduced by desertion to about 30,000 men. On the 6th September, James took up his position on Flodden Hill, the last and lowest eminence of the Cheviots toward tlie north-east. On the morning of the 9th, the Earl of Surrey, lieutenant-general of the northern counties of England, at the head of au army of about 32,000 men, advanced from the south-east, crossed the Till by a skilful and unexpected movement, and thus cut off all communi- cation between King James and Scotland. While the English were crossing the Till, the Scots might have attacked them with every chance of success, and their not taking advantage of this' opportunity was the first great mistake of the battle. Observing that the English were aiming at a strong posi- tion to the north-west of Flodden Hill, and desirous of preventing this, James, having ordered his tents to be set on fire, advanced against them in battle-array. The two armies were drawn up in similar order, each consisting of a centre, a right and left wing, and a reserve placed behind the centre. At about four o'clock on Friday, 9th Sep- tember the battle commenced with cannonading on both sides. The Earls of Huntly and Home, who commanded the left wing of the Scottish army, charged the English right, which was led by Sir Ednuind Howard, anrl entirely defeated it. Instead, however, of following up their success, Home's borderers commenced pillaging the baggage of both trmiefj; and Huntly, after his first charge, is said to have left the field. On the Scottish right, the clansmen under Lennox and Argyle, goaded to fury by the English archers, rushed forward, heed- less of order, and fell with the greatest violence upon their opponents, who, however, received them with wonderful intrepidity and coolness, and at length put them to flight with great slaughter. Meantime, a desperate resistance was being made by the Scottish centre, where the king fought on foot among his nobles. Scottish history presents no instance in which the national valour burned with a purer flame than in this. Hemmed in by outnumbering enemies, the king among his slender group of lords fought manfully until, when the night was closing on Flodden, he fell pierc<^ by an arrow, and mortally wounded in the head. The hill was held during the night by the Scots ; but at dawn, learning the state of matters, they abandoned their position. Their loss amounted to from 8000 to 10,000 men. ' Scarce a Scottish family of eminence,' says Scott, ' but had an ancestor killed at Flodden.* Besides the king, the Archbishop of St Andrews and twelve earls were among the slain. The English loss amounted to about GOOO or 7000 ; but Surrey's victory was so nearly a defeat that he was unable to prosecute the war with any vigour. The sixth canto of Sir Walter Scott's poem of Marmlon con» tains a magnificent, and in the main an accurate, descrii^tion of the battle. FLOGGING, Army and Navy. Corpora) punishment has existed from time immemorial in the British army and navy ; formerly haWng been inflicted upon slight occasion, and often with bar- barons severity. In deference, however, to public 02nnion, it has been much less resorted to during recent years, and promises almost to disa])pear under a regulation of 18G0. A man must now be convicted of one disgracefid offence against discip- line before he can be liable to flogging for the next such offence ; and even after one such degradation, he may be restored to the non-liable class by a year's good conduct. The punishment of flogging, w^liich is generally administered vnth. a whip or ' cat * of nine tails on the bare back, cannot, imder existing rules, exceed fifty lashes. Corporal punishment is not recognised in the French army ; but then the soldiers in that country are dra^-n by conscription from all ranks of society, and have, on an average, a higher moral tone than the British recruits, who, attracted by a bounty, volunteer usually from the lowest orders. On the other hand, the discipline in the French army, and especially during war on a foreign soil, is universally admitted to be inferior to the strict rule preserved among British troops. Soldiers and sailors being men unaccustomed to control their passions, and any bi'each of insubordination being fatal to the esprit of a force, unless summarily repressed, it is considered necessary to retain the power — how- ever rarely exercised — of inflicting the ])ainful and humiliating punishment of flogging. The French soldier, though escaping the ignominy of personal chastisement, is governed by a code harsher than our articles of war as actually administered ; and the punishment of death, scarcely known in the British service during ])eace, is not unfrequently visited in France upon offenders against discipline. FLOOR-CLOTH, a coarse canvas coated on both sides, and partly saturated with thick oil-i)aint, one side having usually a coloured pattern printed ujion it in oil-paint. The canvas basis for floor- cloth is chiefly manufactured in Dundee. As it ia required to be without seam, and of sufficient Avidth to cover considerable spaces of flooring, special looms are required for weaving it. It is made FLOOR-CLOTH— FLOORS. from 18 to 24 feet in width, and in lengths from 100 to 113 yards. The first step towards converting this canvas into floor-cloth consists in stretching it on a frame. This is a work of some difficulty, on account of the great size of the pieces. Some of the frames are as much as 100 feet in length by 24 feet in height, and the canvas must be stretched over it as tight as a drum. The back or plain side of the cloth is fiist operated upon, by priming it with a solution of size, and scouring it with pumice. The object of this is to i)revent too much of the paint from penetrating the canvas, and rendering it brittle, and to make an even surface to receive the paint, which is mixed with linseed oil, with very little or no turpentine, and is consequently thicker than com- mon paint. This is thrown or splashed upon the Biu-face with a brush ; and then with a long steel trowel the workman spreads the dabs of paint, and produces a tolerably smooth surface. This troicel- colour is left for 12 or 14 days to dry, and then another coat is laid on in a similar manuer ; and this completes the back or imder side of the floor-cloth. While the first coat of the back is drying, the front is prhded and pumiced, and a coat of trowel- colour laid on. As more care is required on this side, this coat of colour is scoured quite smooth with pumice, and two more trowel-colours are added, and each scoured like the first. Another coat is now carefully laid on with a brnsh, and is called a brush- colour. This forms the ground upon which the pattern is to be printed. The printing is done by means of wood-blocks. The pattern is first drawn and painted, in its complete form and colours, upon a piece of })aper ; another piece of paper is now laid under this, and the outlines of that portion of the pattern included in one colour are pricked througli to the lower paper. In like manner, pricked outlines of each of the other colours are prepared. Each of these pricked sheets is laid upon a block of pear-tree wood, and dusted over with powdered charcoal or lampblack, aud thus the pattern is drawn in dots upon the wood ; the carver cuts away the wood surroundmg the pattern, and leaves it standing in relief. The pear-tree blocks are backed by gluing them to a piece of deal, and this piece again to another, with the fibres at right angles, to prevent warping. The colours are spread by boys upon padded cushions covered with floor-cloth, and each printer dabs his block upon that containing the required colour, aud then places it u])on the floor-cloth, and striking it with the handle of a short heavy hammer, prints his portion of the pattern. He then proceeds with a repetition of this, and as he advances, he is followed in order by the printers of the other colours, who place their blocks accur- ately over the pattern the first has commenced. The first printer's chief care is to keep the repeti- tions of tlie pattern accurately in line. The quality of floor-cloth de])ends mainly upon the number of coats of paint, the kind of medium used for the colour, and the time given to drying. For the best qualities, a fortnight must elapse be- tween the laying on of each coat, and finally, several months' exj)osure in the drying-room is necessary. As the rental of the space thus occupied, and the interest of the capital left stagnant during this time, amount to a considerable sum, there is a strong inducement to manufacturers to hasten the pro- cesses, which may easily be done by using gold size or boiled linseed oil, or other rai)id 'dryers,' instead of raw linseed oil ; but just in proi>ortion as the drying is hastened by these means, the durability ftnd flexibility of the floor-cloth are deteriorated. In order to secure the maximum of durability, floor- cloth should still be kept three or four years after it has left the drying-room of the manufacturer, and purchasers should always select those pieces which they have reason to believe have been the longest in stock. Narrow floor-cloth, for stair-carj)cting, passages, etc., is made as above, and then cut into tlie required widths and printed. It usually has a 'arge pattern in the middle, and a border of a smaller lesign. The laying of lobbies and passages with encaustic tiles has lately led to the superseding of floor-cloth in such situations, while for some other purposes, such as covering the floors of churches, reading- rooms, and waiting-rooms at railway-stations, it is superseded by the ncAvly invented material called kamptulicon, or vulcanised India-rubber cloth, which is im[)ervious to wet, soft and quiet to the tread, and warm to the feet. Tliis new material is made plain or figured to resemble painted floor-cloth. FLOORS, FLOORING, the horizontal partitiona between the stories of a building, the uppei part of which forms the floor of the apartments abuve, and the lower portion the ceiling of those below. Floors are variously constructed, according to their dimensions, and to the weight they have to sustain, Single-joisted floors are the simplest and most cheaply constructed, and are used for ordinary buildings, where the distance between the bearinga does not exceed 20, or at most 24 feet. The annexed figure represents a section of a single- joisted floor, in the line of the flooring-boards, and across the joists. These joists are beams laid edge h 3 M a. h c fl, ft, c, rf, the Joists ; t, /, the flooring-boards ; eg and dhy herring-bone strutting. upw'ards, ahd resting at their ends upon wall-platca l)uilt into the walls. Their width should not be less than two inches, for if narrower, they Avould l)e liable to split with the nailing of the flooring-boards. They are placed edge upwards, in order to economise timber, as the strength of a beam to bear a trans verse strain varies simply with the breadth and with the square of the depth. See Strength of Materials. When a deep and long joist is iised, there is danger of its twisting or turning over ; this is prevented by strutting, that is, nailing cross pieces of wood between them, as shewn between the joists c and d of the figure, or less effectually, by driving pieces of planking between them. Strutting is required when the length of the joists exceeds eight feet. The laths for the ceiling of the room below are nailed to the bottom of the joists. In good substantial work, the distance between the joists from centre to centre is about 12 inclic.s, but this is often exceeded in cheaply built houses. Don ble-joi sled floors are constructed by laying strong timbers, called hinding-jolsls, from wall to wall, at a distance of about six feet apart ; and a double set of joists, one above for the flooi-, and one below for the ceiling, are laid across these, and notched down upon them. These latter, when thus placed, are called bridging-joists, as they bridge (ivcr the interval bet-ween the larger binding-joists. This is adoi)ted when a more jierfect ceiling, free from cracks, produced by the yielding of the floor, is required, or where there is a diflicnlty in obtaining a .snlKcient amount of long timber for single joistuig the wliole of the floor. The framed floor is one iegree more complei a7» FLORA— FLORENCE than tlie double-joisted. Binding and biidging joists are used in the framed floor, but the binding- joists cease to be the primary support, as for this purpope strong balks of timbers, called girders, are used. They are laid across, at distances of from eight to ten feet, and the binding- joists are framed into them by a tusk-tenon joint. See Carpentry. The bridging- joists are notched to these in the same manner as for double-joisted floors. A hay is the general name for the si)ace between girders : if between a girder and wall, it is called a tail hay ; or between two girders, a case hay ; and the work between is described as a hay of jolsting. When the space to be spanned is too great for a simple wood-girder, trussed or built up wooden girders or ii on girders are used : the latter have of late come into extensive use, even where simple wood-girders are applicable. See Girder, With a given quantity of timber, and a moderate Bj)ace, the single-joisted floor is the strongest of any. One of its disadvantages is the free com- munication of sound to the apartment below, unless some additional means of obstructing the sound be adopted. When first laid, the floor should be rather high in the centre, to allow for settling at the joints; and wlien settled, it shoidd be perfectly level, for if it rises in the middle, it will exert an outward tkrust ujwn the walls, and if hollow, it will pull inwards; but if level, its whole strain is perpen- dicular. The flooring-boards are usually nailed to the joists, and vary from 1 to li inch in thickness; for common floors they are from 7 to 9 inches wide, but for better floors a width of only 3 to 5 inches is used. The advantage of the narrow boards is, that the shrinkage and warping have not so much efiect on the spaces between. This refers to the ordinary deal-flooring used in modern British domestic buildings. The facing of the floor in many old mansions is formed of small pieces of oak carefully inlaid. (See Parquetry.) For other kinds of inhiid fancy floors, see MOSAIC, Ekcaustic Tiles, and Concrete. In France, and most of the Bouthern continental countries, where cari)ets are rarely used, the flooring-boards of the better class of houses are made of hard wood, carefully and closely jointed, and these floors are commonly rubbed with bees-wax, and polished. In humbler dwellings, even the bedrooms are paved with tiles, or strong plaster, or concrete ; and considering the prevalence of fleas, &c., in such places, they are certainly better adapted for them than our deal-boards and carpets. They may be freely sprinkled, and even Bwilled with water in hot weather. For warehouses where heavy goods are stored, for ball-rooms, &c., special construction is required to fcdapt the floor to the strain put upon it. FLO'RA, among the Romans, was the name of the goddess of flowers and of the spring, and was latterly identified with the Greek Chloris. Her temple was situated in the vicinity of the Circus Maxtmus, The worship of F. was one of the oldest manifestations of the Roman religious feeling, and is alSrmed to have been introduced by Numa. The Floralla, or festivals in honour of the goddess, were fir?.t instituted 2.38 b. c, and were celebrated from the 23th of April to the 1st of May, Avith much licentious merriment, prostitutes playing an import- ant part on such occasions. On coins, F. is repre- Benh ascendency was restored anew through- out Italy and Florence. Charles fully restored to the Florentines their internal institutions, and received their offered allegiance for ten years, 126G. In 12S2, the Priori, a new executive power, was established in F. ; and in 129.3, by the consent of the Priori, a higher chief than tlieir own order was elected, with the title of Gonfalon lere. In 130(1, Dante became one of the Priori, and the former feud was recom- menced with new vigour between two factions, who bore the names of Bianclii (Whites) and Neri (Blacks). Their dissensions were, however, inter- rupted by the appearance of Charles of Valois, sent by Boniface VIII. to restore tranquillity, 1301. Charles espoused the part of the Gueljjhs or Neri, and sanctioned every outrage on the Bianchi, who were plundered and murdered bai'barously, the Kurvivors being exiled and beggared ; among these were Dante, and Petracco dell' Ancisa, the father oi Petrarca. In 1306, Pistoja was besieged, and taken by famine with great barbarity. In 1315, ttie Florentines met with a severe check from the Ghibellines of Pisa, under the command of Uguc- cione della Faggiula ; and in 1325, were completely defeated by Uguccione's successor in command, the valiant Castruccio Castracani, in the battle of Altopascio. F., weakened by long dissensions, and ftlanned by Castruccio' s threat of marching on the city, appealed to the king of Naples for aid. They received joyfully an officer of the king, entitled the Duke of Athens, sent as royal vicar ; and such was the public demoralisation of the moment, they proclaimed him dictator of the republic, unanimously Buppresaing the oflices of priori and gonfaloniere. The intrigues of this ignoble schemer to overturn the republic being discovered, he was iguominiously expelled by a general pox)ular rising, and narrowly preserved his life. An attempt to admit a propor tion of the nobles into the government signally failed at this time, and only led to rejiewed ani- mosity between them and the citizens. This was the last effort of the nobles to secure power. See Macliiavelli, book ii. A terrible pest decimated F. in 1.348, sweeping off 100,000 of her inliabitauts. See Boccaccio, Decameron. The chief power of F. about this time seems to have been alternately wielded by the democratic families, the Alberti and the Ricci, and by their patrician rivals, the Albizzi, who, for the s])ace of 53 years, guided the republic in the [latli of independence and progress. In 1406, the ancient and illustrious republic of Pisa (q. v.) fell under the sway of F., after a most heroic resist- ance. From 1434, the history of F. is intimatelj bound up %vith the House of Medici, whose inliuence supplanted that of the Albizzi. See Medicl Tho Medici were repeatedly banished from F,, in conse- quence of their aiming at sovereign power ; and to their intrigues F. owes her final loss of republican rights and institutions. Pope Clement VII., of the House of Medici, formed a league with the Emperor Charles V., by which the liberties of F. were to be extinguished, and the sovereign power to be invested in the pope's bastard son, Alexander de' Medici. In Sei)tember 1529, an army of imperialists, under the Duke of Orange, entered Tuscany ; and on the 8th of Auguft 1530, the siege of F. terminated, after a defence of unexampled devotion and bravery on the part of the citizens. Thus fell the name and form of the republic of F., quenched in the best blood of the city, a sacrifice to a renegade pope, who employed both foreign robbers and internal traitors to destroy and humiliate the city of his birth. From this period, F. loses her distinctive history, and is only known as capital of the gi-and duchy of Tuscany, Pope Clement having conferred on Cosmo de' Medici the ducal dignity. Some idea of the splendour and prosperity of F. as a republic may be had from tjie fact, that her capitalists were so enormously wealthy, they supjilied the chief sovereigns of Europe Avith funds ; her manufactures of wool, sUk, and gold brocade were exported throughout the world ; and besides home centres of commerce, she possessed great commercial estab- lishments in all the countries of Europe. Florence re- mained the capital of Tuscany till 1860, and w;is after- ward for a time the capital of tlie kingdom of Italy, but in 1871 had to yield tlie honour to Rome. — The province of F., or Firenze, has an area of 2260 square n)iles, and a population of (1871) 766,321. FLO'RES, as the name of various islands, occurs in Asia, North America, South America, and the Azores. — 1. In the Malayan Archipelago, about half way between Java and the eastern exti-emity of the chain. It lies due south from Celebes, stretch- ing in S. lat. from 8° to 9°, and in E. long, from 120° to 12.3°. Like most members of the group, it is of an oblong shape, measuring 200 miles in length by an average breadth of 35. In common with the rest of the cluster, the island is of hilly character and volcanic origin. It produces cotton, sandal- wood, and bees-wax ; and its piinciiial trade is with Singapore. — 2. The most westerly of the Azores, with a population of about 10,000— lat. 39 25' N., and long. 31° 12' W.— 3. In the Pacific Ocean, a little to the west of Vancouver Island — lat. 49° 20' N., and long. 126° W.— 4. In the Plata, about 20 miles below Monte Video, in the republic of Uruguay, in lat. 34° 56' S., and long. 55° 55' W. FLO'RET. See Flower. FLORICULTURE, or CULTIVATION OF FLOWERS. From the earliest times, and wherever any considerable progress has been mada FLORICULTURE— FLORIDA. in civil sation, plants have been cnltivated for the Bake of kheir beautiful or fragrant flowers. Flowers have been very generally employed not only to afford gratification, and for the adornment of the peison and of lionses, pai"ticularly on festive occa- sions, but in many countries also in connection with religious rites. Flower-markets existed in ancient Athens, as in the richest capitals of the modern World. India, China, and Mexico have been famous for the cultivation of flowers, from the earliest periods to which their history can be accurately traced. Artificial means have been employed for the protection and cultivation of delicate exotics, prized only on account of their flowers, far more generally and assiduously than for the cultivation of any fruit-bearing, cidinary, or otherwise useful plants. Those who cannot afford more than a very small gi-een-house, almost always devote it to flowers ; and those who cannot attain even this, have a few favoured plants under a frame, or at least in a window. Flowers are either cultivated in borders of a garden mainly appropriated to fruit-trees and culinary vegetables, or a separate flower-garden is formed, consisting generally of parterres cut out of a lawn. Of late years, the separate flower-garden has become much more connnon than fomierly. There is much room for the display of taste in the form and grouping of its parterres, and both in it and in the humbler flower-border, in the arrange- ment of the flowers themselves. A common rule has alv/ays been to place the plants of tallest gro\\i;h generally at the greatest distance from the walks or alleys from which they are to be viewed, and those which scarcely rise above the ground, nearest to the spectator : it is also of evadent importance, except in extensive gardens, that every border or parteiTe should be gay with flowers during all the spring, summer, and autunm, on which account attention must be paid to the intermixing of plants that flower at different seasons, and for this purpose annuals are often sown amongst perennial plants and shrubs ; whilst it is always necessary to take care that the com- bination of colours be such as to please and not ofi"end the eye, in order to which complementarii colours are brought together — red and green, blue and orange, yellow and violet — whilst a judicious mixture of white blends and harmonizes those which would otherwise appear unpleasantly contrasted. This rule is equally applicable to the grouping of flowers in one border, or of parterres in which masses of the same colour are exhibited, often produced by an extensive i)lanting of the same flower, a prac- tice which has recently become common, and by which the greatest splendour of general effect is produced. The flower-garden requires the same attention to the habits of particular species, and the same assi- duity in digging, cleaning, &c., which are requisite in other dei)artments of horticidture. Perennial herbaceous plants generally require to be not unfre- quently renewed by parting of the roots or other- wise, as the tuft extends and the floM^ering stems become more numerous, but weaker and less pro- ductive. Many plants are placed in the flower- garden in summer, which require the protection of the frame or green-house in winter. In no department of horticulture have greater changes been eftected by cultivation. Even the practised eye has often some difficulty in recog- nising tha splendid varieties which the florist has produced, as the progeny of the unpromising original form. One of the most common effects of eultivation is the production of double flowers, in ivhich the stamens have been converted into petals, as in roses, so that if the flower is perfectly doubl« it can produce no seed by itself ; or, in the case of composite flowers, the florets of the disc assume the same form with the florets of the ray, as in dahlias, asters, &c. Much improvement has been effected by crossing, not so frequently by the real hybridi- sation of diflerent species, as by the intermixture of artificial varieties already obtained ; and many of the finest varieties are the mere result of the careful selection and cultivation of individual plants of superior beauty, and of their progeny. The green-house, conservatory, stove, &c., in which exotic flowers are cidtivated, are noticed in se2>arate articles. But perhaps this article would not be complete without some notice of window- gar deninrf, by which a charm is added even to the abodes of the wealthy, particularly in cities, and by which even the poor have the delight of tending a choice exotic or two, and becoming familiar with the beauty of their flowers. The care requisite in window-gardening is the same as for plants kept in flower-pots in the green-house ; there must be the same re-potting, piiming of the roots, &c., from time to time, and at least as much attention in giving water and air. Of the foimer, the most common mistake is to give too much, and of the latter too little. It is a good rule, that except immediately after water is given, it should never be seen- in the saucer; nor should the earth appear very moist. The situation, however, being in many respects less favourable, many plants, as heaths, which are frequent in green-houses, cannot be successfully ciiltivated in the ^\dndows of apart- ments. The common notion that the burning of gas in apartments injures window-plants, does not aj)pear to be well founded. Wardian Cases, by means of which many delicate plants are i)roduced in the greatest perfection in the windows of apartments, are noticed in a separate article. Horticultural Societies (q. v.) have of late donti much for the encouragement of the cidtivation of flowers, and particularly among the humbler classes of society, with evident increase of amenity witliin and around their abodes, and an unqitestionable tendency to refinement of habits and feelings. FLO'RIDA, the name of the most southerly member of the United States, and the twenty- seventh in order of admission. Including its adjacent islands and its reef-like chain of keys on the south-west, it stretches in N. lat. between 25° and 31°, and in W. long, between 80° and 87° 44'. The greater portion of it forms a peninsula stretching south-south-east towards the Bahamas, having the Atlantic on the one side, and the Gulf of Mexico on the other. It adjoins, on the north, the states of Georgia and Alabama. Its greatest breadth, from the Atlantic to the river Perdido, is 360 miles ; its greatest length about 400 miles ; the average breadth of the peninsular poition upwards of 120 miles ; area, 60,000 square miles. The principal rivers are the St John's, running north- east through the peninsula, and entering the sea near Jacksonville after a course of 300 miles ; the Siiwanee, flowing soiith from Georgia into the Mexican Gulf at Vacassar Bay ; the Appalachicola, the Choctawhatchee, Escambia, and I^'rdido. The principal towns are Tallahassee, the seat of govern- ment, situated near the middle of the northern boimdary ; St Mark's on the Gidf ; St Augustine on the Atlantic, the Spanish capital, and the oldest settlement in Anglo-Saxon America ; and Pensacola, a port near the Perdido, in the extreme west of the state, recently rendered so conspicuous in the war of secession. In physical character, the state, generally speak- ing, is part of the sandy and marshy belt whicl 383 FLOEIBA— FLORISTS' FLOWERS. 7orms the immediate seaboai-d from tlie Potomac to the Mississippi. Nay, far beyond the average of the contiguous shores in either direction, it may, almost without a metaphor, be described as amphi- bious. To say nothing of inlets, which carry the tide within fifty miles of every point, the interior may literally be said to teem with fresh water, here and there welling up into considcraljle streams from springs ranging to 250 fathoms in depth. This is more emphatically true of the south, where an immense district, known as Everglades, exliibits, as its normal condition, the ordinary phenomena of a casual inundation. Though the surface is thus better adapted to pasturage than to tillage, yet, in favourable localities, the soil, rather through the abundance of heat and moisture than from any inherent fertility, largely yields such productions as sugar, cotton, and rice. Considering that the state shares with the Bahamas the dominion of that ^rand highway of commerce, the Gulf Stream (q. v.), its inexhaustible growth of timber for ship-building is peculiarly valuable. Its coasts and rivers swarm with shoals of fish ; while its dependent keys, periodically crusted with salt of the sim's making, furnish the means of curing them. — Florida, so called because of its exuberant vegetation, was first made known to Eiu-opcans by Ponce de Leon, who landed near St Augustine in 1512. In 15.39 it was explored by Fernando de Soto. Originally, the term F. vaguely indicated among the Spaniards the eastern side of the new continent to the north of Mexico, just as the term California received a similarly loose interpretation on the western coast. Gradually, however, it came to be circumscribed by the encroachments of rival powers — its first definite boundaries being established with reference to the claims of English Georgia and French Louisiana. Even within these limits, it embraced, in addition to the F. of the present day, the maiitime borders of Alabama and Mississippi. Thus fixed in position and extent, the colony was ceded to England in 1763, and recovered by Spain in 1781. In 1803, however, Louisiana having been bought by the United States fr^jm France, F' became to the former country a commercial and political necessity ; and accordingly, in 1821, it wa* annexed to the great republic by a mixture of fr^vce and negotiation. The samn physical character of F. which impairs its econoi'-tical worth, has added materially to the expense -^i its occupation. From about 1836 to 1842, the Seminole Indians, protected by their swamps against every civilised appliance but the blood- hound, tasked the resources of the American Union more than any other domain of equal size ever tasked them. Notwithstanding every draw- back, the country, possessing as it does, a com- paratively salubrious climate, has made a reason- able progress in wealth and population. In 1870, 2,373,541 acres were under cultivation; and the nssessable capital wj)s 32,480,843 dollars, $20,197,691 being in real estate, $12,283,152 in personal property. The true value of the real and personal estate in 1870 was 44,163,655 doHars. It is only recently that railways have been introduced into Florida. A system of about 700 miles has been projected, and in 1873 there were 434 miles completed. According to the national census of 1860, the inhabitants num- bered 78,686 free, and 41,753 slaves. The latter be- came free January 1, 1863. A state convention was proposed and approved by the people in May, 1868. The new state legislature adopted the ' 14th amend- ment' of the Constitution of the United States, and F. was recognized as a state, and her representatives admitted to seats in Congress, notwithstanding the veto of the President. In 1869, an act to establi'-,n public schools was passed, and 200 schools established. 384 In 1870, the public debt was $2,185,838. Populatiou (1870), 187,748. FLORIDA BLANCA, Don Josefo Monino, Count of, prime minister under Charles III. of Spain, was born in 1728 at Murcia, where his father was a notary. Having studied at Sala- manca, he gained soon after such distinction that he was appointed Spanish ambassador to Clement XIV. of Rome. In that office, he (hsi)layed great ability, especially in the abolition of the order of Jesuits and the election of Pius VI. Grimaldi, Spanish minister of Foreign Aff"airs, on being dis- missed, was asked by the king to nominate a suc- cessor, and accordingly proposed Monino. Charles followed his advice, created Monino Count of Florida Blanca, and intrusted to him, besides, the department of matters of justice and mercy, as well as the superintendence of posts, highways, and public magazines. F. used this extensive authority in introducing post-coaches and good post roads, in improving the capital, and attending to other important departments of general police, as likewise in actively promoting the arts and sciences. Hia effort to confirm the good \inderstanding between Spain and Portugal by a double m.arriage, which would have secured the Portuguese throne to a Spanish prince, was unsuccessful. His military undertakings also, the attack upon Algiers in 1777, and the siege of Gibraltar in 1782, issued unfcrtu- nately. Before the king's death in October 1788, F. presented a defence of his administration, with a request for leave to resign. The defence was accepted, but the request refused. However, under Charles IV. in 1792, F.'s enemies obtained hia disgrace. Imprisoned at first in the citad» 1 of Panipeluna, he was afterwards released, and ban) ihed to his estates. He appeared again at the meeti iig of the Cortes in 1808, but died November 20 o' tha same j^ear. FLORIDE^. See Ceramiace^. FLORIN was the name of a gold coin first st"ucK in Florence (q. v.) in the 13th century. It was the size of a ducat, and had on one side a lily, and or the other the head of John the Baptist. Some de ive the name from the city, and others from the flower. These coins were soon imitated all over Europe. It was out of them that the German gold guldens of the middle ages and the modern giddens arose. These last are still marked by the letters FL The gulden or florin is the unit of account in Austria and the south of Germany. Its value in Austria is 25. English ; in the other states, \s. 8d. The name has been recently apj)lied to the English two- shilling piece. FLORI'NIANS, a -Gnostic sect of the 2d c, so called from a Roman priest, Florinus, who, with his fellow-presbyter, Blastus, introduced doctrines resembling those of Valentimis, into Rome, in the f)ontificate of Eleutherius (176), and was excluded rom commimion by that pontiff. See Gnosticism, Valentinians. FLO'RISTS' FLOWERS are those kinds of flowers which have been cultivated -with peculiar care, and of which, consequently, there exist nume- rous varieties, diff"ering very much in appearance from each other and from the original flower. Such are tulips, hyacinths, roses, auriculas, carnations, anemones, ranunciduses, dahlias, &c. The special cultivation of particular flowers was first prosecuted to a remarkable degree in Europe by the Dutch in t'-ie beginning of the 17th c., and from the Nether- lands a passion for it extended to other countries, particularly to England and Scotland, when the religious persecutions drove many refugees to the British shores ; and to this day it prevails most of FLORUS-FLOURENS. aJl where the branches of manufacture intrcxluced by the refugees are carried on. In the little gardens of operatives in some of the manufacturing towns ipay be seen many of the finest tulips and carna- tions in Britain. It is still, however, in Holland, and particularly at Haarlem, that this branch of gardening is carried on to the greatest extent, and it IS from that quarter that the market of the world is chiefly supplied with bulbs, seeds, &c. Between Alemsei and Leyden are more than twenty acres appropriated to hyacinths alone, which succeed best in a loose sandy soil. The cultivation of roses at Noordwyll, in South Holland, is carried on in con- Biderable fields situated in the dunes, and affords support to many families. Berlin has of late years become the seat of a fiower-trade, which partially rivals that of Holland. Some flowers, as dahlias and hollyhocks, are produced in greatest perfection by British cidtivators. The Chinese have had their florists' flowers, camellias, hydrangeas, tree peonies, &c., from time immemorial. In the years 1636 and 1637, an extraordinary flx3wer-mania prevailed in Holland, chiefly with reference to tulips, in which men speculated as we have recently seen them do in railway shares. Bulbs were sold for enormous sums. For a single Semper Augustus (a tulip), 13,000 florins were once paid, and for three such together, 30,000 florins. The ownership of a bidb was often divided into shares. Men sold bulbs, which they did not possess, on condition of delivering them to the buyers within a stipulated time ; and of some varieties, far more bulbs were sold than actually existed. But these extravagances soon ceased, although not till they had involved many persons in ruin. — It was not till about the year 1776 that the real flower-trade of Holland reached its greatest importance ; from which time it has rather declined. New varieties of tulips and hyacinths are sometimes marked in the Haarlem catalogues at prices from 25 to 150 florins. FLO'RUS, generally, but on insufiicient evidence, called L. Annaeus F., was a Roman historian who flourished in the reign of Trajan or Hadrian. Of his life we know absolutely nothing. He wrote an epitome of Roman history {Epitome de Gestis Romanorum), from the foundation of the city to the time of Augustus. This work, which is still extant, is carefully and intelligently composed, but is disfigured by an inflated and metaphorical style. Since the editio princeps—\i, indeed, it be such — printed at the Sorbonne in 1471, F.'s epitome has been published times without number. The best modern edition is that of Dukerus (Lug. Bat. 1722, 1744; Leip. 1832). FLOTANT (Fr.), used in Heraldry to express that the object is flying in the air, as a banner- flotant. FLO'TSAM. Wreck, in the legal acceptation of the word, is goods which, having been scattered by a shipwreck, have floated to land. From goods in the position of wreck are distinguished those known to the law of England by the uncouth expressions flotsam^ jetsam, and ligan. The first is where the goods continue floating on the surface of the waves ; the sucond is where, being oast into the sea, they sink and remain under water; the third is where they are sunk in the sea, but are tied to a cork, bladder, or buoy, in order that they may be recovered. If no owner appears to claim them, goods in these various positions go to the crown, so that by a royal grant to a man of v)recks, things flotsam, jetsam, or ligan will not pass. See Jet- BAM, and Jettiso.-^, an important term in the law- merchant, from which jetsam must be carefully diiitinguished. l»l FLOTZ (Ger. level), the name given by Werner to the secondary rocks of Lehmann, because, in tht* district in which he examined them, they were hori- zontal. He arranged the rocks which forin the solid crust of the eartli into four classes. 1. The primi- tive beds withoiit organic remains, such as granite and gneiss ; 2. The transition strata, which, from their more or less metamorphic condition, were related to the primitive rocks on the one si(le, and from their few contained organisms, to the flotz on the other ; 3. The flotz containing all the sedi- mentary rocks, from the coal-measures up to and including the chalk ; and 4. The newer strata, which he called the 'overflowed land' or alluvium. When the followers of Werner found that the horizontal position of the flotz was a local accident, they abandoned the term, and restored Lehmanu'a title of Secondary. FLOUNDER [Platessa), a genus of fishes, of th^ Flatfish family {Plei/ronectida), having one row of cutting teeth in each jaw, and generally pavement- like teeth on the pharynx ; the dorsal and anal iins extending nearly the whole length of the body, the dorsal not coming further forward than the centre of the upper eye ; the tail-fin distinctly separated both from the dorsal and the anal. To this genus belong the Plaice, Flounder, Dab, &c., of the British shores. The species generally known as the F. (P. Flesus), is very common, not only on the British shores, but on those of most jmrts of Eiu-ope. Its Swedish name is Flundra. Its Scottish name is FleuTc or Fluke, a name which, with additions, is extended to many other kinds of flat-fish. The F. is often a foot or more in length. Its greatest breadth, without the fins, is about one-third of the whole length, rather less than that of the plaice. It is easily distinguished from the plaice by a row of small tubercles on each side of the lateral line. The colour varies according to the ground from which the fish is taken. The F. is found chiefly in rather shallow water, with sandy or muddy bottom, and equally in the most perfectly salt water and in the brackish water of estuaries. It ascends still rivers into perfectly fresh water, and may l>e kept in fresh- water i)onds. It lives long out of water, and is easily transferred to ponds. — The F., like the other fishes of this genus, generally SM'ims on the left side, and has the eyes on the right side ; but reversed" specimens are of frequent occurrence. FLOUR is a popular name given to the finer jX)rtions of meal or pulverised grain. Thus, flour ^ or wheat- flour, is the fine jmrt of ground wheat ; pea flour, of pease, &c. See Bread. FLOUR, St, a small town of France, in the department of Cautal, is finely situated on a steep basaltic jtlateau at an elevation of 3000 feet, 34 miles east-north-east of Aurillac. It is entirely built of lava and basalt. Its streets are narrow, and its houses in general have a miserable, dark, and dirty appearance. The principal building is the cathe- dral. A suburb lies at the foot of the rock, and communicates with the town by a winding road cut in the rock. F. has manufactures of hollow ironware, cloth, and table-linen. Pop. (1872) 4046. FLOURENS, Marie Jean Pierre, a cele- brated living French physiologist, born in 1794 at Maureilhan, H§rault. After having obtained his degree of Doctor of Medicine at Montpellier, at the early age of 19, he prc>ceeded to Paris, where he soon became acquainted with the CuWers, Geoffi-cy St Hilaire, and other eminent naturalists. For tlio last forty years, F. has been a voluminous wi-iter i)a human and comparative anatomy and physiology', on natural history, and on various special departmenta of the history of the natural and physical sciences. FLOUKENS— FLOWEPv. Among his most important works we may mention his Recherche^ Experimentalcs sur les Pro]prif.tes et les Fonciions du Sijsteme Nerveux dans les Anirnaux Verttbres (1824) ; Avith a supplementary volume, entitled Experiences sur le Systenie Nei-veux (1825); Recherclies sur le Developpement dcs Os et des Dents (1842) ; Anatomie Gencralc dela Peauetdes Memhranea Muquettses (1843) — a work tending to demonstrate the unity of the human race, by shewing that there are no essential differences between the structure of the skin i)i the negro and the European — and his Theorie Experimentcde de la Formation des Os (1847), perhaps the most celebrated of his works. Among his smaller and popular works, are his Analyse Raisonnee des Travaux de Georges Ciwier (1841) ; Biiffon, Histoire de ses Idees et de ses Travaux (1844) ; De V Instinct et de V Intelligence des Anlmaux (1841); Examen de la Phrenologie (1842) ; Histoire de la. Decouverte de la Circulation du Sang (1851) ; De la Longevite Ilumaine, et de la Quantitc de Vie sur le Globe (1854) ; and his Eloges Ilistoriques — a beautifully written series of ecieutific biographies. As early as 1821, F. delivered a course of lectures on ' The Physiological Theory of Sensations,' and presented some of his first scientific contributions to the Academy of Sciences, into which body he was admitted as a member in 1828. About this date, he was a])])ointed assistant to Cuvier ; and in 1832, he succeeded to the full duties of the professorship of natural history in the Jardin du lloi. In 1833, he succeeded Dulong as Perj)etual Secretary of the Academy of Sciences — an office which he still continues to discharge; and in 1840, the French Academy elected him a member. He was made a peer of France by Louis Philippe in 184G, and was appointed professor in the College de France in 1855. He was unquestionably the most popular French scientilic writer of his day. He died 5th Dec. 18G7. FLOWER, or BLOSSOM, that part of a phaner- ogamous plant in which the organs of reproduction (stainens and pidils) are situated, and which consists essentially of a single groxxp of these, generally sur- rounded by Jloral envelopes (the calyx and corolla). Both the organs of reproduction and the floral ■envelopes are metamorphosed leaves, and arise in successive whorls from a much shortened axis, called the thalamus (Gr. a nuptial-bed), or torus (Lat. a couch). Flowers are sometimes closely attached to the stem or branch from which tliey groAv-, and are then said to be sessile (Lat. sitting) ; but sometimes there intervenes a flower-stalk or peduncle, either simple or l^ranched. The whole assemblage of flowers of a plant is called its Inflor- escence (q. v.), and the different kinds of inflor- escence, or modes in which the flowers are pro- duced and grouped, are often as characteristic as the diversities in the flowers themselves, although the latter are in general more important with refer- ence to botanical affinities. In the very large natural order Compositce, many small flowers are congregated on a common receptacle, and surrounded with bracts in the form of an involucre, as a single flower is surrounded by its calyx. The head of flowers is in this case popularly called a flower ; and the individual flowers of which it is composed are by botanists styled florets. This term is also applied to the individual flowers in the spikelets of the Grasses (q. v.), of which the glumes are a common involucre. The order of the whorls in flowers is invariable ; the Calyx (q. v.) is always exterior to the Corolla (q. v.) ; within the corolla are the Stamens (q. v.), or male organs of reproduction, and in the centre of all is the Pistil (q. v.), the female organ of repro- duction. An outer calyx, or whorl of metamorphosed leaves, exterior to the calyx, and usually smaller, is found in some flowers, as mallows, and is called the epicalyx. Within the corolla, there is some- times an additional or supplementary corolla, called the Corona {q. v.), coronet^ or crown. When tha Illustration of some of the Principal Parts of a Flowoi (from Balfour's Botany) : 1, Section of the flower of Ranunculus, shewing sepals, petals, numerous stamens, with adnate anthers, placed below the carpels. 2, Anatrire produced there in great quantity, but find their way into the outer world to begin a series of transformations not yet very accur- ately traced -with regard to this particular species, but of which the general nature is known. See Cercaria, Trematode Worms, and Generation, Alterkation of. It seems that the young flukes, Uanii^ entered as Cercarice into the bodies of Fluko-wona {Dis- toma hepatic«>,m). molluscs or of aquatic insect larvae, are conveyed into the stomachs of ruminants feeding on herbage to which these are attached, and finding their way to the liver, there attain their full development, See Rot. Instances have occurred of the presence of Distoma hepatlcum in the human liver and vena pottoi : as well as of a similar species, D. lanceolatum ; a small species of the same genus, D. heterophyeji, has been found in great numbers in the human intestines ia Egypt, but its influence on the system is unknown ; a species of much elongated form, D. hcematobiumf is very common in Egyj^t, infesting the vena porta: of man, and the walls of the urinary bladder, and producing local, and afterwards general disease ; a small species, I), ophthalmobium, has been found in the human eye, but probably through some such accident as in another case has led to the occurrence of the common fluke under the skin of the foot, where it caused a sore. Of all the known species, the Egyptian, D. hoimalobiu'm, is by far the most hurtful, as infesting the human body. This species is also remarkably different from the others, in not being hermaphrodite, and in the extreme dissimi- larity of the male and female; the female being a thread-like worm, for which a lodgment is provided in a furrow {r/yn according to the modern notation, he wTote | wx""i . x |, putting the exi)ression in an enclosure. For the principles on which Leibnitz founded his calculus and its notation, see Calculus. FLY, a popular name often given to insects of the order Diptera (q. v.) generally, sometimes extended to insects of other orders, and sometimes limited to the Muficides (q. v.). It is often used with a prefix, as house-fly, blow-fly, &c., to designate particular kinds of insects. FLY-CATCHER {Musckapa), a genus of birds of the order Inseufsores, tribe Dentb-ostres, and family Muscicapidcp, having a moderately long angular bill, ))roa(l and depressed at the base, compressed and olightly curved at the point ; the base surrounded with hairs or bristles directed forwards, and which help to secure insect prey. The legs and feet are small ; the outer toe the longest, and attached to the middle one as far as the first joint. The wings are not long ; their first quill-feather is very short ; the third is the longest. The birds of this genus, as now restricted, are exclusively confined to the Old World, and mostly to the warmer parts of it. Of the numerous North American birds often called fly-catchers, some belong to nearly allied genera, and others to genera not now raidced even in the same family. The true fly- catchers all have the habit — Spotted and Pied Fly-catchers {Muscicapa grisola and M. atricapilla). isharacteristic of many of the Muscicapidoe besides this genus — of remaining perched for a long time in the same spot, only leaving it to make a sudden dart at a passing insect, which is seized with a snap of the bill, and then returning. They are almost never to be seen running on the ground, or even on the branches of trees, and do not chase insects in the air hke swallows. Only four species are Euro- pean, two of which are British— the Spotted F. (if 392 grisola) and the Pied F. {M. ati-icapUla or liictuosa) ; biids about the size of a sparrow, the former of which is common in most parts of England, as a summer bird of passage, but rare in Scotland ; the latter is rare in Britain, although abundant in the south of Europe. The spotted F. is brownish gray above, white beneath, the head and breast marked with dusky spots. Its voice is a mere chirp. It is remarkable for the choice it makes of situations for its nest, often on a beam in an outhouse, on the side of a fagot-stack, on the branch of a tree trained against a building, and sometimes even on a lamp- post in a street. Mr Durham Weir of Boghoad» who was a diligent observer of the habits of birds^ mentions that he witnessed a single pair of spotted fly-catchers feed their young no fewer than five hundred and thirty-seven tunes in one day, and that their motions were so rajud that he could not keep his eye off the nest for a moment. The name F. is often extended to other genera, and is sometimes used as co- extensive in significa- tion with that of the family Muacicapidce. FLY-POWDER is the name given to a com- pound of metallic arsenic and arsenious acid, obtained by the partial oxidation of the metal, on exposure to air, and which is sold in the United States for the ])urpose of killing flies. FLY-TRAP. See Dion^. FLYING, or FLIGHT, is the locomotion of an animal in the air, by means of wings, organs specially adapted to that purpose. By means of these organs, the animal raises itself from the ground and sus- tains itself in the air, as well as moves forward in any direction it desires. Birds and bats are the only existing vertebrate animals possessing the power of true flight ; the lateral membranes of Flying Squirrels, Flying Lemurs, Flying Phalangers, and Flying Dragons, and probably even the great pec- toral fins of Flying Fishes, serving only to sustain them in the air after the manner of a parachute, or at most to aid, on the principle of a boy's kite, in an oblique ascent. The extinct re})tiles called Ptero- dactyles (q. v.) possessed, however, the poM'er of true flight, as their remains sufficiently testify ; and their wings were constructed on a plan as different from those Ijoth of birds and of bats as these (see Birds and Bats) are from each other. The wings in all vertebrate animals are the anterior hmbs, and are thus homologous to the arms of man and the fore- legs of ordinary quadrupeds ; in birds, the bones answering to those of the hand are much abbre\4ated and consolidated; in bats, they are prodigiously elongated ; in jiterodactyles, there was an elongation of a single finger. Among birds, although the power of flight is general, there are excejjtions to the rule, the wings of some being merely rudiment- ary, and at most only helpful to them in running, those of others being adajjted to swimming, not on the surface of, but under water. — The only inver- tebrate animals possessing the power of flight are insects ; to the greater part of which vastly numer- ous class it belongs in their perfect state, although there are also many insects which are quite desti- tute of it, and this is sometimes the case with species very closely allied to others which possesa it, nay, sometimes this great diflerence exists between the sexes of the same species. The wings of iusecta are not at all homologous to those of the flying vertebrata, although applied to the same use, and in structure are widely different from them all. See Insects. In flying, the wings are made to beat or strike the air. The stroke in the one direction, however, must be very different from that in the other, or rather from that movement by which the wing ia brass from tree to tree, even to considerable distances. These membranes are sxipjiorted on the first six false ribs, which, instead of encircling the abdomen, stand out at right angles from the body fortius purpose. They are incapable cf the move- ments requisite for true flying ; when not in use, they are folded close to the l^ody. There is also in the flying dragons an inflatable pouch under the chin, sustained partly by the hyoid bone and partly by two small bones. The tail is long. The scales are small and imbricated ; those of the tail and limbs are keeled. The tongue is extensile, but not greatly so. All the species are of small size, live among the brandies of trees, and feed on insects. They are natives of the East Indies. The genus is subdivided by some naturalists. One of the species is figured in the article Dragon. FLYING FISH, a name given to all those fishes which have the pectoral fins so very large that by means of them they are sustained in short seeming flights in the air. These fishes belong to two very difl"erent families — Scomberesocidce and Sclerogenidoi ; but the name F. F. is sometimes limited to those of the former family, the genus Exocadus ; those of the latter being known as Flying Gurnards. The genus Exocoetus has the pectoral fins nearly as long as the body, the dorsal fin placed over the anal, the tail forked, and its lower division considerably larger than the upper. It is subdivided by some naturalists into several genera, characterised by the presence or absence of barbels, &c. Two species have occasionally been seen near the British shores, one of which {E. voUtajis) is very abundant in the warmer parts of the Atlantic Ocean, the other {E. ex'diens) is common in the Mediterranean. In the former, the ventral fins are situated far forward, and are short ; in the latter, they are situated far back, and are considerably elongated. More than thirty species are known, all inhabiting the seas of the warmer parts of the world, and having their respective geographical limits pretty exactly defined. They swim in shoals ; and whole shoals — varying in number from a dozen to one hundred or more — often leave the water at once, darting in the same direction th 'ough the air, and after descending into the water at a distance of two hundred yards, or even more, from the place where they arose, quickly rerawing their flight. These flights of flying-fishes Conn one of the most interesting and pleasing Bpectacles which relieve the monotony of a voyage in the tropical seas. Sometimes, the coryphene (dolphin) may be seen in rapid pursuit, taking great leaps out of the water, and gaining upon his prey, which take shorter and shorter flights, vainly try to escape by doul^ling like the hare, and sink at last exhausted : sometimes the larger sea-birds catch flying-fishes whilst they are in the air ; but it does not seem to be at all trae that these fishes leave the water, as has been very generally imagined, merely to escape from danger, nor is there any good reason 994 for that sentimental pity which has been often expressed with regard to them, as creatures harassed and persecuted more than others, and peculiarly Flying Fish {Exocoetus volitans). exposed to dangers both in the sea and in the air. They seem rather to exercise their powers, like other creatures, very often merely from the delight which tliey take in the exercise of them, and from the exuberance of their hapi)iness. — The question, whether or not the flying fishes use their pectoral fins at alias wings, cannot yet perhaps be considered as completely decided; some observers, well entitled to respect, maintain that they do, although, of course, their power of flight is limited to the time that the fins remain quite moist ; but a great pre- ponderance of testimony is in favour of the opposite opinion, which regards the fins as acting merely after the manner of a parachute or of a kite. Flying fishes sometimes rise to a height of twenty feet above the water, although they more frequently skim along nearer to its surface. They often fall on the decks of ships. They are good food, and the natives of the South Sea Islands take them by means of small nets attached to light poles, like those in which anglers catch minnows for bait. For this purpose, they go out at night in canoes, to tl^e outer edge of the coral reefs, with a torch, whi^ h enables them to see the fishes, and perhaps both attracts and dazzles them. FLYING FOX. See Kalong. FLYING GURNARD [Dactylopterus), a genvi of fishes of the family Sclerogenid(je or Mailed Cheeks, nearly allied to the Gurnards [Trigla), hxS remarkably distinguished by the great size of tbi Flying Gurnard [Dactylopterus volitans). pectoral fins, which they use for the same purpc^^u and in the same way as the Exocoeti. See FlyIiNQ Fish. The pectoral fins are, however, of a very different appearance from those of the Exocoeti^ widening almost to the end, which is rounded, and the tips of the rays extending considerably beyond FLYING LEMUR-FLYING SQUIRREL. the membrane. A very long spine rises from the back of the head. One species [D. volitans) is com- mon in the Mediterranean, and is sometimes fifteen inches in length. Its flight is said not to extend to more than about forty yards, but it sometimes rises high enough to fall on the decks of large shij^a. •At particular times, especially on the approach of rough weather, in the night, numbers of them may be seen, by the phosphoric light which they emit, making their arched passages in apparent streams of tire.' — Another species inhaliits the Indian seas. — Some species of Apisies, belonging to the same family, have similarly large pectorals, and make Ejnilar flights. FLYING LEMUR, or COLUGO {Galeopithecus), sometimes also called Flying Cat and Flying Fox, a genus of mammalia, generally regarded as con- stituting a distinct family, Galeopithecidce, which, by some naturalists is placed, as by Cuvier, among the Cheiroptera (see Bat), although it is now more commonly associated with the Lemurs (q. v.), as by Lirmseus. There are, indeed, evident affinities both to lemurs and bats, but chiefly to the former, with which the osteological and other anatomical char- acters generally agree. Along the sides extends an ample membrane or fold of the skin, beginning behind the throat, and including both the fore and hind legs as far as the toes, but leaving them free, and further stretched along both sides of the tail to the tip. In the last particular, it differs from the lateral membrane of the flying sqiiirrels and flying phalangers, and more resembles that of bats ; but it widely difl"ers from that of bats in being compara- tively thick, and covered on both sides with short thick hair; and still more in leaving the fore-feet free, and not being stretched on lengthened finger- bones. Nor can it be used for true flight, but only to suppoi-t the animal in the air like a parachute, enabling it to take enormous leaps of one hundred yards or thereby in an inclined plane. It is not yet satisfactorily determined whether the differences to be observed between the specimens of flying lemurs in collections, are to be regarded as differences of species or of variety. Attempts have been made to distinguish several si)ecies, but it is difficult on account of their great similarity. They are from twenty inches to two feet in total length, are natives of the Indian Archipelago, inhabiting lofty trees in dense forests, and feeding on small birds' eggs and fruits, as well as on insects. They are nocturnal in their habits. They are very inoffensive, and scarcely attempt to bite even when seized. Their voice resembles the low cackling of a goose. They produce generally two young ones at a birth. The Felew islanders greatly esteem them as food, but they have a rank unpleasant smell. FLYING PHALA'NGER, or FLYING OPO'S- SUM {Petauriis), a genus of marsupial quadrupeds, containing several species, natiyes of New Guinea and of Australia, where they are generally called Squirrels or Flying Squirrels. They are nearly allied to the Phalangers (q. v.), which they particularly resemble in dentition, but have not the tail so long and prehensile, whilst they are distinguished by a hairy membrane or fold of the skin extending along the flanks, and used as a parachute to enable them to leap to great distances. This membrane extends along both fore and hind legs almost to the toes, but does not appear behind the hind legs, nor include the tail, which is pretty long and bushy, but which in some of them has a distichous character, the hair spreading out to the sides, and BO rendering it useful in supporting as well as in guiding the Ijody in the air. They are capable of modifying their course in the air, although not of tnie flight; and their aerial evolutions are ver» graceful. They repose during the day, aad become active in the evening. They feed on fi-uits, leafes>, 1, Flying Phalanger {Petaurus Taguavoides) ; 2, Flying Mouse [Petaurus Pi/gmceus). insects, &c. A New Guinea species is about as large as a flying lemiir ; one of the Austialiao species is scarcely larger than a mouse. Tbe fur of some of them is rich and beautiful. — Petaurist has been i)roposed as an English name for this genus ; but is not much used. FLYING SQUID [OmmastrepJies), a genus of. cephalopodous molluscs, allied to the Calamariea (q. V.) or squids, but differing from them in having the eyes exposed and not covered with skin, the fins vmited into one as a tail, and the gladius or bone furnished with three diverging ribs and a hollow conical appendage. The tail is large, and the power of locomotion great, so that these mollusca not only pass rapidly through the water, btit leap out of it, and high enough sometimes to fall upon the decks of ships. They form a principal part oi the food of many of the Cetacea, and are often the prey of albatrosses, petrels, and other marine birds. They are used as bait for cod in the Newfoundland fisheries. FLYING SQUIRREL [Pteromys), the name given to a considerable number of species of the Squirrel family {Sciuridce), which have a fold of the skin of the flanks extended between the fore and hind legs, and partly supported by bony pro- cesses of the feet, by means of which they are enabled to take extraordinary leaps, gliding for a great distance through the air. The tail also aida to support them in the ali, as well as to direct their motion, its hairs extending laterally 'in a sort of feathery expansion.' The dentition is similar to that of true squirrels, wath which also the habita generally correspond. One species (P. Sibiricus) is found in the north of Europe and of Asia ; several species are natives of North America, and othera inhabit the south-east of Asia and the Indian Archipelago. The European species is about the size of a rat, grayish -ash colour aT)Ove, white below, the tad only half the length of the body ; it Uvea j solitarily in the forests. Its fur is of little value, j but skins are sometimes mixed with those of the ! gray squirrel, to impose on the purchaser. The most common North American species {P. volucella), j abundant from the Gulf of Mexico to Upper Canadai FLY- WHEEL-FODDER. Flying Squirrel {Ptcri volucella). the orLit of eacli eye. All the species inhabit woods, and the night is their time of activity. They feed not only on nnts and young shoots of trees, but also on small birds. They are extremely easy of domestication. In gliding from tree to tree, the common American flying squirrel descends obliquely and with very rapid motion, until near the tree which it seeks to reach, when it wheels upwards, and alights at about a third of the height which it was from the ground on the tree which it left, the distance between the trees being perhaps fifty feet. FLY-WHEEL, a large heavy wheel applied to a Bteam-engiiie or other machinery in order to equalise the effect of the mo^dng power. Its action depends upon the principle, that a body once set m motion retains a certain amount of moving force or momen- tum. This increases with the weight of the body and the velocity of its motion, and may be expressed relatively by multiplying the weight by the velocity ; or stated otherwise, the force required to destroy the motion of a body is equal to that which set it in motion. Thus, a heavy wheel becomes a sort of reservoir of force, when set in motion. There are two principal cases in which the fly- wheel is commonly applied : first, when the motive power is intermittent or irregular ; and second, when the resistance or work to be done is intermittent or irregular. The crank is a good example of the first case. If the force be api)lied only downwards, as in the common foot-lathe, it wall be intermit- tent, and the crank must rise independently of the prime mover. This is effected by appljdng a fly-wheel, A^hich is set in motion by the descending pressure of the foot acting upon it through the crank ; and the momentum it has thus acquired lifts the crank again to the point where it can be ftcted Vi]>oii l)y the foot. It also carries the crank over the dead points (see Crank), where even a double action of pulling and pressing would be inef- fective. The case of a steam-engine turning a long shaft which passes through several workshops, and by means of bands drives a number of lathes, punch- ing, drilling, planing machines, &c., is a common example cf the second case, the resistance or work to be don 3 being very variable from one moment td another. In such work as that of a punchuif* fully fire inches long, with a tail of five inches | machine, the engine need not be nearly of sufficient Additional, fur included. It is of a brownish-gray | power to directly force the punch through the metal, colour- above, white beneath ; a black line surrouiM^ and yet by the aid of the fly-wheel it may do it; for while the punch is rising, the engine is communi- cating momentum to the fly-wheel ; and when the descending punch meets with the resistance it has to overcome, this reserved momentum is added to the direct power of the engine, the jiunch is forced through, and the speed of the fly-wheel slackened, in proi)ortion to the resistance. The principle of the fly-wheel is sometimea applied in other forms than that of a wheel, as in the hand-coining press, where a heavy ball is fixed at each end of a long lever, which is made to swing round with considerable velocity, and the accumu- lated momentum is concentrated upon the blow. FO. See Buddha. FO'CHABERS (of old, Fochohyr, and still locally styled Focliaher), a small, neat village and burgh of barony on the right bank of the Spey, in Moray- shire. Pop. about 1145. The parish church stood formerly at Bellie, in Banffshire, about two miles nearer Speymouth, and in the immediate neighbour- hood of an old encampment, which has been sup- posed to be the Tuessis of Ptolemy. Gordon Castle, the old ' Bog of Gight,' formerly the seat of the Dulce of Gordon, now of the Duke of Richmond, stands between F. and a bridge across the Spey, built about the year 1803, partly destroyed by the flood of 1820, and since partly rebuilt in wood. The site of F. is peculiarly fine, lying as it does at the mouth of a picturesque ravine, watered by a mere rill falling into the rapid Spey, but swelling in times of flood into a wider stream than that which it feeds. j FOCI'METER. See Claudet's Focimeter. ' FOCUS. Certain points in the ellipse, hyperbola, and parabola are called foci. See Ellipse, Hyper- I BOLA, and Parabola. Focus, in Optics, is a point in which several rays meet and are collected after being reflected or refracted, whde a virtual focugi is a j)oint from which rays tend after reflection or refraction. The principal focus is the focus of parallel rays after reflection or refraction. See Lens, Mirror, and Catoptrics and Dioptrics. FODDER (Ger. futter, Anglo-Sax. foddor), the food collected by man for the use of the domestic herbivorous quadrupeds. In English, the term is commonly restricted to hay, straw, stalks of maize, etc. ; but in other languages it is more compre- [ hensive, and includes all the food of cattle, except I what they gather for themselves in the field, i The principal part of the food of all the domestic herbivora is furnished by grasses, almost all of which are eaten by them when fresh and green. Besides ! the supplies which they receive of all the kinds of ' corn cultivated for human food, they are also, to a considerable extent^ dependent on the straw or dried herbage of the corn-plants for their winter proven- der ; and that of many other grasses, cultivated on this account alone, is converted into hay for their 1 use. Hay, being cut and rapidly dried whilst the plant is still full of sap, contains more nutritioua , matter than the ripened straw of the cereals. The \ most inqiortant fodder grass of Britain is Rye Grass, \ next to which must be ranked Timothy Grass ; 1 but all the meadow grasses and larger pasture , grasses also contribute to the supply of hay. I Next to the grasses must be ranked different kinds of Leguminosa.^ affording food for cattle in ! their seeds — as beans, pease, lentils, lupines, &c. — ■ \ and in their herbage, on account of which many of j them are cultivated, as clover, medick, mehlot vetch, tare, sainfoin, &c., of some of which tliero FODDER— FCETUS. are numeroua species. Some of these also often enter ]»retty largely into the composition of hay, being cut and dried with the grasses along with which they have been sown ; which is tlie case also with some plants of other orders, as the Ribwort Plantain, &c. Some of the Cruciferce are cultivated to a considerable extent as forage-plants, cattle being fed on their green herbage, although they are not suitable for drying as fodder. Amoug these are kale and cabbage, rape, &c. In some parts of the world, cattle are not unfre- quently fed on the leaves of trees, as in the Hima- laya, where the leaves of different species of Aralia, Grewia, Elm, and Oak, are chiefly employed for this purpose, and are collected, dried, and stacked for winter f'^dder. Roots, although not fodder in the English sense, must here also be mentioned as constituting a large part of the food provided for cattle, particularly those of the potato, turnip, mangold, and carrot, and to some extent also those of the parsnip and Jerusalem artichoke. FODDER, in Law. It is generally considered to be implied in the rules of good husbandry that the hay and straw pi'oduced by the farm shall be con- sumed on it. In England, * in the absence of any agreement respecting the removal of hay and straw, tiie right to do so is regidated by the custom of the country.' — Woodfall, p. 537. The custom differs not only in different counties, but in different parts of the same county. In the narrower sense of fodder, in which it is used to signify hay or straw that has been already used for bedding cattle, or the like pm-pose, there seems to be no question that it must l)e retained on the farm. ' Wliatever (piestion there may be with respect to hay and straw, as before noticed, all the litter, fodder, dung, manui'e, and compost, must invariably be consumed on the lauds ; indeed, if this is not expressly provided for by the terms of the contract, it is always implied, as a removal would clearly be a breach of good hus- bandry.' — Ih. Where the outgoing tenant leaves fodder on the premises, he is entitled to no compen- sation, except under an express stipulation. In Scotlaiid, where the rules of good husbandry are more strictly attended to, the tenant must consume the whole of the fodder produced by his lands, except the hay and straw of his outgoing crop, aud the same rule is applicable to assignees and sub- tenants. In the United States, where the termination of the tenant's lease depends upon some uncertain event, as, his death, or the life of another, the tenant or his personal representative would be entitled to what, in land, is called the emblements. This term applies only to the products of the earth which are an- nual, and raised by expense and labour of the tenant, and includes grain, roots, and the like ; but not grass, fruit, etc., which are not the annual production of the soil and labour. Where the termination of the lease is known and fixed by the tenant's own action, he is not entitled to the emblements, for it was the tenant's folly in planting and sowing when he knew that his tenancy was about to expire, and would expire by his own wrong. See Steelbow. FCE'TUS, the term applied in Medicine to the mammalian embryo, especially in its more advanced stages. In the human subject we usually speak of the embryo at and after the end of the fourth month as a fcetus. There are several points in relation to the f(ctus which are of great interest, both to the i)hysiologist and to the medical jurist. It is frequently of great importance in medico-legal incjuiries to be al)le to ascertain the age of the foetus ; and to facilitate ixivh determination, the physical characters which it presents at different ages have been carefullv noted and described. In the foetus of nine months — the full terra — the length is from 17 to 21 inches ; weight from 5 to 9 lb., the average being about 64 lb. Even at birth^ the average length and weight of the male infant slightly exceeds that of the female. From numeroua observations made by Quetelet, it appears that there is an average excess of length of 4*8 lines, and of weight of twelve ounces, in the male infant. The average weight of infants, without regard to sex, was found by a French observer, Chaussier (who noted the weight in more than 20,000 cases), to be about 6"7 lb. — the maximum being 11 -.3, and the minimum 3 2 lb. From the inquiries of Dr Joseph Clark {Philosophiad Transactions, vol. 70), which were made on 60 males and 60 females, the average in this country seems rather higher, the weight of males being 7 lb. 6 oz., and that of the females being nearly 6 lb. 12 oz. ; and Professor Simpson haq ari'ived afc very nearly the same result. Claffc observes that if, at the full time, the weight of the infant is less than 5 lb., it rarely thrives. Various instances are recorded of infants in M'hich the weight at birth has exceeded twice the average weight. Thus a case is recorded by Mr Owen, in the Lancet for 1838, in w^hich the child at delivery weighed 17 lb. 12 oz., and was 24 inches in length ; and in the Medico-Chir. Review, October 1841, there is the mention of a case in M'hich the weight was nearly 18 lb. There are certain points in which the foetus the full period differs anatomically from the child shortly after birth. The bony skeleton is very incomiilete, cartilage occurring in the place of many bones. Indeed, complete ossification (viz., of the vertebrte) is not finished until about the 25th year, and the only bones completely ossified at birth are the minute ossicles of the ear. The difference between the ft^etus and the child in this respect is, however, only one of degree. During pregnancy, a temporary organ, termed the placenta (}>opidarly known as the after-birth, from its being thrown off shortly after the buth of the child), is developed on the inner wall of the uterus (see h in the figure). This organ is mainly com- posed of vessels, and there proceeds from it the structure known as the umbilical cord, a, in which lie the imibilical vein, which conveys arterial blood to the fcetus, aud the two umbilical arteries, which return the blood to the placenta. This iimbilical cord conveys these • vessels to the umbilicus, or navel. Before tracing the course of the blood through the foetus, we must notice the chief anatomical peculiarities presented by the vascular or circulating system before birth. 1. In the heart, we find a communication between the two auricles by means of an opening termed the foramen ovale. 2. In the arterial system, we have to notice first, the ductus arteriosus (see r in the figure), which is a large communicating trunk between the pulmonary artery and the descending aorta ; and, secondly, the branches given oiT by the internal iliac arteries, which go under the name of hy^iogastric as long as they are within the body of the foetus, and of umbilical when they enter into the structure of the cord, are continued from the foetus to the placenta, to which they retrrn the blood which has circidated in the foetal system. 3. In the venous system there is a communication between the umbilical vein and the inferior vena cava, called the ducttis venosns. Pure blood is brought from the placenta by the umbilical vein, which ])asses through the uml)i liens, and enters the liver, where it divides into several branches, d, d, which are distributed to that aa- rCETUS. viscus, the main trunk or ductus veiiosus, e, passing ilirectly backwards, and entering the inferior vena cava, /. The pure blood hei-e becomes mixed with the imi)ure bhjod which is returned from the lo\\er extremities and abdominal viscera, and is carried hito the right auricle, h, and from thence, guided by the Eustachian valve (which is situated between the anterior margin of the inferior cava, and the The Fcetal Ckculation (from "Wilson's Anatomises Vade Mecum) : «, the nnibilical cord proceeding from h, the placenta ; c, the umbilical vein ; d, d, its branches going to the liver ; e, tlie ductus venosus ; f, the inferior vena cava ; g, the portal vein; h, the right auricle. The uppermost arrow indicates the course of the blood through the foramen oi:ale. i, the left auiicle; A, the left ventricle. The arrow commencing in the left ventricle, and with its head on the ascending aorta, indicates the course of the blood to he distributed to the head and extremities ; /, the arch of the aorta. The arrows m and n represent the return of the blood from the head and upper extremities, through the jugular and sub- clavian veins, to the superior vena cava, o, to the right auricle, p, and, a.s shewn by the arrow, through the right ventricle, k, to the pulmonary artery, q ; r, the ductus arteriosus ; s, s, the descending aorta • t, the hypogastric or umbilical arteries ; u, u, the external iliac arteries. auriculo-ventricular orifice, and is of relatively large size in the foetus), passes throiigh the foramen ovale, into the left auricle, i. From the left auricle, it passes into the left ventricle, and into the aorta, whence it is distributed by the carotid and sub- clavian arteries principally to the head and upper extremities, which thiis receive comparatively pure blood. From the head and arms, the impure blood is returned by the superior vena cava to the right auricle ; from the right auricle, it is propelled, as in the adult, into the right ventricle ; and from the right ventricle, into the pulmonary artery. In the adult, it wotdd now pass through the lungs, and be oxygenised ; but in the foetus, it passes through the ductus arteriosus into the commencement of the descending aorta, where it mixes with that port;ion of the pure blood which is not sent through the carotid and subclavian arteries. Some of this mixed blood is distributed by the external iliac arteries, u, u, to the lower extremities, while the remainder (probably the larger portion) is conveyed by the hyjwgastric or umbilical arteries, i, to the placenta. From the above description we perceive — 1. That a considerable quantity of the i)ure blood from the placenta is at once distributed to the liver, which accounts for its large size at birth as compared with the other viscera. 2. That a double current meets in the right auricle, one stream, guided by the FiUstachian valve, passing thi-ough the foramen ovale into the left auricle, the other through the auriculo-ventricular opening into the right ventricle. 3. That the comparatively pure blood sent to the head and arms, as contrasted with the impure blood sent to the lower extremities, causes the relatively greater develoi)ment of the former organs, ana prepares them for the functions they are called upon to })erform ; the development of the legs at birth being slight as compared with that of the head or arms. Almost immediately after birth, the foramen ovaufi becomes closed by a membranous layer, and the ductus arteriosus and ductus venosus degenerate into impervious fibrous cords. The lungs, previously to the act of inspiration, are dense and solid in structure, and of a deei)-red colour, and lie far back in the chest. Their specifii gravity is greater than water, in which they (oi portions of them) consecjucntly sink, whereas liinga, or portions of lungs, that have respired, float in that Huid. In the preceding remarks, we mentioned nine months as the full period of foetal existence. The period of gestation is, however, only constant between certain limits, and it is of the greatest importance in reference to questions of chastity and legitin)acy to determine these limits. The average duration of gestation in the human female is comprised between the 38th and 40th weeks after concej)tion. It is comparatively seldom that the actual date of conception can be fixed with positive certainty ; but amongst the few cases of this kind on record, Higby mentions one in which natural labour came on in 260 days, and Reid mentions another in which it did not commence until the lapse of 293 days. Here, then, we have an uuquestionalile range of 33 days ; and many apparently authentic cases are on record in which a longer period of gestation than in Keid's case has been observed. Another important question in connection with this subject, is — What is the earliest period at which a child can be born, to enable it to live, and to continue in life after its birth ? There is no doubt that children born at the seventh month of gestation are capable of living, although they usually require much care ; and children may be born alive at any l)eriod between the sixth and seventh months, or even in some instartces earlier than the sixth ; but this is rare, and if born living, they commonly die soon after birth. Various cases of this nature are collected by Dr Taylor in his Medical Jurisprudence ; amongst others, he mentions a case reported by Dr Barker of Dumfries, in which a child was born at the 158th day of gestation, and (though small) grew up. In the celebrated Kinghorn case, the child was born 174 days, or nearly six calendar months after marriage, and lived for more than eight mouths; and the majority of the medical w^itnesses who gave evidence on that occasion were strongly in favour of the view that the period of the gestation was circumscribed by the period of wedlock. Again, questions connected with prolonged gesta- tion have given rise to nmch discussion in legal medicine. No period has been fixed by law beyond which a child if born in wedlock is to be declared illegitimate. In the case of Anderton v. Gibbs, 1834, the vice-chancellor decided that a child born ten months or about forty-two weeks after intercoiu-se with the husband, was legitimate. In the Gardner Peerage case, which came before the House of T^orda in 1825, the question was, whether a child born 311 days (or 44 weeks and 3 days) after intercoxirse could be legitimate. Lord and Lady Gardner sepai- ated on the 30th of January 1802, and did not again meet till the 11th of July. A full-sized child waa FOG— FOG-SIGNALS. born on tlie 8th of December of that year. The principal obstetric practitioners in the kingdom were exanimed on this point, and a large majority con- curred in the opinion that natural gestation might be protracted to such a period. The decision, which was against the legitimacy, seems to have been mainly if not entirely based on the moral grounds that Lady Gardner, after sei)arating from her hus- band, was living in open adultery. In the case of Commonwealth v. Porter (see American Journal of Medical Science, 1845), it was recently decided in the United States that a chDd born 317 days (or foi-f-.y-five weeks and two days) after conception w^as legitimate. In the case of Cotterall v. Cotterall, decided in the Consistory Court in 1847, the hus- band had proceeded against his mfe for a divorce on the ground of adultery. In this case, if it were the child of the husband, it must have been born after twelve months' gestation. Dr Lushington, without entering into the question of protracted gestation, at once pronounced for the divorce, such a duration of pregnancy not being supported by any known facts. This article would be imperfect ^vithout a notice of the question — What constiflites live-birth? This is a point on which the most distinguished obstetric authorities have differed : some holding that where there is muscular movement, there is life; while others maintain that where res})iration has not been proved to have taken place, the child was BtiU-born. Amongst the most celebi-ated lawsuits bearing on this point, we may mention that of Fish V. Palmer, tried in 1806, and that of Brook i\ Kellock, tried in 1861. In the last-named case it iras decided by the Vice-Chanceilor, Sir J. Stuart, fchat a child may live for some time after birth, and not breathe, the absence of signs of breathing being held to be no proof of its being born dead. It was given in evidence that there Avas pulsation of the funis after separation of the cord, and the beating of the heart was regarded as proof of live-birth. Hence we may regard it as now established in English law, that respiration is not required to establish live-birth. Nor do the laws of France or the United States require that the child shall have Ijreathed. In Scotland, the law requires not only that the child shall have breathed, but that it shall have cried ; and in conformity with this law, a child which lived, breathed, and died in convul- sions at the end of half an hour, was declared to have been born dead (Dyer's Rejiorts, 25). FOG, or MIST, is the visible watery vapour sometimes hanging near the surface of the earth, and caused, as clouds are, by the precipitation of the moisture of the atmosphere. This takes place when a stratum of atmosphere comes in contact with a colder stratum, or with a portion of the earth's surface, as a hill, by which it is cooled, so that it can no longer hold in solution as much moisture as before. It takes place also when a cold Btratum of atmosphere comes above a moist warm portion of the earth's surface, the exhalations from which are precipitated and become visible as they ascend into it. Thus, fogs are formed over lakes, rivers, and marshes in the evening, because the water is then warmer than the atmosphere above it. The fogs seen in the morning very often dis- ap])ear by being dissolved in the atmosphere as the temperature increases. FOGARASY, Janos (John), a Hungarian philolo- ^t and jurisconsult, was born in 1801 at Kiismark, in the county of Abanj. F. went through the study of philosopliy and law at the Calvinistic college of Sarospataiv, and was called to the bar in 1829. (Jpou entering the judicial career, F. div-ided his exertions between law and the national or Magyar language, with such success that be was elected Fellow of the Hungarian Acadeny in 18.'J8. F.'a several publications in the fields of Hungarian juris- prudence and philology are reckoned to Ije standard works, bearing the stamj) of deep original research, and of great systematic powers. The following list of works, all published at Pesth, in the Hungarian or Magyar tongue, may shew the fertility of F.'s pen : Latin-Mauyar Lexicon for Lefidation and Govern- ment (2d ed. 1835) ; The Mttajjhydcs of tiie Magyar Tongue (1834) ; Magyar-German Dictionary (1836) ; Elements of Hungarian Statute Law (1839), with a valuable Appendix published at a later date ; Th€. Commercial Law of Hungary (1840) ; Hungarian Bank (1848) ; and Commercial Dictionary. F. has also contributed much, by his EssaijH on tlie Spirit of the Hungarian Language (1845), towards its ra] id development. He is at present busily engaged (together with Czuczor) in preparing the great dictionary of the Himgarian Academy. FO'GGIA, an important town of Italy, capital of the province of Capitanata, in Southern Italy, ia situated between the rivers Cervaro and Celone, in a district abounding in i)lantations of olives, vines, and other fruit trees, 80 miles east-north-east of Naples. It is a handsome, well-built town, -with spacious streets, good hovises, and large shops. Among the chief buildings are the catliedi'al, a Gothic edifice originally, but partially destroyed by an earthquake in 1731, and afterwards rebuilt in a different style; numerous churches, some of them antique; tlie custom-house, a beautiful building; and the theatre. It is the centre of all the trade of the province, and has many large corn magazines. Poo. (1872) .38.138. F., supposed to have been built from the ruins of the ancient Arpi, was a favourite residence of the Emperor Frederick II., and here died his wife. Isabella, daughter of the English king, John. It was also for some time the residence of Ferdinand I. and his court, when it ranked as the second city in the kingdom. FOG-SIGNALS, audible warnings used on board ships, on the sea-coast, or on railways, during fogs and mists, or at any other time wlien lights or ordinary daylight-signals are not available. The commonest fog- signal on shipboard is the continuous ringmg of the ordinary time-bell, or striking the anchor with a hammer, together with the occasional discharge of musketry and heavy guns. These are adopted, to prevent collisions, when ships are overtaken by a fog in the British Channel, or other i)laces where shipping is abundant. The blowing of a horn, the beating of a drum, an empty cask, a gong, and various other unusual somids, are also adopted. Steam-vessels generally blow a whistle under these circumstances. These sounds, however, only indicate rudely the position of the ship, and not the direction in which she is sailing. Many plans have been devised for a code of signals, by which the directions north, south, &c., might be indicated by the varying length of each sound, or the intervals between the sounds oi a fog-hom or whistle. It is very deshable that some general code of signals of this kind should be adopted for the merchant ser\4ce as well as the n-ixvy ; and that its recognition by the marine of all other nations should be proc\ired. The Admiralty have such a code for the direction of a fleet of ships of war in thick Aveather, but their application i? limited to the navy. Some further remarks on ^og-signals will appear under SiGXAi^ (q. v.). Fog-signals from the shore are very desirable, 399 FOHI— FOIX. especially on a dangerous coast. The ringing of church-bells, and of bells at the coast-guard stations, has been suggested ; but tliere is one serious diffi- culty here, viz., that when most needed, that is, when a strong wind is blowing in towards the shore, such sounds would be heard only at a very little distance out at sea. The fog- signals used on railways are small cases charged with detonating powder, and laid upon the rails. They explode loudly when the wheel of an advancing train comes upon them. They are not merely used in fogs, but in all cases of danger, from obstruction of the line, or in other cases of urgency when a train has to be stopped without delay. Station-masters and railway police are furnished with them for the purpose of thus stopping a train at any place. FOHI. See Fun-HE. rOHR, one of the greater Danish islands in the North Sea, on the western coast of the province of Slesvig ; its central point is in lat. 54" 42' N., and in long. 8° 30' E. It has an area of about 28 square miles, has upwards of 50U0 inhabitants, is divided into WesterlandJ'ohr, which belongs to the province of Jutland, and Oderlandfohr, which belongs to that of Slesvig. The inha]>itants are mostly Frisians, who live by taking tish and wild fowl, and by the manufacture of cheese and stocking- ware. The chief place is a bathing-place, called Wyk, wdth a population of 700. FOIL, a thin bar of elastic steel, mounted as a Rapier (q. v.), but without a point, and additionally blunted at the end by the presence of a button covered with leather. It is used in Fencing (q. v.). FOIL (from fol'mm., a leaf), a general name for thin metal intermediate in thickness between lextf- metal, such as gold, silver, and copper leaf, and sheet- metal. There are two distinct kinds of foil in common use— the tin-foil used for sdvering looking-glasses, lining tea-caddies, and other similar purposes, and for the conducting coatings of electrical apparatus ; and the bright foils employed by the jewellers for backing real or artificial gems, and thereby increasing their lustre or modifying their colour. The former is made by rolling out tin, or more recently, by the method of Mr Wimshurst, who casts a cylinder of the metal, and then, by means of a knife or cutter, shaves it into a sheet as the cylinder rolls to the knife, which is gradually moved inwards towards the axis of the cylinder at a rate proportionate to the required thickness of the sheet. The bright foil used by jewellers and for theatrical and other ornaments under the name of ' tinsel,' is made of copper, tin, turned copper, or sdvered copper. The last is now chiefly used by jewellers. The metal is rolled in a flatting mill, and the requisite brilliancy of surface is produced by finish- ing betw^een burnished rollers and polishing. The various colours are produced by coating the white metal with transparent colours mixed in isinglass oize. A similar varnish without colour is laid over the white foil, to prevent tarnishing. The socket or setting in which the stone or paste is mounted is lined with the foil, and by reflecting from the inter- nal facets the light which passes through the stone, adds considerably to its brilliancy. The natural colours of real stones are sometimes heightened or modified by coloured foil, and factitious colours are thus given to the glass or ' paste,' as it is called, of which sjmrious gems are made. There are two other methods of foiling gems, distinct from the above : one of them is to line the socket of the setting with tin-foil, then fill it whilst 400 warm with mercury ; after a few n\inntcs the fluid mercury is poured out, and there remains an amalgam of tin, precisely the same as is used for backing com- mon mirrors ; the gem is fitted into this, and thus its back has a mirror surface. The other method is to precipitate a film of pure metallic silver upon the l)ack of the stone, by submitting a solution of the ammonia nitrate of silver in contact with the stone to the reducing action of the oils of cassia and cloves. The silvering of looking glasses being the chief use to which the ordinary tin-foil is applied, its ])urity is a matter of great consideration ; its employment also by chemists, as a ready means of forming son e of the tin compounds, renders this absolutely neces- sary. Nevertheless, the spirit of adulteration has extended to the tin-foil makers, and lead has been extensively alloyed with the tin. In some analyses recently made, it has been shown that as nmch as 85 per cent, of the adulterant metal has been used, the eflfect of which, in the process of silvering mirrors, is most injurious to the brilliancy of the amalgam, which should consist of perfectly pure tin and quicksilver. For chemical ])ur- poses, it is now absolutely necessary to test for lead before using tin-foil. The foils used by jewellers for backing gems, consisting of small sheets of silvered co])per rolled very thin, are coloured with the following prepara- tions to suit the different gems under which they are to be ))laced, or for use as tinsel in the manufac- ture of theatrical ornaments, toys, etc. Lake and Prussian blue and pale drying-oil, finely ground with a slab and mullar — for amethyst colour, Prussian blue, similarly prepared — for sapphire colour. Dra- gons' blood, dissolved in pure alcohol — for (jarnet colour. Scsquiferrocyanide of iron and bichromate of potash, e(|ual parts, very finely ground and sifted, then ground with a quantity of gum-mastic equal to the other two ingredients, until the whole forms an impalpable powder ; gradually form this into a thin paste with pure wood-spirit (pyroxylic) and pre- serve in stoppered bottle ; when used, a portion is diluted with wood-spirit to the necessary thinness — for emerald colour. Various shades of yellowish or bluish green can be produced by varying the p)ropor- tions of the two colouring materials. Lake or car- mine, ground in solution of isinglass — for ruby colour. A weak solution of orange shellac, sometimes tinted with saffron, turmeric, or aloes — for topaz colour. Several other colour- varnishes are made by similar methods for various shades of tinsel and gem foils- See Silvering. FOIX, a small and unimportant town of France, in the department of Ariege, and on the left bank of the river of that name, 44 miles south-south-east of Toulouse. It has a picturesque old castle, with three well-preserved towers of whitish marble, all of differ- ent ages, and all dating from before the 5th century. It has some trade in iron, and in the vicinity are nu- merous iron works. Pop. 4865. F. was capital of the old county of Foix. FOIX, an old French family, which took the title of count from the district of Foix (now the department of Ariege), in the south of France. The first who bore the title was Roger, Comte de Foix, who flourished iu the middle of the 11th century. Raymond, Comte de Foix, figures as one of the knights who accompanied King Philippe Auguste to Palestine ; afterwards, being accused of heresy, his estates were seized by Comte de Montfort. He died in 1223. Several members of the family sub- sequently distinguished themselves in the wars against England. Gaston III., Comte de Foix, born 1331, and called, on account of the beauty of his person, Phoebus, was noted for his knightly love of FOLCLAND^FOLTGNO. splendour and military prowess. For his services to the king, he was made governor of Langnedoc and Gascony. When only 18, he married Agnes, daughter of Philip III., king of Navarre. In 1358, during the insuirection known as the Jacquerie (q. v.), he delivered the royal family from the power of the rebels. When Charles VI. wished to deprive him of the government of Langxiedoc, he maintained his position by force of arms, and defeated the Due de Berri in the plain of Ilevel. He was inordinately attached to the chase, and is said to have kept 1600 dogs. He also wrote a work on the subject, entitled Miroir de Phebus des deduitz de la C/iasse des Bestes sauvaiges et des Oyseaulx de Proye, which went through several editions in the 1 6th and 17th centuries, and whose bombastic style (faire du Phebus) became a byword. Froissart owed some of the choicest incidents in his history to having lived for some time in the castle of Orthes, Gaston's principal residence. After his death, in 1391, the estates and title went to a collateral branch of the family. Gaston IV., Comte de Foix, rendered good service to the king in the wars against England. In 1455, his father-in-law, Tohn II., king of Navarre, named him his successor. In addition to this, Charles VII. created him a peer of France, and ceded to him his claims upon Roussillon and Cerdagne. He died in 1472, when the family possessions were again divided. The last, his grandson, Gaston de Foix, was probably the most heroic member of the family. Son of Jean de Foix, Comte d'Estamx)es, and Marie d'Orleans, sister of Louis XII. of France, he was born in 1489, and in 1507 received from his imcle, the French king, the title of Due de Nemours. In the Italian wars carried on by Louis, Gaston dis- played the most brilliant and precocious genius. He twice overthrew the Swiss, at Como and Milan ; chased Pope Julius II. from Bologna ; seized Brescia out of the hands of the Venetians ; and, to crown a series of splendid triumphs, which obtained for him the title of the Thunderbolt of Italy, won the great battle of Ravenna over the Spaniards, 11th April 1512, in which, however, he fell, at the early age of twenty-three. On his death, the estates and title of the House of Foix went to Henri, king of Navarre, whose daughter, Jeanne d'Albret, married Antoine de Bourbon, Due de Vendome, and became the mother of the great Henri Quatre, who thus attached the coimty of Foix to the French crown. FO'LCLAND, or FOLKLAND, the land of the folk or people in England in Anglo-Saxon times. The folcland, according to Turner, was that portion of the kingdom which was retained in behalf of the public, and with a view to increasing population and the gro-wing wants of the community, and not per- mitted to become allodial estate or absolute private ]»roperty. Of this land, the usufruct or dominium utile was enjoyed by the freemen, for which certain rents were paid to the state, and which did not become hereditary. On the contrary, the rights which were held in it by individuals reverted to the community at the expiry of a particidar term, when it was again given out by the folcgemot or court of the district, either in commonty or in severalty. Certain services to the public were commonly imposed on the holders of folcland, such as the reparation of the royal vills and other public works ; the exercise of hospitality to the king, and to other personages of distinction in their progresses through the country, by furnishing them and their messengers, huntsmen, hounds, hawks, and horses with food, and providing them, when necessary, with means of transport. It does not seem that the folcland was held exclusively by the common people, but rather that it was open tc freemen 1&2 of all ranks and conditions, and that the posses- sion of it was much coveted even by those who held great estates on the hereditary title which was known as Bockland (q. v.). Folcland was often given out as bockland to those who had performed great public services, just as Horatius was rewarded by a grant of the Roman aeei> 401 rOLKES-FONBLANQUE. converted into promenades. It has regular streets, and some important buildings, including the beautiful cathedral, the theatre, the Palazzo Communale, the hospital, and several churches. Raphael'? Madonna di Foligno, now in the Vatican, formerly hung in a convent here. The manufactures are woollens, paper, and wax-candles. Pop. 12,930. r., the ancient Umbrian Fulginium, was called in the middle ages Fuliguum. In 1832 it suffered severely from an earthquake. FOLKES, Martin, LL.D., an eminent English scholar and antiquary, bom at Westminster in 1690, was educated at Clare Hall, Cambridge. In 1713, he was chosen a fellow of the Royal Society of London ; and in 17*1 he succeeded Sir Hans Sloane as president of that learned body. He was also a member of the Antiquarian Society, and of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris. He died in 1754. F. was the author of A Table of English Gold Coins from the I8th Edward I/f., when Gold was first coined in England (Lond. 1736, 4to), with A Table of English Silver Coins, from the Norman Conquest; to which is added an Aj>pendix, answering the Coins minted in Scotland since the Union of the two Croxons (Lond. 1745, folio), published under the care of the Antiquarian Society, su]ierintended by Dr GifFard (1763, 2 vols.). Besides these works, F. con- tributed a number of papers to the Philosophical Transactions. FOLK-LORE, a term recently introduced into English from the German, as applical)le to what may be called a department of antiquities or archte- ology — viz., that which relates to ancient observ- ances and customs, and also ideas, prejudices, and Buperstitions among the common people. In England, the literatiu'e of this subject may be said to have commenced with the Miscelkinies of John Aubrey, published in 1696, in which we find chapters on Day Fatality, Omens, Dreams, Corpse Candles, Secoud Sight, ar,d kindred matters, to which that learned but credulous author — an early member of the Royal Society — had given his attention. Here, however, the superstitions, rather than the ordinary observances and customs of the people, were detailed. The first book addressed to the general subject of folk-lore was an octavo volume by the Rev. Henry Bourne, pul^lished at Xewcastle in 1725, under the title of Antiquitates Vulgares, or the Antiquities of *he Common People. It mainly consists of an account of the i)opuIar customs in connection with the feasts of the church. Fifty years after its publication, John Brand, M.A., a native of Newcastle, busied himself in extending the collections which originated with Bourne, and in 1777 he published at that city the first edition of his Observations on the Popular Antiquities of Great Britain, a work which was subsequently enlarged by himself, partly from the stores of folk-lore presented in the Statistical Account of Scotland (edited by Sinclair, 1791—1795), but was left to be re-issued, under a thoroughly revised form, in 1813 (2 vols. 4to), by Henry Ellis of the British Museum. This work, in which Bourne's was incorporated, has since been twice reprinted, with additions, and might have been regarded as an exhaustive work on the subject, if it had not been shewn l)y Hone's Every Day Booh and Year Book, and the useful little periodical entitled Notes and Queries, that, after all, many curious particulars of English folk-lore remained to be gleaned. Through all these various channels, we now have tolerably ample information on popular festivals of every kina, both those which appear to have originated in pagan times, and those instituted by the Chi'istian Church, on all observances connected with the im})ortant movements of domestic life, as marriages, sepulture, &c. ; on fireside amusements, on superstitions and vidgar errors. What may be called a sub-section of folk-lore has at the same time been am])ly illus- trated in the Nursery Rhymes, edited by J. 0. Halli- well, and the Popular Phymes of Scotland, editcKi by Robert Chambers. It is to be observed that, whiie folk-lore has thus been engai^in^ the attention of literary men, and put beyond risk of oblivion by taking its place in solid books, it is everywhere declining among the people themselves. To this effect, the diffusion of scientific ideas, the dis- favour of the clergy for everything connected with the supernatural except religion itself, and the gi-eat industrial changes and improvements of the last fifty years, including a greatly increased shifting of the people from one district to another, have all conduced. In the British Islands, no effort has been made to generalise folk-lore for any purjiose con- nected with anthropology, ethnology, or any otlier science ; but in Germany, as is well known, tho learned brothers. Jacob and Wilhelm Grinnn, have turned the ancient simple usages and traditions of the peasant's fireside to excellent account in illustrating remote periods of the national history. FOLKMOTE (a meeting or assembly of the ' folk ' or people) was the term ai)plied l)y the Saxons to district meetings generally, though Kemble is of opinion that originally it was the great meeting of the nation, which was afterwards converted into the Witenagemote, or meeting of the councillors or representatives of the nation (Kemble's Saxons in England, ii. p. 194). FOLKRIGHT, mentioned in the laws of King Edward the Elder, is nearly synonymous with the common law, or rather with the rights which the common law confers on the people of England. FO'LKSTONE, a rising town of England on the south-east coast of Kent, is a municipal borough, seaport, and bathing-place, and is situated 83 miles east-south-east of London by rail, and five miles west-south-west of Dover. It stands on uneven ground at the foot of a range of hills. The oldest part lies in a narrow valley, crossed by a magni- ficent railway viaduct. It has i-apidly extende. to a part, by means of cloths Wj-\ng out of hot water, sometimes medicated with vegetable infusions of substances calculated to relieve pain or stimulate the smface. Thus, opium, belladonna, chamomile, turpentine, &c., are used in various forma in connection with fomentations, which are of very great service in the treatment of almost aU painful local disorders. FONBLANQUE, Albany, journalist, born in 1797, Avas intended for the bar, and became a puj)il of Chatty, the eminent special pleader. Castle- reagh's Six Acts made him a political writer. As editor of the Examiner, the then leading Liberal weekly journal, F. exhibited a singular keenness both of wit and intellect, and exercised no inconsiderable FOND DU LAC— FONT. influoace ou public opiuion between the years 1826 and 1836. Leigh Hunt, who was his pre- decessor in the editorship of the Examiner, says of him in his Autobiography, ' He was the genuine successor not of me, but of the Swifts and Addisons themselves ; profuse of wit even beyond them, and superior in political knowledge.' The characteristics of his political writings may be gathered from his wuik, entitled England under Seven Administrations (1837), which is simply a reprint of the more historical leading articles published in the Examiner from the period of the Canning and Goderich ministries, to the return of the Melbourne ministry. F.'s services to the Whigs were rewarded by his appointment to the office of secretary to the Statistical Department of the Board of Trade in 1852. He afterwards became head of the same de- partment under the presidency of the Hon. Jolm Bright, which office he held till his death, October 14, 1872. FOND DU LAC is a name of various application in that portion of the United States which originally belonged to French Canada. Primarily denoting the inner extremity of any great body of fresh water, it has, secondarily, been made to indicate adjacent localities of different kinds, chiefly in connection with Lake Superior, the grand reservoir of the St Lawrence, and Lake Winnebago, which empties itself from the westward into Lake Michigan. — 1. The Fond du Lac of Lake Superior has lent its appella- tion to a village in Minnesota, situated at a distance of about 20 miles, on its navigable tributary, the St Louis.— 2. The Fond du Lac of Lake Winnebago designates both a county and town of Wisconsin. The latter has sprung up mainly since 1845, has a pleasant situation on a wooded slope above the lake, an important trade in grain, provisions, and timber, a great number of Artesian wells, and a popu- lation (1870) of 12,970. FO'NDI (anciently. Fundi), a small town of Italy, in the north-west of the province of Terra di Lavoro, is situated six miles from the coast, on the Appian Way, which now forms its principal street, 56 miles north-west of Naples. It is an ill-built, dirty, and miserable town, in the neigh- bourhood of a pestiferous lake (the ancient Lacus Fundanus) ; the surrounding plain, however (the ancient Coicuhus Ager, which produced the famous Csecuban wine of classic times), is very fruitful. F. is surrounded in part by walls of cyclopean struc- tuie, and has a population of 6212, who are said to be in the highest degree wild and lawless. FONSE'CA, a bay on the Pacific coast of Central America, lies between the two states San Salvador and Nicaragua. It claims notice princix^ally as the proposed terminus of an interoceanic railway from the Puerto Caballos in Honduras. The inter- vening country has been surveyed, and reported as favourable. FONT {Fons Baptismalis), the vessel used in churches as the repository of the baptismal water. In the early period, while immersion continued to be the ordinary rite of the administration of the sacrament of baptism, the baptistery (see Baptistery), or other place set apart for the ceremony, was furnished with a basin sufficiently capacious to admit of the administration of the rite according to the then prevailing form. But when it became customary to baptize by affusion — that is, by pouring the water on the head of the person to be baptized — the size of the basin was naturally diminished, and eventually it assumed the dimensions and the form which are now lamiUar to us in most of the medieval chiu'ches in Great Britain and upon the continent. The baptismal font, in its normal form, con.sistB ol a basin or cup, more or less capacioiis, hollowed out of a solid block, and supported upon a stem or pedestal. It is ordinarily of stone, but fs )me ancient examples of leaden fonts also occur, and a few of copper or of bronze. In general, how- ever, it may he said that the font, in its external form and character, followed the prevailing style of ecclesiastical architecture and ornamentation. From its connection with one of the most solemn rites of religion, it became very early a favouiite subject for the exercise of the decorative skill of the artist, and there are still preserved in different churches fonts which exhibit characteristics of each and all the successive fashions through which chun h architecture has passed since the introduction of the font in its present form. There is some doubt as to whether any existing specimen in England really belongs to the Saxon period, but examples are found of all the later styles, from the Early Norman down to the latest revival of Gothic archi- tecture in our own day ; the Early English, the Decorated, of which a beautiful example occurs in the church of All Saints, Norwich; and the Per- pendicular, which is seen in its highest perfection at East Dereham in the same county of Norfolk. The annexed engraving exhibits a highly characteristic specimen of the fonts of the beginning of the 14th c, which stands in the church of Swaton, Lincoln- shire, erected about 1310. The external figure of the basin seems to have been originally circular or elliptical ; but most of the later fonts are hexagonal, or even ei^jht-sided. The basin was commonly supported on a single pillar or stem. Many cases, however, occur in which it rests on three, four, or five pillars, or, as in the engraving, on a group of pillars or pilasters united into a solid stem. Tlie exterior, as well of the basin as of the pedestal, was often highly decorated, ordinarily with, sculpture, but occasionally also in gold and colours ; the designs on the basin commonly representing subjects connected with baptism, or its types and symbols. We frequently meet around the pedestal figures of the apostles, sometimes only eleven in number, Judas being omitted. In the Roman Catholic Church, the service of Easter Saturday contains a solemn form for the blessing of the baptismal font. After a long series of prayers, and amid a very imposing ceremonial, the ' chrism,' or consecrated oil blessed by the bishop, and also the so-called 'oil of catechumens,' are 40} FONTAINEBLEAU— FONTANES. mingled with the bajitismal venter, which is reserved for subsequent use. With a, view to the preservation of the wa'ter thus reserved, the font, especially when it is of porous stone, is sometimes lined with lead ; and from an early date, it is furnished with a lid, •which is secured by a lock, and is often of a highly ornameutal character. The ordinary place of the font is at the western end of the nave, near the entrance of the church, but in many cases it stands in a separate chapel or baptister3% or at least in a compartment scri-ened off for the purpose. Even when it stands in the open nave, it is properly enclosed by a rail. The baptismal font is not to be confounded with the 'holy- water fount,' which usually stands near the entrance of Roman Catholic churches, and from which persons entering sprinkle their forehead, in recognition of the inward purity Math which we ought to enter the house of God ; nor with the piscina or mcrarium, which is found in the chancel or the sacristy of ancient churches, and which was intended to receive and carry away the water used in cleansing the sacred vessels, the altardinens, and the other fumitiire used in the administration of the eucharist. See Paley's Illustrations of Baptismal Fonts ; Simpson's Series of Baptianinl Fonts; Wetser's Kirchen- Lexicon ; Binterim's Denkicilrdi'jkeiten. FONTAINEBLEAU, a town in France, in the department of Seiue-et-Marne, is beautifully situated in the midst of an extensive forest, near the left bank of the Seine, 35 miles south- e-ast of Paris, with which it is connected both by steamers on the Seine, and by railway. There are several fine public buildings, among others, two hospitals — one erected by Anne of Austria, the other by Madame de Mon- tespan. It furnishes a great deal of wine and fruit for the capital, and has manufactures of porcelain. Its grapes are famed as V/iasaelas de Forttaiiieblcau. Population (1872) 8952. F. is chiefly famous for its chS-teau, or pleasure- palace of the kings of France, and the forest that surrounds it. The forest covers an extent of 04 sqiiare miles, and presents much fine scenery. The chateau is said to have originally been founded by E.obert the Pious toward the end of the 10th century. It was rebuilt in the 12th c. by Louis VII., of whom, and of Philippe Auguste, it was a favourite residence, and was enlarged l)y Louis IX. and his successors. After being allowed to fall into decay, it was repaired and embellished by Francis I., who here received the Emperor Charles V. with lavish s])lendour, in 1539. Almost every succeeding king added something in the way of enlargement or embellishment, so that it bears the character and style of almost every century. In the 17th c, it was the residence of Christina of Sweden after her abdication, and in the Galerie des Cerfs she caused her secretary Monaldeschi to be executed. Under Louis XIV. it was occupied by Madame id ^(lontespan, and under Louis XV. by I)u Barry ; and here Pope Pius VII. was detained a prisoner for nearly two years by Napoleon. Many ntate transactions and treaties are dated from F. ; among others, the act of abrocess, here takes place without hindrance. * The soluble and sapid constituents of the flesh are dissolved in the water, and the water penetrates into the intei-ior of the mass, which it extracts more or less completely. The flesh loses, while the soup gains, in sapid matters ; and by the separation of albumen, which is commonly removed by skimming, as it rises to the surface of the water, when coagidated, the meat loses its tenderness, and becomes tough and hard; and if eaten without the SOU]), it not only loses much of its nutritive propertu;s, but also of its digestibility.' — Liebig's liesearches on the Chemistry of Food, p. 128. Roasting is appHed much more to meat than to vegetables. Both in roasting and broiling nual, the first application of heat should be considerable and rapid, so as to form an outer coating of coagu- lated albumen (just as iti boiling), which retains the nutritive matters within the cooked meat. In roasted meat, nothing is removed but some of the superficial fat and the gravy, which is itself an article of food. The effect of roasting on such vegetables as apples and potatoes is to render them more niitritive and digestible than they would be in the raw state, by splitting their starch grains, and rendering them more soluble. Baking (q. v.) acts in the same manner as roast- ing, but meat thus co'.'ked is less wholesome, in consequence of its being more impregnated with em])yreumatic oil. Frying is the most objectionable of all kinds of cookery. In this operation, heat is usually applied by the intermedium of boiling fat or oil. Vs.riou3 products of the decomposition of the fat are set free, which are very obnoxious to the stomachs of invalids. Liebig has shewn that salted meat is, in so far as nutrition is concerned, in much the same state as meat from which good soup has been made. After flesh has been rubbed and sprinkled with dry salt, a brine is formed amounting in bulk to one-thii'd of the fluid contained in the raw flesh. This brine ia found to contain a large quantity of albumen, soluble phosphates, lactic acid, potash, creatine, and creatinine — substances which are essential to the constitution of the flesh, which therefore loses in nutritive value in proportion to their abstraction. The preservation of food requires some notice. Three methods— viz., preservation by cold, preser- vation by the exclusion of air, and preservation by salting — are noticed in the article Antiseptics. Tho flrst is only of comparatively limited aj^plication : the second, known as Appert's method, has been successfully used in the English navy for many years ; the chief objection to it is its expense : the third method injures, as we have already seen, the character of the meat, and renders it both deficient in nutritive materials, and actually injurious if it forms a principal and continuous article of diet. To these methods we must add preservation by smoking, preservation with sugar, and with \^negar, and preservation by drying. It is well known that meat suspended in smoke loses its tendency to putrefy, the substance from which the smoke derives its antiseptic property being creasote, or some allied body. Smoked meat acquires a peculiar taste, a dark colour, and a somewhat hard consist- ence ; but it retains all its nutritive constituents, and is thus preferable to salted meat. Sugar and vinegar are chiefly employed in the preservation of vegetable prodiicts. The most important mode of preserving articles of food, whether animal or vege- table, is by direct drying. Meat is cut up into small slices about a quarter of an inch thick, and vegetables into smaller pieces ; they are steamed at a high temperature, so as to coagulate the albumen ; and they are then completely desiccated by exposure to a current of very hot dry air. At the conclusion of the process, the slices of meat are quite hard, and present a shrivelled appearance. Dr Marcet [On the Composition of Food, 18oG, p. 174) speaks in high terms of this method, which he has himself seen in operation in Paris. ' Food thus preserved,' he says, ' whether it be animal or vegetable, has the advantage (1) of remaining in a fresh condition, though freely exposed to the atmosphere for a great number of years, and (2) of being reduced to one-fifth of its original bulk from its having lost all its water.' He adds, that the preserved vegetables resume their bulk whtn *07 FOOL— FOOLS, FEAST OP. ooiled in water, and that they so completely retain their aroma, that it is jften difficult to distinguish be- tween soups made v ith them, and others prepared with fresh vegetables. Tlie adulteration of food of almost every kind is unfortunately so conunon a custom that our limited space will merely allow of our noticing a few of the leading points in regard to it. Wheat-Jlour is not unfrequently adulterated with one or more of the following substances — flour of beans, Indian corn, rye, or rice, potato-starch, alum, chalk, carbonate of magnesia, bone-dust, plaster of Paris, sand, clay, &c. The organic matters — the inferior flours and starch —do little or no serious harm ; most of the inorganic matters are positively injurious, and of these, alum (one of the commonest adulterations) is the worst. The beneficial action of wheat-flour on the system is in i)art due to the large quantity of soluble pliosphates which it contains. When alum is added, these phosj)hates are decom- posed in the process of making bread, the i)hosphoric acid of the phosphates uniting with the alumina of the alum, and forming an insoluble compound ; the beneficial effect of the soluble phosphates is thus lost. Arrow-root is adulterated with potato-flour, sago, starch, &c. Out of 50 samples examined by Dr Hassall, 22 were adulterated, and in 10 of the eamjjles there was scarcely a particle of the genuine article. Sugar of the inferior kinds is occasionally adulter- ated v/ith flour, gum, starch-sugar, &c. It is oftener, however, impure than intentionally adulterated. Pepper is adulterated with linseed, mustard-seed, (vheat-flour, &c. Caijenne Pepper is adulterated with red lead, irermilion, red ochre, brick-dust, common salt, turmeric, &c. Mustard is largely adulterated with ordinary and pea flour, linseed meal, and turmeric ; and a little chromate of lead is sometimes added to improve the colour. Dr Hassall submitted 42 specimens of mustard to examination ; the whole of them contained wheat-flour and turmeric. Ginger is frequently adulterated. Out of 21 samples, Dr Hassall found that 15 contained various kinds of flour, ground rice, Cayenne pepper, mustard husks, and turmeric, which in most cases formed most of the so-called ginger. Out of 26 samples of mixed spices, 16 were foxmd by Dr Hassall to contain sago-meal, gi-ound rice, u heat -flour, &c. Curry povKler (q. v.) was found by Dr Hassall to be very commonly adulterated, only 7 Sj)ecimen3 out of 26 being genuine. In 8 of the samples red lead was detected. The frequent use of curries may thus often give rise to the disease known as lead-palsy. The adulterations of tea, both by the Chinese and in this country, are too numerous for us to mention. See Hassali's Adulterations Detected, jip. C5— 104 Coffee, in its powdered form, is not merely largely adulterated with chicory, but additionally with roasted grain, roots, fvcorns, saw-dust, exhausted tan (termed Croats), cofTma (the seeds of a Turkish plant), burnt sugar, and (worst of all) baked horses' and bullocks' liver. In the Quarterly Journal of tlie Chemical Society for April 1856, there is an excellent Ileport by Messrs Graham, Stenhouse, and Campbell on the mode of det'^cting vegetable substances mixed "w^th coffee. Even whole roasted coffenn of coffee-berries. Cocoa and Chocolate are adulterated with flour, 4C8 potato-starch, sugar, clarified mutton-suet, and various mineral substances, such as chalk, plaster of Paris, red earth, red ochre, and Veuetial caiih, the last three being Used as colouring matters. The adulterations of Oeer, wine, and spirits are noticed in the articles devoted to those subjects. Vinegar is adulterated with water sulphuric acid, burnt sugar, and sometimes with chillies, grains of paradise, and pyroligneous acid. The English law allows one part of sulphuric acid to 1000 of vinegar, with the view of preserving it from decomposition, but Dr. Hassall found that in many cases three or four times the legal amount was present. It ajjpeai s, from evidence taken before the parliamentary com- mittee on adulterations, that arseuic and corrosive sublimate are no uncommon ingr«-dients in vinegar In connection with vinegar we may place Picklca. Dr Hassall analysed 16 different pickles for copper, and discovered that poisonous metal more or less abundantly in all of them ; * iu three, in a very considerable quantity ; in one, in highly deleterious amount; and in two, in poisonous amount.' Pre- served fruits and vegetables (especially gooseberries, rhubarb, greengages, and olives) are often also con- taminated largely with copper. In these cases, the copper, if in considerable quantity, may be easily detected by placing a piece of polished iron or steel in the suspected liquid for 24 hours, to which we previously add a few drops of nitric acid. The copper wdll be deposited on the iron. Or ammonia may be added to the fluid in which the pickles or fruit were lying, when, if copper is present, a blue tint is developed. We should be suspicious of all pickles, olives, preserved gooseberries, kf^ , with a particularly bright green tint. Milk is usually believed to be liable to numer- ous adulterations, such as flour, chalk, mashed brains, &c. It appears, however, from Dr Hassali's researches on London milk, that, as a general rule, water is the only adidteration. The results of the examinations of 28 samples were, that 12 were genuine, and that 14 were adulterated, the adul- teration consisting principally in the addition of water, the percentages of which varied from 10 to 50 per cent., or one-half water. In the article Milk we shall describe the means of testing the purity of this fluid. If space permitted, we might extend the list of alimentary substances liable to adulteration to a much greater length. In conclusion, we may remark, that, as a general rule, adulterations of an organic nature, such as flours and starches of various kinds, are best detected by the microscope ; while chemical analysis is usually necessary for the detection of mineral adulterations. Dr Hassali's Adulterations Detected is a perfect cyclopiedia on this subject. FOOL. See Couet-fool. FOOLS, Feast of. The Romans kept the festival of Saturn, in December, as a time of general licence and revelry. During the brief season of the Saturnalia (q. v.), the slave reclined on his master's seat at table, the master waited upon his slave, and society, for the moment, seemed to be turned upside dow^n. The grotesque masquerade survived the pagan creed which gave it birth, and not only kept its place among the Christians, b\it, in the face of solemn anathemas of fathers and councils, found its way into the ceremonial of the Christian Church, It was called, at different times and places, by many difterent names, but has latterly come to be best known as the Feast of Fools (Festum FatiLorain, Festum StuLtorum). The circumstances of the observance were almost infinitely vm-ied, but it was everywhere marked by FOOL'S PAESLEY— FOOT. the same spirit of broad, boisterous drollery, and coarse but not ill-natured caricature. The donkey played such a frequent part in the })ageaut that it was often called the Feast of Asses {Festam Asino- rum) In some places, the ass of Balaam was figured; in others, the ass which stood beside the manger in w hich the mfant Saviour was laid ; elsewhere, the ass on which tlie Virgin and Child fled to Egypt, or the ass on which Jesus rode into Jerusalem. In every instance, there was more or less attempt at dramatic representation, the theatre being generally the chief church of the place, and the words and action of the drama being often ordered by its book of ceremonies. Several rituals of this sort are stiU preserved. That which was in use at Beauvais, in France, has a rubric ordering the priest when lie dismisses the congregation to bray tliree times, and ordering the people to bray three times in answer. As the ass was led towards the altar, he was greeted with a hymn of nine stanzas, of which the first runs thus : Orientis partibus, Adventavit Asinus, Pulcher et fortissimus, Sarcinis aptissimus. He, sire Ane, he I [From the regions of the East — Blessings on the bonny beast ! — Came the Donkey, stout and strong, "With our packs to pace along. Bray^ Sir Donkey, Bray /] Where the ass did not come upon the stage, the chief point of the farce lay in the election of a mock pope, patriarch, cardinal, archbishop, bishop, or abbot. These mimic dignitaries took such titles as • Pope of Fools,' ' Archbishop of Dolts,' ' Cardinal of Numskulls,' ' Boy Bishop,' ' Patriarch of Sots,' * Abbot of Unreason,' and the like. On the day of their election, they often took possession of the churches, and even occasion^^lly travestied the per- formance of the church's highest office, the mass, in the church's holiest place, the altar. In some convents, the nuns disguised themselves in men's clothes, chanted mock services, and elected a ' little abbess,' who for that day took the place of the real abbess. The Feast of Fools maintained itself in many places till the Preformation in the 16th century. At Antibes, in the south of France, it survived till the year 1644, when we have it described by an eye- witness in a letter to the philosopher Gassendi. The scene was, as usual, a church ; and the actors, dressing themselves in priests' robes turned inside out, read j)rayers from books turned upside down, through spectacles of orange-i)eel, using coal or flour for incense, amid a babblement of confused cries, and the mimic bellowings of cattle, and gnmting of pigs. The history of the Feast of Fools has been treated in several works ; the best is the Jifemoire poui iervir d VHutoire de la Fete des Foils, by Du Tilliot, published at Lausanne in 1741 ; reprinted at Paris in 1751, and again in the liecue 'd des Ceremonies et Cotu- turncs Meligieuses de Tous les Peuples, tome viii. (edit. Prudhomme, 1809). FOOL'S PARSLEY {Aethusa Cynapium)^ an umbelliferous plant, very common as a weed in gardens and fields in Britain, and in most parts of Europe, somewhat resembling- parsley in its foliage and genera), appearance, so that serious accidents have occurred from its being mistaken for that herb, It being a poisonous plant, somewhat resembling hendock in its properties. With the curled variety of parsley it cannot easily be confounded, which is even on other accounts to be preferred ; and when in flower it is readily known from every other plant in British gardens by its umbels wanting goneral 1, Fool's Parsley, general umbel; 2, Common Parsley, leaf and general umbel : c, partial umbel of fool's parslej' ; 6, fruit of common parsley ; c, flower of common parsley. involucres, and having partial involucres of three slender leaves hanging down on one aide. FOOT is the most common unit of lineal measure all over the world. It has been evidently taken originally from the length of the human foot, and as that varies in length, so does the measure; each country, and at one time each town, having a foot of its own. The three foot-measures that occur most frequently are the Paris foot, or -pled de, rot, the (German) Ehenisli foot, and the English. Compared with the French metre (= 3-28090 feet Eng.), they stand thus : Metre. Inchei English. Paris foot = 12 78912 Rhenish m = 12 35652 En elastic cartilage, and by this means, together wita the very slight movements of which each bone is Fig. 2.* This figure represents a section through the lower end of the tibia, and through the astragalus I), the heel-bone F, the eraphoid bone E, the internal cuneiform bone, and the bone« of the great toe; A repiescnts the plantar ligament, and B the interior calcaneo-scaphoid ligament passing from the heel-bone, F, to the scaphoid, E ; C is one of two small hones called sesamoid bones, usually found at the ball of the great toe. The lines shew the disposition of the laminfe or plates of which the various bones are composed. The clear line along the contiguous edges of the bones represents the cartilage. capable, a degree of elasticity is given to the foot, and consequently to the step, which would be alto- gether wanting if the plantar arch were composed of one single mass of bone. This elasticity is far greater in the anterior pillar of the arch, which is composed of five comparatively long bones sloping gradually to the ground, than in the posterior piJlar, which is short, narrow^ and composed of a sinole bone, whicii descends almost vertically from the ankle to the ground. Hence, in jumping from a height, we always endeavour to alight upon the l)alla of the toes, and thus break the shock which we should feel if, by accident, we descended uj)on the heels. A reference to any standard work on anatomy (see, for example, Gray's Anatomy, ])p. 178 — 184) will shew that the ligaments which itnite these bones to one another, and by which the movements of each bone upon the others are limited, are very numerous. We shall merely notice two of these ligaments, selecting those M'hose action is especially obvious m maintaining the shape of the ])lantar arch. One, the plantar ligament (A, fig. 2), of great strength, passes from the under surface of the heel-bone, near its extremity, forwards to the ends of the metatarsal bones, according to Dr Humphry (Tlie Human Foot and the Human Hand, 18G1, p. 25). Most anatomists do not trace it quite so far forwards. 'In other words' (we quote from Dr Humphry's volume), ' it extends between the lowest points of the two pillars of the arch, girding or holding them in their places, and preventing their being thrust asTinder when pressure is made upon the key-bone (D), just as the "tie-beam" of a roof resists the tendency to outward yielding of the sides when weight is laid upon the summit. The ligament, however, has an advantage which no tie- beam can ever possess, inasmuch as a quantity of muscular fibres are attached along the hinder part of its up])er surface. These instantly resj^ond to any demand that is made upon them, being thrown into contraction directly the foot touches the ground ; and the force of their contraction is proportionata *"This, and several of the following diagrams, have been copied, with Dr. Humphry's permission, from Tht Human Foot ana the Human Hand. FOOT. to the degree of pressure which is made upon the foot. In addition to its office of binding the bones in their places, the ligament serves the further purpose of protecting from pressure the tender structures — the blood-vessels, nerves, and muscles— that lie above it in the hollow of the foot. Another very strong ligament (B, in the figure) passes from the under and fore part of the heel-bone (F) to the undar parts of the scaphoid bone (E). It underlies and supports the round head of the astragalus, and has to bear a great deal of the weight which is transmitted to that bone from the leg. It possesses a quality which the ligament just described, and most hgaments have not — viz., elasticity. Tlais is very important, for it allows the head of the key- bone (D) to descend a little, when pressure is made u pon it, and forces it up again when the pressure is removed, and so gives very material assistance to the other provisions for preventing jars, and for giving ease and elasticity to the step.' — Himaphry, op. ciL, pp. 25, 26. The spot over which the ligament B extends is the weakest in the foot, the astragalus being there unsupported by any bones ; additional sujjport is, however, afforded when it is most required by the tendon of a strong muscle, the posterioi- tibial (fig. 3, B), which passes from the back of the tibia (the chief bone of the leg) round the inner ankle, to be inserted into the lower part of the inner surface of the scaphoid bone. It not unfrequently happens that the astragalus, being either insufficiently sup- ported, or from its being overweighted, descends slightly below its proper level, causing a lowering of the arch, and a flattening of the sole of the foot. The defect, when slight, is known as ' weak ankle ; ' when more decided, it is termed ' flat- foot ; ' and in extreme cases, the bone may descend to such an extent as even to render the inner side of the foot convex, when it naturally should be concave. The deformity of which we are speaking is of such great practical importance, that we shall add a few words about its most common causes. There are two periods of life at which flat-foot is especially Uable to occur : 1 st, in infancy, if the child be put upon its feet before the bones and ligaments— especially the latter — are strong enough to bear its weight ; and 2dly, about the age of fourteen — a period at which growth is very quick, and the body consequently attains a considerable and rapid augmentation of weight. If young persons of this age are obliged to be a great deal on their feet, and perhaps additionally to cany weights (as, for example, butchers' and bakers' boys, and young nursemaids), the chances that flat-foot will occur are increased. We now come to the movements of the foot u])on the leg. We see here a striking combination of variety of movement with general security. This combination is effected by the harmonious action of three joints, each of which acts in a direction different from the others. The first of these joints is the ankle-joint, which is formed by the bones of the leg — the tibia and fibula — above, and the astragalus below. By this joint, the foot is bent or straightened on the leg. TTie second joint is between the astragalus and the heel-bone, and it permits the foot to be rolled inwards or outwards ; while the third joint is between the first and second row of tarsal bones —namely, between the astragalus and heel-bone behind, and the scaphoid and cuboid bones in front, and allows the degree of curvature of the plantar arch to be increased or diminished within certain limits. The following is the order in whicli the movements of these three joints occur : the raising of the Jieel (by the first joint) is accompanied bv a rolling of the foot i/nvards (by the second joint), and by an increased flexure of the ])laTitar arch (by the third joint) ; and the raising of the toes is accompanied by a rolling of the foot o/<«wards and a straightening of the sole. See Humphrv, op. cit., p. 42. The joints, however, merely allow of movements, they do not effect them— this is the special function of the muscles J and each of the three movements Fig. 3. This figure represents some of the muscles and tendons seen on the inner side of the leg and foot. A, the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles, forming the muscles of the calf; a, the Tendo Achillis : B, the posterior tibial muscle; b, its tendon: D, the inner anltle : F, the anterior tibial muscle, attached above to the front of the tibia, below to the internal cuneiform bone; k, the flexor tendon of the great toe. we have indicated is effected by special groups of muscles. The first series of movements is mainly effected by three muscles : viz., (1) the muscles of tlit calf (fig. 3, A), attached above to the bones of the thigh and leg, and below by the Tendo Achillis to the heel-bone ; (2) the posterior tibial (fig. 3, B), attached above to the tibia, and below by its tendon to the scaphoid bon**, and (3) the short 6 ^ C Fig. 4. This figure represents some of the muscles and tendons on de outer side of the leg and foot. E, lower end of fibula, forming the outer ankle; C, the sh'^rt fibular muscle, attached above to the fibula, and below by its tendon (c) to the outer metatarsal bone; I, the long fibular muscle, its tendon (/) running behind the outer ankle and under the instep to the metatarsal bone of the great toe; G, the anterior or third fibular muscle, attached above to the fibula and below by its tendon (g) to the outer metatarsal bone ; h, the extensor tendons of the toes. fibular (fig. 4, C), attached above to the fibula, and below by its tendon to the outer metatarsal bone. The calf-muscles, whose tendon is inserted into the heel-bone, are large and vtry powerful, for in raising the heel, they have to raise the weight of the body. The other two muscles, the posterior FOOT. tibial and the short fibular, turn round the inner and the outer ankle respectively, and are inserted into the inner and the outer edges of the instep ; the former being attached to the scaphoid, and the latter to the outer metatarsal bone. They not only assist to raise the ankle, but support it laterally. The muscle whose tendon is on the inner side of the foot (the posterior tibial), effects the two move- ments which are associated with the raising of the heel-bone, namely, the turning of the foot inwards, and the increased llexure of the arch. The second series of movements — the raising of the toes, the turning of the foot outwards, and the straightening of the sole — are effected by two muscles, the anterior tibial (fig. 3, F) and the third fibular (fig. 4, G), whose tendons pass, one in front of the inner ankle, and the other in front of the outer ankle, to the corresponding edges of the instep, and are inserted into the internal cuneiform and the outer metatarsal bones. These muscles are direct flexors of the tarsus upon the leg ; the former raising the inner, and the latter the outer border of the foot. Another point in the anatomy of the foot that requires notice, is the mode of union of the metatarsal with the tarsal bones. In these joints in the fourth and fifth toes a slight revolving motion can take place, which probably enables the outer metatarsals to adapt themselves to inequalities of the gro\ind, and to equalise the distribution of the weight which is thrown upon the foot ; while, in the corresponding joints of the three inner toes, scarcely any mixtion can occur — a pro\'ision by which additional strength is given to the inner side of the foot upon which the weight of the body most directly falls. The skin of the sole is very tough and strong ; and interv'ening between it and the bones and long plantar ligament is a thick pad of fat, which acts the part of an air or water cushion in defending the adjacent parts from injurious pressure, and in deadening the jars and shocks that woidd otherwise be felt in leaping, &g. A few remarks on the subject of shoes may here be added. The shape of the sole of the natural foot is shewn in fig. 5, while the shape after the prolonged Dfie of a badly made shoe is given in fig. G. In the Pig. 5. Fig. a foot in its normal state, the great toe is seen to be free from the others, and the line of its axis pro- longed backwards, passes through the centre of tlie heel ; while in the foot distorted by the use of the shoe, the line of the great toe is quite altered, and the toes generally — not being able to find room side by side — overlap each other, and lose their separate and individual actions ; corns, bunions, and ingrow- 412 ing toe-nails being the natural consequence of this maltreatment. Professor Meyer, of Zurich, has drawc attention to the bad treatment which the foot receives from ordinary shoemakers, in a pamphlet, translated by Mr Craig, and entitled Why the Shoe Pinche.s ; a Contribution to Aj^plied Anatomy. He especially points out that the great toe shoidd be allowed to have its normal position, and this can be done by making the inner edge of the sole incline i/iwards, instead of outwards, from the balls of the toes. The accompanying figure (7) gives the out- line of a shoe designed under Dr Meyer's super- intendence, and shews the difference betM^een it and the usual shape ; the latter being indicated by the dotted outline. Dr Humphry, from whose admiraljle work we have drawn much of this article, while fully according in Meyer's views, addition- ally protests against high heel-pieces, as tending to make the step less steady and secure, to shorten it, and to impair the action of the calf-muscles ; a hi^h heel-piece, mor.;over, places the forepart of the foot at a lower level than the heel ; the weight is thus tlirown too much in the direction of the toes, and they are tlirust forwards and cramped against the upper leather of the shoe. The subjects of Walking, Running, and Jumping are noticed in the article Gymnastics. If we compare the human foot with the feet of other mammals, we find that it presents certain Pig. 7. Fig. 8. A shoe designrvl by Dr Meyer, Foot of Gorilla, the dotted outline being the usual shape. peculiarities, all of which have reference to man s erect posture. The chief peculiarities are — 1. The greater relative size of the tarsal bones, as compared with the other bones of the foot, and the more per- fect formation of the jjlantar arch, which is higher and stronger than in any of the lower animals. Strength and elasticity are thus combined in the human foot in the highest degree. 2. The great toe is remarkable in man for its size and strength, and for the firm manner in which its metatarsal bone is joined to the other bones, so as to render it the main support to the foot. 3. If we compare the human foot with that of the gorilla or any other anthropomorphous ape, we see that the toes are short and small in man in relation to the other parts of the foot, while in the gorilla the toes form the greater part of the foot. Indeed, a i-eference to fig. 8 shows that this animal (and the same is the case in all the genera of apes and monkeys) the organ in question is rather a ha^id than a foot, and hence the term quadrurnanoics, as applied to this class of animals. There is scarcely any plantar arch, and FOOT-rOOTBALL. the weiglit of the body bears cbietly on the outer edge of the foot ; the digits are long and strong, and the inner one diverges so as to form a thumb rather than a great toe. It remains to notice some of the most marked varieties of form which the bones of the foot present in mammals. In the following group of n^ires, the same letters are attached to the same Rg. 9.— Horse. Fig. 10.— Ox. Fig. 11. Fig. 12. Fig. 13. Khinoceros. Hippopotamus. Elephant. bones. Thus, a marks the astragalus ; d, the calcaneum or heel-bone (the posterior projection of which forms the hock of the horse) ; s, the scaphoid ; h, the cuboid ; ce, the ecto-, or outer, cm, the meso-, or middle, and ci, the ento-, or internal cuneiform. Now, as a general rule in all mammalia, the ecto-cuneiform supports the third or middle of the five toes when they are all present, the meso-cuneiform the second, and the cuboid the fourth and fifth. Bearing in mind this law, we see that the large bone in the horse, known as the cannon-bone, which is articulated to the ecto- cuneifcrm, ce, is the metatarsal of the third toe, to which are ai-ticulated the three phalanges of that toe, the last phalanx, 3, being expanded to form the hoof. The small bone,* jiopularly known as the splint-bone, and articidated to the meso-cuneiform, is the rudimentary or stunted metatarsal of the second toe, 2 ; and the outer splint-bone, articulated to the cuboid, is the rudimentary metatarsal of the fourth toe, 4 ; so that in the horse we have only one toe, the third, sufficiently developed to reach the ground, with mere traces of a second and fourth Loe on cither side. In the foot of the ox, the cuboid, h, is .relatively * The bone is not shewn in the figure. larger than in the horse, and is equal in size to the ecto-cuneiform, ce. The cannon-bone articulatea with both these tarsal bones, and hence answers to the metatarsal bones of both the thii'd and fourth digits ; it is accordingly found to consist of two distinct bones in the foetus ; and in the adult it is divided internally into two cavities, and its original separation is marked out by an external elongated ridge. At the lower end are two dis- tinct joints for the phalanges of the third and fourth toes. While in the horse we had the rudi- ments of the upper parts of two toes (the second and fourth), in the ox we have the rudiments ol the lower parts or phalanges of two toes (the second and fifth), forming the ' spurious hoofs,* and marked 2 and 5 in the figure. In the rhino- ceros there is one principal toe (the third), as in the horse, with the second and fourth toes in a less developed state ; while in the hippopotamus there are two principal toes (the third and fourth), as in the ox, with the second and fifth toes not fully developed. In the elephant, there is a fifth digit added, answering to our great toe, and articulating with an ento-cuneiform bone, so that in the foot of this animal we have all the bones occurring in the human foot. Professor Owen, to whose works we are indebted for these remarks, concludes from these and similar observations that the course of the simplification of the five-toed foot is, first, a diminution and removal of the innermost toe ; next, of the outermost ; then, of the second ; and lastly, of the fourth ; the third or middle toe being the most constant and (in the lower animals) the most important of the five. FOOT, in Music, is a term made use of in the same way as in poetry, denoting a short melodic figure of notes with only one accent. Foot is also now begin- ning to be used in speaking of the pitc^h of sounds. The Germans have always used the word Fusston in representing the pitch of the different stops of an organ, such as Principal 16 F., 8 F., or 4 F, &c., which practice is now being introduced into English organs, and is found very useful to organists. The pitch of the stop is fixed according to the length of the lowest C pipe. See Organ. FOOTA-BONDOU. See Bondou. FOOTBALL. This game has long been a favourite throughout the British Isles; and as a winter game in certain places, such as Eugby, Eton, Winchester, and the university of Glasgow, it is more popular than any other. A large park or com- mon is best suited for the game, one of the most attractive features of which is, that it may be simultaneously enjoyed by great numbers of players irrespective of age or size. Two ' goals ' — consisting each of a couple of upright poles, ten, twelve, or even eighteen feet high, and a cross-bar on top — are erected opposite each other, at any distance that may be agreed ui)on, the game being carried on in the intervening space. Two side-lines, called goal-lines, are drawn from each of the goals. The players are chosen by two captains, who arrange their men in the field, and keep them to their respective sides, and whose duty it is besides to see that fair play is carried on. After each captain has jjosted a trustworthy member of his side at the goal as ' keeper,' the plaj^ers on each side are duly placed, and the game is 6egim, by the baU being kicked towards one of the goals from a point mid- way between each. Whichever side contrives to kick the ball through the adversaries' goal, reckons either * game ' or one towards it, though, where the players are equally matched, and the goals well defended, the play may last many hours with- out a single score being made. After each goa. FOUTE— FOOT-ROT. has been made, the players usnully change ends, so that no undue advantage be derived by one side from sloping ground, favouring Avind, etc. The ball generally used is made of an ox bladder, covered Avith strong leather ; India rubber balls are considered inferior. With poi)u]ar games, such as cricket, &c., the rules laid down are for the most part binding all over the country ; the same remark, however, does not ap})ly to football, as each district seems to have rules of its own. Thus, those of Rugby, Win- chester, Eton, &c., all differ materially, though the general methods of playing the game are the same. The following, which we borrow from Every Boifs Magazine, No. 1 (London, Routledge), in which there is an excellent treatise on the game, are Bufficient for general purjjoses. 1. The game being essentially ybo^-ball, no player may take up the ball from the ground. 2. If a player can catch the ball in the air, he may take a hand-kick without the other side being permitted to interfere. (A hand- kick consists in dropping the ball from the hands, and kicking it on its fall.) 3. If such player shall drop the ball accidentally, or in any Avay touch the ground with it, the opposite side may attack it. 4. If the ball pass outside or over the goal, and beyond the goal-line, the junior player of the side which drove it over shall fetch the ball, stand twelve paces to the right of the centre point (mid- way between the goals), and throw it gently to the centre mthout favour to either side. This rule is used because it sometimes happens that irritable players, landing the enemy's goal too well defended, wilfully kick the ball far beyond it, hoping to exhaust their opponents, and thus needlessly pro- long the game. It is a mark of bad play, as well as unmanliness, to drive a ball where it can be of no use, and the penalty deprives the offending side of the junior player while he throws in the ball, and thus has the effect of deteri'ing them from repeat- ing the error. 5. Any kicking, except at the ball, is prohibited. 6. The ball must be kicked through the goal, not struck or thrown, or touch any part of any player of the same side, except the foot of him who kicks it ; otherwise, the ball is fetched back, as in rule 4 FOOTE, Samuel, actor and wi-iter of comedy, was born of a good family at Truro, in Cornwall, 1720. He was educated at Worcester College, Oxford, and about 1740 entered the Temple ; but after a career of 'pleasure' extending over four years, in the course of which he managed to dissi- pate a couple of fortunes which had been left him, he turned his attention to the stage as a means of support, and in 1744 made an unsuccessful debut in the character of Othello. In 1747, he opened the Haymarket Theatre — where he was at once director, actor, and dramatic author — with a piece entitled Diversions of the Alorninrj. In this and other pieces, he introduced well-known living characters, and, by his admirable powers of mimicry^, succeeded in drawing large audiences, till the theatre was closed by order of the magistrates. After 1752, he con- tinued to perform alternately in London and Dublin. In 1766, he broke his leg by a fall from his horse, and amputation was found necessary. He, how- ever, recovered his health and spirits, and even turned the incident to account on the stage, com- posing parts expressly adapted to his own state. He died at Dover, 21st October 1777. A variety of comic anecdotes respecting F. are given in Cooke's Memoirs of Samuel Foote (London, 1805). His con- versation must have been inimitably comical. Dr Johnson, who had a power of refusing to be pleased against his will greater than most men, met F. for tlie first time at Fitzherbert's, and assumed Lis 414 most ursine manner ; but it was no usJj : • I waa obliged,' he says, ' to lay down my knife and fork, throw myself back in my chair, and fairly laugh it out. Sir, he was irresistible.' His dramatic works, of which the best are An Auction of Pictures, Tht Minor, The Englishman liettirned from Paris, The Bankrupt, The Liar, and The Mayor of Garratt, have been frequently published, but never in a complete form. Compare Forster's essay in the Quarterly Review, 1854. FOOT-GUARDS, the flower of the British infantry, and the garrison ordinarily of the metro- polis, comprise three regiments, the Grenadier, Cold- stream, and Scots Fusilier Guards, in all seven battalions, and 6307 officers and men of all ranks. For their history and a more particular descn])tiou, see the general article Guards. FOOT-POUND is the imit by which the w(yrk done by a force is estimated ; thus (taking 1 lb. and 1 foot as the units of weight and distance), if 1 lb. be raised through 1 foot, the work done is equal to 1 foot-pound ; if 10 lb. be raised 9 feet, the work done is 90 foot-pounds ; and generally, if W represent the work done, P the weight in poioidSy and h the height in feet, then W (in foot-pounds) = P/i. FOOT-PRINTS. See IcnNOLOGY. FOO'T-ROT amongst sheep is of two varieties, the commoner consisting of an inordinate growth of hoof, which, at the toe, or round the margin, becomes turned down, cracked, or torn, and thus affords lodgment for sand and dirt. Insufficient wearing of the hoof is the obvious cause, and henco the prevalence of foot-rot in soft rich pastures, and especially amongst sheep previously accustomed to bare, rough, or upland walks, where the hoof is naturally worn down by the greater amount of walking necessary to procure sustenance. Taken in time, when lameness is first apparent, and before the hoof is cracked, and the foot inflamed, a cure rapidly follows the careful paring of the superfluous and diseased hoof ; indeed, further treatment is scarcely necessary, unless any of the vascular parts have been laid bare, when a little tar may be applied as a mild astringent and protection from flies. When, from inattention or neglect, the hoof is separated from the sensitive parts beneath, when ulcers appear on the sole, or proud-flesh springs up, active astringents or mild caustics are necessary. The shepherd's old favourite butter of antimony, diluted with an equal quantity of tincture of myrrh, is a good remedy when cautiously and temperately used. A convenient paste, which in inexperienced hands is safer than a fluid caustic, may be made with equal weights of flowers of sulphur and finely powdered sulphate of copper, rubbed up to the needful consistency with lard or oil. Many have great faith in a mixture of the salt of copper with gunpowder and lard. — The second and more troublesome variety is allied to what is termed foid in the foot; instead of com- mencing at the ground surface, it begins in the interdigital space, appea,rs to depend ujion consti- tutional rather than local causes, and frequently occurs along with the other variety, but, unlike it, occasionally becomes contagious. The foot is hot, tender, and swelled around and immediately above the coronet. There are ulcerations in the inter- digital space, and the swelling, and subsequently the sprouting of proud flesh, cause a separation of the toes. When the tenderness and heat are great, poultices are advisable; but in the mildey cases and earlier stages the parts should be well washed with a solution containing, to the pint of water, half an ounce each of sulphuric acid and oil of turpentine FORAGE- FORBES. "When ulcers apptar, they must be touched with lunar caustic, or dressed with the paste ahready recommended. FORAGE (from Yr. fourage, a contraction of the barbarous Latin fodderwfuim, taken in its turn from the Gothic fo-dur, fodder), hay, straw, and oats supplied to horses of officers and soldiers in the army. Where troops are together, the provision of forage devolves on the commissariat : officers of the staff, &c., who are entitled to horses, but whose duties are at stations where bodies of horse are not collected, receive a money allowance, in lieu of forage in kind, varying according to the place and price of provender, but usually about \s. \Qd. to 2^, per horse per day. When a soldier is en route away from his regiment, the innkeeper witli whom he stops is bound, under the Mutiny Act, to provide his horse with the specified ration of forage — viz., 10 lbs. oats, 12 lbs. hay, and 8 lbs. straw, for the payment of \s. ^d. a day, which must also include stabling. FORAMINI'FERA, a group of marine animals of very low organisation, consisting of a gelatinous substance enclosed in a shell, which is generally calcareous, either simple or divided into chambers variously arranged, and j)ierced with pores or passages {foraminay whence the ^jame), through which long delicate processes of the soft anunal are protruded, but for what purpose is not very well known, whether to seize food, to imbibe nutritive fluid, for locomotion, or for all these purposes. Most of the species are minute, although one of more than two inches in diameter has been found in Borneo, and fossil forms approaching to this size are well known under the name of Nujnmulites (q. v.), from their resemblance to coins. The existing species are very numerous, and have been distributed into many genera. They are found among sea-sand, and among all the dredgings of Foraminifera : 1, Orbulina Universa ; 2, Lagena Striata; 3, Textilaria ; 4, Opcrculina ; 5. Faujasina; 6, Rosalina Globulaiis; 7, Cassidulina : 8, Part of two chambers of an Orbiculina; 9, Vertical Section of fossil Nummulite. deep water. The fossil species are still more nume- rous, and constitute great part of some calcareous rocks, as of chalk. The F. are of very beautiful forms. Some of the simple ones are orbicular, some curiously flask-shaped ; those in which the animal is divided into segments, and the shell consequently chambered, sometimes have the segments arranged ill a straight line, sometimes spirally, sometimes alternately, etc. The great rescrn})hxnce of some oi the convohitcd chambered shells of the F. to the shells of the genus JVauHlus led Lirmixius and many naturalists to rank them with that genus, and the F. were reckoned among the. most highly oi-ganized molluscs, a ])lacc from which compjuatively recent discoveries have completely removed them. They are now regarded as more nearly related to Si)onges, and to such aiumals as the Prateua or Ame carried on, three different grades of licences were introduced: those applicable, viz., 41H 1, to inn or hotel keepers ; 2, to public- house keepem; and 3, to grocers and provision-dealers. As regards the first class, it is enacted that they shall not ' keep open house, or permit or suffer any drinking in any part of the premises belonging thereto, or sell or give out therefrom any liquors before eight o'clock in the morning, or after eleven o'clock at night of any day, with the excei)tion of refresh- rnents to travellers, or persons requiring to lodge in the said house or premises ; and further, that they shall not open their houses for the sale of any liquors, or sell or give out the same on Sunday, except for the accommodation of lodgers and bond' fide travellers.' The same restrictions are imposed on the second class of persons — viz., the keejjers of public-houses, with this addition, that no exception is made in their case in favour of travellers or lodgers ; whilst grocers and provision -dealers, in addition to the prohibition to open on Sundays, and that already mentioned with reference to the con- sumption of spirits on the i)remises, are forbidden ' to sell or give out any liquors before six o'clock in the morning, or after eleven o'clock at night.' Separate licences were also introduced for the sale of malt liquors from those applicable to the sale of wine and spirits, all of which had formerly been included under one licence. By this statute, also, for the first time in Scotland, the very formidable power was conferred on the police of entering at any time any public-house, or house where refresh- ments are sold to be consumed on the premises, and penalties were awarded against those who refused to admit them, or who obstructed their entrance. These provisions havirg given rise to much discussion, a Royal Commission to inquire into the working of the act was issued on the 25th April 1859. The result of the commission was the issue, as usual, of two enor- mous volumes of printed evidence, and of a repoi-t, more distinguished for its length than for the value of the suggestions which it contains. The commis- sioners arrived at the conclusion, that 'although intemperance still prevails to a lamentable extent, it would seem that this vice has been for some time gradually descending in the scale of society, and that it is now chiefly confined to the lowest class of the population.' This effect the commissioners ascribe to several causes, of which the first and most important is the increase of the duty on excisable liquors from 25, 4f tZ. per unperial gallon, at which it stood in 1823, to 85., to which it was finally raised in 1855. Nor do they deny to the Forbes Mackenzie Act its share of merit. ' The bene- ficial effect of the act,' they say, ' is proved b}' the eWdence which we received as to the diminution of crime, and the change for the better in the habits of the people, immediately after the passing of the act, when its provisions were strictly enforced, and by the tendency in an opposite direction which m some places has followed its less rigorous enforcement diuring the last two years. In some to-\vns, there has been, on the part of the magistrates, great remiss- ness in administering the law. The result seems to have been, if not an increase of crime in these places, at least the absence of the improvemeut witnessed elsewhere.' Whilst thus generally approv- ing of the act, the commissioners suggest a number of alterations, mostly with the view of enabling the police to carry out its provisions with greater efficiency. In reference to the difficulty experienced by hotel-keepers in ascertaining what persons came under the descriptions of bond-fide travellers, th*? commissioners recommend that in future 'persons inducing hotel-keepers to sell or give out excisable liquors to them on Sunday by falsely representing themselves as travellers, should be guilty of ai offence, and be liable, on conviction, to a fine.' la FORBIDDEN FRUIT— FORCE ; ENERGY. these circumstcances, it becomes important to know that it has been decided in England that to con- I stitute a 'traveller' within the meaning of the corresponding Act 18 and 19 Vict. c. 118, s. 2, it is a matter of indifference whether the })arties be travelling for business or pleasure, and that a walk, ride, or drive, for exercise and amusement of such length as to render refreshments desirable, is a suffi- cient journey. In Atkinson v. Sellers (5 C. B. N. S. 442), Chief Justice Cockburn remarked, that ' a man could not be said to be a traveller who goes to a place merely for the purpose of taking refreshment. But if he goes to an inn for refreshment in the course of a journey, whether of business or of plea- sure, he is entitled to demand refreshment, and the innkeeper is justified in su]iplying it.' See also Taylor v. Humi)hreys, C. P. 705 ; 4 L. T. N. S. 314. The first was in the case of a drive from Liverpool of 5 1 miles, the second of a walk from Birmingham of 4 miles. FORBI'DDEN FRUIT, a name fancifidly given to the fruit of different species of Citrus. In the shops of Britain, it is a small vai'iety of the Shaddock (q. v.) which genei-ally receives this name. But on the continent of Europe, a different fruit, regarded by some as a variety of the orange, and by some as a distinct species {Citrus Paradisi), is known as the Forbidden Fruit, or Adam's Apple. Like some other fruits of the same genus, it was recently introduced into the south of Europe from China. The tree has broad, tapering, and pointed leaves, the leaf-stalks winged ; the fruit is large, some- what pear-shaped, greenish-yellow, of very uneven surface, having around its base a circle of deeper depressions, not unlike the marks of teeth, to which it probably owes its name. It is chiefly the rind which is the edible part; the rind is very thick, tender, melting, and pleasant; there is very little pulp; the pulp is acid. The name Forbidden Fruit has also been given to the frmt of Taha^ncemontana dichotoma, a tree of Ceylon, of the natural order Ajwcynacece. The shape of the fruit — which is a follicle, containing ulp — suggests the idea of a piece having been itten off, and the legend runs that it was good before Eve ate of it, although it has been poisonous ever since. FORCE ; E'NERGY. Till we know what Matter (q. V.) is, if there be matter, in the ordinary sense of the word, at all, we cannot hope to have any idea of the absolute nature of force. Any speculations on the subject could only lead us into a train of hypotheses entirely metaphysical, since utterly beyond the present powers of experimental science. If we content ourselves with a definition of force based on experience, such a definition will say nothing of its nature, but will confine itself to the effects which are said to be due to force, and in the present state of our knowledge it is almost preposterous to aim at more. Our first ideas of force are evidently derived from the exertion required to roll, or lift, bend, or com- press, &c., some mass of matter ; and it is easy to Bee that in all such cases where muscular contraction is employed, matter is moved, or tends to move. Force, then, we may say generally, is any cause which produce, or tends to 'produce, a change in a bochfs state of rest or motion. See Motion, Laws of. The amount or magnitude of a force may be measured in one 01 two ways : 1. By the pressure it can produce, or the weight it can support ; 2. By the amount of motion it can produce in a given time. These are cafled respectively the Statical and Dynamical measures of force. The latter is, as it stands, some- what ambiguous. What shall wt take as the quantity of motion produced? Does it depend mereljf I on the velocity produced ? or does it take account of tlie amount of matter to which that velocity is gi'ven 1 Again, is it proportional to the velocity itself, or to its square? This last question was very fiercely discussed between Leibnitz, Huyghens, Euler, Mac- laurin, the Bernouillis, &c. ; Leibnitz being, as usual with him in physical questions, on the wrong side. Newton, to whom we owe the third law of motion, had long before given the true measure of a force in terms of the motion produced. This law is an exper> mental result — that when pressure produces motior, the momentum produced (see Momentuim) is propor- tional to the pressure, and can be made (nuraericilly) equal to it by employing proper units. Hence momentum is the true dynamical measure of force, which, therefore, is proportional to the Jirst powe* only of the velocity produced. What is properly measured in terms of the square of the velocity, we shall presently see. For various properties of force, statical and dynamical, see the following articles : Composition of Forces, Couples, Centre OF Gravity, Central Forces, Falling BodieS;. Mechanical Powers, Virtual Velocities. It is obvious that in order to produce any effect at all, or to do work, as it is technically called, a force must produce motion, i.e., must move its point of application. A weight laid on a table produces no effect whatever unless the table yields to the pres- sure, i.e., unless the weight descends, be it ever so little. We do no work, however much we may fatigue ourselves, if we try to lift a ton from the floor ; if it be a hundredweight only, we may Hft it a few feet, and then we shall have done work — and it is evident that the latter may be measured as so many pounds raised so many feet — introducing a new unit, the Foot-pound, which is of great importance, as we shall shortly see, in modern physics. See Work. This is evidently, however, a statical measure of work, since no account is taken of velocity. Have we then for work, as we had for force, a dynamical measure ? Let us take a simple case, where the mathematical inves- tigation is comparatively very easy, and we shall find we have. We know (see Velocity ; Motion, Laws of) that if a particle be moving along a line (straight or not), and the distance moved (in the time t) along the line from the point where its ds motion commenced be called s, its velocity is v = Also we know that the force acting on it (in the direction of its motion) is to be measured by the increase of momentum in a given time — this gives (just as the last equation was obtained) F = From these two equations, we have, immediately, 7nvdv = Fds, or, as the rudiments of the differential calculus give at once, = J^ds — F.s if tha force be uniform. The quantity on the right-hand side is the sum cf the i^roducts of eacb value of F, by the correspond- ing space ds, through which the particle moved under its action. It is therefore the whole work done by the force. On the left hand, we find half the product of the mass, and the square of the velocity it fias acquired ; in other words, the Vis-viva (q. v. ). Hence, in this case, the vis-viva acquired equals the amount of work expended by the force. It appears from a general demonstration (founded on the experimental laws of motion, and therefore true, if they are), but which is not suited to the present work, that if, in any system of bodies, each be made up of particles cr atoms, and if the forces these mutually exert be in the line joining each FORCE ; ENERGY. two, and depend merely on the distance between them, then we can express the required proposition in the following form : Any change of vis-viva in the system corresponds to an equal amount of ivork gained or lost by the attractions of the })arfi(;les on each otlier. What is spent, then, in work, is stored up in vis- viva ; and. conversely, the system, by losing some of its vi3-viva, will recover so much work-producing power. If we call the foraicr, as is now generally done. Actual, and the latter Potential, Energij, we nrny express the above by saying, that in any system of bodies where the before-mentioned restrictions ar*" complied with, the sum of the actual and potential encr(jies cannot he altered by ilm mutual action of the bodies. The most simple and evident illustrations of this proposition are to be found in the case of the force known as gravitation. The potential energy of a mass on the earth's surface is zero, because, not being able to descend, it has, in common language, no work-i)roducing power. If it be raised above the surface, and then dropped, it is easy to see that the Avork expended in raisin;^ it will be exactly recovered as vis- viva after its fall. For (see Fall- ing Bodies) a mass falling through a space. A, to the earth acquires a velocity v, such that v"^ = 2gh, or if w be the mass, = mg.h. The left-hand side gives the vis-viva acquired by the fall — the right is the product of the weight [mg) and the height fallen through — or is the work required to elevate the mass to its original altitude. Hence we may calculate the amount of work which can be obtained from a head of water in driving water-wheels, &c., remembering, however, that there is always a loss (as it is usually called) due to friction, &c., in the machinery. That there is a loss in useful power, is true, but we shall find presently that in energy there is none, as indeed our general residt has already shewn. Where the apparently lost energy goes, is another question. Another good example of potential energy is that of the weights in an ordinary clock. It is the gradual conversion of potential into actual energy m the diiving weight which maintains the motion of the clock, in spite of friction, resistance of the air, &c. ; and we have in the actual energy of sound (which is motion) a considerable portion of the expended potential energy of the striking weight. A coiled watch-spring, a drawm bow, the charged receiver of an air-gun, are good examples of stores of potential energy, which can be directly used for mechanical purposes. The chemical arrangement of the different com- ponents of gunpowder, or gun-cotton, is such as corresponds to enormous potential energy, which a Bingle spark converts into the equivalent active amount. But here, heat has a considerable share in the effects produced; it may then be as well, before proceeding further, to consider how we can take account of it, and other physical forces, as Jorms of energy. Correlation of Physical Forces. — So far as we yet inow, the physical forces may be thus classified : I. Gravitation- (q. v.) ; II. Molecular Forces — Cohesion (including Capillarity), Elasticity, Chemical Affinity; III. Heat and Light; IV. Electricity (including Magnetism) ; V. Animal Force; VI. Vital Force, having, as some most irrationally suppose an analogue in inorganic masses, which may be called Crystalline Force. (This idea is examined further on.) Of these, I., II., and some fonns of III., are more immediately connected with matter than the others— that is to say, that the remainder almost necessitate the hy7)othesis of the existence of some medium unlike ordinary matter, or, 42' in popidar language, an imponderable. ITie almost universal opinion of physicists, however, seems to be, that even the former must be accounted for in some such way. Newton, in his second letter t«) Bentley, says, with respect to gravitation (and it is ol>viou3 that similar language is applicable to molecidar forces generally) : ' You sometimes speak of gravity as essential and inherent to matter. Pray, do not ascribe that notion to me, for the cause of gravity is what I do not pretend to know.' And again in the third letter : ' It is inconceivable that inanimate bnite matter shoidd, without the mediation of something else, which is not material, operate on, and affect other matter without nuitual contact, as it must do, if gravitation, in the sense of Epicurus, be essential and inherent in it ; and this is one reason why I desired you would not ascribe innate gravity to me. That gravity should be innate, inherent, and essential to matter, so that one body may act upon another at a distance through a vacuum, withput the mediation of any- thing else, by, and through which their action and force may be conveyed from one to another, is to me so great an absurdity, that I believe no man who has in philosophical matters a competent facidty of thinking, can ever fall into it. Gravity must be caiised by an agent acting constantly according to certain laws; but whether this agent be material or immaterial, I have left to the con- sideration of my readers.' Of what that medium may consist, we cannot, of course, hazard even a conjecture; but if it be composed of separate atoms — i. e., not continuous — it is evident that a second mediiim wdll be requii'ed to help the particles of the first to act on each other (for without this, the first medium would be merely obstructive), and so on. This must stop somewhere ; why not, the:i, it the first ? But in the present state of our know- ledge of mechanics, a continuous medium is barely conceivable, and its motions, &c., present consider- able difficidties to even plausible mathematical treatment. If we take the view opposed to New- ton's, as Mosotti and others have done (their ideas are considered further on), we can, in a very arti- ficial manner, however, account for gravitation and molecular action; but, as before said, the founda- tions of this attemi)t at explanation are hardly tenable. Just as sound depends on the elasticity of the air and vibrations thereby maintained and propa- gated, light and radiant heat, which are certainly identical, most probably consist in the vibrations of some very elastic fluid. This has been provi- sionally named Ether (q. v.). If it be continuous, it may help us to account for the first two categories of force also, as we have already seen ; if not so, aa is more likely, fresh difiiculties arise. Light and heat, however, are undoubtedly forms of motion, and correspond, therefore, to so much vis- viva or actual energy. Even heat in a liquid or solid body must coiTespohd to some vis-viva in the material particles, since a hot body can give out both light and heat, and a body may be heated by luminous or calorific rays which are vibratory, as we have seen. Class IV. contains perhaps the most puzzliug of all these forces. That there is something in com- mon in all the forms of electricity, and that mag- netism is nearly related to them, is certain; it is probable, also, that frictional electricity, when stat- ical, consists in something analogous to a coiled spring, or is a form of potential energy — the other." being forms of actual energy. Some have supposed magnetism to be also a form of potential energy, but Ampere's discoveries have materially lessened the probability of the truth of this hypothesis. We shall consider this again. FORCE; ENERGY. Class V. may be deferred for the present. As to Class VI., it seems, from tlie observations of physiologists as to the formation of cellular matter, and the pi eduction in 11 ving organisms of compounds which have not yet been made by ordinary chemical processes, that the vital force, if there be such, is not a force which does work, in the mechanical sense of the term, but merely directs, as it were, the other natural forces how to apply their energies. Were a railway train running on a smooth horizontal line of rails, it would retain for ever its original velocity ; but in turning a curve, it would be acted on by deflecting forces, without which its path would be straight. These forces do no work, as is evident, since this would be shewn in alteration of the vis- viva, and none takes place. They modify, however, the direction in which the train moves. When gangs of labourers and masons are at work bmlding an edifice, the former are employed raising stones, mortar, &c., the latter in laying them ; but there is present an overseer with a plan, who, doing no (mechanical) work himself, guides and directs the proper expenditure of force by the working body. In this view of the case, the labourers are the physical forces, and the overseer the vital force. It is quite certain that the so-called crystalline force cannot properly be put in this category, as presenting even an analogy, however slight ; it is probably an effect, not a cause, and due to the difierent forms of simjile or compound particles of matter, and the consequent variations in their molecidar forces in different directions. So far, then, for the possible nature of the forces, which, with the probable exception of Vt., can be considered as various forms of energy. Can they be transformed one into another, as the different kinds of mechanical energy can? Take the potential energy of gravitation to begin with. We can employ it to drive a water-wheel. This turns a shaft, to which, if a tight break be applied, heat will be produced by friction, and light also, if a rough wheel on the shaft be made to rotate against a piece of flint or pyrites ; or electricity may be produced by employ'ug the moving power to turn an ordinary electrical machine, or a magneto- electric one ; and from the electricity so produced, electrical attractions and currents may be derived ; from them heat and light again. Or the currents may be employed to magnetise a needle or a piece of soft iron, or to produce chemical decomposition. Again, heat may be employed by means of a eteam-engiric as a substitute for the water-power or potential energy of gravitation, and the above effects be pioduced. It may also be employed in raising weights, and therefore in producing the potential energy in question ; or it maj' be employed to pro- duce Thermo-electric Currents, and thence all the ordinary effects of electricity, including the motion of a magnetic needle. Light may be employed to produce chemical combination or decomposition, as we see in photo- graphy ; it may ?Jso by the same means be made to produce electric currents, and consequent motion of a nectUe. It is not yet proved that light can pro- duce magnetism directly, though there can be little d(jubt that, if proj)erly applied, it is capable of doing so. Chemical action in a voltaic battery can be made to produce motion, heat, light, electricity, electrical attractions and magnetism, and to overcome other chemical affinity Capillary action has been employed to produce electricity, and mechanical effects, &c., but we need not go through the whole category. Ill these experimental results, then, consists what called the Correlation of the Physical Forces — i.e., the transmutability of one of the latter into another or others. The idea is old, but the procf.1 of its truth have only become numerous within the last half -century. Grove has published an excellent treatise with the above title ; to thia we refer the curious reader for further detail on this interesting subject. Conservation of Energy. — But a far more import- ant principle, being, in fact, the precise statement of the preceding — which is somewhat vague — is that of the Conservation of Force, or rather Energy. It is simply the extension (to all the physical forces) of the principle which we have given in full, and proved in a particular case, at the beginning of this article — i. e., that the sum of the potential and actual energies of any set of moving bodies cannot be altered by their mutual action. Let us now suppose heat, light, &c,, to consist in vibratory movements of particles, and in their relative states of distortion, &c., and make the supposition that these particles act on each other — no matter by what meaus— in the line joining each two, and with forces which depend on their distance, and we have at once the theorem, that the sum of the potential and actual energies is a quantity unalterable in any system, save by external influences. Hence, when mechanical power is said to be lost, as it is by the unavoidable friction in machinery, &c., it is really only changed to a new form of energy — in general, heat. Thus, when a savage lights his fire, he expends animal force in rubbing two pieces of dry wood together. If these pieces of wood were not in contact, no force would be required to move them past each other — more and more is required as they are more strongly pressed together. The equi- valent of this force so expended is found in the heat produced. Davy shewed that two pieces of ice might be melted by rubbing them together. A skilful smith can heat a mass of iron to redness by mere hammering. Here the actual energy employed is partly given out in the shape of heat, and j^artly stored up in the iron as potential energy due to the compression of the mass, or the forcible ajiproxi- mation of its particles. Amongst the earliest, and certainly the best experiments on this subject, are those of Joule (q. v.). He determined the relation between the units of heat and potential energy of gravitation, by various methods, which gave very nearly coincident results. One of these we may mention. A paddle-wheel is so fixed as to revolve in a closed vessel full of water. The wheel is driven by the descent of a known weight through a measured space, and precautions are taken against losses of energy of all kinds. The water agitated by the paddle-wheel comes soon to rest, as we know ; but this is due to friction between its particles ; and the final result is the heating of the water. The quantity of water, and also the number of degrees by which its temperature ia raised, being measured, a simple proportion enables us to find how many foot-pounds (see Foot-pound) of mechanical energy correspond to the raising by one degree the temperature of a pound of water. The residt is, that the heating a poimd of water one degree Falirenheit is effected by 772 foot- pounds — and this number is called Joule's Equi- valent. In other words, if a pound of water fall to the ground through 772 feet, and be then suddenly arrested, its temperature will be raised one degree ; and, conversely, the heat that would raise the temperature of a pound of water one degree, would, if applied by a steam-engine or otherwise, raise 772 pounds one foot liigh. Nom (see the article Heat), we know the auiount of heat vhich is produced by the burning (in air) of any material whose composition is known. FORCE; ENERGY. It follows, then, that from the mere quantity and composition of a substance we can tell the amount of meclianical work due to its combustion ; that is, suj)- posinij it all to be effective, As we have been led to the mention of heat of combustion, let us consider what this is due to. Cond)ustion (in air) is merely a chemical combination of the constituents of tlie burn- ing body with oxy<;en — the heat and light which are developed are, therefore, by the conservation of energy, equivalent to the excess of potential energy of tlie uncombined over the combined oxygen and combustible. That this is the real state of the case — and that the original setting lire to the combustible lias nothing to do with the matter, as is frequently imagined — will be made evident hy considering any spontaneous combination, say that of chlorine and copper filings, or of mercury and sodium, &c., in which cases the potential energy lost by the com- pound appears as heat, light, and sometimes soimd. The equivalents of the other physical forces have not been even approximated to, with the cxcei)tion of that of light. Thomson has determined the energy of a cubic mile of sunlight at the earth to be somewhere about 12,000 foot-^mivds, giving aljout 10,000 as the Ilor.se-iwiver (q. v.) of each square foot of the sun's surface. There are some additional difficulties in the way when we seek the equivalent of electricity, for here the question arises : ' Is there a special substance which is, or whose motions are, electricity, or is it merely another mode of motion of the luminiferous ether?' for we can scarcely suppose it to be due to motions of the particles of matter. If the first, we have as yet no means of estimating its energy; if the latter, we may con- sider it as within the reach of experiment. It may merely be remarked here, that Weber's exqui- site theoretical statement of dynamical electricity — resting on the fundamental assumption that there are two electric jluids — requires the admission of mutual forces, which vary with the relative velocity of its 1 (articles, and for which, therefore, the con- servation of energy does not hold. Helmholtz, in an admirable paper {Ueher die Er- haltunrj der Kraft, ti'anslated in Taylor's Scientific Memoirs, New Series, i.), starting from the assump- tions above explained, has applied the principle of conservation of force to the investigation of many recondite problems connected with most of the ]ihysical forces. We cannot, of course, enter into his work in detail, as it is somewhat analytical, but we may freely borrow sv.ch of its contents as we have not already alluded to, at least such as will suit the plan of this article. A vexy good example of the conservation of energy is found in the increasing velocity of a planet or comet as it approaches the sun, and thus loses poten- tial energy ; and also in the fact, that in the case of these bodies the mere distance from the sun, and the velocity at that distance, enable us to tell at once the nature of the orbit described — i. e., which of the «onic sections it is. Lat'^nt heat is a form of potential energy, depend- Tiig or the physical state of the substance in which j't is stored up. The same may be said of those substances which, when mixed, produce heat or cold, as water and sulphuric acid, or nitrate of ammonia. It is easily seen that here the heat or cold depends upon a change of molecular arrangement of some kind ; that is, a change of the potential energy. In magnetism and statical electricity, of course, the conservation of energy holds, as we know that all the phenomena can be explained by attractions and rei)ulsions, following the law of gravitation. In the dischai-ge of a Leydcn battery, the potential energy lost is reproduced as heat in the connecting wires, and as light, heat, and sound with the disrup- tive spark. In charging a Leyden jar by means of the electrophorus, the charge is directly produced by the expenditure of mechanical force in over- coming the attraction of the negative electricity of the resinous plate for the i>ositive electricity of the cover. In the ordmary voltaic battery, the excess of loss of potential energy in the cells, by the chemical imion, say of zinc and oxygen, and of sulphuric acid and oxide of zinc, over that gained by the decom- position of water, i)roduces the actual energy of tixe current, which may be transformed into heat, lightj magnetism, or motfon, or two or inore. Or it may be employed to reproduce })otential energy by chem- ical decomposition, say that of water. This again, by a s})ai-k, can be reconverted into actual energy as an explosion accompanied by heat, light, and soimtL When an electric current causes the motion of a magnetised needle, our general princijile should lead us to infer that the euiTcnt itself will be weakened. This is found to be the case, but, as it shoxdd be, only durinrj the motion of the needle. The needle in a permanent state of deflection produces no effect whatever. Now, the diminution of an electric cur- rent is simply equivalent to the addition of a weaker current passing in the opposite direction. We sliould expect, then, that the motion of a magnet near a conducting wire M ill in general produce a current in the latter, and this is, in fact, Faraday's great dis- covery of magneto-electric induction. In this case, the current ceases so soon as the magnet ceases to move relatively to the wire. If a mass of copper or other good conductor be aet in ra])id rotation near a powerful magnet, the motion produces electric currents in the copper, which, being attracted by the magnet, soon bring the ma,ss to rest. It is not so clear in this case into wJial the mechanical energy of the rotation has been trans- formed, especially as the electric currents cease M ith the motion ; but if we keep up the rotation forcibly, we find in a short time the copper growing warm ; in other words, the motion has been transformed into electricity, and the latter into heat. This very beautiful experiment is due to Joule, and has been repeated in a striking pojiular form by Foucault. Advantage has been taken by Faraday of the phenomena of induction, to produce electric currents by aid of the earth's magnetism. liis apparatus is simply a revolving disc of metal, and the terminal wdres touch, one its axis, the other its *'-dge. The force which is here transformed into e)'?.ctricity is the additional effort requisite to turn a •conducting disc, instead of an equal non-conducti7ig oxxf.. It is a curious consequence that in all metallic juachinery a portion of the energy of the prime move>' is lost in producing electricity, and finally heat, in ti«e moving parts, so that heat in such cases is noi entirely, though very nearly, due to friction alone. Perhaps one of the most singular of th'^e trans- formations of energy is that already refen«;d to o£ heat into electricity. Certain crystals, such as tour- maline, become electrified by heat ; but ^lectrio currents can be produced by simply heating a junc- tion of two wires or bars of different met.xls, the other ends also being in contact. Now, if wo were to heat the other junction, it is obvious that, as at it the metals are an-anged in the opposite order, we should produce a contrary current ; conversely by cooling them we should strengthen the first. But the conservation of foi'ce requires that such a junction should be heated or cooled according to the direction in Avhich a current passes through it. This was dis- covered by Peltier. Animal force, again — or rather its actual energy — is sinq)ly a transformation of the potential energy FORCE; ENERGY. of food. This is well illustrated by the increased diet which is required when man or beast abruptly changes from a state of inactivity to one of toil, as with a polai- bear after his winter's sleep ; or by tlie greater amoimt and better quality of food which are necessary for criminals subject to hard labour, than for those who are merely imprisoned. Since, then, as far as we have yet seen, there is no such thing as gain or loss of energy anywhere, while it appears that the ultimate transformation of such energy is heat, and that the latter tends to a uniform diffusion or dissi])ation, in which it is aruavailable, as far as we know, for further trans- formation (see Heat), whence do we procure the c ipplies of energy which are requisite to maintain tlie economy of life ? We answer : Chiefly, or indeed entirely, from the sun, whence they come as light and radiant heat, perhaps in other forms. Without the sun, where would be vegetation ? — ^\^thout the latter, where animal life ? Where would be our stores of fuel, M^hether wood or coal ? It is entirely, then, we may say, to the directly supplied energy of the sun that we look for the maintenance of life ; and this leads to a question not of much importance to our- selves, to be sure, but of vast future consequence to the human race : Is this supply finite ? Will the sun in time have given off all its energy, or is it oontiimally receiving accessions itself, and if so, has it an inexhaustible store to draw from ? Now, whether the sun be a hot mass, or be sur- rounded by an atmosphere m an intense state of coml)ustion, or whether it derives the main part of its heat, as Thomson supposes, from gravitation (in a way presently to be considered), it is certain that, as far as we know, it must at some period be exhausted. Such is the apparently inevitable verdict oi the conservation of energy. The g:-avitation theory of the origin of energy generally may be given in some such form as this : The matter in the universe, in a state of coarser or finer division, originally filled all space, and possessed, therefore, by virtue of gravitation, a certain amount of potential energy. As particles gradually moved up to each other, and became slowly agglomerated into masses, more and more of this energy w'as realised in its actual form ; some as heat (that of the sun, or the internal heat of the earth, &c.), some as vis-viva of axial or orbital rota- tion, &c. There still remains unagglomerated in space (see Zodiacal Light, Aerolites, Nebulte) much of this original matter still falling mainly towards the larger masses, as the sun and stars, and exchanging its potential for actual energy. But the hitter, as we have seen, tends ultimately to become heat, and to seek a uniform diffusion. This, then, it appears, is to be the last scene of the great mystery of tlie universe— chaos and darkness as 'in the beginning.' An immediate consequence of the truth of the conservation of energy is the impossibility of what is usually understood by Perpetual Motion (q. v.) ; for it is to be carefully remembered that perpetual motion, in the literal sense of the words, is not cnly possible, but very general. If there were no Buch thing as friction, or if we had a perfectly smootli body, in the form of a teetotum, for example, it would spin for ever in vacuo with undiminished speed. The earth in its axial rotation affords a good example. Were it a perfect s])here, and of uniform material, the other masses of the system could produce no effect whatever on its rotation, and the latter wovdd, as indeed it does, as far as we can determine, remain for ever unchanged. And even, as we have already seen, when one motion, as electricity, or ordinary vis-viva, is lost, we find it reappearing in other forms of motion, such as heat and light. But this is not the technical accepta* tion of tlie term per[)ctual motion ; it is popularly understood to mean a source of motion which will not only preserve its own vis-viva unchungcd, but also do work. This is, of course, incoini)atil)lo with the conservation of energy, for wherever work ia done, equivalent energy in some form or other is consumed. As we have not, however, an absolute certainty of, though very powerful evidence indeed for, the truth of the principle, it woidd l)e un})hilo- sopliical to conclude that jierpetual motion is aboo- lutely impossible. It is cei'tain, however, that it cannot be attained by any mechanical arrangement ; and neither heat, light, nor magnetism can give no any assistance. If we knew more than we do at present about electricity, we should probably add it also to the category. The ordinary atteni])ts which are still being made in thousands by visionaries, are simply absurd, based as they are for the most part on ignorant applications of mechanics. There is absolute imi)ossibility here ; and a ' per])etual motionist ' of the common herd is far more infatu- ated than a ' squarer of the circle ; ' for the latter'a problem majf be solved, though certainly not by the means usually emi)loyed, or in the form usually sought for. We may now briefly consider the theories of the physical forces which have been advanced of late times, and we may take such as are worth notice together. All of them assume at the outset forces of attraction or repulsion between particles, or else a highly elastic liuid, or rather solid, if we may so call it, in which the particles of matter float, or are imbedded. We have already considered the difficidties attending the latter supposition; but it is the only one which does not refer force back to force, thus apparently leaving the question where it found it. We may dismiss it with the remark, that a fluid or quasi-solid absolutely continuous and alike in every part is difficxdt to conceive ; and it is hard to understand how motion can be propagated through it. If it be not continuous, forces must be supposed to be exerted by its parts on each other, else the motion of one part would not affect the others. There is one way in which the latter difficulty has been attacked, which seema plausible enough ; and that is, that the particles of this fluid are in a state of rapid motion, and con- tinually impinging on each other and on the particles of matter, no forces being exerted except those of pressure at the im})act. But, unless these particles be supposed elastic, and what is elasticity but a form of molecidar force {force again), their motion woidd be lessened at every impact, and destroyed com- pletely if the impact were direct. This objection seems to be a very strong one. The first-mentioned theory, that of Epinus and Mosotti, assumes that material particles float in a general atmosphere of ether, that the particles of each repel one another, but that a particle of matter attracts one of ether. From these suppositions, and an hypo- thetical law connecting pressure with density in such an ether, Mosotti has deduced gravitation and the molecidar forces ; but to apply the hypothesis to the other physical forces, other suppositions are necessary. These have been supphed by Clausius and Redtenbacher, who, with the assumptions of particles of matter and of ether as before, imagine those of matter to attract each other, and also those of ether, but the latter to be mutually repulsive. Light and radiant heat, according to this theory^ are vibrations of the ether which fills all space between the particles of matter, or rather, between the atmospheres of ether which, by the foregoing assumptions, the particles of matter wdl collect about them. Heat consists of vibrations of the 423 FORCE ; ENEHGY— FORCE AND FEAR. molecules of matter, or of the groups of atoms (see Atomic Theory) of which the molecule of a com- pound body is built up, together with their atmo- epheres. Electricity, magnetism, &c., are exi)lained to be rotations in the atmospheres. Redtenbacher and Clausius are not quite agreed as to the physical forces corresponding to each of these forms of motion, but the above sketch will give a general idea of the nature of their specidations. But the most startling of all the reflections on force, and its ultimate nature, which have perhaps ever been made, are those of Faraday. Without calling in question in ordinary cases the truth of the conservation of energy, he has endeavoured, by experiment (the only genuine test in a question so novel and so i)rofound), to prove what may be called the Conservation of Force, if we understand force itself, and not energy. He argues thus : two masses, according to the undisputed law of gravitation, attract with four times their mutual force if their distance be diminished to half ; and with only one- fourth of the same, if their distance be doubled. He asks whence comes the additional force in the former, and what becomes of the lost force in the latter case ? Now, it is evident that this is a new question, totally distinct from any we have yet considered. To answer it, we must know wliat force is. Would gravitation have any existence if there were but one particle of matter in the universe, or does it suddenly come into existence when a second particle appears ? Es it an attribute of matter, or is it due to something between the particles of matter ? Faraday has tried several experiments of an exceedingly delicate kind, in order to get at some answer to his question. A Blight sketch of one of them must suffice. A pound- weight is not so heavy at the ceiling of a room as it is when on the floor ; for, in the former case, it is more distant from the mass of the earth than in the latter. The difference for a height of 30 feet is (roughly) about •330^,75^(1'^^ of a pound. Now, if a mass of metal be dropped through such a space, an additional force, -530.^(575^1^ weight, is called into play, and the object of the experiment was to detect whether electrical effects accompanied this apparent creation of force. The mass, therefore, was a long copper wire, whose coils were insulated (see Electricity) from each other, and whose extremities were connected with those of the coil of a delicate Galvanometer (q. v.). Had any trace of an electric current been produced, the needle of the galvan- ometer would have been deflected, but, when all distur})ing causes were avoided, no such deflection was detected. Other experiments with a view to the detection of other physical forces, were also tried, but, like the first, with negative results only. We must not, however, conclude that such can never be found, as this would be assuming the absolute truth, in all cases, of the conservation of energy, which is no doubt thoroughly borne out by experiment in many cases, but not even approximately in others ; while even in the former class more delicate instru- mental means may enable us to trace small but most important deviations from absolute exactness ; and it is to the results of such trials that we must look for further information as to the nature of force, and the generality of the law of conservation of energy. There are, in mechanics, several other quantities which rettiln a fixed value under certain circum- gtances. We may briefly consider a few of them. Conservation of Areas. Invai-iable Plane. — We have seen (Central Forces) that if a particle move about a centre of force, its motion is con- fined to a i^lane, and its radius vector traces out eoiial areas in equal times. Similar theorems hold ill" any system of particles acted on only by their 41\ mutual attractions. If in such a system we suppoM the positions of the respective particles to be con- tinually projected (orthogonally, see Projection) on ayiy fixed plane, and radii vectores to be drawn from any point in that plane to the projections — the sum of the areas swept out by all those radii vectores will be equal in equal times. Also, this being true of all planes, there is one for which this sum is a maxi- mum, and this plane is fixed in space. It is thence called the invariable plane of the system. Si nailar propositions hold for a system of bodies each < f : Inite size, their several axial rotations being taken intc account ; hence what is called the Invariable Plant (q. V.) of the Solar System. Conservation of Momentum. — When two massen attract or impinge, the forces they exert (tn each other are evidently equal and opposite. Now, the measure of a force is the momentum it produces ; hence equal and opposite momenta, in addition to their original quantities, will be communicated to the masses, and therefore the sum of the momen.a of the two, resolved in any direction, will be unaltered ; hence, the sum of the momenta of any number of bodies will be unaltered by mutuul actions either of the nature of attraction or impact. For a full exhibit of the ablest presentations of the views that now obtain respecting the most important discovery of the present centur}'^, the reader will con- sult The Correlation and Conservation of Forces, a series of expositions by Professors Grove, Helmholtz, Mayer, Faraday, Liebig, and Carpenter. Edited by E. L. Voumans, New York, 1865; also. The Chemical Forces, by T. R. Pynchon, Hartford, 1870. FORCE AND FEAR. As consent is of the essence, or rather is the essence of all contracts, and as consent implies not only intelligence, but unfettered power of action in the consenting parties, contracts, by the laws of all civilised nations, will be invalidated if it shall be proved that they were entered into under the influence of force or fear. Circumstances which constrain the will have the same efi"ect as those which blind the vmderstanding, and the law of force and fear is consequently closely analogous to that of Fraud (q. v.), including under that head misrei^resentation, concealment, and consequent Error (q. v.). But it is not every degree of constraint, however exercised, which will have this efi"ect in law. On the contrary, it must be of such a description as may be reasonably sup- posed to influence the will of the party in the circvimstances in which he is placed at the time. In determining, therefore, whether there really has been force or fear in the legal sense, the law will take into account the age, sex, education, and other personal characteristics of the party, along with the accidental circumstances in which he was placed, e. g., the state of his health and spirits at the time, whether he was alone, what anxiety he may have felt for the life or interest of others, and the like. But ' M'here there is no peculiar weakness of age or sex, or condition,' says Mr Bell, stating in this respect not the law of Scotland alone, but of most other countries, ' law will require, in order to aimul a contract, such fear and compulsion as may reasonably shake a mind of ordinary constancy and resolution, and will not listen to the pretence of every va?n and foolish fear.' — Com. i. p. 22, Shaw's ed. As a contract which is invalid on the ground of force and fear is not only incapable of being enforced after its invalidity has been ascertained by- legal process, but from the absence of consent was invalid ab initio — i. e., no conti-act, in a legal sense, at all — the object of the law is to restore the parties to the position in which they were before it was entered into. All moneys which have been paid under the provisions of the extorted contract musf FORCELLINI— FOKD, FOEDING. consequently be repaid, and reparation in as far as possible must be made by the payment of damages for such personal injuries as the party who was dragged into it may have suffered from the enforce- ment of its pro^asions, See IIeduction. By the law of England, Duress (q. v.) which will invalidate a contract must amount to fear of the loss of life or limb (Mayhem, q. v.). ' Whatever i^. done by a man to save either life or member,' says Black- stone, ' is looked upon as dune upon the highest necessity and compulsion. There-^ore, if a man, through fear of death or mayhem, is prevailed upon to execute a deed, or do any other legal act, these, though accompanied wdth all other the requisite solemnities, may be afterwards avoided.' But ' a fear of battery or being beaten, though never so Well grounded, is no duress; neither is the fear of having one's house burned, or one's goods taken awaj'- and destroj'-ed, because in these cases, should the threat be performed, a man may have satisfac- tion by recovering equivalent damages.' — Stephen's Com. i. p. 142. The avoidance of such a contract is, however, dependent on the will of the injured [arty. 'A contract made under duress may be avoided by the person whose free-will was thus restrained, though he has also an election, if he thiniis proper, to insist upon it as a binding trans- act'on ' [lb. vol. ii. p. 62). But the parties who are entitled to treat a contract either as a nullity or a subsisting contract, must make their election, and cannot, after treating the contract as rescinded, set it up as a subsisting contract (Addison on Contracts, pp. 273, 436, and 1074). rORCELLI'NI, Egidio, an Italian, philologist of great attainments, was born on the 26th of August 1688, in a village near Padua. Owing to the limited means of his family, F. was deprived, of the benefit of early instruction, and was already verging towards manhood v/hen enabled to commence a regular course of study in the seminary at Padua. His Kealous industry, combined wath unusual powers of learning, singled him out from his companions, and won the admiration of the learned principal, Giacomo Facciolati, who even associated him with some of his own scientific labours. The pupil rendered his teacher valuable service in the com- pilation of a highly important lexicon, a work which y)robably inspired both with the project on which F.'s literary i-epute is based — viz., the com- pilation of a vast and comprehensive vocabulary of the Latin language. The work was published after F.'s death, and pronounced by public voice as one of the most valuable acquisitions to philological Bcience of the age. In addition to the Italian and Greek signification of the Latin word, the literal and figiu-ative application of each expression is given in a collection of examples, in themselves a perfect compendium of knowledge, embracing the customs, lavv.s, arts, sciences, religion, and history of the Romans. This immense work was published in 4 vols., folio, under the title, Totias Latinltatis Lexicon, cons'dio et ciira Jac. Facciolati, opera et studio Aeg. ForccUitd Lucul)ratu7n (Padua, 1771). Furlanetto's n])pendix ajipeared in 1816 (Padua), and a new edition of the complete work was published in 1828 (Padua). F. died in 1768. FORCENE, said, in Heraldry, of a horse when rearing, or standing on his hinder legs. FO'RCEPS (Lat. a pair of tongs or pincers), the name given by surgeons to an instrument of great antiquity, used as a substitute for the fingers, and yonnisting of two levers of metal jointed together croi^wise, nearer to one end than the other. The hand grasping the longer ends of tlie levers or handles, close* the shorter ends, which are shaped so as to seize firmly the intended object. There ifl scarcely a surgical operation in which it is not applied ; and it is made of various forms, to suit different cases. In addition to the forms used in Dentistry (q. v.), there is, e. g,, the dissecting iorG&[)By which has roughened points, to lay hold of smaU portions of tissue which are to be divided by the knife ; the lithotomy forceps, again, has blades concave like spoons ; and fenestrated forceps have apertures in the blades, and as the soft tissues pro- ject into these, a firm hold is obtained with less risk of tearing the parts. By means of Listen's cutting forceps, a powerful hand can divide a greit l^hick- ness of bone. But the most important of all ia the midwifery forceps, an invaluable invention, in cases of difficult dehvery, which daily rescues from suffer- ing and danger numerous mothers and infants. It was gradually brought to its present perfection ; but the name of Chamberlen, an accoucheur of the time of James IL, is associated with it, as one of its chief improvers. It consists of two concave fenestrated blades, forming a cavity mto which the head of the child fits. The blades are applied separately, one to each side of the head, and then locked together. Holding by the handles, the accoucheur aids the natural efibrts of labour. The instrument does not necessarily or generally injure either mother or child. FORCIN'G, in Gardening, is the artificial appli- cation of heat to accelerate vegetation. The term is not usually applied to the cultivation of exotic plants in hothouses, where the object is to imitate as much as possible their native climate ; but it is strictly aj^plicable to the system usually pursued wnth vines and pine-apples, to secure the production of fruit at desired seasons, and by different plants of the same kind in succession through a consider- able period, the heat being increased for one set of plants sooner than for another. Many of the fruits and vegetables which grow well in the open air, are very commonly forced, in order that they may be procured at seasons when they could not without artificial means. Thus, sea-kale and rhubarb are forced by means of the heat produced by heaps of fermenting litter, by which at the same time they are blanched, and to this W' e owe their appearance in the market very early in the season. Potatoes, pease, kidney-beans, asparagus, salads, &c., are often forced by means of hotbeds, or in fined pits ; or a place is foimd for them in hothouses. Strawberries are ciiltivated in pots, and forced in hothouses ; and some kinds of fruit- trees are often treated in the same way, particu- larly cherries ; and very diminutive trees may b^ seen richly loaded wdth fruit. Certain varieties are regarded by gardeners as particularly suitable for forcing. The system pursued in the Orchard-house (q. V.) cannot be called forcing. FORD, FORDING. When a river or nxu' let is crossed wdthout the aid of either a bridge or ferry, it is said to be forded, and an established place for this crossing is caUed a ford. Thus, wo have Oxford, Stratford, Deptford, Hungerford, &c., towns built around ancient fords. To the military engineer and the tiaveller in w^ild countries, the selection of the safest place for fording a river ia a matter of some practical imj)ortance. In the first place, the widest part of the river should bo chosen, as, wherever a certain quantity of water is flowing, the w4der its bed — the rapidity of the flow being the same — the shallower it must be. At the bend of a river, the line of shallow water does not run straight aci'oss, but extends from a pro- montory on one side to the nearest promontory on the other. The stream usually runs deep along FORD— FOREIGN ATTACHMENT. hollow curves, and bcncntli steep, perpendicular, and overhanging banks, whilst it is always shoal in front of promontories, unless the promontory is formed by a jutting rock. For safe fording on foot, the depth of water should not exceed three feet ; on horseback, four feet ; or a foot less for each if ther deck extending from the foremast to the bow ; it is the part to which the common sailors have free access, and probably derives its name from a small turret or castle placed near the prow in ancient vessels, from which darts and other projec- tiles could be most conveniently hurled upon an enemy. Foremost is the first of the three masts, or of the two, when only that number are present. It is surmounted by the foretop-mast, foretopgallant- mast, and foreroyal ; its sails being foresail, fore- topsail, &c. ; between it and the bow flies the fore« staysail, hoisted on the forestay, a massive rope passing from the foretop to the bow, and, wdth the backstays and shrouds, maintaining the mast in a perpendicidar position. The forebraces are ropes passing from the extremities of the foreyard into the maintop, whence they descend through pidleys to the deck, where they serve, when necessary, to alter the direction presented by the foresail to the wind. FORECLO'SURE, in English Law, the process by which a mortgagor failing to repay the money lent on the security of an estate, is compelled to forfeit his right to redeem the estate. Every person having mortgaged his estate, is entitled to an equity of redemption, which can only be cut off by a formal process. For this pmpose, the mortgagor files a bill of foreclosure, praying that an account may be taken of the principal and interest due under the mortgage, and that the mortgagor, on failing to pay, may for- feit his equity of redemption. If on the day fixed for payment, the money be not forthcoming, the mortgagor will be declared to have forfeited his equity of redemption, and the mortgagee will be allow'ed to retain the estate in perpetuity. See Mortgage. FOREHAND RENT. In Scotch Law, rent is said to be forehand when it is made payable before the crop, of which it is the rent, has been reaped. After the period when it is due and exigible, fore- hand rent is in bonis of the lessor, and passes to his executor, not his heirs (Bell's Law Dictionari)). FO'REIGN ATTA CHMENT may have refer- ence either to person or property. A defendant who has been arrested or attached in a foreign country, may be again arrested in England on the sam? ground of action. Thus, where a defendant had been arrested abroad on an English judgment, act! FOREIGN AUXILIARIES— FOREIGN COURTS. escaped and came to England, the Court of Queen's Bench decided that he may be liolden to bail in an action on the judgment. But after an arrest in Ireland or Scotland, the defendant cannot, in general, be again arrested in England for the same debt, neither of these countries being deemed foreign to that eifoct (Wharton's Die). Under the same name, a proceeding for securing the debts due to the defendant has been immemorially used in the cities of London and Bristol (Stephen's Com. iii. p. 663, ncte) ; and by the C. L. P. Act of 1854, a similar pro- ceeding has been adopted, but with this difference, that wliereas by a foreign attachment in the Lord Mayor's Court, debts are attached for the purpose of compelling the defendant to a}>pear and put in bail to the action, no such proceeding can take j)lace in the common-law courts till after judgment. See Garnishment. In Scotland, where a creditor may both incarcerate a debtor and attach his effects, an English creditor may attach the property of his debtor, though he has imprisoned him in England. See Attachment, Appreuend, Arrest, Foreign Courts. The corresponding phrase in Scotland is Arredment, which has reference both to person and goods, and is a proceeding at common law applicable to the whole country. As to the validity of a Scotch arrestment, ad fandandam jurisdic- tionem, to enable the Scotch courts to proceed against a foreigner though absent, see the recent aj)i)eal case of the Loudon and North Western Railway Co. v. Lindsay, Macqueen, iii. p. 99. FOREIGN AUXI'LIARIES. In the early Eeriods of English history, foreign auxiliaries were y no means uncommon. Harold had a body of Danes in his army when he defeated the Norwe- gian king ; and to their refusal to march agamst the kindred Normans he owed not the least among the complications which ultimately overwhelmed him. Passing to modern times, William III. had for some time a body of Dutch troops in his pay as king of England : throughout the 18th c, Hessian and Hanoverian regiments were constantly in the pay of the English government for temporary pur- poses. Hessians fought for us in the first American war; and the Landgrave of Hesse, who sold his troops at so much a head, received upwards of half a million for soldiers lost in the campaign. During the Irish rebellion, again, in 1798, many Hessian troops were employed. On the outbreak of the continental war in 1793, it was determined to recruit the British army by the addition of a large body of foreigners ; and accordingly, in 1794, an act passed for the embodi- ment of the ' King's German Legion,' consisting of 15,000 men. These troops, who were increased in the course of the war to nearly double that number, disting^iished themselves in various engagements, and formed some of the regiments on which our generals could best rely. Corps of French emigres, as the York Rangers and others, were also organised. The whole of the foreign legions were disbanded in 1815, the officers being placed on half-pay. Dm-ing the Russian war, in 1854, the British government again had recourse to the enlistment of foreigners ; special provision being made in the act authorising their employment, that the arms of the legionaries were in no case to be used fcgainst British subjects, in the event of internal discord. The numoers to be raised were 10,000 Germans, 5000 Swiss, and 5000 Italians ; the pay to be the same as to British troo})s, but temporary uervice to convey no claim to half-pay. About half Vhe number of men were enrolled, and were said to have reached great efficiency, when the stoppage of hostilitjes arrested their prjgress, and caused them V) be disbanded at a gi'eat cost for gratuities, &c. An attempt was made to locato the Germans as military settlers on the frontier of Ciipe Colony, where they should at once be a i)rotcction against the Kafirs, and a valuable addition to the labour in the eastern provinces ; but partly from the ])aiicity of females in their community, and partly from the temptation to abscond, offered by the high wages in other parts of the colony, Stutterheiin, as tlie settlement was called, has had indifferent success. Many of the soldiers of the Italian legion subse- quently turned their training to good account under Garibaldi. Troupes etrangeres form a permanent portion of the French army, where they are held in good esteem ; they are usually Swiss, who are always willing to sell their services to any power, whate\ er the cause, provided only that the pay is good. The throne of the late Neai)olitan monarchy was latterly upheld chiefly by ^wiss mercenaries. FOREIGN BILL OF EXCHANGE is a bill hich is either both drawn and acce])ted abroad ; or drawn by a person residing abroad on a person in this country, or the reverse. If a bill be drawn abroad, and accepted in England, it does not i-equire a stamp ; but if drawn in this country upon a cor- respondent abroad, or a foreign house, it must be stamped (19 and 20 Vict. c. 97, ss. 6 and 7) ; and when drawn abroad, it must be stamped by the holder, before he can present it for jiayment, or indorse, transfer, or otherwise negotiate it within the United Kingdom (Chitty on Bills of Exchange, 12). It has, however, been decided that the stat. 17 and 18 Vict, c. 83, s. 3, does not render a stamp necessary w'nere a bill drawn abroad has been indorsed aljroad to a person in England, and presented by him for accept- ance in England (Phillimore, International Law, iv, 609). Formerly, a bill drawn or jiayable in Scot- land or Ireland, was foreign in England ; but such bills were made inland by the statute just men- tioned ; and the same regulation was extended to the islands of Man, Guernsey, Jersey, Aldei-ney, and Sark (s. 7). See Bill. It has been established as a rule in England, that the liabilities of the drawer, the accepter, and indorser, shall be governed by the laws of the countries in which the drawing, acceptance, and indorsement respectively took place (Phillimore's International Law, iv. p. 606 and 506). In the case of bills which are both drawn and accepted abroad, and which are thus in reality foreign contracts, but of which the accepter is a native of this country, and which are sought to be enforced in the courts either of England or Scot- land, a distinction is made between the contract and the remedy : ' Whatever relates to the nature of the obligation — ad valorem contractus — is to be governed by the law of the country where it is made — the lex loci ; whatever relates to the remedy, by suits to compel performance, or by action for a breach — ad dex^isioneni litis — is governed by the lex fori — the law of the country to whose courts the application is made for performance or for damages.' — Lord Brougham in Don v. Lippman, House of Lords, 26th May 1837; Shaw and Maclean, iL p. 723. FOREIGN COURTS. Kent, after stating that in cases not governed by the constitution and laws of the United States, the doctrine of the English law, as to the force and effect to be given to foreign judgments, is the law of his own country also, observes, that the law thus common to England and America ' is exceedingly, if not peculiarly liberal, in the respect which it pays to foreign judgments, in all other cases except the case of a foreign divorce or an English marriage. A distinction was early taken by Lord Nottingham, and is now recognised FOREIGN ENLISTMENT ACT-FOREST FLY. tfOth in England and America, and indeed almost every^'here else, between a suit brouglit to enforce a fon ign judgment, and a plea of a foreign judgment in bar of a fresh suit for the same cause. As the effect to be given to a foreign jxulgment is alto- gether a matter of comity, in cases where it has not been regulated by positive treaty, and no sovereign is bound to execute within his own dominions a sentence given out of it, the rule adopted, where a suit is brought to enforce a foreign judgment, is that the foreign judgment is to be received, in the first instance, as prima fade evidence of the debt, but that the defendant is entitled to impeach the justice of it, or to shew that it was irregidarly and unduly obtained. But the case is ditFerent where the losing party comes forward and wishes to insuitute a new suit upon the same matter, and to open up a foreign judgment dismissing the action, pronounced by a competent court. In this case, to interfere with the foreign judgment would be to assume the attitude of a court of review, and the rule in England, consequently, is that such a decision, when given by a foreign court, is final and conclu- sive. So obvious, indeed, is the convenience and necessity of this rule, that it has been regarded as forming a portion of general jurisprudence. — Kent's Com. ii. 101, 102. As regards the enforcement of foreign decrees and judgments, the usages of nations have differed considerably, and tlie subject is far too wide and too difficult to admit of being satisfactorily discussed in this work. The distinction between the recognition of the judgment of a foreign court, as determining the validity of a foreign contract, and the application of a foreign remedy by the courts of this country, has been pointed out under Foreign Bill of Exchange (q. v.). For practical purposes, biowever, it may be convenient that we should state that, contrary to the popular belief in England, the French courts are in the habit of giving effect to judgments obtained in England, and that debtors cannot escape from their creditors, as is too gene- rally supposed, by simply crossing the Channel. The difficidty, no doubt, still exists where the debtor has escaped before any proceedings could be taken against him in this coimtry, and where no judgment can be obtained. But if he has once been served with process in England, or cited either edictally or otherwise in Scotland, the creditor may go on with his action against him though he be personally absent from the country, and ultimately enforce his decree against him by the interposition of a French court. The same observations apply to Belgium. In England, there is no regular office, as in Scot- land, for the publication of citations to persons abroad (see Edictal Citation), but leave to sub- stitute service at the last place of abode, in place of personal service, may now be obtained in some cases from the courts, or leave may be granted to serve out of the jurisdiction. In most countries, the rule as to two foreigners resident but not domiciled is, that they may sue each other in the ordinary coui-ts, as natives do. To this the French com-ts are an exception, and hold themselves in- competent to entertain suits between undomiciled foreigners relating to personality, except in matters of commerce (Phillimore, International Law, iv. 645). See Jurisdiction ; DoanciLE; International Law. Private ; Conflict of Laws, &c. FOREIGN ENLI'STMENT ACT. In the law of England, there is a statutory prohibition of enlistment in tLe service of a foreign prince in 3 Jac. I. c. 4, s. 18 ; but the statute commonly known as the Foreign Enlistment Act is 59 Geo. III. c. G9. It provides that if any natural-born Englishman shall enter into the service of any foreign statt, eithel as a soldier or a sailor, without 428 the licence of his majesty, or an order in council or royal proclamation, or if any person within the ]5ritisli dominions hire or attempt to hire any person to enlist in the service of a foreign state, such person shall be guilty of a misdemeanour The officers of the customs, on information on oath, may detain any vessel having persons on board destined for unlicensed foreign service. Masters of vessels, knowingly having such persons on board, are subjected in a penalty of £50 tor each indi- vidual Persons fitting out any vessel for foreign service, without licence, are guilty of a high mis- demeanour, and the ship and stores are forfeited. Even to assist a foreign state with warlike stores, without licence, is a misdemeanour punishable with fine and imprisonment. These penalties are irre- spective of any consequences that may follow to the individual for having committed a breach of international law. FOREIGNER. See Alien. FO'RELAND, North and South, two promon- tories on the east coast of Kent, between which are the Downs and Goodwin Sands. North F., the Cantium of Ptolemy, forms the north-east angle of the county and of Thanet Isle, in lat. 51° 22' N, and long. 1° 26' E., two miles east of Margate. It consists of chalky cliffs, nearly 200 feet high, i)rojecting into the North Sea, and has a light-house with a fixed light, 184 feet high, and seen 24 miles off. South F., also composed of chaik-ciiffs, is IG miles south of North F, 3 miles north-east of Dover, in lat. 51° 8' N., and 1 22' E. It has two fixed lights, respec- tively 380 and 275 feet above the sea, and seen from a distance of 25 and 22 miles. From this point, there is often a magnificent view of 200 to 300 merchantmen i)assing by, after having been detained by contrary winds in the Downs. FO'RELOCK is a flat wedge driven through the end of a bolt to prevent its withdrawal : it is used principally on board ship. FORESHO'RTENING, a term in Painting or Drawing, applied to signify that a figure, or a portion of a figiu-e, which is intended to be viewed by the spectator directly or nearly in front, is so represented as to convey the notion of its being projected forward; and, though by mere comparative measurement occupying a much smaller space on the surface, yet to give the same idea of length or size as if it had been projected laterally. In compo- sitions of figures and groups on ceilings, and in the interior of domes, &c., numerous examples will be found in which this art has been put in practice ; in the works of Raphael, foreshortening is prac- tised with most judgment and correctness ; those of M. Angelo, Correggio, and Tintoretto display the greatest boldness ; but the three last-named artists have been censured for introducing foreshortening too frequently into their compositions, for the purpose of parading their skill in practising it. FOREST FL«Y {Hippobosca equina), an insect ot the order Diptera. It receives the name F. F. from its frequent occurrence in forests, and particularly in the New Forest, Hampshire, It is also some- times called Horse Fly, from the annoyance which it gives to horses. It is a small insect, about four lines long ; its wings, two in number, much exceed- ing the length of the abdomen. When at rest, the wings are laid flat on the back, one overlapping the other. The general colour is brown, the thorax varied with pale yellow, the legs ringed ^^•ifch yellow and brown. The legs terminate in hooked claws. The skin is leathery and remarkably tough, so that the insect cannot be killed by any ordinary amount of squeezing. The structure of the mouth differs much from that of ordinary dipterous insects, and FOREST FLY— FOREST LAWS. bears uo inconsiderable resemblance to that of fleas. The F. F. lives by sucking the blood of quadrupeds, sometimes of oxen, dogs, &c, but most of all of Forest Fly [Hippohosca equina), magnified : 1, natural size ; 2, the pupa, as deposited by the mother. horses. Iligh-bred horses with smooth hair are most liable to this annoyance. The female F. F. does not deposit her eggs until they have reached the pupa stage in her abdomen. One only is pro- duced at a time, enclosed in a tough, strong skin, egg-ldie, black, and shining like a bead, wonderfully large wtien the size of the abdomen from which it came is considered ; the perfect insect finally emerges by bursting open a kind of lid or cap. FOREST LAWS, in England, laws for the regu- lation of the royal forests. Forest is defined by Lord Coke to be a safe preserve for wild animals (ferce) of the chase, v/hence comes the term foresta, by the change of e into o [Co. Litt. 233 a). Both words probably spring from the same root as the Latin foris and the French hors, and signify that which is loWiout the range of the peopled or cidti- vated country. Hence the Italian foreMiere and foresto, and the Spanish foresta'o, signify strange, foreign, wild, and the like. A forest, in the sense of the law of England, is a large tract of open ground, not necessarily covered with wood, but Tisually containing M^oodland interspersed with pasture, and forming part of the property of the monarch, and governed by a special code, called the forest law. This particular law had reference not only to malters connected with hunting and the like, but generally governed the persons livdng within the forest in all their relations. A chase is a smaller forest, in the hand of a subject, but not governed by forest law. Though the privilege of forest belongs of right to the sovereign alone, it may be granted b/ him in favour of a subject, who becomes entitled to exercise the privileges of forest in the district assigned. This right was exercised by the Saxon kings, who reserved large tracts of country for the royal pastime of hunting, and a charter of the forest was said to have been passed by Canute at Winchester in the year lOlC. But the authenticity of this document is doubted by Lord Coke [Inst. iv. 320). William the Conqueror greatly extendsd the royal forests, by laying desert vast districts iu Hampshire and Yorkshire ; he also introduced penalties of the severest kind for offences against the game. The penalty for killing a stag or boar was loss of eyes ; for William loved t]\e great gajne as if he had been their father [Sax. Chronicle). It was not till the reign of Henry III. that the laws of the forest were reduced into a regular code. In the reign of that monarch was passed the charter of the forest, 9 Hemy IIL (a.d. 1224). The right of the sovereign to create a forest is by the common law confined to lands of his own demesne. Henry II. had arbitrarily exercised his power by fcfr.)resting the lands of his subjects ; but by the 1st and 3d chapters of the charter of the forest, it is provided that all forests so made should be dis- afforested. At a subsequent time, when Henry VIII. created Hampton Court Forest, he was obliged to obtain the consent of the freeholders before he could erect a chase or forest over their grounds {Gdka, Inst. iv. 301). Mr Hallam remarks : 'It is well known that Chai-les 1. made Richmond Park by means of depriving many proprietors not only of their common rights, but of their freehold landa. It is not clear that they were ever compensated ; but I think this probable, as the matter excited no great clamour in the Long Parliament.' — Hallam, Const. Hist. i. 463, note, 1st ed. By the charter of the forest, the penalties for destroying game are greatly modified. By cap. 10, it is provided that no man shall lose life or limb for slaying deer, but that the pimishment shall be restricted to fine or imprisonment for year and day. Cap. 11 con- tains the following curious privilege: 'Whatsoevei archbishop, bishop, earl, or baron, coming to us at our commandmeut, passing by our forest, it shall be lawfid for him to take and kill one or two of our deer by view of our forester if he be present ; or else he shall cause one to blow an horn for him, that he seem not to steal our deer ; and likewise thej shall do retiirning from us.' This law is still unre- pealed ; so that a bishop may kill the Queen's deei when summoned to, or returning from parliament. Charles 1. attempted to fill his empty exchequei by imposing penalties and exacting fines for alleged encroachments on the ancient boundaries of the forests, though the right to the lands thus taken was fortified by possession for several centuries. This was one of the first grievances with which the Long Parliament dealt, and since the passing of the act for the 'certainty of forests' (16 Car. I. c. 16), the laws of the forest have practically ceased. In Coke's time, there were sixty-nine royal forests, aU of which, with the exception of the New Forest and Hampton Court Forest, had been created before the period of record. 01 these, the principal were — the New Forest, Sher- wood, Dean, Windsor, Epping, Dartmoor, Wich- wood, in Oxfordslure, Salcey, Whittlebury, and Rockingham, in Northamptonshire, Waltham, in Lincolnshire, and Richmond, in Yorkshire. Dur- ing the present reign, several of the royal forests have been disafforested by act of parliament — Hainault, 14 and 15 Vict. c. 43 ; Whittlewood, 16 and 17 Vict. c. 42; Wichwood, 19 and 20 Vict. c. 32. Public necessity is the plea on which these spots, long so famous for their silvan scenery, have been condemned. The plea is one which cannot be altogether disregarded ; but it is to be hoped that it will not be suffered to prevail to the entire destruction of our royal forests, some of which, from their vicinity to large towns, afford resorts for public recreation highly prized by the citizens, and which never can be equalled in beauty and in hea^thfulness by any new-made pleasm-e-ground. The royal forests of Scotland, in ancient times, seem to have been nearly as numerous as those of England. In Perthshire, there were the forests of Athole, Mamlorn, Glenartney, Glenfjmlas, Gleu- almond, Birnam, Climy, Alyth, &;c. In Forfarshire, there were Pla,tan, Montrethmont, Kilgerry ; in Kincardineshire, Cowie and Dui'ris ; in Aberdeen- shire, the Stocket, Dyce, Kintore, Benachie, Drum, Birse, Braemar ; in Banffshire, the Boyne and the Enzie; in Morayshire, Darnaway, &c. South of the Forth, there were the forests of the Torwood, Cadzow, Ettrick, Selkirk, Jedburgh, Traquair, tho New Forest in Dumfriesshire, &c. The Leges Forest- arum — the Scottish Forest Laws- ^have been printed more than once ; the best edition is in The Acts oj the Parliaments of Scotland, vol. i. pp. 323 — 32S (Edin. 184-1). The forest code of Scotland, though neither so complete nor adjninistered with the samf FOREST MARBLE— FORFAR. ligo'.ir as that of England, was still generally com- i plained of for its severe penalties or vexatious ' restraints. The grant of a right of forestry con- ferred the same privilege as if the ground over | which it exteuded had been originally, and had continued to be, a king's forest. Hence arose great ' oppression and annoyance to neighbouring proprie- ! tors, and in 1680 the supreme civil court suggested ' that a representation should be made to the king \ against the gi'anting of new forests. From a case which has jiist been decided, it would seem that the high pretensions of royaJ furesters have in some places survived to the present day. The Dukes of \ Athole still hold the extensive mountainous district i called the forest of Athole, either in their own right ; or as foresters for the crown. In virtue of his rights j of forestry, the present duke claimed the i)ower of j preventing his neighbour, the Laird of Lude, from killing deer on his own lands, and maintained that he was bound to allow the duke and his keepers to enter on his lands, and drive back any deer that might stray upon them from the forest of Athole. But the court decided (March I, 1802) against the I duke on both points. | Foi-est Courts were courts established for the ! purpose of enforcing the forest laws in the royal ' forests. Of these courts, there were in England four — viz., the Court of Attachments, the Court of Regard, the Court of Swainmote, and the Court of the Lord Justice in Eyre in the Forest, or Justice j Seat. The last Court of Justice Seat that was held where business was transacted was in the reign of Charles I., before Lord Holland. FOREST MARBLE, a member of the Lower Oolite, so called because of the occurrence of the tyjiical beds in Wichwood Forest, Oxfordshire. The principal bed is a fissile limestone, containing large niimbers of dark-coloured shells, and capable of sustaining a fine polish. On this account, it is used to some extent as ' marble.' It is inler- litratified with blue marls and shales, and fine oolitic sandstones. The whole thickness of the group seldom exceeds forty feet. FOREST OAK, a name sometimes given in commerce to the timber of Casuarina tornlosa, and other species of Casuarina (q. v.), Australian trees. This timber, which is light yellowish brown, and j»rettily marked with short red veins, is imported into Britain, and used for ornamental work. FORESTA'LLING. See Engrossing. FORESTS. See Arboricultuek FORESTS, Fossil, have been frequently observed in the coal measures. The seams of coal having in general been formed from the vegetation of the locahty where they occur, it is to be expected that when the coal is removed, the stools and roots of the trees would be observed in the immediately subjacent bed of shale — the ancient sod. Such a forest was laid bare in an open work at Park- field Colliery, near Wolverhampton, in 1844. In the space of about one-fourth of an acre, the stumps of 73 trees, Ground-plan of the Fossil Forest with their roots at Parkfield Colliery. attached, appeared as shewn in the lumexed groimd-jdan. The trunks, broken off close to the root, were lying prostrate in every direction, often crossing each other. One of them measured 15, another 30 feet in length but they 430 were generally shorter. They were invariably converted into coal, and flattened to the thickness of 1 or 2 inches. The upright stems shew that some of them had a circumference of more than 8 feet. Similar fossil forests have been oljserved in the coal-fields of Nova Scotia, and have been care- fully described by Lyell, Logan, and Dawson. The usual height of the trees observed by Lyell was from G to 8 feet; but one tree was about 25 feet high, and 4 feet in diameter. Brogniai-t describes the remains of a fossil forest preserved in an upright position, in strata of micaceous saudstoue, belonging to the coal measures at St Etieune, near Lyon. Though most abundant in sti-ata of the carboniferous period, fossil forests have been observed in other formations. The Dirt- bed ((]. v.) 'of the Lower Purbeck series is the remains of an ancient forest. Instances are also abundant in the pliocene strata. Sometimes, as on the coast of Devonshire and on the shores of the Firth of Tay, they are exjmsed on the surface, sti'etching from high-water mark to far below the furthest limit of low water ; or they are exhibited in section, as in the cliffs of Eastern Norfolk, where, resting on the chalk or crag, there is a stratum in which the stools and roots of the trees stand in their natural position, the trunks having been broken short off, and iml)edded with their branches and leaves. This stratum is covered with fresh- water beds and diift. The position of these forests indicates a variation, in recent geological time, of the relative level of land and water. The instances in Devonshire and Fife shire may imply a simple subsidence of the land ; at Norwich, however, a considerable depression must have taken place, to admit of the dei)osition of the fresh- water beds and the till, and a subsequent elevation, to expose the beds so high above the sea-level. The remains of ancient forests, belonging to n yet later period, are to be found in beds of peat. There is good evidence that some kinds of peat had their origin in the destruction of forests. Trunks and branches of beech, hazel, fir, &c., are found in them, and their roots may be traced in the underclay. The rapidity with which this peat is formed is very remarkable. At Blair-Drummond, the stratiun of peat is eight to ten, and in some places even twenty feet in thickness. Many of the trees here have been felled with the axe, and that this was done while the Romans were in possession of the country, is proved by the discovery of ' cor- duroy roads,' leading from one camp to another, and the finding of camp-kettles at the bottom of the peat. FO'RFANG, or FOREFAiMG (Sax. /ore, before, and fangen, to take), the takiug of proAisions from any one in fairs or markets, before the king's pur- veyors were ser\^ed with necessaries for hi^ majesty. (Charter of Henry I. to the hospital of St Bartholo' mew in London, anno 1133, referred to in Tomlin'? Die.) It is also used to signify the rescuing of stolen or strayed cattle from a thief, or from those having illegal possession of them ; or the reward fixed for such rescue (Wharton's Die). FO'RFAR, supposed to be the ancient Orrea, the county to\^n of Angus or Forfarshire, situated near a small lake of the same name, on a rising-ground of no great heifiht, in the fertile valley of Strath- more. Pop. (1871) 1],031, It has been a roval burgh since the reign of King David I. (1124 — 1153). It had a royal castle, of which no vestige remains, said to have been situated on a round hill on the north side of the town, and to have been destroyed by order of King Robert Bruce, in the year i307. Its staple manufacture is linen. FORFARSHIRE— FOEFEITURE AND CORRUPTION OF BLOOD. It is connected by railway with Aberdeen, Arbroath, and the south. It joins wdth Montrose, Arbroath, Brechin, and Bervie, in sending a representative to parliament. FORFARSHIRE, or ANGUS, is a maritime county in the east of Scotland, being bounded on the E. by the German Ocean, on the N. by Kincar- dine and Aberdeen shires, on the W. by Perthshire, and on the S. l^y the Firth of Tay. It extends from Dorth to south 38 miles, and from east to west 27 miles, with 45 miles of coast. There are several valleys of considerable extent, the principal of which are Glen Isla, Glen Prosen, Glen Esk, Clova, and Lethnot, which are all well watered, and mostly productive. The surface of the county is in-e- gular, and it is intersected with hills, the Sidlaw being 1400 feet high, and Catlaw, the highest, 2264 feet. The soil, which is various, ranging from the finest alluvial to the moorish, rests mostly on the old red sandstone and the trap. Devonian paving- stones, limestone, porphyry, and jasper, occur. The chief rivers are the Tay, North Esk, South Esk, and Isla ; and there are some small lochs. F. is the chief seat of the Scotch linen manufacture. Cattle, corn, salmon, and paving- stone are the principal exports. The climate par- takes of the qualities common to the east coast. The average of the fall of rain is about 25 inches. The valued rent of the county in 1674 was £171,440 Scots, or £14,287 sterling. The valuation for 1872 —1873 was £662,935 sterling, including £98,492 of railways. In the year 1872, the last year in which the agri- cultural statistics were taken, the total acreage in the county of all kinds of crops, hare, fallow, and grass, was 241,493; under corn crops there were 93,807; upder green crops, 51,237; and of clover, sanfovn, and grasses under rotation there were 69,529. The total number of cattle returned for 1872 was 49,320; sheep, 116,109; pigs, 7127. The number of horses used solely for agriculture, &c., retui-ned by occupiers of land in the same year was 9324. Pop. (1871) 237,- 528, being an increase over that of 1861 of 30,832. The chief towns are Dundee, Arbroath, Montrose, Forfar (the coimty town), Brechin, and Kirriemuir. The county returns one member to parliament, and the boroughs two. Angus was the province of a Mormaer during the Celtic period of Scottish history. It appears as an earldom in the 12th century. Its fii*st earls were probably the descend- ants of the old Mormaers; it passed subsequently to the Umphravilles, the Stewarts, and the Douglases. The castle of Forfar was the residence occasionally of some of the kings, until the time of Alexander III. The chief antiquities are some Roman camps, the vitrified fort of Finhaven, the remarkable stone forts of the White Caterthun, near Brechin, and of the Laws, near Dundee; the sculptured stone pillars at Meigle, Aberlemno, St Vigean's, Glammis, Kirriemuir, Aldbar, Invergowrie, &c. ; the fortified island of St Margaret's Inch in the Loch of Forfar, the roTind tower and cathedral of Brechin, the ruins of Restennet Priory and Arbroath Abbey; and the old baronial castles of Glammis, Red Castle, Edzell, Melgund, Finhaven, Airlie, Cares- ton, Inverquharity. At Stracathro, it is said Baliol resigned the crown to Edward I. Several eminent men were born in this county; among whom may be mentioned Hector Boece, Andrew Melville, the Marquis of Montrose, Joseph Hume, Sir Alexander Bumes, Robert BroAvn the botanist, James Mill the historian of British India ; and Graham of Claverhouse had a seat at Fintry Mains. FORFEITURE AND CORRUPTION OF BLOOD are penalties consequent on convictions for treason or felony. The penalty of forfeiturfl for treason is founded on this consideration, that he who hath thus violated the first princii)lea of govern- ment, and broken his part in the original contract between king and peoi)le, hath abandoned his con- nection with society, and hath no htnger any right to those advantages which before belonged to him purely as a member of the community (Stephen's Com. iv. 497). The penalty of forfeiture for treason prevailed in England before the Conquest, as is clear from the fact, that lands held in gavelkind, which is a Saxon tenure, may be forfeited for t reason. But after the Conquest, forfeiture of lands and goods came to be regarded as the peculiar punish- ment of felony, of which treason against the sovereign was ths highest kind, and was denominated high treason, to' distinguish it from all other felonies, which were called petty treason. In cases of treason, the oflender forfeits all his lands abso- lutely to the crown. In felony, according to the old law, the offender forfeited to the crown the profits of all estates of freehold during his life, and all his estates in fee-simple for a year and a day, after which they became escheat to the lord. The crown, during the year of occupancy, was entitled to com- mit upon the lands what Waste (q. v.) it pleased. By Magna Charta, this power of committing waste was restrained. But by 17 Ed. II. c. IG, the king's title to waste was again recognised. As the law now stands, murder is the only felony by which forfeiture for year and day is incurred. In all felonies, the goods and chatties of the offender are, on conviction, forfeited to the crown ; but unt'l conviction, forfeiture of the goods does not operate. Where, therefore, a person has disposed of his goods before conviction, the crown cannot reach them. Forfeiture of lands does not take effect until sentence of Attainder (q. v.) has been pronounced. So that a person committing Felo de se (q. v.), or a rebel dying before sentence, or killed in open rebellion, does not forfeit his lands. But sentence of attainder, as soon as pronounced, has a retro-active effect, and annuls all conveyances made between the act of treason or felony and the pronoi.mcing of sentence. Conveyances made before the act of treason are not affected. Hence, a wife's jointure is not forfeited, because settled on her before the commission of the act. But dower is forfeited by 5 and 6 Ed. VI. c. II. Counterfeiting the coin was formerly treason; but by various statutes, it is provided that the wife's dower should not be forfeited, and that the lands should be forfeited only for the life of the offender. Forfeiture for treason and felony is accompanied by coJTuption of blood, whereby the offender is incapable of inheriting any lands or of transmittmg any title to an heir. But where the lands were not vested in the offender at the time of the act, th^^y are not forfeited to the crown, but to the overlord. In England, this distinction is of little moment, except in copyhold lands, the crown being, in fact, the overlord of nearly all the freehold land in the king- dom. By 7 Anne, c. 21, it was enacted that, after the death of the Pretender and his sons, no attainder for treason should operate to the prejudice of othei than the offender himself ; bu*; this provision waa repealed, 39 Geo. III., c. 93. But in Scotland, where subinfeudation still subsists, the distinction is of practical importance. In Scotland, before the Union, forfeiture of estate was incun^ed on account of treason and certain other crimes, as theft by a landed man, and uttering false coin. Lord Stair is of opinion that the doctrine of corruption of blood did not prevail in Scotland to exclude those claiming, through a person attainted, where the offender was only apparent heir (Stair, iii. 3, 38). Since the Union, the law of Scotland in regai J 431 FORFEITURE OF to forfeiture for treason has been assimilated to tliat of England. In America, forfeiture of estate for crimes is very much reduced, and the corruption of blood is universally abolished. Several of the state consti- tutions have provided that no attainder for treason or felony shall work corruption of blood or forfeiture of estate, except during the life of the offender, and some of them have taken away the power of forfeiture absolutely, without any such exemption. Every person convicted of any manner of treason, under the laws of New York, forfeits his goods and chattels, and also his lauds and tenements, during his lifefime ; but the rights of all third persons exist- ing at the time of the commission of the treason, are preserved. Kent's Commentaries, ii. 505. FORFEITURE OF LANDS was originally a penalty of the feudal law, incurred on account of some act by the tenant inferring disloyalty to his overlord. The acts inferring forfeiture might be of either a civil or a crirai/ial nature. Forfeiture for cr:ir>es was incurred by treason or felony. See Forfeiture and CoRRurTiON of Blood. Civil forfeiture may be incim-ed in England in three ways — viz., by tortious alienation, by wrongful dis- claimer, and by alienation in mortmain ; the first two of these modes were incidents of the feudal tenure, the lattei was introduced by statute. It must be observed that, according to the earliest feu'lal customs, a gift of lands was always made in favour of a particular person, and that alienation, without consent of the overlord, involved a forfeiture of the fee. But this strictness having by degrees ceased to be observed, forfeiture was only incurred in case of a tortious alienation. Tortious alienation was where the OAATier of a particular estate conveyed by common law conveyance, as feoffment, fine, or recovery, a greater estate than that to which he was himself entitled, as where a tenant-for-life made a feoffment in fee. The immediate effect of this act was the forfeiture of the laud to the remainder man or reversioner. By 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 74, abolish- ing fines and recoveries, and 8 and 9 Vict. c. 106, s. 4, declaring that a feoffment shoidd nut have a tortious operation, forfeitiure by tortious alienation has ceased to have a practical importance. For- feiture by wrongful disclaimer was where a tenant holding under a superior lord, on being summoned in any court of record, either disclaims his allegiance, or does any act which amoimts to a disclaimer. Since the abolition, by the statute of qida emjotores, of subinfeudation, this species of forfeiture can only arise in lands held of the crown. Forfeiture by alienation in mortmain is incurred by the convey- ance of lands or tenements in favour of any Cor- poration (q. v.), sole or aggregate, ecclesiastical or temporal. As by vesting the land in a tenant of this description, the overlord was deprived of all the duties and services due by his vassal, this act was declared by various acts of parliament to infer the forfeiture of the lands. See Mortmain. Forfeiture of copyholds was incurred by committing waste, and Vy other acts of a WTongful kind inconsistent with the fealty due to the lord. See Blackstone, Com. ii. 284. Forfeiture on breach of condition, subsequent is where an estate is held upon a condition contained in the grant itself. On failure of the condition, the grantor or his heirs may enter upon the lands. In Scotland, civil forfeiture may arise either from statutory enactment, at common law, or by agree- ment. By 1597 c. 246, it is enacted that vassals failing to pay their feu-duties for two years shall forfeit their right. This forfeiture must be estab- hshed by an action to recover the feu-duties in arrear, and may be avoided by payment at the bar. At common law, a vassal forfeited his land by dis- 432 LANDS-FORGERY. clamation or purprestura The former is analogoii* to the English disclaimer, and consists in the denial by a vassal of his lawful superior. Purpresture waa incurred by the vassal's encroachment on the streets, highways, or commonties belonging to the crown or other superior. These forms of forfeiture are fallen into disuse. Forfeiture on special agreement depends wholly ui)on the terms of the condition inserted in the titles to the land. The condition m\ist be fortified by irritant and resolutive clauses, and must enter the sasine, in order that it may be effectual against purchasers of the lands (Erskine, ii. 3, s. 13). Of this kind of forfeiture are breaches of Entails (q. v.). FORGE, FORGING. The process of hammer- ing red-hot iron or steel into any required sha})e ia called For;^ng, and the workshop in which the operation is performed, a Forge. The principal tools of a common smith's forge are the forge-fire or heai-th, with its bellows, the anvil, and the various hammers, swages, &c. For large work, an air- furnace, blown by steam-bellows, supplies the place of the simple hearth of the blacksmith, powerful cranes swing the work to its place on the anvil, and a steam-hammer (see Hammer) strikes the blows that squeeze the red-hot mass into shajje. Besides these, there are portable forges of various sizes and forms, used for military and other pur- poses. They usually consist of an iron frame, to which a bellows, worked by the foot, is attached ; and above the bellows is an iron tray, with a hearth, &c., upon which the fire is made; and the anvil is either attached to this frame, or has a separate stand. Under Cutlery, the general method of forging small work is described. For the largest work to which hand-hammers are still applied, such as anchor-forging, two gangs of from six to twelve hammermen are employed ; they swing the large hammers with such wonderful precision and regu- larity, that the instant one hammer is witL^j-awn, another falls upon the same place. A foreman, with a wand, directs the hammering. The two gangs relieve each other alternately, on account of the great severity of the labour. Shovels, spades, mattocks, and many other tools and implements, are partly forged imder the tilt-hammer. See Steel. In all processes of forging, it is of primary importance to obtain the greatest possible rapidity in the succession of the Idows. There is a double reason for this : first, and simply, that the work is cooling, and the more slowly it is forged, the more frequently it must be re-heated ; and secondly, that percussion generates actual heat, and if the blows are sufficiently heavy and rapid, the temperature of the work may be fully maintained out of the fire for a considerable length of time. The hammer used for tilting steel not only maintains the heat of the bar, but raises it from a dull to a bright red heat. FORGERY (Fr. forger, to form metal mt-o shape ; to fabricate), the crimen falsi of the Roman law, is held in England, at common law, to be the fraudident making or altering of a writing or seal, to the prejudice of another man's right, or of a stamp to th<. prejudice of the revenue. As regards writings, the instrument forged must be executed Avith such skill or in such circumstances as to be capable of being mistaken for a genuine document by a person ol ordinary intelligence and obser- vation. It is not necessary that there shovdd be even an attempt at imitation. If there was inten- tion to deceive, and the circumstances were such as to render deception possible, the crime has been committed, and it has consequently been held in Scotland that it is possible to forge the name FORGET-ME-NOT— FORKS. of a person who cannot write (1 Alison, p. 372), and fui-tlier that the crime may be committed by the adhibition of a cross or mark (Macmillan, January 24, 1859). Any material alteration, how- ever slight, is a forgery just as much as the sub- scription of the name of the pretended maker, or the fabrication of the entire deed. It will not lessen the crime, though the whole deed should be genuine, the name only being forged, or the name being really the handwriting oi the party to whom it belongs, but appended to a forged deed. Even if the name be a fictitious one, but appended for the purpose of deceiving, a forgery has been coaimitted just as much as if it belonged to a real penion. Long before the recent extensions took piace in the law of evidence, by which parties were admitted as witnesses in their own causes, it was provided by 9 Geo. IV. c. 32, that the party whose name had been forged might be a witness to the effect that the writing was not his. But, on the other hand, it is an established rule of law that the proof of forgery, by a mere comparison of hand- writing, is incompetent (Tailor on Evidence^ p. 1428, n. 5, 2d ed.). Identification of handwriting is, if possible, more difficidt than identification of the person, which so often forms the chief difficulty in crimmal trials. 'As illness, strange dress, unusual attitude, and the like, cause mistakes in identifying the individual, so a bad pen, or rough paper, a shaking hand, hurry, and many other things, change the appearance of a person's handwriting.' — Dickson on Evidence, p. 474. There are besides resem- blances in handwitings proceeding from many accidental causes, so that much caiition is neces- sary in weighing this kind of evidence. ' It ought never, therefore, to be regarded as full x>i"t)of by the crown in criminal trials, and even in civil cases, corroborative evidence should be required, unless the proof of handwriting is so clear as to shift the onus jprohandV Though writing-masters, engravers, bankers' clerks, and other persons in the habit of examining handwritings are often adduced as witnesses in trials for forgery, their evidence is really of very little value, and generally so con- flicting that it can be produced with equal effect on either side. The best witness is one who has often seen the party write, through whose hands his waiting has been continually j^assing, and whose opinion is not the result of an inspection made on a particular occasion for a special purpose. The act 11 Geo. IV., and 1 Will. IV. c. 66, makes the forging of the great seal, the privy seal, or any privy signet, the sign-manual, the seals of Scotland, or the great seal and privy seal of Ireland — treason. The same statute declares the off"ence of forging, or uttering with intent to defraud, stamps, exchequer bills. Bank of England notes, bills of exchange, promissory notes, deeds, receipts, orders for the payment of money, transfers of stock, wills, &c., to be felony. Capital punishment was first abol .shed with regard to special cases of forgery by 2 Goo. IV., and 1 Will. IV. c. 66, and 2 and 3 Will. IV. c. 1 23 ; and then altogether done away with by 7 Will. IV. and 1 Vict. c. 84. The off'ender is now liable to penal servitude, the length of which is at 4he discretion of the court ; but which cannot be for less than three years, or he may be imprisoned for not more than four, or less than two years, with or without hard labour and solitude. As to the forgery of Bank of England notes, see 16 Vict. c. 2. As to obtaining property by false pretences, see Fraud. FORGET-ME-NOT, or SCORPION pRASS {Myosotis), % genus of annual or biennial her- baceous i)lants, of the natural order Borar^inece, with 5-cleft calyx and salver-shaped coroUa; the 184 flowers small, and generally blue. The genus is diff'used over the temperate zone in all quarters of the world, and a number of species are con.mou in Britain, chiefly growing in ditches and damp meadows — as Myosotis pcdustris, with crooked creeping perennial roots — an angular stem of a foot in height, and calyx covered with appressed bristles. M. sylvatica, with calyx covered with stiff spreading hairs, grows in bushy places and woods, and is often planted in flower-gardens. The dark blue F. of the Azores {M. Azorica) has of late begim to be culti- vated in Europe, but requires the green-house. The genus is a favourite one with most persons, both because of the brilliancy of the flowers, and because throughout Europe it is generally regarded as the emblem of friendship. The English name Scor- pion Grass is now seldom heard. The German name Vergiszmeinnicht corresponds with the Eng- lish Forget-me-not. — 31. versicolor, very common in Britain, often as a weed in gardens, is remarkable for the change of colour in the flowers, which are first yellow, then blue. They are very small. — M. alpestris, found on some of the mountains of Scot- land, is especially admired for the size and brilhancy of its flowers. FORIO, a thriving town of Italy, is picturesquely situated on the west coast of the island of Ischia, which stands at the northern side of the mouth of the Bay of Naples. The central portion of the town consists of very narrow streets, but the sid-iurbs are composed of charming white cottages. It has three highly decorated churches, a good harbour, and some trade with Leghorn, Naples, and Genoa, Pop. 6764. FORISFAMILIA'TION (literally, the putting forth from or beyond the family) is the separation of a child from the family of his father. A child is said to be forisfamiliated, either when he marriea or when he receives from his father a separata stock, the profits of which are enjoj'ed by himself, though he may still reside with his father, or when he goes to live in another family with the consent oi his father The same result is also brought about when a child renounces his legltim, i.e., his legal share of the father's free movable property due to him on the death of the latter. See Bell's Die. oj the Laiu of Scotland. FORKS. These table instruments are only about three centuries old. The Greeks, Romans, and other ancient nations knew nothing of forks. They had large forks for hay, and also iron forks for taking meat out of pots, but no instruments of the nature of table-forks. In ancient times, as is the practice still in the East, meat was commoidy pre- pared as stews ; or if roasted, it was cut into smaU pieces by a carver, so as to be easily taken in mouthfuls by the guests, who used their fingers and a knife for the purpose. It certainly is a strange fact, that the use of any species of forks at table was quite unknown till the 15th c, and they were then known only in Italy, which has the merit of this invention. None of the sovereigns of England had forks till after the reign of Henry VIII, ; all, high and low, used their fingers. It was accordingly a part of the etiquette of the table to employ the fingers so delicately as not to dirty the hand to any serious degree ; but as even by the best management the fingers were less or more soiled, it was the cuso-n. to wash the hands immediately on the dishes being removed from the table. Hence, in the royal house- hold, there was a dignitary caUed the Ewrar or Ewaiy, who with a set of subordinates attended at meals with basins, water, and towels. The office of Ewary survived after forks came partially into use. We learn that when James I. entertained th« 433 FORLI-FORMA PAUPERIS. Spanish ambassador at dinner, very shortly after his accession, 'their majesties washed their hands with water from the same ewer, the towels being presented to the king by the lord treasurer, and to the queen by the lord high admiral,' The Prince of Wales had a ewer to himself, which was after him used by the ambassador. — Ellis's Letters. The first royal personage in England who is known to have had a fork was Queen Elizabeth ; but although several were presented to her, it remains doubtful whether she nsed them on ordinary occasions. From the inventory of her majesty's appointments in Nichols's Progresses, it would appear that these forks were more for ornament than use. ' Item^ a knife and a spoune, and a forke of christall, garnished with golde sleightly, and sparcks of garnetts : given by the Countess of Lyncolne. Item, a forke of corall, slightly garnished with golde : given by Mrs Frances Drury. Item, one spoune and forke of golde ; the forke garnished with two lyttle rubyes, two lyttle perles pendant, and a lyttle corall : givpu by the Countess of Warwicke.' These ornamental forks had doubtless been presented to the queen as foreign curiosities of some value, and were j)rob- ably never used at table. As yet, and for a con- siderable time afterwards, forks were not in common use, a circumstance less attributable to ignorance of the invention, than to prejudice. So far was this prejudice carried, by even educated persons, that one divine preached against the use of forks, as being an insult to Providence not to touch one's meat with one's fingers ! Ital)% as has been said, claims the merit of this useful invention. This fact is explicitly learned from an account of a tour in Italy by a traveller named Thomas Coryate, who visited that country in 1608. His travels, styled Crudities, were pub- lished first in 1611, and republished in 1/76. In these Crudities appear the followdng passages respecting the Italian towns : * I observed a ciistom in all those Italian cities and townes through which I passed, that is not used in any other country that I saw in my travels ; neither do I think that any other nation of Christendom doth use it, but only Italy. The Italian and also most strangers do always at their meals use a little forke when they cut their meat. For while with their knife, which they hold in one hand, they cut the meate out of the dish, they fasten the forke, which they hold in their other hand, upon the same dish ; so that whatsoever he be that sitting in the company of others at meals, should unadvisedly touch the dish of meat with his fingers, from which all the table doe cut, he will give occasion of oflfenee unto the company, as having transgressed the laws of good manners, in so much that for his error he shall be at the least browbeaten, if not reprehended in wordes. This form of feeding, I understand, is generally used in all places of Italy ; their forks being for the most part made of yron, Steele, and some of silver, but these are used only by gentlemen. The reason for this curiosity is, because the Italian can- not by any means indure to have his dish touched with fingers, seeing that all men's fingers are not alikf cleane. Hereupon, I myself thought good to imit&te the Italian fashion by this forked cutting of meate, not only while I was in Italy, but also in Germany, and oftentimes in England since I came home ; being once quipped for that frequent using ai my forke, by a certain learned gentleman, a familiar friend of mine, Mr Laurence Whitaker, who in his merry humour, doubted not to call me at idhlt furci/er, only for using a forke at feeding, but for no other cause.' The term here employed jocularly, was in its serious meaning one of reproach, oavmg been applied by the Romans to those slaves i34 ' who as a punishment bore a forked frame or j'oke J (/urea), resembling an inverted ^ — hence the Italian forca and forchetta ; the latter (little fork) being followed in the French term fourchette, while the former is the root of the English word fork. I Forks came so slowly into use in England, that ! they were employed only by the higher classes at I the middle of the 17th century. About the period of the revolution, few noblemen had more than I a dozen forks of silver, along with a few of iron or steel. At length, for general use, steel forka ; became an article of manufacture at Shefiield : at first, they had but two prongs, and it was only ia ! later times that the three-pronged kind were made. As late as the early part of the 18th c, table-forks, and we may add knives, were kept on so meagre a scale by country inns in Scotland (and, perhaps, also in some parts of England), that it was customary for gentlemen in travelling to carry with them a portaljle knife and fork in a shagreen case ; and till this day a small knife and fork form part of tho oniamental equipment in the Highland dress. The general introduction of silver forks into Great Britain is quite recent ; it can be dated no further back than the opening of the continent to English tourists at the termination of the French war in 1814. The extensive use of these costly instru- ments in the present day, marks in an extraordinary degree the rapid progress of wealth and refined taste throughout the United Kingdom. FORLI, an interesting city of Italy, capital of the province of the same name, is beautifully situ- ated at the foot of the Apennines, in a ])leasant and fertile plain, on the right bank of the Montone, 16 miles south-west of Ravenna. It is a well-built, handsome city, is surrounded with walls, and con- tains many striking specimens of architecture, of which the Guerini Palazzo, built after the designs of Michael Angelo, the Palazzo Comunale, the Monte di Pieta, the cathedral, a majestic building, and the churches of S. Philipo Neri, of S. Girolamo, and of S. Mercuriale, are the most notable. The ecclesiastical buildings of F. contain some of the best pictures of Cignani, Carlo Maratti, Guido, and other masters. The citadel, founded in 1361, is now used as a pris- on. The inhabitants carry on silk-spinning and salt- refining, with a considerable trade in corn, Imen, hemp, carthamus, woad, &c. F. (the ancient Foinirn Livii) is said to have been foimded by Marcus Livius Salinator, after his victory over Hasdrubal, on the Metaurus, 207 B.C., and to have received its name from him. In the middle ages, it formed a reimblic, and exchanged its rulers frequently during the struggles of the Guelphs and Ghibellines. In 1503, it was annexed to the States of the Church, and so remained tiU 1860, when it was placed with the ^milian provinces under the sreptre of Victor Emmanuel. Pop. (1862) 17,723; (1872) 38,480. FORLO'RN-HOPE, the body of men selected to attempt a breach, or to le^d in scaling the wall of a fortress. The name (which in the French, enfants perdus, is even more expressive) is given on account of the extreme danger to which the leaders of a storming-party are necessarily exposed. As, how- ever, the honour of success is proportionate to the peril of the undertaking, there is ordinarily no lack of volunteers for this arduous service. The forlorn- hope is called by the Germans Die verlornen Posten. FORMA PAU'PERIS, the phrase usually em- ployed both in England and Scotland to signify the arrangements by which an action may be carried on by one who is too poor to sue in the ordinary way. In England, the statutes 11 Henry VII. c. 12 and 23 Henry VIII. c. 15, provide that such as will swear themselves not worth £5, except theif FORMATION- FORMS OF ADDRESS. wearing apparel and the matter in question in the cause, shall be exempt when plaintiffs, but not when defendants, from the payment of court-fees, and shall be entitled to have counsel and attorney assigned to them by the court without fee. They are further excused from costs when unsuccessful ; a privilege which, according to Blackstone, amounted in former times only to the rather uncomfortable alternative of choosing between paying and being whipped. In the event of success, however, a Eerson suing in this form is entitled to his costs, ecause his coimsel and ageut, and the officers of court, though they arc bound to give their labour gratis to him, are not bound to give it on the same terms to his antagonist, unless he too be a pauper. To prevent the abuse of suing in the superior courts at Westminster in this form in matters of small amount, it is provided (19 and 20 Vict. c. 108, s. 30), subject to certain exceptions, that any plaintiff who resorts to one of these, in a case falling within the cognizance of a county court, and recovers no more than £20, or in some cases £5, shall have no costs, unless he satisfies the court or a judge that he had sufficient reason for taking that course. There are some other exceptions to the rule (see Stephen's Com. iii. p. 640). Ill Scotland, this benevolent arrangement was introduced by statute more than half a century before the date of the English act we have men- tioned. In 1424, the statute (c. 45), which we have already quoted under Advocate (q. v.), was passed for the purpose of securing professional assistance, gratis, to the poor, and for giving to them and those who assisted them their costs in the event of success. The more special arrangements applicable to litiga- tion in this form in Scotland will be detailed imder Poor's Roll (q. v.). FORMATION, in Geology, is applied to a group of strata united by some character which they have in common, whether of age, origin, or composition, as the coal or chalk formation. FO'RMEDON, an old form of action, in the Law of England, whereby an heir of entail or remainder man who had been ousted by a discon- tinuance, was entitled to vindicate his claim to the lands fi'om which he had been ousted. By 21 James I. c. IG, it was enacted that writ of formedon should be brought within twenty years of the time when the cause of action arose. Writ of formedon is now abolished, together with other real actions. FO'RMIC ACID (CH2O2) derives its name from the circumstance of its having been first obtained from the Formica rufa, or red ant. In a concentrated state, it is a fuming liquor with an h^ntating odour, and occasions vesication if dropped upon the skin. It crystallises at a temperature below 32°, and boils at about 212", yielding a vapour which burns with a blue llame. It is a strong reducing agent, at a boiling temperature reducing the salts of silver, mercury, platinum, and gold. It may be obtained in various ways, as, for example : . By the distillation of red ants with water (a proceeding never adopted now). 2. By the distilla- tion of a mixture of starch, binoxide of manganese, Bulphuric acid, and water ; this is the usual method, and various organic matters, as sugar, chaff, bran, saw-dust, &c., may be substituted for the starch. 3. By the distillation of oxalic acid mixed with sand, or far better (according to Berthelot), with glycerine, 1 equivalent of oxalic acid (CaHiO*) yield- ing 1 equivalent of formic acid (CH2O2) + 2 equiva- lents of carbonic anhydride (2CO2). Berthelot has recently obtained it synthetically by keeping carbonic oxide gas foi a prolonged period lu contact wi'h hydrate of potash, at a temperature of 212". The gas becomes gradually absorbed, and formate of potash is tbe result, the reaction being exhibited by the formuUi, 1 c(iuivalent of hydrate of potash (KHO) -|- 2 equivalents of carbonic oxide (2C0) = 1 equivalent of formate of potassium fCHK02). Formic acid is a very common product of the oxidation of organic bodies ; thus, for example, the albuminates, glycine, sugar, starch, &c., yield it ia association with other products, when acted on by chromic acid ; the fats and fatty acids yield it whea acted on by nitric acid ; and it is a product of the action of ozone on glycerine, fats, fatty salts, acetic acid, and sugar, provided a free alkali is present. Hence, we can readily explain its occurrence aa a jiroduct of oxidation in the animal c!"ganism, in which it not unfrequently occurs, either free or in combination. Thus we find it not only in ants, but in the poison of the bee and wasp, and in the hairs of the procession caterpillar. It has been detected by various chemists in the sweat, in the expressed juice of the spleen, pancreas, thymus gland, and muscles, in the brain, the blood, and the urine. The salts of formic acid, which are termed by some chemists formates, and by others formiates, require no special notice. They are all soluble, and yield a red colour with persalts of iron. FORMI'CA. See Ant. FORMING'S ISLAND is a speck on the bosom of the Pacific, lying a little to the north of the Sand- wich Group, or Hawaiian Archipelago, in lat. 30° 49' N., and long. 159° 20' W. It is one of the most recent additions to the British empire, having been formally occupied, mainly on account of its excellent harbour, towards the close of 1860. FORMO'SA (Chinese name, Tai-wan), a large island on the south-east coast of China, opposite the province of Fu-keen, from which it is distant about 90 miles. It lies between 21° 53'— 25° 16' N. lat, and 120° 15'— 122° 4' E. long. ; and for admini- strative purposes, is included in the province before mentioned, of which (together with Pang-hoo group) it forms a department. The length "of F., from north to south, is about 237 miles, and its average breadth, from east to west, is about 70 miles. A chain of mountains running north and south nearly bisects the island, and divides it into an eastern and western province. Chinese settlers occupy the latter, but the other section is held by the abori- gines. Tai-wan (q.v.), the capital, in 23° N. lat., and on the western coast, was opened to foreign commerce by the treaty of Tien-tsin, June 26, 1858. F. has a fertile soil, and produ'-'^s rice, maize, sugar, tobacco, cinnamon, pepper, &c. , oranges, pine-apples, guavas, cocoa-nuts, pomegranates, as weU as grapes, peaches, and other European fruits, are abundant. The aboriginal inhabitants are still in a very rude state, FORMS OF ADDRESS. Many persons are exposed to inconvenience from their ig-\orance of the formal modes of addressing letters to persona of title ; we shall therefore, in the present article, give an enumeration, taken mainly from Mr Dod'a Peerage and Baronage, of the usual ceremonious modes of WTitten address. Previous to their employment, the wi-iter must, of course, learn either from the peerage-^vriters, or from some other source, the precise rank of the person whom ha wishes to address, as well as the hereditary, per- sonal, or official distinctions by which that rank ia often modified. 1. Archbishop — Letters are addressed: 'His Graca the Lord Archbishop of ,' and commence, '^ly Lord Archbishop.' More formal documents are addressed : * The Most Reverend Father in God (John Bird), by Divine Providence, LorJ Archbishop FORMS OF ADDRESS. of Canterbury other archbishops and suffragan bishops being *by Divine permission.' When per- sonally referred to, an archbishop is styled * Your Grace,' not *Your Lordship.' The Archbishop of Armagh is addressed as ' His Grace the Lord Primate of Ireland.' Archbishops' wives, and the other members of their families, enjoy no titles, as such. 2. Baron — Addressed : ' The Kiglit Honourable I ord ; ' referred to as ' Plis Lordship,' or ' Your Lordship.' Baroii's Daughter — ' The Honourable Mary ; ' cir, if married, ' The Honourable Mi's .' Letters commence, ' Madam.' Baron's Son— The Honourable John Letters commence, ' Sir.' Baron's Son's Wife — * The Honourable Mrs .' Letters commence, ' Madam.' Baron's Wife, and Baroness in her own right — The Eight Honourable Lady ;' in strictness, but more commonly, * The Lady .' Letters commence, * Madam,' and refer to her as ' Your Ladyship.' Baronet — ' Sir John , Bart.' Letters com- mence, ' Sir.' Baronet's Wife — * Lady .' Unless she has a title as the daughter of a peer, no Chnstian name is used. She is referred to as ' Y''our Ladyship.' B'lshoj) — ' The Right Reverend the Lord Bishop of .' Letters commence, ' My Lord.' Fre- quently the address is simply, ' The Lord Bishop of .' The style in formal docimients is, ' The Right Reverend Father in God (John ), by Divine permission, Lord Bishop of .' Scotch l>ishops are addressed 'The Bishop of ,' some- times as ' The Right Reverend Bishop (e. g., C. H. Terrot)', and letters commence, ' Right Reverend Sir.' The colonial bishops are addressed by their territorial titles, like those of England. Bishops' Wives and Children have no titles. Countess — ' The Right Honourable the Countess of .' Letters commence, ' Madam,' and refer to her as ' Y''our Ladyship.' Duchess — ' Her Grace the Duchess of .' Let- ters commence, ' Madam,' and refer to her as * Your Grace.' Duke — ' His Grace the Duke of Letters commence, ' My Lord Duke ; ' and he is referred to as ' Your Grace.' Duke's Daughter — * The Right Honourable Lady Marj'- ,' or less formally, ' The Lady Mary .' Letters commence, ' Madam,' and refer to her as ' Your Ladyship.' If she is married to a person of inferior rank, her surname only is changed. Duke's Eldest Son — Uses the second or some other title of his family by courtesy, and he is addressed as if he held the title by law, though in formal documents he is called ' , Esq., commonly called the Marquis or Earl' (as the case may be). Duke's Younger Son — ' The Right Honourable Lord John Russell,' or less formally, ' The Lord J ;hn E .' ' My Lord,' and ' Your Lordship.' Duke's Younger Son's Wife — ' The Lady John ,' rmleBS where she has a title in her ovm right. Madam,' and ' Your Ladyship.' Earl—' The Right Honourable the Earl of or less formally, ' The Earl of .' ' My Lord,' and • Your Lordship.' Earl's Daughter — Like Duke's Daughter (q. v.). Earl's Eldest Son is addressed as if the title which he holds in courtesy were a title in law. Earl's Younger Son — Like Baron's Son (q. v.). EarVs Younger Son's Wife — Like Baron's son's wife, imless of superior rank to her husband. Earl's Wife. See Countess. King — 'The King's Most Excellent Majesty.' 436 ' Sire,' and ' Your Majesty ;' or, in less formal notes, thus : ' Mr Pill presents his duty to your Majesty.' Knight Bachelor — Like Baronet (q. v.), except that the word 'Bart.' is omitted. Knight Bachelor's Wife — Like Baronet's Vv'ife (q.v.). Knight of the Oarter — K.G. is added to the name or other title of the bearer. Knight of St Patrick — K.P. used in the same manner. KnigM of the Thistle— K.!!. Knight of the Bath — if a Knight Grand Croea, K.G.C.B. ; if a Knight Commander, K.C.B. Knight of the Bath's Wife — Like the wife of a Baronet or Knight Bachelor. Lord Advocate (of Scotland) — * The Right Honour- able the Lord Advocate' by courtesy ; but in official documents he is styled * Her Majesty's Advocate for Scotland.' Letters ought strictly to commence, ' Sir,* not ' My Lord,' though the latter mode of addi-ess is the more usual. Lord Lieutenant [of Ireland) — 'His Excellency the Lord Lieutenant ; ' and letters commence in accordance with his rank in the peerage or other- wise. , If a duke, he is styled ' His Grace the Lord Lieutenant.' Lord Mayor — * The Right Honourable the Lord Mayor.' ' My Lord,' and ' Your Lordship.' There are oidy tliree Lord Mayors — those of London, York, and Dublin. Lord Provost — The Provost of Edinburgh is * The I Right Honourable the Lord Provost ; ' of Glasgow, ' The Honourable the Lord Provost ; ' of Perth, ' The Lord Provost.' There are no other Lord Provosts. Perhaps the distinction in the title of the chief magistrate of the Scottish capital is traceable to his ha\'ing been always a member of the Privy Councd of Scotland, from at least the period of the Revolution. Lord of Session (in Scotland) — 'The Honourable Lord .' ' My Lord,' and ' Your Lordship.' Lords of Her Majesty's Treasury — These in their collective capacity are addressed as 'The Honour- able the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty's Treasury;' individually they have no title from their connection with the Treasury. Maid of Honour — 'The Honourable Miss;' and * Madam.' Marchioness — 'The ^Most Honourable the Mar- chioness of .' ' Madam,' and ' Your Ladyship.* Marquis — ' The Most Honourable the Marquis of ,' not ' The Most Noble.' Letters commence ' My Lord Marquis ; ' but when personally addressed, he is styled ' My Lord,' and ' Your Lordship.' Marquis' s Daughter — Like Duke's Dau^liter (q.v.). Marquis's Eldest Son — Like Duke's Eldest Son (q.v.). Marquis's Younger Son, like Duke's Yoimger Sou (q. v.). Mayors — In formal documents, ' The Right Wor- shipful the Mayor ,' but in letters, simply *Tha Mayor.' Members of Parliament — The letters M.P. are added to their usual address. Officers in the Navy and Army — Their rank in the service is always prefixed to any other title they may possess, thus : ' Captain the Lord John .' Prince — 'His Royal Highness Prince o7 'His Royal Highness the Duke of ,* when the Prince is also a Duke. In practice, the initials H. R. H. are usually substituted for the words. A letter begins * Si-r,' not ' My Lord Duke ;' and the mode of reference is * Your Royal Highness.' Princess — * Her Royal Highness the Princess or 'The Duchess' (as the case may be). 'Madam,' and * Your Royal Highness.' FORMS OF PKOCEDURE— FORSTER. Princess Wife, thougli of inferior rank, like a Princess by birtli. Privy Councillor — 'The Right Honourable John Privy Councillor's Wife and Children have no title. Queen — 'The Queen's Most Excellent Iklajesty.' 'Madam,' and ' Your Majesty or, 'The Lord John R presents his duty to your Majesty.' Viscount — ' The Right Honourable Lord Viscount ,' or less formally, ' Tho Lord Viscount.' ' My Lord,' and ' Your Lordship.' Viscountess — 'The Right Honourable the Vis- countess,' or less formally, ' The Viscountess.' 'Madam,' and ' Your Ladyship.' Viscount's Daughter, like Baron's Daughter (q. v.). Viscounfs Son, like Baron's Son (q. v.). Viscount's Son's Wife, like Baron's Son's Wife (q.v.). The formality of these modes of address experi- ences considerable modifications when employed ! by persons of equal rank. Between friends and relatives, they are either entirely dispensed with (except, of course, in addressing letters), or adapted to the feelings and caprices of the writers. In this, as in many other respects, we of the present gener- ation are far less ceremonious than our fathers, and Btill more than our grandfathers were. In most old letters, it wiU be found that the titles of the writers are preserved even where there is the freest and most familiar interchange of thought and feeling. Wives address their husbands, and husbands their wives, children their parents, and occasionally even parents their children, as ' Sir ' or ' Madam,' ' My Lord,' or ' Your Royal Highness,' as the case may be. FORMS OF PROCEDURE. See Process. FORNICA'TION {fornicatio, from fornix, an arch-vault, and by metonymy, a brothel, because brothels at Rome were in cellars and vaults under f round). In most countries, this crime has been roaght within the pale of positive law at some period of their history, and prohibited by the impo- sition of penalties more or less severe ; but it has always been found ultimately to be more expedient to trust to the restraints which public opinion impose on it in every community which is gmded by the principles of morality and religion. In England, in 1650, during the ascendency of the Puritan i)arty, the repeated act of keeping a brothel or committing fornication was made felony without benefit of clergy on a second conviction. At the Restoration, when the crime of hypocrisy seemed for a time to be the only one which, under the influences of a very natural reaction, men were willing to recognise, this enactment was not renewed ; and though not(jrious and open lewdness, when carried to the extent of exciting public scandal, continued, as it had been before, an indictable offence at common law, the mere act of fornication itself was abandoned ' to the feeble coercion of the si)iritual court, according to the rules of the canon law, a law which has treated the offence of incontinence with a great deal of tenderness and lenity, owing perhaps to the cou- Btrained celibacy of its first compilers.' — Blackstone. The proceedings of the spiritual court were regu- lated by 27 Geo. HI. c. 44, which enacts that the Buit must be instituted within eight months, and that it cannot be maintained at all after the mar- riage of the parties offending. But proceedings in the ecclesiastical courts for this offence have now fallen iiito entire desuetude (Stephen's Com. iv. hie Physique, L'Histoire Naturelle, et til Philosoph ie Morale appeared. In the latter year, he returned to Germany, and was soon afterwards made Professor of Natural History and Mineralogy at Halle, where he remained until his death. In addition to the works mentioned, lie published De Bysso Antiquorum, 1775; Zoologia Indka, 1781 ; GescJiichte der Entdeckungen mid Schiffalirten im Norden, 1784 (translated into English and French), &c. FORSTER, JoHANN Georg Adam, commonly known as George F., eldest son of Johann Reinhold Forster (q»v.), a German traveller and naturalist, wai5 born at Nassenhuben, near Danzig, in 1754, and died at Paris in 1794. When only 17 years of age, he accompanied his father in Captain Cook's ?5cond voyage; and shortly after his return, he '(lablished, with the assistance of his father, an •ocount of the expedition. His book, which does flot differ materially in its facts from Cook's nai'rative, was well received by the public, and was translated into French, German, Swedish, and other languages. Humboldt speaks of this work end of its author, 'my celebrated teacher and friend, George Forster,' in the highest terms in the Cosmos (see vol. ii. p. 437, Bohn's ed.). F, having returned to the continent, was made Professor of Natural History at Cassel,. and afterwards at Wilna. Having there no access to books, in 1788 he gladly acce})ted the office of librarian to the Elector of m Mayence. After Mayence was taken by the Fren»;k in 1792, F., who had become an ardent republican^ was sent as a deputy to Paris, to request the incor- poration of Mayence with the French republic. While he was in Paris on this mission, the Prussians retook Mayence, and F. lost all his propert}", including his books and manuscripts. He then writes to a friend: ' If I cmld only scrape together £400, I would learn Persian and Arabic, and go overland to India to gather new experience ; ' bv. t about this time he seems to have been sufleriug from rheumatic gout, which gradually increased in severity, and which terminated his life on the 12thi of January 1794. Besides numerous translations, and the account of Captain Cook's voyage, his most important works are Kleine Schri/ten, ein Beitrag zur Lander- und Volherkunde^ Naturge- schichte und Philosophie des Leben (6 vols., Berlin, 1789 — 1797), and Ansichten vovi Niederrhein, vom Brabant, Flandern, Holland, England, und Frank- relch (3 vols., Berlin, 1791 — 1794). His widow, the daughter of Heine, but perhaps more widely known as Therese Huber, published a collection of his Letters, in 2 vols., in 1828 — 1829; and a complete edition of his works, in 9 vols., was pubUshed by his daughter and Gervinus, in 1843. F0RSTE:R, Thomas Ignatius Maria, an English meteorologist and physicist, bom in London in 1789, and died in 1850. In 1812, he entered the university of Cambridge ; in the following year, he produced an annotated edition of Aratus, and in 1816 he edited an edition of CatuUus. la 1817, he published Observaiions on Uie Influence of Particular States of the Atmosphere on Human Health and Diseases; in 1824, The Perennial Calendar ; in 1827, The Pocket Encycloimdia of Natural Phenomena, a work which has elicited the commendation of Quetelet and Humboldt; in 1836, Observations sur V Influence des Cometea; and in 1850, Annales d'un Physicien Voyageur. A work entitled Epistolarium Forsterianum, consisting of a collection of original letters from eminent men, preserved in the Forster family, was pubhshed after his death, at Bnjssels, in 1852. FORT, a term of peculiar meaning in British North America, api)lied to a trading-post in the wilderness with reference to its indispensable defences, however slight, against the surrounding barbarism. It has thus been often employed to designate merely a palisaded log-hut, the central oasis of civilisation in a desert larger, it may be, than Scotland. FORT, FORTRESS (from Lat. fortis, strong), a stronghold, made secure by walls, and generally further j^rotected by a ditch and parapet. For the construction of forts, see FoRTiriCATi02f. FORT ADJUTANT, an officer holding an appointment in a fortress — where the gamson is often composed of drafts from different corps — • analogous to that of adjutant in a regiment. He is responsible to the commandant for the internal disciiDline, and the appropriation of the necessary duties to particular corps. Fort adjutants, of whom there are at present (1862) ten, are stafi-officers, and receive 4s. dd. a day in addition to their regimental pay. FORT AUGUSTUS, a village at the south end of Loch Ness, 29 miles south-west of Inverness. A fort, intended to overawe the Highlands, was built here soon after the rebellion of 1715, on a small eminence on the loch. It can accommodate 300 men, but is commanded by neighboring heights. It was taken by the rebels in 1745, and became the head-quarters of the Duke of Cumberland after the battle of CuUoden. It is a quadrangle, witb \ FORT GEOEG E— FORTH. a bastion at each of the four corners. The twelve Bix-poimders formerly mounted here have been removed, but a few soldiers are generally stationed at the fort. FORT GEORGE, a fortification in the north-east of Inverness- shire, on a low sandy projection into the Moray Firth, here only one mile broad, opposite Fcrtrose, and nine miles north-east of Inverness. It ia the most complete fort in the kingdom, and was built, at a cost of £160,000, soon after the rebellion of 1745, to keep the Highlanders in siibjection. It OCTers twelve acres, and can accommodate 2000 men. It is an irregular polygon, with six bastions, and upwarvls of 70 guns. It is defended by a ditch, covert-vay, a glacis, two lunettes, and a ravelin. It has casen:ated curtains, 27 bomb-proof rooms, bomb- proof magazines, and is supi>lied with water from eight pump-wells. It is, however, only secui'e from attack by sea. FORT GEORGE (India). See Madr.vs. FORT MAJOR, the next officer to the governor or commandant in a fortress. He is expected to unde^-stand the theory of its defences and works, and is responsible that the walls are at all times duly protected. He is on the staff, and receives 98. Gd. a day in addition to his half-pay. FORT ROYAL, a fortified seaport of the French island of Martinique, in the West Indies, is the capital of the colony. It stands on the west coast, in a bay of its own name, in lat 14° 35' N., and long. 61° 4' W. It has a population of about 12,000, and contains offices for the local government, bar- racks, arsenal, and hospital FORT ST DAVID, on the Coromandel or east coast of Hindustan, belongs to the district of South Arcot and presidency of Madras. It is three miles to the north of Cuddalore, and 100 to the south of Madras, in lat. 11° 45' K, and long. 79° 50' E. The place became British in 1691. It occupied a prominent position in the great struggle for supre- macy between England and France. From 1746 to 1758, it vas the capital of the settlements of the former power on the Carnatic ; but soon afterwards, its fortifications having been demolished, it sank into comparative insignificance. FORT WILLIAM, a village in Inverness-shire, near the west base of Ben Nevis, 63 miles south- west of Inverness, and at the south end of the Caledonian Canal. A fort was originally built here by General Monk, and afterwards rebuilt on a smaller scale by William III. It is an irregular work, with ditch, glacis, ravelin, bomb-j^roof maga- zine, and barracks for 100 men. It resisted sieges by the Highlanders in 1715 and 1745. It was one of the old keys to the West Highlands, and is now only inferior to Oban as a centre for tourists to explore these romantic regions. FORT WILLIAM (India). See Calcutta. FO'RTE, in Music, the ItaHan term for loud ; fortissimo, as loud as possible. FORTESCUE, Sir John, an eminent judge and •writer on English law, descended from a Devonshire family, was the son of Sir Henry Fortescue, Lord Chief -justice of Ireland, and was born some time in the reign of Henry IV. Educated at Exeter College, Oxford, he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, and in 1441 was made serjeant-at-law. The follow- ing year, he was appointed Lord Chief -justice of the Court of King's Bench. In the struggle for the crovni between the Houses of York and Lancaster, he steadily adhered to the latter, and is supposed to have been for a time Lord High Chancellor of England. Lor(^ Campbell, in his Lives of the Lord Chancellors vol L p. 367), under date February 17, 1461, says : *If Sir John Fortescue ever was de facto chancellor, and in the exercise of the duties of the offi(;e, it must have been no (v, after the second battle of St Albans, and at the very conclusion of the reign of Henry VI.' In March of that year, he fought at the battle of Towton for that monarch, and was attainted Ijy tho parliament under Edward IV. He accompanied the queen, Margaret of Anjou, and her young son, Prince Edward, on their flight into Scotland, and while there wrote a treatise in supi)ort of the claim of the House of Lancaster to the English crown. In 1463, he embarked with the queen and her son for Holland, where he remained for several years, intrusted with the education of the young prince. During his exile, he WTote his celebrated work, De Laudibiis Legum Angllai, for the instruction of his royal pupil. In the introduction, and throughout the dialogue, he desig- nates himself * Cancellarius.' It was when he was in Scotland that the title of Chancellor of England is said by some to have been conferred upon him by the dethroned monarch. He probably had the titidar office of chancellor in partihiis during his exile, but never exercised the fmictions in England. In 1471, he returned with Queen Margaret and her son ; but on the final defeat of the Lancastrian party at the battle of Tewkesbury, where he is said to have been taken prisoner, finding that parliament and the nation had recognised the title of Edward IV., h? submitted to that monarch, and, as a condition of his pardon, wrote a treatise in favour of the claim of the House of York. He %vas allowed to retire to hia seat of Ebrington, in Gloucestershire, where he died in his 90th year. His male representative was, in 1789, created Earl Fortescue and Viscount Ebring-ton in the peerage of Great Britain. FORTH, a river of Scotland, rises in the north, west of Stirlingshire, in the mountains between Loch Katrine and Loch Lomond, from two main branches, the Duchray, 16 miles long, from the east side of Ben Lomond, and the Avendhu, 12 miles long, flowing through Lochs Chon, Dhu, and AkL These streams unite at Aberfoyle, and issue from the mountains. The F. then runs east and south-east along the borders of Perth and Stirling shires, with numerous windings, in a wide valley abounding in picturesque scenery. It passes Stirling, and a little above Alloa it widens out into the Firth of Forth. The F. is only 30 miles long in a straight line from its source to the movith of the Devon ; but, owing to its sinuosities, its real course is more than twice that length. It is na\agable for vessels of 100 tons to Stirling. Its chief tributaries are the Teith, the Allan, and the Devon. The upper parts of the F. and Teith traverse some of the most romantic lake and mountain scenery in Scotland. FORTH, Firth of, an arm of the sea, or the estuary of the river Forth, lies between the counties of Clackmannan, Perth, and Fife on the* north, and those of Stirling, Linlithgow, Edinburgh, and Had- dington on the south. It first extends 6 miles south-east from where the Devon joins the Foith ; then, with an average breadth of 2^ miles, it runs JO miles to Queensferry; and finally, it extends 36 miles north-east, gradually expanding in width to 15 miles between Fife-ness and Tantallon Castle on the coast of Haddingtonshire. Its waters are from 7 to 30 fathoms deep, and encircle the Isle of jMay, Bass Rock, Inchkeith, Inchcolm, Cramond Isle, &c. On the coast, are many fine harbours. St Margaret's Hope, above Queensferry, is one of the safest road- steads in the kingdom. The chief nvers which fall into the firth are the Forth, Carron, Avon, Almond, Esk, and Leven. The comities along its shore are the most fertile and best cultivated in Scotland, and include the maritime towns of North Berwick, 43U FOKTHCOMING— FOIITIFICATION. ilusselburgh, Portobello, Leith, Quecnsferry, Grange- mouth, Culross, Bruntisland, Kirkcaldy, etc. FORTHCOMING, in the Law of Scotland, is an action by which au arrestment is made available to the arrester. The arrestment secures the goods or debts in the hands of the creditor or holder ; by the forthcoming the arrestee and common debtor are called before the judge to hear sentence given, ordering the debt to be paid, or the eflfects to be delivered vip to the arresting creditor. (Bell's Law Dictionary.) FORTIFICA'TION, a term derived through the Italian from the Latin fords and facere, means literally the ' making strong' of any place whatever, be it a town, an arsenal, a camp, a mere house, or the extended position of au army occupying a tract of coimtry, a province, or even a kingdom. In effect, the term is limited to strengthening by means of walls, ditches, or other stationary obstructions, aided more or loss by artillery, which may impede hostile advance. Fortification cannot pretend to render strongholds impregnable, for no works, however skilfully devised, will withstand the continued fire of well-directed artillery, backed by energy and discretion on the part of assailants : its aim is to enable a beleaguered garrison to hold out, without losing ground, until it can be relieved by the advance of allies operating in the field. In foi-tifying a place, the engineer usually proceeds upon some detined system of entoiu-age ; but if he hope for success, his science must be suffi- ciently elastic to adapt itself to all the natural features of the locality ; and from this it follows that a system perfect in theory, aud of universal applica- tion, will in practice ha,ve to undergo modifications, differing in almost every instance. The oi'igin of the art is involved in an obscurity which history need not hope to penetrate. The earliest records of all nations speak of walled cities and forts. The prime element of all fortification is the para- pet (from Italian para, before ; petto, the breast), which may be a wooden stockade, a M^all of masonry, or a mound of earth, and is intended to give more or less cover to the defender from the projectiles of his adversary, while he is still able to use his own weapons against the latter. The simplest form of parapet being the mound of earth, the ground adjoining it would probably be dug uj) for its for- mation, and from this wovild almost unconsciously ensue the ditch, as an additional means of separating the assailant and the assailed. Starting, then, from this parapot and ditch or fosse, as the elementary forn\s of defence, it will be well, before proceeding to d ascribe the ancient ari modern systems, to give conc-se practical definitions of the parts, adjuncts, ftnd iechnical names of a fortification. The first duty of a defender is to prevent, as far as possible, the enemy's near approach to any of his works. In developed systems, this is sought to be done by bastions, &c. (of which hereafter), which stand out at angles to the general line, so as to afford a fire commanding all parts. But as cases occasionally happen of trooj^, defended by a mere Btraight parapet and ditch, having to withstand the advance of the enemy, it is necessary to adopt every measure which can obstruct his path, harass his advance, and, if possible, aid in cutting off his retreat in the event of failure. Ahatthi (q. v.) are among the simplest obstacles to be improvised, consisting of trees cut down, shorn of their leaves and smaller twigs, having their branches pointed, and then laid close together, in tine or more lines parallel to the works, branches OuiA-ard, and trunks imbedded or pinned down in 440 the earth. Accoutred troops must remove thesa before they can pass, and the operation of removal under fire from the besieged is a very serious one indeed. Clievaux-de-frise (q. v. for derivation and illustra- tion) are pointed iron or wooden rods fixed crosswise in a wooden beam, and until removed offering a complete obstacle to progress. They are very useful in a breach or other unclosed portion of a work, and are now made in pieces, so as to be portable^ and yet ready for immediate putting together. A cheval-de-frise is usually 12 feet long, with a boau' 9 inches square. CJmusse-trapes, or Caltrops (q. v.), give serious annoyance to troops advancing, and are especially dangerous in cases of night-attack. Their uso waa, however, more general fonnerly than it is now. Troiis-de-loup (wolf-traps), which are deep holoa dug, and armed at the bottom with spikes, young trees cut down and their stumps pointed, inverted harrows, broken sword-blades, bayonets, or any similar annoyances, are resorted to as expedients to gain time, and thereby insure a more deadly fiiyj on the assailants. They are frequently constructed in the glacis of a work. Fraises and Stockades represent another form of additional defence, and are stout posts driven hori- zontally or perpendicularly into the earth, in long Fig. 1. — Fraise and Stockade (in secfcion): AB, parapet ; C, escarp ; D, fraise ; E, stockade ; F, glacis ; G, ditch ; 11, counterscarp. close rows. Fig. 1 shews the use of both these defences in the ditch of a fortress, and it will be per- ceived at once how formidable to an attacking party solid lines of these posts must be. The stockade forms hkewise, at times, a good substitute for the l^arapet itself, pai-ticularly when the direct fire of artillery is unlikely to be brought against it, as in warfare with barbarous tribes, or in a work at the very crest of a steep hill. In this case it is usually constructed of two rows of strong palisades firmly imbedded in the ground : the outer nearly a foot square, planted with three-inch intervals between ; the second about six inches in diameter, closing these spaces behind. Every second small palisade is cut Fig. 2.— Stockade. Fig. 3.— Double Stockade. short a few inches, so as to leave a loophole for mus- ketry-fire (as in fig. 2). A hill protected in this man- ner is shown in fig. 3. Construction of the Parapet. — The object of the parajjet being to defend, or defilade a certain FORTIFICATION. portion of ground behind it, its height must be ealcuhated so that missiles passing across its crest shall fail to strike the troops mustered behind. The minimum width defiladed to allow of safe com- munication for troops behind, and actually defend- ing, is 30 feet; but if the men have to be drawn up° in line, not less than 90 feet will suffice. The mode of ascertaining the height of parapet neces- sary in particidar cases Mdll be seen from the next diagram (fig. 4). Let A be the position at which the parapet is to be made, and AB the space which Fig. 4. it is required to defilade to a height throughout equal to BC. D, D^, Dj, are three points, accord- ing to the supposed country round, from which fire could be had at the parapet — one, D, being on the level, the others on ground respectively higher and lower than the parapet : if lines be now drawn from these points to C, their intersection with a perpendicular, raised on the point A, will shew the elevation necessary for the parapet protecting the space AB to the height BC. From this, the disadvantage will be apparent of constructing a parapet within range of higher ground, as for every extra foot of elevation in the commanding rise a proportionate addition must be made to the height of the parapet. In practice, the ordinary parapet for a level is eight feet high, which allows for the depressed trajectory of a spend- ing ball. See Projectiles. If the parapet be raised on ground above the attacking position, it may be lowered, according to the angle, to about six feet six inches, the height necessary for a man Btanding up to be thoroughly protected. On the other hand, if the position, A, be lower than the point occupied by the assailant, the parapet must be raised ; as 12 feet forms the limit to which a parapet can conveniently be thrown up, further height necessary for protection is obtained by sinking the ground to be defiladed before the parapet's base. In measuring for these heights, the instruments used are honing-rods, which are fixed in the ground at D and B, with the normal height of a man marked on them ; a third rod at A is then marked at the point where the line of sight between the normal points on the two others intersects it, and so shews the height of the parapet. The foregoing parapet has been provided only as a straight breastwork, deriving its safety solely from its own fire in a direct line upon the besiegers ; but in practice such a rampart would be exposed to the disadvantage of holding but little command over the Bcarp or escarp (part cut away) at its foot ; so that, if appro.'u^hed under cover, an enemy could readily lodge himself therein. To guard against this a work is fiavked, so that the fire of one part shall take in fla nk an enemy advancing against another part. See fig. 5, where ABCDE is a flanked or reciprocally defensive parai)et, in which it is evident that the fire from AB, DE, must take in flank any force moving on BC or CD, while the latter also, in like manner, flank AB, DE, themselves. In a flanked defence of this sort, the angles, A, C, E, which project towards the country, are technically termed mlicrtt angles ; those at B and D, re-entering angles. The flanked parapet has often, likewise, the power of defi]kdl3)g larger spaces than the simple vitnesses to the in dispensability of such works. The Kussian parapets at Borodino made the French victory so sanguinary a triumph that it was useless to the victors. A few redoubts at Pultowa saved Peter the Great from total defeat by his formidable Swedish rival. The world-famed lines of Torres Vedras enabled Wellington with 50,000 troops, half of whom were imtried Portuguese, to withstand for five months, and idtimately to drive back, the hitherto victorious army of 70,000 French, under such commanders as Massena, Ney, and Junot. The earthworks surrounding Sevastt pol partook greatly of the nature of field works for the protec- tion of a large army, and history will not forget to recount the resistance they offered for almost a year to the best troops of the civilised world. For a line, whether of earth or masonry, to be efficient, it must combine artillery fire with that of musketry. The giuis will generally be so placed as to command some specific line of approach, such as a ravine, a hue of abattis, or some poiiiion of the glacis. They should themselves be as little exposed as possible, nor should the gunners be uncovered more than is absolutely requisite. To effect this, the gun is generally made to fire through an emhra- 8ure (q. v.) in the parapet, instead of over the latter. The embrasure is a cutting through the solid para- pet, 20 inches wide at its inner extremity, and outwards half as much as the width of the pai-apet. In cases where it is necessary, for proper command, that the line of fire should not be lower than the top of the parapet, the embrasure is made through an additional parapet — raised, as in the previous case of the bonnet, above the original one. The bottom of the embrasure is called the sole, and slopes downward sufficiently to allow of a certain depression being given to the gun. The remainder of a parapet below the sole is the genouillere (from genoiL, a knee), and in field fortification should be three and a half feet high ; the portion between two embrasures is the merlin (Ital. merlone, battle- ment) ; and an embrasure need not cut the parapet perpendicularly, an angle being admissible, when •n obUquo fire is necessary. When, however, the obliquity would exceed 70°, it is usual, in order that the thick- ness of the para- pet should not be too much diminished, to form a project- ing angle in it, tHrouffh which the embrasure is cut (as in fig. 8). The sides of the embrasures are cJieeks, and require re-vAting. A barbette is a platform raised behind a parapet, Fig. 8. Fig. 9.— Redan, there ar forts. higner ihan the general interior, with a Tiew to guns being fired from it over the paraj)et. There are certain fixed rules in all fortification, such as : — 1. The length of lines must never exceed musketry range, or the flanking- works would become ineffective for their object. 2. The angles of defence should be about right angles. 3. Salient angles shoidd be as obtuse as possible. 4. Ditches should have the best possible flanking. 5. Tlie relief of the flanking-works must be determined by the length of the lines of defence. G. The value of almost every detached work depends on the sujjj^ort it can give to or receive from an army or other work or works. 7. The reduction of every fortified work is merely a question of time ; and a work fairly surrounded is sure to fall, unless relieved from without. Fieldworks, which, it must be borne in mind, are intended merely to support or strengthen an army, may either have a com])lete circuit of ])araiiets, or may be open at the gorge in the rear. The latter are, of course, the simplest ; but they are only available in posi- tions which the enemy cannot turn, or where protected by the sweeping fire of other works behind. Of this class the Redan, a mere salient angle (see fig. 9), is the simplest and the re])re- sentative form. Of the closed Redoubts, usually square ; Star-forts, now considered objectionable ; bastioned forts, as in fig. 10, which flank their own ditches almost perfectly, scarcely susceptible of being flanked them- selves. To under- stand the nature of a single bastion, see A (fig. 10), which represents one at the corner of a square work ; ah is the left flank, be the left face, cd the right face, de the right flank ; ae is the gorge; af fe are the demi-gorges, being continuations of the sides, or curtains, of the work; a and e are ih» left and right curtain angles ; b and d, the left Mid right shoulder angles, and''c is the flanked angle. Continued lines are simple parapets, either con- necting fortified i^osts, or covering the front or Hank of an army. Redans joined by curtains (as in fig. 11) are those most easily constructed ; but pja. n.. as the ditches can only be defended by an oblique fire, the curtains are occasionally so brolien as to form nearly right angles with the faces of the redan, as in the dotted line; they then become lines of tenailles. Lines en Cremailliere have long faces with per- pendicidar flanks. Lines with intervals are often v^hile Fig. 10.— Bastioned Fori. -Continued line of Redans. o O Fig. 12. — ^Line with intervals. as effective as continued lines. They consist n% detached works, in two Hues, within musketry 413 FORTIFICATION. fire of each other. The re-entering ande, ahc (fig. 12), should as nearly as practicable he a right angle. The celehrated lines of Torres Vedras, before advei-ted to, consisted of 150 detached ferts. Tete-dii-pont, is a work constructed to cover the approaches to a bridge, and will be found described under Bhidge-head. A lenaille is the reverse of a redan, and consists of two faces forming a re-entering angle : it can only be ujjed in connection with some other work. A Jleche is a breastwork of two faces, forming a salient angle, constructed on the exterior of a glacis, usually at its foot, in order to defend the ground before a bastion or ravelin. Having now explained the principal forms which elemental works of fortification are made to assume, we proceed to describe — very briefly, of course — the systems into which these have been incorpor- ated for the defence of fortresses, towns, and other permanent purposes. It will merely be necessary to state, in addition to what has been already written, that a rampart is a raised structure of earth or stone, above the mean level of the country, on which the j)arapets, &c., can be thrown ui), and which affords to the town or space protected the extra cover of its height, while it elevates the inner works siifficiently to enable them to command and fire over those situated exteriorly to themselves. It need scarcely be said that a line which can be made of earth may equally be constructed of any other material which circumstances may render desirable, the maximum resistance and minimum liability to splinter being the qualities to be chiefly considered. Systeiviatic Fortification for Permanent Works. — Adverting to the most ancient fortifica- tions mentioned in history, we find Greek cities surrounded -with walls of brick and rubble, and occa- sionally of stone in huge blocks. Babylon had a wall of prodigious circuit — 100 feet high, 32 feet thick, and surmounted by towers. Jenisalem, at the time of Vespasian's siege, had similar walls with masonry of enormous solidity. These seem to repre- sent fortification as it stood fi'om the time of that emperor to the introduction of cannon for breaching purposes. Then the square and round towers, which had formed sufficient flanking defence against arrows, proved useless when cannon-balls, fired from a distance, were the instruments of assaidt. At the same time, the walls, which had resisted battering- rams, crumbled to atoms under the strokes of artillery. Fortunately, however, the art of defence has always made equal progress -with that of attack ; and, early in the 15th, if not late in the 14th c, the Italians had commenced to flank their walk) with small bastions. The bastions at Verona, built by Micheli in 1523, are usually looked upon as the oldest extant specimen of modern fortification. Tartaglia and Albert DUrer, painter and engineer, were early in the field In most of the earl ier systems the face of the bastion was perpendicular to its flank. The first principles were successively improved by Marchi, an Italian, who died 1599, by Errard Bois- le-Duc, and De Ville, under Henry IV. and Louia XIII. of France. The Count de Pagan, whose treatise appeared in 1645, did much towards demol- ishing previous errors, and laid the basement of that science which Vauban subsequently WTOught almost to perfection. Born in 1G33, Vauban had a genius which penetrated in every direction, equally in the ways of war and in those of peace. He might pos- sibly have taught how fortresses could be rendered impregnable, had not the restless ambition of his master, Louis XIV., led him to demonstrate, first that the reduction of any work was a mere question of time and powder. His talent so improved the system of attack, that even he himself could not constnict a rampart that should withstand the fire conjured up against it by his discoveries. He con- structed 33 new fortresses, improved above 100, and conducted personally more than 50 sieges. To him are soldiers indebted for the sweeping fire of ricochet, and -to him in a degree for the traverses which endeavour to render it harmless. Coehoorn, director-general of the fortresses of the United Provinces, was the contemporary, rival, and opponent of Vauban; his master- jnece is Bergen-op-Zoom« Fig. 13. — ^Vauban's First System ; Ground-plan : A, bastion ; B, curtain ; C, tenaille ; D, caponnidre ; E, ditch ; V, ravelin ; G, covert-way ; H, salient place of arms , 1, re-entering place ot arras; K, glacis. Cormontaigne, Belidor, Montalembert, Bousmard, and Camot may also be mentioned as conspicuous masters in the science. Irrespective of irregularities in the form of the place to be defended, a particular polygon is selected fcs that on which the lines of defence are to be 4U drawn. Each side of this is a face of defence, and tlie length cf a side is rarely made greater than 360 yards. Vauhan^s first system is shewn in fig. 13 as regards the outline of its ground-plan ; fig. 14 displaying tho same m profile. FORTIFICATION. In this instance, the polygon taken is an octagon. Let ab (fig. 13) be a side of this polygon ; bisect this in c, and draw a perpendicular to ab. On this, inwards, mark off cC one-sixth of ab ; join aC, bC, and produce the lines ; then from a and b respec- tively mark off ad, bg, each equal to 2-7 ab, for t^e faces of the bastions. Next, from a and b aa centres with radius, a/y, describe arcs cutting aC, bC, pro- duced in / and e; join de, fg, for the flanks of bastions, and ef for the curtain of the work. TLi Fig. 14. — Vauban's First System ; Profile : o, h, banquettes; c, parapet; d, ravetenient; escarp; /, counterscarp. first line of defence is then complete, the necessary parapets, &c., being of course raised on the site laid out. From an examination of this, it will be seen that the whole space in the front is covered. The faces of the bastions and the curtain command mor or less the entire front, while the bastion flanks sweep along the faces of adjoining bastions and along the curtain. In front, however, of the apex of each ftasiion, the line of advance is only covered by an extremely oblique fire. To obviate this, a ravelin, is constructed on the further side of the main ditch, which commands the doubtful fronts, and, at the same time, forms an outwork capable of asrist* ing in the general scheme of defence. To trace the main ditch, describe from the flanked angle of the bastion, a or &, an arc with radius 30 yards (if dry 445 FORTIGUERRA— FORTUNATUS. iitch, 36 if wet), and from these arcs draw tangents to tlie shoulders d and g of the opjjosite bastions. These tangents, meeting in the line cC, form the counterscarp line of tlie main ditcn. From h, the | re-entering angle of the counterscarp, set off 100 yards along the perpendicular to i, which will be the apex of the flanked angle of the ravelin. From t, draw lines to points situated in the faces of the bastions, 10 yards from the shoulder angles ; these lines to the points intersecting the counterscaq) giv^e the faces of the ravelin. The ditch of the ravelin is 20 yards wide, with counterscarp parallel to the escarj). The zigzag line now arrived at gives tlie inner side of the covert-way — 10 yards wide ■ — behind the glacis, which last slopes gradually towards the country, and is ordinarily the outer work of all. The tenaille is a comparatively low parapet sweeping the depressed interior of the ravelin, and commanded by the bastions and curtain. The caponier, forming a communication between the tenaille and the ravelin, consists of a passage between two low paraj)ets, each with a glacis sloping towards the ditch, which is swept fi'om the work. Nine feet clear are allowed round the traverses on the covert- way ; at the re-entering angles of the covert- way, places of an»s are formed by setting off 30 yards on each side, and wdth this as gorge, advancing faces inclined to each other at 100°. If the polygon had been a square, cC would have been J- ah ; if a pentagon, -f ab ; and for any polygon of more sides than seven, f ab. Vauban^s second and tldrd systems were those in which he adapted old walls to his modern improve- ments. Availing himself of the w^orks already formed, he added coimterguards in front of the corner-towers, thereby making hollow bastions, and avoiding the necessity of entirely rebuilding. Coelioorn^s system had oounterguards in front of the bastions and parallel to them. The flanked angle of his ravelin had a fixed value— \dz., 70°. (^orviontaigne widened the gorge of his ravelin, thereby reducing the length of the bastion face available for breaching from without. He also revived the step-like formation of the covered way, originally seen in Speckle in the 16th c, and which gives defenders a continued line of fire from each traverse along the covert-way. The modern system differs but little from that of Cormontaigne. The re-entering places of arms have circular fronts instead of angular ; the angle of the ravelin is fixed at 60, and all the best points of older styles are associated. Fig. 15 is intended to present at one view a repre- seritation of the systems in force since artillery came into common use, as well as the gradual transition from square towers on castle Avails to lanked bastions on modern lines. The elements of foitifying against shipping will be found under M^^RINE FORTIFICATION; the principles of attack- ing fortresses generally, under Siege, and Mines, Military. FOIlTIGUE''RRA, NicoLO, an Italian poet, was born at Fistoja, November 7, 1674. Destined from youth for the church, he pi-oceeded to Home at an early period, where the power of the prelate Carlo A. Fabroni, who was his relative, speedily secured him advancement, and where he was ultimately raised to the dignity of prelate and papal cham- berlain by Clement XI. An ardent cultivator and protector of letters, it must be owned that F.'s own compositions are more prized for a certain rich joviality of imagery, and profuse facility of language, than for any salient beauty of style or conception, His ch-ief work, II Bicciardetto, was originally com- oaericed in confutation of friends, who maintained 446 that the striking case and fluency of Ariosto, Berni, and other poets of a similar school, were but apparent, and in reality the fruit of deep art and I severe labour. F., in a few hours threw off an entii'e canto of II Ricciardetto, strikingly in imita- tion of the above poets, and continued the work at random much beyond its originally designed limits. It was published in 1738, two years after his death, and met with unequivocal favour, notwithstanding the incredible incidents and licentious images with which it is rej)lete. F. died 7th February 1735. FORTRO'SE, or FORTROSS, a parliamentary and royal burgh, seaport, and watenng-place in the east of Ross-shire, on the west side of the Moray Firth, opposite Fort George, ten miles north-north- east of Inverness. Pop. (1871) 911. It unites with Inverness, Forrea, and Nairn in sending a member to parliament. F. had a fine cathedral and a bishop's palace ; but both of these buildings were partially destroyed under Cromwell, and the stones sent to Inverness, to be used in building a fort there. It has a good trade in various kinds of produce, as pork, eggs, all sorts of grain, and potatoes. In the IGtli c, F. had a considerable trade, and is said to have been the seat of arts, science, and divinity in the north of Scotland. Chanonry, with which it was united in 1444, was formerly the see of the bishops of Ross. FO'RTS AND FORTALICES. The military power of the state is intrusted by the constitiition of this country to the sovereign. After having been iinconstitutionally claimed by the Long Parliament in the time of Charles I., it was again vindicated for the crown by 2 Car. II. c. 6. This branch of the royal prerogative extends not only to the raising of armies and the construction of fleets, but to the building of forts and other places of strength. Sir Edward Coke lays it down (1 Inst. 5), that no subject can build a house of strength embattled without the licence of the king; and it was enacted by 11 Henry VII. c. 18, that no such place of strength could be conveyed without a special grant. FORTU'NA, called by the Greeks, r?/c7ie, was in classical mythology the Goddess of Chance. According to Hesiod, she was a daughter of Oceanus ; according to Pindar, a sister of the Parcaa. She differed from Destiny or Fate, in so far that she worked without law, giving or taking away at her own good pleasure, and dispensing joy or sorrow indifferently. She had temples at Smyrna, Corinth, and Elis. In Italy, she was extensively worshipped from a very early period ; and had many names, such as Patricia, Plebeia, Equestris, Virilis, Primigenia, Publica, Privata, Muliebris, Virginensis, etc., indicating the extent and also the minuteness of her superintendence. Particular honours were paid to her at Antium and Pra3neste ; in the temple of the former cit}^, two statues of her were even consulted as oracles. Greek poets and sculptors generally represented her Avith a rudder, as a symbol of her guiding power ; or with a ball, or wheel, or wings, as a symbol of her mutability. The Romans proudly affirmed that when she entered their city, she threw aw.'iy her globe, and put off her wings and shoes, to ' udicate that she meant to dwell with them for ev* r. • FORTUNATE ISLANDS. See Canaries. FORTUNATUS is the title of one of the best people's books ( Volksbiicher) ever written. It originated about the middle of the 15th c, though many of the tales and legends included in it are of much older date. The opinion that it was worked up into German from a Spanish or English original may be considered as set aside. The substance of the book is that F., and his sons after hira, are ihf FORTUNE-TELLER-^FOSCOLO. possessors of an inexh.austible purse of gold and a wisliiug-cap, which however, in the end, prove the cause of their ruin. The moral is, tliat worldly prosperity alone is insufficient to produce lasting happiness. The oldest printed edition of the book now extant bears the date Frankfurt am Maine, 1509. Later German editions mostly bear the title, Fortunatus, von Seinem Seckel und Wumch-hiitleln (Fortunatus : Story of his Purse and Wishing-cap. Augsb. 1530; Nurnb. 1377; and Basel, 1699). It has been reprinted in Simrock's Deutsche Volkshiicher (3 vols., Frankt. am Maine, 1846). Various French versions of the German story have appeared from time to time, as the Histoire de Fortunatus (Eouen, 1670) ; which served as the groundwork of the Italian Avennimenti de Fortunatus e tZe' Suoi Figli (Naples, 1676). From the German original, have also sprung, among others, the Dutch version Fen N'leuwe Historie van Fortunatus Borse en van Zijnen Wensch hoed (Amst. 1796) ; later, the English History of Fortunatus and his Two Sons (London, no date) ; j the Danish Fortunati pung og onshthat (Kopen. 1664, 1672, 1695, 1756, 1783) ; the Swedish Fortw \ natus (1694) ; and about 1690, two Icelandic versions, 1 one in verse and another in prose. The first to dramatise the subject was Hans Sachs, in his Der | Fortunatus mit dem Wunsdiseckel (1553), after i whom comes the English Thomas Decker with his i Pleasant Comedie of Old Fortunatus (1600), a work j which had the honour to make its reappearance in German about the year 1620. The most poetical \ edition of the story is that given by Tieck in his ; FJuinta^s (3 vols., Berlin, 1816). See Grasse's Die \ Sagenkreise des Mittelalters (Dresd. and Leip. 1842), ■ and Ersch and Gruber's Fncyclopcedie (first sect., voL 46). j FORTUIs'E-TELLER. Under the designation Vagabonds, in the Scottish Act 1579 c. 74, are included all who go about pretending to foretell fortimes. The punishment inflicted on them by the statute is scourging and burning on the ear. FO'RUM, a Latin word, which originally signified an 'open place,' and is probably connected with foras, ' out-6f-doors.' The Roman fora were places where the markets and courts of justice were held. The former were termed foi'a venalia, and the latter fora judidalia. Of the fora judicialia, the most ancient and celebrated was the forum Romanorum, or, par excellence, the forum magnum, occupying the quarter now known as the campo vaccino (or cattle- market). It stretched from the foot of the Capito- line Hill, where the arch of Septimius Severus stands, to the temple of the Dioscuri, was seven jugera in extent, and was surrounded by streets and houses. The boundary on the east and north was the Sacra via, of which the side nearest the forum was left ojten ; while on the other were corridors and halls, Buch as those of the argentarii (bankers or money- changers). At a later period, the site of these was, for the most part, occupied by basilicas and temples. In the eastern portion of this sj^ace, were held the earliest Comitia (q. v.) of the Romans — the comitia euriata ; hence this part took the name of the comi- tium, and was distinguished from the forum strictly BO called. Here were hune up for the benefit of the public the laws of the Twelve Tables ;*and, after 304 B.O., the Fasti written on white tables to inform the citizens when the law-courts were open. The Forum, in the narrower usage of the word, probably ceased to be employed as a market-place about 472 B. c, when it became the place of assembly of the Comitia Tributa. Of the later fora venalia, the prin- cipal were the forum boarium (the cattle-market), the forum suarium (pig-market), piscatorivm (£sh- market^. oiilorium (vrgetable-market), &c Public banquets for the populace, and the combats of the gladiators, were, in the time of the republic, usually held in the great forum, which also contained monuments of various kinds, of which may be mentioned the famous Columna Fostrata of C. Duilius, erected in memory of his victory over the Carthaginians. The rostra, or platforms from which public orations were delivered, formed the boundary between the fonim in its narrower usage and the comitium. After the time of Julius Caesar and Augustus, the Forum Romanorum lost the import ance it had previously derived from being the central point of Roman political life. The other two fora judicialia were the Forum J idii and the Forum Augusti. Compare Becker, Ilayidhu^h der Rom. Alterthilmer (1 vol., Leipsic, 1843). FORUM CO'MPETENS, in Law, is the court to the jurisdiction of which the party is amenable. FOSCARI, Francesco, Doge of Venice from 1423 to 1457, a brilliant period of conquest and prosperity to his country, and of unexampled afflic« tion to himself and family. Born about 1370, his aspiring ambition soon fired him with passionate eagerness to exalt his reign by the glory of con- quest, and sjieedily involved the state in a severe conflict with the Dukes of Milan ; which, how- ever, the doge's great military ability in the end turned into a source of glory and aggrandisement to Venice. His triumph was embittered by the suc- cessive loss of three sons ; and the one who remained to transmit the name, and succeed to the inheritance of the family, was, in 1445, denounced for having received bribes from the hostile generals, to use his influence -with the doge in procuring less rigorous terms. Tried for this grave crime before the Tribu- nal of the Ten, and racked cruelly in view of hia father, Giacopo Foscari was banished for life, under pain of death should he attempt to revisit his native land. In 1450, the assassination of one of the ' Council of Ten,' Hermolao Donati, was imputed, on what seem most unfoimded grounds, to Giacopo, who was consequently summoned from his exile, tried, tortured, and banished a second time on stdl more rigorous terms to the island of Candia. GrowTi reckless through suff'ering, and longing to see his home and country on any terms, Giacopo petitioned the Duke of Milan to intercede in his behaK with the senate, a step which, by Venetian law, was punished as a high crime, and led to the unfor- tunate Giacopo being for the third time subjected to tortiire and renewed banishment, on entering into which he died of grief. The doge had vainly besought permission to resign a dignity grown loath- some to him, from its imposing the barbarous oljligation of witnessing his son's torture ; but in the end he was deposed, and ordered to vacate the palace in three days. At the age of 87, decrepit from years, and bowed by sorrow and humiliation, Francesco F., supported by his venerable brother, descended the Giant's Staircase, and passed out for ever from the ducal palace, the scene of such vain pomp and bitter misery. Pasqnal Malapieri was elected in his stead in 1457, and at the first peal of the bells in honour of his elevation, F. expired from the rupture of a blood-vessel. Byron has written a tragedy on the subject, entitled llie Tvx> Foscari. FO'SCOLO, Ugo, an Italian author, was bom about 1778, at Zante, one of the Ionian isles, and proceeded to Venice in his 16th year, where for a time he pursued his studies, repairing later to Padua to enjoy Melchiore Cesarotti's noble course of classic literature. His earliest efforts at poetical composition were strictly modelled on his favourite Greek classics ; and, as early as 1797, his tragedy, 447 FOSS— FOSSIL FERNS. II Tieste, was received v/ith favour by a critical Venetian audience. The dismembernient of the Venetian states, decreed by the treaty of Campo Formio, bitterly incensed F.'s patriotic s])irit, and inspired him with one of his most remarkable works, Le Lettere di Jacopo Ortis, which, owing to the fierce political excitement then prevailing throughout the entire peninsula, was received with immense popularity. F. rei)aired to Milan on its being declared the capital of the Cisalpine republic, and there obtained the grade of officer in the Lombard legion. On the downfall of the republic, he retreated with the French into Genoa, where, in the midst of the terrors of a rigorous siege, he composed two exquisite odes to Luigia Pallavicini Cadula da Cavalio, and AW Arnica risanata. F. subsequently entered France with the intention of joining Napoleon's expedition against England, and prepared a much admired version of Sterne's Sentimental Journey, to exercise himself in English. On the failure of the plan, he returned to Milan, and prepared a sjilendid edition of Montecuculi's works, ynt\x notes and historical references — Opere di Baimondo MontecucuU, per Luigi Mussi (Milan, 1807—1808), a very rare edition. At this time, he also published his exquisite poem, in blank verse, / Sepolcri, which at once placed him among the classic authors of his country. In the same year, he was appointed to the chair of eloquence in Pavia, and continued to occupy the post, to the delight and benefit of his students, until the professorship was suppressed in all the colleges of Italy. His inaugurative addi-ess, DelC Oricjine e delV Ufficio della Letteratura, is a roaster- piece of beautifid, noble, and patriotic writing. From the time F. lost faith in the sincerity of Bonaparte's intentions to his country, he not only ceased to worship his early idol, but employed the fidl powers of his wrath and sarcasm in denouncing his treachery. After various \'icissitudes, F. finally sought refuge in Britain about 181G, and soon mastered the language sufficiently to contribute to the Quarterly and Edinburgh Reviews. In London, some of his best waitings were published — viz.. Essays on Petrarca and Dante, Discorso sid testo del Decamerone, Discorso storico sul testo di Dante, and vai'ious minor compositions. He died October 10, 1827, of dropsy, at Turnham Green near London. His works in prose and verse were published in Milan, 1822, by Silvestri. FOSS, or FOSSE (Lat. fossa, from fodio, I dig), in Fortification, is a ditch or moat, either with or without water, the excavation of which has contributed material for the walls of the fort it is designed to protect. The foss is immediately without the wall, and offers a serious obstacle to escalading the defences. FO'SSA ET FU'RCA, or PIT and GALLOWS, was an ancient privilege granted by the crown to barons and others, whicli implied the right of drowning female felons in a ditch, and hanging male felons on a gallows. FOSSA'NO, a town of Piedmont, in the admini- strative division of Coni or Cuneo, is situated on the left bank of the Stura, on a hill surmounted by an old castle, 14 miles north-east of Coni. It is sur- rounded with old walls, and is weU built ; but the houses are erected over arcades, under which run the footways, and thus the streets have a some- what gloomy appearance. It has a handsome <;athedral, ten churches, a royal college, and nume- rous minor educational institutions, silk-factories, paper-mdls, and tanneries. Pop. 16,423. FO'SSIL (Lat. fossilis, dug out of the earth), 448 a term formerly applied, in accordance with ita derivation, to whatever was dug out of the earth, whether mineral or organic, but now restricted to the remains of plants and animals imbedded in the earth's crust. They were formerly, and are some- times still, called petrifactions. They occur in nearly all the stratified rocks, which have, on this account, been called Fossdiferous strata. It is difficult or impossible to detect them in the metamorphic rocks, for the changes that altered the matrix Imve also affected the organisms, so as either almost or altogether to obliterate them. In the fundamental mica-schist and gneiss they have escaped notice, if ever they existed ; and it is only within the lart few years that their presence has been detected iq the gneiss and other rocks, which are the greatly metamorphosed representatives of the Lower Sili- rian Measures in the north of Scotland. The conditions in which fossils occur are very various. In some Pleistocene beds the organic remains are but slightly altered, and are spoken of as sub-fossil. In this state are the shells in some raised sea-beaches, and the remains of the huge struthious birds of New Zealand, which still retain a large portion of the animal basis. In the progress of fossilisation, every trace of animal substance disappears ; and if we find the body at this stage, witliout being affected by any other change, it is fragile and friable, like some of the shells in the London clay. Most frequently, however, a petrify- ing infiltration occupies the cavities left in the fossU by the disapj)earance of the animal matter, and it then becomes hardened and solidified. Sometimes the whole organism is dissolved and carried off by water percolating the rock, and its former presence is indicated by the mould of its outer surface, and the cast of its inner in the rocky matrix, leaving a cavity between the cast and the mould agreeing with the size of the fossil. This cavity is occasion- ally filled up with calcareous spar, flint, or some other mineral ; and we thus obtain the fcin of the organism, with the markings of the outer ind inuei surfaces, but not exhibiting the internal structure. The most advanced and perfect condition of fossiUsa- tion is that in which not only the external form, but also the most minute and complicated internal organisation is retained ; in which the organism loses the whole of its constituents, particle by particle, and as each little molecide is removed, its place is taken by a little molecule of another substance, as silica or iron pyrites. In this way we find calcareous corals perfectly preserved in flint, and trees exhi- biting in their sdicified or calcified stems aU the details of their microscopic structure — the cells, spiral vessels, or disc-bearing tissue, as well as the medullary rays and rings of growth. FOSSIL FERNS. As far as has been yet deter- mined from the rocky tablets of the earth's crust, ferns first appeared in the Devonian period, but then only sparingly, not more than nine or ten species having been observed. In the immediately suc- ceeding Coal-measures, they suddenly reached their maximum development. The dense forests and the moist atmosphere of this period were so suited to their growth that they formed a large bulk of the vegetation. Upwards of 350 species have been described, som'e of them tree ferns of a size fitting them to be the companions of the immense Sigil- larias and Lepidodendrons whose remains are found associated with theirs in the Carboniferous rocks. Twenty-three species have been found in Permian strata. Many new forms ai)pear in the Trias, and their number is increased in the Oolite. The fresh-water beds of this period contain numerous beautiful ferns, upwards of fifty species having been described. The marine beds of the Cretaceous FOSSIL [FERGUS ROCKS— FOUCHE. period contain very few forms, and in the Tertiary rocks they are equally rare, FOSSILI'FEROUS ROCKS are those which contain organic remains. If we except the lowest metamorphic rocks, in which, as yet, no fossils have been found, the term is equivalent to the * stratified rocks,' when used comprehensively ; but it D,ay also be applied to a particular bed, as when we speak of an unfossiliferous sandstone compared with the neighbouring fossiliferous shale or lime- Btone. FOSSOMBRO'N:^, a small episcopal town of Italy, in the province of Urbino and Pesaro, is pleasantly situated on a hill on the left bauk of the Metauro — which is here spanned by a fine modern bridge — 11 miles east of the town of Urbino. It rose in the 14th c, from the ruins of Forum Sem- pronii, destroyed by the Goths and Lombards. Some interesting Roman inscriptions and remains of the ancient city are contained in the cathedral of St Aldobrando. F. is celebrated for its fine manufac- tures of carpets and woollen cloths, and particularly for the excellent silk of its neighbourhood. Three miles from F. is U Monte d'Asdrubale, famous as the sceiie of the engagement in which the Cartha- £'nian general was defeated and killed by the omans in 207 b. c. — See Lauro Jacomo, Historia e Pianta di Fossomhrone. FOSTER, John, a well-known English essayist, was born in the parish of Halifax, Yorkshire, Sep- tember 17, 1770. He was educated for the ministry at the Baptist College at Bristol, but after preach- ing for several years to various small congregations with very indifferent success, he resolved to devote nimself mainly to literature. His Essays, in a Series of Letters, were published in 1805, while he was ofhciating as pastor of a Baptist chapel at Frome, in Somersetshire. They were only four in number — On a Man's Writing Memoirs of Himself ; On Decision of Character ; On the Application of the Epithet Romantic ; and On some of the Causes by which Evangelical Religion has been rendered less acceptable to Persons of Cultivated Taste ; yet Sir James Mackintosh did not hesitate to affirm that they shewed their author to be ' one of the most profound and eloquent writers that England has produced.' They have been remarkably popu- lar, especially among the more thoughtful of the community, and have gone through upwards of twenty editions. In 1808, F. married the lady to whom his essays were originally addressed, and retired to Bourton-on-the- Water, in Gloucestershire, ■where he lived a quiet, studious, literary life, preaching, however, in the villages round about on Simdays. In 1819 appeared his celebrated Essay on the Evils of Popular Ignorance, in which he urges the necessity of a national system of edu- cation. He was long the principal writer in the Eclectic Bevieio, and a selection from his contribu- tions to that magazine was published by Dr Price in 1844. He died at Stapelton, near Bristol, October 15, 1843. F. was a man of deep but sombre piety. The sjcadows that overhung his soul were, however, lihose of an inborn melancholy, and had nothing in comLTion with the repulsive gloom of bigotry or fanaticism. His thinking is rugged, massive, and original ; and at times, when his great imagination rouses itself from sleep, a splendour of illustration breaks over his pages that startles the reader both by its beauty and its suggestiveness. Besides the works already mentioned, F. published several others, of which the most important is an Intro- ductory Essay to Doddridge's Rise and Progress of Religion (1825). Compare the Life and Corres- pondence of F. (2 vols. 1846), edited by J. E. Ryland, and republished in Bohn'a Standard Library in 1852. FO'THERGILL PROCESS. This is one of the numerous dry processes in Photography (q. v.) which have for their object the preservation oi sensitive plates ready for exposure. It is named after the inventor, and consists in the partial removal of the free nitrate of silver which adherea to the collodion film on withdrawing it from the sensitising bath by washing with water, and th« subsequent conversion of the remaining free citrate of silver into albuminate and chloride of silver by pouring over the plate dilute albumen, containing chloride of ammonium, the excess of albumen being finally washed off by violent agitation with a copious supply of water. The plates being set aside to drain on folds of blotting-paper, are, when dry, ready for use. For details of manipulation, see Hardwich's Photographic Chemistry. FOUCHE, Joseph, Duke of Otranto, the son of a sea-captain, was born at Nantes, 29th May 17^^, and educated at the Oratoire. He hailed the Revolution with enthusiasm, and in 1792 became a member of the National Convention. He voted f the death of Louis XVL, and was one of the com- missioners of the Committee of Public Safety sent to Lyon in 1794 to reduce that city to obedienca. In 1795, he was expelled from the Convention s.8 a dangerous Terrorist, and kept in confinement for a short time. After the revolution of the 18th Brumaire (5th November 1799), in which he took a part, F, as minister of police (an office to which he had been appointed on the 31st July of the same j'ear), organised an extraordinary police. He restrained the new government from deeds of violence, and by his advice the list of emigres waa closed, a general amnesty proclaimed, and the prin- ciple of moderation and conciliation steadily adhered to. His remark upon the execution of the Duke d'Enghien was very happy: Cest hlen ins qiCun crime, c'est unefauteJ (It is much worse than a crime ; it is a blunder). In July 1804, he was again placed at the head of the police. His chief endeavours were directed, as before, to attaching the ro3^alists to the imperial throne by prudent moderation. In 18^9, the Emperor conferred on him the title of Didce of Otranto, along with large grants from the revenues of the Neapolitan territory. An unguarded expres- sion, however, in a proclamation, lost him the favoiir of Napoleon, and in the following year he was forced to resign. In the campaign of 1813, the Emperor summoned F. to head-quarters at Dresden, and sent him thence as governor of the lUjTian provinces, iind, after the battle of Leipsic, to Rome and Naples, in order to keep a watch upon Murat'a proceedings. Being recalled to Paris in the spring of 1814, he predicted the downfall of Napoleon even before his arrival in France. After the Emperor'a abdication, F. advised him to abandon Europe altogether. On liis return from Elba, Napoleon again nominated him minister of police; but after the battle of Waterloo, F. placed himself at tho head of the provisional government, brought about the capitulation of Paris, drew back the ai-my behind the Loire, and thereby prevented unneces- sary bloodshed. At the Restoi'ation, Louis XVllI. reappointed him minister of police ; but he resigned his office in a few months, and went as ambassador to Dresden. The law of the 12th January 1816, banishing all those who had voted for the death of Louis XVL, was extended to F. also, who from that time resided in different parts of Austria. He died at Trieste, 26th December 1820, lea\nna an immense fortune. Napoleon, at St Helena, caDed F. ' a miscreant of all colours ; ' and Bourrienne 4ia FOUGERES— FOULIS. declares thut lie * never regarded a benefit in any other light than as a means of injurhig his bene- factor' — statements which are far too exaggerated to be worth ranch. The simple truth appears to be, that F. was a man whose highest principle was self-interest, but whose sagacity was not less conspicuons, and who never failed to give the governments which he served the soundest political advice. It is true, however, that he was unscru- pulous in passing from one party to another, and that he wa=? as destitute of political morality as Napoleon l.imself. In 1824, appeared a work entitled Memoires de Foiiche, Due d'Otrante, edited by A. Beauchamp, which, though declared to be spurious by the sons of F., is generally held to have been based on genuine documents. FOUGERES, a handsome town of France, in the department of Ille-et-Vilaine, stands on a hill on the right bank of the Couesnon, 28 miles north-east of llennes. It is a well-built town, with wide Btreets, and in the old quarter retains traces of the middle ages in the ancient arcades which still obtrude in some places upon the streets. The castle of F. is picturesque, but being commanded by other parts of the town, forms but a feeljle defence. In the neighbourhood is a gi-eat forest containing Druidical rema.ins. A famous engagement took place here between the Vendean royalists and the Kepublicans, November 15, 1793. F. has manu- factures of sail-cloth, canvas, tape, flannel, lace, hats, &c. ; and dyeworks, principally for the dyeing of iscarlet. In the vicinity are important glass and paper works. Pop. (1872) 9850. FOUL A, a solitary isle in the Atlantic, 25 miles west of the Mainland of Shetland. It is 3 by 1^ miles in extent, and consists of five hills (highest, 1300 feet), rising steeply out of the water. The sea- cliffs are sublime, and covered with sea-birds. The isle is seen from Orkney in fine weather, and is supposed to be the Ultima Thule of the ancients. It has only one landing-place. It is inhabited by about 250 fishermen. F. consists of sandstone, ^^^th a small patch of granite, gneiss, mica-slate and clay-slate in the north-east corner. FOULD, ACHILLE, was born in Paris on the 31st of October 1800, and was educated at the Lycee Charlemagne, one of the most celebrated establishments of Paris. He originally belonged to the Jewish creed, his family being wealthy Jew banliers, but now adheres to the Protestant faith. Early in life, he was initiated into financial trans- actions by his father, and his natural talents were developed by travel in Europe and the East. In 1842, he began his political career, being then chosen as a member of the council-general of the Hautes Pyrenees, and immediately after elected a deputy for Tarbes, the chief town of' that depart- ment. He soon acquired a high position in the Chamber of Deputies for the peculiar talent with which he handled questions of finance and political economy. In 1844, he was appointed reporter to the commission on stamps on newspapers, and his views were adopted, in spite of the oi^i^osition party, he being at that period a stanch supporter of M. Guizot's home and foreign policy. After the revolution of 1848, F. accepted the new regime of the republic, and ofiered his services to the pro- visional government. In July 1848, he was elected representative for the department of the Seine, and continued to rise in pubhc estimation by the elevated views he expressed in the chamber, while opposing among other things a proposed issue of assignats. During the presidency of Louis Napoleon, F. was four times Minister of Finance, and his repeated resign ationa for state reasons did not 450 prevent him from being again appointed on the occasion of the coup (Velat, 2d December 1851. He once more resigned his position on the 25th January following, in consequence of the decree ordering the confiscation of the property of the Orleans family. The same day, however, he was created a senator, and shortly afterwards returned to power as minister of state. In this capacity, he uuperintended the Universal Paris Exhibition in 1855, the com- pletion of the palace of the Louvre, and other great measures. He remained one of the most confidential ministers of Napoleon III. till December 1860, when he was succeeded as minister of state by Comto Walewsky. He was out of office up to the 14tb November 1861, at which date he was reappointed finance minister, his long experience and well-known ability as a financier pointing him out as the man to manage the crisis of the French finances at that time. He was removed in 1867, and died the same year. FOULIS, Robert and Andrew, two eminent printers of Glasgow, brothers, whose nanics are usually classed together. — Robert, the elder, born in that city, April 20, 1707, was bred, and, like Allan Ramsay, for some time i)ractised as a barber — in those days of flowing periwigs, a profitable and respectable profession. Having attended for several years the lectures of the celebrated Dr Franci." Hutcheson, then Professor of Moral Philosophy m Glasgow University, he was advised by that gentle- man to become a bookseller. In winter, he and his brother Andrew (born November 23, 1712) employed themselves in teaching languages ; and in summer, they made short excursions to the conti- nent, and thereby acquired a considerable amount of learning and knowledge of the world, Andrew seems to have been designed for the church. In 1727, he entered as a student at the university of Glasgow, where he is supposed to have undergone a regular course of study. About the end of 1739, Robert began business in Glasgow as a printer, his first publications being chiefly of a religious nature. In 1742, he published an elegant edition in 4to of Demetrius Pkalereus on Elocution, supposed to be the first Greek work printed in Glasgow. In 1743, he was appointed printer to the university. In 1744, he brought out his celebrated immaculate edition of Horace, 12mo, each printed sheet of which was hung up in the college of Glasgow, and a reward offered for the discovery of any inac- curacy. Soon after, he took his brother Andrew into partnership ; and for thirty years they continued to bring out some of the finest specimens of correct and elegant printing, pai-ticularly in the Latin and Greek classics, which the 18th c. produced, either in this country or on the continent. Among them were Cicero's works, in 20 volumes ; Caesar's Commentaries, folio ; Homer's works, 4 vols. ; Herodotus, 9 vols., &c. ; also an edition of the Greek Testament ; Gray's poems ; Poj^e's works ; a folio edition of Milton, and other publications in English. With the view o-f promoting the cultivation of the fine arts in Scotland, Robert Foulis, after a two years' visit to the continent iii preparation, commenced, in 1753, an academy »^ Glasgow, for the instruction of youth in painting and sculpture. The great expense attending thi* institution led to the decline of the printing business, which, however, continued to be carried on till the death of Andrew, September 18, 1775. la 1776, Robert exhibited and sold at Christie's, Pal' Mall, London, the remainder of his paintings, when, after all expenses were defrayed, the balance in hia favour amounted only to fifteen shillings. He died the same year, at Edinburgh, on his return to Scotland. He was twice married, and left several children. One of them was a printer in Glasgow aa FOUNDATION— FOUNDING. late as 180fi. His Virgil, printed in 1778, and his iEschylus, 1795, for beauty and exactness, were not unworthy of the name of Foiilis. FOUNDATION. This term may be applied either to tlie surface or bed on which a building rests, or to the lower part of the biiilding which rests on the natural bed. 1. Foundation as the bed. — The best that can be had is solid rock, or any kind of resisting incompressible stratum, free from water. Where there is no chance of water, sand forms a solid foundation. When the soil is soft, loose, and shifting, a solid bearing can be obtained only by driving piles or long beams of wood, sharp- ened at the end, through the soft soil, till they reach a hard bottom. This is then planked or laid with cross-beams, on which the superstructure is built. The piers of many bridges are formed in this manner. Where the soil is soft, but not shifting, as in the case of made or deposited earth, the method of Concretirifj (q. v.) is adopted — i. e., a large surface is laid with broken metal or gravel, and run together with hot lime, so as to form a broad solid artificial rock, on which the building may rest. 2. Foundation as the base of the building. ■ — The broader and larger the lower courses of the mason-work, the stronger the wall. The stones should, if possible, extend through and through, and project on each side of the wall. In the best periods of art, the foundations have always been most attentively considered. The Romans formed solid bearings of concrete as above described, and paid great attention to secure the stability of their buildings. In the dark ages, when there was want of knowledge combined with want of materials and means, many buildings fell from the yielding of the foundations. Some of the earlier Gothic buildings also suffered from the same cause. But knowledge came with experience, and the foundations of the later Gothic buildings, during the 14th and 15th centuries, were built with extreme care, and on the virgin soil — the stones being as finely dressed as those above ground, where neces- sary to resist a strong thrust. And where the weight is thrown unequally on piers and walls, these detached points are all carefully united below the floor with a net-work of solid walls. Bad foundations have been the cause of the ruin of many modern buildings. This has arisen from the costly nature of making a good foundation, when the soil is not natiurally suitable. But it is clear that no expense should be spared to make the foundation good, as the value and stability of the superstructure depend entirely on the security of the foundation. FOU'NDER, also called Laminitis, consists of inflammation of the vascular sensitive laminae of the horse's foot. It is rarely met with in cattle or sheep, owing to the corresponding structures being in them greatly loss developed. Occasionally, the laminae are sti'air.ed from severe exertion ; more freqiiently, they suff"er from the morbid effects of cold, which is especially injurious after the excite- ment and exhaustion of labour. Very commonly also, they become inflamed from their close sympathy with diseases of the digestive organs, often following engorgement of the stomach, or inflammation of the bowels. All four feet are sometimes afi"ected, more usually the fore ones only. They are hot and tender ; the animal stands as much as possible uiv)n his heels ; trembles and groans when moved ; and is in a state of acute fever and pain. Except when following su^Kirpurgation or internal disease, bleeding is usefid. The shoos must at once be reiDo/ed, and the toes, if long, reduced, but no further rasping or cutting is permissible. The feet must be enveloped in liot bran poultices, antl kept off the hard ground by a j^lcntiful supply of short litter. Soap and water clysters, repeated if necessary every hour, usually suffice to oj^eu the bowels, which are very' irritable, and physic, if re(iuircd, must therefore be used with extrenia caution. Two drachms of aloes is an ample dose in founder. Have the strain taken off tho inflamed lamince by getting the animal, if possible, to lie down, or, where this is impracticable, by slinging him. When the inflammation conti7'Up« so long that serum and lymph are poured out between the sensitive and horny laminae, they must have free exit provided, by making an opening through the toe with a small drawing-knife. This may prevent the pumiced and disfigured feet that are apt to follow severe and repeated atl acks. After the acute symptoms pass, cold applications to the feet, and a mild blister round the coronet, help to restore the parts to their natural condition. FOUNDING, or METAL-CASTING, the art of obtaining casts of any desired object by means of pouring melted metal into moulds prepared for the purpose. It has risen to great importance in recent times, on account of the many new applications of iron. Iron-founding, brass-founding, type-founding, as well as casting in bronze and zinc, are the jjrin- cipal divisions of the art. The casting of the finer metals and alloys, as gold, silver, and German silver, is necessarily conducted on a smaller scale. When the casting of an object is required, it is necessary, in the first place, to make a pattern. Suppose it to be a plain round iron pillar, such as is used for hanging a gate upon. A pattern of this is turned in some wood which can be readily made smooth on the surface, such as pine, and then varnished or painted so as to come freely out of the mould. This wooden piUar, or any similar pattern, is always made in at least two pieces, the division being lengthwise, for a reason which we shall pi'e- sently see. The next step is to prepare the mould. The moidds used by the iron-founder are either of sand or loam, but more generally of fine sand. Pro- ceeding 'v\dth the preparation of the moidd, the founder takes a moulding-box, which is composed of two open iron frames with cross-bars, the one fitting exactly on the other, by means of pins in the upper, dropping into holes in the lower frame. One- half of the box is first filled with damp sand, and the pattern laid upon it, a little dry |ja?-^t?i7 sand being sprinkled on the sui'face. The upper half of the box is then put on, and sand firmly rammed all round the pattern. The box is then carefully opened, and, when the pattern is removed, its im- j)ression is left in the sand. The mould at this stage, however, is generally rough and bi'oken. It is necessary, therefore, to give it a better finish, which is done by taking each half of the mould separately, repairing it with a small trowel, and re-introduciag the corresponding half of the pattern till the impres- sion is firm and perfect. Finally, the surface cf the mould is coated with charcoal-dust, which g^ves Sk smooth siu'face to the future casting. These oolumus being made hollow, there is j^et another matter to arrange before the casting can be made — namely, the core. In the instance before us, it would simply be a rod of iron, covered with, straw and loam to what- ever thickness the internal diameter of the column happened to require. The core of coiu'se occupiea the centre of the mould. The cast iron is melted with coke Lx a roimd fire- brick furnace, called a cupola, the heat being urged by means of a powerful blast, created by fanners revolving at a high speed. The molten metal is rua from a tap at the bottom of the furnace into a malleable iron ladle, Hned with clay, from which it FOUNDING -FOUNDLING HOSPITALS. is poured into the mould through holes called runners Of gates. When the mould is newly filled, numerous jets of blue flame issue from as many small holes pierced in the sand. These perforations are neccs- Bary for the escape of air and other gases produced by the action of the hot metal on the mould. Care must also be taken not to have the mould too damj , otherwise steam is generated, which may cause holes in the casting, and even force part of the metal out of the mould. The casting remains cov ircd up for a time, in order to cool slowly, and 3S then removed by breaking away the sand, and drawing out the core. In the case of a fluted, or otherwise ornamented pillar, the pattern would require to be in at least four pieces instead of two, because it is only a plain pattern that will come out of the mould in halves without tearing away the sand. When a pattern is necessarily made in several pieces, it is drawn out of the mould bit by bit, to the right or left, as the case may be, and so parts from the sand without breaking it. Suppose that a small ornamental vase was to surmount the jnllar, the founder woidd prepare the pattern of this in a more elaborate manner. He would first mould it in wax or clay, from which a cast in plaster of Paris is made ; from that, again, a cast is taken in an alloy of tin and lead, which, after being sharply chased, and divided into the required number of pieces, is used as a pattern to cast from. All ornamental i)atterns, such as flgures, sci olls, loaves, enriched mouldings, and the like, are made in this way, whatever metal the idtimate casting is to be produced in. Very large engine cylindeis, pans, and such vessels, are cast in loam-moulds, which are built of brick, plastered with loam, then coated with coal- dust, and Anally dried by means of a fire. This method is adopted with large plain objects, where a pattern would be expensive, and when few castings of one kind are required. Iron moulds, coated -svath blacklead or plumbago, have recently been introdnced for casting pipes into ; they are greatly more expensive than any other kind, but they enable the founder to dispense with a pattern, as, when once made into the required form, they are not destroyed like moulds of sand or loam at each casting. Bronze and brass are east in moulds prepared with finer sand than that used for iron. Pewter and similar soft metallic alloys are cast in brass moulds. The type-founder, on the other hand, uses moulds of steel, which are now worked to a gi-eat extent by a machine. The variety of articles produced by founding or casting are very numerous, among others we may mention cylinders, cisterns, paper-engines, beams, boilers, pumps, and the heavy parts of machinery generally, gates, railings, lamps, grates, fenders, cooking- vessels, and the like, in iron : cannon, many portions of machinery, and numerous ornamental objects, in brass : sculjiture and other works of art in bronze and the more costly metals. One of the most remarkable castings yet executed for the requirements of modern engineering, was the cylinder of the hydraulic press used for raising the tubes of the Britannia Bridge. It measured 9 feet x 3 feet 6 inches, the metal being 10 inches thick, and weighed upwards of twenty tons. It remained red hot for three days, and it was seven days more before men could approach it to remove the sand. Sole plates for steam-hammers, and for other purposes, have been cast more than double this weight, but the same care was not required in their execution. In regard to sculpture, perhaps the most wonderful casting known is the colossal statue of Bavaria at 462 Munich, finished in 1850, which stands 54 feet high, the face being equal to the height of a man. It took eight years to cast, and the cost of the bronze used was about £10,000. FOUNDLING HOSPITALS, establishraenta in which children that have been abandoned by their parents and found by others, are nurtured at the public expense. Amongst the ancient nations, these institutions were not unknown, though a* the law usually jdaced the power of life and death in the hands of the father, and permitted him to sell his children into slavery, it is to be feared that infanticide, as among eastern nations at the present day, was the usual mode of solving the difficulty which foundling hospitals are intended to meet. Desertion, however, and exposure as less atrocious, were still more frequent crimes ; and to meet these, the reception and education of found- lings were enjoined on private jiersons, to whom they were assigned in property. When this means of suj)poi-t failed, they were protected by the state. The Egyptians and Thebans are pi-aised by the classical historians for discouraging the exposure of infants. The practice of exposing infants prob- ably prevailed even amontjst the Germanic nations previous to the introduction of Christianity ; and though Tacitus says that infanticide was forbidden, in Iceland, in particular, it is said to have reached a fearfid height. From the period at which Christianity became the state religion of the Pomau emjHre, a sensible change in the spirit of legislation on the subjects both of infanticide and exposure is ai)parent ; and though the latter is spoken of by Gibbon as one of the most stubborn remnants of heathendom, it gradually gave way, and the Christian church, at a very early period, lent its encouragement to the establishment of foundling hospitals. So eaily as the Cth c, a species ^ foundling hospital is said to have existed at Treves. The bishop j^ermitted the children to be deposited in a marble basin which stood before the cathedral, and gave them in charge to members of the church. But the first well-authenticated one is that of Milan, established in 787, probably in obedience to the 70th article of the Council of Nice, which enjoined that a house should be estab- lished in each town for the reception of children abandoned by their i)arents. It is probable, how- ever, that foundling hospitals existed pretty exten- sively at an earlier period, as mention is made of them in the cajntularies of the Frankish kin^s. In 1070, a foundling hospital was established in Montpellier; in 1200, in Eimbeck; in 1212, in Rome ; in Florence, in 1317 ; in Nurnberg, in 1331 ; in Paris, in 1362 ; in Vienna, in 1380. In France, the utility of these establishments, which were the special labour of Vincent de Paul (q. v.), was early called in question ; and letters-patent of Charles VII., in 1445, affirmed that ' many persons would make less difficulty in abandoning themselves to sin when they saw that they were not to have the charge of the iipbringing of their infants.' In Germany, the system of foundling hospitals was soon abandoned, the duty of rearing the children being, as in England, imposed by law, first on the parents, then on more distant relatives, whom failing, on the parish, and last of all, on the state. The reproach made by Poman Catholic countries against this more natural arrangement — that it tends to promote infanticide — is said to have been in no degree established by statistical investigations. The revolutionary govern- ment of France not only adopted the system of foundling hospitals as it had been handed down to it, but in 1790 declared all children found to be children of the state {enfants de la patrie). Nay, as a still further premium on immorality, it declared FOUNDLING HOSPITALS-FOUNTAIN. tliat every girl wlio slioukl declare her pregnancy should receive a premium of 120 francs ! The imperial government, in 1811, abolished this insane enactment, continuing, however, the arrangement by which the foundling hospitals had become govern- ment establishments, and the children, children of the state. The system is still adhered to in France, where foundling hospitals exist in most of the large towns to the number of about 141 ; in Spain, where the number is estimated at 70 ; and gener- ally in the Roman Catholic countries of Europe ; and figiu-es are brought forward to prove that it has not exhibited what would seem to be its obvious tendency. The number of children deposited in the revolving cradle at the Hospital in Paris, in place of increasing, is said by the advocates of the system to have diminished in proportion to the population ; but the statement is utterly denied by German and Protestant writers. The expense of rearing a child to the age of twelve in the Hospital at Paris is 952 francs 42 centimes, or a trifle less than £40. The moment that the child is received it is weighed, and if its weight be less than six pounds, it is considered that its chance to live is very small. It is then inscribed in a register, and a formal statement is drawn up of any name which may have been given along with it, or of any par- ticular mark which it bears either on its person or otherwise ; of the hour at which it was deposited, its sex, and its dress. It is then inspected by a medical man, and handed over to the nurses. At Paris, each child is committed to a special nurse, many of whom are retained on the premises, and paid 40 centimes a day. Other nurses are brought in from the country in carriages kept by the Hospital, which return conveying the children along Avith their new mothers. The children thus boarded out are inspected twice a year by local medical men appointed for the purpose ; but the surveillance is too often negligent, and consequently the treatment of the children by no means such as to conduce to their health. The jjarents, and indeed the relations of the children, are permitted to reclaim them at any period, or they may be legally adopted by any French citizen who is in a condition to maintain them. Notwithstanding the precautions of which French writers boast, the mortality amongst these • infants of the state ' is very appalling. Their average life, it is said, does not exceed four years ; 62 per cent, dying during the first year, and 78 jier cent, during the first twelve years. Only 22 out of 100 foundlings thus reach the age of twelve, whereas in the general population 50 out of 100 live to twenty-one. As might naturally be sup- posed, those who do survive, and are ushered into the world without friends or means, constitute a large proportion of the thieves and prostitutes of the country. Of the male convicts and prisoners of France, 13 per cent, are foundlings, and female foundlings form one-fifth of the inmates of the public houses of prostitution. The question of the propriety of encouraging secrecy by the use of the turning-box, or of causing the parents openly to deposit the children in the hands of an officer, has been, and is still discussed with much keenness in France. The argument in favour of the turning- box is that by which the whole institution is defended, viz., that it tends to discourage infanticide, and statistics are said to be rather in favour of it in this point of view. But there are many other obvious considerations of morality and public policy to be taken into account, which would serve to counterbalai»--*e this advantage, even supposing it to be real Many Protestant states have established foundling hospitals ; that at Amsterdam, where about 3000 children are received annually, is one of the most famous in Europe. The fcjundling hospitals of Moscow and St Petersburg are among the largest in the M'orld. The Foundling Hosj)ital in London v/as estab- lished by Caj)tain Thomas Coram, a Ijenevolent sailor, in 1739, as ' an hospital for exposed and deserted children.' The ground in Guildford Street was purchased from the Earl of Salisbury for £7000, and the architect of the hospital was Theodore Jacob- son. The system of foxuidling hos])itals never having been aj)proverose and verse-, which picture the old life of medieval Euro]:)e. Among the best kno>vn of these are Sigurd^ der /sohlangeritodter (1809) — the first Avork to which F. Mttached his real name — Der Zauhery-ing, Die Fahrten Thiodolf^s, and Undine. Successful in exhibiting nany of the beauties of the romantic school, he is yet chargeable with all its extravagances. Straining too often after fantastically unnatural conceits, he seel s fascinated by the antique life which he pic- tures, rather merely from its quaint contrast with modern manners, than as a form into which the life of actually living men had shaped itself in former times. He has himself edited a selection of hii works [Auserwdhlte Werlce, 12 Bde., Halle, 1841). — F.'s first wife, Karoline von Briest, is also known in Germany as a productive authoress. FOUQUIER-TINVILLE, Antoine Quentin, the notorious public accuser in the French Revolu- tion, was born in the village of Hcrouelles, in the department of Aisne, in 1747. His early career was immoral, but insignificant. On the outbreak of the Revolution, he figured as one of the fiercest demo- crats. By Robespierre, he was appointed, first, a member, then director and public accuser, of the Revolutionary Tribunal. Without education, con- science, or sense of justice, he executed Avith brutaJ j apathy the bloody orders of the Committee of Public Safety. In reference to this feature of hia * character, his countrymen say that ' he had no soul —not even that of a tiger, which at least pretends to be pleased with what it devours.' Incapable of friendship, or of anything even remotely allied to generosity, he systematically abandoned his successive coadjutors in their hour of need, and sent to the scaffold, v/ithout the slightest com- punction, Bailly and Vergniaud, Danton and Hebert, Robespierre and St Just. He himself died by the guillotine, in a cowardly manner, 7th May 1795. FOUR EVANGELISTS, part of a larger group of islands known as the Twelve Apostles, lie off the west entrance of the Strait of Magellan. They are about lat. 52° 34' S., and long. 75° 5' W. The eight other islands, with which they are classed as above, rim al)Out 15 miles fiui^her out into the Pacific. FOUR LAKES, a chain of connected sheets of water in Wisconsin, United States, are fed chiefly by springs, and form, through their outlet, the Cat- fish, a north-eastern source of the Mississippi. They are naAdgable for steam-boats, and drain a beautifid country. Madison, the capital of the state, stands on the strip of land which sejjarates lakes Mendota and Monona, the uppermost of the series. FOURCRO'YA, a genus of plants of the natural order Amaryllidece, nearly allied to Agave (q. v.), but with stamens shorter than the corolla. The species are all tropical. The leaves of some — perhaps of all — of them yield a fibre similar to the Pita Flax obtained from those of species of Agave. FOURIER, Jean Bapttste Joseph, Baron, a distinguished French mathematician, was bom of a respectable family at Auxerre, 21st March 1768. He became a pupil, and at the age of 18, a professor, in the military school of his native place. He was afterwards removed to the normal school in Paris, and then to the Polytechnic, and accomj)anied Gene- ral Bonaparte to Egypt. Besides performing i)olitical services on this occasion, he was secretary to the Institut d^Egypte, and an active contributor to the Description de VEgypte, the masterly historical introduction to which is from his pen. On return- ing to France, he was made prefet of the department of Isfere in 1802, an office which he held till 1815, and was created baron in 1808. As i)refet, he succeeded in draining the marshes in Bourgoin, near Ijyon, which had for centuries baffled all attempts. On the return of Napoleon from Elba, F. issued a royalist proclamation ; notwithstanding which he Avaa appointed by Napoleon prefet of the department of the Rhone, but was shortly after removed. He now took up his abode in Pcxris, and devoted himself exclusively to science. The Academy of Sciences, which in 1807 had crowned his essay on the propa- gation of heat through solid bodies, chose him a member in 1815, and afterwards secretary for life^ conjointly with Cuvier. He died 16th May, 1830. His most famous work is the Theorie Anal^tiou FOURIER— FOUrJERISM. de la Chaleur (Par. 1822), in whicli he applies new methods of mathematical investigation. An allied subject is discussed in his Mevioire mr les Tempera- tures du Globe Ta-restre et des Espaces Planetaires (Par. 1827). Besides heat, he occupied himself with the theory of equations, which received from him important improvements. His work. Analyse des Equations Determmees, distinguished both for its substance and manner of exposition, was left unfinished, and was published after his death by Na\aer (Par. 1831). FOURIER, Francois Marie Charles, a French Socialist, was born at Beaangon, April 7, 1772. His father, a merchant, had him educated in an academy at Besangon for his own profession. He distinguished himself hj his perseverance and success ia study, and excelled in geography, mathe- matics, music, and the natural sciences. He left his studies with regret to enter upoii the duties of a merchant's clerk, which he performed with zeal and integrity at Lyon, Rouen, Marseille, and Bordeaux. He also travelled in the interest of his employers, not only in France, but in Holland and Germany. In these journeys and residences, nothing escaped his observation ; he noted climate, cultiu'e, popu- lation, puldic and private edifices, and remembered even the topography of villages, and the dimensions of buildings, with astonishing accuracy. His father died in 1781, lea\ang him about £5000, which he became possessed of in 1793, and invested in trade at Lyon. This was lost in the Revolution ; and he was thrown into prison, and compelled to serve two years as a cavalry soldier. Discharged on account of illness, he obtained employment in a mercantile house at Marseille, where he was employed to superint'^nd the destruction of au immense quantity of rice, held for higher prices, in the midst of a scarcity of food, imtil it had become unfit for con- Bumption. This c'rcumstance called his attention to the frauds and duplicities of commerce, and he devoted his spare time to the study of social ]>rob- lems, until he developed the system of Socialism to which his name is commonly given. This system is contained in several works, written and published under discouraging circumstances. In 1808, he published his Theorie des Quatre Mouve- ments, et des Destinees Ge.yierale^ (Theory of the Four Movements, and of the General Destinies of the Human Race). In 1822, he pi^oduced his Traite d'Association Doniestique Ayricole (Treatise on Domestic and Agricultural Association) ; in 1829, Le Nouveau Monde Industriel et Societaire (The New Industrial and Social World) ; in 1831, Pieges et Charlatanism e des Deux Sectes Saint-Simon et Owen, promettant V Associaiion et Progres (Snares and Quackeries of the Two Sects of St Simonians and Owenites, promising Association and Pro- gress) ; in 183o, La Faiisse Industrie, Morcelee, Jirqn>gna7ite, Mtnsongere, et V Antidote, V Industrie ]^aturdle, Gomhinee, Attrayante, Veridique, donnant Quadruple Produit (False Industry, Fragmentary, Bepulsive, and Lying, and the Antidote, a Natural, Combined, Attractive, and Truthful Industry, gi^^ng Q\i9drupld Products). These works, MTitten in the midst of ( ommercial pursuits, and j)ublished at long intervals, by means of his small savings, found for many years few readers, and no disciples. Towards the close of his life, a small group of intellectual men accepted his views, and gathered round him, to learn the details of his social system from his own lii)3. He was unwearied in his efforts to interest men of i)ower or capital, who could give his theories the test of practical realisation, and for many of the last years of his life waited patiently at Oi certain hour every day, expectiiig to be visited by euch a patron. His less j)atient disciples probably hastened his death by immature an.l partial efforts at realization. He died in I'aris, October 8, 1837. FOURIERISM, the Social System invented by Charles Fourier, is contained in his published works, in a large collection of unjmblished MSS., and in the writings of Considerant, Lechevallier, Brisbane, and others of his disciples. It difTera materially from the systems of Connnunism strictly so called, and all other social theories, and })ro- fesses to be based upon natural laws, and capable of being carried out on mathematical principles, as fixed and certain as those of geometry, music^ or colours. The earth and human society, Fom-icr taught, are in their crude and infantile stage. The period of the race will be 80,000 years, the latter portion of which will be its declining phase, as the present is its ascending. The middle term will bo a long period of maturity, prosperity, and happi- ness. What we call civilisation, Fourier considers a false and imperfect condition, with poverty, crime, ignorance, idleness, repugnant toil, disease, wasting wars, general antagonism, oppression, and misery. He believed that Association wovdd produce general riches, honesty, attractive and varied industry, health, peace, and universal haj^piness. Consider- ing attractions and repulsions the governing forces of all nature, and that God has distributed them for the happiness of all His creatures, he held that * attractions are proportional to destinies,' or that the desires or passions of men, their aj)titudes and inclinations, if they could have free scojje, would infallibly produce the highest condition and greatest happiness of which they are capable. He believed in a universal harmony, flov/ing from and centering in God, the author of all harmonies, and that there is thereiore a principle of ' imiversal analogy.' Seeing that all things, from suns and planets to atoms, range themselves in groups and series, accord- ing to certain fixed laws of attraction and repulsion, he laboured to discover the kind of human society that must eventually foi-m itself in obedience to those laws. This is the Association or Phalanstery, which is to consist of 400 families or 1800 })er- sons, which number he found included the whole circle of human capacities. These should live in one immense edifice, in the centre of a large and highly cultivated domain, and furnished with work- shops, stvidios, and all the appliances of industry and art, as well as all the sources of amusement and pleasure. When the earth is covered with palaces of attractive industry, the associations -will also unite in groups and series, under a unitary government. There will be but one language and one government, and the only armies will be the great industrial armies, which will drain swamps, irrigate deserts, j^lant forests, and effect the amelioration of climates. The sj^stem of Foiu-ier does not propose to destroy, but rather to conserve property, position, and hereditary rights, nor does it war directly vrith. morals or religion. The property of the Association is to be held in shares, and the whole product of the industrial and artistic groups is to be di^aded into twelve parts, of which five parts are due to labour, four to capital, and three to talent. The apartments are to be of varioug prices, and the styles of hving to vary in luxury and cost ; but the poorest person in the Association is not only to be secure of comfort, but his mini- mum of enjojonents will be greater than the present social arrangements can give to princes and millioi> • aires ; while these will have opened to them pleasui-es of which they can now^scarcely have a conception. The economics of the large scale in the Phalanstery reduce by two-thirds the expenses of living, while an attractive and scientific indufitr^ would quadruple the j)roducts of ci'-ilisation. FOUENI ISLANDS— FOWL. The passions of the human soul to which the system of Fourier would give full scope, he described as the five sensitive — sight, hearing, taste, smell, touch ; four affective — friendsliip, love, ambition, and i)aternity ; three distributive — the emulative, alternating, and composite. In these he found the springs of industry and ti le society. Emulation, the desire of success, honours, rewards, is the great stimidant to exertion ; alternation of cm])loy- ments makes work a recreation ; and the com- posite passion requires combinations of charm and enjoyment which only Association can give. Many attempts have been made — a few in France, and more in America — to carry the ideas of Fourier into practical realisation ; but they have all been on a small scale, and with inadequate means, and have resulted in failure. Whatever we may think of the system, in its principles or its theoretical develop- ment, nothing can be founded upon the failure of such experiments. It remains to be proved whether human nature, in its present state, is capable of carrying out successfully a social system so widely varying from all existing social conditions. The moral objections to Fourierism arc, that it appears to make luxury, ambition, and sensual delights the end of existence— the incentives and rewards to all exertions ; and that the passions of men, when left in the perfect freedom which this system requires, would lead to ruinous demoralisations. The answer is, that ' attractions are proportional to destinies,' and that these excesses belong to the present state, and are incident to the poverty and rej)ressions of civilisation, but could not exist in a true society; which raises the question — What is a true society ? Whatever may be thouglit of the practicability of the system, its study in the works of ^Fourier is full of sviggestions to the student in sociology. FOURNI ISLANDS (anc. CordssicB or Corseae), a group of about 20 small islands in the Grecian Archipelago, between Nicaria and Samos, on the western coast of Asiatic Turkey. The largest of these islets is about five mdes in cii'cuit. FOWEY, or FOY, a borough town on the south coast of Cornwall, on the right bank of the river Fowey, 25 miles south-south-west of Launceston. It is sheltered by hills, and lies amid picturesqite Bcenery, rude sea-clifFs, and promontox'ies. The harbour admits large vessels at all states of the tide, and its entrance is guarded by three forts. The chief business is catching and curing pd- chards, which, with 'china-stone' and iron-ore, form the main exports. F. sent 47 ships and 770 men to the siege of Calais by Edward III. in 1347. It was l)urned by the French in 1457, and taken by Fairfax in 1646. Pop. (1871) 1394. FOWL (Ger. vogel ; allied to the Lat. root fug-, to flee, and perhaps to wag-), a word originally Bynonymous with bird, and still employed in that signitication, but also in a much more restricted sense, as the designation of the genus of Birds (Gallus) to which the common Domestic Fowl [G. domestkus) belongs. This genus gives its name to the important order of Gallinaceous Birds, also called, from their well-known habit of scraping the earth in search of food, Ilasores (Lat. Scrapers) ; and is included in the family Phasianidce, with pheasants, tragopans, &c. The general form, and the charac- ters of the bill, feet, &c., agree with those of the j'heasauts ; but the crown of the head is generally naked, and furnished with a fleshy comb, the base of the lower mandibles also bearing fleshy lobes or wattles, characters which are most conspicuous in the males ; and the tail is very different from that of the jdieasants, and, indeed, very singularly formed, being couxposed of fourteen feathers in two nearly 45u vertical planes, or as if a horizontal tail were folded together, so as to make a sharp angle at top, the two middle feathers being the ui)permost, and in the males elongated beyond the rest, and gracefully arched. The tad-coverts of the male are also veiy ample, and the feathers of the back of the head and of the neck are either elongated and loosely webbed, forming the hackles, so much valued by anglers for dressing artificial flies, or are otherwise modified to serve the purpose of adornment ; characters which are also sometimes exhibited in a very fvnferior degree in the female sex. The legs of the maie ire armed with spurs, as in the ])heasants, of whiob much use is made in the combats of these birdi among themselves, all of them being very pugna- cious. They are all polygamous, and unable to endure the i)resence of a rival. They are all natives of the East Indies and of the Malayan Archipelago. From what country, and at what i)eriod the Domestic Fowl was originally introduced into Europe, is uncertain. The remains of Egyjitian antiquity carry us back to a period when it was apparently unknown in Egypt, and there is no distinct allusion to it in the Old Testament ; but it seems to have been common in the south of Europe from the earliest ages of European civilisation. The cock was sacred to Apollo, to Mercury, to Mars, and to i^sculapius. It was figured on Grecian and Koman coins and gems ; it Wiis higldy valued for its courage and pugnacity, and. the sport of cock-fighting was a favourite one both with the Greeks and the Komans, as it is amongst the Chinese, the Malays, and many other nations at the present day, and in former times was amongst all classes of society even in Britain. See Cock-fightino. The Domestic Fowl ajjpears to have been known to the ancient Britons before the lioman invasion ; and when the South Sea Islands were first visited by Europeans, it was found there in the same domesticated state, and there also cock-fighting was found to be a fashion- able anuisement of the savage natives. The native country of the Domestic Fowl is not certainly known, nor is it certain what the species is in its original state. The ancient Greeks sometimes called it the Persian Bird, and hence it has been sujjposed to be a native of Persia ; but there is nothing else to sup- port this opinion, and it seems Kkely enough that this appellation may at most only indicate its intro- duction into Greece from Persia. The Jungle Fowl of India, the first sjiecies of Gallus known in its wild state to naturalists, was for some time supposed to be the origin of the Domestic Fowl, but to this opinion there are strong objections in the very peculiar character of some of the feathers which distinguish the Jungle Fowl, and of which no trace ever appears in the Domestic Fowl. More leceutly, the Bankiva Fowl and other species have been discovered in Java and other islands of the Eastern Archipelago, more nearly resembling the Domestic Fowl, and the distribution of the latter through the islands of the Pacific Ocean is favourable to the belief that it derived its origin from that region ; l)ut still the identification of the spe-iica remains difficidt, and some naturalists inchue to the opinion that the Domestic Fowl may be deiired from intermixture of distinct wild races. The Bankiva Fowl {G. Bankiva), native of Java, is extremely similar to some of the domestic varieties ; indeed. Sir William Jardine says : ' Many Bantams so nearly resemble this bird, that tliere would be great difficulty in making a distinction. The comb is large and lobed, or dentelated ; the colours are brilliant, steel-blue and chestnut, black and yellowish brown, the hackles abundant and golden orange ; some parts of the plumage exhibit- ing a very fine • play of colours. A very similar FOWLER'S SOLUTION— FOWLING. species, or a variety of the same, but rather larger, is found in some parts of continental India.' Very similar also is the Bronzed Fowl {G. cene,us), found in Sumatra, a bird resplendent in metallic green, purj^le, and lake ; but of which the comb has the upper margin unbroken ; the wattles are combined into oue attached to the centre of the throat ; and the neck feathers do not assume the hackle character, which appeals in the neighbourhood of the tail alone. These pecidiarities also belong to the FoRX-TAiLED FowL [O. furcatus or Javanicus), a species very abimdant in the jungles of Java, and often to be seen on their outskirts, nearly two feet in length from the tip of the bill to the extremity of the tail. A still larger species — if, indeed, these are not rather varieties than species — is the Gigantic Fowl, Jago Fowl, or Kulm Fowl (G. giganteus) of Sumatra, with double wattle under the throat, abimdant hackles on the head, neck, and upper part of the back, greeu and reddish yellow the principal colours, and the height considerably more than two feet. — The Jungle Fowl [G. Son- neratli), abundant in the higher wooded districts of India, where it is much sought after by European sportsmen, is aboiit equal in size to an ordinary Domestic Fowl, but is more slender and graceful in its form ; the comb of the male is large, and its margin broken ; the colours are rich and beautiful ; but a remarkable peculiarity is exliibited in the hackle feathers, which are terminated by fiat horny plates of a golden orange colour, into which the Bhaft expands, or the shaft thickening and termi- nating abruptly gives rise to a battledore-like stem and disc, in substance like the tips of some of the feathers of the wax-wing. Of the Domestic Fowl there are some very curious varieties, of which some naturalists have attempted to constitute distinct species, particularly the Negro Fowl (G. morio), rarely seen in British poultry- yards, remarkable for the black colour of the perios- teum (the outer covering of the bones), and the dull purple of the comb, wattles, and skin ; the Silky Fowl {G. lanatus], very common in China and Japan, with periosteum and skin of the same dark colour as the Negro Fowl, but the flesh remarkably white, the comb and wattles purple, the feathers with webs disunited and silky ; and the Friesland (probably a mistake for Frizzled) Fowl [G. crispus), which has all the feathers standing nearly at right angles to the body. There are also varieties of the Domestic Fowl remarkable for what may be considered monstro- sities — as the want of a tail and of some of the last vertebra}, the presence of an additional spur on each leg (Dorkings, &c.), superabundant combs, crests or tufts of hackle feathers instead of combs, tufts of feathers springing from the lower jaw (the Siberian Fowl), &c. ; and there are many varieties esteemed by keepers of poultry, of which the most important are — 1. The Game Fowl, with erect and slender , body and shewy colours, valued also for the delicacy I of the flesh and of the eggs, although the eggs are rather small. It is this Ijreed which is used for cock- fighting ; and so excessive is the pugnacity which characterises it, that broods scarcely feathered are occasionally found to have reduced themselves fo uttrr blindness by their combats. Some poultry- keej^rs think it good to have a game-cock in their poultry-yard, on account of the improvement of the quality of the fowls sent to the table ; but it is almost needless to say, he must, like the prototype of Ivobinson Crusoe, be sole monarch of all he surveys. 2. The Dorking Fowl, so named from working, in Surrey, where it has long been bred in great numbers for the London market — a breed tharacterisod by an additional spur' on each leg ; often of a white colour, with short legs ; one ot the most useful of all l^reeds, both for excellence of flesh and for abundance of eggs. 3. 1'he Polish Fowl, black, with a white tuft, a breed very exten- sively reared in France, Egyi)t, &c., little inclineo to incubation, but valued for an almost uninter- rupted laying of eggs. 4. The Spanish Fowl, very sunilar to the Polish, but larger, and laying larger eggs, on account of which it is now muca valued, aiid very common in Britain ; black, with white cheeks and large red comb. 5. The Malay Fowl, tall and handsome, very pugnacious, but little esteemed. 6. The Hamburg, of veiy beau- tiful plumage, and much valued for the quality both of flesh and eggs, as also for extreme produc- tiveness of eggs. 7. The Cochin China Fowl, a large, tall, ungraceful variety, with small tail and wings, for which there was a great rage among ]ionltry fanciers ^vhen it was newly introduced into Britain ; and since then they have introduced several new varieties, bearing the names of Shanghai, Brah- mapootra, etc., which, under high feeding, are very productive, and attain large dimensions. 8. The BAN- TAM Fowl (q. v.), a diminutive variety, rather curious than useful. Of most of these there arc many sub- varieties and fancy breeds — gold-peneiUcd, silver- pencilled, &c. The common Dunghill Fowl is apparently a breed produced by the intermixture of others, and perhaps chiefly a less graceful, less spirited, and less pugnacious race of the Game Fowl. Concerning the treatment of the Domestic Fowl in the poultry-yard, the diseases to which it is liable, &c., see Poultry. The artificial hatching of eggs is noticed in the nrticle Incubation. Con- cerning the eggs ot the Domestic Fowl as an article of coiumerce, &c., see Egg. The readiness with which the Domestic Fowl can be induced to go on laying eggs far beyond the num- ber proper for a brood, is not nearly equalled in the case of any other domesticated bird, and greatly enhances the usefulness of this species to mankind, whether the eggs are used for food, or, by artificial hatching, made to produce chickens, as is common in Egypt and some other countries. Few hena incubate oftener than once a year, but some lay in the course of a year even more than 200 eggs. FOWLER'S SOLUTION. See Arsenic. FOWLING— the killing or taking of birds for tne sake of their flesh, feathers, &c. — is very variously practised in diff"erent parts of the world. In some places, it is one of the principal employments of the people, who greatly depend on it for their subsistence, and prosecute it -wdth the greatest toil and danger ; elsewhere, it is in some of its forms a recreation, for the sake of which much expense is incurred by the opulent. The modes in which it is practised depend partly on the habits of different kinds o£ birds, and partly on the progress of civilisation and the arts. The peculiar habits of some birds render it ver}' easy to take or kill them. Nets are much used in the capture of many kinds of birds, parti- cularly of small birds intended for the table : bird- lime is employed for the same purpose, and birds are taken by means of it in greatest numbers near their drinking-places, particidarly in hot and dry weather ; gins, springes, and traps of various kinds are also employed. The numerous kinds of ducks, geese, and other Anatidm, are, in an economical point of view, among the most important of birds ; and the methods employed for their capture are very various and interesting. These, however, we reserve for a separate article. Wildfowl ; and refraining also here from any notice of the amusements of the 457 FOWLING— FOWLS OF WARREN. si)ortsnmn, we shall proceed to describe the methods adopted in Roch-fowling , on which the inhabitants of many northern coasts and islands in a great measure depend for their means of subsistence. Of all kinds of fowling, it is by far the most adventurous. The objects of pursuit Are gannets or solan geese, gulls, terns, guillemots, and other sea-birds, which fre- quent the most lofty precipices, and breed on their shelves and ledges. The flesh, even of the best of them, is generally coarse, and of a fishy taste, yet it forms great part of the food of the poor people, both fresh, and salted for winter provisions. The flesh of the young is more tender and pleasant than that of adult birds. The eggs of some species are Bought after by the same perilous means as the birds themselves. The feathers, too, are an article of commerce. The people of St Kilda pay part of their rent in feathers ; and the rocks of that island are apportioned among its inhabitants as exactly as its soil. Almost every man in the island is a cragsman or rock-fowler, which is pretty nearly the case also in many other northern isles. The multitudes of sea-fowl around many of the rocky northern coasts is prodigious, resembling at a dis- tance — as may be seen at the Bass llock in the Firth of Forth — the bees around a l)usy hive. Uninhal)ited islets are annually visited by fowlers, as Borrera by the people of St Kilda ; and the * stacks;' or high insular rocks near the shore, are often extremely productive. These are, of course, reached by means of a boat ; and whilst landing is often both difiicidt and dangerous, the climbing of the precipice is still more so. The Norwegian fowlers, or ' bird-men,' carry on such expeditions with a bird-pole or fowUng-staff, about five or six yards long, and a rope of several fathoms. The bird-pole has an iron hook at one end : it has also a flat head ; ?.ud by means of it the fowler is pushed and guided by his comrades below as he ascends a very steep or precipitous cliff ; by means of it, also, he strikes down or draws in birds. The rope is used to %sten two fowlers together, being attached to the waist of each : they aid one another in climbi'ig, pushing, and drawing one another up the rocks, the safety of the one often depending on the strength and courage of the other. The bird-pole is also used with a small net attached to it, in the capture of birds that are flying around. The Nor- "vegian fowlers sometimes remain for days on ledges where birds are abundant, sleeping in boles or clefts, and having food let down to them by a roj^ft from above. Still more perilous, if possible, is the mode of fowling practised where the precipices cannot be scaled The fowler is let down by a rope, and hangs in mid-air, often at an elevation of several hundred feet, above rough rocks or roaring waves ; and by means of his feet or of a pole, throws himself out to ruich a distance from the face of the rock as to obtain a view of all its ledges and crannies, to which, with astonishing coolness and dexterity, he directs his course, often also catching the Isirds lhat fly near him in the air. Speaking of the iowlers of St Kilda, Wilson ( Voyage Round the Coasts of Scotland and the Isles) remarks : ' How one man (for such is the case), himself stand- ing with the points of his toes upon the verge of a precipice many hundred feet deep, can, with such secure and unerring strength, sustain the ent.'re weight of another man bounding from point to point below him with irregular and frequent springs, is what a stranger cannot understand But we ascertained that there is never more than a single man above sui)porting the weight of the one below. Each of these couples has two ropes. The rope which the upper man holds in 458 his hands is fastened round the body and beneath the arms of him who desrends, whi]« another rope is pressed by the feet of the upper man, and ia held in the hand of the lower.' The second rope is for giving signals, and for sending up birds when captured. The principal rope is made of raw cow- hide, exit into thongs and twisted ; it is so durable as to last for two generations, and is bequeathed as valuable property by father to son. Other materials, however, are used elsewhere ; and the practice differs also as to the number of comrades holding the rope above. In the Faroe Isles, v/here some of the precii)ices are 1400 feet in heiglit, the rope is usually held by a number of men. In some of the Scottish islands, fowlers have been adventurous enough to descend the cliffs unaided, fastening the rope for themselves to a stake driven into the ground above. The fowlers of the Faroe Isles sometimes use the pole with net at the end, whilst susjiended in the air. It is not unusual for the fowler, when he finds a ledge or recess in the precii)ice abounding in birds, to disengage himself from the rope whilst he pursues his labours tliere ; but when the precipice overhangs above, he is exposed to a great danger of the rope's escaping from his reach. A case is on record in which the only resource of the fowler was to make a desperate spring and catch the rope, which himg a few feet before him in the air ; and this he succeeded in doing. The cut represents rock-fowling at the Holm of Noss, a precipitous insular rock, separated from Nosa The Holm of Noss, Shetland. one of the Shetland Isles, by a chasm of 65 feet wide, and 160 feet deep, over which ropes have been stretched, so that a cradle or sparred box can be made to pass along them, affording access to the grassy summit of the Holm, where a few sheep now feed, and where innumerable sea-birds make thsix nests. FOWLS OF WARREN. Lord Coke says they are ' the partridge, quail, rail, &,c.,' ' pheasant, wood- cock, &c.,' and the ' mallard, heron, &c.,' leaving the etcffiteras without explanation (Co. Litt. 233). Man* wood, again, lays it down that there are only two fowls of warren, the pheasant and the partridge (Manw. 95). In the Duke of Devonshire v. Lodge (7 B. and C. 36), it was decided that grouse are no* bii ds of warren. FOX. FOX, Charles James, a celebrated WTiig states- man, was the second sou of Henry Fox, first Lord Holland, by Lady Georgiana Carolina, eldest daughter of the Duke of Richmond. He was born, according to Lord John Kussell's memoir, on the 24th January 1749 (N.S.), and was educated at Eton and Oxford, spending his vacations on the continent in the gayest and wittiest circles of the French capital, and visiting Switzerland and Italy. Not- withstanding the irregular life which he led even as a school-boy, he was very distinguished for ability both at school and college ; and so high was his father's oi:)inion of his talents, that at the age of nineteen he had him brought into parliament as member for the borough of Midhurst, a step to which he is said to have been further incited by the fact, that, even at this early age, F.'s energies had found an outlet in gambling and various other forms of dissipation. His precocity in vice, as well as in intellectual development, is said to have been the result of the injudicious fondness of his very unprincipled but very gifted father. Till he attained his majority, F. prudently kept silent in the House, but immediately thereafter he appeared as a supporter of the administration of Lord North, and was rewarded with the office of one of the lords of the Admiralty. In 1772, he resigned that office, and the following year was named a commissioner of the Treasury. From that post he was dismissed, in consequence of a quarrel with Lord North, and passed over to the ranks of the opposition. During the whole course of the American war, he was the most formidable oj)ponent of the coercive measures which were adopted by the government, and the most powerful advocate of the claims of the colo- nists ; acting, to this extent at least, in accordance with the views which for many years before had been urged upon the country by the great Lord Chatham, the father of his future rival Mr Pitt. The difference between them was, that whereas Lord Chatham urged conciliation, in order to pre- serve the connection between the two countries, F. foresaw and foretold the necessity and the advan- tages of complete sejjaration. In 1782, on the down- fall of Lord North, F. was appointed one of the secretaries of state, which office he held till the death of the Marquis of Eockingham, when he was succeeded by the Earl of Shelburne, afterwards Marquis of Lansdowne. On the dissolution of the Shelburne administration, the North and Fox coali- tion was formed, and F. resumed his former office ; but the rejection of his India Bill by the House of Lords soon after led to the resignation of his govern- ment. It was now that Mr Pitt came into power, and that the long and famous contest between him and F., who occupied the position of leader of the opposition, commenced. In 1788, he enjoyed a short respite from his public labours. Accompanied by his wife, he visited the continent, and having epent a few days at Lausanne, in the company of Gibbon, who was there engaged in writing his famous history, he set out for Italy. The sudden illness of the king, however, and the necessity of constituting a regency, rendered it undesirable that he should be longer absent from England, and he hastened back to his post. The regency, the trial of WaiTen Hastings, the French Revolution, and the events which followed it, gave ample scope to the talents and energies of F., and on all occasions he emploved his influence to modify, if not to coun- teract, the policy of his great rival. He was a Btrenuous oi)ponent of the war with France, and an advocate of those non-intervention views which find greater favour in our day than tliey did in his. After the death of Pitt, F. was recalled to office, and endeavoured to realise his doctrines by setting on foot negotiations for a peace with France, the residts of which he did not live to witness. He died on the 13th September 1806, in his 59th year. In private life, Mr F. was a genial companion, kindly and sincere in the closer nJations of friendship, whilst his conduct to those to whom he was opposed in i)ublic was generous, and free from every trace of malignity or enmity. Lord John Russell, in the preface to his Memorials and Correspondence, speaks of the singular candour, boldness, simplicity, and kindness of his character ; and of his oratorical powers it is enough to record, that Burke called him ' the greatest debater the world ever saw,' and Sir James Mackintosh, 'the most Demosthenian speaker since Demosthenes.' His remains were interred in Westminster Abbey, so near to those of Pitt, as to suggest to Sir Walter Scott the well- known couplet — Shed upon Fox's grave the tear, 'Twill trickle to his rival's bier. FOX, George, a religious reformer, and chief In- strument in gathering the Society of Friends (q. v.), was born in Leicestershire, England, in 1624. As he was called to a great Avork of reformation — to aAvuken men from lifeless forms and dogmas to a sense of the vital importance of an inward, living, spiritual religion — he was prepared for this work by peculiarities of original character, and by trials such as few before him had experienced. When about 23 yeaisof age he began to preach, and thereafter travelled much in the ministry, convincing and gathering many 'from the old ways,' as he expresses it, 'to Christ, the new and living way ; from the churches which men had made ; from the world's worships, which knew not tha spirit of truth in the inward parts; from Jewish cer- emonies, heathenish fables, men's inventions, windy doctrines, and schools for making ministers which are not Christ's.' ' I was,' says he, ' to direct people to the Spirit that gave forth the Scriptures, and turn them to the grace of God and to the truth in the heart, which came by Jesus.' This doctrine Avas received Avith derision, and his person frequently suffered im- prisonment and abuse from priests and magistrates, both Puritan and Churchman. ' But in his persecu- tions,' says Spurgeon, 'he stands before us as a true man, a complete man, one of the noblest types of manhood, a model of Avhat gracious manhood may become.' His refusal to comply Avith the fashions of the Avorld and to pay homage to the pride of man raised against him a host of enemies. The testimony he bore to a free gospel ministry, though not peculiar to him and his friends, Avas another cause of antipathy to the ris- ing society. Though the doctrine of the teaching A. the Holy Spirit is an essential doctrine of Christianity, and to it the Christian, in all ages, has ascribed his illumination and regeneration, yet Avhen Geor^ e Fox visited Scotland and promulgated the universality of the grace of God, the priests drew up a series of curses to be read in their steeple-houses, to Avhich all their hearers were required to say amen ! Such Avas the character of many of the teachers of that day against Avhom Fox raised his voice. But time has reversed the decisions of these professors of religion, and many Avill now admit Avhat Spurgeon has so aptly expressed: ' When I first read George Fox's life I could think of nothing but the SeruKm on the Mount. Fox seemed an incarnation of it, and his teachings — just a repeti- tion of the Master's teachings — just an expansion and explanation of the primary principles of Christianity.' The events of his life are of minor significance compared Avith the Christian doctrines he taught, Avhich have moulded in a great degree the civilization of nearly two centuries, and our space Avill permit ua to notice but a few of them. 45tf FOX. In 1669 he married Margaret Fell, widow of Juds^e Fell of Swarthmore, a woman hi<^hly esteemed for her piety and good sense, who suffered about ten years' imprisonment at different times because of her faith. In 1672 he visited Barbadoes, whei'e his sympathies were awakened for the slaves, which induced him to write an address to their masters recommending- their liberation after certain years of sound Christian train- ing. In the same year he visited the Provinces of N. America, enduring great hardships and making many converts. He returned to England in 1673, and was Imprisoned in Worcester jail through the malice of his enemies, and brought before Sir Matthew Hale, Chief Justice. The writ of indictment having been found defective, and some envious persons advising the dhief Justice to tender to him the oath of allegiance. Baying he was 'a dangerous man to be at large,' Hale replied he * had indeed heard such rejjort, but he had heard many more good reports of him,' and ordered Fox to be discharged by proclanuition. In 1677 Fox visited the Continent of Euroj^e, in company with William Fenn and Robert Barclay, and assisted in establishing a yearly meeting for Friends of Holland, the Palatinate, Hamburg, Dantzig, etc. Here he was well received, and Lutheran priests con- fessed they had never heard tJie truth so jjlainly opened to their understanding. In 1678 he returned to his home in Swarthmore, and although much en- feebled, his limbs being stiffened by exposure to wet and cold in noisome dungeons, so that it was painful to ride or walk, yet the lively zeal and energy of his mind Buffered no abatement, and during this retirement he wrote many excellent epistles. On the 13th of 11th month, 1690 (Jatmary, 1691), this Christian soldier rested from his warfare. Among his last expressions were : *A11 is well * The seed of God reigns over all — even death itself.' The mental faculties of George Fox were clear and vigorous, and though deprived of the benefit of early education, he yet cultivated various branches of useful knowledge. He was a friend of learning, and not only promoted the establishment of several schools, which he frequently visited, but spent considerable time and pains in acquiring a knowledge of one or more of the ancient languages. He cannot, however, be considered learned, but ' was,' says Coleridge, * an uneducated man of genius;' and it must challenge •>ur admiration that he should, ' without human learn- ing, have done more,' says Gov. William Livingston, 'towards the restoration of real unadulterated Christi- anity, and the extirpation of priestcraft, superstition, and unaA ailing rites and ceremonies than an}' other reformer in Protestant Christendom with it.' Perhaps there exists no better monument to his wisdom than the admirable code of discipline for the Society of Friends, almost every feature of which originated with him. This production has compelled eulogy from a writer in the Annual Review and Iliatory of Litera- ture for 1 808 in the following strain : ' There is no character in Christian history since the days of its divine founder more pure from spot or stain than that of George Fox. No form of civil polity so unexcep- tionable in its means and ends, so beautiful in all its parts, so perfect as a whole, has ever been imagined in philosophical romance or proj^osed in theory as this man conceived and established and reduced to prac- tice.' In person, George Fox was tall and rather corpu- lent, his countenance manly, intelligent, and graceful, and his manners, says William Penn, 'civil beyond all fornjs of breeding.' The same competent witness adds that * though God had visibly clothed him with a divine preference and authority — and indeed his very presence expressed a religious majesty — he never abused it, but held his place in the Church of God 460 with meekness and a most engaging humility and moderation.' They who would understand the cha- racter and Christian doctrines of this great reformer should read the Journal of his Life, ' which,' says Sir James Mackintosh, *is one of the most extraordinary and instructive documents in existence, and which no reader of competent judgment can peruse without re- vering the virtues of the author.' 'There exist folios,* says Coleridge, *on the human understanding which would have a far juster claim to their high rank and celebrity if in the whole huge volume there could bo found as much fulness of heart and intellect as burst forth in many a simple page of George Fox." See Journal of the lAfe of George Fox, and Pre- face, by William Pcnn ; Life, etc., by Kev. Josiah Marsh, Lond., 1 847 ; Addreas to the Society of I'ViendSy by Rev, C. H. Spurgeon, Lond., 1866. And for a list of his writings, see Catalogue of Friends' Hooks, by Josei)h Smith, 2 vols. Svo., Lond., 1867. J. S. L. FOX, William Johnson, orator and political writer, the son of a small Suffolk farmer, who after- wards settled as a weaver at Norwich, was Lorn in 1786. He gave early promise of talent, and was sent to Homei-ton College, to be trained for the ministry of the Independents. He subsequently seceded to Unitarianism, but ultimately shaking off all allegiance to existing Christian churches, he delivered a scries of prelections at his chapel in South Place, Finsbuiy, wdiich marked him out as the leader and organ of English rationalism. AVheu the Anti-cora-law League enlisted the ablest plat- form orators of the day in the service of free trade, his bold and imimssioned rhetoric greatly contributed to arouse and intensify public feeling. M. Guizot quotes his speeches as the most finished examples of oratory which the great conflict produced. Their effect upon the vast metropolitan audiences to which they were addressed was electric. F. also con- tributed by his pen to the success of free trade, and his Letters of a Norwich Weaver Boy were largely quoted and read. After the abolition of the Corn Laws, he was invited to stand for Oldham, which borough he continued to represent, with a brief in- terval, for many years. Like most men who enter the House of Conunons late in life, F. did not alto- gether realize the oratorical promise of his platform and pulpit career. His best parliamentary speeches were upon the education of the peo{)le. As a poli- tician, he was a consistent member of the advanced Liberal party. A succession of illnesses, in his later years, interfered with his attendance in parliament. He was among the earliest contributors to the West' minster Review^ edited for many years the Monthly Repository^ and largely contributed to various other organs of public opinion. His Lectures, chiefly ad- dressed to the Working- Classes, have been published in 3 vols. He is the author of a philosophical disser- tation on Religious Ideas, and other theological works. He died June 3, 1864. FOX ( Vulpes), a genus of Canidre (q. v.), particu- larly distinguished from dogs, wolves, jackals, etc., by the pupils of the eyes contracting vertically, and in the form of the section of a lens, not circularly. This takes place whenever the eyes are turned to « strong light, and foxes are all nocturnal animals. Foxes are also generally of lower stature in propor- tion to their length than the other Canidce ; they have a roundish head, with a very pointed muzzle, short triangular ears, slender limbs, and a bushy tail. They dig burrows for themselves in the earth, or take possession of holes already existing. They feed on small quadrupeds, birds, eggs, etc. ; some of them, however, also partly on fruits and other vegetable substances. The Common Fox ( V. vulgaris), a na- tive of most parts of Europe, is the only I3ritish species, and is still pretty abundant in most parw ol FOX. the country, protected with a view to the sport of fox- hanting. The common fox is a, reddish brown above, wliite beneath, the outside of the ears black, a black line extendineriod an inclination for Latin poetry, and wrote several plays in that language upon scriptural subjects. Of these, the only one that remains, entitled De Christo Triumphante, was printed at London in 1551, and at Basel in 1556, 8vo, and 1672. The religious movements of the times led him to study the great controversy between Popery and Protestantism, and becoming a convert to the principles of the Reformation, he was, July 22, 1545, expelled from his college for heresy. His father being dead, and his mother married again, his step- father refused him any further aid, and he was, in consequence, reduced to great distress. For a short time, he was employed as tutor to the children of Sir Thomas Lucy of Chailccote, Warwdckshire, and afterwards was engaged by the Duchess of Rich- mond as tutor to the childi'cn of her brother, the Earl of Surrey, then a state prisoner in the Tower. In this capacity he remained during the whole reign of Edw^ard VI., but was never, notwithstanding Anthony 4 Wood's assertion to the contrary, restored to his fellowship at Magdalen. On June 23, 1550, he was ordained deacon by Ridley, Bishop of London, and preached the doctrines of the Reformation at Reigate. During the reign of Mary, he retired to the continent. On the accession of Queen Elizabeth, he returned to England in October 1559 ; and in May 1563, he was inducted into the canonry and prebend of Shipton, in the cathedral of Salisbury. He also enjoyed the living of Cripplegate, which he soon resigned, and for a year he held a stall at Durham. In 1575, when some Dutch Anabaptists were condemned to the flames in London, F. inter- ceded for them with Queen Elizabeth and othei persons in authority, but wdthout eflfect. He wrote numerous controversial and other works, but the one that has immortalised his name is his Histcj-y of the Acts and Monuments of the Church, popularly known as Foxe's Book of Martyrs, the first part of which was published at Strasbxirg in 1554. The FOXES— FOX-HUNTING. first English edition appeared in 1563, in one vol. Ifolio. Sanctioned by the bishops, it was ordered, by a canon of the Anglican Convocation, to be placed in the hall of every episcopal palace in England, and has gone through inniimerable editions. It IS not a very critical work, as might naturally be supposed, and Roman Catholics deny its trust- worthiness. F. died in 1587, in his 70th year, and was buried in the chancel of St Giles's, Cripplegate, lK)ndon. FOXES AND FOX-HUNTING. The law with reference to fox-hunting, which is a matter of a giod deal of importance in many parts of the Cvuntry, seems to stand thus in England : ' Though ill general all persons who go upon another's lands without permission are tresj)assers in the eye of the law, yet there are some cases where the trespass is said to be justifiable,' says Mr Paterson, the most recent wi-iter on the subject, and he quotes Black- stone's dictum to the effect that ' the common law warrants the hunting of ravenous beasts of i)rey, as badgers and foxes, in another man's land, because the destroying such creatures is said to be profitable to the public' (3 Black. Com. 212). Care must be taken, however, that no damage be done Ijeyond what is necessary for the public good, for that is the ground on which alone the legal character of fox- hunting can be maintained. It was found, more- over, in the Earl of Essex v. Capel '1 Chitt. Game L. 114), that though pursuing a fox on another's land be justifiable, yet, if it take to earth, or to a bouse there, it is not justifiable to dig or break doors for it. In Scotland, where, from the character of the country, fox-hunting is often impossible, it never has become a national sport to the same extent as in England ; and cojisequently, the rule that one is entitled to enter on the lands of another for the pur[)ose of killing a fox, has been confined to those cases in which he is pursued simply as a noxious beast, and fox-hunting for sport ^\itllout leave has been held to be punishable as a trespass, and the trespasser held liable for Avhatever surface- damage he may occasion. In Ireland (by 1 and 2 Will. IV. c. 32, s. 35), persons pm-suing with hounds any fox, hare, or deer which has been stai-ted elsewhere on another's land, are exempted from summary proceedings for trespass. FOXGLOVE. See Digitalis. FOXHOUND, a kind of dog much used in Britain for the sport of fox-hunting. It is not quite Bo large as the staghound, and is perhaps a mixed breed between the staghound or the bloodhound and the greyhound. The colour is commonly white, with large patches of black and tan colour. Their speed and persevei'ance are remarkable ; they have been known ' to run hard for ten hours before they came up with and killed the fox, and the sportsmen were either thro\vu. out, or changed horses three times.' FOX HUNTING, from its exciting nature, as well as from the qualities of daring courage and cool calculation requisite in those who thoroughly follow and appreciate it, has long been termed the king of British national sports. In Great Britain, there are upwards of 100 hunting establishments, of which by far the greater proportion belong to the coimties south oi the Tweed. Fox-himting establishments — which are in most instances supported by subscription, though sometimes owned by private gentlemen of wealth and influence — are organised and maintained at a very considerable annual cost, the price of a single pack of foxhounds sometimes amounting to several thousand g^iineas. Every establishment 463 is under the direct superintendence and control of one experienced ^rentleman, the master, and under him again rank the huntsman, whijjpers-in, earth- stopper, kennel-servants, &c. A ' pack ' is composed of from 20 to 60 couples of hounds, the number greatly depending upon the frequency of hunting- days : thus, some packs hunt six days, some five days, others four, and many only two days a week ; 30 cou])le of hounds is a good averag«i ; these are carefully reared, fed, and Dfcherwise attended to. The master himself, as a matter of course, has the general superintendence of tLa servants, hounds, and horses ; and in the huutiuf;- field is general director of the proceedings. N(!xt to him come the huntsman and one or tvva * whippers-in ' ('whips'). The huntsman, who ia practically the most important personage in the field, reqiiircs to see that his hounds are pro- perly managed and fed m their kennels ; duly led to the j)lace of meeting on hunting-days ; and, what is of more consequence still, that they receive fair-i)lay in the field, and find and hunt their foxes in true style. The huntsman requires to be a man of great nerve and much activity : he shoidd also have a good head, a clear ringing voice, a keen eye, and above all he must be a first- rate horseman, and know thoroughly every point in the country over which he hunts. He has often to resti-ain heedless riders, and 'keep the field back ;' a duty requiring firmness of character, with a quiet and civil manner. With these necessary qualifications, and having so many rcs])onsible duties on his shoulders, he is treated with great resi)ect by those for whom he provides sport : he is mounted on the best horses his master can produce, and may be said to conduct and direct the hunt from the moment the fox is found till the moment of its death — from ' find to finish.' The duties of the first whipper-in, though not so responsil)le as those of the hiintsman, are still con- siderable : for instance, he takes a certain manage- ment of the hounds in kennel, assists in conducting the hounds to the ' meet,' and aids the himtsman in various ways during the nin. His knowledge of the management of hounds, and of fox-hunting generally, must at the same time be sufch as to enable him to occupy the huntsman's place in an emergency. The ' second whip's ' principal duty is that of bringing up and urging on lagging hounds in the field, by lashing and ' rating.' In many hunts, however, a second whipper-in is dispensed with. A considerable range of country is necessary for the full enjoyment of fox-hunting, vhe best being that which is diversified by pasturage and planta- tion. Being a noctumal feeder, the fox quits his burrow or ' earth ' — wliich is generally in a gorse brake, or a plantation or covert of imderwood — ■ during the night, and returns to it in the nioming, and this fact is taken advantage of by those who hunt him for sport. The day and pleice of 'the meet' are duly advertised, and on the night before the hunt, the coverts to be 'drawn ' next day are %'isite^ either by a duly appointed earth-stopper or by tht gamekeeper, who, knowing that the foxes are from home, proceeds, spade in hand, from one hole to another, filling them up with earth and brush- wood as he goes. Thus, the fox, upon returning at dawn to his ' earth,' finds ingress denied, and so betakes himself to some neighbouring thicket, or to some unenclosed cover of gorse, rushes, &c., where he makes a temporary lair or 'kennel.' When the earths have been carefully closed, the earth- stopper returns home and mforms the huntsman, or first ' whip,' as to their number and locality, FOX-HUNTING. and tliat information forms a gnide for the pro- ceedings of the following day. (After the hunt is over, the earths are reopened, and as little trace as possible Mt of the work.) The hour of 'the meet ' is usually ten or eleven o'clock A. M., and at the appointed place assemljle the whole field, including master, huntsman, whippers-in, hounds, and those gentlemen (and frequently ladies) who intend either to participate in the day's sport, or merely to see the 'hounds throw off.' When a covert is reached, the huntsman, by a wave of his hand, or a few familiar words, such as ' Eu in ! eu in there ! good dogs ! ' ' throws in ' his hoimds, following immediately after with the first •whip.' The mounted gentlemen usually remain outside, and take their directions as to stance, &c., from the master^ who from this time forward does his best to control and direct their move- ments. In fact, the master may be said to have the control of the 'field' — that is, the ridei's — and the huntsman that of the hounds and hunt. The second whip being posted at the covert side, near where it is expected a fox may burst through or ' break,' one or two of the more eager riders are sometimes permitted to jump their horses into the covert, if it be large, to assist in the finding of the fox. Those who remain outside then prepare themselves for their work, and eagerly listen for the first token of the presence of rey- nard ; this is betrayed by a slight but anxious whimper or whine from the ' challenging ' hound — that is, the hound (usually an old and experienced one) that first perceives or ' hits ' the scent of a fox —and is soon followed by others, who instantly rush to his side. The huntsman, if he be tolerably certain that the game scented is no other than a fox, at judicious intervals urges on his hounds by familiar expressions, such as ' Yoicks, yoicks, have at him ! ' ' Push him up ! ' &c., till the fox is fairly roused from his kennel, and goes away. It not unfrequently happens while drawing coverts, that hounds M'ill come suddenly upon a fox, and seize him before he has time to escape. This is termed ' chopping,' and is always to be prevented if possible. If the covert be very thick, a fox may leave his kennel unperceived ; and when he does so, he usually runs through or round the covert for a considerable distance before quitting it for the open fields. He may also ' rim his foil,' by doubling back and forward on the Bame path or track, and thus possibly baffle the hounds, even when they ' own his scent.' In large coverts, too, a fox frequently 'hangs;' that is, he remains in it for a long time before going away. The person irho first sees the fox ' break cover,' or, in other words, 'views him away,' shoidd always allow him a certain 'law' before giving the 'view halloo,' as a fox will frequently turn or ' head back ' into covert if he hears any unusual noise at the instant of his quitting it. When, however, the person or persons w^ho are watching see that the fox is really off, notice is instantly given to those within the thicket, and those without, by the cry of ' Ron — y ! hou — y ! Tallyho ! Gone away ! Gone AW' -AY ! ! ' upon which the huntsman blows his horn to collect his hounds ; the whipper-in drives out lagging members of the pack, either with his whip or by some cry ; the master restrains the more impatient of the riders till the huntsman and hounds have 'settled to' their fox; and then he and the entire field join in the chase, and the first, and frequently the most exciting, part of the day's proceedings has commenced — the fox has 'broke cover,' the hoimds have been 'laid on,' and the field has entered on its impetuous ' first burst.' A certain etiqucHe is, however, absolutely necessary in allowing the hounds and liuntsman to get away first; but after that, each rider, with a certain Fox-hunting — * Gone away ! ' deference to the master, chooses his own place in the hunt, and does his best, independently of his neighbours, to keep at a certain distance, not directly in the line, but to one side and in the rear of the hounds. When a rider happens to be near the pack at the first burst, and gets a good position in following them, he is said to 'get well aM^ay wnth the hounds;' and if well mounted and a skilful rider, his chances of both viewing the hunt and being ' in at the death ' are very considerable. And now, as w^e have already said, begins the grand excitement of the day ; the fox being fresh, races away at tremendous speed, followed by perhaps upwards of twenty couple of hounds at full cry. If the day is proi:)itiou3 (a 'southerly wind and i^loudy sky' having long retained favour), the scent of the retreating fox lies well, especially at first, when it is called ' burning ' or ' breast high,' and is for many minutes ' ovviied ' by at least all the leading hounds in the pack, though, perhaps, the object of pursuit itself is far ahead, and out of sight; and- away streams the hunt OA^er hedges, ditches, and gates, across rivers, railways, arable land, and grass pastures, perhaps for several miles before a single check occurs. Now, the foxhound hunts almost entirely by scent, and does not, like the greyhound, depend upon the eye. The fact of scent failing, there- fore, at any time during the hunt, throws out the hounds, and prevents them from rene-^ang it, untU the scent is recovered, or 'hit off.' When the scent is 'burning,' hounds run almost mnte, though at first, and at intervals afterwards, they usually ' throw their tongues ' pretty freely. When aU the hounds are giving tongue, they are said to be at ' full cry,' and ' carry a good head,' the scent behig on such occasions so thoroughly diffused as to be felt or ' owned ' breast high by probably every membei of the pack. Sometimes scent becomes so faint as to l>e harcUy perceptible, and when this is the case, the energy of the hounds abates considerably ; they then run with their heads close to the ground, and are said to hunt a ' cold ' scent. Here, however, a little timely assistance from the huntsman is of the greatest moment in restoring animation to the pack. He waves his cap, blows his horn, and encourages hiiS hounds by well-known expressions, to renewed exertions. When, as fiequently happens from various causes, the scent fails entirely — such as the fox FOX-HUNTING. crossing water, running* through a drove of sheep, ' heading back ' in anotner direction, running along or lying upon the tops of walls or thick hedges, &c. — the hounds cease 'giving tongue,' suddenly stop, throw up their heads, and are 'at fault.' In this emergency, the ' field ' remains at a respectful distance behind, and the huntsman knowing, or at least guessing by exx)erience which way the fox has taken, or the special means he has adopted for foiling the scent, allows his hounds at first, for a few moments, themselves to attem])t to regain it; but failing that, and finding that his interference and assistance are necessary, he instantly blows his hora, and calls or 'lifts his hounds' from the place, and 'takes a cast' round and round about the spot where the scent failed, cheering them on the while. Thus, by gradually widening his casts, the scent is very frequently recovered or 'hit off,' a circum- stance which is soon made apparent by the whimper of recognition given by the hound that first ' owns it,' followed by the answering tongues of the whole pack. When the hounds, however, fail to 'hit off' the scent, if the day be far advanced, they are taken home, or they are trotted on to some neigh- bouring covert, which is drawn for a fresh fox. When the fox is killed, either in ' the open ' or elsewhere, the rider who is first in at ' the death ' — swually the huntsman — springs off his horse, with a ' Whoo ! whoop ! ' lashes the hounds off, and cuts o9 the head, feet {jyads), and tail (the brush). He the;n flings the carcas3 to the hounds, who tear it to pieces, and devour it in a very few minutes. The brush is usually presented to any lady who may hapi>en to be in at the death, or is claimed as a trophy by one or other of the gentlemen present. The ]yads likewise are distributed amongst those who may wish to preserve mementos of the chase. As a general rule, the huntsman, and several of the best mounted in the field, manage to be in, either at or immediately after tlie death, though instances are not wanting when, during unusually protracted runs, the hounds have left every rider far behind, and have followed and killed their fox miles away from the spot where the last horseman had given in. A strong fox will 'live' before hounds on an average for an hour or an hour and a half ; Imt cases have been known when this has been far exceeded, and when the run has extended to thirty or even forty miles, and has lasted all day, and even into the night. Young foxhounds begin their career by what ia termed cub-huntincf ; but this, however necesasry it may be for teaching them, is considered infeiior sport to regular hunting. The midland counties of England, such as Leicester, Northampton, Warwick, Yorkshire, &c., are the befifc Blooa Hunter clearing a stone wall in good style (from Blaine's Encyclopcedia of Rural Sports). for hunting purposes in Great Britain ; and owe thei r superiority in a great measure to two causes : \st, the strict preservation and consequent niunber of foxes ; and 2d, the extensive tracts of pasturage being favourable both for running and scent. The instinct of the fox leads him, as a general ride, to run down wind, that his scent may not be blown to the hounds ; he also takes advantage of every peculiarity in a country likely to offer him an advantage over his foes. The fox-hunter must be possessed of consider- able courage, united with coolness, and must be a judge of pace and have a good eye in 'riding to hounds.' to avoid tiring or ' overmarking ' his horse unnecessari'.y. Much of the excitement and pleasiire of the fox-hunter consists in his successfully leaping 404 the various hedges, ditches, fences, &c., encountered; but at the same time, a really skilful and humane rider, however well mounted, will never knowingly urge his horse at a fence or leap of any kind, unless he is positively certain it is within his horse's power ; and if he finds his horse betrays symptoms of distress, he will rather turn its head homewards, and forego the chase, than overtax its courage and strength. Much usefxd and entertaining information on fox- hunting occurs in Blaine's Encydopo'dia of Rural Sports (London, Longmans) ; British JRvral Sports, by Stonehenge ; Beckford's Thoughts on Hunting; lieminiscences of a Huntsman; Nimrod ; The Field newspaper ; &c. Fox-hunting is not practised after the English FOX ISLANDS -FOYLE. fashion in the northern states of America, but in the southern states from Maryland to Florida, it is a favourite amusement. The object of jnirsuit, how- ever, is the Gray Fox ( Vulpes VirgirJ.anua)^ and the chase is not so severe, and seldom lasts so long as that of the common fox. FOX ISLANDS, another name for the Aleu- tian Islands (q. v.). FOX RIVER is the name of two considerable strtams in the United States of America, both of them rising in Wisconsin. — 1. The F. E., or Pishtaka, is an affluent of the Illinois, which is itself a tribu- tary of the Mississippi. It is 200 miles long, and is valuable chiefly for its water-power. — 2. '^le F. R, or Neenah, after a course of about the same length, falls into Green Bay in Lake Michigan. It is divided into two sections by Lake Winnebago, the upper one being connected by a canal with the Wisconsin, so as to link together the Mississippi and the Great Lakes of the St Lawrence. FOX SHARK, or THRESHER [Alopias or Alopecias), a genus of sharks, containing only one known species [A. vulpes), an inhabitant of the Mediterranean and of the Atlantic, and occasionally Fox Shark {Alopias vulpes). Be«n on the British coasts. The snout is short and conical ; the spout-holes are very small ; the mouth in not so large as that of the white shark, nor the teeth so formidable ; but the F. S. is extremely bold and voracious, readily attacking grampuses or dolphins much larger than itself. Its most remark- able pecidiarity is the great elongation of the upper lobe of the tail-fin, which is nearly equal in length to the whole body, and into which the vertebral column extends. Of this it makes use as a weapon, striking with great force. It is said to be not uncommon for a whole herd of dolphins to take flight at the flrst splash of the tail of a fox shark. From the use which it makes of its tail, it has acquired the name of Thresher. It attains a length, tail included, of 13 feet. The body is spindle- shaped. FOXTAIL GRASS [Alopecarus), a genus of Grasses, distinguished by a spiked panicle, two glumes nearly equal, and generally united at the base, enclosing a single floret which has a single palea, with an awn rising from the base. The species are chiefly natives of temperate countries, and about six are British. Meadow Foxtail Grass {A. pratensis), which has an erect nnooth co'm about 1^ — 2 feet high, and a cylindrical Foxtail Grass [Alopccurus pratensis) : a, ijlames ; b, floret. obtuse panicle abundantly covered with silvery hairs, is one of the best pasture grasses of Britain, but is not valued by New England fanners, on account of its lightness in proportion to its bulk. In Britain it is reckoned a good grass for lawns. It bearu drought well. The Jointed Foxtail Grass [A. geni- culatus), with an ascending culm bent at the joints, is very common in moist places, and cattle are fond of it, but it is a small grass. The Slender Foxtail Grass [A. agrestic) is an annual or biennial, of little value except for light sandy soils, on which it is sometimes sown. A foreign species {A. nigricans), a native of the continent of Europe and of Siljeria, has been introduced into Britain, and appears likely to prove valuable. It has somewhat creeping roots, is a little larger and stronger than A. pratensis, and is rather earlier. FOY, Maximilien Sebastien, a distinguished French general and orator, was born at Ham, 3d February 1775. In 1791, he was one of the volun- teers who hastened to defend the frontiers of their country against foreign invasion, and during the next nine years served with distinction under Dumouriez, Moreau, and Massena. In 1800, he was raised to the rank of adjutant-general in the division of Moncey, in the army of the Rhine, which marched through Switzerland into Italy, where he commanded the vanguard of the army in 1801. In 1805, he commanded the artillery of the second division in the Austrian campaign. In 1807, Napoleon sent him to Turkey at the head of 1200 artillerymen, to assist Sultan Selim against the Russians and British. After the revolution in which Selim was dethroned, F., under the direction of the French ambassador, General Sebastiani, defended Constantinople and the Strait of the Dardanelles so effectively, that Duckworth, the British admiral, was obliged to retire with loss. From 1808 to 1812, F. was general of division of the army in Portugal. His talents were exhibited to advantage in conducting the retreat of the French army across the Douro. F. was present at all the battles of the Pyrenees, and at Orthez, in 1814, was dangerously wounded. In the cam- paign of 1815, he commanded a division on the fleld of Waterloo, where he was wounded for the fifteenth time. In 1819, he was elected deputy by the department of Aisne. In the chamber, he was the constant advocate of constitutional liberty, and shewed great rhetorical talent and knowledge of p-^litical economy. He distinguished himself par- ticidarly by his eloquence in opposing the war against Spain in 1823. F. died at Paris, November 28, 1825. Madame Foy pubHshed, in 1827, from her husband's papers, a Histoire de la Guerre d« la Peninsule. In the previous year appeared his Discours, with a biography. FOY'ERS, a stream rising in the Monadleadh Mountains, in the middle of Inverness-shire. It runs 12 miles north, and falls into the east side of Loch Ness, nearly opposite Mealfourvounie Moun- tain. It has two celebrated falls within a mile and a half of its mouth, where the stream rushes through a deep, narrow ravine in the hills, skirt- ing the east side of the loch. The upper fall is 30 feet high. The sti'eam then descends 30 feet m a quarter of a mile. The lower fall (specially called The Fall of Foyers) is 90 feet higli. It is the finest cascade in Britain. FOYLE, Lough, an inlet of the Atlantic, on the north coast of Ireland, between the counties of Derry and Donegal. It is triangular in form, 10 miles long from north-east to south-west, 1 mile wide at its entrance, and 9 miles broad along its south side. A great part is &ry at low neater, and its w»'st side 4A6 FRA BARTOLOMEO— FRACTIONS. nloue is navigable. Vessels of 600 tons ascend the Mest side of the lough, and its chief tributary the Foyle (which conies 16 miles from the south), to Londonderry. On the east shore is a flat strand with a sandy beach, on which, in 1827, was measured a line of 41,640, which was afterwards extended by triangulation to about 53,200 feet, and formed the base line of the Ordnance Survey of Ireland. FRA BARTOLOMEO. See Baccio della Porta. FRACASTORO, Girolamo, an Italian savant and philosopher, faruous for the universality of his learning, was born of an ancient family at Verona in 1483. At the age of 19, he was appointed professor of logic in the university of Padua. But his vast knowledge embraced the most divergent sciences, and on account of his eminence in the practice of medicine, he was elected physician of the Council of Trent. His Latin verse also exhibits remarkable elegance. He died in 1553. A bronze statue was erected in his honour by the citizens of Padua, while his native city commemorated their great compatriot by a marble statue. His writings in prose and verse are numerous, llie chief are — Syphilidis, sive Morbi Oallld (Verona, 1530, in 4to ; Paris, 1531 and 1539, in 8vo ; London, 1720, in 4to, and 1746, in 8vo ; Italian edition, Verona, 1739, in 4to, by Tiraboschi ; Naples, 1731, by Pietro Belli) ; De Vini Temperatara (Venice, 1534, in 4to) ; Homocentriconim sive de Stellis, De Causis Criticorum Dierum Libellus (Venice, 1535, in 4to) ; De SympatMa et Antipathia lierum, De Contagi- onibtis et Contagiosis Morbis, et eorum Curatione (Venice, 1546, in 4to ; Lyon, 1550, 1554, in 8vo). The collective works of F. appeared for the first time, Venice, 1555, in 4to. FRA'CTED, heraldically, signifies broken asunder. FRACTION. In Arithmetic, a fraction is any part or parts of a unit or whole, and it consists of two members, a denominator and a numerator, whereof the former shews into how many parts the unit is divided, and the latter shews how many of them are taken in a given case. Thus f denotes that the imit is divided into four parts, and that three of them are taken; and more generally ^ denotes that the unit is divided into b parts, and that (i of them are taken. A fraction is called proper when the numerator is less than the deno- minator, and improper when the numerator is greater than the denominator. In Algebra, any quantity ^ is called a fraction, although a and h are not necessarily representatives of whole numbers, as they would require to be if the fraction be an arith- metical fraction. The algebraical fraction ^ just means that any quantity affected by it is to be multipAied by a, and divided by b. This definition, however, through the greater generality of algebra, includes that of an arithmetical fraction. The rules for the addition and multiplication of fractions are the same in algebra and arithmetic. To add two or more fractions together, we must bring them to a common denominator, and add the numerators for a new numerator, and take the common denominator for the new denominator. Thus if be two b d ... . , a c ad cb ad + be fractions, then -j + :7 = T-i-hn = — — , the b d bd bd bd ' fractions being brought to a common denominator by (as a general rule) multipl3dng each numerator by every denominator, except its own, and multiply- ing all the denominators for the common denomi- nator. To subtract two fractions, we bring them to a common denominator, and subtract their numera- be b tors for the new numerator. Thus ^ — ^ = — d bd To multiply two fractions together, the rule is, to multiply the numerators together for a new numer- ator, and the denominators together for the new denominator. Thus t x -i = t-i- The reasons for 0 d bd all these rules are obvious. The rule of division is to invert the divisor, and proceed as in multi- l)lication. This follows from the consideration, that to ^ivide is the inverse of to multiply, and that to divide by ^ must be the same thing as to multiply by -. FRACTIONS, Continued. U and — = b + —, and ^ = c -f- ^,and....^ =s to -f «! «! o, 6j' — = n + — , &C. Then ^ = a+^L_. ....1 m + I n-H.... A This expression for the value of ^ is called a con- tinued fraction. If we consider the fractions (!) (2) a-h ^or ^^,(3),a-f ^ b+ I 1' jab + l)c f g, bc+ 1 formed by taking into account parts only of the denominator in the continued fraction, we obtain a series of fractions converging to the value of ^. x> These converging fractions arc always approximat- ing to the value of and are alternately greater and B less than it. Throughout the series, the 1st, 3d, 5th, 7th, &c., are each below the true value, while the 2d, 4th, &c., are above it ; or vice versa, according as the original fraction is improper or proper. It can be shewn that the successive converging fractions ap}iroach nearer and nearer to the true value of tlie continued fraction. Converging fractions aie of great use in the summation of infinite series. In illustration of the alcove general statement, let us take the numerical fraction which we first 2151'. reduce to a continued fraction in the following 6935 ^ 482 ^ 1 . . manner: =3-1- — ^ = 3 -H tTm" = 3 -» 3 -h 1 2151 ■ 2151 -- = (by continuing the same procean) 4 -I- 1 2 + 1 6-H 1 6 + commonly written, or, 1 1 + 4 + 2 h as it 1 6 \- is 1 5 + 1 7 FEACTTONS— FRACTURE. Here the first cof-vergent is 3; the second 1 1 3 1 1 + 4 = ^; the third is|^-^2 = '^^9=9"' and finding the other convergents in a similar manner, we have the following approximations to the value of the original fraction : 13 29 187 964 6935 ^' 4' 9' 58' 299' 2151* The differences between the successive convergents And the original fraction are, 6935 _ 482 /. . , 1 >, 2l5l " ^ = 2151 fir#)' 13 6935 223 /, . , 1 \ j?.. T - 2m = SG04 ^^"^"^ ^^^^ 4^9)' ^ and in general the difference between any convergent and the original fraction is less than a fraction = Henom. of convergent x denom. of conv. next greater' consequently, the differences grow less as we proceed, owing to the denominators of the conver- gents always increasing. If, by actual subtraction, we find successively the difference between each convergent and the original fraction, we shall also find that they are alternately greater and less, or less and greater, according as the original fraction is proper or improper. FRACTIONS, Vanishing. In some algebraical fractions, the substitution of a particular value for the unknown quantity will make both the numer- ator and denominator of the fraction vanish ; such fractions are called vanishing fractions. Thus the — 1 fraction v assumes the form % when a; = 1. a: % 1 ' The ascertainment of the value of such a fraction for the particular value of the unknown quantity which gives it the form ^, may in all cases be effected by a general method furnished by the differential calculus. But frequently that value may be determined by simpler means, as the form ^ arises from the existence of a factor common to both numerator and denominator, which becomes zero for a particular value of x ; if, then, we can discover thia factor, either by finding the greatest common measure or otherwise, and divide it out, then by substitution we obtain the value of the fraction corrBsponding to the particular value of x. Thus, in the example given, we find that both terms are x" — I divisible by a;, — 1, so that ^ = x + I. There- fore, when X = 1, and the fraction becomes its value must equal 2. This is an example of the ai)plication of the method of Limits to the determin- I ti< n of the value of such a fraction, for it is clear that for every value of x I, the value of the fraction is ^ 2, and continually approaches 2 as x approaches 1. Much discussion has taken place as to whether vanishing fractions have, properly speak- ing, values or not ; but this is not the place for noticing speculations on the subject. See Limits, Theory of ; and Nothing, and Infinity. FRACTURE of a bone may be the result of accident, muscular action, or disease. The long bones of the limbs are more subject to the latter two causes than those of the head or spine. Pre- disposing causes to fracture are frosty weather^ old age, cancerous disease, a morbidly brittle condition called fragilUas ostium. Some bones, as the kneepan and heel-bone, are liable to give way from sudden contraction of the muscles which are inserted into them. The subject of the injury then falls, and attributes the accident to the fall, whereas it is the reverse. A medicjil man, some few j^ears ago, awoke with a fit of cramp, and almost immediately his Left thigh-bone broke with a snap. It reunited in the usual tiir>e. The sufferer from cancer of long standing, some- times feels a bone give way under no special strain. In such cases, there is seldom any attempt at repair. The bones of old people arc brittle from the excess of earthy materials (see Bone), and so readily give way. The bones of the feeble patient, with fragilitas or mollities ossium, are soft and friable, and when examined, are found saturated with a greasy substance. There are some persons who seem liable to fracture without any such reason. Professor Gibson of America mentions a boy who, though apparently healthy, had broken his collar-bones eight times, his arm and forearm, while his leg and thigh were broken if he but tripped his foot on the carpet. An old lady once broke both thigh-bones kneeling down in church. There is one predisposing cause to fracture fortunately now but seldom seen — viz., scurvy. Not only did it make the bones brittle, but, as was seen in Lord Anson's expedition, which was manned chiefly by pensioners, old fractures again became disunited. Repair of a broken Bone. — Of course, as the bone lies in the midst of soft parts, any injury to the one must tear the other, and cause an infusion of blood ; but the latter is speedily absorbed, and is of no service in the process of repair. After the first excitement has passed off, a fluid is effused around the fragment, which in a short time becomes converted into bone. The amount of this new material depends upon the position of the fragments; should they be far apart, or, as it is technically termed, riding, then a much larger quantity of new bone is thrown out. We see this in animals to such an extent that the materials for repair, or ' calkis,' may be divided into two separate pai'ts — a provisional callus to act as a wrapper to the bones until the permanent callus, or that which imites the ends, however far apart, becomey suflS- ciently hard ; then the provisional callus, being no longer necessary, is removed by absorption. Symptoms of Fracture. — A broken limb hangs loose, and is, as a general rule, no longer under the control of the muscles, which, however, are pricked by the broken ends of bone, and stimulated into painfid spasms, which still further disjilace and deform the limb. Should there be any doubt, the limb may be carefully raised, and turned gently from side to side, when a peculiar rough feeling termed crepitus removes all doubt. Each bone, however, when broken, exhibits symptoms peculiar to its'df, and requires a separate treatment. Fractures are divided into /Swy^/e, when there is no wound in the skin which communicates with the fracture ; Covtpound, when there is such a wound ; Comininuted being prefixed to either of these terms when the bone is broken into several pieces ; /w pacted, when one fragment is driven into the other ; and Complicated, when a neighbouring joint or large blood-vessels participate in the accident. Treatment of Fracture. — Replace the fragments aa near as possible to their former positions by gentle extension, retain them in place by substituting an externo.l I'igid skeleton, made of any unyielding material which will be firm enough to resist the spasms already alluded to, but is not fastened with very great tightness to the limb. Splints are gene- rally of wood or pasteboard ; but of late years gutta percha has been much used. In simple fractures, it is often sufficient to adapt a bandage to the limb, which will harden on drjang, and form a fiAe/i for it ; for this purpose, starch, dextrine, and plaster ci FRA DIAVOLO— FRAMING. Paris are generally used. AVliatever the splint be made of, it must keep the bones in a state of complete rest, otherwise the lymph, which would be formed into bone, stops, as it were, half way, and becomes fibrous tissue, "which allows the fragments t) move on each other, and is termed a false joint. FRA DIA'VOLO, properly Miciiele Pezza, a celebrated brigand and renegade monk, born in Calabria in 1760. Of plebeian origin, he at first followed the trade of stocking- weaver, then entered the Neapolitan army, and subsequently the service of the pope ; finally, he abandoned military life, and became a monk, but being expelled for miscon- duct, he withdrew to the mountains of Calabria, where he headeil a band of desperadoes, whose strongholds lay chiefly in the district between Itri and Terra di Lavoro. Pillage, bloodshed, and atrocious cruelties, signalised his career. For years he evaded the pursuit of justice by retiring to his haunts amidst mountains and forests, and skil- fidly defeating, with much inferior numbers, all the armed forces despatched against him. He became at length known among the peasantry of the neighbourhood as Fra Diavolo. On the advance of the French into the Neapolitan states, F. D. and his band espoused warmly the royal interests, and in return were not only ]iardoned and reinstated in civil rights, but promoted to the grade of officers in the royal anuy, F. D. himself becoming colonel. In 180G he attempted to excite Calabria against the French, but was taken prisoner at San Severino, and was executed at Naples in November of the same year. The opera of Auber has nothing in common with F. D. but the name. He died uttering imprecations on the queen of Na])les and the British admiral, Sidney Smith, whose influence had not sufficed to rescue him from death, although on his '3a])ture he produced papers bearing the royal seal, which vouched for Lis right to the rank of colonel in the royal forces. FRAGA'RIA. See STRAwrBERRV. FRAME, in Gardening, the covering of any kind of hotbed, flued pit, or cold i)it, used for the cultiva- tion of plants not sufficiently hardy for the open air. Frames are of various materials, but generally of wood or iron and glass, and are made in one jiiece or in sashes according to the size of the hotbed or jnt. FRAME-BRIDGE, a bridge built of timbers framed together in such a manner as to obtain the greatest possible amoxmt of strength witli a given quantity of material. The fundamental principle upon which all such construction is based, is that the timbei'S shall be so arranged that the Aveight put upon them shall exert a pulling or a crushing strain, instead of a transverse strain, and, if possible, that the greatest strain shall act as a direct pidl in the direction of the fibres of the w^ood. The con- struction of a frame-bridge is very similar to that of a roof, excei)ting that in the bridge a consider- ftble outward thrust upon the abutments is gener- ally i>ei missible, while the walls of a house will Fig.l. not stand this ; and that for the bridge a nearly level way on the top is desirable, while for a roof a steep incline is not objectionable, or is even 4(>8 desirable. Fig. 1 represents a simple a »d useful form of frame-bridge. It will be seen at once that a weight upon the bridge will exert a pulling strain upon the horizontal timber ah, and a crushing strain upon he and ad, as well as upon the upper timbers, and that the main sui)port is in ah, which must be torn asunder before ad and he can be bent or disj^laced to any considerable extent. The celebrated frame-bridge of Sch iff hausen, constructed in 1757 by Grubenmann, a village carpenter, was built exactly in the manner of a roof with a horizontal pathway superadded. It was comj)osed of two arches, one 193 feet, the other 172 feet span. It was merely laid upon the piers, and did not abut against them to exert any outward thrust, as will be seen by fig. 2. The Fig. 2. weight on the bridge is transmitted by the obhque beams, which by analogy we may call rafters, to the tie-beam ah, where it exerts a horizontal l)ulling strain. These rafters are framed into the tie-beam so as to abut firmly against it in the same manner as Roof- rafters (see Roof). It was found that when it had stood but 26 years, the oak beams, where they rested on the masonry at a and h, fig. 2, were rotted, and the frames began to settle. This was remedied by a carpenter named Spengler7 who raised the whole structure upon piles by means of screw- jacks, and replaced the decayed wood. In modern times, the U. States justly claims the pre- cedence for simplicity, mechanical perfection, and bold- ness of design in the construction of frame bridges. In Philadelphia, the upper Schuylkill bridge, for- merly spanning the river at Callowhill street, had the remarkable span of 340 feet. It consisted of five ribs, each foi-med q| a curved, Rolid-built beam, connected with an upper single beam by radial pieces, diagonal braces, and inclined iron stays. Truss- bridges of great length span many of the rivers of the United States, bearing the weight of immense railway trains. Among the different varieties may be named Burr's, Town's, Long's, and Howe's. The first consists of open-built beams of straight timber, connected with curved, solid-built beams termed arch-timbers, formed of several thicknesses of scantling, between which the frame work of the open-built beam is clamped. Town's plan is knoAvn as the lattice truss, and consists of two main strings, each formed by two or three parallel beams of two thicknesses breaking joints, with a series of diagonal pieces crossing each other, and inserted between the parallel beams, being connected with the strings and with each other by tree-nails. In Howe's plan, any amount of tension can be given to the truss by means of iron bolts and screws. FRAMING, the jointing, putting together, or building up of any kind of artificers' work, llie framing of timber generally is described under Carpentry, and special kinds of framing under Centering, Door, Floors, Frame-bridge, Parti- tions, Roofs, etc. In such trades as mathematical, optical, philosophical, and other complex instrument- making, the workman who does flat-filed work, and fits all the parts, and puts the whole instrument together, is called the framer, and his work framing FRAMLINGHAM— FRANCE. In the watch-trade, the man who frames all the parts together and builds up the watch is called a finisher, tiud his work is called finishing, though it corre- sponds ^vith what is called framing in other trades. FRA'MLINGHAM, or 'Strangers' Town,' a t'^wn in the east of Suffolk, on the left bank of the Ore. 14 miles north-north-cast of Ipswich. It con- sists of a large market-place, from which a few streets iiTegxilarly branch out. The church is built of black flint and stone, and contains the monu- ments of Thomas Howard, third Duke of Norfolk, and of his duchess, and of the unfortunate Henry Howai'd, Earl of Surrey, and of his countess. Here are the remains of a castle with thirteen square towers, where Queen Mary retired after the death of her brother Edward VI. Pop. (1871) 2569. FRANC, a French silver coin and money of accoimt, which (since 1795, when it supplanted the livre Tournois) forms the unit of the French mone- tary system, and has also been adopted as such by Belgium and Switzerland. The franc is coined of silver, nine-tenths fine, and weighs five grammes, its value being about 9^d. One pound sterling = 25-2 francs. The franc is divided into 100 centimes, but the nld di\dsion into 20 sous is stiU made use of in common life. There are in France silver coins of ^, ^, 1,2, and 5 francs, and gold pieces of 20 and 40 franc's. Italy has also adopted the French money- Rystem, only that the franc is called Lira nuova. FRANCAVrLLA, a town of Italy, in the prov- mce of Otrnnto, is situated on an elevation 22 miles ftouth-west of Brindisi. It is well built, has a college, three hospitals, and several convents ; has manufac- tures of woollens, cottons, and earthen-ware, and, with its dependent villages, has a population of 15,300. FRANCE, the most westerly portion of Central Euiope, extends from 42° 20' to 51° 5' N. lat., and from 8° 15' E. long, to 4" 54' W. long. . It is bounded on the N. by the Channel and the Straits of Dover, which separate it from England, by Belgium, the grand-duchy of Luxembourg, and the Rhenish provinces of Prussia; on the E. by the newly- tmnexed German provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, by several of the Swiss cantons, and by Italy; on the S. by the Mediterranean Sea and the dominions of Spain, from which it is separated by the Pyrenees ; and on tlie W. by the Atlantic (the Bay of Biscay). The greatest length of F., measured from Dunkirlc in the north to tlie Col de Falgaeres in the south, is about 620 miles; audits greatest breadth from east to west, measured from the new boundary line in the Vosges to Cape St Matthieu, in Finisterre, is about 550 miles. Its circumference, inclusive of sinuosi- ties, is estimated at nearly 3100 miles, or 5000 kilo- metres, of wliich nearly the half is composed of mari- time coast-lines, which are subdivided in the propor- tion of about 600 kilom. on the Mediterranean, 950 kilom. on the Atlantic, and about 940 kilom. on the northern frontiers. The superficial area of F., in- cluding the two Savoy provinces and Corsica, a de- partment of the Republic, but excluding the depart- ment of the Bas-Rhin and the other territories lost to F. by the treaty of peace concluded with Germany ill 1871, is reckoned at about 204,000 square miles. The possessions of F. which are situated in non -Eu- ropean parts of the world — including the 'Pays pro- t6g6s,' or ' Countries under Protection,' exclusive of Algeria — have a total superficial area of about 460,- 000 sq. miles. The area of Algeria is about 170,000 sq. miles. F. is divided into eighty-seven d^partemeiits (inclusive of Savoy and Nice), most of which have been named from the rivers or mountains by which they are intersected. The following table gives the names of the ancierit provinces of F. with the corre- epooding d6partements, their areas and pop. for 1872. Old Provinces 1. 1 L B D E Feancb/ 2. CUAMPAQNB< LORRAINI Departemcnts. Fl,AN0ER3. Artois. I'ICAKDY. 7. NoaMANPV, Brittany. 9. PoiTou. "I 10. Anjou. 11. Maine. | 12. angoujiais, 1 Ai Nis, and > .St Ange. 13. touraine. 14. Or i,EA N- f^Aia. 15. NiVEHNAIS. 16. BoUKlitJNNAIS 17. M ARC HE. 18. Berky. 19. Limousin. 20. auvergne 21. Lyonnais. 22. Burgundy. 23. F r A .V c H E COMTE. 24. Alsace. 25. Dauphini!. 26. Langui:doc 27. Guienne, 28. Gascony. 29. Bearn aiul>" Navarre. ) 30. Foix 31. lioUSsiLLON 32. A Ve and Ii VIG N ON, 1 !N A IS8I N, y d Orange. | 33. Proven c 34. Corsica. 35. Savoy. 36. Nice. 1. Seine, . . 2. Seine-et-OiHC, 3. Scinu-et-Marne, 4. Olse, . 5. Ai.-^ne, 6. Ai dciines, , 7. Marne, 8. Mai ne [Ilaute), 9. Aube, lU. Meiise, . 11. Meurthe-et-Moselle,* 12. Vosges, 13. N'.nl, . 14. Pas-de-Calais, . 15. Sonime, 16. Seine-Infericure, 17. Kure, . 18. Calvados, . 19. La Manche, . 20. Ornc, . 21. Finisterre, . 22. Morbihan, . 23. C6tes-du-Nord, . 24. lUe-et-Vilaine, . 25 Loire-Iiiterieure, . Vendee, 27. Sevres (Deux), 28. Vienna, 29. Maine-et-Loire, 30. Mayeime, . , 31. Sarthe, . 32. Ch a rente, . aa. Charente-Inferieure, 34. Indre-et-Loire, . 35. Loir-ot-Cher , 3fi. Eui e-et-Luir, . 37. Loire t, . . 38. Nic'vre, . . 39. Allier, • 40. Creu.se, 41. Cher, . 42 Indre, 43. Vienne (Haute), . 44. Correze, 45. Cantal, . 46. l'uy-de-D6me, , 47. Loire, . 48. lUione, 49. Ain, ."iO. Saone-et-Loire, . 51. Cote-d'Or, . .t2. Yonne, 53. Saone (Haute), , 54. Jura, . 55. Doubs, . , 56. Rhin (BelfortDist.), 57. Isere, , ,iS. Drome, . 59. Alpes (Hautes), 60. Ardeche, 61. Loire (Haute), . 62. Lozere, . 63. Gard, 6i. Herault, 65. Tarn, . H6. Garonne (Haute), . 67. Aude, 68. Avcyron, . , 60. Lot, . 70. Doidogne, 71. I'arn-et-Garonnc, 72 Lot-et-Garonne, . 73. Gironde, . 74 Les Landes, . 75. Gers, . 76. Pyrenees (Hautes), 77. Pyrenees (Basses), Arij^ge, . Pyrenees Orien tales, Vaucluse, I 81. Rh6ne(Bouche8-du), 601,960 82. Alpes (Basses), . 690,919 83. Var, . . . 729,628 84. Corse, . . , 874,741 Savoie, . . 642,074 86. Savoie (Haute), . 451,482 87. Alp s Maritimes, 429,874 * From 1871 to 1878, the portion of the department of Haut- EniN remaining to France was called Terrtoire de Belfort Sub. sequently, the old name Haut-Rhin was officially resumed. 469 47,500 560,337 688,575 583,067 735,747 623,000 818,038 625,403 602.212 621,618 650,000 650,000 667,863 660,426 615,983 603,463 591,261 .'j5 1,766 577,178 610,068 667,668 681,704 744,073 672,848 687,441 671,628 599,995 697,301 712,563 516,200 620,397 588,803 716,»14 611,369 635,092 686,921 676,512 686,619 742,272 679,455 740,125 701,661 651,733 686,621 574,146 800,679 477,018 281, aj6 684,822 856,018 876,956 736,916 531,000 503,. 364 522,895 250,000 841,230 653,557 663,418 651,227 496,784 516,666 682,867 630,935 676,821 629 601 631,667 882,171 398,406 915,000 371,764 634 628 1,082,552 985,273 627,870 464,531 752,513 478,401 411,376 356,640 V!,220,060 580,180 341,490 396,804 552.439 320,217 386,157 251,190 255,687 2S4.725 365,137 .392,088 1,447,764 761,158 557,015 790,022 377,874 4.54,012 544,776 398,250 642,963 490,:;52 622,295 589,532 602.206 401,446 331.243 320,598 518.471 350.637 446,603 FRANCE. By the treaties with Germnny of Fehruavy and May 1871, F. lost 1,447,466 hectares of Innd, and 1,597,228 inhabitants, comprised within 1689 com- munes, and distributed over five departments. These losses included the whole of the old department of the Bas-Rbin, two arrondissements with a fraction of the third (Belfort) of the dei)artment of the Haut- llh'm, the greater portion of the department of the Moselle, together with a number of cantons and com- munes in the department of the Muerthe and Vosges. The portions of the two departments of the Muerthe and Moselle remaining to F. have been incorporated into one. Tlie area of F. is now given at 52,875.100 hectares, and the total population, exclusive of Alge- ria and her colonies, in 1876, was 36,905,788. Chief Cities, — The following table gives the popu- lations of some of the largest cities of F. in 1872; Paris, tlie capital, 1,851,000 Lyon, 32;i,000 Marseille 312.000 IJordeaux 194.000 Lille, 158,000 Toulouse 124.000 Nantes, 118.000 St, Etienne, 110,000 Roiien, 102,(M)0 The provinces of Savoy and Nice were ceded to F. by Sardinia, in accordance with a treaty between the two governments signed in 1861. The following table gives the non-European dependencies of France: In J frica — Al.!J;eria, Senegal and its Dependencies, He de Reunion and Ste Marie, . Nossi-Be and Mayotte, . In A Ha — East Indian Possessions, . Cochin China, . . . Jn America — Martinique, .... Gaudeloupe and its Dependencies, Guiana, St Pierre and Miquelon, Jn Oceania — Marquesas and other islands, . New Caledonia, Area In Hectares. 39,000.000 undefined 250.000 50,000 50,000 2,200,000 9S.000 165.000 1,000,000 20,000 117.000 900,0(10 Population in 1872. 3,000,000 200,000 170,000 45,000 170,000 1,000,000 125,000 151,000 25,000 3,000 10.000 30,000 The total superficial area of the French colonies, in- cluding Algeria, and reckoning the districts under French protection, is estimated at upwards of 50 mil- lions of hectares, and the population at about 4i mil- lions; but of the latter number more than 3^ millions ai'e natives and savages, or belong to only half-civil- ised races. The methods employed in taking the cen- sus are, moreover, so diiferent in the different colo- nies, that the results are not entirely beyond question ; while the limits of French protectorate authority have been very considerably diminished of late years in the Eastern Hemisphere, and in Africa also, if we except Algeria.. Populnlion. — The population of F. has not exhil> ited the san)e rate of increase as other first-class Eu- ropean powers during the present century, for while the population of Great Britain has nearly doubled within the last fifty yeai-s, that of F. scarcely shews an increase of 40 per cent, for the same period. In 1875, the birth-rate was only 2.64 per 100 inhabitants, a lower rate than in any other European country. The following table shews the condition of the pop- ulation from the beginning of the century to the date of the latest census: Year of Census. 1801, ISOf), . 1821, 1826, , 1831, 183fi, . 1841, 47a Number of Population. 27,349,003 29,107,425 30,461,875 31.858,937 32,569,223 3;3,5-) 0,901 34,217,719 35,400,486 Annual Increase. 149,941 351,GS5 90,292 279,415 171.787 194,337 135.362 236.553 Year of Census. 1851, 1856, , 1861, 1866, . 1872, 1876, . Number of Population. 35,783.170 36,0:59.364 37.382,225 38.067,094 36,102,921 36,905,788 Annual Increase. 76,537 51.236 268,572 136,186 128,310 The decline of population between the census of May 1866 and of May 1872 is 1,964,273, of which 1,597,- 228 is due to the loss of the different territories an- nexed by conquest to the German empire. The re- mainder is due partly to losses in the war, and partly to an absolute decrease in the pojiulation of 73 de- partments. Between 1872 and 1876 there was a de- crease in 20 departments, most of all in Seine-et-Oise. Coast, Islands, and Frontier.— The north-north- west coast is generally irregular, indented with nimierous bays, the principal of which is the Bay of St Malo, in which lie the Chaunel Islands, Jersey, Guernsey, &c., which belong geographically to F., the arclii])elago of Brehat, &c. The west-south-west coast is at first lofty and precipitous, but to the south of Bretagne it becomes more shelving, and ia interspersed with isolated rocks and promontories ; while south of the Loire it is low, and lined with salt-marshes., but towards the foot of the Pyrenees it again assumes a rocky and precipitous character. This coast forms one aide of the bay designated by the French as the Bay of Gascogne, but by the Endish as the Bay of Biscay. Here lie the islands of Ushant (Ouessant), Belleisle, Noirmoutier, Isle d Yeu, Re, Oleron, &c. The coast of the Mediter- ranean, which is broken by lagoons or shore-lakes, is low till it has passed Toulon, after which it becomes bolder. The only islands off the shore are the Hybres, near Toulon ; the larger island of Coi-sica (q. v.; lies north of Sardinia. The Mediter- ranean here forms two bays or gulfs, as the Gulf of Lyons (Fr. Gol/e du Lion, so named from the violence of its storms), and the Gulf of Genoa, which belongs only in part to France. The land frontiers of F. are formed on the side of Spain by the Pyrenees; on that of Italy and Switzerland by the Alps and Jura chain ; on the north-east the fron- tier line is unprotected by natural boundaries, and since the loss of Alsace and Lorraine is no longer de- fended, as before the war of 1870 — 1871, by strong fortresses. Plains. — The chief plains are those of Burgun- dy; and the Oceanic district, embracing the lower basins of the Seine, Loire, and Garonne. There are four great mountain chains; the Pyrenees (q. v.), which separate the French territory from Spain ; the Cevenno-Vosgian range, formed of the Cevennes (q. v.), running east and west between the Pvhone and Loire, and the Vosges (q. v.), inclining north and south, and running between the Rhine and Moselle ; the Alps (q. v.), which separate the Swiss territory from the newly acquired provinces of Savoy and Nice ; and the Sardo Oorsi- can range, which belongs, as the name implies, to the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, and traverses the Corsican island from its extreme northern to its southern extremity. The highest peaks in the Pyrenees, the Maladetta and Mont Perdu, respec- tively attain an elevation of 10,886 feet and 10,994 feet ; in the Cevenno-Vosgian range, the greatest height (the Widderkalni) do'-^s not greatly exceed 7000 feet. The French portion of the Alps now includes several of the highest mountains and most elevated passes of the range, as Mont Blanc, 15,744 feet ; Mont Iseran, 13,272 feet ; Mont Cenis 11,457 feet. The pass of Little St Bernard is 7190 feet; that of Mont Cenis, 6770 feet above the level of the sea. In Corsica, the highest peak rises to an elevation somewhat above 9000 feet. The grand water-shed of F. is the Cevenno- FRANCE. Vosj^es chain of mountains, which determines the direction of the four great rivers, the Seine, the Loire, the Garonne, and the Rhone; the first three of which flow north-west into the Bay of Biscay or the English Cliannel, and the fourth into the Gulf of Lyons. Besides these, the more important sti-eams are the Moselle, Meuse, and Scheldt (all of which soon leave France, and flow into the Netherlands, or Rhenish Prussia) ; the Somme and Orne (btilougin,^ to the basin of the Seine) ; the Vilaine and the Charente (belonging to the basin of the Loir^) ; and the Adour (rising in the Pyrenees, and flowiiig into the Bay of Biscay at the extreme south-west of France). The Oise, the Aube, the Yonne, and the Marne are the chief affluents of the Seine ; the Sarthe, the Loir, the Allier, and the Cher, of the 1-oire ; the Dordogne, the Lot, the Tarn, and the Gers, of the Garonne ; and the Saone, the laoro. and the Durance, of the Rhone. The entire exteiit of river- na%'igation in F. amounts to 5500 miles, or 8,900,000 metres, while the 99 larger canals, which have been constructed either to connect these river- courses or to supply entirely new channels of water-communication, extend over a length of 2900 miles, or 4,700,000 mbtres. The most important of these works are the canals connecting Nantes, and Brest, and the Rhone with the Rhine, and the canals of Berry, Nivernais, and Bourgogne. F. possesses only one lake of any importance, Le Grand- Lieu, a little to the south t)f Nantes, which has an area of about 14,300 acres ; but the country abounds in salt marshes or ponds, more especially in the districts of Gascony, Koussillon, and Languedoc. F. is peculiarly rich in mineral springs, of which there are said to be nearly 1000 in use. Of these, more than 400 are situated in the group of the Pyrenees, where there are 93 establishments for their systematic use. It is estimated that there are, moreover, fully 4000 springs not hitherto employed. Geology, d'C. — F. presents a great variety of geological formations, but although we meet with an almost complete siiccession of all the stratified and non-stratified strata, they are distributed with great inequality. Thus, for instance, while nearly one-third of the soil is composed of tertiary for- mations, a mere fractional part only is made up of coal-beds. A belt of primary rocks, forming the skeleton of some portions of the Vosges, Alps, and Pyrenees, and of the gi-eat plateaux of Brittany and La Vendee, encircles the great central basin in which rises the volcanic formation of the mountains of Auvergne, with their extinct craters, lava streams, &c. The spaces between this external breast-work and its volcanic nucleus is occupied by secondary and tertiary formations. Allu\'ial deposits are met with in all the valleys, but they occur in extensive beds only in the neiglj- bourhood of Dunkirk and Niort, and on the I)orders of the Mediterranean. According to M. Maurice Block's estimate, the physical and agriculturnl cha- racter of the soil of F. may be comprised under the following heads : Hectare*. Mountainous districts, heaths, and commons, 9,;>44,(t.'!9 Kicliland, ... ... 7,-^7'i,-'fi9 Chalk or lime districts, 9,7«HJ»7 Gravel, stony, and sandy, .... lo,!*.'}! Clay, marshy, miscellaneous, . . • 9,Hv 7 ,r>7 7 52,7ti8,»*(J0 The same writer further subdivides the soil of F. ac- cording to its actual emjilo^ ment ; the following ar^ some of the heads : BecUr^i. Arable lands, , 25,500,1)75 Meadow lands, £,1.-;9,I7!) Vineyards, 2,oaf! 048 Woods, 7,(m,2m Orchards, gardens, ti-27,704 Olive, mulberry, and almond woods, . . . 109,264 Chestnut woods, 559,029 Roads, streets, public walks, &c., . . . 1,102,122 Forests and unproductive lands, . . . 1,047,684 Climate. — F. possesses one of the finest climates in Europe, although, owing to its great extent of area, very considerable diversities of temperature are to be met with ; thus, for instance, the north- east parts of the country have a continental, and the north-west parts an oceanic climate, resem- bling those of Germany and Great Britain ; -while the Mediterranean districts are exposed at times to the ravages of the burning winds which have passed over the deserts of Africa, and to the destructive north-west wind known as the mistral, which often does great injury to the fields near the mouths of the Rhone and Var. The parts of F. lying south of lat. 46° have about 134 rainy days in the year, and those north of that parallel about 120. The mean annual temperature of different parts of F. has been estimated aa follows by H\imboldt: Toulon, 62° F.; Marseille, 59-5"; Bordeaux, 56°; Nantes, 55*2°; Paris, 51*2°; Dunkirk, 50-5°. Pi'oducts.—Of the vegetable products of F., which, from varied climatic and geognostic relations, are necessarily characterised by great abundance and diversity, the most generally cultivated are the cereals, the vine, chestnuts, olives, culinary fruits and vegetables, hops, beet-root for the manuiactiire of sugar, tobacco, madder, chicory, flax, &c. In 1862, the yield of wheat in F. was 116 millions of hectoli- tres, the maximum annual quantity as yet on record. During the last 50 years, the importation of cereals has so far exceeded the supplies for home consump- tion and exportation, as to leave F. the loser by 850 millions of francs. The cultivation of wheat has gradually increased during the last fifty years, but that of rye, barley, and maize has exhibited little variation ; while the growth of potatoes has been most extensively augmented during the same period. The following table shews the fluctuations to which these alimentary substances have been subjected: EXTKNT OF LAND OCCUPrED IS 1815, 1830, 1845, AND 1869 QUANTITY YIELDED IN 1816, 1830, 1845, AMD 1869 1815. 1830. 1845 1869. 181.5. ia30. 184.5. 1869. Hectaren. Heciarei. Hectare*. Hectares. Hectolitres. Hectolitrei. HectoUtret. Hectolitres. IJy Wheat, . 4 591,(;77 5.01].7(t4 5,743.135 6.900.000 39,4H0.971 52.7»2.098 71 ,963,280 108,000.000 If Rye, . . 2,500,000 2,500,000 2,500,000 2,100,0(10 25.700,000 32,440 000 30,000.000 24,000.000 0 Barley, . 1.100.000 1,100,000 1,2(10,000 1,400.(100 14,600,000 17. 600. 000 18,400,000 90.0' 0,'!0') » Maize, . . 514,513 593,000 730,000 600,000 5,630.001) 6.6(K).000 8.000,000 lo.ooi 1.000 » Potatoes, C:in during the great wars of the early part of the century, has heen prosecuted with much vigour during the last 50 years, and about 150 mil- lions of kilogrammes* are annually manufactured. Since the appearance of the vine-disease, beet-root has b6en extensively employed in the manufacture of alcohol; and in 1857, the quantity prepared amounted to 429,000 hectolitres. The cultivation is almost litiiitcd to the north and east; hemp and flax are grown chiefly in the northern, but also in the south-western departments. The entiie produc- tion of hemp was estimated in 1842 at 67,507,076 kilogrammes, worth 86.287,300 francs; and that of flax at 36,875.400 kilogrammes, worth 57,507,400 francs. Since that period, there has been little dif- ference in the home production, but an enormous in- crease in the importation of foreign flax and hemp; the average antiual value of flax, for the period between 1857 and 1866, being 46 nnllions, and of hemp 8 millions of francs. The cultivation of the mull)crry-tree derives importance from its bearing on the producticm of silk. In 1858, the department du Gard had monopolised nearly half the culture of these trees, which in its aggregate amount has con- tinued unchanged. From its connection with the mulberry, we here refer to the production of silk, which began at the opening of the 17th c., and which in 1790 liad reached such vast dimensions, that the produce at that period was already 6^ million kilo- grammes of cocoons, worth 16^ million francs. Since that period, it has exhibited great variations. From 1840 to 1853, the production continued steadily to increase from 17 to 26 millions of kilogramines ; but the diseases to which the silkworm has been liable since that period reduced the yield of silk to so great an extent, that in 1857 it scarcely amounted to 7 mil- lions of cocoons. Raw silk, since the abatement of this disease, has again assumed its place among the chief sources of industrial wealth in F. ; and, besides the enormous quantity consumed in home manufac- tures, the totid exports for the year 1873 amounted to no less in value than 100 millions of francs (about |20. 000.000). The vine has, from a very early period, constituted one of the principal sources of the agricultural wealth of France. The choicest wines are grown in the Bordelais, Burgundy, and Champagne, but some excellent kinds are produced on the banks of the Loire, and in some of the southern departments. The breadth of soil devoted to this culture fluctuntes, but may be stated at about 2,000,000 hectares. The mean produce for every hectare was, in 1788, 21 hec- tolitres 21 litres; in 1829, 27 hectolitres 20 litres; in 1850, 32 hectolitres 35 litres. Some time ago, the fungus known as the oi'dium attacked the vine, and inflicted such serious damage on the plant, that in 1854 (the worst year), the hectare yielded 5 hectoli- tres, instead of the average quantity of 23 hectolitres. A new and very destructive vine-disease, occasioned by the ravages of an insect which has been called the Phylloxera vastatrix^ appeared in the south-east of F. in 1865, and by 1873 had established itself in 12 de- partments. The following table shews some of the annual yields of wine between 1808 and 1869 : Hectolitres. Hectolitres. ISnS, . . 28.000,000 1854, . . 10.789.869 18-'9, . 30,973,000 1!=58, . . 45.805,000 18i8, . . 51,622,150 1874, . . 63,146,12-) The average yearly produce of the vineyards of F. is estimated at about 50 millions of hectolitres (about 1000 millions of gallons). Of this, about ^th is made The kilogrrmme equals 2'2 lbs. avoirdupois. 472 into brandy. F. consumes nearly all the wine raised on her soil ; the annual ex{)orts being on an average little more than 2 millions of hectolitres, valued at about 218 millions of francs. The principal forest-trees are the chestnut and beech on the central mountains, the oak and cork tree in the Pyrenees, and the fir in the Landes. The de- struction of the national forests has been enormous within the last two centuries, but measures have been taken in recent years to plant wood, in order to pro- tect those mountain slopes which are exposed to inun- dations from alpine torrents, and to provide a supply for the ever-increasing demand of wood for fuel. About one-seventh of the entire territory of F. is still covered with wood. Turf taken from the marshy lands is extensively used, more especially in the rural districts, for fuel. Animals. — F. is not so well stocked with domestic animals as her great resources might warrant us in assuming that she ought to be. During the 50 yeara intervening from 1812 to 1862, the numbers of horned cattle were almost doubled in France. According to the census of 1872 — the most recent in regard to ani- mal — there were in F. 2,880,000 hor.ses, 500,000 asses, 300,000 mules, 11,000,000 horned cattle, 25,- 000,000 sheep, 5,000,000 swine, and 2,250,000 dogs. There were in the same year about 2,390,000 hives of bees, valued at rather more than 20 millions of francs ; the mean annual returns are, for honey, 6,670,000, and for wax, 1,620,000 kilogrammes. Poultry constitutes an important item of farm-pro- duce in F., estimated at 45^ millions of francs; while the eggs and feathers yield 35^ millions of francs. The wild animals are fast diminishing from tlie soil of F. ; the lynx is rarely seen, even among the higher alpine regions, but wolves are still numerous in the mountainous districts of the central departments; while the chamois and wild goat, as well as the marmot, ermine, and hamster, are found among the Pyrenees, Alps, and Vosges. The wild- boar, roebuck, fox, squirrel, polecat, and marten are to be met with in the woods. The red and fallow deer are scarce ; hares and rabbits abound, and game generally is plentiful. The wanton destruction of small (singing) birds having been found to be condu- cive to the excessive increase of noxious insects, strin- gent municipal enactments are now being put into force for the protection of those birds. Fisheries. — The French government expends be- tween three and four millions of francs annually in aiding those engaged in the great fisheries. The value of the exports of fish from F. (12 millions of francs) is little more than half the value of the imports. There are no official reports of river and other fresh- water fishing in F., or of the minor fisheries carried on along the coasts, which constitute the princijjal means of occupation and support of the majority of the local population. Pilchards and mackerel are caught in large quantities off Normand}' and Brit- tany. The west coasts have extensive oyster and mussel beds ; tunnies and anchovies are caught on the shores of the Mediterranean. The following table shews the condition of the principal branches of the fishing-trade in 1870: Number of men oi.5_. Quantities in employed. °'"P^- M,.tric Quintals. Cod fisheries, . . 13,189 661 359.046* Herring fisheries, . . 9,709 681 244,645 Mineral Products. — The chief mineral products of F. are coal and iron, in the excavation of which nearly 250,000 men were employed in 1868. Al- though F. is not rich in coal, it possesses several very considerable coal-beds, which are situated prin- cipally in the east-south-east and north. The supply hitherto has not equalled the demand ; although in * The quintal equals 1"97 cwt. FRANCE. 1874 — the latest period determined — it rose to tlie enormous amount of 170 millions of quintals. Not- withstanding this home-sup)3ly, it was found neces- sary to import many millions of quintals to meet the increased annual demand, which, before the late war, had risen above 200 millions of quintals, while in 1852 it was still under 120 millions. Tlie iron mines of F. are of excellent quality, but their distance from the fuel necessary to the working of the mineral, renders them of relatively small value. In 1874 there were 150 mines in operation, from which 40 millions of quintals were taken ; more than half of this quantity being obtained from the five departments of Haute-Marne, Haute-Saone, Cher, Moselle, and Nord. F. imports iron from Switzerland, Germany, Belgium, and England. Argentiferous galena, a little silver and gold, copper, lead, manganese, antimony, and tin occur, but hitherto their working has not proved very productive. The department of Cha- rente-Inferiem-e yields the largest amount of salt, the mean annual produce being H million of quintals {2i millions of francs), which is fully one- third of the entire annual produce of the whole country. F. derives about 41 millions of francs from its quarries of granite and freestone, its kaolin, marbles, sands, lithographic stones, millstones, &c. Granite and sye- nite are found in tiie Alps, Vosges, Corsica, Nor- mandy, and Burgundy ; porphyry in the Vosges, and basalt and lava for pavements in the mountains of Auvergne. Marble is met with in more than 40 de- partments ; alabaster occurs in the Pyrenees ; the largest slate-quarries are situated near Cherbourg and St L6. The following list gives an approximative estimate of the value of the chief products of French indus- try: Millions of Francs. Linen fabrics, 250 Cotton " 650 AVoollen 950 Silk " lOno Mixed " 330 Jewellery, watchmiiking, ... 35 Gilt-wares, 12 Minerals, mines, salt, &c., . . . 600 Articles of food — as sugar, wines, &c., , 364 Skins, leather, oils, tol)acco, . . 556 Bone, ivory, isinglass, &c., ... 30 Chemical products, .... 80 Ceramic arts, , 86 Paper, printing, 60 Forests, fisheries, 98 Industry^ Trade. — The principal seats of industn- are as follows: For textile fabrics, the departments Le Nord, La Sarthe, Maine-et-Loire, Seine-Inf^rieure, Le Calvados, Seine-et-Oise, Ille-et-Vilaine, &c. F. stands uni-ivalled for her silk manufactories, the finest of which are at Lyon, Tours, and Paris; while St Etienne is the special seat of the ribbon trade. Alen- pon, Bailleul (fabricating the so-called Vale7icienne), Lille, Arras, Caen, and Bayeux are all famous for their laces and blonds, which alone occupy 250.000 persons. Rheims stands conspicuous for its merinos and fine flannels; Amiens and Nancy for their fine printed woollen goods; Lodeve and Elbceuf for army cloths. Gloves are made at Grenoble, Paris, &c. The best carpets are mnde at Aubusson, Abbeville, and Amiens. Paris is the seat of industry for some of the most costly fabrics, as Gobelins tapestry, shawls of great value, watches, clocks, articles of vertu. carriages, philosophical instruments, &c. Sfevres stands unrivalled for its china and glass. St Gobain and St Quirin manufacture looking-glasses of the largf-st size. The trade of F. is inferior only to that of England and the United States. The great emporiums of trade are Paris, Lyon, St P^tienne, Lille, Rheims, Nvmes. Toulouse, St Quentin, Orleans, Avignon, Montpellier, &c. ; and the most active maritime ports are Marseille, Cette, Havre, Bordeaux, Nantes, Rouen, Calais, Dunkirk, Boulogne, l)icp])e, &c. 'J'bese cen- tres of trade have all suffered at different periods during the present century, from the political disturl>- ances under successive governments; i)at notwith- standing these drawbacks, the commercial activity of the country had nuxde rapid strides within the last 30 years before the war of 1870 — 1871. The following table shews the condition of trade during four years of the old monarchy : Value of Value of Tears. Imports in milliona of francs. Exports in millions of francs. Total. 1787, 551 440 991 1788, . 517 466 983 1789, 577 441 1018 1792. . 929 803 1732 While the rate of this progress from 1867 to 1873 w as follows: Imports Exports Years. In milliona of francs. in millions of francs. Total. 1867, 3026 2825 5851 1868, . , 3303 2789 6092 ]§H9, 3153 8074 6227 1870, . 2781 2860 5641 1871, 3393 2685 6078 1872, . 4501 47f)6 9257 1873, 4576 4822 9398 The transit trade of F. is efi^ected by maritime navi- gation between foreign and French ports, by coasting traffic, or cabotage^ between various French ports, and by railways. The merchant navy, which has in- creased extensively of late years, numbered in 1873, 15,559 vessels, having a tonnage of 1,068,031; 596 being steamers of 185,165 tons. The cabotage^ or internal and coasting traffic, is a great source of finan- cial wealth to the state, to Avhich all rivers and canals belong. There is a length of 13,155 kilometres available for inland navigation in France, but, ac- co!-ding to official reports, tliree-fourths of the entire traffic is concenti'ated upon 1800 kilometi-es of this distance. Of this number, 73 per cent, lielonged t the ocean ports, and 27 per cent, to the Meditei.^ nean. Mailways^ &c. — In 1878, the railways actually in operation measured 23,793 kilometres, or about 13,500 miles, with provisions for additions of 10,000 kilome- tres to be constructed before the end of 1888. With the exception of less than 200 miles, the railways of F. are held by sixcom panics, which are under the su- perintendence of the state, from which they receive the following subsidies as defined by the budget for 1873: Francs. Eastern line, 57,900,000 Western line, 82.000.000 Orleans line, 92.416,000 Lvoiis, 189.233,333 South, 45.300,000 North, 45,300,000 The total receipts of all the lines were, for 1858, 334,- 769,469 francs; and the total number of passengers conveved bv rail, 37,952,398. In 1865, the number was 81, 533,061 ; and in 1869, 111,164,284. In 1877 the total receipts were 842,199,600 francs. By a clause in the treaty of 1871, the Avhole of the lines ot the Eastern Company in Alsace-Lorraine, about 700 kilometres in length, were sold to the imperial gov- ernment of Germany for 325 millions of francs. The creation of the first railroads in F. is referred to Philippe Auguste; and their more perfect organi- sation in the 16th and 17th centuries, to Henry IV. and Louis XIV. Under Napoleon I. there were 125 highroads, extending in all over 30,000 kilometres, and at the present time there are upwards of 600 national roads (35,000 kilom.), and 265,000 depart- mental roads (45,000 kilom.). Postal Service. — The postal service in F. goes back to the year 1464, when Louis XI. placed it under the direction of the state. Since 1848, a system of low 473 FRANCE. prepayment for letters has been established. At the present time, letters weighing from under 10 to under 100 grammes require stamps from 15 centimes to 1 franc 20 centimes, according to weight. The whole receipt of the postal service, which was for the year 1871, 91,242,000 francs, and for 1869, before the Avar, was 94,199,359 francs, was in 1874, 110,416,000 francs; the expenses in the meanwhile having risen from 63,000,000 francs in 1869 to nearly 67,000,000 in 1871, and 72,622,900 in 1877. Electric Telegraph. — The first electric telegraph was constructed in F. in 1844, and F. is now inter- sected hy a close network of wires, which flash com- munications between Paris, as the central focus, and every part of the etnpirc. At the close of 1873, there were 47,055 kilometres of lines, comprising 125,808 kilometres of wire, and in 1878, 57,110 kilometres. The number of tclegra])hic messages sent in 1873 was 6,150,727, and in 1877, 12,422,112, the receipts for 1877 being 119,517,600 francs, and the expenses 72,622,900 francs. Constitution, (>overnment. — On September 4, 1870, the emperor, Napoleon III., was declared to be no longer tlie head of the state, and France was pro- claimed a republic. At tiie close of 1872, the su- preme power was vested in a National Assembly, with whom rests the nomination of the chief officer of the state, bearing the title of ' President of the French Republic,' and nominated for seven years. This oflScer, as chief of the executive power, but under responsil)ility to the National Assembly, is authorised to promulgate and insure the proper execution of all laws and ordinances which may be transmitted to him by the president of the Assembly. Py the law of February 25, 1875, the National Asseml)ly con- sists of tw^o bodies — the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. The members of the former are elected by universal suffrage, and eligible without further conditions than those of citizenship as Frenchmen, and qualifications of character and age,- besides that of not being either pr^fet or sous-pr^fet of the department for which the candidate wishes to be elected. The Senate consists of 300 members, of whom 225 are elected by the departments and 75 by the National Assembly. To the President of the Republic belongs, in accordance with the prin- ciples that have regulated the respective domains of legislative and executive power in F. under all forms of government, the right of appointing the judges, commanding the forces, and maintaining re- lations and settling treaties with foreign states, in respect to which acts he is responsible to the Assem- bly. He appoints and dismisses the ministers of state, who are also responsible to the Assembly, and he may reside at the seat of the National Assembly, and, provided he gives the required notice of his inten- tions, may take part in its deliberations. His salary was fixed in 1873 at 600,000 francs ($120,000), with an extra allowance of 162,000 francs for general household expenses. The ministry is presided over by nine ministers of state, each of whom has a definitely limited sphere of administrative duty and authoi'ity ; and in addition, the president is assisted in the government by a Council of State, ' Conseil d'Etat,' which, according to a decree of the National Assembly, is to consist in all of 43 members, 15 of whom may be nominated by the president, while the remaining 28 are selected by the Assembly. The functions of this body are re- stricted to giving advice on hills presented to the National Assembly by the president or the min- isters. Departments, &c.. — F. is at present divided into 86 department!^, comprising 362 arrondistsementa, 2865 cantons^ jmd 35,985 communes. Each department is presided over by a prdfet, nominated by the president of the republic on the presentation of the minister of the interior; each arrondissement by a sub-pr^fet; each canton by a niember at the general council of the d6partement, which meets annually for whatever period may be decreed hy the head of the state; and evei'y commune has its maire and municipal council. Every chief town of a canton has its commissary of police ; in the larger towns, there must be one of these officers to every 10,000 inhabitants. The ad- ministration of justice is presided over by a special minister of state, who is keeper of the seals. A su- preme trihunal serves as a court of appeal from the lower courts. The tribunals of commerce and police, together with those of the several departments, take cognizance of the various civil and criminal cases specially falling within their several spheres. There are 357 tribunals of the arrondissemcnts, or tribu- naux de premih-e instance, which are divided into six classes; 2681 police courts; 216 tribunals of com- merce ; 26 courts of appeal, divided into four clasjses ; a Cour de Cassation, divided into three chambers, which confirms or annuls the sentences of the police and assize courts; and a Haute Cour de Jm^tice, which gives final judgment in all cases of offence against the state. Assizes are held every three months in 59 towns; and, independently of the ordinary judicial magistrates, the courts of assize are com- posed of juries of twelve men, chosen in accordance with certain prescribed regulations. In the maritime and commercial towns there were, under the empire, 85 councils of prucThommes (experienced men), with summary jurisdiction in matters to the amount of 200 francs. These councils, which are composed of master-workmen elected annually, decide on causes of dispute, chiefly in regard to questions of wages, and differences between masters and men. The state is charged 33,771,640 francs annually for the expenses incident to the ministry of justice, according to the budget for 1876. There are 387 departmental pris- ons, 21 central houses of detention, 2 political pris- ons at Doullens and Belleisle, and numerous peniten tiaries and reformatories for the young. All these prisons, excepting the two for political offenders, are in part self-supporting. The only hulks, hagncs, still remaining are at Toulon, where convicts of a certain class undergo their sentences, but the princi- pal penal settlement is in French Guiana (q. v.). lieligion. Churches. — No person can be molested in F. on account of his religious opinions, provided I he manifestation of them does not disturb the public peace as established by law. The public exercise of any special form of religion must, however, be pre- ceded by the official authorisation of the pr^fet, or in special cases, by higher authority. The recognised forms of faith are — the Roman Catholic, the Protest- ant (including the Reformed and Lutheran), the Jewish, and, for Algeria, the Mohammedan. The clergy attached to these religions receive their piy from the state, and are exempt from military service. The Roman Catholic Church embraces the great majority of the people. Of the 36,000,000 which constitute the present population of F., 1,500,000 appertain to the two Protestant churches, 150,000 to the Jewish persuasion; and 25,000 to non-recognised but tolerated denominations, the Anabaptists comprising nearly one-third of this number. At the breaking out of the Revolution, the an- nual revenues of the church amounted to 150,000,- 000 of livres, and its debts to 133,000,000. The state appropriated to itself the funds of the church in 1789, and assumed the responsibility of main- taining public worship. The following table gives a summary of the expenses incurred by the state for the maintenance of religion since the Con- sulate. FRANCE. Tears. CathoUo Protestant Jewish form Moham. Rel Beligiou. Church. of Faith. in Algeria. Francs. Francs. Francs. Francs. 1803, . . 4,059.1)06 22,303 1813, . . . 16,628,868 695.000 1823, . . 26.138 445 577,829 1835, . . . 33,523,319 849,763 79,995 3,000 1847, . . 37,630.008 1,240,229 1,328,891 108,S36 3,000 1854, . . . 42,223,329 149,428 568,024 1859, . . 44,994,100 1,408,436 189,400 630,200 1873, . . . 51,500,000 1,400,000 273,000 500,000 The archbishops and bishops of the church of F. are to 1)6 nominated by the President of the Republic and canonically inducted by the pope. There are, accord- ing? to the budget of 1873, 18 archbishops and 69 bishops. The archbishop of Paris receives 50,000 francs per annum; the other archbishops, 20,000 francs; the bishops, 15,000 francs. Six French prel- ates hold the rank of cardinals, to which disunity they ai'e nominated by the pope on the presentation of the president. Every archbishopric has 3, and every bishopric 2 vicars-general, the whole number being 190. Their salaries vary from 3500 to 4500 francs. There are 709 canons belonging to the vari- ous cathedral chapters, receiving from 1600 to 2400 francs per annum ; 3437 cur^s or parochial beneficed clei-gy, who are canonically inducted by the bishops, under the approval of the state; and 31,586 curates or deaservants. The cur^s receive from 1200 to 1500 francs; the curates, 200 francs. The cures maybe assisted by a certain number of vicariats, who receive from 350 to 500 francs; there are at present 9000 authorised by the state. There are in F. 105 Re- formed consistories, and 44 belonging to the Lutheran Church. The central council of the Reformed churches holds its sittings at Paris. Synods composed of the delegates of five churches may assemble with the authority of the state to regulate the celebration of the services of their church; but their meetings cannot last longer than six days, and tlieir decisions must be submitted for the approbation of the govern- ment. There is a Protestant seminary for the Re- formed at Montauban. Besides the sums inscribed in the budget for the maintenance of religion, the de- partments are charged with special annual subsidies, which have risen of late yenrs in a rapid ratio, and amounted in 1868 to upwards of 717,000 francs. Public Instruction. — Public instruction is presided over in F. by a special ministry. Nearly half the ex- penses connected with it are defrayed by the state, and the remainder by the departments. There are 15 academies located in the following towns — Aix, Be- sanfon, Bordeaux, Caen, Clermont, Dijon, Douai, Grenoble, Lyon, Montpellier, Nancy, Paris, Poitiers, Renncs, Toulon. These academies are divided into the five faculties of theology, law, medicine, sciences, and literature, and supplemented by various superior and preparatoiy schools. 'J'he professors are paid partly by the state, and partly by fees. There are 81 normal schools intended to train teachers for the higher departments of instruction. Secondary in- struction has received an immense impetus during the present century. In 1866, there were 41,800 free and public schools for boys, and 14,000 com- munal schools for the use of girls, and the entire number of scholars exceeded four millions. In 1863, the number of children over eight and under eleven, who had never been to school, amounted to about 200,000. In 1866, about 30 pel cent, of the military conscripts were unable to read. The different de- partments share very unequally in the diffusion of education, and it may be generally observed that the proportion of the educated is highest in tlie northern and eastern districts of F. The duration of school life is generally regulated by the religion of the scholar. Roman Catholics of the lower classes, more particularly in the rural districts, rarely visit school after eleven or twelve, the age at which they receive their first com* munion, while Protestants commonly remain at school until about sixteen. The elementary schools super- intended by the clergy impart a very defective educa- tion. With the general census of 1872 came a second inquiry into the educational state of the nation, which, being very carefully made, gave, it is reported, very accurate results. In this census the population was divided into three groups according to ages — the first comprising all children under six ; the second the growing generation between six and twenty; and the third ail the grown-up persons above twenty. It was found that of those under six years of age there were — unable to read or write, 3,540,101 ; able to read only, 292,348; able to read and write, 151,595; un- ascertained, 38,042. Of those from six to twenty there were — unable to read or write, 2,082,338 ; able to read only, 1,175,125; able to read and write, 5,458,097; 'unascertained, 70,721. Of those above twenty there were — unable to read or write, 7,702,- 362 ; able to read only, 2,305,130 ; able to read and write, 13.073,057; unascertained, 214,005. It will be seen that nine-tenths of the children under six, more than a fifth but less than a fourth of the youths of both sexes under twenty, and more than a third of the grown-up population of men and women are un- able to read or write. Setting aside the four millions of children under six years of age, it may be said that thirty per cent, of the population of France are en- tirely devoid of education. F. supports numerous colleges and schools for instruction in special branches of knowledge : as L'Ecole des Chartes ; des Langues Orientales; des Beaux-Arts, founded in 1671 by Louis XIV.; de Dessin, founded in 1766 by Louis XV. ; the Conservatoire de Musique, founded in 1784; L'Ecole de Rome, founded by Louis XIV., and L'Ecole d'Athenes, founded in 1846; L'Ecole des Ponts et Chauss^es, for the instruction of engi- neers of public works ; L'Ecole des Mines (1783) ; the Conservatoire National des Arts et Metiers, for the application of science to the arts and trades; the Cen- tral School des Arts et Metiers; and the national schools for arts and trades. There are numerous agricultural, forest, farming, and veterinary schools, besides the Ecole Poly technique, especially designed to prepare youths for the public services ; and mili- tary and naval colleges at St Cyr, Saumur, Paris, Vincennes, Brest, Toulon, and St Denis. Literary and Scientific Institiitions. — Among the literary and scientific institutions of F. the first is L'Institut de France (q. v.). The Museum of Natu- ral History, known formerly as the Jai-din du Roi, is one of the finest in the world. The Bureau des Lon- gitudes and the Observatoire, at Paris and Marseille, have occupied the first rank among scientific institu- tions since their foundation. These establishments are all maintained at the cost of the state. Paris possesses several libraries belonging to and supported by the state, but freely opened to the public. The most important of all is that now known as the Bib- liotheque Nationale. See Libraries. There are 338 public libraries in the provinces, to all of which access is afforded in the most liberal spirit. F. is rich in public galleries of painting, statuary, and articles of veriu. The expenses of secondary and pri- mary education, literary and sciej)tific institutions, national archives, &c., are charged in the budget for 1876 at 38,220,000 francs. Theatres. — The theatre, like all other public insti- tutions, is under the surveillance of the state, which charges the annual budget for the maintenance of theatrical companies; nearly 7 millions of francs being inscribed on the budget of 1876 for the support of theatres, the fine arts, &c. Charitable Institutions. — F. is rich in institutions of charity, many of which are remnants of the old FRANCE. system of church relief ; but the crlches^ of which there nre several hundreds, and which are, in fact, free nurseries, are a modern form of charity, which originated (in 1844) with M. Marbeau at Paris. The public hospitals and infirmaries are maintained by special endowments, a perccnta<^e on the receipts at theatres and other places of amusement, and by sub- sidies from the government and local communes. Public charities for the relief of paupers derive their resources cither from departmental or nmnicipal funds, and are administered by the bureaux de hien- faUa7ice^ by the depots de ineudicite^ and by numer- ous other local institutions; besides which, the state contributes between 8 and 9 millions of francs (for 1876, 8.485,810 francs) for charitable purposes. Tar.ation, Finances, — The public revenues are ob- tained in F. from direct and indirect taxation, and comprised in the budget, voted by the National As- sembly, under the heads of ordinary resources and special resources; the former including direct and indirect taxes, from stamps, the produce of forests, telegraphs, Algeria, &c. ; and the latter, depart- mental funds, special imposts, tScc. The following table shews the financial report of the public receipts and expenditure for different years from 1815 to • 876: Years. Receipts, In francs. Expenditure, in francs. 1815, . . . 7J3 8:}0,200 798.590,859 1824, . . . 994.971,962 992 58:1.2:53 18:W, . . . 1,031,796 054 1,095,142.115 1840, . . . 1.2:U,483,()99 1,36:5,711,102 1850, .... 1,431.622,471 1,472,5.37,238 1859, . . . 1,766,080,877 1,773,919,114 1871, .... 2,190,120,590 2,161.262,952 1873, . . . 2,668,772,334 2.715.658,413 1874, .... 2,482.496,416 2,5:54,311.618 1876, . . . 2,575,028,582 2,570,505,513 Public Debt.— In 1814, the date of the Restoration, the interest of the debt was 63 million francs; under the Bourbons it rose to 200 millions; and from 1830 to 1848, Louis Philippe increased it to 244 millions. During the three years of the second republic, 5 mil- lions were paid off; but the second empire (1852 — 1869) added nearly 120 millions to the annual bur- den. The increase of the debt during the empire arose from a succession of loans raised by borrowing directly from the mass of small capitalists, without the intervention of large banking-houses. The amount of the national debt of France is very vari- ously given according to what is included under that head ; but if we take the funded debt bearing rentes or interest, the amount of such rentes in January 1870, before the war, is stated at 358 million francs = about £14,000,000, representing a capital of 11,500 million francs, or £460,000,000. The loans and other obligations incurred to meet the expenses of the war of 1870 — 1871, including the indemnity of 5 milliards francs to Germany, nearly doubled this sum, so that the national debt of France, as stated in the bud- get for 1876, was 19.900,206,733 francs, or about 13,980,000,000. In 1879 it amounted to $4,815,- 337,109 (about 25,000,000,000 francs), the revenue for the same year amounting to $545,000,000 and the expenditures to $552,800,000. The continual deficits from the close of the first empire in 1815 to the close of the second empire in 1870, have been covered by loans, inscribed in what is known as le grand livre de la dette pnblique^ and bearing interest or rentes at the rate of 3, 4, 4i, and 5 per cent. The budgets voted annually by the rep- resentatives of tlie nation have almost invariably shewn a sniall assumed surplus; while the compte dejinitlf for the corresponding period, when published some years afterwards, has without exception exhib- ited a large deficit. The following table shews the rate at which these defi(;its have increased since 1814, the deficits for 1868 and 1869 being given conjectur- ally as estimated from official sources; Periods. Amount of Deflcitt. Francs. RoHrbon Monarch)', from 1815 to 18:50, . . 22,550,000 Jleigii of Louis Philipixi, from 18:-,0 to 1848, 997.^66,000 Second Rcpiil.lic, from 1848 to 1852, . . . 359,374,000 Second Empire, from 1852 to 1870, . . 2,141,0.50,500 The total value of the French money in circulation is 12,630,657,996 francs. According to the act of monetary union effected between France, Belgium, Switzerland, and Italy, the emission of coined pieces is to be at the rate of 6 francs for every inhabitant, which, taking into account the presumed increase of population to the year 1880, when the term of the treaty expires, gives for France the sum of 239 mil- lions; for Belgium 32, for Italy 141, and for Swit- zerland 17 miilions francs. The amount of specie in reserve in the bank in January 1873, was 790,000,- 000 francs; the amount of notes in circulation by the bank and its branches was 2,858,619,270 francs. The maximum amount of notes in circulation has been fixed at 3,000,000,000 francs, by the decree of the National Assembly of July 1872. ^r«j?/. — Standing armies date in F. from the time of Ciiarles VII. The law of 1832 regulated the sys- tem of recruiting by conscription, on the footing which, with few modifications, it has subsequently occupied. By the law of 1872, substitution and en- listment for money are prohibited, and the principle of universal liability to arms is laid down, in accord- ance with which every Frenchman must be for five years in the ' active army,' for four years in the re- serve of the same, foi five years in the territorial army, and for six years in the reserve of the territo- rial army. Besides the ordinary physical causes of exemption, there are various others admitted, arising from family, social, or individual conditions; while, moreover, young men who pass the necessary exami- nation, may obtain exemption by enlisting as volun- teei's for one year only, and defi-aying the cost of their maintenance and clothing. The returns for 1871 gave the strength of the French army as follows; Peace-footing — 404,192 men, 86,368 horses; war- footing — 757,727 men, 143,238 horses; while the estimated cost was somewhat more than 430 millions of francs. According to the estimates for 1879, the French army is calculated at 502,856 men, including 281,601 infantry, 68,617 cavalry, 66,331 artilleiT, and 86,307 other troops. F. is divided into six mili- tary commands, or corps dCarmee , each under a field- marshal, which are subdivided into districts com- manded by generals of division, and into lesser cir- cles, corresponding with the departments, and under generals of brigades. The fortified chefs-lieux are at Arras, Bayonne, Besanfon, Bourges, Brest, Cher- bourg, Grenoble, Langres, La Rochelle, Le Havre, Lille, Lyon, Marseille, Montpellier, Nantes, Perpig- nan, St Omer, Toulon, and Toulouse. Metz and Strasbnrg were formerly included in this number, but since their annexation by Germany, Avignon, Per- pignan, Quiberon, and Rouen have been converted into military chefs-lieux in their place. Besides reg- ular troops, F. has its Garde Nationale^ which was created in 1789, and legally organised in 1791. Since 1852, the sphere of its obligations has been limited to the maintenance of order in case of threatened insur- rection. Navy. — According to the returns of 1879, the officers of the French navy consisted of 35 vice-ad- mirals, 50 rear-admirals, 113 captains of first-class men-of-war, 233 captains of frigates, 762 lieutenants, 451 ensigns, and 139 cadets; total, 1783 officers. The sailors afloat and on shore, together with engineers, &c,, brought the grand total of those employed in the fleet to 49,930. The inscription for the navy owes its systematic organisation to the great mini.^ster Col- bert (1681). At present, all persons engaged in any maritnne vocatioa between the ages of 18 and 50 are FRANCE. liable to inscription, but the service is only compul- sory for three years. The fleet consists of 232 ves- sels afloat; of these 31 ai'e ironclads. F. has 6 de- pots for marine artillery, .3 foundries, and 2 manu- factories for projectiles. Tliere are special hospitals, schools, and libraries for the use of the navy ; and .5 maritime districts, subdivided into 12 arrondisse- ments, at which are administrative courts for the set- tlement of all naval questions. Money, Weights, and Measures. — For the money, weights, and measures now used in F., see Franc, Metre, Litre, Gramme. Colo7ues. — In the larger French colonies, the ad- ministrative power is vested in a goA^ernor, who exer- cises supreme military command, and is assisted by a general council, specially charged to vote the budget of the province. Three officers act under the orders of the governor — viz., the ' ordonnator,' director of the interior, and procurator-general. There is also in each colony a colonial controller, who presides over the financial and other departments. See Dictions, et Annnaires de V Administ. Franc. ; Bulletin des Lois (1872); Statistique de France (1872;; Dictionnaire general de la Politique, hy M. Maurice Block (1873); Almanack de Gotha (1876). History. — Gallia (Eng. Gaul) was the anciexjt name under which F. was designated by t».. Romans, who knew little of the country till the time of Caesar, when it was occupied by the three races of the Aquitani, Celt®, and Belgse, who respectively inhabited the south-west, the west and central, and the north and north-east parts. There were also some tribes of Germans, Ligurians, and Greeks. It is probable that the Celts were the oldest race, for this people had sent forth colonies into Italy 600 B.C. The Greeks nevei penetrated far beyond the shores of the Medi- terranean, where they planted colonies, the most important of which was Massalia (Marseille). The conquests of Csesar reduced a great jiart of the country. Under Augustus, Gaul was divided into four jH-ovinces, which, under subsequent emperors, were dismembered, and sxibdi\ided into seven- teen. In the decline of the Iloman power, Gaul was ravaged by neighbouring hordes, and in the 5th c. it fell completely under the power of the Visigoths, Burgundians, and Franks. In 4SG a.d., Clovis, a chief of the Salian Franks, and of the race of MeroAongius, raised himself to supreme power in the north. His dynasty, known as the Merovingian, ended in the person of Childeric III., who was deposed, 752 A. D., after the kingly power had already passed into the hands of the former Maire du Palais, or mayor of the palace, Pepin d'Heristal, and, after him, into those of Charles Martel and Pepin le Bref. The accession of Pepin gave new vigour to the Prankish monarchy which, under his son and successor Charlemagne (768 — 814), rose to the rank of the most powerful empire of the West. Christianity, civilisation, and letters were protected during his reign, and before his death he had joined the crown of Lom- bardy to his other diadems, and had stretched the bmits of his empire from the Eider and the German Ocean to the Ebro and the Mediter- ranean, and from the Atlantic to the Baltic. With him, however, this vast fabric of powei crumbled to pieces, and his weak descendants completed the ruin of the Prankish empire by the dismemberment of its various parts among the younger branches of the Carlovingian family. Intes- tine wars desolated the land, and foreign assailants threatened it on every si le. In 911 A. d., the ravages of the Northmen had assumed so persistent a char- acter, that Charles le Simple was glad to pxirchase Immunity from their encroachments by the cession of the territory subsequently known as Normandy. Anarchy reigned paramount; the various governors established an hereditary authority in their several governments, and the crown was by degrees depnved of the noblest part of its appanages. The power of some of the vassals s irpassed that of the kin^s ; and on the death of Louis V. the Carlovingian dynasty was replaced by that of Hugues, Count of Paris, whose son, Hugues Capet, was elected king by the army, and consecrated at Rheims, 987 A. d. At this period, the greater part of F. was held by almost independent lords, and the authority of the Capetian kings extended little beyond Paris and Orleans. Louis le Gros (1108—1137) was the first of the race who reinstated order. He promoted the estab- lishment of the feudal system, abolished serfdom on his own estates, secured corporate rights to the cities under his jurisdiction, and gave efficiency to the central authority of the crovm. A greater degree of general order was thus secured, while a new element in the state was generated by the foundation of a free burgher class. Louis carried on a war against Henry I. of England ; and when the latter allied himself with tbe Emperor Henry V. of Germany against F., he brought into the field an army of 200,000 men, whose ready appearance afforded the first instance of the existence of a com- mon national feeling of patriotism, ready to respond to the appeal of the sovereign. The oriflamme is said to have been borne aloft for the first time on this occasion as the national standard. Louis VII. (Le Jeune), who took part in the second crusade (1137 — 1180), was almost incessantly engaged in war mth Henry 11. of -England. His son and successor, Philippe Auguste (1180 — 1223) reoovcred Normandy, Maine, Touraine, and Poitou from John of England, and increased the power of the crown in various other parts of France. He took an active personal share in the Crusades, and permitted the pope to organise a cruel persecution against the Albigenses in the southern parts of the country. Phili])pe was the first to levy a tax for the main- tenance of a standing army, and in his reign a chamber of peers, of six secular and six ecclesias- tical members, was instituted, to act as a council of state. Many noble institutions date their origin from this reign, as the university of Paris, the Louvre, &c. By the amendment of the admi- nistration of justice, the right of appeal to the royal courts was established, and the arbitrary piower of the great vassals crippled. Improvements in tbe mode of administering the law were continued under his son, Louis VIII. (1223—1226), and his grand- son, Louis IX. (1226—1270), who caused a code of laws {Ltahlissements de St Louis) to be promulgated. St Louis also effected many modifications in the fiscal department, and, before his departure for the Crusades, seciu'ed the rights of the Galilean Church by a special statute, in order to counteract the con- stantly increasing assumptions of the papal power. Under his son, Philippe III. (1270—1285), titles of nobility were first conferred by letters-patent. He added Valois and the comtes of Toulouse and Venaissin to the crown. Philippe IV. (1285—1314), surnamed Le Bel, acquired Navarre, Champagne, and Biie by man-iage. With a view of securing sup- port against the secular and ecclesiastical nobility, with whom he was constantly at war, Philippe gave prominence to the burgher element in the nation, and on 28th March 1302, he, for the first time called together the etats generaux, or general estates, at which the tiers etai, or burgher class, appeared together with the nobles and clergy. These changes were, however, accompanied by arbitrary iimova- tions in the fiscal and other departments of the govcmment, which were effected with reckless hasM 477 FRANCE. and violence. With a view of securing to the crown the great tiefs, he abrogated the right of females to succeed to landed property. His tyrannical perse- 'Cution of the Templars shewed the extent to which the regal power could be stretched ; and under his successors, Louis X. (1314—1316), Philippe V. (1316 —1321), and Charles IV. {Le Bel), (1321—1328), the last direct descendant of the Capetian line, the rule of the kings of F. became even more unlimited, whilst the court was given up to every sjjecies of luxurious indulgence known to the age. Philippe VI., the lirst of the House of 'Valois (1328—1350), a distant relative of Charles IV., and the nephew of Philippe IV., succeeded in right of the salic law. His reign, and those of his successors, Jean (1350 — 13G4) and Charles V. [Le Sage), (13G4— 1380), were disturbed by constant wars with Edward III. of England, who laid claim to the throne in nght of his mother, a daughter of Philippe le Bel. The war began in 1339 ; in 1346, the battle of Crecy was fought; at the battle of Poitiers (1356), Jean waa made captive ; and before its final close after the death of Edward (1377), the state was reduced to bankruptcy, the nobility excited to rebellion, and the mass of the peo}>le Scink in barbarism. Falsifi- cation of the coinage, onerous taxation, and arbi- trary conscriptions, brought the country to the verge of irretrievable ruin, while the victories of England humbled the sovereign, annihilated the French armies, and cut down the flower of the nation. The long and weak minority of Richard IL diverted the English from the prosecution of their groundless claims to the kingdom of F., which re\aved somewhat from • the effect of its long and disastrous warfare ; but during the regency for the minor, Charles VI. {Le Bkii Aimc), (1.3S0— 1422), the war was renewed wdth increased \ngour on the part of the English nation, who were stimulated by the daring valour of Henry V, The signal victory won by the English at Azincourt in 1415 ; the treason and rebellion of the French princes of the blood, who governed the larger provinces ; the ambition of the several regents, the ultimate imbe- cihty of the king, the profligacy of his queen, and the love of pleasure early CAinced by the dauphin, all combined to aid Hemy in his attempts upon the throne, and at one period his recognition as heir to the crown, and the disorganised state of the nation, seemed to threaten the complete ruin of F. ; but the premature death of Henry, the persevering spirit of the people, and the extraordinary influence exer- cised over her countrymen by the Maid of Orleans, Jeanne d'Arc, who instilled courage into the hearts of the soldiers, and roused the dauphin from his lethargic indolence, combined to bring about a thorough reaction, and, after a period of murder, rapine, and anarchy, Charles VII. (Ze Victorieux), (1422 — 1461) was crowned at Rheims. He obtained from the Estates General a regular tax {taille) for the maintenance of paid soldiers, to keep in check the mercenaries and marauders who pillaged the country. The pohcy of his successor, Louis XL (1461—1483), the first king entitled 'His most Christian Majesty,' favoured the burgher and trading classes at the expense of the nobles, while he humbled the power of the crown-princes. He was a crafty rider, who managed the finances well, and succeeded, by policy and good-luck, in recovering for the crown the territories of Maine, Anjou, and Provence; while he made himself master of some portions of the territories of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. Charles VIII. (1483—1498), by his marriage with Anne of Brittany, secured that power- ful state, and consolidated the increasing power of the crown. With him ended the direct male auccea- Bion of the House of Valois. Louis XIL (1498- -1515). 478 {Le P^re du Peuple) was the only representative of the Valois- Orleans family. The tendency of his reign was to confirm the regal supremacy, while the general condition of the people was ameliorated. He and his successor, Francis I. (1515—1547), of the Valois- Angoideme branch, wasted their resources in futile attempts to establish their hereditary claims to LomV;ardy, and were thus perpetually embroiled with the House of Austria. A concordat with the pope, signed in 1516, secured the nomination of the Galilean bishops to the king. In this reign, the Assembly of Notables and Deputies superseded the General Estates. The defeat of Francis at the battle of Pavia, in 1525, and his subsequent imprison- ment at Madrid, threw the aftairs of the nation into the greatest disorder, and embarrassed the public finances to a most ruinous extent. Arts and litera- ture were encouraged in this reign, and in that of the succeeding monarch, Henri II. (1547 — 1559), who continued the disastrous Italian war. In the latter reign began the persecutions of the Protestants, which were carried on with still greater cruelty under Henri's three sons, Francis IL (1559 — 1560), Charles IX. (1560—1574), and Henri IIL (1574— 1589), the last of this branch of the Valois. The massacre of St Bartholomew (1572) was peri)etr^ted under the direction of the (jueen-mother, Catharine de' Medici, and the confederation of the League, at the head of which were the Guises. The wars of the League, which were carried on by the latter against the Bourbon branches of the princes of the blood-royal, involved the whole nation in their vortex. The succession of Henri IV. of Navarre (1589 — 1610), a Bourbon prince, descended from a younger son of St Louis, allayed the fury of these religious wars, but his recantation of Protestantism in favour of Catholicism, disappointed his own party. The early part of his reign was perpetually disturbed by the mutinies of the troops and the rebellions of the nobles. By degrees, however, Henri, through the astute counsels of his minister Sully, and by his own personal popularity, raised the power of the crown higher than ever, while he began a system of thorough administrative reform, which was only arrested by his assassination by the fanatic Ravaillac. During the minority of his son, Louis XIIL (1610 — 1643), Cardinal Richelieu, under the nominal regency of Marie de' Medici, the queen-mother, ruled F. with, a firm hand, although his op])ression of the Protestants at home, and his co-operation with them abroad, in endeavouiing to hwnble the House of Austria, entailed long and costly wars with. little fame on France. Cardinal Mazarine, under the regency of the queen-mother Anne of Austria, exerted nearly equal power for some time during the minority of Louis XIV. (1643-1715). The wars of the Fronde, the misconduct of the parlia- ment, and the humbling of the nobility, gave rise to another civil war, but with the assumption of poner by young Louis, a new era commenced, and till near the close of his long reign, the military successes of the French were most brilliant, and the boundai'ies of F. were enlarged by conquests and treaties very nearly to what they are now. The military glory of the kingdom was maintained by a host of gallant commanders, amongst whom stood conspiciious the names of Turenne, Vauban, Luxembourg, Catinat, Vendome, Boufflers, and Crequi, while, by the far- sighted policy of the minister Louvois, a well- organ- ised army and a newly-created navy made the power of F. formidable to all neighbouring nations. The progress of the people in the arts of pea,c© wfta not less marked. At the close of hip rule, the oppressive war-taxes, the prodigahty of the court, the luxurious lives of the clergy, and the absolutism and bigotry of the aged monarch, combined to imderwine the FRANCE. foundations of national prosperity and freedom, and at his death the state was left trammelled with a debt of 3500 millions of livres, and his youthful heir, Louis XV. (1715 — 1775), succeeded to a heritage whose glory w^as tarnished, and whose stability was shaken to its very foimdations. The long inglorious reigu of Louis XV. presents nothing worthy of notice except the gradual rise of those sentiments of infidelity and licence which prepared the overthrow of all the ancient institutions of the country. The regency of the profligate Orleans paved the way for the miseries which followed, while his corrupt financial administration brought the nation into the most overwhelming monetary embarrassments. this reign, Corsica was added to France, The thorough disorganisation of the state, and the neglect of the fleet and army, prevented all attempts al conquests either on sea or land. The colonies \\ ere left a prey to the attacks of other powers, while the capricious change of policy which the king's mistress, Madame Pompadour, forced upon the government, brought contempt upon the country. The peace of Paris, 1763, by which the greater portion of the colonial possessions of F. w^ere given up to England, terminated an inglorious war, in which the French had expended 1350 millions of francs. The close of this unhappy reign was still further distiu'bed by the cabals of the Jesuits, who were finally banished in 1764. In 1774, Louis XVI., a well-meaning, weak prince, succeeded to the throne. His first ministers, Maurepas, Turgot, and Malesherbes, had not the vigour to carry out the reforms which their sense and patriotism suggested to them, and they were soon compelled to yield to the intrigues of the nobility, and resign their places. They were succeeded by the financier Necker, who endeavoured, by economy and method, to aiTest the impending bank- ruptcy of the state, and succeeding ministers made futile attempts to diminish these financial disorders by new forms of taxation, which were generally opposed either by the assembly or the court. The American war of freedom had disseminated republican ideas among the lower orders, while the Assembly of the Notables had discussed and made known to all classes the incapacity of the government, and the wanton prodigality of the court. The nobles and the tiers etat were alike clamorous for a meeting of the states ; the former wishing to impose new taxes on the nation, and the latter determined to inaugurate a thorough and systematic reform. After much opposition on the part of the king and court, the eUits generaux, w^hich had not met since 1614, assembled at Versailles on the 25tli of May 1789. F. was at that moment ripe for a revolution. Although the nobility was exceedingly numerous (as not only did the children of a noble belong to this class, but its numbers were constantly being increased by creation), there w'ere great differeiicer in the rank and dignity attached to the order ; thus, in 1789, there were only 44 secular peers, independ- ently of the princes of the blood, and the six origin- ally created ecclesiastic peers ; but the lower grades of nobility were so nvmierous that their numbers stood in the ratio of 1 to 250 of the entire jwpula- tion. Nevertheless, every grade of nobility exemjited its holder from the payment of the ordinary land- tax, or ta'dle, from the charge of maintaining the public roads (corvee), from military'' conscription, from receiving billets of soldiers, &c. The nobles X)aid the capitation tax, but in a very unequal proportion, although the landed property was vested almost entirely in their hands. They, in fact, monopolised (together with the clergy) the principal share of the national revenues, and left to the lower classes the burden of labour and of paying the taxes. At the outbreak of the lie volution, the French nobility were siink in j)rofligacy, and fallen to the lowest stage of demoralisation. The clergy kej)t pace with Ihe nobles in general depravity, and while their aggregate revenues amounted, according to Necker, to 130,000,000 of livres, and their landed property stood in the relation of 1 to 5f of that of all other proprietors, tUeir contributions towards the maintenance of the state were inadequate and irregular ; the open profligacy and wasteful excesses of many of the higher members of the hierarchy, brought the whole order into disrepute. Francis L had WT-ung from the church a tithe, known as the decime paschaline, and every five years the clergy were expected to present their so-called dons gratuits ordinaires, of from 15 to 18 million of livres ; while on occasions of need they from time to time made extraordinary dons gratu'ds, which, however, were usually repaid at long inter- vals. The tiers etat were crushed by the weight of an unjust taxation, which was rendered more obnoxious by the system of farming out some of the taxes. The most tyrannical of these was the tax on salt. The municipal institutions which had been permitted to flourish under some of the Valois princes in the middle ages, were almost \ entirely abolished, and the offices of towns, like ■ those of the state and the courts of iustice, were j either hereditary or open to purchase ; the tiers etat- which included professional men, and all who were not either members of the noble or the clerical orders, saw themselves utterly excluded from all participation in the privileges and duties of free citizens, at the very time when the extensive circulation of the writings of the philosophers of the 18th c, as Voltaire, Malesherbes, Rousseau, and Montesquieu, had habituated men's minds to the discussion of questions of political independence, equal rights, and universal freedom. The resistance made by Louis and his advisers to the reasonable demands of the Deputies on the 17th June 1789, led to the constitution of the National Assembly — a measure which was followed, on the 23d of June, by a declaration of the inviolability of the members. The king retaliated by ordering a large body of troops under arms, dissolved his ministry, and banished Necker, whom he had shortly before recalled under the pressure of public opinion. The consequence was the outbreak of insurrectionary movements at Paris, where blood was shed on the 12th July. On the following day, the national guard was convoked ; and on the 14th, the people took possession of the Bastille. The provinces repeated the acts of Paris, and everywhere national guards and revolutionary municipal councils were called together. On the 4th of August, feudal and manorial rights were abrogated by the National Assembly, which gave expression to a solemn declaration of the equality of human rights. The royal princes and all the nobles who could escape sought safety in flight. The royal family having attempted in vain to follow their example, tried to conciliate the people by the feigned assumption of republican sentiments ; but on the 5th October, the rabble, followed by numbers of the national guard, attacked Versailles, and compelled the king and his family to remove to Paris, whither the Assembly also moved. The next two years witnessed the solemn inauguration and the subsequent retraction of various constitutional schemes ; the princes of the blood and the ancient noblesse raised corps of emigi-6s in different parts of the coimtry, but their efforts coidd not arrest the spread of republi- canism. The king alternately made concessions to the republicans, and cherished schemes for escaping from their surveillance, but each month added to his humiliations and to the audacity of those 479 FRANCE. , . » war with Austria was bejCT'a Burroundmg hira. /^|^aefeat of the French was m Apnl 1702 ; and t^^^L^fined in August with visited on Louis who was ^^^^^^^^-^ his family in the fern pie. ^fc^ . . , Prussians into Champagne thi-??^^^^^^ ^^^^^ wildest excitement. The N^tionaf\^^f,'"''^y ^^^^^ Bolved itself in September. In DecenTT^ji^ J^'"g was brought to trial, and called upon t^^^V;. for repeated acts of treason against the rcpH On the 20th January 1793, sentence of death w^ passed upon him; and on the following day he was beheaded, llevolts burst out in every part of France. England, Holland, Spain, Naples, and the German States combined together against the republic. Christianity was now formally deposed, and the sacredness of the republic and the wor- ship of Reason solemnised. Marie Antoinette, the widowed (jueen, was guillotined ; the dauphin and his sur\dving relatives suffered every indignity that malignity could devise. A reign of Mood and terror succeeded. Danton and Kobespierre, after having condemned countless numbers to the guillotine, sulfered each in turn a similar fate. After the destruction of the Terrorists, a reaction was gradu- ally established ; the peoi)le were wearied of blood- shed, and anxioits for peace and order at any cost. The brilliant exploits of the young general. Napoleon Bonaparte, in Italy, turned m,ge of suc- cess seemed to attend Napoleon; but on the 18th June, he was thorouy its unexpected character, revealing at once the solidity of Prussian strength, and the hollowness of imperial power in F. Within a fortnight of the emperor's appearance at the head of his troops at Metz, July 28, 1870, the strength of the French army was annihilated, Alsace and Lorraine wei'e occupied by Germans, and the Chamber of Deputies in Paris was clamouring for his abdication. On September 2, Napoleon, with his army of 90,000 men, surrendered at Sedan, and on the 4th, Paris was in rebellion, the senate dissolved, the Empress Regent a fugitive on her way to England, and F. proclaimed a Republic amid tumultuous excitement. Before the close of September, Strasburg, one of the last hopes of F., had capitulated, and Paris was completely invested by German troops; and on 5th October, the Prussian king had taken up his headquarters at Versailles. The fall of Metz, with 200,000 men, completed the disasters of the year. In January 1871, the united efforts of the different branches of ' the Provisional Government of Defence,' respectively installed at Paris and Tours, succeeded in bringing about an armistice, after the besieged Parisians had for four months been hourly exposed to the fire of the enemy, cut off from all communication with the outer world except by balloons and carrier-pigeons, and finally threatened by famine. With the concurrence of Prussia, the French nation now proceeded, by a general election of representatives, to provide for the exigencies of the country. The First National As- sembly of the French Republic met at Bordeaux in February. After receiving from the Provisional Government of Defence the resignation of the powers confided to them in September 1870, the Assembly undertook to organise the Republican Government, and nominated M. Thiers chief of the executive power of the state, with the title of President of the French Republic, but with the condition of re- sponsibility to the National Assembly. On the 1st of March the preliminaries of peace were finally ratified at Bordeaux, the chief conditions being that the province of Alsace (except Belfort) and part of Lorraine, including Metz, should be ceded to the German empire, and that F. should pay a war in- demnity of 5000 millions of francs, and continue to be occupied by German troops till the money was all paid. This enormous obligation was discharged in September 1873, and during the same month, F., after an occupation of three years, was finally relieved from the presence of foreign troops. In the spring of 1871, the peace of F. was seriously threat- ened by a successful outbreak at Paris on the part of the Communists (q. v.), who after great bloodshed and grievous damage to public and private property, were quelled by the regular army, which had sided with the government, and on 2bth of May order was restored in Paris. Since then, F. has been successfully trying to obliterate some of the numer ous misfortunes resulting from the war, and com- merce and national prosperity are beginning to revive. The death of the ex-Emperor Napoleon, in 1872, at Chiselhurst, wdiere he had resided with his family since his liberation in March 1871; the retirement of M. Thiers; and the election of Marshal MacMahon to the dignity of President 481 FRANCi^-FRANCIA. of the Frencli Republic, appear to have pro(hiced no political excitement in the country. In 1879, Mac Mahon was succeeded as President by M. Jules Grevy. FllANCE, Isle of. See Mauritius. FRANCE' SCO DI PAULA, founder of the order ot the Minims^ was born in 1416 at Paula or Paolo, a villaj^e of Calabria. From birth, his destination was the churcli, for which he was happily fitted l)y nature and preference. At the age of 12, he was an inmate of a Franciscan convent, practising with the utmost rigour the regulations of the order; and at 14, renouncing all world I}'- ])ossessions, he retired to a cave, wliere he inflicted on himself every species of self-mortification, and devoted his time to prayer and meditation. The fame of his piety having attracted to his cell several emulators of his austere life, he received permission from the bishop to erect a church and convent, and the new community received from Pope Sixtus IV. the title of the Hermits of St Francis. To the usual con- ventual vows, F. added one of the most rigorous abstinence — flesh, eggs, and milk being strictly for- bidden the entire year, except in illness. Popular i-eport ha\ing attributed to F. several wonderful €ures, Louis XI. of France, the most superstitious of monarchs, being severely ill, summoned him to his presence, in hopes of some miraculous display of power on his behalf. F. repaired to France, where he was received with the highest honour, and at- tended the king on his death-bed. The successoi-s of Louis, Charles VIII. and Louis Xlf., treated F. with great favour, consulted him in important mat- ters, and induced him to settle in France, Charles VIII. built him a convent at Plessis-le-Tour, and another at Amboise. F. died at the former in 1507, and was canonised in 1519. FRANCHE COMTE, an old province in the east of France, in the basin of the Rhone, comprised what now forms the departments of Doubs, Haute- Scioue, and J ura, and had for its capital Besau9on. FRA'NCHISE. In its political acceptation, the franchise may be said to be the right which centres m the individual holding it to exercise a certain limited portion of the general sovereignty of the state. A franchise in this sense is possible oiAy in a free state, i. e., in a state in which the governed, as a whole, are identical with the governors. It does not necessarily involve the idea of representa- tive government ; for where legislation is effected by the votes of the people themselves, as it was in the small states of antiquitj'-, the franchise \s exercised by each individual directly, without the intei'vention of any representative machinery. Where representation has been introduced, the franchise is the right which the citizen has of voting for his representative, not the right of voting in the legislative body conferred on the representative in consequence of being sent thither, and is an expression not of the sovereignty which centres in him, but of that which belongs to the constituents who send him. There would be no theoretical inconsistency, however, in applying the term fra,nchise to the right of voting in the House of Loids, which belongs to each peer, because he here exercises the sovereignty, or original freedom xvhich belongs, or is supposed to belong, to himself, and does not represent that of others. As the fran- chise is the political expression of the sovereignty which centres in each free citizen, the extent or value which ought to belong to the franchise will be measured by the amount of the so '/ereignty which it expresses. But this sovereignty again corre- eponds, or finds forma of actual expression, in the social position which the individual occupies, in i82 the amount of power and influence whicli is cciL' ceded to him by the society of which he is a part. A theoretically, just franchise, then, would be one which corresponded accurately to the social posi- tion of each individual, which translated the ver- dict by which society fixed his status into the language of politics. But scientific accuracy in such matters, for obvious reasons, is unattainable. An approximation in the individual case is all that is possible in dealing with the mass, and one of the questions which is at present most keenly discussed amongst speculative politicians is, by what test shall this approximate estimate of social vali'.e be brought most nearly to the truth. Mr J. S. Mill haa proposed intelligence, as indicated by instruction, aa the sole measure of individual sovereignty, and, consequently, as the basis of the franchise (see hia recent work on Representative Government). OtherB have proposed wealth ; whilst by a third class of speculators it is contended that, in the case of each individual, there are various elements of social importance which must be taken into account in determining the political value which is his due. By all the more recent waiters on the theory of government, however, the idea of all citizens being entitled to an equal suffrage, however great might be the disparity of intelligence, wealth, manhood, and other elements which go to make up social importance, is repudiated as a scientific absurdity, and reprobated as the source of all the practical injustice which residts from w^hat are commonly known as democratic governments. See villi's work, alluded to above ; also Parliament. FRANCHISE in England is a royal privilege, or branch of the crown's prerogative, subsisting in the hands of the subject. Being derived from tht crown, franchises must arise from royal grajit, or in some cases may be held by prescription, which presupposes a grant (Stephen's Com. i. 637). The subjects of franchise being the })eculiar property of the crown, correspond with what in Scotland are called Regalia (q. v.) ; and a franchise is analogous to a grant of regalia. Gifts of waifs, cstrayn, \\Tecks, treasure-trove, royal fish, and forfeitures, all of which are the prerogative of the crown, are franchises. The rights of forest, chase, park, warren, and fishery are also franchises, no subject being entitled so to apply 'his property for his own con- venience. A county palatine (s^e Palatine) is the highest species of franchise, as within it the earl, constable, or other chief officer, may exercise witn- out control the highest functions the sovereign. And as the crown may thus erect an entire county mto an independent jurisdiction, so it may create a hberty or bailiwnck indej^endent of the sheriff of the county. This, then, is another species of franchise. It is likewise a franchise for a number of persons to be incorjiorated, and svibsist as a body- pohtic, with a power to maintain perjietual succes- sion, and do other corporate acts ; and each mdi- vidual member of such corporation is nho said fco have a francliise or freedom. The right to hold a fair or market, or to establish a ferry, and to levy tolls therein, is also a franchise. Where tLa holder of a franchise is disturbed in his right, he may sue for damages by an action on the case ; or in the case of non-payment of tolls, he has the remedy ol Distress (q. v.). Franchises may be extinguished by reunion with the crown, or may be lost by w.iimser — that is, such a use of them as is contrary to the express or implied condition on which the royal grant i)roceeded — or by non-user. FRAN CI A, Dr. Jose Gaspar Rodriguez, Dictator of Paraguay, was the son of a small landed proprietor, of French or Portuguese origin, and wa« FRANCIA— FRANCIS. bom near the town of Asuncion in 1757 or 1758. He was intended for the church, studied at the university of Cordova de Tucuman, where he took his degree as a doctor of divinity or of canon law, and was for some time a theological i)rofessor. Subsequently he adopted the profession of law, to the practice of which he continued to devote himself for a period of thirty years, gaining much reputation for learning, skill, honesty, and inde- pendence of character. When he had attained the age of fifty-two or fifty-three, the revolution which shattered the Spanish yoke in South America broke out in Buenos Ayres. Paraguay at first offered activ^e opposition to the revolutionists, but ultimately sought to obtain independence for itself. F. took a leading part in the movement, and was made secretary of the independent junta set up, but he soon resigned his post. The conviction, however, being strong in the public mind that F. alone could properly direct the affairs of the new republic, he was, in 1813, appointed joint-consul along with General Yegros. The latter, however, was a man apparently without much intellect or energy, and F. was really sole ruler from the first. In 1814, he was appointed dictator for three years, at the expiry of which time the dictatorship was given him for life ; and the absolute control so conferred he exercised imtil his death in 1840. Under F., the condition of Paraguay rapidly improved, and the system of non-intercourse, poli- tical or commercial, with other nations, which he enforced, however much it may seem to j^rove him devoid of administrative sagacity, was undou.btedly attended with good residts to his country. So strict were the regulations against foreign inter- course, that ingress to, or egress from, Paraguay was next to impossible ; and F.'s treatment of some foreigners who did get in (among others the famous savant Bonpland), and of others who were pre- vented entering, savoured of harshness, and even barbarism. Yet his administrative talent v/as of a high order. He improved agriculture, making two crops of corn grow where only one had grown before. He introduced schools, promoted educa- tion, repressed superstition, and enforced strict justice between man and man in his law-courts. His death was regretted by the people as a public calamity — the best proof that he was no vulgar tyrant. See Rengger and Longchamp's Essai His- torique, &c. (Paris, 1827) ; FrancicCs Beign of Terror (London, 18.39), by J. P. and W. P. Robertson, two young Scotchmen whom F. turned out of the country; and T. Carlyle's essay in the Edinburgh Revkw (1843). FRANCIS, OF Assisi, founder of the Franciscan order, and a saint of the Roman Catholic Church, Was one of the most extraordinary men of his age, and merits a detailed notice, as illustrating in his career all the most remarkable characteristics of the religious life of the middle age. He was bom in 1182, of the family called Bernardini, at Assisi, where his father was engaged in trade. His bap- tismal name was John ; but from his familiarity with the Romance, or language of the troubadoiu'S, in his youth, he acquired the name of II Francesco (' The little Frenchman '). In his early years, he was remarkable for his love of gaiety and ostentatious prodigality ; but even then his bounty to the poor was one of the largest sources of his wastefulness. He engaged eagerly in exercises of chivalry and of arms ; and in one of the x>etty feuds of the time, he was taken })risoner, and detained for a year in cap- tivity at Perugia. An illness v/hich he there con- tracted turned his thoughts from earth ; and although he again engaged in military pursuits, a second illucss at Spoleto decided his career for life. He now resolved to fulfil literally the counsels of the gospel, and he especially devoted himself to poverty, which, in the mystic language thenceforth familiar to him, he designated as ' his bride.' Under an impulsa which he received while listening to a sermon, he took a vow never to refuse alms to a beggar. He made a pilgrimage to the tomb of St Peter at Rome, and there offered to God all that he j^ossessed on earth. On his return to Assisi, he exchanged his clothes with a poor mendicant ; and disregarding all remonstrance and ridicule, he ever afterwards coq- tinued to wear the meanest attire. He gave to a priest who was rebuilding a ruined church the price of his horse, whicli he sold for the puq)ose, and even sought to approi)riate to the same use the moneys of his father, which, however, the priest refused to accept. To avoid his father's anger, he took refuge in a cave, in which he sj)ent a month in solitary prayer, and from which he returned more than ever confirmed in his enthusiasm. His father having in vain confined him in a dark room of his own house, cited him before the magistrates, and, on F.'s declin- ing all civil jurisdiction in such a case, before the bishop, in order to compel him to renounce his inheritance. F. abandoned all, even to the very clothes he wore, and then declared that ' till now he had been the son of Bernardini, but that hence- forth he had but one Father, Him that is in heaven.' Thenceforth, no humiliation was too low for F. ; he begged at the gates of monasteries ; he discharged the most menial offices ; he served the lepers in the hospital at Gubbio in their most revolting necessi- ties, and with the most tender aasiduity. He worked ^vith his own hands at the building of the church of St Daniian, and at that of Sta Maria degli Angeli, which he afterwards called his ' Portiuncula,' or 'little inheritance ;' and as the last act of self- spoliation, and the final acceptance of the gift of poverty, he threw aside his wallet, his staff, and his shoes, and arrayed himself in a single brown tunic, of coarse woollen cloth, girt with a hempen cord. This was in his 26th year, in 1208. His enthusiasm by degrees excited emulation. Two of his fellow-townsmen, Bernard Quintavalle and Peter Cattano, M^ere his first associates. They were fol- lowed, although slowly, by others ; and it was not till 1210, that, his brotherhood having now increased to eleven in number, he drew up for them a rule, selected in the true spirit of religious enthusiasm, by thrice opening at random the gospels upon the altar, and taking the passages thus indicated as the basis of the young institute. (Milman's Latm Christianity, iv. 2G4.) The new brethren repaired to Rome, where their rule was approved (though at first only vivd voce) by Poi)e Innocent HI. in 1210. The two following years were spent by the brotherhood in preaching and exhorting the people through the rural districts of their native and the adjoining provinces ; and F. himself returned to Assisi in 1212, at whicli time he finally settled the simple constitution of his order, the church of Sta Maria degli Angeli being assigned to them aa their home. In common with the older forms of monastic life, the Franciscan institute is founded on the three vows of chastity, poverty, and obe- dience ; but of these the second was, in the eyes of F., the first in importance and in spiritual efficacy. In other orders, the practice of poverty consisted in the mere negation of riches. With F., it was an active and positive principle. In other orders, although the indi\'iduals could not possess, it was lawful for the community to hold, property in common. F. rei)udiated all idea of property, alike for his order and for its members ; he even disclaimed for them the projierty in those things which they retained for personal use — tht FRANCIS. clothes which they wore, the cord Avith which they were girded, the very breviary from which they chanted the divine office. The very impossibility, to human seeming, of these vows, was their strength. Numbers crowded to the standard of Francis. He told them off in parties to different provinces of Italy. Five of the brotherhood repaired to Marocco to preach to the Moors, and, as the tirst martyrs of the order, fell victims to their holy daring. Success removed, all the hesitation with which the institute at lirst was regarded, and in 1216, the order was solemnly approved by Pope Innocent. From this date it increased with exti'aordinary rapidity. At the fii'st general assembly, held in 1210, 5000 mem- bers Av^ere present ; 500 more were claimants for admission. F. himself inaugurated the future missionary character of his brotherhood by going (1223) to the East, and preaching the gospel in the presence of the sultan himself ; but the only fruit of his mission was a promise from the sultan of more indulgent treatment for the Christian captives, and, for the Franciscan order, the privilege which they have since enjoyed, as guardians of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. It is after his return to Italy that his biographers place the celebrated legend, which, to friends or to enemies, has so long been a subject of veneration or of ridicule — his receiving, while in an ecstasy of prayer, the marks {stiattle of Tournay; but on the whole the fortune of the war was against him ; and the triumphs of young General Bonaparte in Italy forced him to conclude the treaty of Campo Formio (October 17, 1797). Only two years afterwards, however, F., in alliance with Russia and England, again took up arms, and was at first successfid ; but the recall of the brave Russian general, Su^varofF^ and the return of Bonaparte from the East, quicldy altered the state of matters. The great victories won by Moreau at Hohenhnden, and by Bonaparte at Marengo, paralysed the powers of Austria, and F. was compelled to sue for peace, which was obtained by the treaty of Lun^ville in 1801, by which the whole of the left bank of the Rhine was ceded to France. In 1805, the aggressions of France once more excited the jealousy of Austria. F. entered into a new alliance with Russia ; and the contest was renewed, but ended more disastrously than ever for the Austrians. The French -vHctories of Ulm and Austerlitz, and the capture of Vienna, completely humiliated F., who, at the j^eace of Presburg (December 1805), was obliged to surrender the Venetian states and the Tyrol. The German empire was now dissolved, after lasting for lOOC years, and F. assumed the title of Emperor of Austria King of Bohemia and Hungary. In 1809, he recom- menced the war with Napoleon, and obtained more success, or i)erhaps we should say, encountered less loss than on previous occasions. The tremendous 4t>5 FRANCIS JOSEPH-FEANCISCANS. battle of Aspei'ii was a victory, though not a decisive one, and did much to restore the prestige of the Austrian arms. Still Napoleon again got possession of Vienna, and dictated terms of peace from the palace of Schonhrunn in October of the same year, lu 1810 the French emperor married F.'s daughter, Maria Louisa. A permanent friendly alliance now seemed to be concluded between the two empires ; and during the Russian campaign in 1812, the Austrians rendered the French some slight assist- ance. In 1813, Austria resumed its neutrality ; but, after having exerted himself fruitlessly to mediate fcctv een l^'rance and Russia, F. suddenly joined the allies, helped to win the battle of Leipsic, and followed the Russians and Prussians to Paris in 1814. His subsequent career does not present any pomts of special importance. He laboured honestly and indefatigably for the welfare of his subjects, encoaraging the making of roads and canals, and the introduction of manufactures ; but his horror of everything revolutionary, excited by his early recol- lections, and by the cruel death of his aunt, jNIarie Antoinette, and kept alive by his long wars with France, had rendered him an absolutist in politics, and a lover of tliat system of centralisation to which Austria continues to cling. F. died on the 2d of March 1835. FRANCIS JOSEPH, the present Emperor of Austria, born 18th August 1830, is the eldest son of the Archduke Francis (son of the Emjjeror Francis I.), and Sophia, a princess of Bavaria. F. was taught to speak all the various languages of his heterogeneous dominions, and only the year before the Hungarian revolution addressed the Magyar nobles at Pesth in their own language — a circumstance which secured him a certain transient popularity. In 1848, he served under Radetzky in the Italian wars. The Emperor Ferdinand having, in the hour of his extremity, made certain constitutional promises to the nation, the archduchess, F.'s mother, Avho during the whole year had directed the schemes of the anti- revolutionary party, resolved that the fulfilment of these promises should be evaded by a change of sovereign. Ferdinand accordingly abdicated in favour of his nephew (2d December 1848), and F. assumed the government as Emperor of Austria, and King of Hungary and Bohemia. Hungary, however, which had lost all faith in the House of Hapsburg, rose in arms, and refused to accede to the change of succession ; and Italy again tried the foitune of war. The progress of the struggle between F. and the constitutionalists of Hungary is described in the biographies of Kossuth, Bem, Dem- binski, Batthyani, &c. Suffice it to say that Austria triumphed in Italy, and also in Hungary, through the treachery of Gorgei and the help of Russia. F. now devoted himself, with characteristic per- sistency, to the re- establishment of ' order,' that is to say, of despotism. He dissolved the national guard, and took away the freedom of the press, and on January 1, 1852, abolished the constitution of his imcle, M^hich had been a dead-letter from the beginning. By the concordat of 1855, he surrendered extraordinary privileges to the Roman Catholic See. In 1859, by the war with Sardinia, sustained by Napoleon III., Ixjmbardy was released from his sway. In 1864, he co-operated with Prussia against Schleswig-Hol- stein ; and in 1860 was at war with Prussia, and Avas defeated at Sadowa with great loss. In the same year he ceded Venetia to Louis Na]:)oleon, and greatly humil- iated, was, by the treaty of Prague, excluded from the German Confederation. These heavy blows of fortune caused him to listen to judicious counsellors, and on June 8, having granted autonomy to Hungary, he was, with extraordinary pomp, crowned king, and the loy- alty of that nation secured. He promulgated one of the most liberal constitutions of Continental Euro})e, guaranteeing freedom of religion and conscience, and tlie freedom of the Press. See Austria, Hunqauy. FRANCI'SCANS, Order of, also called Minorites or Lesser Brethren, a religious order of the Roman Catholic Church, founded by St Francis of Assisi. For an account of the esta- blishment of the Franciscan order, and its earliest fortimes, see Francis of Assisi. The subsequenf progress of the order was equally wonderfid.* Ii less than half a century it reckoned no fewer thau 33 'provinces,' the aggregate number of convents in which exceeded 8000, while the members fell little, if at all, short of 200,000. Some idea, indeed, of the extraordinary extension of this remarkable institute may be formed from the startling fact, that, in the dreadful plague of the Black Death in the following century, no fewer than 124,000 Franciscans fell \4ctims to their zeal for the care of the sick, and for the spiritual ministration to the dying ! But this marvellous external pro- gress was accomi)anied by serious internal contro- versies and divisions. In the original scheme of the institute, its great fundamental characteristic was poverty, which St Francis proposed to render in his order not only more perfect theoretically, but more systematical in its i)ractice, than it existed in any of the contemi)orary institutes. For the accomplish- ment of this design, the rule which he drew up contained a few brief and simple, but, understood literally, very eflectual proAasions ; but the difficulty of their literal observance led, even in the lifetime of St Fi-ancis, to an attemi)t in the general assembly of the order to introduce some imjiortant modifica- tions ; and, though the authority of the founder was sufficient to prevent the adoption of these modifica- tions during his lifetime, and although his last will contained a special clause prohibiting not merely all change of the ride, but even all inter2)retation of it, the attempt was renewed with still more deter- mination under Brother Elias, his successor in the office of general of the order. The great subject of controversy was the nature and extent of the obligation of religious poverty, as vowed in the order. Francis desired that it should be understood in the most rigorous sense ; and, in his scheme of poverty, neither the indi\adual brethren nor the entire community could acquire or retain any right of j)roperty even in things of necessary use. The rigorous party in the order sought to carry out this principle to the fullest extent ; and they contended that it was unlawful for the order to acquire a right of property in houses, convents, or even churches ; restricting their right in everything which they possessed to the simple use. Several successive popes sought, by explanatory decrees, to settle the dispute ; and for a time a comi)ro- mise was received, by which it was understood that the right of property in all de facto posses- sions of the order was vested in the see of Rome ; but the foundations of the real conti'oversy lay deeper than this. They regarded the i)ractice, far more than the theory, of poverty ; and the disputes to which they led eventuated not only in the formation of fresh offsets from the body in the new religious orders to be named hereafter, but also in a large, and, for a time, formidable, secession from the church in the sect of the FraticelUans. Sefy Fraticellians. The supreme government of the Franciscan order, which is commonly said to be the especial embodi- ment of the democratic element in the Roman Catholic Church, is vested in an elective general, who resides at Rome. The subordinate superiors are, first, the ' provincial,' who presides over all tha FRANCISCANS. brethren in a pi'ovince ; and secondly the ' tjnardian,' who is the head of a single convent or community. These officers are elected only for two years. 'J'he provincial alone has power to admit candidates, who are subjected to a probation of two years (see Novitiate) ; after which they are, if approved, permitted to take the vows of the order. Those of the members who are advanced to holy orders undergo a preparatory course of study, during which they are called ' scholars ; ' and if eventually promoted to the priesthood, they are styled ' fathers ' of the order ; the title of the other members being * brother * or * lay-brother.' A v(ry important feature, however, of the organ- isation of the Franciscan, as it subsequently be- came of other orders, is the enrolment of non-con- ventual members, who continue to live in society without the obligation of celibacy ; and in general, are only bound by the spirit, and not the letter, of the rule. They are called ' Tertiaries,' or members of the Third Order of St Francis. See Tertiary. It , is impossible to overestimate the vahie of this insti- j tution in the disorganised social condition of that age. The Tertiaries were bound, as the very first condition of enrolment, to restore all ill-gotten goods ; to be reconciled with all those wdth whom they had been at feud ; to devote themselves to the practice of works of Christian charity ; to avoid all unnecessary expenditure ; to renounce the use of personal ornaments ; to hear mass daily ; to serve the sick and the hospitals ; to instruct the ignorant ; and, in a word, to practise as far as possible in the world the substance of the vii'tues of the cloister. I The institute, in this form, iindoubtedly exercised a powerfid influence in medieval society. It counted members in every rank, from the throne to the , cottage ; and, althongh it was in some instances ! deformed by abuses and superstitions practices, the j aggregate results were undoubtedly beneficial. | The Franciscan order has been the pai-ent of many other religious institutes. The earliest of these is that of the ' Observantists,' or ' brethren of more strict observance.' The origin of this body has been already indicated. The party in the order ! which contended for the more rigid observance of ^ the rule, after a protracted struggle— in which dis- affeclion to the churcli itself wjis often strongly ex- hibited by tlie contestants — ol)tained a separated organisation, which may be said to have been finally settled at the time of Leo X. The less rigid party, tinder the name of ' Conventuals,' obtained a distinct general, and an authorisation for their mitigated observance of the rule. Their chiu-ches and convents adm.it greater richness of architecture and decora- tion ; and they are at liberty to acquire and retain, in the name of the order, the property of these and similar possessions, all of which are renounced by the Observant Franciscans. The latter community comprises nearly 150 pro\'inces. Their constitvition ie that of the original rule, as already explained. A Becoud offshoot of the Franciscan order, and in the Kime direction ot rigorism, is that known as the "Capuchin,' founded by Matteo di Basio, a Francis- can brother of the Observant rule, in the early part of the IGth century. Jielieving himself divinely called to revive the old spirit of his order, and learning that the modern habit of the brethren was different from that of St. Francis, he began with externals, and procured for himself, and obtained the papal permission to introduce (1528), the peculiar habit, with a pointed hood or cowl (capute), from which the name of the reformed order is derived. Along with this habit, however, Matteo adopted a very rigorous and mortified course of life, in which he was joined by others of the brethren ; and the reform 8])read so rapidly among the community, that in the year 1530 a general ohnpter of the new con- gregation was held. They were subject, however, to the jurisdiction of the general of the Franciscan order. One of the first generals of the new reform was Bernardino Ocliino, afterwards notable hy hia defection to Calvinism. After the Council of Trent, the Capuchins multiplied rapidly, though they were not introduced in France till the end of that century A similar reform, to which the name of ' Kecollets ' was given (introduced in Spain by John de Ouada* loupe, in 1500), was approved by Clement \ U. in 1532 ; and many of the new brethren were amon^ the first Spanish missionaries to the New AVorld. A further development of tlie rigoristic spirit is the congregation of ' Discalced' or 'Barefooted' (q- v.) Franciscans. The author of this reform was a Spanish Capuchin, Peter of Alcantara. In hia ca})acity of provincial of Estremadura, Peter intro- duced many reforms ; and in 1555 obtained the approval of Pope Julius III. for a new rule, which was afterwards confirmed by Pius IV. The notice of the Franciscan institute would be incomplete without the mention of the several orders of nuns ; as those of St Clare, the Capu- chinesses, the Urbanist nuns, &c., w^hich formed part of the same general organisation. None of these, however, calls for any detailed explanation, or presents any very characteristic features. The Franciscan order, in these several branches, has at all times maintained its jiopidarity m the Roman Catholic Church. When Helyot, in the beginning of the 18th c, published his great History of Religious Orders, the Franciscan order numbered nearly 120,000 friars, distributed over above 7000 convents, and nearly 30,000 nmis, occupying abcct 900 convents. Since the French Revolution, the number has of course been very much diminished, the order having been suppressed in more than one kingdom; but it is still one of the most numerous in the R oman Catholic Church. Ma ay of the foreign missions are mainly supplied by Franciscans, and they possess convents in almost every part of the world. As a literary order, the Franciscans have chiefly been eminent in the theological sciences. The great school of the Scotists takes its name from John Duns Scotus (see Scotits), a Franciscan friar, and it has been the pride of this order to maintain hia distinctive doctrines both in philosophy and in theology against the rival school of the Thomists, to which the Dominican order gave its allegiance. See Tkomists. In the Nominalistic controversy, the Thomists were for the most part Conceptualists ; the Franciscans adliered to the rigid Realism. See Nominalism. In the Free-will question, the Fran- ciscans strenuously resisted the Thomist doctrine of 'predetermining decrees.' Indeed, all the greatest names of the early Scotist school are the Fran- ciscans, St Bonaventure, Alexander de Hales, and Ockhara. The single name of Roger Bacon, the marvel of medieval letters, the divine, the phil- osopher, the linguist, the experimentalist, the prac- tical mechanician, would in itself have sufficed to make the reputation of his order, had his contem- poraries not failed to appreciate his merit. Two centuries later, the great Cardinal Xinienes was a member of this order. The Popes Nicholas IV., Alexander V., Sextus IV., the still more celebrated Sixtus v., and the well-known Ganganelli, Clement XIV., also belonged to the institute of St Francis. In history, this order is less distinguished; bv.t its own annalist, Luke Wadding, an Irish Franciscan, bears a deservedly high reputation as a historian. la lighter literature, and particularly poetrj', we have already named the founder himself as a sacred poet. Jacopoue da Todi, a Franciscan, is one of the mc«t ■IS] FRAJSrCISCO— FRANCONTA. characteristic of the medieval hymn- writers ; and in later times, the celebrated Lope de Vega closed his eventful caroer as a member of the third order of St Francis. We may add that in the revival of art the Franciscan oider bore an active and, it must be confessed, a liberal and enlightened part. See Wadding, Annales Minorum Fratrum, 8 vols.; see also Milman's Latin Christianity, vol. v. FRANCISCO, San. See San Francisco. FRA'NCKE, Aug. Herm., a distinguished German philanthropist, founder of the Orphan Afjylum and several educational institutions at Halle, was born at Liibeck in 1663. Having studied languages and theology with great application and success, he first attracted attention by his academical biblical lectures in Leipsic, begun about 1685. These were more distinguished for ]>iety, warmth, and zeal, than for attention to the strict and dry orthodoxy then in vogue ; and the reception they met with from the public brought on F. envy and persecution as a heretic. He thought proi)er to yield to the storm, and withdrew in 1690 to Erfurt. In 1692, he obtained the professorship of Oiiental languages in the newly instituted university at Halle, where he siibsequently held a professorship of theology. He also received the pastoral charge of the sizburb of Glaiicha. The ignorai>«e and poverty of his parish- ioners gave the first impulse to his benevolent labours. To the neglected poor and children that came to him for alms, he gave instruction on stated days, and as otlier? joinecl, jiaying a school-fee of a penny a week, and the numbers rose to some sixty, he divided them into classes, and thus laid the first foundation of his educational establishments. At the same time the thought suggested itself of an orphan asylum, and in 1698 he laid the foundation of a special building for the asylum. Some years after, he erected a Pedagogium, a Latin school, and a boarding establishment connected with it. In 1714, there were 1075 hoys and 700 girls receiving instruction from 108 teachers imder the direction of Francke. He also had a missionary institution for the East Indies. To erect and maintain all these establishments required large sums of money ; and it is surprising how F. succeeded in obtaining it without assistance from government. But so high was his rejnitation for disinterested benevolence, and in such a practical way did he set about his undertakings, never appealing for the charitable aid of others till he had first effected something liim- Eielf, that contributions flowed in from all parts of Germany, and even from abroad. F. also instituted an apothecary's shop and bookselling in connection with his otlier operations, and thus obtained a con- siderable income for their support. Nor amidst all these voluntary labours did he neglect his duties as professor and pastor ; he preached and lectured regularly, and also found time to study and write. He died June 8, 1727. Francke's Institution, as it now exists in Halle, embraces the orphan house and schools erected by F., together with others since added; the number of pupils amounting in all to upwards of 2000. Book- selling, printing, and a laboratory for the prepara- tion and distribution of medicines are also carried on in connection with education. The revenues consist of the profits of this industry, of the income from some property in land and funds, and of an allowance of £6000 from the state. The education imparted retains its religious character, but the excessive number of prayers and the otherwise conventual and ascetic character of the discipline have been diminished. FRANCOIS, St, is the name of two towns in the French West Ti-dies. — 1. St F. in Guadeloupe stands 48S on the Grande Terre, the more easterly of the twin islands into which the colony is divided by an arm of the sea knoAvn as Salt River. It contains about 6600 inhabitants, about 5600 of them having been slaves down to 1848, the epoch of emancipation under the French Repubhc. — 2. St F. in Martiniqiie possesses a good harbour on the east coast. Of a population of 5906, 4272 had been slaves. FRA'NCOLIN {FrancoUniLs), a genus of birds of the family Tetraonidce, closely allied to partridges, but distinguished by a stouter bill, a larger tail, and generally by a spur — in some species, two spurs — oa the tarsus of the male. They are natives of Europe, Asia, and Africa. One species only, the European' F. {F, vuhjaris), is found in the most southerr Gray FrancoHn {FrancoUnus Ponticcrianud). parts of Europe ; it inhabits also the north of Africa and great x^a^rt of Asia. It is a beautiful bird ; the plumage of the male is richly coloured. It frequents watery places, and feeds much on the tender tops of herbs. One [F. Ponticerianus) ia very common in many parts of India, and is called Partridge in the Deccan, although it differs much in appearance from partridges, on account of its large rounded tail. Another {F. spadiceus) abounds in some of the mountainous parts of India ; and Africa has a number of species, some of which scrape up bidbs for their food. The Francolins generally inhabit forests and thickets, and roost in trees. FRANCO'NIA (Ger. Franken). This name was first applied to those districts on both sides of the Maine which were originally peopled by colonies of Franks, under Thierry, the eldest son of Clovis, who inherited the Germanic possessions of his father on the death of the latter in 511. Under the Mero- vingian and Carlovingian djmasties, this province acquired a certain degree of preponderance in the state, and enjoyed the privilege of electing the king of the Germans within its own territories, and crowning the sovereign by the hands of its arch- bishop (Mayence), who was primate of the empire. In 911, Conrad, the Count or Duke of Franconia, for there is some doubt which of these titles was at that time borne by the ruler of the province, was raised to the thi'one ; and a century later, after the ducal dignity had been recognised in F., the choice of the electors again fell upon the Franconian House, w hich, by its direct and collateral branches, gave kings and emperors to Germany from 1024, when Conrad IT. began his reign, till 1250, when the indirect line oi the Hohenstauffen family became extinct. During FRANEKER— FEANKALMOIGNE. its connection -with tlie crown, F. increased in extent and importance, while its great si)iritual jjrinci- p^"'ities of Mayence, Sjjires, Worms, and Wurzburg acquired Loth wealth and political influence. In the course of the following 200 years, the province underwent various modifications, and was sub- divided into numerous territories, as those of the Rhenish County-palatine, Nassau, Katzenellnhogen, Hainan, the landgravate of Hesse, &c., until the name of F. was limited to the eastern portions of the ancient duchy, which included Wurzhiu-g, Fulda, Bamberg, Niirnberg, Hohenlohe, &c. In 1512, Maximilian 1. re-established the circle of F., which then embraced the sees of Bamberg, Wurz- burg, and Eichstadt, Baireuth and Anspach, and several counties and cities. With the dissolution of the em])ire, the name of F. disappeared from among the political divisions of Germany ; but since 1837 it has been revived in the kingdom of Bavaria (q. v.), where those portions of the ancient Franconian pro\dnce, which in modern times have been known as the circles of the Upper Maine, Rezat, and Lower Maine, are now designated Upper, Middle, and Lower Franconia. Upper F. includes the north-east portion of Bavaria. It is watered by numerous rivers, as the Maine, Raab, Saale, &c., and is intersected by the Fichtelgebirge and by the hilly ranges of theBohmer-, Franken-, and Steiger-Wald. The valleys produce good crops and fruit, and the district is rich in minerals. There are 38 civic and rural circles of jurisdiction in this province ; capital, Baireuth. Middle F., which abuts upon Wurtemberg, is inter- sected by branches of the Franconian Jura chain, but has few rivers of importance besides the Regnitz and Altmiihl, which are connected by the great Ludwig Canal. It produces good wine, but is prin- sipally celebrated for its hop-gardens. The chief towns are Anspach and Niirnberg, and it has 30 jivic and rural circles of jurisdiction. Lower F. cum Aschaffenburg, which occupies the north-west part of Bavaria, is traversed by the Spessart- and khbngebirge and the Steiger-Wald, and watered by the Maine and Saale. It is the richest and best cultivated of the Franconian circles, and is cele- brated for the excellence of its wines, the Steiner and Leister. The district is noted for its mineral springs at Kissingen, etc. In 1866, two strips of ter- ritory in U. and L. Franconia, containing 291 square miles and 32,976 inhabitants, were ceded to Prussia. FRANEKER, a handsome town of the Nether- lands, in the province of Friesland, situatf'd on the canal between Harlingen and Leeu warden, and 10 miles west of the latter ])lace. It has won a name in the literary world as having been the seat of a university founded in 1585 by the Frisian states on the suggestion of Prince William Louis, Count of Na,ssau, and which ranked among its professors the eminent names of Vitringa, Schultens, Hemsterhuis, Valckenaer, and others. It was, however, abolished by Napoleon in 1811, and in 1816 was transformed into an athenaeum, to which a i)hysiological cabinet and botanic garden belong. F. also possesses a celebrated orrery. Pop. 5500. FRANGIPANI, an illustrious and powerful Roman House, which traces its origin to the 7th c, and attained the siunmit of its glory in the 11th and 12th centuries. In the early annals of Rome, Beveral members of this family occupied important public offices, and seem to have taken a prominent lead in all matters of moment. In 987, Crescenzio Frangipani successfully vindicated the prerogatives of the Px)man peo})le against the encroachments of pope John XV. The rivalry of the F. House with I that ot the Pietro Leoni, not only occasioned il lepeated civil wars in the state, but likewise several | schisms in the church. The lustre of their race was finally outshone by the two great i)atrician families, Colonna and Orsini, whose magnificence, power, and pretension far exceeded those of tlie greatest citizens of Rome. Two of the last of the F. who merit mention are Giovanni, who cajjtured Con- radin of Hohenstaufen, and delivered him, in 1268, to his sanguinary enemies ; and Latinr*, Grand Inquisitor and Cardinal and Bishop of Ostia and Velletri. The origin of the name Frangi])ani is attributed to the family's benevolent distribution of bread in time of famine. — The Croatian family of the same name claim descent from the great original Roman House. FRANK, FRANKING LETTERS. On the introduction of the uniform penny-postage on all inland letters in 1840 (3 and 4 Vict. c. 96), the privilege formerly enjoyed by peers and members of the House of Commons, and many official j)erson3, of ^ frankinrj,^ as it was called, that is, sending and receiving letters duty free, was abolished ; the statute 7 Will. IV. and 1 Vict. c. 32, by which this privilege had been recently regulated, being repealed by s. 68 of the first-mentioned act. The privilege was claimed by the House of Commons in 1660, when the post-office was first legally established (see Post-office), but it was afterwards dropped upon a private assurance from the crown that it should be allowed to members. The postmaster-general accordingly constantly issued a warrant directing the allowance, till the privilege was expressly conferred by statute 4 Geo. III. c. 24. In the days of frank- ing, each member of either House of Parliament was entitled to send ten letters every day, not exceeding an ounce in weight each, to any place in the United Kingdom, and to receive fifteen, free. As it was not necessary that the letter should be either written by or to the privileged person, the privilege was greatly abused ; and most persons whose memories reach back to the i)eriod when it existed, will remember family arrangements for taking advan- tage of it, by which the whole correspondence of the kindred, connections, and even the intimate acquaintances of a peer, or a member of parliament, was in general carried on diity free. Up to the passing of the last-mentioned statute (12th July 1837), all that was requisite was that the member should write his name or title on the corner of the letter. From this time, however, till the abolition of the privilege, it was required that the whole address should be witten by the member ; that he should add not only his name, but the name of the post-town, and the day of the month ; and what was most troublesome of all, that the letter should be posted on the day on whicn it was MTitten, or the following day, and in a port- town within 20 miles of which the person franking was then actually resident. By this cruel regulation (7 Will. IV. and 1 Vict. c. 35, s. 9), the kindly custom of gi^'ing franks to friends, or leaving them with them for futuie uso, was rudely interfered with, and the i:)ublic mind reconciled to the final abolition of what many regarded as a time-honoured abuse. FRANKALMOI'GNE (Lat. libera eleemosyna, free alms) was a gift of lands to those who were consecrated to the service of God. By the ancient common law of England, a man could not alien lands which came to him by descent without consent of his heir, but he might give a part to God in free alms. It was an old Saxon tenure, and continued under the Norman revolution, throi gh the great respect that was shewn to religion and religious men. This is the tenure by which almost all the ancient monasteries and religious houses held their 1 lands, and by which the parochial clergy and FRANKENBERG— FRANKFUKT-ON-TIIE-MAINE. very many ecclesiastical foundations hold tliem at this day. The statute of 12 Car. II. c. 24, which abolished the old tenures, specially reserved tenure in frankalmoigne. The condition on which lands in frankalmoigne were held was, that masses and divine services should be said for the grantor and his heirs, but no particular ser\'ice was specified. At the Reformation, the nature of the services was changed, but the tenure was suffered to continue. A tenant in frankalmoigne did no fealty to his overlord, and in the event of failure to perform the service, the latter M'as not entitled to distrain, but might complain to the ordinary or visitor. In this respect, this tenure differed from tenure by divine seivice, i.e., where lands were given on condition of pel forming a specified service, as saying a mass on a particular day, or distributing certain alms. In this case, the tenant was bound to render fealty, and the lord was entitled to distrain on failure to per- form the service. But lands held in frankalmoigne were subject to the trinoda necesdtafi, of repairing higliways, building castles, and repelling invasions. Frankalmoigne was a tenure, to l)e held of the grantor and his heirs ; all lands, tlierefore, now held in frankalmoigne, unless created by the crown, must have been granted before the reign of Edward I., for by Quia cmpfores, 18 Edvv. I., all grants by subjects to be held of the grantor and his heirs are ineffectual. In Scotland, lands conveyed to the church in puram eleemosijnam were said to be mortiHed. See Mortification. FRA'NKENBERG, a flourishing manufacturing town of the kingdom of Saxony, is beautifully situated on the right bank of the Zschopau, an affluent of the Mulde, 32 miles south-west of Dres- den. It h;is manufactures of cottons (with cotton printing), linens, leather, and machinery. Pop. USTl) 9710. FRA'NKENHAU'SEN, a small town of Ger- many, in the principality of Schwarzburg-Rudol- stadt, stands on the Wipi)er, 27 miles north-north- west of Weimar. It is surrounded with walls, pierced by eight gates, has a palace, a Latin school, a productive salt-work, and a saltpetre refinery. Pop. 5000, who are engaged chiefly in the corn and wool trade, and in the production of wine. F. figures in history as the scene of a battle between the rebellious peasants under Thomas Munzer, loth May 1525, and the Saxon, Brunswick, and Hessian troops, in which the former were defeated. FRA'NKEXSTEIN, a small but active towm of Prussia, in the province of Silesia, is situated on a height on the left bank of the Pause, 37 miles south-south-east of Breslau. It is surrounded with walls which are entered by four gates, and con- sists of the town proper with four suburbs. Seven miles south-west of F. is the mountain fortress of Silberberg, the defences, bastions, and casemates of which are almost entirely hewn out of the solid rock. These works were constructed by Frederick the Great, in order to command the passage from Bohemia. Pop. 7328, who are engaged in the manu- facture of broadcloth, linen, aquafortis, strawplait, saltpetre, &c. FR V'NKENTHAL, a prosperous manufacturing town of Germany, in the Bavarian Palatinate, is situated on the Isenach, 16 miles north-north- west of Spires. From the town, a canal between 50 and 60 feet broad extends east to the Rhine, a distance of three miles. It has important cloth manufac- tures, cottC)n and linen weaving, and maiuifactures of gold and silver wire, and of needles, files, and tobacco. Pop. (1871) 7021. FRA'NKFURT-ON-THE-MAINE (Ger. Frank- furt am Alain) ^ a city in the Prussian province of 490 Hessen-Nassau, is situated on the right bank of the Maine, in hit. Sd"" 6' N., and long. 8"" 41' E. Till 1866 F. was the foremost, as it was the most ancient, of the four free cities of the German Confederation and the seat of the Diet. The city lies in a wide and fertile valley at the mouth of the Maine, and is en- riched by a belt of villas, gardens, vineyards, and or- chards. In respect of comn)erce and wealth, Frank- furt-on-the-Maine is one of the most important cities of the Emi)ire of Germany; by the census of 1871, its population antounted to 90,922, of whom up- wards of 7000 were Jews. F. is the centre fiom which radiate public roads and railways to every part of Germany ; while its site on the banks of the Maine, 20 miles from its confluence with the Rhine, by affording it a direct channel of water-communi- cation with the German Ocean, secures to it great advantages as a seat of commerce. Its central position has pointed it out from the earliest ages of the history of Germany as a suitable jilace for national meetings, and in 794 Charlemagne convoked a council here. In 843, F. was made the capital of the eastern Frankisli empire, and continued so till 889, when Arnidf transferred that honour to Ratis- bon ; in 1257, F. was raised to the dignity of a free city ; and in 1356, Charles IV. confirmed by the famous ' Golden Bull ' the right, which it had enjoyed since the days of Frederic Barbarossa, of being the ])lace for the election of the emperors of Germany. The Guildhall, or Roemer, contains the Wahlzimmer, or Hall of Election, in which the Electors (q. v.) met to deliberate on the nomination of the emi)erors, and the Kaisersaal, or Imperial Hall, in which the newly elected monarch held his public dinner, at which he was waited upon by the coimts and high officers of the empire, who held their respective domains and ofifices in right of their performing various acts of service on that occasion. Round this hall are ranged in niches the portraits of the em])erors from Conrad to Leopold II. The Golden Bull is i)reserved among the archives. The ancient cathedral, St Bartholomew's, contains the chapel in which the electors accepted the emperor after he had been anointed at the high-altar. F. still contains many old and narrow streets with high- gabelled projecting houses, but its ancient walls and ramparts have been converted into pleasure- walks, and there are now broad quays, and wide handsome streets in the more modernised parts of the city. The famous Juden-gasse, or Jews' Street, has lost its ancient characteristics since a more liberal policy has permitted members of the Jewish persuasion to live in whatever qiiarter they choose. The gates, which secured the street at either end, and were closed at night to prevent the egress of the Jewish inhabitants, were razed at the time of the French occupation in 1806. F. is connected with its suburb, Sachsenhausen, which lies on the left bank of the Maine, by a bridge of 14 arches, originally built about the year 1342. There are fountains in several of the squares, one of which is adorned with a fine statue of Goethe, who was born at F., and another with a group commemorative of the inven- tion of printing. F. jjossesses several good public libraries, museums, and galleries, and many charit- able institutions. It derives great wealth from its banking transactions ; the aggregate capital of its bankers, among whom the name of the Rothschilds has long stood foremost, is said to be about 20 millions sterling, and the annual transactions in bills of exchange about 12 millions sterling. Its manu- facturing industry has greatly extended since the annexation to Prussia; to the former manufactures of snuff, tobacco, jewellery, printers' black, wax- cloths, and carpets, have been added type-founding, chemical works, and the manufacture of sewing- FRANKFURT-ON-THE-ODER— FRANKLIN. nmcliines on a larj^e scale. As a free cit}^ F. pos- BBssed a small territory of about 39 square miles out- side its precincts, and was governed by 2 burgomas- ters (elected annually), 4 syndics, a civic committee of 21 members, and a legislative chamber of 57 mem- bers ; the highest court of appeal was the supreme tribunal at Ltibeck. The Constituent Assembly elected in 1848 to frame a constitution for Gcrnumy, held its sittings at F. At the outbreak of the Ans- tro-Frussiau war in 1866, F. chose the side o))]iosed to Prussia. On the 16th July, General von Falcken- stein entered the city, a fine of 31 millions of llorins being imposed ; and on the 18tli October F. was for- mally incorporated with the Prussian state. It was in F. that peace was finally concluded between Ger- many and France in 1871, the treaty having been signed on the 10th May, in the Swan Hotel here, by Bismarck and Jules Favre. FRANKFURT-ON-THE-ODER, the capital of an extensive Prussian circle of the same name in the province of Brandenburg, is a place of considerable trade, on the railway line between Berlin and Breslau, and about 50 miles east of the former city. F. lies in lat. 52° 22' N., and long. 14° 20' E. Pop. in 1871, 43,211. It is a fortified, well-built town, and has three suburbs, one of which lies on the right bank of the Oder, and is connected with the remainder of the town by a wooden bridge. Of the six Protestant churches, St Mary's, founded in the 13th c, is the most worthy of notice, for its large oi*gan, riclily gilt wood-car\dngs, and fine stained windows. The university, founded in 1506, was incorporated in 1811 with that of Breslau, but F. still has its distinct gymnasium, with its branch- schools. Three great fairs are still annually held at F., but although they are still attended, as of old, by many Poles and Silesians, sales are less brisk than in former times. F. has manufactures of silk, leather, gloves, tobacco, sugar, and porcelain ware ; it has considerable distilleries, and is noted for its mustard. Its situation on a navigable river, con- nected by canals with the Vistula and the Elbe, affords great commercial and social advantages, which have rendered it a place of importance from a very early period. It was a flourishing member of the Hanseatic League, and during the middle ages it suffered frequently at the hands of marauding enemies. It was besieged in 1430 by the Hussites, in 1450 by the Poles, and in 1477 by the Duke of Sagan. In the Thirty Years' War, it was frequently taken by both parties, and at the beginning of the present century it suffered severely at the hands of the French. F. is the seat of the administrative government, judicial tribunal, council of nobility, and boards of taxation for its circle. The village of Kfmersdorf, 44 miles from F., was the scene of a great battle, fought August 12, 1759, between Frederick the Great and the Ilusso- Austrian forces, in which the former, after a sanguinary engagement, Was compelled to retreat with great loss. FRA'NKINCENSE {thus), a name emploj^ed to designate various fragrant resinous substances which diffuse a strong fragrance in burning, and are on that accou t.t used in certain religious services. There in good reason to believe that the frankincense of the Jew^s, and also of the ancient Greeks and Romans, was chiefly or entii-ely the substance now known as OUhanum (q. v.), the produce of an Indian tree, Doswellia serrata or timrifera. See Boswellia. It was formerly supposed to have been obtained from the Juniperus Lycia, which is now believed not to yield any such product, and is a native of the south of Europe, whilst the prized frankincense of the fcncients was brought from the East. — Several trees, toM-fcver, of different natural orders, yield substances used as frankincense instead of olibanum.in dilTercrt parts of the world, as several sjtecies of Jcica and of Croton in America ; and the silver fir (see Fir) in Europe, the resinous product of which is the CoMiiON Frankincense of the pharmacopaiias, although in the shops, concrete American turpentine is very often sold under this name. It is used in the composition of stimulating plasters, &c. Ihirgundy pitch is made from it. It is a spontaneous exuda- tion from the tree, hardening by exposure to the air, and generally of a whitish or pinkish colour, with a rather agreeable odour and a balsamic taste. FRA'NKLIN. The franlvlin, or, according to tho old spelling, the frankelein, was the English free- holder of former times, who held his lands of the crown, free (frank) from any feudal servitude to a subject-superior. Chaucer's Frankliii's Tale, and still more his description of the franklin in the prologue to his immortal Pilgrimage, have rendered him a classical character. In the whole circle of our literature there is probably no more perfect picture of the pei'son, habits, and surroundings of a jovial old country gentleman. His beard was white as a daisy, bis conplexion sanguine, he loved a ' sop in wine,' and woe to his cook if his sauce were not poignant and sharp; in a word, 'he was Epicurus' owen son.' But the franklin's luxuries were not intended for his own enjoj^ment alone, for ' a house- holder, and that a great, was he.' His talde stood ' in his hall alway,' ' ready covered all the longe day;' and "Withouten baked meat never was his house. Of fish and flesh, and that so plenteous, It snoiced in hits house of meat and drink. Nor was it only in dispensing good cheer that tho fraidilin fulfilled the functions of the country gentle- man of his day. At sessions, he was ' lord and sire/ and fidl often time he had been ' knight of the shiro.' He had been sheriff too, and a countour and vava- sour ; though what these latter offices were, i& a svibject of controversy amongst the commentators. ' The dress of the franklin, according to the Duke of Sutherland's MS.,' says Mr Saunders, in his excel- lent little book called Cabinet Pictures of Emjlish Life (p. 204), was a siircoat of red lined with blue, with bars or stripes of fringe or lace over it He wore a small blue hat turned up, and black bjots.' Chaucer adds to his attire a knife or dagger called an 'anelace,' and a 'gipciere' or silk purse, ' wiiite as morrow [morning] milk,' at his girdle. Mr Saunders mentions {ut svp.) that in the Metrical Chronicle of Robert cle Brune, the franklin of an earlier period (13tli c.) is ranked immediately after earls, barons, and lords, and vras evidently a j^rsou of great consideration. Such, as we have seen, was very much his position in Chaucer's tim .;, but ho seems to have fallen in dignity, and wo find him in much lower company in Sliakspeare'\j day. In Tlie Winter's Tale the clown is made t< say (Act v. scene 2) : Not swear it, now I am a gentlemai* Let boors and frankhns say it, I '11 owear it. From other passages it would seem that his position had come to correspond to that of the well-to-do yeoman. In 1 Henry IV., Act ii scene 1, we hear of a franklin ' in the wold of K ent hath brought three hundred marks with him in gold ; ' and Cynibe- line says (Act iii. scene 2), ' Provide me presently a riding suit, no costlier than is fit a franklin 3 housewife.' There seems no reason to think, how- ever, that Dr Johnson's remark that franklin is ' not improi)erly Englished a gentleman servant,' is vas> I'anted by his position at any period, and it ceitainly FRANKLIN. Is not by the passage which he quotes from the Fairy Queen : A spacious court thev see, &c., Where them does luj^t a frankhn fair and free. FRANKLIN, Benjamin, an eminent American philosopher and statesman, born at Boston, in Massa- chusetts, the 17th of January 1706. He was the youngest son and fifteenth child out of a family of seventeen children. His father, Josiah Franklin, emigrated from England to America in 1G82 : he followed the business of tallow-chandler and soap- boiler. Benjamin, when only ten years old, was employed in his father's shop in cutting wicks, going errands, &c. ; but becoming soon disgusted with the monotonous routine of his duties, he conceived a strong desire to go to sea. To preveut this, his father bound him apprentice to his brother J ames, who was a printer. Young F. had now free access ito books, for which he had evinced a fondness even from infancy. He himself says he coidd not remember the time when he did not know how to read. To gratify his thirst for reading, he would often sit xxp the greater part of the night. He did not, however, neglect his duties as printer, and he became in a few years well sldlled in his trade. But the two brothers could not agree. The elder appears to have been of a severe and passionate temper, which the younger, as he himself intimates, may have sometimes provoked by his imperti- nence. At length, when seventeen years of age, voung F. left Boston without the knowledge of his relations, embarking in a vessel bound for New York, whence he proceeded, partly by water, and partly on foot, to Philadelphia. Here he obtained employment as a journeyman printer. In the follow- ing year, encouraged by the promise of assistance from a gentleman in Philadelphia, he resolved to Bet up business for himself. With this view, he went to England, in order to pm-chase type and other materials necessary for carrying on his trade. But failing to receive the aid which he had expected from his pretended friend, he was obliged to work as a jom-neyman in London, where he remained more than a year. He returned in 1726 to Phila- delphia, and in 1729, with the assistance of some friends, established himself in business. The next vear he married Miss Deborah Bead, with v.'bom he had become acquainted in Philadelphia before he went to England. In 1729, F, had become the proprietor and editor of a newspaper [The Penn- sylvania Gazette), which his talent for writing soon rendered very popular and very profitable. In 1732, he commenced the publication of an almanac, pur- porting to be by Richard Saunders. He sought to make his almanac, like his paper, the vehicle of usefid information for the people, especially incul- cating the virtues of frugality, industry, &c. It was commonly called Poor Richard's Almanac^ under which name it acqxiired a wide celebrity. By his talents, prudence, and integrity, F. con- tinued to rise in the estimation of the community in which he lived, until he was deemed M^orthy of the highest honours which his country could bestow. He was made successively clerk of the Assembly of Pennsylvania (1736), Postmaster of Philadelphia (1737), and Deputy Postmaster- general for the T\ritish Colonies (1753). A dispute having arisen between the Assembly and the proprietary gover- nors, in consequence of the latter claiming exemption from taxation, F. was sent in 1757 to England to plead the cause of the people before the privy <5ouncil. His representations and arguments pre- vailed, and it was decided that the estates of the proprietaries should bear their due proportion of the public burdens. On his return in 1762, he received m the thanks of the Assembly for the able and faithful fulfilment of his mission. F. had already become distinguished in the scien- tific world by his successful experiments on the nature of electricity. In 1752, he had made the important and brilliant discovery of the identity of lightning with the electric fluid. Soon after, the Boyal Society of London, even without waiting for any application to be made on his behalf — which had been the general usage — chose him a member of their body, and bestowed upon him the Copley gold medal. Alluding to F.'s account of his elec- trical experiments. Sir Humi)hry Davy observes : 'A singidar felicity of induction guided all hia researches, and by very small means he established very grand truths. The style and manner of his publication are almost as worthy of admiration as the doctrines it contains He has written equally for the iminitiated and for the philosopher.' In 1764, F. was again sent by the Assembly as agent to England. The ])olicy of taxing the colonies had already been agitated, and he was instructed by the Assembly to use his eff'orts against such a measure. But the ministry had formed their plans, and the Stamp Act was passed early in 1765. It caused a great excitement, and met with th'^ most determined opposition in America. At the begin- ning of 1766, a new ministry having coma into power, the subject was again brought to the atten- tion of parliament. F. was examined before the House of Commons, on which occasion his talents, his varied information, and his presence of mind, were shewn to great advantage, and the repeal of the obnoxious Stamp Act was the result. But other laws deemed equally objectionable remained in force. In the dispute between the American colonies and the mother-country, F. had sought sincerely and earnestly to prevent a disruption ; when, however, he became convinced that a separation was inevi- table, he returned home, and took an active part in promoting the cause of independence. He arrived at Philadelphia on the 5th of May 1775, after an absence of rather more than ten years. The day after his arrival, he was unanimously elected by the Assembly of Pennsylvania a delegate to the Second Continental Congress then about to assemble. He was one of the committee of five chosen by congress to prepare the celebrated ' Declaration of Independ- ence,' which, ha\dng been unanimously agreed to on the 4th of Jidy 1776, he afterwards signed with the other leading patriots. Towards the close of the same year, he was sent as ambassador to the French court. To him is due the principal, if not the sole, credit of effecting between France and the United States the Treaty of Alliance, the stipula- tions of which were so eminently favourable to the latter country. This treaty, signed at Paris the 6th of February 1778, may be said to have secured the independence of the American colonies. F. remained in Europe some time after the establish- ment of peace. In 1785, he returned to Phila- delphia, where he died on the 17th of Aprd 1790, aged 84 years. In person, F. was of a medium stature, well formeo and strongly built, with a light complexion and gray eyes. His manners were affable and engaging. He was remarkable for simplicity of character and prac- tical common sense. He deemed nothing which con- cerned the interest or happiness of mankind unworthy of his attention, and rarely if ever bestowed his atten- tion on any subject without obtaining permanently useful results. He left among his numerous works an extremely interesting and instructive autobiography of the earlier portion of his life, extending to his fifty- second year. A complete collection of his worka FRANKLIN- FRANK-PLEDGE. edited by Jared Sparks, has been pxiblisbed in ten volumes octavo. Of F.'s living posterity, there is none bearing his name. Among the descendants of his daughter Sarah, who was married to Richard Bache, several have risen to eminence in science or literature. FRANKLIN, Rear-admiral Sir John, an English naval officer of distinguished reputation, was born at Spilsby, in Lincolnshire, April 16, 1786. He was descended from a long line of freelioldei's, and was the youngest son of a respectable yeoman. F. received the riidiments of his education at St Ives ; afterwards he spent two years at the gram- mar school of Louth. Tt is stated that he was intended for the church, but as he displayed a decided predilection for the sea, his father wisely abandoned opposition to his choice of a profession, and procured him, in 1800, a midshipman's post on board the Pohjphermis line-of-battle ship. In the following year, F.'s ship led the van in the desperate battle of Copenhagen. Two months after, he was removed to the hwestigaior, then fitting out under command of Captain Flinders, for discovery and survey of the Australian coast. In this expedition, F. had the companionship of the distinguished botanist Robert Brown, and of his coadjutor Ferdi- nand Bauer, and from them he learned the great importance of the natural sciences, in the promotion of which he ever afterwards took a deep and intelligent interest. On his return to England, F. was appointed to the Belleroplion, in which he acted as signal midshipman in the battle of Trafalgar (1805), and had the good-fortune to e&cape unhurt. He subsequently served in the Bedford on various stations, and took a distin- guished part m the attack on New Orleans in 1814. In 1819, F. was despatched by government to Hud- son's Bay, with orders to make his way thence to the Arctic Sea, and survey as much of the coast as possible. In the course of this expedition, which lasted about three years and a half, F. travelled 5550 miles under circumstances of the greatest hardship and privation, to which more than half of his companions succumbed. But the gain to science was great, alike from the carefulness and { extent of the physical surveys of the mouth of \ the Cop])ermine River, and eastward along Corona- | tion Gulf, and from the attention devoted to the natural productions of these inclement shores. On his return, in 1822, F. was made post-captain, and elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1825, lie co-operated (overland) wdth the sea-expeditions of Captains Parry and Beechey, and surveyed the Noith American coast from the mouth of the Coppermine westward to about Point Beechey. F.'s discoveries now extended over 44 degrees of longi- j tude, or more than a third of the distance between Baffiu's Bay and Behring's Strait. For these vain- 1 QV)le exp orations, in which he was engaged until 1827, he received the honour of knighthood from ' his sovereign, and the degree of D.C.L. from the j university of Oxford, while the French Geographical ; Bocieby awarded him their gold medal, and at a subsequent i)eriod he was elected coiTcspouding member of the Instil ite of France. F. next took an active part in the Greek war of liberation. In 'I8;i6, he was appointed governor of Van Diemen's Land, where his wise and moderate conduct secured for him the warm approbation both of the govern- ment and the colonists. The latter established a college and a philosophical society in his honour ; and years after, they testified that the memory of ciis rule was gtiU gratefully cherished, by sub- pciiljing £1600 towards an expedition designed for his rescue. In May 1845, F., now bordering on his 6(*th year, but with physical and mental powers undiminished in vigour, started Arith the Erebus and Terror on his last and ill-fated expedition to discover the North-west Passage. The last time that the vessels were seen was in J uly of the same year. To enter into the history of the efforts undertaken foi the relief or discovery of the fate of F. would be out of place here. It is sufficient to say, that in the course of eleven years upwards of twenty separate expeditions, at the cost of about a million sterling, were sent out to look for the missing crews; and the discoveries of these expeditions added moro to our knowledge of the arctic regions than all previous explorations had done. See North-west Passage. It was not until 1859 that the fate of F. was ascertained by the commander of a little vessel fitted out by Lady Franklin, after hope had been declared hopeless by all else. It then appeared that F. had died on the 11th June 1847, fortunately before his sympathetic heart had been lacerated by witnessing the awful sufierings of his men. F. wag one of the boldest and most persevering explorers that Britain ever sent from her shores. His daring was qualified by judgment, and his sense of duty and responsibility as to the lives of those under his charge was of the keenest. His heart was tender as a woman's ; and altogether he was one of the noblest types of a true Chi-istian gentleman. FRANKLIN, Jane, Lady, the second wife of Sir John F., to whose unwearied energy, devotion, and hopefulness, when hope had sunk in all other hearts, we are indebted for the knowledge of the fate of her gallant husband, was the daughter of John Gritfen, Esq., of Bedford Place, London, and was married to Sir John Franklin in November 1826. In 1848, when, owing to the long absence of news about the expedition of the Erebus and Terror, fears began to be entertained about ita safety. Lady F. offered large rewards to any per- sons who should discover and afford relief to the missing voyagers, or who would make exertions with that end in view. From that time until 1857, when she fitted out the Fox, under the command of M'Clintock, whose discoveries set all doul:)ts about t]ie fate of her husband's expedition at rest. Lady F. never rested in her efforts to incite by voice, pen, and purse, not only her own countrymen, but Americans, to search for the missing shijjs and their unfortunate crews. She died July 18, 1875. FRA'NKMARRIAGE {liberum maritagium) was a species of estate tail existing by the common law of England ; for where a man, on the marriage of his daughter or cousin, gave lands to be held in frank- marriage, this implied a gift in special tail, to the donees and heirs of their bodies. This tenure was called libe7~um maritagium, to distinguish it from other species of estates tail [Co. Litt. 94 b). Four things were necessary to a gift in frankmarriage : 1. That it must be in consideration of a marriage, but it might be as well after as before a maiTiage. 2. That the donee with whom it is given be of the blood of the donor. 3. That the donees should hold of the donor. Hence a gift in frankmarriage by a sul)ject became impossible after the statute of Quia em'ptores. 4. That the donees should hold for four generations. Therefore a gift in frankmarriage with a reservation of a remamder to a stranger, or a devise by will, was bad. FRANK-PLEDGE, a law prevailing in England before the Norman Conquest, whereby the mem- bers of every tything were responsible for the good- conduct of each other. This responsibility, accord- ing to Mr Ilallam, consisted in every ten men in a village being answerable each for the otneis, so that if one committed an offence, the other nine were liable for his appearance to make FRANKS— FEASER RIVER. reparation. Should the offender abscond, the tyth- ing, if unable to clear themselves from participation in the crime, were compelled to make good the penalty. This law has been ascribed to Alfred the Great ; but it would appear to have been in existence at a much earlier period. Mr Hallam, Middle AgeSy ii. p. 80 (edit. 1841), observes: 'The pecidiar sj^stem of frank-j)l.edges seems to have passed through the following very gradual stages. At first, an accused person was bound to find bail for standing his trial. At a subse(|uent period, his relations were called upon to become sectirities for payment of the compensation and other fines to which he was liable ; the}' were even subject to be imprisoned until payment was made, and this imprisonment was commutable for a certain sum in money. The next usage was to make people already convicted, or of suspicious repute, give securities for their good-behaviour. It is not till the reign of Edgar that we find the first general law, which phxces every man in the condition of the guilty or suspected, and compels him to find a surety ■who shall be responsible for his appearance when judicially summoned. This is perpetually repeated and enforced in later statutes during his reign and that of Ethelred. Finally, the laws of Canute declare the necessity of belonging to some himdred and tything, as well as of i)roviding sureties.' The Court of Frank-pledge, or Cotcrt-leet, is a court of record held once in the year, and not oftener, within a particular hundred, lordship, or manor, before the steward of the leet ; being the king's court granted by charter to the lords of those hundreds or manors. All freeholders resident in the jurisdiction are bound to attend this court ; but persons under twelve and over sixty years of age are excused, and by the statute of Marlbridge, 52 Hen. III. c. 10, all prelates, peers, and clergymen, and women are discharged from attendance. It was also the custom to summon all the king's subjects to this court, on attaining years of discretion, to take the oath of allegiance. The business of this court was to present by jury all crimes committed within their jurisdiction, and to punish all trivial misdemeanours. This court has practically fallen into desuetude, and the business is discharged by ^he justices of the peace at general and petty ses- sions. See Blackstone's Commentaries. Originally, the business of the coiurt of frank-pledge was con- fined to the taking securities or free pledges for every person within the jurisdiction ; but this I practice having fallen into disuse, the court gradually acquired a criminal jurisdiction, concurrent with that of the sheriff's tourn. '■Magna Charta distin- guishes between the tourns or leets of sheriffs and the view of frank-pledge ; limiting the former to twice a year, and the latter to once. In the more ordinary sense, frank-pledge and leet are synonymous, as appears from the style of tourns and other leets, which in court-rolls are usually denominated citrire or visus franci plegil. But Avhen free pledge is i;sed, as in Magna Charta, it should be understood in a strict and particular sense.' — Co. Lilt, by Hargrave, 115 a, note 10. FRANKS (i. e., freemen) was the name assumed by a confederation of German tribes that appeared on the Lower Rhine in the 3d c, and afterwards overthrew the Roman dominion in Gaul. It was only the name, however, that was new; the indi- vidual tribes composing the confederation had been known on the Rhine as early as the time of Augustus. The most important of these were the Sigambri, Chamavi, Ampsivarii, Chatti, Chattuarii, and Bructeri of the time of the first emperors. In the .3d and 4th centuries, hordes of them began to pour through the Low Coim tries into Gaid, until 494 at last the country became their prey. After the middle of the 4th c, they appear divided into two groups, the Sal ians— either from the old Ger. Sal, or the river Sala (Fsse/)— and the Ripuarians {ripa, the bank), the first inhabiting Holland and the Low Countries, the last on both sides of the Rhine as far up as the Main. Each groiip had its own laws, afterwards committed to writing {Lex Salica cand Lex Bipuariorum). Like the two peoples, these laws difier little even in detail. The F. wer? a mobile, well-endowed race, forming in language and art the transition from the Low Germans to the High ; and they compose to this day the g r(>und of the population of the west of Germany as far sm the Neckar, Main, Miirg, and Lower Alsace, aa well as the chief Germanic element of the popu- lation of Northern France. For the later history of the Franks, see articles Clovis, Carlo VINOIANS, ClIARLEMAONE, FRANCE, MEROVINGIANS, &C. FRA'NZENSBRUNN, or FRANZENSBAD, a small village and well-known bathing-place in Austria, on the north-western frontier of Bohemia, three miles north- "west of Eger, is situated amid low bare hills, and consists of four rectangular streets lined with trees. It has four cold mineral S))rings, chiefly of alkalo-saline chalybeate water, d>^emed highly efficacious in the cure of scrofulous complaints and diseases of the skin, and used principally for drirdving, but also for bathing purj)oses, in which case the water is heated to a temperature of 90° to 98° F. Nearly 200,000 bottles of these waters are exported annually. F. has also mud and gas baths. FRASCA'TI, a beautiful town about eight miles east-south-east of Rome, with a population of 5000. It stands on the lower heights of the Alban Hills, not far from the site of ancient Tusculum, which was built on a higher range of hills. Tus- culum (q. v.), a town of much more ancient date than Rome, was burned and ruined by the Romans in 1191 A. D., to avenge a former victory gained by the Tusculans in 11G7. Those of the inhabitants who escaped the fury of the conquerors, sought refuge on the slope of the hiU towards Rome, constructing small huts out of the underwood or frasche, and hence the modem name Frascati. The chief attrac- tions of F. are its lovely villas and salubrious air, which attract from Rome in the hot season all its noble and foreign residents, and render this resort in the Alban Hills the most fashionable vUleagia- I tura in the vicinity of the Eternal City. The most splendid of these summer residences are the villas Aldobrandini, also known as II Belvedere, from its commanding and noble prospect ; those of Mon- dragon and Taverna of the Borghese family ; the villas Pallavicini and Piccolomini. The cathedral contains a tablet to the Cardiral of York, for many years bishop of this diocese, and another to his brother, Charles Edward, the Young Pretender, who died here in 1788. FRASER, Simon. See Lovat, Lord. FRASER RIVER, the principal stream of British Columbia, comprises in its basin the far greater part of the colony. The F. R. proper has its origin in the union of two branches, the more important of Avhich receives its waters from a series of lakes that lie in lat. 54" — 55" N., long, about 124° 50' W., flows in a general south-east direc- tion for 260 miles, and then unites with the other branch, which has its source near Mount Brown, in the Rocky Mountains, lat. 53" N., long. 11 S'^ 40' W., flows north-west, and is 200 miles in length. The point of confluence is near Fort George, in lat. about 53" 25' N., and in \ong. about 122° 40' W., and hence the F. R. flows in a generally southern direction through nearly the FKASER A — FE ATICELLIANS. whole length of the colony, and after a course of alK)ut 600 miles it falls into the Gulf of Georgia between Vancouver's Island and the mainland, barely to the north of the international boundary of 49° of latitiide. Its chief afiluents are the Stuart and the Chilcotin on the right, and the Thompson on the left. Between the Stuart and the Chil- cotin, and on the same side, the F. K. is joined by an affluent, which is rather of historical interest than of jihysical importance — the West Road River, which took its name from its having been ascended by Sir Alexander Mackenzie, on his adventurous journey of 1793 from the Hudson's Bay Territories to the Piicihc Ocean. The F. R. is practicable for steam-boats as far up as Fort Hope, a distance of about 150 miles from its mouth, while about half that distance, as far as New Westminster, it is navigable for large ships. Above Fort Hope, all intercourse is more safely and conveniently con- ducted ])y land ; and even the aborigines, as their trails .still testify, appear to have yielded to the same n ecessity. In 1857, the F. R., in its auriferous diggings and washirgs, began to stand forth as the rival of Cali- fornia and Australia. Since then, the discoveries, origina Jy confined to the lower basin, have steadily becom^i at once more extensive and more j)roductive. Eastward on the Thompson, and more especially aorth>.ard among the upper waters of the great artery of the country, the precious deposit has given out almost fabulous returns. An appaiently aath'?>itic communication, dated towards the close of October 1861, regards the daily earnings of £2;) foi nae miner ' as poor this year,' and adds that, eve-n as a hired labourer, a man gets £2 a day. On the practical value of the gold-iields, the peculiar chatacter of the F. R. exercises in various ways a powerful influence. Besides affording comparatively few and scanty facilities for transport, whether upwards or downwards, it directly embarrasses the workings themselves. Generally speaking, the bed is a mere ravine, which rather drains than waters whatever lies bej^ond its wall-like banks. For operations on the high ground, therefore, the cur- rent is J-arely, if ever, available ; and even the inner margins, flooded as they periodically are, are accessi- ble during only half the year. In 1867, gold of the va'ue of £700,b00 was exported. FRA'SERA, a genus of plants of the natural order Geatlanece, with a 4-pai'tite calyx and corolla, 4 stamens, and a 2-valvular capsule. F. Walteri, a native of Carolina, Virginia, and great part of the basins of the Ohio and Mississippi, is often called American Calumba, the root being imi)orted into Europe under that name. It is a pure and valualde bitter, similar in its effects to gentian. The stem is hei-baceous, erect, 3 — 6 feet high ; the leaves oval, ol>long, opposite and whorled ; the flowers greenish yellow. The plant is a bienniah It grows m marshy places. FRA'SERBURGH, a burgh of barony and regality and seaport on the north coast of Aber- deenshire, 42 miles north of Aberdeen. It stands on the north-west side of a bay two miles in depth immediately south of Kinnaird's Head (supposed to be the Taixalorum Promontorium of the Romans), on which is the W^ine Tower, an old castle with a cave below. The town, originally called Faithly, was made a burgh of l)arony by Queen Mary in 1546. Its name was changed into Fraserburgh (in honour of its j)roprietor. Sir Alexander Eraser of Rhilorth) by King James VI. in 1592; and the Bame king, in 1601, erected it into a free port, free burgh of barony, and free regality. The streets e wide and clean, with substantial hjuses. Pop. in 1871, 4252, annually increased by 1200 during the herring-fishing in July and August. It ia l)ossessed of one of the best haibours on the east coast, erected at a cost of £50,000. The chief exi)orts are oats, barley, meal, potatoes, cured herrings, and cod. At the west end of the town is a quadrangular building of three stories, designed as a college by Sir Alexander Eraser, who in 1592 had obtained a crown-charter for the insti- tution of a college and university ; but although the charter was ratified by parliament in 1597, and renewed and enlarged by the crown in 1001, the plan was never carried out. F. has a handsomo cross and town-house in the principal square, a spacious hall belonging to the Harbour Commis- sioners, and several recently erected public buildings. FRASIER, a strawberry flower, is used by Scotch heraldic writers as synonymous with a cinquefoil ; as in blazoning the coat of the Erasers, Azure three /rases (Nisbet, i. p. 388). FRATE'RCULA. See Puffin. FRATICE'LLIANS, or FRATICELLI ('Little Brethren'), a sect of the middle ages, which may be regarded as an embodiment, outside of the medieval church, of the same spirit to which is due, within the church, the Franciscan order with its many offshoots. The Italian word Fraticelli originally was the popular name of the Franciscan monks; but, in the progress of the disputes which arose in the order (see Franciscans), the name was specially attached to the members of the rigorist party, and eventually to those among them who pertinaciously refused to accept the pontifical explanations of the monastic rule, and, in the end, threw off all subjec- tion to the authority of the church. Several of the popes, especially Gregory IX. and Nicholas TIL, attempted to reconcile the disputants. Pope Celes- tine V. granted permission to the rigorists to form for themselves a separate organisation, in which the rule of St Francis might be observ^ed in all its primitive and literal rigour. The suppression of this order by Boniface VIII. appears to have furnished the direct occasion for the secession of the extreme party from the chm-ch. They openly resisted the authority of the pope, whom they proclaimed an apostate from the faith. The party thus formed was increased by adhesions from other sectarian bodies, as the ' Beghards ' and the ' Brethren of the Free Spirit ' (see Free Spirit). In vain Clement V., in the council of Vienna (1311 — 1312), jtut forward a new declaratiop /egarding the rule of St Francis. They still held their ground, esi)ecially in Sicily, Central and Northern Italy, and Provence. John XXII., against whom they sided actively with Lewis of Bavaria, condemned them by a special bull in 1317, and again in a similar document directed against Henry de Oeva, one of their chief leaders in Sicily. From these sources we learn that they regarded the existing church as in a state of apostasy, and claimed for their own community the exclusive title of the Church of God. They forbade oaths, and discounte- nanced marriage. They professed a di\ane mission for the restoration of the Gospel truth. They held that all spiritual authority was forfeited by sin on the })art of the minister. It woukl cA^en appear that they proceeded so far as to elect for themselves a pope, with a college of cardinals, and a regidar hierarchy (Wadding, An 7ml Min. Fratruvi ad an. 1374, n. 20). Their j)rinciples, in a Avord, seem to have partaken largely of the same fanatical and anti- social tendencies which characterised the Brethi'en of the Free Spirit ; and in common with them, the F. were the object of a rigorous persecution about the middle of the 14th century. The piinciplea of «85 FRATTA-MAGGIOr.E— FEEDERICIA. this sect formed the subject of a public discussion at Perugia in 1374 between them and a Franciscan monk named Paolucci, which appears to have ended in their discomfiture. They still maintained them- selves, nevertheless, in Central Italy, down to the 15th c, when John de Capistran received a com- mission to labour for their conversion in the March of Ancona ; but before the beginning of the follow- Qg century, they seem to have disappeared alto- gether. See Mosheim, De Beghardis et Beguinahus (Lij>si£e, 1790) ; Milman's Latin Christianity, vol. v. ; VVitsix's KircJien-Lexico?i. FRA'TTA-MAGGIO'RE, a town of Italy, six miles north-east of the city of Naples, has extensive rope-works, and furnishes great quantities of straw- berries for the market of the capital. 8ilk- worms !ire here reared in great quantities. Pop. about 9000. FRAUD. By the laws of all ciAalised nations fraud invalidates obligations. In order to produce this effect, however, it is necessary that the mis- representations, or other dishonest manoemTes of the offendmg party, shall have induced the other to enter into the agreement or contract, and that he would not otherAvise have consented. Fraud of this description on the one side produces en'or in essen- tialihus on the other, and where such error exists there is no consent. But as consent is of the essence of the contract, there is liere no contract at all ; i. e., the contract, or pretended contract, is, as laA\'}'er3 say, null ah initio. It is not necessary that the fraud which thus gives birth to the contract shall have consisted in positive misrepresentation, or even in studied concealment ; and it was well laid downn in the case of an English sale, that where the pur- chaser laboured under a deception, in which the seller permitted him to remain, on a point which he knew to be material in enabling him to form his judgment, the contract was void. But there is another kind of fraud which, though it be not actuall}^ tlie cause of, is incident to, the contract, and which, though it does not annul the contract, gives rise to an action for damages or restitution by the party deceived. The distinction between these two kinds of fraud was well known to the civilians, the first species being described by them as that ' quod causam dedit contractui,' that is to say, which causes the contract ; the second as that ' quod tantum in contractum incidit,' which is incident to, or accompanies the contract, but independently of which the contract would have been entered into (Voet. lib. 4, tit. 3, 3). There is another very important element to be taken into account in judging of the character, and deter- mining the legal effects of a fraud, viz., whether it proceeded from one whose position was such as to impose upon him the obligation of making the discovery. In illustration of this principle, the following case was put by Lord Thurlow in Fox v. Mackreth (2 Bro. Ch. R. 420): 'Suppose that A, knowing there to be a mine on the estate of B, of which he knew B was ignorant, should enter into a contract to purchase the estate of B for the price of the estate, without considering the mine, could the court set it aside? Why not, since B was not apprised of the mine, and A was ? Because A, as the buyer, was not obliged, from the nature of the contract, to make the discovery The court ^vill not correct a contract merely because a man of nice honour would not have entered into it ; it mxist fall within some definition of fraud. The nile mast be drawn so as not to affect the general t^'ansac- tions of mankind.' Neither will the commendations usually bestowed on their commodities by trades- men be regarded as fraudulent statements, so long 496 as they are simi)ly extravagant in degree ; but if positively at variance with facts known to t'nera, they will not be permitted to enjoy the protection which custom has extended to ordinary ' puffing.' The same principle will yield the converse result wherever a relation of pecidiar confidentiality exists between the contracting parties. Here courts of law require what is called uberrima fdes, the fullest I measure of good faith, to validate the transaction. I As an illustration, may be mentioned a case in which the managing partner of a firm purchased the share of his CO- partner for a sum which he knew from ths accounts, of which he had the entire superintend- ence, to be inadequate, but the inadequacy of which ] he concealed. The transaction was reduced, Sir ; John Leach, V. C., remarking that ' the defendant being the partner whose business it was to keep the accoimts of the concern, could not, in fairness, deal with the ])laintiff for his share of the profits of the concern without putting him in possession of all the information which he himself had with res])ect to the state of the accounts between them.' — Madde- ford V. Austwick 1 Gini. R. 89. In addition to direct misrepresentation, and con^ cealment in circumstances in which open dealing was a duty, fraud may l)e perpetrated by taking advantage of the imbecility of the party Avho has been led into the contract, and still more flagi'antly by inducing this imbecility by intoxication or other- wise. See Concealment, Error, Misrepresenta- tion, Contract. In addition to the ordinary Eng- lish sources of information, we mayrefer to the exten- sive and learned Traite da Dot et de la Fraude^ par J. Bedarride, 3 vols. (Paris, 1852). FRAUNHOFER, Joseph von, a distin.guished practical optician, was born at Straubing, in Bavaria, Cth March 1787. In 1799 he was a])i)renticed to a glass-cutter in Munich, and in 1806 was received, as a working optician, into the estab- lishment of Reichenbach and Utschneider at Benedictbeurn (afterwards, in 1819, removed to Munich). While there, he acquired considerable wealth through his inventions, and soon after- wards became proprietor of the estaljlishment. He invented a machine for polishing parabolic surfaces, and was the fii st who succeeded in polishing lenses and mirrors without altering their curvature. His prisms also were celebrated, being free from the Ijlebs and strife which are so often seen in those of English manufacture. His inventions are numer- ous, and include a ' heliometer,' a ' micrometer,' an ' achromatic microscope,' besides the great paral- lactic telescope at Dorpat. But that which has rendered F.'s name celebrated throughout tha scientific world, is his discovery; of the xines in the Spectrum. He died at Munich' on the 7th of J une 182G. FRAU'NHOFER'S LINES. See Spectrum. FRAU'STADT (Polish, Wszowa), a town o4 Prussia, in the government of Posen, is situated in a sandy i)lain on the Silesian frontier, 55 miles north- west of Breslau. It has linen, woollen, and other manufactures, and important grain markets. In the vicinity are about 100 wind-mills. Pop. 6724. FRAXINE LLA. See Dittany. FRA'XINUS. See A^jh. FREDERI'CIA, a seaport and fortress i>t Den- mark, is situated on the east coast of the province of Jutland, on a projecting tongue of land, at the northern entrance to the Little Belt. It is fortified with nine bastions and three ravelins on the land- side, and with two bastions towards the sea. It haa several ecclesiastical edifices, a hosjutal, and a custom-house, at which a toll is paid by all shipft FREDERICK. passing through the Little Belt. Tobacco is grown and manufactured here Pop. 5579. FRE'DERICK (Ger. FRIEDRICH) I., of Ger- MA>rY. — Frederick I., Emperor of Germany, sur- named Barbarossa (Redbeard), was born in 1121, succeeded his father, Frederick Hohenstauffen, as Duke of Swabia in 1147, and his uncle, Conrad III., as emperor in 1152. He was one of the most enlightened and powerful rulers who ever swayed the imperial sceptre. In his desire to emulate Cha-rlemague, and to raise the secular power of the empire in opposition to the arrogated sujjremacy of th3 papal chair, he was brought into constant collision with his Italian subjects. Six times he was compelled to cross the Alps at the head of great armies, in order to chastise the refractory cities of Lombardy, which were ever ready, on the sHghtest provocation, to throw off their allegiance. In the early periods of his reign, he visited their defection with undue severity; hxxt in his latter days his conduct towards them was characterised by a generous leniency and a politic liberality in advance of his age; and in 1183, he convoked a council at Constance, in which he finally agreed to leave the Lombard cities the right to choose their ov/n municipal rulers, and to conclude treaties and leagues among themselves, although he retained his supremacy over them, together with the power of imposing certain fixed taxes. The difficulty of settling the Italian differences was as usual aggra- vated in F.'s time by the attitude assumed by the occupants of the papal chair, and at one time Italy was distracted by the pretensions of two rival popes, Alexander III. and Victor IV., who each excom- municated the other, and hurled the anathemas of the church against their several opponents ; and it was not till 1176 that F., after his defeat at Lignano, by consenting to acknowledge Url)an II., the successor of Alexander III., as the rightful pope, was enabled to turn his attention to Germany. By his energetic measures, he succeeded in thoroughly humbling his troublesome vassal, Henry the Lion, Duke of Brunswick, and thus crushing the Guelfic power in Germany. F. made Poland tributary to the empire, raised Bohemia to the rank of a kingdom, and the markgrafdom of Austria into an independent hereditary duchy. In 1189, F., having settled the affairs of the empire, and pro- claimed universal peace in his dominions, resigned the government to his eldest son Henry, and, at the head of 100,000 men, set forth for the Holy Land, accompanied by his second son, Frederick of Swabia, the founder of the order of Teutonic Knights. After gaining two great victories over the Saracens at Philomeliiim and Iconium, he was drowned (1190) in a river of Syria, while trying to urge his horse across the stream. His remains were rescued by his son, and buried at Tyre. The death of F., which led to the dispersion of the Crusaders before any material advantage had been obtained over the Infidels, excited the deepest grief in Germany, where his memory has always been ch.ri'ihed as that of the best and wisest of his race. F. as a patron of learning, and enacted many admirable laws, some of which are still in force. FREDERICK II., of Germany, grandson of the fonner, and son of the Emperor Henry VI., and of Constance, heiress of Sicdy, was born in 1194. His mother secured the favour of Pope Innocent III. for her infant son, by conceding many import- ant privileges to the pai)al chair-, and after the civil war which' had raged in Germany for eight years between the rival claimants of the throne, rhilip of Swabia and Otho IV., was brought to \n end by the agency of Innocent, F. succeeded (1212) in obtaining the support of the German electors. On his promising to undertake a crusade, the i)ope sanctioned his coronation at Aix-la- Chapelle in 1215. Like his grandfather, F. was actuated by an ardent desire for the consolidation of the imperial power in Italy at tlie expense of the pontificate, which he wished to reduce to the rank of a mere archiej)iscopal dignity. Having secured the nomination of his son Henry to the rank of king of the Romans, and appointed Archbishop Engelbert of Cologne as his vicegerent, he left Germany ; and after having been crowned emperor at Rome in 1220, devoted himself to the task of organising his Italian territories. He founded the university of Naples, gave encouragement to the medical school of Salerno, invited to his court and patronised men of learning, poets, and artists, and commissioned his chancellor, Petrus de Vineis, to draw up a code of laws, to suit all classes of his German and Italian subjects. F.'s schemes for the union of his vast and widely scattered dominions were, however, frustrated by the refractory con- duct of the Lombard cities, and still more by the arrogance of the popes Honorius III. and Gregory IX., who threatened him with excommunication unless he fulfilled his pledge of leading a crusade. Being compelled to depart on this expedition, he made the necessary preparations for its prosecution ; but a pestilence having broken out among hia troops in the Morea, he returned in haste to Italy, only to be again forced away by j:)apal threats. This second attempted crusade proved more suc- cessful; and in 1228, notwithstanding the machina- tions of the pope, and the treachery of the Knights Templars, F. extorted a ten years' truce from the Moslem ruler, and forced him to give up Jerusalem and the territory around Jopjia and Nazareth. The rest of his life was spent in bringing his rebellious Lombard subjects to subjection, and in counter- acting the intrigues of the pope, the rebellion of his eldest son, and the treachery of his friend and minister, the Chancellor Petrus de Vineis, who was suspected of attempting to poison him. F., who died suddenly in 1250, the possessor of seven crowns, was the most accomplished sovereign of the middle ages, for he not only spoke and wrote the six lan- guages common to his subjects, but he was famed for his talents as a minnesinger, and for Ins skill in all knightly exercises, while he Avrote elaborate treatises on natural history and philosophj'. Hia strong sympathies with his Italian mother-laaL and his unremitting endeavours to establish a . om- pact and all-supreme empire in Italy, wert, the causes, not only of his own misfortunes, but of the miseries which he brought upon the German empire, by embroiling him in costly wars abroad, and leading him to neglect the welfare, and sacri- fice the interests of his German subjects. See for Frederick 1. and Frederick II., Raumer, Geschicht^ der Hohenstauffen ; Sismondi, Italian Eejmhlks, and Europe in the Middle Ages; Voigt's Lom^-ai'dea bund; Funk, Geschichte Kaiser Friedrich II. FREDERICK III., of Germany.— Frederick who was F. III. as Emperor of Germany, F. IV. as King of Germany, and I'. V. as Duke of Austria, was born in 1415, being the son of Duke Ernst, of the Styrian branch of the house of Hapsburg. At the age of 20, he undertook an expedition to the Holy Land ; and on his return, m con- junction with his factious brother, Albert the Prodigal, he assumed the government of his here- ditary dominions of the Duchy of Austria, the revenues of which scarcely exceeded 16,000 mai-ks. On the death of the Emperor Albert II., he was unanimously elected as his successor ; and twc years afterwards, in 1442, he was solemnly cro^vned FREDERICK. at Aix-la-Chapelle ; ten years later, he received the imperial crown at the hands of the pope at Rome, and in 1453 scoured the archducal title to his family. His reigu was a prolonged struggle against domestic 'ntrigues and foreign aggressions. One of his most troublesome ojiponents was his brother Albert, who refused to give up the proAdnces which he held until he had received a large sum of money; but notwithstanding these causes of annoy- ance, and while John Hunyades Corvinus, at the head of a Hungarian army, overran Austria, and laid fiiege to Vienna, and the usurper Sforza possessed himself of the imperial fief of Milan, on the extinc- tion of the male line of the Visconti, F. remained absorbed in his o-\vn private studies, or roused himself only to attem})t, by the aid of foreign mercenaries, to recover the crown-lands of which the House of Austria had been deprived. His pusillanimous subserviency to the papal chair, and his wavering policy, irritated the electors, who at one time cherished the desirrn of deposing him and nominat- ing George Podiehrand, king of Bohemia, to the imperial throne ; "^hile it entangled him in quarrels on account of thf. succession to the Palatinate, and other questions of German policy, and deprived the churcli in G armany of that independence from the thraldom of the papal chair which it had been the object of the Council of Basel to secure to it. The contempt in which F. was held was made apparent on the death of his ward, Ladislaus, king of Hungary and Bohemia, without children, when, notv/ithstanding his just pretensions to this inheritance, he was passed over, the people of the former having chosen George Podiebrand as their king, and those of the latter Matthias Cor^'imls. His Ijrother Albert's death in 14G3 secured him a short reprieve from internal distiu'bances, and gave him possession of Upper Austria; but he was rapeatedly embroiled in quarrels with Podie- brand and INIattliias ; the latter of Avhom several times besieged Vienna, and finally dispossessed him of every tomi of importance in his heredi- tary domains. In the meanwhile, the Turks were suffered to push their conquests in Europe until they had advanced in 145G to Hungary, in 1469 to Carniola, and in 1475 to Salzbiu-g, although a vigorous opposition at the outset would easily have put a definite stop to their encroachments. Oq the death of Matthias, in 1490, F. recovered Austria, but he was obliged to acknowledge Prince Ladislaus of Bohemia as king of Hungary. This mortiiication was soon followed by his death, in 1493, after an inglorious reign of 53 years, which did nothing to advance the prosperity or progress of the empire, although the times were propitious to both. But although F. neglected the interests and duties of the imperial crown to indulge in the pursuit of his favourite studies in alchemy, astronomy, and botany, he never lost an ojipor- tunity of promoting the aggrandisement of his own family, which he very materially secured by marry- ing liis son and successor, Maximilian, to Mary, the rich heiress of Charles the Bold of Burgundy. F. was temperate, devout, parsimonious, scrupulous about trifles, simple in his habits, pacific in his •lisposition, and naturally averse to exertion or excitement. From his time, the imperial dignity continued almost hereditary in the House of Austria, which has perpetuated the use of his fa\'ourite device, A. E. I. 0. U., A ustri(je Est Imperare Orbi Uni verso. See -^neas Sylvius, Historia ; Coxe, House of Austria. FREDERICK V., Prince Palatine.— Frederick r., Electoral Prince Palatine, was born in 1596, =;iK'coeded to the Palatinate in 1610, was king of Bolumia from 1619 to 1620, and died in 1632. He 4aci married, in 1613, Elizabeth, the daughter of Jamea VI. of Scotland and I. of England, through whose ambitious counsels he was induced to take a pro- minent part in the proceedings of the union of the Protestant princes of Germany, and finally, although against his own inclinations, to accept the title of king of Bohemia. His complete defeat at the battle of Prague terminated his short-lived enjoyment of the regal crown, of which he retained no other memorial but the mocking title of ' The Winter King.' Ridicule and contumely !ollowod him wherever he went, and the rest of his life waa spent in exile under the ban of the empire, and with no resources beyond those which he could obtain from the generosity of his friends. In 1623, he was declared to have forfeited his electoral title and his dominions in the Palatinate, which were conferred upon his cousin, Maximilian of Bavari\ the head of the Catholic league. FREDERICK I., of Denmark, was bom in 1473, and died in 1533. During the disturbed reign of his nephew, Christian IT., he behaved with so much circumspection, that the choice of the nation fell upon him when the king was deposed, and he was raised to the throne in 152,3. He shewed great cruelty to his unfortunate relative, whom he detained in close captivity ; but he was a ])olitic ruler. In 1527 he embraced the Lutheran faith, which he estal)lished in his dominions by the most arbitrary measures. FREDERICK III., of Denmark, the son of Christian IV., was bom in 1609, succeeded to the throne in 1648, and died in 1670. The wars of his father's reign had brought the country to a state of great embarrassment ; and notwithstanding aU his efforts to maintain peace, F. was continually embroiled in the quan-els of other nations, and during his reign Copenhagen was twice besieged by the Swedes under their warlike king, Charles Gustavus ; nor was peace re-established till after the death of Charles. The reign of F. III. was rendered memorable by the change effected in the constitution, which, after ha\dng been in some degree elective, was at once changed into a heredi- tary and absolute monarchy by the voluntary act of the commons and clergy, who, from abhorrence of the nobility, surrendered to the crown the liberties and prerogative which they had hitherto enjoyed, and made the sovereign absolute and irresponsible. FREDERICK V., of Denmark, the son and successor of Christian VI., wa,s born in 1723, ascended the throne in 1746, and died in 1766, lea\ang the reputation of ha\ang been on? of the best and wdsest monarchs of his time. Denmark owed to him the increase of her national wealth, and the esta,blishment of various branches of com- merce and manufacture. F. established a Green- land Company, opened the American colonicxl trade to all his subjects, founded the military academy of Soroe, in Denmark, and caused schools to be opened at Bergen and Trondhjem, in Norway, for the instruction of the Laplanders. He established academies of painting and sculpture at Copenhagen, and sent a number of learned men — among whom was Niebuhr, the father of the historian — to travel and make explorations in the East. FREDERICK VI., or Denmark, th« son of Christian VII. and Caroline Matilda of England, was born in 1768, and assumed the regency of the kingdom in 1784, on account of the insanit}' of his father, on whose death, in 1808, he ascended the throne. In this reign, feudal serfdom Wiis abolished, monopolies abrogated, the criminal cude amended, and the slave-trade prohibited earlier than in any other country. In 1800, Denmark joined the Ah FREDERICK— FREDERICK-WILLIAM. maritime confederation formed between Russia, S'.voden, and Prussia, which led to retahation on the part of England, to the seizure by that power of all banish vessels in British ports, and to the despatch of a powerful fleet, under Sir Hyde Parker and N' Ison, to give efficacy to the peremptory demand tbat the regent should withdraw from the conven- tion. His refusal to accede to this demand was folloAvcd by a fierce naval engagemeut, in which the Danish fleet was almost wholly destroyed. A peace was concluded on the regent's withdrawal from the confederation ; but in consequence of his persisting to maintain an attitude of neutrality, mstead of combining with Great Britain against Napoleon, the war was renewed in 1807 by the appearance, before Copenhagen, of a British fleet, bearing envoj^s, who summoned F. to enter into an albance with England, and to surrender his fleet and arsenals, and the castle of Cronborg, com- manding the Sound. On his refusal, Copenhagen was bombarded for three days, the arsenals and docks destroyed, and all the shipping disabled, sunk, or carried to England. This blow paralysed the national resources, and it required the exercise of much discretion on the part of the government, and great endurance on that of the people, to prevent the irremediable ruin of the country. Smarting under the treatment which he had experienced from the English, the Danish monarch became the ally of Napoleon, and suffered proportionally after the overthrow of his empire. In 1814, Norway was taken by the allies from Denmark, and given to Sweden. The state became bankrupt, and many years passed before order could be restored to the finances. Notwithstanding his autocratic ten- dencies, F. so far yielded to the movements of the times as to give his subjects, in 1831, a repre- sentative council and a liberal constitution. He died December 3, 1839. FREDERICK VIL of Denmark, son of Chris- tian Vll., Avhom he succeeded, was born in 1808, and died in 1863. The principal events of his reign were the wars and diplomatic negotiations arising out of the revolt of the duchies of Holstein and Slesvig (q. v.), and the vexed question of the succession to Denmark Proper and the duchies on the death of the king and of his uncle, the heir presumptive, both of whom were childless. Notwithstanding the heavy expenses of the war, the finances were considerably augmented, and the material pros- perity of the country was increased during his reign. FREDERICK-WILLIAM, Duke of Britns- J71CK, born in 1771, entered the Prussian service at an early age, and was actively engaged with the army during the war with France in 1702, and again in 1806, and was taken prisoner with Blucher at Leipsic. On the death of his father and eldest brother, he would have succeeded to the dukedom, as his other brothers were incapacitated by disease for reigning, had not Napoleon put a veto on his accession to power. Being resolved to take part in fclie war against the French, he raised a free corps in Bohemia, and threw himself into Saxony, which he was, however, speedily compelled to evacuate. After the total defeat of the Austrians in 1809, the duke determined to leave Germany; and with his corps of 700 ' black hussars,' and 800 infantry, he began his masterly retreat. After various skirmishes, in one of which he defeated the Westphalian com- mander Wellingerode and a picked detachment of troops, he reached Brunswick, in the neighbourhood of which he gained a victory at Oelper over 4000 Westphalians, commanded by General Reupel. He aext crossed the Weser, and having reached Elsfleth, and taken possession of a sufficient number of vessel* and seamen, he embarked his troops ; and finally after stopping at Heligoland, landed in England with his men in August 1800. He was received with enthusiasm ; and having entered the Englisli service with his men, subsequently took part in the Peninsular war, where he served with distinction, rocei\nng from the British government an allowance I of £6000 a year, which he retained till his return to his own dominions in 1813. Although no prince could be more earnestly bent on securing the ■w^elfare of his subjects, his efforts failed utterly from th« untimely and injudicious nature of the reforms he I endeavoured to effect ; while the magnitude of his military establishments, which were quite unsuited I to the limited extent of his territories, excited the ill-will of his i^eople. He joined tlie allied army with his hussars after the return of Na])oleon from Elba, and fell Avhile leading on his men at Quatre Bras, on the 16th of June, 1815. FREDERICK-WILLIAM, Elector of Bran- denburg, commonly called 'the Great Elector,' was born in 1620, succeeded to the electorate iu 1640, and died in 16S8. On his accession, he j found an empty exchequer, the towns and cities j depopulated, and the whole electorate devastated j by the ravages of the Swedish and Imperialist I armies during the Thirty Years' War, which was j not yet concluded ; while a portion of his inherit- I ance had even been confiscated by the Swedes, j His first acts were to regulate the finances, and ' to conclude a treaty of neutrality with Swedeu, I which left him at leisure to devote himself to the I organisation of his army, and the re-peopling of the deserted towns and villages by means of immigra- j tion. By the treaty of Westphalia, through which he lost several important places, he recovered the eastern portions of Pomerania, Hohenstein, the bishoprics of Halberstadt, Minden, and Kamin, as 1 lay-principalities, and the reversion of the arch- bishopric of Magdeburg. In the course of ten 1 years he had, by tlie help of his generals, Derfflinger, Schomberg, and Kannenberg, created an army of 25,000 men, organised on the Swedish model ; and having been constrained to enter into an alliance 'with Charles X., he co-operated with him in the I taking of Warsaw, which was effected at the cost of a most sanguinary engagement in 1656. In I return for this co-operation, F.-W. secured the emancipation of his Prussian duchy from its former I dependence on Poland. The aggressions of Louia XIV. on the Rhenish frontier alarmed the elector, who induced the emperor, the king of Denmark, and the Elector of Hesse-Cassel, to enter into a league against France. The result was unfavourable to the cause of the German princes, and F.-W. was obliged to content himself with making highly dis- advantageous terms. The war was soon renewed, and Brandenburg was again a prey to the incursions of the Swedes, who, at the instigation of Louia, advanced upon Berlin, laying waste everything on their march. The elector, who had taken up hio winter-quarters in Franconia, hurried acrcss tha Elbe at the head of his cavalry, and having signally defeated the Swedes, drove them from his domi- nions. If the emperor had been true to his word- and supported him, F.-W. might have made head against the French; but being forsaken by the other German princes, and his dominions ovemm by the troops of Louis, he was obliged to agree to the treaty of St Germain, by which he restored all his conquests to the Swedes, in return for the with- drawal of the French army, and the payment to him of an indemnity of 300,000 crowns. From this time forth, F.-W. devoted himself to the task of consolidating the prosperity of his dominions, FREDERICK— FREDERICK-WILLIAM. During his reign, he more than tripled the area of his territories, and by his generous reception of 20,000 French Protestants after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, and the encouragement which he afforded to the immigration of Dutchmen and other foreigners, he augmented the population of his states, and introduced numerous industrial arts among his subjects. He founded the university at Duisburg, and the royal library at Berlin, and reorganised the universities of Frankfiirt-on-the- Oder, and Konigsberg, opened canals, established a aj'Stem of posts, and greatly enlarged and beautified Berlin. He left a well-filled exchequer and a highly organised army. See Orlich, Gesch. des Freuss. Stunts im 17 Jahrh. Berl. 1839. FREDERICK III., Elector of Brandenburg, Bon and successor of the former, and the first king of Prussia, was born in 1657, and succeeded to the electorate of Brandenburg in 1G88. He exhibited the same zeal as his father for the aggrandisement and amelioration of his dominions; but he was distinguished from him by his admiration of Louis XIV., whose pomp and luxurious display he imitated at his own court. He supported William of Orange in his attempt on England, and gave him a subsidy of 6000 men, which, under the command of Marshal Schomberg, contributed to gain the victory at the Boyne which decided the fate of James II. F. was always ready to lend troops and money to his allies; he sent 6000 of his best men to aid the Impe- rialists against the Turks ; and although he met with the same ingratitude as his father, he succeeded, by treaties, exchanges, and purchases, in very consider- ably extending his territories ; and after many years' negotiations, he induced the emperor to agree to the Crown Treaty,' by which, in return for permission to assume the title of King of Prussia, he bound himself to furnish certain contingents of men and money to the Imperial government. As soon as this treaty had been signed, F. hastened in mid- winter with all his family and court to Konigsberg, where,' on the 18th January 1701, he placed the crown on his own head. He died February 25, 1713. F. did much to embellish Berlin, where he founded the Royal Academy of Sciences, and the Academy of Painting and Sculpture, erected several churches, and laid out numerous streets. He estab- lished a court of aj)peal at Berlin, built the palace of Charlottenburg, and founded the university at Halle ; but his actions were generally influenced by a love of display; and his vanity, together with his neglect of those who had served him, made him personally unpopular, although his patriotic love of Germany redeemed, in the eyes of his countrymen, many of his bad points. FREDERICK- WILLI AM I., oe Prussia, bom in 1688, was in almost every particular the opposite of his father Frederick I. He was simple, and almost penurious in his habits, attentive to business, passionately fond of military exercises, but averse to mental cultivation, and fond of the society of the low and illiterate, while he carried to the utmost his ideas of arbitrary power and the divine right of kings. The public events of his reign were of little importance, although he was continually implicated in foreign wars, and he supported the cause of Stanislaus of Poland, and assisted Austria in her contests with France. He died in 1740. By his economy and reforms in the finances,, he was able to indulge his taste for the organisation of military forces, while his childish love of tall soldiers induced him to connive at the most flagrant outrages both at home and abroad for kidnapping tall men and forcing them into his serviue : the result of this BjBtem was, that he left at his death a well-drilled 600 army of 70,000 soldiers, of whom a large proportion were men of gigantic stature. What was of n-ore consequence to his son and successor was, that hia exchequer contained 9,000,000 thalers, and that his kingdom had attained an area of more than 45,000 square miles, and a population of .upwards of 2,240,000. See Morgenstern, Ueber Friedrich Wilhelm 1. (Braunsch. 1793) ; F. Forster, Gesch. Friedrich- Wilhelm's I. (Pots. 1835) ; Carlyle, llist. of Friedrich II., called Frederick the Great. FREDERICK II., of Prussia, surnamed ♦the Great,' was the son of Frederick- William 1. and the Princess Sophia- Dorothea, daughter of George L of Great Britain, and was born in 1712. His early years were spent under the restraints of an irk- some military training, and a rigid system of education. His impatience under this discipline, his taste for music and French literature, and his devotion to his mother, gave rise to dissensions between father and son, and resulted in an attempt on the part of F. to escape to the court of his uncle, George II. of England. Being seized in the act, his conduct was visited with still greater severity, and he himself was kept in close confinement, while his friend and confidant. Lieutenant Katt, was executed in his sight, after having been barbarously ill-treated by the king. According to some reports, the prince's life would have been sacrificed to the fury of hia father, had not the kings of Sweden and Poland interceded in his favoui*. Having humbly sued for pardon, he was liberated, and allowed to retire to Ruppin, which, with the town of Rlieinsberg, was bestowed upon him in 1734. Here he continued to reside till the king's death, surrounded by men of learning, and in correspondence with Voltaire, whom he especially admired, and other philosophers ; but on his accession to the throne in 1740, he laid aside these peaceful pursuits, and at once gave evidence of his talents as a legislator, and his determination to take an active share in the political and warlike movements of the age. His first military exploit was to gain a victory at MoUwitz over the Austrians, in 1741, which nearly decided the fate of Silesia, and secured to Prussia the alliance of France and Bohemia. Another victory over the Empress Maria Theresa's troops made him master of Upper and Lower Silesia, and closed the first Silesian war. The second Silesian war, which ended in 1745, from which F. retired with augmented territories and the reputation of being one of the first commanders of the age, was followed by a peace of eleven years, which he devoted to the improvement of the various departments of government, and of the nation generally, to the organisation of his army, and the indulgence of his literary tastes. The third Silesian war, or 'the Seven Years' War,' was begun in 1756 by the invasion of Saxony — a step to which F. was driven by the fear that he was to be deprived of Silesia by the allied confederation of France, Austfria, Saxony, and Russia. This contest, which was one of the most remarkable of modem times, secured to F. a decided influence in the afl"airs of Europe generally, as the natural result of the pre-eminent genius which he had shewn both under defeat and victory ; but although this war crippled the powers of all engaged in it, it left the balance of European politics unchanged. It required all the skill and inventive genius of F. to repair the evils which his country had suffered by the war. In 1772, he shared in the partition of Poland, and obtained as his portion all Polish Prussia and a part of Great Poland ; and by the treaty of Teschen, in 1779, Austria was obliged to consent to the union of the Franconian provinces with Prussia, and he waa thus enabled to leave to his nephew and successor a powerful and well- organised kingdom, one half FREDERICK-WILLIAM. larger in irea than it had been at his own accession, with a 1 Jl treasury, and an army of 200,000 men. He died at the chSLteau of Sans Soxici, August 17, 1786. J'Vederick the Great is said to have ' inherited rH his father's excellences and none of his defects.' His courage, fertility of resource, and indomitable resolution, cannot be too highly praised. Not the least wonderful of his achievements was his con- triving to carry on his bloody campaigns without incurring a penny of debt. A true spirit of self- sacrifice — though not, perhaps, for the highest ends — was in him. Never was king more liberal towards his subjects. In Silesia, where war had nearly ruined the inhabitants, he once remitted the taxes for six months, and in Pomerania and New Brandenburg for two years, while his government was carried on with rigid economy, such as Europe had never before witnessed. But not only was his government economical, it was essentially just. Religious persecution was unknown, civil order everywhere prevailed ; property was secure, and the press was free. On the other hand. F.'s faults were far from being few. Education had made him French in all his ideas and prejudices ; and in those days, to be French was to be sceptical. He was utterly unconscious of the grand intellectual and spiritual life that was about to sj^ring up in Ger- many, and to make it again the guiding- star of Europe, as it had been in the days of Luther. He was, in fact, almost ignorant of his native language, which, moreover, he despised as semi-barbaric; though before his death Goethe had published his Gotz von Berlichingen, Sorroivs of Werther, Iphigenia in Tauris, and many of his finest lyrics ; while Kant, besides a variety of lesser works, had also given to the world his master-piece, the Critique of Pure Reason. The new literature was essentially one of belief and aspiration, and therefore alien to the tendencies of the royal disciple of Voltaire, who had learned from his master to cherish at once contempt and suspicion of his fellow-creatures. This disagree- able feature of his character increased with years. He declared the citizen class to be destitute alike of* ability and honour, and relied not' on the love of the nation, but on his army and purse. F. was a very voluminous writer. Of hia numerous works, all of which are written in French, his Memoires pour serv'tr d VHistoire de Brandenhourg, and Histoire de la Guerre de Sept Ana, exhibit perhaps the greatest ^ powers of description, but aU evince talent of no common order. The Academy of Berlin, by the direction of Frederick- William IV., brought out a fine edition of his collected works in octavo and quarto, 1846 — 1851. Frederick left no children, and was succeeded by his nephew, Frederick- William 11. See Carlyle, History of Frederick II. ; Pagenel, Histoire de F. le Grand (Par. 1830); Riedel, Gesch. d. Preussisch. Konigsh. (Berl. 1861). FREDERICK-WILLIAM II., of Prussia, was bom in 1744, and died in 1797. After a prolonged estrangement between his uncle and himself, he regained the good-will of the king by his valour m the war of the Bavarian succession in 1778 ; but although he succeeded to a well-consolidated power and an overflowing treasury, he had not the capacity to maintain his favourable position. Futile or hastily undertaken wars wasted his resources ; so that at his death, instead of the overplus of 70,000,000 thalers that had been bequeathed to him, the state was hampered with a debt of 22,000,000. His predilec- tion for unworthy favourites, the establishment of a strict censorship of the press, aiid the introduction of stringent ecclesiastic enactments, alienated the affections of the people from him, although his natural mildness of disj)Osition had excited the san- guiao hopes of the nation on his accession. F.-W. shared in the second partition of Poland in 1793, And thus gained a consideral)le addition to his kingdom, which, by purchase, inheritance, and other means, was augmented during his reign l>y the acquisition of more than 46,000 square miles of territory, and 2| millions of inhabitants. The chief internal improvements in this reign were the introduction of a new code of laws, and a less onerous mode oi raising the taxes. FREDERICK-WILLIAM III., of Pnussi v, the son of Frederick- William II., was born in 1770. He early took part in the administration, and, on his accession in 1797, he at once dismissed the unworthy favourites of the preceding reign, and accompanied by his beautiful young queen, Louisa of Alecklenburg-Strelitz, made a tour of inspection through the numerous provinces of his kingdom, with a view of investigating their condition, and contributing to their local and general improve- ment. But although F.-W. was well intentioned, and in his moral and domestic relations his con- duct was exemplary, he lacked the dignity and force of will to cope with the difficulties of hia position. By his efforts to maintain an attitude of neutrality in the great European struggle that had been excited by the wars and victories of the French, he awakened the distrust of all the great anti-Gallican powers of Europe, and disap- pointed the petty German princes, who had looked upon Prussia as their protectress against foreign encroachments. Napoleon's promises of support and friendly intentions soon changed this neutrality to an alliance with France, and for some time Prussia persevered in her dishonourable and self- seeking policy, which was rewarded by the acqui- sition of Hildesheim, Paderborn, and MUnster, v.'hich added nearly 4000 square miles of territor}^ and half a million of inhabitants to the king- dom ; but at length the repeated and systematic insults of Napoleon, who despised F.-W. while he professed to treat him as a friend, roused the spirit of the nation, and the king saw himself obliged, in 1805, to agree to a convention with Russia, the real object of which was to drive Napoleon out of Germany. Again the treachery of Prussia led her to make a new treaty with France, by which she consented to receive the electorate of Hanover, and thus involved herself in a war with England. The insults of Napoleon were redoubled after this fresh proof of F.-W.'s indecision. The Prussian nation, headed by the queen, now called loudly for war, and at the close of 1806, the king yielded to these appeals. Hostilities began without fiu'ther delay; but the defeat of the Prussians at Jena, Eylau, and Friedland, compelled their unfortimate monarch to sue for peace. The Prussian army was annihilated, and the whole of the kingdom, with the exception of a few fortified places, remained in the power of the French. By the intervention of the Emperor Alexander of Russia, a peace was con- cluded, known as the Treaty of Tilsit, by which F.« W. lost the greater part of his realm, and was deprived of all but the semblance of royalty ; but although for the next five years he was a mere tocA in the hands of Napoleon, who seized every oppor- tunity of humbling and irritating him, his spirit was not subdued, and his unremitting efibrts at this period of his life to reorganise his enfeebled govern- ment by self-sacrifices of every kind, endeared him greatly to his people. The disastrous termiuation of Napoleon's Russian campaign was the turning- jioint in the fortunes of Prussia; for although the French emperor was victorious over the Prussiana and Russians in the battles of Lutzen and Bautzen, which were fought soou after the declaration of war which F.-W. had made against France, to tho 6Ui FEEDERIOK-WILLIAM— FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. great joy of his people, in 1813, the allies were soon ' able to renew hostilities, which were carried on with signal success until they finally culminated in the great battle of Leipsic, in which the Prussians, under their general, Blucher, earned the greatest share of glory. The Peace of Vienna restored to Pnissia almost all her former possessions, while the part taken by the Prussian army under Blucher in gaining the victory of Waterloo, by which Napo- leon's power was finally broken, raised the kingdom from its alvaseraent. From that time, F.-W. devoted himself to the improvement of his exhausted states ; but altlioixgh before the French revolution of 1830 Prussia hsid recovered her old position in regard to material prosperity at home and. political con- eidcration abroad, the king adhered too strictly to the old German ideas of absolutism, to grant his people more than the smallest possible amount of i)olitical liberty. He had indeed promised to establish a representative constitution for the whole king- dom, 1 ut this promise he wholly repudiated when reminded of it, and merely established the Land- stdnde, or Provincial Estates, a local institution, devoid of all effective power. His support of the Russian government in its sanguinary methods of crushing revolutionary tendencies in Poland, shewed his absolute tendencies, and his dread of liberal principles. F.-W. was more than once embroiled with the pope, on account of his violation of the concordat. He concluded the great German com- mercial league known as the Zollverein (see Ger- MA.NY), which organised the German customs and duties in accordance with one uniform system. He t died in 1840. FREDERICK-WILLIAM IV., of Prussia, son of the foregoing, was born October 15, 1795. He had been carefidly educated, was fond of the society of learned men, and was a liberal patron of art and literature. He exhibited much of his father's vacillation and instability of purpose ; and although he began his reign (June 7, 1840) by granting minor reforms, and promising radical changes of a liberal character, he always, on one plea or other, evaded the fulfilment of these pledges. He Avas possessed by high but vague ideas of ' the Christian state,' and shewed through life a strong tendency to mystic pietism. The one idea to which he adhered with constancy -was that of a union of all Germany mto one great body, of which he offered himself to be the guide and head. He encouraged the duchies of Holstein and Slesvig in their insurrectionary movement, and sent troops to assist them against Denmark ; but he soon abandoned their cause, and being displeased with the revolutionary character of the Frankfurt Diet, refused to accept the imperial crown which it offered him. The conspiracies in Prussian Poland were suppressed with much rigour ; and the popular movement w^hich followed the French revolution of 1848, was at first met by the king with resolute opposition; but when the people persisted in demanding the removal of the troops from the capital, and enforced their demand by storming the arsenal, and seizing on the palace of the Prince of Prussia (the present king), who was at that time especially obnoxious to the liberals, he was obliged to comply with their wishes. Constitu- ent assemblies were convoked, only to be dissolved when the king recovered his former security of power, and new constitutions w^ere framed and sworn to, aud finally modified or withdrawn. After the complete termination of the revolution in Ger- many, the revolutionary members of the Assembly of 1848 were prosecuted and treated with severity, the obnoxious ' pietistic ' party and the nobility were reinstated in their former influence at court, and the freedom of the press and of religious and 6C2 political opinion, was strictly circumscribed. The life of the king was twice attemj)ted; first in 1847 by a dismissed burgomaster, named Tschech; and secondly, in 1850, by an insane discharged soldier of the name of Sefeloge. In 1857, F.-W. was seized with remittent attacks of insanity ; and in 1858 he resigned the management of public affairs to his brother and next heir, who acted as regent of the kingdom till his own accession, in 1860, as WiUiam I. F.-W. died in 1861. FRE'DERICTON, the political capital of New Brunswick, in British North America, stands on the right bank of the St John, the largest river in the province. It is 56 miles to the north-west of the principal seaport, which bears the name of the stream above mentioned, and it is itself accessible to vessels of 50 tons. The population is about 6000. In addi- tion to the public buildings, which F. possesses as the seat of government, it contains the university of King's College, which, independently of other resources, receives from the legislature an annual grant of £2000. FRE'DERIKSHALD, a fortified seaport of Nor- way, in the department (amt) of Smalenen, stands on an inlet called Swinesund, near the Swedish border, about 60 miles south-south-east of Christiania. It is beautifidly situated, and is a neat, well-built town, with several handsome edifices. Its harbour is excellent ; in it the largest vessels may be safely moored. F. largely exports deals and lobsters. Pop. 7408. To the south-east of the town stands the fortress of Frederiksteen, on a perpendicular rock 400 feet high. This fortress, though often assaulted, has never yet been taken. While laying siege to Fredeiiksteen, Charles XII. of Sweden was killed, 1718 ; in commemoration of which event an obelisk was raised, in 1814, upon the spot where he fell. FREE BENCH {Francus Bancus). By custom of certain manors in England, a widow was entitled to dower out of the lands which were held by her "husband in Socage (q. v.). In some places, the widow had the whole, or the half, and the Uke dum sola ei casta vixerit (Co. Litt. 110, b). This right is called francus bancus, to distinguish it from other dowers, for that it cometh freely, without any act of the husband's or assignment of the heir (Co. Litt. 94, b). See Dower. A widow who has forfeited her free I bench is, by the custom of some manors, permitted i to recover her right. At East and West Enborne, in the county of Berks, and also in the manor of Chadleworth, in the same county, and at Torr, in Devon, if the widow commit incontinency, she for- feits her estate ; yet if she will come into the court of the manor riding backward on a black ram, with his tail in her hand, and will repeat certain verses (more remarkable for their plainness than their delicacy), the steward is bound by the custom to admit her to her free bench (Cowel's Interpreter, ed. 1727, fob). FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND, the name assumed by those who at the ' Disruption ' of the Established Church of Scotland, in 1843, withdrew from connection with the state, and formed them- selves into a distinct religious community, at the same time claiming to represent the historic church of Scotland, as maintaining the principles for w^hich it has contended since the Reformation. (It is proper to state that, in accordance wath a method adopted in other cases also in this work, the present article is written by a member of the church to which it relates, and is an attempt to exhibit the view of its principles and position generally taken by those within its own pale.) There is no difference between the F. C. of S. and FEEE CHUrwCH OF SCOTLAJSD. the Established Cliiircli in the standards which they receive ; and all the laws of the church existing and in force prior to the Disruption, are acknow- ledged as still binding in the one as much as in the other, except in so far as they may since have been repealed. The same Presbyterian constitution sub- sists in both churches, with the same classes of office-bearers and gradations of church -courts. The F. C, indeed, professes to maintain this constitution and church-government in a perfection impossible in tlis present circumstances of the Established Church, because of acts of parliament by which the Estab- lished Church is trammelled, and interventions of civil authority to which it is liable. And the whole difference between the F. C. and the Established Church relates to the consent and submission of the Established Church to this control of the civil power in things which the F. C. regards as belonging not to the province of civil government, but to the church of Christ and to its office-bearers and courts, as deriving authority from Him ; so that the contro- versy is often described as respecting the Headship of Christ or the Kingdom of Christ. It is to be borne in mind, however, that the doctrine of the headship of Christ over his church, as set forth in the Westminster standards, is fully professed both by the Established Church and by the F. C. of Scotland ; the only queEtion between them is, whether or not the existing relations of the Established Church of Scotland to the state are consistent with the due maintenance and practical exhibition of this doc- trine. And the question does not directly relate to Voluntaryism (q. v.). Those who constituted the F. C. of S. in 1843, firmly believed that the church might be connected with the state, and receive countenance and support from it, to the advantage of both ; whilst they maintained that there must not, for the sake of any apparent benefits flowing from such connection, be any sacrifice of the inde- pendence or self-government of the church, as the kingdom of Christ, deriving its existence, organis- ation, and laws from Him. Nor has any change of opinion on this subject been manifested. The Westminster Confession of Faith asserts * that there is no other head of the church but the Lord Jesus Christ ; ' and that ' the Lord Jesus, as King and Head of his church, hath therein appointed a government in the hand of church- officers, distinct from the civil magistrate ; ' it ascribes to these chm-ch-officers the right of meeting in ' synods or councils,' which it affirms to be ' an ordinance of God ; ' and represents the exercise of church-dis- cipline as intrusted to them as well as the ministry of the word and sacraments. It ascribes to the civil magistrate much power and many duties con- cerning things spiritual, but no power in or over these things themselves. And all this was equally the doctrine of the Church of Scotland before the Westminster Confession was compiled. The sup- port which, in many parts of Europe, princes gave to the cause of the Reformation, and the circumstance that states as well as churches were shaking off the fetters of Rome, led in many cases to a confounding ©f tho civil and the 8])iritual. The Church of Scotland accomplished its emancipation from Rome, not with th^ co-operation of the civil power, but in spite of its resistance ; and after the Reformation, the Scottish Reformers and their successors were compelled to a closer study of their princij)les, by the continued attempts of the civil rulers to assume authority over all the internal affairs of the church.* But amidst their struggles, the Presbyterians of Scotland so far prevailed as to obtain at different -imes important acts of parliament in recognition of their principles, and ' ratification of the liberty of the true kirk ; ' and finally, after the Revolution of 1688, an act ratifying the Westminster Ct/iifesj-ioii of Faith itself, and incorporating with the statute law of the realm all its statements concerning the province of church judicatories and that of the civil magistrate, and the bounds of their respective powers. The rights and privileges of the Presbyterian Church of Scotland, guaranteed by the Revolution settlement, were expressly secured by the Treaty of Union, and jealously reserved from the power of the British parliament ; yet within live years afterwards, when Jacobite counsels prevailed in the court of Queen Anne, an act was passed for the restoration of patronage in Scotland, with the design of advancing the Jacobite interest by render- ing ministers more dependent on the aristocracy, and less strenuous advocates of the most liberal principles then known. This act soon became the cause of strife within the Church of Scotland, and of separation from it ; effects which have con- tinually increased to the present day. How the church at first earnestly protested against the act ; how this protest gradually became formal, and waa at last relinquished ; how the church-courts them- selves became most active in carrying out the settlement of presentees, notwithstanding all oppo- sition of congregations, are points to which it is enough here to allude. It is important, however, to observe that in all the enforcement of the rights given to patrons by the act of 1712, during the 18th c, and considerable part of the 19th, no direct invasion of the ecclesiastical province took place on the part of civil courts or of the civil power ; the presentation by the patron was regarded as convey- ing a civil right at most to the benefice or emolu- ments only, whilst the church-courts proceeded without restraint in the induction of ministers ; and in a few instances it happened that the benefice and the pastoral office were disconnected by the opposite decisions of the civil and ecclesiastical courts. And even the ' forced settlements,' in which the fullest effect was given by the church-courts to the will of patrons, were accomplished according to the ancient form, upon the call of the parishioners, inviting the presentee to be their minister, although the call was a mere form — in the words of Dr Chalmers, 'the expressed consent of a few, and these often the mere driblet of a parish.' When the ' Moderate ' party, long dominant iu the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, became again the minority in 1834, the accession of the 'Evangelical' jjarty to power was at once signalised by an attempt to restore the call to efficacy. This was done by the famous Veto Law, by which it was declared ' that it is a fundamental law of this church that no pastor shall be intruded on any congregation contrary to the will of the people,' and enacted, in order to give effect to this principle, that a solemn dissent of a majority of male heads of families, members of the vacant con- gTegation, and in full communion with the church, shall be deemed sufficient ground for the rejection of the presentee. The Veto Law thus determined rather how strong an expression of disrent by the parishioners should be requisite to invalidate a call, than how strong an expression of assent shoidd be requisite to give it validity ; a circumstance which was afterwards much turned to account ia controversy ; as if the veto were a new and imcon stitutional principle introduced ; although it was certainly adopted as the least extreme mode of giving effect to the old principle which the law declared. The same General Assembly by which the Veto Act was passed, is memorable for the assertion of the constitutional principles and inherent powers of 503 FREE CHUECH OF SCOTLAiNT). the church in another important particular, the admission of the ministers of 'chapels of ease' to tlie same ecclesiastical status with the ministers of endowed parishes, in consequence of which they became meird)ers of church-courts, and had districts assigned to them quoad sacra, with the full parochial organization. The Veto Act was soon the subject of litigation in the Court of Session. A conflict arose, which in various forms agitated the whole of Scotland, and which, erelong, related as much to the status of chapel ministers as to the rights of presentees to parishes ; and indeed involved the whole question of the relations of civil and ecclesiastical powers, at least as far as the Established Church was con- cerned. The first case carried into the civil court was that of a i)resentation to Auchterarder, in which the call to the presentee was signed by only- two parishioners, whilst almost all who were entitled to do so according to the Veto Act, came forward to declare their dissent. The decision of the Court of Session, which, upon an ap[)eal, was aliirmed by the House of Lonls, was to the effect, that the rejection of the presentee on the ground of this dissent was illegal ; the opinions of the judges in the Scottish court were indeed divided ; but those in accordance with which the judgment was pro- nounced, asserted the right of the civil courts to review and control all pi'oceedings of church-courts, a power wdiich it was speedily attempted to put forth in other cases, to the extent of requiring presbyteries to proceed to the settlement of qualified presentees without respect to the opposition of congregations ; interdicting the admission of ministers to pastoral charges even when no question of emoluments was involved ; interdicting the quoad sacra, division of parishes or any innovation on iilie existing state of a parish as to pastoral su])eriutendence and the jurisdiction and discipline of the kirk-session ; inter- dicting clmrch-courts from pronouncing ecclesiastical censures, and suspending or revoking them when ; pronounced ; interdicting ministers from preach- \ mg the gospel and from administering the sacra- ments within certain parishes ; determining who [ should and who should not be deemed entitled to Bit and vote in General Assemblies and other courts of the church ; and other such things, wholly sub- j versive of the independence of the church, and reducing it, if acquiesced in, to the condition of 'a creature of the state.' They were not, however, ; acquiesced in ; and although in one instance, ! ministers were brought to the bar of the Court of Session, and reproved for disregarding its authority, their protest against its claim to authority was ^ maintained even there ; and in the far greater ; number of instances, its interdicts were broken ! without any attempt being made to call those who ■ did so to account. It is impossil)le here to enter into j the details of this struggle, which was brought to a [ tiual issue by the judgment of the House of Lords in August 1842, affirming a decree of the Court of Session, which required the presbytery of Auchter- arder to take the ordinary steps towards the settle- ment of the presentee to Auchterarder, without regard to the dissent of the parishioners. The law of the land being thus decided by the supreme court to be such as they could not with good con- science comply with, and parliament having rejected an application, in the form of a ' Claim of Right,' for an act such as would have reconciled the diities of their position according to the law of the land, in the church by law established, Avith what ihey believed to be their duty towards Christ and according to his law ; it now seemed to the greater number of the ministers and elders holding the principle of the iudepenience of the church, that 504 the only course open to them was tc retire from their position by the sacrifice of the emoluments and benefits of an establishment. And this th<^-y did at the meeting of the General Assembly on 18th May 1843. Headed by Dr Chalmers, ]>r Welsh, and others of the most eminent for piety, learning, eloquence, and usefulness in the chunih, they left the api)ointed place of meeting of the General Assembly, St Andrew's Church, Edinburgh, and I)roceeded to another place, i)reviously prepared, Tanlield Hall, Canonmills, where, in the iridst of a great concourse of peojjle, the first General Assembly of the F. C. of S. was immediately constituted, and Dr Chalmers was unanimously called to the chair as its moderator. Four hundred and seventy- four ministers renounced their connection with the Establislmicnt, and along with them a great body j of its elders and members. Immediate steps were taken for comjdeting the organisation of the F. C, and extending it as much as possible into every district of Scotland. The forethought of Dr Chalmers had already devised the SusTENTATiON FuND (q.v.). The F. C. undertook from the first the continued support of all the mis- sions i)reviously carried on by tlie Church of Scot- land ; and all the missionaries hastened to declare their adherence to the Free Church. An ' educa- tion scheme ' was soon afterwards imdertaken, when it l)egan to be found that parish schoolmasters were ejected from their office for their adherence to the F. C. ; and coUeper and Lower Rhine. During the latter part of that century, one of the leaders, named * Meister Eckart,' had so large a following at Cologne, that the archbishop made his teachings the subject of a lenirthened 'edict. The sect spread also in Swabia, where it^ members were confounded with the Beghards. In France, they were popularly known by the name ' Turlupins,' a word of uncertain etymology. We meet them in Bohemia in the beginning of the 15th c., and there is considerable similarity between their principles and those of the Adamites, who figure in Hussite history. From this date they are heard of no more. — See Mosheim, Soames's ed. ii. 582; also Gieseler's Church History, m. 407, iv. 226. 606 FREE STATE, Orange. See Orange Riveu Free State. FREE'STONE, any rock which admits of being freely cut and dressed by the builder. It lias also been defined as any rock which works equally freely in every direction, having no tendency to split in one direction more than another. In this sense, lime- stone and even granite have been called freestones. FREE-TOWN, the capital of Sierra Leone, a British settlement of freed negroes on the west const of Africa, situated on the left bank of the Sierra Leone river, about .5 miles from the sea, in lat. 8° 20' N., and long. 13° 9' W. The temperature is tolera- bly uniform, varying in opposite seasons between the averages of 77°'6 F. and 80"'9. Towards the interior F. is enclosed by the mountain chain from which the colony takes its name. Pop. about 16,000. FREE-TRADE in a literal sense means trade or commercial intercourse free from interference or re- striction. As generally used, however, the terni has a wider and more complex meaning, and expresses a ])rinciple of political economy which holds that the jirosperity of a State can best be promoted by freeing the exchange of all commodities and services — foreign as well as domestic — to the greatest possible extent, from all interferences and obstructions, but more especially from such as are of an arbitrary, artificial character, resulting from legislation or prejudice. Free-trade in this sense is not, as is often asserted, necessarily opposed to the imposition of taxes on imports, but simply demands that taxes shall not be imposed by the State for any purposes other than to provide revenue for the defraying of necessary and legitimate public expenditures, and, subject to such a limitation, regards the question as to what forms taxation had best assume as one merely of experi- ence and expediency. Free-trade as an economic principle, or politico-commercial system, is moreover the direct opposite of the principle or system of pro- tection^ which maintains that a State can most surely and rapidly attain a high degree of material prosperity by 'protecting' or 'shielding' its domestic industries from the competitive sale or exchange of the products of all similar foreign industries; the same to be ef- fected either by direct legislative prohibition of im- ports, or by the imposition of such taxes on imports as shall, through a consequent enhancement of prices, interfere to a greater or less extent with their intro- duction, free exchange, and consumption. Some of the principal arguments in favour of free-trade, as con- tradistinguished from protection, are as follows; 1. The highest right of property is the right to exchange it for other property ; and in the absence of all freedom of exchange between man and man, each individual would be assimilated to the condition of Crusoe on his uninhabited island. It would, there- fore, seem to stand to reason that to the degree in Avhich we obstruct the freedom of exchange, to that same degree we oppose the development of civilisation. 2. Any system of law which denies to an individual the right to freely exchange the products of his labour, by declaring that A may trade with but shall not trade on equally favourable terms with C, reaffirms in effect the principle of slavery; for both slavery and the artificial restriction or pro- hibition of exchanges, deny to the individual the right to use the products of his labour according to what may seem to him the best advantage, without making in return any direct compensation. 'I'he plea that is put forth in justification of such restiiction, that any present loss resulting to the individual is more than compensated for by an indirect benefit accruing to society, is the same in character as that which has always been advanced in justification of slavery, enforced conformity to established religions, and in vindication of persecution for unbelief. FREE TRADE— FREE-WILL. 3. Free-trade, or tlie interchange of commodities and services with tlie minimum of obstruction, by render- ing commodities cheap, tends to promote abundance. Whatever, on the other liand, obstructs exclianges, Avhetlier it be in the mature of a bad road, high mountains, broad oceans, or a legisbitive enactment, tends to increase the cost of commodities to the con- sumers, and thereby promotes scarcity. 4. The only true test of the increase of national wealtli is the possession of an increased quantity of useful things in the aggregate, and not the amount of labour performed or the number of labourers em- ployed irrespective of results. Nothing, therefore, can be more irrational than the supposition that in- creased cheapness diminishes or restricts the opportu- nity to labour. If it were so, opposition to the inven- tion and use of all labour-saving machinery would be the part of wisdom. 5. A tariff cannot create anything; it only affects the distribution of what already exists. Protective duties no doubt temporarily stimulate certain indus- tries ; but it is at the expense of those who pay the consequent increased prices. 6. Product for product is the invariable law of exchange ; and we cannot buy a single article in any market except with or by a product of our own, or for money which we have obtained by the exchange of some product. Nothing, moreover, can or will be imported unless that in which it is paid for can be produced at home with greater final advantage. Free- trade, therefore, can by no possibility discourage home labour or diminish the real wages of lal)ourers. 7. It is often claimed that a tariff" on imports 'obliges the foreigner to pay a part of our taxes;' but the claim involves an absurdity. Taxes on im- ports are paid by the persons who consume them, and these are not foreigners, but residents of the country importing. Again, if there were any device by which one nation could thus transfer in any degree its bur- den of taxation, it would be universally adopted, at least to the extent of making the transfer in all cases reciprocal. See Bastiat's ^ SoiMms of the Protectio7iists ^ Does Protection Protect P Grosvenor; 'Reports of the U. S. Special Conunissioner of Revenue, 1868-69 ;' ' The Parsee Letters ;' and the various economic ti eat- ises by Mill, Mcleod, Cairnes, Atkinson, Amasa Walker, Perry, &c. Davtd A. Wells. (For a statement of the principles antagonistic to Free Trade, see Protection— Protective Duty ) FREE-WILL. The freedom or liberty of the will is the designation of a doctrine maintained in ojjposition to another doctrine, expressed by the term 'necessity.' The contest between those two views has been maintained in the fields both of theology and of metaphysics. The idea of a man being ' free ' in his actions appears first in the writ- ings of the ancient Stoics. Afterwards in Philo Judaeus, an Alexandrian Platonist, who flourished at the commencement of the Christian era, there occurs an inquiiy i)ropounded, ' whether it be not the case that the upright man is free, and the vicious man a slave.' This language was evidently meant to pay a compliment to virtue, and to affix a degrading Btigma on vice, and oiight not to have been too literally interpreted ; for in strictness it might have been maintained, with even greater plausilnlity, that the vicious man, who defies all the restraints of society, has the greater libe)-ty of the two. The doctrine of freedom, as appLed to the human will, Tras first contended for by Pelagius against Augus- tine's doctrines regarding the operation of grace; and in a later age was the subject of controversy between Arminians and Calvinists, the Calvinists | {such as Jonathan Edwards) having usually been | Neceaaitarians. » Although in this dispute there are certain points of real difference of opinion between the opposing parties, yet the problem has been unnecessarily encumbered with the unsuitable phrasef)logy that has accidentally invested it. Ihc notion of 'free- dom ' is intelligible when we speak of a free man as opposed to a Russian serf, or of a free press as opposed to censorship ; but with reference to human actions generally, it has no particular relevancy. When a man, urged by hunger, eats the food that is before him, we recognize two separate facts, the one leading to the other : the first is a painful feeling oi sensation, the other a series of movements by which food is conveyed to the system ; the one fact we call the motive, the other the action, of the will follow- ing on the motive ; but there is no projjjriety in describing this sequence as either free or not free. We may inquire into the greater or less certainty of the sequence — namely, whether a hungry m.an does alw^ays, as a matter of course, avail himself of the food presented to him, or whether one may be very hungry with the option of eating, and with no other motive operating to deter from the act, and yet not eat, thus shewing an absence of uniform connection between pain and the movements for alleviating it ; this would be a real question, and woiJd throw light on the actual constitution of the human w^ill ; the qiiestion of liberty and necessity does not present ua so much with an intelligible question as with an artificial difficidty made by inapplicable phraseology. It woiild have been much the same to have disputed whether or not the will is rich, or noble, or royaL merely because the virtuous and right-minded man has sometimes been commended by those epithet'j being applied to him. The word ' necessity,' also, n ill chosen, in consequence of its great ambiguity; being applied sometimes to logical and mathe- matical implication, as when w^e say the whole is greater than its part ; sometimes to the rigorous uniformity of physical laws, such as gravitation ; and at other times to what is merely a high probability, as when w^e expect that a man of honourable and upright character will speak the truth on some given occasion. See Necessity. If we cast aside these confusing phrases, and inquire what is the real matter of dispute, we sha.'Il find that there are intelligible differences of opinion in reference to the sequences of human volition. It may be maintained that our actions have the feame uniformity as the successions of the ph^'sical world ; and this view w^ould be supported by a very wide induction of experience. It will be found that the whole of the complicated operations of society depend upon the certainty that men, in the same circumstances and under the same motives, will act in the same way. We allow for differences of indi- vidual character; but when once we have seen what any man is disposed to do in one instance, we take for gi-anted that he wiU be similarly actuated when the identical circumstances are repeated. The whole of our trading operations are founded on the maxim that human beings prefer a greater to a smaller gain ; and it has never been found that any portion of our race has taken a wa>-Avard fit, and contradicted itself on this point. We are prejmred for exceptions to the rule, when other strong motives aie present, but these are merely the intervention of a new force, not the suspension of the law that connects the other motive with its usual consequent. Nor is there anything degrading to human nature in this mii- formity; while the opposite state of things would undermine all the securities of human life, and land us in a moral chaos. If human beings, who habitually dread pains and penalties, were sud- denly, for no ulterior reason, to court hunger and cold, imprisonment and disgrace, it is obvious that FREE-WILL. there would be a speedy termination of man's career on the globe. Still, the position thus contended for may be, and has been, called in question ; or, at least certain exceptions to its universality may be put forward. We are able to comprehend the meaning of this jounter-doctrine, even although we may find a lifficulty in acceding to it. For example, Socrates Irew a distinction between human and divine know- .edge, intending by the one the departments of nature where strict law prevailed, and where by assiduous observation men might attain to certainty ; such was the knowledge of the operative respecting his special craft, in which it was a})surd to seek for any other source of insight than his own and other men's experience. But this did not include all knowledge. There was a department, the divine, reserved by the gods for their own special administration, and M'^here they did not bind themselves to observe uniformity of dealing. This region included, according to Socrates, such great operations of the physical world, as the motions of the heavenly bodies, the pheno- mena of weather and season. To be enlightened on these, it was necessary to consult the gods by oracle and sacrifice. Now, applying this view to the case of the human will, it might be maintained that, in the greater number of instances, and in all matters of primary importance, such as self-preservation, the uniformity of human actions must be admitted ; but Btill there may be some deep, subtle, and refined operations, where the same motives sometimes lead one way, sometimes another, the whole sitiiation being in every other respect identical. But it lies with the supporters of this view to substantiate their exceptional cases in the midst of so much evident uniformity. As yet, nothing of the kind has ever been proved, and our only safe ground, philosophically, is what is our safe ground ]n'acti- cally— namely, to abide by the doctrine of law in all human actions, on which we have not the I emallest scruple as respects the preponderating mass of them. The partisans of liberty, who take up the ground of oi)position to uniform law as now expounded, not unfrequently express themselves to the follow- ing effect. Granting that the emotions of the mind have a uniform efficacy as motives, and that he that has a musical taste will be found on all occasions acting in conformity with it, still the emotions are not the whole of the mind. We have, in our mental composition, Feelings, and Intelligence, and Acti\aty ; but these do not make up our entire being. There is a something that all these inhere in, a substratum or support, which we call our ' self,' the ' ego,' or ' I,' and this abstract self is exempt from the conditions that attach to these attributes of self. This ultimate personality of every human being is free and independent, being exempt from the laws whereby our several feelings operate as motives to our ordinary actions. A self- determining power is supposed to reside here, even if excluded from the other mental adjuncts. It is considered un philosophical and incorrect to resolve tlis whole of mind into feelings, actions, and intellect ; these are mere attributes of an inexplicable some- thing which each one is conscious of, and recognises as the essence or centre of the mental being, while they are merely properties or attributes. Granting the existence of this inner self, there is said to be sufficient scope for a properly free agency, without going the length of supposing that men are to con- tradict themselves in the everyday conduct of life. Such a mode of stating the doctrine of liberty, however, is liable to the charge of logical confusion, not to speak of the difficulty of establishing the existence of tho sntity in question. If we were to 503 inquire into what constitutes the essence of mind, the thing which being present constitutes mind, and whose absence is the negation of mind, we might perhaps not be able to come to a conclusion that all philosophers would acquiesce in. It if always reckoned a very abstract and metaphysical discussion to settle the essence of things ; even as regards matter, this is not an easy question. But if ' essence ' is to mean something, and not absolutely nothing, it must point to some power, property, or quality, capable of being named and signalised. Thus, we might say the essence of material bodies is the quality variously named, as resistance, momentum, inertia; all which in: ply that one body is at once an obstruction to other moving bodies, and a moving power when once in motion ; but if any one insists that this is but one of the attribiites of matter, in common with weight, extension, colour, &c., and that there must be something still deeper, in which all the various qualities inhere, we can only answer that we know of no such essence or substratum, and are incapa.ble of conceiving any such. We may fix upon the most fundamental, the most universal, and inerasable quality of a thing, such as this property of resistance as regards material bodies, and term that the essence ; while any other attempt at discovering an essence would only end in setting up fictions. So in the case of mind. If we are called on to specify any one aspect of oiir mental constitution more universal and fundamental than the rest, with a view to setting forth the essence of mind, we should be obliged to select VOLITION, or action governed by feeling, as the main or central fact. Wherever we can prove the existence of feeling, and of an activity controlled by that — as when an animal uses its organs to preserve its own life, to cater for pleasures, and ward off pains — we should have to admit the reality of mind, although, perhaps, the intelligence were of the lowest kind. Any being not possessing both sensibility and the power of acting in accordance with it, could not 1)0 said to possess a true mental nature. We should not trouble ourselves with considering the possible existence of a mystical ' ego,' but should at once declare that such a bein^ did not come up to the standard or definition of mind. Will, or volition^ as thus explained — namely, the direction of the active organs of a living creature to chime in with its various feelings — is itself the essence or substratum of mind, as resistance is the essence of matter. Wherefore, to speak of feelings and actions as something apart from the ' ego,' but inhering in it, is merely to count the same fact twice over, or to call a thing the attribute of itself. Volition is mind, and not an attribute of mind ; and when we have specified the power of voluntary, or feeling-guided action, and a certain amount of intelligence, varying greatly in individuals, we have specified everything that can belong to any individual man or animal ; an * ego ' beyond this is something inexjilicable and fictitious. It cannot, therefore, be admitted that any foimdation is given to a supposed ' free agency,' by referring to this occult and imaginary essence, any more than it woidd be competent to claim exceptions to the great physical laws that govern material boiies, by assuming an occult essence of matter with powers and properties ct variance with its inertia, weight, extension, and other known qualities. In one respect, the mind is differently situated from the material world in all that regards the power of tracing strict uniformity, and predicting the future from the past. Each one of us has direct access to our own feelings, but only an indirect and imperfect access to the feelings of another person. Exce])ting self, we can never know the whole of what any oue FREEZING AND FUSING POINTS— FREIBUKG. feels ; our best observations and reasonings are but approximations to the truth, and predictions founded on them are liable to be falsiiied through unseen forces in the arcana of another man's individuality. Admitting the uniformity of seq\ience of motive and act, we are never able to exhaust the motives of any single mind, beyond our own ; and thus each one may be said to move in a certain inner circle of the impenetrable and impredictable, v/liile the large mass of the everyday actions of all human beings follows an almost undeviating regidarity. This is a very important distinction between mind and matter, although not invalidating the great general fact of uniform law, as attaching to the one no less than to the other. For a sketch of the history of this great controversy, see Dugald Stewart's Active Powers. FREEZING AND FUSING POINTS, ^ee Fusing PoiNTb. FREEZING MIXTURES, and other Means OF CooLTNG. When matter passes from the solid into the liquid state, heat in large quantity disappears, and ceases to affect the thermometer. See Heat. The chemist avails himself of the fact that heat disappears during liquefaction, for the purpose of procuring artificial cold. When a piece of ice having a temperature of 32° F. is placed in its own weight of water at 174°, we find, on testing the water with the thermometer after the ice has melted, that its temperature is 32 ; the heat which the water contained having disappeared during the melting of the ice. As water in passing from the solid to the fluid state possesses the property of rendering latent a greater amount of heat than any other substance, it is, when in a solid form, as ice or snow, or when combined with salts, as water of crystallisation, a powerful agent in jjroducing artificial cold. The substance employed in freezing mixtures should be finely powdered, rapidly mixed, and placed in vessels with little conducting power. The fol- lowing are a few of the important formula for these mixtures : 1. A mixture of 2 parts of pounded ice or of fresh snow and 1 part of common salt, causes the thermometer to fall to — 4°. 2. A mixture of 5 parts of commercial hydrochloric acid and 8 parts of powdered crystallised sulphate of soda, causes a reduction of temperature from 50° to 0°. 3. Equal parts of water, of powdered crystallised nitrate of ammonia, and of powdered crystallised carbonate of soda, produce a cold of — 7°. 4. A mixture of 3 parts of crystallised chloride of calcium, previously cooled to 32°, and 2 parts of snow, produces a cold of — 50 which is sufficient to freeze mercury. 5. By dis- solving solid carbonic acid, or solid nitrous oxide gas, in sulphuric ether, temperatures of from — 120° to — 146 may be obtained, at which alcohol passes to the consistency of oil, and finally to that of melted wax. This is the most powerful freezing mixture that is known. The freezing mixtures used by confectioners and those that are most convenient for ordinary experi- mental purposes, are the first and second of the •hove list. When matter passes from the liquid to the aeriform state, heat also disappears, and the knowledge of this fact has been applied to the cooling of liquids, and to the actual i>roduction of ice. If a glass bottle containing water be covered with a cloth, which is kei)t constantly wet by the application of water, the evaporation from the wet cloth will soon diminish the temperature of the contents of the bottle, and if the cloth were moistened with alcohol or with ether, the cold would be proportionally greater, the degree of cold varying with the rapidity and extent of the evaporation. Wine-coolers, or water- coolers, made of porous earthenware, act a the same manner as the*cloth. They are soaked in. and saturated by water, which by its evay)oration occasions cold. Coolers of this kind are common in most hot countries. On the ancient monuments of Egypt, a man is sometimes represented as fanning tliese vessels with n palin-leaf, to promote eviiijoru- tion, and tlie Arabs still ])ractise this custom. See Refrigerating Machines, in Supp., Vol. X. In some parts of India, where the dryness of the air allows a considerable evaporation to take place, ice is obtained in the following manner : ' Flat, shallow excavations, from one to two feet deep, are loosely lined with rice-straw, or some similar barobably a mingled jargon, used in common by the Frankish and Teutonic tribes, and consequently in vogue in the north and east, received a more definite develop- ment under Charlemagne, who caused a grammar of it to be prepared for the use of the schools which he had established, and in which it was taught conjointly with Latin. The council of Tours (813) recommended the use both of the rustic Latin and the Teutonic dialect ; and in 842, in the compact made between the two brothers, Charles the Bald and Louis the German, the former swore in the Eomana rustka, and the latter in the Tmtscht language, which, although it had been generally spoken at the court of Charlemagne, had already given place in France to the Frankish form of Latin. This Gallo-Romanic idiom early branched off into the two characteristically different forms of the Provencal or Langue d^oc of the south, and the lloman Wallon, or Langue d'oil of the north. The comparative prosperity which the south of France enjoyed, first under the kings of Aries, and subse- quently under the counts of Provence, its freedom from foreign aggression for several centuries, the beauty of the climate, and the more thoroughly Romanised character of the people, led to the early develojiment of the Provencal, and, by the lipa of the troubadours, breathed forth a rich melody of song, which, after a time, was re-echoed in les3 harmonious tones by the trouveres of the north in their ruder tongue. The earlier productions of these two schools exhibit striking differences in diction, inflection, and construction ; and while the trou.badour sang of love, and dwelt on the beauti 3 which a southern climate and a fruitfid soil scattered broadcast over the face of nature around him, the northern trovvere invented a chivalrous mythology of his own, and ascribed to the heroes of Greece and Rome, and the brethren in arms of King Arthur and Charlemagne, the sentiments of his own times. The use of the northern or Walloon French was very considerably extended through its adoption by the Normans, who in time carried it under WiUiam the Conqueror to England, and, under the northern leaders of the Crusades, to the south and east. In the south, on the contrary, the cruel persecutions of the Albigenses, against which the troubadours inveighed aloud, checked the development of the Provengal language ; for the songs of the trouba- dr .rs were proscribed, and thus the use of the langue d'oil soon extended with the spread of northern power into the provinces of Provence and Languedoc; FRENCH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. One of the earliest monuments of the French- Walloon, in the form in which it shews evidence of its gradual development into modern French, is the Roman de Eou, a versified chronicle of the exploits of Rollo and his successors, composed by Robert Wace. In this composition, the language is no longer the sonorous, m any- vo welled Provencal, or the mongrel Latin of the Umjua riistica. Out a distinct form of speech. The language thus formed by the ingrafting of Norman, Frankish, and Teu- tonic idioms on the degenerate Latin of the Gallic pro\'inces, was rapidly developed vinder the foster- ing influence of the university of Paris and the Sorbonne, which already, in the 13th c, attracted the learned men of all nations to their schools. The Boman de la Rose, begun in the 1.3th c. hy Jean de Meung, and completed in the 14th c. by G. de Lorris, and Guyofs Bible, belonging to the same period, are typical of the literature of France in the middle ages, which consisted chiefly of tales of chivalry and coarse sallies against the clergy. Froissart's chronicles of the 14th c, which afford a \nvid picture of the wars of the English and French, in which he himself took an active share, are written in a dialect that is quite comprehensible to the modern student. Comines, who wrote in the 15th c, is a less pictur- esque narrator ; but he may be classed among the earliest true historians of his country, for he was one of the first who observed public events with judg- ment, and recorded what he had seen in a straight- forward, truthfid manner. Francis I., by his love of music, song, and dramatic re])resentations, gave indirect encouragement to literature ; while the French language acquired force and terseness throuj^h the writings of Rabelais, Ronsard, Amyot, and Ivfontaigne ; and although, i;nder the regencies of Catharine and Marie de' Medici, Italian writers were more patronised at com't than native authors, the language and the literary talent of the nation were undergoing a process of gradual development, which was completed by the establishment, under the auspices of Richelieu, of the Academie Fran^aise in 1G.34. At this period, Comeille brought French tragedy to its highest point of grandeur in the classic style of the drama, which he had adopted. His best pieces are Le Cid, Les Horaces, Cinna, &c. Pascal, in his Lettres Provinciales, established a standard of French prose ; while Descartes, in his Discours sur la Methode, shewed the adaptability of the language to subjects requiring conciseness and precision. A long galaxy of great names gave splendour to the reign of Louis XIV. in every branch of literature. Notwithstanding the frivolity of the hal)its of the higher classes in France during this period, no age produced more vigorous writers or original thinkers. Bossuet and Flechier won respect by their noble funeral orations ; Bourdaloue and Massillon, by their eloquent preaching ; Fene- loD, by his learning and earnest exhortations; and Pascal, by his Christian view of the great questions of human experiences. In dramatic literature, Racine and Molifere stand forth conspicuous among A host of lesser writers, the former pre-eminent in tragedy, as his Andromaque, Iphigenie, Phedre, testify ; the latter inimitable in comedy, and exhibit- ing wonderful i)Owers of delineating human character from a humorous point of view, that have never been surpassed. Among his best pieces we may instance Tartufe, Le Misanthrope, and Les Femmes Savantes. La Fontaine is alike well known among his countrymen for his moral Fables and his licen- tious Tales. La Rochefoucauld and La Bruyfere, in their Sentences and Caracteres, depicted human character, with its peculiarities, inclinations, and foibles in strong, humorous, ?.nd vivid touches. This was the age of Memoirs and Letters : in the former lb9 branch of contemporary history. Cardinal Retz was perhaps the most successful of the host of writers who gained a reputation in this special depai-tmer.t of literature ; while Madame de Sevigne's letters are models of easy epistolary style, and aflord a lively i)icture of the times. This age, in which, jxt anyrate, the semblance of religion had been respected, was followed by one of scepticism, infldelit}', and philosophical speculations of the wildest kind. Four men of genius, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Buffon, contributed, to a very great extent, by their writings, and the influence which they exerted on the minds of their contemporaries, in bringing about the Revolution. Montesquieu, by his philosophical dissertations on the laws and government of hia country, taught the French to take more enlightened views of the rights and duties of different classes of society, and thus naturally roused the angry passions of the oppressed lower orders ; while tho passionate eloquence of Rousseau won a hearing for doctrines which were entirely subversive of moral obligations, and recognised no higher standard than human inclinations. Voltaire's versatility of powers, which were exercised with equal ease, and nearly equal success, on tragedy, satire, romance, poetry, history, and philosophy, enabled him, to the end of his long life, to maintain the supremacy over public opinion, which he had won in his youth. Buffon devoted himself to the study and description of nature, and his Histoire Naturelle, which inaugur* ated a new era in the literature of natural history, is a remarkable monument of the science and learn- ing of that period. Diderot, and D'Alembert the geometer, founded the Encyclopedie, which, while it gave a lucid summary of numerous branches of human knowledge, was always hostile to reli- gion. The Revolution, which had been materially accelerated, if not produced, by the inspirations of men of consummate intellect, was not favour- able to literature. A period of almost complete intellectual torpor succeeded the active mental development that had characterised the preceding classic and philosophic periods. The Empire was scarcely more propitious to learning ; but with the Corinne and L Alleynarpie of Madame de Stael, and Les Martyrs of Chateaubriand, a reaction took place ; and these productions of the new romantic school were soon followed by niuneroua others, either belonging to the same, or to the rival classical school. Among the host of young and ' original writers who now acquired reputation, we may instance, in dramatic, art, poetry, and Action. Alexandre Dumas, Victor Hugo, Alfred de Vigny, and Frederic Soulie. The first of these has been one of the most prolific of novel-writers ; among hia most popular works are — Les T rois Mousquetaires^ Le Comte de Monte Chrlsto, Le Collier de la Reine, &c. Casimir Delavigne has attempted to combine the romantic and classical schools in his Louis XL, Les Enfayits d! Edouard, &c. George Sand (Madame Dudevant) is one of the most elegant wi-iters of her country, and her works are models of style. Her Indiana, which appeared in 1832, inaugurated a new era of emotional novel- writing, and has had nutneious imitators. Among her numerous well- known works ai'e Jacqnes, Leila, Mauprat, Andre, and Consnelo, and the many pieces which she subse- quently wrote for the stage. Les Mysth-es de Paris, and Le Juif Enfant, which depict the concealed miseries and depravities of social life, quickly brought their author, Eugfene Sue, into notice. The tendency to materialism and sensuaHsm, which characterises the works of the two last-named v/ritevs, is more or less perceptible in all belonging to their age in France. The few artistic and gooa historical novels that have appeared have met with 513 1? BENCH POLISHING— FRENCH EIVER. iittle success among the general public. Among oririnal and finished writers of tales, A. de Musset ramts foremost, while Merim^e the historian, who has written several novels of very great merit, has not always met with the success which he deserved. Of late years, a host of young writers have appeared, some of whom belong to what they themselves term the realistic school. A. Dumas the Younger, who is following in the steps of his father, E. Feydau, 0. Feuillet, and E. About, all deserve notice. Poetry has not been followed \\ath any marked success in France duinng the present century ; and beyond the great names of B6ranger — whose songs are unsur- passed in any other tongxie — Victor Hugo, Lamar- tine, and Musset, there are few French poets of the present day known beyond the limits of France. The theatre absorbs much of the talent of Young France ; but here light pieces, vaudevilles and farces, are tli-e most successful, as is testified by the host of comedies and operatic scores for which Eugfene Scribe has obtained a favourable reception. History is undoubtedly the most successful branch of modern French literature. Among those who have gained for themselves a world-wide reputation in this department of research, we would instance Barante, whose early work, L'JTistoire des Dues de Boiirgol27, received from the same Society the Kumford mt dal for his discoveries concerning light and heat. He died July 14, 1827. 1^'RET, a figure, in Heraldry, resembling two Btio.js laid saltier wise, and interlaced with a mascle. Fret. Fretty. FRFiTTY. When six, eight, or more pieces are represented crossing and interlacing like lattice-work, the shield is said to be fretty. FREYJA AND FRFGGA, though spoken of in northern mythology as distinct, are originally one, and intimately associated with Freyr. Frigga, in the genealogy of the Ases (q. v.), is the supreme goddess, wife of Odin, and one of the daughters of the giant Fiorgwyn, and presides over marriages. Freyja is the daughter of Niord, sister of Freyr, and goddess of love. She is drawn on a car yoked with cats ; to her deceased women go, and also the half of those that fall in battle, whence she is called Val-Freyja. In this last respect, she must be considered as signifying the Earth ; but the earth is also repre- sented by Frigga, the wife of Odin, and when Freyja seeks Odin, as Isis seeks her Osiris, this is Odin conceived as the Sun. The names also, Frigga and Freyja, are in signification almost alike, and the two are often confoimded in mythology. The Anglo-Saxons and Lombards worshipped the vnfo of Odin as Frea. The name yet survives in Friday. FREYR, the son of Niord, of the dynasty of the Vanagods, was adopted with his father among the Ases, who, when he got his first tooth, bestov/ed upon him the celestial castle Alfheim. He is the god of peace and fertility; dispenses rain and fer- tility; and to him prayers for a good harvest are addressed. His wife is Gerda, daughter of the giant Gymer. F. had seen her as he once ascended the lofty seat of Odin, Hlidskialf, from which every- thing on earth is seen. Gerda was so beautiful, that the brightness of her naked arms illuminated air and sea. Seized with violent love, F. sent Skirnir as spokesman, and for his services had to give him his good sword, which he will miss in the great final contest or eclipse of the gods. Like Freyja, he was the patron of marriage, and probably the two wei'e at one time conceived as united, hermaphro- dite-wise. F. was held in great veneration, especially in Sweden, of which he was patron-god, and also in Iceland. His chief temple was at Upsala, where a bloody offering was yearly made to him of men and animals. His festival was at the winter solstice, the turn of the year — Yule-tide. While the god was borne round the land, all strife was laid aside. (Does ' the procession of the boar's-head,' at Ckrist- mas-time, commemorate F., who rode on the boar, GuUinbursti, and whose symbol was the boar's- head ?) The circumstance that the Saxon form of F.'s name. Fro, has been preserved in the German name of a Christian festival, Fronleichnam (Corpus Christi, the Lord's body), seems to shew that it had become among these peoples the abstract term for a god. FREYTAG, Gustav, a dramatic poet and novelist of Germany, was born 13th Jidy 1816, at Kreuzburg, in Silesia, studied at the universities of Breslau and Berlin, and took his degree in phil- osophy in 183S. His first important work was a comedy, entitled Die Brautfahrt, oder Kunz von Bosen (Breslau, 1844). Among his other productions may be mentioned In Breslau (Berlin, 1845), which is a collection of small poems written in a popular style ; the dramas Die Valentine (Leip. 1847) and Graf Waldemar (Leip. 1848) ; and the comedy entitled Die Journalistcn. (1854). An edition of his dramatic works was published at Leipsic, in 3 vols., 1848 — 1850. But hi^ greatest achievement in litera- ture is undoubtedly Soil und Hnben (Leip. 1855), a novel of German citizen-life, illustrating its persever- ance and counigeous loyalty. It has been translated into English under the title of Debit and Credit (1858). In 1859, F. published a new classical drama, Die Fahier^ a second edition of ^vhich appeared the following year. A series of prose pictures from Ger- man history, entitled Ntue Bilder aiis dem Lehen des Deutschen Volkes (Leip. 186^), was translated by Mrs. Malcolm, under the title oi Pictures of German Life. The same lady published in 1865 The Lost Manu- script^ a translation of Die Verlorene Handschrift^ published in the previous year by Freytag. In conse- quence of a difference with the publisher of the Grenz- hoten (Border Messenger) in 1870, he retired from the oditorsliip of that journal, which he had conducted for 23 years, and became the editor of a weekly paper published at Leipsic. 617 FRIAR— FPtlCTlOK FillAR, a name common to the members of cer- tain i-eligious orders in the Roman Catholic Church, and generally employed in contradistinction to the name Monk and Regular Clerk (see these articles). The name friar, although from its etymology {frere, brother) it belongs to the members of all religious brotherhoods, yet has come to be reserved almost exclusively for the brethren of the Mendi- cant orders. It is applied chiefly to the four great orders, Dominicans, Franciscans, Augustinians, Car- melites, and later, to the Trinitarians, and to the various branches of these orders. The Franciscans Were properly denominated ' Friavs Minor' [Fr aires Minores). The Dominicans received, in contrast, the title ' Friars Major,' which, however, was j)erhaps rather a sobriquet thar a serious name. These several bodice* of fiiars too, were popularly called, from the ci lour or other peculiarity of their habit, Grey Friars (Franciscans), Black Friars (Dominicans), White Friars (Carmelites) Crutched [or Crouched {Cruciati, 'crossed')] Friars (Trinitarians), so called from the cross which was embroidered upon their habit. This is the origin of the names of the several localities in London, and other towns thus desig- nated, to the present day. In the orders to which we refer, the friars who are in priest's orders are Btyled 'father.' The other members are called imply 'brother.' The vow taken by friars at pro- fession is of the class called in the Catholic Church * solemn,' and is held to render null and void any contract of marriage entered into by the party subsequently to his religious profession. FRIARS' BALSAM. See Benzoin. FRI'CTIOK When one body rubs against another as it moves, a certain force is felt to resist the motion. This resistance is cv^WeA friction. As a considerable proportion of the motive-power in all operations is spent in overcoming the friction of the f)arts of the machine upon one another, and is thus ost for the useful work, it is of great importance to luiderstand the nature of this obstructive force, with a \dew to reduce it to the least possible amount. Accordingly, a great many careful experiments have been made on this subject, and the result is a number of precise and valuable facts or laws regard- ing friction, which are now considered certain and reliable. The more important may be thus stated and illustrated. When a block of oak — say a cubic foot, which weighs about 60 lbs. — is placed on a horizontal table of cast iron, the two surfaces being flat and Smooth, it requires a force of nearly f the weight of the block, or 24 lbs., jralling horizontally, to make it slide along the table. This measures the friction between the two surfaces. Another block of the same size and shape laid on the same table, would require the same force to draw it ; and if the two were laid side by side, and fastened together so as to become one block, it would evidently require double the force, or 48 lbs., to draw the double block ; the amount of the friction being thus still \ of the weight, or of the pressure between the two iurfaces. But suppose that, instead of being laid side by side, the second block were laid on the top of the first, what is to be expected? Here the weight is doubled as before, but the extent of rub- bing surface remains unaltei-ed ; it would be natural, therefore, to expect that this would make a differ- ence, and that, though the friction would, of course, be increased, the increase would be less than in the former case. Experiment, however, shews that there is no difference, and that the friction is just double in both cases. In short, the unexpected and important fact is established, that, vnth'in certain limits, the /victim of any two surfaces increases in proportion to the force with which they are pretaed togetlier, and is wholly independent of ilie extent of the surfaces in contact. The amount of friction between two bodies Ik thufc a constant fraction or proportion of the force with which they are pressed against each other. This fraction differs for the different kinds of surfaces. Thus, between oak and cast iron, it is, as already stated, about I, or more exactly, "38 ; for wrought iron on wrought iron (we speak at present of dry surfaces, without grease or unguent of any kind), it is '44 ; for brass upon cast iron, •22. This constant fraction (expressing the proportion between the pressure of two surfaces and their friction) is called the coefficient of friction for these two surfaces. Another way of illustrating this law of friction is the following, which has an important bearing on the erection of structures, and on mechanics in general. Suppose a slab AB, in contact with another slab CD, of the same or of difi'er- ent material ; an»l that a force PQ presses on AB obliquely. Let QR be the perpendi- cular to the two surfaces, and draw PR, PS parallel to AB and QR, thus resolving the force PQ into two forces, one, PS, pressing AB against CD, the other, PR or SQ, tending to make AB slide towards C. It wiU clearly depend upon the strength of friction between AB and CD, how far the force PQ may be made to decline from the perpendicular without actually causing the one body to slide on the other. Suppose that when the pushing force is brought into the position P'Q, AB is just ready to slip on CD, and that it is a case of oak upon iron ; then, since P'S' or R'Q is the force pressing the siirfaces together, and P'R' or S'Q the force tending to produce motion, P R' will be | of R'Q. The angle P'QR' is called the limiting angle of resistance of the two surfaces AB, CD ; for so long as the direction of the pressure PQ is within that angle, the friction of the surfaces will sustain it ; but if the obliquity is greater, the surfaces will slip. This is true, inde- pendently of the extent of the siu-faces in contact ; and also of the amoimt of the pressure ; for the stability depends upon the proportion of PR to RQ, and that is the same, whatever is the length of PQ, so long as its inclination is the same. If the slab CD were tilted up, so as to form an inclined plane, until AB were on the point of sliding, the angle of inclination would be found to be equal to the limiting angle of resistance RQP'. Knowing the coefficient of friction of any two substances, their limiting angle of resistance ia easily found. Example. — The coefficient of brick upon hard limestone is -60 ; required the limiting angle. Take a line QR' of any convenient length, raise a perpendicidar R'P' equal to of QR', and join QP ; R'QP' is the angle required : if measiu-ed, it would be found to be about 3r. In any struc- ture, then, the obliquity of the thrust between two surfaces of these materials must always be considerably within this limit, in order to be safe. friction of quiescence^ that is, the resistance to the commencement of motion, is greater than the resistance to its continuance ; and the more so if the surfaces have been a considerable time in con- tact. But the slightest shock or jar is sufficient to destroy this cohesion, or whatever it is that consti- tutes the peculiar initial resistance ; so that it is onljr FEIEDLAND. the constant and regular friction of motion that is of much consequence in practice. Friction is very much diminished by the use of grease or unguents. The coefficient of wrought iron ui)on oak, which, in the dry state, is '49, is reduced by the application of water to "26, and by dry soap to '21. The result of experiments on this subject is stated to be, ' that with the unguents, hog's-lard and ohve-oil, interposed in a continuous stratum between them, surfaces of wood on metal, wood on wood, metal on wood, and metal on metal (when in motion), have all of them very nearly the same coefficient of friction, the value of that coefficient being in all cases included between "07 and "08.' Tallow gives the same coefficient as the other unguents, except in the case of metals upon -metals, in which the coefficient rises to 'lO. In the case of wood on wood, black-lead is frequently employed for the same purpose. The most important fact, perhaps, and one that could hardly have been anticipated before experi- ment, is, that the fiidion of viotion is wlvolly inde- pendent of the velocity of the motion. The resistance to the motion of a wheeled carriage proceeds from two sources ; the friction of the axle, and the inequalities of the road. The resistance of fiiction to the turning of a shaft in its bearings, or of an axle in its box, has evidently the greater leverage, the thicker the journal or the axle is ; the axles of wheels are accordingly made as small as is consistent with the required strength. The resist- ance that occurs between the circumference of the wheel and the road, constitutes what is called ro//i«(7 friction. There are on all roads, to a greater or less extent, visible rigid prominences, such as small stones, in i)assing over which the wheel and the load resting on it have to be lifted np against gra\aty. But even were these wanting, the hardest road yields, and allows the wheel to sink to a certain depth below its surface ; so that in front of the wheel there is always an eminence or obstacle, which it is at every instant surmounting and crush- ing down. This is the case even on iron rails, though of course to a much less extent than on any other road. Now, for overcoming this resistance, it can be shewn, on the principle of the lever, that a large wheel has the advantage over a small one ; and by numerous experiments, the fact has been fidly established, that on horizontal roads of uniform quality and material, the traction varies directly as the load, and inversely as the radius of the wheel. The best direction of traction in a two- wheeled carriage is not parallel to the road, but at a slight inclination upward, in proportion to the depth to which the wheel sinks in the road. On a perfectly good and level macadamised road, the traction of a cart is found to be of the load ; that is, to draw a ton, the horse requires to pull with a force equal to 75 lbs. On a railway, the tractior is reduced to Tj4ir the load, or to 8 lbs. per t^n. While friction thus acts as an obstruction to Siiotion, and wastes a portion of the motive-power, it has also important uses. It is, in fact, an indis- pensable condition, no less than gravity, in the stability of every structure, and in every mechanical motion on the earth's surface. How essential it is to our own movements, we experience when we try to walk on ice. Even on ice there is still considerable friction, so that one foot can be slightly advanced before the other ; were it altogether annihilated, we could not stir a fraction of an inch, even suppos- ing we could stand upright. Without friction, a ladder could not be planted against a wall, unless there were a hole in the ground to retain the foot. In abort, no oblique pressure of any kind could be sustained. The advantage of railways consistM chiefly in the diminution of friction ; but were thia diminution carried much further, there could be no motion whatever, at least by means of locomotives. Without considerable frictioii, the driving-wheels of the locomotive would slide round on the rails without advancing ; and this sometimes happens, when particular states of the weather render the rails as if they were greased. The force of friction is often directly emploj'ed in mechanics. It is used, for instance, to communicate motion by means of belts, chains, &c. It is the force that holds a knot. It is specially useful when a machine, with great momentum, has to be checked or arrested in its motion. The best example of this is the break used on railways. By means of a system of levers, blocks of wood are made to press against the circumferences of a number of the car- riage-wheels ; and thus the momentum of a train weighing hundreds of tons, and moving with a velocity of j^erhaps 50 miles an hour, is gradually destroyed in a wonderfidly short space of time. Friction-wheels are employed to diminish the friction of axles on their supports. Two wheels, of large circumference in proportion to their weight, are placed close together, parallel to each other, and so that the one seems to overlap the half of the other ; in the notch thus formed by the upper cir- cumferences of the wheels one end of the axle rests ; a similar arrangement being made for the other end. The friction, which formerly acted directly on the axle, is by this arrangement referred to the axles of the friction- wheels, and is, by the laws of mechanics, reduced in the ratio of the circumfer- ence of the friction- wheel to the circumference of its axle. In order to render the friction of th& friction- wheels themselves the least possible, they are made as light and as large as is practicable. FRIE'DLAND, a small town of East Prussia, in the circle of Konigsberg, situated on the left bank of the Alle, 26 miles south-east of Kiinigsberg, in lat. 54° 26' N. and long. 21° E. Pop. 2581, who are employed in linen- weaving. F. has been rendered famous by the victory obtained there by Napoleon, 14th June 1807, over the Russian forces rnder Bennigsen. The Russian general found himself unable to cope successfully with an army of 80,000 men, as his own force consisted of less than 50,000 horse and foot ; and he was forced to retire after a disastrous battle. He fell back upon the town of Tilsit, on the Niemen, where the treaty between the French and Russian emperors and the king of Prussia, known as the treaty of Tilsit, was drawn up. — Friedland is also the name of a town in Bohemia, situated on the Wittig, near the Prussian border. It is the capital of a district or duchy of the same name, from which the famous Wallenstein (q. V.) took his title of Duke of Friedland. Pop, oi the town, 4400. FRIEDLAND, Valentin, generally called, from his birthplace, Trotzendorf, and indisputably the greatest educationist of his age, was a native of Upper Lusatia, and was born 14th February 1490. After the death of his father, in 1513, he went to Leipsic, where he studied under the celebrated Peter Mosellanus and Richard Crocus, acquiring among other things a knowledge of Greek. On the dawn of the Reformation, he proceeded to Wittenberg, where he foi-med a close intimacy with Luther and Melancthon, and learned Hebrew from a converted Jew. In 1523, he proceeded to Goldberg, in Sdesia, as rector of the gj'mnasium there ; left after four years, but retm-ned in 1531, and exliibited the greatest energy in improving the organisation of the school Success crowned his efforts. The gymnasium of FRIENDLY ISLANDS— FRIENDLY SOCIETIES. Goldberg acqiiired a rare celebrity. Not only from Silesia, but also from Poland, Lithuania, Austria, Bohemia, Hungary, and Transylvania, i)upils sought it in great numbers. Often more than 1000 attended at a time, who all dwelt together in buildings set apart for the purpose, and were admirably super- intended and drilled. F. had a most wonderful belief in the efficacy of knowledge, and, in particidar, placed so high a value on clearness of thought and e?:pression, that he was wont to affirm that only rogues were unintelligible, and that an obscure and confused diction was a sure sign of a knavish disposition. He died at Liegnitz, 26th April 1556. Compare Pinzger's Valenthi Friedland, genannt Trotzendorf (Hirschberg, 1825). FRIENDLY ISLANDS, as distinguished from the Fiji Islands (q. v.), generally reckoned a part of them, are otherwise styled tlie Tonga Group. They stretch in S. lat. from 18° to 23 , and in W. long, from 172° to 176°, and consist of about 32 greater, and 150 smaller islands, about 30 of which are inhabited. The great majority are of coral formation ; but some are volcanic in their origin, and iu Tofua there is an active volcano. The princii)al member of the archipelago is Tongatahu or Sacred Tonga, which contains about 7500 inhabitants, out of a total population of about 25,000. The F. I. were discovered by Tasman in 1643, l)ut received their collective name from Cook. Both these navigators found the soil closely and highly cultivated, and the people apparently unprovided with arms. The climate is salubrious, but humid ; earthquakes and hurricanes are frequent, but the former are not destructive. Among the products of the islands are yams, sweet-potatoes, bananas, cocoa-nuts, bread- iruit, sugar-cane, the ti, hog-plum, &c. ; some corn also is grown. The Flora resembles that of the Fiji group; but the native animals are very few. The F. 1. were first visited by missionaries in 1797. In 1827 the work of evangelisation fell into the hands of the Wesleyan Methodists, and after a lengthened and perilous struggle with the savage paganism of the inhabitants, it was crowned witii success. Almost all the islanders are now Christians; great numbers can speak English, and, in addition, nave learned writing, arithmetic, and geography ; while the females have been taught to sew. The various islands used to be governed by independent chiefs, but nearly the whole of them are now under the rule of one chief, called King George, who is not only a Christian, but a zealous preacher of the gosi>el. FRIENDLY SOCIETIES. The imcertainties of human life and health, and the effects of these on the well-being of those who are dependent for their subsistence on human labour, are too manifest not to have arrested the attention of men in all ages, and to have taxed their ingenuity to guard against them. It is probable, therefore, that traces of some sort of institution, corresponding more or less closely to the friendly societies of modern Europe, might be found wherever mankind have not depended for their means of li^'^ng on the sjiontaneous products of the soil. At all events, they had their prototypes in the cases, boxes, and chests, or kists — as they were called in Scotland as in Germany— of the guilds and corporations of medieval Europe ; which were funds not only for maintaining the dignity and m/nistering to the conviviality of the members, but for providing for the aged and the sick- Mr Turner finds them in Anglo-Saxon England, and, like the other institutions connected with municipal life, they probably formed part of the legacy of the Romans to the Teutonic conquerors of Europe. Friendly feocieties are a form of mutual insurance, and like 520 all insurances, they depend on the principle of sab- stituting the certainty which attends the fortunes of large numbers of men for the uncertainty which belongs to the fortune of each. The objects which friendly societies usually contemplate are the secur- ing, in virtue of a small periodical pa^-ment during health and vigour, of a weekly sum during sickness, and of a pension after a certain age. In some respects, and for some cases, joining a friendly society ia better than becoming a de2)ositor in a savings-banl:. Sickness may come before the savings are consider- able ; or, if considerable, they may be melted away by a long-continued sickness ; but after the tirst weekly payment is made to a friendly society, the member is secure of succour, however long his illness may continue, besides, perhaps, other advantages. It is possible, on the other hand, that a difhculty may be experienced, in certain circumstances, in keeping up the weekly or other periodical payments required to secure the benefits of friendly societies. It is to be regretted that, of this excellent class of institutions, many are founded upon erroneous pi'inciples, or rather upon no principles at all ; and it often hap])ens, therefore, that those who trust to Ihera are disa])pointed, the funds falling short before all claims are satisfied. This was at one time not to be wondered at, as no proper calculations; for friendly societies existed ; but such is no longe:..* the case, sound calculations being now attainable. Nevertheless, there is still a consider- able number of obscure societies scattered through- out the country, proceeding altogether at random, and by which the labouring-classes are induced to missi)end large sums. We trust that what we have now to state "Vv ill be of some service in promoting the establishment of sound societies, and putting an end to such as are of a different kind. One great mistake in the formation of friendly societies is to i.ssume that each member should i)ay an equal sum, whatever his age may be. This ia unjust to the 5 ounger members, who have a less chance of becoLiing burdensome to the funds than the middle-aged ; and, indeed, there is a rising scale of probability of sickness throughout all the years of a man's life. The Highland Society found that, between twenty and thirty, men are liable, at an average, to be half a week indisposed per annum. Between thirty and forty, the average was about two-thirds of a week. At forty-six, it became a full week, at fifty-seven two weeks ; at seventy, eleven weeks. Various other partial observations exist ; but as it has been found that sickness varies more considerably than mortality with the salubrity of the localities inhabited and the occupations of the members, no absolute reliance can be placed on their results. All of them, however, agree in this, that increase of years is attended by increased liability to sickness. Now, a rightly constituted friendly society is bound to advert to this circumstance. To admit all ages at an equal payment, is clearly making the younger members pay for the elder, who should have entered at an earlier age, and been paying all along. Another great error in the constitution of benefit societies is in making them for a year only. Yearly societies, as they are called, usually originate with some individual — often the keeper of a tavern — who advertises that a society will be formed in his house on a particidar day. Applicants for admission pay one shilling as entry-money, which goes into the pocket of the originator of the scheme by way of rent. The objects are generally threefold — namely, a fund for sickness and funeral exj)eiises, a deposit fund, and a loan bank. Towards the first, there is perhaps a weekly payment of two pence, or more if necessary, together with the FRIENDLY •SOCIETIES. Interest arising from the loan of money to the members. Towards the deposit fund, there is a payment ranging generally from sixpence to two shillings, the acciimidations being received back when the society closes. The money deposited is employed in making loans to snch of the members as desire such accommodation, within the amount of their several entire deposits for the year, one penny per pound per month being charged by way of interest. The surplus, if any, of the twopenccs and interest, after sick and funeral money, books, and other necessaries are paid, is divided amongst those members who may be clear of the books at the close of the society. Some such societies are formed by a spontaneous association of persons, who prefer renting a room for their meetings, and thus escape the temptations of a tavern ; but none of them avoid the eri-ors of an equality of payments for all ages, and the yearly dissolution. Should sickness befall any one towards the close of the year, he is left, when the society dissolves, quite unprovided for, because he cannot enter another society in a state of sickness. Considered as a deposit for sav- ings, the yearly society is strikingly inferior to the savings-bank, in as far as the depositor cannot take out money without paying an exorbitant rate of interest. Finally, these societies are generally imder the care of obscure persons, who can give no security for the funds placed in their hands, and who in many instances liecome bankruj^t or abscond before the final reckoning. Yearly societies are, indeed, in every point of view a most objectionable class of institutions, to which working-people would never resort but for their ignorance and unwariness, and the temptations held out to allure them. A well-constituted friendly society involves, in the first place, the principle of payments appropriate to particular ages, as no other plan can be considered equitaljle. It stands forth before the working- classes as a permanent institution, like the life-assur- ance societies of the middle and upper classes, and necessarily requires its members to consider the connection they form with it as an enduring one, because its grand aioi is expressly to make provision, at one period of life, for contingencies which may arise at another — youth, in short, to endow old age. By a yearly society, a man is left at last no better than he was at first, as far as that society is con- cerned ; but the proper friendly society contem- plates his enjoying a comfortable and independent old age, from the results of his own well-bestowed earnings. It is essential to the character of a proper benefit society that individuals be not admitted indiscri- minately. To take in a person in bad health or of broken constitution, is imjust to those members who are healthy, because he is obviously more likely to be a speedy burden to the funds. Here, as in life- assurance societies, it is necessary to admit members only upon their shewing that they are of sound con- Btitution and in the enjoyment of good health. And it may be well to grant no benefits until after the member has been a year in the society. By these means, men are induced to enter when they are hale and well, instead of postponing the step until they have a pressing need for assistance, when their endeavour to get into a benefit society becomes little else than a fraud. Government has thought proper to lend its aid in the formation of friendly societies, though not com- pulsorily. An association of persons forming one, has tlie means of ascertaining the soundness of its priuci])les, and also entitles itself to dei>osit funds in savings-banks, with the government security, and at not less than £3, 0.sf. lOd. per cent, per annum, by submitting the proposed rules to the barrister appointed to certify them, to whom a fee of a guinea is payable. Under the sanction of government, tables have been formed by Mr John Tidd Pratt, registrar of friendly societies in Eng- land, and by Dr Farr, the actuary of the Englisn registrar-general — the former, together with useful instructions in the book-keeping of friendly societies are embodied in the reports by Mr Pratt, printed by order of the House of Commons for the years 1856 — 1857, and the latter, together with a masterly essay on the mathematical treatment of the subject are contained in the twelfth report of the registrar- general formerly referred to. On the imperative necessity of acting on correct tables for such a purjiose, it would be superfluous to dwell ; and the necessity of identifying the rates of any society with such responsible authority is the more apparent, as we are told by Mr Pratt that the 'duty of the registrar, in examining the rules of a friendly society, is confined to the consideration of their being in accordance with law and the jirovisions of the acts in force relating to such an institution ; and that, although the registrar certifies to the legality of the rules of a friendly society, it does not follow as a necessary consequence that the constitution of the society is based on good principles, or that the rates of payment are sufficient in amount to guarantee the promised benefits and allowances.' Before quoting any of these tables, we shall endeavour to explain how they are formed. We have an idea of a benefit society in its simplest form, if we supi:)ose a hundred men, of exactly 33 years of age, to associate, and make such a payment at first as may be sure to afi^ord each man that shall fall sick during the ensuing ye^r one shilling a day during the term of his sickness. Taking, for the sake of illustration, the Scottish Tables, we find that, amongst such a body of men, there will be about 66 weeks of illness in the course of the year. This, multiplied by 7, gives the whole sum required, £23, 2s., or a little more than 4s. Qd. each, which, less by a small sum for interest, w^ill accordingly be the entry-money of each man. A society of individuals of difi"erent ages, each paying the sum which would in like manner be found proper to his age, would be quite as sound in prin- ciple as one on the above simple scheme. It is only a step further to equalise each man's annual payments over the whole period during which he undertakes to be a paying member. A point for consideration, however, is the rate at which the funds of the society may be improved. In most cases, we believe, it is best for such societies to rest content with taking advantage of the privi- lege which they enjoy by act of parliament, of depositing their money in the funds or the savings- banks, in M^hich case they are sure to obtain for it interest at a rate of not less than £3, Os. lOd. cent, per annum. Proceeding upon these or nearly similar groimda of calculation, Dr Farr suggests the following plan for insuring lives and granting pensions to the classes who live on wages, by combining the pro- vision for insurance payable in a sum at death, and for annuity to begin at the age of 65. This union deprives the two operations of their chief risks, and there is Httle loss by the lives being better or worse than the average. The pohcies of insurance and annuities can be easily valued every year. It woidd be necessary to add a little to the premiums for expense of management and for fluctuation in interest and values of public securities. The plan is so constructed that the annual premiimi is invaii- able, that depositors can at any time discontinue their premium and withdraw their deposits, with- out invalidating or diminishing the amount of theil FEIENDLY SOCIETIES— FRIEJNDS. policy, or that they can leave the sum in the guar- antee fund as an insurance, to a certain extent, on their lives — a great advantage to persons of uncer- tain life incomes. The table is calculated for 3 per cent, interest on the deposits. Proprietary and mntual life-offices add 19—40 per cent, to the calcu- lated premiums for profits, expenses, and bonuses; and Dr Farr proposes to add one-fifth — that is, 20 per cent, for a like reason. Dr Farr's Plan to insure the Lives and grant Penaio}i8 to the Working -classes. Annual Premium to insure the Life, £1 1 To be discontinued Annual Premium to provide a Life-annuity, £1 J at the ago of G5. No. of Yets% or IftetLiiiimi Faid. Sum of Annual Premiums paid. Sumi in Dopoait. After ttie Premiums in columns 2 and 3 Eure pmld, the Depositor ia insured in tlie following. For Annuitj. Foi Asiurance. On Annuity Account. On Iniurance Account. Sums at Death. Deferred Annuity, to begin at Age 6t. 1 f U 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Nof £ 6 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 urther premiu £ 6 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 ms paid. £«.<<. 1 0 0 5 8 0 11 19 3 20 0 1 29 19 7 4> 11 6 58 U) 11 80 10 0 110 17 1 ir.9 1 9 Diminishing. £«.<(. 1 0 0 5 3 2 10 14 10 16 16 3 23 8 8 30 13 0 38 10 1 47 1 4 66 6 7 65 15 11 Increasing. £ «. d. 2 16 9 13 15 4 26 10 1 38 5 2 49 1 10 59 1 1 68 4 5 76 12 11 84 7 9 91 11 0 Sum insured at death remains ccmstant. £«.(<. 0 17 5 4 0 11 7 7 8 10 2 8 12 7 7 14 4 0 15 13 2 16 16 3 17 14 2 18 7 5 Payment of Annuity commt ncca. The table reads thus : A person commencing at the age of 20, pays £2 a year until he is 64, and then pays the last premium. He will, at the age of 65, having paid 45 premiums, receive £18, Is. 5d., also the same sum annually for the rest of his life. At his death, his relatives or rejiresentatives will be entitled to £91, lis. Should he wish to discontinue the annual premium on the insurance account at any time., the sixth cplumn shews his position from that time ; thus, after the fifteenth premium is paid, his life will stand insured to the amount against 15 in column 1 — namely, £38, 5*'. 2cZ., the amount in deposit at that time being £16, 16s. 3(/., which is the iwesent value of his interest in the scheme, and which he may be allowed to withdraw, subject to any con- ditional by-law of the society. In like manner, the annual premium in the annuity account may be discontinued, and the deposit withdrawn. Thus the same member having paid 15 premiums of £1, is secured in an annuity of £10, 2s. 8d. per anntim, commencing at the age of 65, as before, the present value thereof in deposit on his account being, per column 4 of table, £20, Os. Id. The importance is evident of commencing the insurance at an early age, and of combining the insurance with a deferred annuity. On both the insurance and annuity account, the premiums may be doubled or trebled, and in that case will provide double or treble the sum insured, as well as double or treble the annuity. With equal premiums, the amount in deposit on the two accounts is little less at the outset than the sum insured, and in a few years exceeds it. For those who find occasion to go deeper into the Bubject of friendly societies, with a view to found- ing such institutions, we would recommend, in addition to the works already mentioned, a careful perusal of that which Mr Charles Ansell prepared for the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Know- icd ^e, and which was published by that society in 18.35. Much benefit might also be derived from Mr William Eraser's papers on Friendly Societies, published in Professor Jameson's Philosophical Journal in 1827. The importance of friendly societies came to be so strongly felt in this country, that in 1793 they were made an object of statutory protection and regula- tion, and very numerous enactments have since been passed regarding them. In 1855, the whole of the iubsisting legislation regarding them was repealed and consolidated by 18 and 19 Vict. c. 63. By thJa act, three registrars are appointed, one for England, and one for Ireland, both to be barristers, and one for Scotland, to be an advocate ; all of not less than seven years' standing. The salary of the English registrar is £800, and those of the Scotch and Irish registrars £150 resi)ectively. Under the jn-o visions of the act, any number of persons may establish a friendly society, l)y subscriptions or donations, for the following objects. * 1. For insuring a sum of money to be paid on the birth of a member's child, or on the death of a member, or for the funeral expenses of the wife or child of a m'ember. 2. For the relief or maintenance of the members, their husbands, wives, children, brothers or sisters, nephews or nieces, in old age, sickness, or widowhood, or the endowment of members, or nominees of members, at any age. 3. For any purpose which shall be author- ised by one of her Majesty's principal secretaries of state, or in Scotland by the Lord Advocate, as a pur- pose to which the powers and facilities of this act ought to be extended : provided that no member sliall subscribe or contract for an annuity exceedmg thirty pounds per annum, or a sum payable on death, or on any other contingency, exceeding two hundred pounds.' The rules of the proposed society must bo transmitted to the registrar, whose certificate to the effect that it is in conformity with law shall consti- tute it an established society from the date of said certificate. No money is to be paid on the death of a child, without a copy of entry of the registrar of deaths ; and by the subsequent act, 21 and 22 Vict, c. 101, s. 2, it is further provided, no payment shall be made on an insurance on the death of a child under ten years of age, for funeral expenses, without a certificate, signed by a qualified medical practi- tioner, stating the probable cause death. The sums payable for the fimeral expenses' of a child under five are not to exceed £6, or for a child above five and under ten, £10. FRIENDS, Society of, the proper designation of a sect of Christians, better known to the general community by the name of Quakers. Their foundet was George Fox {q. v.), born at Drayton, in Leices tershire, in 1624, who at first followed the occi'.pation i of a shoemaker, but afterwards devoted himself I to the propagation of what he regarded as a mora I spiritual form of Christianity than prevailed in his I day. In spite of severe and cruel persecutions, the ! Society of F. succeeded in establishing theinselvea ! both in England and America. They have, indeed FRIENDS. never been numerically powerful (having at no time exceeded 200,000 members) ; but the purity of life which from the beginning has so honourably distinguished the»^ as a class, has unquestionably exei'cised a salutary influence on the public at large ; while in respect to certain great questions affecting the iiiterests of mankind, such as war and slavery, they have, beyond all doubt, originated opinions and tendencies which, whether sound or erroneous, are no longer confined to themselves, but have widely leavened the mind of Christendom. For an account of the more eminent representatives of the Friends, Bee the biographies of Barclay, Fox, Penn, &c. We confine ourselves here to a brief notice of their doctrine, practice, and discipline, as it is laid down in their oa\ti publications. 1. Doctrine. — It is perhaps more in the spirit than in the letter of their faith that the Society of F. differ from other orthodox Christians. They them- selves assert their belief in the great fundamental facts of Christianity, and even in the substantial identity of most of the doctrinal opinions which they hold with those of other evangelical denominations. The Epistle addressed by George Fox and other Friends to the governor of Barbadoes, in 1673, contains a confession of faith not differing materi- ally from the so-called Apostles' Creed, except that it is more copiously worded, and dwells with great difFuseness on the internal woi'k of Christ. The Declaration of Christian Doctrine given forth on behalf of the Society in 1693, expresses a belief in what is usually termed the Trinity, in the atone- ment made by Christ for sin, in the resurrection from the dead, and in the doctrine of a final and eternal judgment; and the Declaratory Minute of the yearly meeting in 1829 asserts the inspiration and divine authority of the Old and New Testament, the depravity of human nature consequent on the faU of Adam, and other characteristic doctrines of Christian orthodoxy, adding : ' Our religious Society, from its earliest establishment to the present day, has received these most important doctrines of Holy Scripture in their plain and obvious acceptation.' It is nevertheless certain that uniformity of theo- logical opinion cannot be predicated of the Friends, any more than of other bodies of Christians. As early as 1668, William Penn and George Whitehead held a puljlic discussion with a clergyman of the English Church, named Vincent, in which they maintained that the doctrine of a tri-personal God, as held by that church, was not found in the Scriptures, though in what form they accepted the doctrine themselves does not appear ; and some time later, Penn j^tublished a work himself, entitled the Sandy Foundation Shaken, in which, among other things he is said to have shown that the doctrines of vicarious atonement and of imputed righteousness did not rest on any scriptural foim- dation. But in general, the Society of F., in the expression of their belief, have avoided the technical phraseology of other Christian churches, restrict- Bag themselves with commendable modesty to the words of Scripture itself, as far as that is possible, And avoiding, in particular, the knotty points of Calvinistic divinity (see Barclay's Catechism and Confession of Faith, jniblished in 1673, where the answers to the questions — to avoid theological dogn^atism — are taken from the Bible itself). This habit of allowing to each individual the full freedom of the Scriptures, has, of course, rendered it aU the more difficult to ascertain to what extent individual minds, among the Society, may have diffeied in their mode of apprehending and dogmatically explaining the facts ((f Christianity. Their principal distinguishing doctrine is that of the 'Light of Christ in man,' on which many of their outward pccaliaritics, a religious ho(\y, are grounded. The doctrine of the internal light \i founded on the view of Chr'st given hy St. John, who, in tha *irst chapter of his gospel, descrihc-j Christ— the Eternal Logos — as the 'life' and "light of men,' 'the true light,' 'the light that lighteth every man that cometh into the Avorld,' etc. Bar- clay taught that even the heathen were illumined by this light, though they might not know — as, indeed, those who lived before Christ could not know — the historical Jesus in whom Christians believe. In their case, Christ was the liglit shining m darkness, though the darkness comprehended it not. The existence of 'natural virtue' (as orthodox theo- logians term it) among the heathen was denied by Barclay, who regarded, all such virtue as Christian in its essence, and as proceeding from the light of Christ shining through the darkness of pagan super- stition. These opinions would seem to be somewhat freer than those expressed in the General Epistle of the Society published in 1836, wherein they refuse to acknowledge 'any principle of spintual light, life, or holiness inherent by nature in the mind of man,' and again assert, that they ' believe in no principle whatsoever of spiritual light, life, or holiness, except the influence of the Holy Spirit of God bestowed on mankind in various measiu-ea and degrees through Jesus Christ our Lord ; ' but, on the other hand, in a little treatise published by the Society in 1861, it is affirmed that 'the Holy Spirit has always been afforded in various measures to mankind ; ' while stress is also laid on the statement of St Paul, that 'the grace of God (understood by Friends to signify the 'operation of the Divine Spirit') that bringeth salvation, hath appeared to all men;'' while another expo- nent of their views, Mr T. Evans of Philadelphia (see Cyclopaedia of Beligious Denominations, Lond., Griffin «fc Co., 1853), states that ' God hath granted to all men, of whatsoever nation or country, a day or time of visitation, during which it is possible for them to j^artake of the benefits of Christ's death, and be saved. For this end, he hath commu- nicated to every man a measure of the light of hisr own Son, a measure of grace or the Holy Spirit, by which he invites, calls, exhorts, and strives with every man, in order to save him ; which light or grace, as it is received, and not resisted, works the salvation of all, even of those who are ignorant of Adam's fall, and of the death and sufferings of Christ ; both by bringing them to a sense of their own misery, and to be sharers in the sufferings of Christ inwardly ; and by making them partakers of his resurrection, in becoming holy, pure, and righteous, and recovered out of their sins.' Hence it may be safely asserted that they hold a broader (or, as others woidd say, a more latitudinarian) view of the Spirit's working than any other Christian church or society. In America, about the year 1827, Elias Hicks, a Friend of very remarkable powers, created a schism in the Society, by the ])romulgation of opinions denying the miraculous conception, divinity, and atonement of Christ, and also the authent'-ity and divine authority of the Holy Scriptures. About one-half of the society in America adopted the views of Hicks, and are known as Hicksite Friends ; their opinions, of course, are repudiated by the rest of the Society, who may be described as Orthodox Friends. The Hicksite schism thoroughly alarmed the latter, both in England and America, and a movement was begun in favour of education, of a doctrinal belief morf nearly allied to that of the so-called 'Evangelical' party, and of a relaxation in the formality and discipline of the Society. The leader of this move- ment was Joseph John Gurney, of Norwich. This 023 FRIENDS. new tendency, however, excited considerable opposi- tion nnvonj^ some of the Friends in America; and the consequence was a division among the Orthodox Friends themselves, a hu'ge portion advocating the in- novations proposed by J. J. Gurncy and others, while the smaller section continue firm in adherence to the doctrines promulgated by early Friends. For their Btrcnuous adhesion to the original faith, the Friends of rhihidclphia have been ])eculiarly noted. Some marked indications of theological differences have manifested themselves in England also. 2. Practice. — It is in the application of their leading doctrine of the 'internal light' that the "peculiarities of the Friends are most ai)parent. Relieving that it is the Holy Spirit, or the indwell- ing Christ, that alone maketh wise unto salvation, illumining the mind with, true and spiritual know- ledge of the deep things of God, they do not con- sider 'human learning essential to a minister of the gospel, and look with distrust on the method adopted by other churches for obtaining such — viz., by formally training after a human fashion a body of youths chosen on no principle of inward fitness. They believe that the call to this work now, as of old, is ' not of men, neither by man, but by Jesus Christ, and God the Father ; ' and that it is bestowed irrespectively of rank, talent, learning, or sex. Con- sequently, they have no theological halls, professors of divinity, or classes for ' students.' Further, as fit- ness for the ministry is held to be a free ^ift of God through the Holy Spirit, so, they argue, it ought to be freely bestowed, in support of which they adduce the precept of the Saviour — ' Freely ye have received, freely give ;' hence those who minister among them are not paid for their labour of love, but, on the other hand, whenever such are engaged from home in the work of the gospel, they are, in the spirit of Christian love, freely entertained, and have all their wants sxipplied : in short, the Friends maintain the absolutely voluntary character of religious obliga- tions, and that Christians should do all for love, and nothing for money. It also follows from their view of a call to the work of the ministry, that women may exhort as well as men, for the * spirit of Christ' may move them as powerfully as the other sex. The prophecy of Joel as applied by Peter is cited as authority for the preaching of women : ' On my servants and on my handmaidens I will pour out in those days of my spirit, and they shall j)ro- phesy.' They also adduce the New Testament examples of Tryphsena, Tryphosa, the beloved Persis, and other women who appear to have laboured in the Gospel. Their mode of conducting public worship likewise illustrates the entireness of their dependence on the 'internal light.' In other reli- gious bodies, the minister has a set form of worship, through which lie must go, whether he feels devoutly disposed or not. This seems objectionable to the Friends, who meet and remain in silence until they believe themselves moved to speak by the Holy Ghost. Their prayers and praises are, for the most ])art, silent and inward. They prefer to icake melody in their hearts unto God, considering such to be more spiritual than the outward service of the voice. The doctrine of the * internal light ' has also led the Friends to reject the ordinances of Baptism and the Lord's Supper as these are observed by other Chris- tians. They believe the Christian baptism to be a spiritual one, and not, like the Jewish and heathen baptisms, one with water; in support of which they quote, among other passages, the words of John the Baptist himself : ' I baptise you with w ater, but there cometh one after me who shall baptise you with the Hdy Ghost and with fire.' Similarly do they regard the rite of the Eucharist : It is say 021 they, inward and spiritual, and consists not in any symbolic breaking of bread and drinking of wine, but in that daily communion with Chiist through the Holy Spirit, and through the obedience of faith, by which the believer is nourished and strengthened. They believe that the last words of the dying Redeemer on the cross, 'It is finished,' announced the entire abolition of symbolic rites ; that under the new si)iriiiial dispensation then introduced, the necessity for such, as a means of arriving at trutli, ceased, and that their i)lace has been abundantly supplied by the Comforter, the Holy Ghost, whose office it now is to lead and- guide men into all truth. The true Christian supper, according to them, is set forth in the Revelations — 'Behold I stand at the door and knock : if any man hear my voice and open the door, I will come in unto him, and will sup with him and he with me.' For the same reason — viz., that the teaching of the Spirit is inward and spiritual— the Friends ignore the religious observ- ance of days and times, with the exception of the Sabbath, which some at least among them regard as of i)erpetual obligation. The taking or administering of oaths is regarded by Friends as inconsistent with the command of Christ, ' swear nut at all,' and with the exhortation of the apostle James — ' Above all things, my brethren, swear not, neither by heaven, neither by the earth, neither by any other oath : but let your yea be yea ; and your nay, nay ; lest ye fall into condem- nation.' They have also refused to pay tithes for the maintenance of what they hold to be a hireling ministry, believing that Christ put an end to the priesthood and ceremonial usages instituted under the Mosaic dispensation, and that he substituted none in their place. In consequence, all consistent Friends have been regularly mulcted of plate, furni- ture, or other goods, to the value of the amount due. The recent conversion of tithe into rent- charge, however, has, in the opinion of many Friends, largely removed objections to the payment to this ecclesiastical demand. In regard to the civil magis- tracy, while they respect and honour it, as ordained of God, they are careful to warn the members of their Society against thoughtlessly incuriing its responsibilities, involving as it does the adminis- tration of oaths, the issuing of orders and warrants in reference to ecclesiastical demands, the calling out of an armed force in cases of civil commotion, and other duties inconsistent with the peaceful principles of the Society. The Fiiends have likeAvise consistently pi-otested against war in all its forms ; and the Society has repeatedly advised its members against aiding and assisting in the conveyance of soldiers, their baggage, arms, ammunition, or mih- tary stores. They regard the profession of arms and fighting, not only as diametrically opposed to the general spirit of Christ, whose advent was suug by angels in these words : ' Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace, good- will toward men but as positively forbidden by such precepts as — ' Love your enemies, bless them that curse you, do good to them that hate you, and pray for them which despitefully use you and persecute you ; ' also, ' Resist not evil : but whosoever shall smite thee cn thy right cheek, turn to him the other also ; ' and while they acknowledge that temporary calamities may result from adopting this principle of non- resistance, they have so strong a faith in its being essentially the dictate of divine love to the Chris- tian heart, that they believe God, by his wise and omnipotent providence, could, and will yet make it ' mighty to the pidling down of the strongholds of iniquity.' The world, they believe, will by and by confess that the peace- makers are most truly tbij children of God. fkie: ;nds. The Fricnils hnve ever been strenuous defenders of the rights of conscience, and consistent advociites of civil liberty. To their persistent demands for liberty of worship and patience in suffering, the world is in a great measure indebted for the reli^^ious toleration which now prevails almost throughout Christendom. The Friends also gave to the world the first examples of governments based on Christian principles, and though the experiment failed through the oi)position of the adherents to error, which tlieir libei-al policy invited, the great examples have not been lost upon the world. See Pennsylvania and New Jersey. The efforts of the Society for the abolition of slavery are a part of modern history. To them the merit belongs of having cultivated the moral sense of their fellow-countrymen in regard to this important question. As early as 1652, the Friends of Warwick, li. Island, enacted a law imposing a fine upon those who refused to liberate their slaves, or who should sell them into bondage. In 1688, the Friends of German- town, Philadelphia, presented to the yearly meeting a memorial against slavery and the slave trade, and in 1696, that body adopted measures to discourage the introduction of slaves ; and it was Pennsylvania, where the principles of the Society had made a stronger impression on public opinion than in any other state, that first broke the shackles of the slave. In 1727 — 28, the Fi'iends in Ireland and England began to censure the traffic in slaves, and gradually warmed in their opposition until the nation felt the glow, and entered with enthusiasm in the work of abolition. The Friends have ever been foremost in works of philanthi-opy arid Christian progress, and whether we regard them as defenders of the rights of conscience and the liberties of the people, as opposers of slavery, of oaths and tithes, of the abomination of war, the cruel treatment of the aborigines, of criminals and the insane, or the high consideration they have ever awarded to woman, we find them everywhere in ad- vance of their cotemporaries. The principle., of free- dom that were promulgated during the Revolutionary War in America, and embodied in the Constitution of the United States, are directly traceable to the sound religious and civil views of the early founders of the Society of Friends, or to their revival of the principles and practices of primitive Christianity. Finally, it may be safely asserted that mankind is more largely indebted to ' Quakerism ' for its present social happi- ness and moral elevation than to any other religious body in existence. In respect to what may be called minor points, the Friends are very scrupulous. They object to ' balls, gaming places, horse races, and play houses, those nurseries of debauchery and wickedness, the burden and grief of the sober part of other societies as well as of our own.' The Printed Epistle of London yearly meeting of 1854 contains a warning against indulging in music, especially that which goes by the name of 'sacred music,' and denounces musical exhibitions, Buch as oratorios, as essentially a 'profanation' — the tendency of theso things being, it is alleged, ' to with- draw the soul from that quiet, humble, and retired franui in wdiich prayer and praise may be truly offeretl with the spirit and with the understanding also.' They object, besides, to *the hurtful tendency of read- ing plays, romances, novels, and other pernicious books;' and the yearly meeting of 1764 'recommends to every member of our Society to discourage and sup})ress the same.' A multitude of other minute peculiarities, which it would be tedious to note, dis- tinguish the Friends from their fellow-Christians. 3. JJiHcipline. — By the term discipline the Friends understand 'all those arrangements and regula- tions which are instituted for the civil and religious benefit of a Christian church.' The necessity for such discipline soon began to make itscll felt, and the result was the institution of certain meetings or assemblies. These, are four in number : the first, the Preparative meetings ; second, the Moiitldy meetings ; third, the Quarterhj meetings ; and, fourth, the Yearly meetings. The first are usually com[)osed of the members in any given place, in wliieh there are generally two or more Friends of each sex. wluj^e duty is to act as overseers of the meeting, taking cognizance of births, marriages, burials, removals, &e., the conduct of mem].)crs, &c., and re])orting thereon to the monthly meetings, to whom the executive department of the discipline is chiefly confided. The monthly meetings decide in cases of violation of discipline, aiul have the power of cutting off or disowning all who by their improper conduct, false doctrines, or other gross errors, bring reproach on tlie Society, although the accused have the right of nppeal to the quarterly meetings, and from these again to the yearly, whose decisions are final. The monthly meetings are also empowered to approve and acknowledge ministers, as well as to appoint 'serious, discreet, and judicious Friends, who are not ministers, tenderly to encourage and help young ministers, and advise others, as they, in the wisdom of God, see occasion.' They also execute a variety of other important duties. The quarterly meetings are composed of several monthly meetings, and exercise a sort of general supervision over the latter, and from whom they receive reports, and to whom they give such advice and decisions as they think right. The yearly meeting consists of representatives of the quarterly meetings and their members generally. Its function is to consider the entire condition of the Society in all its aspects. It re- ceives in writing answers to questions it has previously addressed to the subordinate meetings, deliberates upon them, and legislates accordingly. To it exclusively the legislative power belongs. Though thus consti- tuted someA\hat according to Presbyterian order, yet any member of the Society may attend and take part in the proceedings. Women have also a special sphere of discipline allotted to them : they inspect and relieve the wants of the poor of their owai sex, take cognizance of proposals for marriage, deal with female delin- quents privately, and under certain restrictions may even do so officially, though in the 'testimony of disownment ' they have always the assistance of members of the other sex. The Society of F., in the multitude of its regula- tions, has not forgotten the poor ; charity in its narrower, as well as in its broader sense, has always been a beautiful feature of its members. The care of the i)oor was one of the earliest evidences which Christianity afforded to the Gentiles of the supe- riority and divine character of its principles ; and it is honourable to the Society that a similar pro-snsion for those united to them in religious fellowship appears to have been one of the earliest occasions of their meetings for discipline. There are fifteen independent yearly meetings of Friends, and members of the Society are established in G. Britain and Ireland, France, Germany, Norway, Canada, the United States, Australia, and New Zea- land. The total number is estimated at about 120,000, of whom 10,986 are in G. Britain, 2908 in Ireland, 15,154 in Canada, and the remainder chiefly in the U. States. The followers of Elias Hicks have assumed the name of Friends, but the highest tribunals of New Jersey have declared that they are Seceders, and that they failed to make it appear that their doctrines cor- respond to those of the Religious Society of Friends. (See Hendrickson vs. Shotivell.) For further information concerning this remarkable 525 FRIES— FRIGATE. body of Christians, who seem to have been raised up to prove Christianity practicable, see W. Sewell, JUh- tory, etc., of the Quakers; T. Chirkson, Portraiture, etc., of the Society of Friends ; K. Barchiy, Apology for the True Christian Divinity ; Journal of the Life, etc., of George Fox; 'The Friend; 44 vols., Pliila. 1827— 1870, etc.; The Fricndu' Library, 14 vols., Thila. 1837 — 1850; and article FRIENDS in Applcton's Annual Cyclopedia for 1869. FRIES, Elias, a distinguished Swedish botanist, was born 15th Auy,ust, 1794, in the district of Fcinsjo. In 1834, lie was professor of practical economics at Upsala, and after the death of Professor Wahlenberi^, in 1851, the chair of botany was conjoined. F.'s re- searches endtrace the entire field of hotimy , pJianero- gamous as well as cryptogamous plants, and he was the first to introduce into Sweden the morpholoj^ical theory, the basis of which is to be found in his iSys- tema Orbis Vcgetabilis (Lund, 1825). Amon<^ liis numerous and able works are a Flora of Holland, 1817; Systema Mycologicum, 3 vols., 1821 — 29; and Flora Scanica, 1835, and Summa Vegetabilium Scan- dinavicc, 1845, and several mono<>raphs. Among his monographs, the .Symbolcc ad Jlistoriam Hierarcio- rum (Upsala, 1848) deserves especial mention. He also wrote a good deal on the Flora of Scandinavia, and especially his Snmina Vcgltabiliicm Scandinavi(v (Upsala, 184i5, et seq.) is reckoned one of his best pro- ductions. F. is greatly admired in his native country, and in 1851 was appointed director of the Botanical Museum and Garden attached to the University of Upsala, and in 1853 a rector of the University. He was one of the eighteen members of the Academy of Stockholm. He died at Upsala, February 8, 1878. FRIES, Jakob. Fiiiedrich, the founder of a philosophic school in Germany, was born at Barby, in Prussian Saxony, 23d August, 1773, studied at Leip- sic and Jena, and in 1805 went to Heidelberg, as pro- fessor of philosophy and mathematics. In 1816 he accepted a call to the chair of speculative philosophy at Jena, and in 1824 was appointed to the chair of physics and mathematics, wliich he occupied till his death, 10th August, 1843. F.'s writings are very nu- merous. Some of the more important are his System der Philosophie als evidenteWisse?ischaft (Leip. 1804); N'eue Oder anthropologische Kritik der Vcrnunft (.3 vols. Heidelb. 1807; 2d ed. 1828—1831); System der Logik (Heidelb. 1811; 3d ed. 1837); llandbuch der physischen Anthropologie (2 vols., Jena, 1820 — 1821 ; 2d ed. 1837—1839) ; Die Lehren der Liebe, des Glaub- ens, und der Hoffnung (Heidelb. 1823); and Oes- chichte der Philosophie (2 vols., Halle, 1837 — 1840). In his philosophy, F. followed the method of Kant, but sought to supplement it by an analytical nature- doctrine (analytischen naturlehre) of the human, soul, which he designated philosophic anthi-opol- ogy. His Olaitbenslehre, or Doctrine of Faith, by which he hoped to i-epair the ravages which the criti- cal philosophy had made upon the certainty of our knowledge, resembles, in some respects, Jacobi's doc- trine of the Intuition of the Pure Reason. De Wette adopted it as the basis of his religious philosophy. Some of his disciples, Apelt, Schleiden, Schlomilch, Friedrich Francke, and Schmidt, published at Leipsic in 1848 — 1849 several philosophic papers entitled Abhandlungcn der Fries' schen Schicle. FRIE'SLAND or VRIESLAND (ancient Frisia). West F., which is one of the most northern and wealthy provinces of Holland (q. v.), has an area of more f ban 1250 square miles, and a population which, in 1869, tmmbei-ed 292,354. It lies between lat. 52" 40' and 53" 30' N., and long. 5" 30' and 6" 20' E., and Is bounded to the N. by the German Ocean, and to the W. and S. W. by the Zuyderzee. The land, which is flat, and in some parts even beb'v the level of the sea, from which it is protected by dykes, is intersected by canals and streams in every direction, and abounds in lakes and marshes. From 4 to 5 million pounds o£ cheese and butter are annually exported from F., while it also yields, in excess of its consumption, wheat, rye, flax, hemp, clover, etc. F. is amply endowed with schools and charitable institutions. The inhabitants are principally Calvinists. The chief town is Leeu- warden. East F., which lies between 53" 8' and 53'^ 40' N. lat., and 6" 50' and 8° E. long., Avith an area of 1000 square miles, and population (in 1867) of 195,801, is comprised within the Hanoverian district of Aurich, chief town, Emden. It is bounded (,n the N. by the (Jerman Ocean, W. by Holland, S. hj Arend)erg, and P^ast by Oldenburg. Like West F., it is low and flat, and requires the protection oi dykes and sluices. Fishing and agriculture ccn- stitute the chief employment of the inhabitants, who are the descendants of the ancient Frisians. This province has frequently changed owners since 1744, when the family of Zirksena, in whose posses- sion it had been f(jr .300 years, became extinct. It was first ceded to Prussia, next incorporated by Napoleon with Hollann of the mandibles — straight. The neck is short, and neither the legs nor the v/ings are long. The Fringillidse are all small birds ; they feed chiefly on seeds — to some extent also on insects. The family is an extromely numerous one, and distributed over all parts of the world; represented in Britain by finches, linnets, eprirrows, grosl)eaks, crossbills, &c., and including aJso weaver-birds, bob-a links, cardinal-birds, why- dawa. tanagers. &c Some naturalists extend its limits so as to include in it other groups, as bunt- ings, larks, &c., ofttn regarded as forming distinct families. FRISCHES HAFF (' Fresh- water Bay '), a large lagoon on the coast of Prussia, south-east of the Gulf of Dantzic. It is rather less than GO miles in length from north-east to south-west, with a breadth which varies in different parts from 4 to 12 miles, and an area of 318 square miles. It was once entirely walled off from the Baltic by the Frische Nehrung, a narrow spit of land extending for about 40 miles along ita northern shore. In 1510, however, the waters of the F. H. broke over the Frische Nehrung, and formed the passage called the ' Gatt,' which unites this shore-lake with the Baltic. The Gatt is only from 10 to 15 feet in depth. All large vessels load and unload at Pillau, which is situated at the mouth of the Gatt, on the shore of the Gulf of Dantzig. Cargoes are conveyed to and from the ports on the F. H. by means of lighters. The Pregel, Frisching, Passarge, and two arms of the Vistula, fall into this lagoon. FRI'SIANS. The Frisians (Lat. Frim), were an ancient Teutonic race dwelling, together with the Batavi, the Bructeri, and the Chauci, in the extreme north-west of Germany, between the mouths of the Rhine and Ems. They became tributaries of Rome under Drusus, and for a time remained faithful to the Roman alliance ; but, in 28 a. d., they were driven to hostilities by the oppression of their pro- tectors ; and although partially subdued, they again rose, agamst the Romans under Civilis. As the Frankish tribes advanced further south, the Frisii spread themselves over the islands which are formed by the embouchures of the Rhine, the Maas, and the Scheldt, and gradually merged into the two branches of the Frisii majores and Frisii minores, the former occupying the districts west of the Fly or Zuyderzee, and the latter those east of those waters. In the 5th c, a band of the Frisii joined the Saxons and Angles in their invasion of Britain. At a later period, the Frisii of the south-west were brought under the Frankish rule by Pepin d'Her- istal, w^ho defeated their leader in 689, and com- pelled him and his people to embrace Christianity. In 785 the eastern branch of the tribe was bfought under subjection by Charlemagne, who despatched Christian teachers to preach the Gospel to them, and who, in 802, defined their rights by the Lex Frisionum. Their country was divided into three parts, two of which were annexed, in the partition of the Cailovingian empire, to Louis the German, and constituted East Friesland, while the remainder, forming West Friesland, fell to the share of Charles the Bald. The latter of these provinces was au^v divided in the 10th and 11th centuries into the here' ditary countships of Holland, Zealand, Guelders cum Zutphen, and the bishopric of Utrecht cum Yssel; and hence the districts still retaining the name of Friesland have been circumscribed to their present limited boundaries, while the distinctive national characteristics of the F. have been obliterated by contact with their neighbours, and their history has merged in that of Holland and Hsjiover. The Frisian language occupies a place interme- diate, in some respects, between Anglo-Saxon and Old Norse. Of all the Teutonic dialects, it shews the closest aflinities to Enghsh. There is a Frisian literature dating from the 12th century. Our knowledge of Old Frisian is derived from coUec tions of laws, of which each ' Gau' had its own set written down m its own dialect. The Asegabuchy a set of laws valid for aU Frisians, was composed about 1200. A complete collection of the Fi-isian laws still eitant, was published by Richthofen FRIT— FRITILLAR"?. (Fries, liecutsquellen, Gott. 1840). Since the 15th c, the Frisian has been encroached upon on all sides by the Dutch, the Low and High German, and the Danish; so that of the extensive area over which it orivje prevailed, it now siibsista only in isolated spots, such as the islands of Wangeroge and Heligoland, the district about Leeuwarden, Molquerum,