THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY < 2 > 2>0 MI<4e>clO Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Alternates https://archive.org/details/estatemanagementOOmacd LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS MANAGEMENT. ESTATE {New Edition of “ Hints on Farming ” in a separate Volume.) BY DUNCAN GEORGE FORBES MACDONALD, C.E., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., M.R.S.L., F.A.S.L., P.M., J.P., Sc. Drainage Engineer and Surveyor of Improvements executed under the control of the Inclosure Commissioners for England and Wales; Engineer in Chief to the Inspector General of Highland Destitution, and Valuer of Eoads, Bridges, and Public Works to the Scottish Board ; Contractor for Agricultural Improvements, Farm Roads, Tramways and Railroads ; Member of the Royal Agricultural Society of England ; Member of the Highland Agricultural Society of Scotland ; late of the Government Survey Staff of British Columbia, and of the International Boundary Line of North America ; Author of “ What the Farmers may do with the Land,” “ The Paris Exhibition,” “ Decimal Coinage,” “British Columbia,” and “Vancouver’s Island,” &c, &c. TENTH EDITION. DEDICATED, WITH SPECIAL PERMISSION, TO HIS GRACE THE DUKE AND EARL OF SUTHERLAND, K.G. LONDON: DAVID STEEL, SPUING GA11DENS. 1868. All Rights Reserved. “ Without books, God is silent, justice dormant, natural science at a stand, philosophy lame, letters dumb, and all things involved in Cimmerian darkness.” LONDON : PRINTED BY WITHERBY & CO., MIDDLE ROW PLACE, HOLBORN. (t 3» M HiTtlD TO HIS GrEACE THE DUKE AND EAEL OF SUTHEKLAND, K.G., ETC., ETC., THE NOBLE-HEARTED, GENEROUS, AND ENLIGHTENED PATRON OP c a '■£ M 09 AGRICULTURAL PURSUITS, MECHANICAL APPLIANCES, AND SOCIAL REFORMS, THIS WOEK IS, WITH HIS GRACE’S SPECIAL PERMISSION, MOST RESPECTPULLT DEDICATED BY THE AUTHOE. Palmam qui meruit ferat. 10^5575 ESTATE MANAGEMENT Jfatrmraed by; HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN. His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales. His Imperial Majesty the Sultan ; His Imperial Majesty the Emperor op Russia ; His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of the French; His Majesty the King of Prussia ; His Majesty the King of Denmark ; His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of Austria ; His Majesty the King of the Belgians ; His Majesty the King of Italy ; His Majesty the King of Sweden and Norway ; Field Marshal His Royal Highness the Duke of Cambridge, K.Gr. ; His Highness the VfCEROY of Egypt ; His Serene Highness the Prince of Teck; The President of the United States ; His Excellency M. Sylvain Van De Weyer. His Grace the Duke of Grafton His Grace the Duke of Bedford His Grace the Duke of Marlborough His Grace the Duke of Rutland His Grace the Duke of Buccleuch and Queens- bury, K.G. His Grace the Duke of Argyll, K.P. His Grace the Duke of Manchester His Grace the Duke of Newcastle His Grace the Duke of Northumberland His Grace the Duke of Wellington, K.G. His Grace the Duke of Sutherland, K.G. His Grace the Duke of Cleveland The Most Noble the Marquis of Lansdowne The Most Noble the Marquis of Headfort The Most Noble the Marquis of Salisbury The Most Noble the Marquis of Camden The Most Noble the Marquis of Hastings The Most Noble the Marquis of Westminster, K.G. The Right Hon. the Earl of Shrewsbury and Talbot The Right Hon. the Earl of Derby, K.G. The Right Hon. the Earl of Devon The Right Hon. the Earl of Moray The Right Hon. the Earl of Home The Right Hon. the Earl of Galloway The Right Hon. the Earl of Essex The Right Hon. the Earl of Stamford and Warrington The Right Hon. the Earl of Shaftesbury, K.G The Right Hon. the Earl of Breadalbane The Right Hon. the Earl of Scarborough The Right Hon. the Earl of Roseberry, K.T. The Right Hon. the Earl of Dartmouth The Right Hon. the Earl of Harrington The Right Hon. the Earl of Hardwick, P.C. The Right Hon. the Earl of Wicklow The Right Hon. the Earl of Longford The Right Hon. the Earl of Castle-Stuart The Right Hon. the Earl Craven The Right Hon. the Earl Manvers The Right Hon. the Earl of Lonsdale The Right Hon. the Earl Bathurst The Right Hon. the Earl of Minto The Right Hon. the Earl of Bradford The Right Hon. the Earl Somers The Right Hon. the Earl Vane The Right Hon. the Earl Lichfield The Right Hon. the Earl Grosvenor The Right Hon. the Earl of Dudley The Right Hon. Lord James Murray The Right Hon. Lord Viscount Palmetston The Right Hon. Lord Viscount Powerscourt The Right Hon. Lord Viscount Falmouth The Right Hon. Lord Viscount Eversley Y1 PATRONS, The Right Hon. Lord Viscount Sidmouth The Right Hon. Lord Edward Howard The Right Hon. Lord Otho Fitzgerald The Right Hon. Lord Scarsdale The Right Hon. Lord Bishop of Oxford The Right Hon. Lord Hastings The Right Hon. Lord Berners The Right Hon. Lord Burghley The Right Hon. Lady Willoughby de Broke The Right Hon. Lord Stanley, M. P. The Right Hon. Lord Proby, M.P. The Right Hon. Lord Ashley The Right Hon. Lord Hill-Trevor, M.P. The Right Hon. Lord Poltimore The Right Hon. Lord Dorchester The Right Hon. Lord Rokeby, K.C.B. The Right Hon. Lord Crofton The Right Hon. Lord Southampton The Right Hon. Lord Dufferin The Right Hon. Lord Harris The Right Hon. Lord Colchester The Right Hon. Lord de Tabley The Right Hon. Lord Digby The Right Hon. Lord Wharncliffe The Right Hon. Lord Sherborne The Right Hon. Lord Powis The Right Hon. Lord Rosse, K.P. The Right Hon. Lord Ravensworth The Right Hon. Lord Skelmersdale The Right Hon. Lord Sudley The Right Hon. Lord Wrottesley The Right Hon. Lord Dunsany The Right Hon. Lord Brougham The Right Hon. Lord Bateman The Right Hon. Lord Carew The Right Hon. Lord Aveland The Right Hon. Lord Fitzhardinge, K.C.B. The Right Hon. Lord Athlumney, P.C. The Right Hon. Lord Bellew, P.C. The Right Hon. Lord Lytton The Right Hon. Benjamin Disraeli, M.P. The Right Hon. Sir J. S. Pakington, Bart. The Right Hon. Sir William Hutt, K.C.B., M.P. The Right Hon. C. P. Fortescue, M.P. The Hon. Richard Cavendish, D.L. The Hon. J. C. Lowther, Lowther Castle, M. P. The Hon. Donald Ogilvy, D.L. The Hon. William Napier, D.L. The -Hon. Arthur Duncombe, M.P. The Hon. Percy Windham, D.L. The Hon. Stephen Spring Rice, D.L. The Hon. G. R. Vernon, D.L. The Lady Ross, of Balnagown. The Lady Ogle, of Withdean Court. Sir Charles H. Coote, Bart., D.L. Sir Thomas E. Blake, Bart., D.L. Sir Norton J. Knatchbull, Bart., D.L. Sir John S. Richardson, Bart., D.L. Sir William Forbes, Bart., D.L. Sir Robert N. C. Hamilton, Bart., K.C.B. Sir H. D. Broughton, Bart., D.L. Sir Thomas Dyer, Bart., D.L. Sir Heu. Hamilton Dalrymple, Bart., D.L. Sir Edward Blackett, Bart., D.L. Sir James J. R. Mackenzie, Bart., D.L. Sir James Ferguson, Bart., M.P. Sir Thomas Hesketh, Bart., M.P. Sir John Trelawney, Bart., M.P. Sir George Calthurst, Bart., D.L. Sir Lawrence Palk, Bart., M.P. Sir Robert Affleck, Bart., D.L. Sir Percy Burrell, Bart., M.P. Sir George Wombwell, Bart., D.L. Sir Edward Ho are, Bart., D.L. Sir H. W. Des Voeux, Bart., D.L. Sir George N. Broke-Middleton, Bart., C.B. Sir John Simeon, Bart., D.L. Sir Bridges Henniker, Bart., D.L. Sir Charles C. W. Domville, Bart., D.L. Sir John R. Reid, Bart., M.P. Sir William Russell, Bart., C.B., M.P. Sir George Macpherson Grant, Bart., D.L. Sir James Matheson, Bart., M.P. Sir David Baxter, Bart., D.L. Sir D. C. Marjoribanks, Bart., M.P. Sir Edward B. Barker, Bart., D.L. Sir Fitzroy Kelly (Lord Chief Baron) Sir Michael White, K.C.B. Sir William Armstrong. D.L. Sir Edward S. Walker, D.L. Admiral Ferguson, of Pitfour, D.L. Admiral Kelly, of Salford, D.L. Admiral Wilson, of Windermere, D.L. General Macdowall, of Garthland, D.L. Colonel F. S. Greville, of Clonyn, M.P. Colonel E. L. Pryse, of Peithyll, M.P. Colonel W. B. Barttelot, of Hilliers, M.P. Colonel W. J. R. Powell, of Nantees, M.P. Colonel Lloyd-Lindsay, of Lockinge, M.P. Colonel G. Tomline, of Orwell Park, M.P. Colonel C. Buchanan, of Drumpilliar, D. L. Colonel F. Bathurst, of Clarendon Park, M.P. Colonel C. P. Leslie, of Gaslough, M.P. Colonel William Haigh, ofDunse Castle, D.L. Colonel Bower, of Steeple Ashton, D.L. Colonel F. Clinton, of Ashley Clinton, D.L. Colonel H. W. Barton, of Waterfoot, D.L. Colonel A. G. Hyslop, ofLotur, D.L. Colonel W. Grey, of Darcy-Lever Hall, M. P. Colonel D. Campbell, of South Hall, D.L. Colonel T. Arthur, of Misterton Hall, D.L. Colonel Alcock-Stawell, of Kilbrittain Castle, D.L., J.P. Major Grylls, of Glynn, D.L., R.A. Major J. Alcock, of Wilton Castle, D.L. Major J. St. Ledger, of Park Hill, D.L. PATRONS, Yll Major H. R. Hughes, of Kinmel Park, D.L. Major Ferguson, Home of Rassendean, D.L. Major W. A. Munn, ofThrowley, D.L. Major J. R. Grinston, ofGrinston, D.L. Major H. Court, of Castlemans, D.L. Major Greylln, of Glynn, R.A., D.L. Major G. F. Hanse, of Crosby Park, D.L., J.P. Captain E. R. Rice, of Dane Court, M. P. Captain H. G. Moysey, of Bathsalton, D.L. Captain J. E. W. Rolla, of Hendre, D.L. Captain Forsyth Grant, of Ecclesgreig, D.L. Captain C. B. Stevenson, of Hennor, D.L. Captain E. N. Gaunt, of Kentraugh, D.L. Captain St. John Coventry, of Henbury, D.L. Captain G. Hopwood, of Hopwood Hall, D. L. Captain T. L. D. Jones Parry, of Madryn, D.L. Captain W. Deedes, of Sandling Park, D. L. Captain J. Clarke, of Summer Hill, D.L. Gaptain Cecil Jane, of King’s Bromley, D.L. Captain Coote, of Ballyfin, D. L. Captain H. W. Nicolls, of MeltonPark, D.L., J.P. Captain Buxton, of Broad Oak, D.L. Captain J. Ramsay, of Barra Castle, D.L., J.P. Captain R. Ridgway, of Shepligh, D. L. Mrs. Pringle Douglas, The Haining. E. Marjoribanks, of Greenlands, D.L. Alex. Matheson, of Ardross, M.P., D.L. The Hon. S. Laing, of Papdale, M.P., D.L. W. S. Lindsay, of Manor House, M.P., D.L. W. P. Adam, of Blair Adam, M.P., D.L. J. Hardy, of Dunstall Hall, M.P., D.L. C. W. Packe, of Prestwold Hall, M.P., D.L. C. Martin, of Leeds Castle, M.P., D.L. H. F. Vernon, of Hanbury Hall, M.P., D.L. G. H. Wh alley, Plas Madoe, M.P., D.L. William Miller, of Manderston, M.P., D.L. F. M. Williams, ofGoonvrea, M.P., D.L. G. L. Phillips, of Lawreny Park, M.P., D.L. H. Wilson, of Stowlangtoft Hall, M.P., D.L. T. S. Bayley, of Ayden Hall, M.P., D.L. W. W. B. Beach, of Oakley Hall, M.P., D.L. W. H. Hornby, of Poole Hall, M.P., D.L. H. J. Sheldon, of Brailes, M.P., D.L. W. Wilshere, of The Fry the, M.P., D.L. Titus Salt, of Methley Park, M.P., D.L. W. G. L. Blucher, of Heydon, M.P., D.L. H. Taylor, Chipchase Castle, M.P., D.L. R. Benyon, of Englefield, M.P., D.L. M. Wilson, of Eshton Hall, M.P., D.L. M. Chambers, of Child’s Place, Q.C.,M.P. W. Digby Seymour, of Lawn House, Q.C., M.P. C. W. Martin, of Leeds Castle, M.P., D.L. Edward Heneage, of Hainton Hall, M.P., D.L. De Stafford O’Brien, of Blatherewycke Park, D.L., J.P. George Perkins, of Saham, D.L., J.P. Charles Dyson, of The Grove, D.L., J.P. Miles Ponsonby, of Hale Hall, D.L., J.P. F. D. C. Gibson, of Sandgate, D.L., J.P. Alex. Mitchell Inner, of Ayton Castle, D.L. Edward Rice, of Dane Court, D.L., J.P. H. G. Murray-Stewart, of Broughton, D.L. B. C. L. Bevan, Banker, D.L., J.P. M. Bankes, of Letterewe and Gruinard, D.L. W. Baird, of Gartsherrie, D.L., J.P. R. J. Ramsden, of Carlton Hall, D.L., J.P. J. Fowler, of Breamore, C.E., D.L., J.P. Charles Lawson, of Borthwick Hall (late Lord Provost of Edinburgh), D.L., J.P. Joshua Storrs Moore, of Holly Lodge. Alderman Mechi, of Tiptree Hall, D.L., J.P. Charles G. Grey, Ballykiston, D.L., J.P. Adolphus Monbest, of Garswood, D.L., J.P. Charles Chalmers, of Monkshill, D.L., J.P. B. Plant agenet Noel, of Moxhall, D.L., J.P. J. W. G. Watt, of Newport House, D.L., J.P. W. H. Grimston, of High Hall, D.L.. J.P. Ambrose L. P. De Lisle, D.L., J.P. J. N. Hibbert, of Chalfont Park, D.L., J.P. Thomas Meyrick, of Bush House, D.L., J.P. E. Heathcote, of Prun, D.L., J.P. Rowland Hunt, of Kibworth Hall, D.L., J.P. John Ramsay, of Barra, D.L., J.P. J. A. Blencowe, of Whaddon Hall, D.L., J.P. W. C. Grant, of Hillersdon House, D. L. , J. P. Lewis Loyd, of Monk’s Orchard, D.L., J.P. W. C.Yale, of Plas-yn-Yale, D.L., J.P. H. Lockwood, of Barcombe, D.L., J.P. W. Birch, of Wretham Hall, D.L., J.P. G. H. Bascomb, of Chiselhurst Manor, D.L. George Perkins, of Saham, D.L., J.P. R. Foster, of Lanwithan Castle, D.L., J.P. A. J. R. Boughton 'Knight, of Downton Castle, D.L., J.P. H. Thorold, of Cowold Hall, D.L., J.P. E. G. S. Hornby, of Dalton Hall, D.L., J.P. L. A. Majendie, of Hedingham Castle, D.L. W. Selby Lowndes, of Waddon Hall, D.L. W. C. Grant, of Hillersdon, D.L., J.P. V. Cary-Elmes, of Billing Hall, D.L., J.P. W. Corbett Yale, of Plasyn Yale, D.L., J.P. W. H. Granston, of High Hall, D.L., J.P. T. Fairfax, of Newton Kyme, D.L., J.P. J. Hamilton, of Tyne Court, D.L., J.P. T. Lachmore, of Townhope Court, D. L., J.P. A. G. Puller, of Youngsbury, D.L., J.P. Mrs. Norcliff, of Langton Hall, Malton Mrs. Thornton, of Moggerhanger R. Hutton, of Putney Park, D.L., J.P. Mrs. Frederick West, of Newlands T. Chamberlayne, of Cranbury Park, D.L. C. P. Round, of Birch Hall, M.P., D.L. J. Cookson, of Neasham Hall, D.L., J.P. G. A. Boyd, of Middleton Park, D.L., J.P. G. H. Hughes, of Middleton Hall, D.L., J.P. C. S. Hardy, of Chilham Castle, D.L., J.P. yin PATRONS, W. Jones Loyd, of Langley Bury, D.L., J.P. R. H. Norrys, of Davyhulme Hall, D.L., J.P. Robert Miller, of Wineby Hall, D.L., J.P . E. S. Chandos-Pole, of Radborne, D.L., J..P W. O. Hammond, St. Alban’s Court, D.L., J.P. A. E. Manley, of Manley Hall, D-L-, J.P. Elias Chadwick, Pudleston Court, D.L., J.P. J. N. Hibbert, of Chalfont Park, D.L., J.P. Eustace Heathcote, of Bramshaw Park, D.L. J.P. R. B. Berens, of Revington, D.L,, J.P. W. H. Blaaun, of Beechland, D.L., J.P. E. Abadam, of Middleton Hall, D.L., J.P. W. R. Baker, of Bayfordbury, D.L., J-P. E. D. Wood, of Newbold Revel, D.L., J.P, W. D. T. Duesbery, of Sealby, D.L., J.P. Thomas Hustler, of Acklam Hall, D.L., J.P. W. Dalziel Mackenzie, of Gillotts, D.L., J.P. J. B. Beresford, of Ashbrook, D.L., J.P. John Grant, of Springfield, D.L., J.P. D. R. Dale, of Shipton Hall, D.L., J.P. C. D. Hudson, of Cheswardine Hall, D.L., J.P. John Walker, of Maryfield, D.L., J.P. The Rev. G. H. Davenport, of Foxley, J.P. The Rev. G. E. Lusford, of Wigham, J. P. 1'he Rev. R. Knight, of Tythegston Court, J. P. The Rev. John N. Micklethwaite, of Faver- sham Hall, J.P. The Rev. Thomas Stevens, of Bradfield, J.P. The Rev. John Prior, of Kinklington, J.P. The Rev. John Jameson, of Windfield, J.P. The Rev. T. R. Roundell, of Gladstone, J.P, The Rev. Samuel Bradshaw, of Batford Hall, J.P. J. Scott, Esq., Factor for Colonel Buchanan, of Drumpellier W. Ogilvie, Esq., Chamberlain to His Grace the Duke of Buccleuch and Queensbury Christr. Williamson, Esq., Agent to the Right Hon. the Lord Willoughby d’Eresby T. T. Mousley, Esq., Agent for the Right Hon. the Earl Cawdor R. Gillart, Esq., Agent for the Right Hon. the Earl Vane J. Spencer, Esq., Agent for tbe Most Noble the Marquis of Lansdowne R. A. Kinglake, of Weston-super-Mare, J.P. &c., &c., ' &c. CLUBS. ARMY AND NAYY ATHENiEUM BOODLE’S BROOK’S CARLTON CITY CIYIL SERYICE CONSERYATIYE GUARDS JUNIOR CARLTON JUNIOR UNITED SERYICE ORIENTAL OXFORD AND CAMBRIDGE REFORM TRAVELLERS UNION UNITED SERYICE UNITED UNIVERSITY VOLUNTEER SERYICE WHITE’S WINDHAM “ ESTATE MAN A GEMENT free to any Address , a Guinea and a Half. “ HINTS ON FARMING," free to any Address, One Guinea. May be had 9F the Author, 4, Spring Gardens, London, and respectable Booksellers. The previous Editions of “ Hints on Earming and Estate Management” having been disposed of, and the demand continuing unabated, a Tenth, carefully revised and containing many additional suggestions, is here presented to the public, and which I have the honour of dedicating, with special permission, to His Grace the Duke and Earl of Sutherland. To the care I have bestowed on condensing my opinions, and on giving to my book a thoroughly practical character, may probably be ascribed the very great favour with which it has been received by the landed interest, and agricultural community generally. In treating of these subjects, it is, perhaps, difficult to draw a line of demarcation between that which is merely of importance to the Landlord, and that which may be exclusively addressed to the Tenant Earmer. X PREPACE. Whilst I have hitherto treated the two subjects as a whole, I now handle them separately, so that those who care for “ Estate Management” only may purchase that volume, and those who are interested in “Farming” and “Estate Manage- ment ” may buy both. I am happy to learn that the previous Editions of this work have met with very flattering marks of approbation from various Sovereigns, many of the Nobility, Landowners, Agents, Earmers, and others interested in rural matters. Believing that there are still some persons who may find instruction in its pages, I send this volume forth in the hope that the public may kindly over- look its defects and imperfections. D. G. E. M. London, 1868. INDEX Absenteeism, tbe evils of, 368 Absurd excuses of farmers, 660 Accounts should be regularly audited, 13 Accounts, settlement of, 565 Acre, how to measure an, 259 Advantage of a knowledge of seasons, 296 Advantage of landlords having a know- ledge of farming, 263 Advantage of landlords’ example to the tenantry, 264 Agent, duties of head, 19 Agent, life of, not ignoble dependence and seclusion from enjoyments, 722 Agent, the accomplished, 4 Agent, office of chief, 5 Agent, the smiles or frowns of the, 353 Agent should be resident, 10 Agent, the upright, 500 Agent, what he should be, 9 Agent-in-chief, qualification of, 6 Agents, salary of, 7 Agents, special training of, 8 Agents, who make the best, 15 Agents, ignorant, ruinous to estates, 17 Agents, pen and ink, 20 Agents, disqualification of, 21 Agents, what they should ask, 7 4 Agents, sale of manures by, highly im- proper, 354 Agents should provide innocent entertain- ment for the people, 120 Agents should know the .value of land, 205 Agents of Highland estates, 370 Agents of extensive estates, 392 Agents and public associations, 393 Agents, tenants, and freemasonry, 397 Agents and landed proprietors, 567 Agents and local industry, 402 Agents, resident and nonresident, 568 Agents and the labouring poor, 404 Agents and the gang system, 452 Agents and the commissariat of the people, 413 Agents should adopt piece-work in labour, 448 Agents should be careful of small things, 499 Agents should limit expenditure, 500 Agents should examine the soil and sub- soil, 673 Agents should be punctual, 502 Agents should study the philosophy of little things, 459 Agents, politeness in, of consequence, 503 Agents should have all works and im- provements executed under tender, 460 Agents should be always civil, 505 Agents should be early risers, 515 Agents making business visits, 517 Agents should be men of talent and in- tegrity, 573 Agents, who make the best, 574 Agents should discourage extravagant expenditure, 457 Agreements, whep. verbal, are loopholes to artifice, 465 Agreements, instance of the folly of repu- diating just, 463 Agricultural fixtures, 202 Agricultural chemistry, 211 Agricultural produce, analysis of, 213 Agricultural education, Morton on, 715 Agricultural statistics and farmers, 522 Agricultural statistics of Ireland, 526 Agricultural schools, necessity for, 712 Agricultural knowledge and landowners, Agricultural pursuits elevates man, 648 Agricultural societies, 396 Agriculture, the business of, 57 5 Agriculture must progress with other interests, 572 Agriculture, a great defect in, 216 Agriculture and the late Prince Consort, 265 Agriculture the basis of prosperity, 301 Agriculturists, education of, 717 Alder, mode of growing it, 260 All have trials, difficulties, and hardships, 723 Allotment system and the Duke and Duchess of Sutherland, 138 Xll INDEX. Alluvial soils, 210 Amusing letter of a Highland shepherd, 707 Angling, statement of fiver, 643 Animal and vegetable food, 646 Animals, age of, 427 Arrears, tenants should not he allowed to fall into, 529 Assessment table for the counties of England, 176 Assessment table, expositive remarks on, 177 Assessment table for the counties of Scot- land, 181 Ash-pits, 92 Autumn entry into farms, 54 Bad advisers often make bad landlords, 76 Bad tenants, 373 Bailiffs and landowners, 569 Bailiff’s position, 564 Banks, the establishment of, 398 Banks and flood-gates, construction of, 545 Bark of trees, deductions for, 262 Bark, annual value of, 255 Barking of trees, 261 Beer between employers and employed, 566 Beer and spirit licenses, caution in grant- ing, 478 Bees will pay a cottager’s rent, 151 Bills of exchange, their utility, 399 Birds, cause of the small birds pleaded, 628 Birds, laws of nature, 627 Book-keeping, 13 Bricklaying, thickness of walls, 391 Bread shockingly adulterated, 494 Broom of considerable value, 259 Building of brick walls, 391 Building fixtures, law in regard to, 202 Buildings, farm, 191 Building cottages, the Duke of Bedford on, 110 Bullet-spray, cattle poisoned by, 279 Burdened estates should be sold in sections, 135 Buying and selling cattle, 280 Capital and land, 27 Capital and farming, 59 Capital, farming on too little, a great evil, 75 Capital invested in farming, return for, 166 Capital, interest made of farmer’s, 167 Capitalists and the purchase of estates, 227 Cash payments, advantages of, 466 Cattle disease, one of the causes of, 269 Cattle, buying and selling of, 280 Changes should not be made hastily, 302 Characteristics of the Duke of Sutherland, 485 Charcoal, making of, 262 Civility in agents, 504 Clubs for the working classes, 123 Commercial fluctuations, 165 Compensation to out-going tenants, 204 Compulsory valuation, 57 Contracts should invariably be in writing, instance of the necessity of, 463 Conclusion referring to primogeniture, 706 Condition of the poor labourer, 98 Construction of farm buildings, 191 Contract work preferable to day work, 448 Contract, all estate improvement should be executed by, 461 Conveyancing practice, 704 Coppices, management of, 238 Corn acreage in different counties, 171 “ Com banks,” the Hon. S. Laing, M.P., on, 490 Com and money rents, 163 Com rents, Mr. Mechi on, 164- Cottage building and landlords, 112 Cottage farming, 142 Cottage gardening, 145 Cottage, the lone, 154 Cottage improvement, progress of, 407 Cottages, plans of, 86 Cottagers, what they should grow, 146 Credit in the matter of rent, 529 Credit system, evil results of, 473 Croft system and the Duke and Duchess of Sutherland, 138 Crofters in the Highlands, 371 Crops, rotation of, 77 Daily expenditure, results of, 471 Debts should be speedily paid, 472 Derby day, thorough-bred horses, 431 Deer parks of England, 273 Deer stalking, the Queen and the late Prince Consort, 614 Deer stalking, the Queen’s account of, 623 Disraeli, the Right Hon. B., on cottage accommodation, 105 Division of estates for sale, 227 Division of property, the Hon. S. Laing, M.P., on, 697 # Division of land in England, 358 Dogs, number of, necessary for certain stocks of sheep, 650 Dogs are truly noble animals, 651 Dogs, number and expenses of, 653 INDEX. XIII Drainage, importance of, 671 Drainage of strong land a subject of great importance, 655 Drainage of towns, 351 Drainage question on entailed estates, 656 Drainage of sea-side towns, 352 Drainage largely increases the value of land, 668 Drainage, useful table in, 669 Drainage, expense of per acre, 570 Drainage effects the temperature of the soil, 671 Drains, distance apart and number of rods per acre, 670 Drains, cost of construction, 670 Ducal house of Sutherland and the tenants, 141 Duration of leases, 26 Duties of head agent, 19 Dwellinghouse for the farmer, 191 Earl Fitz william and his tenants, 366 Earl Fitzwilliam as a master of hounds, 607 Earl Fitzwilliam a true sportsman, 608 Early marriages, 456 Earth as a disinfectant, 94 Education of farmers in Scotland, 718 Eland, Lord Hill’s, 277 Embankments, improvement of estates by, 544 Embankments, angles of slopes in cuttings or, 550 Embankments, artificial, 555 Embankments, construction of, 549 Employment and labour, 102 Enclosures, size of, 188 Enclosing land, quicksets required for any extent, 270 Encouragement to good tenants, 28 England, a beautiful model of prosperity, 538 English and French agriculture, 155 Entail, law with reference to, 691 Entailed estates, drainage question, 656 Entailed estates, improvements on, 681 Entailed lands may be sold, 688 Entails, Bacon and Adam Smith on, 695 Entry to farms, 54 Essence of good government, 303 . Estate agents’ charges, 659 Estates should be carefully surveyed, 11 Estates advantageously parcelled out, 135 Estates, great and small holdings on, 184 Estates, value of, 220 Estates, large, sell better divided, 227 Estates, jockey ship in the management of, 292 Estates, choosing of, 297 Estates, observations on choosing one, 298 Estates for sale, particulars of, 305 Estates for sale, contents and rental of, 314 Estates, registry of title to, 332 Estates and public-houses, 474 Estates, causes of the ruin of many, 498 Evil results of the credit system, 473 Evil results of low prices, 300 Examination of soil and sub-soil, 673 Example set by the Queen, 411 Exhortation of the dying Scotch laird, 237 Expediency of raising rents, 364 Expediency of reducing rents, 365 Expenditure, agents should limit, 500 Equipoised interests, 61 Fallow areas in different countries, 172 Farm buildings, 191 Farm buildings, landlord and tenant, 378 Farm railways, 343 Farm leases, 33 Farm lease, a form of, 40 Farm, letting conditions, 315 Farm houses, size should be suitable to the farm, 192 Farm offices, situation of, 191 Farm, stock necessary for a, 563 Farmer, qualifications of a, 363 Farmer, how to know a good or bad, 389 Farmer, the intelligent, looks upon agri- culture as an art, 647 Farmers, important duties of, 395 Farmers, complaints among, 661 Farming and capital, 59 Farming in Ireland, 73 Farming on too little capital a great evil, 75 Farming in East Lothian, 157 Farming, comparative excellence of, 133 Farms to let, how to deal with them, 362 Farms, entry to, in Scotland, 54- Farms, entry to, in England, 55 Farms, free -entering system, 56 Farms, small, tendency to abolish, 126 Farms, small, and the Duke and Duchess of Sutherland, Farms, large, tendency to possess, 127 Farms, large and small, 129 Farms, small, advantages of, 132 Farms, laying-out of, 185 Farms, choice of, 189 Farms, cultivation of, 201 Farms, free competition in taking, 361 Farms, proper method of letting, 362 Farms, tenants should be allowed to re-let, 376 Farmstead accommodation, 191 XIV INDEX. Fascination of hill sports, 642 Felling of timber, 242 Fences, importance of good, 266 Fences, the Hon. S. Laing, M.P., on, 267 Fields, best shape of, 186 Fir, the Scotch, 252 Fishing, rod-fishing, and rents, 641 Fishings, statement of river, 643 Fitz william, Earl, and his tenants, 366 Fixtures, agricultural, 202 Fixtures, law respecting farm, 377 Fitzwilliam, Earl, and his poorer neigh- bours, 608 Flax, the growth of, 69 Flax exhausts the soil, 70 Flax-growing in Ireland, 68 Flocks in olden times, 285 Floodgates, construction of, 545 Flour, alum in, pernicious to health, 495 Folly of repudiating just agreements, 463 Food, animal and vegetable, 646 Food, adulterated and poisoned, 493 Foxes, hares, and rabbits, 604 Fox-hunting, advantages to the farmer, 603 Fox-hunting and the Prince of Wales, 606 Freemasonry, agents’ and tenants’, 397 French and English agriculture, 155 Fruit and fruit-trees, 148 Fruit, the most nutritious sorts of, 147 Furrow drains, 670 Game, preservation of, 576 Game, the Prince of Wales allows his tenants to kill hares, 577 Game, dogs very destructive to, 649 Game laws, 580 Game, legal season for killing, 638 Game preservers destroy game, 581 Game in England and Ireland, 639 Game, predatory animals fulfil a purpose, 582 Game, the Duke of Buccleuch on, 584 Game laws in Scotland, 585 Game laws, Lord Elcho on, 586 Game preserving and farming, 587 Game prosecutions, Lord Elcho on, 589 Game, damage by, 590 Game, legal opinions as to hares and rab- bits, 591 Game laws and rabbits, 592 Game, pied pheasants and white rabbits desirable in preserves, 640 Game, we hope to see it preserved, 594 Game, without protection, would be exter- minated, 598 Game and rabbits, important decision, 599 Game, protection of, in France, 601 Game, the poacher an actual criminal, 602 Gamekeepers often ruin deserving tenants, 579 Gang system and agents, 452 Gang system, evils of the, 455 General stores on estates, 484 Gradation of holdings the perfection of an estate, 137 Grain rents, 162 Grazing leases, 51 Groceries and adulteration in country shops, 496 Grass lands, form of a lease for, 51 Grass, tussac, growth of in the Lews, 539 Grouse, cause of the scarcity of, 620 Grouse disease, 625 Grouse disease periodical in its visit, 621 Grubs and rooks, Captain Mackenzie, of Findon, on, 633 Guano trade, position of, 355 Guano trade, regulations in, 357 Hares and the Earl of Kellie’s tenants, 596 Healthy districts, longevity of life, 196 Hedges ought to be close and compact, 270 Hedges, table showing the number of thorns or quickset required to enclose any quantity of land, 270 Hedge-growing, a word on, 271 Hedges, forming of, 272 Highland estates, agents of, 370 Highlands, the people of, 371 Highlands and the Highlanders, 622 Highlands, the Queen and the, 372 Highland shepherd, amusing letter of a, 707 Home and the farmer, 153 Homestead and dwelling-house, 191 Homestead and dwelling-house, cost of, 192 Homestead machinery, 198 Horse labour, 417 Horse, qualities of, 429 Horse, weekly cost of keeping, 447 Horses, breeds of, 428 Horses, thoroughbreds of 1867, 434 Horses, the chief of useful animals, 436 Horses, profit of breeding superior, 437 Horses, thoroughbreds, money value of, 439 Horses, shoeing of, 442 Horses, horrible treatment of, 443 Horse-buying and horse-copers, 445 Horse-dealing, jockeyism in, 446 Horse-show at Islington, 440 House accommodation for labourers, 81 INDEX. XV Houses, sites of, 193 Houses, aspect of, 194 Houses, cleanliness external and internal of, 195 Ignorant agents ruinous to estates, 17 Implements and machinery, 422 Importance of memoranda, 12 Importance of laying out fields properly, 187 Importance of small savings, 467 Improved position of the labourer, 408 Improvement of waste land in Scotland, 662 Improvement of waste land in Caithness — details of expenditure and revenue, 664 Improvements between proprietors and tenants, 667 Improvements may be bought too high, 501 Incoming and outgoing tenants, 58 Increase of rent, 360 Insurance policies too often mere waste paper, 200 Ireland and “tenant-right,” 22 Ireland and the flax question, 68 Ireland, farming in, 73 Ireland’s great want, 160 Irish and Scotch tenants, 159 Irish agricultural statistics, 528 Inns on estates, 482 Insolvent tenants, 530 Intrinsic value of land, 359 Irrigation, 557 Kind words to the tenants, 405 Knowledge of farming indispensable to an agent to an important estate, 5 Knowledge of gardening of consequence, 152 Labour and employment, 102 Labour, economy of, 419 Labour, educated, Lord Palmerston on, 709 Labour, navvy, 416 Labourer, proposal to give him shares of profits without making him a partner, 449 Labourer, improved position of, 408 Labourer and employer, 476 Labourer, advice to, 477 Labourers, house accommodation for, 81 Labourers’ cottages, construction of, 84 Labourers cottages, plans of, 86 Labourers, the Earl of Leicester and his, 111 Labourers, transfer of, 536 Laing, the Hon. S. and the labouring classes, 109 Lambs a shilling each, 282 Land, meaning of the word, 222 Land credit companies, 678 Land, conveyance of, 223 Land, valuable, laid waste, 553 Land, value of, depends on its produce, 299 Land and the poor, 676 Land Act, Lord Westbury’s, 330 Land rendered worse than useless, 552 Land on the banks of rivers, 544 Land, method of gaining from rivers, 556 Land Act, benefits of Lord Westbury’s, 338 Land laws of England — law and custom, 699 Land, division of, in England, 358 Land, division of, in France, 131 Land, free trade in, 687 Land, intrinsic value of, 359 Land system, Professor Fawcett on, 682 Land statistics, 169 Land and plants, all soils not alike suitable, 248 Land and capital, 27 Landed property, mode of registering, 334 Landed property, persons authorized to apply for registration of title to, 333 Landed property and railways, 341 Landed property in England, 226 Landed property, valuing of, 219 Landlord, tenant and farm buildings, 378 Landlords, examples of liberal, 367 Landlords example to the tenantry, 264 Landlords control tenants’ property, 36 Landlords and cottage building, 112 Landowners, many opposed to early mar- riages, 456 Law of landlord and tenant, 381 Lease, articles, conditions, and regulations of a Scotch, 315 Lease, form of a farm lease which might be altered to suit most properties, 40 Lease, form of a lease for grass lands in a mountain district, 51 Leases which are for too long a period objectionable, 26 Leases give to tenants an independence of feeling which is very desirable, 33 Leases, Lord Shreswbury opposed to, 34 Leases on one side, 35 Leases, covenants of, 39 Leaves, practical uses of, 256 XVI INDEX. Leaves a valuable manure, 257 Level, table showing the difference, in inches, between the true and apparent, 548 Lews home farm, 209 Life-tenants, laws affecting, 720 Life-tenant, position of, 721 Low prices, evil effects of, 304 Macdonald’s qualifications for writing on agricultural matters, 724 Machinery and the labourer, 107 Machinery, homestead, 198 Mackenzie, Bart., James J. R., and his tenants, 311 Managers of estates and trade unions, 531 Management of roads, 345 Manure, sale of, by managers of estates highly objectionable, 354 Manures, table of, 212 Markets, agents should establish, 489 Markets, situation of, very important, 491 Markets and roads, importance of, 190 Marquis of Headfort’s motto, 24 Married and unmarried men, mortality per 1000, 457 Marshes abounding in fertility, 551 Masters to servants, duty of, 506 Matheson, Bart., Sir James, and the manufacture of peat, 208 Meadows, water, 557 Meadows, manner of applying water to, 561 Meaning of the word “land,” 222 Memoranda, importance of, 12 Men and property, respect attending, 225 Meteorology and the farmer, 295 Millionaires, our lords and chiefs, 224 Mistaking activity for energy, 14 Mistletoe as an article of commerce, 240 Mixed husbandry recommended, 215 Money, food, and nutriment, 415 Money a very powerful agent, 469 Money qualification of farmers, 74 Mortgage of land, 680 Mortgages, frightful cost of, 331 Moors as pasture for sheep, 674 Mutual advantage, 62 National sports and the Prince of Wales, 606 Nature, the love of, an instinct, 719 Navvy labour, 416 Newspapers and the tenantry, 519 Noble example of the Duchess of Suther- land and Countess of Cromartie, 140 Northumberland, the late Duke of, and estate improvements, 339 Orchard and garden holdings, 147 Osier willows, a word on, 244 Our poor laws, 115 Our lords and chiefs, 224 Outgoing tenants, rights of, 204 Outgoing tenants, law respecting fixtures, 377 Outgoing tenants’ crop, 203 Palmerston, the late Lord, on his cottages, 83 Parish business, 521 Park stock, 272 Particulars of estates for sale, 305 Peasantry at home, 100 Peat, manufacture of, 208 Peaty soils, value of, 207 People, commissariat of the, 413 Percentages, his Grace the Duke of Suther- land on, 291 Piece-work in labour recommended, 448 Plans of cottager, 87 Planting should be judiciously executed, 236 Planting, a word on, 245 Planting, preparation of land for, 247 Planting, table for, 258 Plants and land, 248 Plants, influences affecting, 246 Poachers, bands of villainous, 600 Poaching, new remedy for, 593 Politeness in an agent of consequence, 503 Population, importance of, 2 Population of the United Kingdom, 525 Population, Lord Stanley on, 31 Poverty, causes of, 475 Poor laws, 115 Poor, the Queen among the, 409 Practice of tenancy, 63 Practical knowledge indispensable, 15 Prices, local circumstances alter, 489 Prices below cost of produce bring about many evils, 403 Primogeniture, the custom of, 684 Primogeniture, the law of, 689 Prince Consort and the labouring classes, 103 Prince Consort set a noble example, 101 Professor Levi’s calculations, 125 Proper dwellings elevate the labourer, 82 Property, enhancing the value of, 350 Proprietors and their agents, 567 Proprietors and their bailiffs, 569 Proprietors should have agricultural insti- tutions on their estates, 264 Proprietors, disadvantages of their being absent, 368 Pruning and cuttings, 150 INDEX. XVII Public associations and agents, 393 Public-houses and landed property, 474 Public-houses adulterate almost every- thing, 478 Punctuality very important in an estate agent, 502 Purchase of property and climate, 293 Qualification of tenants, 363 Queen, The, and her servants, 509 Quick-set hedges, 270 Quick-sets required to enclose any extent of land, 270 Rabbit-warrens clearly injurious, 578 Rainfall during 1867, 672 Railways and landed property, 341 Railways in use on farms, Readjustment of holdings, 183 Reasons for certain results, 217 Recreation for the working classes, 122 Registered land, transfer of, 336 Registry of title to landed estates, 332 Regulation of rents, 161 Rent per acre in England and Wales, 229 Rent in the south-eastern counties, 229 Rent in the south midland counties, 229 Rent in the eastern counties, 230 Rent in the south-western counties, 230 Rent in the west midland counties, 230 Rent in the north midland counties, 231 Rent in the north western counties and Yorkshire, 231 Rent in the northern counties, 231 Rent in Monmouthshire and Wales, 232 Rent per acre in Scotland, 234 Rent in the seven southern counties of Scotland, 234 Rent in the five northern counties of Scot- land, 235 Rent, increase of, 360 Rent, law respecting payment of, 380 Rent, agents should be careful in giving credit for, 529 Rental of Great Britain, 228 Rents, remarkable rise in farm, 175 Rents, evils of excessive, 182 Rents, raising of, 570 Rents, low, result in bad farming, 571 Rents payable in kind, 162 Rents, payment of, in ancient times, 168 Rents, comparative state of, in Scotland, 174 Rents in grass and corn-growing counties, 233 Rents, expediency of raising, 364 Rents, expediency of reducing, 365 Rents should rise with the improvements of estates, 390 Reservoir embankments, construction of, 549 Residence for tenants, 191 Riches beneath the soil, 349 Rifle butts, caution in fixing on, 278 Road management, 345 Road-making in Ireland, 347 Roads and markets, importance of, 190 Roads, general laws in constructing, 342 Roads, public and private, 344 Rotation of crops, 77 Rooks and grubs, Captain Mackenzie, of Findon, on, 633 Sale of an estate by an attorney, 227 Salmon, association for protecting, 644 Salt marshes abounding in fertility, 551 Scientific knowledge valuable — what it has proved, 214 Scientific knowledge indispensable in proper farming, 713 Scotch and Irish tenants, 159 Scotch lease, articles, conditions, and regu- lations of a, 315 Scotland, comparative state of rental in, 174 Scotland enriched by southern sportsmen, 617 Scotland, land rental of, 180 Sea-side towns, drainage of, 352 Seasons, influence of, on agriculture, 294 Selection of land agents, 15 Servants, practice of tipping, 486 Servants, treatment of, 507 Servants and their followers, 508 Servants rarely insensible to kindness, 510 Servants to masters, duties of, 512 Servants suited to various incomes, 515 Settlement, law of, 703 Sheep, various breeds of, 281 Sheep, the domesticated, 283 Sheep, remarkable prices of, 282 Sheep, wild kinds of, 284 Sheep always a hardy animal, 287 Sheep, peculiarities of the names of, 288 Sheep, weight of the fleeces of, 288 Sheep-shearing, 289 Sheep, number of, proportionate to number of dogs necessary, 650 Shepherds, half-yearly gathering of, 290 Shooting rents, marvellous rise in, 609 Shooting, alluring advertisements repre- hensible, 618 Shopkeeping and the poorer classes, 492 Sites of houses, 193 Slate, how to test, 19 XV111 INDEX. Small farms, 132 Societies, benefits of local and national, 394 Societies, agricultural, utility of, 396 Soil, flax exhausts the, 70 Soil, varieties of, 206 Soil, riches beneath the, 349 Soils, similar, farmed differently, 79 Soils, alluvial, 210 Spade husbandry, 143 Sport in the olden time, 619 Sporting is on the increase, 595 Sporting grounds, demand for, 610 Sporting grounds, value of, 611 Sports of Scotland, her Majesty the Queen and the late Prince Consort loved the, 612 Stalwart arms the best capital, 136 Steam power, thrashing by, 420 Steam-engine, prices of, 425 Steam-engine, results of, 426 Stags, young and old, 276 Statistics, the late Prince Consort on, 523 Statistics of land, 169 Statistics of various countries, 525 Statistics of Ireland, 526 Stock, live, in the United Kingdom, 525 Stock necessary for a farm, 563 Straw ought not to be misused, 80 Sutherland, the Duke of, and percentages to tradespeople, 291 Sutherland, noble example of the ducal house of, 141 Subdividing of inheritances an evil, 690 Sympathy with the labouring classes, 121 Tenancy, practice of, 63 Tenant and landlord, 38 Tenant farmers, scientific knowledge in- dispensable, 713 Tenant, incoming and outgoing, 58 Tenant-right and Ireland, 22 Tenant-right and Lord Dufferin, 23 Tenant-right, 25 Tenants, position of life, 721 Tenants at will, 37 Tenants should insure their premises, 199 Tenants, a bad class of, 373 Tenants, the poor class of, 374 Tenants who impoverish estates, 375 Tenants should be allowed to re-let their farms under certain circumstances, 376 Tenants, agents, and freemasonry, 397 Tenants, kind words to the, 405 Tenants, qualification of, 433 Tenants who become insolvent, 530 Tenders, illustration of the advantage of executing works and improvements by, 460 The last hound to the post, 433 The love of Nature an instinct, 719 Thrashing by horse power, 421 Thrashing by steam power, 420 Timber, to measure round, 253 Timber, to measure square, 254 Timber, comparative weight of in a green and seasoned state, 255 Tithe commutation, 71 Towns, drainage of, 351 Trade unions and agents of estates, 531 Training, Captain Horatio Ross’s system, 516 Tramroads, 343 Transfer of registered land, 336 Transplanting old trees, 251 Transplanting, rules for, 250 Treatment of servants, 507 Trees, adaptation of, to different soils, 249 Trees, choice of important, 252 Trees, decayed, should be removed, 268 Trees, barking of, 261 Trees, fruit, 148 True and apparent level, 548 Tussac grass, growth of, in the Lews, 539 Under-drainage affects the temperature of the soil, 671 Upland pastures, form of a lease for, 51 Upper and middle classes, 124 Upright agents, 520 Valuation, compulsory, 59 Valuation reports, 220 Value of land depends on its produce, 299 Value of property, enhancing the, 350 Value of property, increase in, 173 Value of peaty soils, 207 Value of educated labour, 708 Valuing landed property, 219 Valuers who go only on the rental arc not valuers, 219 Varieties of soils, 206 Ventilation, evils of defective, 93 Verbal agreements loopholes for artifice, 465 Visits and the agents of estates, 517 Wages regulated by supply and demand, 412 Wages, amount of, paid to servants, 514 Walls, stone and brick, thickness of, 391 Wants, physical and moral, 118 Waste land, improvement of, in Scotland, 662 Waste land, improvement of, details of ex- penditure and revenue, 664 Waste lands in populous districts, 676 INDEX. XIX Water, stagnant, bad effects of, 96 Water, flow of, in ditches, 547 Water meadows, 557 Water meadows, utility of, 559 Water, abundant supply of, very impor- tant, 560 Wealth, distribution of, 117 Weekly markets should be established by agents, 487 Well-sinking near ash-pits most dan- gerous, 96 Well-sinking, new system of, 562 Wetness in the soil produces cold, 671 What is a good government ? 537 What land agents should be, 74 Whitewash, value of, 97 Who are the successful men, 432 Willows, the growing of, 260 Wise cultivators, 218 Wood, to cover bleak hills with, 675 Woods, cultivation and management of, 235 Woods, dates on which the foliage ex- pands, 241 Woods, time of felling timber, 242 Woods, proper age to cut, 243 Woods, rotation should be observed in planting them, 244 Working man’s clubs, 123 APPENDIX I. Acreage, population, and annual value of real property, in each county of England and Wales, assessed to Income Tax, civ Act to establish equitable councils of con- ciliation to adjust differences between master and workmen, liv Acts of Parliament important to land- owners and farmers passed in the session of 1867, xlvi Agricultural gangs act, liii Agricultural returns for Great Britain in 1867, xcix Agricultural statistics, ci Agricultural Societies and their Secretaries, cxciv Analysis of soils, clix Analyses of vegetable substances, clxi Analyses of beef and blood, clxv Average prices of grain in Scotland, Xcv Average size of farms in Great Britain, clvii British and foreign land and grain mea- sures xciii Central Chamber of Agriculture, cxciv Commercial numbers, civ Composition of linseed cakes, cxxx Composition of wheat, barley, oats, and straw, cxxxi Composition of bean meal, meadow grass, green rye, Italian rye grass, vetches, lupines, sanfoin, and lucerne, cxxxii Composition of^hite turnips, swedes, po- tatoes, parsnips, and carrots, cxxxiii Contagious diseases (animals) act, 1867, lv Com and general trade of 1867, ccv Cure for the cattle plague, xxxviii Drainage and improvement of lands sup- plemental act (Ireland), xlix Expenditure on roads throughout Eng- land, xcii Farm operations for the months of the year, i Farmers’ Club, cxciii Farmers’ Clubs and their Secretaries, cxcix Feeding qualities of different articles of food, cxxxv Fixed and moveable festivals — Scotch and English terms, cii Herring fisheries (Scotland) act, li High water tide tables, xc Hypothic amendment act (Scotland), xlviii Labouring classes dwelling act, xlviii Law of landlord and tenant, xci Legal memoranda, clxvi Management of live stock, xi Master and servant act, lx Measures of length used in land surveying, lxxxvi Measures of surfaces, or square measure, lxxxvii Measures of solid bodies and weights, lxxxviii Measures of capacity and weights, I xxxix Measures of time and motion, civ Medicine used in the treatment of the diseases of sheep, lxii Medicine used in the treatment of the dis- eases of cattle, lxvi Memoranda for calculation and valuations, cxl Notes of the month, xxiv Number of persons engaged in agriculture in England and Wales, clviii XX INDEX Privileges of members of the Royal Agri- cultural Society of England, cci Public notices — such as are important to know, lii Re^dy reckoning or marketing table, c Review of the com trade for 1867, ccxx Rinderpest, treatment of cattle by Lord Kinnaird, xxviii Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, cxciv Royal Agricultural Society of England, cxci Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland, cxci Royal Dublin Society, cxcii Rules of competition for prize essays in the Royal Agricultural Society of England, cc Sale of lands by auction (amendment) act, 1867, 1 Sewage utilization act, lviii Smithfield Club, cxcii Table I, for laying off land into acre lots, cv Table II, for laying off land into lots of one rood each, cvi Table III, for laying off land into lots of ten falls each, cvii Table IV, for converting Scotch acres into imperial acres, with the price per impe- rial acre, cviii Table Y, for converting imperial into Scotch measure, cix Table VI, for converting Scotch into imperial measure, cx Table VII, for reducing Scots into imperial links, et. v. v., cxi Table VIII, of square links, cxii Table IX, for estimating the difference between the rent of a Scots and imperial acre, cxiii Table X, to reduce imperial links into feet and inches, cxiv Table XI, number of rods of 5\ yards of drains at certain distances apart, cxv , Table XII, number of rods of o\ yards of drains at certain distances apart, cxvi Table XIII, number of rods of 5% yards of drains at certain distances apart, cxvii Table XIV, distances of drains in common use, cxviii Table XY, cost of land drainage per acre, cxix Table XYI, comparison of the cost of drainage, cxx Table XVII, showing the estimated value of the manure obtained from the com- position of one ton of different articles of food, cxxi Table for calculating wages and other payments, xcvi Table of the diameters of pipes through which a required quantity of water may be discharged in a given time, cxxi Table for purchasing leases, estates, an- nuities, &c., cxli Table for renewing any number of years lapsed or expired in a lease, cli Table showing tho present value of a reversionary estate in fee, after the life of a person of given age, cliii Tax on dogs repeal act, xlvii The prices of wool, cheviot, and black- faced sheep, cxxii The mean average temperature of each month of the year during ten years, cxxvii The average quantity of rain during ten years for each month, cxxix The estimated value of the manure ob- tained from the consumption of one ton of different articles of food, cxxxiv The movement of cattle, special Act, xlv Tithe commutation table, c Weather guide, exxv Weight of produce per acre, xciv Yearly average price of wheat, xcvii APPENDIX II. Opinions of the Press on Works by D. G.F. Testimonials in favour of D. G. F. Mac- Macdonald, C.E., ccliii donald, C.E., ccxxiii Presentation of testimonial to D. G. F. Macdonald, O.E., ccxlviii ESTATE MANAGEMENT. The duties of a Land Agent are various and impor- tant. On their skill in the cultivation of waste lands depend, not only present success, hut future progress. No observant or well-informed agricul- turist can doubt for a moment that nearly every property in the kingdom is capable of immense im- provement. Lew landed estates are so sterile as to be altogether hopeless, and this for the simple reason that in few are the elements of fertility totally want- ing. Experience has taught us that skill, combined with capital, can convert a had soil into a good one. Agents should, therefore, hear in mind that, as the soil cannot he rendered productive, or the comforts and luxuries of life obtained without human labour, increase of population, the first as well as the grandest object of a country at large, should enter largely into the plans of a landed proprietor. The utmost fertility of soil, and the greatest felicity of situation, if unaided by a sufficiently abundant supply of labourers, only fill the mind with regret, because of the blessings which have been lavished in vain. Human industry alone can unfold and improve the gifts of nature. Thus, a continual increase of population is the chief and surest sign of the increasing wealth of a country, and every B 2 IMPORTANCE OE POPULATION. well-regulated State will continue to be rich, secure, and happy, in proportion to the rate of such increase. Authors have taken great pains to alarm their readers with the presumed dangers of an excessive population — a phenomenon which can never exist, unless it he in a state of society where the means of living are systematically monopolized. Where pro- perty is secure, and full scope given to industry, the most excessive population will always provide its own means of subsistence ; but, should the number of the people ever increase beyond the powers of the soil to supply them, the natural and effectual remedy will be voluntary emigration to uncultivated countries. Rejecting narrow views, England has ever kept in the right and profitable track, dividing her industry pretty equally between agriculture and commerce, both domestic and foreign ; and if she has occasionally leaned towards the latter, it has, no doubt, been chiefly owing to the attraction of superior profits. Some writers have not scrupled to recommend a dereliction of agriculture in favour of foreign commerce, because the superior profits of the latter would enable us to purchase corn cheaper than it could be grown at home, while others would have us cut down our towns into villages, yoke ourselves to the plough, and divide the land into petty holdings, as in a Chinese landscape, without leaving a park, a chase, or a horse-course in the country. Such reasoning A MARKET IS PEOPLE. 3 is obviously so unsound that it requires no formal refutation. Agriculture can only flourish where there is a population. The farmer must have a market for his surplus production, or he will go to the wall. A market is people, and therefore the nearer the farmer is to these the less he need spend in getting rid of his productions, and the more he will he able to send to his hankers. England, no doubt, owes much of her greatness to her working population. In all her great wars her chief dependence has been on the courage and devotion of her common soldiers. Whether at Waterloo or at Inkermann, how nobly did they perform their duty ! The thin, hut invincible, red line at Balaklava proved how men reared in High- land glens, though only the sons of mere crofters, can exhibit an undaunted front. True soldiers are not producers ; but let every owner of acres hear in mind that they are the defenders of producers, and that, in proportion as the strength of the work- ing-classes is considered and encouraged, so will every commonwealth he either weak or strong, whether it he in peace or in war. Having said thus much on the importance of population, let us add that the number, qualities, and denominations of Agents must be regulated by the extent of the possessions and the particular circumstances of the lord or proprietor. An opulent fortune and extensive estates necessarily require b 2 4 THE ACCOMPLISHED AGENT. a proportionate number of differently qualified Agents. It is, however, always an object of the first consequence that every person chosen be thoroughly versed in the business of the particular department he is destined* to fill. With an accomplished Land Agent theory and practice go hand in hand. No proprietor will ever obtain the largest returns from his estate unless he secures the services of a really good Agent, who has a knowledge of practical as well as scientific farming, of law, accounts, woods, fences, minerals, and general business. He must have the various abilities and acquirements requisite to enable him to make the most of the estate under his management. By consulting books we profit by the experience of other men, enlarge our sphere of thinking, and obtain useful hints which might never have occurred to us, and thus gain, perhaps, in one year, knowledge which lias cost the practical author many laborious years to acquire. The library of the landowner ought therefore to be chosen with a due regard to the requirements of the Agent and Steward, and the most approved and useful books in every department of agriculture and economical science should form a prominent portion of it. It has been disputed whether the owner of a great property should depute his affairs to the care of a certain number of Stewards, each acting inde- pendently of the other, and accountable at stated THE OFFICE OF CHIEF AGENT. periods to the owner himself alone, or whether a chief confidential Agent should be appointed, to whom the several stewards should he subordinate, and on whom the owner himself may depend for general information on all his affairs and the secu- rity of his fortune ; hut nothing can he more certain than that an Agent-in-chief or commissioner is absolutely necessary to the prosperity and safety of such an estate, and to the want of an officer of this kind may be attributed, the dilapidation of many a noble fortune. The office of Chief Agent is necessarily one of great trust and importance, nor do the opportunities of securing a man capable of filling such an office to advantage often occur. To be a properly quali- fied Chief Agent to a large estate, a man should have attained to a thorough knowledge of the business of life ; he should have had tried experience in men and things, and this cannot be expected under middle age. 'No material part of his attention should be engrossed by his own private concerns, as in such case he will certainly neglect the business of his employer. It is also absolutely requisite that he should not only have a thorough knowledge of prac- tical agriculture, but a thorough insight into the nature of every improvement of which an estate may be capable, either above or beneath the surface ; or, from its local situation, whether inland or upon the sea-coast. He should be well qualified to superintend the culture of wastes, the disposal of timber, the era- 6 QUALIFICATIONS OF AGENT-IN-CHIEF. dication or planting of woods, irrigation and warp- ing, drainage, embanking, and the recovery of land from the sea, the cutting of canals, the laying out and repair of roads, and the construction of bridges. He should also possess considerable skill in rural architecture ; and have sufficient acquaint- ance with law to enable him to make contracts with the tenants and tradesmen with whom he has to deal, and to remove all unnecessary and oppressive clauses with which leases are generally clogged. Nor is it less important that he thoroughly com- prehend the nature of the various methods in which money business is transacted, together with the mode of bargaining advantageously in the purchase or sale of estates. His knowledge ought, indeed, to be universal, and extend to the valuable inven- tions and improvements of other countries as well as our own. He should, in fact, lay hold of every occasion to enhance the worth, reputation, and embellishment of the property committed to his charge. He should be able to fix his attention on details, and be ready to give every argument a hearing. This will not encumber his time too much, for his intellect should have been well practised beforehand. He should also be strong in principle, courageous, and of a stout heart ; he should have a patient temper, and a vigorous but disciplined imagination, so as to execute calmly and plan boldly. He must have a deep sense of responsi- bility, and most implicitly believe in the power and SALARY TO AGENTS. 7 vitality of truth. He ought, moreover, to have acquired, and should invariably maintain, an ease of manner, a suavity of address, and a gentleman- like deportment, without which the finest talents and the most valuable acquirements seldom obtain for their possessor all the success he has a right to expect. He should never talk of the intentions of the landowner till they have been completely car- ried out. This is a very important caution. Some persons are naturally so talkative, that they no sooner hear of a design having been formed of pur- chasing a property, or entering into a speculation, than they take the earliest opportunity of acquaint- ing all their friends with it. This is a great weak- ness ; the reasons are obvious, and will naturally suggest themselves to a practical mind. The allowance of a liberal salary, adequate to the responsibility and labour of the Agent, has often been insisted on, and with the utmost reason, as highly conducive to the interest of the owner ; for the Agent, if dissatisfied on this essential point, will be either induced to bestow too little attention to his trust, or tempted to indemnify himself by accepting perquisites, which, it is plain, must ulti- mately come out of the pocket of his employer, and which open an inlet to the grossest frauds. The system of paying agents by a per centage on their receipts has an extremely bad tendency. He should invariably be paid by a fixed salary, and have no perquisites of any kind. 8 SPECIAL TRAINING OE AGENTS. Mr. Gr. G. Grey, of Dilston, well-known as an Agent of the highest standing, states, with reference to the special training required for the office : — The duties of a Land Agent being so varied, you will naturally expect that the qualifications for perform- ing those duties should he many, and that a man cannot be expected to possess those qualifications without a special training. The basis of this train- ing is undoubtedly a good general education, and a practical knowledge of agriculture. It may be a question which part of such education should come first. A boy who is brought up on a farm, return- ing to it from school, has a considerable advantage over boys in other classes of society when he goes to an agricultural college, for with him the learning is not all theoretical ; though he may have done nothing but play at home, he knows the meaning of agricultural terms, and the names of objects. A practical knowledge of farming being an absolute necessity for a Land Agent, in any case he should go from school to work for a year or two on a good farm, before he goes to the agricultural college. At school the best foundation for all education is a considerable knowledge of classics, it gives a facility for acquiring learning, a refinement of mind, and an aptitude for correct speaking and writing, which is most useful in after life to a man who is to be brought much into contact with others. A know- ledge of mathematics is also necessary in training the mind to reason soundly, to distinguish between WHAT THE AGENT SHOULD BE. 9 cause and effect, and to arrive at proper conclusions from evidence, as well as to attain that knowledge of mechanical principles, and aptitude for under- standing machinery, which a Land Agent should possess. Having been thus grounded at school, the intended Land Agent should make himself master of the every-day work of the farm, and then go to an agricultural college, where he can apply himself to acquiring the more special knowledge required for his calling. There he must study chemistry, mineralogy, geology, botany, natural history, sur- veying, planning, measuring and calculating work, book-keeping, and as much of law as may be applicable to his profession. Without some acquaint- ance with all these subjects, he will find himself at some time or other entirely dependent on a subor- dinate for guidance. From college he should go at once to the office of a good Land Agent, where he can learn the duties of the office, and at the same time he able to watch the operations of farming, and gain practical experience in valuing land. This he must do as a pupil, assistant, or under-agent, as cir- cumstances permit. Having spent two or three years in this way, if he is steady and intelligent, he should he qualified to undertake an ordinary agency. We have already stated that the qualifications vary according to the degree of responsibility in- curred ; hut in every case there is one requisite, for the absence of which no amount of talent can com- pensate ; the Agent must be at heart a gentleman — 10 SHOULD AN AGENT BE RESIDENT? in other words, an upright, conscientious man, who, without fear or favour, is determined to do his duty, and mediate between the two interests with which he has to deal. He must he patient and courteous in demeanour, even when his temper is sorely tried, as it often will be ; and it is surprising how powerful an influence is produced by kindness and conside- ration, when combined with firmness. The golden rule should ever be the guide to his conduct, because his position is often one of such power that there may be temptations to abuse it. It not unfrequently happens that the Agent stands in the place and wields the authority of the owner, who does not appear on the surface, but pulls the strings more or less from behind. Much that is done may not command his entire approval, but his duty being to carry out the wishes of his employer, he does so heartily, and endeavours to promote suc- cess, though things may not be quite to his mind. And this leads to another point — viz., the import- ance of perfect confidence between the Agent and the principal. In order that the best may be done, the Agent should feel that he can at all times freely discuss matters, and state his opinion unreservedly. Having done so, and advanced all the arguments of which he is master, he must be prepared to carry out his own or his employer’s views with equal alacrity. The question of whether an Agent should be resi- dent or not will depend upon the extent of the ESTATE SHOULD BE CAEEEULLY SURVEYED. 11 property. Where there is sufficient to occupy a man’s whole time we should decidedly prefer a resident Agent, as, being always in the midst of operations, he is more master of the work, checks idleness and dissipation, and exercises a more per- sonal influence over the people with whom he has to do. We trust it will be evident from the above that the duties of an Agent on a large estate are neither light nor irresponsible, and that it is most important to secure for such positions gentlemen of character and education. Every estate should be carefully surveyed, and accurately described in a map. Each tenant should have a copy of the plan of his farm, showing on a correct scale the size and boundaries of the fields, and distinguishing their respective qualities, whether in grass or tillage. Especial care should also be taken to mark distinctly on the map such lands as require draining, and the peculiar causes of the wetness, so as to enable the proprietor to judge of the correctness of the principles on which the Agent should conduct the draining operations. Any proposed new arrangement of the fields, by enlarging or otherwise, with a due regard to the circumstances on which their size and shape ought to depend, such as their aspect or inclination, and the rotations to be observed, ought also to be clearly delineated on the map. It is par- ticularly necessary, both for Agent and tenant, to keep an exact note of all common field lands, and, where the bounds of any parcel of land are dubious, 12 IMPORTANCE OP MEMORANDA. to have them ascertained and defined with durable land-marks. The Agent ought to ride over the estates, and make a personal survey sufficiently often to enable him to offer timely advice, and nip any irregularities or encroachments in the hud, and to see that all repairs are properly and substantially performed, fencing kept up according to agreement, ditches scoured, water-courses free, and common rights fairly enjoyed according to the custom of the manor. Prom the survey, regular memoranda should he drawn of every thing necessary to he remarked or executed ; the spots where deficiencies may he found and improvements made ; the state, both at home and amongst the tenants of the homestead, as to convenience, buildings, and repair, insurance, dates of leases, rates, &c., game, live and dead stock, timber, fencing, planting, draining, paths and high- ways, culture, commons, rivers, lakes, or sea-coast, neighbouring estates convenient for purchase ; in a word, nothing relative to the estate, which deserves attention, should ever be intrusted to the uncer- tain custody of the memory, or to loose and strag- gling papers. A very strict scrutiny into the character and con- duct of inferior servants and labourers is at all times necessary, otherwise it would be utterly im- possible for an Agent to discharge his duty faith- fully to his employer, or to render justice to his own character. He ought never to take anything ACCOUNTS SHOULD BE REGULARLY AUDITED. 13 on trust, but having obtained a thorough practical knowledge of the duties of every servant on the estate, he should watch their performance with his own eyes, early and late. He should obtain a general idea of the proper method of keeping accounts from a good treatise on book-keeping, which once accomplished, he will always be able to keep his books in a business-like, comprehensive, clear, and precise manner. To urge the desirability of keeping account-books neatly and accurately is superfluous, but it is a point of great importance that they should be fre- quently and regularly audited. To be lax in this respect, is neither more nor less than to lead a man into temptation ; and even if the path of rectitude be nominally kept, entries and work will be allowed to get in arrears, and in anything but a creditable condition. Then when the day of reckoning comes — for it will come sooner or later — the results will not be to the credit of either party ; and it is hard to say which is most to blame, the lax and careless employer, or the servant on whose shoulders the blame commonly falls. Another serious evil to be avoided is, the placing of the moneys of the proprietor so that they can be freely used, for personal purposes, by the indivi- dual through whose hands they pass. A right arrangement of accounts and of banking business will prevent this. As to law, it is convenient that the Agent should 14 MISTAKING ACTIVITY TOR ENERGY. not be ignorant of those branches which relate to landlord and tenant, to parish business, the poor, and the highways, commons, forests, &c. There are some men whose failure to succeed as efficient Land Agents is a problem to others as well as to themselves. They are industrious, prudent, economical, and zealous in the interests of the estate under their charge ; yet, after many years, the pro- perty does not improve. It is said that fate is against them ; whilst the truth is, that they mistake activity for energy. Confounding two things essen- tially different, they have supposed that if they were always busy they would be certain to be advancing the interests of the proprietor. They have forgotten that misdirected labour is but a waste of activity. What a man does must be made to count, or it had almost as well have been left undone. The merely active man may be busy from sunrise to sunset, and yet only fritter away his labour on trifles. The Land Agent in some cases has merely an executive faculty, when he should have a directive one ; in other words, he makes a good clerk for himself, when he ought to be thinking how best to develop the subjects under his management; and bestows as much labour and thought on trivial affairs as on matters of great moment. Energy correctly under- stood is activity proportioned to the end ; it is per- severing, steady, disciplined ; and to call occasional periods of application energy, would be a sad mis- nomer. Napoleon, in the Plains of Champagne, WHO MAKE THE BEST AGENTS. 15 sometimes fighting two battles in one day, first defeating the Russians, and then turning on the Austrians, is an illustration of energy. The Duke of Brunswick dawdling away precious time when he invaded France, at the outbreak of the first Revo- lution, is an example to the contrary. Activity beats about a cover, like an untrained dog, never lighting on the covey. Energy goes straight to the bird. The contrasts in the management of estates are as great as those in farming, simply because men of all professions under the sun are now-a-days engaged to supervise landed property, without regard to qua- lifications. The best Land Agents are those who have had a scientific and practical education. The knowledge which is necessary to make a thoroughly intelligent farmer is also necessary to make a tho- roughly efficient estate manager; and this knowledge has to be drawn from a great many sources. Geology and mineralogy must instruct him as to the forma- tion of the crust of the earth, the qualities and elements of the substances which compose it, and the character, nature, and properties of all the mine- rals embedded in it. Chemistry will teach him to analyze the soil, to trace out every element of its fertility, and its just proportion ; will unfold to him the principles of its exhaustion and replenishment, and guide him in every attempt at its improve- ment and amelioration. Botany will inform him of the nature and structure of plants, from the 16 THE HON. SAMUEL LAING, M.P. forest tree to the herb, of their uses, value, and adaptation to the climate and soil of the estates under his care. Entomology will teach him the habits of insects injurious to vegetation, and how to prevent or remedy their attacks. Natural phi- losophy will explain to him the principles of me- chanics, and from these he will learn how to estimate the value of every mechanical contrivance employed or proposed in rural art. In all these branches of science the highest genius and the most persevering research have long been devoted to the ascertainment of truths, simple only when demon- strated, and of the greatest practical value to those who dream not of the learning and toil necessary for their discovery ; and all these the Land Agent should know. If knowledge is power in agriculture, as well as in every other department and business of life, it is eminently so in the management of landed property. As the Hon. Samuel Laing, M.P., so aptly said, in one of his brilliant speeches, “ You have often heard the saying that 4 knowledge is power,’ and so it is. But there is something more to add. In the long run, sense will distance cleverness, and character will carry the day against intellect. Becollect, then, as a cardinal rule, that c Truth is power.’” The book Land Agent may he a thriftless theorist, hut the practical man, while he avoids visionary speculations and hazardous experiments, knows how to turn to account the experience and the sugges- IGNORANT AGENTS RUINOUS TO ESTATES. 17 tions of others. It will therefore be readily conceded that in all the pursuits of life practical knowledge is essential to success ; that it is one thing to under- stand principles, and quite another thing to work them out ; and that a man may be a good theoreti- cal Land Agent, but a very bad practical one. Exem- plifications of these positions are unfortunately but too numerous. In too many instances those who have the management of landed property do most absurd things, solely because such is their neigh- bours’ practice, and such was their fathers’ before them. Surely nothing can be more detrimental to landlord and tenant than haying estates supervised by persons altogether without the necessary prac- tical knowledge of agriculture, stock-breeding, and the multifarious operations of rural economy ; and utterly ignorant regarding the wise management of tenantry, the real resources of estates, and the true interests of proprietors and tenants. The system of these persons too often consists in enforcing rents by the aid of a lawyer and bailiff, and ends in driving good tenants into difficulties and despair. Without any knowledge of those portions of science and mechanics necessary in the management of an estate, their leases are marked with confusion, ab- surdities, discrepancies, and obsolete conditions, which greatly injure the landlord, oppress the tenant, and seriously damage the collective interests of agriculture, causing much unpleasant and fatal misunderstanding between the contracting parties, c 18 ATTORNEY- STEWARDS OBJECTIONABLE. and inflicting ultimate loss on the country at large. It is a great pity that noblemen and gentlemen suffer themselves to be persuaded to employ country attorneys for their Agents ; because it seldom happens that they are qualified for that trust. They rarely have any knowledge of agriculture. True there are a few who have, and who rank among our most scientific and able cultivators. Gentle- men so qualified, with all the additional advantages of education, legal knowledge, and consequent knowledge of the world, would be eligible enough for the office of Land Agent, if they had leisure to fulfil its duties ; but to appoint a man to the super- intendence of a landed estate, merely because he is a lawyer, and can draw covenants and enforce pay- ments, is kindred policy with that of choosing the leader of an army because of his skill in arithmetic. In fact, the too general custom of employing at- torney-agents has been a great bar to agricultural improvement, and, in that light, a national loss. These gentlemen carry all their habitual predilection for precedent from their office into the field ; they are usually as much averse to innovation as the farmers themselves, and consequently covenants, rents, and farming practice remain precisely in their ancient state, however absurd and unprofitable; repairs and the most necessary erections are neg- lected ; and whenever an advance of rent is made, it is raised indiscriminately upon the different DUTIES OF DEAD AGENTS. 19 estates, independently of those reasons which ought to be final in such a case, and whether part of the estates, from local circumstances, may be able to hear it or not. Taking the management of landed property in its widest sense, it is obvious, that in order to de- velop its capabilities on the most profitable prin- ciples, the Agents and bailiffs entrusted with the execution of the works, must he educated for the offices they fill. The sooner the opinion, that the main duty of a head-agent is to collect rents and prepare leases, is relinquished by lord-owners, the better will it he for their own interest. An Agent, having a comprehensive knowledge of agriculture, and otherwise possessed of necessary qualifications, will perform the legal and the accounting business, as well as one who can only attend to the latter departments ; and, by his practical skill in every- thing relating to the resources of land, he will prove the main spring of the improving works which the proprietor may he desirous to have carried out. In these operations, a properly qualified sub-agent will effectively co-operate, and he again will he aided by an overseer, capable of carrying out the instructions that he may receive. With three such officers — a principal or non-resident Agent, a local Agent, and a bailiff, — of the right kinds, connected with every large estate in the kingdom, a fair expendi- ture of capital will be sure to draw forth its capa- bilities in a profitable and highly satisfactory c 2 20 PEN AND INK MEN. manner. Improving tenants will be encouraged, and co-operated with, and though rack-rents will be avoided, yet the land will assuredly increase in value. On the other hand, a property managed by mere pen and ink men- — whose faith in agricultural returns never goes beyond a promised rental, and who will therefore lay out nothing on improve- ments — may continue to yield the old rents ; but except from causes common to the whole country, its value will not he increased. Mere office men are utterly incapable of profitably drawing forth the latent resources of estates. They can only exhaust them by copious sweatings ; hut if proprietors are contented to submit to this, it may be thought that no one has a right to interfere. The question, how- ever, of providing food for the nation, must set this point at rest. Where is it to he got ? Are we to continue importing millions of quarters of wheat annually ? If it can he shown that this country is quite capable of supporting its inhabitants, provided every landed property were rightly managed, these queries are not to be thought so completely out of place, as may at first sight appear. The proprietors of estates have the answering of such questions in their own hands, and if they choose to select suitable managers to look after their business, they will be taking the first step towards the attainment of a great good, individually and nationally. Mr. Grey, of Dilston, stated, in his excellent paper, read before the Hexham Tanners’ Club, that DISQUALIFICATIONS OF LAND AGENTS. 21 the disqualifications for the office of Land Agent are many. Retired soldiers and sailors do not generally make good Agents, though they have some qualities which are useful, such as punctuality and careful- ness. Retired butlers and house stewards may be estimable men, but they are not such as should be set over tenant farmers. Poor relations, for whom some provision is desirable, would generally cost an owner less if he were to make them an allowance to live at Bath or Cheltenham. Mercantile men are too apt to look at everything in a purely mercantile spirit, not seeing distant or contingent advantages. Parmers who have failed in farming have the dis- advantage of undertaking to manage another man’s affairs when they could not manage their own; nevertheless when their failure has been owing to want of capital or unavoidable calamity, and when they are educated and upright men, they frequently make good Agents. Head clerks promoted from the office are very apt to find themselves in a position for which they are unfit, having been too much bound to routine and detail to take large views of management. They are apt to be too much the servants of the landowner, and not enough me- diators between him and the tenants. Lawyers, attorneys, and writers, though frequently entrusted with the management of estates, are about the most disqualified. Their education, bent of mind, legal way of reasoning and treating all questions, are a positive bar to success in the management of 22 IRELAND AND TENANT-RIGHT. estates, and we consider it an absolute misfortune to the country that so many estates are under their care. Prom their special training they look narrowly into legal obligations and the rights of property, and from want of experience in country affairs they are incapable of judging of the pro- priety of modifying obligations which may be obsolete or inexpedient. Landowners in Scotland and Ireland, we believe, more than in England, com- mit the mistake of making such appointments. To this rule we confess we know some distinguished exceptions in men, who, having a taste for country pursuits, spend more of their time in the country than in their offices. A town residence, though not an absolute disqualification, is a great disadvantage to a Land Agent, for though he may be within as easy reach of the estate as a country Agent, his business is apt to degenerate into office work, and his visits to the estates and intercourse with the tenants to become more formal that those of an Agent residing on an estate and moving about con- stantly in the country, and generally such Agents depend much more on reports from subordinates, and interviews with tenants at their town offices, than Agents who meet tenants in their own fields and homesteads, and judge from their own obser- vation. The condition of Ireland, as regards its rural population and “ tenant-right,” has again been brought before the Legislature. Though there is. LORD DUFFERIN ON TENANT-RIGHT. 23 often much discrepancy in the respective state- ments, it would seem hut fair and reasonable that a tenant should have compensation for improve- ments. Some equitable measure of tenant-right is, doubtless, much needed for the prosperity of the Irish people ; and let us hope that such a measure may soon be adopted. Lord Dufferin takes the true view of this right as it exists in a great portion of the north of Ireland, Men who often can ill afford it pay large sums merely to get possession of land rented to its full value, and without a lease ; and in almost every case an arrear of rent due to the land- lord is paid out of the purchase, which often takes the greater part of it. On many estates most of the tenants have thus become occupiers. The custom grew up with the concurrence and to the advantage of landlord and Agent, and however great may be its inconveniences — and they are acknowledged to be great, though it has given security for rents at all times — the only fair way to put an end to it is that which it appears a good landlord like Lord Dufferin suggests and adopts — viz., paying the tenant on out-going a fair sum for his tenant-right, as it is very justly called, when the landlord or his predecessors have allowed the custom and profited by it. But some landlords act very differently, and proceed to put an end to the evil by disallowing the sale of tenant-right, and turning out tenants without compensation, under the plea that they had made no improvements ; but ignoring the fact that this 24i MARQUIS OP HEADPORT’s MOTTO. tenant-right is not a compensation for improve- ments, but a repayment of an investment which the occupier had made with the landlord’s concurrence, and on the faith of his being allowed to recover it whenever he should leave the land. But such reaches of good faith must have a most unfavour- able effect, though the law of the case is clear. Of course, the landlord must be rich to pay the com- pensation to outgoing tenants ; but it is most unjust that any landlord should first make a profit, to the injury of his tenant, by taking his arrears habitually out of the purchase-money, as has been done for generations, and then make a second profit by seizing upon that which he had allowed to be sold and bought. We should hope that a check may be put upon this most unfair dealing, which is made too plausible by the plea that this sort of tenant- right is injurious to all parties. The Marquis of Headfort, presiding at a dinner in connection with the Headfort Estates Cattle Show, in Ireland, made the following remarks on the land question : — “ My motto for my tenantry has always been c Live and let live,’ and I think that principle has always been carried out on this estate by my Agent. A bill affecting the tenure of land was introduced by the late Government. At first, mis- led by some of the speeches against the bill, I was induced to believe it was a bill for making landlords and tenants change places — which I had a natural objection to do; but when I came to look into the TENANT-RIGHT. 25 bill itself, I really could find nothing objectionable in its leading principle. That principle is simply, that if a landlord ejects a tenant-at-will, he must compensate him for improvements that have added to the letting value of liis holding. Now, that seems to me simple justice, not a confiscation of the rights of property at all, but a recognition of them.” Lord Lufferin thus explains the vexed question : — Enormous sums are given for the “tenant-right” of a farm on which no improvements have been made by the outgoing tenant, and by whom all former im- provements may have been utterly exhausted. In order to effect the purchase, money is borrowed at a high rate of interest. The new tenant is unable from want of capital to stock or work the farm, and he struggles on for some years till he, too, is compelled to sell his tenant-right, and another comes to go through the same process. Such a system could scarcely be tolerated by the landlords, if one of the conditions on which the new tenant is accepted were not the payment of all arrears out of the purchase- money. “ There are scores I could name,” says Lord Lufferin, “who have actually occupied farms under me, have lingered in possession a certain number of years, and have finally been driven out, not by act of mine, but by the persecution of their creditors throughout the country, on account of debts con- tracted for the express purpose of paying for the tenant-right of the land which they were never able to cultivate, and for which they never paid the 26 TOO LONG LEASES OBJECTIONABLE. rent.” When his Lordship succeeded to the Clane- boye estate, he resolved to check this ruinous com- petition, and to prevent the incumbrance of his land by an embarrassed tenantry. This he did by requiring that no new tenant should he admitted to the exclusion of the representatives of those who held under his father and ancestors for many gene- rations, invariably giving the preference to a tenant adjoining the vacated farm; and by paying the outgoing tenant the price of the “ tenant-right,” giving him the “ fairest possible compensation for all bond fide unexhausted improvements.” In this way the existing tenants get additions to their farms on easy terms, and the landlord is satisfied with three-fourths of the rent he might obtain by avail- ing himself of the competition for land. He wishes, however, to have the burden and responsibility of the valuation cast upon an experienced public officer of the Encumbered Estates Court. We readily admit that, whilst advocating leases of fifteen or twenty years’ duration, we disapprove of the long leases granted in the last century for sixty-one years or three lives, to which must be ascribed, in a great measure, the backwardness of agriculture in a country possessing so many natural advantages. Such preposterously long leases en- courage idleness and neglect of the most common and necessary improvements. Leases of too long duration are worse than none, both for the landlord and tenant. We' do not for a moment advocate a right LAND AND CAPITAL. 27 which would give to the tenant the power of making alterations without the consent of the landlord — still less against his consent — and then charging him with the cost. What we suggest is, simply, that proper encouragement should he held out to the tenant to make real improvements, and that he should have security upon a change of occupation, for reimbursement of his outlay, if he has not occupied the holding sufficiently long to reap the full benefit of his improvements. No reasonable landlord would object to this, and no reasonable tenant would ask for more. Agriculture is a science — a noble science — which requires to be deeply studied and industriously practised. Experience has repeatedly and clearly proved that capital laid out in the application to the soil of a well planned system, has been amply repaid by an increased and superior produce. There is in this respect no want of encouragement for the prac- tical man, the only obstacles to improvement are the slow, in many places the very slow removal of ancient prejudices from the minds of the farmers, and the want of conviction on the part of some landlords, that their land can only be effectually improved, and thus rendered of greater value to themselves, by giving to their tenants an interest for a certain term in the soil, sufficient to enable the latter to obtain an adequate return for money laid out in prosecuting a beneficial system of cultivation. 28 ENCOURAGEMENT TO TENANTS. By encouraging tlie agricultural improvement of Ireland, we greatly increase the prosperity of the United Kingdom. We are aware that an exodus of upwards of 3,000,000 of people has taken place within thirty-two years, or at the rate of nearly 100,000 per annum, an amount hitherto unknown in the annals of any country. It might he expected that so great an emigration from the rural popu- lation would have caused a great deal of land to go out of cultivation ; hut such has not been the case. We demur entirely to the view taken by some in Ireland that the population is excessive, and re- quires to be diminished by emigration. We also, with equal warmth, deny that the Irish lack energy and enterprise. Their readiness to seek their for- tune in distant lands disproves the charge. Ireland is as eager in the race of improvement as more fortunate countries. The days of her adversity are, it is hoped, now passed away, and, with the aid of capital, she will doubtless rapidly develop her great resources, and attain that high prosperity to which the genius of her people and her natural productiveness entitle her. The Lord-Lieutenant, at the Dublin Banquet, the other day, very truly said : “ We see railways established throughout the country that have cost no less than £24,000,000 ; and we know that this capital to a considerable extent is owned by Irishmen, showing that when there is a sound and good enterprise to be under- taken, Irishmen are not backward in energy to CONCLUSIONS OF MR. LAING, M.P. 29 undertake it.” Let us, then, wish that noble and generous-hearted people every success, and a greater development of agricultural prosperity. The conclusion which one of our most enlightened observers, Mr. Samuel Laing, M.P., has drawn from his travels in Norway, are very interesting and im- portant. They are these : — First . — That the structure of society, in which, through the effects of the natural law of succession in equal shares, there is a very general diffusion of property among all classes and individuals, is better calculated for the end of all society — the producing the greatest possible quantity of well-being and happiness to the greatest number of persons — than that structure in which the possession of property by the operation of an artificial law of succession, such as the feudal law of primogeniture, is restricted to particular classes and individuals among the families of the community. Second . — That the influences of property upon the human mind — the never-ceasing propensity to acquire, to save, and the equally strong propensity to indulge in the tastes and habits generated by property — form the real checks which nature has intended for restraining the propensity to propaga- tion by improvident marriages, and for preventing the population of a country from exceeding the means or property upon which is to subsist. Con- sequently the diffusion of property through society is the only radical cure for that king’s-evil of all 30 CONCLUSIONS OF ME. LAING, M.P. feudally constructed societies, pauperism and over- multiplication. Consequently, the idea of bolster- ing up this unnatural structure of society, as proposed by Dr. Chalmers and other eminent poli- tical economists, by inculcating in the minds of the labouring classes a fictitious moral restraint upon marriage — an act which may he eminently impru- dent, hut can never he designated as immoral, without confounding together prudence and mo- rality, and overturning all the landmarks of human virtue — is as contrary to political as it is to moral principle. Third . — That for the admitted evil condition of the vast population of Ireland, there is no other effectual remedy than an alteration in the law of succession to property, by which, without injury to the just existing rights of any living individual, the succeeding generations in that country would be- come gradually connected with its property ; inocu- lated and imbued with the civilizing tastes, habits, and influences thence arising ; and their increase of numbers thus placed under the restraint of the only natural and effective checks which Providence has imposed upon the tendency of population to exceed the means of subsistence. At the Annual Meeting of the Tipperary Union Parming Society, in September last, Lord Stanley said : “ If you look to the rural districts alone, you will find that the English and Scotch, as well as the Irish population, have decreased. I state that because LORD STANLEY ON POPULATION. 31 I think it is important, in many points of view, that you should not consider your own position as excep- tional. In the districts into which the population of England is divided, two-fifths of those which are purely agricultural show a diminution ; and so in Scotland in twelve out of thirty counties. Now, where did the people go who left those districts ? Not, for the most part, out of the kingdom; they went into the great towns. Recollect that has been the case with a large proportion of the Irish, as well as the English and Scotch populations. We have in Liverpool alone, and the district immediately surrounding it, upwards of 100,000 born in Ireland. It is reckoned that in England and Scotland alto- gether there are 800,000 Irish. I think, when gentlemen speak or write of the decrease of the population in Ireland, they ought in fairness to hear this in mind that, to that extent at least, the decrease does not represent an emigration out of the country as a whole, hut simply a movement from one part of the country to another. 5 ’ Mr. Purdy also shows that, in the ten years which elapsed between 1851 and 1861, the very large decrease of 41,790 persons, or 2*84 per cent., had taken place in the number of the agricultural popu- lation. Now, compare this state of things with the actual state of Belgium. The Report for 1859 of the Provincial Commission of Agriculture of East Elanders says : “ Agriculture is the first and most necessary of all our industries ; she employs the 32 THE COUNTRY COMMERCIALLY. great majority of the population of the country, and pays the heaviest contributions to its treasury. It is, then, reasonable and just that all which is calcu- lated to contribute to its prosperity should occupy the attention of the public government. Mr. Barron, Secretary of Legation at Brussels, in his Report on Belgium, lately published, says : The density of the population of Belgium — 425 per English square mile — is greater than that of any kingdom in the world, including even England, Saxony, or Lombardy, which contain 377, 389, and 400 per English square mile. In East Elanders it reaches the extravagant figure of 700 per English square mile. We think these figures show that the agricultural population is diminishing in England, and that the land in England is capable of supporting a much larger population. Whilst this is so, nothing can exceed the prosperity of the country commercially. The year 1866, though marked by a financial panic of calamitous intensity, was, nevertheless, a year of unexampled activity in the national trade. It would almost seem, indeed, as if the great industries of the country were independent of the state of the money market. We have had many a marvellous report of the business transacted in twelve months of commerce, hut the figures now r published sur- pass all former experience. The aggregate value of our exports, which reached £160,000,000 in 1864 and £165,000,000 in 1865, approached closely to £190,000,000 in 1866. The trade thus represented LEASES GIVE INDEPENDENCE OF FEELING. 33 was conducted with every quarter of the world. There is hardly a spot upon the face of the earth to which the products of our industry are not conveyed. We send goods not only to Arabia and to Persia, not only to Abyssinia and Madagascar, but actually to the savages of Patagonia. We deal equally with Asia and Australia, North America and South Ame- rica, Egypt and China, Morocco and Peru. Twenty- two colonies and forty-seven foreign states are enumerated in our list of customers. Leases give to tenants an independence of feeling approaching that of rural freeholders, and surely no- thing can he more desirable. The farmer feels him- self, as it were, connected by a visible link with those who preceded him, and with those whd will follow him. Perhaps the farm of this man has come down to him from his fathers. They have gone to their last home; but he can trace their footsteps over the daily scenes of his labours. The roof which shelters him was reared by those to whom he owes his being. Some interesting domestic tradition is connected with every enclosure. The favourite fruit- tree was planted by his father’s hand. He sported, in his boyhood, by the side of the brook which still winds through the meadow. Through the field lies the path to the village school of his earliest days. He still hears from the window the sweet tones of the Sabbath bell which called his forefathers to the House of God ; and close by, is the spot where he laid his parents dowil to rest, and where he trusts, D 34 LOUD SHREWSBURY OPPOSED TO LEASES. when his hour is come, he shall he dutifully laid by his children. These are the feelings of the rural freeholder — these are the feelings of the leaseholder. Words cannot paint them, gold cannot buy them ; they flow out of the deepest feelings of the heart ; they are the life-spring of a fresh, healthy, generous national character. Next to the safety of human life, the security of property constitutes the foundation of society. It lias been proved to be the basis of every agricultural excellence ; and as both owner and tenant expect the fruits of their labour to accrue to themselves or their posterity, it is to be hoped that leases, on just and liberal principles, will be universally given. That justly popular nobleman and eminent states- man, Lord Stanley, is reported to have said when presiding over the Loyal Agricultural Benevolent Institution, “ I, for my own part, do not hesitate to say that I wish every tenant-farmer in this coun- try had a lease.” We gather from the able editor of the Agricul- tural Gazette , that Lord Shrewsbury stated, at a late Agricultural meeting, that nothing would in- duce him to give a man a lease, because, in the first place, a lease is all on one side. The landlord re- mains, but the tenant, if he be inclined to be fraudu- lent, may go. His lordship added, “I boldly and honestly state I will never surrender my property to a tenant. I mean that no man who will allow his sons to poach LEASES ON ONE SIDE. and act disgracefully, sliall have control over my land for a number of years. I will have an agree- ment for the mutual benefit and protection of my- self and the tenant, and if any agreement really better than the existing one can he found, I will adhere to it. I hope that my tenants will feel con- fidence in me and my successor, and that they will he content to lay out their money with a feeling of security . 55 This speech was thus commented on in Mr. Mor- ton’s paper before the Society of Arts. He said : — We ask first, with reference to leases, is it true that the lease is all on one side ? On the contrary. Put all the advantages on that side which it confers, it is the instrument which not only secures those advantages to the tenant, but which secures to the landlord the an- nual sum or rent at which he himself has valued them. Again, with reference to tenancy at will we ask — Does the landlord remain ? We all know that the word changeable applies to a man’s will as well as to his person. The landlord does not remain, and his successor, whether he be the inheritor of his property, or himself in a different mood of mind, may, in the case of a tenancy at will, arbitrarily put an end to an unwritten bargain. Thirdly, as between leases and tenancy at will, Lord Shrewsbury says, I will never surrender my land for a series of years to a tenant. Under d 2 36 LANDLORDS CONTROL TENANTS’ PROPERTY. tenancy at will, however, a tenant is asked to intrust his property in great measure, and I will say in greater measure, to his landlord. It is much truer to say the land remains, than it is to say the land- lord remains ; and I do not hesitate to affirm that in the case of well-cultivated land of average fer- tility, there is not under leasehold farming so much of the landlord’s property per acre, in the power of the tenant to injure or destroy, as in the case of tenancy at will there may he of the tenant’s pro- perty per acre within the landlord’s power to appro- priate. A landlord may say, I will never surrender my property to a tenant, hut, in point of fact, he never does surrender his property to a tenant. The land remains — it cannot he destroyed. We hear from Baron Liehig of the exhaustion of the land ; — no such thing is known in practice. I do not suppose that, in average circumstances, what is practically known as worn-out land is ever injured to the extent of two years’ purchase ; that is to say, a farm — and if it he held on lease, we must suppose the tenant to have been, not only fraudulent, hut a fool — a farm which has been injured as much as such a one might do it, would he readily taken at the old rent, provided the new tenant had it the first two years for nothing. The injury which a fraudulent tenant can do — provided he he also' a fool — may thus amount to £3 or £4 per acre. On the other hand, taking the case of a man farming land as it may he profitably farmed (in the manner TENANTS AT WILL. 37 which alone contributes to agricultural progress), where a large expenditure has been incurred, per- haps in draining, certainly in liming, in burning, in marling, in artificial manures, and oilcake and other purchased food for cattle and for sheep (all of which require time to realize their effect upon fertility), and * we say the landlord has more than £3 or £4 per acre of the tenant’s property within his power. ‘Well! ’it may be rejoined, c it is the object of this model farm agreement to graft on the system of tenancy at will such a bargain as shall insure the repayment of these £3 or £4, or whatever the unex- hausted outlay may be. Lord Shrewsbury proposes to adopt this, and the objection to which you have thus alluded — putting it in as personal a manner as possible— thus falls to the ground.’ We cannot help the personal aspect in which the systems of lease and tenancy at will of necessity are regarded. It is the personal aspect which is the real one. Landlords inevitably entertain the personal question first and foremost ; and if obtruded on the one side, it must be entertained upon the other. It is even less a tenant who will cross-crop and starve the land, than a tenant e who will permit his sons to poach and behave disgracefully,’ that is feared. After all, it is the fear of having an ill-conditioned set of neighbours that is at the bottom of the dislike of leases. Experienced Land Agents will tell you that it is altogether a mistake to apply general rules to the management of property. They say — The 38 LANDLORD AND TENANT. majority of farmers don’t want a c field for the investment of capital,’ as the phrase goes ; they want an occupation and a home. Leases will not change the nature of a man ; and, in fact, few things more obstruct agricultural progress than the system of dealing with farmers as a class (which they are not), instead of as individuals on their individual merits, which include as much variety as exists among any other body of their fellow-countrymen. To this most people will, we think, agree ; and in accordance with it, one of the chief advantages we claim for leases is, that where adopted as a system, greater individual care is taken in the admission of tenants on an estate. And in accordance with it, too, one of the chief articles in the indictment against tenancy at will is, that it is based upon a class-treatment of the very kind which is thus con- demned. It has, we believe, been proved in other walks of life that the plan of universal restriction — of treating all men with suspicion — of making your general arrangements hinge on the possibility that every man is a rogue — is a blunder. It is an espe- cial mistake in agriculture : for there is a certain class colouring perceptible in farming, as in other professions, and tenant-farmers may be safely spoken of as a worthy and well-conditioned body of men. If, as is ludicrously feared, a general prevalence of the lease should substitute for the homely and neighbourly class with whom in English country districts one has so long enjoy ably associated, a COVENANTS OF LEASES. 39 set of energetic, rutliless, restless, money-making “ sharps,” the change would ho lamentable indeed ; hut the fear is ludicrous. However many new men may he entering agriculture from other walks of life, it will always he found that the bulk of farmers have been bred by farmers. And it is, we believe, an easier and a better thing to engraft upon the characteristic good qualities of the class, or rather (for they already exist) to foster there the intelli- gence and enterprise and energy of commercial life, by adopting more generally a commercial view of the relations between landlord and tenant, than it would be to engraft a strict valuation and acknow- ledgment of tenant-right upon the system of tenancy at will. "We give the form of a lease which we think might be altered to suit most properties. In using these articles, it is advisable to have them in a printed form. The necessary particulars for each farm may be inserted at the end when the contract is entered into. Should it be thought advisable, in any particular case, to modify some of the stipula- tions that may not be altogether applicable, it will be sufficient to note the changes or qualifications in writing on the margin of the printed instrument ; and, by the written matter being properly attested, the deed may be legally completed. And if the landlord and tenant agree that certain specified fields shall be left at the termination of the lease under particular crops, then the numbers, names, 40 FORM OF FARM LEASE. and contents of these enclosures, may be stated on the back of the agreement. By adopting such a course as this, many misunderstandings may be avoided in future years. AETICLES OE LET OE EAEMS ON THE ESTATE OF In the county of Belonging to I. The entry to the ploughable land shall be at , and to the houses, yards, and pasturage, at thereafter. II. The tenants shall reside on their farms ; and assignees and sub-tenants, legal or conventional, without the written consent of the proprietor, are excluded. III. The rents shall be paid at the mansion- house, or some other equally convenient place, and that at two terms in the year, and , by equal portions. The tenants shall also pay the usual taxes and public burdens. IV. Within six months of the time of the entry of the tenants to the farms, the lessor shall put the farm-houses and homesteads in a satisfactory state of repair, according to the special agreements that may be entered into in regard thereto ; and by their acknowledging to have received them in this con- dition — which they shall be presumed to do, if no FORM OF FARM LEASE. 41 written objection is made — the tenants shall be bound to keep them in a similar state during the period of their occupancy. At the close of the leases, the out-going tenants shall leave the whole house erections in a tenantable condition, otherwise they shall be at the expense of putting them into good order. Y. To decide on all matters relating to house- repairs, compensations, valuations, and questions of farm practice, the sworn appraisers on the estate, who are chosen every three years, one by the pro- prietor, and another by the majority of the tenants, are hereby constituted the sole judges and referees. In all cases, the awards pronounced by the ap- praisers, or their umpire, shall be binding on both parties ; and, until final decisions are come to, the tenants shall not retain any part of their rents in respect of any unadjusted claim for compensation. VI. During the currency of the leases, the tenants shall cultivate and manage their farms ac- cording to the generally recognized rules of good husbandry, keeping their land at all times free from weeds, and in a high state of fertility. Should it be proved, on the evidence of the appraisers, and other credible witnesses, possessed of practical knowledge in agriculture, that the farms are mis- managed in such a way as to be deteriorated in value, then the proprietor, after giving three months’ warning to the defaulting tenants, and allowing them time to make explanations, shall, if the ap- 42 FORM OF FARM LEASE. praisers are still dissatisfied, have the power of putting the following stipulations in force : — 1st, The farms shall thereafter he strictly managed on a lour years’ shift ; 2 nd, Two cereal crops shall not be grown in succession; 3 rd, No straw, turnips, nor mangolds, to be sold off the farms ; 4 th, Purchased manures, to the extent of ten shillings for each acre of arable land contained in the farms, shall annually he used till the close of the leases, or till it is found safe to relax these obligations. VII. The tenants shall he hound, during the last four years of their leases, if these are not renewed, to manage their farms according to a four course rota- tion of cropping, haying annually one-fourth thereof in turnip, mangold wurzel, potato, or other cleansing green crop ; two-fourths in corn or pulse-crops, and one-fourth in clover or grass. Por all lime and undissolved hones that may, with the proprietor’s sanction, he applied to the land during the last four years of the leases, the following payments shall be made by the lessor, or in-coming tenants : — Por expenditure during last year, four-fifths of the pur- chase price (exclusive, in all cases, of cartages) ; for that during the previous year, one-half ; for that of the third year, from the close, one-third ; and for that of the fourth year, one-fourth of the cost price. Por all purchased stall or stable manures used on the farms at the close of the leases, and from which only one crop has been received, one-half the price shall be allowed to the out-going tenants ; and for FORM OF FARM LEASE. 43 similar manures, from which two crops have been reaped, one-fourth the cost thereof. And for all oil-cake, and other equally valuable bought feeding stuffs, used during the last year of the leases, the away-going tenants shall he repaid one-third the market price : But they shall he required to give satisfactory evidence, hy vouchers or otherwise, of the purchase and use of such manures or feeding materials ; and, during the last year, the quantities must not he greater than those used for three years previously. In all these cases, the “ last year” shall be held to end with the term at which the tenants cease to have right to the arable land. VIII. Power is reserved to the proprietor, to drain annually, to his own or his agent’s satisfac- tion, at least one-tenth part of all farms requiring to be drained, which extend to one hundred acres or upwards, and one-twelfth part of all farms which are of a less size. Besides carting all the materials, the tenants shall be bound to pay an additional yearly rent, beginning on the first day of the first calendar month after the works are com- pleted, amounting to five per cent, on the money so expended ; and they shall further be bound regularly to clear the discharging outfalls of the drains from all vegetable or other obstructions. IX. When the tenants enter to the farms, the hedges, fences, and gates on sides of public and parish roads, shall be put in such a state of repair by the proprietor’s hedgers or out-going tenants, as 44 FORM OF FARM LEASE. the principal hedger may deem necessary to make them fencible ; and thereafter they shall he kept np at the mutual expense of the lessor and lessees, the whole operations thereon to he under the direction of the head-hedger on the estate for the time being, whose certified accounts of the proportion of the expense payable by the tenants, shall be held as sufficient authority for charging the same against them, at the first rent collection after the expense has been incurred. The proportion of the expense of repairs payable by the tenants, shall be one-half the cost of labour and material. All the interior and sub-division hedges and fences, shall be kept up by and at the sole expense of the tenants ; and, by getting them in good repair, they shall be bound to keep them in a similar state, during the whole term of their occupancy, and leave them in the same condition at the termination thereof. X. The proprietor reserves right of access to his woods and plantations, with power to prune, cut, and remove any trees that may be growing on the lands ; and the tenants shall be responsible to the proprietor for any damage done to growing woods or trees, by themselves, their families, or cottars ; and, under breach of this regulation, they shall not allow cattle, sheep, goats, or stock of any kind, to stray in the enclosed plantations, or do injury to any of the trees. No damages shall be allowed to the tenants, if the customary access roads are ad- hered to, when cartages are being performed in FORM OF FARM LEASE. 45 connection with the plantations ; hut, if the adjoin- ing land is roaded, or injured in any way, by such cartages, compensation shall he allowed to the tenants. XI. The tenants shall not sell any straw off the farm, without purchasing manure of equal value in its place ; neither shall they dispose of or remove from the farms, any of the manure which may be made upon them. Without permission, in writing, from the lessor, the tenants shall not grow turnip, rape, or mangold wurzel seed, during the last four years of their occupation. XII. The outgoing tenants shall he careful to work the fallow and green cropping breaks of the last year of their occupancy, in a skilful manner, to the satisfaction of the resident Agent on the property ; and for this, and for manures and seed wheat, they shall he paid by the incoming tenants, according to the award of the appraisers. The away-going tenants shall also he hound to sow, along with the last corn crop of their leases follow- ing a green crop or fallow break, a proper quantity and quality of mixed grass and clover seeds ; and to harrow and roll in the same in a suitable manner, without remuneration for the labour. They must further preserve the young grass from being hurt or pastured by live stock or otherwise, during or after harvest ; and, in that event, and should the roots of the plants give evidence, in the spring, that the seeds have been of the proper kinds, these 46 FORM OF FARM LEASE. shall be paid for by the proprietor or in-coming tenant, on receipted accounts being produced there- for. XIII. All the payments made, in terms of these articles, to the outgoing tenants, for unexhausted manures, straw, fallow working and seeding, grass seeds, or other usual awaygoing settlements, shall either he directly paid by the in-coming tenants, or, according to arrangement, repaid to the landlord, if the amount has been laid out by him. XIV. The proprietor reserves power to resume possession of the subjects let, in case the tenants shall become bankrupt, or shall execute trust con- veyances of their leases, or crops, or stocking, for behoof of their creditors ; or shall allow seques- tration, to the extent of one year’s rent, to be awarded against them ; and the proprietor, in any of these events, may resume possession of the sub- jects let, at the first term thereafter. Should a tenant, when removed under any of the cases fore- said, have more than a fourth of the farm under cereal crops, the proprietor shall he entitled to an additional rent of £2 for every acre more than the fourth part of the farm which is under such crop. XV. The right to resume possession of any part of the lands, for the purpose of feuing, building, planting, enclosing, or for other improvements, is reserved to the proprietor ; also power to straight marches and excamh lands, either with any of his own farms, or with any neighbouring proprietor ; FORM OF FARM LEASE. 47 the tenant receiving compensation for the ground taken, or paying for the ground added to their farms by any of these undertakings. XVI. The proprietor reserves all sand, gravel, stone, limestone, coal, and other minerals in the lands, with power to search for, work, and remove the same, and to occupy such grounds, and erect such workmen’s houses and buildings as may be necessary for working, calcining, or manufacturing the minerals, or for making roads and railways to facilitate their transport to market or elsewhere ; but the ground so taken shall be paid for, accord- ing to the award of the sworn appraisers of the property. XYII. Power is reserved, in the option of the proprietor, to insure against fire the whole dwelling- houses and farm buildings on the lands, to their full value ; the tenants being bound to repay him the annual expense of the insurance at the first rent collection after its disbursement. XVIII. The right to kill game on the farms is reserved to the lessor. If the lessees agree to leave a fair proportion of game for the proprietor’s use and enjoyment, they shall have the joint right of shooting over their farms ; if it is found that it is their intention to extirpate the game, this right shall be wholly withdrawn. XIX. The tenants shall not keep an inn, nor sell spirits, or other exciseable liquors ; nor shall they engage as common carriers or carters in hired work 48 POEM OP EAEM LEASE. off their farms, unless the written consent of the lessor is received. XX. Should the tenants manage or crop the lands contrary to the regulations prescribed in Articles VI.. and VII. hereof, they shall pay to the proprietor an additional rent of £1 for each acre, or part of an acre, so managed or cropped. In the event of a breach of Article XI., the lessees shall pay at the rate of £1 for every ton of straw or dung sold contrary to the stipulations therein ; and for every acre of turnip, rape, or mangold wurzel seed grown during the last four years of the leases, an extra rent of £3 per acre shall he exigible. It is further declared, that these payments are not penal, hut pactional rents, payable at the next rent col- lection. XXI. In case the tenants conceive that they have any legal claim against the lessor for implement of the conditions of their leases, they shall he bound, within ten days after the 31st day of December in each year, to state specifically, in writing, to the proprietor or his agent, the nature of such claims for the year then ended. XXII. On the separation from the ground of the last crop of a tenant in the year of his removal, the sworn appraisers shall inspect the condition of the farm in respect to the fulfilment of the foregoing conditions ; and should they report that these con- ditions have not been fulfilled, and that the farm has been deteriorated in consequence, the amount of F011M OF FARM LEASE. 49 such deterioration shall he fixed by them, and their award shall he binding on both parties. This rule shall he applicable, in all respects, to the case of the removal of a tenant under Article XIY. hereof. XXIII. The lessees shall he hound to remove from the houses, and other subjects let, at the expiry of their leases, without warning; and, in case they continue to possess after that period with- out a new agreement, they shall respectively pay double the stipulated rent until they do remove. XXIV. All questions arising between the out- going and in-coming tenants regarding these Ar- ticles, shall be referred to the proprietor or his agent, -whose decision shall be final. Any disputes which may arise between the lessor and lessees, as to the fulfilment of the terms of these presents, and which may not be cognizable by the appointed appraisers, shall be referred to arbiters, mutually chosen by the proprietor and tenants ; and, in the event of said arbiters failing to agree, the decision shall devolve on an oversman, whose award shall be final. The above constitutes the printed part of the agreement ; and then follows a written statement in regard to the particular subject let, the annual rent, the endurance of the lease, and any other special stipulation that may be agreed on. This being signed by both parties, full effect is given to the printed and -written matter. The folio-wing form E 50 THE WHITTEN STATEMENT. for the latter may be altered to suit the circum- stances of the case : — An agreement, made the day of , one thousand eight hundred and , between A B , proprietor of the estate of , on the one part, and C I) , of > , farmer, on the other part, whereby, in consideration of the rent after stated, the said A B doth, in terms of the foregoing Articles of Let of his estate, demise and let unto the said C D , for a period of years, from eighteen hundred and , the farm of , situated in the parish of ; and the said C D , also in terms of the aforesaid printed Articles of Let, doth hereby agree to pay annually, as the rent of said farm so demised, the sum of pounds. And both parties warrant to each other, against all deadly, the lease now entered into, on these printed and written stipu- lations. In witness whereof they have hereunto set their hands and seals, the day and year first above written. Signed, sealed, and delivered by the said A B , in the presence of Signed, sealed, and delivered by the said C I) , in the presence of Although this form of lease will not suit every case, it is nevertheless capable of being altered to answer most properties. It may seem somewhat LEASE EOR GRASS LANDS. 51 long; but a separate examination of the various articles will show that it cannot be made much shorter, unless its terms are wholly altered. By some it will be thought too liberal in its terms ; while others will think it too stringent. To those who criticise it in these aspects, we may say that it is intended to be both liberal and strict — liberal to the deserving tenant, and strict to the undeserving one ; and, to make it as liberal as can possibly be desired, it is only necessary to give a back letter to the tenant, relaxing any of the stipulations that may be thought too strict. EQRM OF LEASE EOR GLASS LANDS IN A MOUNTAIN DISTRICT. Conditions for letting Farms in the Manors of Alston Moor , and Ayle and JFhitloiv , belonging to the Commissioners of Creenioich Hospital. The Earm of containing Acres, or thereabouts, to be taken for the term of Years, commencing at May-day, 186 , at the Yearly Bent of Pounds, payable half-yearly, at the usual terms. The Tenant to pay all Cesses and Taxes ; the Land-tax and the Landlords’ portion of the Property-tax excepted. The Land to be kept in Grass. If any part of it 52 LEASE E0R GRASS LANDS. is taken into cultivation it must be by special per- mission of the Hospital’s Receiver, and subject to such conditions of cropping as he shall prescribe. The Buildings, Gates, Hitches, and Watercourses to be kept during the term, and left at the end thereof, in good tenantable repair by the Tenant (the Roofs, Walls, and Main Timbers of the Build- ings excepted), who shall pay Annual Interest at the rate of 5 per cent, for all outlay for Braining incurred by the Lessors, and for all Buildings or other permanent improvements which have not been stipulated for at the taking of the Barm. The Tenant not to transfer or sublet any part of the Premises without leave in writing from the Hospital’s Receiver ; nor to sell any Hay, Straw, or Manure from the Premises, but to use and apply the same to the Meadow Lands in the most bene- ficial and approved manner; and to leave that which is made in the last year of the term for the use of the succeeding Tenant. All the Hay or Meadow Land to be kept hained and uneaten from and after the 30th day of Decem- ber preceding the end of the term, and the succeed- ing Tenant to be allowed to enter upon it for the purpose of manuring, or otherwise dressing it, from that period. No greater number of Stints to be kept upon the Premises during any part of the last year of the term than have been usually kept in former years during the lease. LEASE FOR GRASS LANDS. 53 Tlie Lessors to have the right to work Minerals in the usual manner, and to fence off and plant certain portions of land at any time during the lease, allowing the Tenant for the same the average rent per Acre of the in field Land of the said Earm, together with the Rates and Taxes to which such rent is liable. If the above rent and stipulations are not duly paid and observed, this agreement to be void and of no effect, and the Lessors to re-enter and re-let the said Premises, reserving power also to distrain for rent due and sue for breach of agreement. on the foregoing conditions, and agree upon request of the said Commissioners, their Receiver, or Soli- citor, to execute a Lease thereof agreeably thereto, which Lease shall also contain all such reservations of Timber, Minerals, and Game, and such Cove- nants, Conditions, and Penalties as are usually contained in Leases of Earms belonging to the said Commissioners, and to pay the Stamp Duty charge- able upon the said Lease. do hereby agree to take the said Earm As Witness hand , this day One Thousand Eight of Hundred and Sixty w 54j ENTRY TO FARMS IN SCOTLAND. There is nothing more deserving of remark, says Mr. Grainger, than the superior advantages enjoyed by tenants entering upon farms in Scotland, and some parts of the north of England, over those in a similar situation in the south, or in some of the Midland districts. In the former, he has nothing to pay for on taking possession, but is enabled to lay out his capital to the best advantage in stocking his farm, and afterwards conducting it upon an improved system ; whilst, in the latter he is, in the first instance, frequently crippled as to pecuniary resources, by being obliged to pay a heavy valuation on entering, and does not, in consequence, after- wards possess the means of making those improve- ments, from which he might derive the greatest advantage. Thus, in the former, a farm may be stocked, and conducted more profitably to the occu- pier, with little more than half the money that is required in the latter. In many counties in Eng- land, a farmer entering upon two hundred acres of land, with a capital of £1500, has to pay, according to the custom of the place, £1200 upon a valuation and for stock, leaving him only £300 to carry on the business; whilst in the North, and in Scotland, a farmer may enter upon the same quantity of land, having no valuation to pay, with only £800, and, after stocking his farm to the best advantage, have the same sum left that the other has, but with much better opportunities of employing it profitably. It is these advantages enjoyed by a tenant, com- ENTRY T 6 FARMS IN ENGLAND. 55 bined with his having an interest in the soil for a certain number of years, and the superior manage- ment of the land, that render estates in Scotland so much more valuable than in England, the rents in the former being nearly double what they are in the latter. It is true that in Scotland the tenants do not pay such heavy rates ; but, after deducting for this, the rents would then be higher by five shillings an acre than they are in England; and under the Scots’ system a far- mer would derive a greater advantage from pay- ing an additional five shillings per acre, than he could by entering upon a farm subject to a valua- tion, even at a deduction of five shillings per acre, thus making a difference per acre of no less than ten shillings. The superiority, indeed, of the free-entering system over the practice of valuation is so evident; that little is required to prove it except the mere statement of the facts. It is quite clear that a farmer, on entering upon a farm, stands in the most need of having the full and unincumbered use of his capital, in order, in the first place, that he may be enabled to stock his land at the lowest rate for ready money ; and in the next, that he may have a sufficient sum left to meet contingent demands, until he can obtain returns, and to allow of his taking advantage of the turns of the market. Wherever he is obliged, by the custom of the country, to take various articles, and to pay for 56 THE FREE-ENTERING SYSTEM. workmanship and labour at a valuation, he fre- quently, indeed most commonly (not being imme- diately in want), pays more for them than they are worth, or a higher price than he could obtain them for in the markets, or in the usual course of busi- ness, fer ready money, and at a greater rate for labour and workmanship than that at which he himself could have them performed; whilst, in every case of this description, the greater part of his capital, is locked up at a time when he most wants the use of it : he commences business, in consequence, in a state of embarrassment; and, unless some unusually fortunate circumstances occur, he cannot recover himself ; nor has he the means of making those improvements from which he might derive advantageous returns, because he does not possess capital sufficient to enable him to make the requisite outlay, and to wait a certain time for the result. It is true that, in lieu of the cash he has paid, he is in possession of a certain quantum of property ; but that property is, too generally, not available when he is most in need of money (some of it not at all) ; and not unfrequently he is compelled to sell it at different terms at a loss, by which a portion of his capital is literally sacrificed, and his embarrassments still further in- creased. It may be said that he has the benefit of this practice when he quits his farm ; but this is, in truth, only perpetuating a bad system, under which COMPULSORY VALUATION. 57 tlie land can never be properly improved, or made to grow what it is capable of producing. To this it may, in a great measure, be attributed, that so large a proportion of the soil in England lies in a neglected state, or is not cultivated under a proper rotation, or rendered efficiently productive. It is true that many of these evils may be traced to a cause we before stated, — the not giving a tenant a sufficient interest in the land by means of a lease, to render it of any advantage to him to speculate in improvements ; much, also, in some cases, must be ascribed to the ignorance or prejudice of occu- piers of the land ; but, perhaps, the greatest of all evils is that to which we have just alluded, namely, the compulsory system of valuation, because that either prevents farmers of spirit, experience, or knowledge of the subject, from taking farms which there is no doubt they would greatly improve, and in so doing set an example in their respective neighbourhoods, which might be highly and ge- nerally beneficial ; or, if they do enter upon land under such a custom, it incapacitates them from making those improvements which they wish and are inclined to make, and which would be in the same degree advantageous. If it is urged, that, in specifying a grievance, some remedy ought also to be pointed out ; the answer is, that it rests entirely with the landlords, who have the power and the means, as the farms on their estates fall out of lease, or out of occupation 58 INCOMING AND OUTGOING TENANT. to make what regulations they please as to the letting of their land. It must be obvious that, if any advantage is to be given to either tenant, it ought rather to be to the in-comer than to the out- goer, as the less money the former has to sink upon entering into the occupation of a farm, the more he has remaining in his possession to lay out in improvements : thus not merely obtaining a profit to himself, but rendering the soil more pro- ductive, and consequently more valuable ; and in this way increasing the income of the landlord. The inducing a tenant to lay out money in im- provements is so obvious a mode of augmenting the value of an estate, that it may be matter for surprise that it is so frequently not thought of, or neglected. If he only holds from year to year, he will, of course, only provide, according to an old saying, from hand to mouth : he can gain nothing by making improvements, and, therefore none that are lasting or permanently advantageous will be made ; but if he lias a lease for fourteen or twenty-one years, then he may be enabled to obtain an adequate return for money laid out in improvements, which will naturally induce him to make them, and at the expiration of the term the land will be found in much better condi- tion, and be in a much higher degree aug- mented in value, than that which was only held from year to year, at the end of a similar number of years. FARMING AND CAPITAL. 59 Undoubtedly, as a general proposition, the most desirable practice of tenancy is, that through which all unpleasantness or misunderstanding between the landlord and tenant, or the incoming and outgoing tenants, is avoided ; each party, to a certain extent, being at liberty to make arrangements, and exert themselves, with a view respectively to their own interest ; and by means of which, also, an incoming tenant may enter a farm with the full benefit of all his capital, so that he may employ it to the best advantage ; it being likewise essentially necessary that the latter should enter into possession at such a period of the year that he may be enabled to sow his crops at a proper season. No business requires in a greater degree the free use of the capital appropriated to it than that of farming, and especially at the outset, when it is most essential that the farmer should possess the means of taking advantage of any bargain that may offer, as, indeed, in every business entered into for the purpose of living by it, the free use of capital at such a period is indispensable. The evils, therefore, which it is wished to remove, and which are, at this moment, in many counties very prevalent, are those customs at entry, the effect of which is to deprive a farmer of nearly the whole or of the greater part of his capital, and thus fre- quently to cause his ruin the first year of his com- mencing business ; and those, which, through the not allowing an incoming tenant the requisite privi- 60 THE FARMER AND IIIS CAPITAL. leges, prevent him from sowing his corn in due season. When a person entering upon a farm is thus de- prived of his capital, through being compelled, by custom, to pay a heavy valuation, he, of course, expects to receive, in a similar proportion, when he quits, from his successor ; and in this way the evil is perpetuated. But were the landlord to alter the system, in order to give the new tenant a free entry, and the free use of his capital, such a course would, most assuredly, combined with the bestowing upon the new occupier a sufficient in- terest in the soil, by means of a lease, ultimately, and in truth speedily, tend most essentially to the advantage of the landholder, as well as of his te- nants. N o farmer, of course, enters into business with a view of being bereft of his capital ; but on the contrary, with the hope of obtaining a comfort- able subsistence for his family and himself, and of bettering his situation ; and it is too obvious to be for a moment doubted, that it is much more easy for him to do so by having money at his command, to enable him to take advantage of the markets, than by being deprived of his capital, and having only times and seasons to trust to. In the latter case, indeed, what little capital he has left to com- mence with, is, in general, lost ; as being unable, through the want of means, either to make improve- ments, or to keep the land so stocked, or in such a condition, as would secure him some return, he can- EQUIPOISED INTERESTS. G1 not, when lie quits, obtain an amount of valuation adequate to liis outlay at entry ; and thus a portion of his capital is literally sacrificed, whilst the land, instead of being improved, is deteriorated. It is, therefore, equally for the advantage of both land- lord and tenant, that this system of taking capital from the latter should not he continued ; and also that the incoming and outgoing tenants should have respectively an equipoised interest, without being under any necessity of interfering with each other when the change of tenancy takes place. Were the following practice generally adopted, it is presumed that a beneficial alteration might he effected. It may he premised, that there is hut one me- thod hy means of which a landed proprietor can have his land in proper condition ; namely, hy letting it subject to certain restrictions, which re- quire a regular course of husbandry to he strictly pursued. Restrictions are equally as favourable to the te- nant as to the landlord, when imposed with a due consideration of their respective interests ; and the more the true nature of those interests is studied at the outset, the greater the mutual benefit that is likely to be derived. On the other hand, where the advantage is given to the tenant at the expiration of his term, he alone is benefited, but not nearly in that proportion that he might have been, had his interest, conjointly with that of the landlord, been 62 MUTUAL ADVANTAGE. properly considered at tlie commencement of that term. The various times for entering upon farms, and the different customs attendant, as it were, upon each of them, are seen in the respective counties in which they are in use, or prevail. It will also he seen, that with regard to many of them, the interest of the incoming tenant is greatly neglected or sacrificed. What is really wished for is a mu- tual advantage, which can only he obtained hy requiring a regular course of husbandry, and allowing an incoming tenant the free use of his capital to go on with it ; hut a course of hus- bandry beneficial to both parties cannot be adopted, unless a proportion of the land is annually sown with clover, or other grass seeds, the phrase “ green crop including so many kinds, that the land is, in consequence of its being frequently used in a way never intended, run out of condition, and much impoverished. The practice of tenancy about to be proposed would, it is conceived, fairly combine the interests of the landlord and tenant, and be found equally beneficial for the taking as well as the letting of a farm ; looking, in the first place, to the lease, and its suggested conditions, for the advantage of the landlord; and, in the next, to the arrangements between the incoming and outgoing tenants, for the benefit of the tenant. In the first place, let it be supposed that A lets a PRACTICE OP TENANCY. 63 farm to B for the term of fourteen or twenty- one years, commencing at Lacly-day, hut granting the privilege of entering upon the land at Candlemas, to begin ploughing for the spring crop and fallows, and freeing the seeds and pasture of cattle at the same period ; and also containing these conditions, namely, that all the hay and straw is to be used upon the premises, and the dung to be left for the benefit of the land during, and at the expiration of, the term ; that made in the course of the last half year being left in the yards, that the incoming te- nant may apply it wherever he thinks it will be most beneficial to himself ; that B, when he quits, is to leave the same advantages that he received when he entered ; that the farm is to be worked on the four- field system, viz., a fourth for wheat, the same pro- portion for seeds, one-fourth for turnips, or fallow, and a fourth for spring corn : or where the soil is good corn land, a third for wheat, the same propor- tion for seeds and turnips, or fallow, equally divided, and one-third for spring corn, including a quantity of beans, peas, or tares, sufficient together with the seeds, to take up a third of the land; that two white crops should never be taken successively, nor more than two white crops for a fallow, and the land to be once dressed ; and that all the meadow ground cut for hay should be dressed every three years. With regard to the quantity of draining, hedging, and ditching, restrictions are, undoubtedly, highly necessary, but their nature and extent must, of 64 PRACTICE OP TENANCY. course, entirely depend upon the situation and quality of the land. It should, therefore, he decided upon at the time of entry, how much ought to he done annually, and at whose expense, in order that stipulations to that effect may he inserted in the lease. The same may he said with reference to the repairs of the buildings. These advantages to the landlord require no ex- planation, as the tenant being bound to sow a certain proportion of the farm every year with seeds, to have another proportion with green crop, and it being stipulated that the corn crops are not to exceed a specified number of acres, the land cannot easily get out of condition. In order, in the next place, to show the advan- tages which it is presumed might be derived from the arrangements here suggested between the out- going and incoming tenants, let it be supposed that B gives up the farm at Lady-day, and that C takes it under the same stipulations as his predecessor. C enters at Candlemas to commence ploughing for and sowing the spring crop, and working the fallows, and takes possession of the seeds and pas- ture land at the same time,' together with a part of the house and stable-room for his horses, but the outbuildings and the remaining portion of the house are retained by B until May- day following, for the purpose of making use of the hay and straw, and completing the threshing then on hand ; and for B’s portion of the wheat crop which he leaves in PRACTICE OE TENANCY. 65 the ground, sufficient barn-room is provided at harvest time, which he threshes on the premises, leaving the straw for his successor, free of expense. C pays to B the value of seed and labour for the clover, or other grass seeds upon the ground, and claims a portion of the wheat crop, he paying rent and taxes from the time of his entering until Mi- chaelmas for the ground it grew upon ; and his portion being one-third of the crop if the land was fallowed for wheat, and half of it if sown after any other crop ; he also has the benefit of all the dung left upon the premises, without paying for it any pecuniary consideration, and he finds remaining in the yards all the dung made during the last half year, as stipulated in the lease. C, entering at Candlemas, has time to plough his land for the Lent corn, and sow it in proper season, from which he obtains a return in six months ; and by his taking possession of the seeds and pasture at the same time, the herbage is prevented from being diminished or injured by late feeding ; and B being restricted from sowing more than a stated propor- tion of the arable land with wheat, C finds as many acres for a crop of Lent corn, and the farm in as regular a course of husbandry as if having held it for several years ; but if the wheat season does exceed the stated proportion, C claims the quantity sown over and above the stipulation, without making any kind of remuneration for the crop ; whereas this restriction being omitted, a leaving tenant sows all E 66 PRACTICE OP TENANCY. the land he possibly can for his last wheat crop, which not only diminishes the quantity of land, pro- perly speaking, intended for his successor’s spring crop, hut prevents him from having the farm in a regular course for several years, besides greatly im- poverishing the land. It besides affords him the opportunity of rolling, sweeping, repairing the fences, or performing any other requisite labour which the pastures may require ; whilst a tenant who is not allowed the privilege of entry before Lady-day, although the custom of the county may give him the right of sowing and ploughing for the spring crop, is put to great inconvenience, and can- not possibly have his land ploughed and sown, and his other necessary work done, in any reasonable time, arising from the outgoing tenant having the option of allowing his successor to enter before Lady- day or not, though the former cannot make use of the land, he being prevented by the same custom from sowing the spring crop, and thus he is in possession of a privilege which cannot benefit himself, hut is highly injurious to the incomer ; this is grievously felt in many counties ; and where the outgoer is allowed to sow the spring crop before he gives up possession at Lady- day, the case is still worse for the incomer, the latter being thus pre- vented from having any corn at all for eighteen months. C is charged for nothing hut the clover or grass seeds upon the ground, as in consequence of paying PRACTICE OF TENANCY. 67 rent and taxes for six months on the wheat crop, he claims a portion of it, and B haying an interest in the last crop as well as in the preceding ones during the term of the lease, is of course induced to farm the land for that, equally as well as for the others ; for although he leaves all the dung for the benefit of C, yet he is not a loser, he having had the same advantages when he himself entered : the reason for its being necessary that the dung made during the last half year should he left in the yards, is, that B having an interest in the last crop, he, if he was not tied down to leave the dung in the yards, would top dress the green wheat in the winter with it, and thus deprive C of manure which is essentially requisite for his turnip or wheat crops the ensuing year ; such a practice being very preva- lent where this restriction is not enforced. C, likewise, has no hay or straw to take at entry, B being bound to feed and use it on the premises by May-day, nor any fallows to pay for, he being allowed, under the proposed arrangement, to enter in sufficient time to make his own. The period of entry in this suggested practice is productive of very great advantages ; the crop being sown in good time, and there being a quicker return, than by means of entering at any other period. A Michaelmas entry affords no return for twelve months ; a still longer delay ensues from one at May- day or Midsummer ; and from a Lady- day entry, where the outgoer has the option of sowing e 2 68 IRELAND AND THE FLAX QUESTION. the spring crop, a delay of no less than a year and a half ; but with the privilege of entering at Candle- mas, the greatest advantages, as already stated, are derived from a Lady-day entry, the delay being only six months, it allowing the incoming tenant the free use of his capital, preventing any unpleasantness between him and the outgoer, they having no favours to ask of, nor being in any way under obligation to each other, and giving them a joint interest, the land is thus kept in good condition, the incomer being enabled and encouraged to make profitable improvements. Having a few pages back made some remarks on the Irish population, we may here add that the flax question is now assuming large proportions in Ireland, and that the inhabitants are gradually be- coming more and more alive to the importance of the subject. Since the civil war commenced in America, and there was a consequent decline in the supply of cotton, it was but natural that other materials should come into greater demand. The cultivation of flax thus began to occupy more at- tention, and year by year a greater breadth of land has been brought under the flax movement, as will be seen from the following statement. In the ten years ending 1855 the number of acres under flax in Ireland averaged 80,000. In 1862, according to an official report furnished to Sir Robert Peel, there were 150,000 acres under cultivation. In 1863 the number had increased to 211,090, an increase of TIIE GROWTH OP PLAX. 69 64,099 ; and in 1864 the number of acres had risen to 301,860, or 87,761 acres more than in the pre- vious year — an increase arising chiefly from the de- pression in the cotton Trade consequent on the American War. N ow the question to he considered is, whether this great extension of flax cultivation will conduce to the ultimate benefit of the country; and upon this point there appears to be some dif- ference of opinion. In the north of Ireland it is well-known that flax has always been considered one of the staple products. The county of Down has lately taken the lead, having, of course, the flourishing town of Belfast as an emporium of trade. Xow, in 1863 no less than 44,963 acres were devoted to flax, Tyrone standing next in order with 32,007 acres. In 1864 this quantity had in- creased to 59,137 acres in Down, and in Tyrone 41,318 acres ; the other counties in the north all in- creased in a like ratio, so that in 1864, of the whole quantity inTreland, the province of Ulster contributed 278,272 acres, or about eleven-twelfths of all the flax in the country. The cultivation has extended in the other provinces, and there is also a strong attempt to establish factories in other parts, which might in time rival the great establishments in Bel- fast. This movement has by many been considered as an indication of a prosperous condition generally, but there are others who take a different view ; and Mr. Armitage Moore, in an address delivered to the tenants on the Annesley Estate, made use of very 70 FLAX EXHAUSTS THE SOIL. strong language on the subject, characterising it as a broken reed ; that the extension of the growth as at present carried on, may he almost called agri- cultural gambling; adding, that “Many men have told him they have been ruined by flax ; and it is a singular fact that in one of the most extensive flax-growing districts in this county, there are more tenants in arrears than in a locality where on 10,000 acres there are not five acres of flax.” Such statements as these ought to have the effect of producing caution in extending the growth of this plant, for it is evident that it is only under certain conditions that it can be cultivated at any advantage to the grower, and if these be not at- tended to, the results may prove really disastrous. There can be no doubt that flax may he made to occupy a legitimate position in the rotation of crops, but experience has shown that in this it can only he introduced once in seven years at least. If con- fined to this, it may prove a very profitable crop ; but when it has been sown in the third or fourth year on the same land, the consequence has been, not only an exhaustion off the soil, but a very in- ferior quality of the flax: for, according to one authority, “ It may he taken as a general rule that unless on exceptional lands, favoured by exceptional seasons and prices, a four or five years’ course will be utterly unprofitable.” As this is the result of experience, it behoves those who may wish to ex- tend the flax cultivation to take warning in time. TITHE COMMUTATION. 71 and not attempt a system which has been proved to be not only erroneous hut ruinous. If this ap- plies to Ireland, it does so equally to England, where, during the last autumn, at many of the agricultural meetings, it was broadly recommended that flax should be introduced into the rotation. If the suggestion should be followed out, the caution against its too frequent repetition on the same land cannot be too strongly made. Under any circumstances, for some time at least, it is pro- bable that there will be an increasing demand for it, which is enough to stimulate its growth. The warnings thus based on the experience of Ireland ought to be attended to here, and then there need be no fear but that, properly undertaken, it will prove a very profitable crop. Tithe Commutation. Average value of Tithe Rentcharge of £100 for previous seven years to Christmas , and Return of the Septennial prices of each hind of Grain per bushel , as prepared for the Tithe Commis- sioners in each year, from 1860 to 1866. Seven Years Value of Wheat per Barley Oats ended. Rentcharge. Bushel. per Bushel. per Bushel. £ s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. 1860 . . 110 17 8i 7 1 6J 3 H 1861 . . 112 3 4f 7 44 4 7i 3 2 1862 . . 109 13 6 7 Of 4 71 3 1 1863 . . 107 5 2 6 8f 4 7i 3 0 1861 . . 103 3 lOf 6 3| 4 5f 2 Hi 1865 . . 98 15 10i 6 0 4 H 2 10 1866 . . 96 11 5 Hi 4 21 2 of 72 FARMING IN IRELAND. Tithes are the tenth part of produce from the land that has been appropriated from the earliest ages to sacred purposes, in the maintenance of the clergy, and upholding religious establishments. The ar- rangement has passed through many shapes and forms, and the valuation and collection of the por- tion of produce has engendered much strife, and has produced many unpleasant collisions between the cultivator and the owner of the tithe. An un- willingness arises to give away any part of the increase that is obtained by labour and capital, and an inconvenience ever happens from drawing in kind the allotted part of the different articles of produce. These grumblings and collisions are now very much removed by the “ Tithe Commutation Act,” of a modern date, which changes all tithes from kind into a rent in money that is fixed by the average prices of grain for seven years past. A Government commission superintends the general arrangements, and the former complaints have been removed. The farmer is not subjected to any intru- sions or interferences — the amount is fixed for him, and he knows his damage. The alteration has proved a very great benefit of the kind. Referring to the condition of farming in Ireland, we learn that there has been a great decrease in the production of cereals, so that the exports of wheat, flour, barley, and oats have greatly fallen away. Their shipments show that the export of cattle from Waterford in 1862 was 34,629 head ; and in 1865 it FARMING IN IRELAND. 73 liad fallen to 10,622. It may be asked, what are the gentleman farmers and tenant farmers doing with their land ? The export of sheep in 1862 was 36,660 ; in 1865 it was 31,901. There is a slight increase in the export of pigs and of butter ; hut with the facts before us, we may well say, what are you doing to ensure the progress of the country ? The number of cattle exported from Ireland in 1863 was 399,264 ; in 1865 it was reduced to 232,652 ; of calves there was a reduction from 42,387 to 14,082 ; of sheep there was a decrease from 517,232 in 1863, to 332831 in 1865. Mr. Thom estimates the value of live stock exported in 1863 at £8,562,219, and at his price those of 1865 were only £6,075,000, thus showing a decrease of nearly two millions and a half. The rural population of Ireland has within the past twenty years been lessened by two and a half millions, but the value of the agricultural pro- duce has diminished in a greater ratio. With these facts, how can it be said that Ireland is progressing, or that agriculturalists are performing their func- tions ? With regard to flax, the county of Water- ford, with an area of nearly half a million of acres, had only 152 acres of flax, and that this year there were 24 acres less than in 1865 ; and that counties in Ulster were growing 20,000 and 30,000, and one even 50,000 acres. The solution is the want of labour. The province of Munster had an area of 6,067,721 acres, whilst Ulster had 5,479,384 acres, yet the population of Munster was 1,513,553 per- 74 WHAT LAND AGENTS SHOULD ASK. sons, while that of Ulster was 1,914,553, being a difference of 400,000 persons. The population of Ulster exceeds that of Munster by 400,000, hut the value of the agricultural produce of the former is greater h y four millions ; that is, about £10 per head, or £50 for each male adult. This proves that it is not the extent of land, hut the amount of labour applied to land, which produces wealth. If Ireland is to he wealthy and prosperous, her people must apply more labour to the land, and they may depend upon it that their wealth and contentedness will largely increase. Land Agents should ask, when applied to for a farm, not “ How many acres do you want ?” which is the common question, hut “ How much money have you ?” Because, if the tenant has not at least £10 to £15 for every arable acre, it is quite impos- sible for him to farm, with any degree of success, in these times. In fact, to farm well, and to enable the tenant to hide his time, and buy cheap and sell dear, he should have about £6,000 for 500 acres, and if modern improvements are to be carried on vigorously, at least £7,000 would be needed. Banners have, in general, too much land in proportion to their capital, and one of the crying evils of the day is, that they grasp a large quantity, instead of con- centrating their capital on improvement within a smaller compass. It is thus that we see scattered over the country large tracts of unproductive land, which, under good cultivation, would yield valuable FARMING ON TOO LITTLE CAPITAL A GREAT EVIL. 75 crops. The great secret of success in farming is, to occupy only such an extent of land as can be well cultivated. It is sad to see the tenant of a farm too large for his means, pride himself on the number of acres which he possesses. Profits depend more on thoroughness and quality of cultivation than on the quantity of land put under tillage. A great deal of money is invested in but half- stocking the farm, and a very little employed in its cultivation. Such a man is like a merchant who has fitted up a roomy store, and gazes with com- placency on his empty shelves. He has chalked out to himself a hard lot, and involuntarily enters into a state of servitude worse than Egyptian bondage. His work is never accomplished. He toils at all hours, and yet he is never ahead of his work, and his work is never well done. He has not time to accomplish anything thoroughly. His house is out of repair, — his cattle poor, — his barn dilapidated, — his fences in ruins, — his pastures overrun with bushes, — and acres of land, which, under proper cultivation, might be made to yield a rich harvest, are but little removed from barren- ness, or perhaps covered with obnoxious plants. What a harassed, unhappy being, must be the occupier of such a farm ! He has no time for re- creation or mental improvement. He is doomed to the treadmill, with his spirits depressed, despon- dency stamped on his haggard lineaments, andThe worm of discontent gnawing at his heart. Eor him 76 BAD ADVISERS MAKE BAD LANDLORDS. there are no pleasant associations with the past ; the present is full of anxiety, care, and hard labour; and a cloud rests upon the future. It is always ad- visable, therefore, to suit the farm to the farmer, and the extent of its acres to the extent of his means, as the latent powers of the soil can only he secured by a proper application of skill, and a judicious expenditure of labour and capital. Agents should be very particular in ascertaining that the holdings of the tenantry under their charge are not too extensive for their means. When found to he so, they ought to lose no time in reducing them to a size commensurate witli the tenant’s capital. Moreover, Agents should see to it that every tenant has got suitable buildings, and should bind the tenants to keep them in good and tenant- able repair. For it is only common justice, if the landlord does his part, that the tenant should do his. Happily the landowners of this country, as a body, possess great judgment and patriotism, and are most worthy members of society. It is therefore not difficult for the Agent or Steward to obtain their con- sent to whatever is for the best interests of landlord and tenant. Bad advisers make bad landlords, and too often ruin the best tenantry and the best estates. We are greatly in favour of landed proprietors riding a good deal across country. For apart from the healthy and invigorating exercise, he who rides to hounds gets an accurate knowledge of the agri- cultural state of his country, of the various systems , ROTATION OR CROPS. 77 of farming, and of the actual condition of stock, which he would never obtain by walking or driving along public roads in a lifetime. Moreover, he would get to learn the abilities and efficiency of tenant farmers, not only upon his own property, hut upon other estates and other counties. In addition to what has been already written upon the important subject of rotation of crops in our work on farming, we may state that judicious cropping is that mode of management which is the most likely, for a series of years, to yield the greatest quantity of useful produce, at the smallest comparative expense and risk, from any given extent of land. The pro- priety of adopting any particular system of cropping will he considerably influenced by the following cir- cumstances : — 1st. The climate, whether it he wet, dry, warm, or cold ; and the situation whether high or low. "Wet climates and high situations, for in- stance, are rather favourable to the growth of oats ; dry climates and low situations, to that of barley ; 2nd. The soil ; for sand, gravel, clay, chalk, peat, and loam, have various crops calculated for each respectively. 3rd. The situation of the farm, in regard to the facilities that may exist for disposing of any particular crops. In the neighbourhood of cities or large towns, potatoes, clover, hay, &c., may be of more value than those crops would be if far removed from such localities, though the intro- duction of railways gradually tends to equalise prices. 4th. The means that may exist for pro- 78 ROTATION OP CROPS. curing large quantities of manure at cheap rates, as stable dung, sea-weed, marl, lime, &c. Lastly, though by no means least in importance, the fitness of the soil for carrying particular crops. The following rules should he kept in mind in deciding upon the order of the rotation of any crops : — 1. When commencing with land out of heart or condition, it is necessary to begin with such crops as are most likely to produce manure . Hence, barley ought to he avoided, as it produces but little straw when compared with other crops, and two exhausting crops must not follow in succession. 2. The crops should he so arranged that the labour of ploughing for each, and of sowing, weed- ing, reaping, &c., may proceed in a regular suc- cession, by which the labour of cultivation is not too much crowded on the farmer at any one par- ticular period of the year, nor extra stock required to perform the necessary operations, which may, if properly arranged, he all done with the same set of labourers, horses, &c., with the exception of hoeing in spring and summer, and harvesting. 3. All forcing or repetition of the same crop should he avoided, and two grain crops should never succeed each other. Such an arrangement should he made that by the grain crops a sufficient quantity of straw is provided as food and litter for cattle ; while, at the same time, a fair profit may be derived from the grain. By the green crops and SIMILAR SOILS FARMED DIFFERENTLY. 79 grass, a number of animals should be maintained in winter and summer, and, being well littered and well fed, a bulk of valuable manure will be obtained. No first-class farmer will, however, bind himself to any fixed rotation of crops, but will rather be guided by locality, climate, quality of the land, prices, and the demand for particular crops, and other circumstances. It is evident that there must be such a diversity regarding these points, that it is hardly possible to lay down any general rules that can be applied to all cases ; and yet the system to be adopted by the farmer must, in a great measure, depend on a due consideration of these circumstances combined. In .point of fact, it is by his attention to these circum- stances that the good farmer is distinguished from the bad one. It is scarcely possible to pass through a parish without perceiving that the same kind of soil is cultivated on as many different systems as there are farms ; and it is very difficult to find two fields in which the system does not vary. Now, it is evident that some one of these systems must be preferable to the other ; for even if twenty systems are practised on the same kind of soil, some one amongst them must be superior to the other nine- teen. There is no class, the members of which place more entire reliance on their own skill than farmers ; yet they who know them best will be the 80 TENANTS OUGHT NOT TO MISUSE STRAW. most ready to admit that the greater number are far from haying acquired a correct knowledge of their business ; and no one who is acquainted with the general agriculture of the country will say that it has yet approached to that degree of perfection of which it is susceptible. Some persons say that land must have rest ; but if they will diyest them- selves of those prejudices, originating in old customs, and consult the laws of nature, they will find that land does not require frequent and regular intervals of rest, like an animated being, or beast of burden, but that it is destined, through the skill and industry of man, to be able to bear, unim- paired, a perpetual course of cropping. Even in uncultivated fields, where the plants are permitted to grow, mature, and deposit their seed, there is. a continual sameness ; but land, like the beast of burden, may be overpowered, by being worked beyond its strength ; yet, like a trusty and faithful servant, it is always grateful, and will make an ample return for whatever is bestowed upon it. The Agent should see that the tenantry under his charge do not misuse straw. The subject of straw is one of much greater importance than is commonly imagined, and its value, taken in the aggregate, is so very great, that it is well entitled to more attention than hitherto has been bestowed upon it. Earmers are too apt to consider it as of little or no value, because it is not generally sale- able, and it is rarely estimated separately from the HOUSE ACCOMMODATION FOR LABOURERS. 81 yearly produce of the soil. But, though it is not in general (except in the vicinity of towns) a mar- ketable commodity, yet it is a material which, under proper modes of consumption, is necessary to preserve our tillage land from deterioration, and on which the amount of its future produce most essentially depends. Thatched buildings, more- over, lessen the quantity of dung upon a farm to such an extent that they ought to be universally prohibited. A good deal has been said and written upon the interesting question of house accommodation for labourers ; yet we think, with all submission to the opinions of gentlemen of acknowledged information, that it is altogether a landowner’s, and not a farmer’s question. It is, as we have just said, a very important question, and one which our landed proprietors are now happily taking up with much earnestness. If landlords were not rich, and if their properties were not extensive, we readily admit that they could not afford the outlay, however anxious they might he to build good cottages. It certainly is not a paying matter to build substan- tial, comfortable dwellings for this most valuable class of the people. Nevertheless, we believe it to he the duty of landowners to provide with decent habitations all the labourers who work on their estates. It has often been stated that the obstacle to cottage building is the fact that cottages breed “ paupers.” But who are the paupers ? Are they 82 PROPER DWELLINGS ELEVATE THE LABOURER. not the old worn-out labourers; the weak, the widowed, the orphan — it may he, the maimed ; the human workers whom the toils and accidents of life have brought to this sad condition ? They have done their day’s work zealously and well : and now, when the evening has come, and they can work no longer, they have a natural right to that subsistence which it has been utterly impossible for them to lay up for themselves. They are of the “ labour “ family,” and therefore a burthen which is not unreasonable. We live, thank God, in a land and in an age in which the duties of property are as well defined by public opinion as its great privi- leges are cheerfully conceded by public consent. While maintaining that the erection of labourers’ cottages is more a landlord’s question than a farmer’s, we are quite convinced that suitable dwellings for labouring families tend greatly to benefit the farmer, because they tend to the moral elevation of the labourer, and thus render him more valuable. A competent authority has given it as his opinion that if the comfort and the accom- modation of the labourer and his family be the chief consideration, without any pretension to architectural display, a cottage with five rooms and the necessary outbuildings can be erected for about £100, and, if let at a fair rent, would realize 2J per cent, annually, after deducting for ordinary repairs. Besides, all the cottages would not require three sleeping apartments ; some might be built with LOUD PALMERSTON AND IIIS COTTAGES. 83 only two, and others, for couples without children, with only one, so that the average cost of erection might be reduced to £90 : not a very heavy sum, truly. That eminent authority, Mr. Bailey Benton, in his most instructive work, J€ Barm Homesteads of England,” says that, reduced to figures, we shall find that three-bedroom cottages will cost from £130 to £150 each ; those with two bedrooms from £90 to £130 each ; and those with one bedroom only from £70 to £100. The mean return required to repay principal and interest in thirty years may be taken at £8 a year for the first, £6 12s. for the second, and £5 for the last description of cottage. With respect to the improvement and alteration of old cottages to meet the requirements of the present day, Lord Palmerston was of opinion cc that it is not necessary to pull down old cottages to build new ones. A great deal can be done at a moderate cost in improving the old ones.” At Broadlands his Lordship has personally superintended the enlarge- ment and alteration of his old cottages, so as to render them free from those objections which are so repugnant to good feeling. Sufficient bedroom accommodation, good drainage, and ventilation, have been his primary objects ; while the poor man’s comfort has been studied by the substitution of boarded for stone or brick floors, and by the pro- vision of those little conveniences, such as cupboards and shelves, which we all know how to appreciate G 2 84 CONSTRUCTION OF A LABOURER’S COTTAGE. in our own houses. Moreover, cottages are easily ornamented at little or no expense. A variety of flowers and shrubs, which may be easily obtained 5 will answer this purpose — the China rose, the honeysuckle, and many other varieties which it is needless to mention. A Morelia cherry-tree, at the north end of a cottage, has been known to pay the whole rent by the sale of its valuable fruit. A tree, or a few shrubs planted before the door, even, will cause the cottager to look on his home with greater satisfaction than he has ever done before. The number and dimensions of the apartments essential to health in a dwelling must be pro- portionate to the number of its occupants, and suitable provision must be made for all that apper- tains to a well-ordered domiciliary life, not only that of the master and mistress, as well as of the chil- dren, but also that of the servants, whose health and morals it is the duty of their employers to care for. In most dwellings the scale of accommodation chiefly depends on the means and circumstances of the occupants, in which the variety is so great that we shall not attempt to give anything but a brief outline of what may be termed the minimum pro- vision which ought to be made for a family consist- ing of parents and children of both sexes, belonging to the labouring class, undoubtedly the most nume- rous section of the community. We should say that a labourer’s dwelling in the country should have a small entrance lobby, a living room not less CONSTRUCTION OF A LABOURER’S COTTAGE. 85 than 150 feet in area, and a scullery of from 60 feet to 80 feet in area, in which there should he a stove or fireplace for summer use, as well as a copper and sink ; there should also he a small pantry. Above should be a parents’ bedroom of not less than 100 feet area, and two sleeping-rooms for the children, averaging from 70 to 80 feet superficial each, with a distinct and independent access. Two of the sleeping-rooms at least should have fireplaces. There ought also to be a properly-lighted, venti- lated, and drained closet, as well as suitable enclosed receptacles for fuel and dust. The height of the rooms, in order to their being healthy, should be scarcely less than 8 feet, and even 9 feet would be desirable but for the extra expense. With a view to ventilation, the windows should reach nearly to the ceiling, and the top be invariably made to open. In windows which have transomes as well as mul- lions, some of the upper compartments may be hung on centres for this purpose. Having in our last paper, says “The Parmer,” taken up the consideration of some of the points connected with the accommodation, we are now prepared to proceed with the plans of cottages which have been recently erected, and to note how far they carry out or embody the principles or assumed principles to which, in that paper, we made more or less direct reference; and for the purpose of the present one, we shall endeavour to exhaust the very suggestive article or essay by Mr. Baily Denton, 86 PLANS OP COTTAGES. read before tlxc Society of Arts, and entitled “The Economy of Agricultural Cottages,” in which various plans are given, with remarks bearing upon Piggery. .£ P-. Wood and Coals. to d; w W d w k 1 f Scullery. Scullery. | e s. ; Porch I d o a ' o Porch J s. d o ^ / fcD •> 7 i d — .2 > ,55 u A Fisr. 1. the economy of their construction, as well as upon the convenience of their arrangement. In fig. 1 we give the ground plan, and in fig. 2 the chamber plan, of semi-detached cottages erected Fig. 2 by Mr. Itobson on the estate of the Earl of Pem- broke. In these type diagrams the various apart- ments are named, letters d , w> f and s indicating the positions of cfoors, windows, fireplaces, and stairs respectively. PLANS OP COTTAGES. 87 In fig. 3 we give ground plan, and in fig. 4 chamber plan, of a pair of cottages erected by the late Duke of Bedford on his estates in Devonshire and Bedfordshire ; and fig. 5 gives the arrangement Privy. d d Privy. Coal. Coal. Scullery. . d ^ Scullery. - I/I Living Room. . c. c. 1 / 1 Living Room. 1 s. s. 1 p • w d d w Fig. 3. of the ground plan of a block of four cottages (fig. 6 being the chamber plan of same) in which there are two cottages having two bedrooms, and two three bedrooms. In the plans in figs. 3 and 4, each cottage has only a single bedroom ; in these plans, the letters c c indicate the position of closets. 55 I / 1 w w c. c. I / 1 Bedroom. s. s. Bedroom. Fig. 4. In fig. 7 we give the ground plan of what Mr. Denton calls excellent cottages, 55 erected on the 88 PLANS OF COTTAGES. estate of Sir Ilenry Dashwood, in Oxfordshire ; and in fig. 8 tlie chamber plan of same. These cottages contain each three bedrooms, hut one of these is d d d d placed on the ground floor, and the other two above : the scullery and pantry are under a lean-to roofi w w w w Tig. 9 shows the ground plan, and fig. 10 the PLANS OF COTTAGES. 89 chamber plan of a different arrangement of cottages built on the same estate. In fig. 7 the letter e indicates the position of tlie storeroom. Captain Pantry. Pantry. Coal. Coal. w w 1 : / T : e s. • : *. 1 .1 U d 93 P-i Scullery Bedroom. Living Room / /Living Room w , d to w d Pantry. Bedroom. w Fig. 7. Dashwood, under whose directions these cottages were built, explains the advantages arising from Bedroom. / / Bedroom. Fig. 8. their arrangements — some points of the explanation, PLANS OP COTTAGES. it will be observed, touching upon some of those referred to in our last paper. “ The down-stairs bed- room,” says Captain Dashwood, “is adopted, be- cause it is found that a farm labourer, though Privy. Privy. Bake- house. Bake- house. d to w d requiring a third bedroom at one stage of his family’s growth, does not require it for any length of time, as his family are either very young, or as soon as able, go out to service. The ground floor 1 c. c. 1 Bedroom. s. 1 Bedroom. 1 Bedroom. 1 Bedroom. 1 to w to to bedroom can at such time be used for a lodger ; or, when the parents get old, they can retire to this room, and admit a married child, or even another married couple, and help to pay the rent. The old woman, PLANS OF COTTAGES. 91 by looking after the children, enables the young wife to attend to work, and the old can help to gain a living by doing duties which frequently devolve on children, to the loss of their education. The advan- tages of this plan are — 1. That of enabling old and w ,l,i Bedroom. 1 / 1 Bedroom. 1/ 1 I/I I/I f Coals. Bedroom. j Living Boom. Scullery. Wood. 1 s ' Porch. 1 \ ^ Privy. d w w Fig. 11. young people to reside under one roof, thereby securing nearly all the advantages of two cottages ; 2. It secures greater privacy from the position of the rooms, as, under ordinary circumstances, the parents would sleep below and the children above, and the partition walls would be constructed of brick, and not lath and plaster, as is the case with ordinary three-roomed cottages ; 3. It secures greater warmth and less draught ; and 4. The third down- stairs room will be found available, if required, as a workshop, or as a bedroom especially suitable for a crippled child or an aged parent.’’ In fig. 11 we show an arrangement of cottage designed by Mr. B. Denton, a modification of the 02 THE ASII-PIT. sumo arrangement of sleeping room as given in figs. 7 and 8 and 9 and 10, in which the scullery forms a small covered yard, extending from the cottage to the outbuilding. “ The advantages of this arrange- ment are that, the yard being under cover, it is always dry, and more space is given in the scullery, while the yard or scullery is so constructed that it cannot he misappropriated in its use. Care in the management of the manure cellar or ash-pit is most essential to the health of the occu- pants of the houses. Such gases as ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen should be carefully prevented from coming out into the air. These, while they give life to plants, are death to man. Sulphuretted hydrogen is not only very disagreeable to the smell, but it is so poisonous that if it float in the air breathed by human beings, even in the proportion of one part to 100,000, it sometimes causes death. In one case a strong healthy man came home from his work and went to bed. An hour had hardly elapsed when he was found dead. In another in- stance, a healthy child was taken ill in the morning and was a corpse at night. In both cases the air breathed was analyzed and found to contain sul- phuretted hydrogen. If breathed, even in very small quantities, it produces stupor, or causes a low fever, which if the sufferer be not relieved by re- moval to perfectly pure air, may end fatally. Car- bonic acid, when breathed in the proportion of 15 to 20 parts in 1000 of air, causes immediate dis- EVILS OF DEFECTIVE VENTILATION. 93 tress and feelings of suffocation, accompanied often with giddiness and headache. This is sometimes followed by a slight delirium and then by an irre- sistible desire to sleep. If breathed in still larger quantities it not unfrequently causes death. The fumes of smoking charcoal, in a close room, have often been fatal to people sleeping in the room. The effects, if breathed in smaller proportions, are dulness, heaviness, difficulty of thought, and ap- parent stupidity. The extreme sleepiness and dul- ness sometimes observed in children who have re- mained several hours in an ill-ventilated school- room, are, doubtless, often caused by the carbonic acid in the air of the room. This comes from the breath of the occupants of the room, and sometimes from the fireplace or stove. Ammonia breathed, when very strong, immediately takes away the breath. When weaker, it irritates the lungs, and, even when very weak, if breathed for a considerable time, it produces symptoms of typhoid fever. These poisonous gases are generated in drains and sink- holes, in heaps of dirt of any kind, in damp cellars and close rooms, in dirty ditches, in muddy puddles, swamps, and undrained marshes, and wherever water is allowed to remain stagnant. These poisons show their presence by rendering the air disagreeable to the sense of smell. Whatever is offensive to this sense is more or less dangerous ; and, if foul air, that is, bad-smelling, fetid air, be breathed, it is always more or less poisonous. The poison may act 94 POROUS EARTH AS A DISINEECTANT. slowly, but not the less surely, and it renders a person who breathes it liable to fever, cholera, con- sumption, and other fearful diseases. It is universally found that people living in damp and dirty places, in houses ill-ventilated, over wet cellars, or on ground badly drained, are the first to be attacked by cholera, dysentery, and various kinds of fever. Porous earth acts on putrefying animal and decay- ing vegetable matters on the same principle as that on which the purifying pow r ers of the charcoal depend. On account of their greater porosity and absorbing properties, wood and peat charcoal are superior to earth as disinfectants. However, dry earth is a very good absorber and destroyer of foul smells ; and as it can be had anywhere at little cost, it deserves to be used extensively, especially in the country for preventing nuisance and loss in fertilizing constituents, which is caused by the careless mode in which human excreta are usually disposed of. Earth impregnated therewith, like charcoal, has the power of purifying itself on exposure to the air ; so that earth may be used over and over again for the disin- fection of human excreta. It is indeed worthy of special notice that a mixture of earth with nightsoil, after having been kept for some time under a shed, confined at one or more sides, and covered by a roof to exclude rain, and become dry, has its original disinfecting powers almost completely restored, and may be used again for absorbing and retaining the manuring elements of a fresh quantity of nightsoil. POROUS EARTH AS A DISINFECTANT. 95 Earth in this way may be used three or four times over for the disinfection of human excreta, and at the same time becomes a valuable vehicle for absorbing and concentrating all the fertilizing constituents which enter into the composition of liquid and solid excreta. Human urine contains 91 to 94 per cent, of water, and faeces not less than 80 to 85 per cent. ; hence the practical difficulty of converting them into a dry and portable manure. Simple evaporation or artificial drying is impracticable ; because, in the first place, it creates an intolerable nuisance ; and secondly, because it is attended with the decomposi- tion and loss of the nitrogenous and most valuable manuring constituents. These practical difficulties which are experienced in the conversion of nightsoil into a portable manure, may be completely obviated, at all events in the country, by the free use of dry earth in closets. If a sufficient quantity of earth is employed to absorb completely the mixture of the excreta, the contents of the closets can be removed periodically, say, once a month, in the daytime, with little or no inconvenience. They should be wheeled at once under a roofed shed, and spread out as much as the space admits, and left exposed to the drying influence of the air. According to the state of the weather the mixture of nightsoil and earth will become sufficiently dry in two or three months, when it may be used again in the closet like fresh soil, and the same process be repeated three or four times. During the drying in the shed no appreciable amount 96 DANGER OP WELL-SINKING NEAR ASH-PITS. of fertilizing matter is lost, and as the earth after each removal from the closets becomes charged with an additional quantity of manuring matter, a very useful manure is finally produced with little trouble and at a mere trifling expense. In country places, where proper drainage is not provided, the nuisance of open closets may he best avoided by the use of the arrangements adopted in the so-called earth- closets. — Voelcher. We would call attention to the great danger that exists in using impure water for drinking purposes, either by man or beast, and we know that wells are often sunk in too close proximity to ash-pits and farm-yard dung-pits to allow the water to be whole- some. The following case clearly proves the importance of being particularly careful with regard to this matter : — Mr. Humphreys, coroner, resumed an inquiry relative to the death of John Davis, aged twenty years, through alleged impurity of water. Deceased was mate of the barge Medway, which entered Bow Creek. Deceased went on shore and got a bucket of water from a pump. Later he got a second bucketful from the same pump, and then a man told him the water would poison him. Some of the water was boiled for breakfast for himself and the captain of the barge. He also drank some of the unboiled water from the bucket. He was seized with violent cramps, was taken to a doctor, and treated, but next day he died, after great suffer- ing. Some of the water from the pump was sent VALUE OE WHITEWASH. 97 by order of the coroner to Dr. Letheby for analyza- tion. The Professor reports that the water contains 61.5 grains of saline matter per imperial gallon, besides 28 grains of organic matter, and much ammonia. “ The saline matter,” he adds, “ as well as the organic, is chiefly derived from surface drain- age, and the presence of ammonia indicates percola- tion from a sewer or a cesspool. The water is quite unfit for drinking purposes, and from the nature of the pollution is very likely to have occasioned choleraic diseases, especially if drunk without previous boil- ing.” Mr. Brownsfield said that deceased died of cholera, without doubt arising from the impurity of the water. The coroner summed up, and the jury returned a verdict that deceased died from choleraic disease, occasioned by drinking polluted water from a certain pump. Whitewash is one of the most valuable articles in the world when properly applied. It prevents not only the decay of wood, but conduces greatly to the healthiness of all buildings, whether of wood or stone. Outbuildings and fences, when not painted, should be supplied once or twice every year with a good coat of whitewash, which should be prepared in the following way : — Take a clean, water-tight barrel, or other suitable cask, and put into it half-a- bushel of lime. Slake it by pouring water over it, boiling hot, and in sufficient quantity to cover it 5 inches deep, and stir it briskly till thoroughly slaked. When the slaking has been effected, dissolve H 98 CONDITION OF THE POOR LABOURER. it in water, and add two pounds of sulphate of zinc and one of common salt : these will cause the wash to harden and prevent its cracking, which gives an unseemly appearance to the work. If desirable, a beautiful cream colour may he communicated to the wash by adding three pounds of yellow ochre ; or a good pearl or lead colour, by the addition of lamp, vine, or ivory black. For fawn colour, add four jDounds umber — Turkish or American, the latter is the cheapest — one pound Indian red, and one pound common lampblack. For common stone colour, add four pounds raw umber and two pounds lampblack. This wash may be applied with a com- mon whitewash brush, and will he found much superior, both in appearance and durability, to common whitewash. The sin of overcrowding appears to prevail in the country quite as much as in London, and the condi- tion of the poor seems in some respects to he more lamentable and helpless in the rural districts than in those of an urban character. In the case of 821 separate parishes or townships of England, the population increased between 1851 and 1861 by more than 5 per cent., while the house-room became more than 4 per cent. less. The fear of adding to the number of the parish poor induces landlords to discourage the presence of the working classes, however essential may he the services rendered by the latter. Hence, in many cases, the labourer has to walk several miles to and from his work, and is CRUELTY OF DESTROYING COUNTRY COTTAGES. 99 sometimes compelled to live in an adjacent town, and to pay a rent altogether disproportionate to his scanty means. Cottages falling into a state of ruinous decay are met with all over the country, and these are allowed to drop into a state of extinction, as a pre- cautionary measure against an increase of the local poor-rates. “ Open’’ Tillages, where speculative builders are able to operate, receive increasing crowds of those who are evicted from the “ close” villages, and as one district is depopulated another becomes more densely thronged. There is also a style of hamlet termed a “ show” village. Here there has been a sifting process carried out, until the only remaining cottages are tenanted by shepherds, gardeners, and gamekeepers. It is positively re- volting to read the description of the lairs in which the great hulk of the peasantry are compelled to lodge. As for sanitary enactments, these are little else than a dead letter in the rural districts, the carrying out of these humane laws being often a matter subject to the pleasure of those who occasion the abominations complained of. At the same time it should he understood that the lowest depths of this misery are found among the miners and colliers — the various non-agricultural sections of the rural population. It is positive cruelty to pull down country cottages and destroy the little gardens of the poor labouring men, driving them into miserable tene- ments in towns and cities, where squalor, ignorance, and crime too often await them. Every estate h 2 100 THE PEASANT11Y AT HOME. should afford comfortable cottages, with as much garden ground as each man can cultivate during his leisure hours. It is a pleasing sight of a Sunday morning, when the bell is sending its sober melody across the quiet fields, to behold the peasantry in their best attire, with ruddy faces and modest cheerfulness, throng- ing tranquilly along the green lanes to church; but it is still more pleasing to see them in the even- ings, gathering about their cottage doors, and ap- pearing to exult in the humble comforts and em- bellishments which their own hands have spread around them. It is this sweet home-feeling, this settled repose of affection in the domestic scene, that is, after all, the parent of the steadiest virtues and purest en- joyments. Washington Irvine thus depicts it with remarkable felicity : — “ Through each gradation, from the castled hall, The city dome, the villa crown’d with shade, But chief from modest mansions numberless, In town or hamlet, shelt’ring middle life, Down to the cottaged vale, and straw-roof ? d shed; Th is Western isle hath long been famed for scenes Where bliss domestic finds a dwelling-place ; Domestic bliss, that, like a harmless dove, ( Honour and sweet endearment keeping guard,) Can centre in a little quiet nest All that desire would fly for through the earth; That can, the world eluded, be itself A world enjoyed; that wants no witnesses THE LATE PHINCE CONSORT. 101 But its own sharers, and approving Heaven ; That, like a flower deep hid in rocky cleft, Smiles, though ’tis looking only at the sky.” The late Prince Consort set a noble example. He cared much for the working-classes. His large and benevolent heart ever beat for the welfare of the poor labouring man. On his own admirably- managed estate his first care was to build suitable cottage accommodation for the labourers. At a meeting of the Society for Improving the Condi- tion of the Labouring Classes, His Boyal Highness said : — “ I saw in this offer a proof of your ap- preciation of my feelings of sympathy' and interest for that class of our community which has most of the toil, and least of the enjoyments, of this world. I conceived that great advantage would accrue from the endeavours of influential persons, who were wholly disinterested, to act the part of a friend to those who required that advice and assistance which none but a friend could tender with advantage. Depend upon it, the interests of classes too often contrasted are identical, and it is only ignorance which prevents their uniting for each other’s advan- tage. To dispel that ignorance, to show how man can help man, notwithstanding the complicated state of civilized society, ought to be the aim of every philanthropic person ; but it is more peculiarly the duty of those who, under the blessing of Divine Providence, enjoy station, wealth, and education.” Every one should read the biography of His 102 LABOUR AND EMPLOYMENT. Loyal Highness the Prince Consort. It is truly most touching and interesting. How could it he otherwise of one whom our beloved Queen says, “ God knows vice itself would ever have recoiled from the look alone of one who wore the lily of a blameless life.” The entire compilation not only justifies and confirms the esteem with which Prince Albert’s memory is universally regarded; but it warms our feelings and affection to the devoted wife who records his virtues, and in fact to the whole Loyal family. All experience proves that there cannot be a more unwise or destructive policy than that which tends to place the workman, or the labourer, in' a situation only, as it were, one degree in the scale removed from starvation. It not only destroys every feeling of independence and respectability, but it operates as a temptation to crime, and too frequently he proceeds from the less to greater offences, till the amount in the aggregate through- out the country becomes fearfully alarming, and, unhappily, a generation growing up is presented to view who are more demoralized than their parents. Let us be careful, however, to avoid any dicta- torial interference with labour and employment, which frightens away capital, destroys that freedom of thought and independence of action which must remain to every one if he is to work out his own happiness, and impairs that confidence under which alone engagements for mutual benefit are possible. TIIE PRINCE CONSORT AND THE LABOURER. 103 Man lias been created imperfect, and left with many wants, as it were, to stimulate each to in- dividual exertion, and to make all feel that it is only by united endeavours and combined action that these imperfections can be supplied, and these wants satisfied. If any man in England cared for the working classes, it was the good Prince. He understood the great difficulty of the time as regards these classes ; namely, the providing for them fitting habitations. He was a beneficent landlord; and his first care was to build good cottages for all the labouring men on his estates. He had entered into minute calculations as to the amount of illness which might be prevented amongst the poorer classes by a care- ful selection of the materials to be used in the building of their dwellings. In a word, he was tender, thoughtful, and anxious in his efforts for the welfare of the labouring man. His constancy of purpose in that, as in other things, was worthy of all imitation. He did not become tired of bene- volence. It was not the fancy of a day for him — it was the sustained purpose of a life. One of the first of English statemen, the Eight Hon. B. Disraeli, M.P., who has been for thirty years a constant attendant at the Boyal Bucking- ham Agricultural Association, thus refers to the subject in a most able and brilliant address : — “ I consider it of the utmost importance that agricul- tural labourers should be well housed. In my 104 THE RIGHT HON. B. DISRAELI opinion, it is more than a question of food or raiment. I believe we all eat quite enough, and many of us drink a great deal too much, but this I will venture to say, that no man can he too well housed. A perfect sanitary condition as regards habitations is one which, while it preserves and defends the inhabitant from the inclemency of the seasons, allows him to breathe and enjoy pure and unvitiated air. Tor these reasons it is the truest source of health and wealth. It is, therefore, a matter of great importance to the farmers that the agricultural labourers should be well housed. There are great difficulties in the way, and the first diffi- culty is, that it is an investment of capital which does not bring in directly an adequate return. This is an objection which I consider fallacious. The point is, what do you consider an adequate return P Ask the farmer whether he would like to have on his farm his labourers in healthy habitations, or living two or three miles from the acres which they cultivate in miserable hovels, which engender sick- ness and weaken their energy and strength. The farmer will say directly, c Give me labourers who reside on my acres and reside in houses which allow them to come to their labour full of energy and vigour — energy and vigour given by sound sleep and pure air.’ The farm will then he more valuable to the tenant, and, if so, it must be, in the long run, more valuable to the proprietor, and it does tell upon the rent. In this way the latter will find ON COTTAGE ACCOMMODATION. 105 an adequate return for his investment. I do not say that this is an easy difficulty to combat. It is a great one, but it must be met. The question, however, is usually argued as if the proprietor were called upon suddenly to sweep away all the miser- able tenements that he has inherited, and to cover his estate with model cottages. That is impossible, for you cannot in an instant effect this great change. You cannot unhouse the whole peasantry from an estate at once. It can only be done gradually. Take a model estate of 2000 acres. On that estate you require a minimum of 60 cottages. The ex- penditure for creating 60 cottages would probably be £6000 or £7000. I have seen the estimate of such an expenditure. Well, how is a man to expend £6000 or £7000, which is, perhaps, three times his rental, unless he has that which we have no right to suppose — other sources of capital? No one ex- pects anything of the kind. No one expects that because you have discovered a want in your social system and a duty to perform, that it is to be done in a manner injurious to yourselves. You cannot expect every landed proprietor to be a Duke of Northum- berland — a man whose hand is as extensive as his fortune, and who built cottages on 200,000 acres at an expense of some £500,000. Her Majesty con- ferred a riband on the Duke of Northumberland because he created a Channel fleet at the moment we had none ; but the man who lays out £500,000 in building cottages on his estate as much deserves o o 106 THE LABOURER IMPROVES ESTATES. a blue riband as the man who creates a Channel fleet, or even at the head of a Channel fleet leads us on to victory. Every man cannot do what the Duke of Northumberland has done, but every man can do something. He may build a few cottages, or repair others. You ought to keep before your eye, clearly and closely, the object you have to obtain, and avail yourselves of every opportunity of accomplishing it. The other day I saw some inferior tenements built by persons who speculate in building cottages. These inferior tenements were purchased and con- verted into excellent cottages — not exactly model cottages, but cottages in which a man may live in health and in some degree of comfort and happi- ness. These ard opportunities of which every man may avail himself. This is a duty which must be performed. The question is becoming, both in town and country, one of paramount interest. The greatness of the country depends on the race that fills it, and, whatever our ancestors may have done to make the country great or famous, whatever liberty they may have acquired, whatever wealth they may have accumulated, if the race becomes inferior, you lose all these results and all these blessings.” It is truly refreshing to find the extra-parliamen- tary speaking of the day turning more and more upon questions of science and experience, as ap- plied to those arts by which human life is supported and rendered tolerable, and ceasing to harp on MACHINERY AND THE LABOURER. 107 political subjects which have been already worn threadbare. Should it be asked “ what has the question of labourers’ cottages to do with the sub- ject of estate management ?” the reply is, a very great deal, for it is the hand of the labourer that improves properties, and causes them to yield more -largely in the shape of rent. The prosperity of an estate very much depends, too, upon the people who live on it, and the health and energy of the labourer depend much on the cottage he inhabits. The question of labourers’ cottages is an all-important question, and one which ought to occupy most seriously the best attention of landlord and agent ; and, without being over critical on the conduct of landlords and agents, it may be readily admitted that of late there has been some improvement in the condition of the labouring class. Moreover, much of the fault lies with the labouring classes themselves. As Mr. Disraeli said very pithily, a man may easily eat too much, and drink too much, but no man can be too well housed. The labourer is, in fact, the life of the soil — the man whose hands must carry out whatever it is in- tended to do, and whose work must give to the soil its value. Many persons suppose that machinery will have a very detrimental effect on labourers. In this notion we do not concur. Here are we, pro- ducers and consumers, 21,000,000 of people, living on a great farm of nearly 20,000,000 arable acres, and probably nearly as much grass, employing as 108 MACHINERY AND THE LABOURER. in and out-door farm labourers, men, women, boys, and girls, equal in all to 1,150,000 men. We feed and use some 1,500,000 horses, of which probably 800,000 are strictly for farm purposes. We are annually inventing and manufacturing labour-saving machines at an extraordinary rate ; and every year at least 10,000 horses are added to the agricultural steam-power of the country, which must certainly displace both animals and men to some extent. We have taken the flail out of the hand of the labourer, and the reaping-hook is gradually going ; on many a farm he no longer walks between the handles of the plough ; he no longer sows the seed ; he does but a portion of the hoeing and the harvest- ing ; and yet, so far from being able to dispense with his assistance, he is more in demand than ever he has been. Agriculture is, in fact, experiencing the truth taught in the history of all other manu- factures — that machinery is in the long run the best friend of the labourer. It is facilitating and cheap- ening production, and thus promoting the general good ; and labourers are discovering what their masters, too, have lately learned to realize, that a share in the general prosperity is worth more than the exclusive advantages conferred by a monopoly. The Hon. Samuel Laing, M.P., late Finance Min- ister for India, remarks, in his book of Travels in Norway: — Whoever has observed the condition of our labouring population, will admit the influence of good habitations upon the moral habits of a people. TIIE IION. S. LAING, M.P., AND THE LABOURER. 109 The natives of New Zealand have dwellings more suited to the feelings and decencies of civilized life than the peasantry of a great proportion of Great Britain and Ireland, who live in dark, one-room hovels, in which not only household comfort and cleanliness are out of the question, hut the proper separation of the sexes can scarcely he maintained. Can any reflecting person douht that it is an im- portant advantage to the labouring class of a coun- try that their standard of living is pitched high as to lodging, food, and clothing ? It is the most effective check upon pauperism and over population. Why does the Irish peasant marry so recklessly ? Because his idea of a suitable dwelling for a man in his station is a hovel of raw earth and sticks, such as a man may put up in a forenoon on a hill side ; a bucket full of potatoes is his standard of food ; a tattered great coat, of raiment. With these he is in no worse condition than the population around him, and therefore he marries. If the ideas and habits of the country required a more expen- sive and comfortable sort of habitation for the very meanest person of his own station, he would not marry until he had acquired the means of lodging like his neighbours ; nor would he find a wife who would leave a decent habitation to burrow in a hole like a pigsty. Every man looks to what is con- sidered proper and reputable in his own rank ; and the poor man having little else to give him import- ance, is generally more tenacious of the proprieties 110 THE DUKE OF BEDFORD ON COTTAGE BUILDING. belonging to his station than the rich man of what is suitable to his sphere. In noticing the measures which ought to be adopted by landowners and employers generally for the benefit of their dependents, such as tenants, or workpeople in their constant employ, we feel that a quotation from the letter of the late Duke of Bedford is the best reply which can be made to the excuses of many for their neglect of duty in this respect : — Cottage building, except to a cottage speculator, who exacts immoderate rents for scanty and defective habitations, is, we all know, a bad in- vestment for money ; but this is not the light in which such a subject should be viewed by landlords, from whom it is surely not too much to expect that whilst they are building and improving farmhouses, homesteads, and cattle sheds, they will also build and improve dwellings for their labourers in suffi- cient numbers to meet the improved and improving cultivation of the land. To improve the dwellings of the labouring classes, and to afford them the means of greater cleanliness, health, and comfort in their own homes ; to extend education, and thus raise the social and moral habits of those most valuable members of the community, are among the first duties, and ought to be among the truest plea- sures, of every landlord. The example which was set by his Grace in build- ing and improving the cottages on his estates in seven different counties involved, in the course of THE EARL OF LEICESTER AND IIIS LABOURERS. Ill eight or ten years, an outlay of about £70,000 — truly a princely expenditure. The Earl of Leicester, too, has made some valu- able remarks upon this important and interesting subject. The noble Earl said that he was the owner of 521 cottages, supplying probably about 450 able- bodied labourers. “ I calculate that 950 labourers are required to cultivate my property ; thus leaving 500 to be obtained who are not resident upon the estate. I will divide the labourers employed into what I will call the home and foreign supply. The home supply can always be depended upon; they have constant employment ; and although wages are nominally 10s. per week, yet, owing lo the system of piece work (a system as beneficial to the labourers as it is profitable to the employed), I think I may state their earnings to be 12s., with a considerable increase in hay and corn harvest. They live in good houses, and I may say that, with hardly an exception, owing to the untiring energies of my late agent, Mr. Keary, and my present agent, Mr. Shellabear, they live in decency and comfort ; they almost all have good gardens, and for these and their houses, which are let by the week, they pay an average rent of £2 17s. 4d. per annum. These men will remain on the estate ; but of what does the foreign supply consist — those five hundred men who are required properly to cultivate the land ? They have no cer- tainty of constant employment. Under the most favourable circumstances, if living within the parish, 112 LANDLORDS AND COTTAGE BUILDING. they occupy houses that have been built upon the speculation of a remunerative return upon the out- lay, and to afford this they have to pay £4 or £5 a-year for a meagre dwelling, in which they cannot live decently or comfortably, and they rarely have a garden. But in very many cases they have also to walk three or four miles to and from their work in all weathers ; they have not the same attention in sickness or ill-health as those resident on the estate, and there is not, and cannot he, any tie to hind them to it. T say it is much to the credit of those men that they are seeking happier homes and better masters; and in these days of increasing intelligence, and, consequently, more rapid and direct communication with the rest of England, I believe that the scarcity of labour we are now experiencing is merely the commencement of what will he seriously felt in our agricultural districts unless an immediate remedy is applied; and the only remedy is to build as speedily as possible suffi- cient cottages for the larger proportion, if not for all those required to cultivate the land, either upon the farm or in the parish where they are employed. I have no hesitation in saying that where there is a deficiency of cottages, the supplying that deficiency is one of the best investments a landlord can make. Admitting* that the rent received from the labourer w r ould not pay a remunerative interest upon the outlay, I much question whether the existing rents of land can he maintained without further cottage THE EARL OP LEICESTER AND HIS COTTAGES. 113 accommodation, but I am satisfied that rents may be considerably increased when there is a sufficiency of homes for the labourer. During an existing lease there is not one of my tenants who is not willing to ensure me £5 per cent, interest upon any sum I may expend in providing homes for his labourers where they are required; and the time is not far distant when the first requirements of a farm will be, not ample farmsteads, but sufficient cottages. Now, a word as to the plans and the details of letting these cottages. It may be thought that this is solely a landlord’s question; but it is not so. All that we may attempt to do upon such occasions as the present to improve the physical and moral con- dition of the labourer is of little avail unless he has a home suitable to the wants of himself and his family, and I have found my tenants not only eager to promote these associations, but ever ready to co- operate with me in educating, clothing, and attend- ing to the wants of those they employ. I believe that my cottages are now constructed at the least possible cost, with the greatest amount of conveni- ence and every accommodation required by a labourer and his family, and I much doubt whether the cottages I have built since 1863 at Tiitleshall, Dunton, Weasenliam, West Lexham, and Dlitcham, can in any way be surpassed. They are substantially built, of the best material, and I have not attempted in any way to make them ornamental ; the doing so would not only materially increase the original cost, 114 THE BEE POEMS A NEW HOME. but add greatly to the expense of keeping them in repair. The cost has been from £100 to £115 per cottage, not including carriage, which is done by my tenants, and may be estimated at £12 per cottage. These cottages, as well as all others on my estate, are for the use of the labourers employed upon those farms to which they are contiguous, and I consider it right that the tenant should have the nomination of the occupant, but that in every case the cottagers should hold direct under their land- lords, pay their rents to him, and not be removed except by his consent. It has been said that an Englishman’s house is his castle, but this must not be applied without reservation to the cottage of the labourer. I find that, whether from an eagerness to obtain assistance towards the payment of their rent, or a dislike to turn out their children when married, overcrowding will gradually and certainly ensue, with the necessary accompaniment of want of decency and comfort, unless strict rules are laid down, and they are strictly enforced. As a rule the children, when married, must seek another home, and no lodger should be permitted without special permission.” We entirely concur in the noble Earl’s views. What is the course taken by those industrious and sagacious little animals, the bees, when their numbers increase so much that the hive is no longer able to contain them ? Do they not send out the younger members to form a new home, and by that OUIt POOR LAWS. 115 means establish two happy and flourishing commu- nities, instead of crowding and stifling one another altogether in an habitation too small to contain them ? It is of great importance that our young unmar- ried people should understand, that without due prudence and forethought on their part, no assistance that the rich can possibly bestow on them wil effectually improve their circumstances. It is a great mistake to suppose that the distribution of money is capable of removing the pressure of poverty. No doubt, a sum of money given to a single poor family may effectually relieve them. But suppose that, by a general contribution of the rich, five shillings per week were given to every labourer in the kingdom, over and above his usual earnings. Is it not very clear, that as soon as they all went to market for more meat, more bread, more beer, than they had been accustomed to buy, the price of meat, bread, and beer would immediately rise ? Is it not well known to every one who has ever attended a market, that an increase of demand immediately raises prices ? The history of our Poor Laws also serves to prove how little can be done, by the distribution of money, towards relieving the wants of the poor. About eighty years ago, the total amount of poor rates raised in all the parishes of England and Wales was little more than a tenth part of what it now is, yet the poor seemed quite as well off then as now. No i 2 116 AVERAGE WEEKLY EARNINGS. doubt, if money could avail for this purpose, poverty would long ago have been driven from our land. But shillings and half-crowns cannot be eaten ; before they can satisfy our hunger they must be turned into bread. Therefore, the question is, How much bread have we, and how many mouths to be tilled with it ? If a hundred loaves are divided between a hundred persons, each may get a whole loaf, but if a hundred loaves are to be divided among a hundred and ten persons, it is impossible that every one of them should get a whole loaf. If we give money to fifty of them, so as to set them above the rest, then fifty may still be able to procure a whole loaf each ; but the remaining sixty will have so much less. Suppose even the whole property of the rich were taken from them, and divided among the poor ; the poor would not have any more to eat or drink than at present : for a rich man does not eat more than a labourer. There w r ould still be the same quantity of food in the country as at present, and the same number of mouths ; therefore, the share falling to each person would be the same as at present. The poor would, indeed, for a time be able, in this case, to have more silver spoons and silk stockings than at present ; but they would not have more beef or beer, nor would they be freed from the necessity of daily labour. Professor Leone Levi estimates that the general average rates of weekly earnings are : — Eor men in England and Wales, 22s. 6d.; in Scotland, 20s. 6d.; DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH. 117 in Ireland, 14s. 4d. For boys and youths under twenty — in England, 6s. 6d. ; in Scotland, 7s. 8d. ; in Ireland, 6s. 3d. Eor adult women — in England, 12s. 6d. ; in Scotland, 10s. 6d. ; in Ireland, 9s. 9d. ; and for girls in England, 8s. 6d. ; in Scotland, 8s. 2d. ; and in Ireland, 7s. 4d. The total average for the United Kingdom he thus makes to be — For men, 19s. ; for boys under twenty, 7s. 3d. ; for women, 11s. ; and for girls, 7s. lOd. On the assump- tion that in most families there are two earners of money, he estimates the average weekly earnings of families at 31s. in England, 28s. 2d. in Scotland, and 23s. 6d. in Ireland, In two elaborate tables he gives the number of persons employed in dif- ferent occupations in the United Kingdom and the amount of earnings in the different occupations. The number of the employed amounts in the aggre- gate to 11,018,616 persons ; the amount of earn- ings, after all deductions, to £418,034,284. To explain and illustrate these two tables, in which he divides the working classes into various orders and sub-orders, he has added tables for each order and sub-order, showing how many persons are employed in each and the amount of their separate and aggre- gate earnings. “ The chief prosperity of any country depends,” says Mr. Donaldson, “ on the distribution of wealth, and the state of easy competence in which the different classes of the population are placed — the unequal distribution and misapplication of the 118 PHYSICAL AND MORAL WANTS. means has constituted the great evil in all ages and countries in the world, and nations progress in civi- lization and improvements in proportion as these harriers are broken down and removed. The up- right character and correct moral conduct cannot exist in a state of abject poverty — the evil parts of human nature are called into action in the struggle to obtain by any methods that which should be got by industry and application. The moral strength of an united or an individual state of existence bears a high ratio to the physical, and the value of integrity and upright feeling in every class of society is inestimable. Education and early im- pressions exert a powerful influence, but it happens that writers on these subjects wholly neglect to lay the foundation, from too great anxiety and haste to rear the superstructure. The means of procuring and receiving education must first be afforded, the physical wants must be supplied before the moral — the cravings of nature admit no excuse. The beautiful principles of demonstration, and the ab- stract truths of morality and social wisdom cannot be taught to a starved being— he will not listen to us, he must be clothed and fed, and then taught — and hence the necessity of providing the means and of placing them in the power of all classes, and by affording employment and remuneration finally produce the elevation of character which consti- tutes the true strength of society. It is natural to suppose that the power or means that has raised one PHYSICAL CONDITION — MOHAL DEVELOPMENT. 119 or more classes above crime and immorality will raise others. A highly improved physical condition may he attained without a corresponding moral development — but no great mental excellence ever will be produced without a generally improved phy- sical state, arising from an abundance of the com- forts and necessaries of life. But the moral world and the relations of society have hitherto presented only the painful spectacle of the perpetual warfare of jarring elements contending for the mastery, arising from a resistance and an opposition to the laws of nature and of reason, which have marred the face of the fair creation, and have spread deso- lation and misery over the globe. When we con- trast that deplorable view of human iniquity, plunder, fraud, and violence, with the simple, uni- form, and harmonious plan on which the natural world is conducted — with the beautiful order which is unfolded in the unceasing operations of pro- duction and reproduction, and with the amazing grandeur of the stupendous works that are produced in the profound tranquility and undisturbed regu- larity of nature’s workshop, so gradual in operation as almost to elude the perception of our senses — there naturally arises in our minds the simple, the pleasing, and at the same time the very sublime idea, that the great Creator and ultimate end of all things will conduct the moral world through a number and variety of different states of existence to a similar termination of beauty and of order, the 120 THE AGENT SHOULD PROVIDE ENTERTAINMENT. full completion of which may he reserved for ages that are removed beyond the reach of our limited comprehensions, and verging into or forming a part of an inscrutable eternity.” It is moreover the duty of the Agent to provide innocent entertainment for the labouring people resident upon the estate which he supervises, and in this he should have the co-operation of the clergy- man of the parish and other well-disposed persons. The subject, though differing from the high themes of the pulpit, is far from being at variance with the office and duties of a Christian minister. It is the duty of every clergyman to promote the welfare of the bodies as well as of the souls of his flock. What- ever tends to ameliorate their condition, to ennoble their tastes, to expand their ideas, to improve their physical well-being, opens a more favourable field for the influence of religion. By having resources of recreation within themselves, there would be less temptation to resort to haunts of dissipation or of low grovelling pleasure. The time of man cannot be wholly divided between sleep and labour, and it therefore becomes an important question how he is to employ his leisure hours. We should always have a lively sympathy with the labouring classes in their sufferings, and should never shrink from hard hands and fustian jackets. We have gone down into the pit, explored it, and seen all its horrors. We have walked the streets of our cities and towns, and felt heart-sick at some of the sights we have WE SHOULD SMYPATHISE WITH THE LABOURED. 121 witnessed. We have beheld the bloated wrecks of drunkenness, the diseased body, the blood-shot eye, and the hanging lip. We have witnessed the wretchedness of men, widows, and orphans, shiver- ing and creeping in the cold, shoeless, shirtless, naked. We have heard the wail of those who prematurely people the grave-yards and the world of woe with victims of despair. We have beheld the poor sallow infant with its dying head laid wearily on the shoulder of its emaciated mother. We have witnessed the chill corpse of a youthful woman laid upon two frail chairs, with a broken- hearted mother weeping beside it, and no coffin to enclose the lifeless form. These, and more than these, have we seen, and we shudder at the recital. Let those who bask in the sunshine of opulence and luxury support every endeavour of the Agent, clergyman, and philanthropist to do good ; let them do all that in them lies to provide the working classes with proper amusement during periods of relaxation from the toils of labour, and so rescue them from dissipation. Let us remember that charity is love to man, founded on love to God — that beneficence is a most precious tie between the children of one common Lather, over which the artificial distinctions of a vain world ought not to have any power. Humanity is the grand pedestal of religion ; and he who is without charity has no claim to the name of Christian. Whatever the recreation may be, it ought always to embrace 122 HE CREATION EOR THE WORKING CLASSES. music, which so surely fascinates the mind and sweetens existence. It creates pure and holy feel- ings in the souls of the poor, and takes away lone- liness from the lowly heart. An Agent is to be regarded as the guardian of the various subordinates employed on the estate of which he has the manage- ment. He is responsible for many of their actions, and his relations to them are of a very intimate kind. If he be convinced that it is of great im- portance to the interest of the proprietor that a band of well-trained, intelligent workmen should be raised up on every estate, he will see the pro- priety of introducing educational measures to bring about the desired result. This is the way to over- come the ignorance and faithlessness of labouring men — failings so often deplored and so bitterly complained of. The Earl of Lichfield and Lord Lyttelton gave addresses at a meeting in South Staffordshire on Working Men’s Clubs. Lord Lichfield said : — One of the great misfortunes of the working classes in that very large manufacturing district was, that they had so very little means of recreation and enjoyment. He had frequently talked to the working classes on this subject, and he had seen papers written on the subject ; and the most pro- minent feature that was brought before the mind was, that they wanted some place to which they could resort, and secure that social recreation without going to the public-house. A properly THE WORKING MAN’S CLUB. 123 conducted working men’s club would afford them the facilities they require ; but, somehow or another, he utterly failed to understand how it was that, although there was that strongly-expressed feeling among them, yet, when the opportunity was offered, they did not avail themselves of it. How was this ? He certainly objected to the use of drink in the conversation-rooms, and also those games of chance which might lead to gambling. There was nothing in the upper classes of society, and more especially among the junior branches, which had effected so great a revolution amongst them as the establish- ment of clubs. Before clubs were established in London they all knew that drunkenness used to be very common amongst the higher classes of society, and there was no doubt that there was a great deal of that amongst the lower classes in consequence of their habit of meeting together at nights in public-houses. The moment the clubs were estab- lished there was a good influence brought to bear upon those who were inclined to give way to the spirit of temptation. The upper classes now en- tirely discountenanced excessive drinking amongst their order. Why should not a similar influence be brought to bear upon the working classes through the operation of their clubs ? Lord Lyttelton remarked : — The London clubs were as much like the clubs of the working classes as they could well be. Those who made use of them were chiefly gentlemen who. 124 THE XJPPEH AND MIDDLE CLASSES. daring the day, were hard at work in the Govern- ment and other offices, and they went there as much for the change of scene as anything else. This produced the desired relaxation. They did not, however, as a rule, take these men away from their own firesides, although many of them had for their homes places in the suburbs of London as un- comfortable comparatively as were the homes of some of the working classes. His lordship denounced the cry that uncomfortable homes were an excuse for men leaving those homes. Their wives did not do so, nor ought they ; and it would he an immense calamity if men neglected the higher education of religion and home to seek that of the club. The incomes and burdens of the several classes of society is one of such general interest that we here notice them. The calculation of the “ Edin- burgh He view” is this : — The upper and middle, or “ propertied 5 5 classes, 8,000,000 in number, have an aggregate income of £350,000,000, and pay £58,000,000 of taxes — i.e ., 150s. a head, or 16 per cent, on their income. The working, or ‘wages’ class, 23,000,000 in number, with an aggregate income of £250,000,000, pay £26,000,000 in taxes — i.e., 23s. a head, or not quite 10 per cent, on their incomes. Professor Levi’s calculation is that the income of the middle and upper classes reaches £349,000,000, divided among 8,000,000; that they pay in taxes about £50,000,000 — i.e., 125s. a head, or nearly 15 PROFESSOR LEVl’S CALCULATIONS. 125 per cent. ; while the working classes, 22,000,000 in all, have an income of £418,000,000, and pay £24,000,000 in taxes — i.e, 22s. a head, or only 6 per cent, of their income. It is obvious that the only discrepancy worth noticing is in the earnings of the working classes, which one writer places at £418,000,000, and the other at £250,000,000. In fact, the “ Edinburgh Reviewer” estimates the family income at £45 or £50, and Mr. Levi at £85. We have been at some pains to trace out the cause of this enormous dif- ference of estimate, and we believe it arises mainly in one item — for the calculated wages per head are not very widely at variance, and as the remunera- tion of labour has risen greatly in the last seven years, probably the 250,000,000 of the earlier authority may now be placed at 280,000,000. But we find that Mr. Levi estimates not only that two of a family are always earning wages, and earn- ing them for forty-eight weeks regularly in the year, but that one-lialf of all the working classes (men, women, and children) are paid labourers, or 11,000,000 out of 22,000,000. Surely, when we reckon up the women who merely keep house, the number of infants under ten or twelve years, and the old people above sixty-five or seventy who earn nothing — to say nothing of a million of paupers — Mr. Levi must here be consider- ably beyond the mark. Everybody must know numbers of families, especially in rural districts, 126 SMALL FARMS. where out of a family of six one only is a “ bread winner” — still more where only two are in receipt of wages. There is, we are sorry to say, a growing disposi- tion in Land Agents to abolish small farms alto- gether. The sizes that farms ought to he, however, are not to he arbitrarily determined. The whole question depends on circumstances, comprehending the qualifications of tenantry, the nature of the soil and climate, also the best system of farming which is possible in the circumstances. Not only are small farms profitable in a national point of view, hut they serve as steps in the ladder by which men of small means and industrious habits may raise themselves in the social scale ; and such men succeed wonderfully by dint of hard labour and rigid economy. Were it only for their sake, then, a few small holdings should he retained on every extensive estate, and for the sake of fostering a spirit of enterprise amongst the rising generation. Moreover, it is in accordance with our experience that in many districts larger rents per acre are obtained for small farms than for large ones. Unquestionably the tendency of the times is for large farms, and the argument most commonly used against this policy is, that there is less competition for them. But facts demonstrate that large holdings get the preference, and that tenants of large means are unwilling to establish themselves in concerns demanding great capital without the prospect of TENDENCY POE LAEGE EAEMS. 127 lengthened occupation. Mr. Grey, of Dilston, in Northumberland, states that, for five farms he let, he had the following offers : — For the 1st, with a rental of £2000, there were 10 offers. 2nd 55 1305 55 6 55 3rd 55 1050 55 7 55 4th 55 258 55 6 55 5th 55 180 55 2 55 Here, then, for a large farm of £2000 a-year were ten offers, from highly respectable persons ; and for a small farm of £180, with good buildings and in good condition, only tivo. There is, however, nothing surprising in these results. Men who have made them capital in commercial and manufacturing busi- ness are now more than ever running after extensive farms. Still, there ought to he a limit as to size, even in endeavouring to meet offers of this kind ; and it does not always follow that such men make the best tenants. In most districts farms ranging from 200 to 400 acres in extent are more likely to he highly farmed than those which are considerably larger. It is only in a few favoured districts of the kingdom that we can find men capable of taking farms at a rental of £2000. The case we have instanced is exceptional. Taking, therefore, the farming community as we find it over the country as a whole, we are of opinion that farms varying from 100 to 800 acres, worth perhaps 35s. or 40s. an acre, are the most likely sizes to he most in demand. 128 A CALIFORNIAN FARM. Some persons will probably be surprised when we tell them that we have seen in California, where, indeed, the soil is the finest in the world for agri- cultural purposes, what may truly be described as mammoth farms. As an instance, there were har- vested in one year on General Hutchinson’s farm, near Sacramento, one thousand acres of barley, seven hundred acres of wheat, and eighteen hundred tons of hay. The full yield of wheat averaged thirty, and of barley, about forty, bushels per acre; the produce was estimated at 60,000 bushels, at $1*33 (about 5s. 6d.) per bushel, or £16,000. The hay would bring £4000. Thus, this piece of land yielded £20,000, to meet capital, labour, and taxes. Alto- gether, California is a most magnificent country, having within its limits many wide-spread plains, much sublime mountain scenery, and numerous sylvan scenes of great beauty. Its mineral wealth is exceedingly great, and the industrial energy of its people really a marvel ; these are as kind and gene- rous as Nature herself has been to their soil. No country can compare with America for the extent of her farms. A few weeks since Mr. Sul- livan, of Illinois, sold his farm, of 22,000 acres, for 374,000 dollars cash. The purchaser, Mr. Alexan- der, also bought the stock, grain, hay, and farming implements, which made the amount of purchase- money quite 500,000 dollars. Mr. Sullivan has yet a farm of 45,000 acres. Truly, they do business in America on a prodigious scale. LARGE AND SMALL EARMS. 129 Small farms, says Arthur Young, require too much manual labour, and do not yield a sufficiency of disposable produce. The persons who occupy them are deficient in capital and skill, so that the smallest improvements exceed their means. They require more horses, at the same time that they furnish only limited resources for raising live stock. The more farms there are on a given space, the more farm buildings and implements are needed ; that is to say, the greater are the unproductive expenses. Great farms, on the contrary, by distributing labour over a large surface, do not require so many horses or labourers, and, the local consumption sub- tracted, enable the cultivators to carry to market a greater quantity of alimentary substances for the use of the classes engaged in other pursuits. On such farms there is a division of labour, and each operative, being confined to one kind of work, per- forms it better. The farmers are, moreover, of a superior order, both in point of wealth and intelli- gence ; and the higher profits which they realise furnish the means of effecting all needful improve- ments. These assertions, of which the increase in the quantity of the produce of the soil seemed to attest the accuracy, have made an impression on a number of minds. Among the writers who endeavoured to propagate them was Herrenschwand, a physician, by birth a Swiss, and a distinguished economist. In a work, published in London in 1786, under the title K 130 SMALL PAHMS. of a “ Treatise on the Principles of Population,” this writer reproduced the notions of Arthur Young; and his adoption of them in a work in which the bulk of the questions then engaging the attention of enlightened men were treated, had the more weight, seeing that he could be suspected neither of national partiality nor of professional prejudice. To these statements the partizans of small farms opposed others entirely different. Small farmers, said they, display, in the smallest details of their business, a care and attention productive of the greatest advantage. There is not a spot of their fields of which they do not know all the capabilities, and on which they do not bestow the appropriate improvements and culture. Productions which great farmers cannot take np their time with, are for them a means of profit ; and those of the poultry-yard and dairy, in particular, generally fur- nish to small farmers an extra source of income, which adds considerably to what they draw from the land. Small farmers employ few labourers, and the greater part of the farm work is done by the tenant and his family with a degree of zeal and intelligence that is never found in hirelings, who have the in- terests of their masters so little at heart. The re- proach preferred against them of a want of means to improve their land is unfounded, for if the profits which they realize are limited, the surfaces which they have to keep or put in good condition are re- DIVISION or LAND IN FRANCE. 131 strictcd, and only required advances corresponding to their size. Since the Revolution of 1789, the territory of France has continually been parcelled out in smaller portions. This fact has often been proclaimed ; but the evil still continues unremedied. We call it an evil because we deprecate the system of subdividing states so much. According to official returns, the superficial area of France is now divided as follows : — Nature of the Property. Mean Extent. Surface occupied. Corresponding Population. Large Estates Acres. 415 Acres. 43,320,000 1,000, Medium Estates ... 87.50 19,250,000 1,000, Small Estates 35 16,800,000 2,400,000 Yery small Estates 8.62 36,130,000 19,500,000 Totals 115,500,000 24,000,000 Of the one hundred and fifteen millions of acres of cultivated land, there are thirty- six millions possessed by proprietors whose estates do not exceed eight and a half acres in extent. It is not true that small farms rear fewer animals than great ones relatively to their size. If sheep are less numerous on them, cattle are more so ; and this may be almost taken for granted, seeing that the products which they raise, and from which they derive their profits, are those that generally require the most manure. K 2 132 ADVANTAGE OF SMALL FARMS. It is alleged that small farms require both more hands and a greater outlay for farm-buildings than large farms ; but what does that signify if the sur- plus of the gross produce which they furnish suffices to cover all the additional expenses which they may so occasion. The extra labour which they demand is even an advantage when their net produce is not inferior to that of other farms, for then, supporting a far denser rural population with an equal number of the manufacturing class, they contribute more than all others to the strength and power of the State. Such are the reasons urged on both sides in favour of the different modes of culture, and they are all, to a certain extent, well founded, for there is no system which has not at once its particular advan- tages and drawbacks ; and the question, therefore, is, what proportion do these bear to each other ? To discover if the appliances of wealth operate in the long run better and more profitably than the personal activity and the careful attention which small farmers display in the smallest details of their business ; to see if the larger capitals of the one, applied to vast surfaces, render them more produc- tive than the smaller capitals of the others, em- ployed on smaller spaces ; these are the problems which have perplexed observers the most free from the prejudices of system, and which caused one of them, Mons. Sismondi, in his “ View of the Agri- culture of Tuscany/’ to say that, “ the question COMPARATIVE EXCELLENCE OE FARMING. 133 relative to large and small farms is one of the most puzzling and complicated possible, although a great number of writers on both sides have solved it with a promptitude which shows that they had only con- sidered it hastily, and under a single point of view.” In fact, it is in the amount of the profit, or net produce — that is to say, in the amount represented by the portion of the gross product left after pay- ing the attendant expenses — that we must seek for the true criterion of the goodness of the different modes of farming, and the certain test of their comparative excellence. Of two industrial estab- lishments of the same magnitude, that to which a final casting-up of accounts leaves the greater profit necessarily claims the superiority. In agricul- ture the earth itself forms the material operated upon ; and, after deducting the whole sums expended on it, that system of management which causes it to yield, on an equal surface, the greatest surplus, or net produce, is entitled to be considered the most efficient and the best. A great portion of the land in this country is in the hands of the aristocracy, and other wealthy pro- prietors, who can occupy only a small part of it themselves. This is the case to a greater extent in Great Britain than in any other country in Europe* save Russia ; but the condition of the inhabitants of the two countries is as wide as the poles are asunder. In Russia the sternest feudality exists. 134 OUR LARGE FARMERS. The lord was, until recently, sole and para- mount tyrant in his domains ; all under him were in a state of absolute serfdom — adscripti glebce — chattels attached to the soil, and disposable with it ; while in England there is perfect freedom. The prevalence of large estates in this country curtails the number of middle-class landowners, whose place, however, is well supplied here by large occupiers. The capital, which would go but a short way in the purchase of land, is sufficient to place an active man in a highly respectable and most useful position as the tenant of a large farm, and the taste or am- bition which elsewhere adds to the purchase of a small estate, tends here to the possession of an ex- tensive holding. It is reasonable to think that a man planting himself and family down upon land in which he is to invest a large capital, and for which, by daily attention and habit, he is likely to conceive a strong local attachment, should like to remain there for a long period. But, besides those spontaneous feelings of local interest, the current of events, the free state of society, and the require- ments of rural and political economy, tend strongly to the concentration of large operations. We have a continual increase of population which all the efforts of agriculture have hitherto failed to feed : the rational desire of the statesman, and the in- terest of the agriculturist, prompt them to do their utmost to supply its demand, by an increase of produce, and by obtaining that produce at a ESTATES ADVANTAGEOUSLY PAECELLED OUT. 135 diminished cost. The obvious means of attaining these desirable objects are to apply more skill and science to the cultivation of the land, and to effect greater economy in tillage, by a perfect division of labour and the employment of improved imple- ments and machinery ; and these are only to be effected on large farms. There are no doubt situations in which an estate may be parcelled out in lots of two or three acres to great advantage, particularly near large towns ; and we have known instances of a landlord’s rent-roll being more than doubled by the change. Of course such small holdings are cultivated by spade-work. Keeping in view that it is properly-applied labour which makes the garden of the cottager to differ from the moor or barren waste by which it is sur- rounded, the conclusion cannot be avoided that spade labour must be productive of great and good results to the landlord as well as to the tenant. An erroneous impression has somehow crept into fashionable circles — that if land is parcelled out into seven or ten acre lots, and is worked by spade labour alone, it is unremunerative, the tenants must be poor, and the reverse of in- industrious. That they can neither have meadows nor cattle ; that they must necessarily farm badly ; their lands be fatally condemned to sterility and themselves to utter poverty. If farming on a large scale is profitable, why should it not be so on a small one ? So far as the proprietor is concerned, 136 STALWART ARMS THE BEST CAPITAL. there is ample proof that the judicious letting of land in lots of seven or ten acres will, in most cases be found exceedingly gainful. The system will add materially to the rental of an estate, and increase the amount of produce. The small farmer does not require to employ labourers, the work is done by himself and his family with a degree of zeal and in- telligence that is rarely found in hirelings. The re- proach preferred against the crofter of a want of means to improve his acres is unfounded, inasmuch as if the profits which he realizes are limited, the surface which he has to put into cultivation and keep in good condition is restricted also, and only requires advances corresponding to its size. More- over, stalwart arms are a much more useful capital in increasing the productive power of the soil, than whole bushels of golden coin. Crofters, too, display in the smallest details of their business a care and attention productive of the greatest advantage. There is not a spot of their fields of which they do not know all the capabilities, and on which they do not bestow the appropriate improvements and cul- ture. Productions which large farmers cannot take up their time with, are for them a source of profit. It may be said with truth, that there is no word in the English languagewhich is answerable for so many blunders, as this much misemployed word, capital. The true capital that improves a farm is to be found, as we have said, in the arm of the cultivator — in the mind and will that direct that arm — in the GRADATION OF HOLDINGS. 137 patient industry that husbands every moment, and devotes it to some labour of which the labourer knows that he himself will reap the reward — in the energy and watchfulness which appropriate exer- tion to the future and not to the purpose of imme- diate enjoyment. These are the qualities that constitute capital. We have always maintained that a proper grada- tion of holdings is the perfection of an estate, and that the method of clearance by which a property is mapped out into large farms without any regard to the necessities of the humbler classes of tenants is a social grievance and an economical blunder. We are quite aware that there are many small holdings where they should be fewer, but we also know that there are few small holdings where many more would be a great public benefit. It should be borne in mind, too, that the discouragement of in- dustry is the chief cause of pauperization, and that it is quite a fallacy to suppose that an allotment system would establish a pauperized community on a grand scale. We hope we may not be considered as advocating the cottar system as existing in many parts of the highlands and islands of Scotland and in Ireland. The island of Skye, for instance, is divided among twelve proprietors, the largest portion of it belong- ing to Lord Macdonald and Macleod of Macieod. We do not know the number of tenants in the island, except on the Macdonald estates, which in- 138 THE ALLOTMENT SYSTEM AND elude the parishes of Portree, Sleet, and most of Strath. The number in 1865, was 761, of whom 193 pay £2 and under ; 349 from £5 to £10 : 9 from £10 to £20 ; 2 from £20 to £50 ; 4 from £50 to £100 ; and 12 of £100 and upwards. Whilst we do not by any means approve of this extremely small croft system as in Skye, we heartily commend it on a larger acreage scale as practised on the Scottish estate of her Grace the Duchess of Sutherland and Countess of Cromartie. There we see how landowners benefit themselves while con- ducing to the comfort and prosperity of their poorer tenants. We could name properties in England as examples, hut as we think it will be admitted that Scotland is the poorer, more sterile and more incle- ment half of the island, an illustration there will be more effective than any in the richer southern land. In the year 1849, when forced expatriation was so rife in the Highlands of Scotland, a little band of poor despairing peasants, exiled from their own arable land, sought permission from the kind Mar- chioness of Stafford, now Duchess of Sutherland, to settle upon an unreclaimed piece of moor at Knock- ferrel, Strathpeffer barony. The Duchess, influenced by the high and generous sentiments which befit her position, most cheerfully conceded the request. Without loss of time we were instructed to survey the land and to lot it off in such areas as we con- sidered would suit the strength and resources of T1IE DUKE AND DUCIIESS OF SUTHERLAND. 139 each family and suffice for their subsistence. So deeply interested did his Grace the Duke of Suther- land, the then Marquis of Stafford, feel in the whole arrangement, that he personally superin- tended the survey and the division of the land. What was then all but an unproductive waste, not worth 3s. an acre, now returns annually 21s. an acre rent, and presents a beautiful picture of fer- tility, peace, and prosperity — a thriving, grateful, and attached tenantry, who invoke blessings on their noble benefactors, who so opportunely enabled them to cherish that instinctive patriotism which binds them to the mountain nooks in the land of their ancestors. The land was divided into seven divisions of ten acres each, and eleven of seven acres, making a total of 147 acres. This completed, a plot was assigned to each family, on which they immediately proceeded to build plain substantial dwellings, rough timber having been supplied by the proprietor gra- tuitously. The houses once erected for shelter, every available hand in the little colony was em- ployed in digging, draining, clearing, and fencing. The labour w r as paid for by the proprietor, and cost £20 per acre. The land having been put into proper condition for cultivation, a lease of nineteen years was granted to each tenant on his agreeing to pay a rent of 21s. per acre. This yeilded the proprietor five per cent, interest on the whole of the capital expended. The allotments, too, are yearly increas- 140 THE NOBLE EXAMPLE OE THE ing in value, and will one day let for enhanced rents. The four-course shift of cropping is adopted, and the average produce is full three quarters of grain per acre. Moreover, each tenant keeps an average stock of two cows, one stirk or steer, and a horse. The rents are regularly paid, the tenants continue to prosper, and they speak with the deep- est gratitude of their obligations to the noble family of Sutherland. Such results are indeed highly gratifying. There is an air of independence, too, about these poor people as they grow their own corn and vegetables; and their families have the advantage of their pro- ductive labour in their little plots of land, while they are adding to their own enjoyments. Surely it is well to encourage such industry. There are thousands of acres now in England, Scotland, and Ireland lying unproductive that might be put under culture with equal benefit to the proprietor and the peasantry. Let us therefore hope that the noble example of the ducal house of Sutherland may be extensively followed, so that the industry of the peasantry of our land may clothe the face of the earth with the pleasing aspect of cultivation. Permit us once more to bear testimony to the worth, bene- volence, and unostentatious liberality of the amiable Duchess of Sutherland and Countess of Cromartie, and heartily to wish her flourishing little settlement increasing prosperity, and that she may long con- tinue to command the affection, not only of her DUCAL HOUSE OP SUTHERLAND. 141 little rustic population, but of all the tenantry on her Grace’s magnificent estates. “ O, to be cherished for oneself alone ! To owe the love that cleaves to us to nought Which fortune’s summer — winter — gives or takes! To know that while we wear the mind, Feature, and form, high Heaven endowed us with, Let the storm pelt us, or fair weather warm. We shall be loved ! Kings from their throne cast down, Have bless’ d their fate, that they were valued for Themselves and not their stations.” Knockferral retains its primitive beauty, and from its heights, as far as the eye can range, are still to be found cottars in comparative comfort, drinking out of the wells out of which their fathers drank ; and though the necessaries of life may be scanty, a tranquil contentment, a simplicity, strong attachments, and a moral deportment, reigns among them, which must afford very delightful reflections to the promoters of these virtuous qualities. What a beautiful picture this — what a contrast to the times when Burns leant over his rustic desk lamenting a spoliation of wild woods and cots in his native country. c 4 When, glinting through the trees, appeared The wee white cot aboon the mill ; And peacefu’ rose its ingle reek, That slowly curled up the hill. 142 COTTAGE FARMING. But now the cot is bare and cauld, It’s branchy shelter’s lost and gane ; And scarce a stunted birk is left To shiver in the blast it’s lane.” Let no man see in the roofless walls of de- molished human habitations evidences of the cc pros- perity” which consists in consolidating a number of small tenements into one great farm. Yet, surely it is reason, and not feeling or imagination, that sees in these miserable scenes, not only the departure of an ancient race, but the coming ruin of the country which they leave. A voice is heard from the midst of our household gods : “ Arise, and let us go hence !” We do not envy the imagination that knows no warning in that voice. We have no respect either for the head or the heart of the man, who sees without dismay ~ a whole people leaving the homes of their ancestors. The reclaiming and culture of small pieces of land by means of the spade and other implements of manual labour, are usually spoken of under the name of spade husbandry, hut are also sometimes called cottage farming, or field gardening — the operations of the culturist hearing an intimate resemblance to those performed in ordinary gar- dening. The apparatus supposed to he employed by the cottage farmer is simple and inexpensive. It consists of two or three spades of different sizes, a pickaxe, three-pronged digging fork, hoes, rake, SPADE HUSBANDRY. 143 light harrow which he can draw, scythe, reaping hooks, hay-forks, flail, wheelbarrow, &c., according to means. It is of great importance for the cottage farmer to he able to sharpen or mend his tools, and for this purpose he should have a grinding-stone and small forge, also some carpenter’s tools. No horse or paid servant is kept. All the work is done by the manual labour of the farmer and his family. The only live stock is a cow or cows, pigs, and poultry. The homestead consists of a cottage with several apartments, a cowhouse, pigsty, and barn. The size of the farm is supposed to vary from six to eight acres, and to be laid out in four or six distinct fields, properly fenced. With reference to the comparative value of spade husbandry, it is an indisputable fact, that a garden produces heavier crops, space for space, than a field under ordinary culture with the plough . In regard to difference of produce, an experiment was tried in the neighbourhood of Hamilton, expressly to ascer- tain this point. A field was taken which had been cropped with beans the preceding year, and the previous year with oats. Two ridges were dug, and two ploughed, alternately, and the whole was sown on the same day. A part, both of the ploughed and dug, was drilled with the garden hoe. The whole was reaped the same day, and, being thrashed out, the result was, that the dug land sown broadcast, was to the ploughed sown broadcast, as fifty-five bushels to forty-two ; while the dug aud drilled was 144 THE ALLOTMENT SYSTEM. as twenty and a quarter bushels to twelve and a quarter upon the ploughed and drilled. The addi- tional grain produced was not the only beneficial result gained by digging ; for, in this instance, there was also a great deal of straw, and the land was much more free of weeds, and more easily cultivated in the following year. Some soils, however, are unsuitable for spade husbandry ; as, for instance, heavy wet lands, liable to inundation ; stony, gravelly, or shallow soils, more especially if incumbent on chalk. Manual labour is also inapplicable where the climate is pre- carious, and it is necessary to be expeditious in tilling the land, and in sowing and harrowing for a crop. On these accounts, spade husbandry cannot be universally resorted to with advantage, either to the culturist or the community. The success of the allotment system is highly gratifying, but in many places the benevolent peo- ple who are promoting it by letting small pieces of ground, seem to have taken especial care of them- selves. Now it is a very cruel thing to impose upon the poor creatures who take small allotments at a rental of Is. per rod ; and this, which is at the rate of £8 an acre, prevails in many places, and is a good deal too much. There is something odd in seeing gentlemen at a meeting insisting upon the advantages of promoting industry among the cot- tagers by the creation of small gardens, and, after- wards, parting their acres, which are worth from COTTAGE GARDENER. 145 £1 to £3, into small allotments at the rate of £8 ! If those who now demand a shilling a rod really wish to serve the cottager, let them at once reduce it to half ; for a poor man, whose labour is his only property, can as ill afford to pay £8 an acre as the farmer who employs him. If this he not attended to on the part of the benevolent landlords, it will become a duty to expose a system so fraught with evil. It is the same kind of offence, in the moral scale, as charging double price for anything the poor man cannot do without, and it is discreditable to make a profit of his prudence. Still there are many who would rather give land rent-free than charge too much. The cottage gardener cannot be too freely encouraged ; parishes should procure ground, and allot it at low rents, if they have none of their own to divide, for men are never idle in the strict sense of the word. They must be doing some- thing ; when they are not earning money, they are spending it, unless they find some inviting occupa- tion ; and there is no better test of a man’s industry, frugality, and general disposition than a little gar- den. How very desirable, then, is it to encourage such industry by every means in our power, instead of imposing upon it a tax of double rental ! In a garden no rod of ground should ever be idle. If a man who is naturally lazy has not kept his ground well cropped, he may have his excuses about laying fallow, ridging it in winter to mellow the soil, or leaving it rough that the frost may get into L 146 WHAT COTTAGERS SHOULD GROW. it ; but there is no occasion for all this, — the soil does not require rest ; change of work is a holiday to man, and change of crop is all that any ground needs ; for no two crops require the same kind of feeding, and consequently, by changing from one which requires high feeding of one kind to another which requires no feeding, or feeding of another sort, the ground continues at work without being exhausted. If ground has been used for carrots, parsnips, or beet-root, it may be immediately cropped with lettuces, or some crop which has no tap-roots. Turnips, also, and potatoes, may be followed by peas. Very little attention (if that be properly devoted) will be necessary to prevent ground being wasted, or crops being out of place. When a garden is wanted for a family, and economy rather than variety is to be consulted, we are quite sure that asparagus, sea-kale, and similar expensive things, ought not to be undertaken. The first object is plenty; the second object is the choice of those subjects which last in the ground, or preserve well, when taken off. Potatoes are a first considera- tion; onions, carrots, parsnips, and beet-root are next ; and Jerusalem artichokes are not to be for- gotten, because all these are capable of being stored for months after they are taken up ; then, of those which last a long time in the ground, and afford a constant supply, scarlet beans, cabbages, winter spinach, and savoys are the most worthy of a cot- tager’s attention ; but broccoli (except the sprout- THE MOST NUTRITIOUS FRUIT. 147 ing, which is hardy and useful), cauliflowers, peas, and other vegetables, which yield less produce on the same ground, by reason of the greater quantity of room they take, or the longer period of remain- ing on the ground, must he considered as luxuries. Everybody with a garden must consider the circum- stances under which he has to cultivate it. If he has more ground than his family require for their supply , care must be taken to have the surplus of a useful and marketable nature, such as are always saleable, and if not bought on the ground, capable of being preserved for some time. All the articles mentioned in the first instance are of this nature. Potatoes, carrots, parsnips, beet-root, onions, and such like subjects, when ripened, will keep, and are always in request ; whereas to overgrow any perish- able crop is unwise, because they will bring nothing, as when one person is overdone, most people are in the same predicament. There are some seasons in which it is better to sow for main crops, but in a general way it is better to have different sowings, and not too large, because all will frequently come in together, and so in a few days all be gone by. The most useful and nutritious of all fruit is the apple, and it is the first a * cottager should seek to grow. Roasted without any accompaniment, it is, without exception, the best thing to give children for their morning and evening meals, and far more wholesome with bread than butter is ; or two or three dozen may be baked on a tin, and some may l 2 148 FRUIT AND FRUIT TREES. be always kept ready, for they keep many days without damage. The best sorts, perhaps, are the Hawthornden, which is a heavy bearer ; the Ribston Pippin, which is the best eating apple uncooked, and an excellent keeper ; and the Prenck Crab, which will continue good until apples come in season again. According to the size and nature of the garden, they may be grown as standards, drawfs, or espaliers. Standards will, in the course of time, grow longer and bear more, but they damage the under-crop more or less in proportion to their size, whereas espaliers do but little harm. Dwarfs are the most objectionable, because they spread close to the ground and occupy it a good way round, to the entire exclusion of everything else. Upon the whole, perhaps, standards are the best. If they are planted well, they will soon com6 into bearing ; but it will be very desirable to regulate the form of the heads the first two or three seasons, so far, at least, as to preserve the branches that grow outwards, and remove those which grow inwards, and cross one another, for if these be neglected while young, the head fills up with barren branches, which prevent the sun and air from free access to the fruit. Standard trees ought always to undergo pruning, although not so particularly as wall-fruit trees, in which every shoot is regularly placed ; they are all the better for having useless branches cut out, and also branches that are growing too vigorously for the rest of the tree. Por present use the Ilaw- FRUIT AND FRUIT TREES. 149 thornden will be ready as soon as the fruit is large enough, and by the time they are all used, the Libston may be begun; but these will keep for months ; and after they are gone, the French Crab, which will continue hard and firm half-way through the next summer, may supply the family till apples come again. Pears, though not quite so economical, on account of requiring sugar, are nevertheless a wholesome change of fruit for children, and the proper culinary varieties will keep for many months. They may be stewed with a little coarse sugar and spice, and are a great treat for a family. Like apples, they are an excellent accompaniment to bread for young people. The common baking pear is the best in all respects : first, because it is not eatable without being cooked, and, therefore, chil- dren will not injure themselves, as they might, by eating too many of the more choice sorts ; secondly, because the trees are great bearers ; and lastly, because they keep a long while, and make a good change for a great part of the year with the apple. Gooseberries and currants are general favourites. These give very little trouble. If they are planted young, with only two or three branches, cut them completely back to two or three eyes, all of which will make branches if allowed to grow ; but as soon as they shoot, look to the direction they are taking, when any that grow inwards should be rubbed off, and about half-a-dozen that grow outwards and form spreading branches may be allowed to grow. 150 PRUNING AND CUTTINGS. In pruning all the side branches are to be cut close off, because the fruit comes finest when the main branches are spurred, and the end of each branch is to grow until it is as long as you wish it to be ; the inside of the bush is thus kept open, and admits sun and air, which forward the fruit very much. This must be continued evfcry year, so that after pruning all the bushes are mere skeletons, but they will bring finer fruit and ripen it better for this close or spur pruning. The currant and gooseberry bushes are both pruned alike. There are many who only shorten the lateral branches a little, but they ought to be cut in to a quarter of an inch. Both currants and gooseberries may be raised from cuttings, so that a cottager need not buy them ready grown. At the pruning season he may get the cuttings of any neighbour who can spare them. If people planting orchards would give orders to mark the north side of trees with red chalk before they are taken up, and when set out to have the trees put in the ground with their north side to the • north in their natural position, a larger proportion would live. Ignoring this law of nature is the cause of so many transplanted trees dying. If the north side is exposed to the south, the heat of the sun is too great for that side of the tree to bear, and therefore it dries up and decays. A hive of bees, too, ought to be kept by cot- tagers. It is like a sum deposited in a Savings Bank — it will pay good interest if the original BEES WILL PAY A COTTAGEP’S BENT. 151 stock is preserved; in fact, if properly managed, bees ought to pay a cottager’s rent, and much more than that if he has three or four hives. There is no occasion to kill a single bee in a hive if the owner of it will content himself with a certain portion of the honey contained in it. Recollect that a hive properly contains 30,000 working bees — industrious insects — who are at work both night and day. If these are destroyed — and it is great cruelty to do so — your stock of bees cannot be increased; whereas, by allowing them to swarm, another hive is added to your stock. It is well known to be a great advantage in bee management to have early swarms, as they become strongly established stocks, well furnished with combs and honey, before winter ; whereas, late swarms often succumb to the rigours of that season, or must of necessity be broken up in autumn. The popular saying is — A swarm in May Is worth a load of hay. A swarm in June Is worth a silver spoon. A swarm in July Is not worth a fly. The plan adopted in New York State in wintering bees is to let them remain in their summer quarters, and protect them either by an outer hive or by sur- rounding the hives with hay or straw. This cover- 152 KNOWLEDGE OE GARDENING IMPORTANT. ing is arranged as follows : — Place the hives on low stools, from six to twelve inches high ; drive stakes into the ground, two on each side of the hive, large enough to support the hay and long enough to reach about four inches above the hives when driven into the ground. Stuff the hay around the hive firmly on all sides, and cover the top of the hive with hay ; then tie the tops of the stakes together, remove the hay from the passage-ways, and place a board in front of each hive to darken the passage- ways. Bore an inch augur hole through the stand to admit air. In these days of emigration it is impossible to rate too highly a knowledge of gardening, for a young man starts with little more than a grant of land, and what good can this grant do him unless he knows how to turn it fo account ? It would be to him worthless. Whereas, if he knew but the rudiments of gardening, he could make it produce enough food for himself and family, if he had one, besides laying by something. It may be said he could take out books that would direct him what to do, but he would have to read and learn after he got out, instead of being ready for his work ; and an emigrant, to do any good for himself, ought not to lose an hour. Besides, at school, the operations of aardenins: would be a relief from drier studies, and a lesson in practice would be better than twenty readings. Tlie Duke of Northumberland, in bis school at Alnwick, not only provides this instruc- THE FARMER AND IIIS HOME. 153 tion, but gives prizes annually for the best produce, and has created among the objects of his care a great amount of emulation and enthusiasm. Turn these boys, when they are old enough, out in a wild waste in Australia, and they would go to work without having to study. They know how to dig and trench, and sow and plant, as well as they know how to eat the produce ; and school education should not go beyond this. It is like other educa- tion for the people. The poor should be taught reading, writing, and arithmetic. This puts them in the fair way for learning or self-teaching all that their genius, if they have any, can desire. These common qualifications fit a youth for business ; if his genius fits him for higher things he will soon acquire the rest of himself. So it should be with school gardening, which should never go further than the management of the open ground and hardy crops. In the life of the farmer, as in that of every other man, it is of the utmost importance to make home attractive to all the family. It is unnecessary to say that the strictest neatness and good order in all domestic arrangements are more conducive than anything else to this end. Without them no dwell- ing can have an air of cheerfulness and comfort. The cultivation of flowers in the house and the garden is well calculated to aid the skilful house- keeper in adorning and beautifying home, while it affords a pleasant occupation for leisure hours. 151 WE LOVE THE LONE COTTAGE. Who does not feel the influence of flowers blooming in the window, and in the neat beds of the garden or the front yard? Graceful vines trailing over the doorway give a charm to the poorest dwelling, and make the humblest cottage attractive. Let not the adornment of our country gardens be overlooked, however small they be. What a sweet page of rustic lore is there ! Who does not love the lone cottage, embosomed in the dear old garden which has something sacred in its homeliness ? We find a charm in its hawthorn fence, its stocks and sweet-williams, and its pretty flowers with their gentle names and gentler memories. What more lovely than the sweet blossoms glistening in the sunlight ? What more delightful than the neatly- drilled beds of peas and beans, the tufts of sage and rosemary, and other plants esteemed medicinal by their cultivators, with the robin-redbreast’s comer, where the poor bird loves to hop about midst thymy leaves and honeysuckle ? One of the greatest of all the sources of enjoyment resulting from the possession of a garden is the endless variety which it produces, either by the perpetual progress of vegetation which is going forward in it to maturity, dormancy, or decay, or by the almost innumerable kinds of plants which may be raised in even the smallest enclosure. Independently, however, of the changes resulting from the plants cultivated, every month throughout the year has its particular interest, its hopes, and its fears. Nay, it would FRENCH AND ENGLISH AGRICULTURE. 155 not be too much to say that during six months of the year a change takes place and is perceptible in the plants of a garden every day, and every day has in consequence its operations and it products. A great deal has lately been said of French agri- culture, and comparisons have been made with the English system of cultivation, highly adverse to our continental neighbours, but any one who has travelled through France must acknowledge that the land is remarkably well cultivated. TJ nquestion- abiy small farms are made much more productive in France than in England. Throughout N ormandy not an inch of ground is wasted. True, the land is in small plots, but these plots are cultivated with the same diligence that a London market -gardener bestows on his holdings at £14 an acre. Many who have not visited France entertain a very erroneous notion of the system of farming. They suppose that, because land is in such small holdings, the owners are so poor that women are brought out to do the labour of men and beasts. But such is really not the case. It is true that women and children work, but it is becoming work, sdch as the raising of poultry and flowers for the markets, and other occupations of the English farmer’s wife of the last century. The French farmer looks after his fruit, his poultry, his eggs, and the minor articles of produce of which our rich English farmers take no heed, and thus, through the small holdings, the land is rendered far more productive than if it were 156 YIELD OF LARGE FARMS. thrown into larger farms. The Trench peasantry seem a well-to-do and contented people. Yon see no drunkenness, no extreme poverty. They live frugally and become self-dependent from having the management of their own affairs, and not living in a state of servitude. This extensive application of industry to the cultivation of the small plot of land bestows a pleasing and fertile aspect on the country, and gives it the appearance of a series of gardens. Economically speaking, large farms yield a larger surplus than small ones, after paying for the labour expended upon them. But they sustain a much, smaller population, and it seems to us worthy of con- sideration, whether what is called the agricultural in- terest would not, in a political point of view, become more powerful by an increase instead of a decrease in the number of persons dependent on, and sus- tained by, agriculture. This can be done only by decreasing the size of farms, and thus giving an opportunity to agricultural labourers to rise by prudence and industry into small farmers, instead of becoming parish paupers or beer shop -keepers in their old a^e. In the meantime the labourer should emancipate himself in mind and body, and learn more self-reliance. Let him look at the list of births, deaths, and marriages, and see what a large portion of the upper and middle classes have to seek their fortunes in every quarter of the globe ; and he may perhaps acknowledge that it is not by sit- FARMING IN EAST LOTIIIAN. 157 ting down in his own parish and looking to others for help that the labourer, more than any one else, will ever improve his condition. There can be no royal road upwards for the labourer more than for any other man. A gentleman in Ireland, after visiting East Lothian, makes the following comparison between farming in that district and farming in Ireland ■ - Incredulous as to the statement of the Lothian farmers, of 600 Scotch acres, paying £2400 a-year in labour and manures, besides pretty high rents — £4 to £5 per imperial acre — when compared with the same quality of land in Ireland, we thought it • as well to pay one of these gentlemen a visit ; and, though doubtful before seeing, facts, which are stubborn things, proved the truth of their state- ment. At dinner, at one of their tables, four or five neighbouring farmers were guests, each averag- ing 600 to 650 acres, and all high farmed. The furniture, houses, and mode of living of these gentlemen were on a par, or rather better than those of the small proprietors in Ireland, between £800 and £1200 a-year, though paying high rents on nineteen or twenty-one years’ leases. The farm cottages for labourers, numbering twenty to thirty on each holding, were very comfortable, equal to those in any part of England, while the houses of the steward and the shepherd on each, were of a superior class. We did not visit the bothies, where the unmarried live, hut the men and women have I5S FARMING IN EAST LOTHIAN. separate houses ; all seemed very healthy, comfort- able, and well clad and shod. During the harvest, about 150 men and women had been employed ; but the reaping and mowing machines have enabled the farmers to do their work with 100, and yet their crops and hay are saved earlier. Three of the gentlemen at dinner had steam ploughs, and they ’all thought that with some improvements steam must be generally used on the farms of 200 acres and over. The crops were nearly all housed on the “ high farms,” guano and superphosphate bringing them in much earlier. The potato crops were very good — no failure — and the price asked was £27 per imperial acre. Now, as each farmer of 650 acres had 80 to 100 acres of potatoes sold on the spot at £27 per statute acre, £2100 to £2700 on a single farm for potatoes alone 'would astonish those un- acquainted with u high farming ; 55 but twenty-six years ago these gentlemen only grew them for family use. The railroad has, however, served them, the rates to London in waggons without bags being only 25s. per ton for 430 miles, or equal to 12s. per ton from Cork to Dublin. When will the railways give these facilities to Irish farmers P They are carried proportionally cheap to Hull, Newcastle, Glasgow, and Manchester, the buyers coming, so that the farmers need not look out for a market. All the crops were good except turnips, which had in many cases to be sown three times, and will only produce half an average return. SCOTCH AND IRISH TENANTS. 159 Wheat good. Earley fair. The great complaints the farmers have here are of the G ame Laws ; game being so strictly preserved are numerous and de- structive. Wood pigeons, though not game, are especially so, and it is a matter of surprise that the proprietors do not make their gamekeepers destroy their nests as they do those of hawks and magpies. This would he of great benefit to landlord and tenant, while causing little cost to the proprietor. No doubt the East Lothian landowners, when aware of the injury, will do everything to rectify it. Our host, on a twenty-one years’ lease, tile-drained his farm, and put an addition to the dwelling-house, costing £1200, though at the expiration of it he may have to pay for his own improvements ; but Scotch tenants put the capital into the land as the best bank, and will not lend it to needy proprietors, as the Irish farmers do, at five or six per cent., while the proper cultivation of their farm will return them fifteen to twenty. Scotch farmers, on expiry of their leases, do not look on another gentle- man entering the farm as an intruder, or “ taking it over their heads,” but the outgoing and incoming tenant meet on the best terms, and settle matters amicably, without, as in Ireland, a threatening notice with a coffin roughly drawn beside it. It is difficult to understand why in England and Scotland landlords and tenants can make their own bargains, let or resume their lands, without the interference of third parties, wffio in Ireland will give powder 160 Ireland’s great want. and shot for the supposed grievances in matters they had nothing to do with. The Highlander is as much a Celt as the Patlander, and yet he employs no Bibbonmen to shoot the party who takes his crop, or farm, or the landlord who lets it ; nor are [Ribbon lodges held in [Ross, Inverness, or other counties where the Gael has been evicted much more summarily than in Ireland. How, then, is the love of the Irish tenant of shooting landlord, agent, bailiff, and the gentleman who takes the place over another to he accounted for ? “ Adhuc sub judice lis est ,” and we leave the question to more learned men to decide. In these farms of 650 acres all are in tillage — either grain, green crops, and one or two-year-old pasture, with only a dozen of acres around the farm-house in permanent grass, gardens, steadings, offices, &c. We would advise all our agriculturists to visit the east of Scot- land, and see how farmers, paying from £2 15s. to £3 11s. per imperial acre, can make money, and live like gentlemen, after expending £2 per acre on guano and £2 on labour. The Lothians are fine land, but not so rich as Meath, [Roscommon, Tip- perary, or the Golden Vein. We believe that Ire- land’s great want is not the want of a more cordial understanding between the landlord and the tenant, hut simply the want of a better system of farming. This want has been of late years slowly and gradually supplied ; and the improvement of the system was naturally followed by increased prosperity, until the REGULATION OP RENTS. 161 late disastrous succession of bad harvests dashed to the ground, for a time, the rising hopes of the farmers. It is much easier to point out the causes that have contributed to reduce the small farmer to his present depressed condition, than to apply a remedy. One thing is certain, that there is no infallible specific, no universal medicine, no wonder- ful restorative, that will infuse new life into the decaying frame of the small farmer. Are we, then, to leave him to perish, or to sweep him away, to make room for the large holder? Certainly not. It is our plain duty to deal with the soil and its in- habitants as a great trust, for which we shall have one day to render an account ; and to sweep away the living human beings, is to refuse the most im- portant and serious part of the trust committed to us. The task of improving the condition of the small Irish farmer, requires not only a practical knowledge of farming, but patient, watchful, un- wearied attention. It will be a work of time and labour ; but as long as the work progresses we must be satisfied. The farmer’s truest friend is the man who will teach him, both by precept and example, the best way to cultivate his land, and will give him a helping hand in adverse seasons and times of difficulty ; and that man is his landlord. A very important matter which has to be settled by the Land Agent is the due regulation of the rent. The term rent is applied to the share which the landlord receives of the profits accruing from M 162 CORN RENTS. • the working of the land, as the interest of that species of capital. It is also applied to mines, fisheries, forests, water-courses, houses, and patents. It is also applied generally to the purchase for a limited time of the use of such property, even when no profit is intended to be made, as in the case of dwelling-houses, houses in the country, shooting grounds, &c. Hence, rent only arises when the property in question is lent out to some one. When the owner of the article uses or works it himself, there is no such tiling as rent, any more than when a man trades with his own money, can there he any such thing as interest. In ancient times, the rent was given in kind and in personal service — the tenant yielding so much produce to the lord, and doing his work in conveying fuel from the wood or turbary, in reaping his corn, making his hay, and rearing animals and poultry for his use. These in time were converted into cash payments, and the letting of land and paying for its occu- pation assumed the character of a commercial tran- saction. By reason of the great fluctuations in the price of grain, and of the consequent value of land, of late years a partial return has been made to the old system — not of actually paying rent in kind, but of converting it into the money value of a cer- tain amount of produce, according to the average price of the time, which is called “ a corn rent.” This has not proved generally satisfactory to the tenant, for when prices are low little remains for COEN AND MONEY IlENTS. 163 his profit, and when high, as now, enabling tenants on money rents to receive a good surplus, he finds himself giving a high rent to his landlord, and making much less to himself than his neighbours are realizing. There can be no doubt 1 that money is the most convenient medium of exchange, and the best representative of value, and that those te- nants act the most prudently who are careful of their profits in good times , to be prepared to meet others less favourable, or who, having security of tenancy, lay them out in improving and enriching their land, so as by an increase of produce to be able to meet a fall of prices. To many persons it appears an inequitable arrangement that the tenant should pay a fixed sum to the landlord, whatever be the price of corn, which is notoriously an article whose value is of the most fluctuating description. And no doubt to persons who are not much acquainted with the subject, the metayer system may appear to be more equitable. But it is not found to be so in practice. Payment of rent .in kind used to prevail to a considerable extent in Scotland. In many parts of the country there are still to be seen large buildings, in which the farmers used to store the rents of the landlord. But the unfortunate landlord of course got the worst part of everything. And as civilization advanced this payment of rent in kind was universally abolished, and a payment in money substituted. Now, as the people have universally abandoned a m 2 164 ALDERMAN MECHI ON COEN RENTS. payment in kind, and substituted a payment in money, it is the best proof that can be bad that the latter method is more practically convenient than the other. But even though the payment in kind of a portion of the produce has been abandoned, and the payment made in money, many schemes have been devised to ensure what appeared to be a more equitable division of the profits between landlord and tenant, according to the varying price of corn. And different modifications of this system, which is generally called “ corn rents,” are in favour in this country. It is necessary to observe the distinction between the system of metayers and corn rents. The former is a division of the actual produce of the soil between landlord and tenant, the latter is a pay- ment in money, but varying according to the price of corn. While, in some parts of this country, opinion is much in favour of corn rents, on the other hand, in many other parts of the country which are in the highest state of cultivation, and where the highest science prevails, corn rents are held in utter abhorrence, and opinion is equally tenacious of fixed rents. Mr. Alderman Mechi expresses himself strongly on this important subject. At page 57 of his most valuable work, “ How to Barm Profitably,” the worthy Alderman says : — “ I am decidedly of opinion a long lease and a corn rent (regulated by the rent-charge for tithe) and a valuation of tenants’ improvements to the incoming tenant, are indispen- COMMERCIAL FLUCTUATION. 165 sable as a basis for leases. Some say, c Oh, a land- lord does not like a variable rent.’ Well, but are not all classes of income variable with circum- stances ? Where is your five per cent. Government fund annuitant ? Why, nowhere in that character ; but we find him grumbling or contented with three and a quarter. Your shareholder in canals, with ten per cent, to-day, finds to-morrow the railways have reduced him to five. Where are your holders of road-trust bonds ? Their capital annihilated and the traffic transferred to railways. It is the same in trade, commerce, and manufactures, one year thriving, another losing ; and so with the farmer himself, his wheat £20 this season, and £10 the next. Then, pray, why is the landlord to be placed in a different position from all the world beside ? Your landlords of houses find their property im- proved by a church or swept away by a railway, or their dearly-built old houses rendered tenantless by new ones, more fashionable, more commodious, and cheaper, being built when timber, iron, and labour happen to have fallen forty per cent., the manufac- turers being depressed. There is nothing certain in this world — all is movement and change. Neither landlords nor tenants can escape the vicissitudes of circumstances any more than other classes of Her Majesty’s subjects.” Every landowner and farmer in the country should peruse all Mr. Mechi’s writings on agricultural subjects, because they are thoroughly practical. The worthy Alderman has X66 RETURN EOR CAPITAL INVESTED IN FARMING. devoted the best portion of his life to the cause of agricultural progress ; like all earnest men, he has occasionally ridden his hobby rather hard, but he has lived to see very many of his opinions accepted and adopted by those who in earlier days were wont to ridicule his advice ; and he may well derive con- solation from the conviction that his efforts to benefit his fellow- creatures have not been in vain. Many persons ask, What is a fair return for capital invested in fanning ? As a general rule, 10 per cent, on the capital invested is considered a fair profit. However, there are thousands who do not realize even the half of it. We know that there is a wide diversity of opinion on this very important subject. There are, in fact, so many different modes whereby a conclusion is arrived at. A says, I calculate the expected income or produce of a farm, and take the probable amount of disburse- ment, making one of these a charge of £5 per cent, for capital employed, as well as the rent required, and then see what amount shall be left for house- keeping expenses. E calculates the expected income as before, and making his disbursement to include only rent, declares the farm not worth using unless there be one rent left for him. These are tenants' methods of calculating, and are falla- cious, inasmuch as they must ever give a capricious rate of interest for capital : the first depending on the domestic habits and associations of the tenant as to the amount necessary for his purpose ; in the INTEREST MADE OE PARMER* S CAPITAL. 1G7 last, making tlie rate of interest to depend not on tlie amount of capital employed, but on the quality of the land employed upon, as every one must see, it would take more capital to stock an equal rental on poor than on rich land. Every one is aware that the interest made of a farmer’s capital is not so large as the generality of traders, because the risk is not so great in his having to trade only in a wholesale commodity in a ready money market, and he has consequently few if any drawbacks in the shape of bad debts, like other traders ; yet, on the other hand, it should be con- sidered that it is a capital completely locked up, so much so, that should loss follow it will not be a small one, from the time it takes to retire from busi- ness of this nature. Eor this reason, he is pecu- liarly sensitive of the influence public opinion on laws affecting his trade has upon his property ; like other traders he can see the storm gathering, but unlike most others, he has no means of securing even a portion of his property from its effects. These seem the most prominent risks, besides those casualties a farmer has frequently before his eyes in losses of stock and unpropitiousness of seasons not to be guarded against, and for which we would place a charge of three per cent. The last question is much more difficult, and opens a wide field for discussion. It is curious to note how rents were paid in ancient times. In the beginning of the eighth 168 PAYMENT OP KENTS IN ANCIENT TIMES. century, Ina, King of the West Saxons, enacted a law by which “ten hides or plough-lands ” consti- tuting a farm was to pay the following rents : — Ten casks of honey, three hundred loaves of bread, twelve casks of strong ale, thirty casks of small ale, two oxen, ten wedders, ten geese, twenty hens, ten cheeses, one cask of butter, five salmon, twenty loads of forage, and a hundred eels. A hide of land was variously estimated at from 60 to 120 acres. It is also curious to notice the large tracts of land necessary to support the households kept up in the baronial halls of olden times, and the number of manors possessed by the Norman nobles after the Conquest, as compared with properties of the pre- sent day. The elder Spenser, in a petition to Par- liament, about the year 1580, complaining of outrages upon his property, states his moveable effects to be 28,000 sheep, 1,000 oxen, 1,000 cows, 500 cart horses, 2,000 hogs, 600 bacons, 80 carcases of beef, and 600 sheep in the larder, 10 tons of cider, and arms for 200 men. Earl Moreton became possessed of 793 manors ; Hugh de Alrinsis obtained the whole palatine of Chester ; Allan, Earl of Brit- tany, 412 manors; Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, 493; William, Earl Warren, 288, besides 38 towns or hamlets in Yorkshire ; and the large county of Norfolk was divided amongst 66 proprietors. The owners of these large properties resided almost entirely upon them, except when engaged in war, and usually held the land in their occupation. LAND STATISTICS. 169 We gather from that able and excellent paper the "S .2 . pH P *H CM CM VO CO 00 CM O co Jt> HH CO 05 TS-* £ £ 05 hH y VO CO VO o T? 05 rH VO 00 o c O £ H id GO 03 vb cb cb cb o rH ib 00 CO 3 .3 r- » r x> n? CM CM CM CO 00 o CO 00 njl CM M> CO CM © rH i— t CM rH 9 Ht* CO 00 vp Ills 6 00 oo VO 00 *— < »—t l> 05 T— 1 rH sW « VO co CM nfl CO CO VO co ns . .a o x> 00 oo 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 oo 00 00 00 O i— I £ 1-3 w|(M Heq rfnH (D CO H M ill dn anojj 9 uq ^noqB paamLaa: souiStrq asatp). py CD ^ ^ £ §'3) O £ kph vO VO qo oo oo oo o o o o o o o VO 00 *sh p rH -rfl rH Q N (b 6 O0 6 Q0 O 0) bo . rH O d'-g 5 <6 CM CO CO CO CO rH CM VO o 05 !>• CO 00 O CM 05 vo 00 00 CO hJH o X>» !>• CO VO CO CO o VO XH x> CO CO CO nfl nf< TfS CM nfi nfi co •'tf nfl CD ^ O G N h? W W «3 ^ rH i — I (N IM CJ O nj« O O O CM X>- M3 rf lO 1> 1> rfl N N H H N f) f) P % 3 5 fH C> 2 ^ s w o pq o & a o M fcC >-» so o o 6 : <3 © : £ ^ ^ cS o m Ph J £ -a ^ Is © 3 fl J oo a <*3 w <1 l2j FIXED STEAM-EN GrINES. 426 RESULTS OE STEAM-ENGINES IN TABULAR EORM, COMPARISON OF THE AGE OF ANIMALS. 427 A comparison of tlie age of animals is rather interesting. A clog lives twenty years; a wolf, twenty ; a fox, fourteen or sixteen. The average age of cats is fifteen years ; of a squirrel or hare, seven or eight years. Elephants have been known to have lived to the great age of 400 years. When Alexander had conquered Porus, the Indian king, he took a great elephant, which had fought valiantly for the king, and naming him Ajax, dedicated him to the sun, and let him go with this inscription — “ Alexander, the son of Jupiter, hath dedicated Ajax to the sun.” This elephant was found with this inscription 350 years after. Pigs have been known to live to the age of thirty years ; the rhino- ceros to fifty. Camels sometimes live to the age of 100. Stags are long-lived. Sheep seldom exceed the age of ten. Cows live about fifteen years. An eagle died at Vienna at the age of 104 years ; ravens frequently reach the age of 100. Swans have been known to live 300 years. Pelicans are long-lived. A tortoise has been known to live much above 190 years ; and a horse to the age of seventy-two, hut he averages twenty-five or thirty. Climate and soil exercise a great infl lienee upon horses. Nearly every country possesses a breed of horses peculiar to itself, occasioned by the difference in soil and climate. In wild regions, the horse is small, compactly built, and having a very hardy constitution; where the forage is scant, he has a light frame, with a rapid gait, so that he can travel 428 BREEDS OF HORSES. easily in search of food ; while in a more favourable situation, he combines speed and power of endurance with beauty of form and elegance of action. The diminutive Shetland pony, when transported to England, loses this peculiarity of form in the course of a few generations, and approaches the native horse in hulk and general characteristics. The noble Arabian degenerates in England, and the English dray horse, noted for its heavy limbs, if carried to Arabia, acquires in time the symmetry, grace, and speed of the native. Of the early history of the horse there is not much known. In his original state he was undoubtedly wild, hut of the time of his domestication we have no knowledge. Arabia is generally considered his native country, but we know that he did not flourish there until after the birth of Mahomet, 571 a.d. There is not a portion of Europe, nor scarcely any part of the globe, from the tropical plains of India to the frozen regions of Siberia — from the extreme northern to the extreme southern limits of America, in which the fossil remains of the horse have not been found mingled with the bones of the hippopotamus, the elephant, the rhinoceros, the hear, the tiger, the deer, and various other animals, some of which, like the mas- todon, have passed away. Eor the combined excellences of symmetry of form, beauty of action, speed, power of endurance, intelligence, docility, and attachment to his master, the Arabian horse has long maintained an unrivalled QUALITIES OE THE HOUSE. 429 superiority. lie is bred with the greatest care, and the Arabs believe that the breed originated with the steed of King Solomon, and exhibit the pedigrees of some mares reaching back nearly two thousand years. The poor Arab regards his horse with the greatest affection, feeds him from his own hand, and makes him an inmate of his own single tent. Arabian stallions have been imported at different periods, and have given rise to all the improved breeds of Turkey, Persia, Barbary, Europe, and America. Like the dog, the horse often becomes indissolubly attached to the habits and manners to which he has long been accustomed. He delights in the noise and tumult of arms, and faces the enemy with alacrity and resolution. Equally intrepid as his master, he encounters danger and death with great coolness and courage. But it is not in perils and conflicts alone that he willingly co-operates with his rider ; he likewise participates in human pleasures. He excels in the tournament and in the chase ; and his eyes sparkle with emulation in the race course. But, though bold and intrepid, he does not allow himself to be carried off by a furious ardour ; he represses his movements, and knows how to govern and how to check the natural vivacity and fire of his temper. He not only yields to the hand, but seems to consult the inclination of his rider. Uniformly obedient to the impressions he receives, he flies or stops, and regulates his motions entirely 430 BEAUTIFUL DESCRIPTION OF THE HORSE. by his master’s will. In a measure he surrenders his very existence to the pleasure of man. He delivers up his whole powers ; he reserves nothing, and often dies rather than disobey. Of domestic animals, the horse occupies the first place ; and as improvement of his form is a scientific operation, it can only succeed in the hands of the gentleman breeder. What a beautiful description Job gives of the horse — C£ Hast thou given the horse strength P Hast thou clothed his neck with thunder ? Hast thou taught him to bound like the locust ? How terrible is the sound of his nostrils ! He paweth in the valley ; he exulteth in his strength, And rusheth into the midst of arms. He laugheth at fear ; he trembleth not, And turneth not his back from the sword. Against him rattleth the quiver, The glittering spear, and the lance. With rage and fury he devoureth the ground ; He standeth not still, when the trumpet soundeth.” Who that witnessed the Derby of 1865, did not feel his heart warm towards the superb creature who so gracefully swept over those three hundred and thirty strides which are computed to cover the cele- brated mile and a half at Epsom ? Who, that did not scan with unbounded admiration the Hoble Gladiateur as he achieved the greatest and most TIIE DERBY OF 1865. 431 coveted honour on the English turf, after a desperate struggle of hoof and heel, of limb and wind and withers? Most heartily do we congratulate our neighbours on the happy result of a genial and friendly rivalry — on their having borne off the blue riband so triumphantly. True, the winning horse came of English blood, was prepared by English trainers, and ridden by an English jockey ; nevertheless, there is not a whit less honour and glory to Count Lagrange, who has given such abun- dant proof that he is a genuine lover of our great national pastime. We love the Derby-day. Other race-courses have their peculiar glories — Loyalty may glitter at Ascot, fashion may congregate at Goodwood, but Epsom is of and for the people. There the peer and the beggar have, for a day at least, one common interest. We rejoice to note that many favourable changes are coming over the aspect of the great Epsom race. We hear less of training tricks, deceptive weights, dishonest col- lusions, betting jockeys, and the other jobberies by which the turf has so often been disgraced. The one remaining blot is the repulsive fraternity of betting men, by whom many a thoughtless youth is ruined for ever. These are the pests of every race- course in the kingdom ; they disfigure them, and render them unspeakably offensive. It is much to be regretted that the Newmarket regulations do not exist at Epsom. Immeasurable would be the benefit to the respectable classes who support the 432 WIIO ARE TIIE SUCCESSFUL MEN ? turf, enjoy its pastime, and inter into its legitimate speculations, could the whole brood of sharks and blacklegs be extirpated. They have been multiplied, however, rather than diminished, by the modern system of sweepstakes. But these fellows seldom become rich, although vast fortunes have been made by racing transactions. Think of the Yorkshire footman leaping all at once into the position of a landed proprietor who could afford to give three thousand guineas for a horse ; the son of the ostler of the Black Swan at York, building the noblest mansion in the city ; and Beardsworth of Birming- ham parading with crimson liveries the streets in which he once drove a hackney coach. But it is a fatal delusion to suppose that “ outsiders ” can accomplish anything of the kind. They may now and then be lucky, but in the end, as a rule, they burn their fingers. The successful men are jockeys or trainers. They live perpetually within the circle of the turf ; it has no mysteries or secrets for them. They know every colt and filly in all the great studs of England. Their eyes are keen in the warren, when the saddling and mounting takes place ; they can tell when a false start has been “ managed” or not ; and they, of all the thousand assembled, are coolest as the rainbow cohort goes off with a rush and a thrill, as the best mettle gets to the front, and the “ soft hearts” are left behind, and the dash is made at the corner, and, amid a whistle of whips and a general throb, white, black, or blue cap, green, THE LAST BOUND TO THE POST. 433 red, or purple jacket, comes with a last bound to the post. It is true, that without betting there would probably be little racing. It is true also that the leaders of the turf no longer sanction those disreputable practices which induced a well-known stud-keeper to say that, were Eclipse now to run, he might have no more chance of winning than “ a jackass or a horse on three legs.” But the betting system, outside of the respectable circles tolerated by the Jockey Club, has degenerated into a system of depredation carried on against the ignorant and unwary. Persons, therefore, cannot be too sensitively on their guard against invitations from plausible strangers, who prove, before the race is run, that they cannot be losers. Eor them the enjoyment of our Isthmian festival turns to grief indeed when the colours are hoisted ; and not the fun of the road, the sparkle of Moselle, the banter of mischievous friends, or the rattling hilarity of the afternoon at Epsom, will make up for the purse which has been emptied of money that probably did not belong to its owner. Apart from many important results of this noble sport, we most cordially and sincerely hope that Count Lagrange may be so encouraged by his again great success, in having won the St. Leger of 1865, as to continue the rivalry with greater zeal and energy, were it only for the benefit to the breed of horses. There is no doubt now about Gladiateur. We have certainly been beaten by speed and training, and F F 434 THOXLOTJ GH-BKEDS OF 1867. not by fraud and misrepresentation, as some would have it. The Ascot Meeting of 1867 was a very brilliant affair. The first race was of little interest, and was won by Lord Westmoreland’s Yixen Colt. The next was the Fourth New Biennial Stakes. For this, Lord Lyon was to appear, and he was quickly surrounded in the paddock by a circle of admirers. The great horse was in splendid condition, and, although he had to carry 121b. extra, backers were glad to bet 7 to 4 and 2 to 1 upon him against the others over his favourite distance. The result showed that Lord Lyon is a marvellous horse over a mile when brought out only now and then. He cantered ahead of Wild Moor all the way up the hill, and opposite the stand Challoner came away with him, and won hands down by as many lengths as he pleased. The two-year-old race which followed, was won by an outsider named Tregeagle, the favourite, See Saw, being second, and then came the great race for the Cup. For this a larger number came to the post than was expected. The race was, nevertheless, deprived of a great deal of its interest by the absence of The Hermit and Marksman. It would, of course, have been unwise to bring out the former, when he has so good a prospect of winning the St. Leger, and Marksman was out of form. Until the saddling commenced, Hippia had been easily first favourite. Now, how- ever, Lecturer began to be backed with extraordinary THOROTJ Grll-BREDS OF 1867. 435 vigour. In the paddock, nothing looked better than the Marquis of Hastings’ strange little horse, as he had quite recovered from the stale and jaded look which he wore at Bath. Kama also looked well. Hegalia was prepossessing, hut, great mare as she is, it seemed impossible that she could go on running well day after day. Hippia was the last to come forward. She was quite as fit as on the Oaks Day, hut the distance was greater, and at the last moment a doubt arose whether after all she might be able to stay the two miles and a half. No less than three Oaks’ winners contested the prize, for Tormentor also ran. As usual, the competitors were all walked round the Jockey Club enclosure for the inspection of the Prince of Wales and the members. A very handsome lot they were, though, perhaps, none quite first-class. Certainly, no one ignorant of the previous performances of the animals would have picked out Lecturer for the winner, comparing his queer little carcase, with its great long neck and head, with the strapping Eegalia and neat-made John Davis. On passing the stand for the first time round, John Davis was leading and making the running for his stable companion, who lay some lengths behind with Hegalia and Hippia. J ohn Davis kept the foremost position, with Kama close to him, until reaching the starting post for the old mile, when Hama seemed to be going very well, and Hegalia came rapidly forward. Upon coming round the F F 2 436 HORSES THE CHIEE OE USEEUL ANIMALS. turn into the straight run in, the greatest excite- ment prevailed, and it certainly seemed half-way up as if Regalia must win, for Hippia was beaten, and Lecturer, having once come up in his sturdy way, had again dropped back. Opposite the stand, it seemed that Ileartfield thought he had won, for he gave up riding Regalia and looked behind him. At this moment, Rordham, who manifestly had tho- roughly judged the pace from beginning to end, brought up Lecturer for the second time with a rush. Regalia either could not or would not answer to the challenge, and thus Lecturer, who ran as if he really liked to have a good struggle for the prize, was enabled, with the aid of Eordham’s splendid jockeyship, to win the Ascot Cup for the Marquis of Hastings by a length and a half. The result of the race shows what rest will do for a thoroughly good animal. Lecturer had not been raced for three weeks, and so he comes out better than ever, whilst Regalia’s chance is thrown away by constantly knocking her about. Hippia was third, and if she had done nothing else this would prove her to be a good filly. It is worthy of remark, that the two first favourities for the far off Derby are fillies, and both Lady Elizabeth and Athena (14 to 1) belong to the Marquis of Hastings. These racing notes may appear to some persons rather out of place in a work of this kind ; but we think as the horse is at the head of all useful animals for the purposes of the farm, the hunt, and PROFIT OF BREEDING SUPERIOR HORSES. 437 the race, we are not, perhaps, committing so great a digression. In proof that breeding superior horses is ex- tremely profitable, we give the prices obtained at the sale of the Marquis of Hastings’ stud, in November last. The sale attracted great attention among racing men, and was largely attended. The two principal lots, the Derby favourites, Lady Elizabeth and The Earl, were, it was understood, bought in for the owner. Lecturer and Lady Cecilia were also understood to be bought in. See-Saw was said to be purchased for Lord Stamford. Captain Machell bade up to 6000 guineas each for Lady Elizabeth and The Earl. Redcap, 6 yrs. (Mr. Hughes), 200 gs. ; Miss Havelock, 4 yrs. (Duke of Newcastle), 460 gs. ; Lord of the Dales, 3 yrs. (Lord Uxbridge), 500 gs. ; John Davis, 6 yrs. (Duke of Hamilton) 1000 gs. ; Lecturer, 4 yrs. (Mr. H. Hill), 750 gs. ; Black Prince, 4 yrs. (Sir E. John- stone) 220 gs. ; Challenge, 3 yrs. (Mr. Cavellero), 2000 gs. ; King’s Cross, 3 yrs. (Jos. Dawson), 160 gs. ; Uncas, 3 yrs. (Mr. H. Hill), 200 gs. ; Red Riband, 3 yrs. (Mr. Payne), 150 gs. ; Ines, 3 yrs. (Mr. John Harrington), 500 gs. ; Equerry, 2 yrs. (Mr. Padwick), 200 gs. ; Purser, 2 yrs. (Mr. Pad- wick), 100 gs. ; Little Prince, 2 yrs. (Mr. Padwick), 190 gs. ; The Earl, 2 yrs. (Sir E. Johnstone), 6100 gs. ; See-Saw, 2 yrs. (Lord Wilton), 2300 gs. ; Boreas, 2 yrs. (Lord Jersey), 105 gs. ; Mameluke, 2 yrs. (Lord Jersey), 1050 gs. ; Belfast, 2 yrs. (Mr. 438 PROFIT OF BREEDING SUPERIOR HORSES. Edwyn), 700 gs. ; Lady Barbara, 2 yrs. (Captain Barlow), 200 gs. ; Traviata, 2 yrs. (Mr. Blenkiron), 120 gs. ; Grand Duchess, 2 yrs. (Mr. Hill), 520 gs. ; Cuckoo, 2 yrs. (withdrawn) ; Naivete, 2 yrs. (Mr. Padwick), 700 gs. ; Housemaid, 2 yrs. (Lord Ports- mouth), 150 gs. ; Summer’s Eve, 2 yrs. (Mr. Morris), 300 gs. ; Jasmin, 2 yrs. (Mr. Snewing), 100 gs. ; Macduff, 2 yrs. (Mr. Hughes), 110 gs. ; Minnie Warren, 2 yrs. (Lord Uxbridge), 410 gs. ; Athena, 2 yrs. (Mr. Padwick), 2100 gs. ; Lady Elizabeth, 2 yrs. (Sir E. Johnstone), 6500 gs. Yearlings . — ■ Lady Di, by St. Albans, out of Lady Vernon (Mr. Hughes), 190 gs. ; Leda, by Dundee, out of The Belle, by Birdcatcher (Mr. Cockin), 110 gs. ; lEnope, by Weatherbit, out of Triangle (Mr. H. Hill), 105 gs. ; The Conjuror, by Newminster, out of Madame Stodare (Mr. Pryor), 300 gs. ; Jove, by Thunder- bolt, out of Melody (Lord Wilton), 430 gs. ; Bowallan, by Dundee, out of Maggie Lauder (Lord Uxbridge), 340 gs. ; Bathsheba, by Trumpeter, out of Miserrima (Mr. Pryor), 750 gs. ; Arbaces, by Oxford, out of Van Tromp mare (Isis’s dam) (Mr. H. Hill), 420 gs. ; King of Clubs, by Ace of Clubs, out of Homily (Mr. H. Hill), 220 gs. ; Lopez, by Buccaneer, out of Creeping Bose (Mr. H. Hill), 280 gs. ; Iberia, by Weatherbit, out of Maid of Palmyra (Mr. H. Hill), 370 gs. ; Merrymaker, by Trumpeter, out of Maypole (Sir E. Johnstone), 300 gs. ; Lord Bothwell, by Dundee, out of Little Woman (Mr. E. V. Morgan), 200 gs. ; Kamschatka, MONEY-VALUE OF A THOROUGH-BRED. 439 by Trumpeter, out of Tzaritza (Mr. Stephenson), 620 gs. ; Lord Warwick (Mr. T. Hughes), 100 gs. ; Colt, by Kettledrum, out of Amethyst (Lord Ux- bridge), 200 gs. ; Colt, by Thormanby, out of Breeze (Mr. Edwyn), 500 gs. ; Eilly, by Orlando, out of Bouquet (Mr. H. Hill), 510 gs. ; Basilia, by Trumpeter, out of Energy (Captain Clayton), 1000 gs. ; Lady Cecilia, by Stockwell, out of Bay Celia (Mr. H. Hill), 1650 gs. ; Robespierre, by Stockwell, out of Marseillaise (Captain Machell), 800 gs. We have been estimating the money value of the performances of the famed mare Achievement during her wonderful career, from her first appearance as a two-year-old at Newmarket, to her last victory at Doncaster. Out of the twenty races she has run during that period, she hasVon fifteen, and in stakes alone, she has netted for her spirited owner, Colonel Pearson, a sum of £28,000, literally her weight in sovereigns, as the following calculations will prove. Assuming the price of gold at £3 17s. 6d. per oz., there would be on every cwt., as nearly as possible, 7000 sovereigns — we don’t make a very close cal- culation, as it is not necessary — 4 cwt. would make up 28,000, and, taking the mare as being about this weight, as she is slight and slim, it will be seen that she has really been worth her weight in coined gold, irrespective altogether of the sums Colonel Pearson may have netted by bets. Such of us as visited the Islington Horse Show, can hardly doubt that, whilst there will not be any 440 THE ISLINGTON HOUSE SHOW. grudge felt at the successes of Gladiateur, the English thoroughbred will still maintain his proud position in a contest with Erance, America, Austria, or Russia. Eoremost among this noble class was our old friend Caractacus, a winner of the blue riband of the turf, who took the first prize last year, and has this year taken it again. Liophantus takes the second prize, and Scottish Chief the third. The names of Lord Chesterfield, Lord Portsmouth, Lord Ealmouth, Lord Combermere, Lord Suffield, Colonel Maunds, C.B., Mr. Erederick Winn Knight, and Captain Percy Williams, give unquestionably a sufficient guarantee that the onerous duty of award- ing prizes has been conducted with the strictest impartiality and good judgment ; yet many persons think that Scottish Chief, though contrasting strongly with his rivals, being only just out of training, and consequently not in the usual fleshy condition of stallions, ought to have been placed second, Quot homines , tot sententice . The show consisted of nearly 400 entries divided into 10 classes, and it is not too much to say that amongst them were some of the finest specimens of the horse to be met with in all England. The hunters were really magnificent, and, though no one will grudge the premiership to Lord Spencer’s Brown Stout, there are many who feel keenly disappointed that the two splendid hunters sent by Lord Bendlesham should have been entirely overlooked. We would remark that it is scarcely fair to denounce hunters, because ISLINGTON HORSE SHOW OF 1867. 411 tliey refuse in cold blood a “ suspicions-! ooking ” in-door gorse fence. Even Brown Stout had to he driven hard at it before clearing it, having boggled at first to rise to it. Were such a “ mean ” obstacle to meet this noble animal in the hunting field, he would fly over it with a snort of contempt. It may be stated, moreover, that the tan lacked sufficient elasticity from having been rather too thin and too wet. It balked the horses a good deal in rising. This was very noticeable when a charming and graceful rider rode her beautiful horses over the hurdles amid the vociferous acclamations of the many thousands who graced the brilliant scene. The entire show was, in fact, eminently deserving of that success which it achieved. The show of last year was also a success. The number of entries was much larger than the previous year, and, taking the animals collectively, their quality was quite as good as ever. In the catalogue 340 horses were set down. Of these, the first class — weight- carrying hunters — contributed 53 ; as cover hacks, park hacks, and ladies’ horses, 107 were entered ; there were 50 ponies, and in the various classes of stallions there were 42 animals, although only nine of these were thoroughbreds. The show of weight- carrying hunters was not generally regarded as up to the mark of previous years, and the thorough- bred stallions did not include any well-known animal, but the general excellence of the other classes compensated for this deficiency. The four- 442 SHOEING OE HORSES. year-old hunters were exceedingly good. One of the best of the stallions was the well-known chest- nut trotting horse, Shepherd E. Knapp, bred in America, and reputed one of the fastest trotters in the world. Some of the cobs were remarkably fine animals, exhibiting great symmetry and strength. The ladies’ hacks were generally admired ; and the animal for which Mr. Holmes took first prize was wonderfully perfect both in appearance and action. There were some really beautiful and finely-bred ponies, of which the best, according to the decision of the judges, was cc Uncle Tom,” the property of Mr. Richardson, farmer, of Willoughton, Lincoln- shire. Amongst those who mounted some of the hunters was the well-known lady equestrian Miss Beverley, whose appearance was greeted with loud applause. The jumping was for the most part quite as good as in former years. The treatment, too, of horses in a state of disease, and their shoeing, are too often subjects of much vexation and disquietude to country gentlemen. Except for the purpose of encouraging a very meritorious smith settled in the neighbourhood, it is much preferable for a gentleman to set up a forge at home, for which, taking into account agricultural implements, and ironwork required about the mansion, exclusive of horse-shoeing, there must be ample employment. As to “ doctor- ing of animals,” as it is ludicrously termed by common farriers, it is an absurdity, against which HORRIBLE TREATMENT OF HORSES. 443 every humane man ought to set his face. Nor is a man fully qualified for this department, any more than in the higher profession, merely in conse- quence of his anatomical knowledge and his diploma; to these he must add sagacity, and experience will do the rest. In our day — the day supposed to be that of cc Christianity and enlightenment ” — the veterinary surgeons at Alfort fasten a living horse down with stanchions and pulleys, and let loose upon its pal- pitating body the scalpels and forceps of a dozen raw students, to hack, pick, and drag among the thrilling threads and vessels of life. In our day, as one may see in Leadenhall-market or the fashion- able poulterers’ shops, the life is not out of birds before their feathers are stripped from their writhing bodies. Beasts of draught and burden that have faithfully served us are left foodless and thirsty in the knacker’s yard, standing fetlock deep in the blood and filth at which they sniff and shudder till the pole-axe is ready. Cattle are brought over to London by the steamships in such misery and horrible discomfort that rinderpest is natural enough without going far to look for its source. Bat- baiting is defended before magistrates as “ respect- able bull-fighting, once confined to Spain, is creeping northward through Prance. In fact, the list is only too long. Some people may say that it is sentimental to regard these needless agonies of created life with anger and shame ; but that view 444 MERCILESS TYRANNY OE VETERINARY SURGEONS. is disgraceful and devilish. Mesh meat is the rule, perhaps the necessity, of the colder zones; and while the order of nature is what it is, man will slay and eat the graminivorous creatures, and breed them for that purpose. Yet, to gentle natures, there is a wonderful, and even sad contrast between the domesticated and wild creatures in the cities and villages of India and those of Europe. Accustomed to a people which never takes their life — for whose food no living creature of any sort suffers — the cattle and birds among the Hindoos are tame beyond description. It is painful to see how soon the creatures lose this glad and hold con- fidence when the flesh-eating white man comes, and how utterly afraid of human beings every bird and beast is here at home. Perhaps that cannot he helped; hut let us at least refrain from treating with wilful, merciless tyranny the mysterious and silent creatures which are so little lower than our- selves in the eternal chain of life. When a vile and plain enormity like the butchering of calves by inches is made public, let all that are manly and gentle denounce it, and strive to wipe it out from the list of unchristian “ customs,” which are by no means confined to the King of Dahomey and his lake of human blood. cc Caveat Emptor ” says, as a rule for the guidance of those who at any time wish to purchase horses, it may be as well to inform them that those which are advertized in the daily papers, nine times out of HORSE-BUYING AND HORSE-COPERS. 445 ten, belong to horse-copers. They are sometimes represented as the property of a gentleman who is gone, or going abroad, if they are carriage horses ; and if hunters, of a gentleman declining hunting, to be sold under peculiar circumstances, a great bargain. Of course these horses are represented as possessing every good quality that a horse ever possessed ; the best references are offered ; in fact, everything is done or said to induce confidence. Only two years since we had the satisfaction of pre- venting a friend from falling into the clutches of one of these copers, under the following circum- stances : — Our friend was a great sportsman, who resided throughout the year in the country, and was not at all conversant with any of the various iniquities that are constantly perpetrated in this great city ; consequently, he did not know what the term horse-coper meant ; he had never heard of this class of men. He was at this time in want of a pair of horses for a mail phaeton which he had just bought, and he mentioned that he had seen a pair of horses advertized in the Times which, from their description, would exactly suit him, the pro- perty of a gentleman residing in some square, and they were to be seen on referring to his coachman, who had charge of them, in a mews in the Edg- ware-road. The coachman was represented as having driven them for the last six months, and consequently could give every necessary informa- tion; in fact, no advertisement could have been 446 JOCKEYISM IN HORSE-DEALING. expressed in more plausible terms, and my friend was going up to London expressly with a view of purchasing them. He was confident it was all right, as they belonged to some gentleman who lived in one of the best squares — a false address is one of the usual dodges. We immediately expressed our conviction that the horses belonged to some “ coper, 5 ’ and engaged to satisfy our friend as to the fact on our return in London ; he was rather sceptical at first. Soon after my arrival in London I went to a man who I knew was thoroughly conversant with all that appertains to horse-dealing transactions; in fact he was in the habit of buying and selling by commission. I showed him the advertisement; he immediately said he was certain it was a 15 to 30 33 12 to 20 The Under Footman — 33 12 to 20 The Page or Footboy • 33 8 to 18 33 6 to 14 The Stableboy • 33 6 to 12 — When no extra When an extra allowance is made for allowance is i made for Tea, Sugar, and Beer. Tea Sugar, and Beer. The Housekeeper The Lady’s-maid .. From £20 to £45 From £18 to £40 • 33 12 to 25 33 10 to 20 The Head Nurse • ?> 15 to 30 13 to 26 The Cook 14 to 30 33 12 to 26 The Upper Housemaid 33 12 to 20 33 10 to 17 The Upper Laundry-maid .. 33 12 to 18 33 10 to 15 The Maid-of-all-work 9 to 14 33 n to LI The Under Housemaid * • 33 8 to 12 33 H to 10 The Still-room Maid • 33 9 to 14 39 8 to 12 The Nurse-maid 8 to 12 39 5 to 10 The Under Laundry -maid . • • 33 9 to 14 33 8 to 12 The Kitchen-maid 9 to 14 8 to 12 The Scullery-maid 5 to 9 39 4 to 8 AGENTS SHOULD BE EARLY RISERS. 515 These quotations of wages are those usually given in or near the metropolis ; hut, of course, there are many circumstances connected with locality, and also having reference to the long service on the one hand, or the inexperience on the other, of domestics, which may render the wages still higher or lower than those named above. All the domestics men- tioned in the above table would enter into the establishment of a wealthy nobleman. The number of servants, of course, would become smaller in proportion to the lesser size of the establishment ; and we may here enumerate a scale of servants suited to various incomes, commencing with — About £1000 a year — A cook, upper housemaid, nursemaid, under housemaid, and a man servant. About £750 a year — A cook, housemaid, nurse- maid, and footboy. About £500 a year — A cook, housemaid, and nursemaid. About £300 a year — A maid-of-all-work and nursemaid. About £200 or £150 a year — A maid-of-all-work (and girl occasionally). — Beeton. Estate Agents should be very early risers. . It is due to their employers that they should be so, not only for example’s sake, but for the despatch of business. The habit is easily acquired by any person in good health. In fact, lying late in bed is a most disgusting, indolent habit, killing thou- sands annually. It unstrings the nerves, relaxes l l 2 516 CAPTAIN HORATIO ROSS’S TRAINING. the whole frame, and so stupefies man that he thoroughly dislikes labour. Then the early riser renders a month equal to five weeks. The differ- ence between rising every morning at six and at eight, in the course of forty years, supposing a man retired to rest at the same time, amounts to three years, one hundred and twenty-one days, and six- teen hours, which will afford eight hours a day for exactly ten years. It is, therefore, the same as if ten years of life were added in which we could com- mand eight hours every day for such duties as may devolve upon us in public life. Moreover, it should ever be borne in mind that the free open air is a kind of cold bath after rising out of a warm bed. It quickens the circulation of the blood, which had crept lazily along the veins throughout the hours of darkness, and braces us up. Add to this the influence of the fresh morning air — the retreating of the noxious vapours of the night — the cheerful- ness of the morning light stealing in so gently, and the glorious magnificence of the rising sun — each adding force to the heart, and giving a spur to the lagging and jaded spirit. Erom an entertaining book of sporting gossip recently published under the odd title of “ Sportas- cr apian a,” we learn, in the words of Captain Horatio Eoss himself, the secret of the remarkable preservation of a fine vigorous physique to a late period of life, which is the characteristic of that renowned deerstalker and rifle-shot. “ I attribute AGENTS MAKING BUSINESS VISITS. 517 it,” says Captain Ross, “ in a great measure to having always kept myself in a state of moderate training. I have always lived well, and for many years have drunk nothing hut light claret, one bottle per diem ; but I have never omitted, where- ever I was, whether in town or country, whether the weather was fair or the reverse, to walk regularly eight miles, and generally twelve miles, every day of my life, unless I had an opportunity of going out shooting. I have also, for a great many years, been very particular in taking a sponging bath of cold water every morning.” And now at sixty-five — an age when most men are verging to “ second childhood ” — he can walk his fifty miles, at three and a-half miles an hour, with- out fatigue. What he can do with the rifle every- body knows. It is tolerably clear, from the statements in “ Sportascrapiana,” that training, as Captain Ross understands it, and training as it is understood and practised at Oxford and Cambridge, are two different things. £C The hour, the appointed hour, But to your post.” Many Agents who make business visits commit a great error in not stating their object at once, and in as few words as possible. They hesitate, intro- duce some subject altogether foreign, and occupy much precious time to little purpose. Instead of proceeding to the matter in hand directly, they 518 AGENTS SHOULD HE MINDEUL OE THE POOH. apologize for the intrusion, intimate that another time may prove more acceptable, explain and pre- varicate, until at last the real object is absolutely forced from them. All this is exceedingly annoy- ing to persons who are constantly engaged, and who have no time to waste upon mere prosers. We may mention the case of one individual who invariably states his object in a roundabout way, and introduces at least one other subject pre- paratory to that which he really desires to converse upon. He does so, too, in the politest manner; forgetful, however, that time is valuable, and that there are other people in the world besides himself. A visit strictly of business should be brief, direct, and to the purpose. Moreover, it should be remem- bered that punctuality in the fulfilment of engage- ments is a matter of the utmost importance with men of business, and yet it is difficult for them to be punctual under such circumstances as we have described. The Agent should at all times be mindful of the poor on the estate under his charge. He ought never to be satisfied with mere reports, but see for himself by actual visitations. How nobly does Her Majesty the Queen set the example. In her charming Diary we find very touching accounts of her visits to the poor. The good Agent will be a liberal but discriminat- ing supporter of the Press in his locality. He will not feel an obligation to patronize any and every thing that wears the form of a newspaper, but will NEWSPAPERS AND THE TENANTRY. 519 scan carefully the intellectual ability and moral fitness of those who assume the serious responsibility of public teaching through its means. He will not encourage the dissemination or continuance of journals edited by the incompetent or unworthy; and if there be none other already in existence in his county, he will combine with men like himself to procure the establishment of such a journal as is needed, or the transfer of one already existing, into the hands of some one qualified to guide opinion and dispel mental darkness amongst the rural population. Such a journal he will liberally and steadily encourage and support by advertising in its columns, urging upon other business men the duty of doing the same. By pursuing this course, the Agent may effect much toward the diffusion of intelligence, the predominance of sound principles, and the purification of morals. A properly-con- ducted influential journal is the most important advantage that a community can enjoy. It is of the utmost importance to the tenantry of any estate, as it exerts a noiseless, unintermitted in- fluence in clearing away ignorance, in extending the sway of virtue, and laying deep the foundations of general and personal prosperity. “ ’Tis education forms the common mind, Just as the twig is bent the tree’s inclined.” Of all the means of publicity, no one contributes more than the newspapers to a general diffusion of 520 THE UPRIGHT AGENT. knowledge. In every country the periodical Press is one of the most important results of modern civil- ization. Nowhere is it so essential an element of the social organization as with us. Elsewhere news- papers supply a powerful weapon, of which govern- ments and parties avail themselves by turns, In England they form the indispensable medium of all the connexions men have with each other. They are a kind of microcosm, in which all the circumstances that interest the community are displayed. More- over, they deter many from evil doing, because no person cares to have to blush at the bar of public opinion. There are, indeed, few villages in England where the reading of a newspaper has not become a primary want. Moreover, give us for an Agent the straightforward, fearless, enterprising man of busi- ness, one who is worth a dozen of those who, when anything is to be done, stop, falter, and hesitate, and are never ready to take a decided step. One turns everything within his reach into gold — the other tarnishes even what is bright ; the one will succeed in life, and no adventitious circumstances can hinder him — the other will be a continual drawling moth, never rising above mediocrity, but rather falling below it. Make up your mind to be firm, resolute, and industrious, if you desire pros- perity. There is good in that saying of the Apostle, “ Whatsoever your hands find to do, do it with all thy might.” We love our upright, energetic men. Pull them this way, and that way, and the other P AHIS II BUSINESS. 521 way, and they only bend, hut never break. Trip them, and in a trice they are again upon their feet. Bury them in the mud, and in an hour they will be out and bright. They are not ever yawning away existence, or walking about the world as if they had come into it with only half their soul ; you cannot keep them down ; you cannot destroy them. But for these the world would soon degenerate. They are the salt of the earth. Agents ought to be thoroughly acquainted with parish business, such as, — that the inhabitant rate- payers must meet on or within fourteen days after the 25th of March, and make out a list, out of which the magistrates in petty sessions must appoint not less than two, or more than four persons to be overseers ; guardians must be elected at the same time ; churchwardens are chosen in vestry during Easter week ; electors : overseers, on the 20th of June, are to fix on the church doors lists of the persons qualified to vote for counties ; the 20th of July is the last day for sending in claims as county voters ; the list of electors is to be made out on the 31st of July, and on the first and second Sundays in August, borough and county lists are to be affixed on church doors ; before the 20th of July electors in cities and boroughs must pay their poor-rates and assessed taxes; persons objecting to claims must give notice by August the 25th ; and so on. Agents would do the country in general some real good if they would advise tenants to fill up 522 FARMERS AND AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS. such papers on agricultural subjects as may from time to time be laid before them by the Board of Trade. The prejudices of the farming world against the publication of agricultural statistics are gra- dually giving way, but they are by no means extinct or inoperative. The bucolic mind lias yet to learn that nobody asks them to say bow large are their crops, or to do anything which may prevent them from bringing their corn and beasts to the best market. All that they are asked to do is to fill up the printed forms with figures showing what amount of land they have under each variety of crop, and the number of cattle, sheep, and horses which they may happen to possess at a certain period of the year. These returns are, moreover, not to be made public in such detail as to show to all the world the condition of any individual farm or farmer. It is no gain to the agricultural interest or to the general public to know whether John Stubbs has got more or fewer bullocks than his neighbour, Thomas Hodge, or to ascertain that William Hobson has not attended market for the last two months, because he is holding back several fine ricks of wheat or barley. What we want to know is the total breadth of land laid down for each particular crop, and the number of cattle and sheep in existence in the whole country, so that each indi- vidual farmer may regulate his own farming with a view to produce that which is in the most demand, and that markets everywhere may be less subject to THE LATE PRINCE CONSORT ON STATISTICS. 523 panics and needless risings and falls in prices. The returns will, in fact, hurt nobody, and may benefit everybody. Statistics, though dry to deal with, are most im- portant and valuable, and we ought to have a high appreciation of the science which they serve. The late lamented Prince Consort felt largely and deeply upon the value of statistics in a national point of view. We find His Poyal Highness, on opening the International Statistical Congress in 1860, speak as follows : — cc Gentlemen, old as your science is, and undeni- able as are the benefits which it has rendered to mankind, it is yet little understood by the multi- tude, new in its acknowledged position amongst the other sciences, and still subject to many vulgar prejudices. “ It is little understood ; for it is dry and unpa- latable to the general public in its simple arith- metical expressions, representing living facts (which, as such, are capable of arousing the liveliest sym- pathy) in dry figures and tables for comparison. Much labour is required to wade through endless columns of figures, much patience to master them, and some skill to draw any definite and safe conclu- sions from the mass of material which it presents to the student ; while the value of the information offered depends exactly upon its bulk, increasing in proportion with its quantity and comprehensiveness. c< It has been little understood, also, from the 524 THE LATE PHINCE C0NS011T ON STATISTICS. peculiar and often unjustifiable use which has been made of it. For the very fact of its difficulty and the patience required in reading up and verifying the statistical figures which may be referred to by an author in support of his theories and opinions, protect him, to a certain extent, from scrutiny, and tempt him to draw largely upon so convenient and available a capital. The public generally, therefore, connect in their minds statistics, if not with unwel- come taxation (for which they naturally form an important basis), certainly with political contro- versies, in which they are in the habit of seeing public men making use of the most opposite statis- tical results with equal assurance in support of the most opposite arguments. A great and distinguished French minister and statesman is even quoted as having boasted of the invention of what he is said to have called “ l’Art de grouper les Chiffres.” But if the same ingenuity and enthusiasm which may have suggested to him this art should have tempted him or others, as historians, to group facts also, it would be no more reasonable to make the historical facts answerable for the use made of them than it would be to make statistical science responsible for many an ingenious financial statement. “ Yet this science has suffered materially in public estimation by such use, although the very fact that statesmen, financiers, physicians, and naturalists should seek to support their statements and doc- trines by statistics, shows conclusively that they all STATISTICS OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 525 acknowledge them as the fountains of truth ; and this ought, therefore, to raise, instead of depressing, the science in the general esteem of the public.” This is but a short extract from what must be characterized as a truly admirable speech, in all respects worthy of the lamented speaker, of whom it was, indeed, characteristic to give his best thought to whatever subject he was treating. Statement of the 'Population and Numbers of Live Stock in the United Kingdom , and various Foreign Countries , according to the Latest Returns. Countries. Date of Returns of Live Stock. Population according to Latest Returns. Cattle. Sheep. Pigs. Cows. Other Cattle. Total. United Kingdom 1865-66 29,070,932 3,286,308 5,030,652 8,316,960 25,795,708 3,802,399 Russia 1859-63 74,139,394 25,444,000 45,130,800 10,097,000 Denmark Proper 1861 1,662,734 756,834 361,940 1,118,774 1,751,950 300,928 Schleswig 1S61 421, 4S6 217,751 172,250 390,001 362,219 87,867 Holstein 1861 561,831 198,310 92,062 290,372 165,344 82,398 Sweden 1860 3,859,728 1.112,944 803,714 1,916,65S 1,644,156 457.9S1 Prussia 1862 18,491,220 3,3S2,703 2,251,797 5,634,500 17,428,017 2,709,709 Hanover 1861 1,880,070 949,179 2,211.927 554,056 Saxony 1861 2,225,240 411,563 226,897 638,460 371^989 270,462 Wurtemberg . . 1861 1,720,708 466,758 490,414 957,172 683,842 216,965 Baden .. 1861 1,429,199 348,418 273,068 621,486 177,322 307,198 Hesse 1863 853,315 187,442 129,211 316,653 231,787 195,596 Nassau . . 1864 468,311 116,421 84,224 200,645 152, 5S4 65,979 luecKien Durg Schwerin 1857 539,258 197,622 69,215 266,837 1,198,450 157,522 Oldenburg 1852 279,637 219.843 295,322 87,336 Holland.. 1864 3,618,459 943,214 390,673 1,333,887 930,136 294,636 Belgium 1856 4,529,461 1,257,649 583,485 458,418 France 1862 37,386,313 5,781,465 8,415,895 14,197,360 33,281,592 5,246,403 Spain 1865 15,658,531 2,904,598 22,054,967 4,264,817 Austria 1863 36,267,648 6,353,086 7,904,030 14,257,116 16,964,236 8,151,608 Bavaria 1863 4,807,440 1,530,626 1,655,356 3,185,882 2,058,638 926.522 United States . . 1860 31,445,080 8,72S,862 8,182,613 16,911,475 23,317,756 32,555,267 The following general abstracts show the acreage under the several crops in Ireland for the year 1866 ; also the emigration from Irish ports from 1st January to 31st July in 1865 and 1866 : — 526 IRISH AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS. The total acreage under all crops this year was ..... 5,519,678 The total acreage under all crops 1865 was (revised numbers) . . . 5,648,403 Showing a decrease in the extent under crops in 1866 of . . . 128,725 The crops which diminished in area this year are — fOats... Cereals -I • • • I .Here and Rye LBeans and Reas n n f Potatoes Green Crops Meadow and Clover ... Decrease on the foregoing crops ... The crops which increased in acreage in 1866 are — Acres. Acres. Cereals . . . Wheat 33,485 / Mangold and Beet. . . 5740 \ \ Cabbage 2824 / Green Crops \ Carrots, Parsnips, and other > 12,855 / Green Crops 2661 \ v Vetches and Rape ... 1630 / Flax ... 12,226 Increase on the foregoing crops 58,566 Making a net decrease in the area under all crops of 128,725 Although the foregoing statement shows a de- crease of 128,725 acres in the total extent under crops in 1866, there was an increase in the extent under “ grass” to the amount of 210,425 acres, and a diminution in the area under “bog and waste unoccupied” of 86,664 acres. Woods and planta- tions also show an increase this year, and fallow a decrease. The following abstracts exhibit the acre- age under each crop in 1865 and 1866, and the increase or decrease in the latter year : — Acres. 47,5801 26,564 I 99 | 2,118J 15,841 1 17,091 \ Acres. 76,361 32,932 77,998 187,291 IRISH AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS. 527 ABSTRACT OF CEREAL CROPS. 1865. 1866. Increase Decrease in 1866. in 1866. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Wheat... 266,989 300,474 33,485 — Oats 1,745,228 1,697,648 — 47,580 Barley ... 177,102 150,538 — 26,564 Bere and Rye 10,091 9,992 — 99 Beans and Peas ... 16,899 14,781 — 2,118 Total . . . 2,216,309 2,173,433 33,485 76,361 Y Decrease in cereal crops in 1866 42,876 acres. ABSTRACT OF GREEN CROPS. 1865. 1866. Increase Decrease in 1866. in 1866. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Potatoes 1,066,260 1,050,419 — 15,841 Turnips 334,212 317,121 — 17,091 Mangold - Wurtzel and Beet Root... 14,478 20,218 5740 — Cabbage 33,622 36,446 2824 — Carrots, Parsnips, and other Green Crops 24,130 26,791 2661 — Vetches and Rape 29,466 31,096 1630 — Total ... 1,502,168 v. 1,482,091 12,855 32,932 J Decrease in . green crops in 1866 20,077 acres. GENERAL SUMMARY. Acres. Acres. Decrease in Cereal Crops in 1866 42,877) Do. Green Crops in do. 20,071 V 140,954 Do. Meadow and Clover in do. 77,998) Increase in Flax in do. 12,226 Total decrease in the extent of land under crops in 1866 128,725 It will lie perceived from the abstracts that there has been this year a small increase in the acreage under wheat in almost every county, amounting to 33,485 acres ; and that of the “ cereals” and “ green” crops, oats and potatoes are still, as formerly, the most extensively grown — occupying respectively 1,697,648 and 1,050,419 acres. The returns of live stock for 1866, compared with 1S65, show an increase in the number of cattle of 528 IRISH AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS. 245,384; of sheep, 575,671; and of pigs, 187,570; and a decrease in horses of 12,708. The total esti- mated value of horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs this year is £35,178,040, being an increase of £2,361,033 compared with 1865. It appears by the returns that there is a decrease this year in Leinster in the number of “ cattle under one year old” amounting to 12,058. This may be in some degree accounted for by the operation of the Order in Council of 25th August, 1865, prohibiting the removal of cattle from Great Britain to Ireland, thus preventing, since that date, the usual importation of “ calves 55 into the ports of Dublin, Drogheda, and Dundalk, which, we are informed on reliable authority, has been consi- derable, particularly in Dublin for some years. The decrease of 1648 in the number of “cattle under one year old” in Ulster may perhaps also be attri- buted to the operation of the same Order in Council. Irish Agricultural Statistics. Crops. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865. 1866. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Wheat 401,243 356,321 264,766 279,863 266, 9 S 9 300,474 Oats 1,999,160 1,977,528 1,948,986 1,809,918 1,745,228 1,697,648 Barley 198,955 192,302 171,238 172,602 177,102 10,091 150,538 Bere and Rye Beans and Peas 11,582 12,128 8,624 8,992 9,992 14,017 15,202 15.148 16,026 16,899 14,781 Potatoes 1,133,504 1,018,112 1,023,626 1,039,282 1,066,260 1,050,419 Turnips 334,104 376,715 351,360 337,283 334,212 317,121 20,218 Mangel and Beet Root 22,949 23,222 16,462 14,106 14,478 Cabbage 30,020 30,543 33,99 S 22,653 31,756 33,622 36,446 Carrots and Parsnips . . 19,559 17,713 23,190 24,160 26,791 Vetches and Rape 31,280 30,830 29,678 29,918 29,466 31,096 Flax 147,957 150,070 213,992 301,860 251,433 263,659 Meadow and Clover . . 1,546,206 1,552,924 1,560,648 1,608,124 1,678,493 1,600,495 LIVE-STOCK. No. of Horses . . 614,232 602,894 579,179 561,361 548,339 535,631 „ Cattle .. 3,471.688 3,254,890 3,158,275 3,257,309 3,459,548 3,742,932 „ Sheep . . 3,556,050 3,456,132 3,303,937 3,363,068 3,694,356 4,270,027 „ Pigs .. .. 1,102,042 1,154,324 1,014,802 1,056,249 1,305,953 1,493,523 CREDIT IN THE MATTER OE RENT. 529 The returns obtained by the enumerators at the several Irish ports show that during the first seven months of the present year (ending 31st July, 1866) 71,195 persons emigrated, being an increase of 11,933 persons compared with the same period in 1865. Agents should at all times be careful about giving credit in the matter of rent. Of course, in some cases, it must be given ; but, as a rule, it is a most pernicious system. It is dangerous to take tenants’ acceptances, at however short a date, unless we clearly see whence the means of paying them are to come. ¥e have all heard of the Irish gentleman who said, “ Thank God, that’s settled ! ” as he signed a bill for a claim that had been running some time, forgetting that the money was still due. The Agent ought, of course, to be indulgent without negligence, and firm without rigour. He should, however, steadily refuse to endorse the acceptance of any tenant unless with the full sanction of the landlord. If rents are high, it were well to have them adjusted ; but, by all means, let tenants be kept out of arrears, which, if once allowed to accumulate, will be certain to drag them down and impair their usefulness. There are exceptional cases, no doubt. Highly deserving men may have been unfortunate ; and, in these instances, it is the duty of the Agent to alleviate, by every possible means consistent with his employer’s in- terest, sufferings which are not the fruits of miscon- duct. All men are liable to misfortune in this life. m M 530 INSOLVENT TENANTS. and even the most cautions and prudent are some- times caught in a tight place. When a tenant becomes embarrassed, he cannot too early make his condition known to the Agent and Proprietor. No good landlord will ever treat an honest, frank, and open tenant hardly. Moreover, the community at large respects a man who shows his hand fairly, and makes a truthful statement. Let no one he cast down by the difficulties which may beset his p&th, for energy and perseverance never miss their reward. How many, when the cloud of a moment has over- shadowed them, have lost all command over them- selves, and fled before the temporary gloom, instead of persevering till it has passed away, and sunshine once more has smiled upon their efforts ! When a man discovers that he is insolvent, the sooner he fails, probably, the better. It is an old Shakspearian truth that “ Sorrows come not single spies, but in battalions;” and when a train of unfortunate cir- cumstances has so set upon a man as to reduce him below the line of solvency, the sooner he arrests it by a prompt winding-up, the better for himself and his creditors. The catastrophe of failure seldom comes at once. The shadows of it are often cast before. As they deepen and thicken, they offer continual temptation, hard to resist. In this pro- tracted agony it is that men commit the greatest errors— errors which, sometimes perhaps judged with undue severity, fix a stain upon their cha- racter that no time can efface. MANAGERS OF ESTATES AND TRADES UNIONS. 531 The managers of estates should he very vigilant in putting down all trades unions, which are not only a curse to the working-men, but a disgrace to any district in which they exist. Doubtless, “ union is strength,” but a union of weak men against a union of strong men will only show the truth of an- other maxim, that “ the weaker will go to the wall.” We have had a great deal of experience with working men, and we are inclined to think that there is quite as much extortion practised by the men as oppres- sion exercised by the masters. But whether this be so or no, the rules of a trades union bind men to acts of justice towards their fellow-workmen, and commit them to a course which degrades them in the eyes of the upright and honourable. A work- man has a perfect right to quit his work, but he has no right to compel his fellow- workman, by law- less and violent means, to quit his too. Let us not forget that the best champions of the people’s cause, the true interpreters of their sentiments, are not members taken from among themselves, but men who, independent both by their fortunes and their station in society, feel themselves animated with a generous ardour to defend the rights of the weak, and a lively sympathy for the sufferings of the poor. It is always a great calamity when these unions meet with any temporary success — a calamity over which every true friend of the working man must grieve. Any success which feeds the spirit in which these unions are conceived is, in the highest mm2 532 MANAGERS OE ESTATES AND TRADES UNIONS. sense, an injury to the operative. Every Land Agent should, therefore, set his face like a flint against them. They are mischievous in their ope- ration for the present, and they sow the seeds of mischief for the future ; anarchy is their abettor, tyranny is their leader, and starvation is their result. Yea, and even more, crime ; for did we not read of the atrocious outrage perpetrated the other day by two trades’ unionists, who stabbed four horses, the property of Mr. John Lewis, of Birmingham, worth about £200, simply because this worthy gentleman was an active anti-unionist ! What took place before the Sheffield Trades Union Commission was certainly more than enough to make one’s blood run cold in the veins. Ghastly scenes of crime have been opened up. In one case an innocent man, whom that arch miscreant and murderer, Broadhead, accused of a murder of which he himself was the author, was nearly brought to an ignominious death, and the man’s wife and mother died of grief and shame. What a discredit to the country that the information has been pur- chased by cheating the gallows of such a villain. We can all remember the instinctive and universal shuddering with which, a generation ago, the nation learnt of the crimes committed by mercenary mur- derers who butchered Italian boys and suffocated unsuspecting tipplers, that they might sell their bodies for a few pounds. More recently we have had disclosures of individual atrocities perpetrated MANAGERS OE ESTATES AND TRADES UNIONS. 533 by men of tlie Pritchard and Palmer type, to get possession of the property of their victims. But these, at the worst, were isolated instances. They were enormities and monstrosities, whose occasional appearance might shock and surprise, but could not humiliate or degrade us. It has been reserved for the Sheffield Commissioners indisputably to demon- strate that, in the year of grace 1867, there are societies in whose eyes malicious mischief, desperate wounding, dastardly assassination, and cowardly murder, are comparatively venial and completely to be concealed offences, if only they are committed in vindication of trades union rules, in maintenance of trades union privileges, and in endeavours to bolster up an exceptionally high and union-made rate of wages. Broadhead remains still, as he appeared at first, the principal actor in these scenes of blood ; but so numerous are his confederates that it is no longer possible to regard him as a mere exceptional character, or the sole representative of a secret system. Here we have, besides Broadhead, five secretaries and a president of as many different unions, all engaged as accessories before or after the fact in murderous or sanguinary outrages for purposes of trade. We have committees of unions either actually paying the blood money for these deeds, or allowing funds to be abstracted for the purpose without observation or enquiry. We have a large employer of labour consenting to hire out one of his own men to shoot a particular victim, 534 MANAGERS OE ESTATES AND TRADES UNIONS. and concealing the whole story for ten years to- gether. We say nothing more at present about the general inference which must have been inevitably suggested by a succession of outrages all bespeaking the same motives and the same agency, and all falling on the same class of sufferers. We only desire the public to observe that a score or two of persons, at the least, must have had more or less cognizance of the character and origin of these atrocities, and that while not one man was found to come forward and give a clue to their origin, the loudest denunciations of the system were uttered by those who at the very moment were actually engaged in it. True it is that the stigma is con- fined to Sheffield, though we are not sure that precedents may not he found in the trade practices of Glasgow and Manchester some thirty years ago ; hut it w r ould he well if those who are now honestly scandalized by these revolting revelations would renounce also, once and for all, intimidation and coercion in every shape, even though falling short of organized murder. The whole history is so horrible that it hardly requires any comment. No one probably will deny that the murders were as infamous in every respect as could possibly he committed. Devotion to a trade union is like devotion to a religion, to a country, to a particular cause — it has terrible dangers, and frequently tends to horrible crimes. The ulterior object, of course, was to raise wages MANAGERS OF ESTATES AND TRADES UNIONS. 535 — that is, to raise them above their natural level ; but that is as hard a task as to keep water from finding its natural level, and is a still more unpro- fitable task. The artificially enhanced wage, if it is obtained at all, is obtained not from the em- ployer hut from the consumer, and the chief con- sumers of all ordinary articles are the working classes themselves. Another and perhaps a greater fact is, that wages are never permanently raised by such devices. The trades which of late years have most resorted to combinations are not the trades which, within that period, show the most rapid advance in wages ; and the more general and natural effect is to drive away the trade to other places or countries, as the combinations at Sheffield have greatly increased the cutlery manufactures of Germany. But though the object had been as wise as it was foolish, nothing could for a moment justify the vileness and wickedness of the means ; and it is impossible to resist some little misgivings at the idea of a large, if not indeed preponderant, share of political power being about to be given to men who show so entire a disregard of the rights of their fellows and of the laws of God and man. Let Agents do all that in them lie to put down trade unions of the Sheffield type, and indeed all unions in all trades on the properties under their charge. This is their bounden duty. Canon Girdlestone gives the following account of his efforts to transfer agricultural labour from 536 TRANSFER OF AGRICULTURAL LABOURERS. places where there is a surplusage to other places where it is in demand : — I have now sent away in all no less than ninety labourers from this neigh- bourhood (Tiverton) to other parts of the country. Of these thirty are married and with families; almost all are doing well, and still in their own vocation of agricultural labourers, are in their new homes earning — the married men from 12s. to £1 a week, with a cottage and garden rent free, to- gether with, in some cases, fuel and other privileges ; the single men, board, lodging, washing, mending, and from 6s. to 8s. a week. The result of this movement is very encouraging. Among the labourers — up to this time a rather sleepy, un- travelled, and immovable body — a spirit of enquiry and enterprise has been roused. Many besides those towards whose removal I have been instrumental have of themselves found better wages in distant places. Those who remained have learnt that a removal to better-paid districts is not by any means as difficult a matter as they once supposed. The farmers in every part of this neighbourhood have raised wages from 7 s. to 8s., 9s., and, in some cases, even 10s. a week. They have begun to treat their labourers with more kindness and considera- tion. And much to their own advantage, as well as ultimately to that of the labourers, they have begun to make more general use of mowing, reap- ing, and other machinery. In other parts of the country, farmers short of hands have learnt how WIIAT IS A GOOD GOVERNMENT? 537 easy it is, by means of the penny post and penny-a- mile trains, to enlist the services of those at a dis- tance, and have discovered that it is well worth their while to do this, at the cost of giving part and advancing the remainder of the expense of removal, to he repaid gradually out of wages. Thus the influence for good has been much more extensive and important than could have been anticipated from the means employed. This success, though on a limited scale, has induced me to invite the co-operation of several influential persons in an attempt to give a more comprehensive and per- manent character to my own hitherto unassisted and consequently partial efforts. We have esta- blished at 18, Serjeants’ Inn, London, an institute and office for the registration of the wants of both employers and employed. In connection with this a circular will be issued monthly, containing a list of the above wants, the price of labour in various districts, and other appropriate information. Di- strict agencies, with a liberal commission, are like- wise being gradually established in various parts of the country, both to collect and supply infor- mation, and make known the wants of all parties concerned.” We all know that no nation can be prosperous without a good Government. And what is a good Government ? It is one which protects property, instead of making war upon property. It is one which hallows the marriage between capital and 538 ENGLAND A BEAUTIFUL MODEL OF PROSPERITY. labour ; a union from which proceeds the fair family of industry, wealth, contentment, harmony, and peace. We who live in England ought to he thank- ful that, instead of the dagger and the secret oath to remedy wrongs and destroy tyranny, we have more effective weapons in absolute freedom of speech and pen. Men in other lands will talk and grumble and conspire in secret against oppression ; but in no country under the sun are grievances so openly denounced, and wrongs so speedily and so surely remedied, as in dear old England. Through the noble freedom of her Press falsehood is refuted, fallacies exposed, and error corrected, hardships ended, and true liberty obtained. It ought never to be forgotten that conspiracies and secret unions may overthrow an individual tyrant, but cannot make a free people. We earnestly trust that the working-classes in our land may vigilantly guard against yielding to fanciful notions of oppression, for England is at the present day the most glorious illustration of freedom. Her institutions are the results of the onward march of ages, and her lan- guage is the only tongue in which liberty deigns to speak. Whatever may be the representations of those who affect to deplore the condition of Eng- land, it is nevertheless true that there does not exist, and never has existed elsewhere, so beau- tiful and perfect a model of public and private prosperity ; so magnificent and, at the same time, so solid a fabric of social happiness and national grandeur. GROWTH OF TUSSAC GRASS IN THE LEWS. 539 Substance of a paper read before the British Asso- ciation at Dundee, by Dr. Lauder Lindsay, of Perth : — A visit to the Lews gave me an opportunity of inquiring into and personally inspecting the con- dition of the Tussac grass plantations , which had been established there in 1845, on the estates and under the auspices of that enlightened and liberal patron of improvement in our western islands, Sir James Matheson, Bart, M.P. These plantations were established by James Bitchie, of Perth, who, some years subsequently, when their success was no longer matter of doubt, submitted an account thereof (in 1852) to the Highland Society, which awarded him its “ medium gold medal,” and published his essay in its Transactions . Prom that essay, and from subsequent statements in various published works of topography or travel, it is evident that for a time the experiment of acclimatizing tussac grass in our western islands was most successful ; and there can be equally little doubt that the successful acclimatization of such a grass ought to have been, and might have been made, and, as remains to be herein shown, may yet become, a boon of no insig- nificant kind to many of the bleak and sterile islands and coasts of Scotland. The plant is perennial and evergreen; its nutritiveness has been vouched for by Professor Johnston, the eminent agricultural chemist, and other authorities ; it is improved by cutting, if not too close to the root ; it grows on 540 GROWTH OF TUSSAC GRASS IN THE LEWS. soils incapable of producing a more delicate herb- age ; it can be cut and carried even in snow ; and thus, while constituting a food for cattle throughout the year, it is more specially available as winter fodder, in circumstances where hay and turnips are not obtainable. Supply can be depended upon in and through all seasons ; while it grows so rapidly that, when cut down, it recovers its bulk in five weeks during summer, and two months during winter (in Orkney). As might be expected, culti- vation greatly improves the nutritive quality and general economic value of the plant. On Holm (Lews) in 1847, plants had leaves five to seven feet long, while single plants in various other parts of the same island weighed 461b., each tuft yielding forty to sixty good plants. In exceptional speci- mens — grown in Orkney — the weight attained was occasionally 1 cwt., — 1121b., or more than double the usual maximum. Mr. llitchie found, in the Lews, that cattle preferred tussac foliage to all other fodder ; but he also found that they are very fond of, and devour greedily, the saccharine, succulent roots, or root stocks — thus, however, necessarily destroying the plant. The success which characterized the earlier attempts at tussac acclimatization in Scotland was manifestly due to the attention that was paid to the necessary conditions of success — to the imitation of the natural circumstances of growth. Mr. llitchie had carefully pointed out the proper methods of GROWTH OF TUSSAC GRASS IN THE LEWS. 541 cultivation, and liad personally seen and left these methods in successful operation. He left the ex- periment in a favourable condition for permanent success, and I doubt not continued and increased success would have been the result of simple atten- tion to his rules of growth. These rules included mainly the following : — 1. That the plants should be some feet apart (four feet in Lews, three feet in Orkney) in each row, the growth of the native plant being “ tussocky.” 2. That the rows, like the individual plants in each row, should he some feet apart — say four. 3. That the plants should be carefully freed from weeds, just as turnips are, during especially the first two years of growth. 4. That they should be sedulously protected, by fencing, against cattle and all animals which might eat the roots, and so destroy the plants. 5. That the leaf only should be cut down for fodder, the roots being carefully preserved. 6 . That cropping should not be too close to the roots. These rules might be condensed into the general proposition that tussac requires care and protection like other crops , and not more so; and one would suppose that such a proposition is readily intelligible, and a simple rule for practice. The present condition of the tussac plantations in the Lews may be shortly stated thus : — The limited plantations in the grounds of Stornoway Castle are still in a thriving condition ; but here they are properly tended by gardeners, and protected 542 GROWTH OF TUSSAC GRASS IN THE LEWS. from ravage by cattle. In other localities the plants are either in bad condition, are disappearing, or have already disappeared. No care is bestowed on tlieir cultivation ; weeding has not been attended to ; fences have been permitted to fall to decay ; and cattle have been afforded unlimited access. Even did cattle not grub up and eat the roots, they destroy the plants by trampling them down, just as they do the much lustier New Zealand flax plant in its native country. The failure of the Suther- land experiments (of Horsburgh, at Tongue, in 1846,) was attributed, partly at least, to mice nib- bling the roots, on which they lived — these animals constructing their nests at the base of the tufts. Danger from such a source was probably unexpected and might not be preventible ; but the absence of fences and the access of cattle could only be attri- buted to the grossest carelessness ! In other words, so soon as the necessary conditions of success were ^mattended to — so soon as the circumstances con- ducive to acclimatization were disregarded, the experiment in the Lews began to fail, and at present, and on the whole, it must be pronounced a signal failure ; one that, under the circumstances, was as deserved as it was inevitable. I made special inquiry at residents of every class in the Lews, with the result of eliciting a uniform expression of opinion that tussac grass cultivation had there proved a failure ; but there was scarcely a single exhibition of intelligent conception of the GROWTH OF TUSSAC GRASS IN TIIE LEWS. 543 character or objects of the experiment, or of active interest in its success. It was generally regarded as one of the hobbies of a landlord, as ingenious as he is wealthy, who could afford to gratify his whims ; and so long as the islanders were called upon, in or by their own interests, to aid him in these caprices, they were willing to protect or cultivate to the extent to or for which they were desired or paid. So soon, however, as the personal supervision of Mr. Hitchie, and the active interest of their land- lord, Sir James, were removed or abated, this tem- porary and spurious zeal of the custodiers of the tussac plantations was succeeded by their native apathy and indolence : the experiment and its sub- jects were cast aside like the worn out playthings of a child. It was unfortunate for Sir James and the success of this and other experiments, which are creditable in the highest degree not only to his liberality, but to his persevering philanthropy and his sound scientific views and tastes, that he should have been led or compelled to entrust their manage- ment to islanders so destitute of the requisite intel- ligence and enterprise ; but it may be satisfactory for him, on the other hand, to learn that the failure of such an experiment as tussac acclimatization need be only temporary; and that, with a more intelligent and watchful class of custodiers, he may yet anticipate the most successful results. There is no reason why the transformation of Orkney, during the last quarter of a century, should not. 544 IMPROVEMENTS OF ESTATES BY EMBANKMENTS. mutatis mutandis , take place in the Lews. In addi- tion to the more purely physical obstacles to the success of acclimatization experiments in the re- moter parts of Scotland, it must he noted here that such obstacles are probably based on popular igno- rance and prejudice, the correction or eradication whereof is always a matter of time, though for- tunately it is also a matter of certainty in time. I have a double object in bringing the experiment of tussac acclimatization in the Lews under notice of this Association — viz., (1) That it regards a most nutritious and valuable exotic grass, capable of luxuriant growth on shores otherwise sterile ; but more especially because (2) it illustrates a subject that has not attracted that degree of attention in Scotland which it deserves — viz. ( a ) The necessity as regards success in acclimatization experiments for imitating the natural circumstances or conditions of growth; and ( h ) the inevitable failure resulting from disregard, inattention, or ignorance to or of these conditions. There are many parts of the kingdom where won- derful improvements may be made on an estate by embankments, and this important subject should always have the attention of the Agent. Immense tracts of valuable land may be gained, not from the sea alone, but from rivers and lakes ; and the ad- vantage that would accrue, even by preventing many of those rivers from overflowing their banks, and in great floods inundating the whole adjacent level country, are too manifest to require illustra- CONSTRUCTION OF BANKS. 545 tion. In some places, a bank of only three or four feet in height would prevent hundreds of acres being overflowed, whole crops being carried off, and an immense deal of other damage being done. In other parts, trifling banks might be the means of reclaiming very extensive tracts, which in their present state are probably of little or no value. In Holland, the whole country has in a great measure been gained in this way. Extensive plains, which were once covered with water, now exhibit beautiful farms neatly enclosed, and sub-divided by thriving hedges into rectangular fields. The dykes of Hol- land are marvels of human industry ; and the em- bankments of the Biver Po, in Italy, show a skill and application of the practice that excites universal admiration. The following, with reference to the construction of banks and flood-gates, may be useful : — Construction of Banks. A bank, constructed of a given quantity of materials, will just resist the pressure of the water when the square of its thickness at the base is to the square of its perpendicular height as the weight of a given bulk of water is to the weight of the same bulk of the material the bank is made of increased by twice the aforesaid weight of the given bulk of water. Thus, if the bank is made of stone twice as heavy as water, the thickness of the base should be, to the height, as three to six. N N 540 CONSTRUCTION OP FLOOD-GATES. If the height, compared with the thickness of the base, he as ten to seven, stability is always insured, whatever the specific gravity of the material mav he. €/ The bottom of a conical, pyramidal, or cylindrical vessel, or of one the section of which is that of an inverted frustum of a cone or pyramid, sustains a pressure equal to the area of the bottom and the depth of the fluid. Tlood -gates. To find the strain which a fluid will exert to make the gate turn upon its hinges , or open. Rule. — Multiply J of the square of the height by the square of the breadth, and take a bulk of water equal to the product. Example. — If the gate is six feet square, 6 2 — X6 2 = 324 cubic feet, or 20,250 lbs. 4 To find the strain the water exerts upon the hinges. Rule. — Multiply -f of the breadth by the cube of the height, and take a bulk of water equal to the product. Example. — With the same gate, 6 -X6 3 =216 cubic feet, or 13,500 lbs. 6 To ascertain the mean or average velocity of water in a straight channel of equal size throughout — Let f — the fall in two miles in inches ; Let d == the hydraulic mean depth ; Lot v = the velocity in inches per second ; then FLOW OF WATER IN DITCHES. 547 the rule is thus expressed, v = 0.91 V f d. In plain words, the velocity is equal to the hydraulic mean depth multiplied by the fall, with the square root of this product extracted, and then multiplied by 0.91. The “ hydraulic mean depth” is found by dividing the cross section of the channel by the perimeter or border. The perimeter is the aggregate breadths of the sides and bottom of the channel. The rule will be rendered quite plain by an example. Suppose a smooth furrow is cut 6 inches wide and 4 inches deep, with perpendicular sides, and that it descends one inch in a rod, to find the quantity of water that will flow through it. One inch fall in a rod is 320 inches in a mile, or 640 in two miles. The perimeter in contact with the water will be 6 inches on the bottom, and 4 inches in each side = 14 inches. The area of the cross section will be 6 times 4 == 24, which, divided by 14, the perimeter gives 1, 7 = the hydraulic mean depth. Then, by applying the preceding rule, v = 0.91 ^640 x 1.7 or v = 0.91 x 33 = 30 inches the velocity per second, which would be about three gallons per second, or three hogsheads per minute. An open ditch, therefore, with smooth sides, conveying a stream of this size, would carry off in one hour from an acre of land all the water which might fall by half an inch of rain during the wet season, for half an inch of rain would be 180 hogs- heads per acre, which would pass off in one hour ; or N N 2 548 TRUE AND APPARENT LEVEL. it would supply in one hour, by the process of irriga- tion, as much water as a heavy shower of half an inch. Where the descent is greater, the increased quantity may be readily calculated by the rule given. The capacity of smooth-sided underground channels may be determined in the same way ; but if built of rough stones great allowance must be made, as they will retard the flow of water. Table showing the difference , in Inches , between the true and apparent Level , for distances between 1 and 100 Chains : — Chains 1 2 Q 6 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Inches. '001 •005 •Oil •020 •031 •045 •061 •080 •101 •125 •151 •180 •211 •245 •281 •320 •361 •405 •451 •500 •552 •605 •661 •720 *781 Chains 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 Inches. •845 •911 •981 1*051 1T25 1*201 1-280 1*360 1*446 1-531 1-620 1*711 1-805 1 - 901 2 - 003 2-101 2-208 2-311 2-420 2-531 2-646 2 - 761 2-880 3 - 004 3-125 Chains 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 Inches. 3-255 3-380 3-511 3-645 3-781 3- 925 4061 4- 205 4-351 4-500 4-654 4-805 4- 968 5T20 5- 281 5-443 5-612 5-787 5- 955 6- 125 6-302 6-480 6*662 6- 846 7- 032 Chains 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 Inches. 7 221 7 ' 4l2 7 - 605 7*802 8 - 001 8-202 8-406 8-612 8 - 832 9 - 042 9-246 9-462 9-681 9-902 10-126 10-351 10 - 587 10-812 11046 11 - 233 11-521 11 - 763 12 - 017 12-246 12-502 CONSTRUCTION OF RESERVOIR EMBANKMENTS. 549 Economy now appears to be the order of the day; but it is false economy to construct works carelessly and inefficiently, merely to save a little in the space of time or a few pounds in the first cost, as works like these are generally found the least expensive in the end that are well and substantially executed, regardless of time or expense. According to modern practice, there seems to be no given rule for the construction of reservoir embankments. At Longdendale the compensation reservoir bank is 27 feet wide at top, the inside slope 3 to 1, outer side 2 to 1, and 90 feet deep (the Crowden reservoir, by the same engineer, is only 15 feet wide at top with similar slopes), while the Bradfield reservoir was only 12 feet wide at top, with inner slopes 2-J to 1, outer ones LJ to 1 (as we found them), and 95 feet deep. The Hound Wood reservoir, near Dublin, has a 30 feet width of top bank, with a depth of 60 feet, while the Holmfirth reservoir was only 16 feet wide at top, inner slopes 3 to 1, outer 2 to 1, and with a depth of 96 feet. At Oldham, the Python reservoir has a width of top bank of 30 feet, with a depth of 60 feet, of water, while a reservoir which failed at Over Darwen had a width of top bank of only 8 feet. Most of the reservoirs were designed and carried into effect by eminent engineers, and yet the prac- tice so widely differs as to be quite incompre- hensible; either the larger dimensions are too strong, or the smaller ones ridiculously weak ; it is evident £C there is something rotten in the state of 550 SLOPES IN EMBANKMENTS. Denmark,” and tliis must be patent to the most casual observer. We do not find these defects and errors of design amongst the works of our Telfords, Walkers, Rennies, and other worthies. Telford’s usual prac- tice was to proportion the top width of his embank- ments to be equal to two-fifths of the depth, with inner slopes 3 to 1, outer slopes 2 to 1, and many of these works have withstood the invaluable test of time, and are more than half a century old. Moles- worth, in his Tables on Reservoir Dams, gives the top width of high dams at from 7 feet to 20 feet, without particularly specifying a definite width for height of embankment, although it is important and absolutely necessary there should be a sufficient body and strength of embankment to resist the weight of water pressing against it, as the pressure of water is as the square of the depth, therefore the resistance should be in a similar ratio. The inner slopes he recommends should be 3 to 1, and the outer ones 2 to 1, the generally admitted proportions for slopes. Angles of Slopes in Cuttings or Embankments . Slopes. Angles. o / 1 to 1 . . . . 63 26 f to 1 . . . . 53 8 1 to 1 45 0 li to 1 38 40 Ii to i 33 41 2 to 1 . . . . 26 34 3 to 1 18 26 OUR SALT MARSHES. 551 Table for Running on Slopes. In the following table the first column shows the angle, the second, the number of links to be added to a chain on the slopes, to make one chain, horizontal measurement. Angle. Cor. in links. Angle. Cor. in links. Angle. Cor. in links. Angle. Cor. in links. o o O o 4 0-24 11 1-88 18 5-14 25 1054 5 038 12 2-24 19 5-76 26 11-26 6 0"55 13 263 20 6-42 27 12-24 7 076 14 3 06 21 7-11 28 13-37 8 0-98 15 3*53 22 7-85 29 14-34 9 1-24 16 4 02 23 8-64 30 15-47 10 1-55 17 4*56 24 9-47 35 22-07 Again, along our coast and estuaries, are exten- sive tracts of salt marshes, or flat lands, abounding in fertility, overflowed, some of them regularly and others occasionally, by the ocean tides. These marshes, with some cost of ditching, produce what is called ec salt-hay,” which is cut with great labour at low tides, and generally stacked where it grows, upon stakes driven for the purpose. It is valued and usually sold at about half the price of the best upland meadow hay, and, mixed with other fodder, is eaten by cattle for lack of better, and sometimes by way of a condiment even by cattle that are well fed. It has been doubted by many whether this salt-hay is worth the cost of cutting, or, in other words, whether the labour requisite to ditch the marshes, and cut, cure, and haul the hay, could not be more profitably applied to other branches of farm 552 LAND RENDERED WORSE THAN USELESS. labour. By many experiments, on a small scale, in this country it lias been proved that these salt- marsh lands, after the tides have been kept out of them a few years, are extremely fertile, and, being free from stones and other obstructions, are easily cultivated, and so are likely, when a systematic mode of reclaiming them shall be adopted, to prove a most valuable acquisition to our farmers upon the ocean shores. Also along our rivers and streams are considerable tracts of flat land, flooded in times of freshets, and at all times filled with cold or stagnant water, which are almost wholly unproductive. On many of the streams, too, and at the outlets of the lakes, are dams for the use of saw-mills, grist-mills, and factories, and the lakes themselves are used as reservoirs to keep back water for the use of the mills in time of drought. By these obstructions to the natural flow of the streams, thousands of acres of the most valuable land are rendered worse than useless ; for the water is kept up till midsummer, and drawn off when a dog-day climate is just ready to convert the rich and slimy sediment of the pond into pestilential vapours. This evil has attracted some attention in Scotland. In many parts of that country small lakes and dams are kept up for the sake of mills under old tenures, and, if these were drained, the land gained by the operation would, in many instances, be worth ten times the rent of the mills. These swamps, ponds, and stagnant meadows VALUABLE LAND LAID WASTE. 553 might all be drained, and would afford vast tracts of fertile land. Now, while we should never advo- cate any attack upon the rights of mill-owners, or ask them to sacrifice their interests to those of agriculture, it surely is proper to call attention to the injury which the productive capacity of the soil is suffering, by the flooding of our best tracts, in sections of the country where land is most valuable. Could not the mill-owners, in many cases, adopt steam instead of water power P Much valuable land on the banks of rivers and rivulets is often laid waste by the encroachments of floods. A few words on this important subject seem to be necessary. It may be laid down as a principle in natural science, that water is irresistible, and therefore it must not be resisted — it must be humoured. Streams and rivers run for ever. The tomb of Moses is unknown ; but the traveller slakes his thirst at the well of Jacob. The gorgeous palace of the wisest and wealthiest of monarchs, with the cedar, and gold, and ivory, and even the great Temple of Jerusalem, hallowed by the visible glory of the Deity himself — are gone ; but Solomon’s reservoirs are as perfect as ever. Of the ancient architecture of the Holy City, not one stone is left upon another ; but the pool of Bethesda commands the pilgrim’s reverence at the present day. The columns of Persepolis are mouldering into dust; but its cisterns and aqueducts remain to challenge our admiration. The golden house of Nero is a 554 LAND ON THE BANKS OP RIVERS. mass of ruins ; but the Aqua Claudia still pours into Home its limpid stream. The Temple of the Sun at Tadmor, in the wilderness, has fallen ; but its fountain sparkles as freshly in his rays as when thousands of worshippers thronged its lofty colon- nades. When London shall share the fate of Babylon, and nothing be left to mark its site, save mounds of crumbling brickwork, the Thames will continue to flow as it does now. It is useless, therefore, to “ resist” water. All windings in streams are caused by resistance. The water, in rushing onward, dashes against a projecting stone or hard part on one of its banks ; this sends it in an opposite direction, in which it runs till it again strikes against an unyielding obstacle, with the same result. This process of interruption soon causes a mouldering of the banks in opposite directions, so that at length the water runs in a zig-zag or serpentine course. All this might have been avoided by allowing the water a perfectly free course. The damage done to lands by flooding has led to numerous experiments for keeping the water in its channel, but seldom with any degree of success ; because the attempts have been to hem in the current by sheer force. In all cases in which it is desirable to keep out tides or high floods from lands, the only secure method consists in giving the banks such a slope that they will present no resist- ance whatever, but allow the water to rise and subside with equal ease and tranquility. As a ARTIFICIAL EMBANKMENTS. general truth, the greater the slope the better ; and it should never he less than a foot and a half for every foot in the height. Employ no stones or stakes, or anything else, for the current to catch upon ; hut cover the slopes with smooth turf, at a season which will allow of its growth before the floods set in. If any patches get broken, let them he annually mended. To keep out high floods, the hanks must he made correspondingly high. Artificial embankments, in a flat country, should assume the form of a long mound, sloping on both sides. Noth withstanding the obvious utility of this simple and inexpensive mode of protecting river hanks, instances of damage are constantly occurring from the adoption of an opposite method. Mr. Stephens mentions the following as one of many within his knowledge : — “ An embankment was thrown round the small island Mugdrum, in the Elver Tay, to protect the land from being overflowed by the tide ; but it was made so steep that the first spring tides levelled the greater part of it to the ground. A second attempt was made, with the additional expense of a stone wall facing the water, which shared the same fate with the former bank. Since these failures, a third embankment has been erected with nothing but the natural soil of the land, and the whole covered with thin turf. The length of the present slope next the sea is five times the perpendicular height of the bank, and the inner slope three times ; the water meeting no resistance, 556 METHOD OF GAINING LAND FROM RIVERS. rolls down the long slope without doing any injury.” In connection with the protection of river hanks, we may say a few words on the method of gaining land from rivers and tidal estuaries. This may he done if the river straggle over an unnecessarily wide space, and brings down quantities of mud sufficient to form impediments to navigation. The process usually followed with most advantage is to run out at intervals short row T s of stakes, matted with twigs, calculated to catch the particles of mud, hut to allow the water to pass through. A sediment is thus gradually formed between the rows ; in time, it rises above the water, and ultimately forms a green productive surface. When the water is affected by the tides, a row of loose stones laid between high and low water mark will similarly catch mud and sand, and, while forming new land, will, by narrowing the channel, give greater impetus to the stream, and help to deepen its bed. When done on a great scale, the bed of the river is scooped by mechanism, and the rubbish brought up may afterwards assist in elevating the newly-formed hanks. In point of justice to all parties, any of these processes of river-hank improvement should he done on both sides of the river at the same time ; for, if effected only on one side, the water may he driven to the opposite shore, to the serious damage of the land in that quarter. In addition to what we have sajd upon the subject WATER MEADOWS. 557 of irrigation in our book “ Hints on Farming,” we may go on to say that irrigation is the act of supplying water to land to increase its fertility, and lands so treated are generally called water meadows. There are two modes in which the water is applied. First, as on what is called a catch-water meadow ; in this case a stream of water is conducted along the side of a sloping ground, and the water, descending from the carrier down the side of the hill, flows evenly over the surface. The second plan is by what is called bed- work. In this the land is laid out into beds having two open channels for water, one at the level of the highest part of the bed, which, overflowing, causes the water to flow down the surface of the land into the second or lower drain, which carries it away. Hatches, or sluices, are fixed along the line of the carriers or high level water-courses, to allow of the water being applied to the different divisions of the land in their regular turn. It is now considered better to water land with the hose and jet than to construct very expensive artificial works for the purpose. Never- theless, there are many situations where a small well of water may be turned to wonderful account if judiciously applied, especially in the form of catch-meadows. In some parts of England large works have been erected for watering land, the most important of them being situated near Mans- field, in Nottinghamshire, and called the Clipstone Water Meadows. They are the property of the 558 TIIE DUKE OF PORTLAND’S MEADOWS. Duke of Portland, and, without exception, the finest engineering works of the kind. The sewage water from the town of Mansfield runs into the river that supplies them, and of course adds much to their fertility. Soil which was poor and sterile, and its produce value all hut nil, now yields from £11 to £12 per acre per annum, a return of 9J per cent, upon the capital invested. The per-acreage cost of this work was large, hut the per-acreage profit is large also, large enough to have years ago repaid the capital invested, leaving nothing but profit for the present and the future. One of the most valuable features of this example is, the evidence it affords, at the present day, that the process is not an exhausting one, — there is no depression in produce value ; the 300 acres of the Duke of Portland’s water meadows, and 103 acres subsequently irrigated from the same stream by the late Earl Manvers, have gone on from their forma- tion to the present time, yielding every year a large amount of grass for mowing green, of hay, of beef, mutton, and wool, upon land which, if left to itself, would be all hut sterile. The following remarks on the management of the water meadows are exceedingly interesting. In the beginning of January, Southdown ewes, with lambs bred early for this purpose, are turned on the mea- dows. In this early season they are assisted with cabbages ; but the ewes and lambs always do well on the meadows, and they appear to be particularly UTILITY OF WATER MEADOWS. 559 healthy for the lambs, very few dying suddenly, as will often be the case on fresh seeds. Ewes are put on with their lambs as these are born and gain strength ; and in this way, from January to the end of March, and in some parts till much later in the spring, even till late in May, the meadows are de- voted to ewes and lambs. The lambs are fed fat, and are sold at that time of the year at from 24s. to 30s. each. The land is then shut up in succession ; some portion at the beginning of April, other por- tions later. The most forward meadows will be ready for cutting green by about the middle of May, and will yield from sixteen to twenty good cart- loads of green fodder per acre, which is carried to cattle in yards. In about six weeks a second crop is ready, which, with the allowance of time neces- sary to clear the first crop from the ground, and to apply the water, will carry this second cutting to the middle of July. After this an eddish will be left to be eaten by sheep and cattle in the autumn and early winter. The meadows which are first cut will frequently allow of a third cutting of green food, but the eddish in that case will of course be of less value. Speaking, therefore, of the whole range of meadows, to say that, besides the sheep feed in the spring, they will afford two green cut- tings and an eddish, is to be rather under than above the mark. Some portions having been stocked late, are allowed to stand for hay, and are mown early in July, yielding two tons to the acre, and leaving, as 560 ABUNDANT SUPPLY OP WATER IMPORTANT. in the other case, an eddish for the early winter. The value, however, of these meadows cannot by any means he estimated by the worth of their own produce alone, however large that may be, their collateral benefits are so great. Requiring them- selves no manure but the water, they afford, through the cattle fed in yards on their produce, such a weight of manure for other land, that large districts have by these means been brought into profitable cultivation ; and, though the water itself runs over only about 300 acres, it may be said to enrich five times that extent; and, again, by the early food they supply in the spring, stock can be kept of the young seeds till they have gained a head, which is a most important advantage on a farm, and one that, if a dry summer should follow, can hardly be too highly appreciated. An abundant supply of water is of the utmost importance, and cannot be too highly appreciated. Of organic bodies, whether vegetable or animal, water is a large constituent during life, and a powerful solvent after death. Potatoes, for exam- ple, contain seventy-five per cent. — by weight — and turnips no less than ninety per cent, of water ; which explains, by the way, the small inclination of turnip-fed cattle and sheep for drink. A beef- steak strongly pressed between blotting-paper yields nearly four-fifths of its weight of water. Of the human frame, bones included, only about four-fifths is solid matter — chiefly carbon and nitrogen ; — the MANNER OF APPLYING WATER TO MEADOWS. 501 rest is water. If a man weighing 100 lbs. were squeezed flat under a hydraulic press, 120 lbs. of water would run out, and only 40 lbs. of dry residue would remain. A man is, therefore, chemically speaking, a little more than fifty pounds of carbon and nitrogen diffused through six pailfuls of water. Berzelius, indeed, in recording the fact, justly re- marks, “ the living organism is to he regarded as a mass diffused in water;” and Dalton, by a series of experiments tried in his own person, found that of the food with which we daily repair this water-built fabric, five-sixths is also water. Thus amply does science confirm the popular saying that water is the