THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY 382 w. 10-20 • ■ i. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 https://archive.org/details/commercialtariff1620macg COMMERCIAL TARIFFS AND REGULATIONS, RESOURCES, AND TRADE, OF THE SEVERAL STATES OE EUROPE AND AMERICA, TOGETHER WITH THE COMMERCIAL TREATIES BETWEEN ENGLAND AND FOREIGN COUNTRIES. PART THE SIXTEENTH. STATES OF MEXICO. BY JOHN MACGREGOR. Presented to both Houses of Parliament , by Command of Her Majesty. LONDON: PRINTED BY CHARLES WHITING, BEAUFORT HOUSE, STRAND. 1846. \r, )(>~Z0 .3 TO THE LORDS OF TIIE COMMITTEE OF PRIVY COUNCIL FOR TRADE AND PLANTATIONS. My Lords, In obedience to Your Lordships’ commands, I have continued the arrangement of the Customs’ Tariffs and Regulations, and of the Resources, Trade, Monies, Weights, and Measures of foreign countries, together with the Commercial Treaties of Great Britain with those States ; and the Sixteenth part of this Series I have now the honour to present to Your Lordships. This Part contains the several Treaties of Commerce and Navigation in force between the United Kingdom and the States of Mexico — also the Customs’ Tariff — Commercial Regulations — the Monies, Weights, and Measures, and various Statements relative to the Trade, Navigation, Agriculture, Manufactures, and Finances, of that Republic. I have the honour to be, My Lords, Your Lordships’ most Obedient Humble Servant, JOHN MACGREGOR. Board of Trade, 26th August, 1846. CONTENTS OF PART XVI. SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. PAGE I. Divisions op Spanish America UNDER THE MONARCHY . . 1 II. Mexico, Description and Natural Resources 6 ID. , Territory, Population, and Departments .... 8 IY. , Configuration, Soil, and Climate 10 V. Mexico Proper 14 VI. New Mexico 49 VII. Sketches of the Department of Mexico 61 VIII. Characteristics of the Inhabitants of Mexico 74 IX. City and Department, formerly the Intendancy of Mexico . . 78 X. Old California . ... 90 XI. New, or Upper California . . 92 XII. Climate, &c., of Upper California. 98 Xni. Agriculture within the Califor- nian Valleys .... 101 XIV. Manufactures, Mills, Live Stock, and General Trade of Cali- fornia 102 XV. Population and Paces . . .106 XVI. Expedition to explore the Bay of Sa n Francisco, and Upper Country of California . . . .108 XVII. Poute from San Francisco to United States . . . .112 XVIU. Establishments on the West and South of the Bay of San Fran- cisco . . . . . .116 XIX. Southern Oregon— American Ex- ploring Expedition . . . 123 XX. Exploration of Northern Oregon, and the Columbia River, by the United States Exploring Expe- ditions 137 XXI. Nisqually — Hudson Bay Company’s Trading and Agricultural Ope- rations 144 XXII. Puget Sound Company . . . 145 XXIII. Hudson Bay Company’s Posts in Oregon 154 XXIV. Willamette Valley, &c. . . . 164 XXV. Survey of the Columbia River in 1841, by the United States Ex- page ploring Expedition . . .180 XXVI. Russian-America .... 190 XXVII. Aboriginal Tribes of Oregon . 191 XXVIH. Overland Expeditions from the United States to Oregon and California 192 XXIX. Constitution of Mexico . . . 232 XXX. Statistics of Mexico . . . 237 Religion, and Eccle- siastical Establishments . . 239 Education . . .241 XXXI. Revenue and Expenditure of Mexico ...... 242 National Debt and Finances of Mexico 244 Prospect of Payment of the Debt of Mexico 245 Expenses of the Mexican Govern- ment in 1840 246 Tobacco Monopoly .... 247 XXXII. Army and Navy of Mexico . .251 XXXIII. Mines and Minerals of Mexico . 253 XXXIV. Agriculture, &c., of Mexico . . 256 Prices of Provisions in Mexico . 264 XXXV. Manufactures of Mexico . . 265 Cotton Factories . 267 XXXVI. Commerce of Mexico under the Spanish Government . . . 269 Trade of the Seaports . . . 272 Commerce of Vera Cruz during 1845 273 Tampico in 1841-4 . 274 Matamoras in 1844 . 275 Pouts on the Pacific . 276 Statement of Port Dues, &c., on Foreign Shipping at the prin- cipal Ports of the Mexican Re- public 277 XXXVII. Treaties of Amity, Commerce, and Navigation, between the Go- vernment of the United States, and the Government of the Spanish American Republics . 279 XXXVIII. Customs’ Tariff of the Spanish American Republics — viz. : Customs Regulations, and Tariff of Mexico 290 of Yucatan 305 XVI. SPANISH AMEPJCAN REPUBLICS. DIVISIONS OF SPANISH AMERICA UNDER TIIE MONARCHY. Previously to the independence of the countries, in North and South America, comprised under the regal government of Spain, the Spanish colonies were administered in the following arrangement: viz, — 1. — In North America — The Viceroyalty of New Spain, and the Cap- tain-generalship of Guatemala. 2. — In South America, the Viceroyalty of Nero Granada, the Captain- generalship of Caraccas, the Viceroyalty of Peru, the Viceroyalty of La Plata, or Buenos Ayres, and the Captain-generalship of Chili. The population of these vast regions, we believe never to have been, even as an approximate statement, ascertained. The following table is compiled on the authority of Humboldt, Alcedo, and others ; and is estimated to include the natives and slaves : — COUNTRIES. Inhabitants. Acres. CAPITALS. Inhabitants. number. 6.500.000 1.200.000 600,000 136.000 1,800,000^ 900.000 j 1,300,000 > 800.000 l ,100,000 j number. 1,690,000 180,000 43,350 3,865 number. 137,000 19.000 35.000 very populous. 30.000 20.000 54.000 36.000 60.000 Puerto Rico Puerto Rico 3,350,000 Buenos Ayres or La Plata.. Buenos Ayres Making' 14,330,000 5,273,215 The above is exclusive of the unnumbered Indians of the Viceroyalty of La Plata. The Portuguese subjects in Brazil were estimated at the same time, to amount to 3,000,000: of whom one million and a half were slaves, one million Indians, and the remainder of European race. Of the above total of 14,336,000 souls, there were 3,000,000 whites born in the country, 200,000 Europeans, and the remaining 11,136,000 were Indians, negroes, and mixed races, or castes, of which the Indians amounted to by far the greater proportion. The negroes in Caraccas amounted to 54,000, in Cuba to 212,000 ; the other states having comparatively very few slaves. B 2 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. I. — VICEROYALTY OF NEW SPAIN. Under the Viceroy, arid the Supreme Councils (Audienzas Reales), New Spain was sub-divided into the three Provinces of New Mexico , and Old and New California, and the twelve intendencies of Durango, or New Biscay , Sonora, St. Louis Potosi, Zacatecas, Guadalaxara, Valadolkl, or Mechoacan, Mexico, Puebla , or Tlascala , Vera Cruz, Oaxaca, or Guaxaca, and Merida, or Yucatan. The whole administration may be said to have been under the absolute despotism of the viceroy, the archbishop, and bishops, and the Auclienzas Reales. II. — CAPTAIN-GENERALSHIP OF GUATEMALA. The account which, in its spirit, and in the simplicity of its description and statements, conveys the best proof of authenticity relative to this captain- generalship, under the Spanish sovereignty, is the work of Don Domingo Quarras, a native of the country. According to his authority, the government of this kingdom, as it was then named, was administered by the royal audiencia of Guatemala, the president of which was governor and captain-general of the kingdom, having a great number of inferior otficers for the better regulation of the provinces. The spiritual affairs were directed by the Archbishop of Gua- temala and three suffragans, except in the small district of Feten, which was under the charge of the Bishop of Yucatan. The ecclesiastical division of the kingdom consisted of four bishoprics, viz., Guatemala, which as metropo- litan, extended over the whole kingdom ; but the peculiar territory of the arch- bishopric of Guatemala extended 214 Spanish leagues from the plains of Moto- cinta, the most westerly village of the diocese, to the boundaries of the curacy of Conchagua, the most easterly; and 11G leagues from the Gulf on the northward, to the shores of the Pacific southward. In this district there were 108 curacies, twenty-three collated curacies of regulars, sixteen under charge of the Dominicans, four of the Franciscans, and three of our Lady of Mercy ; 424 parochial churches, and 539, 7G5 inhabitants. This bishopric was erected by Pope Paul III., under a bull bearing date December 18, 1534; from that period to 1S09 the chair has been occupied by seven archbishops and sixteen bishops. The second bishopric is Leon, having jurisdiction over the intendancy of Nicaragua, and the government of Costa Rica : in it there were thirty-nine curacies, three establishments for the conversion of infidels, eighty-eight parochial churches, and 131,932 inhabitants. From its erection to the year 1S09, this diocese has had thirty-seven bishops. The third was Ciudad Real, its jurisdic- tion comprehended the three divisions of the intendancy of Chiapa; it contained thirty-eight curacies, 102 parish churches, and G9,253 inhabitants. The fourth is Comayagua, the jurisdiction of which was confined to the intendancy of lion- DIVISIONS UNDER THE MONARCHY. duras : within its territory there were thirty-five curacies, one establishment for the conversion of infidels, 145 parish churches, and 88,143 inhabitants.* The civil government of the kingdom was divided into fifteen provinces, of these eight were superior alcaldias,viz., Totonicapan, Solola, Chimaltenango, Saca- tepeques, Zonzonate, Verapaz, Escuintla, and Suchiltepeques ; tw'o w'ere corregi- dorships, viz., Quezaltenango, and Chiquimula ; one a government, Costa Rica ; and four were intendancies, Leon, Ciudad Real, Comayagua, and St. Salvador. Live of these provinces were situated on the shores of the Pacific ; five on the Atlantic, and five interior. In Guatemala, as well as in all other parts of Spanish America, the real power exercised by the bishops and other ecclesiastics, was much greater than that exercised by the civil government. III. — VICEROYALTY OF NEW GRANADA. New Granada was bounded on the north by the Caribbean Sea, and the pro- vince of Costa Rica in the kingdom of Guatemala ; on the east by the govern- ment of Caraccas, Spanish Guiana, and Portuguese Guiana; on the west by the Pacific Ocean ; and on the south by the river Maranon, and the viceroyalty of Peru: it extended from 3 deg. 30 min. south latitude, to 12 deg. north latitude. This extensive viceroyalty was divided into numerous provinces, governed by intendants and governors under the orders of the viceroy. These provinces w'ere named Jaen de Bracamoros, Quixos, Maynas, Quito, Tacamees, Popayan, Antioquia, Santa Fe, San Juan de los Llanos, Merida, Santa Marta, Carthagena, Choco, Darien, Panama, and Veragua ; the three last of which were known by the distinctive appellation of Tierra Firme. IV. — CAPTAIN-GENERALSHIP OF CARACCAS. Caraccas is named after a tribe of Indians, and given to the country ■which included New Andalusia, or Cumana, with Margarita, Barcelona, Venezuela or Caraccas Proper, Maracaybo and Coro, on the coast of the Caribbean Sea, Varinas and Spanish Guiana, in the interior. It was bounded on the north by the Caribbean Sea, east by the Atlantic, * In computing the number of inhabitants of the kingdom : parishioners of the dioceses, and inhabitants of the provinces, recourse has been had to the census taken by order of the King of Spain in 1788, as being the most recent and complete that could readily be consulted, because it gives the numbers in the separate provinces and districts. It may, however, be considered too low ; for, by comparing it with the enumerations made by order of the bishops, there has been found a material discrepancy; if we add together the numbers of the different districts of the bishopric of Comayagua in the royal census of 1778, the amount will be no more than 81,143; whereas, that taken by order of the bishop in 1791, makes the number 93,301. In Chiapa, in 1778, the number given was 62,233, but, by a census in 1796, it was 99,001 : similar increase has been perceived in the other two dioceses. — Alcedo. B 2 4 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. south by Peru and Dutch Guiana, and west by the kingdom of Santa Fe or New Granada. Caraccas was subdivided into seven provinces : viz., New Andalusia or Cumana, Barcelona, Venezuela or Caraccas Proper, containing Venezuela and Coro, Maracaybo, Varinas, and Guiana, with the detached government of the island of Margarita ; the whole of these were under the superintendence of a personage of the highest rank, who was styled captain-general of the provinces of Venezuela, and the city of Caraccas. Y. — VICEROYALTY OF PERL 1 . Peru, as a vicerovalty, was bounded on the north by the southern provinces of Quito, Maynas, Jaen de Bracomaros, and Guyaquil ; on the west by the Pacific Ocean ; on the east, by the Portuguese possessions, and the provinces of Buenos Ayres ; and on the south, by the government of Chili and the viceroyalty of La Plata. It was formerly the most extensive kingdom of South America, but in the year 1 7 1 S the provinces of Quito in the north, as far as the river Tum- bez, were annexed to the government of New Granada, and in 1778, Potosi, and several other of its richest districts, on the east, were annexed to the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. It extended, therefore, from the Rio Tumbez, in 3 degrees 30 minutes, south latitude, to the chain of Vilcanota, in 15 degrees south latitude. Its eastern settlements bounded on Colonna, or the land of the missions, the Pampas del Sacramento, and the savage nations of the Pajonal, a vast steppe covered with lomj on the whole, they are very respectable and picturesque chicken-coops. “ Here our guard quitted us. It seems, notwithstanding the written orders and promise I had from the commandant at Vera Cruz for an escort, that these fellows had received no directions to accompany us, and had only ridden thus far, because they thought the new Minister of Finance, Senor Trigucros, was in the stage. But I can hardly think they were a loss. “ We were soon called to coach, and mounting our vehicle with better spirits for the refreshment and morning air, we shortly entered a rolling country, with an occasional ruinous hamlet and plantation. Although the scenery was in spots exceedingly romantic, interspersed with upland and valley, and covered with a profusion of tropical trees and flowers, there was over the whole that air of abandonment which could not fail to strike MEXICO PROPER. 25 one painfully. In a new country, as a traveller passes, by a solitary bridle-path, over the plains and bills, hidden by the primeval forests fresh as they came from nature’s hand, there is matter for agreeable reflection, in fancyiug what the virgin soil will pro- duce in a few years when visited by industry and taste. But here, nature, instead of being pruned of her luxuriance with judicious care, has been literally sapped and ex- hausted, and made old even in her youth, until she again begins to renew her empire among ruins. It is true, that traces of old cultivation are yet to be found, and also the remains of a former dense population. The sides of the hills, in many places, as in Chili and Peru, are cut into terraces; but over those plains and terraces is spread a wild growth of mimosas, cactus, and acacias, while a thousand flowering parasite plants trail their gaudy blossoms among the aloes and shrubbery which fill up the rents of time and neglect in the dilapidated buildings. It is the picture of a beauty, prematurely old, tricked out in the fanciful finery of youth ! “ We wound along among these silent hills until about ten o’clock, when a rapid descent brought us to the National Bridge, built by the old Spanish government, and enjoying then the sounding title of Puente del Rey. Changed in name, it has not, however, changed in massive strength, or beauty of surrounding scenery. Indeed, the neglect of cultivation, has permitted nature to regain her power ; and the features of the scenery are therefore more like those of some of the romantic ravines of Italy, where the remains of architecture and the luxuriant products of the soil are blent in wild and romantic beauty. “ The Puente Nacional spans the river Antigua, which passes over a rocky bed in a deep dell of high and perpendicular rocks. The adjacent heights of this mountain pass have been strongly fortified during the wars; among their fastnesses and defiles the revolutionary generals lay concealed in Iturbide’s time, and finally descended from them to conclude the fight in favour of independence. “ At Puente, there is a village containing the usual number of comfortable cane huts, before which the neighbouring Indians had spread out for sale their fruits and wares ; while the Mexicans (as it was Sunday) were amusing themselves by gambling at monte for clacos. At the inn a breakfast of eggs and frijoles was prepared for us. The eggs, the beans, the bread, and a bottle of tolerable claret went down famously, with the seasoning of our mountain appetites ; but I cannot say as much for the stew of mutton and fish fresh from the river. What with onions, and lard, and garlic, and chile pep- pers, I never tasted such a mess. “ Our route westward to Plan del Rio was through a mountainous country of short and gradual ascents, in most of its characteristics resembling the one we had passed over during our morning ride. At length, a steep descent over a road as smooth as a bowling- green brought us to the village of Plan. The guard trotted after us leisurely ; the day had become cloudy and the scenery dreary, and the fear of robbers among these solitary wildernesses again came over us. We felt, indeed, more anxiety than since our departure. “ The host at Plan del Rio received us warmly, though his house was as cold and un- inviting as the day. He speedily produced a smoking dinner of fowls and rice, to which I found myself able to do but little justice. But the dinner had been served — we had tasted it — a bottle of claret had been drunk, and though our appetites had been frugal, the nine of us were obliged to pay two dollars each for the service ! The two fowls which made the stew, cost, at the most, a real each; the rice as much, the salad grew for the planting, and the claret stood our host about seventy-five cents the bottle ; so, for what, with service and cooking and original cost, taxed our Padrone not more than three dollars at the extreme, he had the modest assurance to charge our coach-load eighteen ! “ What with sour wine, sour spirits, and imposition, I doubt much if there was ever an angrier coach-load on any highway. We were effectually ill-tempered, and we looked to our primings with the full disposition to defend ourselves nobly. It would have fared ill with any one who had ventured to attack us during our first hour’s ride. In addition to this, our road, as soon as it left the river, ascended rapidly and passed over a track which would in any other country be called the bed of a mountain stream, so rough and jagged was its surface. Although it is the duty of the government to keep this highway E 26 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. in order, yet as the chief travel ling is on horseback, and the principal part of merchandise is transported on mules, no one cares how these animals get along. Sure-footed and slow, they toil patiently among the rents and rocks, and their drivers are too well used to the inconveniences to complain. Besides this, in case of insurrections, it is better for the roads to be in bad condition, as it prevents easy communication between the several parts of Mexico, and the disjointed stones serve to form, as they have often done, breastworks and forts for the insurgents. “ But over this mass of ruin we were obliged to jolt in the ascent of the mountain, during the whole afternoon, meeting in the course of it fifty waggons laden with heavy machinery for factories near Mexico. “ I must not forget to mention one redeeming spot in the gloomy evening. On look- ing back over the province of Vera Cruz, as we were near the summit of the mountain, I caught a glimpse of the plains and hills over which we had been all day toiling. The view was uninterrupted. Before us lay valley upon valley, in one long graceful descending sweep of woodland and meadow, until they dwindled away in the sands to the east, and the whole was blent, near the horizon, with the blue waves of the Gulf of Mexico. Just then the sun broke out from the region of clouds which we were rapidly approaching in our ascent, and gilding, for a moment, the whole lowland prospect, I could almost fancy I saw the sparkle of the wave crests as they broke on the distant and barren shore. “At the village on the mountain we could get no guard. This is said to be a very dangerous pass ; but the commanding officer told us he had been stationed here for two weeks, during which he had scoured the mountains in every direction, and believed his district to be free from robbers. Cigars would not avail us this time ! His men were tired and he could give no escort. “ Night soon fell dark and coldly around us. In these elevated regions the air is cold and nipping; but we dared not put down our coach curtains for fear of an attack. We therefore donned our cloaks and over-coats, and laid our guns and pistols on the window-frames. John, the old gray hero, was on the look-out, with his blunderbuss, from the box, and the driver promised to have an eye to windward. “ Thus we jolted on again, at times almost stalled, and, in sudden smooth descents, swinging along with a rapidity in the dark and moonless night, that seemed to threaten our destruction among the rocks. Six, seven, eight, and half-past eight o’clock passed, and no robbers appeared, though there had been several false alarms. The road became worse and worse, the coach heaving over the stones like a ship in a head sea, and the driver being obliged to descend from his seat and feel for the track. We saw lights passing over the heath in many places, and it was surmised they might be the signal lights of robbers. After due consultation, it was determined that they were! As we approached them they proved to be fire-flics ! We felt for our percussion-caps and found them all right, and, at that moment, the coach was brought to a dead halt in the blackest looking ravine imaginable. “At half-past nine we rolled into the court-yard of an excellent inn at Xalapa, where a good meal served both for dinner and supper. “ Xalapa and Pkuote. — When the Neapolitans speak to you of their beautiful city, they call it, ‘a piece of heaven fallen to earth ; and tell you to ‘see Naples and die!" “ It is only because so few travellers extend their journey to Xalapa and describe its scenery, that it has not received something of the same extravagant eulogium. “The town has about ten thousand inhabitants, and is, in every respect, the reverse of Vera Cruz; high, healthy, and built on almost precipitous streets, winding, with curious crookedness, up the steep hill-sides. This perching and bird-like architecture makes a city picturesque — although its highways may be toilsome to those who are not always in search of the romantic. “ The houses of Xalapa are not so lofty as those of Vera Cruz, and their exteriors are much plainer ; but the inside of the dwellings, I am told, is furnished and decorated in * “ Un pezzo de cielo caduto in terra.” MEXICO PROPER. 27 the most tasteful manner. The hotel in which we lodged was an evidence of this; its walls and ceilings were papered and painted in a style of splendour rarely seen out of Paris. “ The vapour rising from the sea, driven inland by the northern winds, here first strikes the mountains ; and, lodging in rain and mist and dew among the cliffs, preserves that perennial green which covers this teeming region with constant freshness and luxu- riance. Xalapa is consequently a ‘ damp town,’ yet it enjoys a great reputation for its salubrity. It is now the best season of the year ; but scarcely a day passes without rain, while the thermometer ranges from 52 deg. to 76 deg., according to the state of the clouds and winds. As soon as the mountains have discharged their vapours, the sun blazes forth with a fierceness and intensity, increased by the reflection from every hill, into the town; as to a focus. “ Yet I saw enough to justify all the praises even of extravagant admirers. Its society is said to be excellent, and its women are the theme of the poets throughout the republic. ‘‘After despatching our breakfast, for which we paid (together with our night’s lodging and dinner) the sum of four dollars, we mounted the diligence at ten o’clock, prepared as usual for the robbers, and set out for Perote. “ In driving from the town we passed through the public square ; and in the market which is held there I first saw in perfection the profuse quantity of tropical fruits (and especially the chirimoya, and granadita,) for which Xalapa is renowned. The market is supplied by the numerous small cultivators from the neighbourhood, the females of whom bear a resemblance to our Northern Indians, which is perhaps even stranger and more remarkable than that of the men. “ Maize, the great staff of life for biped and quadruped in our western world, is chiefly used in the tortillia cakes, of which we hear so much from Mexican travellers. “ The sellers of these tough, buckskin victuals, sit in lines along the curb of the side- walks with their fresh cakes in baskets covered with clean napkins to preserve their warmth. There they wait patiently for purchasers ; and as tortillias, with a little chile , or red pepper boiled in lard, are indispensable at least twice a day for the mass of the people, they are quite sure of a ready sale. “ With the great mass of Mexicans there is no such thing as domestic cookery. The labourer sallies forth with his clacos in his pocket, and two or three of them will pur- chase his cakes from an Indian woman. A few steps further on, another Indian woman has a pan boiling over a portable furnace, and containing the required beans or chile. The hungry man squats down beside the seller — makes a breakfast or dinner-table of his knees — holds out his tortillia spread flat on his hand, for a ladle of chile and a lump of meat — then doubles up the edges of the cake sandwich fashion, and so on until his appe- tite is satisfied. He who is better off in the world, or indulges occasionally in a little extravagance, owns a clay platter. Into this he causes his frijoles, or chile and meat, to be thrown, and making a spoon of his tortillia, gradually gets possession of his food, and terminates his repast by eating the spoon itself! There is great economy in this mode of housekeeping which recommends itself, especially, to the tastes of old bachelors. There are no dishes to be washed — no silver to be cleaned, or cared for. Your Indian flings down his clacos — stretches himself to his full height — gives a vale- dictory grunt of satisfaction over a filled stomach — and is off to his labour. “ Thus wonderful is the frugality not only of the humbler classes, but, indeed, of almost all who have come under my observation in Spanish America. Whether this frugality is a virtue, or the result of indolence, it is not necessary for me to stop to inquire. The reader may draw his own conclusions. But all classes are content with less physical comfort than the inhabitants of other countries. Their diet is poor, their lodging miserable, their clothing coarse, inelegant and inadequate for the climate ; and yet, when the energies and intelligence of the very people who seem so supine are called into action, few men manifest those qualities in a higher degree. Let me, as an illustration, notice the arrieros, or common carriers of the country, by whom almost all the transportation of the most valuable merchandise and precious metals is conducted. They form a very large proportion of the population, yet, by no similar class elsewhere are they exceeded in devoted honesty, punctuality, patient endurance, and skilful execution of duty. Nor 28 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. is this the less remarkable when we recollect the country through which they travel — its disturbed state — and the opportunities consequently afforded for transgression. I have never been more struck with the folly of judging of men by mere dress and physiog- nomy, than in looking at the arrieros. A man with wild and fierce eyes, tangled hair, slashed trousers, and well-greased jerkin that has breasted many a storm — a person, in fact, to whom you would scarcely trust an old coat when sending it to your tailor for repairs — is frequently in Mexico the guardian of the fortunes of the wealthiest men for months, on toilsome journeys among the mountains and defiles of the inner land. He has a multitude of dangers and difficulties to contend with. He overcomes them all — is never robbed and never robs — and, at the appointed day, comes to your door with a respectful salutation, and tells you that your wares or moneys have passed the city gates. Yet this person is often poor, bondless, and unsecured — with nothing but his fair name and unbroken ivortl. “ I x’egret that I have been able to give only the faintest pencilling outline of Xalapa, which, with all its beauty, has doubtless hithesto been associated most nauseously in your mind with the drug growing in the neighbourhood to which it has given its name.* “ A beautiful scene, embracing nearly the whole of this little Eden, broke on me as we gained the summit of the last hill above the town. A dell, deep, precipitous, and green as if mossed from the margin of a woodland spring lay below me, hung on every side with orange trees in bloom and bearing, nodding palms and roses and acacias, scent- ing the air with their fragrance, and peering out among the white walls of dwellings, con- vents, and steeples. In the next quarter of an hour, the mists that had been gathering around the mountains, whirled down on the peaks along which we were travelling, and as the wind occasionally drifted the vapour away, we could see around us nothing but wild plains and mountain spurs covered with volcanic debris, flung into a thousand fan- tastic forms, among which grew a hardy race of melancholy-looking pines, interspersed with fallen trunks, aloes, and agaves. Thus the road gradually ascended among desola- tion, until we reached a height where the clouds were lodged on the mountain tops, and a cold drizzling rain filled the air. In this disagreeable manner, travelling among the clouds, we reached the village of St. Michel, and afterward La Hoya, over a road paved with basalt. From the latter place the scenery is described as magnificent when the day is clear, and the sun is out in its brilliancy. The vapour is said to be then spread out below you like a sea, and the mountain tops and little eminences peer above it like so many islands. “ We passed through the village of ‘ Las Vigas,’ described by Humboldt, as the highest point on the road to Mexico. The houses in this neighbourhood are of different construction from those below the mountains, and are built of pine logs, each tree furnishing but one piece of timber of four inches thickness, and the whole width of its diameter ; these are hewn with the axe, and closely fitted. The floors of the dwellings are laid with the same material, and the roofs are shingled. As the houses indicate a colder climate than the one through which we have recently travelled, so does also the appearance of the people, who are hardier and more robust than the inhabitants of the plains skirting the sea. “ After winding along the edge of the mountain for some hours, we obtained an occasional view of the plain of Perote, level as the ocean, and bounded by the distant mountains. The Peak of Orizaba again appeared in the south-east, while the Coffre of Perote towered immediately on our left, and, seemingly in the midst of the plain, rose the Peak of Tepiacualca. Beyond it, on the remotest horizon, was sketched the outline of the snow-capped mountains. All these plains have doubtless been the basins of former lakes; but they now appear dry and arid, and it is not easy to distinguish how far they are cultivated at the suitable season. During the summer, they present a very * To give you an idea of the profusion of fruit in Jalapa, I will state a fact. I gave a French servant a real (twelve and a half cents) to purchase me a few oranges, and in a short time he returned with a handkerchief bursting under the load — he had received forty for the money. I told the story to a Jalapcnian with surprise : “ They cheated him,” said he ; “ they should have given him nearly double the number.” MEXICO PROPER. 29 different prospect, and, losing the guise of a waste moor, only fit for the sportsman, put on a lively livery of cultivation and improvement, far more agreeable than the dark and thorney maguey and the wilted foliage of dwarfish trees, with which they are now mostly covered. We occasionally see the stubble of last year, but the chief agriculture is evidently carried on upon the slopes and rising ground, where the irrigation is more easy from the adjacent mountains, and is not so rapidly absorbed as in the marshy flats. “We had not travelled this road without our usual dread of thieves. Our guns were constantly prepared for attack, and we kept a wary watch, although during nearly the whole day we were accompanied by a party of lancers, who clattered along after us on nimble horses. Some leagues from Perote we approached the ‘ Barranca Secca,’ a noted haunt of the ladrones ; and, as we came within gunshot of the place, a band of horsemen dashed out from the ruins of an old hacienda on our right and gal- loped directly to the carriage. The mist had again come down in heavy wreaths around us, obscuring the prospect at a dozen yards’ distance; and the guard of troopers had fallen considerably in the rear. What with the fog and the dread of our foes, we were somewhat startled — cocked our weapons — ordered the coach to stop — and were half out of it, when the lancers reined up at full tilt, and after a parley with the new comers, assured us that they were only an additional troop kept here for security. I questioned, and still doubt the truth of this story, as I never saw a more uncouth, or better mounted, armed, and equipped set of men. Their pistols, sabres, and carbines were in the best order, and their horses staunch and fleet; but they may have composed a band of old well-known robbers, pensioned off by the government as a guard ; and willing to take regular pay from the authorities, and gratuities from travellers, as less dangerous than uncertain booty with constant risk of life. “Accompanied by these six suspicious rascals and the four lancers, we quickly passed the wild mist-covered moor, and entered the Barranca, a deep fissure worn by time and water into the plain, and overhung, on all sides, by lofty trees, while the adjacent parts of the flat country are cut up into similar ravines, embowered with foliage. With all the aids of art, the thieves could not have constructed a more suitable covert ; and, to add to our dismay, soon after entering the Barranca, our coach broke down ! “ We tramped about in the mud while the accident was repairing, and the guard and its auxiliaries scoured the pass. The quarter of a mile through which the ravine ex- tended was literally lined with crosses, marking the spot of some murder or violent death. These four or five hundred mementos mori, seemed to convert it into a grave-yard ; while the broken coach, the dreary day, shrouding mist, approaching night, and savage figures in the scene, made a picture more fit for a Trappist than a quiet traveller fonder of his ease than adventure. “We were, however, soon again in our vehicle, and for an hour afterward the country gradually ascended, until, at sunset, the sky cleared off, and we entered Perote by a brilliant starlight. “ Perote is a small town, containing not more than 2500 people. It is irregularly built ; the houses are only of one low and dark story, erected around large court-yards with the strength of castles. In the middle of the town there is a large square, abundantly supplied by fountains of pure water from the neighbouring hills. “The Meson is at the further end of the town, and encloses a spacious court-yard, around which on the ground-floor (which is the only floor) are a number of brick-paved, windowless stalls, furnished with a bed, a couple of chairs, and a table. No landlord made his appearance to welcome us. We waited a considerable time in the court-yard for his attendance ; but as we received no invitation, S and myself got possession of a consumptive-looking candle, and sallied out to hunt for lodgings. We took pos- session of one of the dens I have described, and sent in our luggage ; and carefully locking the door afterward (as Perote is the head-quarters of villany, and the court-yard was full of unshaved, ill-looking devils wrapped up in blankets). “ On one side of the gateway is the fonda, or eating part of the establishment, where two or three women were employed cooking sundry strange-looking messes. We signi- fied our hunger, and were soon called to table. Several officers of the garrison, as well as the stage-load coming from Mexico, were then before us. The cooking had been done with charcoal, over furnaces, and the colour of the cooks, their clothes, the food, 30 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. and the hearth, was identical ; a warning, as in France, never to enter the kitchen before meals. The meats had been good, but were perfectly bedevilled by the culinary imps. Garlic, onions, grease, chile, and other nasty compounds, had flavoured the food like nothing else in the world but Perote cookery. We tasted, however, of every dish, and that taste answered to allay appetite if not to assuage hunger; especially as the table- cloth had served many a wayfarer since its last washing (if it had ever been washed), and had, besides, doubtless been used for duster (if they ever dust). The waiter, too, was a boy, in sooty rags, who hardly knew the meaning of a plate, and had never heard of other forks but his fingers. “ Disgusted, as you may well suppose we were with this supper, I did not remain long at table. We were a set of baulked hungry men, and withal, tired and peevish. I put my face for a moment outside of the gate, to take a walk, as the night was beautiful; but S pulled me back again, with a hint at the notorious reputation of Perote. It was not eight o’clock, but the town w r as already still as death. Its population had slunk home to their cheerless dwellings, and the streets were as deserted as those of Pompeii, save where a ragged rascal now and then skulked along in the shadow of the houses, buried up in his broad-brimmed sombrero and dirty blanket. “ We, therefore, at once retired to our cells; I threw myself on the bed wrapped in my cloak, in dread of a vigorous attack from the fleas, and slept without moving until the driver called us at midnight to start for Puebla. “ In half-an-hour, we were once more in the coach galloping out of the town, fol- lowed by three dragoons furnished by the officer we had met at supper, who seemed to entertain as poor an opinion as we did of this citadel of vagabondism. “ Although the sky had been clear and the stars were shining brightly when we re- tired to bed, a mist was now hanging in low clouds over the plain. The road was, how- ever, smooth and level ; and we scampered along nimbly, fear adding stings to our coach- man’s lash, inasmuch as he was the driver of a diligence that had been robbed last spring, and had received a ball between his shoulders, from the effects of which he had just suffi- ciently recovered to drive on his first trip since the conflict. We galloped during the whole night, stopping only for a moment to change horses; nor did we meet a living thing except a pack of jackals, that came bounding beside the coach along the level and almost trackless plain. I never saw half so frightened a man as our coachman, especially when we passed the spot where he had been wounded. Every shrub was a robber — and a maguey of decent size was a whole troop ! “ The early morning, from the rain which had fallen during the night on this portion of the plain, was as cold and raw as November at home; nor was it until an hour after sunrise that the mists peeled oft' from the lowlands, and, folding themselves around the distant hills, revealed a prospect as bare and dreary as the Campagna of Rome. “City of Puebla. — From Perote to Puebla, the road led among deep gulleys, and was exceedingly dusty on the plains. The towns were usually built of the common adobes , or sun-dried bricks of the country, and neither in their architectural appearance, nor in the character of their inhabitants, offered any attractions for the attention of a tra- veller. It was, indeed, a tedious and uninteresting drive over the solitary moors, and I have seldom been more gratified at the termination of a day’s fatigue than I was when we entered the gateway of our spacious and comfortable inn at Puebla. In addition to the usual discomforts of the road, we had suffered greatly from the heat during the two or three last hours of our ride, and were annoyed by a fine dust, which, heated by a blazing sun, rolled into our coach from every side, and fell like a parching powder on our skins. A bath was, therefore, indispensable before the dinner, which we found excellent after our fare of the previous night at Perote. In the afternoon I paid a visit to the governor, who promised an escort of dragoons for the rest of the journey to the capital ; and I then sallied forth, to see as much as possible of this really beautiful city. “ My recollections of Puebla (comparing it now with Mexico) are far more agreeable than those of the capital. There is an air of neatness and tidiness observable everywhere. The streets are broad, well-paved with fiat stones, and have a washed and cleanly look. The crowd of people is far less than in the capital, and they are not so ragged and misera- ble. House rents arc one-half or one-third those of Mexico, and the dwellings are usually inhabited by one family; but, churches and convents seem rather more plentiful MEXICO PROPER. 31 in proportion to the inhabitants. The friars are less numerous, and the secular clergy greater. “A small stream skirts the eastern side of Puebla, affording a large water-power for manufacturing purposes. On its banks a public walk has been planted with rows of trees, among which the paths meander, while a neat fountain throws up its waters in the midst of them. The views from this retreat, in the evening, are charmingly picturesque over the eastern plain. “ On the western side of Puebla lie the extensive piles of buildings belonging to the Convent of St. Francis, situated opposite the entrance of the Alameda — a quiet and retired garden walk to which the cavaliers and donzellas repair before sunset, for a drive in view of the volcanos of Istazihuatl and Popocatepetl, which bound the westward prospect with their tops of eternal snow. Near the centre of the city is the great square. It is sur- rounded on two sides by edifices erected on arches through which the population circu- lates as at Bologna. On the northern side is the palace of the governor, now filled with troops; and directly in front of this is the cathedral, equal, perhaps, in size to that of Mexico, but, being elevated upon a platform about ten feet above the level of the square, it is better relieved and stands out from the surrounding buildings with more boldness and grandeur. “ To the right of the altar is the gem of the building. It is a figure of the Virgin Mary, nearly the size of life. Dressed in the richest embroidered satin, she displays strings of the largest pearls hanging from her neck below her knees. Around her brow is clasped a crown of gold, inlaid with emeralds of a size I had never seen before; and her waist is bound with a zone of diamonds, from the centre of which blaze numbers of enor- mous brilliants ! “ But this is not all. The candelabras surrounding the platform before the altar, are of silver and gold, and so ponderous that a strong man could neither move nor lift them. Immediately above the altar, and within the columns of the large temple erected there, is a smaller one, the interior of which is displayed or concealed by secret machinery. From this the Host, amid a blaze of priceless and innumerable jewels, is exhibited to the kneel- ing multitude. “ As 1 went out of the door in the dim twilight, and found a miserable and ragged woman kneeling before the image of a saint, and heard the hollow sounding of her breast as she beat it with penitential fervour, I could not help asking myself, if the church that subsisted upon alms, in order to be the greatest almoner of the nation, had fulfilled its sacred charge while there was one diamond in the zone of the Virgin, or one homeless and foodless wretch in the whole republic. “ Puebla to Mexico. — Soon after our departure from Puebla,* we crossed a small stream spanned by a fine bridge, and commenced ascending by a very gradually inclined plain toward the Sierra Nevada. The mountains on our left are a stupendous range, standing out sharply against the bright blue sky, in the clear early light and pure atmos- phere, their lower portions covered with dark pine forests, from which the conic peak of Popocatepetl, with its eternal snow, emerges majestically; while, further north, towers its gigantic rival, Iztaccihuatl. Between us and the mountains is the Pyramid of Cholula. As we approach this elevated region, the country becomes well watered, and the plain is * It is not over two or three hundred yards from the gates of Puebla, where most of the rob- beries of which I afterwards heard during my residence in Mexico, occurred. A band of some five, ten, or a dozen men, armed, with their faces covered with crape, usually stood waiting in the early dawn, for the diligence. If there were armed foreigners in the coach, they would look in, consult a moment, and then ride oft'. If the passengers were unarmed, and the boot of the vehicle looked heavy and tempting, the result was the perfect sacking of the whole company'. Their persons were first robbed and partially stripped as they descended from the door ; they were then made to lie down with their mouths on the ground — and their trunks were rifled. One lady, the present prima donna of the Opera in Mexico, lost 600 dollars in doubloons and jewels, at this very spot — notwithstanding a guard had been promised by the authorities, and paid for. The instances, how- ever, were innumerable and unpardonable, while regiments of cavalry dozed, within a quarter of a mile, in a city almost under martial law. While I resided in the capital, during Santa Anna’s vigorous administration, he had some sixty five or seventy garrotted. Two or three every week. This for a time struck terror into the band, but I learn that lately they have again taken to the road with renewed vigour, j 32 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. just sufficiently inclined for irrigation; the soil rich, the estates extensive, and cultivated with the greatest care. Immense herds of cattle are spread over the fields, and the land, now preparing for the winter crops, is divided into extensive tracts of a thousand acres, along which the furrows are drawn with mathematical accuracy. Among these noble farms a multitude of habitations are scattered, which, enclosing the numerous population necessary for labour, with the requisite chapels, churches, and surrounding offices, gleam out brightly with their white walls from among the dark foliage of the groves, and impress one as favourably as the multitude of tasteful villages that dot the windings of our beautiful Connecticut. “We breakfasted hastily at San Martin, and for the next league our ascent was almost imperceptible. At length, we crossed several fine streams, and the road, rising rapidly, struck more into the mountain. There was no longer any sign of cultivation, even in the dells, but the dense forest spread out on every side its sea of foliage. The road was as smooth as a bowling-green, and we swung along over the levels, up hill and down, until we passed the Puente de Tesmeluca, over a stream dashing from a mountain ravine like a shower of silver from among the verdure. After again ascending another mountain, and following its descent on the other side, we reached the village of Rio Frio, a collection of the miserable huts of coal-burners, and the nest and nursery of as fierce a brood of robbers as haunt the forests. In proof of this, and, moreover, that the cross, in this land, is no sign of redemption, the sacred emblem was again spread out on every side, as yesterday in the Barranca Secca, marking the grave of some murdered traveller. We were once more in the fields of romance and robbery ; yet, well guarded to-day by a vigilant troop, and in good spirits at the near termination of our trials, we again launched forth for our final ride. Leaving this narrow and desolate ravine among the hills, the road once more ascends by a series of short windings through the pine woods, among which the wind whistled cold and shrill as over our winter plains ; and, thus gra- dually scaling the last mountain on our route, while the increased guard scoured the re- cesses of the forest, we reached the lofty summit in about an hour, and rolled for some distance along a level table-land, catching glimpses, occasionally, of a distant horizon to the west, apparently as illimitable as the sea. The edge of the mountain was soon turned, and as the coach dipped forward on the descent of the western slope, a sudden clearing in the forest disclosed the magnificent Valley of Mexico. “ I am really afraid to describe this valley to you, as I dislike to deal in hyperboles. I have seen the Simplon — the Spleugen — the view from Rhigi — the ‘ wide and winding Rhine’ — and the prospect from Vesuvius over the lovely bay of Naples, its indolent waves sleeping in the warm sunshine on their purple bed — but none of these scenes compare with the Valley of Mexico. They want some one of the elements of grandeur, all of which are gathered here. Although the highest triumphs of human genius and art may disappoint you, Nature never does. The conceptions of Him who laid the foundations of the mountains, and poured the waters of the seas from His open palm, can never be reached by the fancies of men. And if, after all, the exaggerated descriptions of St. Peter’s and the Pyramids, we feel sick with disappointment when we stand before them, it is never so with the sublime creations of the Almighty. “ Conceive yourself placed on a mountain, nearly 2000 feet above the valley, and 9000 above the level of the sea. A sky above you of the most perfect azure, without a cloud, and an atmosphere so transparently pure, that the remotest objects at the distance of many leagues are as distinctly visible as if at hand. The gigantic scale of every thing first strikes you — you seem to be looking down upon a world. No other mountain and valley view has such an assemblage of features, because nowhere else are the mountains at the same time so high, the valley so wide, or filled with such variety of land and water. The plain beneath is exceedingly level, and for 200 miles around it extends a barrier of stupendous mountains, most of which have been active volcanos, and are now covered, some with snow, and some with forests. It is laced with large bodies of water, looking more like seas than lakes; it is dotted with innumerable villages, and estates, and plantations; eminences rise from it, which, elsewhere, would be called mountains, yet there, at your feet, they seem but ant-hills on the plain ; and now, letting your eye follow the rise of the mountains to the west (near fifty miles distant), you look over the immediate summits that wall the valley, to another and more distant range — and to INTERIOR OF MEXICO PROPER. 33 range beyond range, with valleys between each, until the whole melts into a vapoury distance, blue as the cloudless sky above you. “ Yet, one thing was wanting. Over the immense expanse there seemed scarce an evidence of life. There were no figures in the picture. It lay torpid in the sunlight, like some deserted region where Nature was again beginning to assert her empire — vast, solitary, and melancholy. There were no sails — no steamers on the lakes, no smoke over the villages, no people at labour in the fields, no horsemen, coaches, or travellers but ourselves. The silence was almost supernatural ; one expects to hear the echo of the national strife that filled these plains with discord, yet lingering among the hills. It was a picture of 4 still life,’ inanimate in every feature, save where, on the distant mountain sides, the fire of some poor coal-burner, mingled its blue wreath with the bluer sky, or the tinkle of the bell of a solitary muleteer was heard from among the dark and solemn pines. “ What a theatre for the great drama that has been performed within the limits of this valley ! When Cortez first stood upon these mountains, and looked down on the lovely scene, peaceful then and rich under the cultivation of its Indian children; and hills and plains covered with forests, and much of what is now dry land hidden by the extensive lake, in the midst of which rose the proud city of the Aztec kings, filled with palaces and temples; in site, another Venice on its inland sea; in art, the Indian Attica: when he beheld, I say, this tranquil scene at his feet, what must have been the avarice and the relentlessness of an unknightly heart that urged him onward to the destruction and enslavement of a civilised and unoffending people, whose only crime was, the pos- session of a country rich enough to be plundered to minister to the luxury of a bigoted race beyond the sea ! “ Our descent commenced from the eminence where we had halted awhile to survey the valley. Our coachman was an honest Yankee, fearless as the wild horses he drove, and they scoured along under his lash as if we had the level roads of New England beneath us. But, alas! we had not. I question whether there are any such roads elsewhere, in the world ; nor can you conceive them, because your experience among the wilds of the Aroostook or the marshes of the Mississippi, can furnish no symptoms of such highways. They were galleys, washed into the mountain side by the rains; filled, here and there, with stones and branches ; dammed up, to turn the water, by- mounds a couple of feet high; and thus, gradually serpentining to the foot of the declivity. You may readily imagine that there was no such thing as rollmg down with our rapid motion over such a ravine. We literally jumped from dam to dam, and rock to rock, and in many places where the steep is certainly at an angle of 45 deg., I must confess that I quailed at the impending danger, while the horses bounded along as fiercely as if they bore Mazeppa. But the driver knew what he was about, and in an hour drew up at the Venta de Cordova, where, when I alighted, I found myself deaf and giddy from the heat, dust, and irregular motion. In a few moments, however, the blood poured from my head, and I was relieved, though I felt ill and uncomfortable the rest of the day. Two of the other passengers suffered in the same manner.* “The succeeding distance of about thirty miles lies along the level, and skirts a detached range of volcanic hills between the lakes of Tezcuco and Chaleo, the same which I described, some time ago, as rising like ant-heaps from the plain. We passed the village of Ayotla, and through a number of collections of mud-walled huts and desolate hovels, buried up among palm-trees and fields of barley and maguey (re- sembling the streets of ruined tombs near Rome) ; but nowhere did I see any evidence of neat or careful cultivation, or of comfort and thriftiness. In this the valley of Mexico is, markedly, different from that of Puebla. Misery and neglect reigned absolute, Squalid Indians in rags, exhibiting almost entirely their dirty bodies, thronged the road; miserable devils coming from market; children, half-starved and naked, and women whose wiry and uncombed hair gave them the mien of porcupines. * Almost all travellers suffer from giddiness and flow of blood to the head on their arrival on the Valley of Mexico. This arises from the great rarefaction of the atmosphere, 7500 feet above the level of the sea. F 34 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. “At length, as we gained the top of a little eminence, our driver pointed out the ‘ City of Mexico:’ — a long line of turrets, and domes, and spires, lying in the lap of beautiful meadows, and screened, partially, by intervening trees, planted along the numerous avenues leading to the capital. About two leagues from the city we came to the ancient border of the Lake of Tezcoco, now a marshy flat from which the waters have receded. Here we mounted the calzada, or causeway, raised above six feet above the surrounding waters. “ This road is not one of the ancient avenues by which the city was approached, across the lake, during the reign of the Indians, but was constructed at great expense by the old Spanish government. Although the land to the north of it is covered with saline panicles that are perfectly visible as you ride along, yet the southern flats, being watered by the fresher stream from Chaleo, which flows through several apertures of the dike, are in no manner discoloured. The northern marsh was covered with myriads of ducks, and looked as if it had been literally peppered with wild fowl. The birds are murdered in immense quantities with a sort of infernal machine, formed by the union of a great number of gun-barrels, and they furnish the chief food of the poor of Mexico. “ Thus, about four o’clock, we passed this unprepossessing approach to the capital, driving by the body of a man who had just been murdered, lying on the road-side, with the blood flowing from his recent wound. Hundreds passed, but no one noticed him. At the gates we were detained only a moment for examination, and we entered the city by the Puerto de San Lazaro. A saint who suffered from impure blood, and presides over sores, may well be the patron of that portal and portion of the suburbs through which we jolted over disjointed pavements, while the water lay green and putrid in the stagnant gutter, festering in the middle of close streets, swarmed with ragged thousands. As I looked at them from our window, they seemed more like a population of witches, freshly dismounted from their broomsticks, than any thing else to which, in fancy, I can readily compare them. “ But the journey ended as we drove to the hotel Vergara, where a dirty court-yard, filled with sheep, chickens, horses, bath-houses, and a blacksmith’s shop, received our jaded crew. I found that a kind friend had already prepared rooms for me, where, after a bath and dinner, I was made as comfortable as possible, by the attentions of a hospitable landlady.” Mr. Gilliam, who travelled from Vera Cruz in a clumsy-wheeled carriage called a diligencia , hut who says he neither understood Spanish nor French, confirms the truth of Mr. Mayer’s “ Descriptive Sketches,” and he dwells on the attacks of robbers, the extravagant charges, and bad accommodation on the road — ten dollars being the charge for conveying a trunk from Vera Cruz to the City of Mexico. The journey by the diligencia, dragged by eight horses, was agreed to be performed in eighteen days ; fifty dollars for each person was the fee charged ; they were escorted by a troop which Mr. Gilliam considered as suspicious as the Ladrones. He admits that parts of the old road were in good condition, and “looked to him like a well-improved street,” and expresses his impatience to escape from the Tierra ca/ienle and the malaria vomito. He complains of the “half-done frijoles” (black beans) and “ half-done fowls,” as food which no human being could eat ; and says, an old Belgian doctor was so dis- gusted with half-cooked chickens, “that, in self-defence, he lived on little mon- keys.” lie speaks of the temperate region, tierra templada, in contrast “with the gay sultry region of many-blossoming flowers, that border the sea,” as abounding in a more stately growth of forest, “for with the varieties of the musquite and the liquid amber, I now beheld the tall cypress ; and as the dili- gencia would now and then wind down some craggy steep into a deep glen, INTERIOR OF MEXICO PROPER. 35 where my ears would be stunned by the wild screams of the parrots, and all the other beautifully-plumed feathered tribes, it was only necessary to ascend the opposite height to be transported again to the tierra templada , the re to perceive the forest a perfect medley, from its being indiscriminately mixed, and the whole wood so thickly matted and entwined, being apparently impervious to the foot- steps of animals, with a scrubby bushy growth of deepest green colour, which universally makes the eye delight to dwell upon it.” He describes the region he travelled over as volcanic, and all visible rocks as lava. At Xalapa, said to be the most beautiful and agreeable town in Mexico — the place to which the Vera Cruzians retreat from the vornito — “ perpetual spring,” he says, “has her reign there, and vegetation, therefore, is ever verdant and blooming.” Mr. Gilliam in describing this town, says, “that which I chiefly delighted in while at Xalapa was, the pleasing sight of the ladies, whose beauty seemed to partake of the eternal blossoming of their native region ; for smiling loveliness appeared to have positively delighted to dwell on their symmetrically angelic countenances , and while they could often be seen peering from behind the grated windows , adorned with flowers, yet no blossom ivas half so lovely as the sweet rose that bloomed under the delicate brunette hue of their cheeks.” On ascending to the Plain of Perote, which at the conquest was covered with a forest, Mr. Gilliam says, “to my view it presented not a single tree or sponta- neous shrub ; all appeared a cold, dry, barren waste, in the midst of which, at an elevation of between seven and eight thousand feet above the sea, sat the dark and dreary-looking Castle of Perote — a state prison.” He passed, in his route, numerous “ ranchos , the miserable open huts inhabited by Indians, the indolent, and the poor.” Nowand then a hacienda, or “ a farm of vast extent, covered with green verdure, having multitudes of flocks feeding upon it, and attended by herdsmen and shepherds, ivldch would forcibly recall to the mind of any individual the days of the Latins so poetically described by Virgil in his Georgies!!” “Generally of near proximity to the hacienda would be a pueblo (village), built of sun-burnt bricks, and having also its costly church of lofty towers.” “In one or more of the deep valleys of Perote, I saw that the improved American ploughs were used for tillage, and a wealthy Mexican, a noble benefactor of his people, had at one time made a large importation of these ploughs. But one of the glorious revolutions of Mexico was coeval with the beneficence of the good citizen, and his ploughs shared a scattered and ruinous fate. 5 ’ “The plough universally used in Mexico is the instrument handed by the Romans to their posterity.” “ Pueblo de los Angelos,” he ob- serves, “ is said to contain above 100,000 inhabitants.” “In passing the ranges of the Popocapetl and Iztaccihuatl, I was pleased to see that the mountains were covered with a grove of timber of good size, for I there saw f 2 36 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. oaks and pines of the same dimensions that I had beheld in Old Virginia.” He everywhere passed “ crosses of melancholy bearing, being memorials erected over the bones of murdered human beings, and thus consecrated.” The meson, or Mexican road tavern, afforded a “cup of chocolate which had been boiled, and frothed by the hands of a beautiful Mexican girl.” He met crowds of arrieros , with their cargoes on packed mules, loaded with the second indemnity from the Mexican to the United States government. But Mr. Gilliam does not experience the “realisation of the sublimity of the scene as the climax of the mountain had been attained,” from whence “the far-famed Valley of Mexico was then opened out before our view, like a map ; and, indeed, it was a lovely and magnificent sight to behold.” He says of the plain or valley of Mexico — “ I could only admire the extensive fields spread out before me, for the Valley of Mexico is justly renowned for its fertility , all the lands are said to be capable of cultiva- tion by irrigation, from the abundance of water afforded from streams and lakes. Thus, whilst I might, upon the light hand, be pained to see the sterileness of a tract of country made so perhaps by the neglect of its opulent owner, and appropriated as a common for grazing, on the left I would be greeted with the pleasing prospect of miles of extent, and as far as the eye could reach, of lands cultivated alone in maize, or Indian corn ; and while now I would arrive at verdant nooks, with acres of land cultivated in chile or Indian pepper, of which the inhabitants make considerable use, — and I was informed that a single indivdual, from one crop of chil6 alone realised the immense sum of fifty thousand dollars — and then I would come upon the green and flowery fields, cultivated to feed the cochineal insect. But what the more attracted my attention was the deep green, wide-spreading aloe, called by the Mexicans maguey. This plant has, in its perfection, a stem shooting up to ten or fifteen feet in height, with an appearance of clustered flowers at its top ; when ripe, the stem or stalk, of a liquid pithy substance, is consumed in a raw state by the natives. But such being the variety of the uses to which this spon- taneous plant is appropriated by the Mexicans, I shall speak of its multifarious proper- ties and consumption when my longer travels and residence in the country will better enable me to describe them. “The view of the Valley of Mexico is certainly beautiful and grand, and but for the painful absence of timber, and the vast sterility of much of its territory, might perhaps be the most magnificent sight anywhere to behold upon the face of the globe. There is no country in the world, from the best information I could obtain, where individual citizens hold as large bodies of land as in Mexico, and it is estimated that from seven millions of inhabitants in all probability less than five hundred thousand are the owners of all the terra firma of that rich country.” Mr. Gilliam departed from the city of Mexico on the 8th of January, 1844, on his route northward for St. Francisco, as consul there from the United States, by the diligence for Lagos ; lie dined the first day at Tula, on Mexican cookery, scorched his throat with chile, slept in the castle of a hacienda, and traversed the Plain of Guerctaro — a hot country with orange and other fruit-trees in bearing. Guerctaro situated in a ravine, with 10,000 inhabitants, is “ a cotton- manufacturing city, and one of the most improved towns in the republic. One cotton factory is owned by an enterprising American gentleman. Gucre- taro is famed also for its revolutionary efforts.” Mr. Gilliam, from the reports of robberies and I.adroncs, travelled with, “ in each of his breeches’ pockets, a six-barrelled pistol, and on his side a good bowie knife.” The INTERIOR OF NORTHERN MEXICO. 37 towns and haciendas he found garrisoned by Santa Anna. In the streets of Gueretaro, at night, soldiers and priests abounded ; the Plaza, with its fountains were lighted up by blazing torches ; and groups of people were selling fruits. He passed through Salamanca, another cotton-manufacturing town, where the machinery was moved by animal power, and cotton cloth which cost 37« cents to produce, could be made in the United States for 12^ cents. He notices everywhere the supreme authority of the priests, and the universal superstitious observances. He complains of the scrutiny at the internal customs’ barriers. He passed through the town of Gunajuato, celebrated for its productive silver mines, with much gold in the silver, but not now so extensively worked as formerly. From Gunajuato the road was good. He passed several good-looking towns, especially Silao, with 4000 inhabitants ; Leon, with several handsome churches ; Lago, situated on the largest river he had seen in Mexico, about 400 miles from the capital. Here he met a party of Americans on their way to San Bias, to establish a cotton manufactory, — they were accompa- nied by their ladies. Each man was mounted on a good spirited horse and saddle, with four pistols in the holsters, a double-barrelled gun, Sec. At Lagos, which is conveniently situated, there were “ two mills for grind- ing wheat — the only ones he saw in any town in Mexico.” Vegetables were abundant. The houses were painted outside and inside with representa- tions of vineyards, gardens, landscapes, &c. From this place he travelled in a carrete/la, a kind of waggon or coach, hired from a priest. Crossed the plain of La Villota. North of Lagos, the old Spanish road, though not repaired, was still good. The hacienda of Pennuelles, north of Villota, where he was refreshed with chocolate, had a commodious house and outhouses. The proprietor was a great wheat grower. Inspected his fields, which were of great extent. At the town of Arqua, containing 4000 inhabitants and formerly prosperous, he met an Italian opera company from Mexico. The town was well-built, and contained numerous squares and churches. He also met waggons belonging to a French merchant residing at Chihuahua, driven by Americans. The waggons had been built in the United States, and made journeys from Chihuahua (1000 miles) to the city of Mexico; also from Santa Fe (2000 miles). The American waggon is admirably adapted for such journeys ; the Mexican waggon, on the contrary, is the most rude, clumsy-wheeled carriage possible, and is drawn by from eight to twelve oxen. Mr. Gilliam considers the Mexicans degenerating in all that regards carriages, implements, harness, Sec. Before reaching Zacatecas, he passed the hacienda of San Jancinto, placed in the centre of Indian corn-fields several miles in length and breadth — with wheat and other crops. Further onward, at the hacienda 38 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. of Del Refugio, lie observed herds of sheep, numbering several thousands : and on advancing north, herds of all kinds were seen. At Zacatecas, religious processions were numerous, and the bells of the churches were perpetually ringing. The streets were crooked and narrow. On leaving that town, Mr. Gilliam considered he would be fortunate, if he escaped being murdered by “ the lawless Mexicans who infest the highways, or by the merciless Cumanches.” He accuses other nations of egotism, and he tells the Mexicans that “in the timely moment, the angry war-spirited eye of the United States is more to be feared than disregarded.” He describes the Alemada of Zacatecas as a lovely, romantic place. Misde- meanours are punished by subjecting the offenders to hard labour on the streets and highways. They are manacled two and two; and he calls them “ the united brethren.” In the Mesons (inns) the boarders do not dine together : each sends or goes for his meals to the fonda at any hour. The poor, when they die, are buried without coffins, and naked. The price of iron, on account of the pro- tective system, is more than one shilling the pound weight. On travelling north from Zacatecas, he engages an United States citizen as interpreter, who cheats him, and would have betrayed and murdered him. The ascent from Zacatecas over the Malanoche is by a road constructed under an English engineer, and the labour was performed by criminals. He says the Mexicans never wash when travelling. He had numerous encounters with the Indians on the Madre Monte, and had various escapes and adventures before arriving at Canales. The following abstracts are descriptive of the country, and especially the silver-mining districts between Zacatecas and the north-western termination of Mr. Gilliam’s journey to near the Gulf of California: — “ The hacienda Paras, signifying a vine, was the only estate in Mexico where the grape was permitted to be cultivated by the King of Spain. It was, previous to the revolution, the property of a Spanish nobleman, but after the independence of Mexico, he sold it to a Spanish house in the city of Mexico, and then it was resold to the house of Staples and Co., of the same city. The Barings of London, afterwards became the purchasers, but were prevented from holding the property by the Deputies of Mexico passing a law preventing foreigners from buying or selling lands in that country ; and it is said that the speculations of the hacienda Paras gave origin to the passage of that act. This estate, 1 was credibly informed, besides the extensive vineyards, producing many thousand gallons of wine and alcoholic liquors, possessed, when the Barings purchased it, upwards of three hundred thousand head of sheep, with a corresponding proportion of other slock. Silveii Mines of Zacatecas. — “As we gradually ascended the plain to the mountains of Zacatecas, we were exposed to a heavy cold wind, that swept over the face of the earth, unimpeded by forest. I was sometimes diverted by the Mexicans in the fields, whose loose serapis would, by the violence of the winds, float from their shoulders like the wings of so many zojnlotcs, buzzards, as if the natives would be flown away with. SILVER MINES OF ZACATECAS. 39 “At about three o’clock in the evening, my American companion pointed out to me the rich mountains of Zacatecas, in a deep gorge of which was built the city of the same name. The American had, during his residence in Mexico, been engaged in mining at that place, and could, therefore, from his perfect acquaintance with it, minutely trace out, for my understanding, a vein of silver ore, the only instance of the kind known in the world, which rose to the surface of the plain, and with precision follow its ascent up the mountain, and describe the visible walls and buildings, where shafts had been sunk upon the vein and its branches. I was much surprised when I perceived that the veins of silver ore were perceptible upon the surface. “The laws of Mexico bountifully provide for the miners, as it is the privilege of any one to search for ores, and to work the veins when found, as his exclusive prerogative. When an individual has made a discovery of rich ore, it is his duty to survey a given number of acres of land, for the use and benefit of the mine, and have the same re- corded in the office of the alcalde. He must then commence to work it in ten days’ time, with a particular number of hands, and, at stated periods, increase his expenditures to an amount limited by law. The discoverer, failing to comply with the requisitions, forfeits all claim and title to the property, and may be ousted by the will of any other occupant who can punctiliously perform the demands of government. The proprietor of the land upon which the discovery has been made, is always pleased at the location of mining-operations upon his territories, for it brings to his doors a ready market for all the surplus of his hacienda campus. Being contented with the profits of his grain and stock sold to the operators of the mine, he has hazarded nothing in the uncertain results of opening and proving it : and besides, wherever a shaft is sunk, there is also a town erected, which likewise affords a speculation in lots, to the original proprietor of the soil. “The principal vein of silver ore at Zacatecas, which first shows itself in the plain, ascends the nearest mountain, and is discovered about midway, where a shaft has been sunk to a great depth, but is not now worked. The vein then descends over the side of the mountain, and, after crossing the next ravine, suddenly ascends to the top of the next cone-shaped peak, and so on, ascending and descending, until it dips under the city, and again rises to the top of a high peak, immediately to the north, overlooking Zacatecas. “The appearances of the range of mountains, upon which are the veins of ore, are like all others in the interior of Mexico. They are almost deserted by vegetable growth of any kind ; for the small amount of soil on these heights, generally, only pro- duces a thorny, scrubby growth, that makes but a thin appearance in places. The silver mountains of Zacatecas, to my view, had something of a peculiar appearance, for they seemed to have been thrown up more abruptly, with a greater number of cones, having nipples crowning their summits. They seemed to have contained more of the native red rock of the country than any other mountain that I had beheld, I was in- formed that in mountains where silver was most prolific the rock chiefly abounded in porphyry, green, and red-stone. “ But to return — as I approached the mountain a large convent was exposed to my view, which was a present to the order of Gray Friars by the owner of one of the mines. It was surrounded by the village of Guadaloupe, which had a romantic aspect, situated just at the foot of the mountain, commanding the pass, where I was directed the road to Zacatecas. Every town, of any consequence in Mexico, has its pueblo of Guadaloupe, erected in honour of the patron saint of the country. A Granary. — “ Between the road and the village I perceived a high wall enclosing a large plot of ground, which I supposed to be a fortification ; but my friend informed me it was a granary belonging to Senor Don Garcias. Such granaries were not common, but had been invented and built by him, to prevent insects from injuring his grain ; his speculations in that article having been extensive ; in one of which he is said to have made above a hundred thousand dollars by one purchase. “The plan he adopted to preserve grain for any given time, was to build houses 40 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. within the enclosure, of a cone-like form, about twenty feet at the base. They are stuccoed, and when filled with grain, the port or door is also plastered over, light, air, and moisture are all excluded, and the grain never becomes damaged. Working a Silver Mine. — “I was conducted by the polite Mr. Kimble over his hacienda beneficio mineral , the largest one in the world, and where more silver was manufactured than at any other hacienda known. This mine is the only one worked to any profitable extent in the whole country that entirely belongs to a Mexican com- pany. To give my readers an understanding of its magnitude, and the consequent ex- penditures of raising the ores, and reducing them to silver, Mr. K. assured me that it required an outlay of 50,000 dollars per week to conduct its operation. The mine is worked by steam-power, the fuel costing fourteen dollars per cord. “The administrador conducted me first to the crushing apartment. In this exten- sive room were many tons of ore, deposited in the condition in which it was brought from the mine. The ore resembled fragments of stone, fresh hammered for a macadam- ised road, each piece large enough to pass through an inch ring. In this form it is thrown under the crushing-mill to be pulverised. This machine is similar to a powder- mill, with the exception that the beams are heavier and closer together. Having gone through the process of crushing, the ore is removed to the grinding mills, and in this ha- cienda there are many. “The grinding mills are circular, and from ten to fifteen feet in diameter. They can be propelled by any kind of power, but in Mexico that of mules is most generally used. The bottoms are of porphyritic rock of the greatest solidity that can be obtained. Over this solid disk are suspended three long heavy stones, also of porphyry. These are held to their places by chains, which connect them to three horizontal beams, extending from the shaft pivot that rests upon the centre of the disk. The stones have their front edges a little elevated, so as to receive the ore, when in motion, while the rear portion performs its duty by grinding it to an impalpable powder. “ When the ore is put into the grinder, water is from time to time added to it, until, in the process of pulverisation, it acquires , a thick and paste-like appearance and con- sistency, which requires much time. The process of grinding completed, the ore is removed to the great square of the hacienda, which I should judge contains about two acres of land, where it is deposited in circular beds of about ten feet in diameter, upon the pavement of the square, in the same manner as a brick-yard. Salt, or salt earth is, in suitable quantities, sprinkled over the pile, as also a little proportion of pulverised pine bark, and if this cannot be secured, dried manure is used as a substitute. The whole is then trodden by horses for some hours, until all the parts have completely acquired an admixture. It is then left for three or four days, when a substance, pre- pared from copper ore, called micastral, is added. The whole mass is then sprinkled with quicksilver in considerable quantities. It is then worked with horses for five or six hours, after which it is left until the next day, when a little water is added, being' worked repeatedly from day to day until the whole has effectually amalgamated. When this is consummated, a suitable portion is deposited in an elevated stone vat, so that the water may escape. A large amount of water is again added to the ore, when the whole is rapidly mixed, by a Hy-wheel in the vat, propelled by mules, just like the pool of a paper-mill. “ In this process the amalgam of the mineral settles to the bottom, and when the whole mass has been thoroughly washed, the water is discharged, and the offal escapes. The deposited amalgam is cleansed by being filtered through a canvass, until it assumes a plastic state, when it is made into forms of triangular bricks, by means of moulds. These are set up into a circular mass, with interstices between each. A copper bell is then placed over the whole, in the presence of all the officers of the hacienda, which is then covered over with charcoal, and this is kept ignited for about twelve hours, by which time the mercury is all sublimated. Being allowed to cool, the silver is taken out in a pure state, ready to cast into bars. “ It requires six pounds of quicksilver to obtain one mark of silver, including the in- corporation and the bath, which is the amalgamation, and in the separation there is a INTERIOR OF NORTHERN MEXICO. 41 loss of the same weight of silver, as of mercury, which is a fraction, besides an additional consumption of mercury, that has never been accounted for. “ During the whole of the above process of extracting the silver, that is to say from the commencement of the washing, until the fire is lighted around the bell containing the amalgam, the administrador has his officers summoned to attend, to prevent the secret- ing of the metal, but after the charcoal is ignited all is safe, for if those left to watch the fire should raise the bell, the inhaling of the sublimed mercury, a certain result of the imprudence, would destroy life. “The appearance of the amalgam, when the copper bell is lifted from it, is porous, like a honey-comb, which is caused by the quicksilver leaving the silver in sublima- tion. Thus, it is perceived, that to make pure silver is no easy task, but requires days of labour from man, beast, and machinery, as well as the watchfulness necessary to be bestowed on it. “ After the silver is cast into solid lumps, about the size and shape of pigs of lead, as seen in the United States, it is carried to the mint, when, agreeable to its weight, being previously assayed, its value in coin is received. “From the office of the administrador it is next carried into the furnace room, where the pigs are melted, for the purpose of casting them into bars, eighteen inches in length, one and a half broad, and a quarter of an inch in thickness. They are then weighed to discover if they correspond with the original weight of the pigs. The bars are then put under the rolling mill, where they are reduced to a flatness consistent with the dimen- sions of the coin to be manufactured. The thin slips of silver are then taken to machinery, where they are cut to the different sizes of money, and from thence to the edging mill, which prepares it to receive the impression of the Mexican eagle, prickly pear, bee-hive, sun, &c. From thence it has to pass through the pickling, or washing apartment, where the coin is cleansed, and receives its perfect brightness, and is ren- dered fit for use. “ The silver, from the time of its being first melted into pigs, until it is washed, never passes from the hands of one workman into those of another, without the scrutiny of weight and counting. And thus it is, the invaluable metal, when scattered to the world, in its fluctuating passage, ever creates the greatest solicitude to its possessor, until it returns to nature by invisible atoms. “ The mines of Zacatecas and Frisnillo are said to be about the oldest known in Mex- ico, and from their richness, and the length of time they have been worked, have produced an amount of bullion that would almost seem incredible. A gentleman, of high standing as a miner, informed me that it had been estimated that Zacatecas and Frisnillo had yielded two hundred millions of the precious metals. There are two kinds of silver mines, designated by the letters A and U, owing to the two different ways that veins of silver make their appearance generally. Change of Climate. — “After we had mounted, and were leaving San Alto, l perceived that my previous day’s journey had brought me to a warm country, for many of the houses of that place were fenced in by the tall organo. This is a species of the prickly pear, and is not only beautiful to look at, but a curiosity in the vegetable kingdom. It is of a perfect deep green colour, and rises from the ground in a solid column, of an equal size, often reaching a height of twenty feet. It is regularly fluted from the bottom to the top, as if done by the exactness of an artist’s line. “ The maguey also flourished here. It is this plant which, I believe, is said to blos- som once in a hundred years. It is true, that the colder the latitude, the later it will flower; but, in the climate of Mexico, it generally blossoms once in seven years. “ My journey, on this day (after leaving the mining town of Sombrereto), was uninter- rupted, save by fatigue, hunger, and intolerable thirst; for we found neither pool nor stream of water. The country through which we travelled was uneven and rolling; but, during the latter part of the day, the plain became a dead level, and, from first, having to travel through the low musquite-growth, we came to a cove of broad shady trees, small, and thinly scattered over the land, which might be denominated a forest. “ Just before the set of sun we hove in view of the castle of the Hacienda campus de los Muleros (a place of mules), yet every other kind of stock and vegetation was raised G 42 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. and cultivated there, for it was one of the finest estates that I had ever beheld. The sight of the premises was most congenial, for it was the first house that I had seen the whole day ; although it was full five miles from me, it promised repose from my toils, at no very distant period, and I felt cheered with the hope. Presently we came upon a gang of small red wolves, common in Mexico, and then we approached a herd of many thou- sand sheep: at length we passed the ranchos of the place, and arrived immediately in front of the great house. “ One of my servants, who had been sent before me to the castle, informed me that the administrador had said, that there was no spare room for strangers ; for the house was filled with corn, saving one apartment for himself and wife; and that I would have to seek lodgings in one of the ranchos. The servant also stated, that there was much ex- citement with the people, resulting from the fact of two murders, that had been committed that day, near Muleros. I felt perplexed and disappointed in not being decently housed, for I had never yet lodged in a filthy rancho. “ However, there was one other good building in the place, from which a well- dressed young Mexican came out, and invited me to accept a room in his dwelling. I thanked him for the offer, which I accepted. Mine host was a gay and conversant gen- tleman, who had but a few weeks been wedded to a bouncing black-eyed Mexican girl. He informed my interpreter that the proprietor of Muleros was a very inhospitable man, and that he believed that he had a part in all the many robberies and murders which happened in that quarter. “ During that day several things occurred of a diverting nature. First, in passing by an extensive corn-field, I perceived up a distant tree, in the midst of the corn, a nest, and, as I really imagined, a bird in it, and observed to my interpreter that there was the largest zopilote that I ever beheld. He laughed heartily, and informed me that it was nothing more nor less than a Mexican wrapped in his serapi, guarding his crop. Crops in Mexico are watched both day and night, to prevent the stock, and two-legged thieves, from molesting it.” Speaking of some Ladrones whom he passed, he observes — “ It is the rule in Mexico, for the weaker party always to give the way. Our com- panies were equal; but, as I had extra animals, I certainly was entitled to the road. And if armed men, who are not travellers, do not give the road, it is conclusive evidence, as I had been advised, of their hostile intent. We ariived in safety at San Causin, a hacienda campus. The water was good ; the tortillas, the frijoles, the chili, and the stewed mutton, were all, to hungry man, delightful ; and sleep, on that night, was never more refreshing. “ On the following morning, all of my men being in readiness to recommence the jour- ney, which was that day to put me in the city of Durango, I gave orders that all of our guns and pistols should be discharged and reloaded, which had not been done since we left Zacatecas, as I felt desirous of witnessing the performances of our weapons. The volley we fired was equal to a commandant’s salute, as we numbered about forty rounds, eighteen of which were from my own person and saddle. “ At every place we stopped, accounts of murders and robberies were detailed. We had not travelled more than five leagues before we came upon the corpses of two men, who had been murdered the day previous; one of them appeared to have come to his end by a bullet — the other had several shocking sabre wounds. “ On this day I had to cross the same river twice. The last time I was ferried over in a dug-out, which cost me one dollar and a half, though my animals had to swim across with the Mexican who drove them. I had then travelled about 1400 miles in Mexico, and of the few rivers that I had seen, none of them was above a moderate stone’s-throw across. “ The country over which I had passed was thinly covered with musquite growth, and some cotton-wood ; but, upon being landed over the ferry, I was upon the plain of Durango, a beautiful level country. Although the table-land was totally divested of timber, yet the mountains of Durango towered with the pine, the cypress, and other spe- INTERIOR OF NORTHERN MEXICO. 43 cies of trees; and, near to the city, Mr. Lakeman, an American, is the proprietor of an iron furnace.” Durango. — On the 9th instant, at nine o’clock at night, he entered the city of Du- rango, and put up at the De la Santa Paula meson. The meson joined a large religious edifice, in which the Inquisition was formerly located. It is called De Cadena Casa, the chain-house. From that building, for some few days in the year, a chain was ex- tended across the street, during which time, if any individual committed any offence or crime against the law, and he could lay hands upon that chain, before arrested by the legal authorities, he escaped all future molestation or prosecution. Thus crime was encouraged through the instrumentality of religion. “ In the De Commercio Plaza, all kinds of fruits, provisions, and merchandise were offered for sale — promiscuously spread upon the pavement ; and in such places my interpreter informed me the ladrone vended such earnings as he desired to part with. “ The Alemada of the city of Durango was as lovely and delightful a retreat as 1 had ever in my life enjoyed. A grove of trees shaded its clean walks and seats, whilst a foun- tain of water refreshed and cooled the atmosphere. It is located between the Plaza de los Torres, and the town, and commanded a view of the plain, the city, and the extended mountains around, and a more picturesque scene I never beheld. The convento of the patron saint of the town was situated upon a romantic mound of earth and stone. The view from this edifice excels the imagination of poet and artist, and exceeds any other scene of the kind ever before exhibited to my view. The city of Durango appeared to cover about the same amount of space as the city of Mexico. The buildings are not so high, but are, otherwise, not less in dimensions. Durango is a bishopric, and the two high steeples of the cathedral towered far above those of the many other churches and convents of the place. “In this town has long been established one of the nine mints belonging to the go- vernment. It was not a little amusing to see my Zacatecas servants comparing the coins of their own city with those of Durango; while one of them said, satirically, that the bird on the Durango coin looked more like a zopilote (buzzard) than the Mexican eagle. Another responded that he would be rejoiced if either of the fowls would build a nest in his pocket, and hatch young ones there. The inhabitants of Durango were fewer than I had supposed, judging from the extent of the city. I was informed that the population did not exceed 30,000. — (See Mr. Gregg’s account hereafter.) “ The great silence that prevails in Mexican towns is remarkable, when the church bells are not ringing, and from the garrison the clang of the trumpet-horn is no longer blown. From twelve to three o’clock in the afternoon, all is still, and from a distance no sound is heard; and, in fact, in the hot valleys, and on the coasts, the doors of the houses are all locked, and the inhabitants so wrapped in sleep, that a traveller might ride through the streets of a town without seeing a human being. “ The city of Durango had, in the month previous to my arrival, suffered a heavy calamity, which resulted in the serious damage, more or less, and the ruin of 400 houses. The cause of this destruction of property hud its origin from the heavy rains that had fallen, which had so saturated the sun-burnt bricks, that the crumbling walls were not able to support the roofs, and of course they tumbled in. It was not in the knowledge of any one that, in the month of January, it should rain, and none of the inhabitants had ever experienced, in the wet season, so great and continued a fall of water as came so unexpectedly upon them. The sudden rise of the streams and small rivers was so rapid as to do much damage to the haciendas, to drown stock, and wash down houses. “On the 12th instant, I had the honour of being presented to Cesmo Sir Gobernador y Commandant General D. Jose Antonio Heridia. I did myself, on this occasion, the distinction of showing the general an American uniform. After some conversation, I retired, leaving him uninterrupted in his multifarious public duties. From the government-house I went to that of Mr. John Belden, an American, of the city of New York, who had invited me to dine with him that day. Mr. Belden had been successful in business, and had accumulated a large fortune ; and whether or not to please himself G 2 44 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. or the Mexicans, I cannot say, he often wore costly diamond jewels, and hence he was called the Prince of Diamonds. “ The people of the city of Durango, both foreign and native, seemed to be of a better order than any others I had seen in all Mexico. This possibly might result from the cir- cumstance of having such men as Ramires residing amongst them. The Bishop of Du- rango, also, was the only pious man that 1 heard of during all my travels in that country. “ This celebrated and beloved bishop is said to be truly religious. I was informed by a distinguished citizen that, sacred to his vow, he never had a female to enter his house, and that all of his servants were men ; a fact unknown in relation to any other clergyman in the country. His father-confessor accompanied him on every occasion, and regularly, three times a day, he made confession. “ Much to my regret, I had to exchange my American dress for the Mexican jaceti, a roundabout jacket. Long-tailed or frock-coats are never worn, excepting at the capi- tal, or by foreigners; and, as a gentleman informed me, if a man should be seen riding in any other apparel than that of a jaceti and leather pants, he would be looked upon as a monster, and accordingly almost stoned to death. It is very important to conform to Mexican costume, both to gratify Mexican vanity, as also to disguise yourself as a native, for the traveller cannot know when he may hear the exclamation, 4 Death to all foreigners!’ The handy and comfortable little jacket I did not at all regard, but it was the heavy weight of iron and steel with which I was obliged to encumber myself and saddle; for to my belt was a powder-flask, a bag of bullets, two six and one single-barrelled pistols, a bowie-knife, and a sword ; while looped to the horn of my saddle was a double-barrelled gun, holsters with two pistols, and my nine-inch barrel rifle pistol, hanging to my right, on the skirt of my saddle. “ As in the journey before me I should be often obliged to bivouac in the open air, I had provided myself with a tent, as also an additional supply of London pickled-salmon, and ham, crackers, and jerked beef. At Durango, I was advised to employ a guide, as no one could find the way to Canales, excepting those who had travelled the mountains. I did not discharge my interpreter here, for the reason that I found no serious complaint to lodge against him, and for fear that in an exchange I might not obtain a better one. “ The Governor of Durango furnished me with letters to the Alcalde of Canales, and the Prefect of Tamazula ; Mr. Stalknit had at that time despatched ten loads of silver for Mazatlan. “ While at Durango, the two brothers, Stalknits, invited me to a ride of two miles in the country, to visit their cotton factory. The buildings of their establishment were as commodious as any others I had seen of the kind in the Union, working 20,000 spindles, and their complement of looms. The yarns of the factory were all wove into fabrics, with the exception of thread for sewing purposes. The conductors of the manufacturing de- partment were all New Englanders.” Mr. Gregg, in his interesting work on the American and Santa Fe trade, gives descriptive sketches of the trade south of that town, and of the mining districts and towns of Durango and Zacatecas, from which the following extracts are taken : 44 The officers of the custom-house were already compromised by certain cogent argu- ments (bribes) to receive the proprietors of this caravan with striking marks of favour, and the Senor Administrador de Rentas, Zuloaga himself was expecting an anebeta of goods. Therefore, had they treated us with their wonted severity, the contrast would have been altogether too glaring. 44 We arrived at Chihuahua on the first of October, after a trip of forty days, with waggons much more heavily laden than when we started from the United States. The whole distance from Santa Fe to Chihuahua is about 550 miles, — being reckoned 320 to Paso del Norte, and 230 from thence to Chihuahua. The road (natural) from El Paso south is mostly firm and beautiful, with the exception of the sand-hills before spoken of ; and it is only rendered disagreeable by the scarcity and occasional ill- savour of the water. The route winds over an elevated plain among numerous detached ridges of low mountain — spurs, as it were, of the main Cordilleras, which lie at aconsi- INTERIOR OF NORTHERN MEXICO. 45 derable distance to the westward. Most of these extensive intermediate plains, though in many places of fertile-looking soil, must remain wholly unavailable for agricultural purposes, on account of their natural aridity, and a total lack of water for irrigation. “ The trade to the south constitutes a very important branch of the commerce of the country, in which foreigners, as well as natives, are constantly embarking. It is customary for most of those who maintain mercantile establishments in Chihuahua, to procure assortments of Mexican fabrics from the manufactories of Leon, Aguascalientes, and other places of the same character in the more southern districts of the republic. Fairs. — “ At certain seasons of the year, there are held regular ferias, at which the people assemble in great numbers, as well of sellers as of purchasers. There are some eight or ten of these annual fairs held in the republic, each of which usually lasts a week or more.” The only description of these fairs that we have is by Mr. Gregg, who says : “ I set out from Chihuahua with a party consisting of four men (including myself) and two empty waggons — not a very formidable escort to protect our persons as well as specie and bullion (tiie only transmissible currency of the country) against the bands of robbers which at all times infest that portion of our route that lay south of Durango. From Chihuahua to that city the road was rendered still more perilous by the constant hostilities of the Indians. On the 7th of March we arrived without accident at the town of Corro Gordo, the northernmost settlement in the department of Durango, and the fol- lowing day we reached La Zarca, which is the principal village of one of the most exten- sive haciendas in the north. So immense is the amount of cattle on this estate, that, as it was rumoured, the proprietor once offered to sell the whole hacienda, stock, &c., for the consideration alone of fifty cents for each head of cattle found on the estate ; but that no person has ever yet been able or willing to muster sufficient capital to take up the offer. This estate covers a territory of perhaps a hundred miles in length, which com- prises several flourishing villages. “ In two days more we reached Rio Nazas, a beautiful little river that empties itself into Lake Cayman. * Rio Nazas has been celebrated for the growth of cotton, which, owing to the mildness of the climate is sometimes planted fresh only every three or four years. The light frosts of winter seldom destroy more than the upper portion of the stalk, so that the root is almost perennial. About twenty-five miles further we stopped at the mining village of La Noria, where we were obliged to purchase water for our mules. It is not unusual, also, for the proprietors of haciendas to demand remunera- tion for the pasturage on the open plains consumed by the animals of travellers — a species of exaction which one never hears of in the north of Mexico. “ Our next stopping-place was Cuencame, which may well be called the Village of Churches, for, although possessing a very small population, there are five or six edifices of this description. As 1 had business to transact at Durango, which is situated forty or fifty miles westward of the main southern road, I now pursued a direct route for that city, where I arrived on the 16th of March. Durango “is one of the handsomest cities in the north, with a population of about 20,000. It is situated in a level plain, surrounded in every direction by low mountains. It presents two or three handsome squares, with many fine edifices and really splendid churches. The town is supplied with water for irrigating the gardens, and for many other ordinary purposes, by several open aqueducts, which lead through the streets, from a large spring, a mile or two distant ; but as these are kept filthy by the offal that is thrown into them, the inhabitants who are able to buy it, procure most of their water for drinking and culinary purposes from the aguudores, who pack it, on asses, usually in large jars, from the spring. “This is the first northern city in which there is to be found any evidence of that * The numerous little lakes throughout the interior of Mexico, without outlet, yet into which rivers are continually flowing, present a phenomenon which seems quitesingular to the inhabitants of our humid climates. But the wastage in the sand, and still greater by evaporation in those elevated dry regions, is such that there are no important rises in the lakes except during unusual freshets. — Gregg. 46 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. variety of tropical fruits for which Southern Mexico is so justly famed. Although it was rather out of season, yet the market actually teemed with all that is most rich and ex- quisite in this kind of produce. The maguey, from which is extracted the popular beve- rage called pulque,* is not only cultivated extensively in the fields, but grows wild every where upon the plains. This being the height of the pulque season, a hundred shanties might be seen loaded with jugs and goblets filled with this favourite liquor. Scorpions. — “ Durango is also celebrated as being the head-quarters, as it were, of the whole scorpion family. During the spring, especially, so much are the houses infested by these poisonous insects, that many people are obliged to have resort to a kind of mos- quito-bar, in order to keep them out of their beds at night. As an expedient to deliver the citv from this terrible pest a society has actually been formed, which pays a reward of a cuartilla (three cents) for every alacran (or scorpion) that is brought to them. Stimu- lated by the desire of gain, the idle boys of the city are always on the look out ; so that, in the course of a year immense numbers of this public enemy are captured and slaugh- tered. The body of this insect is of the bulk of a medium spider, with a jointed tail one to two inches long, at the end of which is a sting whose wounds are so poisonous as often to prove fatal to children, and are very painful to adults. “Although we were exceedingly well armed, yet so many fearful stories of robberies said to be committed almost daily on the southern roads reached our ears that, before leaving Durango I resolved to add to my ‘weapons of defence’ one of those peculiarly terrible dogs which are sometimes to be found in this country, and which are very service- able to travellers situated as I was. “ On the 22nd of March we left Durango, and, after a few days’ march found ourselves once more in the camino real that led from Chihuahua to Zacatecas. As all travellers go armed, it is impossible to distinguish them from banditti ;f so that the unsuspecting trader is very frequently set upon by the very man he had been consorting with in appa- rent good fellowship, and either murdered on the spot, or dragged from his horse with the lazo, and plundered of all that is valuable about him. Aguascalif.ntes, in 22 deg. N. latitude and 102 deg. 15 min. W. longitude, “is beautifully situated in a level plain, and would appear to contain about twenty thousand inhabitants, who are principality engaged in the manufacture of rebozos and other tex- tures mostly of cotton. As soon as I found myself sufficiently at leisure I visited the famous warm spring ( ojo caliente ) in the suburbs from which the city derives its euphonious name. “ It had been originally my intention to continue on to Leon, another manufacturing town some seventy or eighty miles from Aguascalientes ; but, hearing that Santa Anna had just arrived there with a large army, on his way to Zacatecas to quell an insurrec- tion, I felt very little curiosity to extend my rambles further. Having, therefore, made all my purchases in the shortest possible time, in a few days I was again in readiness to start for the north. “ That my mules might be in condition for the hard travel before me, it was necessary to have them shod : a precaution, however, which is seldom used in the north of Mexico, either with mules or horses. Owing a little to the peculiar breed, but more still, no doubt, to the dryness of the climate, Mexican animals have unusually hard hoofs. Many will * Also, from the Pulque is distilled a spirituous liquor called mezcnl. The maguey (Agave Americnna) is besides much used for hedging. It here perforins the double purpose of a cheap and substantial fence, and of being equally valuable for pulque. When no longer serviceable in these capacities, the pulpy stalk is converted, by roasting, into a pleasant item of food, while the fibrous blades being suitably dressed, are still more useful. They are manufactured into ropes, bags, &c., which resemble those made of the common sea-grass, though the fibres are finer. There is one species (which does not produce pulque, however), whose fibres, known in that country as pita, are nearly as tine as dressed hemp, and are generally used for sewing shoes, saddlery, and similar purposes. — Gregg. f Travellers on these public highways not only go “armed to the teeth,” but always carry their weapons exposed. Even my waggoners carried their guns and pistolsswung upon the pom- mels of their saddles. At night, as we generally camped out, they were laid under our heads or close by oursidcs. — Gregg. MINING DISTRICT OF JESUS MARIA. 47 travel for weeks, and even months, over the firm* and often rocky roads of the interior, the pack-mules carrying their huge loads without any protection whatever to the feet, save that which nature has provided. Mining District of Jesus Maria in Northern Mexico. — This mining district was visited by Mr. Gregg, who says, “I set out from Chihuahua on the 15th of October. My [party consisted of but one American comrade with a Mexican mule- teer, and three or four mules freighted with specie to be employed in the silver trade ; a rather scanty convoy for a route subject to the inroads of both savages and robbers. For transportation, we generally pack our specie in sacks made of raw beef-hide, which shrinks upon drying, and thus presses the contents so closely as to prevent friction. A pair of these packages, usually containing between one and two thousand dollars each, constitutes an ordinary mule load on the mountain routes. “The road in this direction leads through the roughest mountain passes; and, in some places, it winds so close along the borders of precipices, that by a single misstep an animal might be precipitated several hundred feet. Mules, however, are very sure- footed ; and will often clamber amongst the most craggy cliffs with nearly as much secu- rity as the goat. I was shown the projecting edge of a rock over which the road had formerly passed. This shelf was perhaps thirty feet in length by only two or three in width. The road which leads into the town of Jesus-Maria from the west side of the mountain is also extremely perilous and steep, and seems almost to overhang the houses below. Heavily laden mules have sometimes slipped off the track, and tumbled headlong into the town. This place is even more pent up between ridges than Zacatecas: the valley is narrower and the mountains much higher ; while, as is the case with that remark- able city, the houses are sometimes built in successive tiers, one above another; the azoteas of the lower ones forming the yard of those above. “ The first mine I visited consisted of an immense horizontal shaft cut several hundred feet into a hill-side, a short distance below the town of Jesus-Maria, in the Sierra Madre, (latitude 28 deg. N., longitude 107 deg. 10 min. W.,) upon which the proprietors had already sunk, in the brief space of one year, the enormous sum of one hundred and twenty thousand dollars ! Such is often the fate of the speculative miner, whose vocation is closely allied to gaming, and equally precarious. “ The most important mine of Jesus-Maria at this time was one called Santa Juliana, which had been the means of alternately making and sinking several splendid fortunes. This mine had then reached a depth of between eight and nine hundred feet, and the operations were still tending downwards. The materials were drawn up by mule-power applied to a windlass : but as the rope attached to it only extended half-way down, another windlass had been erected at the distance of about four hundred feet from the mouth of the cavern, which was also worked by mules, and drew the ores, &c., from the bottom. On one occasion, as I was standing near the aperture of this great pit, watch- ing the ascent of the windlass rope, expecting every moment the appearance of the large leathern bucket which they employ for drawing up the minerals as well as the rubbish and water,']' from the bottom, what should greet my vision but a mule, puffing and writhing, firmly bound to a huge board constructed for the purpose, and looking about as demure upon the whole as a sheep under the shears. “ The ore which is obtained from these mines, if sufficiently rich to justify the opera- tion, is transferred to the smelting-furnaces, where the pure metal is melted down and extracted from the virgin fossil. If, on the contrary, the ore is deemed of inferior qua- lity, it is then submitted to the process of amalgamation. The moliendas, or crushing- mills ( arrastres , as called at some mines), employed lor the purpose of grinding the ores, are somewhat singular machines. A circular (or rather annular) cistern of some twenty or thirty feet in diameter is dug in the earth, and the sides as well as the bottom are lined * Some of these table-plain highways, though of but a dry sandy and clayey soil, are as firm as a brick pavement. In some places, for miles, I have remarked that the nail-heads of my shod animals would hardiy leave any visible impression. •j* Water lias sometimes accumulated so rapidly in this mine as to stop operations for weeks together. 48 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. with hewn stone of the hardest quality. Transversely through an upright post which turns upon its axis in the centre of the plan, passes a shaft of wood, at each end of which are attached by cords one or two grinding-stones with smooth flat surfaces, which are dragged (by mules fastened to the extremities of the shaft) slowly around upon the bot- tom of the cistern, into which the ore is thrown after being pounded into small pieces. It is here ground, with the addition of water, into an impalpable mortar, by the constant friction of the dragging stones against the sides and bottom of the cistern. A suitable quantity of quicksilver is perfectly mixed with the mortar; to which are added some mu- riates, sulphates, and other chemical substances, to facilitate the amalgamation. The compound is then piled up in small heaps, and not disturbed again until this process is supposed to be complete, when it is transferred to the washing-machine. Those I have observed are very simple, consisting of a kind of stone tub, into which a stream of water is made to flow constantly, so as to carry off all the lighter matter, which is kept stirred up by an upright studded with pegs, that revolves in the centre, while the amalgamated metals sink to the bottom. Most of the quicksilver is then pressed out, and the silver submitted to a burning process, by which the remaining portion of mercury is expelled. “ The silver which is taken from the furnace generally contains an intermixture of gold, averaging from ten to thirty per cent ; but what is extracted by amalgamation is mostly separated in the washing. While in a liquid state, the gold, from its greater spe- cific gravity, mostly settles to the bottom ; yet it usually retains a considerable alloy of silver. The compound is distinguished by the name of oroche. The main portion of the silver generally retains too little gold to make it worth separating. “Every species of silver is moulded into barras, or ingots, weighing from fifty to eighty pounds each, and usually worth between one and two thousand dollars. These are assayed by an authorised agent of the government and stamped with their weightand character, which enables the holder to calculate their value by a very simple rule. When the bullion is thus stamped, it constitutes a species of currency, which is much safer for remittances than coin. In case of robbery, the barras are easily identified, provided the robbers have not had time to mould them into some other form. For this reason, people of wealth frequently lay up their funds in ingots ; and the cellars of some of the ricos of the South are often found teeming with large quantities of them, presenting the appear- ance of a winter’s supply of fuel. “ As the charge for parting the gold and silver at the Mexican mints is generally from one to two dollars, and coinage about fifty cents per pound, this assayed bullion yields a profit upon its current value of nearly ten per cent at the United States Mint ; but, if un- assayed, it generally produces an advance of about double that amount upon the usual cost at the mines. The exportation of bullion, however, is prohibited, except by special licence from the general government. Still, a large quantity is exported in this way, and considerable amounts smuggled out through some of the ports. “A constant and often profitable business in the ‘silver trade’ is carried on at these mines. As the miners rarely fail being in need of ready money, they are generally obliged to sell their bullion for coin, and that often at a great sacrifice, so as to procure available means to prosecute their mining operations. To profit by this trade, as is already men- tioned, was a principal object of my present visit. Having concluded my business trans- actions, and partially gratified my curiosity, I returned to Chihuahua. “ It is usual for each trader, upon his arrival in Chihuahua to engage a store-room, and to open and exhibit his goods, as well for the purpose of disposing of them at whole- sale as retail. His most profitable custom is that of the petty country merchants from the surrounding villages. Some traders, it is true, continue in the retail business for a season or more, yet the greater portion are transient dealers, selling off at wholesale as soon a< a fair bargain is offered. Mode ok Selling Goods. — “The usual mode of selling in Chihuahua is by the lot. Cottons, as calicoes and other prints, bleached, brown, and blue domestics, both plain and twilled, stripes, checks, &c., are rated at two or three reales* per vara, without the least * 12 granos make 1 real ; 8 rculcs, 1 peso, or dollar. These are the divisions used in computa- tion, but instead of granos, the copper coins of Chihuahua and many other places, are the claco or NEW MEXICO. 49 reference to quality or cost, and the ‘general assortment’ at 60 to 100 per cent upon the bills of cost, according to the demand. The varage is usually estimated by adding eight per cent to the yardage, but the vara being thirty-three inches (nearly), the actual difference is more than nine. In these sales, cloths — indeed all measurable goods, except ribands and the like, sometimes enter at the varage rate. Every thing was sometimes rated by the vara — not only all textures, but even hats, cutlery, trinkets, and so on! In such cases, very singular disputes would frequently arise as to the mode of measuring some particular articles: for instance, whether pieces of riband should be measured in bulk, or unrolled, and yard by yard ; looking-glasses, cross or lengthwise; pocket-knives, shut or open ; writing-paper, in the ream, in the quire, or by the single sheet ; and then, whether the longer or shorter way of the paper ; and many others. “ Before the end of October, 1839, I had an opportunity of selling out my stock of goods to a couple of English merchants, which relieved me from the delays, to say nothing of the inconveniences attending a retail trade: such, for instance, as the accu- mulation of copper coin, which forms almost the exclusive currency in petty dealings. Some thousands of dollars’ worth are frequently accumulated upon the hands of the merchant in this way, and as the copper of one department is worthless in another, ex- cept for its intrinsic value, which is seldom more than ten per cent of the nominal value, the holders are subjected to a great deal of trouble and annoyance. City of Chihuahua. — “ This city, when compared with Santa Fe and all the towns of the north. Chihuahua might indeed be pronounced a magnificent place; but, com- pared with the nobler cities of tierra afuera, it sinks into insignificance. According to Captain Pike, the city of Chihuahua was founded in 1691. The ground-plan is much more regular than that of Santa Fe, while a much greater degree of elegance and classic taste has been exhibited in the style of the architecture of many buildings ; for though the bodies be of adobe , all the best houses are cornered with hewn stone, and the doors and windows are framed in the same. The streets, however, remain nearly in the same state as nature formed them, with the exception of a few roughly-paved side-walks. Although situated about a hundred miles east of the main chain of the Mexican Cordilleras, Chihuahua is surrounded on every side by detached ridges of mountains, but none of them of any great magnitude. The elevation of the city above the ocean is between four and five thousand feet ; its latitude is 28 deg. 36 min. ; and its entire population numbers about ten thousand souls. “The most splendid edifice in Chihuahua is the principal church, which is said to equal in architectural grandeur any thing of the sort in the republic. “ Having closed all my affairs in Chihuahua and completed my preparations for de- parting, I took my leave of that city for the north on the 3 1st of October, 1839. I was accompanied by a caravan consisting of twenty-two waggons (all of which save one belonged to me), and forty odd men, armed to the teeth, and prepared for any emer- gency we might be destined to encounter: a precaution altogether necessary, in view of the hordes of hostile savages which at all times infested the route before us.” — Gregg's Commerce of the Prairies. NEW MEXICO. This country, the most recent account of which is that by Mr. Gregg, is join (g- real) and the currtilla (^ real). The silver coins are the medio (6j cents), the real (12£ cents), the ])esela (2 reales), the toston, or half dollar, and the peso or dollar. The gold coins are the dublon or oma (doubloon), with the same subdivisions as the silver dollar, which are also pre- cisely of the weight. The par value of the doubloon is sixteen dollars ; but as there is no kind of paper currency, gold, as the most convenient remittance, usually commands a high premium — sometimes so high, indeed, that the doubloon is valued in the north at from eighteen to twenty dollars. H 50 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. bounded north and east by the territories of the United States, south by that of Texas and Chihuahua, and west by Upper California, it is surrounded by chains of mountains and extensive prairies, extending to a distance of 500 miles or more, except in the direction of Chihuahua, from which its settlements are separated by an uninhabited desert for nearly two hundred miles — and without the means of water communication with any other part of the world. It is entered from Northern Mexico or Chihuahua, by El Paso del Norte. The whole territory, including extensive bleak regions with which it is inter- sected, comprises about 200,000 square milos. Mr. Gregg is of opinion that, “ To which soever sovereignty that section of land may eventually belong, that portion of it at least, which is inhabited, should remain united. Any attempt on the part of Texas to make the Rio del Norte the line of demarcation would greatly retard her ultimate acquisition of the territory, as it would leave at least one-third of the population accustomed to the same rule, and bound by ties of consanguinity and affinity of customs wholly at the mercy of the contiguous hordes of savages, that inhabit the Cordilleras on the west of them. This great chain of mountains which reaches the borders of the Rio del Norte, not far above El Paso would, in my opinion, form the most natural boundary between the two countries, from thence northward.” Rivers. — “ There is not,” it is stated by Mr. Gregg, “ a single navigable stream to be found in New Mexico. The famous Rio del Norte is so shallow, for the most part of the year, that Indian canoes can scarcely float in it. Its navigation is also obstructed by frequent shoals and rippling sections for a distance of more than a thousand miles below Santa Fe. Opposite Taos, especially, for an uninterrupted distance of nearly fifteen miles, it runs pent up in a deep canon (ravine), through which it rushes in rapid torrents. This frightful chasm is absolutely impassable ; and, viewed from the top, the scene is imposing in the extreme. None but the boldest hearts and firmest nerves can venture to its brink, and look down its almost perpendicular precipice, over projecting crags and deep crevices, upon the foaming current of the river, which, in some places, appears like a small rippling brook; while in others it winds its serpentine course silently but majestically along, through a narrow little valley ; with immense plains bordering and expanding in every direction, yet so smooth and level that the course of the river is not perceived till within a few yards of the verge. I have beheld this canon from the summit of a mountain, over which the road passes some twenty miles below Taos, from whence it looks like the mere fissure of an insignificant ravine.” Baron Humboldt describes an extraordinary event as having occurred in 1752, of which he says the inhabitants of Paso del Norte still preserved the recollection in his day. “ The whole bed of the river,” he says, “ became dry all of a sudden, for more than thirty leagues above and twenty leagues below the Paso : and the water of the river precipitated itself into a newly-formed chasm, and only made its reappearance near the Presidio of San Eleazeario At length, after the lapse of several weeks, the water resumed its course, no doubt because the chasm and the subterraneous conductors had filled up.” This savours of the marvellous, as not the least knowledge of these facts appears to have been handed down to the present generation. During very great droughts, however, this river is said to have entirely disappeared in the sand, in some places, between San Elccario and the Presidio del Norte. “ Notwithstanding the numerous tributary streams which would be supposed to pour their contents into the Rio del Norte, very few reach their destination before they are completely exhausted. Rio Puerco, so called from the extreme muddiness of its waters, NEW MEXICO. 51 would seem to form an exception to this rule. Yet this also, although at least a hundred miles in length, is dry at the mouth for a portion of the year, The creek of Santa Fe itself, though a bold and dashing rivulet in the immediate vicinity of the mountains, sinks into insignificance, and is frequently lost altogether before it reaches the main river. Pechos and Conchos, its most important inlets, would scarcely be enti- tled to a passing remark, but for the geographical error of Baron Humboldt, who set down the former as the head branch of the ‘ Red River of Natchitoches.’ These streams may be considered the first constant-flowing inlets which the Rio del Norte receives from Santa Fe south — say for the distance of five hundred miles! It is then no won- der that this ‘ Great River of the North ’ decreases in volume of water as it descends. In fact, above the region of tide-water, it is almost everywhere fordable during most of the year, being seldom over knee-deep, except at the time of freshets. Its banks are gene- rally very low, often less than ten feet above low-water mark : and yet, owing to the dis- proportioned width of the channel (which is generally three or four hundred yards), it is not subject to inundations. Its only important rises are those of the annual freshets, occasioned by the melting of the snow in the mountains. “ This river, is only known to the inhabitants of Northern Mexico as Rio del Norte, or North River, because it descends from that direction : yet in its passage southward, it is in some places called Rio Grande , on account of its extent ; but the name of Rio Bravo (Bold or Rapid River), so often given to it on maps, is seldom if ever heard among the people. Though its entire length, following its meanders from its source in the Rocky Mountains to the Gulf of Mexico, must be considerably over two thousand miles, is hardly navigable to the extent of two hundred miles above its mouth. “ Santa Fje, the capital of New Mexico, is the only town of any importance in the province. It is sometimes written Santa Fe de San Francisco (Holy Faith of St. Francis), the patron saint. It occupies the site of an ancient Pueblo or Indian village. Its situation in latitude 35 deg. 41 min. N., and longitude 106 deg. W., is twelve or fifteen miles east of the Rio del Norte, at the western base of a snow-clad mountain, upon a beautiful stream of small mill-power size, which ripples down in icy cascades, and joins the river some twenty miles to the south-westward. The population of the city itself but little exceeds,” says Mr. Gregg, “ 3000 ; yet, including several surround- ing villages which are embraced in its corporate jurisdiction, it amounts to nearly 6000 souls.* “ The town is very irregularly laid out, and most of the streets are little better than common highways traversing scattered settlements which are interspersed with corn- fields nearly sufficient to supply the inhabitants with grain. The only attempt at any thing like architectural compactness and precision consists in four tiers of buildings, whose fronts are shaded with a fringe of portales or corredores of the rudest possible description. They stand around the public square, and comprise the Palacio, or gover- nor’s house, the custom-house, the barracks (with which is connected the fearful Cala- bozo), the Casa Consistorial of the Alcaldes, the Capilla de los Soldados, or military chapel, besides several private residences, as well as most of the shops of the American traders. Population. — “ The population of New Mexico is almost exclusively confined to towns and villages, the suburbs of which are generally farms. Even most of the ranchos and haciendas have grown into villages, — a result almost indispensable for protection against the maiauding savages of the surrounding wilderness. The principal of these settlements are located in the valley of the Rio del Norte, extending from nearly one hundred miles north to about one hundred and forty south of Santa Fe.f The most * Its elevation above the ocean is nearly 7000 feet ; that of the valley of Taos is no doubt over a mile and a half. The highest peak of the mountain (which is covered with perennial snow) some ten miles to the north-east of the capital, is reckoned about 5000 feet above the town. Those from Taos northward rise still to a much greater elevation. ■f" The settlements up the river from the capital are collectively known as Rio-Arriba, and those down the river as Rio-Abajo. The latter comprise over a third of the population) and the principal wealth of New Mexico. h 2 52 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. important of these, next to the capital, is El Valle de Taos* so called in honour of the Taosa tribe of Indians, a remnant of whom still forms a pueblo in the north of the valley. No part of New Mexico equals this valley in amenity of soil, richness of produce and beauty of appearance. Whatever is thrown into its prolific bosom, which the early frosts of autumn will permit to ripen, grows to a wonderful degree of perfection. “Wheat especially has been produced of a superlative quality, and in such abun- dance, that, as is asserted, the crops have often yielded over a hundred fold. I would not have it understood, however, that this is a fair sample of New Mexican soil ; for, in point of fact, though many of the bottoms are of very fertile character, the uplands must chiefly remain unproductive; owing, in part, to the sterility of the soil, but as much, no doubt, to want of irrigation ; hence nearly all the farms and settlements are located in those valleys which may be watered by some constant-flowing stream. | “The first settler of the charming valley of Taos, since the country was reconquered by the Indians, is said to have been a Spaniard named Pando, about the middle of the eighteenth century. This pioneer of the north, finding himself greatly exposed to the depredations of the Comanches, succeeded in gaining the friendship of that tribe, by promising his infant daughter, then a beautiful child, to one of their chiefs in marriage. But the unwilling maiden having subsequently refused to ratify the contract, the settle- ment was immediately attacked by the savages, and all were slain except the betrothed damsel who was led into captivity. After living some years with the Comanches on the great prairies, she was bartered away to the Pawnees, of whom she was eventually pur- chased by a Frenchman of St. Louis. Some very respectable families in that city are descended from her ; and there are many people yet living who remember with what affecting pathos the old lady was wont to tell her tale of woe. She died but a few years ago. Climate of New Mexico. — “ Salubrity of climate is decidedly the most interesting feature in the character of New Mexico. Nowhere — not even under the much-boasted Sicilian skies — can a purer or a more wholesome atmosphere be found. Bilious dis- eases — the great scourge of the valley of the Mississippi — are here almost unknown. Apart from a fatal epidemic fever of a typhoid character, that ravaged the whole province from 1837 to 1839, and which, added to the smallpox that followed in 1840, carried off nearly ten per cent of the population, New Mexico has experienced very little disease of a febrile character ; so that as great a degree of longevity is attained there, perhaps, as in any other portion of the habitable world. Persons withered almost to mummies are to be encountered occasionally, whose extraordinary age is only to be inferred from their recollection of certain notable events which have taken place in times far remote. “A sultry day, from Santa Fe north, is of very rare occurrence. The summer nights are usually so cool and pleasant that a pair of blankets constitutes an article of comfort seldom dispensed with. The winters are long, but ri \ so subject to sudden changes as in damper climates ; the general range of the thermometer, throughout the year, being from 10 deg. to 75 deg. above zero, of Fahrenheit. Baron Humboldt was led into as great an error with respect to the climate of New Mexico as to the rivers ; for lie remarks that near Santa Fe and a little further north, ‘ the Rio del Norte is sometimes covered for a succession of several years, with ice thick enough to admit the passage of horses and carriages:’ a circumstance which would be scarcely less astounding to the New Mexirans, than would the occurrence of a similar event in the harbour of New York be to her citizens. “The great elevation of all the plains about the Rocky Mountains, is, perhaps, the principal cause of the extraordinary dryness of the atmosphere. There is but little rain throughout the year, except from July to October — known as the rainy season; and as the Missouri traders usually arrive about its commencement, the coincidence has given * “The Valley of Taos f there being no iown of this name. It includes several villages and other settlements, the largett of which are Fernandez and Los Ranchos, four or five miles apart. j- From the generally barren and desolate appearance which the uplands of New Mexico pre- sent, some exceptions have possessed an extraordinary degree of fertility ; as is demonstrated by the fact that many of the fields on the undulating lands in the suburbs of Santa F6, have no doubt been in constant cultivation over two hundred years, and yet produce tolerable crops, without having been once renovated by manure. — Gregg. NEW MEXICO. 53 rise to a superstition, quite prevalent among the vulgar, that the Americans bring the rain with them. During seasons of drought, especially, they look for the arrival of the annual caravans as the harbinger of speedy relief. Population. — “ There has never been an accurate census taken of the population of New Mexico. Of the one attempted in 1832, the Secretary of State at Santa Fe, speaks in the following terms : — ‘At present (1841) we may estimate the Spanish or white population at about 60,000 souls or more, being what remains of 72,000, which the census taken seven or eight years ago showed there then existed in New Mexico.’ He supposes that this great diminution resulted from the ravages of the frightful diseases already al- luded to. The decrease of population from these causes, however, is greatly overrated. The discrepancy must find its explanation in the inaccuracy of the census referred to. “ If we exclude the unsubjugated savages, the entire population of New Mexico, including the Pueblo Indians, cannot be set down, according to the best estimates I have been able to obtain, at more than 70,000 souls. These may be divided as follows : — White creoles, say 1000; Mestizos, or mixed creoles, 59,000; and Pueblos, 10,000. Of naturalised citizens, the number is inconsiderable — scarcely twenty ; and if we except transient traders, there are not over double as many alien residents. There are no negroes in New Mexico, and consequently neither mulattoes nor zambos. In 1803, Baron Humboldt set down the population of this province at 40,200, so that according to this the increase for forty years has barely exceeded one per cent per annum. Agriculture of New Mexico. — “ Agriculture, like almost every thing else in New Mexico, is in a very primitive and unimproved state. A great portion of the peasantry cultivate with the hoe alone — their ploughs (when they have any) being only used for mellow grounds, as they are too rudely constructed to be fit for any other service. Those I have seen in use are mostly fashioned in this manner : — a section of a trunk of a tree, eight or ten inches in diameter, is cut about two feet long, with a small branch left pro- jecting upwards, of convenient length for a handle. With this a beam is connected to which oxen are yoked. The block, with its fore end sloped downwards to a point, runs flat, and opens a furrow similar to that of the common shovel plough. What is equally worthy of remark is, that these ploughs are often made exclusively of wood, without one particle of iron, or even a nail to increase their durability. “The laborcs and milpas (cultivated fields) are often, indeed most usually, without any enclosure. The owners of cattle are obliged to keep herdsmen constantly with them, else graze them at a considerable distance from the farms ; for if any trespass is committed upon the fields by stock, the proprietor of the latter is bound to pay damages : therefore, instead of the cultivator’s having to guard his crop from the cattle as with us, the owners of these are bound to guard them from the crops. Only a chance farm is seen fenced with poles scattered along on forks, or a loose hedge of brush. Mud-fences, or walls of very large adobes, are also occasionally to be met with. “ The necessity of irrigation has confined, and no doubt will continue to confine agriculture principally to the valleys of the constant-flowing streams. In some places the crops are frequently cut short by the drying up of the streams. Where water is abundant, however, art has so far superseded the offices of nature in watering the farms, that it is almost a question whether the interference of nature in the matter would not be a disadvantage. On the one hand, the husbandman need not have his grounds over- flowed if he administers the water himself, much less need he permit them to suffer from drought. He is, therefore, more sure of his crop than if it were subject to the caprices of the weather in more favoured agricultural regions. “ One acequia madre (mother ditch) suffices generally to convey water for the irri- gation of an entire valley, or, at least, for all the fields of one town or settlement. This is made and kept in repair by the public, under the supervision of the alcaldes ; labourers being allotted to work upon it as with us upon our county roads. The size of this prin- cipal ditch is, of course, proportioned to the quantity of land to be watered. It is con- veyed over the highest part of the valley, which, on these mountain streams, is, for the most part, next to the hills. From this, each proprietor of a farm runs a minor ditch, in like manner, over the most elevated part of his field. Where there is not a superabun- dance of water, which is often the case on the smaller streams, each farmer has his day, or portion of a day allotted to him for irrigation ; and at no other time is he permitted to 54 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. extract water from the acequia madre. Then the cultivator, after letting the water into his minor ditch, dams this, first at one point and then at another, so as to overflow a sec- tion at a time, and with his hoe, depressing eminences and filling sinks, he causes the water to spread regularly over the surface. Though the operation would seem tedious, an expert irrigator will water, in one day, his five or six-acre field, if level, and every thing well arranged; yet, on uneven ground, he will hardly be able to get over half of that amount.* “ All the acequias for the valley of the Rio del Norte are conveyed from the main stream, except where a tributary of more convenient water happens to join it. As the banks of the river are very low, and the descent considerable, the water is soon brought upon the surface by a horizontal ditch along an inclined bank, commencing at a conve- nient point of constant-flowing water — generally without dam, except sometimes a wing of stones to turn the current into the canal. Food. — “The staple productions of the country are emphatically Indian corn and wheat. The former grain is most extensively employed for making tortillas — an article of food greatly in demand among the people, the use of which has been transmitted to them by the aborigines. The corn is boiled in water with a little lime : and when it has been sufficiently softened, so as to strip it of its skin, it is ground into paste upon the metatef and formed into a thin cake. This is afterwards spread on a small sheet of iron or copper, called comal ( comalli , by the Indians), and placed over the fire, where in less than three minutes, it is baked and ready for use. The thinness of the tortilla is always a great test of skill in the maker, and much rivalry ensues in the art of prepara- tion. The office of making tortillas has, from the earliest times, pertained chiefly to the women, who appear to be better adapted to this employ than the other sex, both as re- gards skill and dexterity, in preparing this particular food for the table. I perfectly agree with the historian Clavigero, however, in the opinion that ‘ although this species of corn-bread may be very wholesome and substantial, and well-flavoured when newly made, it is unpleasant when cold.’ “ A sort of thin mush called atole, made of Indian meal, is another article of diet, the preparation of which is from the aborigines ; and such is its nationality, that in the north it is frequently called el cafe de los Mexicanos (the coffee of the Mexicans). How general soever the use of coffee among Americans may appear, that of atole is still more so among the lower classes of Mexicans. They virtually ‘ breakfast, dine and sup’ upon it. Of this, indeed, with frijoles and chile (beans and red pepper), consist their principal food. The extravagant use of red pepper among the Mexicans has become truly proverbial. It enters into nearly every dish at every meal, and often so predominates as entirely to con- ceal the character of the viands. It is likewise ground into a sauce, and thus used even more abundantly than butter. Chile verde (green pepper), not as a mere condiment, but as a salad, served up in different ways, is reckoned by them one of the greatest luxuries. But however much we may be disposed to question their taste in this particular, no one can hesitate to do homage to their incomparable chocolate, in the preparation of which the Mexicans surely excel every other people. “ Besides these, many other articles of diet peculiar to the country, and'adopted from the aborigines, are still in use — often of rich and exquisite flavour, and though usually not much relished at first by strangers, they are for the most part highly esteemed after a little use. “ The rancheros, and all the humbler classes of people, very seldom use any table for their meals, an inconvenience which is very little felt, as the dishes are generally served out from the kitchen in courses of a single plate to each guest, who usually takes it upon his knees. Knives and forks are equally dispensed with, the viands being mostly * There is no land measure here correspondent to our acres. Husbandmen rate their fields by the amount of wheat necessary to sow them ; and thus speak of a fanega of land— -fanega being a measure of about two bushels — meaning an extent which two bushels of wheat will suffice to sow. Tracts arc usually sold by the number of leguax (leagues), or varas front of irrigable lands ; for those back from the streams are considered worthless. The vara is very nearly thirty-three English inches, 5000 of which constitute the Mexican league — under two miles and two-thirds. f From the Indian word vietatl, a hollowed oblong stone, used as a grinding machine. NEW MEXICO. 55 hashed or boiled so very soft as to be eaten with a spoon. This is frequently supplied by the tortilla, a piece of which is ingeniously doubled between the fingers so as to assist in the disposal of any thing, be it ever so rare or liquid. “ The very singular custom of abstaining from all sorts of beverage during meals, has frequently afforded me a great deal of amusement. Although a large cup of water is set before each guest, it is not customary to drink it off till the repast is finished. Should any one take it up in his hand while in the act of eating, the host is apt to cry out, ‘ Hold, hold ! there is yet more to come.’ “1 have never been able to ascertain definitely the meaning of this peculiarity ; but from the strictness with which it is observed, it is natural to suppose, that the use of any kind of drink whilst eating, is held extremely unwholesome.* The New Mexicans use but little wine at meals, and that exclusively of the produce of the Pasco del Norte. Various Productions. — “But to return to the productions of the soil. Cotton is cultivated to no extent, although it has always been considered as indigenous to the country ; while the ancient manufactures of the aborigines prove it to have been especi- ally so in this province. Flax is entirely neglected, and yet a plant resembling in every respect that of the linum usitatissimum, is to be found in great abundance in many of the mountain valleys. The potato (la papa), although not cultivated in this country till very lately, is unquestionably an indigenous plant, being still found in a state of nature in many of the mountain valleys — though of small size, seldom larger than filberts : whence it appears that this luxury had not its exclusive origin in South America, as is the cur- rent opinion of the present day. Universal as the use of tobacco is among these people, there is very little of it grown, and that chiefly of a light and weak species, called by the natives punche, which is also indigenous, and still to be met with growing wild in some places. What has in a great measure contributed to discourage people from attend- ing to the cultivation of the tobacco plant, is the monopoly of this indispensable by the federal government; for although the tobacco laws are not enforced in New Mexico (there being no Estanquillo or public store- house), yet the people cannot carry it any- where else in the republic for sale, without risk of its being immediately confiscated. A still more powerful cause operating against this, as well as every other branch of agricul- ture in New Mexico, is the utter want of navigable streams, as a cheap and convenient means of transportation to distant markets. Fruits. — “ Famous as the republic of Mexico has been for the quality and variety of its fruits, this province, considering its latitude, is most singularly destitute in this respect. A few orchards of apples, peaches, and apricots, are occasionally met with, but even these are of very inferior quality, being only esteemed in the absence of something better. A few small vineyards are also to be found in the valley of the Rio del Norte, but the grape does not thrive as at El Paso. The mode of cultivating the grape in these parts is somewhat peculiar, and might, I have no doubt, be practised to great advantage in other countries. No scaffold or support of any kind is erected for the vines, which are kept pruned so as to form a sort of shrubbery. Every fall of the year these are com- pletely covered with earth, which protects them during the winter. Upon the opening of spring the dirt is scraped away, and the vines pruned again. This being repeated from year to year, the shrubs soon acquire sufficient strength to support the heavy crops of improved and superiorly-flavoured grapes which they finally produce. “ Indigenous wild fruits are not quite so scarce ; a clear evidence that the lack of cul- tivated fruit is not so much the fault of nature, as the result of indolence and neglect on the part of the people. The prickly pear is found in greatest abundance, and of several varieties : and though neither very wholesome nor savory, it is nevertheless frequently eaten. “ There is but little timber in New Mexico, except in the mountains and along the water-courses; the table-plains and valleys are generally all open prairie. The forest growths, moreover, of all the north of Mexico . present quite a limited variety of timber, among which the common pitch-pine mostly predominates. The tree which appears to * Females rarely ever eat with the males— at least in the presence of strangers— but usually take their food in the kitchen by themselves. 56 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. be most peculiar to the country, is a kind of scrub pine, called pinon , which grows gene- rally to the height of twenty or thirty feet, with leaves ever-green and pine-like, but scarcely an inch long. From the surface of this tree exudes a species of turpentine, resembling that of the pitch-pine, but perhaps less resinous. The wood is white and firm, and much used for fuel. The most remarkable appendage of this tree is the fruit it bears, which is also known by the same name. This is a little nut about the size of a kidney-bean, with a rich oily kernel in a thin shell, enclosed in a chestnut-like bur. It is of a pleasant flavour and much eaten by the natives, and considerable quantities are exported annually to the southern cities. It is sometimes used for the manufacture of a certain kind of oil, said to be very good for lamps. “ The mezquite tree, vulgarly called muskeet in Texas, where it has attained some celebrity, grows in some of the fertile valleys of Chihuahua to the height of thirty and forty feet, with a trunk of one to two feet in diameter. The wood makes excellent fuel, but it is seldom used for other purposes, as it is crooked, knotty, and very coarse and brittle, more resembling the honey-locust (of which it might be considered a scrubby species) than the mahogany, as some people have asserted. The fruit is but a diminu- tive honey-locust in appearance and flavour, of the size and shape of a flattened bean- pod, with the seeds disposed in like manner. This pod, which, like that of the honey- locust, encloses a glutinous substance, the Apaches and other tribes of Indians grind into flour to make their favourite pinole. The mezquite seems undoubtedly of the Acacia Arabica species ; as some physicians who have examined the gum which exudes from the tree, pronounce it genuine Arabic. “ On the water-courses there is little timber to be found except cotton-wood, scantily scattered along their banks. Those of the Rio del Norte are now nearly bare throughout the whole range of the settlements, and the inhabitants are forced to resort to the distant mountains for most of their fuel. But nowhere, even beyond the settlements, are there to be seen such dense cotton-wood bottoms as those of the Mississippi valley. Besides the common cotton-wood there is another to be found upon the mountain streams of New Mexico, which has been called willow-leaf or bitter cotton-wood (jpopulus augustifolia ?) and has been reckoned by some a species of cinchona, yet for no other reason perhaps than ihat the bark possesses efficacious tonic qualities. Attached to the seeds of this tree is also a cotton similar to that of the sweet cotton- wood, or populus angulata. “ Among the wild productions of New Mexico is th epalmilla — a species of palmetto which might be termed the soap-plant — whose roots, as well as those of another species known as pabnu (or palm), when bruised, form a saponaceous pulp called atnole, much used by the natives for washing clothes, and is said to be even superior to soap for scour- ing woollens. Pastuiics. — “Most of the high table-plains afford the finest grazing in the world, while, for want of water, they are utterly useless for most other purposes. That scanty moisture which suffices to bring forth the natural vegetation is insufficient for agricultural productions without the aid of irrigation. The high prairies of all Northern Mexico differ greatly from those of our border in the general character of their vegetation. They are remarkably destitute of the gay flowering plants for which the former are so cele- brated, being mostly clothed with different species of a highly nutritious grass called grama, which is of a very short and curly quality. The highlands, upon which alone this sort of grass is produced being seldom verdant till after the rainy season sets in, the grama is only in perfection from August to October. But being rarely nipt by the frost until after the rains are over, it cures upon the ground and remains excellent hay — equal if not superior to that which is cut and stacked from our western prairies. Although the winters are rigorous, the feeding of stock is almost entirely unknown in New Mexico; nevertheless, the extensive herds of the country, not only of cattle and sheep, but of mules and horses, generally maintain themselves in excellent condition upon the dry pasturage alone through the cold season, and until the rains start up the green grass again the following summer.” The following are sketches of the parts of Mexico through which Mr. Gilliam travelled towards California, taken from his travels : “ My disagreeable journey (after leaving Durango) was continued the whole day NORTH-WESTERN MEXICO. 57 until my arrival at Chinacates, a rancho belonging to the estate of the Conde of Guate- mepe. I dismounted at the house of the administrador before sunset. The governor was from home, but his wife came to the door and invited me in, which I did, and to my great astonishment, after I had become seated on the bench behind the long table, she took from a box a six-barrelled pistol, the only one that I had seen in the country, be- sides my own, and walked across the floor. I drew from my belt my pair of similar weapons and laid them upon the table, so that she might behold also that I had twelve shots, which had a desirable effect ; for she appeared no sooner to discover them than she laid aside her own. The woman, I knew, did not intend hostility, but as that part of the country was very much infested with marauding land-pirates, she had ever been accustomed to be prepared to meet the worst. However, the husband soon arrived, and I fared well. My ride, the next day, was mostly upon the ridge of a mountain, which would, at times, bring me in view of the great valley of Gualamepe. Cotton Factory. — “ The attention of an enterprising Mexican company has, at that place, been directed to the manufacturing of cotton, and I was credibly informed by the superintendent of the factory, the company had borrowed their capital, and were enabled to make a handsome profit, paying thirty-seven and a half per cent upon the loan. “ Thus it can easily be perceived how dearly the Mexicans have to pay for cotton fabrics — so much for protection and home markets ! The New Englander related to me what the swindler would call a smart, but to others a disgraceful account of a Mexican gentleman of Saltila, who having determined to go into the cotton manufacturing busi- ness, visited the factories of the United States for the purpose of securing perfect machinery. Upon his arrival he made, through a merchant, as his broker, a purchase of a cotton factory machine, at the cost of twenty thousand dollars, and had it shipped to his home. He also engaged an American artisan to go to Saltila and put it together. But all having arrived, upon examination it was discovered that no two wheels of the whole fabrication belonged to one another, being all mismatched, some too large and others too small, like the cannon balls that were too great for their guns, not a wheel could be turned, nor a shot fired. Thus, while the Mexican character falls short of cor- rectness, it is nevertheless taken advantage of sometimes. Still it is to be hoped that the twenty thousand has never done the swindler any good. “ The Mexicans are very ingenious and apt artisans, acquiring with much celerity the skill of any of the mechanical branches. They never serve the long apprenticeships that are so common in the Union and in Europe ; but having worked at a trade some one or two years, they think themselves sufficiently proficient to carry it on ; and thus quit their tutor and set up for themselves.” Mr. Gilliam then proceeded onwards over a rough country of mountains, rocks, cataracts, glens, and forests, until he ascends a height which commanded a view of the Pacific, and then descended to the mining town of Caneles, of which he says : — “ The climate of Caneles is spring and summer. Vegetables and fruits which abound in any other latitudes, are plentifully cultivated there. The trees are perpetually green ; for, as fast as the leaves fade and fall, others are fresh expanding ; added to which the golden harvests of the orange-tree are ever beautiful to the eye and tempting to the taste. The streets are necessarily narrow. To the inhabitants this is no inconvenience, for a wheeled vehicle of any kind has never been seen in the town ; indeed, it would be impossible for one to ascend the mountain at any point. “ The mountains of Caneles have ever been celebrated, from the early discovery of the country, for abounding in silver, but from the poverty of the ore, the mines have never been extensively worked. But what has rendered the place famous as a mineral locality is, that veins of quicksilver have been found there. These have never been worked suc- cessfully. I learned that the people were much flattered with hopes, from the fact that an English company had but recently commenced opening a mercury mine, under the management of Mr. John Buchan, an Englishman. I 58 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. “ I was shown some specimens of quicksilver ore, of which there were two kinds. The liquid metal was contained in a soft red stone. In the first kind the mineral was not perceptible in the rock, which was only ascertained to be possessed of a foreign sub- stance by its weight. The second and last degree of specimens differed from the first only by the mineral protruding out of the stone in small detached particles, the only contrast being, that the one was richer in mercury than the other. “ Quicksilver is never found but in secondary formations. The ore is pulverised into an impalpable powder, and the mineral is obtained by washing the offal from the silver. The inhabitants of the mines of Caneles are most grievously affected with the loathsome disease bronchocele, or goitre.” Of the difficulty of travelling towards California, he observes, — “There were times when points of rocks or earth, sometimes steep, and at others low, had to be passed. Then the traveller would have to encounter the cat’s-paw, or some other briery growth, which would tear his clothes and flesh ; for all the vegetable kingdom in Mexico is thorny. Indeed the idea often strikes one, that all nature there is at war — the birds, the beasts, the creeping insects and reptiles, as well as the vegetation, are all armed for formidable aggression and defence ; and yet, above every other con- sideration, man, who should be lord and subduer of uncultivated nature, is the bane over all, for he excels in his unkind and hostile deeds. The traveller has to spend the night at some narrow nook that may promise scanty picking for his animals, and safety for himself. He does not proceed more than half a day down the river before he perceives that the mountain-sides, which will admit of growth, are covered with forests of log- wood. “The town of Topic is a rich mineral, situated upon a high mountain, fifteen miles north of Caneles. It is a place of great antiquity, and has three times been destroyed by the Indians ; to this day, bars of silver, that were buried under its ruins, are found ; while silver bullets are ploughed up in the fields. Since I have mentioned the subject of ploughing, I will remark, that I made inquiries as to the mode of cultivating the land in the cold regions of Madre Montre, and was informed, that there lived in those mountains some Indians who have not been civilised, who are in the habit of planting their corn to a depth beyond the influence of the cold. Sometimes, I was told, they were known to have planted the grain as low as two feet under the earth, and if it should germinate and sprout to the surface, before the season of frost has passed, and be nipped down, the warm earth beneath would nourish the roots, and cause them to again grow up to perfection. Thus while the roots of corn are in a warm region, the stalk and fruit are nourished in a colder clime.” Travelling down along a river from Topic, for three days among rocks and water, and enclosed between mountains, he at length arrived in a country, of which lie says : — “ The forests, a perfect medley in every direction, by their growth being so indis- criminately mixed, that the whole woods were thickly matted, and almost impenetrable, save by the paths of ancient usage. The birds, too, of many descriptions, strange to me, were merrily singing — the flocks of paroquets of many species, drowning, by their wild and frantic screams, the melodies of the other portion of the feathered tribe. There were some birds that particularly attracted my attention — the chechalaca, or pheasant ; to me it resembled more the guinea-fowl than any other bird I was acquainted with, being symmetrically and beautifully proportioned — its plumage was dark with slight variations of shade, and although wild in its native state, no fowl is more capable of being rendered domestic.” Tamazula, a town at which he stopped, appeared to be rapidly declining, and contained about 1000 inhabitants. It is situated on the same river as Ca- neles. The inhabitants, are hospitable, and the “ curate gave a brilliant ball.” “ Although the curate seemed to be a man of about sixty years of age, his person was singularly well proportioned and handsome, llis elegance of manners and splendid CENTRAL MEXICO. 59 waltzing', appeared to me, notwithstanding he was a curate, to be more becoming in him, than any other individual I ever beheld. Two of his daughters, as also one of the priests of the town, were at the entertainment. The young ladies were as modest, beautiful, and accomplished as any others I saw; insomuch that they far eclipsed all others in the room, on that truly joyous occasion. “ It may appear remarkable to the Christians of the United States that the clergy of Mexico should have children, but I can assure them, that they may have no doubt on that score ; for no truth is of more acknowledged publicity, and nothing is more common than for the favourite unmarried wives to live with the holy fathers — at the same time their families are better educated and provided for, as a community, than any others in all Mexico. “ Tamazula is situated on what is called the Tamazula river; it being the same stream that floods out of the Madre Monte, upon which Caneles is built; but from the junction of the Umaya with it, it assumes the name of Culiacan, and continues to be a deep broad stream, until it arrives upon the plain next to the ocean. It there sinks, and is absorbed by the sand ; and mouths in the Pacific — an insignificant river. “Culiacan, situated near the union of the Umaya and Tamazula rivers; contains about 5000 inhabitants ; is the capital of the department of Sinaloa. The city does not differ in its appearance, or in the character of its people, from any other capital of Mexico. But there, as in the other cities, the priests, with their broad-brimmed shovel hats, and the military, have congregated to take care of the souls and weal of their dear people ! “ Cosala is situated about one day’s journey south from Culiacan, and from Cosala it is but two days’ journey further to the port of Mazatlan on the Pacific Ocean. Mazat- lan is entirely defenceless from the surges and winds of the ocean, not possessing any of the attributes of a good harbour, and is unsafe for shipping, by its having a large rock immediately before the town, upon which vessels founder in time of storms. However, Mazatlan is the principal commercial port on the Mexican coast, on the Pacific Ocean. It contains about 5000 inhabitants, composed of every people from the four quarters of the globe, and seems to have been an attractive point for all the varieties of the human family. I imagine that the same number of people can hardly be found, where there is such a farrago of complexions and tongues. “ Mazatlan is the principal stopping point in a voyage from China, by way of the Sandwich Islands, to the United States and Europe. The scale and the shell-fish of the Pacific coasts are abundant and excellent. There is a blue-gilled oyster caught upon this coast, equal to any of those in the Chesapeake bay. The Mexicans of the Pacific have a manner of preserving them, different from any other mode I ever heard of. Immediately upon taking them from the water, they are thrown upon the fire, and when roasted until the shell opens, the oyster is salted and dried. Put up in this manner it will soundly keep in any climate, just like the mackarel that are barrelled up in salt. “ On the plains of the Pacific coast I enjoyed perspiration, the atmosphere being more dense and humid than in the interior, and the heights of little elevation. Instead of the south-west winds having always a refreshing coolness in them, it was not unfre- quently the case that they resembled the monsoons of the east. “ Guadaloupe df. Calvo is a town of about 10,000 inhabitants. It is situated about two days’ journey north of Tamazula. It is, I was informed, of only ten or twelve years’ existence, and its great population can only be accounted for from the fact that people congregate at such places where minerals are in successful operation. The silver mines here are worked by an English company, under the management of Mr. John Buchan. The mines yielded very profitably, but the ore was becoming poor. The enter- prising agent informed me that it was his intention to seek new veins, and abandon those of Guadalouptj de Calvo. “ The houses of Guadaloupg are covered with shingles, and the windows had sashes and glass in them, as the English were the first builders there, and besides, timber is plen- tiful in the mountains. “ The mountain regions around Guadaloupe abounded in very rich silver ore. An English gentleman related to me an interesting account of the richest vein of silver, per* haps, that was ever opened. At a place called Refugia (the Refuge), an Indian, who followed the trade of making pack-saddles, having ascended a mountain in search of a i 2 60 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. particular kind of grass, which he used for the purpose of stuffing, perceived, under a turf, a rock matted to a bunch of roots. Upon examining the stone, he found that it was heavier than rocks of that size generally are, and exhibited the specimen to a Spaniard, who informed him that it was one-half silver. “ The liberal Indian told the Spaniard where he had made the valuable discovery, and offered him a free gift of one-half of his right in the mine. The partners, with buoyant hopes, commenced proving the value of their enterprise, which resulted in the entire vein being one-half silver, and the other half stone. Af ter they had extracted several millions of dollars of the precious metal, the mine became impoverished, and was abandoned, and the Indian and his partner were left worse off than when they first began to try their for- tune. They were remarkably industrious in squandering their money faster than it could be dug from the earth. “ The inland road to California is direct from Guadaloupe de Calvo, north-west to the mouth of the Colorado river, where it enters into the Gulf of California. This way is like the most of all others of the Mexican roads, being nothing more than Indian trails, tra- velled only by animals, and never by carriages. “The country between Guadaloup6 de Calvo and the Colorado river is much infested by the Apache Indians, who are very barbarous, often cutting off the nose and ears of travellers, close to the head, and then turning them loose to their fate. “ The ports of Mazatlan and Guaymas are the usual ports of embarkation to Lower and Upper California, by the way of the ocean. “ At Guanosebi all of the rocks upon and under the surface of the earth, partake more or less of silver. Mr. Buchan informed me that he should open a mine at that place, which he thought would be profitable. “ After the general and the priest, the lawyer is the most formidable personage in Mexico. Mr. Buchan related that, in consequence of the many difficulties which origi- nate in transacting business with the Mexicans, he found it to be a matter of both impor- tance and profit to employ, continually, on behalf of the company, a lawyer; by doing which he only found it necessary, in the commencement of difficulties with obstreperous customers, to call into his presence his lawyer, and all obstacles were removed. Mails. — “The mails of Mexico are most generally carried by Indians on foot, who transport them, from post to post, more speedily than it could be by horses. An Indian, with his small wallet of corn-meal, and his little package of letters, will take his straight course over mountain, hill, and dale, that cannot be travelled by animals, and by that means shorten the distance, overcoming space in a wonderful manner. The robbers never molest them, for money is never carried in the mails, or the Indians possessed of valuables. On the 30th of May, Mr. Gilliam commenced his homeward journey by way of Tampico, distant from Caneles about 1700 miles. The first place he arrived at was “the hacienda of Casa Blanca which was under the least improved condition of any that I had an opportunity of examining in all Mexico. In the first instance, there was an irri- gating dam of water, one league and a half in extent. It was formed by a wall of earth and stone, built from hill to hill, and was filled by the rains. The water had, up to the time of my visit, been turned from it in a stream of eighteen inches in diameter, for a period of six weeks, to water the various parts of a corn-field — two leagues and a half square. “ The water was conducted over the land by canals, and turned upon the furrows by flood-gates at intervals, the canals running along the higher elevation of the farm. There was corn sealed up in many cone-like houses of from one to three years of age. There were other extensive lands used for pasturing purposes, upon which hundreds of animals grazed. There was at the principal granary a stack of what the Mexicans call fodder at least fifty feet high and 300 feet in length. Oca, fodder, in Mexico is the stalk with the blade not cured separately, but cut altogether. “ Indeed, I have, in the hot damp valleys, seen corn that had been thickly sown for the purpose of making fodder. The estate belonged to one of the most enterprising and speculating citizens of Mexico. I was informed that he once bought 2000 old horses, at CENTRAL MEXICO. 61 two dollars each, and that when they were boiled into soap, they averaged him fifteen dol- lars a-piece. “ A day’s journey, to my great joy, put me on the east side of the Cordilleras, where, perhaps, lies buried more of the precious metals than the world will ever have industry sufficient to excavate ; for it seemed as if silver ran through their whole extent. “ Our journey lay across the dominions of the Conde de Coral, the most wealthy of all the citizens of Mexico, as I was informed. Ever since I had left the Cordilleras on my rear, my direction was a little south of due east. As I progressed, it was observable that I was rapidly descending from an elevated to a lower region ; for the towering peaks of the back-bone mountains were lost to my view, while the distant points of others would anon show their heads, in a country far below the elevation that I was on. I remarked that the end of each day’s journey would place me upon a declivity, beneath that of the former one. In one instance, my entire day’s travel was in the evening- closed by abruptly descending a short height, which put me upon a plain as much below the former one, as was the elevation of the hills to my rear. “ These plains are chiefly wooded with palm-trees, apparently not possessing the ste- rility of the table-lands of the Cordilleras. “ On the 14th, I arrived at the mineral town of Los Angelos. I had, ever since the commencement of my journey from Casa Blanca, been descending to a hot region, and at Matehaula I found fruits and vegetables in abundance. The sweet orange and the lemon, the pine-apple and the banana, the plantains, plums, pears, peaches, and water-melons also were abundant. I obtained, also, some delightful lettuce, cucumbers, and tomatoes, which I found most congenial to my appetite; for, when travelling, I could never buy vegetables, excepting in the towns. “ The atmosphere in the more arid portions of the country, is of such a drying nature that animal matter shrinks and dries rather than consume by putrid decomposition. “ On the '25th, I arrived at the town of Tola, a place containing about 2000 inha- bitants, and situated on an uneven and confined narrow slip of land, between two hills. “ On the morning of the 26th, after travelling two leagues over a fertile and highly cultivated country, I discovered that a mountain of considerable magnitude lay before me, over which the road wound. My journey was most disagreeable, for the recent rains had made the black mould of the earth very miry, and between mud and stone alternately, our animals progressed very slowly, and with much difficulty. Yet my journey was not without its interest, for the mountain was covered with the most magnificent forest of live oak that I ever beheld. “ After fording a small river at the foot of the mountain, we travelled along an uneven and well-watered valley for about one hour, when we again commenced ascending a higher mountain. So precipitate was the height, that one-half of the day was consumed in gaining its summit by the zig-zag and narrow path. “ The rains that had fallen had given to the abundant vegetation a most perfect green aspect; while the farm-houses, with their sharp thatched roofs, had a picturesque and romantic appearance.” Within three leagues of Tampico, the lands were heavily loaded with iron- wood and fustic. On the 31st of June, he arrived at Tampico, having travelled about 4000 miles. SKETCHES OF THE DEPARTMENT OF MEXICO. The following extracts from Mr. Mayer’s work, during excursions made from the capital to various neighbouring districts, conveys the most recent informa- tion of these parts. After leaving the city of Mexico, he says : 62 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. “The road over the plain was no longer a highway but a water-course, rushing and gurgling over every descent. The poor Indians returning from market paddled along, shrouded up in their petates. At the city gate the guard of custom-house officers wished to charge an export duty on our wine, but our passes from M. de Bocanegra and the governor saved us, and we launched forth on the road to St. Augustin, with the shower increasing every minute. It is useless to say more of this dreary evening. For three hours the rain was incessant; and that the rain of a tropical storm, with huge drops, and wind and lightning. The water flowed from our blankets like spouts. “ It was quite dark when our cold, weary, and uncomfortable party entered St. Augustin, and at the house where we were to stay for the night, we hoped to find every thing duly prepared for our reception; and among our hopes, not the least was for a blazing fire to dry our bespattered garments. We came up to the door, one by one, silently and surlily. We were not only angry with the weather, but seemed to be mutually dissatis- fied. After a deal of thumping, the door was slowly opened, and instead of the salutation of a brilliant blaze in the midst of the court-yard — one miserable, sickly tallow candle made its appearance ! and we found, notwithstanding the usual protection of Mexican blankets, Mexican saddles, and armas de agua, that the rain had penetrated most of our equipments, and that we were decidedly damp, if not thoroughly drenched. We entered the house after disposing of our accoutrements in a large hall, and found comfortable quarters and beds enough for all parties. Sunday. — “As the bells were ringing for mass, and the villagers hurrying through the streets to church, we sallied forth, every man trying to discover the symptom, even, of a break among the dreary brownish clouds that hung low from the mountain-tops to the valley. “ As soon as the road leaves the town of St. Augustin, it strikes directly up the moun- tain, and runs over crags and ravines which in our country would startle the delicate nerves of a lady. Railroads and McAdam have spoiled us; but here, where the toilsome mule and the universal horse have converted men almost into centaurs and are the tradi- tionary means of communication, no one thinks of improving the highways. But, of late years, diligences are getting into vogue between the chief cities of the republic ; and one, built in Troy, has been started on this very road. How it gets along over such ruts and drains, rocks and mountain-passes, it is difficult to imagine ! “ On we went, however, over hill and dale, the misty rain still drifting around us, and becoming finer and mistier as we rose on the mountain. The prospect was dreary enough ; but in fine weather these passes are said to present a series of beautiful land- scapes. In front is then beheld the wild mountain scenery, while, to the north, i he valley sinks gradually into the plain, mellowed by distance, and traversed by the lakes of Chaleo and Tezcoco. Of the former of these we had a distinct view as the wind drifted the mist aside for a moment, when we had nearly attained the summit of the mountain. Here we passed a gang of labourers impressed for the army, and going tied in pairs, under an escort of soluiers, to serve in the capital. This was recruiting ! Further on, we passed the body of a man laying on the side-path. He had evidently just died, and, perhaps, had been one of the party we had encountered. No one noticed him ; his hat was spread over his face, and the rain was pelting on him. “ We saw no habitations, no symptoms of cultivation ; in fact, nothing except rocks and stunted herbage, and now and then a muleteer, a miserable Indian plodding with a pannier of fruit to Mexico, or an Indian shepherd-boy, in his long thatch-cloak of water- flags, perched on a crag and watching his miserable cattle. We were now travelling among the clouds, near 9000 feet above the level of the sea. “ After about four hour’s journey in this desolation, the clouds suddenly broke to the southward, revealing the blue sky between masses of sullen vapour, and thus we reached our breakfasting house on the top of the mountain. M kxican Fake. — “ Imagine a mud -hole (not a regular lake of mud, but a mass of that clayey, oozy, grayish substance, which sucks your feet at every step), surrounded by eight huts, built of logs and reeds, stuck into the watery earth, and thatched with palm leaves. This was the stage breakfasting station, on the road from Mexico to Cuernavaca. We asked for ‘ the house ;’ and a hut, a little more open than the rest, was pointed out. It was in CENTRAL MEXICO. 63 two divisions, one being closed with reeds, and the other entirely exposed, along one side of which was spread a rough board supported on four sticks covered with a dirty doth. It was the principal hotel! “ We asked for breakfast, but the answer was ‘ Nacla !' — nothing. “ We tried to coax them, but without effect; and, at length, we ordered a mule to be unladen and our own provisions to be unpacked. This produced a stir in the house- hold as soon as it became evident that there was to be no high bid for food. “ In a moment I found a couple of women at work, one grinding corn for tortillas, and the other patting them into shape for the griddle. At length the eggs were boiled and tortillas baked, and a pan heaped with the desired turkey and chile, and another full of delicious frijoles appeared. “ About one o’clock we had again mounted, and riding along a level road which winds through the table-land of the mountain-top, we passed the Cruz del Marquez, a large stone cross set up not long after the conquest to mark the boundary of the estate pre- sented by Montezuma to Cortez. At this spot the road is 9500 feet above the level of the sea, and thence commences the descent of the southern mountain-slope toward the Vale of Cuernavaca. The pine forest in many places is open and arching, like a park, and covers a wide sweep of meadow and valley. The air soon became milder, the sun warmer, the vegetation more varied, the fields less arid, and yet all was forest scenery, apparently untouched by the hand of man. In this respect it presents a marked difference from the mountains around the Valley of Mexico, where the denser population has de- stroyed the timber and cultivated the land. “ The road is remarkable for being infested with robbers, but we fortunately met none, we were probably too strong for the ordinary gangs, some fifty shots from a company of foreigners, with double-barrelled guns and revolving pistols, being dangerous welcome. “ After a slow ride during the afternoon, we suddenly changed our climate. We had left the tierras frias and tierras templadas (the cold and temperate lands), and had plunged at once, by a rapid descent of the mountain, into the tierra caliente, where the sun was raging with tropical fervour. The vegetation became entirely different and more luxuriant, and a break among the hiils suddenly disclosed to us the valley of Cuer- navaca , bending to the east with its easy bow. The features of this valley are entirely different from those of the valley of Mexico, for, although both possess many of the same elements of grandeur and sublimity, in the lofty and wide sweeping mountains ; yet there is a southern gentleness, and purple haziness about this, that softens the picture, and are wanting in the Vale of Mexico, in the high and rarefied atmosphere of which every object, even at the greater distance, stands out with almost microscopic distinctness. Be- sides this, the foliage is fuller, the forests thicker, the sky milder, and every thing betokens the sway of a bland and tropical climate. “ A bend of the road around a precipice, revealed to us the town of Cuernavaca, lying beyond the forest in the lap of the valley, while far in the east the mountains were lost in the plain, like a distant line of sea. Our company gathered together on the announce- ment of the first sight of our post of destination for the night. It was decided by the novices in Mexican travelling, that it could not be more distant than a couple of leagues at furthest; but long was the weary ride, descending and descending, with scarcely a perceptible decrease of space before we reached the cily. “ In the course of this afternoon we passed through several Indian villages, and saw numbers of people at work in the fields by the road side. Two things struck me ; first, the miserable hovels in which the Indians are lodged, in comparison with which a decent dog-kennel at home is a comfortable household ; and second, the fact that this, although the Sabbath, was no day of repose to these ever-working, but poor and thriftless people. Many of the wretched creatures were stowed away under a roof of thatch , stuck on the bare ground , with a hole left at one end to craivl in ! Apology for Slavery. — “ What can be the benefit of a republican form of govern- ment to masses of such a population ? They have no ambition to improve their condition, or in so plenteous a country it would be improved ; they are content to live and lie like the beasts of the field ; they have no qualifications for self-government, and they can have no hope, when a life of such toil avails not to avoid such misery. Is it possible for such 64 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. men to become republicans ? It appears to me that the life of a negro, under a good master in our country, is far better than the beastly degradation of the Indian here. With us, he is at least a man (?) ; but in Mexico, even the instincts of his human nature are scarcely preserved. “ It is true that these men aie free, and have the unquestionable liberty, after raising their crop of fruits or vegetables, to trot with it fifty or sixty miles, on foot , to market ; where the produce of their toil is, in a few hours, spent, either at the gambling-table or the pulque shop. After this they have the liberty, as soon as they get sober, to trot back again to their kennels in the mountains, if they are not previously lassoed by some recruit- ing sergeant, and forced to ‘ volunteer’ in the army. Yet what is the worth of such^twr- poseless liberty or the worth of such purposeless life? There is not a single ingredient of a noble-spirited and high-minded mountain peasantry in them. Mixed in their races, they have been enslaved and degraded by the conquest ; ground into abject servility during the colonial government; corrupted in spirit by the superstitious rites of an igno- rant priesthood ; and now, without hope, without education, without other interest in their welfare, than that of some good-hearted village curate, they drag out a miserable existence of beastial ity and crime. Shall such men be expected to govern themselves ? “ It was long after sunset when we descended the last steep, and passed a neat little village, where the people were sitting in front of their low-roofed houses, from every one of which issued the tinkle of guitars. The bright sky reflected a long twilight, and it was just becoming dark when we trotted into Cuernavaca, after a ride of fourteen leagues. Hotel Accommodations. — “ Our companions had already reached the inn, and as we dashed into the court-yard, we found them d tort et a trovers with the landlord about rooms. We had seen a flaming advertisement of this tavern and its comforts in the papers of the capital, and counted largely on splendid apartments and savoury supper after our tiresome ride and pic-nic breakfast. But, as at the ‘ diligence hotel’ in the morning, every thing went to the tune of ‘ Nohai !' No hai beds, rooms, meats, soups, supper — nada! They had nothing! We ended by securing two rooms, and I set out to examine them, as well as my legs (stiff from being all day in the hard Mexican stirrups) would let me. The first room I entered was covered with water from the heavy rains. The second adjoined the first ; and although the walls were damp, the floor was dry ; but there was no window or opening except the door. “ We had secured the room, and of course wanted beds ; because, room and bed, and bureau, and wash-stand, and towels, and soap, are not all synonymous here as in other civilised countries. Four of our travellers had fortunately brought cots with them : but I had trusted to my two blankets and my old habits of foraging. At length the master managed to find abed for two more of us, and a cot for me, and thus the night was pro- vided for. We had resolved not to go without supper, and I was despatched to the kitchen. I will not disclose the history of my negotiations on this occasion, but suffice it to say that in an hour’s time we had a soup ; a fragment of stewed mutton ; a dish of Lima beans; a famous dish of turkey and peppers, and the table was set off by an enormous head of lettuce in the centre, garnished with outposts of oranges on either side, while two enormous pine-apples reared their prickly leaves in front and rear. “ An hour afterward we had all retired to our windowless room, and after piling our baggage against the door to keep out the robbers, I wrapped myself in my blanket, on the bare, pillowless, sacking-bottom, and was soon asleep. Cuernavaca “ lies on a tongue of land jutting out into the lap of the valley. On its western side, a narrow glen has been scooped out by the water which descends from the mountains, and its sides are thickly covered with the richest verdure. To the east, the city again slopes rapidly, and then as rapidly rises. I walked down this valley street past the valley church built by Cortez (an old picturesque edifice filled with nooks and corners), where they were chanting a morning mass. In the yard of the palace, or Casa Municipal, at the end of the street, a body of dismounted cavalry soldiers were going through the sword exercise. From this I went to the plaza in front of it, at pre- sent nearly covered with a large wooden amphitheatre, that had been devoted to bull- fights during the recent national holydays. Around the edges of this edifice, the Indians and small farmers spread out their mats, covered with fine fruits and vegetables of the CENTRAL MEXICO. 65 tierra caliente. I passed up and down a number of the steep and narrow streets, bor- dered with ranges of one-story houses, open and cool, and fronted usually with balconies and porches screening them from the scorching sun. The softer and gentler appearance of the people, as compared with those of the Valley of Mexico, struck me forcibly. The whole has a Neapolitan air. The gardens are numerous and full of flowers. By the street sides small canals continually pour along the cool and clear waters from the mountains. “ The beautiful suburbs of Cuernavaca are chiefly inhabited by Indians, whose houses are built along the narrow lanes; and in a country where it is a comfort to be all day long in the open air under the shade of trees, and where you require no covering except to shelter you in sleep and showers, you may readily imagine that the dwellings of the people are exceedingly slight. A few canes stuck on end, and a thatch of cane, complete them. “ But the broad-leaved plantain, the thready pride of China, the ‘ feathery palm,’ bending over them, and matted together by lacing vines and creeping plants covered with blossoms — these form the real dwellings. The whole, in fact, would look like a pic- ture from ‘Paul and Virginia’ — but for the figures! ‘Unkempt’ men, indolent and lounging ; begrimed women, surrounded by a set of naked little imps as begrimed as they ; and all crawling or rolling over the filth of their earthern floors, or on dirty hides stretched over sticks for a bed. A handful of corn, a bunch of plantains, or a pan of beans picked from the nearest bushes, is their daily food ; and here they burrow, like so many animals, from youth to manhood, from manhood to the grave. “ After leaving the city, our road lay for some distance along the high table-land, and at length struck into the glen which passes from the west of Cuernavaca, where, for the first time in Mexico, I actually lost the high-road. Imagine the channel of a moun- tain-stream down the side of an Alleghany mountain, with its stones chafed out of all order, and many of them worn into deep clefts by the continual tread of mules following each other, over one path, for centuries. This was the main turnpike of the country to the port of Acapulco, and several of our party managed to continue on horseback while descending the ravine. Haciesdas. — “ This (the hacienda of Temisco) is one of the oldest establishments of note in the republic, and passed, not many years since, into the hands of the present owners for the sum of 300,000 dollars. The houses (consisting of the main dwelling, a large chapel, and all the requisite out buildings for grinding the cane and refining the sugar) were erected shortly after the conquest, and their walls bear yet the marks of the bullets with which the refractory owner was assailed during one of the numerous revolts in Mexico. He stood out stoutly against the enemy, and mustering his faithful Indians within the walls of this court-yard, repulsed the insurgents. “This (the hacienda of Cocoyotla) is a small, but one of the most beautiful estates in the tierra caliente. A handsome chapel-tower has recently been added to the old edifice ; a wing on broad arches has been given to the dwelling, and the garden is kept in tasteful order. “ Back of the house and bordering the garden, sweeps along a sweet stream, some twenty yards in width, and, by canals from it, the grounds are plentifully supplied with water. But the gem of Cocoyotla is the orangery. It is not only a grove, but a miniature forest, interspersed with broad-leaved plantains, guyavas, cocos, palms, and mammeis. It was burdened with fruits; and a multitude of birds, undisturbed by the sportsman, have made their abodes among the shadowy branches. “ We sauntered about in the delicious and fragrant shade for half an hour, while the gardener supplied us with the finest fruits. We were then summoned to an excellent breakfast of several courses, garnished with capital wine. “ When our repast was concluded, Senor Sylva conducted us over his house ; showed us the interior of the neat church, where he has made pedestals for the figures of various saints out of stalactites from some neighbouring cavern ; and finally dismissed us, with sacks of the choicest fruit, which he had ordered to be selected from his grove.’ A Rancho, or Farmhouse. — Our journey from the hacienda (Cocoyotla) was K 66 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. toward the Cave of Cacahuawamilpa, which we propose visiting - , and we have reached, to-night, the rancho of Michapas. “This is a new feature in our travels. Hitherto we have been guests at haciendas and comfortable town dwellings, but to-night we are lodged in a rancho — a small farmer’s dwelling — an Indian hut. “ We arrived about five o’clock, after a warm ride over wide and solitary moors, with a background of the mountains we passed yesterday. In front another sierra stretches along the horizon ; and in the foreground of the picture, a lake, near a mile in circuit, spreads out its silver sheet in the sunset, margined with wide-spreading trees and covered with water-fowl. “ The house is built of mud and reeds, matted together ; that is, there are four walls without other aperture but a door, while a thatch, supported on poles, spreads on either side from the roof-tree, forming a porch in front. This thatch is not allowed to touch the tops of the walls, but between them and it, all around the house, a space of five or six feet has been left, by means of which a free circulation of air is kept up within. The interior (of one room) is in perfect keeping with this aboriginal simplicity. Along the western wall there are a number of wretched engravings of saints, with inscriptions and verses beneath them ; next, a huge picture of the Virgin of Guadalupe, with tarnished gilded rays, blazes in the centre ; and near the corner is nailed a massive cross, with the figure of our Saviour apparently bleeding at every pore. A reed and spear are crossed below it, and large wreaths and festoons of marigolds are hung around. Six tressels, with reeds spread over them, stand against the wall ; and in one corner a dilapidated canopy, with a tattered curtain, rears its pretentious head to do the honours of state- bedstead. The floor is of earth, and, in a corner, are safely stowed our saddles, bridles, guns, pistols, holsters, swords, and spurs — so that taking a sidelong glance at the whole establishment, you might well doubt whether you were in a stable, church, sleeping- room, or chicken-coop ! “Don Miguel Benito, the proprietor, is a man some fifty years of age ; delights in a shirt, the sleeves of which have been so long rolled up, that there is no longer any thing to roll down ; andja pair of those elastic leather breeches that last one’s lifetime in Mexico, and grow to any size that may be required, as the fortunate owner happens to fatten with his years. Not the least curious part of Don Miguel’s household, is his female establishment, as not less than a dozen women, of all colours and complexions, hover about his dwellings ; while at least an equal number of litttle urchins, with light hair and dark roll over the mud-floors of the neighbouring huts, or amuse themselves by lassoing the chickens. “■ The caterer of our mess, thought it but a due compliment to Don Miguel (who does not disdain to receive your money) to order supper — though we resolved to fall back, in case of necessity, upon our own stores, and accordingly unpacked some pots of soup and sardines. “ In the course of an hour, a board was spread upon four sticks, and in the middle of it was placed a massive brown earthen platter, with the stew. At the same time, a dirty copper spoon and a hot tortillia were laid before each of us. Although we had deter- mined to hold ourselves in reserve for our soups, yet there was but little left of the savoury mess. Our turtle, flanked with lemons and claret, then came into play ; and the repast was ended by another smoking platter of the universal frijoles (beans). “ When we crept to our reed tressels and scrapes, at eleven o’clock, I found that the state-bed was already occupied by a smart-looking fellow from the West Coast (who I take to have been rather deeply engaged in the contraband) and his young wife — a lively looking lass, rather whiter than the rest of the brood — who had spruced herself up on our arrival. Twelve of our party lodged together in this apartment, while Don Miguel betook himself, with the rest of his household, to mats under the porch. “ It rained heavily last night (22nd September), but the morning, as usual, was fresh, clear, and warm. After a cup of chocolate, we sallied forth toward the Cave of Cacahuawamilpa, having previously despatched our arrieros with the mules to Tetecala, to await our return on our journey toward Cuautla. “ Our forces this morning were increased by the addition of some twelve or thirteen CENTRAL MEXICO. 67 Indians, who had been engaged by Don Miguel to accompany us as guides to the cavern. They bore with them the rockets and torches which were to be burned within, and a large quantity of twine for threading the labyrinth. “ Leaving the lake, situated on the very edge of the table-land, we struck down a deep barranca, at the bottom of which our horses sunk nearly to their girths at every footstep, in an oozy marsh, that had not been improved by last night’s rain. But pass- ing these bogs, we ascended a steep line of hills, whence there was a splendid view of the snow-capped volcanos of Puebla, and soon reached the Indian village of Totla- wahmilpa, where it was necessary to procure a ‘ licence’ to visit the cavern ; or, in other words, where the authorities extort a sum of money from every passenger, under the plea of keeping the road open, and the entrance safe. As we had special passports from the Mexican government to go where we pleased in the tierra caliente, I thought this pre- caution unnecessary, but our Indians refused to budge a peg without a visit to the alcalde; and therefore, while some of the party entered a hut, and set the women to cooking tortillias, others proceeded with the passports to the civic authorities.” The following is the most pleasing description of any part of Mexico which we have met with : — Haciendas of St. Nicolas. — “ We left Tetecala this morning (23rd September), at eight o’clock, for the hacienda of St. Nicolas. For the present, at least, we seem to have done with the mountains, as our road to-day lay entirely over the plain. During the three last days, we have been wandering among gigantic mountains and over wild moors, where the solitude of nature reigns in all its majesty ; but the picture varies in the direction of Cuautla. The mountains sink into the plain, and the plain is rich, fertile, and cultivated with the nicest economy. “ About twelve o’clock we saw the hacienda lying in the distance, in the lap of the plain, with a small hill or two hard by, just large enough to vary the scenery. As we approached the white-walled buildings, we could not help remarking the uncommonly neat appearance of every thing about the estate. The sugar-fields were in capital order, the roads smooth, the fences had been put up, the cattle were under the care of men. The Indian village, inhabited by many of the labourers on the estate, was tidy and com- fortable, and there was a cleanness and decency in the appearance of the people that I had not seen elsewhere. Indeed, the whole view of this plain, hemmed in by the distant summits of the mountains, reminded me strongly of some of the pictures of rural beauty constantly presented to the traveller in New England : and I was the more forcibly struck with this, when I looked from the corridor of the hacienda over the whole expanse of country, and saw it dotted here and there with villages and haciendas, the white towers of whose chapels rose up beautifully from an unbroken mass of verdure. “We were received at this plantation by the administrador, or steward, who had been expecting us for an hour or more ; and though he had already partaken of his dinner (believing that we did not intend visiting St. Nicolas to-day), he immediately ordered another, in the meantime showing us to a large and cool apartment, containing a number of beds, where we made a hasty toilet. “We took a siesta after dinner, and then w’alked with Don A. over the estate. The whole of the fields are planted with cane for a great distance around the house, which forms, by itself, a very extensive establishment. “ First there is the dwelling, a large two-story edifice, having in the basement all the offices, and the store where every necessary is sold to the Indians ; above this are the kitchens, parlours, bedrooms, and an immense corridor on arches, looking toward the east, filled with caged birds, and hung with hammocks, where the family pass most of the long warm days of summer. In front is the corral , on the west of which are the store-houses and buildings to receive the crop; while on the east is another huge edifice, where the boilers, engines, crushing machines, cooling vats, moulding apartments, &c., constitute the trapiche of the hacienda. It is a little city in itself. “ At sunset all the Indians employed on the premises assembled under the corridor on the basement floor, to account to the administrador for their day’s labour and their presence. As he called their names each one replied with ‘ Alabo a Dios — ‘ I praise K 2 68 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. God,’ and ranged himself against the wall in a line with those who had already re* sponded. When the whole list had been examined, they were dismissed, and departed in a body singing an Indian hymn to the Virgin, the sounds of which died away in the distance as they plodded home over the level fields to their village. “At night we heard the sound of a clarionet, bass-drum, and flute, at some distance from the dwelling, and on inquiry, discovered that a band of musicians had been organ- ised in an adjoining village by the owner of the hacienda. We strolled over. The whole of a large hut had been appropriated for a musical hall, where the performers were just assembling ; while others, who had already arrived, were engaged in tuning their instruments. The leader was quite a respectable-looking Indian, decently dressed, who played the violin ; the clarionet player was fortunate in the possession of cotton drawers and a shirt ; the bassoon had a pair of drawers but no shirt ; the serpent was the wildest looking Indian I ever saw, with long dishevelled black hair, and eyes worthy of his instrument; the big drum was a huge portly old negro, who reminded me of many of our performers on it at home ; while the octave flute was an urchin of not more than twelve, the wickedest little devil imaginable, but a fellow of infinite talent, and a capital performer. “The night was rather too hot to permit us to remain long in the apartment with an Indian crowd ; we therefore took our seats outside, where we were favoured by the self- taught amateurs with several airs from recent operas, performed in a style that would not have injured the reputation of many a military band at home (the United States). “ It may reasonably be argued, from a scene like this, that the Indians have talents for one of the arts requiring a high degree of natural delicacy and refinement. If it had been the care of all Spanish proprietors gradually to bring forth their latent dispositions as the Senores J. have done, Mexico would now present a picture very different from that of the degradation which fills its valleys with a slothful, ignorant, and debased mul- titude. “About two weeks since, seven armed and mounted ruffians attacked two French- men and their servants near the hacienda of Trenta. One of the Frenchmen was severely wounded, but the other, aided by the two inosos, succeeded in beating off the robbers, who left one of their number dead on the field, and his horse and trappings as spoils for the victor. Cuautla de Amilpas and Hacienda de St. Inez. — “We left the hospitable hacienda of San Nicolas at four o’clock this morning (24th September), and passed through a great number of Indian villages, and some haciendas of considerable extent, especially that of Trenta , which derives its name from the fact that it was origin- ally purchased for the sum of thirty dollars. With its village, its church (nearly a cathedral in size), its immense sugar works and princely domain, I suppose it could not be acquired now for much less than half a million. “ After enjoying a fine view of the volcano of Popocapetl at sunrise, and passing the village of Tlaltisappan, we struck into the mountain gorges which we had been for some time approaching. The ground gradually rose, the glens and defiles became more numerous, and among the wild and tangled forests of these solitary mountains we passed many ill-looking wretches, armed and mounted, but always in too small a number to attack our party. There is no doubt they were robbers, as several had their faces partly disguised, while their weapons were cocked and resting in their hands as they passed us. We cocked ours, also, and thus moved on fairly quits with the vaga- bonds. “On the sides of these mountains, there were continuous groves of that tall pillar- like species of the cactus which is called ‘ organos .’ “ The heat became insufferable towards noon, and I felt, for the first time, weary of our journey among the lonely hills and defiles. Our impatience to reach Cuautla was increased by the accounts of the Indians we encountered on the road, who invariably added a league or half a league to the distance as we advanced. At length, however, after passing through a very extensive Indian corn-field, which I computed to contain at least five hundred acres, we reached the valley of Amilpas, and, in half an hour more, en- CENTRAL MEXICO. 69 tered an Indian village bowered in the foliage of bananas and palms, through the midst of which ran a cool and sparkling streamlet. Here we halted to refresh ourselves, as the sun was blistering our skins, and we burned with a fever that was scarcely mitigated by profuse perspiration. After leaving this village, Cuautla appeared immediately on our left, with a rapid river running by it; while, in front, was the stately hacienda of Cuauwistla, belonging to the Dominican monks of Mexico, from the revenues of which a liberal sum is annually set apart for the entertainment of travellers. Cuautla is a perfect southern city. The houses are small and airy ; clear water gurgles through the middle of the street; broad-leaved trees fling their branches over the low dwellings. The women loll, half-dressed, in the windows and doors, gazing at no- thing or each other; the men seem to have as little to do as the women, and the whole has an air of the ‘ dolce far niente,’ which prevails in this mild and tempting climate. “ Passing through the square, we entered a by-street and arrived at the door of the meson (tavern). “ The gate of the court-yard was thrown open for us. In front lay a narrow lane, on one side of which was a shed, and beneath it a couple of sheep munching a stack of green corn in a corner, while a couple of turkeys picked up what they could find. On the roof a lot of sheepskins, recently taken from the animal, were spread out to dry in the sun. At the end of the lane was the kitchen of the meson. “From the end of the lane I have described, another struck off at right-angles with it, and both of its sides were adorned with a row of one-story windowless cabins, over the doors of which appeared, in true hotel fashion, the numbers 1. — 2. — 3. — 4.— 5.-6. “ G got down to examine, and the landlord led the way. He first opened No. 3. It was eight feet long, about six wide, and ten high ; in one corner lay a pool of mud on the earthen floor, and the walls were literally black with fleas. G at once ob- jected to this, and the landlord said that it was of course not intended for the senores, but for the baggage and the mosos. He had ‘ another, more comfortable’ for our- selves ; and stepping across the street opened No. 6, which, from its exterior, appeared to be of the same size as No. 3. Scarcely had he turned the bolt — when out walked a full grown ass ! “ The hacienda of Santa Inez is situated in the midst of sugar-fields to the north of the town, and the works, residence, chapel, and Indian village, are bordered by a beau- tiful stream among some of the finest forest trees I have seen in the republic. Ample accommodation and beds were offered us ; a meal (which, in apologising for, he called a ‘ penetencia,’) was quickly spread on snowy damask, served with a fine display of silver and excellent claret ; and the whole was seasoned with a welcome that will mark Don Filipe in my memory as a man to be trusted in times of difficulty. “ On Saturday evening, after a walk in the charming groves that border the brook and Indian village, from which there was a noble prospect of the whole of Popocatepetl, with the sunset tinging its snows, we returned to the hacienda and took seats in the lower court, near the office where the clerk of the administrador was paying off the hands for their week’s work. Here chocolate was handed us, served in the same tasteful style as our dinner. Degraded State of the Aborigines. — “ The hands vvere all mustered, and came up with the usual ‘ Alabo a Dios !’ to receive their weekly wages, as on last evening at San Nicolas. “ Don Filipe informs me that all the ordinary expenses of this estate are 500 dollars per week ; but during the working season they rise frequently to 1200 dollars. Three hundred labourers are usually employed at two and a half to three reals a day, and the total production of the hacienda is about 40,000 loaves annually — the loaves averaging twenty-three pounds — or, in all, 920,000 pounds of refined sugar. Here, as elsewhere, the molasses nearly pays the expenses. “ He complains greatly of the worthlessness of the Indians, and expresses hopes of improvement from the establishment of schools in Cuautla, where the young children learn rapidly, if they are allowed by their intemperate and gambling parents to continue 70 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. in their classes. He alleges that the greatest punishment for the Indians is to discharge and expel them entirely from the estate upon which they and their ancestors from time immemorial, have worked ; but he intimates that other punishments are resorted to for trifling faults and excesses, and I doubt not the whip is made to play an important part in the discipline of Mexican plantations. “ Mr. Stephens, in his last work on Yucatan, says : “ ‘ Looking into the corridor, we saw the poor Indian on his knees on the pave- ment, with his arms clasped around the knees of another Indian, so as to present his back fairly to the lash. At every blow he rose'on one knee, and sent forth a piercing cry. He seemed struggling to retain it, but it burst forth in spite of all his efforts. His whole bearing showed the subdued character of the present Indians, and with the last stripe the expression of his face seemed that of thankfulness for not getting more. With- out uttering a word, he crept to the major-domo, took his hand, kissed it, and walked away. No sense of degradation crossed his mind. Indeed, so humbled is this once fierce people, that they have a proverb of their own : ‘Los Indios no oigan sino por las nalgas’ — the Indians only hear through their backs.’ Another Argument in Favour of Slavery. — “In what then is this Indian popu- lation, throughout the planting, farming, and mining districts, equal to our slaves? Although not hereditary property by law, they are hereditary by custom, and the force of those circumstances which deny them the opportunity of bettering their condition, either by emigration to foreign countries, or by diffusing themselves over their own. They form a degraded caste. They are subjected to the control of masters and overseers, and although it is true that they are regularly paid for their labour and habitual degradation, yet they are ignorant, gambling, intemperate, and liable at any moment to be submitted to the lash, against which they have not the courage to offer the slightest resistance. With all the boast, therefore, of the authorities of Mexico, that no man is held in bond- age within its limits, I still think that no candid person can inspect the condition of these labourers without giving the palm to our negroes, and exclaiming indignantly at the mashed slavery which is carried on from year to year, ivithout the slightest prospect of ameliorating the character or condition of the miserable natives. “ If a man become slave by descent, under the well-established laws (!!!) of a nation by which the institution is recognised, he has always a master, whose duty it is to afford him food, raiment, and protection, in recompense for his toil; and although moralists may say that slavery is in its very nature deteriorating, yet it does not crush the very spirit from the negro, or tend always to his debasement. He is sober; he cares for his family; he feels the duties of the social relations, even in his ‘quarter;’ and is ambi- tious of the degree of respectability he may acquire among his fellow slaves. His condition must, therefore, both physically and intellectually, be superior to that of the Indian who becomes a slave, in spite of the law, by the servility of his character and the loathsome vices that absorb his earnings, without a care for the comfort of his family, the education of his children, or even the personal appearance he presents among his fellows (! ! !) “ When we remember the degree of civilisation that had been attained by these races anterior to the Mexican conquest, it is impossible to believe that their present de- basement is to be alone attributed to an enervating climate ; nor can Mexico ever claim a high standing among nations until she blots this stain of hypocritical freedom from the fairest portions of her territory. With the improvement of the lot and character of her Indians (who number near four millions of the seven that compose her whole population,) the steady advancement of the nation will proceed ; but until that occurs, her fondest admirers can have but little hope, either for her progress or even for her con- tinuance as a nation. Cuautla. — “ The next morning (Sunday, September 25) we arose early and went to the town of Cuautla, passing great numbers of Indians with half-shaved heads on their way to the Sunday market, where they usually assemble in the Plaza to purchase and sell their commodities. As we reached the town, the bells were ringing for mass, and we strolled into several of the churches. One of them was being repaired, and the altars were filled with skulls and bones that had been taken up while the floor was under- CENTRAL MEXICO. 71 going the requisite renovation. In the parroquia, or parish church, the stench from the dead bodies beneath the rough boards over which we trod, was so abominable that I hastened out of it, without examining some figures of Saints and Apostles done up in dresses that resembled very much the antique uniforms of the eighteenth century. Such anachronisms, however, are of frequent occurrence, and I have before alluded to them, in the instance where even our Saviour was represented in one of the most splendid churches of Mexico in a blue velvet robe and a Guyaquil sombrero ! “ In the square, there were hundreds of Indians under cane booths, on mats spread with fruits, skins, rebosos, serapes, ices, orgeats, lemonade, vegetables, flowers, and all the varied products of the tierra caliente. I stepped into one and breakfasted on oranges, sponge cake, and iced milk. The stores around the square were all open, and indeed I saw no cessation of the usual week-day occupations, except among the Indians who thronged the Plaza. The women, as on yesterday, lolled in the broad window- sills ! the men lolled opposite them, or leaned against the walls in the shade — and the excessive heat seemed to have predisposed every one, before ten o’clock, to a doze or a siesta. “ In one of the stores (while Don Juan was bargaining for a horse) the owner showed me a centipede of the tierra caliente , a horrible reptile of the scorpion kind, with which he says the old houses of Cuautla are infested. These and the alacranes (a sort of cross of the spider on the scorpion), are the scourges of the warm country, and the bite of both frequently results in the extreme illness of adults, and the death of children. “ A wide plain skirts the foot of the sierra that hems in the Valley of Mexico, and runs from the valley of Cuautla into that of Puebla. Over it lay our road this afternoon (towards the city of Mexico) and after passing one of those strange and deep barrancas, down which plunged a cascade of clear water for some two hundred feet, we com- menced the ascent of the range of mountains forming the last barrier between us and the capital. “ Scarcely had we mounted the hills when it began to rain, for the first time during the day since we left Cuernavaca, and I experienced immediately a remarkable change in the temperature, from the scorching heat in the square of Cuautla. Our serapes were at once put on, and we wore them for the rest of the evening. “ Santa Inez is on the limit of the tierra caliente ; — at fivh or six miles distance the culture of the sugar cane ceases, and the tierra templada commences. “ We passed the beautiful Indian village of Acaclauca, with its green leaves, chapels, and churches, in front of one of which I saw the last tall group of palm-trees standing out with their feathery branches relieved against the snow of Popocapetl. It was a strange picture, mingling in one frame the tropic and the pole. “ Near eight o’clock the distant barking of dogs announced our approach to the village where we designed resting until morning. Small fires were lighted before each door, and by their light we meandered through half-a-dozen crooked and hilly streets before we reached the house of the worthy Don Juan Gonzales (an old friend of the consul), who at a moment’s notice received us under his hospitable roof. “Don Juan is a man ‘well to do’ in the world of his little village; — he keeps a store, rents a room to a club of village folks, who like a drop of aguardiente or a quiet game of monte. In one corner of his long, low, back parlour stood a picture of the Virgin with a lamp burning before it, while opposite was a table, around which were gathered five of the neighbours in shirt-sleeves, slouched hats, and beards of a week’s growth, busy with a game of cards, in the light of a dim candle. “ After a frugal supper of tortillias and chocolate, we retired to feather-beds and clean sheets on the floor — but I was glad when we were called to horse at three in the morning. It had been a night of sore encounter; an army of fleas attacked us, the moment we retired. Ayotla. — “ We were off at half-past three (26th of September), by the moonlight of a cold and frosty morning, and, at the first streak of day found that we were winding high up the spur of hills that juts out from the sides of Popocapetl, which was in full view, with the clouds rolling off from its lofty head as the sun rose. 72 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. “ Behind us, for near twenty leagues, the tierra caliente extended distinctly until the view was bounded by a bold and craggy sierra. We wound upward through the hill- farms, hanging against the sides of the mountains, and among the pine-forests, through whose branches a cold autumn wind was whistling. The road was lined ivith crosses, many of them recently erected, and hung with garlands and flowers; it is a dangerous pass, and infested by hordes of robbers, who attack the travellers either passing from Cuautla to the Valley of Mexico, or returning with the proceeds of their sales. “ Beyond the village of Hoochietipec, we lost sight both of the plain of Cuautla and the tierra caliente, and soon afterward the Valley of Mexico appeared to the west. At Tenango, “ we stopped for breakfast. Our inn was a small rat-hole of a meson for muleteers, with a corral of a couple of acres; but the whole establishment bore the sounding name of the ‘ Purissima Sangre de Christo !’ “ We found, to our sorrow, that we were no longer in the land of rich haciendas and hospitable administradors. The old song of ‘ no hail’ had recommenced. We again mounted, and descending by a series of inclined planes, speedily reached the level of the plain of Mexico. This valley is exceedingly different from the tierra caliente. Although the temperature is milder, yet every thing is dry, parched, withered, and volcanic. The hill-sides and mountains are stripped of their forests ; the fields are arid ; the grain small and unproductive ; and the whole has a waste and moor-like appearance. The Indians seem even dirtier, if possible, than those we have left behind us, and the patient mules travel over the long and dreary sands as if in a new Arabia. “ Passing through several mud-walled villages, we came at length upon the Vera Cruz road, and reached the town of Ayotla, seven leagues from Mexico. “ I would recommend every one who is about to travel through the tierra caliente , to procure a hammock of Sisal grass. With this, he is entirely his own master ; and surely no mode of sleeping is more luxurious in a hot climate. You swing it from the rafters of the room — it is above the floor, clear of the walls, and free from insects — it bends to each motion of the body, fitting neatly to every part of your frame — you set it in motion, and while it swings you to sleep, it fans and refreshes by its gentle waving through the air. “ Besides the beautiful scenery through which I have passed during this journey, nothing has impressed me so favourably as the unaffected hospitality we met with every- where, whether we came introduced or not. The old phrase, ‘ Mi casa, senor, estd muy a su disposicion * My house is entirely at your service,’ was not a phrase of course — a mere formula to be gone through and forgotten. Their houses, their animals, their servants, and themselves, were all at our command, and with a cordiality that forbad the idea of arriere pensce. “ Living in the country, at a distance from large towns, with but little literature, and few and irregularly-received newspapers, the haciendados and their administradors are glad to welcome the traveller as a guest to their doors. With ample means of accommo- dation and entertainment, they enjoy as well as confer a favour, and are as thankful for your visit, as you are to them for their repasts and attentions. You feel that the account is fairly balanced, that the other little elegancies and assiduities which are thrown in for your comfort are the result of genuine hospitality, and the promptings of excellent, hearts.” The descriptions of Mexico by Mr. Mayer, though in some respects contra- dictory, are by far the most favourable ; but his excursions were very limited ; and generally we would consider that Mr. Chevalier, an acute observer, who visited the country in 1835, is far more conclusive. “ I have only been two months in Mexico, and already I have witnessed five attempts at revolution. Insurrections have become quite ordinary occurrences here, and their settled forms have been gradually established, from which it is not considered fair to deviate. These seem almost as positively fixed as the laws of backgammon, or the recipes of domestic cookery. The first act of a revolution is called pronun- CENTRAL MEXICO. 73 ciamiento. An officer of any rank, from a general down to a lieutenant, pro- nounces himself against the established order, or against an institution which displeases him, or against any thing else. He gets together a detachment, a company, or a regiment, as the case may be, and these generally, without more ado, place themselves at his disposal. The second act is called the Gecto, or out- cry, when two or three articles are drawn up, to state the motives or objects of the insurrection. If the matter is of some importance, the Outcry is called a plan. At the third act, the insurgents and the partisans of government are op- posed to one another, and mutually examine each other’s forces. At the fourth act, they come to blows ; but, according to the improved system lately introduced, the fighting is carried on in a very distant, moderate, and respectful manner. However, one party is declared victor, and the beaten party dispronounce. The conquerors march to Mexico, and their triumphal entry into the capital consti- tutes the fifth act of the play ; the vanquished meanwhile embark at Vera Cruz, or Tampico, with all the horrors of war. “ With tranquillity, unfortunately, every thing else is also lost. There is no longer any security. It is mere chance, if the diligence from Mexico to Vera Cruz proceed the whole way without being stopped and robbed. It requires whole regiments to convey the conducta of piastres to Vera Cruz. Travellers who cannot afford to pay for an escort, go armed from head to foot, and in little caravans. Here and there, rude crosses erected by the side of the road, and sur- rounded by heaps of stones, thrown by passers-by, in token of compassion, point out the spot where some wayfarer, and almost always a stranger, has perished by the hands of robbers. The immediate environs of the most populous cities are infested by malefactors, and even in the interior of cities not excepting the capi- tal, there is no longer any security. There are numerous instances of people being robbed on a Sunday, and at the hour even when the greatest number of people are abroad, within a league of Mexico. An English charge-d’affairs was lassoed on the Alameda, the public walk, in the middle of the day. In the even- ing, after sunset, notwithstanding the numerous guardians of the night (serenos), notwithstanding the videttes of cavalry at every corner of the streets, notwith- standing the law prohibits the riding on horseback through the streets after eight o’clock, in order to prevent the use of the lasso, a man is not safe in Mexico, not even in his own house. If, in the evening at eight or nine o’clock, you visit a friend, before the porter consents to open the enormous gate, lined with iron or bronze, there pass as many formalities as if it were a question of letting down the drawbridge of a fortress. Persons, on whose words I think I can rely, have assured me, that as many as 900 dead bodies are yearly deposited in the Morgue of Mexico.” L 74 SFANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INHABITANTS OF MEXICO. The Spanish Mexicans are accused of great indolence of character, occasioned by the abundant means of subsistence acquired by little industry. They are, from idleness, addicted to gambling, which is charged against them as a prevail- ing vice. Probably no two men differ from each other so widely in habits and character as the Anglo-Saxon Americans and the Spanish Americans. Mr. Mayer says, — “The Mexicans are a proud and sensitive people; yet, none are more easily subdued by kindness — none more easily won by a ready disposition to min- gle in their ranks, and treat them with a due respect for their habitudes and their preju- dices. “It seems impossible for them to get rid of the idea, that European powers are seeking to obtain their wealth and territory, and to re-establish the systems from which they freed themselves by so many years of revolutionary war ; nor can they (since the Texan war) divest themselves of the erroneous notion, that the United States has ever a longing eye on their capital and country. “There are but few entertainments given in Mexico, in comparison with those of other cities abroad, where a lavish expenditure in viands, lights, and amusements for the few hours of a single evening, are mistaken for the elegancies and refinements of genuine hospitality; — instead, however, of these ostentatious displays, there are frequent re- unions at turtulias, where an hour or two are most agreeably spent. “ I have already alluded to the extreme of fashionable life, and its disposition for the theatre ; and I do not intend to treat again of the propensity of the ultras to living thus constantly in the public eye, without devoting a portion of each day to that domestic intercourse and reunion which make the comfort and beauty of an English or American fireside. I speak, however, of that juste milieu of society, wherein resides the virtue and intellect of a country. “ It was my good fortune to reside for more than half a year in a native family, once rich and titled, but broken in fortunes by the political and commercial vicissitudes of the republic, and it was there that I constantly witnessed the most beautiful evidences of a filial devotion and parental love, amounting almost to passionate attachment. The lady at the head of the establishment, was a person who had been distinguished for her talents and accomplishments in the days when Mexico was adorned with the splendour of a Spanish court. She would have been considered highly cultivated in any country ; her manners were excellent ; her bearing graceful and courteous ; and a wide circula- tion in her youth among distinguished men (both before and during the revolution), and a ready talent for imparting her recollections, made her conversation delightful and instructive. Besides this, she possessed a genius for miniature-painting and sketching in crayons, rarely attained by a female, and worthy of a distinguished artist. Qualities like these, brought around her constantly a large and intelligent circle of both sexes. The change of fortune had by no means diminished her estimation in society, and the numbers of fast friends who adhered to her in her comparative indigence, proved their admiration of talent, and the constancy of attachment, by the repetition of the most delicate and disinterested assiduities. “ It was in this Mexican home, and not from the unsympathising distance of the hotel and ball-room (the scene of most travellers’ observation), that I obtained my insight into the structure of Mexican society and character. Ilad I kept myself aloof in my own house or my own inn, as is the habit of foreigners, I should have judged from the theatre, the passeo, the bull-ring, the cock-pit, and the gaming-table, that the women were but so many painted dolls, without more education or soul than was required to languish over a love-sick play, or to ogle, with idle gaze, a favoured cavalier. I might have sup- posed, too, that the men were supremely blessed by this dalliance with the sex, and considered themselves in perfect elysium when they could divide their attention between their sirens, their horses, and the card-table ; — but in the privacy of this dwelling, I learned to estimate the love and regard between parents and children ; the beautiful benevolence of ancient friendship; the universal respect for genius; and, besides, had MEXICAN CHARACTER. 75 frequent occasion to notice the expanding spirit, ardent patriotism, desire of cultivation, and quick talent, which embellish the Mexican character. “ It must not be said that I am estimating a country by one example ; — I am as far from so partial a judgment, as the opponents of Mexico are from a just one on their side of the question. It is true, that this family afforded me an extensive field of obser- vation, but it chiefly served to stimulate my attention and inquiries elsewhere; and I can frankly declare, that wherever I observed, I invariably found the same qualities of head and heart. It is this heart that is in fact the great characteristic of Mexicans, and especially of their females. There is a noble naturalness, an antique generosity about them, which is the parent of a multitude of virtues, and it is by an abandonment of themselves to impulses , that so much irregularity and indiscretion have been frequently manifested, both in politics and society. “ I have said that the Mexicans are a people of quick talent, and my remark is borne out by the observation of all foreigners. They are quick to apprehend, quick of study, and quick in mastering a subject ; but this very facility, joined with their impulsiveness, is often fatal to their enduring application and progress. “ I came among these people an entire stranger, without especial claims on their attention, and studious to avoid that bill of exchange hospitality, which is the result of introductory letters from former, and, perhaps, forgotten acquaintances. Yet mingling freely among all classes, and comparing them now — when gratitude for acts of kindness has been long yielded and the annoyance of petty impertinences forgotten — I have none but kindly recollections of the people, and none but favourable impressions of the mass of a society, in which I had been taught to believe that I should be held in utter anti- pathy as an heretical stranger. > “There are in Mexico, as in all other countries, specimens of egotism, selfishness, haughtiness, ill-breeding, and loose morals, both among the men and the women ; but, although we find these floating like bubbles on the top of society, they must not therefore be considered the characteristics of the country. A nation in which * revolutions and counter-revolutions are events of almost daily occurrence, is naturally prolific in desperate and crafty political adventurers,’ and dissimulation and stratagem may, in time, form the chief element of the character of such a people ; — yet such, it is hoped, is not to be the corrupting fate of Mexico. “The idea that large social entertainments require great magnificence and lavish expense, deprives the Mexicans, in their towns, of many of those agreeable gatherings which fill up so pleasantly our winter nights and autumn evenings; but it is on their haciendas or plantations that their hospitaliUj is most distinguished. Nothing is with- held from you ; their establishments are placed at your entire control, and the welcome is as sincere as it is hearty and cheerful. “That they are brave none will doubt, who read the history of their War of Inde- pendence, although the bad discipline (especially of their officers) has prevented the very eminent exhibition of this quality in their foreign battles. In fact, regard them in any way, and they will be found to possess the elements of a fine people who want but peace and the stimulus of foreign emulation, to bring them forward among the nations of the earth with great distinction. “Their geographical position, however, is very unfavourable for this emulative stimulus. They are placed among the mountains, on an isthmus connecting two large continents, while their territory is washed by two seas. They are cut off by a large belt of savage country from us at the north, and the communication with Europe is both distant and uncertain. They have a small population, spread over an immense territory, and want, therefore, both the constant comparison of the intellect of other nations, and social compacting or aggregation among themselves. I can (from personal experience) state how disagreeable is this want of intercourse with the rest of the world. There is intelligence from the United States, perhaps, once a month, and about as often from Europe. The information brought by these arrivals, passes chiefly into the hands of the merchants — and, after a while, is gradually translated in fragments for some of the meagre newspapers, which treat you, months afterward, to a refacciamento of the stories or improvements that you had already forgotten. In this respect, our community of I. 2 76 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. language with Great Britain is of vast importance to ns. England acts the part of an editor for the United States. She collects the news, the literature, the progressive in- ventions, and the genius of the old world, with unparalleled activity; — and we are always, at furthest, but twelve days behind her in diffusing these results among the seventeen millions of our own people. But it may be feared, that it will be long before Mexico imitates our example. Spain is not an England in intellectual energy or advancement ; and the day has not yet arrived in Mexico when a work in two volumes can be printed, bound, and distributed to her chief cities within twenty-four hours after its reception from Europe. “I am afraid the tendency of our sister republic is too much toward the opposite extreme. She has not disenthralled herself from the Spanish bigotry which inculcated the idea that a nation must do all for herself, without a commercial marine of her own to carry on a well-regulated commerce. This seems as likely to make boors of the people who practise it, as seclusion is calculated to make ascetics of those who refuse to mingle with the world, and improve their spirits by a free interchange of opinions and feelings. Crime. — “ Passing westward, toward the Passeo Nuevo from the Alameda, you cross the square in front of the Accordada, the common prison of the capital. In the front of one of its wings a low-barred window is constantly open, and within, on an in- clined plane, are laid the dead bodies found daily within the limits of the city. It is almost impossible to take your morning walk to the adjoining fields, without seeing one, and frequently two corpses, stretched bleeding on the stones. These are the victims of some sudden quarrel, or unknown murder during the night; and all who miss a friend, a parent, or a brother, resort to these iron bars to seek the lost one. It is painful to behold the scenes to which this melancholy assemblage frequently give rise, and hear the wails of sorrow that break from the homeless orphan, whose parent lies murdered on the stones of the dead-house. “Yet this is scarcely more shocking than the scenes presented by the living, within the walls of the loathsome prison. A strong guard of military is stationed at the gate, and you enter, after due permission from the commanding officer. A gloomy stair leads to the second story, the entrance to which is guarded by a portal massive enough to resist the assault of a powerful force. Within, a lofty apartment is filled with the officers of the prison and a crowd of subalterns, engaged in writing, talking, and walking — amid the hum of the crowd, the clank of chains, the shouts of prisoners, and the eternal din of an ill-regulated establishment. “ Passing through several iron and wood-barred gates, you enter a lofty corridor, running around a quadrangular court-yard, in the centre of which, beneath, is a fountain of troubled water. The whole of this area is filled with human beings — the great con- gress of Mexican crime — mixed and mingling, like a hill of busy ants swarming from their sandy caverns. Some are stripped and bathing in the fountain ; some are fighting in a corner; some making baskets in another. In one place, a crowd is gathered around a witty story-teller, relating the adventures of his rascally life. In another, a group is engaged in weaving with a hand-loom. Robbers, murderers, thieves, ravishers, felons of every description, and vagabonds of every aspect, are crammed within this court-yard ; and, almost free from discipline or moral restraint, form, perhaps, the most splendid school of misdemeanour and villany on the American continent. “ Below, within the corridor of the second story — from which I have described the view of this wretched mass of humanity — a rather better sort of criminals are kept ; and yet, even here, many were pointed out to me as being under sentence of death, who still went about entirely without restraint. “ In one corner of the quadrangle is the chapel, where convicts for capital offences are condemned to solitude and penance, during the three last days of their miserable jife ; and, at a certain hour, it is usual for all the prisoners to gather in front of the door, and chant a hymn for the victim of the laws. It is a solemn service of crime for crime. “ I did not see the prison for women, but I am told it is much the same as the one I have just described. About 100 of the men, chained in pairs like galley-slaves, are driven daily into the streets, under a strong guard, as scavengers ; and it seems to be the chief idea of the utility of prisons in Mexico, to support this class of coerced labourers. MEXICAN CHARACTER, 77 “There can be no apology, at this period of general enlightenment in the world for such disgraceful exhibitions of the congregated vice of a country. Punishment, or rather incarceration, and labour on the streets, in the manner I have described, is, in fact, no sacrifice ; both because public exhibition deadens the felon’s shame, and because it can- not become an actual punishment under any circumstances of a lepero's life. Indeed, what object in existence can the lepero propose to himself? His day is one of precarious labour and income ; he thieves ; he has no regular home, or if he has, it is some miserable hovel of earth and mud, where his wife and children crawl about with scarce the instinct of beavers. His food and clothing are scant and miserable. He is without education, or prospect of improvement. He belongs to a class that does not rise. He dulls his sense of present misery by intoxicating drinks. His quick temper stimulates him to quarrel. His sleep is heavy and unrefreshing, and he only rises to a day of similar uncertainty and wickedness. What, then, is the value of life to him, or to one like him? Why toil? Why not steal! What shame has he? Is the prison, with certainty of food — more punish- ment than the free air , with uncertainty ? On the contrary, it is a lighter punishment; and as for the degradation, he knows not how to estimate it. “Mexico will thus continue to be infested with felons, as long as its prison is ahouse of refuge, and a comparatively happy home to so large a portion of its outcast popula- tion.* * “ I have collected some statistical information on these subjects, which I think will be interesting in connexion with Mexican prisons, and prove how necessary it is, in the first place, to alter their whole system of coercive discipline; and, in the second, to strike immediately at the root of the evil, by improving the condition of the people — by educat- ing, and proposing advantages to them, in the cultivation of the extensive tracts of coun- try that now lie barren over their immense territory. Imprisonments in Mexico for 1842. NUMBER OF PRISONERS. Men. Women. During the first six months of 1842, there were imprisoned in the city number. 3197 2858 number. 1427 1379 Total of both sexes for 1842 C055 2806 “ Without specifying each of the several crimes, for which these persons were com- mitted to prison, or being able, from all the accounts furnished me, to state the exact number of those who were finally convicted, I will present some lists of the numbers im- prisoned for the chief crimes, during the whole year. CRIMES. Men. Women. Total. 1. Prostitution, adultery, bigamy, sodomy, incest number. 312 1500 2129 612 number. 179 470 1104 number. 491 1970 3233 444 1056 5. Homicide, attempt at homicide, and robbery and 70 17 87 65 21 86 7 1 8 3 0 3 Which, added together, give the frightful amount of. . 6934 males and females, for the higher crimes and misdemeanors — leaving a balance of 1927 only, to be divided among the lesser. It should be stated, in addition to the above, that numbers were committed for throwing vitrol on the clothes and faces of persons passing along the street; that 113 dead bodies were found ; 17 individuals executed , and 894 sent to the hospital. “ The sum of 4121 dollars is expended in salaries of officers for this institution, and 30,232 dollars for the support of the prisoners. * “ As an evidence of the little value these leperos place upon their lives, — an old resident in Mexico told me, that he had once been the witness of a street-fight between two women, which resulted in the use of knives, and the ripping of one’s belly, so that her bowels were exposed. The wound was not fatal, and as soon as she had slightly recovered from the loss of blood, while the attendants were preparing a litter, she drew forth a cigarrito from her bosom, obtained a light from a bystander, and was borne off to the hospital, smoking as contentedly as if preparing for a siesta /’* 78 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. CITY, AND DEPARTMENT, FORMERLY THE INTENDANCY, OF MEXICO. The population of the former intendancy of Mexico was, in 1803, stated to be 1,511,800 souls. In the department which comprises a lesser extent of territory, the population in 1842 was enumerated at 1,389,520. The whole of the country which was included under the intendancy is situated under the torrid zone. It extended from the 16 deg. 34 min. to the 21 deg. 57 min. of north latitude. It was bounded on the north by the intendancy of San Luis Potosi, on the west by the intendancies of Guanaxuato and Valladolid, and on the east by those of Vera Cruz and La Puebla de los Angelos. It is washed towards the south by tire South Sea, or Pacific Ocean, from Acapulco to Zacatula. More than two-thirds of the area of this territory are moun- tainous. The Valley of Mexico, or Tenochtitlan, of which M. Humboldt has published a very minute map, is situated in the centre of the cordillera of Anahuac, on the ridge of the porphyritical and basaltic amygdaloid mountains, which run from the south- south-east to the north-north-west. This valley is of an oval form. Six great roads were made to cross the cordillera which encloses the valley, of which the medium height is 3000 metres (or 9842 feet) above the level of the ocean. 1. The road from Acapulco to Guchilaque and Cuervaracca by the high summit, called La Cruz del Marques (alluding to Hernan Cortez, Marques de Valle de Oaxaca). 2. The road of Toluca by Tianguillo and Lerma, a magni- ficent causeway, not sufficiently to be admired, constructed with great art, partly over arches. 3. The road of Queretaro, Guanaxuato, and Durango [el camino de tierra adentro ], which passes by Guautitlan, Huehuetoca, and the Puerto de Reyes, near Bata, through hills scarcely eighty metres (or 262 feet) above the pavement of the great square of Mexico. 4. The road of Pachuco, which leads to the celebrated mines of reed del Monte, by the Ccrro Ventoso, covered with oak, cypress, and rose-trees, almost continually in flower. 5. The old road of La Puebla, by San Bonaventura and the Llanos de Apan. And, 6. the road of La Puebla by Rio Frio and Tesmelucos, south-east from the Cerro del Telapon, of which the distance from the Sierra Nevada, as well as that from the Sierra Nevada (Iztaccihuatl) to the great volcano (Popocatepetl), served for bases to the trigonometrical operations of MM. Velasquez and Costanzo. — Alcedo. From the capital of Mexico being described as a city built in the midst of a lake, and connected with the continent by dikes, Alcedo observes, IC Those who look at Humboldt’s map will be no doubt astonished on seeing that the centre of the present city is 4500 metres (or 14,763 feet) distant from the Lake of Tezcuco, and more than 9000 metres, or 29,527 feet from the Lake of CITY OF MEXICO. 79 Chaleo ; but the city has certainly not changed its place, for the cathedral of Mexico occupies exactly the ground where the temple of Huitzilopochtli stood and the present street of Tacuba is the old street of Tlacopan, through which Cortez made his famous retreat in the fatal night of the 1st of July, 1520, which still goes by the name of noche triste. The difference of situation between the old maps and those published by Humboldt, arises solely from the diminution of water in the Lake of Tezcuco. A letter addressed by Cortez to the Emperor Charles V., dated 30th of October, 1520, gives a description of the Valley of Mexico. “ The province in which the residence of this great lord Moctezuma is situated,” says Cortez, “ is circularly surrounded with elevated mountains, and intersected with precipices. The plain contains near seventy leagues in circumference, and in this plain are two lakes, which fill nearly the whole valley ; for the inhabitants sail in canoes for more than fifty leagues round.” (He speaks only of two lakes, for he knew but im- perfectly those of Zumpango and Xaltocan, between which he hastily passed in his flight from Mexico to Tlascala, before the battle of Otumba.) “ Of the two great lakes of the Valley of Mexico, the one is fresh and the other salt-water* They are separated by a small range of mountain (the conical and insulated hills near Iztapalapan) ; these mountains rise in the middle of the plain, and the W’aters of the lake mingle together in a strait between the hills and the high cordillera (undoubtedly the east declivity of Cerros de Santa Fe). The numerous towns and villages constructed in both of the two lakes carry on their commerce by canoes, without touching the continent. The great city of Temixtitan or Tenochtitlan is situated in the midst of the salt-water lake, which has its tides like the sea ; and from the city to the continent there are two leagues, whichever way we wish to enter. Four dikes lead to the city : they are made by the hand of man, and are of the breadth of two lances. The city is as large as Seville or Cordova. The streets, I merely speak of the principal ones, are very narrow and very long ; some are half-dry and half-occupied by navigable canals, furnished with very well-constructed wooden-bridges, broad enough for ten men on horse- back to pass at the same time. The market-place, twice as large as that of Seville, is surrounded with an immense portico, under which are exposed for sale all sorts of merchandise, eatables, ornaments made of gold, silver, lead, pewter, precious stones, bones, sheels, and feathers ; delft-ware, leather, and spun-cotton. We find hewn stones, tiles, and timber fit for building. There are lanes for game, others for roots and garden-fruits ; there are houses where barbers shave the head (with razors made of obsidian) ; and there are houses resembling our apothecary shops, where prepared medicines, unguents, and plasters are sold There are houses where drink is sold. The market abounds with so many things, that I am unable to name them all to your highness. To avoid con- 80 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. fusion, every species of merchandise is sold in a separate lane ; every thing is sold by the yard, but nothing has hitherto been seen to be weighed in the market. In the midst of the great square is a house, which I shall call Vaudiencia , in which ten or twelve persons sit constantly for determining any disputes which may arise respecting the sale of goods. There are other persons who mix con- tinually with the crowd, to see that a just price is asked. We have seen them break the false measures which they had seized from the merchants.” Such was the state of Tenochtitlan in 1520. Humboldt sought in vain in the archives of the family of Cortez, preserved at Mexico in the Casa del Estado, for the plan which he ordered to be drawn up of the environs of the capital, and which he sent to the emperor, as he says, in his third letter published by Cardinal Lorenzana. The Abbe Clavigero has ventured to give a plan of the Lake of Tezcuco, such as he supposes it to have been in the sixteenth century. This sketch, though inaccurate, is thought preferable to that given by Robertson, and other European authors. Humboldt has drawn on the map of the Valley of Tenochtitlan the old extent of the salt-water lake, such as he conceived it from the historical account of Cortez, and some of his contemporaries. In 1520, and long after, the villages of Iztapalapan, Coyohuacan (improperly called Cuyacan), Tacubaja, and Tacuba, were quite near the banks of the Lake of Tezcuco. Cortez says expressly, “ That the most part of the houses of Coyohuacan, Culuacan, Chulubuzco, Mexicaltzingo, Iztapalapan, Cuitaguaca, and Mizqueque, were built in the water on piles, so that frequently the canoes could enter by an under- door.” The small hill of Chapultepec, on which the viceroy, Count Galvez, constructed a castle, was no longer an island in the Lake of Tezcuco in the time of Cortez. On this side, the continent approached to within about 3000 metres (or 9842 feet) of the city of Tenochtitlan, consequently the distance of two leagues indicated by Cortez in his letter to Charles V. is not altogether accurate: he ought to have retrenched the one-half of this, excepting, however, the part of the west-side at the small porphyritical hill of Chapultepec. We may well believe, however, that this hill was, some centuries before, also a small island, like the Fenol del Marques, or the Penol de los Banos. It appears extremely probable, from geological observations, that the lakes had been on the decrease long before the arrival of the Spaniards, and before the construction of the canal of Huehuetoca. — Alcedo. The old city of Mexico communicated with the continent by the three great dikes of Tepejacac (Guadulupe), Tlacopan (Tacuba), and Iztapalapan. Cortez mentions four dikes, “ because he reckoned, without doubt, the causeway which led to Chapultepec. The Calzada of Iztapalapan had a branch which united Coyohuacan to the small fort Xaloc, the same in which the Spaniards were entertained at their first entry by the Mexican nobility.” Robertson speaks of a CITY OF MEXICO. 81 dike which led to Tezcuco, but such a dike never existed, on account of the great distance, and the great depth of the east part of the lake. The city of Tenochtitlan was divided into four quarters, called Teopan, or Xochimilca, Atzacualco, Moyotla, and Tlaguechiuchan, or Cuepopan. The old division was preserved in the limits assigned to the quarter of St. Paul, St. Sebastian, St.John, and St. Mary; and the present streets have for the most part the same direction as the old ones, nearly from north to south and from east to west, though more properly from the south 16 deg. west to north 74 deg. east, at least towards the convent of St. Augustin, where Humboldt took his azimuths. The direction of the old streets was undoubtedly determined by that of the principal dikes. Now, from the position of the places where these dikes appear to have terminated, it is improbable that they represented exactly meridians and parallels. But what gives the new city, as we have already observed, a peculiar and distinctive character, is that it is situated entirely on the continent, between the extremities of the two lakes of Tezcuco and Xochimilco, and that it only received, by means of canals, the fresh water of the Xochimilco. — Alcedo. “ Many circumstances have contributed to this order of things. The part of the salt-water lake between the south and west dikes was always the shallowest. Cortez complained that his flotilla, the brigantines which he constructed at Tezcuco, could not, notwithstanding the openings in the dikes, make the circuit of the besieged city. Sheets of water of small depth became insensibly marshes, which, when intersected with trenches or small defluous canals, were converted into chinampas and arable land. “ Of the five lakes of the Valley of Mexico, the Lake of Tezcuco is most im- pregnated with muriate and carbonate of soda. The nitrate of barytes proves that this water contains no sulphate in dissolution. The most pure and limpid water is that of the Lake of Xochimilco, the specific weight of which Humboldt found to be 1.0009, when that of water distilled at the temperature of 18 deg. centigrade, or 54 deg. Fahrenheit, was 1.000, and when water from the Lake of Tezcuco was 1.0215. The water of this last lake is heavier than that of the Baltic Sea, and not so heavy as that of the ocean, which, under different lati- tudes, has been found between 1.0269 and 1.0285. The quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen which is detached from the surface of all the Mexican lakes, and which the acetate of lead indicates in great abundance in the lakes of Tezcuco and Chaleo, undoubtedly contributes in certain seasons to the unhealthiness of the air of the valley. Intermittent fevers, however, are very rare on the banks of these very lakes.” — Alcedo. Humboldt says, “ two sorts of hewn stone, the porous amygdaloid called tetzontli , and especially a porphyry of vitreous feld-spa without any quartz, give to the Mexican buildings an air of solidity, and sometimes even magni- ficence. There are none of those wooden balconies and galleries to be seen M 82 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. * which disfigure so much all the European cities in both the Indies. The balus- trades and gates are all of Biscay iron, ornamented with bronze, and the houses, instead of roofs, have terraces, like those in Italy and other southern countries. “ The edifice destined to the school of mines, for which the richest individuals of the country furnished a sum of more than 3,000,000 of francs, or 124,800/. sterling, would adorn the principal places of Paris or London. Two great palaces were recently constructed by Mexican artists, pupils of the academy of fine arts of the capital. One of these palaces, in the quarter Della Traspana, exhibits in the interior of the court a very beautiful oval peristyle of coupled columns. The traveller justly admires a vast circumference paved with porphyry flags, and enclosed with an iron railing, richly ornamented with bronze, containing an equestrian statue of King Charles IV. placed on a pedestal of Mexican marble, the midst of the plaza major of Mexico, opposite the cathedral and the viceroy’s palace. This colossal statue was executed at the expense of the Mar- quis de Branciforte, formerly viceroy of Mexico, brother-in-law of the Prince of Peace. It weighs 450 quintals, and was modelled, founded, and placed by the same artist, M. Tolsa, whose name deserves a distinguished place in the history of Spanish sculpture.” — Humboldt' s New Spain. Humboldt, who bad seen successively, within a very short space of time, Lima, Mexico, Philadelphia, Washington, Paris, Rome, Naples, and the largest cities of Germany, remained nevertheless smitten with a recollection of the grandeur of this latter city, a circumstance which he attributes principally to the majestic character of its situation and the surrounding scenery. — Alcedo. According to the same authority, “ Large avenues of elms and poplars lead in every direction to the capital; and two aqueducts, constructed overarches of very great elevation, cross the plain, and exhibit an appearance equally agreeable and interesting. The magnificent convent of Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe appears joined to the mountains of Tepevacac, among ravines which shelter a few date and young yuca trees. Towards the south the whole tract between San Angel, Tacabaya, and San Agustin de las Cuevas, appears an immense garden of orange, peach, apple, cherry, and other European fruit-trees.” Alcedo, in the edition of 181 7, observes, “ The city of Mexico is also remark- able for its excellent police. The most part of the streets have very broad pave- ments ; and they arc clean and well lighted. These advantages are the fruits of the activity of the Count de Ilevillagigedo, who on his arrival found the capital extremely dirty. “ Water is everywhere to be had in the soil of Mexico, a very short way below the surface, but it is brackish, like the water of the Lake of Tezcuco. The two aqueducts already mentioned, by which the city receives fresh water, are monuments of modern construction worthy of the traveller’s attention. The springs of potable water are situated to the east of the town, one in the insu- lated hill of Chapultepec, and the other in the cerros of Santa To, near the CITY OF MEXICO. 83 cordillera , which separates the Valley of Tenochtitlan from that of Lerma and Toluca. The arches of the aqueduct of Chapultepec occupy a length of more than 3300 metres, or 10,826 feet. The enumeration in 1790, by orders of the Count de Revillagigedo, gave a result of only 112,926 inhabitants for the city; but this result was considered too low by Alcedo, who says, “ The regular troops and militia in garrison in the capi- tal are composed of from 5000 to 6000 men in arms. We may admit with great probability that the actual population consists of 2,500 white Europeans. 65.000 white Creoles. 33.000 indigenous (copper-coloured). 26,500 Mestizoes, mixture of whites and Indians. 10.000 Mulattoes. 137,000 inhabitants. “ There are consequently in Mexico 69,500 men of colour, and 67,500 whites : but a great number of the Mestizoes are almost as white as the Europeans and Spanish Creoles! “ In the twenty-three male convents which the capital contains there are nearly 1200 individuals, of whom 580 are priests and choristers. In the fifteen female convents there are 2100 individuals, of whom nearly 900 are professed religieuses. “ The clergy of the city of Mexico then was, and is now, extremely numerous, though less numerous by one-fourth than at that period at Madrid. The enu- meration of 1790 gives r 5 73 priests and choristers. In the convents of monks. J 59 novices. i 235 lay brothers. T . c ( 888 professed religieuses. In the convents 01 nuns. < or 1 ^ ( 35 novices. Prebendaries ....... Parish priests (cures) ...... Curates ........ Secular ecclesiastics ...... ^ 867 | 923 . 26 16 , 43 , 517 Total and without including lay-brothers and novices, 2068.” . 2392 Alcedo, in comparing this capital with those of Europe in the beginning of the present century, says, “ Mexico is the most populous city of the new conti- nent. It contains only 40,000 inhabitants fewer than Madrid; and as it forms a great square, of which each side is nearly 2750 metres, or 9021 feet, its popula- tion is spread over a great extent of ground. Its greatest length is nearly 3900 metres (12,794 English feet) ; of Paris 8000 metres (26,246 English feet).” The Count de Revillagigedo set on foot accurate researches into the consump- tion of Mexico. The following table was drawn up in 1791 : — m 2 84 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Consumption of Mexico. ARTICLES OF CONSUMPTION. 1. Eatables : — Beeves Calves Sheep Hogs Kills ami rabbits . . Fowls Bucks Turkeys Pigeons Partridges Quantity. ARTICLES OF CONSUMPTION. Quantity. Dumber. 2. Grain : — Dumber. 16,300 Maize, or Turkey wheat, cargas of 450 three fanegas 1 17,224 278,023 Barley, cargas 40,219 50,670 24,000 3, Liquid Measure : — 1,255,340 Wheat flour, cargas of 12 arrobas 130,000 125,000 Pulque, the fermented juice of the 205,000 agava, cargas 204,790 65,300 Wine and vinegar, barrels of 4£ 140,000 arrobas 4,507 Brandy, barrels 12,000 Spanish oil, arrobas of 25 lbs 5,585 “ Supposing at that time, with M. Peuchet, the population of Paris to he four times greater than that of Mexico, we shall find that the consumption of beef is nearly proportional to the number of inhabitants of the two cities, but that that of mutton and pork is infinitely more at Mexico. The difference is as follows : ANIMALS. CONSUMPTION. Quadruple of the Consumption of Mexico. Of Mexico. Of Paris. number. number. number. Reeves 16,300 70,000 G5,200 Sheep 273,000 350,000 1,116,000 Hogs 50,100 35,000 200,400 “ M. Lavoisier found by his calculations that the inhabitants of Paris con- sumed annually, in his time, 90,000,000 lbs. of animal food of all sorts, which amounts to 163 lbs. (79-rs kilogrammes or 1/ 5 to lbs. avoirdupois) per individual. In estimating the animal food yielded by the animals designated in the preceding table, according to the principles of Lavoisier, modified according to the loca- lities, the consumption of Mexico in every sort of meat is 26,000,000 lbs., or 189 lbs., or 204 lbs. avoirdupois, per individual. This difference is so much the more remarkable as the population of Mexico includes 33,000 Indians, who consume very little animal food. “The consumption of wine had formerly greatly increased since 1/91, espe- cially since the introduction of the Brownonian system in the practice of the Mexican physicians. These wines, however, are only drunk by the wealthy class of the inhabitants. The Indians, Mestizoes, Mulattoes, and even the greatest number of white Creoles, prefer the fermented juice of the agave, called pulque of which there is annually consumed the enormous quantity of 44,000,000 bot- tles, containing 48 French cubic inches each, or 58,141 cubic inches English. The immense population of Paris only consumed annually in the time of M. La- voisier 281,000 muids of wine, brandy, cyder, and beer, equal to 80,928,000, bottles. “ The consumption of bread at Mexico is equal to that of the cities of Eu- rope. This fact is so much the more remarkable, as at Caracas, at Cumana, and CITY OF MEXICO. 85 Carthagena de las Indias, and in all the cities of America situated under the tor- rid zone, but on a level with the ocean, or very little above it, the Creole inha- bitants live on almost nothing but maize bread, and the jatropha manihot. If we suppose, with M. Arnould, that 325 lbs. of flour yield 416 lbs. of bread, we shall find that the 130,000 loads of flour consumed at Mexico, yield 49,900,000 lbs. of bread, which amounts to 391^ lbs. avoirdupois, per individual of every age. Estimating the habitual population of Paris at 547,000 inhabitants, and the con- sumption of bread at 206,788,000 lbs., we shall find the consumption of each in- dividual in Paris 377 lbs. French, or 406/y lbs. avoirdupois.” At Mexico, the consumption of maize is almost equal to that of wheat. It is the food most in request among the Indians. The market of Mexico has always been celebrated as richly supplied with eatables, particularly with roots and fruits of every sort. “ It is a most interesting spectacle, which may be enjoyed every morning at sunrise, to see these provisions and a great quantity of flowers, brought in by Indians in boats, descending the canals of Istacalco and Chaleo. The greater part of these roots is cultivated on the ckinampas , called by the Europeans floating gardens. There are two sorts of them, of which the one is moveable and driven about by the winds, and the other fixed and attached to the shore. The first alone merit the denomination of floating gardens, but their number is daily diminishing. The invention of ckinampas had its origin in the local situation of a people, who, surrounded with enemies, were compelled to live in the midst of a little lake abounding in fish, who were forced to fall upon every means of procuring subsistence. “The oldest chinampns were merely bits of ground joined together artificially, and dug and sown upon by the Aztecs. These floating islands are to be met with in all the zones. Humboldt saw them in the kins:- dom of Quito, on the river Guayaquil, of eight or nine metres (or 26 or 29 feet) in length, floating in the midst of the current, and bearing young shoots of bambusa, pistia stratiotes, pontederia, and a number of other vegetables, of which the roots are easily interlaced. He found also in Italy, in the small lago di aqua solfa of Tivoli, near the hot baths of Agrippa, small islands formed of sulphur, carbonate of lime, and the leaves of the ulva tliermalis, which change their place with the smallest breath of wind. Floating gardens are, as is well known, also to be met with in the rivers and canals of China, where an excessive population compels the inhabitants to have recourse to every shift for increasing the means of subsistence. Masses of tufted eartb, carried away from the banks, have probably origi- nated the idea of artificial chinampas; but the industry of the Aztecs gradually car- ried this system of cultivation to perfection. “ The floating gardens, of which very many were found by the Spaniards, and of which many still (1817) exist in the Lake of Chaleo, were rafts formed of reeds ( totora ), rushes, roots, and branches of brushwood. The Indians cover these light and well-connected materials 86 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. with black mould, naturally impregnated with muriate of soda. The soil is gra- dually purified from this salt by washing it with the water of the lake ; and the ground becomes so much the more fertile as this lixiviation is annually repeated. This process succeeds even with the salt-water of the Lake of Tezcuco, because this water, by no means at the point of its saturation, is still capable of dissolving salt as it filtrates through the mould. The chinampas sometimes con- tained even the cottage of the Indian, who acts as guard for a group of floating gardens. They are towed or pushed with long poles when wished to be removed from one side of the banks to the other. “ In proportion as the fresh-water lake has become more distant from the salt- water lake, the moveable chinampas have been fixed. Every chinampa forms, or formed, a parallelogram of 100 metres in length, and from five to six metres (or 328 by 1G or 19 feet) in breadth. Narrow ditches, communicating sym- metrically between them, separate these squares. The mould fit for cultivation, purified from salt by frequent irrigations, rises nearly a metre, or 3.28 feet above the surface of the surrounding water. On these chinampas are cultivated beans small peas, pimento {chile, capsicum), potatoes, artichokes, cauliflowers, and a great variety of other vegetables. The edges of these squares are generally ornamented with flowers, and sometimes with a hedge of rose bushes. “ The promenade in boats around the chinampas of Istacalco is one of the most agreeable that can be enjoyed in the environs of Mexico. The vegetation is extremely vigorous on a soil continually refreshed with water.” — Humboldt m Thomson s Alcedo. The modern city of Mexico has, after the visit of Humboldt, been w r ell described by Mr. Ward. It is situated in a plain, near lakes, and surrounded by mountains, at an elevation of 1-100 feet above the level of the sea, in latitude 19 deg. 2G min. north; longitude 101 deg. 26 min. west. The population is said now r to amount to nearly 200,000 of all races. Its streets intersect each other generally at right angles. On looking down on it from the neighbouring heights, it has been compared to a chessboard. Although Humboldt describes it as “ undoubtedly the finest city built by Europeans in either hemisphere,” w r e certainly doubt the truth of this assertion. Many of the public edifices are certainly magnificent, and the cathedral and churches contain gorgeous embellishments and treasures. There are fourteen parish churches, six additional churches, thirteen monasteries and seminaries, twenty-two nunneries, one university, six colleges, and five hospitals. The palace of the archbishop is a plain edifice. That of the president is said to have been equally plain, and until 1842, u r as wretchedly furnished. After the accession of Santa Anna, Mr. Mayer says of the grand saloon in this palace: — “ In this spacious and w r cll-proportioned apartment they have gathered a quan- tity of gorgeous furniture, and placed, on a platform at the northern end, under a crimson canopy, a magnificently carved and gilded throne. Various flags, CITY OF MEXICO. 87 alleged to have been taken from the Texans, in battle, are affixed to staffs ex- tending from the cornice. The walls are covered with large French mirrors, and the deep windows are festooned with the most tasteful upholstery of French artistes. I have wandered over the whole of this immense pile of edifices, but I recollect nothing else about it worthy of notice. The private apartments of General Santa Anna are plain, neat, and tasteful, and a full-length portrait of General Washington adorns an obscure chamber.” There is a senate chamber and chamber of deputies behind the palace, near which also is the botanic garden — of small extent. The mint is on the north of the Palace Square, near which is the adauna or custom-house. The Monte Pio, or national pawnbroking establishment, is in the palace — said to be erected by Cortez: it is founded very much on the same principle as that of Paris. Mr. Mayer says ; — “ You may form an idea of the number and variety of persons who derive assistance from the Monte Pio, by a walk through its extensive apartments. You will there find every species of garment, from the tattered reboso of the lepera to the lace mantilla of the noble dame ; every species of dress, from the blanket of the beggar, to the military cloak and jewelled sword of the impoverished officer; and, as to jewels, Aladdin would have had nothing to wish among the blazing caskets of diamonds for which the women of Mexico are proverbial.” The Mineria, or School of Mines, is one of the most splendid edifices in America. “ It was planned and built by Tolsa, the sculptor of the statue of Charles IV. — and is an immense pile of stone, with courts, stairways, saloons, and proportions that would adorn the most sumptuous palaces in Europe. But this is all. The apparatus is miserable ; the collection of minerals utterly insignificant; the pupils few ; and, among the wastes and solitude of the pile, wanders the renowned Del Rio — one of the most learned naturalists of this hemisphere — ejaculating his sorrows over the departed glory of his favourite schools.” An edifice used for the manufacture of tobacco, situated at the north- western corner of the city, and erected by the old Spanish government, has been converted into a citadel. The Academy of Fine Arts, so highly admired by Humboldt, has, like the Mineria, university, and museum, become almost untenanted. Under the old Spanish government the academy was really a school of arts, and supplied at great expense with casts of the most celebrated statuary of Europe. There are a few private cabinets of pictures, &c. In the streets, wealth and poverty exhibit their extremes. “ Go where you will,” says Mr. Mayer, <( in this city you are haunted by beggars. Beggary is a profession ; but it is not carried to quite the extent that it is in some of the Italian states, and especially the Sicilian dominions. “ The capital employed in this business is blindness, a sore leg, a decrepit father 88 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. or mother, or a helpless child ; in the latter case, a stout hearty boy usually straps the feeble one on his back, and runs after every passer beseeching succour. With such a stock in trade, and a good sunny corner, or wall of a church door, the peti- tioner is set up for life. Placed in so eligible a situation, their cry is incessant from morning to night, ‘ Senores amicos, por el amor de dios,’ ‘ for the love of the blessed Virgin !’ ‘by the precious blood of Christ !’ ‘by the holy mystery of the Trinity !’ repeated with many variations between their eternal scratchings, winking of lids over sightless balls, and the display of maimed limbs and every species of personal deformity. There is no ‘ poor-house’ in Mexico, to which such vagrant wretches are forced to go.” There are, according to Mr. Mayer, scarcely any hotel accommodations in the city of Mexico. The best being a miserable establishment, only a few removes from the Fondas and Mesones of the olden time. This want of accommodation he attributes to “ the fact that travelling is only of a recent date; a new invention, as it were, in Mexico. In former times, articles ofmerchandise were sent under the care of arrieros, who were satisfied with the accommodation of the ordinary tavern ; to wit, four walls, covered with a roof, in which they might stretch their mats, pile their saddles, and sleep, living the while on tortillias, onions, pulque, and jerked meats. Whenever the better classes found it needful to visit the capital, the house of some friend was open to them, and thus hospitality prevented the creation of an honest race of Bonifaces to welcome the weary wayfarer.” Mr. Mayer, like others who have visited Mexico, describes the religious cere- monies, and especially the festival of the Virgin of Guadaloupe, the patron saint of Mexico, whose shrine is richer than that of St. John Nepomuc, at Prague. Of Mexican domestic character, among the families of the higher class, he speaks favourably, although he says “ too much time is devoted to the morning, the even- ing drive, and the theatre.” “The universal conclusion of the day with a fashionable lady in Mexico, is the theatre. She begins with mass, to which she walks in the morning with her man- tilla gracefully draped around her head, and falling in folds of splendid lace over her bieast and shoulders. But the night must end in full dress at the opera or theatre. It is as regular and as much a matter of course as her meals.” The houses of the Mexicans are usually built of the strongest materials, either brick or stone, and without much architectural pretension. They are erected around ■patios, or court-yards, and are from thirty to forty feet front on the street — the grand saloon being generally the length of the whole house. On the ground-floor arc the porter’s lodge, offices, and coach-house. “ From this a flight of steps leads to an entresol , devoted to the domestics, while the upper story is universally the fashionable and best one. Here the family dwells in perfect seclusion from the street and neighbours, and the arcade which fronts their doors is filled with the choicest fruit and flower-trees in constant bloom. Above all this is the azotea, or flat paved roof, a delightful retreat on summer nights. The front windows of the CITY OF MEXICO. 89 houses are all guarded by balconies covered with gaily-coloured awnings ; and on days of festival, when filled with the gay throng of Mexican women, and hung with tapestry and velvet, they present a most brilliant appearance. “ The carriage, and ever-harnessed mules, stand constantly in the court-yard below ; and the postillion is ready to mount and sally forth at a moment’s notice until after dark, when the large front gate is closed, locked, and barred ; and the house becomes as quiet and secure as a castle, with which no communication from without is permitted, until you tell your name, or signify to the porter the object of your visit. Until this ceremony has passed, no bolt is drawn in the wicket or latch raised to admit you ; and the caution is extremely necessary, on account of the frequent robberies that have been committed by allowing unknown persons to enter after dark.” The “ old school’’ says Mr. Mayer, “ seems to have taken refuge among the Mexicans. They are formally, and I think, substantially, the politest people I have met with.’’ Mr. Mayer and others describing the out-door appearances of the population bring forward the lepero as conspicuous. He is described as a beggar, thief, porter, and in any character which his despicable condition permits. The aguador or water-carrier is another peculiar character. His jars are sus- pended from his head. Indians from the country carry turkeys, chickens, and other birds in coops or cages, or earthenware, or fruit, around to sell. Others, men and women, drive asses about laden with vegetables, especially onions and radishes. A tinkle of a bell at the door of the cathedral sacristy, and a roll of drums calling out the guard of honour at the palace-gate, give warning of a change of scene, and collect the multitude towards the spot. Another scene is described by Mr. Mayer : — “Slowly issues a gaily-painted coach with glass windows on all sides, drawn by spotted mules ; a priest in his vestments sits within ; a band of boys walk on each side chanting a hymn; and in a moment a death-like stillness pervades the whole square. From the tradesman, selling his tapes under the Portales, to the thief, who has barely time to conceal the handkerchief in his dirty blanket, the whole crowd is uncovered and kneeling : the Host is passing to the house of some dying Catholic ! “The carriage turns a corner, and the square is alive again ; the tradesman to sell, the lepero to steal, and the lesson of death is forgotten for ever !” The Mexican coaches are said still to be of the old heavy, almost globular form, suspended on clumsy carved and gaudy frame-work, dragged by mules almost hidden in leather and brass harness, bestridden by a postillion in leather embroidered jacket, short leggings, broad-brimmed hat, and long spurs. The military music of Mexico is highly praised by Mr. Mayer. 90 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. OLD CALIFORNIA. California, Old, is a long narrow peninsula of North America, situated between latitudes 22 deg. 25 min. north, and about 32 deg. 30 min. north lat. ; bounded on the east by a gulf of the same name, and on the west by the Pacific ocean, lying within the limits of Cape St. Lucas on the south, the gulf of the river Colorado on the east, and some point near St. Diego, west about 32 deg. 16 min. north on the Pacific, and Cape Blanco de San Sebastian, which is considered its west limit. Old California is about 720 miles in length from Cape San Lucas to St. Diego. Its width varies from thirty to 110 miles from the Gulf to the Pacific. Alcedo (in Thompson’s edition, 1818), remarks, “The climate is various, according to the different heights of the land ; but for the most part it is excessively hot. The ground is uneven, rough, and barren, full of ridges of mountains, stony and sandy places ; lacking moisture, but abounding in mules, horses, and neat cattle, and all sorts of swine, goats, and sheep, which have multiplied in the same proportion as the dogs and cats introduced by the Spaniards. There is found in the woods a kind of animal called taye, about the size of a calf of a year and a half old, and very much resembling one; its head and skin being like those of a deer, its horns very thick, and similar to those of a ram ; its hoof is large, round, and cleft like that of an ox ; the tail is small, the flesh well tasted and delicate. There is also another animal very like a sheep, although somewhat larger ; of these there are black and white, bearing quantities of wool very easy to be spun, and their flesh is very delicate. Here are also found deer, hares, rabbits, berrendos, and coyotes, a species of fox, and called by this name in Nueva Espana. In the serrania, or mountainous parts, there are wild hogs, cats, tigers, and a species of beaver. This country abounds in reptiles, as vipers, snakes of different sorts, scorpions, spiders, ants, lizards, and tarantulas; but it is free from bugs, fleas, and niguas. Of birds, it produces turtle-doves, herons, quails, pheasants, partridges, geese, ducks, wild ducks, ring-doves, and some birds of prey, as sparrow-hawks, vul- tures, falcons, horned owls, eagles, and also jackdaws, those too which they call zopi/otes in Nueva Espana, and others which they call auras (or West Indian crows), screech-owls, and different birds not known in any other parts. This country is extremely barren of wood ; and only towards the cape of Sanducas, where the country is most level, fertile, and temperate, are there any trees to be found. Here, however, we have that peculiar tree called the pitajaia, the branches of which are fluted, and grow up straight from its trunk, bearing no leaf; on the same branch hangs the fruit, having the rind covered with prickles; so that it appears to some to be a species of the trinau (thistle-plant), although the fruit is CALIFORNIA. 91 whiter and more delicate : some produce fruit of a reddish, and some of a yellow tint, which is extremely well-flavoured, and is either sweet or a little acidulous ; the same is esteemed an excellent medicine in the venereal disease. From the fruit-trees aromatic gums are gathered in such abundance that they are mixed with grease for careening the bottoms of ships; and from the crude root of the mezcales they compose the drink so-called. They have a sort of aloes, from strips of which they make nets ; and from other herbs, in a manner which is truly curious, they manufacture bowls and cruets to eat and drink out of. The Indians who inhabit the river Colorado, fabricate from the same herbs troughs or trays, which they call coritas, so large as to contain two hundred weight of maize. In them they carry by water, fruits and different articles from one shore to another. They have besides the alimentary herb called yucas, the Spanish potato, and the gicamas. This country produces also olives, figs, vines, wheat, maize, French beans, water-melons, melons, gourds, chickpeas, and all kinds of garden herbs, for which it is indebted to the Jesuits, who first planted them here. There are sufficient indications of the existence of every sort of metal. The quantity of fish and shell-fish found on its coasts is incredible ; it is of every description, and among others, the profusion of pilchards is most astonishing; these being at certain seasons left in shoals dry upon the beach. Whales are also found here, and on the exterior coast shells of the most beautiful lustre may be collected, some of these being more brilliant than the finest mother-of-pearl, and covered with a blue similar to that of the most delicate lapis-lazuli. The pearl fisheries in these parts are much favoured by the shallowness of the water. This country was discovered in the year 1526 by the celebrated Hernan Cortez, as he was endeavouring to find a passage from the North to the South Sea. Its conquest from that time had often been attempted, but without effect, until the year 1679, when, pursuant to the king’s direction, it was invaded by Admiral Don Isidro Otondo, and was settled by the missionaries of the extinguished order of the Jesuits, under the direction of the Father Eusebio Francisco Kino, who first began to bring the infidel Indians under subjection.” — Alcedo. A chain of mountains runs through the centre of the peninsula, of which the most elevated, the Cerro de la Giganta, is from 1400 to 1500 metres (from 4592 to 4920 feet) in height, and appears of volcanic origin. At the foot of the moun- tains of California the soil is sand, or a stony stratum, on which cylindrical cacti ( or - ganos del tunal ) shoot up to extraordinary heights. We find few springs ; and it is remarked by Alcedo, that the rock is naked where the water springs up, while there is no water where the rock is covered with vegetable earth. Wherever springs and earth occur together, the fertility of the soil is extraordinary. It was at these plains, of which the number is far from great, that the Jesuits established their missions. The maize, th ejatroplia, and the dioscorea, vegetate vigorously ; and the vine yields excellent grapes. In general, however. Old California, on account of the arid nature of the soil, and the want of water and vegetable earth in the N 2 92 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. interior of the country, will never be able to maintain a great population any more than the northern part of Sonora, which is almost equally dry and sandy. Of all the natural productions of California, the pearls have, since the sixteenth century, been the chief attraction to navigators for visiting the coast of this desert country. They abound particularly in the southern part of the Peninsula, and the pearl-oyster is particularly to be found in the Bay of Ceralvo, and round the islands of Santa Cruz and San Jose. The most valuable pearls in the possession of the court of Spain were found in 1615 and 1665, in the expeditions of Juan Yturbi and Bernal de Pinadero. During the stay of the Yisitador Galvez in California, in 1768 and 1769, a private soldier in the presidio of Loreto, Juan Ocio, was made rich in a short time by pearl fishing on the coast of Ceralvo. Since that period the numbers of pearls of California brought annually to market were almost reduced to nothing. The Indians and negroes, who followed the severe occupation of divers, have been frequently drowned, and often devoured by sharks. The divers have always been poorly paid by the whites. Near the town of Angelos there are said to be rich gold ores, and gold and silver are found in separate deposits. In California the Jesuits obtained, under the Spanish govern- ment, a complete ascendency over the soldiery posted at the presidios. By a cedula real, all the detachment of Loreto, even the captain, were placed under the command of the father at the head of the missions. The village of Loreto was founded under the name of Presidio de San Dionisio, in 1697- In the reign of Philip V. especially after the year 1744, the Spanish monasteries in California were greatly increased. The Jesuits, in a very few years, built sixteen villages in the interior of the Peninsula. After their expulsion in 1767, California was confided to the Dominican monks of the city of Mexico, who were in every respect inferior to the Jesuits, and also to the Franciscans on the coasts of New California. In the north parts of Old California rain does not fall for nine or ten months. The gulf-shore is remarkably low, without harbours, and the water shallow. There are within the gulf several islands. The western coast is precipitous, rocky, dangerous to approach, and with but few places of anchorage. Fresh water is scarce, except at Port St. Quenten. lluy de la Magdalena is another harbour. NEW OR UPPER CALIFORNIA. Tite first permanent Spanish settlement was made in the year 1769, at the present town of San Diego, in latitude 32 deg. 41 min. Upper, or New California, extends along the Pacific from about lat. 32 deg., to Cape Mendocino in latitude 40 deg. 19 min., and from the coast to the east, as CALIFORNIA. 93 far as the boundaries of the north-eastern departments of New Mexico. The exact area of Upper California is undefined, and, excepting as far as the journeys under the exploring expedition, the interior has been but inadequately explored. Rivers. — The chief rivers of New California are the Sacramento and the Colorado. Among the harbours on this coast, the principal are the ports of San Francisco, 'situated on the bay of that name, Monterey and San Diego, and several others of lesser note. San Carlos de Monterey is the capital of California, and has a tolerable harbour. Soil and Climate. — The soil of New California, according to the descrip- tion of Alcedo, is as well watered and fertile as that of Old California is arid and stony. It is, he says, one of the most picturesque countries which can be seen. The climate is much more mild there than in the same latitude on the east coast of the new continent. The sky is foggy, but the frequent fogs, which render it difficult to land on the coast of Monterey and San Francisco, give vigour to vegetation and fertilise the soil, which is covered with a black and spongy earth. In the eighteen missions which now (1812)existin New California, wheat, maize, and haricots ( frijoles ), are cultivated in abundance. Barley, beans, lentiles, and garbanzos, grow very well in the fields in the greatest part of the pro- vince. Good wine is made in the villages of San Diego, San Juan Capistrano, San Gabriel, San Buenaventura, Santa Barbara, San Luis Obispo, Santa Clara, and San Jose, and all along the coast south and north of Monterey, to beyond the 37 deg. of latitude. The European olive is successfully cultivated near the canal of Santa Barbara, especially near San Diego, where an oil is made as good as that of the valley of Mexico, or the oils of Andalusia. The population of New California, including the Indians only attached to the soil of the missions, was, according to Alcedo, in “1790, 7748 souls; in 1801, 13,668 souls; and in 1802, 15,562 souls. “ Thus the number of inhabitants has doubled in twelve years. Since the foundation of these missions, or between 1769 and 1802, there were in all, ac- cording to the parish registers, 33,717 baptisms, 8009 marriages, 16,984 deaths. In 1791, according to the tables published by M. Galiano, the Indians sowed in the whole province only 874 bushels of wheat, which yielded a harvest of 15,197 bushels. The cultivation doubled in 1802; for the quantity of wheat sown was 2089 bushels, and the harvest 33,576 bushels. “ The following statement, comprises the number of live stock in 1802 : Oxen, 67,782; sheep, 107,172; hogs, 1040; horses, 2187; mules, 877- “ In 1791 there were only 24,958 head of black cattle ( ganado mayor ) in the whole of the Indian villages. The population of New California would have augmented still more rapidly if the laws by which the Spanish presidios have been governed for ages were not directly opposite to the true interests of both mother- country and colonies. By these laws the soldiers stationed at Monterey are not 94 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. permitted to live out of their barracks and to settle as colonists. The Indians who inhabit the villages of New California have been for some years employed in spinning coarse woollen stuffs called frisadas ; but their principal occupation, of which the produce might become a very considerable branch of commerce, is the dressing of stag-skins. In the cordillera of small elevation which runs along the coast, as well as in the neighbouring savannas, there are neither buffalos nor elks ; and on the crest of the mountains which are covered with snow in the month of November, the berrendos, with small chamois horns, feed by themselves. But all the forest and all the plains covered with gramina, are filled with flocks of stags of a most gigantic size, the horns of which are round and extremely large. Forty or fifty of them are frequently seen at a time : they are of a brown colour, smooth, and without spot. Their horns, which are not palmated, are nearly fifteen decimetres (four and a half feet) in length. It is affirmed, that this great stag of New California is one of the most beautiful animals of Spanish America. It probably differs from the wewaMsh of M. Hearne, or the elk of the United States, of which naturalists have very improperly made the two species of cervus Canadensis and cervus Strongyloceros. The horns of these stags are said to be nine feet long, and the animal, when running, throws up its head to rest them on its back.” — Thompson s Alcedo. The missions of New California, which had been founded up to 1803, were — San Diego, a village founded in 1769, fifteen leagues distant from the most northern mission of Old California. Population in 1802, 1560. San Luis el Rey de Francia, a village founded in 1798, 600. San Juan Capistrano, a village founded in 1776, 1000. San Gabriel, a village founded in 177L 1050. San Fernando, a village founded in 1797, 600. San Buenaventura, a village founded in 1782, 950. Santa Barbara, a village founded in 1786, 1100. La Purissima Concepcion, a village founded in 1787, 1000. San Luis Obisbo, a village founded in 1772, 700. San Miguel, a village founded in 1797, 600. Soledad, a village founded in 1791, 570. San Antonio de Padua, a village founded in 177L 1050. San Carlos de Monterey, capital of New California, founded in 1770. San Juan Bautista, a village founded in 1797, 960. Santa Cruz, a village founded in 1794, 440. Santa Clara, a village founded in 1777 , 1300. San Jose, a village founded in 1797, 630. San Francisco, a village founded in 1 770, with a fine port. This port has been frequently confounded by geographers with the port further north under the CALIFORNIA. 95 38° 10' of latitude, called the Puerto de Bodega. Population of San Francisco, 820. The number of whites, Mustees and Mulattoes, who live in New California, either in the presidios, or in the service of the monks of St. Francis, was at that time about 1300 ; for in the two years of 1801 and 1802, there were in the caste of whites and mixed blood 35 marriages, 182 baptisms, and 82 deaths. The po- pulation of the intendancy of New California was, in 1803, 15,600. Such was the condition of California under the Spanish monarchy and church missions. The only recent accounts of New California, upon which we can place any reliance, are those given by Captain Wilkes, commander of the exploring expe- dition of the United States by sea. He sent a party overland from Oregon, and he entered with his ships the Bay of St. Francisco from the Pacific, and proceeded up the country. An overland expedition from the United States to Oregon and California, of which a most interesting journal was kept by the commander. Cap- tain Fremont, of the Topographical Engineers. From these two works we have extracted and condensed the following sketches of St. Francisco, and the interior of New California. According to the account drawn up by Captain Wilkes : — On approaching the coast in the neighbourhood of San Francisco, the country has by no means an inviting aspect. To the north it rises in a lofty range of mountains, whose highest summit is called Table Hill ; an iron-bound coast ex- tends from Puerto de los Reyes to the mouth of San Francisco. To the south extends a sandy beach, behind which are the San Bruno sand- hills. There is no appearance of cultivation. The land to the north is abrupt and mountainous ; to the south sandy and barren. The entrance to the bay is between bold and rocky shores, which confine the tide, and which flowing in, bore Captain Wilkes’ ship onwards through a narrow passage into a large estuary, with- in which several islands and rocks are scattered. Some of the islands are covered with rich vegetation, others are barren, and covered with guano ; immense flocks of sea-fowls are perpetually hovering over, around, and alighting upon them. The shores of the bay recede north and south far beyond the visible horizon; and there is comprehended within the magnificent view one of the most spacious and safest ports in the world. Yerba Buena is the usual but not the best anchorage. The town, as it is called, or rather the scattered buildings, consists of a large frame house, occupied by the agent of the Hudson Bay Company; a store, kept by an American ; a billiard-room and bar; a poop-cabin of a ship, occupied as a dwelling by an Anglo-American captain ; a blacksmith’s shop, and some out-buildings. There is an old dilapidated adobe, conspicuous building, on the top of the hill overlooking the anchorage. Yerba Buena stands on a sterile soil, and in the 96 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. face of hills of bare rock. At low water an extensive mud-flat extends in front. Captain Wilkes says, he found a total absence of all government in California, and even its forms and ceremonies thrown aside. “ After passing through the entrance of the bay,” he observes, “we werescarcely able to distinguish the Presidio; and had it not been for its solitary flag-staff, we could not have ascertained its situation. From this staff no flae floated ; the build- ing was deserted, the walls had fallen to decay, the guns were dismounted, and every thing around it lay in quiet. We were not even saluted by the stentorian lungs of some soldier, so customary in Spanish places, even after all political power as well as military and civil rule has fled. I afterwards learned that the Presidio was still a garrison in name, and that it had not been wholly abandoned ; but the remnant of the troops stationed there consisted of no more than an officer and one soldier. I was not able to learn the rank of the former, as he was absent, and appeared, at least among the foreigners, to be little known. “ At Yerba Buena there was a similar absence of all authority. The only officer w'as the alcalde, who dwells at the mission of Nostra Senora de los Dolores, some three miles off. He was full of self-importance, making up for what he w'anted in the eyes of others, by a high estimate of his own dignity. I could find no one who could furnish me with his name, which must be my apology for not recording it in his place. Some excuse may be offered for his inattention to his duties, as I understood that he had just been united in wedlock to a lady of one of the distinguished families of the country ; and after such an event in Cali- fornia, much gaiety and rejoicing usually follow, until the hilarity at times be- comes so uproarious as to end in fighting and bloodshed.” Palermo mountain, called Table Hill by Captain Beechey, is about two thousand five hundred feet high, and wooded here and there with scraggy oaks. Between this mountain and the bay the hills recede, so as to form a sort of am- phitheatre. This place was chosen for the observatory, and where the instru- ments had been set up under the direction of Lieutenant Carr. Captain Wilkes says — “This place is well adapted for the resort of whalers. Here they may repair their boats, obtain water, and refit ; and from their frequent resort to it, has ob- tained the name of Whalers’ Harbour. The cove is a safe anchorage, being pro- tected from the north-west and westerly winds, which prevail during the summer season, and often blow with great violence. “At the time of our visit, the country altogether presented rather a singular appearance, owing, as I afterwards observed, to the withered vegetation and the ripened wild oats of the country. Instead of a lively green hue, it had generally a tint of a light straw-colour, showing an extreme want of moisture. The drought had continued for eleven months; the cattle were dying in the fields, UPPER CALIFORNIA. 97 and the first view of California was not calculated to make a favourable impres- sion either of its beauty or fertility.” The country, at the time of Captain Wilkes’ visit, and for several years previous, had, he says, been in a state of revolution, and was involved in anarchy and confusion, without laws or security of person and property. “ It is under” going,” he remarks, “ such frequent changes, that it is difficult to understand or to describe them.” Upper California exhibits, inland, lofty ranges of mountains, narrow' valleys, and extensive plains. A range of high land, from ten to twenty miles in breadth, extends along the Pacific from Cape Mendocino to latitude thirty- two degrees north. The Yalley of San Juan, of no great extent, is situated between these hills and the Sierra, a low range of mountains. East of the Sierra is the valley of the Sacramento, from which, to the south, extends the valley of Buena Ventura as far as Mount San Bernardino, about the thirty-fourth parallel of latitude. East of this valley is the Californian range of mountains, being a continuation of the cascade range of Oregon ; the southern summits are covered with snow This range decreases in height until it declines into hills of moderate elevation. To the east of the Californian mountains are vast sandy, sterile plains. On the sea-coast range of hills the lands generally are unfit for agriculture, except in some vales of small extent. These hills are, however, well adapted for pasturage. They are covered with short sweet grass and wild oats, upon which deer and elk feed. The Valley of the Sacramento and that of San Juan are considered the most fertile districts of California. The Valley of San Juan is the garden of the country, and capable of producing wheat, Indian corn, rye, oats, See., with all the fruits of the temperate and many of the tropical climates. It affords also excellent pasturage. This valley comprises a level plain from fifteen to twenty miles in width, extending north and south from the bay and mission of San Fran- cisco. Several small streams and lakes water it, but in dry seasons the crops and herbage suffer extremely from drought, and the cattle are then also deprived of good pasture. The Sierra affords little soil for cultivation, being rugged, barren, or sandy. It is in places, wooded with cedar, pine, and oak. The great Valley of Buena Ventura, the chief resort of the Californian Indians, is, by all accounts, far inferior to that of San Juan. It lies nearly parallel to the latter, and is watered by the San Joachim river and its branches. This river receives numerous streams flowing from the Californian mountains. These near their base are wooded with oaks, to which succeeds the red California cedar ( Schubertia Abertina), and still higher pines grow up to the region of pe- petual snow. On the eastern side of this range there is but little timber, and in consequence of the want of moisjure, trees do not flourish west of their lower o 98 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. slopes. The inland plain, constituting a large part of Upper California, is, ac- cording to all accounts, an arid waste ; the few rivers that exist rise periodically, and soon disappear in the sands. Of the latter portion of country, however, there is little known, and the accounts given of it are greatly at variance with each other. Of seven persons who traversed it at different times, one declared that the horses and men had not only a scanty supply of water, but were actually neatly famished for want of food ; while others stated they found both grass and water plentiful. Captain Wilkes remarks, — "The only thing that can reconcile these contradictory state- ments is, that these different persons had visited the country at different seasons of the year. It seems not at all improbable that the first of these accounts should be the correct one, for we find great aridity throughout the rest of California and Oregon also. All agree that the middle and most extensive portion of this country is destitute of the requisites for supplying the -wants of man.” Climate. — “ With California,” says Captain Wilkes, "is associated the idea of a fine climate and a rich and productive soil. This, at least, was the idea with which I entered its far-famed port ; but I soon found, from the reports of the officers, after the tiial they had had of it during the months of August and Sep- tember, that their experience altogether contradicted the received opinion upon the first-mentioned point. Many of them compared its climate to that of Orange Harbour, at Cape Horn, with all its cold blustering winds and cloudy skies. This kind of weather prevails during the greater part of the year, and the comparison is literally true in relation to one portion of California — the sea-coast.” The climate varies as much, if not even more, than the natural features and soil of the country. On the coast it has as high a mean temperature in winter as in summer. The latter is the coldest part of the year, owing to the constant prevalence of the north-west winds, which blow with the regularity of a monsoon, and are exceedingly cold, damp, and uncomfortable, rendering fire often necessary for comfort in midsummer. "This is, however, but seldom resorted to, and many persons have informed him that they have suffered more from cold at Monterey than in places of a much higher latitude. The climate thirty miles from the coast un- dergoes a great change, and in no part of the world is there to be found a finer or more equable one than in the Valley of San Juan. It more resembles that of Andalusia in Spain, than any other, and none can be more salubrious. The cold winds of the coast have become warmed, and have lost their force and violence, though they retain their freshness and purity. This district of country, about twenty miles long by twelve broad, is that in which the missions have been chiefly established ; and the accounts of these have led many to believe that the whole of Upper California is well adapted for agriculture. The sandy barren highlands which separate the valley of San Juan from that of Buena Ventura, are about UPPER CALIFORNIA. 99 1500 feet high. Pines grow along and over these heights, and the climate is ex- ceedingly dry, though refreshed by the wind that blows against and over them.' 0 Beyond these highlands lies the central valley of Buena Ventura, which may be considered an extension of the Sacramento, and through which the l iver San Joachim flows. Being confined within mountains, summer heat is oppressive, the thermo- meter ranging, it is said, as high as within the torrid zone. Although the Californian range is covered with snow, immediately above this valley it appears to have but little effect in modifying the temperature, which is represented as tropical throughout the year. This valley extends as far south as the San Bernardino Mountain. The residents in California say that they have never known the wind to blow from the north-east within thirty miles of the coast. In ordinary seasons these valleys are well watered by the mountain streams ; these are for some periods of the year mere brooks, while during the rainy season, from November to February, they often become impassable torrents. The Sacra- mento is the largest river in California. One of its branches, River Destruction, takes its rise near Mount Shaste, and was examined throughout the whole of its course by the party sent overland by Captain Wilkes, until it joined the Sacramento ; the latter is thought by some to pass through the mountains and join Pitt’s River. Pitt’s River is said to take its rise to the north-east of the Shaste Mountain, and from the information that they received, extends as far as Pitt’s Lake, under the forty-second parallel. Captain Wilkes doubts whether the length of its course is so great, and believes that the Sacramento has its source in the eastern spurs of the Shaste Mountain. Feather River is the principal stream between the American River and the source of the Sacramento. It flows into the latter’below the Prairie Butes from the north-east. This branch takes its rise in the Californian Mountains, and has a course of about forty miles. The American River is a small branch that joins the Sacramento at New Helvetia. After receiving this stream, the Sacramento is joined by the San Joachim, which flows from the south, and below their confluence enters the Bay of San Pablo, through the Straits of Kaquines, and thence into the Bay of San Francisco. The Sacramento is navigable for boats for about 150 miles, and for vessels as far as New Helvetia. The upper portion of it, near the Prairie Butes, overflows its banks, and often submerges the whole of the Sacramento Valley as far down as the San Joachim. The San Joachim has its sources in the Californian range. The Tula Lake is called by the Indians Chintache Lake ; it is for the most part separated from the channel of the river, but, when full, joins it. There are many small streams that flow through the different valleys and afford partial opportunities for irrigating the land ; but there are none of them navigable except the Sacramento. O 2 100 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Bay of San Francisco. — Upper California, according to Captain Wilkes has one of the finest, if not the very best harbour in the world, that of San Fran- cisco. Few are more extensive or could be as readily defended, while the fleets of all the naval powers of Europe and America might moor in it. This, he admits, is, however, the only really good harbour which the country possesses, for the others so called maybe frequented only during the fine season, being no more than roadsteads, affording scarcely any shelter, and but few supplies to shipping. Monterey is the capital of Upper California: the roadsteads Santa Barbara and San Pedro, are partly protected from the swell of the Pacific Ocean, by the islands. They are, however, but seldom resorted to, there being comparatively little trade along all this coast. Hides and tallow, which formerly abounded and rendered the intercourse profitable are not now to be procured. The bay of Monterey is formed by Point Ano Nueva on the north, and Point Pinos on the south ; it is twenty-four miles wide at its entrance, and six in length to the east; the east shore is low and sandy, and the surf of the Pacific rolls over the beach with a tremendous noise. The Spanish galleons at Monterey anchor in six fathoms water, at two cables length from the shore, and moored to the beach. Ships putting in keep the south shore aboard, and after doubling the south point (Point Pinos), which stretches to the north, until they see the fort, and drop anchor in ten fathoms behind the point, where they are sheltered from the west winds — the south winds blow strongly off the shore. At full and change of the moon, it is high water here at half-past one ; the tide rises seven feet. Whales, a species of tinner, have frequented the bay, and La Perouse says, that they came within half pistol-shot of the ship, and occasioned a disagreeable smell. The coasts of this bay are often covered with fogs, which render it dan- gerous to approach. Felicans are said to frequent the sea at a short distance from land, and are a good sign for seamen, as they never go more than six leagues from shore. The Manilla galleons bore away for this place as a gooj harbour to recruit in, when driven to the north by contrary wind Trade of San Francisco. — The breaking up of the missions, and the duties and prohibitions, have nearly destroyed the little trade that once existed. In this port a few hulks may be seen lying, furnished with every needful article: these keep up an illicit intercourse by the connivance of the officers of the government. The principal articles imported are cotton, cloths, velvets, silks, brandies, wines, teas, &c., in return for which they receive hides and tallow, skins, wheat, and salmon. The attention of the inhabitants has been chiefly directed to the rear- ing of cattle, and the greater part of the wealth of California may be considered as consisting of live stock. The value of exports on the average of years is stated to be about 150,000 hides, and 200,000 arrobas of tallow. The price for the former has been about two dollars, while the latter was worth one dollar and fifty cents the UPPER CALIFORNIA — BAY OF ST. FRANCISCO. 101 arroba. About two thousand beaver skins, valued at two dollars each, are brought to this market by the trappers, and from four to five hundred sea-otter skins are brought in by the American hunters, which are valued at thirty dollars each* Wheat has been exported to the Russian posts to the amount of 12,000 bushels, of which the average price has been about fifty cents a bushel. It has been as high, in 1841, as two dollars and fifty cents, in consequence of the great drought that prevailed. Among the animal exports may be enumerated about 3000 elk and deer skins, which are valued at from fifty cents to a dollar each. The whole ex- portable products of the country may be estimated at less than a million of dollars. Agriculture within the Californian Valleys. — The wheat crops yield large returns. Capt. Wilkes was informed by Mr. Spears, of Yerba Buena, that he had delivered to an active American farmer thirty bushels of wheat for seed, at a time when it was difficult to procure it, under an agreement that he should have the refusal of the crop at the market-price. In July following, he delivered him 3000 bushels ; and on its delivery he found that the farmer had re- served 600 bushels for himself, and this without estimating the loss from bad reaping and treading out with horses, would give 120 for one. This is not consi- dered a fair criterion or average, as the land was remarkable for its richness, and was well attended to ; but Mr. Spears, and several others, assured him, that the average would be as high as eighty bushels yielded for one planted. Indian corn yields well, as also potatoes, beans, and peas. The cultivation of vegetables is increasing rapidly, and supplies in these latter articles may be had in abundance, and of the finest quality. The country appears to be well adapted for grapes. Those that have been tried at the missions yield most abundantly, and about 200 casks, each of eighteen gallons, of brandy, and the same quantity of wine are made. The cultivation of the grape increases yearly, but is not sufficient for the supply of the country, as large quantities of foreign wines and liquors are imported, which pay an enormous duty. Captain Wilkes was informed by every intelligent person he met with, that the inhabitants of California consumed more spirits, in proportion to their number, than any other part of the w'orld. Brandy sold for sixty to seventy dollars the cask, or four dollars a gallon, while the price of wine was only eighteen dollars. The wine of the country which he tasted was miserable stuff, and would scarcely be taken for the juice of the grape. The Salmon Fishery is but little attended to. Captain Wilkes says the Californians never seem to attempt to catch salmon. The general opinion is, that they are too indolent to bestir themselves, and they naturally choose the employment which gives them the least trouble. Above every thing, the rearing of cattle requires the least labour in this country, for it is only necessary to pro- vide keepers and have their cattle marked. This done, they can support themselves by the increase of the stock. 102 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Manufactures. — At the missions, the manufacture of various coarse articles had been undertaken by the missionaries as a step in the education of the Neo- phytes. Among these were blankets and wearing apparel, sufficient to supply all the Indians ; but with the decline of these establishments the manufactures have in great part been discontinued. Soap of good quality is manufactured in considerable quantities, and it is thought that it might be exported at a profit, if the proper arrangements were made to use the grease which is now thrown away. The necessary alkali is very abundant. Leather of excellent quality is also made and well tanned, but in such small quantities as to be hardly sufficient to supply the wants of the country. Mills. — There are in California only two or three water-mills for grinding flour, and these are owned by foreigners. The mills in general use in the country are composed of no more than two burr-stones. To the upper stone a cross-beam is secured, to which mule-power is applied. In most of the estancias there is to be found a mill in an apartment adjoining the kitchen, if not in it. The whole is as primitive as well can be, although it is made to answer all the wants of an indo- lent people. Live Stock. --From all accounts, besides cattle, the country is adapted for the raising of sheep, which simply require watching, as they can find plenty of nutri- tious food the whole year round ; but there has been no attention paid to this sort of stock, and the W’ool is of very ordinary quality. The mutton is said to be of very fine flavour. The usual price fora sheep is from one dollar and fifty cents to two dollars, when a choice is made for killing. Hogs are raised in some parts, and might be fed to great advantage on the acorns which are abundant on the hills, where the land is not susceptible of cultiva- tion. Pork may be salted and packed for three dollars the hundred weight. What adds to the facility of curing is the large quantities of salt which crystallise in the ponds in the dry season, and which may be obtained for the expense of carriage. General Trade of California. — Trade is so much interrupted, and so much under the influence of the governor and the officers of the customs, that those attempt- ing to carry it on, under the forms usual elsewhere, would find it a ruinous pursuit. Foreign ad venturers, however, contrive toevade customs law’s, by keeping their vessels at anchor, and selling a large portion of their cargoes from on board. “ Great par- tiality,” according to Captain Wilkes, “ is shown to those of them who have a full un- derstanding with his excellency the governor ; and from what he was given to under- stand, if this be not secured, the traders are liable to exactions and vexations with- out number. The enormous duties, often amounting to eighty per cent ad valorem , cause much dissatisfaction on the part of the consumers ; the whole amount raised is about 200,000 dollars per annum, which is found barely sufficient to pay the GENERAL TRADE OF CALIFORNIA. 103 salaries of the officers and defray the costs of the government feasts, which are frequent, and usually cost a 1000 dollars each. These emoluments are shared among the heads of departments at Monterey , whilst the soldiers are often for months without their pay, and are made to take it in whatever currency it may suit the government to give. Besides the above duties there is a municipal tax on many things; thus, a dollar is demanded on every gallon of spirits imported ; fifty cents on each beaver or otter skin, and on other articles in the same ratio. Next come the church tithes, which are enormous. I heard of a farmer who was made to pay 190 dollars as the tithe on his produce, although he lives far removed from either church or priest. All these things are bringing the government into great disrepute, and the governor is every day becoming more and more unpopular; so much so, that his orders have not been complied with, and have been treated with contempt, particularly when he desires to recruit his forces. A short time before our arrival he sent a list to a pueblo of the young men to be drafted as soldiers ; when it was received they in a body refused to go, and sent back the disrespectful and defying message, that he might come and take them. Nothing can be more de- graded than the lower functionaries, such as the alcaldes and their underlings. They are ignorant men, who have no ideas of justice, which is generally administered according to the alcalde’s individual ideas or partiality. To recover a debt by legal means is considered beyond a possibility, and creditors have to wait until the debtor is disposed to pay.” Captain Wilkes, however, qualifies this degraded administration, and observes : “ Fortunately, and to the honour of the country, a just claim is rarely or never denied ; and, until lately, the word of a Californian was sufficient to insure the payment of claims on him ; but such has been the moral degradation to which the people have fallen since the missions have been robbed by the authorities, and the old priests driven out, that no reliance can be placed now upon their promises, and all those who have of late trusted them complain that engagements are not regarded, and that it is next to impossible to obtain any returns for goods that have been delivered. The state of the country is, however, some excuse, as it has been impossible for any one to make calcula- tions under the existing anarchy and confusion.” “It was at first believed that the revolution which took place in November, 1836, would result in much immediate good to those who effected it, but such has not been the case. Foreigners unquestionably performed a large part in planning and carrying the change out; yet none have suffered so much by it as they have.” On the future prospects of California he remarks, — “ The situation of Upper California will cause its separation from Mexico before many years. The country between it and Mexico can never be any thing but a barren waste, which pre- cludes all intercourse except that by sea, always more or less interrupted by the course of the winds and the unhealthfulness of the lower or sea-port towns of 104 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Mexico. It is very probable that this country will become united with Oregon, with which it will, perhaps, form a state that is destined to control the destinies of the Pacific. This future state is admirably situated to become a powerful maritime nation, with two of the finest ports in the world, that within the straits of Juan de Fuca, and San Francisco. These two regions have, in fact, within themselves, every thing to make them increase, and keep up an intercourse with the whole of Polynesia, as well as the countries of South America on the one side, and China, the Philippines, New Holland, and New Zealand, on the other. Among the latter, before many years, may be included Japan. Such various climates will furnish the materials for a beneficial interchange of products, and an intercourse that must, in time, become immense ; while this western coast, enjoying a climate in many respects superior to any other in the Pacific, possessed, as it must be, by the Anglo-Norman race, and having none to enter into rivalry with it but the indolent inhabitants of warm climates, is evidently destined to fill a large space in the world’s future history.” Aborigines cf California and the Missions. — The aborigines were first induced to adopt a change of religion either by the persuasion of the mis- sionaries or by presents. Force was also resorted to as a last effort to bring them within the mission. The practice at that time was, that on being converted to Christianity, they were enforced to give ten years faithful service, after which period they were to be at liberty, and to have allotted to them a small piece of land for cultivation, and a few cattle, provided they could advance security for good behaviour. This was seldom realised ; but their treatment was much more kind after the expiration of their term of service, and they usually remained in the employ of the missions, having become attached to their masters and to their occupations. They were, no doubt, kindly treated by the ecclesiastics, and their labour or duties consisted chiefly in taking care of cattle, labouring on the mis- sion-farm, gardening, and household work. Some were taught to become carpenters and blacksmiths, others weavers, shoemakers, and manufacturers of leather; and some were let out to private service to “ genie de razon ,” or the people of reason, as the whites are still termed in California. The police of the missions was strict, and punishment was administered when required. Rewards for good behaviour were also given, as well as for bringing in Neophytes. During the revolts in 1836, the Indians of many of the missions were cast off, neglected, and deprived of the fruits of their labour. It was always impressed upon them by the Spanish Padres that they were interested in the property which had been accumulated by their labour, and this belief had naturally tended to attach them to the soil. The ravages of the small-pox, two years prior to Captain Wilkes’s visit, com- pleted the destruction of these establishments, for it swept off one-half of the UPPER CALIFORNIA. 105 aborigines and dispirited the rest, many of whom joined the wild tribes. He remarks, in 1841, they ‘‘are now committing acts of violence on the whites; they are becoming daily more daring, and have rendered a residence in single farm- houses, or estancias, not without danger. In looking at the state in which these poor Indians have been left, it cannot be denied but that they have cause to be dissatisfied with the treatment they have received.” Formerly each mission was considered as representing within its fold a distinct family of Indians, and consisting, in some missions, of about twelve hundred souls. During the authority of the Spanish priests, the administration of the missions was judiciously conducted : the aborigines were well clad, well fed, and lodged. The padres purchased, in exchange for the products of Indian labour, annually ten thousand dollars’ worth of articles from the vessels trading upon the coast. Each mission formed a kind of municipality of itself, having its alcalde and inferior officers. The Indians, who were at first disinclined to labour, became gradually industrious, as they enjoyed equitable advantages from the fruits of their own better-directed labour, on becoming converts to Christianity: at least so far as to observe and perform the ceremonial of the church. The forms and ceremonials of the church also allured the aborigines, and attached, them to the missions, which increased in wealth by the industry of the greatly increased number of labourers, cultivating a rich soil in a genial climate. In 1835 this happy state of the mission was revolutionised by one of the nominally republican, but in reality, military and despotic misgovernments which have afflicted the Mexican territories. Administradors were appointed to each mission, the priests were deprived of their municipal administration, and their duties limited to their clerical functions, with an allowance of a small stipend. It is not contended that the private lives of the padres were generally either virtuous or free from profligacy ; but with respect to the aborigines and the pecu- niary prosperity of the missions, the latter have been plundered by the adminis- tradors, and the former have been, in many instances, dispersed, while the padres have not been able to bring in fresh Neophytes . During the visit of Captain Wilkes the padres of the mission of San Jose were, from want of substance, compelled to disperse five hundred of their proselytes to procure their subsistence. The ad- ministradors despoiled the missions as property acquired, only to be re-invested in the state ; that is, in its rapacious officers for the time being. The rights of the poor aborigines were entirely overlooked ; and when the latter brought away the cattle which justly belonged to them, they were severely punished. The injustice of being robbed of the fruits of their labour, and of witnessing others living upon the common stock of the missions, while the Indians were driven off to seek a precarious subsistence in the forests, naturally exasperated those who were brought up under these missions. p 106 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. The consequence of such injustice was depredations committed by those Indians often with great success. Captain Wilkes observes, that “ a month pre- vious to the arrival of the squadron, they had driven off 300 horses. Retaliatory measures on the part of the Californians were adopted ; a party was collected and despatched to punish them, which proceeded towards the interior, came to a village, and, without any inquiry whether its dwellers had been the aggressors, it was set on fire and reduced to ashes ; some of the defenceless old men, who, from their infirmities, could not escape, were put to death, and forty or fifty wo- men and children carried off as prisoners. This was not all : these prisoners were apportioned as slaves to various families, with whom they still remain in servitude, and receive very harsh treatment. Smarting under such wrongs, it is not surprising that the Indians should retaliate. They openly assert, that after taking all the horses, they will commence with families ; and many of those which are situated on the frontiers experience much alarm. In June, 1841, an Englishman was shot by an arrow at the door of his house, early in the evening. The Indians enticed him out by making a noise near by, and the moment he opened the door, with a candle in his hand, an arrow was sent through his heart.” The Indians at present rarely steal any property but horses ; but so daring are they, that they not unfrequently take them out of the enclosures near th e pueblos. Their reason for confining themselves to this description of property is, that with them they are able to avoid pursuit, which would not be the case if they stole cattle. The Californians, on detecting and apprehending the aggressors, show them no mercy, and their lives are made the forfeit. This constant foray on one side or the other, maintains an unceasing animosity ; and as long as the present imbecile government lasts, there is not the least prospect of security or improvement. To all strangers but those of the Spanish race, the Indians seem in general well disposed, as they have usually received from the former considerate and kind treatment. The character of these Indians is not represented as savage, and they were little disposed to harass the whites until they had been themselves ejected from the missions and forced to consort with those who are yet in a wild state. The knowledge they have of the Californians, of the missionary establish- ments, and the manner of conducting them, enables them to act effectively; and if it were not for the presence of the English and Americans, they would either drive the Spanish race out of the country, or confine them to the limits of their villages. Indian Population of Califoknia. — The number of Indians is variously stated at from 12,000 to 15,000; but it is believed by some of the best informed, that their number, since the small-pox made its ravages among them, is not much more than 8000 or 9000. The principal part of which consists of the tribes on the Sacramento. UPPER CALIFORNIA. 107 Population of the European Pace. — It is said that there has been an exaggeration in computing the number of the whites or “ gente de razon. These have been usually estimated at 5000 ; but, from the best information ob- tained by Captain Wilkes, he could not satisfy himself that they number more than 3000 souls. In this estimate is not included those of mixed blood, who may amount to 2000 more ; so that the whole of Upper California at the date of his visit in 1841, the entire population was about 15,000 souls; which estimate he considered about correct. The remarkably good health and robustness of the white inhabitants, he attributed to the “ fine climate, as well as to their simple diet.” This consists of beef roasted upon wood coals, a few vegetables, and the tortillia. Throughout the coun- try, both with the rich and poor, this is the general fare ; but some few luxuries have been lately introduced, among which are rice and tea. The latter is used so sparingly, that the discolouration of the water is scarcely perceptible. At the missions, they live more after the Spanish fashion. The children are, for the most part, left to take care of themselves, and run about naked and dirty. They are generally robust, and their relative number seems to be very great ; thus, it is by no means uncommon to see families of fourteen or fifteen children ; and an instance was mentioned, of a woman near Yerba Buena, who had had twenty-six. A large number die from accidental falls from horses, which, from almost their childhood, they are accustomed to ride. They soon become expert and fearless riders, and this acquirement is not confined to the male sex ; the women are almost equally expert. Although the Californians are comparatively few in number, they retain a distinctive character. Descended from the old Spaniards, they inherit all their vices, with a few of their virtues. Both sexes are addicted to gambling with cards, dice, &c. Among their other amusements are cock-fighting, bull and bear-baiting, and dancing, accompanied with excessive drinking. Parties of amusement, to which the surrounding population is invited, are frequent ; these generally last for three days, and rarely break up without some quarrel. Weddings are particularly liable to these disorders, and at each of the three last that took place at and in the vicinity of Yerba Buena, previous to Captain Wilkes’s visit there, a life was lost by the cuchillo. This weapon, which is always worn, is promptly resorted to in all their quarrels. The female portion of the community are described by the same authority as ,c ignorant, degraded, and the slaves of their husbands. They are very fond of dress, and will make any sacrifice, even their own honour, to gratify it. The men have no trades, and depend for every thing upon the Indians at the missions, some of whom are ingenious, both as carpenters and blacksmiths. The whites are so indolent, and so proud, as to make them look upon all manual labour as p 2 108 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. degrading; regarding all those who work as beneath them ; they, in consequence, can never he induced to labour.” The state of morals he describes as very low, and every day as becoming worse. During the residence of the old Spanish priests, the people were kept under some control ; but, since the change, priests and laymen are alike given up to idleness and debauchery. They are, however, remarkable for their hospitality. It is alleged that they will give up all business to entertain a guest. They put no value whatever upon time, and on entering into contracts they have no regard to punctuality, frequently allowing two, three, and four years to pass by before payment. This does not proceed from dishonesty, or any intention to evade their debts, for eventually they pay, if they can, and do not object to the amount of in- terest. They, in fact, regard the inconvenience to which they may have put their creditors as of no sort of consequence. Captain Wilkes was informed, that to offer money for entertainment was con- sidered as an insult. He did so, and it was refused ; yet when he offered it through his servant, it was readily accepted. He says further, “ While one is entertained by them, if he should want to hire or purchase any thing, the land- lord will league with those about him in schemes of extortion to be practised upon the stranger, and appear vexed with those who are the prominent extortioners.” The Californians, as a people, he says, must be termed cruel in their treatment to their wives, as well as to the Indians; and in a still greater degree, of course, to their slaves and cattle. They are exceedingly ignorant of every thing but extortion, riding horses, and catching bullocks. EXPEDITION TO EXPLORE THE BAY OF SAN-FRANCISCO, AND UPPER COUNTRY. On the 20th of August, Lieutenant-Commandant Ringgold left the United States’ ship of war, Vincennes, Captain Wilkes (lying in the bay of San Francisco), with six boats, accompanied by Dr. Pickering, Lieutenants Alden and Budd Passed-Midshipman Sandford, Midshipmen Ilammersley and Elliott, and Gunner Williamson, with provision for thirty days, accompanied by an Indian pilot. They first passed the islands of Angelos and Mobile, next the points of San Pedro and San Pablo, and then entered the bay of San Pablo. This bay is of a form nearly circular, and ten miles in diameter; many small streams flowed into it, fresh from the neighbouring hills. On the east side of this bay, the river Sacramento empties into it through the Straits of Kaquines. The land is high, and the sandstone rock on each side of the straits resembles that observed about the Straits of De Fuca. The hills are described as “ thickly co- vered with wild oats, which were ripe, and the landscape had a peculiar golden hue. The contrast of this with the dark green foliage of the scattered oaks, BAY OF SAN FRANCISCO. 109 heightened the effect, which, although peculiar, is not unpleasing to the sight. The trees all have an inclination towards the south-east, showing the prevalence and the violence of the bleak north-west winds, producing on them a gnarled and mountain character. This feature is general throughout the coast of California, and gives the trees a singular appearance, the flat tops having the air of being cut or trimmed after the manner of box-trees. The tops are bent to one side, and the larger branches hidden by the numerous twigs which compose the mass. The only place where a similar character was observed by us impressed upon the foliage, was at Terra del Fuego.” After passing the straits, the delta of the Sacramento opened to view. The Tula marshes, which are overflowed by the river above, are very extensive, and are said to be the resort of a vast number of beavers, which, in consequence of the nature of the ground, are difficult to catch, many more traps being necessary than in other localities. They then proceeded up the Sacramento to the American river falling into it, where a native of Switzerland has formed an establishment. New Helvetia. — Captain Suter, the founder, is a Swiss by birth, and informed Commandant Ringgold that he had been a lieutenant in the Swiss guards during the time of Charles X. Soon after the revolution of J uly, he came to the United States, and passed several years in the state of Missouri. He has but recently removed to California, where he has obtained from the government a conditional grant of thirty leagues square, bounded by the Sacramento on the west, and extending as far up the river as the Prairie Butes. The spot he has chosen for the erection of his dwelling and fortification, he has called New Helvetia; it is situated on the summit of a small knoll rising from the level prairie, two miles from the east bank of the Sacramento, and fifty miles from its mouth. New Helvetia is bounded on the north by the American Fork, a small serpentine stream, which has a course of but a few miles. This river, having a bar near its mouth, no vessels larger than boats can enter it. At this place the Sacramento is 800 feet wide, and this may be termed the head of its navigation during the dry season, or the stage of low water. Mr. Geiger, a young American from Newport, was attached to Captain Suter’ s establishment; but he informed Captain Wilkes that he intended to settle higher up the Sacramento, on the banks of the Feather River. When Captain Suter first settled here in 1839, he was surrounded by some of the most hos- tile tribes of Indians on the river; but, by his energy and management, with the aid of a small partyof trappers, has prevented opposition to his plans. Although Captain Suter is, in general, in the habit of treating the Indians with kindness, yet he related to Lieutenant Ringgold and his party instances in which he had been obliged to fusi/ade nine of them ; indeed, he did not seem to stand upon much ceremony with those who opposed him in any way. His buildings consist of extensive curra/s and dwelling-houses for himself and people, all built 110 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. of adobes (unburnt bricks). Labour is paid for in goods. His stock then amounted to about 1000 horses, 2500 cattle, and about 1000 sheep, many of which were seen in flocks around his premises, giving the place an appearance of peaceful civilisation. Captain Fremont, who proceeded as far as New Helvetia three years after Captain Wilkes’s visit, observes : — “ Captain Suter who, in 1838-9, formed the first settlement in the valley, on a large grant of land which he obtained from the Mexican government, had at first some trouble with the Indians, but by the occasional exercise of well-timed authority, he has succeeded in converting them into a peaceable and industrious people. The ditches around his extensive wheat-field — the making of the sun- dried bricks, of which his fort is constructed — the ploughing, harrowing, and other agricultural operations, are entirely the work of these Indians, for which they receive a very moderate compensation, principally in shirts, blankets, and other articles of clothing. In the same manner, on application to the chief of a village, he readily obtains as many boys and girls as he has any use for: there were at this time a number of girls at the fort in training for a future woollen factory, but they were now all busily engaged in constantly watering the gardens, which the unfavourable dryness of the season rendered necessary. The occa- sional dryness of some seasons, I understood, to be the only complaint of the settlers in this fertile valley, as it sometimes renders the crops uncertain. Mr. Suter was about making arrangements to irrigate his lands by means of the Rio de los Americanos. He had this year sown, and altogether by Indian labour, 300 fanegas of wheat. “ A few years since, the neighbouring Russian establishment of Ross being about to withdraw from the country, sold to him a large number of stock, with agricultural and other stores, with a number of pieces of artillery and other mu- nitions of war; for these a regular yearly payment is made in grain. “ The fort is a quadrangular adobe structure, mounting twelve pieces of ar- tillery (two of them brass), and capable of admitting a garrison of a thousand men; this at present consists of forty Indians, in uniform, one of whom was always found on duty at the gate. As might naturally be expected, the pieces are not in very good order. The whites in the employment of Captain Suter — American, French, and German — amount, perhaps, to thirty men. The inner wall is formed into buildings, comprising the common quarters, with blacksmith’s and other workshops; the dwelling-house, with a large distillery-house and other buildings, occupying more the centre of the area. “ It is built upon a pond-like stream, at times a running creek, communicating with the Rio de los Americanos, which enters the Sacramento about two miles below ; the latter is here a noble river, about 300 yards broad, deep and tranquil, with several fathoms of water in the channel, and its banks continuously timbered. BAY OF SAN FRANCISCO. Ill There were two vessels belonging to Captain Suter at anchor near the landing- one a large two-masted lighter, and the other a schooner, which was shortly to pro- ceed on a voyage to Fort Vancouver for a cargo of goods. “ Since his arrival, several other persons, principally Americans, have estab- lished themselves in the valley. Mr. Sinclair, from whom I experienced much kindness during my stay, is settled a few miles distant, on the Rio de los Ame- ricanos. Mr. Coudrois, a gentleman from Germany, has established himself on Feather River, and is associated with Captain Suter in agricultural pursuits. Some settlers also from the Columbia River had arrived. Among other improve- ments, they are about to introduce the cultivation of rape-seed ( brassica rapus), which there is every reason to believe is admirably adapted to the climate and soil. The lowest average produce of wheat, as far as we can at present know, is thirty-five fanegas for one sown ; but as an instance of its fertility, it may be mentioned that Senor Valejo obtained, on a piece of ground where sheep had been pastured, 800 fanegas for eight sown. The produce being different in va- rious places, a very correct idea cannot be formed.” Captain Suter, who had engaged in extensive agricultural operations, had, in the year of Captain Wilkes’s visit, all his crops ruined by the drought. He had taught the Indians to make adobes. The agreement for their services were usually made with their chiefs, and in this way as many as he wanted were readily obtained. The chiefs had far more authority over their tribes than those which Captain Wilkes had seen to the north, and appeared to have more authority over, and were more respected by their tribes, than those of any other of the North American Indians. Connected with his establishment. Captain Suter had erected a distillery, in which he made a kind of spirit from the wild grape of the country. To all the foregoing enterprises, Captain Wilkes says : — “ That Suter added the direction of a large party of trappers and hunters, mostly Americans, who enter here into competition with those of the Hudson Bay Company ; and attended also the Russian establishment at Ross and Bodega, which had just been transferred to him for the consideration of 30,000 dollars. In the purchase were included all the stock, houses, arms, utensils, and cattle, belonging to the establishment. It was understood that this post was abandoned by orders of the Russian government, the Russian company no longer having any necessity to hold it to procure supplies, as they are now to be fur- nished under a contract with the Hudson Bay Company; and, by giving it up, they avoid many heavy expenses.” Bodega. — The trading post at this place was first established by the Rus- sians in 1812, under a permission from the then governor of Monterey, to erect a few small huts for salting their beef. A small number of men were left to super- intend this business, which in a few years increased, until the place became of 112 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. such importance in the eyes of the Spanish authorities, that on the Russians at- tempting to establish themselves at San Francisco, on the island of Yerba Buena, and to employ their men in trapping during the season, they were ordered to leave the country. This they refused to do, and having become too strong to be re- moved by the Spanish force, the post had been suffered to remain undisturbed until the time of Captain Wilkes’s visit. The Port of Bodega is situated about ninety miles to the north of that of San Francisco, and being both inconvenient and small, cannot be entered except by vessels of a small draft of water. Captain Wilkes says, “ From what I under- stood from the officers who had been in charge of it, it had been a very consider- able expense to the Russian American Company to fortify it, and the disposal of the whole, on almost any terms must have been advantageous. Captain Suter had commenced removing the stock and transporting the guns, &c., to his estab- lishment.” The building at the two posts numbered from fifty to sixty, and they fre- quently contained a population of 400 or 500 souls. Since the breaking up of the establishment, the majority of the Russians returned to Sitka ; the rest have remained in the employ of the present owner. Although the country around New Helvetia was parched up with the severe drought that had prevailed before the arrival of Captain Wilkes, yet the short grasses were abundant, and it was more completely covered with vegetation than that below. Scattered oaks grew in all directions, some of which were of large dimensions — five or six feet in diameter, and sixty or seventy feet high. The scenery was very much admired, and Mount Diavolo, near the mouth of the San Joachim, adds to its beauty. The mountains to the east are visible from Captain Suter’s settlement, and it is said that during some portions of the year they are covered with snow. A route across them was followed, directly east of this place, by a party, but they were twenty days in getting over, and found the country so thickly wooded that they were obliged to cut their way. The pass which is recommended as the best, is 200 miles to the north of this place, through the gap made by the head waters of the Sacramento. This has lead to the belief that Pitt’s River extends in this direction through and beyond them. ROUTE FROM SAN FRANCISCO TO THE UNITED STATES. The best route from San Francisco to the United States, as laid down by Captain Wilkes, is to follow the San Joachim for sixty miles, thence easterly, through a gap in the snowy mountains by a good beaten road ; thence the course is north-easterly to Mary's River, which flows south-east, and has no outlet, but loses itself in a lake; thence continuing in the same direction, the Portneuf River in the Upper Shoshone EXPEDITION UP THE SACRAMENTO. 113 is reached; and thence to Fort Hall, according to Dr. Marsh (an American of much intelligence, resident at the mouth of the San Joachim, to whom Captain Wilkes says, “ we are indebted for much information of the country”), there is plenty of fresh water and pasturage all the way, and no proper desert between the Californian range and the Colorado. See hereafter “Captain Fremont’s Journey from Fort Hall to the Columbia.” Dr. Marsh crossed nothing: like a range of mountains in the whole route from the United States. Hills and mountains were often seen on what he calls the table land of New Mexico. The most common plant met with was an acacia, a small shrub which is also to be found in the southern parts of New Mexico, where the climate is likewise very arid. In one district where it occurs, it is found necessary to protect both horse and rider with a sort of armour against this rigid and thorny vegetation, between latitude 37 deg. and 38 deg. north. He also reports that there are other streams to the east of the mountains without outlets, and which do not reach the Colorado, although running in that direction. He identifies the Youta, or Great Salt Lake, with the Lake Temponogos of the early Spanish fathers who visited it, and agrees with others in placing the north end of it nearly in the parallel of 42 deg. north. See also “ Captain Fremont’s Journey.” The Colorado of the West he reports to be impracticable for boats to descend from the head waters to its mouth, on account of its rapidity. There is one place in it that is described as similar to the Dalles of the Columbia, which is supposed to be where it passes through the range of mountains. Expedition up the Sacramento. — Captain Wilkes sent a boat, with an officer on board to explore the Sacramento upwards. They found the banks of the river bordered with marshes which extend for miles back. This kind of country continues up both the Sacramento and San Joachim, and is the proper Tula dis- trict, of which so much has been said and so many errors propagated. Here the Tula ( scirpus lacustris ) grows in great luxuriance. On the 26th, they reached the mouth of Feather River, which is fifteen miles above New Helvetia. It appeared nearly as broad as the main stream, but there is a bar extending the whole distance across it, on which the boats grounded. On the point of the fort, the ground was strewed with the skulls and bones of an In- dian tribe, all of whom are said to have died within a few years of the tertian fever, and to have nearly become extinct in consequence. Near this had been an Indian village, which was destroyed by Captain Suter and his trappers, because its inhabitants had stolen cattle, &c. The affair resulted in one of the Indians being killed, twenty-seven made captive, and the removal of the remainder beyond the limits of his territory. The battle-ground was pointed out, at a bend of the river, which is only one-third of a mile across, though three around. Q 114 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Game is represented to have decreased in this vicinity, from the numbers de- stroyed by the parties of the Hudson Bay Company who annually frequent these grounds. (See account by Captain Fremont, of “ The Destruction of Buffalo,” &c.) Large flocks of curlew were seen, and the California quail, which disap- peared since leaving the coast, was again observed. The trees that line the banks consist of the cotton-wood, &c. Single oaks, with short grass beneath them, are scattered over the plain. The next day, as they advanced, game became more plentiful, and elk were found to be most so. Some of them were of large size, and at that season of the year, the rutting, they are seen generally in pairs, but atother times the females appear in large distinct herds. They were fine-looking animals, with very large antlers, and in the first instance, devoid of fear. The herds were usually thirty or forty in number, and chiefly composed of females and their young. The father of the flock is always conspicuous, and with his horns seemed to overshadow and pro- tect the family. The tula, or bulrush, was found in great quantities, growing on the banks. The Indians use its roots as food, either raw or mixed with the grass seed, which forms the principal article of their food. This root is likewise eaten by the grizzly bear. The party encamped in the ruins near a grove of poplars of large size, some of which were seventy feet high, and two and a half feet in diameter. The leaf resembled that of the American aspen. At night they had a slight thunder shower. The wolves and bears had entered the camp during the night, although there was a watch kept at each end of it. The howling of the wolves was almost constant. On the 27th, the current of the Sacramento had become much more rapid, and the snags more frequent. The banks were on an average about twenty feet above the water, though there was every appearance of their having been over- flowed. The prairies were perfectly level, and everywhere overspread with the shells of the Planorbis. In some places these shells appeared as though they had been collected in heaps. From the top of these banks the Prairie Butes were in sight to the northward and westward. As they proceeded up the river, the country continued of the same character, the level being only interrupted by trees that bordered the river. These consisted of oaks and sycamores. Game and fur bearing animals had become more numerous, and among them were the lynx and fox. The latter is the species whose fur brings a high price in China, where, as much as twenty dollars is paid for a skin. This fox is said to have one peculiarity, namely, that when chased it will ascend trees. Bears were also seen in great numbers. Dr. Marsh thinks there is but one species, the grizzly bear ; but the black bear EXPEDITION UP THE SACRAMENTO. 115 of the United States is found in New Mexico, and highly prized for its skin : though Dr. Pickering thinks he saw another species, whose summer coat ap- proaches the yellow bear of Oregon. The skin of the young is here sometimes made into quivers, and they are destitute of the horny claws of the grizzly bear. The skin of the later animal is said sometimes to be as large as that of an ox ; its food is the same as that of the Indians, and varies with the seasons. Its strength is said to be prodigiously great, and it has been known, when lassoed, to drag three horses; and, when baited in the bull and bear-fights, practised in California, will check the charge of a bull by stretching out one of its paws. They will also ascend the oaks for the acorns, and break off branches so large as almost to ruin the tree. It does not, at all times, kill its enemies when it has them in its power; rarely attacks a man unless he comes upon him by surprise, and is not considered a dangerous animal. The vegetation throughout the whole course of the Sacramento showed evi- dent traces of salt, and in some places the prairies seemed to be incrusted with it. On the 4th, the expedition returned to New Helvetia, where they found that a small Russian schooner had arrived from Bodega, bringing the governor of that establishment, who was about delivering it up to Captain Suter. The vessel was understood ^Fhave been built at Sitka, and was of only thirty tons’ burden, very much resembling an English vessel of the same class. For a boat they use a skin “ Badaka,” that is admirably adapted for the seas and weather they have to contend with. When the persons are seated, and the opening closed, with a skin dress they more resemble an aquatic animal than any thing else. The morning after their arrival, Captain Suter paid his men their weekly wages, in cloths, calicoes, vests, shirts, and pantaloons. The whole was arranged through their chief, who spoke a little Spanish. The labourers are obtained from the different rancherias, and some from the vicinity of the mountains. It was ob- served that the larger portion of the labourers were young men and boys ; no women were employed, and as yet their services are not needed ; but it is the captain’s intention, as he informed our gentlemen, to have employment for them in a year or two. Captain Wilkes says, “ Several Americans from the United States were then (1841,) beginning to settle in this part of the country, and it will not be long before it becomes, in some respects, an American colony. Although it was late in the season, a few salmon were caught at the fishery; they were not to be distin- guished from the Columbia species of the first run. “ The Indians have several rancherias around New Helvetia. Their lodges are all somewhat like low haycocks, being composed of a framework of sticks thatched with the bulrush. “In the preparation of the acorn bread all assist. The acorns are gathered in Q 2 116 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. very large quantities, piled in heaps, and spread in the sun to dry. Both men and women are to be seen employed shelling, pounding, and baking them into bread : the pounding is performed upon a plank that has been hollowed out with a stone pestle; to reduce the large quantity to a fine powder, requires great labour.” Captain Wilkes continues to observe, “ Around New Helvetia, although but a few days had elapsed since their former visit, the country, if possible, appeared more arid; it by no means justified the high encomiums that we had heard be- stowed upon this far-famed valley. Our expectations, probably, had been so much raised as scarcely to allow us to give it that credit it really deserves. “ The valley of the Sacramento may include a space of 180 miles long, by from twenty to fifty miles w r ide. A large part of this is undoubtedly barren and unproductive, and must for ever remain so. The part that is deemed good soil, is inundated annually, not for any great length of time, yet sufficiently long to make it unfit for advantageous settlement. The high prairie is spoken of as being in general barren, and as affording but little good pasture. “The crops are usually ripe in June, which enables the wheat and Indian corn to be gathered before the summer drought begins. There is usually a rainy sea- son of three months, but during the year of our visit no rain had fallen ; and from every crop having failed, the inhabitants had been living upon then^attle. The cattle suffered almost as much as the crops, and large numbers of them died from starvation. On this account the inhabitants had forborne to kill their cattle for hides, believing it to be a great loss to do so, as the weight was so much depre- ciated as to pay little more than the labour of slaughter and preparing for market. “ The variety of game in this country almost exceeds belief. The elk may be said to predominate, but there are also many bears, black-tailed deer, wolves, foxes, minxes, hares, musk-rats, badgers, antelopes, and ovis montana. The wolf is reported by Dr. Marsh to be the same as the prairie wolf of the Upper Missis- sippi, but not the one described by Say. The fox is the same as the gray one of the wooded parts of the United States. According to Mr. Peale, the black- ^ tailed deer is the only species found in this country. The ovis montana has been frequently seen by Dr. Marsh ; its coating is altogether hair, without any admix- ture of wool. No specimens were obtained for the expedition. ESTABLISHMENTS ON THE WEST AND SOUTH OF THE BAY OF SAN FRANCISCO. On the west side of the Bay of San Pablo, are some of the finest tracts of country in California. One of these is called the Valley of Nappa, another ESTABLISHMENTS WEST AND SOUTH OF SAN FRANCISCO. 117 that of Zonoma, and a third San Rafael. In Zonoma is situated the town of the same name, the residence of General Vallejo, and the mission of San Rafael. The fertile country extends across to Ross and Bodega, the two Russian settle- ments before spoken of.” Zonoma is the seat of government, and is situated in an extensive plain, with some high hills for its southern boundary. The plain is covered with fine oaks, and there is a never-failing stream of water passing through it. There is besides an inlet from the bay, which allows a boat navigation to it of about twelve miles. Zonoma contained only the following buildings: “the general’s house, built of adobes, of two stories, which fronts on the public square, and is said to be one of the best houses in California. On the right of this is the residence of the general’s brother, Salvadore, and to the left, the barracks for the accommodation of the guard for the general, consisting of about twenty fusileers. Not far removed is the old dilapidated mission-house of San Francisco Solano, scarcely tenantable, though a small part of it is inhabited still by a padre, who continues, notwith- standing the poverty of his mission, to entertain the stranger, and show him all the hospitality he can.” The anecdotes related to Captain Wilkes of the general commanding, all showed a disregard for the lives, as well as for the property and liberty of the In- dians, and “ gente de razon.” This general acted with the same impunity as all his predecessors, with one or two exceptions, have done before him. As an instance of the lawless acts of the governors, it is said that one of them enter- tained the idea of training the Indians as soldiers, and a company of them which had been drilled made such proficiency in the use of their arms, that his excel- lency became alarmed, and forthwith ordered them all to be shot ! Captain Wilkes had little doubt that this story might be true, for the value of an Indian’s life in the eye of these rulers, scarcely exceeds that of one of the wild cattle. The commandant-general is frequently said to hunt them, and by his prowess in these expeditions has gained some reputation. Salvadore Vallejo, the general’s brother, was engaged in agricultural pursuits, and particularly in raising cattle, “ which,” says Captain Wilkes, “ under the governor, he has the special privilege of supplying to vessels, which he does at prices that insure a handsome profit. In times of scarcity, vessels are sure to be supplied by applying to the governor, who will order supplies to be furnished, and even obtain them by compulsion. On my arrival, finding that we wanted supplies, and not knowing how long (in the event of an accident to our land party) I might be detained, I was advised to apply to the commandant-general, through whom I would be sure of obtaining them. I therefore despatched a note by an officer, whom the general treated with great politeness, and returned for answer, that he could supply me with the following articles: — Lima beans, wheat, potatoes, and other vegetables, which we had been unable to obtain. Fortunately for us, as well as for the lower orders and Indians, the party arrived. 118 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. and vve were not under the necessity of making use of his powerful intervention. The general, I was told, considers every bushel of grain as much at his command as he does the persons of the people, and the property of the state. Zonoma is to be the capital of this country, provided the general has power and lives long enough to build it up. An idea has got abroad that he is looking to the guberna- torial chair, and to be placed there by the same force that has raised Alvarado and himself to the posts they now occupy.” Zonoma is on the road that leads to Ross and Bodega, and by this route Cap- tain Suter had transported all the stock he purchased of the Russians. The state of society here was found, by Captain Wilkes, “to be exceedingly loose; envy, hatred, and malice, predominated in almost every breast, and the people were wretched under their present rulers;” “ Female virtue,” he regrets to say, “ is also at a low ebb; and the coarse and lascivious dances, which meet the plaudits of the lookers-on, show the degraded tone of manners that exists.” The mission of San Rafael is situated in a fertile valley about twelve miles from Sansalito. It at present consists of a large building with a small chapel attached ; both in a tolerable state of preservation, and under the superintendence of an Irishman, who has been appointed to the charge from its being considered a place of emolument, through his interest with the governor. A padre resides at this mission for six months of the year, and officiates as priest. On the 24th of October, during Captain Wilkes’s visit, a fete was given at this place, in honour of the patron saint; and it was rumoured that there was to be a grand bull-fight. The latter was miserably conducted. “The bulls had greatly the advantage, and the men and horses were tumbled about until both became quite shy. They had cut off the tips of the bull’s horns, which was a fortunate circumstance for both horses and riders, who received no material injury. There was no bull and bear-fight, in consequence of their not being able to procure one of the latter animals. In the fights between the bull and bear, it is said, that liow'ever strong and savage the bull may be, the bear is always the conqueror: the only part of the bull he endeavours to attack is the tongue, by seizing which he invariably proves the victor. “ When the fights were over, dancing was resorted to, and continued during the evening and all night. It was accompanied with hard drinking and uproarious conduct. Mr. Murphy’s entertainment was considered fully equal to any that had been given for some time, and particularly the latter part of it.” In order to ascertain the condition of the missions at the south end of the bay, Captains Wilkes and Hudson left the Vincennes at St. Francisco, on the morn* ing of the 29th, and stopped a short time at Yerba Buena for a guide to point out the passages through the shoals, and the entrance to the creek that leads up to the Embarcadero , or lading place, whence the people of the mission usually ship their hides. ESTABLISHMENTS WEST AND SOUTH OF SAN FRANCISCO. 119 In consequence of the incapacity of the pilot, their boat grounded, and they were detained so long, that night overtook them before they entered the river Caravallio, which runs in a tortuous direction to the Embarcadero. It was so narrow that they were compelled to haul the boat along by the grass and rushes on each side, and as they passed along at night, the water-fowl were, while sleep- ing on the water among the rushes, alarmed by the noise, and flew up in thou- sands from the marshes. The noise of their fluttering resembled that of the surf of the sea ; and as they rose thousands seemed to follow thousands until the sound died away in the distance, and again seemed to approach in an opposite direction, while in the darkness not a bird was to be seen, although they must have passed only within a few feet of the boat. “ At the Embarcadero says Captain Wilkes, “ we found no house or accom- modation of any kind ; but the guide soon led us to what he termed the road, which w T as found marked by the huge ruts made by the ox-carts.” After proceeding a mile over a level plain, they reached the estrancia, the out- works of wdiich was a broken coural, with the ground covered with the bones, hoofs, and horns of cattle. They were greeted by the sudden appearance of a huge Californian, more than six feet in height, and proportionately large, who stalked towards them in his shirt, and in a gruff tone he demanded their wants. Having received satisfactory explanations, with a cigar given him as a token of friendship, he called up the whole family, which consisted of a mother, two daughters, and several other chil- dren. “ These,” says Captain Wilkes, e£ after dressing themselves, came forth, and greeted us with genuine hospitality, with such pleasant faces and cheerful talk, that it was really delightful to find ourselves in such quarters. They immediately set about providing us with supper, consisting of tea, tortillias, valdivias, ollas, with eggs and a steak ; and while this was in preparation by some, others were arranging the beds, and changing the furniture of the sleeping-room. All this was done while the mother was talking and waiting upon us ; and, after supper was over, she pointed to our room, and then excused herself, by saying she must provide something for the sailors who had accompanied us; whilst we retired to rest much fatigued with our jaunt. We arose about eight o’clock, and conse- quently missed our chocolate, which is given at an earlier hour, and could get no breakfast until eleven o’clock. “While horses were sought for us, we spent the time in looking around the premises. The house was a long one-story adobe building, with a thickly thatched roof, forming, by its projection, a piazza in front, supported by columns. There were many enclosures about the house that gave it the appearance of a farm-yard and slaughter-house combined. Bones, hoofs, horns, and pieces of hide, were lying in every direction, and the ground was indented with the feet of cattle. Ducks, dogs, and fowls were picking at the bones and offal. There were one or two ox-carts, of clumsy proportions, a beehive and a ley-vat, formed of hide and 120 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. suspended to four stakes, in the shape of a large bag hung near by. At a short distance from the house was the vegetable garden, where every thing grew in pro- fusion, although without care. The only trouble in gardening was to put the seed into the ground, and await the result. This estaucia is situated between two copses of wood, that grow on the banks of the brook that winds past it, and nearly join in the rear. In front is a plain extending fifteen or twenty miles to the foot of the Sierra, which forms a pleasing and bold contrast to the flat surface, on which nothing is seen but here and there a small group of cattle, and immense flocks of wild geese on some shrub, which, owing to the refraction, appears almost detached from the surface, and with dimensions so much enlarged as to appear like a great tree. The plain at this time was of a dark hue, somewhat resembling a light bronze colour, in consequence of the vegetation having been scorched up for many months.” The mission of Santa Clara, which they visited, though it had, at a distance, a respectable appearance, consisted merely of a long line of huts, formerly occupied by the Indians, The church and mission-house adjoining, were in a dilapidated state. The mission-house was then occupied both by the administrador and the -padre ; a wall dividing the temporal from the spiritual concerns of the establish- ment. In the rear of the mission, there is a quadrangle of low sheds, in which the domestic manufacture of candles, preserves, baking, and a variety of other duties are performed. The garden was surrounded by a high adobe wall, and its gate is always kept locked. It was from one and a half to two acres in extent, and planted with vines. Grapes are cultivated without trellises ; the grapes were generally of the sweet IVJalaga kind. The mission claims the first picking to make their wine and preserves. The inhabitants, the women of the “ gente de razon,” pluck after- wards, and then the children are allowed to gather the remainder. In this garden they also grow fruit of all kinds, both of the tropical and temperate cli- mate, which they represented as succeeding admirably well. A few barrels of wine are annually made, but nothing can be more rude than the process of pre- paration. The tillage is performed with ploughs formed of a crooked piece of timber four to six inches square, which is merely used to loosen the ground to a depth of three or four inches; yet such is the fertility of the soil, and level nature of the land, that the crops yield an average of from sixty to eighty for one sown. The ploughs are drawn by oxen, and managed by the Indians. At the missions throughout the country, four meals are daily taken : at an early hour, chocolate ; at eleven o’clock, breakfast ; at two, dinner; and at seven, supper. The dinner and supper are the principal meals, and at them the Cali- fornians are described as indulging to the extent of gluttony. ESTABLISHMENTS WEST AND SOUTH OF SAN FRANCISCO. 121 “ After some difficulty in procuring horses,” Captain Wilkes says, “we set out on sorry nags, and on leaving the mission entered an avenue lined on each side with large trees. These I understood had been planted at an early day by one of the padres, in order to protect the people from the sun during the celebration of the church festivals, and to leave no excuse to the inhabitants of the Pueblo for not visiting the mission-church. Just before arriving at the Pueblo, we crossed over one of the tortuous branches of the Rio Guadaloupe, some twenty feet wide, and had a view of the Pueblo. It seemed as if this were a gala day, and as if every one were abroad celebrating it on the banks of this river, or rather creek, the overflowing of which had served to keep the grass green for a consi- derable space around. Instead of its being a festival, it turned out to be a general washing-day of the village, and the long lines, trees, bushes, &c., were all hung with the many coloured garments, which, with the crowds of men, women, and children, and some cattle moving to and fro, or gathered in small groups, gave the whole quite a pleasing effect. I was told that the Pueblo of San Jose had a larger number of inhabitants than any other in Upper California; but as we rode into it, it seemed almost deserted. “ The alcalde who gave the party a cordial reception, made his appearance like a French pastry-cook, with his white cap and apron. He was a short, dapper, rosy-cheeked man, by birth a Frenchman, but had been now twenty years settled in the Pueblo ; was married, and had eleven children, who looked both healthy and dirty. The moment he understood who his visiters were, he did them the honour to doff his white cap and apron ; and shortly after he appeared in a round- about ornamented with embroidery. He spoke his native language imperfectly, intermingling a great many Spanish words with it. He described hin^elf as the sous prefei, and said, that he administered justice, inflicted punishment, and had the ability to make the inhabitants as happy as he thought they should be. On my asking, by what laws he administered justice, his answer was — by what he thought right — he had very little trouble, except guarding against the attacks of the Indians, and preventing them from stealing horses, of which he had great fears, he had, therefore, provided for the safety of his own by keeping them in a small shed attached to his house, and within a locked gate. “ Fie considered the Pueblo as in danger of attacks from the Indians, who were now in great numbers within striking distance, and had become very trouble- some of late in driving off horses of which they had lost 300 or 400, and he said that pursuit was impossible, as they now had no troops. He entertained us with wine and beer of his own making. “ We took our departure a short time before sunset, amidst the gathering in of the villagers, with their goods and chattels, to a place of safety. There are two Americans settled here, who own mills. The evening was a beautiful one, and R 122 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. vve had a delightful ride back to the mission, and our horses, knowing they were on their return, were quite mettlesome. “The mode of conducting business in this part of California,” says Captain Wilkes, “ is peculiar. Vessels, on reaching the coast, employ, as a supercargo or travelling agent, some person well known throughout the country, who visits all the pueblos, missions, and estar.cias, as a traveller, passing from place to place without any apparent object of business. He has thus an opportunity of inspect- ing the worldly affairs of those to whom he desires to sell ; and if he finds them apparently thrifty, he produces his card of patterns, and soon induces a disposi- tion on the part of his host or hostess to buy, being careful to secure in payment as much of their worldly goods as he can, and trusting them for the rest of the indebtedness. A few live cattle delivered by each purchaser at the neighbouring Pueblo, become by this means a large herd, which is committed to cattle-toners who in due time slaughter them and deliver the hides in exchange for merchan- dise. A large amount of goods is thus disposed of to a very considerable profit. Large cargoes, consisting of a variety of articles, of both American and English manufactures are thus sold. From the state of the country, it has been difficult to obtain payments or returns in money; but the debts have usually been paid in cattle. When hides are given in payment, they are valued at two dollars, and are at all times the common currency of the country. No money is in circulation, unless what is paid by the foreign merchants ; and in lieu of change an extra quantity of goods is taken, which excess is usually to the disadvantage of the buyer.” At Santa Clara , the party found beds that were clean and comfortable, though the apartment had a strong smell of cordovan leather. The only places of deposit for clothing, &c., was in the estancia, in large trunks. “ We were up betimes, but were threatened with disappointment in our horses. The kind and attentive Donna Aliza served us with chocolate and toast, and prepared cold tongues, chickens, and ample stores of bread for our use. “ After an hour’s preparation, we took our leave and galloped off, in company with Don Miguel, who proposed to accompany us some six or seven miles on our way, to visit some of his herds, they were then feeding on the prairie. We had not proceeded far before we were overtaken by the person who had them in charge, coming at a furious gallop. He was mounted on the best horse I had seen in the country, and dressed after the Californian fashion, in a dark brown cloth jacket, thickly braided, both before and behind, with slashed sleeves, showing his shirt elegantly embroidered, both on the breast and sleeves; velvet breeches of bright blue, secured around his waist with a red sash, and open at the sides, ornamented with braid and brass bells in abundance; below the knee he wore leather leggings, fastened with garters, worked in silver, and below these, shoes, over which were fastened large silver spurs, with the heavy rowels of the country; on his head was AMERICAN OVERLAND EXPEDITION. 123 tied a red bandana handkerchief, and over that a huge broad-brimmed sombrero, with peaked crown, covered with an oil-silk cloth ; the whole decorated with cords, aiguillettes, and ribands, with a guard-cord passing under the chin. His horse was equally well caparisoned, the bridle being decked with silver, as were the tips of his large wooden stirrups; with pillions and saddle-cloths in abundance. Few riders had so gay an air, or seemed to have so perfect a command of the animal he rode; and until we arrived at the wood where his Indians were looking out, he was an object of great attraction, assuming all the airs and graces of a person of high rank. “ After galloping for several miles, we reached a few trees and bushes, that are designated as the ‘ woods/ Near by was a large herd of cattle feeding. The rancheros we found lying about, in huts of hide, with a fire in front, and the leg- bone of an ox roasting over it; the skulls, bones, and the offal, lay about, with hides here and there pegged to the ground.”* The country which the party traversed on returning from the south to Yerba Buena, was then destitute of both water and grass, and the weather oppressively warm. In some places the scenery was picturesquely diversified by scattered oaks, laurels, and shrubs, but, to all appearance, the soil was unfit for cultivation. Wherever there was any running water, a pond, or vegetation, large flocks of geese and ducks were seen. “ The term estancia,” observes Captain Wilkes, “ seems to give one an idea of something more extensive than a small farm ; it sounds more noble and wealthy ; but whatever had been our opinion before, the reality disappointed us. Senor Sanchez’s estancia at a distance was quite a respectable-looking building; the broad shadow cast by its projecting roof gave it a substantial and solid appear- ance ; but a nearer approach dispelled these favourable impressions, and showed its uncouth proportions, as well as the neglect in which the whole was kept. The way to the house, which stands on a knoll, leads through miry places and over broken-down fences, winding around dilapidated ox-carts, over troughs, old baskets, dead hogs, dogs, and fowls, all huddled together. Rude articles of husbandry occupied the sides of the building.” SOUTHERN OREGON. The party which, under the instructions given by Captain Wilkes, to the com- mander, departed on the overland expedition from Oregon to California, left Fort * The hides of the cattle that die, or that are killed for food, are cured in this way. It 2 124 SOUTHERN OREGON. Vancouver, and proceeded by the way of the Hudson Bay Company’s farm on Multunomah or Wapautoo Island, near the place where Captain Wyeth had erected a fort. They then crossed the river and went towards the Faulitz Plains, passing on their route a large grazing farm belonging to the company, and those of numerous settlers, who supplied them with fresh horses. In this direction they describe the country beautiful and the land rich, travelling over the prairies and hills. The hills were wooded with large pines, and a thick undergrowth of rose-bushes, rubus, dogwood, and hazel. The prairies were covered with va- riegated flowers, and abounded in nuttalia, columbines, larkspurs, and bulbous- rooted plants. Some of the party had attacks of ague and fever. Dr. Whittle ascribed these attacks to the length of time, nearly five weeks, during which they had been en- camped on the Willamette, and particularly to the position of the camp, im- mediately on the bank of the river, where it was subject to damp and fogs. The settlers in the AVillamette valley are described as generally those who have been hunters in the mountains, and were still full of the recklessness of that kind of life. Many of them, although they had taken farms and built log- houses, could not be classed among the permanent settlers, as they were ever ready to sell them and resume their old favourite trapping pursuits. The party proceeded up the Willamette river, until they reached Champooing, where they disembarked. The country in the southern part of Willamette valley is described as stretching out into wild prairie-ground, gradually rising in the distance into low undulating hills, which are destitute of trees, except scattered oaks ; these look more like orchards of fruit-trees, planted by the hand of man, than groves of na- tural growth, and serve to relieve, the eye from the yellow and scorched hue of the plains. The meanderings of the streams may be readily followed by the growth of trees on their banks as far as the eye can see. On the morning of the 9th they had a severe frost. In the course of the day they passed Creole Creek, and encamped on the Ignas. The atmosphere during the day had become thick, owing to the smoke arising from the burning of the prairie. Here they prepared themselves fully for their journey, by trimming their horses’ hoofs, and adjusting other matters. The soil, a red decomposed basalt, appeared well adapted for grazing and wheat-lands. On the 10th they travelled over a country intersected with small creeks, more hilly, and naturally yielding good pasturage. The rocks were previously basalt; those which now appeared were a whitish clayey sandstone. The soil also varied to a grayish brown. The surface had lately been overrun by fire, which had destroyed all the vegetation, except the oak trees, which appeared not to be injured. AMERICAN EXPLORING EXPEDITION. 125 After passing Lake Guardipii, which is about five hundred yards long, they encamped on the Lumtumbuff River, which is a branch of the Willamette. This river is a deep and turbid stream, branching out in places like a lake, but, in ge- neral, narrow and fordable. On the 12th the route led across a parched-up prairie, portions of which were composed of gravel and white-sand, mixed with clay. “ The paths were very rough, owing to the soil, which was much cut up by the herds that had been driven through, and which, on becoming hard, was exceedingly fatiguing to the horses. Bands of wolves were met with, and were, throughout the night, constantly howling on various parts of the prairie. The party had hitherto made from fifteen to twenty miles a day; and in travelling this day the animals suffered a great deal from want of water. They encamped on the Male Creek, which was about thirty feet wide, and ran in a northerly direction. On the 15th they arrived, with their horses exhausted from want of water, after travelling from fifteen to twenty miles a day, at the base of the Elk Mountains, which divide the valley of the Willamette from that of the Umpqua. The ascent and descent of this ridge slope gently. The hills were covered with pines, spruces, and oaks, with an undergrowth of hazel, arbutus, rubus, and cornus. Through these thickets they forced their way along the back of one of the spurs, and were three hours in ascending to the summit, which was fifteen hundred feet above the plain. The route over the Elk mountains was tedious and difficult, owing to the obstruction caused by large fallen trees. Before ascending the mountain, they had crossed several small streams over which the Hudson Bay Company had constructed bridges for the passage of their flocks of sheep. At their place of encampment, during night, ice formed in the pools to the thickness of a quarter of an inch, and the thermometer had fallen to 26 deg. They descended the following day, and encamped on the Elk river, and the hunters killed a large elk. Lieutenant Emmons, accompanied by three of the party, proceeded from the encampment for Fort Umpqua, fourteen miles distant. They found the country for the first five miles hilly, with scattered patches of pines, and it appeared in some places suitable for cultivation. The trail after- wards carried them over a succession of steep hills and through deep ravines, almost impassable for the horses, which were nearly then worn out with the journey. Fort Umpqua, at which the detachment arrived greatly fatigued late at night, was found, like all those built in Oregon, enclosed by a line of high pickets, with bastions at diagonal corners; the whole area about two hundred feet square. It is situated more than one hundred and fifty yards from the river, upon the edge of an extensive plain, and was inhabited by only five men, two women, and nine 126 SOUTHERN OREGON. dogs, and contained a dwelling for the superintendent, as well as storehouses, and some smaller buildings for the officers’ and servants’ apartments. An unusual number of Indians of the Umpqua tribe were at the time assembled around the place. The superintendent said they had shown a strong disposition to attack and burn the fort. Lieutenant Emmons stated its latitude 43 deg. 24 min. north. From the account given by the superintendent, the river Umpqua flows in a north-westerly course a distance of thirty miles before it enters the sea. “It is navigable from the ocean to the place where the Umpqua and Elk rivers unite, about three miles below the fort, for vessels drawing not more that six feet water. The mouth of the Umpqua offers no harbour for sea- going vessels, and has only nine feet water on its bar. Its entrance is very narrow, with low sands on the north and south sides. The Umpqua fort district yields a considerable supply of furs ; principally of beaver of small size.” Captain Wilkes says, the regulations of the company do not seem to be so strictly in force here as to the north of the Columbia, in relation to buying the small skins. These, he understood, they refuse to purchase there ; and every Indian who is found with a small skin is refused supplies of ammunition, which has been found sufficient to prevent the killing of the young animals. Here they also obtain from the Indians some land and sea otter, deer, and bear skins. The superintendent at Fort Umpqua exchanged strong horses for the exhausted horses of the detachment, and supplied Lieutenant Emmons with some bear and deer skins, to be made into shirts and trousers, which several of the party were in want of. The river at the fort is one hundred and twenty yards wide, quite rapid, ob- structed with rocks, and only navigable for canoes. The weather was cold and foggy. The soil in the vicinity is fertile, producing plentiful crops of maize, wheat, and potatoes. In the garden attached to the fort, are grown the vegetables common in the United States, with melons, both water and musk. Cattle are said to thrive well. In respect to this part of Oregon and the route to California, Captain Wilkes observes — “Few of these men seem to know the reason of the'whites meeting with so few mishaps in passing through an apparently hostile country ; and many deem it is owing to their own skill and prowess. The truth is, that as soon as the Indians have traded with the whites, and become dependant on them for supplies, thenceforward they can be easily controlled. If disposed to be hostile, the fort at Umpqua would offer no resistance to their attack ; but they are aware that all their supplies of ammunition, tobacco, blankets, and other articles of necessity, would be at once cut off, which would reduce them to great distress. The self-interest of the Indians is, therefore, the true safeguard of the white traders.” AMERICAN EXPLORING EXPEDITION. 127 In the country surrounding Fort Umpqua a species of oak grew, resembling in its size and appearance that of the Willamette, excepting the lobes of the leaves, which were spiral at their termination ; the acorns were larger and more deeply set in the cup. A yellow honeysuckle grew also on the banks of the river. During the following day they passed over basaltic hills, and descended to another plain, with a loamy soil. The prairie was set on fire by the Indians, with the view, it was suspected, of obstructing the route. Lieutenant Emmons the following day deviated from the usual route, and proceeded by the upper ford or pass across the Umpqua, as he had reason to believe that the Indians had made preparations to obstruct his passage at the lower ford. Several of the party being in a sickly state, Lieutenant Emmons, after cross- ing the Umpqua, encamped in a beautiful oak-grove. A new shrub was met with resembling the shrubby geranium of Hawaii. A beautiful laurel ( laurus ptolemii), with fragrant leaves ; a canothus, with beautiful sky-blue flowers of delightful fragrance ; a tobacco plant (nicotiana), of foetid odour, with white flowers. The first grizzly bears were seen ; the white tailed deer was lost sight of, and the black tailed species met with. Elks were seen in great numbers. On the 20th the party moved onwards at an early hour, and passed, during the day, through valleys and over narrow plains, that afforded good pasturage. They encamped on the south branch of the Umpqua river, having tra- velled along its eastern banks for some miles. On the following day their route along the bank of the stream was over a country of the same description as before. Passing some stray Indian de- serted camps they approached the Umpqua mountains, and stopped at the usual place to encamp previous to commencing the ascent. The trappers had all become reconciled to the arduous journey, and seemed willing to obey orders, as they had entered a hostile country, in which it would be dangerous for any one to straggle or desert. On the 22nd they began a most difficult journey across the Umpqua moun- tains. The path upwards was narrow, and through a dense underwood. At times they cut their way through the brushwood following each other, form- ing a file of nearly a mile in length. Ascending an abrupt height of one thou- sand feet, many of the pack horses stumbled, but without any material accident. On the top was a small grassy plain, along which they travelled for a short dis- tance, after which they descended rapidly into a valley, where water was found after passing the thickets. The woods had been lately on fire, and many of the trees were still burning. The fire had been lighted by the Indians for the 128 SOUTHERN OREGON. purpose of causing the trees to fall across the path with the view to impede tlie party, and in other places some of the branches were tied together across the trail. All the wood and ground was charred, and the party were completely covered with charcoal dust. From the summit of this ridge a view is had of a confused mass of abrupt ridges, between which lie small valleys. The whole range was thickly wooded with a variety of trees, among which are pinus Lam- berliana (the first time it had been met with), oaks, arbutus, prunus, cornus, yews, dogwood, hazel, spiroea, and castanea. Dense wreaths of smoke were observed in various points : these were supposed to be from the fires of savages on the watch for the party and made as signals to muster for an attack if a favourable opportunity should offer. Thepb/MS Lambertiana was not found quite so large as described by Douglas. The cones, about fourteen inches long, were small in circumference. They encamped on the plain of the Shaste country, separated by the mountains which they had crossed from the Umpqua valley. The greatest eleva- tion of the range was, by the temperature of boiling water, one thousand seven hundred and fifty feet. Among the plants they found the bulb used in California in the place of soap. The next day’s journey was over undulating hills ; and, after travelling about twenty-three miles, they encamped on Young’s Creek, a stream a few yards wide, and a foot or less deep, which may be traced from the heights for a long distance by the trees which border it. They were now within the country of the Klamet Indians, known as rogues or rascals, which name they have obtained from the hunters from their villany. On the 25th they continued their journey over a country resembling that traversed the day before, with a light loamy soil, and less wood. The pinus Lam- bertiana was more common. The trees of this species were not beyond the usual size of the pine tribe, but their cones were about fifteen inches in length. Some of the sugar produced by this tree was obtained : it is of a sweet taste, with a slightly bitter and turpentine flavour. It resembles manna, and is obtained by the Indians by making a cavity in the tree, whence it exudes. This sugar is a cathartic, and affected all the party that partook of it; yet it is said that it is used as a substitute for sugar by the trappers and hunters. Towards evening they entered on the plains of Rogues or Tootootutnas River, and encamped on its banks. This is a magnificent stream, upwards of 100 yards in width, with a rapid current flowing over a gravelly bottom at the rate of three miles an hour. It abounds in fish, on which the Indians chiefly subsist. The banks arc low and overgrown with bushes. The soil is poor and sandy. Two or three hundred yards from the river there is a sudden rise of ten feet, and another at the same distance beyond, from the last of which the land rises info AMERICAN EXPLORING EXPEDITION. 129 hills from six hundred to a thousand feet in height. The formation of these hills and of the soil changes to granite and sand. An Indian hunter killed a deer at some distance from the camp, and while in the act of skinning it was surprised by a party of Indians, who shot a flight of arrows over him ; he sprang to his horse, seized his rifle, and, according to his own account, killed one of them, but left his game behind. Towards night a canoe with two Indians approached the camp, which they were not suffered to enter. These canoes were made of trees hollowed out, square at each end. The 26th they passed along the banks of the Rogues’ River which runs in a westerly direction. The Indians were observed spearing salmon from their canoes. As the party proceeded the river was inclosed within a ravine between the mountains. The river flowed in rapids, owing to its ragged channel, and its banks were faced with cliffs of jagged rocks. In the afternoon they reached the Forks, and followed the southern branch, which brought them to the place of encamp- ment, where a party accompanied by a Mr. Turner were attacked, and most of them massacred by the Indians, who were allowed to enter the camp in numbers as friends, when they suddenly rose upon the whites, nine in number, at the time of the attack attending to their horses. Two of the party were killed immediately. Turner, who was a strong, athletic man, was seated by the fire when the fray began. He snatched up a fire-brand and defended himself, dealing destruction around him until his wife brought him his rifle, with which he killed several Indians. The party had suffered exceedingly before reaching this place from attacks of the ague. The chills were violent while they lasted, and several were obliged to stop for an hour or two during their continuance. The sudden and great atmospheric changes which constantly occurred tended to aggravate if they did not produce these attacks, the thermometer during the day frequently standing above 80°, at night fell nearly as low as the freezing point. On the 27th they proceeded along the bank of the river; the Indians were gathering, and were heard yelling on the opposite bank. Precautions were taken to clear the path from any dangers by sending a detachment of foot in advance of the main party. The high perpendicular bank confined the path to very narrow limits, rendering it a dangerous point of attack from Indians, who might conceal themselves among the rocks on the opposite side of the rapid river. A few miles beyond this pass the party left the banks of the Rogues’ River, taking a more easterly route, over a rolling prairie, which is bounded by low hills, resembling the scenery of the Willamette valley. The soil, in some few places, was good, but generally gravelly and sterile. A few Indians were seen at a distance on horseback, who fled like wild animals. Some of the horses, s 130 SOUTHERN OREGON. from being exhausted were left behind. In the afternoon they encamped on Beaver creek, so named by Lieutenant Emmons from the number of those animals which were seen building dams. An antelope was killed, of a dun and white colour, and its hair was re- markably soft. The Indians take this animal by exciting its curiosity. For this purpose they conceal themselves among the nearest bushes to its feeding grounds, and making a rustling noise soon attract the antelopes towards the place of ambuscade, when it is shot. If there are others in company they will fre- quently remain with the dead or wounded one until they are all killed. This species of antelope, according to the hunters, only inhabit the prairie, being seldom seen even in the open wooded country. The flavour of the flesh was considered superior to that of the deer. On the 28th they advanced to the foot of the boundary range, where they encamped. The country resembled that passed over the day before, and the woods were oak and pine, but none of the Lambertiana. On the hills granite was observed. On the 29th commenced the ascent of the Boundary Mountains, which sepa- rate Mexico from the United States. This range rises from 1200 to 2000 feet high. Some of the summits have a mural front; the features of all the ridges present a basaltic appearance. In some the sandstone and fossils protruded. At the summit of this range, they had a first view of the Klamet valley. It was walled on both sides by high basaltic hills, rising above each other. Mount Shaste, a high snowy peak, of a sugar-loaf form, rose through the haze, south- ward about forty-five miles distant. They descended on the south side, and en- camped on the banks of the Otter creek, within a mile of the Klamet river. Tl) is ridge divides the waters flowing to the north and south. The soil was very sandy. In consequence of the illness of some of the party, the whole remained nearly stationary on the 30th. The surrounding country appeared to be a broad prairie valley, dotted with oaks and pines, with serpentine lines of trees marking the edges of the streams until lost in the distance. This valley lies in the midst of hills, clothed with a forest of evergreens, and through this the waters of the Klamet flow, passing beyond it, through a narrow valley on the west. The most remarkable object in this place is an isolated conical peak, which rises imme- diately from the level plain to the height of 1000 feet, and is destitute of trees except on its summit. On the 1st of October, they proceeded onward at an early hour. The weather was sultry, and the atmosphere smoky; they crossed the Klamet river, where it was about eight yards wide, about five feet deep, with a pebbly bottom, and with low banks destitute of bushes. Both above and below the ford, there were rapids. VALLEY OF THE SACRAMENTO. 131 From the appearance of its banks, it is subject to overflow. The prairie, after crossing the river, became dry and barren, and in which a solitary Lute occasionally rose from 100 to 500 feet high. These bates are considered by Captain Wilkes as peculiar to this country. Heaps of volcanic rocks, consisting of large masses of grayish or reddish porphyritic lava, in blocks of from one to ten cubic feet in size, were lying on the surface in disorderly piles. To the eastward, the lava heaps became still more numerous. They encamped on the southern branch of the Klamet river, which is a beau- tiful, clear, and rapid stream, where they found a small spot of grass, the only one they had seen during the day. On the 2nd, they travelled over an undulated prairie, without water, the low ground was incrusted with salt, the soil appeared better than that passed over the day previous. Some patches of spiroea and dogwood were met with, and rather a better growth of grass. Large herds of antelopes were seen, but none of them were killed. The hunters saw also mountain sheep with large horns. They found some holes con- taining water, from the want of which the horses suffered greatly; and they rushed, into these holes with their packs, and stuck in the mire until dragged out, re- quiring much labour to extricate them. The party then turned off from the Klamet valley, which is far inferior to any portion of the country they had passed over : the formation appeared to be composed of a dark green serpentine. They encamped a little beyond these hills, where boulders of coarse syenite formed the bed of the creek and its banks. The hornblend crystals of the latter rock were often two inches long, set in a white granular feldspar. At this camp they were visited by a party of Shaste Indians, who were al- lowed to enter, and for some time there was a brisk trade for their bows and arrows. These Indians were a good-looking race, much better proportioned than those more to the northward ; their features more regular, and do not compress their heads. They wore their black hair hanging down to their shoulders. They exhibited their archery, by putting up a button at twenty yards 1 distance, which one of them hit three times out of five: the successful marks- man was rewarded with it, and a small piece of tobacco. They use these bows with such dexterity as to kill fish, and launch their arrows with such force, that one of the men remarked, “ that he would as leave be shot at with a musket at the distance of a hundred yards, as by one of those Indians with his bow and arrow.” These bows and arrows were beautifully made: the former are of yew, and about ten feet long ; they are flat, and an inch and a half to two inches wide, and backed very neatly with sinew, and painted. The arrows are upwards of thirty inches long; some of them were made of a close-grained wood, a species of spiroea, while others were of reed. They were feathered for from five S 2 132 SOUTHERN OREGON. to eight inches, and the barbed beads were made of finely wrought obsidian: the head is inserted in a grooved piece, from three to five inches long, and is at- tached to the shaft by a socket : this barb, when it penetrates, is left in the wound when the shaft is withdrawn, a very shallow blood channel is sometimes cut in the shaft. Their quivers are made of deer, raccoon, or wild cat skin ; these skins are generally whole, being left open at the tail end. A disease was observed among them which had the appearance of the leprosy. As to dress, they can scarcely be said to wear any, except a mantle of deer or wolf skin. A few of them had deer-skins belted around their waists, with an ornamented girdle. On the 3rd, the exploring party travelled up the plain, from which they entered a forest on the slopes of the Shaste Range, by a path through the wood broken up by knolls of trachyte. On arriving at the top of the ridge, they had a magni- ficent view of the snowy peak of Mount Shaste, with an intermediate one destitute of snow, with tall pines growing almost to its summit. The conical shape of the Shaste indicated its volcanic origin, although no crater was per- ceived. Tts height is said to be 14,390 feet. Lieutenant Emmons estimates it as not so high. After passing this ridge, they met the head waters of the Sacramento flowing to the southward, and their camp was pitched on the banks of another stream, that appeared to flow from the Shaste. On the 4th, they ascended into the region of pines, some of which, the Lambertiana, were measured, and found to be eighteen feet in circumference, with cones sixteen inches long. They encamped on Destruction river, which runs from the mountain range towards the south, in a place where they found food for their horses, and water in abundance. The air was pleasant; the forest protected them from the rays of the sun, and game was plentiful. Near the encampment in a north-west direction was a mountain ridge, shooting up in sharp conical and needle-shaped peaks, with precipitous sides. During night, a storm raged from the westward, and occasionally was heard the crash produced by the falling of large pines. The character of the country had now changed, and, according to Lieutenant Emmons’ account, “ afforded a new and more extended botanical field, as well as new geological features. The general tendency of the ridges is north and south, but the whole may be classed as a series of valleys and hills thrown in all posi- tions. The hills arc for the greater part covered with soil when it can find any place of deposit, and all are richly clothed with vegetation. The principal timber consists of pines and oaks, and there are many smaller plants, of which the flowers must be abundant in the proper season.” VALLEY OF THE SACRAMENTO. L33 They continued along the course of Destruction river until the 9th, when it was joined by a stream from the north-eastward, supposed to be the north east branch of Pitt liver: it was larger than the stream they had been previously fol- lowing. They encamped fatigued, with their jaded horses exhausted, late in the evening near a small rivulet, to the westward of the Sacramento. On the 10th they left the mountains. The width of the range where they had passed was upwards of 100 miles. At one place their guide lost his way; but an Indian woman pointed out the trail. On descending into the valley of the Sacramento, they met with some Indians, who were known to be friendly. The botanical character of the country changed suddenly. Instead of firs, pines, &c., the trees were sycamores, oaks, and cotton-wood. The oaks bear acorns, which are equally the food of the bears and the Indians. The prairie bordering the Sacramento at this place is about fifty feet below the upper prairie, which continues regularly for many miles on the same level ; the latter falling into the former by a sloping bank. Many of these Indians joined them. They had some resemblance to the Shaste Indians ; most of them were naked ; the others had a piece of deer-skin thrown over their shoulders ; their faces were marked with an expression of good- humour. Their food consists principally of fish and acorns ; of the latter they made a kind of black cake, by shelling the acorns, drying them in the sun, and then pounding them between stones. They mix this meal with a little water, some arbutus berries, and make it into cakes about two inches thick, when it is wrapped in leaves and baked. It is quite black, and eats like cheese. These acorns are edible in the raw state. The seeds of the different genus of pine are also eaten, particularly a kind peculiar to California. The arbutus berry, which here abounded, is also ground for food. Grapes were also plentiful among them. The game was very abundant, in consequence of the abundance of food, and many ante- lopes and deer were observed. Large flocks of California partridges and geese were seen : among the birds was a new species of magpie. The men only of this tribe visited the camp, the women remained at the rancheria, which the party visited. It consisted of small dirty huts, built of poles, and divided by coarse mats into a number of small apartments. The whole was surrounded by a brush fence. The women were inferior to the men in personal appearance ; they looked careworn and wrinkled drudges.- They prepare all the winter’s supply of food, while the men are to be seen lounging about, or engaged in games of hazard. The men are, during the season, occupied in taking salmon, either in weirs, or a long forked spear or fish-gig. 134 SOUTHERN OREGON. At the rancheria several dances were performed ; and many of the women were tatooed on their arms and body. From what Lieutenant Emmons could learn there was no difficulty in pro- ceeding in canoes from this place, though there would have been some obstacles to surmount, particularly the fish-weirs. On the 11th the party proceeded down the westward bank of the Sacramento over an undulating prairie, considered as the most sterile they had met with. The soil consisted of gravel, coarse pebbles, and large stones, mixed with sand. They frequently crossed the beds of streams 300 yards wide, which intersect this part of the country, the pebbles in which are chiefly composed of jaspar and white quartz, with a few of basalt, pudding stone, and pieces of slate. They travelled this^day twenty-five miles, the longest day’s ride on the journey. On the 12th the party forded the river, and one of the hunters brought in the meat and skin of a large grizzly bear which he had killed. The river was about three feet deep, and 200 yards wide. They stopped at a place known among the hunters as Bear Camp, from the number of grizzly bears found here ; five of which were shot the same afternoon, with three deer, which were feeding near the camp, all in excellent condition. The country on the east side the river was more level than on the west, and the soil appeared to be better. Few plants were seen, in consequence of fire having overrun the surface. The country continued much the same until they came in sight of the Prairie butes, a collection of hills, rising out of the level plain like islands from the water. These may be seen from a great distance. The party encamped on a small creek, called by the trappers the Little Fork of the Butes. The hunters said that the party employed by the Hudson’s Bay Company the previous year, had caught more than 100 beavers while pasturing their cattle in this neighbour- hood. On the 16th they encamped, after an ineffectual search for water in the valley, or “ kraal” of the butes. Here they found two deep holes of stagnant water, the remains of a rivulet that was dried up. The ground around and near the butes is covered with the bones of animals that resort hither for safety during the season of the freshets which flood the whole of this extensive plain. The soil was loose and crusted over with the deposit left by the water through which the horses’ feet sank to the depth of four or five inches : nearer the butes, the soil was harder and strewed vvitli fragments of volcanic rocks. These butes are grouped within an oval vale or plain, which has a circumference of about thirty miles: the longest diameter of the oval district lies in a north-east and south-west direction. The valley passes through the southern part, and opens out on the eastern : it is about seven miles in length ; here the party found water. This valley may be VALLEY OF SAN JOACHIM. 135 considered almost as a prolongation of the exterior plain, though parts of it are somewhat higher, as appeared by its not having been overflowed. The highest of the butes was ascertained to be 1794 feet in diameter. On the 17th they reached the banks of the Feather River, which is dangerous to ford on account of the quicksands. They crossed the stream, proceeded on to Captain Suter’s, and arrived the next day at New Helvetia. The party appears to have entered this valley with a high idea of its fruitful- ness, and, with the expectation of finding the soil abounding with every thing that could render it desirable for agriculturists, and susceptible of producing all that would be necessary for the comfort and convenience of man. They were sadly disappointed when they found a large part of it barren and destitute even of pas- turage, and that even the fertile portion was annually overflowed. The high prairie was equally gravelly and sterile. But Captain Wilkes considers “that there is a sufficient quantity of good soil for a valuable agricultural country, and that it would be capable of affording subsistence to a large number of inhabi- tants, more, however, from the extraordinary fertility of these grounds than from their extent.” After leaving New Helvetia, the party divided. The detachment under Lieu- tenant Emmons embarked in the Vincennes launch, which met them a short dis- tance below that place, and reached San Francisco on the 24th. The other detachment, under Mr. Eld, proceeded by land on the 21st, and commenced their journey, with a young and intelligent Spaniard for a guide. The same day they made fifteen miles, passing over a dry portion of the country, and encamped near two ponds, called in the country, Poros, the only place, as was supposed, where water could be obtained within twenty miles; they however, found some the next day in the Rio Cosmenes, within a mile and a half of the camp. Game was, as usual, very abundant; but the whole country was suffering from the drought. On the 22nd, about noon, they crossed the river Mogueles, which was then a small stream, but at other seasons, it is said, it cannot be crossed on horseback. They travelled this day as far as the San Juan ; the only water that it contained was a small pool. This place had been termed the Frenchman’s Camp. Wild ducks and geese had rendered the water scarcely drinkable. On the 23rd, before noon, they reached the San Joachim, which they found about fifty yards wide and about three feet deep. Under the expectation of finding water, they were induced to ride forty-four miles, but were again dis- appointed. On the 24th they entered among the Pul Porrice hills, a bare and barren range, composed of sandstone and volcanic rocks. As they approached the mission of San Jose, the country became more hilly, the oak abundant, and herds of cattle and horses were seen. On their way they fell in with large en- 136 SOUTHERN OREGON. campmentsof Indians, who were busily employed in collecting acorns. These men were clothed in shirts and trousers, some in velvet breeches ; the women in calico gowns and gay-coloured shawls : several hundred of these were met, each loaded with the beef which is distributed to them in weekly rations. They are an- nually allowed a short holiday to return to their native wilds during the acorn season. The approach to the mission which was once a large establishment, had all the appearance of a town, being built in the form of a street of considerable length. In the centre was the church and convent, with large dwelling-houses on each side of it, and on the opposite side the houses for the neophytes, consisting of small, low buildings, with every appearance of filth and decay about them. The walls and gates are dilapidated, and every thing wears the aspect of neglect, both in the buildings and the inhabitants. It is no longer the abode of hospitality and good cheer since it has fallen into the hands of the adminis- tradors or agents of the government. Within a large and neglected garden there was some good fruit, and there were still extensive fields of Indian corn, which were formerly cultivated by irrigation. The reception of the party was neither hospitable nor friendly. The administrador told them there was no accommodation for them. They met with the tailor to the establishment, an American of Philadelphia, who took them found the gardens, through the churches, and told them that the Indians under the care of the mission were, at the present time, about six hundred, which was only one-third of the number they had two years before. In consequence there was but little cultivation carried on compared to what there had been formerly. The harvest at the mission had been ruined by the great drought. No rain had fallen for upwards of a year. The vintage, however, had been good, and forty barrels of wine had been made, besides a large supply of grapes for the establishment. The two vineyards comprised about four acres, and besides vines, were stocked with apple, pear, and other fruit-trees. The buildings of the missions were all constructed of adobes and covered with tile roofs. Mr. Forbes, the agent of the Hudson Bay Company, residing a few miles further, happened to be at the mission, and conducted the party to his house. They found him lodged in a comfortable two-story adobe house, situated on the borders of an extensive prairie, but without any trees or cultivation around it. lie entertained them most hospitably. Although this journey from the Columbia to the Sacramento was attended with much fatigue, yet the labour and suffering were more than compensated by the information it furnished in relation to the southern section of Oregon. Al- though every thing was not attained that Captain Wilkes intended, yet he felt satisfied that all was done which the limited time and the hostile state of EXPLORATION OF THE PORTS OF OREGON. 137 the country would permit. He says, Cf To the perseverance and prudence of Lieutenant Emmons much credit is due, as well as to the other officers and natu- ralists, for the manner in which they co-operated with him. fhe duties assigned them were performed under the most trying circumstances, while worn down by distressing attacks of the ague and fever. This disease, in particular, affected those members of the party who had been encamped on the Willamette, where it was supposed they contracted it.” EXPLORATION OF NORTHERN OREGON AND THE COLUMBIA RIVER BY THE UNITED STATES EXPLORING EXPEDITIONS. Since the time of journeys made by Lewis and Clark to the Columbia, and the establishment formed at Astoria by Jacob Astor, several trading adventurers have made excursions across the Rocky Mountains and down the Columbia River. Captain Wilkes, and those under his command, have, however, given us the most complete and satisfactory account of Oregon, its harbours, and the River Columbia. Four years later, Captain Fremont, of the United States Topo- graphical Engineers, was instructed to proceed to the eastern limits explored by the expedition under Captain Wilkes. Both these expeditions having been under official authority, the following sketches of those regions are drawn up, con- densed, or abstracted from the journals and accounts which were kept by the respective travellers. The expedition of Captain Wilkes was directed to the circumnavigation of the globe, to exploring the southern Polar regions, the islands of the Pacific, Cali- fornia, Oregon, and its rivers and harbours, and various parts of the Asiatic and African coasts. He sailed from the Sandwich Islands for the Columbia River, in attempting to pass the bar of which, some time after his arrival, one of the ships under his command was lost, and according to his description of the entrance of this river, its importance for maritime intercourse with Oregon is attended with great, and, except with much delay, almost insurmountable danger. On the 28th of April, 1841, at 6 a.m., he made Cape Disappointment, which, he says, “ we soon came up with. A heavy sea, caused by the strong winds that had prevailed for several days, was running. I, notwithstanding, stood for the bar of the Columbia River, after making every preparation to cross it; but on approaching nearer, I found breakers extending from Cape Disappointment to Point Adams in one unbroken line. T 138 OREGON. “ I am at a loss to conceive how any doubt should ever have existed that here was the mouth of the mighty river whose existence was reported so long before the actual place of its discharge was known, or how the inquiring mind and talent of observation of Vancouver could have allowed him to hesitate, when he must have seen the evidence of a powerful flood of fresh water contending with the tides of the ocean, in a bar turbulent with breakers, in turbid waters extending several miles beyond the line of the shore, and in the marked line of separation between the sea and river water. “Such appearances must be constant, and if seen, the inferences could hardly be questionable, that the great river of the west poured itself into the ocean at this point. “ Mere description can give little idea of the terrors of the bar of the Columbia. All who have seen it have spoken of the wildness of the scene, and the incessant roar of the waters, representing it as one of the most fearful sights that can pos- sibly meet the eye of the sailor. The difficulty of its channels, the distance of the leading sailing marks, their uncertainty to one unacquainted with them, the want of knowledge of the strength and direction of the currents, with the ne- cessity of approaching close to unseen dangers, the transition from clear to tur- bid water, all cause doubt and mistrust. “Under such feelings I must confess that I felt myself labouring; and although I had on board a person from the Sandwich Islands who professed to be a Columbia River pilot, I found him at a loss to designate the true passage, and unable to tell whether we were in a right way or not. I therefore at once determined to haul off with the tide, which was running ebb with great rapidity, and which soon carried us back into the blue waters of the ocean, to wait there until the sea on the bar had in some measure subsided. “ The land near the mouth of the river is well marked, and cannot readily be mistaken, and on the summit of the two capes, are several lofty spruce and pine trees, which the officers of the Hudson’s Bay Company have caused to be trimmed of branches nearly to their tops. These serve as conspicuous marks, but our pilot was ignorant of their relation to the channel. “Our passage from Oahu had been no more than twenty-two days, which is unusually short. The first part of it, until we passed in lat. 28 deg. north, beyond the influence of the trades and variables, had been, as already stated, attended with light and contrary winds. “ The temperature of the air had fallen from 78 deg. to 43 deg., and that of the sea to 4G deg. “ During the night we had boisterous weather, and the ship was very un- comfortable, in consequence of her shipping water in considerable quantities through the hawse-holes, which flooded her gun-deck. As in conformity with EXPLORATION OF THE PORTS OF OREGON. 139 my determination to wait until the surf on the bar should have subsided, the anchors would not be needed for some days, I ordered the chain cables to be unbent, which would permit the hawse-holes to be closed. <£ During the night I took into consideration the loss of time that must arise from awaiting an opportunity to cross the bar, and after due reflection came to the conclusion that it would be better to proceed at once to the Straits of Juan de Fuca, and there begin my work on this coast. “The coast of Oregon to the south of Cape Flattery, is rocky, much broken, and affords no harbours, except for very small vessels. It may be considered as extremely dangerous, particularly on account of its outlying rocks. The sound- ings off the coast were discovered to serve as a certain indication to avoid danger by not approaching the shore nearer than seventy fathoms. “ On the morning of the 1st of May, we found ourselves well into the Straits of Juan de Fuca, and anchored in Port Discovery on the afternoon of the 2nd of May, forty-nine years after Vancouver had visited the same harbour. “ The Straits of Juan de Fuca may be safely navigated. The wind will for the greater part of the year be found to blow directly through them, and generally outwards : this wind is at times very violent. The shores of the strait are bold, and anchorage is to be found in but few places. We could not obtain bottom in some places with sixty fathoms of line, even within a boat’s length of the shore. “ The south shore is composed of perpendicular sandy cliffs, that run back into high and rugged peaks, and is covered with a forest of various species of pines, that rises nearly to the highest summits of the mountains, which are covered with snow ; among them Mount Olympus was conspicuous, rising to an altitude of 8138 feet.” The north shore is rocky, and composed, as far as Captain Wilkes examined it, of conglomerate, and in some few places of a reddish granite. On the following morning the ships were boarded by a large canoe, with Indians who spoke a few words of English. They seemed to have scarcely any idea of decency, and to be little less elevated in their morals than the wretched natives of Terra del Fuego. Captain Wilkes says, “ They were short thick-set, bow-legged, muscular, and seemed capable of enduring great fatigue. The most obvious peculiarity was the shape of their heads, which appears to have been compressed, both before and be- hind, so as to give them the form of a wedge. Their cheek-bones were high, and their eyes, which were fine, were set wide apart ; their colour was a light copper. The oblique eye of the Chinese was not uncommon, and they had long flowing hair : aquiline or Roman noses were prevalent. Their countenances wore an ex- pression of wildness, and they had, in the opinion of some of us, a melancholy cast of features.” 140 OREGON. The ships then proceeded onwards, and late in the afternoon reached and weathered a low sand-point, called by Vancouver, New Dungeness, and stood over for his Protection Island. They passed within less than a quarter of a mile of the point, in three and a half fathoms’ depth of water. After passing that island, an extensive bay opened : on the shores were seen the long poles mentioned by Vancouver. The use of these he was unable to discover, but the Indians informed Captain Wilkes, “ that they were for the pur- pose of suspending nets for taking the wild-fowl that frequent the shores in great numbers. On these poles the nets are set up at night, at which time the geese search these grounds for food; fires are then lighted, which alarm the birds, and cause them to fly against the nets, by which they are thrown upon the ground, where, before they have time to recover themselves, they are caught and killed.” Captain Wilkes observes, that “the description of Vancouver is so exactly appli- cable to the present state of this post, that it was difficult to believe that almost half a century had elapsed since it was written. The beautiful woods and lawns of Pro- tection Island in particular, exist unchanged. The lawns still produce the same beautiful flowers and shrubs, and although closely surrounded by dense woods, do not seem to have been encroached upon by their luxuriant growth, although there is no apparent reason why it should not long ere this have overrun them. “ Our anchorage in Port Discovery was close to the shore, in twenty-seven fathoms water. It is a well-protected harbour, and very convenient of access, but the high precipitous banks would almost preclude its being made the seat of a settlement. “ The name of Port Discovery was given by Vancouver. It is eight miles long, two miles in average width, and its points, which terminate in low sandy projec- tions, interlock each other. The shores are supplied with large quantities of shell-fish. Protection Island covers it completely to the north, and would render it easily defensive against the most formidable attack. The only objection to it as a harbour is the great depth of the water, which in the middle is nowhere less than forty or fifty fathoms, and is often as much as sixteen fathoms close to the shore.” The Indians, a most filthy race, occupied a few miserable lodges on one of the points. During his stay at Port Discovery, they supplied Captain Wilkes plentifully with venison, ducks, geese, salmon, a large species of cod, flounders, herrings, and crabs. They also brought shell-fish, among which were the common clam muscles, and small oysters. He remained at Port Discovery until the 6th of May, during which time he employed his people in surveying the harbour and exploring the country. The botanists of the expedition discovered an interesting field opened to them amidst EXPLORATION OF THE PORTS OF OREGON. 141 the great variety and beauty of the Flora. Dodecatheon, Viola, Trifolium, Lepto- siphon, Scilla (the cammass of the natives), Colliersia, Claytonia, Stellaria, &c., vied with each other in beauty, and were in such profusion, as to excite both ad- miration and astonishment. According to Mr. Brackenridge, the soil on which the plants grow consists of a light brown loam, but the general character of the soil around Port Discovery was a thin, black, vegetable mould, with a substratum of sand and gravel. The trees grow so closely, that in some places the woods are almost impene- trable. The timber consists principally of pine, fir, and spruce. Of the latter there are two species, one of which resembles the hemlock-spruce of the United States : it is of very tall growth, and puts out but few, and those small, lateral branches. Some maple-trees grow in the open grounds and on the banks, but they are too small to be of any service for building purposes. Several trees which they had cut down to make spars for the Vincennes, proved, although healthy in appearance before they were felled, to be more or less defective; the wood was sound and compact on one side only, while on the other it was opened, grained, and fibrous. On the 5th of May, the officers were all engaged in surveying, and Captain Wilkes occupied one of the points as a station, where he made astronomical and magnetic observations. He found the latitude 48 deg. 02 min. 58 sec. north the longitude 123 deg. 02 min. 07-5 sec. west ; the variation was 20 deg. 40 min. east. The temperature in the shade was 55 degrees. On the Gth of May, finding that the messenger whom he had despatched to Fort Nisqually did not return, Captain Wilkes determined to proceed towards that place without delay. He weighed anchor, and the ships got under way at half-past ten, and beat out of Port Discovery. He stood towards Point Wilson (of Vancouver), which forms one side of the entrance into Admiralty Inlet. Turning the point, he entered the inlet and anchored in Port Townsend, on its northern side, in ten fathoms water. Port Townsend is a fine sheet of water, three miles and a quarter in length, by one mile and three-quarters in width. Opposite to the anchorage there is an extensive table land, without trees. He considers that it would afford a good site for a town. The bay is free from dangers, and is well protected in the directions from whence high winds blow. The anchorage is of convenient depth, and there is abundance of fresh water to be had. The soil is a light sandy loam, and appeared to be fertile. It was covered with wild flowers, and strawberry plants in blos- som. From this point Mount Baker is distinctly seen to the north-east, and forms a remarkable object, especially when its conical peak is embellished by the rays of sun-setting. 142 NORTHERN OREGON. On the 7th he completed the survey. At noon both vessels moved up about eight miles, and anchored in a place which he called Port Lawrence. This har- bour is at the entrance of Hood’s Canal, from whence they had a view of it, and of Admiralty Inlet. The weather was unpleasant, and the only duty that could be performed was that of dredging for shells. Several new specimens were thus taken. The natives brought them plenty of fish, venison, geese, and ducks. “ On the morning we made the survey of Port Lawrence, beginning at day- light. This being completed, I took advantage of the tide making to get under way with a fresh breeze, and passed with both vessels as far as a small cove on the west side of the iidet, opposite to the south end of Whidby’s Island. Here we anchored before sunset. “We were under way soon after daylight, taking advantage of the tide, and continued beating as long as it lasted. This was about two hours, by which time we reached another small cove. This was named Appletree Cove, from the num- bers of that tree which were in blossom along its shores. This cove answers well for all the purposes of a temporary anchorage. Before the tide began to make in our favour, we had finished the survey of the cove. We again sailed, and at dark anchored under the west shore, near a fine bay, which the next day was sur- veyed and named Port Madison. This is an excellent harbour, affording every possible convenience for shipping.” The scenery of this portion of the Admiralty Inlet is described by Captain Wilkes as resembling parts of the Hudson River, particularly those about and above Poughkeepsie. The distant highlands, though much more lofty, reminded him of the Kaatskills. He saw but few Indian lodges on his way up, and the shores appeared as if never having been intruded upon by man. The wind proved fair; the ships sailed up the inlet by the passage to the right of Vashon’s Island, and anchored in sixteen fathoms water, below the nar- rows leading into Puget Sound, within a few yards of the shore, and under a high perpendicular bank. The shores of all these inlets and bays are so bold, that in many places a ship’s side would strike the banks before the keel would touch the bottom. On the 11th of May he surveyed this part of the sound, and on the turn of tide sailed inwards, hut had great difficulty in getting beyond the reach of the eddy winds occasioned by the high banks. On each side of this pass, high projecting bluffs of sandstone, ornamented along their base with shrubbery, rose almost perpendicularly from the water. The tide runs through the narrows with great velocity, carrying forward a ship amidst eddies and whirlpools. Captain Wilkes observes, “The Porpoise succeeded in entering the narrows first, and in a few minutes was lost sight of. The Vincennes entered, and seemed EXPLORATION OF THE PORTS OF OREGON. 143 at first to be hurrying to destruction, with her sails quite aback. We were carried onward wholly by the force of the tide, and had backed and filled only once be- fore we found ourselves in as spacious a sound as the one we had just left. This narrow pass seems as if intended by its natural facilities to afford every means for its perfect defence. Twelve miles more brought us to the anchorage off Nisqually, where both vessels dropped their anchors about eight o’clock. Here we found an English steamer (belonging to the Hudson’s Bay Company) undergoing repairs. Soon after we anchored I had the pleasure of a visit from Mr. Anderson, who is in charge of the fort, and Captain M’Neil. They gave me a warm welcome, and offered every assistance in their power to aid me in our operations.” In describing these inlets he says, “Nothing can exceed the beauty of these waters and their safety. Not a shoal exists within the Straits of Juan de Fuca, Admiralty Inlet, Puget Sound, or Hood’s Canal, that can in any way interrupt their navigation by a seventy-four gun ship. I venture nothing in saying there is no country in the world that possesses waters to equal these.” The anchorage off Nisqually is contracted by the rapid shelving of the bank, which abruptly falls into very deep water. The shore rises at the same places to the height of about two hundred feet, above and beyond which a table-land extends, covered with pine, oak, and ash trees, in clumps, or detached. This plateau appears like a vast park. The ascent is overcome by a well-constructed gently winding road, from the summit of which there is a splendid view of the sound, its numerous islands. Mount Olympus covered with snow in the back- ground, and Fort Nisqually, with its out-buildings and enclosure about half a mile from the slope of the table-land. The Porpoise, with two of the Vincennes’ boats, under Lieutenant-com- mandant Ringgold, were directed to the survey of Admiralty Inlet. The launch, the first cutter, and two boats of the Vincennes were placed under the com- mand of Lieutenant Case to survey Hood’s Canal. A land party was formed to explore the interior, and placed under the command of Lieutenant Johnson, of the Porpoise, accompanied by Dr. Pickering, Mr. T. W. Waldron of the Por- poise, Mr. Brackenridge, Sergeant Stearns, and two men. Eighty days were allowed them for the excursions through the interior to cross the cascade range of mountains to the river Columbia, and then to proceed to Fort Colville, thence south to Lapevai,the mission station on the Kooskooskee River, thence to Walla- walla, and finally to return by the way of the Yakima River, and repass the moun- tains to Nisqually. Another land party, consisting of Captain Wilkes, Messrs. Drayton and Waldron of the Vincennes, and two servants. The intended route proposed by the latter was across the country to the Columbia River, to visit Astoria, then 144 NORTHERN OREGON. Fort Vancouver and the Willamette settlement, and to proceed up the river as far as Walla-walla. Captain Wilkes expected to find the ship Peacock safe at Astoria, and to despatch parties from that vessel into the interior, and with her boats to commence a survey of the Columbia River. NISQUALLY — HUDSON BAY COMPANY’S TRADING AND AGRICULTURAL OPERA- TIONS. The fort at Nisqually is constructed of pickets, enclosing a long square space each side, about 200 feet, with four corner bastions. Within this enclosure are the agents’ stores, and about half-a-dozen houses, built of logs, and roofed with bark. This fort was considered sufficiently large when first established, but since Nisqually has become an agricultural as well as a trading post, it is found insuf- ficient for the purpose, and its situation is ill chosen, on account of the difficulty of obtaining good water, which is nearly a mile distant. Captain Wilkes was informed that there was little necessity for protection against the Indians, who had become few in number and peaceably disposed. Mr. Anderson and Captain M'Neil resided in the fort with their families: both Avere married to half-breeds, and had several fine children. In their garden there were growing strawberries, gooseberries, salads, &c. They had fine fields of grain, large barns and sheepfolds, agricultural implements, and workmen with cattle were engaged in the various employments of husbandry. A Dr. Richmond w'ho had been settled there for some months, “occupied a nice log-house, built on the borders of one of the beautiful prairies.” There is amission-house at some distance, on the borders of an extensive and beautiful prairie, which Captain Wilkes says, Ci would be admirably adapted for a large settlement, if the soil was in any respect equal to its appearance. This is composed of a light brown earth, intermixed with a large proportion of gravel and stones: it requires an abundance of rain to bring any crop to perfection, and this rarely falls during the summer months. At the season when we arrived, nothing could be more beautiful, or to appearance more luxuriant than the plains, which were covered with flowers of every colour and kind : among these were to be seen ranunculus, scilla, lupines, collinsia, and balsamoriza (a small sunflower peculiar to Oregon); but the soil is quite thin, and barely sufficient for these in many places. The best land occurs where the prairies are intersected or broken by belts of w'oods, that have a dense undergrowth, consisting of hazel, spircea, cornus, and prunus. On the borders of these belts are scattered oaks and some UNITED STATES EXPLORATION OF OREGON. 145 ash, arbutus, birch, and poplars, and in some places the yew is to be found ; but the predominant character of the vegetation is of the tribe of coniferse, which seem to occupy large ranges of the country, and among which the cedar is found to attain a large size.” Belonging to the company’s establishment at Nisqually, there are a large dairy, several hundred head of cattle, and among them seventy milch cows, which yield a large supply of butter and cheese, large crops of wheat, peas, and oats, potatoes, &c., are raised. These operations are managed by a farmer and dairy- man, who were sent for these purposes from England. A few Indians are en- gaged in attending the flocks, and the company’s servants are almost exclusively employed as labourers. PUGET SOUND COMPANY. Captain Wilkes remarks, that he has described these agricultural establish- ments as connected with the Hudson Bay Company. They are de facto so ; but as the charter precludes farming operations, another company has been organised, under the title of the “ Puget Sound Company,” the shares of which are held by the officers, agents, and servants of the Hudson Bay Com- pany, and its officers are exclusively chosen from among them. Dr. McLaughlin, for instance, chief officer and governor of Fort Vancouver, on the part of the Hudson’s Bay Company, is also a director of the Puget Sound^Company, and has the entire management of its concerns. His salary is five hundred pounds. The capital of the latter Company is five hundred thousand pounds, divided into shares of one hundred pounds each. Two hundred thousand pounds was found sufficient capital, and no more was paid in. “ The operations of this company,” says Captain Wilkes, “ are, in consequence, large : they began by making large importations of stock from California and some of the best breed of cattle from England. They have also entered into farming on an extensive scale, using as labourers the servants of the Hudson Bay Company, who are bound by their contracts to do all manner of service that may be required of them, even to the bearing of arms. “This company supplies all the forts and stations of the Hudson’s Bay Com- pany on the west of the American continent, and also furnishes the Russian ports with wheat, butter, and cheese. The Russians take annually about fifteen thousand bushels of wheat. The directors of the company expect to succeed in breeding a sufficient stock of cattle and sheep, to enable them to export hides, horn, tallow, and wool to England in the return ships, which hitherto have left the coast comparatively empty, as the furs occupy only a small portion of the ship. Captain Wilkes is of opinion “ that they will be enabled to drive a pro- fitable trade, particularly when it is considered how little care the cattle require u 146 NORTHERN OREGON. in this territory, in consequence of the grass and natural hay which the soil affords at all seasons. It is the prospect of the advantageous results to be derived from these operations, that has induced the Hudson Bay Company to change their trading establishments into large agricultural ones. For some years pre- vious to our arrival, they had not been able to meet their own wants, and at the same time fulfil their contracts with the Russians. They were, therefore, obliged to purchase from the settlers in the territory, as well as send to California, to procure the requisite quantity of agricultural products. A demand was conse- quently created for wheat, and all that could be raised in the Willamette settle- •ments was bought for six shillings currency (seventy-five cents) a bushel, and paid for in drafts on their stores , in goods, at fifty per cent advance on the first London cost. This gave an encouragement to the small farmers, that was fated to meet with grievous disappointment the next season; for the company was able not only to meet their engagements, and their own wants, but had, besides, a surplus. The prices consequently would be merely nominal, unless raised by the influx of new settlers. Whether the latter cause had any effect in creating a market, I know not; but I understand, that in 1842, some of the settlers fed their horses upon their finest wheat.” The scenery around Nisqually embraces a splendid panorama, with Mount Rainier, rising nearly east of it ; there are two or three other magnificent snowy peaks. They are all nearly regular cones, with summits indicating extinct volcanoes. One of these. Mount Hood, Captain Wilkes intended to ascend but was prevented in consequence of the loss of the Peacock. The steam-vessel employed at Nisqually by the Hudson Bay Company, is stated by him to be ill-adapted for the purpose from her incapacity to carry necessary fuel for her entire voyage, which occasions great delay by stopping at intermediate places, where a supply of wood is only obtained by cutting it by the crew'. But this vessel was, however, equipped with a sufficient armament, barricades, and boarding-nettings, deemed essential on the northern coast, where the savage tribes are hostile and numerous. After the several parties were in readiness to start on their respective expedi- tions, Captain Wilkes proceeded with his own party for the Columbia River. He says, “ It was a strange cavalcade, for most of us were but sorry horsemen, and we had every variety of accoutrements, from the saddle and bridle to the bare back and halter. We were eight in number : Messrs. Drayton* Waldron, and myself, two servants, two Indians, and a Canadian guide, with four pack- horses. The horses and the guide were kindly furnished us by the gentlemen at the fort, to carry us as far as Cowlitz Farms, about sixty miles distant, where we intended taking canoes. Our Indians, though partially clothed in worn-out European clothing, still showed their free and easy carriage on horseback: the few ribands and cocks’ feathers that were stuck in their caps gave them a flaunt- UNITED STATES EXPLORATION OF OREGON. 147 ing kind of air; and they manifested a species of self-esteem that was not un- pleasing, and betokened an independence and want of care, in good keeping with their mode of life. These savages should never be seen but on horseback, in which position they are really men, and inspire a certain degree of respect. W hen dis- mounted, all these qualities vanish, and the Indian becomes the lazy, lounging creature, insensible to any excitement but his low gambling propensities. They have a peculiar knack in managing their horses, and this, too, without any appa- rent means of controlling them, for their only bridle is a single cord fastened to the lower jaw; with this they contrive to govern the most refractory animals, without the aid of whip or spur, and will urge to speed an animal that has become all but lifeless under our guidance. They practise great cruelty to their horses, and pay no regard whatever to the state of their backs.” They travelled nearly south over grassy lawns, interspersed with groves of oak and ash-trees, until they reached the river Nisqually, the channel of which run- ning between precipitous banks, is about 300 feet below the plain. Its ravine* about half a mile wide, is filled with large timber trees, occasionally uprooted by the torrents occasioned by the melting of the snows in the mountains. The usual bed of the stream is about 100 yards wide, with a rapid current: its course in this place was north-north-west. Its average depth at the ford where the parties crossed was about three feet. They ascended the opposite high banks, and reached the table-land on the plain ; the route over which unfolded the most beautiful park scenery, with the prairie now and then opening to view, in which magnificent pines grew detached. The prairie was covered with a profusion of flowers. After crossing Shute’s river, the features of which are similar to those of the Nisqually, they encamped and lighted fires before dark, having travelled about twenty-two miles. On examining the alforcas, or saddle-bags, they found the small stores had been damaged in fording the river. In the lower country, snakes were observed, but they are seldom venomous; the rattle-snake is rarely seen, in consequence of the dampness of the climate. In the middle section, where it is dry, they are met in great numbers. Elk and deer had been attracted by the fire during the night. The grass around the tents was of the most nutritious kind for the horses to feed on. In the morning, on resuming the journey, the park-X\k& scenery increased in beauty; “And,” Captain Wilkes observes, “ it was almost impossible to realise that we were in a savage and wild country, and that nature, not art, had perfected the landscape. Beautiful lakes, with greensward growing to the water’s edge, with deer feeding fearlessly on their margin, and every tint of flower, many of which were not new to our gardens at home, strewn in profusion around ; we could hardly, in galloping along, but expect to see some beautiful mansion, as a fit accompaniment to such scenery!” u 2 148 OREGON’. The Bute prairies over which they passed, are extensive, and covered with tumuli, or small conical mounds, about thirty feet in diameter, six to seven feet high above the level, and many thousands in number. “ We opened three of the mounds, but nothing was found in them but a. jmvement of round stones.” After a ride of twelve miles they reached Chickeeles River, which flows into Gray’s Harbour, about forty miles north of the Columbia. Its stream was about 200 yards wide. On its banks there were a few lodges containing about twenty Indians of the miserable Nisqually tribe, who had come here to make preparations for the salmon-fishery, then about to commence (20th of May). Hanging around their lodges were hundreds of lamprey eels, from a foot to eighteen inches long, and an inch thick. These fish are caught in great quantities and dried for food; they are also used for candles or torches: for being full of oil they burn brightly. On proceeding, the soil changed from gravel to a rich unctuous clay. After crossing the branch of the Chickeeles, they passed over some high hills, the track being exceedingly difficult, and so miry that the pack-horses frequently stuck fast. The woods and underbush grew also so thickly, that it was with difficulty that a horse and rider could pass; fallen trees were to be jumped or hobbled over. They finally ascended to the crest of the heights, “ where,” Captain Wilkes observes, “ we commanded one of the most charming views I saw in Oregon, extending to a distance over the luxuriant country, while at our feet lay one of the beautiful prairies, bedecked in every hue of the rainbow, with the Chickeeles winding through it.” They descended and passed over the prairie to some Indian lodges, whose inhabitants were squalid and dirty. Their route then lay through alternate woods and prairies, the former composed of large pines and cedars. Several considerable streams of water were crossed. The banks were not so high as those before passed. “ The latter,” he says, “ covered with strawberries, so tempting as to induce us to dismount and feast upon them, and many plants that excited a feeling of interest, and reminded us of home : among the number was' the red honeysuckle ( caprifolium ), which was in full bloom. After passing extensive Cammass plains, the party reached the company’s farm on the Cowlitz, which occupies an extensive prairie on the banks of that river. This establishment comprises 600 or 700 acres enclosed, under skilful cul- tivation, with several large granaries, a large farm-house, and numerous out- buildings, to accommodate the dairy, workmen, cattle, &c. The fields were covered with a luxuriant crop of wheat. At the further end of the prairie, there was a settlement with its orchards, &c., and amidst a grove of trees, stood the cha- pel and house of the Catholic mission. “ The place,” says Captain Wilkes, “ re- sembled that of a settlement of several years’ standing in our western states, with the exception, however, of the remains of the conquered forest (charred stumps) for here the ground is ready for the plough, and nature seems as it were to invite the husbandman to his labours.” UNITED STATES EXPLORATION OF OREGON. 149 The party was hospitably entertained by Mr. Forrest, the superintendent, how readily made arrangements for canoes to carry the expedition down the Cowlitz and Columbia rivers to Astoria, or Fort George. At this farm the company had then a large dairy, and were about erecting a saw and grist mill. The superintendent’s dwelling was large and built of well- hewn logs, with the workmen’s houses, & c., it formed a village. Captain Wilkes observes, “ Large numbers of cattle were being brought in for the night, which is a very necessary precaution in Oregon, in consequence of the numerous wolves that are prowling about. In some places it becomes neces- sary for the keeper to protect his beasts even in the daytime. The cattle at times suffer from drought, in which case the Indians are sent across the river to cut fodder for them, in order to avoid sending the cattle to the cammass plains, where they would be subject to the loss of all their young. The farm at the Cowlitz has no sort of defence about it, proving, as far as the Indians are concerned, that there is no danger of being molested ; indeed, their numbers here are too small to attempt any aggression, and their dependence on the company for both food and clothing too complete to allow them to quarrel except among themselves. Of such disputes the agent of the company takes no sort of notice. The mortality that has attacked them of late has made sad ravages, for only a few years since they numbered upwards of a hundred, while they are now said to be less than thirty. The quantity of land contained within the company’s farms at the Cowlitz was then about six hundred acres, most of which was under wheat.”* Around the superintendent’s house there was a kitchen garden, in which all the usual horticultural plants, similar to those of the United States, were growing luxuriantly. The superintendent informed Captain Wilkes that the weather was never actually cold, nor the winter long. Snows seldom lasted more than a day or two; fires were, however, found comfortable during most months of the year. Cattle were sometimes housed ; but little or no provision was made for their sustenance, as the grass is sufficient during the whole year. The Cowlitz Farm is in latitude 46 deg. 30 min. north, longitude 123 deg. west. The guide procured by the superintendent for Captain Wilkes had been the coxswain of General Cass’s canoe, when that belligerent senator performed a trip to the lakes in the North-west Territory. This guide had been for several years in Oregon. He left the company’s service, married an Indian wife, and was living on a farm of about fifty acres, at the Cowlitz, independent and con- tented. Captain Wilkes says he “ had seldom seen so pretty a woman as his wife ; before her marriage she was the belle of the country, and celebrated for her feats of horsemanship.” The Cowlitz River takes its rise in the Cascade Range, near Mount Rainier. * The crop of 1841 produced about 7000 bushels. 150 OREGON. Its banks are tolerably high until it approaches the Columbia. It is only navi- gable even for boats at high water, in the spring and fall, at which time the sup- plies from Vancouver are sent up, and the wheat and other produce of the farm, in large flat barges. The soil along the river appeared to be of a good quality, a clayey loam with vegetable mould, overlaying trap rock and sandstone. The trees were chiefly poplars, white maple, ash, fir, pine, and cedar, with some laurel, where the prairies are flooded in the month of May. It was reported that coal of good quality existed near the banks of the Cow- litz, but Captain Wilkes examined all the places that indicated its formation, and only found lignite. He observes, “ The route by the way of the Cowlitz will, in all probability, be that which will hereafter be pursued to the northern waters and sounds. Although there are many difficulties in crossing the rivers, &c., yet it is believed to be the most feasible course. On our way, we met with many canoes passing up loaded with salmon and trout, which had been taken at the Willamette Falls, and which they were then carrying to trade with the Indians for the cammass root. “The Columbia, where the Cowlitz joins it, is abroad flowing stream, and was at this time much swollen. We had, after entering it, about forty miles yet to make, and it was past noon, but we glided briskly on with the current, although it was by no means so rapid as I had expected to have found it. Near the mouth of the Cowlitz is a high conical hill which has received the name of Mount Coffin, from its having been a burial-place of the Indians ; and the re- mains of many of their coffins were still to be seen scattered over it. On the opposite side of the river is a high harrier of trap-rocks, covered with majestic pines. “ About ten miles lower down, we passed Oak Point, where the river turns nearly at right angles, taking its course along a barrier of trap-rocks, which it here meets on its west side, and which rises 800 feet perpendicularly above its surface. On the other side of the river is one of the remarkable prairies of the country covered with tall waving grass and studded with many oaks, from which the point takes its name. What adds additional interest and beauty to the scene is Mount St. Helen’s, which maybe seen from the sea when eighty miles distant; its height I made 9550 feet. “ In this part of the river, which I named St. Helen’s reach, we met the brig Wave that had brought our stores from Oahu. By sunset we had reached Ter- mination Island, and had yet twenty miles to make in a very dark night. We had already passed the only place where we could have encamped, and the natives showed extreme reluctance to go on. They soon desired to return, saying, that the night was very dark, and that the bay would be dangerous. This re- quest was overruled, however, and we continued our course, though under appre- hension of disaster. The Indians said that many canoes had been lost, and after THE COLUMBIA RIVER. 151 I became acquainted with this part of the river, I no longer wondered at their objections to pass over it at night ; for if there is any wind, it becomes exceed- ingly rough and dangerous for their canoes. “ We found the water quite smooth, and glided on hour after hour without any appearance of a landing. I was at a loss to account for the length of our pas- sage until I found the tide had been against us. We at last reached what the guide called Tongue Point, and afterwards kept skirting the shore for so long a time that I began to have misgivings that we should pass Astoria, and began firing muskets, the usual signal of an arrival. They were immediately answered by others from behind us, and the loud clamour of about forty yelping dogs. These sounds, although discordant, gave us the delightful assurance that we had reached our destination, and might now make our escape from the confined and irksome position we had been in a whole day. Mr. Birnie, the agent to the Hudson Bay Company, met us at the landing, with lanterns and every assist- ance, and gave us a truly Scotch welcome. We soon found ourselves in his quarters, where, in a short time, a fire was burning brightly, and his hospitable board spread with good cheer, although it was past midnight. After partaking of the supper, blankets were furnished us, and we were made exceedingly com- fortable for the night. In the morning, we had a view of the somewhat famous Astoria, which is any thing but what I should wish to describe. Half-a-dozen log-houses, with as many sheds and a pig-sty or two, are all that they can boast of, and even these appear to be going rapidly to decay. The company pay little regard to it, and the idea of holding or improving it as a post has long since been given up. The head-quarters of their operations have been removed to Vancou- ver, eighty miles further up the river, since which Astoria has merely been held for the convenience of their vessels. It boasts of but one field, and that was in potatoes, which I can, however, vouch for as being very fine. In former times it had its gardens, forts, and banqueting -halls; and, from all accounts, when it was the head-quarters of the North-west Company, during their rivalship with the Hudson Bay Company, there was as jovial a set residing here as ever were met together. I have had the pleasure of meeting with several of the survivors, who have recounted their banquetings, &c.” Astoria. — ■“ In point of situation, few places will vie with Astoria. It is situated on the south side of the Columbia River, eleven miles from Cape Disappoint- ment, as the crow flies. From Astoria there is a fine view of the high promon- tory of Cape Disappointment, and the ocean bounding it on the west ; the Chinook Hills and Point Ellice, with its rugged peak, on the north; Tongue Point and Katalamet Range on the east; and a high background, bristling with lofty pines to the south. The ground rises from the river gradually to the top of a ridge 500 feet in elevation. This was originally covered with a thick forest of pines ; that part reclaimed by the first occupants is again growing up in 152 OREGON. brushwood. From all parts of the ground the broad surface of the river is in view. The stillness is remarkable, and makes it evident that one is yet far more removed from civilised life; the distant, though distinct, roar of the ocean is the only sound that is heard, this, however, is almost incessant; for the stream though rushing onwards in silence to meet the ocean, keeps up an eternal war with it on the bar, producing at times scenes of great grandeur, but which, as we had already experienced, renders the bar wholly impassable for days together. “ The magnificent pine, so often mentioned by travellers, lies prostrate near the tomb of the hospitable chief Concomely, now in ruins. The chief’s skull, it is believed, is in Glasgow, having been long since removed by Dr. Gardner. “ There were many things to remind us of home, among them was a luxuriant sward of white clover, now in full blossom, and numerous other plants that had found their way here ; the trees were also familiar, and truly American. I felt that the land belonged to my country, that we were not strangers on the soil ; and could not but take great interest in relation to its destiny, in the prospect of its one day becoming the abode of our friends and relatives.” The Columbia, opposite to Astoria, is about four miles wide, but in the mid- dle of the river is an extensive sand-flat, with only a few feet water on it, and at low tides it is bare ; the channel is very narrow on each side, and difficult to na- vigate. At Astoria there is only width for about ten or twelve vessels to ride at anchor. It is, therefore, unfit for an extensive seaport. A point of land extends about half a mile below the fort to where Young’s River joins the Columbia, and forms the bay, on the banks of which Lewis and Clarke wintered. Plumondon, the guide, who was also an expert trapper, informed Captain Wilkes, “ That the country lying north of the Columbia, between the Cowlitz and Cape Disappointment, is generally rough and rugged, with numerous streams of water, and in many places a rich soil ; it is extremely well timbered, and is ca- pable, when cleared, of growing grain and other agricultural produce.” Captain Wilkes, on the 24th, accompanied the superintendent on a visit to the missionaries at Clatsop. They crossed Young’s Bay, and, after walking a mile, came to the mission. The missionary and his wife gave them a kind wel- come at their new wooden dwelling, which Captain Wilkes understood him to say had been built by the missionary’s own hands. It is situated on light dry soil in front of a spruce and fir grove, which is thought to be the most healthy. There were also two American settlers, who were building houses here, both of them good mechanics. The place is not susceptible of much improvement, but was under- stood to have been chosen for its salubrity. Another missionary resided four miles distant, upon a tract of land, where he was chiefly occupied in raising a large crop and superintending cattle ; there appeared to Captain AYilkes “ to be little opportunity for exercising their ministerial calling, though he understood THE COLUMBIA RIVER. 153 afterwards, that at particular seasons a number of Indians collected to hear them.” After spending some time at the mission, they set off for Point Adams and Clatsop village ; and he says, “ I think in all my life, I had never met with so many snakes as I saw during this short walk ; they were on the beach, where they were apparently feeding at low water. We looked from the sand-hills on Point Adams for vessels, but none were in sight; and then we walked on to the village. It consisted of few rough lodges, constructed of boards or rather hewn planks of large size ; the interior resembled a miserably constructed ship’s cabin, with bunks, &c. ; the only light was admitted from above, near the ridge and gable end. Pieces of salmon and venison were hanging up in the smoke of their fire. Numbers of the Indians are always to be seen lounging about, and others gambling. On the &«?«&-planks were painted various uncouth figures of men, and in one was seen hanging the head of an elk, which it was understood they make use of occasionally as a decoy in the chase, for the purpose of taking their game more easily. Around the whole is a palisade, made of thick planks and joists, and fifteen feet in length, set with one end in the ground to protect them from attack.” The Indians of this region make war with each other on the most trivial oc- casions, chiefly to gratify individual revenge. The Hudson Bay Company’s officers exert great influence in order to preserve peace. Inasmuch as it is safe for a white man to pass in any direction through those parts of the country in which their posts are established. In case of accident to a white settler, a war-party is at once organised by the company, and the offender hunted up. In 1840, an Indian was executed at Astoria for the murder of a white man, whom he came upon while asleep, killed, and stole his property. On the Clatsop beach, Captain Wilkes saw a great number of dead fish, and was informed that they were thrown up in great multitudes during the autumn ; and supposed to be killed by a kind of worm generated in their stomachs. On the 28th, the company’s barks, Cowlitz and Columbia, were discovered; the Columbia bound for Oahu , the Cowlitz for the Russian port of Sitka. Captain Wilkes, on his Indians recovering from their fatigue, left Mr. Waldron at Astoria to await the arrival of the ship Peacock, and embarked on the Columbia to ascend to Fort Vancouver. The wind and waves were too bois- terous for the canoe to venture across the open bay. Tongue Point, a high bluff of trap- rock, covered with trees of large dimen- sions. “ The top,” says Captain Wilkes, “ has been cleared and taken posses- sion of by the superintendent of Astoria, who has erected a log-hut, and planted a patch of potatoes. The hut was inhabited for a year by a Sandwich Islander and his wife. It is rather a rough spot for cultivation, but the end of occupancy x 154 OREGON. was answered by it. There is a small portage on Tongue Point which canoes often use in bad weather, to avoid accidents that might occur in the rough seas that make in the channel that passes round it. “We encamped a few miles above Oak Point, on the Prairie, in a grove of trees. The next morning was beautiful, and the birds were singing blithely around us. Our Indians were as merry as the birds. There was an entire absence of game birds, though a great number of singing ones were seen. We passed during the day Coffin Rock, which is about seven miles above the Mount Coffin before spoken of. It is of small dimensions, and has been the burial-place of chiefs, who are usually interred in canoes, which are provided with all the necessary appendages for their journey to the land of spirits and their hunting-grounds. The mode of disposing of their dead seems to have been different on the south side of the Columbia. On the Cowlitz we observed many canoes near the bank of the river, supported between four trees; these contain the remains of their dead, are painted in a variety of figures, and have gifts from their friends hung around them. I was told that this is not only done at the time of their burial, but frequently for several months after.” The scenery before ascending to the lower mouth of the Willamette was diversified with high and low land. In the woods were frequently sent three lofty snowy peaks wfith many fine views. The country became more open, and appeared much better adapted to agriculture than lower down the Columbia. HUDSON BAY COMPANY’S POSTS IN OREGON. At Warrior Point, Captain Wilkes entered the Cal/epmja, for the purpose of avoiding the current of the strong Columbia. This branch forms a canal during the floods from a chain of lakes which extend to within a mile of Vancouver. On their approach to the latter, they passed one of the dairies and some rich meadow-land, on which were grazing herds of cattle, and flocks of sheep of the best English and Spanish breeds. Fort Vancouver. — “ On landing within a mile of Vancouver, we walked to the fort by a road through a wood of large pines, and an undergrowth of various flowering shrubs. The old stumps in the road were overgrown with the red honeysuckle in full blossom. Lupins and other flowers grow over the roadway.” They entered at the back part of the village, which then consisted of “ about fifty comfortable log-houses, placed in regular order on each side of the road. They arc inhabited by the company’s servants, and were swarming with chil- HUDSON BAY COMPANY’S POSTS IN OREGON. 155 dren, whites, half-breeds, and -pure Indians. The fort stands at some distance beyond the village, and to the eye appears like an upright wall of pickets, twenty- five feet high ; this encloses the houses, shops, and magazines of the company. The enclosure contains about four acres, which appear to be under full cultiva- tion. Beyond the fort large granaries were to be seen. At one end is Dr. McLaughlin’s house, built after the model of the French Canadian, and one story weather-boarded and painted white. It has a piazza and some flower-beds with grape and other vines in front; between the steps are two old cannons on sea-carriages, with a few shot to speak defiance to the natives, who no doubt look upon them as very formidable weapons of destruction. I mention these as they are the only warlike instruments to my knowledge that are within the pickets of Vancouver, which differs from all the other forts in having no bastions, galleries, or loop-holes. Near by are the rooms for the clerks and visiters, with the blacksmith’s and cooper’s shops. In the centre stands the Roman Catholic chapel, and near by the flag-staff; beyond these again are the stores, magazines of powder, ware-rooms, and offices. He (Dr. M‘Laughlin) is of Scotch parentage, but by birth a Canadian, enthusiastic in disposition, possessing great energy of character, and extremely well suited for the situation he occupies, which requires great talent and industry. He at once ordered dinner for us, and we soon felt ourselves at home, having comfortable rooms assigned us, and being treated as part of the establishment. “ The situation of Vancouver is favourable for agricultural purposes, and it may be said to be the head of navigation for sea-going vessels. A vessel of four- teen feet draft of water, may reach it in the lowest state of the river. The Columbia at this point makes a considerable angle, and is divided by two islands, which extends upwards of three miles to where the upper branch of the Willa- mette joins it. “ The shores of these islands are covered with trees, consisting of ash, poplars, pines, and oaks, while the centre is generally prairie, and lower than the banks; they are principally composed of sand. During the rise of the river in May and June, the islands are covered with water, that filters through the banks that are not overflowed. This influx renders them unfit for grain crops, as the coldness of the water invariably destroys every cultivated plant it touches. “ The company’s establishment at Vancouver is upon an extensive scale, and is worthy of the vast interest of which it is the centre. The residents mess at several tables ; one of the chief factor and his clerks ; one of their wives (it being against the regulations of the company for their officers and wives to take their meals together) ; another for the missionaries ; and another for the sick and Catholic missionaries. All is arranged in the best order, and I should think with great economy. Every thing may be had within the fort; they have an x 2 156 OREGON. extensive apothecary’s shop, a bakery, blacksmith’s and cooper’s shops, trade- offices for buying, others for selling, others again for keeping accounts and trans- acting business ; shops for retail, where the English manufactured articles may be jmrchased at as low a price, if not cheaper than in the United States, con- sisting of cotton and woollen goods, ready-made clothing, ship-chandlery, earthen and iron-ware, and fancy articles; in short, everything and of every kind and description, including all sorts of groceries, at an advance of eighty per cent on the London prime cost. This is the established price at Vancouver, but at the other posts it is 100 per cent to cover the extra expenses of transpor- tation. All these articles are of good quality, and suitable for the servants, set- tlers, and visiters. Of the quantity on hand some idea may be formed from the fact that all the posts west of the Rocky Mountains get their annual supplies from the depot. “ Vancouver is the head-quarters of the north-west or Columbian department, which also includes New Caledonia ; all the returns of furs are received here, and hither all accounts are transmitted for settlement. These operations occa- sion a large mass of business to be transacted at this establishment. Dr. Douglass, a chief factor, and the associate of Dr. M‘Laughlin, assists in this department, and takes sole charge in his absence. “ Dr. M‘Laughlin showed us our rooms, and told us that the bell was the signal for meals. “ Towards sun-set, tea-time arrived, and we obeyed the summons of the bell, when we were introduced to several of the gentlemen of the establishment ; we met in a large hall, with a long table spread with abundance of good fare. Dr. M'Laughlin took the head of the table, with myself on his right, Messrs. Douglass and Drayton on his left, and the others apparently according to their rank. I mention this as every one appears to have a relative rank, privilege, and station assigned him, and military etiquette prevails. The meal lasts no longer than is necessary to satisfy hunger. With the officers, who are clerks, business is the sole object of their life, and one is entirely at a loss here who has nothing to do. The agreeable company of Dr. M f Laughlin and Mr. Douglass made the time at meals pass delightfully. Both of these gentlemen were kind enough to give up a large portion of their time to us, and I felt occasionally that we must be tres- passing on their business-hours. After meals, it is the custom to introduce pipes and tobacco. It was said that this practice was getting into disuse, but I should have concluded from what I saw that it was at its height. Canadian French is generally spoken by the servants; even those who come out from England, after a while, adopt it, and it is not a little amusing to hear the words they use, and the manner in which they pronounce them. “ The routine of a day at Vancouver is, perhaps, the same throughout the year. At early dawn the bell is rung for the working parties, who soon after go to work ; HUDSON BAY COMPANY’S POSTS IN OREGON. 157 the sound of the hammers, clink of the anvils, the rumbling of the carts, with tinkling of bells, render it difficult to sleep after this hour. The bell rings again at eight for breakfast ; at nine they resume their work, which continues till one ; then an hour is allowed for dinner, after which they work till six, when the labours of the day close. At five o’clock on Saturday afternoon the work is stopped, when the servants receive their weekly rations. “ Vancouver is a large manufacturing, agricultural, and commercial depot, and there are few, if any, idlers except the sick. Every body seems to be in a hurry, whilst there appears to be no obvious reason for it. “ Without making any inquiries, I heard frequent complaints made of both the quantity and quality of the food issued by the company to its servants. I could not avoid perceiving that these complaints were well founded, if this allowance were compared with what we deem a sufficient ration in the United States for a labouring man. Many of the servants complained that they had to spend a great part of the money they received to buy food ; this is 17 1 - per annum, out of which they have to furnish themselves with clothes. They are engaged for five years, and after their time has expired, the company are obliged to send them back to England or Canada, if they desire it. Generally, however, when their time expires, they find themselves in debt, and are obliged to serve an extra time to pay it ; and not unfrequently, at the expiration of their engagement, they have become at- tached, or married to some Indian woman, or half-breed, and have children, on which account they find themselves unable to leave, and continue attached to the company’s service, and in all respects under the same management as before. If they desire to remain and cultivate land, they are assigned a certain portion, but are still dependent on the company for many necessaries of life, clothing, &c. “ This causes them to become a sort of vassal, and compels them to execute the will of the company. In this way, however, order and decorum are pre- served, together with steady habits, for few can in any way long withstand this silent influence. The consequence is, that few communities are to be found more orderly than that which is formed of the persons who have retired from the company’s service. That this power, exercised by the officers of the company, is much complained of, I am aware, but I am satisfied that as far as the morals of the settlers and servants are concerned, it is used for good purposes. For in- stance, the use of spirits is almost entirely done away with. Dr. M'Laughlin has acted in a highly praiseworthy manner in this particular. Large quantities of spirituous liquors are now stored in the magazines at Vancouver, which the company have refused to make an article of trade, and none is now used by them in the territory for that purpose. They have found this rule highly beneficial to their business in several respects ; more furs are taken in consequence of those who are engaged having fewer inducements to err; the Indians are found to be less quarrelsome, and pursue the chase more constantly ; and the settlers as far as I could hear, have been uniformly prosperous. 158 OREGON. “ In order to show the course of the company upon this subject, I will mention one circumstance. The brig, Thomas H< Perkins, arrived here with a large quan- tity of rum on board, with other goods. Dr. M'Laughlin, on hearing of this, made overtures immediately for the purchase of the whole cargo, in order to get possession of the whiskey or rum, and succeeded. The doctor mentioned to me, that the liquor was now in store, and would not be sold in the country, and added, that the only object he had in buying the cargo, was to prevent the use of the rum, and to sustain the temperance cause. “ The settlers are also deterred from crimes, as the company have the power of sending them to Canada for trial, which is done with little cost, by means of the annual expresses which carry their accounts and books. “The interior of the houses in the fort are unpretending. They are simply finished with pine board panels, without any paint ; banks are built for bedsteads ; but the whole, though plain, is as comfortable as could be desired. “ Several of the American and other missionaries make Fort Vancouver for the most part their home, where they are kindly received and entertained, at no ex- pense to themselves, by the governor. The liberality and freedom from sectarian principles of Dr. M‘Laughlin may be estimated from his being thus hospitable to missionaries of so many Protestant denominations, although he is a professed Roman Catholic, and has a priest of the same faith officiating daily at the chapel. Religious toleration is allowed in its fullest extent. The dining-hall is given up on Sunday to the use of the ritual of the Anglican church, and Mr. Douglass, or a missionary, reads the service.” All the missionaries, except the Methodist, travelled across the Rocky Mountains : they represented the pass through them as by no means difficult, and that they had entertained no apprehension of the hostile Indians. They had accompanied a party of fur-traders from St. Louis, and gave a deplorable account of the dissipation and morals of the party. They were disappointed in finding self-support in Oregon, and had it not been for the hospitality of Dr. McLaughlin, who took them in, they would have suffered much. They were then advised to settle on the Faulitz Plains, where Captain Wilkes understood they had, since his departure, taken land, and succeeded in forming good farms. There arc two large entrance-gates to the “ fort,” for waggons and carts, and one in the rear leading to the granaries and the garden ; the latter occupies four or five acres of ground, in which are grown all kinds of kitchen vegetables, and many varieties of fruit, with which the tables are abundantly supplied by the Scotch gardener. This gardener, after his first term of service, returned to England, and after visiting and making himself acquainted with the horticulture of Chiswick, meeting Dr. M'Laughlin accidentally in London begged to be sent back to Fort Vancouver, the garden of which he was ambitious should surpass that of the celebrated one at Chiswick. HUDSON BAY COMPANY’S POSTS IN OREGON. 159 Besides the store-houses there is also a large granary, of two stories high. In addition to the other advantages, there are extensive kitchens and apart- ments for the half-breed and Indian children, whom the company have taken in order to bring up and educate. Of these latter there were twenty-three boys and fifteen girls. A teacher was employed for the boys, who superintended them not only in school but in the field and garden. During Captain Wilkes’s stay an examination took place, and he observes, “ Although the pupils did not prove very expert at their reading and writing, yet we had sufficient evidence that they had made some improvement, and were in a fair way to acquire the rudiments. Some allowance was to be made for the boys, who had been constantly in the field, under their teacher, for a few months past. Dr. M'Laughlin estimated the labour of four of these small boys as equal to that of one man. It was an interesting sight to see these poor little cast-away fellows, of all shades of colour, from the pure Indian to that of the white, thus snatched away from the vices and idleness of the savage. They all speak both English and French; they were also instructed in religious exercises, in which I thought they were more proficient than in their other studies. These they are instructed in on Sunday, on which day they attend divine worship twice. They were a ruddy set of boys, and wffien at work had a busy appearance. They had planted and raised six hundred bushels of potatoes ; and from what Dr. M‘Laughlin said to me, fully maintain themselves. The girls are equally well cared for, and are taught by a female, with whom they live and work. “ An opinion has gone abroad, I do not know how, that at this post there is a total disregard of morality and religion, and that vice predominates. As far as my observations went, I feel myself obliged to state that every thing seems to prove the contrary, and to bear testimony that the officers of the company are exerting themselves to check vice and encourage morality and religion in a very marked manner, and that I saw no instance in which vice was tolerated in any degree. I have indeed reason to believe, from the discipline and the ex- ample of the superiors, that the whole establishment is a pattern of good order and correct deportment. “ This remark not only extends to this establishment, but as far as our opportunities went (and all but two of their posts were visited), the same good order prevails throughout the country. Wherever the operations of the com- pany extend, they have opened the way to future emigration, provided the means necessary for the success of emigrants, and rendered its peaceful occupation an easy and cheap task.” Hudson Bay Trade in Oregon. — All the goods imported by the com- pany into Oregon are divided into three classes, viz., articles of gratuity ; those of trade ; and those intended to pay for small services, labour, and provisions. The first consists of knives and tobacco ; the second of blankets, guns, cloth, 160 OREGON. powder, and shot ; the third of shirts, handkerchiefs, ribands, beads, &c. These articles are bartered at seemingly great profits, and many persons imagine that large gain must be the result from the Indian trade, but this is seldom the case. The Indians and settlers fully understand the value of each article. The com- pany make advances to all their trappers if they wish to be sure of their services ; and from such a reckless set, there is little certainty of getting returns even if the trapper has it in his power. In fact, he will not return with his season’s acquisition unless he is constrained to pursue the same course of life for another year, when he requires a new advance. In order to avoid losses by the de- parture of their men, the parties, some thirty or forty in number, are placed under an officer, who has charge of the whole. These are allowed to take their wives and even their families with them, and places where they are to trap during the season, on some favourable ground, are assigned to them. These parties leave Vancouver in October and return in May or June. They usually trap in shares, and the portion they are to receive is defined by an agreement the conditions of which depend very much on their skill. All the profits of the company depend upon economical management, for the quantity of peltry in this section of the country ; and indeed it may be said the fur-trade on this side of the mountains has fallen off fifty per cent within the last few years. It is indeed reported that this business, at present, is hardly worth pursuing. Captain Wilkes was shown over the granary, which contained wheat, flour, barley, and buckwheat. The wheat averaged sixty- three pounds to the bushel ; barley yields twenty bushels to the acre ; buckwheat, in some seasons, gives a good crop, but it is by no means certain owing to the early frosts ; oats do not thrive well ; peas, beans, and potatoes yield abundantly ; little or no hay is made, the cattle being able to feed all the year round on the natural grass, which is very nutritious and they fatten upon it. The grass grows up rapidly in the beginning of summer, and the subsequent heat and drought actually convert it into hay, in which the juices are preserved. Besides this, they have on the prairies along the river two luxuriant growths of grass ; the first in the spring, and the second soon after the overflowing of the river subsides, which is gene- rally in July and August. The last crop lasts the remainder of the season. Neither do they require shelter, although they ar e penned in at night. Thepen«s are moveable, and the use of them is not only for security against the wolves but to manure the ground. The farm at Vancouver is about nine miles square. On this they have two dairies, and milk upwards of one hundred cows. There are also two other dairies situated on Werpauto island on the Willamette, where they have one hundred and fifty cows, whose milk, under the direction of dairymen, is made into butter and cheese for the Russian settlements. HUDSON BAY COMPANY’S POSTS IN OREGON. 161 The company has likewise a grist and saw-mill, both well constructed, about six miles above Vancouver, on the Columbia River. Captain Wilkes visited the dairy farm which lies to the west of Vancouver, on the Callepuya. This was one of the most beautiful. He rode to it through fine prairies, adorned with large oaks, ash, and pines. Large herds of cattle were feeding and reposing under the trees. It is found advantageous to change the site of the dairy annually. The ground occupied the previous year is fertilised, and the new site affords the cattle better pasturage. The stock on the Vancouver farm amounted in 1841 to about three thousand head of cattle, two thousand five hundred sheep, and about three hundred brood mares. Captain Wilkes found the whole establishment well managed by a Canadian and his wife. They churned the milk in barrel-machines, of which they had several. The cattle looked extremely well, and were rapidly increasing in numbers. The cows of the California breed yield but little milk, but when crossed with cattle from the United States and England, they greatly improve as milch cows. He saw some fine bulls that had been imported from England. He says, “ The sheep have lambs twice a year” (?) Those of the California breed yield a very inferior kind of wool, which is inclined to be hairy near the hide, and is much matted. This breed has been crossed with the Leicester, and other breeds, which has much improved it. The fleeces of the mixed breed are very heavy, weighing generally eight pounds, and some as much as twelve. Merinos have been tried, but they are not found to thrive. The Californian horses are not equal to those raised in Oregon ; those bred near Walla- walla are in the most repute. The number of posts occupied by the Hudson Bay Company in this territory is twenty-five ; these are located at the best points for trade, and so as to secure the resort of the Indians, without interfering with their usual habits. Places are also occupied in the vicinity of their abodes during the most favourable part of the year, for obtaining the proceeds of their hunting. Captain Wilkes re- marks, “ This is regulated with much skill, and the portion of the country once under the care of the company is never suffered to become exhausted of furs; for, whenever they discover a decrease, the ground is abandoned for several years, until the animals have time to increase again. The few posts which the company established in Northern California are of no importance. Some of the posts are situated far north behind the Russian settlements on the north-west coast. “ The trade and operations of the Hudson Bay Company are extensive, and the expense with which they are attended is very great. I am inclined to think that it is hardly possible for any one to form an exact estimate of the amount Y 162 OREGON. of profit they derive from their business on the west side of the moutains. The stock of the company certainly pays a large dividend, and it is asserted, that in addition a very considerable surplus has been accumulated to meet any emer- gency, yet it may be questioned whether their trade in the Oregon territory yields any profit. The establishments are conducted at much less expense than formerly, owing to the provisions required being now raised in the country. “ The Puget Sound Company, although it has been in operation for several years, had made no dividend up to 1841. The accumulations of their live stock is considered an augmentation of value. In the event, however, of the country becoming the abode of a civilised community, the farms or any other land possessed by this company must become very valuable, as the posts occupy all the points most favourably situated for trade, and the agricul- tural establishments have been placed in many of the best positions for farming operations. The utmost economy is practised in every part of the establish- ment of the Hudson Bay Company, and great exertions are made to push their operations over a larger field of action. Mercantile houses, supported by the credit and capital of the company, have even been established at the Sandwich Islands and San Francisco, where articles of every description imported in the vessels of the company may be purchased. “The value of the furs obtained on this coast does not exceed 40,000/. an- nually; and when the cost of keeping up their posts, and a marine composed of four ships and a steamer is taken into account, and allowances made for losses, interest, and insurance, little surplus can be left for distribution. I am, indeed, persuaded, that the proceeds of their business will not long exceed their expenses, even if they do so at present. The statement of the company’s affairs presents no criterion by which to judge of the success of their business on the north-west coast. It was the general impression among the officers that such has been the falling off in the trade, that it does not now much more than pay expenses." Captain Wilkes, on visiting the site of the old fort Vancouver, says, “ The view from this place is truly beautiful ; the noble river can be traced in all its windings, for a long distance through the cultivated prairie, with its groves and clumps of trees : beyond, the eye sweeps over an intermediate forest, melt- ing in a blue haze, from which Mount Hood, capped with its eternal snows, rises in great beauty. The tints of purple which appear in the atmosphere, are so far as I am aware, peculiar to this country. This site was abandoned, in conse- quence of the difficulty of obtaining water, and its distance from the river, which compelled them to transport every article up a high and rugged road. “The company have a grist-mill, and the miller is both a millwright and watch- maker. There is also a powerful saw-mill, and boards and deals are sawed beyond those required, and shipped to the Sandwich Islands. The men employed at the mill were Canadians and Sandwich Islanders. Adjoining the saw-mill there is a HUDSON BAY COMPANY’S POSTS IN OREGON. 163 large smithy, in which is prepared the iron work required for mill work, and all the axes and hatchets used by the woodcutters and trappers. A trapper’s suc- cess depends chiefly upon his axe, and if it should be lost or broken, he is com- pelled to relinquish his pursuit, and to return for another. About fifty axes can be manufactured in a day, and twenty-five are usually made, and like those used by the American labourers, are of excellent temper and quality. They are pur- chased by the Indians, and are made for them of a certain shape, somewhat like a tomahawk” On one of the sheep-walks belonging to the company on the high prairie, which Captain Wilkes visited, the soil is a light sandy loam, which yields a plentiful crop of columbine, lupin, and cammass flowers. Throughout these upper prairies, in places are seen growing pines of gigantic dimensions and towering height, with their branches drooping to the ground, with clumps of oaks, elders, and maple. These prairies have such an air of being artificially kept in order, that they never cease to create surprise, and it is difficult to believe that the hand of taste and refinement has not been at w r ork upon them. He observes, “ On our way back to Vancouver, we met the droves of horses and cattle that they were driving to the upper prairie on account of the rise of the river, and the consequent flooding of the low grounds. A certain number of brood mares are assigned to each horse ; and the latter it is said, is ever mindful of his troop, and prevents them from straying. An old Indian is employed to watch the horses, who keeps them constant company, and is quite familiar with every in- dividual of his charge. We reached the fort just at sunset, after a ride of twenty miles. The air was mild, and a pleasant breeze prevailed from the west. Mount Hood showed itself in all its glory, rising out of the purple haze with which the landscape was shrouded. “ The usual time for the highest rise of the river is in the middle of June. “ The crop of wheat of the last year had been partially destroyed by the floods, causing a loss of a thousand bushels. “ Although the Columbia does not overflow its banks anywhere except in the lower prairie, there are quicksands in these, through which the water, before it reaches the height of the embankment, percolates and rises on the low parts of the prairie. In consequence of the low temperature of the water, it chills and destroys the grain. “ I witnessed the Columbia at its greatest and least heights, and no idea can be formed of it unless seen at both these epochs. The flood is a very grand sight from the banks of the river at V ancouver , as it passes swiftly by, bearing along the gigan- tic forest trees, whose immense trunks appear as mere chips. They frequently lodge for a time, in which case others are speedily caught by them, which, obstruct- ing the flow of the water, form rapids, until, by a sudden rush, the whole is borne off to the ocean, and in time lodged by the currents on some remote and savage islands, Y 2 164 OREGON. to supply the natives with canoe3. I also witnessed the undermining of large trees on the banks, and occasional strips of soil : thus does the river yearly make inroads on its banks, and changes in its channels. “ From the circumstance of this annual inundation of the river prairies, they will always be unfit for husbandry, yet they are admirably adapted for grazing, except during the periods of high water. There is no precaution that can pre- vent the inroad of the water. At Vancouver they were at the expense of throw- ing up a large embankment of earth, but without the desired effect. It has been found that the crop of grain suffers in proportion to the quantity of the stalk immersed : unless the wheat is completely covered, a partial harvest may be ex- pected. “The waters of the Columbia have no fertilising qualities, which is remarkable when the extent of its course is considered: on the contrary, it is said, to de- teriorate and exhaust the soil. It is, when taken up, quite clear, although it has a turbid look as it flows by. Quantities of fine sand are, however, borne along, and being deposited in the eddies, rapidly form banks, which alter the channel in places to a great degree. 5 ’ During Captain Wilkes’s visit at Vancouver, he was applied to by three of a party of eight young Americans, who were desirous of leaving the country, but could not accomplish it in any other way but by building a vessel. They were not dissatisfied with the territory, but they would not settle themselves down in it because there were no young women to marry, except squaws or half breeds. They informed him that they were engaged in building a vessel on the oak islands in the Willamette, where he promised to visit them on his way up the river. WILLAMETTE VALLEY. On the 4th of June, 1841 , Captain Wilkes left Fort Vancouver, and pro- ceeded on an expedition up the valley of the Willamette river. Dr. M'Laughlin kindly procured him a large boat and provisions. The barge in which Captain Wilkes embarked, was usually employed in carrying grain and other produce, but on this occasion was fitted up with seats and other conveniences as a passage boat. These boats are flat-bottomed, and capable of carrying about 300 bushels of wheat over a small draft of water; when well-manned, they are made to go as swiftly as canoes, and are extremely well adapted to the navigation of the river; they are provided with large tarpaulings to protect their cargo from the weather. “ From Vancouver,” says Captain Wilkes, <( we floated down with the cur- WILLAMETTE VALLEY. 165 rent to the upper mouth of the Willamette, which we entered before night, and passed the encampment of the principal of the Methodist mission in Oregon, which was on its way to Clatsop, at the mouth of the Columbia. “ The musquitoes and sand flies were so annoying, that we were glad to seek for higher ground to encamp on, for the purpose of escaping them. “ The Willamette river is generally about one-fourth of a mile wide. For the distance of four miles from its entrance into the Columbia, its banks are low, and during the rise of the latter, are overflowed ; its waters being backed into the Willamette. There is little current to contend with in this river during mid summer. After passing this low ground, the banks become high and precipitous, and are only in a few places susceptible of cultivation. “We encamped on the island occupied by the young Americans, close to the place where they were building their vessel. The group of which it is one, is called the Oak Islands. “ The grove of oak on this island was beautiful, forming an extensive wood, with no undergrowth. The species that grows here is a white oak of very close grain. Its specific gravity is much greater than water; and it is used for the purposes to which we apply both oak and hickory. It makes excellent hoops for casks, and is the only timber of this region that is considered durable. “ The falls of Willamette are about twenty feet in height, and probably offer the best mill sites for any place in the neighbouring country. Being at the head of navigation for sea vessels, and near the great wheat-growing valley of Willa- mette, it must be a place of great resort. A Mr. Moore, from the western states, whom I saw on the Willamette, informed me that he had taken possession of the west side of the falls, under a purchase from an old Indian chief. Whe- ther such titles will be recognised by the government, is already a matter of spe- culation in the country ; and there is much talk of pre-emption rights, &c. “ At the time of our visit to the falls, the salmon fishery was at its height, and was to us a novel as well as an amusing scene. The salmon leap the fall ; and it would be inconceivable, if not actually witnessed, how they can force themselves up, and after a leap of from ten to twelve feet, retain strength enough to stem the force of the water above. About one in ten of those who jumped would succeed in getting by. They are seen to dart off the foam beneath, and reach about two-thirds of the height, at a single bond: those that thus passed the apex of the running water, succeed ; but all that fall short, were thrown back again into the foam. I never saw so many fish collected together before ; and the Indians are constantly employed in taking them. They rig out two stout poles, long enough to project over the foaming cauldron, and secure their larger ends to the rocks. On the outer end, they make a platform for the fisherman to stand on, who is perched on it with a pole, thirty feet long, in hand, to which the net is fastened by a hoop, four feet in diameter : the net is made to slide on 166 OREGON. the hoop, so as to close its mouth when the fish is taken. The mode of using the net is peculiar : they throw it into the foam as far up the stream as they can reach, and it being then quickly carried, down, the fish who are running up in a contrary direction, are caught. Sometimes twenty large fish are taken by a single person in an hour ; and it is only surprising that twice as many should not be caught.” The Willamette river, at the falls, is 350 yards wide. The height of the fall about twenty-five feet. The number of Indians at the Willamette falls during the fishing season, is about seventy, including all ages and sexes : there are others who visit the falls in canoes for fish, which at times will raise the number to not far from 100. Those fish which are unable to get up, remain some time at the falls, very much exhausted, and finally resort to the smaller streams below. The rocks above the falls change their character. Much volcanic scoria, vesicular lava, and pudding-stone, intermingled with blocks of trap, and many crystals of quartz occur. On the rocks are to be seen large knots of lamprey eels, worming themselves up, which look at a little distance as if^alive with snakes. Above the falls, in crossing the river, they passed through an Indian village, “ which was absolutely swarming with fleas ; a filthier place cannot be found in Oregon.” Above the falls, the current was strong, and they made but little head- way ; and the boatmen, in order to take advantage of the smallest eddies, crossed and recrossed the river. The banks became much higher and more picturesque, and this part of the Willamette is considered dangerous when the floods are high, and accidents frequently occur. Before night, they encamped above “ the Stony Islands,” on a barren point of land, at some height above the river. Here they found various mosses in flower. “ At this season of the year,” Captain Wilkes observes, “ the river is not high; its rise usually takes place in February and March, when it becomes very much swollen, and with its tributaries does much damage. These floods, how- ever, are of very short duration, for the descent is so rapid that the waters are soon discharged. It was raining quite hard when we passed Camp Maude du Sable, a sandy point just at the opening out of the Willamette valley, which was one of the points originally occupied when the river was first explored by the whites. About two miles further up, the river is Champooing, eighteen miles above the falls, which we reached at about four p. M. Here we found a few losr- houses, one of which belonged to a Mr. Johnson, who gave us a hearty welcome, lie was formerly in the navy, then a trapper in the Hudson Bay Company’s service, but had commenced farming on the Willamette, and taken to himself an Indian girl for a wife, by whom he had several children. lie had them educated. His wife was extremely industrious, making and mending, and taking care of the ( WILLAMETTE VALLEY, 167 household concerns, and is rather pretty. Johnson’s estimate of her,” says Captain Wilkes, “ was that she was worth about half-a-dozen civilised wives. There was little cleanliness, however, about his house, and many of the duties were left to two young male slaves, of Indian blood, but of what tribe I did not learn. Johnson’s farm consists of about forty acres under cultivation; his wheat and potatoes were flourishing, and he had a tolerable kitchen-garden. He has some little stock, but complained much of the Oregon tiger, or American panther. These voracious animals are numerous and bold ; the night before we arrived, they had entered the pen and killed a calf regardless of the dogs. “We were informed that there are plenty of elk and deer, and that the grizzly bear is also common. The flesh of the latter animal is very much esteemed. Wild ducks and geese are numerous in the spring and fall, covering the rivers, lakes, and ponds.” One of Johnson’s neighbours, was an old man by the name of Cannon, who had been one of the party with Lewis and Clarke, and was, from his own account, the only remaining one in the country. Another, old Moore, who taught Johnson’s children, possessed much information in relation to the country he had passed through. He had crossed the mountains the year before, and said he found no difficulty in making the trip. The great drawback to the country on the route up the Willamette, is the want of wood. Captain Wilkes, having found an intelligent guide, and having mounted on horseback, rode up the Willamette valley. He passed many small farms of from fifty to one hundred acres, belonging to the old servants of the Hudson Bay Company, Canadians who had settled here; they all appeared very comfortable and thriving. “ We stopped,” says Captain Wilkes, “ for a few hours at the Catholic mission, twelve miles from Champooing, to call upon the Rev. Mr. Bachelet, who is here settled among his flock, and is doing great good to the settlers in ministering their temporal as w T ell as spiritual wants. “ Annexed to his house is a small chapel, fully capable of containing the present congregation. They are erecting a large and comfortable house for Mr. Bachelet, after which it is intended to extend the chapel. These houses are situated on the borders of an extensive level prairie, which is very fertile, having a deep alluvial; they also have near them a forest of pine, oak, &c. They are now oc- cupied in turning of the fields for the first time. Mr. Bachelet informed me that it was intended to take enough of land under cultivation to supply a large community that will be attached to the mission ; for it is the intention to estab- lish schools here for the instruction of the Indians, as well as the Canadians and other settlers. He has already ten Indian children under his care. The mission had been established about a year, and it had already done much good. When he first arrived, all the settlers were living with Indian women whom they had since married. This was the first step he had taken towards their moral im- 168 OREGON. provement, and lie had found it very successful. There were about thirty Cana- dian families settled here, besides about twenty persons who have no fixed resi- dence and are labourers. The number of Indians is estimated at between 400 and 500 including all tribes, sexes, and ages. The district under Mr. Bachelet’s superintendence, takes in about fifty square miles, including the Willamette valley, Faulitz and Yam Hill Plains, and extending below the Willamette falls, as far as the Klackamus River. The number of white residents, including the missionaries of both denominations, is thought to be about sixty.” Captain Wilkes dined with Mr. Bachelet on oatmeal porridge, venison, straw- berries, and cream. Soon after leaving, the party arrived at where some American and English had settled j and entered on the grounds of the Methodist mission. Here were the log-houses which were built when they first settled here ; and in the neigh- bourhood, the wheelwrights’ and blacksmiths’ workshops, belonging to the mission ; and the hospital, built by Dr. White, who was formerly attached to the mission. It was still used as a residence for some of the missionaries, and is said to be the best building in Oregon. " This place,” says Captain Wilkes, “ seemed an out-of-the-way place to find persons of delicate habits struggling with difficulties such as they have to encounter, and overcoming them with cheerfulness and good-temper. Near the hospital are two other houses, built of logs, in one of which Dr. Babcock, the physician of the mission, lives. He stated that the country was healthy, although during the months of August and September, they were subject to fever and ague on the low grounds, but in high and dry situations, he believed they would be free from it. A few other diseases existed, but they were of a mild character, and readily yielded to simple remedies. “ The lands of the Methodist mission are situated on the banks of the Willa- mette River, on a rich plain adjacent to fine forests of oak and pine. They are about eight miles beyond the Catholic mission, eighteen miles from Champooing, in a southern direction. Their fields are well enclosed, and we passed a large one of wheat, which we understood was self - sown by the last year’s crop, which had been lost through neglect. The crop so lost amounted to nearly 1000 bushels, and it is supposed that this year’s will yield twenty-five bushels to the acre. About all the premises of this mission crop, there was an evident want of the at- tention required to keep things in repair, and an absence of neatness that I regretted much to witness.” The next day, Captain Wilkes visited “ the Mill,” distant about nine miles, in a southern direction. They passed in the route several prairies, both high and low. The soil on the higher was of a gravelly or light nature, while on the lower it was a dark loam, intermixed with a bluish clay. “ The prairies are at least one-third greater in extent than the forest; they were again seen carpeted WILLAMETTE VALLEY. 169 with the most luxuriant growth of flowers, of the richest tints of red, yellow, and blue, extending in places a distance of fifteen to twenty miles. The timber we saw consisted of the live and white oak, cedar, pine, and fir. “ During the whole summer both mills are idle for want of water, the stream on which they are situated being a very small one, emptying into the Willamette. We found here two good log-houses, and about twenty lay members, mechanics of the mission. There are, besides, about twenty-five Indian boys, who, I was told, were not in a condition to be visited or inspected. Those whom I saw were nearly grown up, ragged, and half-clothed, lounging about under the trees. Their appearance was any thing but pleasing and satisfactory; and I must own I was greatly disappointed, for I had been led to expect that order and neatness, at least, would have been found among them, considering the strong force of mis- sionaries engaged here. The number of Indians within the limits of this mission, are, at Nisqually, 200; Clatsop, 209 ; Chinooks, 220; Kilamukes, 400 ; Callapuyas, 600; Dalles, 250: in all this district, about 2000 Indians. This field is in part occupied by the Catholics. “The next day (9th of June), w r e started for the Yam Hi/ls, which divide the valleys of the Willamette and Faulitz. They are of but moderate elevation ; the tops are easily reached on horseback, and every part of them which I saw, was deemed susceptible of cultivation. The soil is a reddish clay, and bears few marks of any wash from the rains. These hills are clothed to the very top with grass, and afford excellent pasturage for cattle, of which many were seen feeding on them. On our route through the Yam Hills, we passed many settlers’ esta- blishments. From their top the view is not unlike that from Mount Holyoake, in Massachusetts, and the country appears as if it were as much improved by the hand of civilisation. The oak trees sprinkled over the hills and bottoms have a strong resemblance to the apple orchards. The extent of country we looked over is from twenty-five to thirty miles, all of which is capable of being brought to the highest state of cultivation. There are, in truth, few districts like that of the valley of Faulitz. This part of Willamette valley is a prolonged level of many miles in extent, circumscribed by the woods, which have the appearance of being at- tended to, and kept free from undergrowth. This is difficult to account for except through the agency of fire destroying the seeds. The Indians are in the habit of burning the country yearly, in September, for the purpose of drying and procuring the seeds of the sunflower, which they are thus enabled to gather with more ease, and which form a large portion of their food. That this is the case appears more probable from the fact, that since the whites have had possession of the country, the undergrowth is coming up rapidly in places. Of the different settlers in the valley of the Willamette, Captain Wilkes says, z 170 OREGON. “ Those of French descent appeared the most happy, contented, and comfortable; while those of Anglo-Saxon race manifested the go-a-head principle of the Ame- rican citizens. The Willamette River sometimes rises suddenly thirty feet perpendicular. He crossed the Yam Hills to the Faulitz plains. The hills on the way were co- vered with wall-flowers, lupins, and ripe strawberries. The cattle brought to this valley were originally from San Francisco ; and were increasing rapidly in numbers, no care being taken of them but driving them into the pens for security during the night. On returning down the Willamette valley, they found salt springs, to which cattle and game resort in great numbers. The inhabitants on the Willamette stated to him, that they could obtain abundance of food for the year from the pastures, and the growing of wheat being little more than one month’s labour. In fact, that they might pass in idleness at least two-thirds of the year. The climate was, however, complained of as too wet for growing In- dian corn, though excellent for pasturage. Captain Wilkes observes “In speaking of the Willamette valley, I have viewed its advantages for raising crops, pasturage of stock, and the facilities of settlers becoming rich. There is, however, one objection to its ever becoming a large settlement, in consequence of the interruption of the navigation of its rivers in the dry season ; which renders it difficult to get to a market, as well as to receive supplies. Salmon Fishery. — The salmon fishery affords abundant food at a very low price, and of excellent quality : it does not extend above the falls. He found it impossible to obtain any data to found a calculation of the quantity taken, but estimated it at 800 barrels. The finest of the salmon are those caught nearest the sea. “ The settlers and Indians,” he says, “ told us that the salmon, as they pass up the river, become poorer, and when they reach the tributaries of the Upper Columbia, they are exceedingly exhausted, and have their bodies and heads much disfigured and cut, and their tails and fins worn out by contact with the rocks. Many of the salmon, in consequence, die ; these the Indians are in the habit of drying for food, by hanging them on the limbs of trees. This is to preserve them from the wolves, and to be used in time of need, when they are devoured, though rotten and full of mag- gots. The fish of the upper waters are said to be hardly edible, and, com- pared with those caught at the mouth of the Columbia are totally different in flavour. The latter arc the richest and most delicious fish I ever recollect to have tasted ; if any thing, they were too fat to eat, and one can perceive a dif- ference even in those taken at the Willamette falls, which, however, are the best kind for salting. There are four different kinds of salmon which frequent this river in different months; the latest appears in October, and is the only one that frequents the Cowlitz river. The finest sort is a dark silvery fish, of large size, NORTHERN OREGON. 171 three or four feet long, and weighing forty or fifty pounds. There is one point which seems to be still in doubt, namely, where the spawn of this fish is de- posited. It is asserted, and generally believed, that none of the old fish ever return to the sea again. It has not been ascertained whether the young fry go to the ocean : and if they do so, whether as spawn or young fish.” On returning to Vancouver, Captain Wilkes found that Mr. Ogden, the Hudson Bay agent in the north, had arrived with his voyageurs. That gentle- man had then been thirty-two years in the territory, and possessed much infor- mation respecting it, having travelled nearly all over it. lie resides at Fort St. James, on Stuart’s lake, and has six posts under his care. The northern section of the country he represented “ as not susceptible of cultivation on account of the proximity of the Snowy Mountains, which causes sudden changes, even in the heat of summer, that would destroy the crops. His posts are amply supplied with salmon from the neighbouring rivers, which flow down into the sounds on the coast. These fish, when dried, form the greatest part of the food of those employed by the company during the whole year. Their small stores of flour, &c., are all carried up the country from Colville to Van- couver. Furs, which are more abundant in the northern region, and are pur- chased at lower prices from the Indians.” The return this year (1841), brought down by Mr. Ogden, was valued at 100,000 dollars, which he informed Captain Wilkes was much less than the usual amount. The southern section of Oregon, he was informed, scarcely repaid the expense of an outlay for a party of trap- pers. “The southern country is, however, ” says Captain Wilkes, “well adapted to the raising of cattle and sheep ; of the former many have been introduced by parties, which trap on their way thither, and return with cattle. Although there were but a few heads of them four or five years before, in 1841 there were up- wards of 10,000. The whole country is particularly adapted to grazing, which, together with the mildness of the climate must cause this region to become, in a short time, one of the best stocked countries in the w r orld. The price of cattle may be quoted at ten dollars a head ; but those that are broken in for labour, or milch cows, command a higher price; and in some places in the Willamette valley, they have been sold for the enormous price of eighty dollars. Every endeavour is made to keep the price of cattle up, as labour is usually paid for in stock. The price of labour for a mechanic may be set down at from two dollars and a half to three dollars a day; and there is much difficulty to procure them even at that rate. The wages for a common labourer is one dollar per day. The price of wheat is fixed at sixty-two cents and a half (about 2s. 6d.) per bushel, by the company, for which any thing but spirits may be drawn from the stores, at the low advance of fifty per cent on the London cost. This is supposed, all things taken into consideration, to be equal to one dollar and twelve cents per bushel ; but it is difficult for the settlers so to understand it, and they are by no z 2 172 OREGON. means satisfied with the rate. There is a description of currency in the country called beaver money ; which seems to he among the whites what blankets are among the Indians. The value of the currency may be estimated from the fact, that a beaver skin represents about two dollars throughout the territory.” The riverColumbia between the Cascades and the Dulles, a distance of forty miles, has no rapids, and is navigable for vessels drawing twelve feet of water. It flows through high rocky banks of basalt. The missionaries informed Mr. Drayton, that the salmon fishery at the Dalles lasted six months, and that sturgeon are taken during the greater part of the year. The Dalles is appropriately called the Billingsgate of Oregon. The diversity of dress among the men was greater even than in the crowds of natives which Captain Wilkes saw at the Polynesian islands ; but, he says, they lack the decency and care of their persons which the islanders exhibit. The women also go nearly naked, for they wear little else than what may be termed a breech-cloth of buck-skin, which is black and filthy with dirt; and some have a part of a blanket. The children go entirely naked, the boys wearing nothing but a small string round their body. It is only necessary to say that some forty or fifty live in a tempo- rary hut, twenty feet by twelve, constructed of poles, mats, and cedar bark, to give an idea of the degree of their civilisation. “The men are engaged in fishing, and do nothing else. On the women falls all the work of skinning, cleaning, and drying the fish for their winter stores. As soon as the fish are caught, they are laid for a few hours on the rocks, in the hot sun, which permits the skins to be taken off with greater ease ; the flesh is then stripped off the bones, mashed and pounded as fine as possible ; it is then spread out on mats, and placed upon frames to dry in the sun and wind, which effectually cures it; indeed, it is said, that meat of any kind dried in this climate never becomes putrid. Three or four days are sufficient to dry a large matful, four inches deep. The cured fish is then pounded into a long basket which will contain about eighty pounds; put up in this way, if kept dry, it will keep for three years. During the fishing season the Indians live entirely on the heads, hearts, and offal of the salmon, which they string on sticks, and roast over a small fire. The fishing is conducted very much in the same manner as at Willamette falls, except that there is no necessity for planks to stand on, as there are great con- veniences at the Dalles for pursuing this fishery. They use hooks and spears attached to long poles: both the hook and the spear are made to unship readily, and are attached to the pole by a line four feet below its upper end. If the hook were made permanently fast to the end of the pole, it would be liable to break, and the large fish would be much more difficult to take. The Indians are seen standing along the walls of the canals in great numbers, fishing, and it is not un- common for them to take from twenty to twenty-five salmon in an hour. When NORTHERN OREGON. 173 the river is at its greatest height, the water is about three feet below the top of the bank. The Dalles is one of the most remarkable places upon the Columbia. The river is here compressed into a narrow channel, 300 feet wide, and half a mile long ; the walls are perpendicular, flat on the top, and composed of basalt; the river forms an elbow, being situated in an amphitheatre, extending several miles to the north-west, and closed in by a high basaltic wall. From appearances, one is led to conclude, that in former times the river made a straight course over the whole ; but having the channel deeper, is now confined within the present limits. Mr. Drayton, on inquiry of an old Indian, through Mr. Ogden, learned that he be- lieved, that in the time of his forefathers they went up straight in their canoes. Besides the main channel, there are four or five other small canals, through which the water passes when the river is high : these are but a few feet across. The river falls about fifty feet in the distance of two miles, and the greatest rise between high and low water mark is sixty feet. This great rise is caused by the accumulation of water in the river above, which is dammed by this narrow pass, and is constantly increasing until it backs the waters, and overflows many low grounds and islands above. A tremendous roar is constantly heard, caused by the violence of the river and its whirlpools and eddies. The officers of the company have but little time allow'ed them to attend to their comforts ; so completely are they under the control of accident, that they are liable to be called upon at any moment. Their rights, however, are looked to as much as possible, and the great principle adopted as the incentive to ac- tion, is the advancement they may obtain by their own merit, through which alone they can get forward. In consequence of adhering to this principle, the Hudson’s Bay Company are always well served. The discipline that is preserved is the very best, and sits lightly upon all. Those who do not meet w'ith advance- ment, have some great fault in a trader’s eye. The enterprise and energy required to serve this company well, is of no ordinary kind, and few' men exhibit more of both these qualities than those I met with in its employ. The number of Indians within the Dalles mission is reckoned at about 2000 ; in but few of these, however, has any symptom of reform shown itself. They frequent the three great salmon fisheries of the Columbia; the Dalles, Cascades, and Chutes, and a few were found at a salmon fishery about twenty-five miles up the Chutes river. The season for fishing for salmon, which is the chief article of food in this country, lasts during five months, from May to September. The country also furnishes quantities of berries, nuts, roots, and game, chiefly of bears, elk, and deer; but owing to the improvidence of the native inhabitants, they are, notwith- standing this ample source of food, often on the verge of starvation. After the fishing and trading season is over, they retire to their villages, and 174 OREGON. pass the rest of the year in inactivity, consuming the food supplied by the labours of the preceding summer ; and as the season for fishing comes round, they again resort to the fisheries. The country about the Dalles is broken, and the missionaries report that this is the case for some miles around. There are, however, some plains and table lands, which are considered as very fertile, being well watered with springs and small streams ; affording abundant grazing, and well supplied with timber — oak and pine. The soil varies in quality, and portions of it are very rich. Garden vegetables succeed, but require irrigation. Potatoes also must be wa- tered, by which mode of culture they succeed well. Corn and peas can be raised in sufficient quantities. The produce of wheat is about twenty-five bushels to the acre: this is not, however, on the best land. They sow in October and March, and harvest begins towards the end of June. The climate is considered healthy; the atmosphere is dry, and there are no dews. From May till November but little rain falls, but in winter they have much rain and snow. The cold is seldom great, although during the winter preceding our arrival, the thermometer fell to 18 deg. Fahrenheit. The greatest heat experienced in the summer was 100 deg. in the shade ; but even after the hottest days, the nights are cool and pleasant. At daylight on the 3rd of July, the goods were all embarked. When the party reached the Chutes : a portage over which they carried their goods fora quarter of a mile, and in an hour and a half they were again on their way above these rapids. During very high water, the fall, whence the place takes its name, is not visible, but when it is low, there is a fall of ten feet perpendicular, that occupies nearly the whole breadth of the river. It is impossible to pass this fall at low water ; but when the river is swollen, boats shoot it with ease and safety. The Columbia, from the Chutes as far as John Day’s River, is filled with rocks, which occasion dangerous rapids. The boats were, in consequence, tracked for the whole distance. After passing the Dalles, an entirely new description of country is entered. The line of wood extends no further. The last tree stands on the south side of the river, about six miles above the Dalles. The woods terminate at about the same distance from the coast in all parts of this region south of the parallel of 48 deg. north. The country between these places is decidedly volcanic, and the banks on either side of the river are rocky and high. In this part of the country it is very hot when there is no wind. Mr. Drayton had no thermometer, and therefore was unable to ascertain the exact degree of heat — but any metallic substance exposed to the sun for a short time, became so hot, as not to be held in the hand without suffering, and the men were nearly exhausted with the oppressive heat. John Day’s River falls into the Columbia from the south. It abounds with NORTHERN OREGON. 175 salmon, and, to catch which, the Indians resort to it, and erect temporary lodges during the salmon season. This part of Oregon is described as a rocky region, with vast quantities of fine sand, brought down the freshets of the river, and deposited, where the Indian or trading encampments are made. When proceeding up and down the Columbia, these sand-banks become in summer exceedingly dry and hot. Few places can be more uncomfortable to encamp upon. A basaltic wall rises 900 or 1000 feet within 200 yards of the encampment, and reflects the sun’s rays down upon the white sand-beach, the heated atmos- phere becomes, in consequence, almost insupportable ; the rocks, an hour after the sun had set, were found too hot to sit upon. At the time of encamping they had a rattlesnake hunt, and several large ones were killed. The party proceeded upwards the next morning with the rising sun, a breeze carried them onwards, and about eight miles above their encampment, they came to the Hieroglyphic Rocks, upon which are supposed to be recorded the deeds of some former tribe. Above John Day’s River, the country becomes much lower, more arid, and the stream of the Columbia less rapid. The weather continued exceedingly hot, and islands, or dry banks in the river, were passed, composed entirely of drifted sand. At the long reach, below Grand Island, the country is sandy and flat up to the Grand Rapid Hills. Proceeding up the long reach, the voyageurs exchanged the pole for the tow- line and oar, and the Indians being no longer wanted, were discharged. The distance ascended this day, aided by the breeze, was fifty-seven miles ; the previous day the progress was only sixteen miles. While passing close along the banks, numerous pintailed grouse were so tame as to allow the boats to ap- proach within a few yards. All along the Columbia, from the Dalles upwards, there was only one tree seen growing, and, except a log or trunk drifting down occasionally, nothing larger than a splinter of wood was seen. The wood used for cooking was brought there by the Indians, who would follow the party for miles with a long pole, or a billet of wood, which they exchanged for a small piece of tobacco. The Indians also sold the party several large hares of extremely fine flavour. The country upwards continued to be, as far as could be seen, on both sides of the Columbia, a barren and sterile waste, covered with white sand, mixed with pebbles, producing nothing but a little grass, some hard wood, and a species of small cactus, filled with long, white, hard, and sharp spines. On the 6th of July, the party reached the foot of the Grand Rapids, up which the boats were tracked. They afterwards passed along the foot of Grand Rapid Hills, which consist of basalt, lava, and scoriae. These hills rise abruptly near the river, and are fast crumbling and falling into the stream. 176 OREGON. Eighteen miles below Walla-walla, they passed the Windmill Rock, near which arise a number of basaltic peaks. On approaching Walla-walla, the scenery changes into bold grandeur. Fantastic volcanic peaks arise, either isolated or in groups. Through a pass in the river which flows rapidly through volcanic rocks, the wind rushes with great violence in summer, to restore the equilibrium in the rarified atmosphere above. About a mile and a half below the Hudson Bay Company’s fort, Nez Perce at the junction of the Willamette, the banks of the river become flat, and during floods scarcely rise above the stream. This low ground is composed of pebbles and drifting sand for several miles to the east and to the north, with little or no soil for arable purposes. It produces nothing but scattered tufts of bunch grass and wormwood. Nez Perce; or, Fort Walla-walla is about 200 feet square, and fenced in with pickets: having a gallery erected within ; along the walls, so high as to enable those inside to overlook the pickets, and observe the surrounding country. It has two bastions, one on the south-west, and the other on the north-east. On the inside are several buildings, constructed of logs and mud ; one of which is the Indian store ; the whole is covered with sand and dust, which is blown about in vast quantities. The climate in summer is very hot, and every thing about the fort seemed so dry, that it appeared that a single spark would ignite the whole, and reduce it to ashes. Mr. Ogden informed the party, that the most experienced voyageur is taken by him for the brigade as pilot, or bowman of the leading boat. This post is considered one of great trust and honour. Each other boat has also its bowman, who is considered the first officer and responsible man ; the safety of the boat in descending rapids, particularly, depends upon the bowman, and the padroon who steers the boat. They both use long and broad blade paddles ; and it is surprising how much power both possess over the direction of the boat. These men, from long training, become very expert, and acquire extraordinary self-pos- session, courage, and dexterity amidst the most frightful dangers. Their la- borious fidelity and endurance arc remarkable; for a remuneration of no more than 17/. sterling a year, pay, and the coarse fare they receive. Their food con- sists of coarse bread, made of unsifted flour or meal, dried salmon, fat (tallow), and dried peas. Captain Wilkes “ is satisfied, that no American would submit to such food ; the Canadian and Iroquois Indians use it without murmuring, except to strangers, to whom they complain much of their scanty pay and food. The discipline is strict, and of an arbitrary kind; yet they do not find fault with it.” Very few of those who embark or join the company’s service, ever leave the part of the country they have been employed in; for after the expiration of the first five years, they usually enlist for five more. This service of eight years, in WALLA-WALLA. 177 a life of so much adventure and hazard, attaches them to it, and they generally continue till they are old men; when, being married, and having children by In- dian women, they retire under the auspices of the company, to small farms, either on the Red or Columbia rivers. There is no allowance stipulated for their wives or children; but one is usually made, if they have been useful. If a man dies, leaving a family, although the company is not under any obligation to pro- vide for them, they are generally taken care of. “ The officers of the company are particularly strict in preventing its servants from deserting their wives ; and none can abandon them without much secrecy and cunning. In cases of this sort the individual is arrested, and kept under restraint, until he binds himself with se- curity, not to desert his family. The chief officers of the company hold the power of magistrates over their own people, and are bound to send fugitives or criminals back to Canada for trial, where the courts take cognizance of the offences. “The community of old voyageurs settled in Oregon, are thus constrained to keep a strict watch upon their behaviour; and although perhaps against their inclinations, are obliged to conform to the wishes of those whose employ they have left.” The brigade of voyageurs and traders under Mr. Ogden, proceeded up the Columbia to Okonagon, and the American party rode upwards of twenty miles before dark, passing over the pasture grounds of the horses belonging to the com- pany. Some months before several horses were driven by the wolves over an alluvial bank, about 100 feet in height, and killed and eaten by those voracious beasts, which are very numerous in this territory. They passed over borders of the Walla- walla, for about half a mile from its banks. As far as seen by the party, the country was green and fertile. The banks of the small tributaries falling into the Walla-walla were ofa simi- lar character. To the north and south are extensive prairies, covered with the natural hay of the country, on which the cattle feed. This natural grass grows up spontaneously and luxuriantly with the early spring rains. It is afterwards, on the ground, without cutting, actually transformed into hay by the great heat and drought of the month of July. It is not withered, but suddenly dried with its nutritious qualities retained. In this state cattle prefer it even to the young green grass of the meadows bor- dering the streams. The party visited the American mission Waiilaptu, established in 183/. There is a second missionary station, Lapwai (clear water), at the mouth of the Koos- kooskee. There was a third, Kamia, instituted about sixty miles up that liver. It was abandoned in two years as useless. The mission at Chimikaine, is about sixty miles south-east of Fort Colville, and near the river Spokane, a stream falling into the Columbia. At the first mission, Waiilaptu, the party found two houses, each of one story, 2 A 178 OREGON'. built of adobes, with mud roofs, to insure a cooler habitation in summer. Also a small saw-mill and some grist-mills, all moved by water ; a kitchen-garden in which grows all the ordinary kinds of vegetables raised in the United States, and se- veral kinds of fine melons. The wheat, some of which stood seven feet high, was nearly ripe. Indian corn grew as high as nine feet in flower. The soil in the vicinity of the small streams near the mission, u'as found to be a rich black loam, and very deep ; but the whole area fit for cultivation along these streams did not amount to more than 10,000 acres. Parts are annually overflowed by the rivers ; and the whole might, if necessary, be easily irrigated. These streams take their rise in the Blue Mountains, about forty miles east of Walla-walla, and are never known to fail. “The climate of this district,” says Captain Wilkes, “ is very dry, as it sel- dom rains for seven or eight months in the year. During the greater part of this time, the country, forty miles north and south of this strip, has an arid appearance. There are large herds of horses owned by the Indians, that find excellent pastur- age in the natural hay on its surface. There is a vast quantity and profusion of edible berries on the banks of the stream above spoken of, consisting of the ser- vice berry, two kinds of currants, whortleberry, and wild gooseberries; these the Indians gather in large quantities for their winter supplies. “ The Grande Ronde is a plain or mountain prairie, surrounded by high ba- saltic walls. This is called by the Indians ‘ Karpkarp,’ which is translated into Balm of Gilead. Its direction from Walla-walla is east-south-east, and the road to the United States passes through it. It is fifteen miles long by twelve wide, and is the place where the Cayuse, Nez Perce, and Walla-walla Indians meet to trade with the Snakes or Shoshones, for roots, skin-lodges, elk, and buffalo meat, in exchange for salmon and horses. “ The Grande Ronde is likewise resorted to for the large quantities of cam- mass-root that grows there, which constitutes a favourite food with all the In- dians. The missionaries have quite a number of cattle and horses, which require little or no attention, there being an abundance of hay and grass. The price of a good horse is twenty dollars. This district is capable of supporting a vast number of cattle. One Cayuse chief has more than 1000 horses on these feeding grounds.” The winters are described of about three months’ duration, and snow re- mains on the ground for only a short time. Grass grows all winter. Mr. Kin ley, of the Hudson Bay Company, passed from the north-w’est or Snake Indian country across the Blue Mountains in January, 1841. He found the snow on the mountains five to six feet deep and the weather intensely cold. On descending to the plains and the Grande Ronde, the following day the tempera- ture was agreeably warm ; the grass was green, and the flowers in bloom. Trees rc-appcar on the banks of the Walla-walla, chiefly poplar, willow, birch, and alder. WALLA- WALL A. 179 The poplar grows to the thickness of about two and a half feet, and to the height of about 100 feet. Captain Wilkes says little that is satisfactory of the success of the labours of the missionaries. “ The Indians wander away, and seldom continue more than three or four months in the same place. After they return from the Grande Ronde, which is in July, they remain for three or four months and then move off to the north and east to hunt buffalo. After their return from the Buffalo hunt they are again stationary for a short time.’’ The Indians have begun irrigating their arable lands, in imitation of the missionaries. There are grouse, curlew, and two kinds of hare, and some other sorts of game abound in this district. In company with Mr. Gray the partyproceeded from the Mission to the Blue Mountains. On their way they passed through large herds of horses belonging to the Cayuse Indians: the soil improved. It consisted chiefly of decomposed scoria of a reddish colour, finding luxuriant grass here in every direction ; and the grass in such places, from receiving more moisture, is more luxuriant. They ascended from the prairie up the mountain to “ the snowline,” about 5600 feet. The pine-forest extend up to this height, and the Walla-walla, with its numerous branches, could be seen wending through the plains beneath until it flowed into the Columbia River. Captain Wilkes observes, “ There seems to be a peculiarity about the climate at Walla- walla not readily to be accounted for. It has been stated above that little winter weather is experienced here, and that this mildness is owing to the hot winds of the south, which sweep along from the extensive sandy deserts existing in Upper California. This wind or simoon during the summer is held in great dread in this part of the country, for it is of a burning character that is quite overpowering. It generally comes from the south-west. In consequence of this feature of the climate there is very little vegetation near the fort, not only on account of the heat and dryness, but owing to the vast clouds of drifting sand which are frequently so great as to darken the sky. In summer it blows here constantly, and at night the winds generally amount to a gale.” A phe- nomenon is observed at the junction of the Columbia and Snake Rivers. The current of the Columbia, flowing from the north, is remarkably cold; the Snake River, flowing from the south, is warm. “This difference is perceived even at Walla-walla, for the water passing along the east shore near the fort is too warm to drink, and when they desire to have cooler water for drinking it is brought from the middle of the river by a canoe.” The crops of all descriptions of grain were good, which Captain Wilkes sup- posed to be the best criterion of the climate. The temperature of the western section throughout the year, is mild; with little extreme heat in summer, or severe cold in winter. He considered this to be owing to the constant prevalence 2 A 2 180 OREGON. of the south-westerly or ocean winds. “ It certainly is not owing to the influence of any warm stream setting along its shores. The current near the coast sets to the south east, and is of a cold temperature : it would rather tend to lessen the heats in summer than the cold in winter. There have been no observations kept by the missionaries in this lower section of the country. It is liable, from the ex- perience of our parties, to early frosts, owing to the proximity of the snowy mountains. Frosts sometimes occur in the latter part of August, which check all vegetation at that early season.” “ The climate throughout Oregon is thought to be salubrious for the white race ; and was considered so by the Indians, prior to the year 1830, when the ague and fever, or any disease resembling it, was not known to exist. The In- dians fully believe to this day that Captain Dominis introduced the disease in 1830. Since that time it has committed frightful ravages among them, not so much, perhaps, from the violence of the disease itself, as the manner in which they treat it. It was not until quite lately that they were willing to be treated after our mode, and they still in many cases prefer the incantations and practices of the medicine man.” SURVEY OF THE COLUMBIA RIVER, 1841, BY THE UNITED STATES EXPLORING EXPEDITION. The United States ship of war, Peacock, having been totally wrecked in attempting to enter the Columbia, Captain Wilkes afterwards fitted out the boats of that vessel, fully manned, with all the requisites for surveying duties and with an officer commanding each boat, in order to make a complete survey of that river. The operations were attended with more than ordinary difficulties. They encamped the first night on a small sandy island in the centre of the bay, where their position was rendered uncomfortable by the sand which was drifted about by the wind. In the morning they were enveloped in a thick fog, and as the water of the Columbia was not fresh as low down as this point, they had to send a party for fresh water to Baker’s Bay. Captain Wilkes describes the tide as exceedingly strong, and having some apprehensions that the boats might lose their way, he thought it better to make for the Chinook shore, and follow it until they reached the Cape. “ It may seem strange,” he says, “ that this precaution should be taken, but it is necessary at all times, even in clear weather ; for the tide is frequently so strong, that it cannot be stemmed by oars, and too much caution cannot be ob- served in passing across the bay. As little frequented as it is, many accidents have occurred to boats and canoes, by their being swept by the tide into the breakers on the bar, where all hands have perished. The Indians are very cau- SURVEY OF THE COLUMBIA RIVER. 181 tious, and it is only at certain times of the tide they will attempt to make the passage. We reached Baker’s Bay in two hours, and formed our encampment — and here we determined to remain until the weather should become clear, and allow us to proceed with our duties.” During the occupation of Astoria by the expedition, Captain Wilkes observes, “the place became quite civilised looking, in comparison to what it was on my first arrival, and a mart for all the commodities of the country. Besides our own men, there were many Indians to be seen lounging and moving about, seeking em- ployment, or with some small articles to sell. “ Short excursions were made by many of us in the vicinity, and one of these was to visit the primeval forest of pines in the rear of Astoria, a sight well worth seeing. The soil on which this timber grows is rich and fertile, but the obstacles to the agriculturist are almost insuperable. The largest tree was thirty-nine feet six inches in circumference, eight feet above the ground, and had a bark eleven inches thick. The height could not be ascertained, but it was thought to be upwards of two hundred and fifty feet high, and the tree was perfectly straight.” When the Peacock was wrecked, the Kilamukes, Clatsops, and Chinooks were collected in the neighbourhood, it being the season of the fishery : many of these came with their families, and took up their abode near Astoria. They generally had for sale salmon, venison, sturgeon, moccassins, and mats. When the crew first landed, eight or ten salmon might be bought for a cotton shirt, or its value in red or green baize ; but the Indians soon found that higher prices might be obtained for the asking, and before the departure of the expedi- tion from the Columbia River, the price was enhanced one-half. Having completed all the arrangements, and the weather becoming fine, on the 16 th Captain Wilkes resumed the survey. The stations being established, and the triangulation completed, the tender, with two boats, was left to sound the bay outwards, while the remaining part of the force proceeded up the river, to continue the surveys in company with the vessels, Porpoise and Oregon (the latter purchased to replace the Peacock). Captain Wilkes found it necessary that both vessels should proceed up to Vancouver, in order to insure a more thorough outfit for the Oregon, and to afford the officers and men quarters at night to protect them during the sickly season that was approaching, and of which he had received very unfavourable accounts. On the 18 th of August, Captain Wilkes left Astoria, with the Porpoise and Oregon and anchored at Tongue Point, previously to crossing thence to the op- posite side of the river, through the crooked channel, which was then believed to be the only passage by which a vessel of any class could ascend the stream.* * A channel which he afterwards discovered leads directly upwards from Tongue Point, and affords every desirable facility for the navigation within the Columbia River. 182 OREGON. “ On the 19th the vessels attempted to pass through this channel, but on en- tering it they both took the ground. The tide was at its full height, and soon began to fall, when the Porpoise began to heel over, until she fell on her beam- ends. We were in hopes that the night-tide would be sufficient to float her off, but we found its rise less by nearly a foot than that of the day : it therefore be- came necessary to make extraordinary exertions to prepare for the next day’s tide, by buoying her up with casks.” They finally succeeded in getting her off, and ran up the river a few miles, and anchored below the Pillar Rock, opposite Waikaikum : a large lodge, picketted around with planks belonging to a chief named Skamakewea. The next morning, in proceeding up the river to carry on the survey, one of the small boats in tow of the Porpoise was, through the negligence of her crew, capsized. Every thing in her, except her oars, was lost, and the accident caused much detention. In the afternoon they reached Katalamet Point, and anchored at the lower end of Puget Island, where they passed the next day (Sunday.) On Monday he re- sumed the surveying, and reached Oak Point, where the river takes a turn to the southward and eastward. Just before reaching Walker’s Island, the Porpoise ran aground, from the pilot mistaking his marks, but they got her soon afloat. In the evening of the next day, they ascended to Mount Coffin, at the mouth of the Cowlitz. This mount afforded a favourable point for astronomical observa- tions, being 710 feet high, and quite isolated. The canoes used by the Indians as coffins are hung up in every direction, in all stages of decay. They were suspended between trees, at the height of four or five feet above the ground, and about them were hung the utensils that had belonged to the deceased, or that had been offered as tokens of respect. Captain Wilkes remained the whole day on the top of the mount, and ob- tained a full set of observations, the sky being remarkably clear. An untoward circumstance happened at this place. “ Here,” says Captain Wilkes, “my boat’s crew carelessly omitted to extinguish the fire they had used for cooking our dinner, and as we were putting off to the brig, I regretted to see that the fire had spread, and was enveloping the whole area of the mount, but there was no help for it. The fire continued to rage throughout the night, until the whole was burnt (viz., all the wood, canoes or coffins, with the dead bodies). I took the earliest opportunity of explaining to the Indians, who were in the neighbourhood, that the fire was accidental, and after receiving a few small presents, they appeared satisfied that it was so, But a few years earlier, the consequence of such care- lessness would have been a hostile attack, that might have involved us in diffi- culty of no ordinary kind. We had a minor punishment to undergo, for the smoke was so great, that it enveloped all the signals towards the mouth of the river, and made it necessary for me to anchor within sight of Mount Coffin till the next morning.” EXPLORATION OF OREGON. 183 Before reaching the mouth of the Willamette, better known here as the Wapautoo Branch, a long flat extends across the river, where Captain Wilkes was again unfortunately detained a few hours, by getting aground. Warriors Point, the locality where a Mr.Wyeth proposed to erect his great city of the west, was passed, and on the 28tli, at sunset, the Porpoise and Oregon anchored off Vancouver. Sir George Simpson, governor of the Hudson Bay Company had, at the time, arrived overland from Canada on a tour of inspection, and on his way to visit the Russian settlement at Sitka. The Columbia river was now greatly diminished from its swollen state during the flood season, May and June. The stream had fallen, and was confined within its narrowest limits, and was nineteen feet below high flood mark. The Indians were encamped on the strands, over which the waters from the mountains had rolled in with irresistible force. Vancouver exhibited the aspect of an extensive farming establishment : the granaries, corn-stacks, showed the signs of an early and plentiful harvest. While at Vancouver, Captain Wilkes was engaged in making astronomic and magnetic observations. The former gave its position in longitude 129 deg. 39 min. 34.6 min. west, and latitude 45 deg. 36 min. 33 sec. north. On the 1st of September, Messrs. Eld and Colvocoressis, midshipmen, with Mr. Brackenridge and party arrived from their detached expedition and orders were given to them to explore the region through the Chickeeles country to Gray’s Harbour, and afterwards to join Lieutenant Emmon’s party on the Willa- mette, and for both to proceed by that route to California. They left Nisqually on the 19th of July, and proceeded towards one of the south-west arms of Puget Sound in two wretched canoes. On the same evening they all arrived within a short distance of the portage ; and the next morning Mr. Colvocoressis went to an old squaw chief, who had promised at Nisqually to be their guide to the Sachal River, and to furnish horses and men to cross the portage. The portage was easily accomplished : it passes through a forest of lofty spruce and maple trees, with an undergrowth of common hazel and spiroea ; its length was four miles. The soil was composed of a shallow, black, sandy, vege- table earth. On the 31st, after passing two bends of the river, the cape on the south en- trance to Gray’s Harbour was observed. They met the flood-tide, which was so very strong that they made but slow progress, and as they opened out the har- bour and entered it, they found a strong south-west wind blowing, with an abrupt and difficult sea, in which their canoe was nearly swamped, and which compelled them to make the lee-shore. The tract of land bordering on the Chickeeles, below the mouth of the Sachap, was found well adapted for agriculture. The spruce forest extends down to the 184 OREGON. water’s edge, except in a few places around the harbour, where there are patches of salt-marsh, which produce coarse grasses and cat’s-tail (ti/pha). The salt- creeks, or ravines, into which the tide flows through the marshes, are generally tortuous ; and the meadows are occasionally overflowed at spring-tides. The only piece of land at Gray’s Harbour which appeared suitable for cultivation, was immediately within the south head ; but this is of small extent. The coast, as far as Cape Shoalwater, is no more than a smooth sandy beach, which rises in a gentle acclivity to a line of low sand-hills. Gray’s Harbour seems to offer but few facilities for maritime purposes. The entrance is narrow, the width being from one half to two-thirds of a mile, with dangerous breakers on both sides. The depth of water is from five to seven fathoms. After entering, the bay is extensive, but the greater part is filled up with mud flats, which are bare at low water, and confines the harbour suitable for the anchorage of vessels to an insignificant limit. The river Chickeeles, before flowing into the harbour, increases in breadth to several hundred feet, and is navigable for vessels drawing twelve feet water eight miles above its mouth. The harbour is only suitable for vessels of from 100 to 200 tons ; and there are places where such vessels may find security between the mud-shoals some dis- tance within the capes. The tides are irregular, and influenced by the winds and weather; the time of high water at full and change v\as found to be 11 h. 30 min. Fogs prevail on the coast during the summer-season. The party remained at this place for twenty-three days, three- fourths of which time it blew a strong gale from either the south-west or north-west, accompanied with a dense fog, that rendered it impossible to see further than half a mile. The Indians in this portion of the country are not numerous. The region at the head of Puget Sound is inhabited by a tribe called the Toundos, whose number Mr. Eld was unable to learn. This tribe lives principally on salmon, which are of excellent quality, and which they take during the season in vast quantities, in the Columbia. On the Chickeeles, and in its branches there are several fishing weirs and stakes. Stur- geon are also taken in great numbers. From the circumstance of the party seldom receiving any venison from the Indians, or meeting with any, it was inferred there is but little game in this part of the country. The party shot a few grouse, and some wild geese were seen, and the mud- flats were covered with white gulls in immense numbers, among which were a few pelicans. On the 24th August, the expedition left Gray’s Harbour, after having, by great perseverance and with much fatigue, completed the survey. Mr. Eld, in pursuance of his instructions, then proceeded to trace the coast around Cape Disappoint- SURVEY OF THE COLUMBIA RIVER. 185 ment. The Indians whom he had hired to take the canoe around by water, preferred to pass close along the beach, inside the surf, by tracking the canoe : notwithstanding there was a heavy surf, they managed to pass along very quickly. This is the mode they always adopt in journeying along the coast with their canoes, to avoid accident from the heavy surf, which they greatly dread. The evening of the day on which they left Gray’s Harbour, they reached a small islet, distant fifteen miles from Cape Shoalwater, where they found the lodge of the Chickeeles chief, who supplied them with dried sal- mon, &c. The coast between Gray’s Harbour and Cape Shoalwater is bordered by sand-hills, behind which, from the description given by the Indians, there are lagoons and streams of fresh water, in which plenty of beaver are found. From this chief they hired another canoe, and accompanied by him they pro- ceeded through Shoalwater Bay towards Cape Disappointment. The two canoes separated, which caused them to pass over the two portages between Shoalwater and Baker’s Bay; that to the east is about four miles and a half in length, while that to the west is six or seven miles across. The former is usually preferred by the Indians, and is one of the main passes of communication between the different tribes on the sea- coast. The woods through which they passed were of spruce- trees, some of which were of large dimensions. The lesser plants were principally vaccinium, ledums, and some candleberry-bushes ( myrica ). On the 27th, they reached the Flying-Fish, then in Baker’s Bay, and w r ere taken over to Astoria. Hood’s Canal; along, well-sheltered inlet, and a principal arm of Admiralty Inlet, was also surveyed by another exploring party. It forms within two branches. The banks are about 100 feet high, and further upwards, rocky in some parts, and wooded ; and in others, the soil fertile ; but there are no very extensive cultivable tracts. It was formerly examined by Vancouver, but it extends ten miles further than his survey, and approaches eastward to within two miles and a half of Puget Sound ; and at the southern extremity there is a large inlet, from which the Indians pass to the Columbia and to Chickeeles River. The water in the middle of this sound is too deep for anchorage ; but it affords several good har- bours: streams of good fresh water flow into the latter. At the Observatory at Niscjually, the height of Mount Rainer was found to be, by trigonometrical measurement, 12,330 feet. Around Nisqually, there are beautiful rides, and the prairie ground in its natural state will admit carriages being drawn over it for several miles around the fort. The cattle are penned up at night to save them from the wolves. Having completed the surveys of the numerous branches of Puget’s Sound, they were all found to afford good harbours for the largest ships. The lands are generally low near the shore, and covered with trees, chiefly pines, besides other 2 B 186 OREGON. trees, as spruce, oaks, arbutus, &c. Beautiful flowers, decked the prairies and banks. The soil, in some places, good, in others light and sandy. At the heads of all the branches, there are mud flats and salt marshes. The spring tides in the sound, at Nisqually, rise about eighteen feet, the neap-tides about twelve feet. He considers Nisqually ill chosen, on account of the high banks and confined anchorage for a commercial town. The country around the inlets are considered very healthy. The Indians around the plain are addicted to stealing, lazy, and dirty; they live on fish and clams, which are abundant. Shoals of young herrings appear during the salmon-fishery. The former are used as bait to take the latter. A species of rock bird was found abundant, and some so large as to weigh fifty pounds. Captain Wilkes then observes, “ The surveying parties having returned, on the 14th of September, we took leave of Vancouver. After proceeding down to the mouth of the Willamette, we anchored for the purpose of finishing the soundings, and making an examination of the channels into which the river is here divided by a few islands. This work being completed, we dropped down several miles, to overtake the sounding parties. Here we were a good deal annoyed from the burning of the prairies by the Indians, which filled the atmosphere with a dense smoke, and gave the sun the appearance of being viewed through a smoked glass. We were, fortunately, in a great degree, independent of it, as it was not necessary to see more than a short distance to discover the signals for the soundings. It, however, prevented me from verifying my astronomical stations, which I was desirous of doing.” On the 20th, Captain Wilkes descended the Columbia, and anchored again off Coffin Rock, near which he found a depth of twenty-five fathoms, which is the deepest water within the capes and bar of the entrance. This place is sixty miles from the mouth of the river, and eight miles above the confluence of the Cowlitz. The shores here are composed of trap and a conglomerate, the last of which is the same rock as that which occurs below. The Coffin Rock, which is not more than sixty feet in diameter, and twelve feet above the water appears to have been exclusively reserved for the burial of the chiefs. Dr. Holmes procured here some fine specimens of flat-head skulls. Captain Wilkes anchored the same evening off the Cowlitz ; and early the next morning, proceeded up the Cowlitz in his gig, in order to finish the survey of that stream, and examine the strata of coal said to exist there. After entering it, it was with difficulty that he recognised the river, for there is greater difference than even in the Columbia, between its high and low floods. After passing up the Cowlitz several miles, he encountered rapids, through which it was necessary to drag the boat by a line. He found, after great exertion and fatigue, that he could not ascend beyond thirteen miles; for it had become so shallow that the boat would not float, and they had not strength enough to force her over the wide bars of gravel and sand, that had apparently accumulated SURVEY OF THE COLUMBIA RIVER. 187 during the previous spring. Some specimens of lignite were found embedded in the alluvial banks, and taking observations for time, he turned back. Feeling anxious to reach the brig at an early hour, he ventured to shoot one of the rapids. In doing this they all had a narrow escape ; and particularly two of the boat’s crew, who were in great danger of their lives. They fortunately escaped, but with considerable damage to the boat and a few bruises, the whole of which was the work of an instant. The Cowlitz is not navigable, except at high water during the spring and fall ; and even then it is difficult to ascend, on account of the strength of its current. Having reached the influence of the tide below Oak Point, all fears of the ague and fever vanished. On the 26th they reached Katalamet Point, the lower end of Puget Island. The brig passed down the usual channel on the south side, while Captain Wilkes surveyed the northern passage. The latter is about four miles in length. Puget Island affords no land fit for cultivation, and during the season of freshets is overflowed. It is fringed around its borders with cotton wood, willow, pine, and hazel, &c., but it may be considered valueless. On the 29th of September they descended to the Pillar Rock, and on the 3rd of October passed through the Tongue Point channel. Before doing this, Cap- tain Wilkes took the precaution to buoy it out, and then towed the vessel through at high water. This enabled him to lay down its tortuous course with accuracy, although he was aware that there is little probability of its remaining over the season without some material change. The new and direct channel discovered by them, leading up from Tongue Point, will, he thinks, supersede the necessity of using the old channel ; and the new, from its direct course is more likely to be permanent ; but he says the channels in this river will be always more or less subject to change, from the impediments the large trees drifting down cause, when they ground on the shoals. The same evening they anchored about two miles above Astoria, and in order to lose no time, he proceeded there in his boat to make arrangements for getting off the stores, and embarking every thing previous to his departure from Oregon. The Porpoise anchored at Astoria, and all were engaged in expediting the embarkation of stores on board of both vessels : the officers were detained temporarily to the Oregon, whilst the necessary observations for the chro- nometers and magnetisms were made. It now became important that the two larger vessels should be got to sea as early as possible. They, in conse- quence proceeded on the 2nd to Baker’s Bay, whilst the boats were still em- ployed under Lieutenant De Haven in taking soundings. Acting-master Knox and Midshipman Reynolds were ordered to the Porpoise and Oregon for the purpose of piloting them to sea when the earliest opportunity should serve. In Baker’s Bay they found that the company’s schooner, the Cadborough, had been waiting there three weeks for an opportunity to get over the bar. As the Peacock’s launch could not be taken away, although he at one time 2 B 2 188 OREGON. had intended to send her along the coast to San Francisco, Captain Wilkes found that the weather and advanced state of the season would have rendered such a voyage dangerous. He consequently provided her with every essential to fit her to be used as a pilot boat at the mouth of the river, or, for the relief of vessels in distress; and he wrote to Dr. M c Laughlin, placing the launch at his disposal, under the supervision of the company’s officers for the above purposes. On the 5th the prospect of passing the bar was favourable, and at 2 h. 30 m. p. m. the company's bark Columbia — which had been lying off and on for the week, having just returned from the northern posts — entered, and proceeded up the river to Astoria. At 3 h. 30 m. the exploring vessels got under way, and in an hour afterwards passed the bar in safety. The Cadborough followed and went to sea also. Her master had strong mis- givings as to undertaking the risk at so late an hour both of the day and tide. The vessels of the Hudson Bay Company never attempt to pass either in or out un- less the opportunity is such as will warrant the master in making the attempt. They consider that there is sufficient risk at the best of times, and are unwilling to increase it. Captain Wilkes says, “ the Columbia is impracticable for two- thirds of the year. This arises from the fact that it can never be entered at night, and in the day only at particular times of the tide and direction of the wind. Unlike all known ports, it requires both the tide and wind to be contrary to insure any degree of safety. Having succeeded in getting the brigs beyond the risk of detention, he gave them orders to await his return, and he then went on board the tender to pass again into the river, for the purpose of completing all that remained of the survey. The survey was completed on the morning of the 10th of October, when Captain Wilkes returned to Baker’s Bay, and being determined to lose no time, he made the attempt to pass the bar : though he succeeded in doing so, he says, “ I am satisfied it was at great risk; for, as I have been told is fre- quently the case, the wind failed us just at the most critical point, and rendered it doubtful if we could pass. Our situation was dangerous, and a vessel of any other class must have been wrecked. For at least twenty minutes I was in doubt whether we could effect our object; but by the use of sweeps we accomplished it, principally through the exertions of the extra men belonging to the surveying boats, whom we had on board. “ The Oregon was the only vessel in sight, and when I boarded her, I learned that they had not seen the Porpoise for three days. The next day she hove in sight, and the arrangements were soon completed. I now supplied the tender with water and other requisites, and gave Mr. Knox orders to take a few more soundings on the outside of the bar, and then proceeded along the coast as far as latitude 42 deg. north, and to examine it, and the mouth of the Umpqua. “ On the night of the 15th we parted company with the Oregon, and did not VANCOUVER’S ISLAND. 189 see her again until she arrived at San Francisco. We coasted along to the south- ward in the Porpoise. The land is high and mountainous, and may be seen at a great distance. Soundings of dark sand are obtained in from thirty to forty fathoms water, about fifteen or twenty miles from the land. “No ports exist along any part of it that are accessible to any class of vessels, even those of but very small draught of water, and the impediment that the constant and heavy surf offers along the whole coast to a landing in boats, makes this part of our territory comparatively valueless in a commercial point of view. Along a great part of it is an iron-bound shore, rising precipitately from the water. Anchorage in a few places may be had, but only in fair weather and during the fine season.” Vancouver's and Queen Charlotte's Islands . — With the exception of the descriptions of Nootka by Cook, and the surveys of Vancouver, we have little that gives us a satisfactory knowledge of the islands which extend along the north-western coast of America, south of the Russian settlements. Captain Wilkes, during the exploring expedition which he commanded, sur- veyed but a very limited portion of Vancouver’s Island, and he had little to re- mark in addition to the description by Vancouver, which, he says, applies cor- rectly at this day. Vancouver Island extends from south-east to north-west, between latitudes 48 deg. 15 min. north, and 51 deg. 30 min. north ; and longitudes 122 deg. 30 min. and 128 deg. 15 min. west. Cook, in approaching, on the 29th of March, the island in latitude 49 deg. 29 min. north, says, “ The country is full of high moun- tains, whose summits were covered with snow, but the valleys between them and the sea-coast, high as well as low, were covered to a considerable extent with high straight trees that formed a beautiful prospect, as if one vast forest.” The natives of Nootka, who traded freely with him in furs and skins, were the most expert thieves ever met with. The natives of Vancouver’s Island, and especially those of Nootka Sound, were also noted, by Vancouver, for their thievish disposition. They appear to have been, and to have continued, a ferocious, cruel race. The attack upon, and massacre of the crew of the American ship Tonquin, constitutes one of the most shocking atrocities which has occurred in the history of America. There is much timber growing on Vancouver’s Island and the lands south of 48 deg. 8 min., which border the numerous inlets within it; and some parts of this large island are described as well adapted for agriculture. But its moun- tainous and rocky districts occupy a great part of its area. Its harbours, its woods, its limited cultivable soils, its wild animals, and its fisheries, with those of the adjacent coast, and with Queen Charlotte’s Island, and several other islands, and the coast northward, may, at some distant period, afford sufficient advantages for occupation and settlement. But as far as all the descriptions which we have of the islands and regions of the north-west coast of America extend, north of about latitude 48 deg. 30 min., their value for agricultural purposes must be con- sidered as utterly insignificant. 190 OREGON. RUSSIAN-AMERICA. On the coast of North America, along Behring’s Straits, between 67 deg. and 64 deg. 10 min. of latitude, under the parallels of Lapland and Iceland, there have long been established a great number of posts or rather huts frequented by the Siberian hunters. These, from north to south, were principally at Kigiltach, Leglelachtok, Tuguten, Netschich, Tchinegriun, Chibalech, Topar, Pintepata Agulichan, Chavani, and Nugran, near Cape Rodney (Cap du Parent). The extensive region, considered under Russian dominion, is a country of islands, ice, rocks, barrens, pine, and beech forests. Its boundaries are supposed to be Dixon’s Inlet, in about latitude 54 deg. north; and, including several islands, and a narrow strip along the coast to Mount St. Elias, in latitude 60 deg. 20 min., and thence separated from British America by a line running due north, along the meridian of longitude 141 deg. west to the Arctic Sea, com- prising the whole region from that meridian west to Behring’s Straits, and in- cluding the peninsula of Aliaska and the Aleutian Islands. The following re- marks were drawn up in 1837, by an officer of the Hudson Bay Company, and in most respects apply to the present time, with the exception that the post of Bodega, on the coast of Mexico, has been sold to a Swiss adventurer, and that several Swiss and Germans have settled there. “ The Russian Fur Company’s principal establishment on the north-west coast is named ‘New Archangel,’ formerly Sitka, and situated in Norfolk Sound, in north latitude 57 min., west longitude 132 deg. 20 min. It is maintained as a regular military establishment, garrisoned by about 300 officers and men, with good natural defences, mounting sixteen short eighteen, and twelve long nine- pounders, and is the head-quarters of the governor. Captain Kaupryanoff, of the Russian army. The Russians have other establishments on the coast and islands to the northward of New Archangel, and one fort, Ross, in the Bay of Bodega, or Romanzoff, on the coast of California, situated near the entrance of the Bay of San Francisco, in latitude 37 deg. 25 min.; in all, ten establishments on the north-west coast of America. They have, moreover, twelve vessels from 100 up to 400 tons’ burden, armed with ten guns each of different calibre. All the officers and most of the people employed in their sea and land service belong to the Rus- sian army and navy; receive pay from the Russian government, and their ser- vices, while attached to the Russian Fur Company, entitle them to the advan- tages of promotion, pension, &c., in like manner as if employed on active ser- vice in the army and navy. They have, moreover, attached to these establish- ments a number of Indians of the Kodiak tribe, who are usually employed in hunting or fishing, but are under no fixed engagement, and are looked upon and considered as slaves. Their annual returns in fur are in value from 80,000/. to 100 , 000 /. ABORIGINES OF OREGON. 191 ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF OREGON. The aborigines of Oregon are, from all accounts, decreasing in numbers, and degenerating in character. They were, from the time they were first visited by Europeans, notorious thieves, and generally cruel and treacherous. Filthiness and laziness are characteristic of most of the Oregon tribes, though some are far more barbarous than others. They have adopted scarcely any of the virtues of European civilisation, nor have they imitated even their vices, with the excep- tion of the ready indulgence of drinking ardent spirits, and the use of tobacco. The former was unknown to their ancestors, and although the use of tobacco was known among the southern and eastern aborigines of America, it is doubt- ful if it was known to the nations west of the Rocky Mountains. The different tribes have their several rites, and superstitions, and barbarities. Nor does it appear that the Christian missionaries have been successful in their labours. Some tribes are far more daring and intrepid than others. The most degraded are those who live chiefly on roots, and known by the name of diggers. The boldest are those inhabiting Vancouver’s and Queen Charlotte’s Islands; and those south- ward about the opposite inlets, near the point where Sir Alexander Mackenzie, after crossing America from Canada, arrived at the waters of the Pacific. Cap- tain Wilkes gives, in his narrative, a very interesting account of the condition and number of the native inhabitants of Oregon in Texas. He says — “ I satisfied myself that the accounts given of the depopulation of this country are not exaggerated ; for places were pointed out to me where dwelt whole tribes that have been entirely swept off ; and during the time of the greatest mortality, the shores of the river were strewed with the dead and. dying. This disease, ague and fever, occurs, it is said, semi-annually, and in the case of foreigners it is more mild at each succeeding attack. “ Owing to the above causes, the population is much less than I expected to find it. I made every exertion to obtain correct information, and believe that at the time of our visit, the following was very nearly the truth, viz. : — Vancouver and Washington Island . . 5000 From latitude 50° to 54° north on the main . . . 2000 Fenn’s Cove, Whidby’s Island, including the main land (Sachet. tribe) . . . . . . 650 Hood’s Canal (Suquamish and Toando tribes) . . 500 Birch Bay . . . . . . 300 Fraser’s River ..... 500 Clalams, at Port Discovery, New Dungeness . . . 350 Port Townsend . . . . .70 Classet Tribe, Cape Flattery, and Point Grenville . . 1250 Nisqually ...... 200 Chickeeles and Puget Sound . . . . 700 192 OREGON. Port Orchard • • • .150 Cowlitz . . • • • 330 Okonagan .... 300 Colville and Spokane . . . • 450 Kilamukes ..... 400 Chinooks . • ■ • • 209 Clatsops ...... 220 Cascades . . • • . . 150 Pillar Rock, Oak Point, and Columbia River . . 300 Willamette Fall and Valley . . . . 275 Dalles . . . • .250 De Chute’s and John Day’s River . . . . 300 Yakima ...... 100 Wallawalla . . • ..1100 Blaekfeet, that dwell principally on the west side of the Rocky Mountains . . . . • 1000 Umpquas . • • • .400 Rogues’ River . . • 500 Klamets ...... 300 Shaste . . • • • 300 Callapuyas ..... 600 Total . . 19,354 “ The whole territory may therefore be considered as containing about 20,000 Indians ; and this, from a careful revision of the data obtained by myself and some of the officers, I am satisfied is rather above than under the truth. The whites and half-breds were between 700 and 800; 150 were Americans. The number of the latter has, however, increased very much since the year 1840, as many emigrants have crossed the mountains. The decrease of the red race is no doubt equivalent to the increase by immigration.” OVERLAND EXPEDITIONS FROM TIIE UNITED STATES TO OREGON AND CALIFORNIA. We have followed the United States exploring parties under Captain Wilkes, in North and South Oregon and California. To complete, or follow up, the explorations made in Oregon and California, two expeditions were fitted out, the first in 1843, the second in 1844 : both under the command of Captain Fremont of the United States Topographical Engineers. The narrative, or journal of those expeditions, is remarkably well written, and abounds in the most interesting information relative to the climate, soil, geology, and natural history generally, of the countries traversed by Captain Fremont. The object of the first expedition was to explore the regions between the Missouri River and the South Pass of the Rocky Mountains, and the territories EXPEDITION TO OREGON AND CALIFORNIA. 193 also drained by the Kansas and Great Platte Rivers. He departed from the city of Washington on the 2nd of May, 1842, and arrived at St. Louis on the 22nd, from whence Captain Fremont and his party proceeded about 400 miles to Chou- teau’s trading place, ten miles above the mouth of the Kansas in latitude 39 deg. 6 min. north, longitude 94 deg. 26 min. west, 700 feet above the level of the sea. This exploring party consisted of Captain Fremont, as commander, Mr. Preuss, a German, as assistant surveyor, Maxwell a hunter, Carson, long noted as a bold trapper in the Rocky Mountains, two youths as adventurers, and about twenty men, habituated to prairie, mountain, river, and forest life, — chiefly Canadian voyageurs and half-breds, who had been brought up in the service of the fur companies : all were Avell armed and mounted on horses. They started with eight waggons, drawn by mules carrying the luggage, — some oxen, driven along to be killed for provisions, and a few spare horses. “From the belt of wood,” says Captain Fremont, “which borders the Kansas, in which we had passed several good-looking Indian farms, we suddenly emerged on the prairies, which received us at the outset with some of their striking characteris- tics ; for here and there rode an Indian, and but a few miles distant heavy clouds of smoke were rolling before the fire. In about ten miles we reached the Santa Fe road, along which we continued for a short time, and encamped early on a small stream ; having travelled about eleven miles. During our journey, it was the customary practice to encamp an hour or two before sunset, when the carts were disposed so as to form a sort of barricade around a circle some eighty yards in diameter. The tents were pitched, and the horses hobbled and turned loose to graze; and but a few minutes elapsed before the cooks of the messes, of which there were four, were busily engaged in preparing the evening meal. At nightfall, the horses, mules, and oxen, were driven in and picketed — that is, secured by a halter, of which one end was tied to a small steel-shod picket, and driven into the ground ; the halter being twenty or thirty feet long, which enabled them to obtain a little food during the night. When we had reached a part of the country where such a precaution became necessary, the carts being regularly arranged for defending the camp, guard was mounted at eight o’clock, consisting of three men, who were relieved every two hours; the morning watch being horse guard for the day. At daybreak, the camp was roused, the animals turned loose to graze, and breakfast generally over between six and seven o’clock, when we resumed our march, making regularly a halt at noon for one or two hours. Such was usually the order of the day, except when accident of country forced a variation ; which, however, happened but rarely. We travelled next day along the Santa Fe road, which we left in the afternoon, and encamped late in the evening on a small creek called by the Indians Mishmagwi.” After a journey of extraordinary fatigue, attended frequently with severe pri- vation, Captain Fremont arrived at the ascent to the southern pass of the 2 c 194 OREGON. Rocky Mountains. The narrative of this journey is remarkably interesting. The perils of fording and ascending rivers, — the hostility of the Indian tribes, the disturbed state of the country west of the American settlements, — the buffalo herds and hunts, — the sufferings of the emigrants on their way to Oregon, — the lives of the trappers, — the account of the trading-posts, the arrangements for travelling, the exhausted state of their horses, the manner in which fresh horses and guides were procured, and the accounts of the regions travelled over, are clearly described. On the 15th of Jnly the party reached Fort Laramie. On the left bank of the river, about twenty-five feet above the water. Captain Fremont says, — “ This post belongs to the American Fur Company, and intrusted to the care of two clerks and about sixteen men. As usual, these had found wives among the Indian squaws: and with the usual accompaniment of children the place had a populous appearance. 5 ’ The object of the establishment is trade with the neigh- bouring tribes, who, in the course of the year, generally make two or three visits to the fort. In addition to this, traders, with a small outfit, are constantly kept amongst them. The articles of trade consist on the one side, almost entirely of buffalo robes ; and, on the other, of blankets, calicoes, guns, powder, and lead, with such cheap ornaments as glass beads, looking-glasses, rings, vermilion for painting, tobacco, and principally, and in spite of the prohibition, of spirits, brought into the country in the form of alcohol, and diluted with water before sold. Tne American Fur Company, throughout the country, are strenuously opposed to the introduction of spirituous liquors. “But,’ 5 says Captain Fremont, “when a keg of alcohol will purchase from an Indian every thing he possesses — his furs, his lodge, his horses, and even his wife and children — and when any vagabond, who has money enough to purchase a mule, can go into a village and trade against them successfully, without withdrawing entirely from the trade it is impossible for them to discontinue its use. In their opposition to this practice, the company is sustained, not only by their obligation to the laws of the country and the wel- fare of the Indians, but clearly also on grounds of policy; for, with heavy and expensive outfits, they contend at manifestly great disadvantage against the numerous independent and unlicensed traders, who enter the country from various avenues, from the United States and from Mexico, having no other stock in trade than some kegs of liquor, which they sell at the modest price of thirty-six dollars per gallon. The difference between the regular trader and the coureur des hois (as the French call the itinerant or peddling traders), with respect to the sale of spirits, is here, as it always has been, fixed and permanent, and growing out of the nature of their trade. The regular trader looks a-head, and has an interest in the preser- vation of the Indians, and in the regular pursuit of their business, and the preser- vation of their arms, horses, and every thing necessary to their future and perma- EXPEDITION TO OREGON AND CALIFORNIA. 195 nent success in hunting : the coureur des hois has no permanent interest, and gets what he can, and for what he can, from every Indian he meets, even at the risk of disabling him from doing any thing more at hunting.”* “ To keep open the communications,” says Captain Fremont, “ with Oregon territory, a show of military force in this country is absolutely necessary ; and a combination of advantages renders the neighbourhood of Fort Laramie the most suitable place, on the line of the Platte, for the establishment of a military post. It is connected with the mouth of the Platte and the Upper Missouri by excellent roads, which are in frequent use, and would not in any way interfere with the range of the buffalo, on which the neighbouring Indians mainly depend for sup- port. It would render any posts on the Lower Platte unnecessary, the ordinary communication between it and the Missouri being sufficient to control the inter- mediate Indians. It would operate effectually to prevent any such coalitions as are now formed among the Gros Ventres, Sioux, Cheyennes, and other Indians, and would keep the Oregon road through the valley of the Sweet Water and the South Pass of the mountains constantly open. It lies at the foot of a broken and mountainous region, along which, by the establishment of small posts in the neighbourhood of St. Vrain’s Fort, on the South Fork of the Platte, and Bent’s Fort, on the Arkansas, a line of communication would be formed, by good ivaggon roads, with our southern military posts, which would entirely command the mountain passes, hold some of the most troublesome tribes in check, and protect * Captain Fremont learned the following particulars of the condition of the country. “ For several years the Cheyennes and Sioux had gradually become more and more hostile to the whites, and in the latter part of August, 1841, had had rather a severe engagement with a party of sixty men under the command of Mr. Frapp, of St. Louis. The Indians lost eight or ten warriors, and the whites had their leader and four men killed. This fight took place on the waters of Snake River; and it was this party, on their return under Mr. Bridger, which had spread so much alarm among my people. In the course of the spring two other small parties had been cut oft' by the Sioux — one on their return from the Crow nation, and the other among the Black Hills.” The emigrants to Oregon and Mr. Bridger’s party met here a few days before Captain Fremont’s arrival. “ Divisions and misunderstandings had grown up among them ; they were already somewhat disheartened by the fatigue of their long and wearisome journey, and the feet of their cattle had become so much worn as to be scarcely able to travel. In this situation they were not likely to find encouragement in the hostile attitude of the Indians, and the new and unexpected difficulties which sprang up before them. They were told that the country was entirely swept of grass, and that few or no buffalo were to be found on their line of route; and, with their weakened animals, it would be impossible for them to transport their heavy waggons over the mountains. Under these circumstances, they disposed of their waggons and cattle at the forts ; selling them at the prices they had paid in the States, and taking in exchange coffee and sugar at one dollar a pound, and miserable worn-out horses, which died before they reached the mountains. The superintendent at Laramie purchased thirty, and at the lower fort eighty head of fine cattle, some of them of the Durham breed. Mr. Fitzpatrick, whose nameand high reputation are familiarto all who interest themselves in the history of this country, had reached Laramie in company with Mr. Bridger ; and the emigrants were fortunate enough to, obtain his services to guide them as far as the British post of Fort Hall, about 250 miles beyond the south pass of the mountains. They had started for this post on the 4th of July, and imme- diately after their departure, a war party of 350 braves set out upon their trail. As their principal chief or partisan had lost some relations in the recent fight, and had sworn to kill the first whites on his path, it was supposed that their intention was to attack the party, should a favourable oppor- tunity offer; or it foiled in their principal object, content themselves with stealing horses and cutting off stragglers.” 2 c 2 196 OREGON. and facilitate our intercourse with the neighbouring Spanish settlements. The valleys of the rivers on which they would be situated are fertile; the country, which supports immense herds of buffalo, is admirably adapted to grazing ; and herds of cattle might be maintained by the posts, or obtained from the Spanish country, which already supplies a portion of their provisions to the trading posts mentioned above ” — Narrative. To the south, along the route on the 22nd, the main chain of the Black or Laramie Hills rises precipitously upward in masses along the summits. An in- verted cone of black cloud (cumulus) rested during all the forenoon on the lofty peak of Laramie Mountain, estimated to be 6500 feet above the sea. Eastward of the meridian of Fort Laramie, the principal objects which strike the eye of a traveller are the absence of timber, and the immense expanse of prairie, covered with the verdure of rich grasses, and highly adapted for pasturage. Wherever they are not disturbed by man, large herds of buffalo give animation to this country. Westward of Laramie River, the region becomes sandy, and apparently sterile. “The prominent characteristic is the extraordinary abundance of artemisia , which grows everywhere — on the hills, and over the river bottoms, in tough, twisted, wiry clumps ; and, wherever the beaten track was left, they rendered the progress of the carts rough and slow. As the country increased in elevation on our advance to the west, they increased in size ; and the whole air is strongly impregnated and saturated with the odour of camphor and spirits of turpentine, which are combined in this plant.” “This climate,” saysCaptain Fremont, “has been found very favourable to the restoration of health, particularly in cases of con- sumption ; and possibly the respiration of air so highly impregnated with aro- matic plants may have some influence. The present year had been one of unpa- ralleled drought, and throughout the country the water had been almost dried up. The greater number of the springs, and many of the streams, which made halting-places for the voyagears had been dried up. Every where the soil looked parched and burnt; the scanty yellow grass crisped under the foot, and even the hardiest plants were destroyed by want of moisture. I think it necessary to mention this fact, because, to the rapid evaporation in such an elevated region, nearly 5000 feet above the sea, almost wholly unprotected by timber, should be attributed much of the sterile appearance of the country, in the destruction of vegetation, and the numerous saline efflorescences which covered the ground.” Before leaving the last crossing of the Platte, Captain Fremont says, “ I will endeavour to give some description of the nature of the road from Laramie to this point. The nature of the soil may be inferred from its geological formation. The limestone at the eastern limit of this section is succeeded by limestone without fossils, a great variety of sandstone, consisting principally of red sandstone and fine conglomerates. The red sandstone is argillaceous, with compact white gypsum EXPEDITION TO OREGON AND CALIFORNIA. 197 or alabaster, very beautiful. The other sandstones are grey, yellow, and ferrugi- nous, sometimes very coarse. The apparent sterility of the country must, there- fore, be sought for in other causes than the nature of the soil. The face of the country cannot, with propriety, be called hilly. It is a succession of long ridges, made by the numerous streams which come down from the neighbouring mountain range. The ridges have an undulating surface, with some such appearance as the ocean presents in an ordinary breeze. “The road which is now generally followed through this region is therefore a very good one, without any difficult ascents to overcome. The principal obstruc- tions are near the river, where the transient waters of heavy rains have made deep ravines with steep banks, which renders frequent circuits necessary. It will be remembered that waggons pass this road only once or twice a year, which is by no means sufficient to break down the stubborn roots of the innumerable arte- misia bushes. A partial absence of these is often the only indication of the track j and the roughness produced by their roots in many places gives the road the cha- racter of one newly opened in a wooded country. This is usually considered the worst part of the road east of the mountains ; and, as it passes through an open prairie region, may be much improved, so as to avoid the greater part of the ine- qualities it now presents. “ From the mouth of the Kansas to the Green River Valley, west of the Rocky Mountains, there is no such thing as a mountain road on the line of com- munication.” Before starting on the most difficult and perilous part of the journey, and which he was earnestly dissuaded, from the hostile state of the country, not to attempt. Captain Fremont says, “ Having resolved to disencumber ourselves im- mediately of every thing not absolutely necessary to our future operations, I turned directly in toward the river, and encamped on the left bank, a little above the place where our council had been held, and where a thick grove of willows offered a suitable spot for the object I had in view. “ The carts having been discharged the covers and wheels were taken off, and, with the frames, carried into some low places among the willows, and concealed in the dense foliage in such a manner that the glitter of the iron-work might not attract the observation of some straggling Indian. In the sand, which had been blown up into waves among the willows, a large hole was then dug, ten feet square and six deep. In the mean time all our effects had been spread out upon the ground, and whatever was designed to be carried along with us separated and laid aside, and the remaining part carried to the hole and care- fully covered up. As much as possible all traces of our proceedings were obli- terated, and it w'anted but a rain to render our cache safe beyond discovery. All the men were now set at w r ork to arrange the pack-saddles and make up the packs.” The best thermometer was accidentally broken at this place, which w r as 198 EXPEDITION TO OREGON AND CALIFORNIA. named Cache camp, longitude 106 deg. 38 min. 26 sec., latitude 42 deg. 50 min. 53 sec.” All the arrangements having been completed, the expedition left the encamp- ment early on the morning of the 29th of July. In a few miles they reached the Red Buttes, a famous landmark, whose geological composition is red sandstone, limestone, and calcareous sandstone and pudding-stone. Here the river cuts its way through a ridge; on the eastern side of which are the lofty escarpments of red argillaceous sandstone, called the Red Buttes. On the banks were willow and cherry-trees. The cherries were not yet ripe, but in the thickets were numerous fresh tracks of the grizzly bear, which is very fond of this fruit. Before leaving the course of the Platte, they saw numerous herds of mountain sheep, and frequently heard the rattling of stones rolling rapidly down the steep hills. This was the first place at which they had killed any of these sheep or goats (for they are called by each name). Their flesh is much esteemed by the hunters; and the horns are often three feet long and seventeen inches in circumference at the base, weighing eleven pounds. The use of these horns seems to be to protect the animal’s head in pitching down precipices to avoid the wolves — their only safety being in places where they cannot be followed. “ The bones are very strong and solid, the marrow occupy- ing but a very small portion of the bone in the leg, about the thickness of a rye- straw. The hair is short, resembling the winter colour of our common deer, which it nearly approaches in size and appearance. Except in the horns, it has no re* semblance whatever to the goat.” On leaving the course of the Platte, to cross over to the Sweet Water, they wound their way to the summit of the hills, of which the peaks are about 800 feet above the Platte, bare and rocky. On the 1st of August, the hunters went a-head, as buffalo appeared tolerably abundant, and the party moved about seven miles up the valley, and encamped one mile below Rock Independence. This is an isolated granite rock, about 650 yards long, and forty in height. “Everywhere, within six or eight feet of the ground, where the surface is sufficiently smooth, and in some places sixty or eighty feet above, the rock is inscribed with the names of travellers. Many a name famous in the history of this country, and some well known to science, are to be found mixed among those of the traders and travellers for pleasure and curiosity, and of mis- sionaries among the savages. Some of these have been washed away by the rain, but the greater number are still very legible. The position of this rock is in longi- tude 107 deg. 56 min., latitude 42 deg. 29 min. 36 sec. We remained at our camp of August 1st until noon of the next day, occupied in drying meat.” Five miles above Rock Independence they reached a place called the Devil’s Gate, where the Sweet Water cuts through a granite ridge. “The length o( the passage is about 300 yards, and the width thirty-five yards. The walls of rock are EXPEDITION TO OREGON AND CALIFORNIA. 199 vertical, and about 400 feet in height ; and the stream in the gate is almost entirely- choked up by masses which have fallen from above. In the wall, on the right bank, is a dike of trap-rock, cutting through a fine-grained grey granite. Near the point of this ridge crop out some strata of the valley formation, consisting of a greyish micaceous sandstone, and fine-grained conglomerate and marl. The country for several miles up this valley, is exceedingly picturesque. On either side of the valley, which is four or five miles broad, the mountains rise to the height of 1200 and 1500 or 2000 feet. On the south side the range appears to be timbered, and during the night of the 3rd of August, was luminous with fires — probably the work of the Indians, who had just passed through the valley. On the north, broken and granite masses rise abruptly from the green sward of the river, terminating in a line of broken summits. Except in the crevices of the rock, and here and there on a ledge or bench of the mountain, where a few hardy pines have clustered together, these are perfectly bare and destitute of vegetation.