OF THE UN IVLRSITY Of ILLINOIS \93.a Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2015 https://archive.org/details/historyofscienceOOkoon HISTORY OF SCIENCE TEACHING IN ILLINOIS BY GUY JINK KOONS A.B. UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 1912 THESIS Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS IN EDUCATION IN THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 1922 ' University of Illinois Library Manuscript Theses Unpublished theses submitted for the Master’s and Doctor’s degrees and deposited in the University of Illinois Library are open for inspection, but are to be used only with due regard to the rights of the authors. Bibliographical references may be noted, but passages may be copied only with permission of the authors, and proper credit must be given in sub- sequent written or published work. Extensive copy- ing or publication of the thesis in whole or in part requires also the consent of the Dean of the Graduate School of the University of Illinois. has been used by the igna- tures attest their acceptance or tne above restric- tions. A Library which borrows this thesis for use by its patrons is expected to secure the signature of each user. This Thesis by. DATE . mi ifflfBH " . •• •• /3 T a. 3.3 /-AP I 9 2 2 K83 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS THE GRADUATE SCHOOL ig?.? 1 HEREBY RECOMMEND THAT THE THESIS PREPARED UNDER MY SUPERVISION BY Toy. Jink Troon a . ENTITLED History of 3 o i ene e T e a c h i n g^-i-a- II 14 no i s BE ACCEPTED AS FULFILLING THIS PART OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF Ma s t er of Arts •Required for doctor’s degree but not for master’s 509399 table of contents CHAPTERS Page I. Introduction 1 II. Early Development 5 ill. Science instruction in the elementary schools 10 IV. Science teaching in the public secondary schools prior to 1892 20 V. Science teaching in the public secondary schools since 1893 "... 37 VI. Science work in the normal schools, colleges and universities . 48 VII. Organizations promoting science teaching . . 72 VIII. Conclusion gr- APPENDIXES I. Some early school advertisements 85 Courses of study in the Chicago high schools 87 III. Legislation affecting science instruction: 1. Extracts from Law of 1872 90 3. Extracts from Law of 1874 *. so 3. Physiology and hygiene in public schools, Law of 1889 . si 4. Physiology and hygiene. Law of 1897.* 92 • 1 THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE TEACHING IN ILLINOIS I. INTRODUCTION The teaching of science has had an interesting and an important place in the development of the school system of Illi- nois. State Superintendent John F. Brooks in a statement pub- lished in 1864 said that the teachers of the state were "in a special manner characterized" by being "active, energetic, vig- orous and progressive men." He further said that "No improve- ment in educational methods has ever been rejected by Illinois Schoolmasters because of selfish jealousy, or a blind attachment to ancient ways. They have been ready at all times to extend a cordial welcome to every new truth that has been proclaimed by the pioneers in educational progress, to encourage and applaud every step in advance."^ These characteristics of the early educational leaders of the state probably account for the fact that while the development of science instruction in Illinois on the whole reflected nation-wide movements there were times when these movements "went further here than elsewhere." Beginning with the introduction of astronomy and natural philosophy in the earliest schools, by slow and gradual steps we find chemistry, botany, physiology, physical geography, and gen- eral science added and the present courses in scientific subjects finally evolved. In most communities in the state science te&ch- 1. Brooks, Manual of Instruction, n. 123. 2 ing began by the teaching of natural philosophy as an advanced subject in a private school or in one of the early free schools. The sciences were first introduced into the schools of the state because of their interesting and practical nature and not because of any downward pressure exerted by the colleges through their entrance requirements. One finds but little con- cerning entrance requirements in the early discussions of educa- tional problems of the state. In fact, Illinois, because of its geographical situation and early pioneer conditions, was freer from the restrictions imposed by traditions and college entrance requirements than many of the eastern states. In the descrip- tions of the early private academies and public high schools it is seldom that mention is made of the fact that these schools prepared their pupils to enter college. Interesting and practi- cal subjects appealed most strongly to the early pioneer settlers of Illinois. In more recent years, however, the colleges and uni- versities, through their entrance requirements, have done much to standardize and improve the high schools of the state. Previous to the organization of high schools in the more thickly settled communities classes in so-called advanced subjects were taught in the early private or free schools. The natural sciences taught among these advanced subjects became a part of the curriculums of the early high schools after they were established. These high schools were established through local initiative and were in no way encouraged or directed by legislative enactment. The only legal justification for their existence as public schools was a broad interpretation by the State Supreme Court of the Act to Establish and Maintain a System of Free Schools. yhey held ' . . :j. ■ . • •• ' . . . 3 that a high school education might properly he considered a part of a common school education. The selection of subjects to be taught in the high schools was consequently, up to the year 1889, left entirely to the local authorities. Since 1889 physiology and hygiene have been required by law to be taught in the high schools of the state. The natural sciences because of their strong prac- tical appeal naturally constituted an important part of the work of the early high schools. At first there was little science instruction in the elementary schools. The seven studies prescribed by law to be taught in the common schools were spelling, reading, writing, arithmetic, grammar, geography, and United States history. In the early schools but little was attempted beyond the subjects pre- scribed by lav/. In Chicago and seme of the larger centers object lessons were introduced with good results. Much elementary sci- ence instruction was secured through these object lessens. As a result of an increased interest in the natural sciences which was nation-wide the passage of a lav; was secured in 1872 which re- quired the elements of the natural sciences to be taught in the common schools of the state. The results obtained from the law were not wholly satisfactory. The sudden introduction of several new branches of study and the lack of teachers prepared to teach them probably account for the lack of permanent result s from the law. Because of the strong opposition developed the State Legis- lature in 1874 amended the law in such a way as to practically nullify its effects. The natural science instruction and object 1. Richards vs. Raymond, 92 111. 612. . . . ■ . 4 lessons gradually came to be organized under the name of nature study, and, as such, elementary science instruction has largely been carried on up to the present time. In recent years there has been a tendency to teach science facts in the upper elemen- tary grades and in the lower years of the high school as general science. In some places it is simply designated as science and in others as elementary science. / II. EARLY DEVELOPMENT Science teaching began early in the schools of Illi- nois. However, it is difficult to determine just where and when the first science instruction was given because of the scarcity of records concerning the early schools. The first mention of science instruction was found in the course of this thesis investigation in Reynolds' history of "My Own Times." He says, "In the school near my father's, the teacher was unable to instruct any of his students in the higher branches of the mathematics, or the sciences, and I made arrange- ments, with the consent of my father, that I should attend during the winter of 1806 and 1807, a good school, taught by a competent teacher. This school was situated a few miles north-east of the present city of Bellville, on the land of the present Mr. Schrea- der. I have often examined, with deep feeling, the tumuli of earth where this schoolhouse once stood. I revere and respect the site with the same feeling as the Jews in ancient times did the- city of Jerusalem. At this seminary j studied land-surveying and navigation. I attended also to reading, spelling and writing. My father procured me a surveyor's compass, and I learned both the theory and practice of surveying. My compass and mathemati- cal books I retain to this day. j studied various branches of mathematics, and the sciences, until I calculated an almanac, but it never was printed."^ The extract quoted above does not make 1. Reynolds' My Own Times, p. 59. . , . . ■ ■ ’ 6 clear just what branches of science were studied by Governor Rey- nolds in this early school. It is probable that he here refers to surveying and navigation as the term science was given a broad meaning in the early days. Astronomy is the first science of which a definite recoid was found as being offered in an early Illinois school. In the Western Intelligencer of August 26, 1816, Benjamin H. Sturges ad- vertises that he has opened a school in Prairie de Rocher and pro- poses to teach "the most useful branches of English education, viz. Writing, Reading and common Arithmetic" and also in addition to these, English grammar, geography, surveying, astronomy, and the Latin and Greek languages. 1 The advertisement here referred to is evidence that Mr. Sturges really opened the school but apparently there is no record available showing that the subjects that he proposed in the advertisement to teach were really taught. Natural philosophy was the first science taught in many communities in the state. This subject as usually taught was a sort of a general survey of the field of the physical sciences. The first definite reference to the teaching of natural philosophy was found in the Illinois Intelligencer in an advertisement by Joseph Cross dated December 9, 1818. "Mr. Cross respectfully in- forms the citizens of Kaskaskia and its vicinage, that he intends, should sufficient patronage be afforded, to open a SCHOOL in this town, for the instruction of youth, in Orthography, Orthoepy, Read- ing, Writing, English Grammar, Arithmetic, and Elocution. Scholars who graduate in these branches of tuition, will be instructed in the rudiments of History, Geography, Natural Philosophy, and Mathe- I. Western intelligencer . August 28, 1816. . . ■ . matics."! The files of the Illinois Intelligencer show that Mr. Cross rented a house from Mrs. Carey, south of the church in Kas- kaskia, and began his school about the middle of January, 1819. No record, however, was found which shows conclusively that all of the subjects mentioned in the advertisement were actually taught in the school. The Rev. J. M. Peck exerted an important influence on the early educational developments of the state. To him is entitled the credit for establishing the first school in the state to be called a high school. In 1826 he visited the eastern states to so- licit funds to be used for the establishment of a school in Illinois While his chief mission was to confer with the authorities of the Baptist church in the eastern states he evidently investigated the high schools then but recently established in Boston and in New York. On his return he delivered a lecture in the State House in Vandalia in which he explained "the mode of education practiced in- Boston, the high schools in New York, and many public and private institutions" and showed how they might be adapted to the "circum- stances in Illinois." 1 2 3 Early in 1527 he established at Rock Springs in St. Clair County a school under the name of the Rock Spring Theo- logical and High School. Two professors were selected for the school: one of Christian Theology, the other of mathematics and natural philosophy. The latter was to be "Principal of ■ the High School Department." It is interesting to note in this connection the important place accorded to natural philosophy in the first 1. Illinois Intelligencer , Jan. 13, 1819. 2. Ibid, , Dec. 18, 1826. 3. Ibid., March 24, 1827. . . . . . l H ’ . ■ 8 organization of the school. Gradually other branches of science were added to those already taught and some of the private schools and colleges provid- ed apparatus to be used in illustrating natural philosophy and chem- istry. The Hillsborough Boarding School, located at Hillsborough, advertised in the Illinois Intelligencer, January 2, 183C, that a school would scon be opened in that town for females. 1 2 Natural philosophy and astronomy were among the subjects to be taught in proposed school. Illinois College, located at Jacksonville, Illi- nois, reported in 1833 that a philosophical apparatus worth from $600 to |S00 had been procured. - ' The Vandalia Academy and Free School opened July 31, 1837, with an attendance of over one hun- dred pupils. Announcement was made that the school would soon be supplied with chemical and philosophical apparatus. Among the sub- jects mentioned as being taught were natural philosophy, chemistry, botajay^^ajid^astronomy. phis was the first record found of the teaching of chemistry or botany. 3 4 The Hillsborough Academy an- nounced, September 14, 1837, that it would soon be provided with chemical and philosophical apparatus. As in the case of the Van- dalia Academy and Free School natural philosophy, astronomy, chemis- try, and botany were mentioned among the subjects offered. The Young Ladies Academy of the Visitation, located at Kaskaskia, in an advertisement in the Illinois State Register, November 24, 1837, announced that among the subjects taught in that school were phi- losophy, chemistry, and astronomy. ^ 1. Illinois Intelligencer » Jan. 2, 183C. 2. American Journal of Education , Vol. XXVII, p. 336. 3. Stat e Register , Sept. 15, 1837. 4. Ibid. , Nov. 24, 1837. . ' . . 9 The meager records of the Illinois schools of the first half of the s ev e nteenth century indicate that no particular em- phasis was given to scientific subjects. The work was largely textbook work and taught in much the same way as the other subjects taught at that time. A very few schools were provided with ap- paratus to be used in illustrating the work as presented in the text books. . ■ 10 III. SCIENCE INSTRUCTION IN THE GRADES There was hut little science teaching in the early ele- mentary public schools of the state. In most cases the work in these schools was limited to the seven subjects prescribed by law: spelling, reading, writing, arithmetic, grammar, geography, and United States history. From time to time many suggestions were made recommending that the elements of the natural sciences should be made a part of the work of the common schools. Ninian W. Ed- wards, the first State Superintendent of Public Instruction, stated in his first report that the teachers should have a "practical ed- ucation, in which should be included not only what is commonly em- braced in the common school course, but a practical knowledge of the sciences in their application to the ordinary pursuits of life'.’ The State Superintendent in his report for 1867-1868 presents with his approval a course of science instruction prepared for the schools of Aurora. 1 This course suggests work on the human body, animals and plants for the primary, intermediate, and high school departments. Particular attention is called to the fact that in the primary grades the exercises are short and "full of vivacity." There is no attempt in the primary department to teach science as science. Object lessons were early introduced into the Chicago schools and also in some of the larger city schools of the state. 1. State Superintendent’s Report, 1867-68, p. 3S7, . . it . ■ 11 In 1859 according to the report of the Superintendent of the Chi- cago Schools many of the primary teachers had already introduced "this class of exercises very successfully into their course of instruction."^ In his opinion "no form of instruction is better adapted to the Primary room, than that which is usually denomina- ted 'object lessons'. These lessons admit of endless variety in their appplication to the objects of common life, and furnish the happiest and most certain means of imparting useful knowledge. They educate the perceptive faculties of the pupil, develop his common sense, cultivate habits of careful observation and reflec- tion, and give a more ready command of language than can be ac- quired by any other means." About this time object lessons under the name of the "Oswego Plan" were discussed widely at educational meetings and in the school journals. We find much time given to such a discussion at a meeting of the national Educational Associ- ation held at Chicago in 1863, and at a meeting of the State Teach- ers' Association held at Bloomington. Object lessons found place in a large number of the elementary schools of the state. In some cases too much emphasis was placed on the method of object teaching and it later came somewhat into disfavor. The Superintendent of the Chicago Schools in his report in 187? says: "It is admitted that undue prominence has been given to object teaching, and that much of it has been objectless, but the remedy lies not in its entire exclusion, but in its subordination, and in its proper presentation. Much of the disfavor into which object teaching has fallen has grown out of too rigid adherence to the 1. Fifth Chicago Report, p. 28. , - ' . . . . 12 'science phase’ of instruction. Too little has been thought of the ’art phase ' . 1 The Law of 1872 providing for instruction in the elements of the natural sciences in the common schools was a radical and sudden departure from prevailing practice at that time. It was a result of the wave of increased interest in the natural sciences which about that time was sweeping over the country. 3ecause of the sudden and great changes made in the course of study by this law before the state could adjust itself to the new conditions strong opposition led to its amendment. ’’Large and substantial advantages” were anticipated from the Law. The teachers were required to pass an examination in the natural sciences before receiving a license to teach. The Law was passed in April and the teachers must pass a satisfactory ex- amination in time to secure a license to teach before the schools opened in the autumn. The immediate effect on the teachers of the state was at least interesting. State Superintendent Bateman says the effect was ” almost like the breath of the Lord upon the dry bones in the valley of vision. - - - And never before has such a spectacle been presented to the people of Illinois. From the time the new law was fairly promulgated in April last, till the schools opened in the autumn, the whole state became as it were one great camp of instruction. Vacation plans were everywhere cheerfully given up, and through all the unprecedentedly intense and pro- tracted dog-day heats of the past summer, great numbers of teachers in every part of the state were assiduously engaged in preparing 1. Twenty-third Chicago Report, p. 58. 1 1 /> 1 ®£ themselves for examination in the elements of the Natural Sciences. - - - The common school elements of society, so to speak, were profoundly stirred, everywhere, and a free-school revival, of ex- traordinary extent and power, was inaugurated." 1 2 3 4 In a circular sent out by the State Superintendent it was recommended that the new studies be taught "by the method of oral lesson s , instead of recitations from text-books." 2 It was his opinion that if the teaching of the natural sciences was to "fall into the old ways" of merely memorizing and reciting daily "so many lines or pages of a book," "the law might as well be repealed, for it will enhance the very evils which have so long benumbed and stupefied the schools. " The new law was such a radical step that it called forth much discussion. Very decided opposition developed to it. Supt. John H. Black of Adams County found it difficult to see what ad- vantage would be derived "from the introduction of the natural sci- rt H ences."^ It is evident that in most cases that time given to the sciences must be taken from the study of that which is of much greater practical importance to the pupils." He reported the im- mediate effect of the law was to produce a scarcity of teachers. Supt. John P„ Richmond of Brown County reported that, "If the sen- timent of the people as at present constituted, is to be considered as conclusive, the introduction of the sciences into the schools is uncalled for and unnecessary." 4 Supt. William T. Adams probably 1. State Superintendent's Report, 1871-72, p. 2S. 2. Ibid. , p. 82. 3 . Ibid. , p , 236. 4. Ibid. , p. 238. . * . ■ ' : : ■ 14 with some justification reported that it was "too much at once." 1 2 3 Supt. Mrs. P. A. Taylor of Alexander County reported that with two or three exceptions the teaching of natural sciences was confined to the high school of Cairo. She believed the law "beneficial on- ly as it raises the standard of teachers. Many county superintendents gave favorable reports. Supt J. E. Millard of Carroll County found the action of the legislature in raising the standard of qualifications for teachers was "pretty 'Z generally approved." He thought that it would have been wiser to discriminate "more than it does between the requirements for first and second grade certificates." Supt. T. R. Leal of Champaign County reports that "for a time some excitement prevailed on ac- count of the addition of Physiology and the Natural Sciences to the course of study in our common schools. Many people thought the new studies useless, and that the plan was devided to raise teachers’ wages and benefit booksellers. Many teachers thought the requirements too high and calculated to drive them from their em- ployment." Time, however, brought about changes in the sentiment of the public and the teachers. Supt. Leal finds later that "Be- sides the new thoughts and ideas thus obtained by the teachers, a marked improvement is manifested in the methods of teaching the ’old branches’. It has infused new life into our school system. Teachers prepare themselves more thoroughly for their work, and the people begin to see that on Botany and Zoology rests early all the material wealth of the State." 4 Supt. A. J. Mapes of 1. State Superintendent’s Report, 1871-72, p. 240. 2. Ibid. , p. 264. 3. Ibid. , p . 240. 4. Ibid., p. 240. ' r , 1 15 Edgar County found that it struck from their roll of teachers "many that were drones in the society of teachers" and that it "tended to improve and tetter qualify" those still engaged in teaching. Supt. H. S. Comstock of Henry County found "incompetent teachers abandon- ing the profession." 1 2 3 Supt. Theodore Steyer of pope County reports that the changes made by the law were "generally looked upon as an imposition against the people, and in favor of the teachers' higher pay. Since our schools have been commenced, and wherever the sci- ences have been introduced, the people have fast changed in favor of the new law . " ^ The strength of the sentiment against the law, however, was so great that at the next session of the State Legislature the law was amended in such a way as to practically nullify its effects. The amended law provided for two grades of county certificates, first and second. Examinations in physiology and the laws of health and the natural sciences were required for the first grade. The subjects required for the second grade were orthography, reading in English, penmanship, arithmetic, English grammar, modern geography, and the history of the United States. Since it had been held that the subjects required by law to be taught in the schools were the ones named in the requirements for the lowest grade of teachers' certificates, the amendment withdrew the natural sciences and physiology from the list of subjects required by law to be taught in the common schools. Since teachers could teach with either first or second grade certificates the majority would naturally secure 1. State Superintendent's Report, 1871-72, p. 263. 2. Ibid. , p. 271. 3. ibid. , p. 286 . . . . ; 16 only the second grade which was no advance over requirements in ef- fect previous to the passage of the law of 1872. Hence, the amend- ment practically nullified the effects of the former act. Physiology continued to be taught in many elementary schools; but its teaching was not general. A la w was passed in 1889 requiring that " all pupils of suitable age in schools of Il- linois, supported by public money or under state control" be taught "physiology and hygiene, with special reference tc the effects of alcoholic beverages, stimulants and narcotics on the human system."*’ The law made physiology and hygiene one of the subjects required in the examination for all grades of certificates to teach. This was the first law in Illinois specifically requiring that a par- ticular subject should be taught in the schools. It had previously been held that the subjects required for the lowest grade of teach- ers' certificates were the subjects required by law to be taught in the schools. It was felt by temperance advocates, particularly the Women's Christian Temperance Union, that the la w was not sufficient- ly effective. Consequently, through their influence a new law w as enacted June 9, 1897, which more definitely regulated the teaching of physiology and hygiene. ^ it was prescribed that the nature and effects of alcoholic drinks and other narcotics on the human sys- tem should be taught in connection with the other divisions of physiology and hygiene as "thoroughly as are other branches in all schools under state control, or supported wholly or in part by pub- lic money." It must be taught in all grades to and including the first year of the high school for at least ten weeks each ^’•ear. 1. Appendix, p. 43. 2. Ibid. , p . 44. . . v 17 It was prescribed that for the grades at least one-fifth of the text-book should be given to the nature and effects of alcohol and narcotics on the human system. This law is rather remarkable as it is the first lav/ specifying in just what grades a subject shall be taught, the length of time, what subject matter shall be taught, and the proportion of the text books to be given to certain subjects. It had previously been generally held by educational authorities that such matters were not proper subjects for legislative enact- ment but belonged to the local school authorities for determination. The lav; is still in force in the state. The object lessons of the early days gradually gave way to a better organized course of instruction for the elementary schools generally known as nature study. The Cook County Normal School was an important center of influence in the development of the nature study idea. Col. F. W. Parker and W. S. Jackman were the leading figures in the movement in the Cook County Normal School. Illinois and the nation owe a great debt to Col. F. W. Parker, the educational leader and reformer, for his work in im- proving the work of the elementary schools. It was his aim to make the schools "less artificial and conventional" by providing an en- riched school curriculum which would appeal more strongly to the interests of the boys and girls. "Geography and nature study were given commanding places in the scheme of instruction. It was his theory that "Nature refuses to be viewed in bits and rags. A leaf or a twig would not do; the child must have the whole tree, with the land around, or still better the forest. Field excursions with 1. Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education. - . . 18 their wealth of observation were early introduced. Woods, swamps, and the lake shore were investigated with pencil or brush in hand." Col. Parker furnished the inspiration and an impetus which later led to the organized nature study which in many places became an important and integral part of the elementary school curriculum. The work, particularly along the lines of nature study, began by Col. Parker was continued and improved by Wilbur S. Jack- man. He was brought to the Cook County Normal School as a member of the faculty in 1889 by Col. Parker. Accepting Col. Parker's point of view, he was able to organize the nature study materials in such a way that they could be more effectively used by the regu- lar class room teachers. "Failures in nature study, failures that were, however, prophecies, were the rule, until Wilbur S. Jackman in 188S, under- took to grapple with the problem. The idea of thorough, exhaustive work was abandoned. The phenomena of the 'rolling year' were taken as the general guides; the child was brought into living contact with nature; the subjects were adapted to different stages of child growth; art and nature were correlated." The type of nature study work developed by W. S. Jackman was adopted for general use in the elementary schools of Chicago and the surrounding territory. It al- so had an important influence on the character of the work carried on in the rest of the state. The normal schools of the state have done much to promote the cause of science instruction in the grades. The Illinois State University at Normal, Illinois, has made special efforts to empha- size the importance of the work and through courses offered there, and articles written by teachers in the university for school publi- • ••• i , 19 cations has exerted a strong influence on elementary science instruc- tion throughout the state. The two most important centers of in- fluence in the field of elementary school science work have been Cook County Normal School, which necessarily has influenced most the work in Chicago, and Cook County, and the Illinois State Normal University which has exerted a similar influence on much of the rest of the state. In spite of all that has been done to promote science teaching in the elementary schools the results have not been wholly satisfactory. There is at present no great amount of enthusiasm for science instruction among the elementary school teachers. In fact, in a large number of schools in the state no provision what- ever is made for elementary science instruction other than the phy- siology and hygiene required by law. This state of affairs may be accounted for by the crowded condition of the elementary school curiculurn and the lack of preparation on the part of the teachers. Elementary science instruction will probably come back into its own when our elementary curiculurn is reorganized and better teacher preparation is required. . ■ 20 Jin. SCIENCE TEACHING IN THE PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS PRIOR TO 1832. The development of science instruction in the secondary schools forms an interesting chapter in the history of science teach- ing in the state. In the most of the larger centers of population in the state some advanced subjects including some of the sciences were taught in connection with the upper grades or classes. When the high schools were separately organized these scientific sub- jects v/ere taken over b. y them and made a part of their curriculums. At first these courses were largely informational and taught in much the same way as the other subjects taught in the high schools. Some of the larger secondary schools were supplied with the philos- ophical and chemical apparatus and procured cabinet collections of specimens for illustrative purposes. Following the leadership of the Illinois State Normal University, many of them began regular laboratory work in the late 1 70's. However, such work did not come to be generally followed until after the report of the Committee of Ten was made. The science courses offered in the first free high schools were very similar to those offered in the early academies which have already been discussed. In a preceding chapter it was noted that natural philosophy, astronomy, chemistry, and botany were the sci- ences most often mentioned as being taught in the early academies. In the early reports it is interesting to note that the scientific courses offered in the early academies and high schools differ but . » . ' . ■ 21 but little at least in name from the courses offered in the early colleges. There was great uniformity in the arrangement of the cur- riculums in the early high schools. Consequently, a discussion of the curriculums of one high school may serve as a type. The Chi- cago high schools may well serve to illustrate development of sci- ence instruction in high schools. The fact that complete sets of the Chicago School Reports are available makes it possible to trace rather carefully the changes taking place in the science instruc- tion from the establishment of the first Chicago High School in 185S to the present time. The changes taking place there are to some considerable extent typical of changes taking place in the science work of other high schools of the state. The first high school in Chicago was organized in the year 1856 with three departments: Teachers', English High, and Classical. Two years of work were prescribed for the Teachers' curriculum; three for the English High; and three for the Classical. A combination of courses was arranged whereby a pupil could com- plete both the English pigh and the Classical curriculums in four years. 1 Science was given an important place in the high school from its beginning. The arrangement of subjects by terms and years is not shown in the first printed report. However, the following arrangement of subjects according to departments with names of text-books used helps in getting an idea of the place accorded to scientific subjects in the organization of the school: 1. Third Chicago School Report, p. 28. H * . ENGLISH HIGH DEPARTMENT 1. Preparatory studies reviewed, using the text books authorized in the Grammar School v 2. Warren's Physical Geography. 3. Weber's Universal History. y 4. Ancient Geography. 5. Greenleaf's National Arithmetic. 6. Greenleaf's Algebra. 7. Davies's Legendre. 3. Plane & Spherical Trigonometry. 9. Mensuration. 10. Gillespie's Surveying. 11. Navigation. j 12. Crittenden's Elementary Bookkeeping. J 13. Botany. y 14. Burritt's Geography of the Heavens. 15. Higher Astronomy. v 16. Cutter's Physiology. 17. Tate's Natural Philosophy. v 13. Youman's Chemistry. / 19. Geology and Mineralogy. 20. Rhetoric. 21. Logic. 22. Wayland's Political Economy. 23. Principles of Government. 24. Wayland's Mental Philosophy. 25. Wayland's noxa.1 Science. 26. Etymology. . 23 27. English Literature. 23. Hillard's First Class Reader. 2S. Drawing. 30. Vocal Music. 31. German or French. Woodbury's German series. Fasquelle's French Course. 32. Recitations and Compositions. NORMAL DEPARTMENT Nos. 1 « 2 , 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 13, 19, 20, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32. Theory and Practice of Teaching. CLASSICAL DEPARTMENT Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 14, 16, 17, 26, 28, 30, 32. Andrews's and Zumpt ' s Latin Grammars. Harkness's Arnold's First and Second Latin Lessons. Arnold's Latin Prose Composition. Andrews's Caesar. Johnson ' s Cicero . Bowen's Virgil. Andrews's Latin Lexicon. Anthon's Classical Dictionary. Crosby's Greek Lessons, Arnold's Greek Prose Composition. Felton's Greek Reader. Boise's Xenophon's Anabasis. . . . - . . , . 24 Owen's Homer's Iliad. Liddell and Scott's Greek Lexicon. It is evident from the list of subjects given that those in authority when the first Chicago High School was organized be- lieved that a knowledge of the sciences formed an important part of a high school education. Scientific subjects made up about thirty per cent of the work prescribed for those who were preparing to teach. They were expected in their two years of preparation to study physical geography, botany, geography of the heavens, physi- ology, natural philosophy, chemistry, geology, and mineralogy. Science constituted approximately twenty per cent of the work of the pupils in the English High Department. They were required to take all of the sciences prescribed for the Normal Department and in addition higher astronomy. The pupils in the Classical Depart- ment were required to study scientific subjects to the extent of about fifteen per cent of their work. They were re quired to study physical geography of the heavens, physiology, and natural philoso- phy. The science requirements of these first curriculums of the Chicago High School are higher than the science requirements of most of the high schools of to-day. The first science courses were largely text book courses. However, from the very beginning there was felt by the authorities a need for apparatus and other supplies to be used for illustrative purposes in connection with the work in the sciences. At the end of the first year following the organization of the High School, Superintendent Wells in his annual report says: "the most pressing want of the high school that still remains, is a supply of suitable . ! . . . - apparatus for illustration and experiment in the various departments of science." 1 He further states it as his opinion that it is "im- possible to give satisfactory instruction in such branches as Chem- istry, Natural Philosophy, and Surveying, without the aid of ap- paratus." We are led to infer from the reports that in most cases the apparatus was to be used by the teacher for illustrative pur- poses and seldom by the individual pupils. In fact, in a later re- port we learn that in a large high school "not a hundred miles from Chicago" a placard was placed in the science room which contained the inscription " Pupils must not handle the apparatus . "3 The high school here fef erred to is no doubt typical of many of the high schools of that period. In the Sixth Annual Report we find the first outline giv- ing arrangement of subjects by terms and years. The outline is 'Z that arranged for the Normal Department. NORMAL DEPARTMENT Outline of the Course First Term Second Term Third Term FIRST Year Arithmetic Political Geog- raphy and map drawing Grammar Algebra Same as First Term Physical Geog- raphy Botany Natural Philos- ophy Geometry Second Year Natural Philos- ophy Physiology Bookkeeping, ^ term Chemistry Constitution of U. S. and Prin- ciples of Gov't Hist, of U,S. and outlines of General History Rhetoric Astronomy English Litera- ture Arithmetic, t term Geography Grammar Mental Philos- ophy English Litera- ture 1 . . . 26 Reading, through the entire course. Composition, through the entire course. Practice of teaching, through the entire course. Singing, through the entire course, one lesson per week. Drawing, through last four terms, two lessons per week. Theory of Teaching, last two terms, two lessons per week. In this outline the work in science continues to make up about the same proportion of the work of the Normal Department as it did at the first organization of the school, about thirty per cent. In fact, in the early years of the nigh School history the arrangement of the subjects in the different departments changed but little. It is interesting tc note that in the Normal Department the science work is not evenly distributed throughout the different terms. No science was taught in the first and second terms of the first year or in the third term of the second year. Three sciences - physical geography, botany, and natural philosophy, appear in the work outlined for the thyfd term of the first year. Three sciences, natural philosophy, physiology, and chemistry, were taught in the first term of the seond year’s work. Astronomy was the only science taught in the second term of the second year’s work. Apparently not mu«K attention had been given in planning the outline of the work for the Normal Department to the matter of distribution, po- sition, and sequence of the different branches of science. For several years the subjects prescribed for the differ- ent departments remained the same. Higher astronomy was the first subject to be dropped from the prescribed list. A little later . . i-'x . - " . . 37 navigation and mensuration were dropped. No explanation appears in the school reports as to just why these subjects were dropped. The name of the English High Department was changed to the General Department in I860. The report for that year contains an outline giving the arrangement of courses in all three of the de- partments of the school - the General, the Classical, and the Normal The outline for the Normal Department has already been given as it was printed in an earlier report. These outlines are of special interest because of the fact that they were probably the first out- lines published in the state showing the arrangement of the work of a high school. HIGH SCHOOL Synopsis of the General Course Year First Term Second Term Third Term Algebra Algebra Arithmetic T German or Latin German or pat in German or Latin i Descriptive Geogra- phy English Grammar Physical Geography Algebra Geometry Geometry II German or Latin German or Latin German or Latin Universal History Universal History Universal History Botany Geometry Trigonometry Mensuration, Navi- gation & Surveying German, Latin, or German, Latin, or German, pat in, or French French French III Physiology Natural Philosophy Natural Philosophy Rhetoric English Literature English Literature Astronomy Chemistry Geology and Miner- alogy German, Latin, or German, Latin, or German, Latin, or French French French IV Intellectural Phil- osophy Logic proral Science Constitution of U. S Political Economy Political Economy and Bookkeeping :3B Reading, during the first and second years. Drawing, during the second, third, and fourth years. Composition and Declamation, through entire course . ^ Synopsis of the Classical Course Year First Term Second Term Third Term Algebra Algebra Arithmetic Harkness‘ First Harkness' First Latin Reader I Latin Book Latin Bock Descriptive Geogra- English Grammar Physical Geography Phy and Analysis Algebra Geometry Geometry Latin Reader Caesar Caesar II Universal history Universal History Universal History Botany Greek Greek Greek, Anabasis Caesar or Cicero Cicero Cicero III Physiology Natural Philosophy Natural Philosophy Greek, Anabasis Greek Greek, Iliad IV Virgil, Eclogues Virgil, Aeneid and Virgil, Aeneid Cicero Georgies Review of Latin Latin Prose Latin Prose Reading, during the first and second years. Drawing, during the second, thytd, and fourth years. Composition and Declamation, during the entire course. Classical Antiquities, Military Affairs, during the second' year . Classical Antiquities, Civil Affairs, during the third year. Classical Antiquities, My- thology, during the fourth year. 1 2 1. Seventh Chicago Report, p. 130. 2. Ibid. , p. 131. - : ; 29 It is interesting to note the position and sequence of the sciences in these early high school curriculums. The distri- bution of the sciences throughout the different terms is better than the distribution found in the curriculum of the Normal Depart- ment. Physical geography was the first science taught and is found in the third term of the first year in both the General and the Classical curriculums. Botany is the second science found in the outline and appears in the third term of the second year in both curriculums. Physiology is found in the first term of the third year in both curriculums. Two terms were given to natural philo- sophy, the second and third terms of the third year in both the General and the classical curriculums. Astronomy is found in the first term of the fourth year of the General curriculum. Chemis- try is found in the second term of the fourth year of the General curriculum, geology and mineralogy make up a part of the work of the third term of the fourth year of the General curriculum. The science courses as outlined were all arranged for one term only except in the case of natural philosophy which was given for two terms. It is evident that no exhaustive study of any of the sci- ences could be made in the time alloted to them in the printed out- lines. The work was necessarily of the text book, memoriter kind which later gave rise to the popular series of science text-books known as the ” ten weeks” courses written by J. Dorman Steele and which ex^erted a strong influence in perpetuating this kind of work in the high schools of the state and of the entire nation. Three years after the organization of the High School, the Superintendent reports " a valuable Philosophical and Chemical Apparatus recently procured at an expense of one thousand dol- . , . . . . §9 . . 30 1 lars." The money needed to secure this apparatus was donated by the parents of the high school pupils and by other citizens who were interested in the welfare of the school. A large oxy-hydrogen microscope was donated by Samuel Hoard. It was Superintendent Wells' opinion that by these donations "the greatest obstacle to the suc- cess of the school that has hitherto existed" was removed. The Principal of the High School reports that "the apparatus is now in daily use in the school." It soon became evident to the high school authorities that the time allotted to the sciences was inadequate. In 1860 Princi- pal Dupee recommended an increase in the amount of time given to the natural sciences in order as he says "to make the study of this part of the course much more comprehensive and valuable." The Committee on Natural Sciences appointed by the Board of Education reported in 1868 that they had attended the public ex- aminations of the pupils in the natural sciences and they found that the pupils in geology "have acquired a pretty full knowledge of the main principles, being able to describe with correctness, the dif- ferent geological formations, and the fossil remains which character*- ize them." In their opinion the advantages of the study of physi- ology "depend very much upon the selection of topics made by the author in the text book." They were well pleased with the botany examination and report that "this beautiful study has received more than its usual share of attention, and the Committee was highly gratified with the proficiency of the pupils. " 1. Fifth Chicago Report, p. 44. 2. Fourteenth Chicago Report, p. 17. ' * ■ 31 The Committee on Natural Sciences that investigated the work in 1873 was not particularly well pleased with conditions as it found them.l Its report shows, too, a growing recognition of the ineffectiveness of the text hook method of teaching the sci- ences. The Committee reported that the examination "showed that the classes had been carefully instructed in the text book" in botany, "but that they had done little in the study of living plants." It urged that the pupils in this subject make collec- tions and study the plants themselves. In its opinion, "the knowledge derived from the text book alone is of little worth be- yond enabling them to obtain rank in class or to pass a verbal examination." The Committee reported the examination in physiology "a lamentable failure, discreditable alike to teacher and class." More attention came gradually to be paid to the sequence of the different branches of science as well as to a fuller and more extended treatment of those taught. In 1873 the different subjects were all arranged in one curriculum. About four and one- half years science instruction was offered.. Physical geography and physiology made up the science work of the first year; natural history and botany, the work of the second; physics, astronomy, and mechanics, the work of the third; chemistry and geology, the work of the fourth. This sequence bears a close resemblance to that found in many present day high school curriculums. In 1874 the Superintendent reports that "the addition of a working laboratory to the department of chemistry has materially 1. Eighteenth Chicago Report, p. 73. . ■ ' . 32 advanced the value of that department , and has certainly increased the interest felt in the department . Attention is called to the fact by the superintendent in his report of 1875 that "more prominence has been given the sciences and their arrangement in the course is now such, that each study taken up, will aid the pupil in mastering those that succeed it." The science instruction described continued in the Chi- cago High Schools much the same until about 1892, when modern labo- ratory methods came to be generally introduced. The Harvard list of Physics experiments was published in 1887 and influenced greatly physics instruction in eastern high schools and to a somewhat less- er extent in the mid-west. This and other attempts to unify and standardize high school instruction finally led to the Report of the Committee of Ten which proved to be probably the most important influence for the modification of methods of secondary science in the whole history of its development. The fact that the early public high schools in Illinois were organized as a result of local initiative resulted naturally in a serious lack of uniformity. There was need of some central authority to prescribe and to enforce the observance of certain definite standards. The criticism of W, T. Harris ? expressed in his letter of transmittal of the Report of the Committee of Ten, applied to the high schools of Illinois particularly well. "It has been agreed," he said, "on all hands that the most defective part of the education in this country is that of the secondary schools. There is wide divergence in the course of 1. Twentieth Chicago Report, p. 81. 2. Report of Committee of Ten, p. 1. . . - •'> Vj I '}■ ** . 33 study, and the difference of opinion regarding what constitutes a secondary education works injury not only to the elementary schools by setting up uncertain standards of admission, but also through a want of proper requirements for graduation prevents in thousandBof cases the continuance of the course of education of youth in col- leges and universities." Some idea of the great lack of uniformity existing may be obtained from the fact that investigation showed "that total number of subjects taught in these secondary schools was nearly forty, thirteen of which, however, were found only in a few schools; secondly, that many of these subjects were taught for such short periods that little training could be derived from them; and third- ly, that the time allotted to the same subject in different schools varied widely. Even for the older subjects, like Latin and algebra, there appeared to be a wide diversity of practice with regard to the time allotted to them. That science instruction was found to be in a very un- satisfactory condition is indicated in the Committee's Report. "The spirit of the Conferences was distinctly conservative and moderate, although many of the recommendations are of a radical nature. The Conferences which found their tasks the most difficult were the Con- ferences on Physics, Astronomy, and Chemistry; Natural History; History, Civil Government, and Political Economy; and Geography; and these four conferences make the longest and most eleborate re- ports, for the reason that these subjects are to-day more imper- fectly dealt with in primary and secondary schools than are the 1. Report of Committee of Ten, p. 4. 2. Ibid. , p. 13. . . . 34 subjects of the first five Conferences." The first five Conferences were Latin; Greek; English; Modern Languages, and Mathematics. The high schools of Illinois were probably in a worse condition than that described in the Report of the Committee of Ten. Regent Peabody of the University of Illinois reported that "the very name (high school) often meant no more than that the school was the highest in the community and that there were many district schools offering better instruction than some that claimed secondary grade. The writer attended and graduated from one of the high schools of this period. It was located in a small town. The high school consisted of three years work, the first of which was given over entirely to the common branches. The sciences studied were physiology, botany, zoology, physics, and chemistry. The text books used, except in the case of botany, were Steele’s Ten Weeks Courses in each of the subjects named. Gray's Botany with Manual was the text in that subject. The work in science was largely text book and pursued in much the same way as any other subjects in the curriculum. Occasionally the teacher would perform some ex- periment before the class for the purpose of demonstration. It was seldom that pupils were permitted to handle the apparatus. The standards required for graduation may be judged from the fact that the writer completed the required amount of work and graduated from this high school after twelve months attendance. There was in the period under discussion a need of some agency to set definite stand- ards for the high schools and to possess sufficient authority to com- pel their observance. 1. Nevins, History of the University of Illinois, p. 124. . .. .• . 'pit p: :c . . 35 Little did the university of Illinois authorities dream when they first adopted a system of accrediting high schools of the important part such a system was to play in raising the stand- ards and in bringing about uniformity in the work of the high schools. A plan for accrediting high schools was first adopted by the University of Illinois authorities in 187?. The plan pro- vided “that the faculty may designate as accredited high schools whose pupils shall be admitted to the University upon their cer- tificate of graduation, such high schools as they may find upon ex- amination of their facilities for teaching and methods and course of instruction giving their pupils such preparation as is required for admission to the University.” 1 2 3 4 Two kinds of high schools were designated. One kind was called examir.ing high school. One ex- amining high school was named for each county in the state. The examinations given by these high schools were accepted in lieu of the entrance examination given by the University. The examining high schools were discontinued in 1884. The other kind of high schools was made up of schools whose pupils were admitted without examination. The first high school to be accredited was the Prince ton Township High School. 0 In 1880 the number of accredited high schools had increased to twenty- two. In 1887 two classes of ac- credited high schools were distinguised - fully accredited and par- tially accredited schools.' 1 Pupils from the partially accredited 1. State Superintendent's Report 86, p. CLII. 2. Nevins, History of the university of Illinois, p. 88. 3. Alumni Record, 1913, p. 13. 4. Nevins, History of the University of Illinois, p. 88. . ' ■ . . 36 schools were admitted only to the Colleges of Agriculture, Engineer- ing, and Natural Science. According to President Peabody, the early accrediting system adopted was of little help to the University. Ke reports that during a period of seven years 156 students had been admitted on high school diplomas and that of that number 118 came from three high schools located "within sight of the towers of the University." In the early days of the accrediting system different members of the University faculty v . : ' . 67 Board of Trustees, discussed his expedition, and promised them specimens. The university, however, never received as large a number of specimens from this source as they were led to expect. Some of those which were received may yet be seen in the natural history museum at the University. The first natural history survey and collecting trip was made in the summer of 1868. An appropriation of three hundred dollars was made for this trip by the Board of Trustees and placed in the hands of T. J. Burr ill. In company with five or six stu- dent assistants, he travelled through several different parts of the state making a collection of specimens for the University. They collected plants, birds, reptiles, insects, mammals, a number of fossils, of fresh water shells, and of minerals, with some specimens of different kinds of woods, soils, materials of manu- facture, and of manufactured articles.” Chemistry was probably the first science to be developed as a laboratory subject at the University. In 1868, A. P. S. Stuart of Harvard University was employed to teach chemistry. In 1868, five ‘thousand dollars were appropriated for the chemical de- partment. In 1870 we learn that "the important relation which chemistry sustains to agriculture and the mechanic arts, is recog- nized in the interest that crowds the somewhat contracted limits of that department, with students."^- "The advanced class in chemistry nearly fills the 24 tables of the working laboratory, and the new class of 50 members overflows the recitation room, and will soon need a place for work." Later, in 1874, when Pro- fessor Stuart was assigned a basement room in the old building for 1. Third Annual Report, Illinois Indus. Univ. , p. IX. 68 his work, he resigned, saying that he "had had enough of basement service." His resignation led the trustees of build a separate building for the chemistry department a few years later. It is interesting to note that John W. Powell was elected Professor of Natural History, March 11, 1838. However, he never entered service and resigned the following year. Don Carlos Taft was engaged in 1871 to teach geology. He later was elected Pro- fessor of Geology and Zoology. After Professor Stuart's resigna- tion in 1874, Henry A. Weber was employed to teach chemistry. He was made Professor of Chemistry in June, 1875. From the early days of the University chemistry was one of the most popular subjects. Because of crowded conditions a chemistry building was erected in 1877. The cost of the building was $30,000. Compared with the present day cost of buildings, this is a modest expenditure. However, at that time it was one of the best and largest chemistry laboratories in the United States. This building is now used by the Lav; School. By I860, regular laboratory work by the pupils had become an established practice. The Regent reports-*- that "the study of physics occupies two college terms, in which there are each week five recitations from a text book, one lecture, and four hours of laboratory practice. In the latter, a series of about forty experiments are performed by each student, two working to- gether according to a program arranged for the purpose. Besides the written directions for the method of procedure, the student has the aid of the Professor and his assistants, when needful. Careful notes and calculated results are required on paper of a 1. Tenth Report, university of Illinois Trustees, p. 24. . . . . . ■ ■ . i -k'i . 69 given size." Because of the success of his work in zoology at the Illinois State Normal University, efforts were made to bring Pro- fessor S. A. Forbes to the State University, but Regent Peabody's efforts were at first unsuccessful. However, arrangements were finally made and he began work January 1, 1865. He at once asked for laboratory room and equipment. In a communication to the Board of Trustees he said, "For the further accomodation of the classes in zoology and entomology, the principal need, and a very pressing one, is that of a student's laboratory for the study of zoological specimens." The results of Professor Forbes' work was soon apparent. The Regent says, 1 "The unsuccessful effort of three years ago to secure for the University the presence and aid of Professor S. A. Forbes for the organization of the instruction of zoology was re- newed last year and has been crowned with better fortune. Since the first of the new year the zoological laboratory has become an active agency in this department of physical science, and its suc- cess is well assured. A new interest has been aroused in this science. The office of the State Entomologist has found a home, it is to be hoped permanent, where it naturally belongs. The gov- erning board of the Normal University has unanimously resolved that the State Laboratory of Natural History should find its pro- per abode here at the State University, and has consented that the propert}?- peculiar to the work of that laboratory may be trans- ferred hither. " 1. Thirteenth Report, Board of Trustees, University of Illinois, p. 19. * f > • V' ( ' fc l f yi I ' . . . 70 The work under Prof esscrs Forbes and Eurrill expanded rapidly and soon agitation was begun for a second separate build- ing to be used for natural science instruction. A Natural History Building was erected in 1892 at a cost of $70,000. In 1S09 an addition was erected at a cost of $135,000, making the total cost, including the old building, $245,000. Soon after entering upon his term of office. President Draper “expressed the conviction that the University must ask for much larger appropriations." The number of students was rapidly increasing. Other state universities were receiving more liberal appropriations from their legislatures. The University of Chicago had just been reorganized with large resources and hitherto un- heard of and almost fabulous sums were being spent in erecting 'buildings. A chemistry building, a physics laboratory, and bi- ological laboratories were built and equipped by wealthy Chicago residents. All of these had an influence on plans made for the expansion of the State University. As Dr. Burrill well said while standing on the steps of the Ryerson Physical Laboratory at the University of Chicago, "The people of the state will never appreci- ate what this institution has meant to us at the old University . n - L The third science building to be erected on the Universi- ty campus was a new chemistry building. The old chemistry build- ing, for years the pride of the University authorities, became wholly inadequate for the growing needs of' that department. An appropriation was secured and a new building erected at a total cost of $180,000. In 1913 it became necessary to build an ad- dition to this building. The addition cost $330, 953, making the 1. Alumni Record, 1918, p. XVII. . . . ' ' c I . . . . . . ... - . 71 total cost of the present chemistry building ^540, 953. A fourth science building, the physics building, was erected in 1909 at a cost of $220,000. The Stats University has in many ways influenced the de- velopment of the state. Nevins 1 has pointed out that "where the University comes closest to the life of the state is in the fields of teaching and agriculture) and perhaps its most direct influ- ence is in the former. - - - It trains a large part of the secon- dary school teachers, and through the school of education and the office of high school visitor, held since 1902 by H. A. Hollister, it cooperates with the public authorities in determining their standards." The Annual High School Conference, held by the Uni- versity under the direction of the High School Visitor, has had an important influence on secondary school instruction throughout the state. We can readily agree with President James’ statement that "The grain of mustard planted by the Boneyard stream in 1387 has indeed become a great tree," 1. Nevins’ Illinois, p. 326. . . jl 72 VII. ORGANIZATIONS PROMOTING SCIENCE TEACHING 1. The Illinois Natural History Society In June, 1858, the Illinois Natural History Society was organized by some of the leading scientists of the state for the purpose of conducting a scientific survey of the state "in order to afford new sources of valuable knowledge to our citizen8. ,, It was stated as the aim of the Society 11 to carry on this work (sci- entific survey) until completed, and to establish a Museum of Natural History at the State Normal University, comprising every species of plants, birds, shells, fishes, insects, quadrupeds, minerals and fossils, found in Illinois, together with such col- lections from the various parts of the world as will assist our youth in gaining a knowledge of the general studies of Nature." 1 "We have over fifty species of quadrupeds, three hundred of birds, one hundred of reptiles, nearly two hundred of fishes, and thousands of insects, mollusks, etc. It is the purpose of the Society, as scon as its condition will permit to publish re- ports containing descriptions of the various orders of Animal and Vegetable life — -or, a complete Fauna and Flora of Illinois— a copy of which should be within the reach of every parent, teach- er and pupil in our State," "By establishing the Museum of the Natural History So- ciety at the State Normal University, it becomes directly avail- able for the purpose of instruction. And since students in at- 1. State Superintendent's Report, 1857-58, p. 403. . . ■ . 73 tendance are from all parts of the State, they will each have an opportunity of studying the Natural History, not only of his own, but all other sections of Illinois. The scientific survey now in vigorous operation may, therefore, be regarded as a direct auxili- ary to the educational and agricultural interests of the Prairie State. » It was the policy of the Illinois Natural History So- ciety to distribute to the public schools of the state "such of its duplicates as were not used for exchange." Many thousand specimens were thus furnished gratuitously to schools throughout the state and probably served a valuable purpose in increasing an interest in the natural sciences. The results, however, did not measure up to the expectations of those who inaugurated the dis- tribution. In many schools the specimens were not properly cared for and were soon destroyed. Many teachers did not know how to use such collections in an effective way in their teaching. It was reported, too, that "the distribution created the impression that natural history specimens might be had for the asking and there was not sufficient incentive for schools to collect and pre- pare specimens for themselves." The Illinois Natural History Society became inactive and gave place to a new organization called the High School and College Association of Natural History. 1 2. High School and College Association of Natural History After the Illinois Natural History Society ceased its 1. State Superintendent’s Report, 1873-74, p. 143. . . ■ . . . . 74 activities a new society to carry on and extend the work under- taken by the old organization was planned. After considerable correspondence in the Autumn of 1873 a number of persons interested in natural history were invited to meet at Bloomington during the session of the State Teachers' Association in the Christman holi- days. "A large and earnest meeting of teachers" was held and after an "animated discussion the new society was formally orga- nized under the name of the School and College Association of Natural History of the State of Illinois. The purpose of the new organization was given out was in many ways similar to that of the old society. The purpose was "first, to collect, study and exchange specimens in natural history, and to contribute to a natural his- tory survey of the State; second, to form a state museum; third, to obtain for the schools with which its members are connected, suit- able cabinets of specimens for study and reference; fourth, to en- courage and assist the rational study of nature by the pupils of our schools." Under the auspices of the High School and College Associ- ation a notable vacation school of natural history was held at Normal, Illinois, in July and August, 1875. This school was mod- eled in some ways after Agassiz's noted school at Penikese. The instructors in this school were Professor S. A. Forbes, of the State Normal University; Professor B. G. Wilder, of Cornell Uni- versity; Professor W, S. Barnard, Ph.D. , Professor T. J. Burrill , of the Illinois Industrial University; Professor Cactus Thomas, State Entomologist; and Dr. J. S. Sewell, of the State Normal Uni- versity. The attendance was limited to fifty students but within 75 that limit was opened to the teachers of the state. "The work was definitely planned beforehand to meet what seemed to be the most urgent needs of the teachers of the state, and the courses of study thus laid down were adhered to throughout. While the leading idea was that of method , and the leading object to give practice in the peculiar processes of scientific investigation, it was not forgotten that, to the average teacher, a general knowledge of the whole is of more value than a special knowledge of a very little. The specimens selected for study were, there- f° re j typical ones, and the dissections and examinations were so planned and conducted that the facts demonstrated were true, not of the species or genus only, but of the whole class or sub-king- doms, or else notable exceptions to general statements about these larger groups." "The laboratory work was made, throughout, the basis of the course, and the lectures were designed chiefly to explain and complete the knowledge gained with the scalpel and the micro- scope. " "The class was divided into sections, each section work- ing 'in concert' on the same thing at the same time under the guidance of an instructor, and the programmes were so constructed that each student might do the work of the entire course. " This school undoubtedly had an important influence in improving science instruction in the state and in extending the laboratory method of instruction. These vacation schools were continued for several summers. Professor Forbes reports in the State Superintendent's Report for 1877-1878 that "vacation classes are organized each year for systematic field and. laboratory work. . . 76 and have thus far met with good success. They are intended for teachers and specialists, of which from twenty-five to fifty are convened each summer." 3. State Laboratory of Natural History 1 The Museum began under the direction of the old State Natural History Society was transferred to the State Board of Edu- cation, the official title of the Board of Trustees of the State Normal University, in 1871. From the State Board of Education it received the name Illinois Museum of Natural History. In a set of resolutions adopted in 1875 by the State Board they say, "We re- gard the Museum as a State Institution, devoted to the prosecution of a natural history survey of the State - - - and we consider it an important part of its work to supply collections of specimens to public schools, - - - and especially to provide all needed facili- ties for the instruction of teachers in natural history, and in the most approved and successful methods of teaching same." A law passed in 1877 provided for the establishment of a State Museum at Springfield. Much material from the old museum at Normal was transferred to the State Museum at Springfield. The old museum was then changed into a State Laboratory of Natural History under which name it has continued to the present time. This change of name indicates to some extent the change from the old museum point of view in the teaching of natural science to the newer labo- ratory point of view. One function of the State Laboratory of Natu- ral History at the time of its origin was to collect, preserve, and classify botanical and zoological specimens for the State Museum 1. S. A. Forbes, The Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History, p. 61. . . 1 . . . 77 at Springfield. In 1883, Professor Forbes who was director of the State Laboratory of Natural History was appointed to the office of State Entomologist. In 1884 the office of the Director of the State Laboratory and State Entomologist was transferred from the State Normal University at Normal to the State University at Ur- bana where it has remained to the present time. In 1884 the State Laboratory of Natural History by a joint arrangement with the State University established a biological station on the Il- linois River where much valuable research work has been done. The State Laboratory of Natural History has throughout its history been an important center for the training of the science teachers of Illinois. It has further rendered a valuable service to sci- ence instruction in the state by preparing and distributing many pamphlets and bulletins on the plant and animal life of the state. The State Laboratory of Natural History under the pro- vision of the Civil Administrative Code passed by the state legis- lature in 1817 has been merged with the State Entomologist's of- fice into a division called the Natural History Survey under the Department of Registration and Education. The new division thus formed includes the functions of its predecessors with a few ad- ditions. A notable addition to its functions is that of making a forest survey of the state. 4. The North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools The North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools has exerted a strong influence toward improving the high schools of Illinois. Representatives from a few colleges and sec- . . ' 78 ondary schools met at Northwestern University, March 29, 1895, and decided to launch such an organization. The first regular meeting was held April 3 and 4, 189S, at the university of Chicago. The aim of the organization has been expressed as, "First, to bring about a better acquaintance, and keener sympathy, and a heartier cooperation between the colleges and secondary schools of this territory. It was the original intention to hold meetings largely for discussion of topics of common interest. However, in 1901, Lean S. A. Forbes of the University of Illinois read a paper on "The Desirability of so Federating the North Central Colleges and Universities as to secure Essentially Uniform or at least Equivalent Entrance Requirements." As an outcome of the dis- cussion of Dean Forbes’ paper it was decided to appoint a Com- mission on Accredited Schools. The Commission on Accredited Schools when appointed was assigned as duties: 1. To define and describe unit courses of study. 2. To act as a standing committee on uniformity of admission requirements. 3. To secure uniformity and economy in high school inspection. 4. To prepare a list of accredited schools. The Commission appointed made the first report at the Cleveland Meeting, March 28 and 29, 1902. The report was adopted and "cannot but be regarded as making an era in the educational history of the North Central States." The report of the Commis- 1. Twenty-Seventh Report of the North Central Associa- tion, p. 4. . . . . . . . - . . . 79 sion set high standards for high school work which have been re- vised and added to by the reports of succeeding years. These standards have been discussed already under Science Teaching in Public Secondary Schools Since 1892. The report of the Committee on accredited high schools each year constitutes " an honor list for the North Central States." Recently the North Central Associ- ation has submitted a list of approved colleges and universities. This list has tended materially to improve the grade of work done in the colleges , particularly the smaller ones. "The Association is the most generally recognized standardizing agency in the North Central States — if, indeed, it does not rank first in prestige in the entire United States."^ p . 4. 1. Twenty-Seventh Report, North Central Association, _ . ■ I ; . . ■ 80 VIII. CONCLUSION As we view in retrospect the history of the century of scientific development covered by this discussion we are impressed by the evident fact that great changes both in the subject matter of science and the methods of science teaching have taken place. While changes in methods of teaching have received primary con- sideration, we would not lose sight of the fact that new and im- portant scientific discoveries from time to time stimulated in- terest on the part of the public, and consequently influenced science teaching, just now developments in the wireless field are serving as a stimulus to increase interest in the study of physics. Greater changes have probably taken place and more real progress has been made in the field of science than in any of the other large fields of knowledge. The progress of science instruction in the elementary schools has been on the whole the least satisfactory of any of the divisions of our educational system. A few systems of ele- mentary schools have well organized courses of science instruc- tion. However, a large number, probably a majority of the ele- mentary schools of the state make no provision for science in- struction beyond the physiology and hygiene .required by statute to be taught. There is a strong need of a revival of interest in science instruction in our elementary schools. Scientific facts constitute just as important a part of our common heritage and are just as important in adjusting ourselves to our environment - 1 ■ 81 as are the facts of geography and history commonly taught. The elementary curriculum needs to be reorganized carefully and thor- oughly with elementary science, including physiology and hygiene as required by law, as one of the basal sybjects in the upper grades. With teachers properly trained and properly interested in such work the results would be a marked improvement over present achievements in our elementary schools. There would then probably be no need for a general science course in the first year of the high school. The most important fact in the development of science instruction in the high school has been the introduction of the laboratory method of instruction. The early courses were largely short informational courses with some illustrative experiments performed by the teacher. It is true that this work was often times of a more interesting character to the pupil than some of the work that superseded it. However, this lack of interest was largely due to the organization of the subject matter and the method of presenting it or of introducing the pupil to it. Methods of labo- ratory instruction were introduced into the high school from the college and often the work was not sufficiently adapted to the ability and interests of the high school pupils. Present day methods are improving secondary science instruction through the use of projects and practical applications . However, the science work in our high schools is not producing the results that it ought to produce. Few pupils really acquire the scientific method of attacking problems which is generally acclaimed as one of the principal ends to be achieved as a result of science work. Few . . - ' . persons who distinguish themselves in the line of scientific re- search first acquire an interest in such work in their high school courses. We need tc hold the gains we have already made in sec- ondary science teaching and strive to organize our material and present it in such a way that it will become of more vital in- terest to the pupil and have a stronger influence on his life. Better teaching will help to realize this ideal. The absence of college or university domination in the early development of high schools in Illinois is worthy of special attention. It has recently been stated and without contradiction that all of our high school courses originally were handed down to us by the colleges and their content from the first has been determined by the college entrance requirements. This statement i6 not true of Illinois as far as scientific subjects were con- cerned. Nowhere is there evidence that a single science subject came into the curriculum through college or university prescrip- tion. Even in the case of general science the last scientific subject to be added to the curriculum there was a long fight be- fore it was finally recognized for entrance by the colleges and universities. The wave of scientific interest that swept over the world after the middle of the nineteenth century probably reached a higher level in Illinois than in many other places. The sciences came into the high school curriculums after this wave of scientific interest because of the popular demand for them. Next in importance to the introduction of the laboratory method of science teaching may be placed the movement for stand- ardization . The evidence shows secondary education at a low ebb . . . . * 83 in the early nineties. The reports of the various committees set- ting up definite standards, followed by the influence of the variois accrediting agencies in securing the general adoption of proposed standards accounts for the marked progress of the past three de- cades. Without some outside influence to insist on high standards of work the development made would scarcely have been possible. The universities and other higher institutions have naturally been the leaders in scientific progress. Of these the State University has probably exerted the greatest influence. They have through new discoveries extended the bounds of scientific knowledge, prepared science teachers for secondary schools, se- cured the adoption of high standards through their accrediting systems, and through friendly visits and mutual conferences called to consider secondary problems they have encouraged and helped high school teachers in the solution of their own problems. They have taken scientific discoveries and given practical application to them, thus often revolutionizing living conditions among the people. It is difficult properly to appraise the value of the universities' contribution to science and to science teaching. We have traveled far in the development of science teach- ing in Illinois in the past century. Science has proven that it is worthy of an important place in all of our school curriculums. Many of our present standards are high enough. The problem of the future in science teaching is to develop such a technique of teach- ing as will insure that the boys and girls will secure the heri- tage of scientific facts to which they are entitled and at the same time develop mere of the scientific attitude of mind. These . • I- . 84 have long been the goals of science teaching but seldom have they been realized. It is the problem and at the same time the oppor- tunity for future science teachers to work out the ways and means whereby these important objectives may be more fully realized. : . APPENDIX I Some Early School Advertisements To the Friends of Education The subscriber has opened a school in Prairie de Rocher, and proposes to teach the most useful branches of English education viz. Writing, Reading, and common Arithmetic. Also, English Gram- mar, Geography, Surveying, Astronomy, and the Latin and Greek Lan- guages. A commodious and comfortable house has been procured, and the situation is undoubtedly as healthy as any in the American Bot- tom. Good board can be obtained on moderate terms - and I can as- sure those disposed to patronize the school, that no attention will be wanting on my part, which will be necessary to progressive moral and literary improvement of my pupils. Benjamin H. Sturges. Prairie de Rocher, Aug. 36, 1616. (From Western Intelligencer, Aug. 28, 1816.) To the Patrons of Literature J. Cheek, Informs the friends and the guardians of erudition that he has opened a Schoo l in the town of Kaskaskia, for the instruc- tion of youth, in the different departments of English literature. He will extend the sphere of instruction, so as to include the fol- lowing sciences, viz. Reading, Writing, Orthography, Arithmetic, English Grammar, Geography, History, Rhetorick, Composition, Elocu- . . ' . 86 tion, etc. He flatters himself that from hie attention to the morals and scientific avocations of his pupils, he will share no in- considerable portion of the patronage of a judicious and discerning people. Kaskaskia, Nov. 3, 1817. (from Western Intelligencer.) Education Mr. Cross respectfully informs the citizens of Kaskaskia and its vicinage, that he intends, should sufficient patronage be afforded, to open a School in this town', for the instruction of youth, in Orthography, Orthoepy, Reading, Writing, English Grammar, Arithmetic, and Elocution. Scholars who shall graduate in these branches of tuition, will be instructed in the rudiments of History, Geography, Natural Philosophy, and Mathematics. Mr. Cross will endeavor to instill into the minds of his scholars, the vital importance of sound moral principle, and correct manners, which he will elucidate, by a regular course of lectures, every Saturday, as soon as he can procure the necessary appendages his school will be Lancasterian. No advance payment will be requir- ed, but a punctual compliance with the terms of subscription, at the expiration of each quarter, is confidently calculated upon. Mr. Cross will this evening, in the Representative cham- ber, give various specimens of Elocution, instructive and amusing, original and selected. Tickets to be had at Burr and Christy's Hotel, and at this office. Dec. 9th, 1818. (From Western Intelligencer, Jan. 13, 1519.) . . . . . . . 87 APPENDIX II Course of Study of Chicago High School in 1872 1 Year First Term Second Term Third Term Algebra Algebra Algebra First Year Physical Geography Physiology Physical Geography and Physiology Latin Latin Latin Geometry Geometry Geometry Natural History Natural History Botany Botany and Natural History Second Latin Latin Latin Year General History General History General History Greek (Optional in Greek (Optional Greek (Optional in place of one of in place of place of one of the the English branch- es. ) one of the Eng lish branches) English branches.) Trigonometry Astronomy Trigonometry and Astronomy Mechanics Physics Physics and Mechanics Third Year Latin or German or Latin or German Latin or German or French or French French Rhetoric, English Literature English Litera- ture English Literature Greek (Optional) Greek \Optional) Greek (Optional) Mental Science Mental Science Bookkeeping Mental Science Bookkeeping Fourth Chemistry Geology Geology and Chemi stry Year Latin, German or Latin, German Latin, German or French or French French Civil Government Political Econ- Political Economy Greek (Optional) o my Greek (Optional) Greek (Optional) Composition , Drawing and Reading through course. 1. Eighteenth Chicago Report, p. 220. 88 Those in preparation for College who desire it, can omit the English branches, except the requisite Mathematics, and com- plete the course in three yeevrs. Pupils form the High School Classes will commence with the studies of the second year, taking German instead of Latin. Course of Study of Chicago High School in 1883 ^ Full Course Four Years Year First Term Second Term Third Term Algebra Algebra Algebra First Year Physiology Physical Geography Physiology Physical Geography Latin or German Latin or German Latin or German Geometry Geometry Trigonometry History History History Second Year Latin or German Latin or German Latin or German Natural History Natural History Botany Botany Natural Philosophy Natural Philosophy Natural Philosophy Third Rhetoric English Literature English Literature Year Latin, German or Latin, German or Latin, German or French French French Chemistry Chemistry Chemistry Astronomy Astronomy Astronomy Civil Government Geology Political Economy Fourth Year Latin, German or French Mental Science Latin, German or Latin, German or French Study of Authors French Reviews Rev i ews Is Twenty-ninth Chicago Report, p. 21. 89 1. Composition, Declamation and Select Headings through the course. 2. Drawing and pinging optional through the course. Greek elective after the first year. Bookkeeping optional during the last year. Classical Course Three Years Year First Term Second Term Third Term First Year Algebra Latin Reader Greek Algebra Latin Reader Greek Algebra Latin - Caesar Greek Second Year Geometry Latin - Caesar Greek - Anabasis Geometry Latin - Cicero and Caesar Greek - Anabasis Trigonometry Latin - Cicero Greek - Anabasis Latin - Virgil Latin - Virgil Latin - Virgil Latin Composition Latin Composition Latin Composition Third Year Greek Iliad Greek Iliad Greek Greek Composition Greek Composit ion Reviews Reviews 1. Composition, Declamation and Select Reading through the course. 2. Drawing and Singing optional through the course. 90 APPENDIX III LEGISLATION AFFECTING SCIENCE INSTRUCTION Extracts from School Law of 1872 Section 50. No teacher shall be authorized to teach a common school under the provisions of this act, who is not of good moral character, and qualified to teach orthography, reading in English, penmanship, arithmetic, English grammar, modern geogra- phy, the elements of the natural sciences, the history of the United States, physiology, and the laws of health. It shall be the duty of the County Superintendent to grant certificates to such persons as may, upon due examination be found to possess the necessary qualifications. ------ Said certificates shall be of two grades: those of the first grade, shall be valid for two years; those of the second grade, for one year." Extract from Amended Law of 1874 Section 50. No teacher shall be authorized to teach a common school under the provisions of this act who is not of good moral character and who does not possess a certificate as required by this section. It shall be the duty of the County Superintend- ent to grant certificates to such persons as may, upon due ex- amination, be found qualified; and said certificates shall be of two grades: those of the first grade shall be valid for two years, and shall certify that the person to which such certificate is given is qualified to teach orthography, reading in English, pen- manship, arithmetic, English grammar, modern geography, the ele- ments of the natural sciences, the history of the United States, * : * 91 physiology and the laws of health. Certificates of the second grade shall he valid for one year, and shall certify that the person to whom such certificate is given is qualified to teach orthography, reading in English, penmanship, arithmetic, English grammar, modern geography, and the history of the United States. Physiology and Hygiene in Public Schools Law of 1889 » An Act relating to the study of Physiology and Hygiene in the Public Schools. Section I. 3e it. enac t ed by the People of the State of Illinois , r epresented in the General Assembly : That the proper legal school authorities shall have power, and it shall be their duty, to have all pupils of suitable age in schools of Illinois, supported by public money or under state control, instructed in physiology and hygiene, with special reference to the effects of alcoholic beverages, stimulants and narcotics on the human system. Section 2. No certificate shall be granted to any per- son to teach in the public schools of Illinois, after July, 1890, who has not passed a satisfactory examination in physiology and hygiene with special reference to the effects of alcoholic bever- ages, stimulants and narcotics on the human system. . ,i - . ■ : - . . 92 Requiring and Regulating the Study of Physiology and Hygiene An Act to amend "An Act relating to the study of physi- ology and hygiene in the public schools," approved June 1, 1889, in force July 1, 1889. Approved June 9, 1897, in force July 1, 1897. Section I. Be it_ enacted by the People of the State of Illinois represented in the General Assembly : That "An act relat- ing to the study of physiology and hygiene in the public schools," approved June 1, 1889, in force July 1, 1889, be amended so as to read as follows: That the nature of alcoholic drinks and other narcotics and their effects on the human system shall be taught in connec- tion with the various divisions of physiology and hygiene as thoroughly as are other branches in all schools under State con- trol, or supported wholly or in part by public money, and also in all other schools connected with reformatory institutions. All pupils in the above mentioned schools below the second year of the high schools and above the third year of school work computing from the beginning of the lowest primary year, or in corresponding classes of ungraded schools, shall be taught and shall study this subject every year from suitable text-books in the hands of all pupils, for not less than four les- sons a week for ten or more weeks of each year, and must pass the same tests in this as in other studies. In all schools above mentioned all pupils in the lowest three primary school years, or in corresponding classes in un- graded schools, shall each year be instructed in this subject . : . ■ . S3 orally for not less than three lessons a week for ten weeks in each year, by teachers using text-books adapted for such oral instruc- tion as a guide and standard. The local school authorities shall provide needed facili- ties and definite time and place for this branch in the regular course of study. The text-books in the pupils’ hands shall be graded to the capacities of the fourth year, intermediate, grammar, and high school pupils, or to corresponding classes as found in ungraded schools , For students below high school grade such text-books shall give at least one-fifth their space, and for students of high school grade shall give not less than twenty pages to the nature and effects of alcoholic drinks and other narcotics. The pages on this subject, in a separate chapter at the end of the book, shall not be counted in determining the minimum. Section II . In all normal schools, teachers' training classes and teachers' institutes, adequate time and attention shall be given to instruction in the best methods of teaching this branch, and no teacher shall be licensed who has not passed a satisfactory examination in this subject and the best methods of teaching it. Any school officer or officers who shall neglect or fail to comply with the provisions of this act shall forfeit and pay for each offense the sum of not less than five dollars nor more than twenty-five dollars. From Illinois School Law. 1898 edition. . / 94 BIBLIOGRAPHY A . Secondary Mate r ial Cook, John Williston: Educational History of Illinois. Henry 0. Shepard Company, Chicago, 1912. Be Blois, Austen K. The Pioneer School. Fleming H. Revell Com- pany, Chicago, 1900. "A history of Shurtleff College, the oldest education- al institution in the West.” Forbes, Stephen Alfred: History and Status of Public School Sci- ence Work. Pamphlet. Pantagraph Printing Company, Bloom- ington. Presidential address read before the Science Section of the Illinois State Teachers' Association at Springfield, December 37, 1889. Goodspeed, Thomas Wakefield: History of the University of Chicago. University of Chicago Press, 1916. Jubilee History of the Illinois State Normal University, by a Committee of Faculty, 1907, Normal, Illinois. Nevins, Joseph Allen: Illinois. Oxford University Press, Ameri- can Branch, New York, 1918. Powell, Burt E. Semi-Centennial History of the University of Il- linois, Volume I. University of Illinois, 1918. Scott, Franklin William; Ed. The Semi-Centennial Alumni Record of the University of Illinois. University of Illinois, 1918. Sixteen Years at the University of Illinois. University of Illi- nois Press, 1920. Transactions of the Illinois State Historical Society for 1904. Phillip Bros., State Printers, 1904. Springfield, Illinois. B. Sou rce Material I. Books and Pamphlets An Act to Establish and Maintain a System of Free Schools. Illi- nois journal Printing Office, Springfield, Illinois, 1872. Brooks, John F. , State Superintendent: Manual of Instructions Explanatory of the School Law, Adams and Blackner, Publish- ers, Rockford. 1364. 95 Crook, A. R. History of the Illinois State Museum of Natural History. Pamphlet. Springfield, 1307. Chicago School Reports. 1855 to date. c^ ic ^g°« Forbes, Stephen Alfred: The Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History and the Illinois State Entomologist's Office. Pamphlet High School Manuals, published by the High School Visitor. 19C5 to date. University of Illinois. Hollister, Horace Adelbert, Ed. University of Illinois Proceed- ings of High School c 01 ^ erence. University of Illinois, Urbana. House Reports, 15th, loth, and 17th General Assemblies. State Printer, Springfield. Contain Secretary of State's Reports on Schools. Illinois School Law. Phillips Bros. , State Printers. Spring- field, 1839. Illinois School Law. Pamphlet. Springfield, 1891. Illinois School Law as amended by Act, approved March 30, 1874, Pamphlet. Springfield, 1874. Illinois School Reports by State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion, 1855 to date. Springfield, Illinois. Proceedings, National Educational Association. Report of the Board of Trustees of University of Illinois, 1867 to date. University of Illinois. Report of Committee of Ten. Reports of Proceedings of North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, 1836 to date. Revised Statutes of Illinois, compiled and edited by Harvey 3. Kurd. Chicago Legal News Company. Chicago. 1318. Reynolds, John: My Own Times. Fergus Printing Company. Chicago. 1879. School Law of Illinois as amended by the Forty-Eighth General Assembly. Circular No. 74. Illinois State Journal Company, State Printers. Springfield. 1914. Senate Reports, 18th General Assembly. State Printer. Springfield. Contains Secretary of State's Report on School Conditions. University of Illinois Catalogues, 1867 to date. University of Illinois. / 96 II. Newspapers and Magazines Edwardsville Spectator, 1819 - 1826. Anti-slavery paper. Photo- stat copies in Illinois History Survey. Urbana. Illinois Intelligencer, 1818 - 1820. Successor to ?/estern Intel- ligencer. Original consulted in Mercantile Library, St. Louis. Photostat copies in Illinois History Survey, Urbana. Published at Kaskaskia. Illinois Intelligencer, 1820 - 1832, Published at Vanaalia. Photostat copies in Illinois History Survey, Urbana. School Science and Mathematics. Western Intelligencer, 1816 - 1818. Published weekly at Kaskaskia. Original consulted in Mercantile Library, St. Louis. Photo- stat copies in Illinois History Survey, Urbana.