THE UNIVERSITY < OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY I'fG'b r NOTICE: Return or renew all Library Materials! The Minimum Fee for each Lost Book is $50.00. The person charging this material is responsible for its return to the library from which it was withdrawn on or before the Latest Date stamped below. Theft, mutilation, and underlining of books are reasons for discipli- nary action and may result in dismissal from the University. To renew call Telephone Center, 333-8400 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN y -Htft L161 O-1096 Quality of Market Cream in Illinois Factors Affecting It and Methods for Improvement By C. A. BROWN UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 396 (January, 1934) CONTENTS PAGE PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF PRESENT STUDY 336 MARKETING SYSTEMS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON MARKETING COSTS AND CREAM QUALITY 337 Direct Marketing 337 Indirect Marketing Thru Cream Stations 338 METHODS OF PAYING FOR BUTTERFAT AND THEIR EFFECTS ON CREAM QUALITY 340 PAYING ONE PRICE IRRESPECTIVE OF GRADE 341 Payment on Basis of Quality 343 PRICE SPREADS BETWEEN BUTTER GRADES 345 Premiums on the London Market 345 Wholesale Price Spreads on the Chicago Market 346 PRESENT STATUS OF CREAM QUALITY 349 Quality in the Country as a Whole 350 Quality of Illinois Cream 351 FARM FACTORS AFFECTING CREAM QUALITY IN ILLINOIS.... 353 Effect of Temperatures 353 Frequency of Delivery 357 Foreign Materials and Flavors 364 Ownership and Tenancy as Related to Cream Quality 365 STATION FACTORS AFFECTING CREAM QUALITY IN ILLINOIS 366 Station Volume 366 Major Business of Establishments Buying Cream 368 Week-Day Distribution of Volume 369 Care of Cream by Station Operator 370 Exposure During Shipment 371 PROFITABLENESS OF CREAM IMPROVEMENT 373 Cost of Improvement at the Farm 373 Preserving Quality After Delivery Is Inexpensive 375 Costs of Improvement Less Than Gross Returns 376 CREAM IMPROVEMENT POLICIES 376 Interesting the Producers 377 Supplanting Station Marketing 377 Exchanging Stations 378 Penalizing Station Buyers for Low-Grade Cream 378 Paying Producers According to Grades 378 ESSENTIALS OF A CREAM GRADING PROGRAM 386 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 389 APPENDIX.. . 392 Urbana, Illinois January, 1934 Publications in the Bulletin series report the results of investigations made by or sponsored by the Experiment Station Quality of Market Cream in Illinois: Factors Affecting It and Methods for Improvement By C. A. BROWN, formerly Associate in Dairy Economics V jf "SHE QUALITY of the cream from which butter is made is a factor of great economic importance in the butter industry, for J-L it largely determines the quality of butter which is sold on a grade basis. Yet notwithstanding the fact that premiums for good butter are large enough so that butter manufacturers could pay pro- ducers of cream well for employing careful methods of production and handling, and still increase their own profits, few creameries in Illinois find it practical under existing conditions to purchase cream on a quality basis. Before the general adoption of the hand cream separator, creamery butter was of excellent quality. Milk was delivered daily and sepa- rated at the local creamery. With the advent of the hand separator, however, daily deliveries became exceptional, largely because cream was less perishable and more concentrated than milk. The delivery of cream rather than milk, because it made less frequent deliveries prac- ticable, enabled large and nonlocal creameries to supplant almost en- tirely the small local creameries. These large and nonlocal creameries have established, in many parts of Illinois, local cream stations in order to provide convenient markets, especially for small producers. Many stations are located 100 miles or more from the creameries. As a consequence of the marketing practices followed, not only is most cream kept several days at the farm but a substantial portion of the cream sold at stations is in transit a day or more. The fact that cream is kept for several days at the farm and much of it handled improperly both at the farm and in the marketing process contributes greatly to making the average quality of butter now pro- duced inferior to that formerly produced in the whole-milk creameries. This survey shows that care in the production and marketing of cream can be assured only by the general adoption within a cream- producing region of an improvement program, with payment on the basis of grade as the central feature. By the adoption of such a pro- gram several states and parts of states have largely eliminated the marketing of undergrade cream. Cream quality has been poorest and measures for cream improve- ment have been most difficult to achieve in those states where cream is purchased mainly thru cream stations. In Illinois some creameries have been experimenting for several years with different methods de- 335 336 BULLETIN 396 [January, signed to improve cream quality, but they have been able to make but little progress under the production and marketing conditions that have prevailed in the state. PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF PRESENT STUDY In order to assist in the solution of the important problem of im- proving cream quality, the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station conducted a survey to obtain facts essential to the establishment of a constructive improvement program in the state. Employees of the cream buyers did most of the field work of the FIG. 1. COUNTIES IN WHICH PRODUCERS CONTRIBUTED INFORMATION TO THE ILLINOIS SURVEYS A summer survey was conducted during July and August, 1930. Records were submitted by 1,594 producers in 46 counties. The winter survey was made during January to March, 1931. Records were obtained from 1,900 producers in 31 counties. Some producers submitted records for both surveys. 1934] QUALITY OF MARKET CREAM IN ILLINOIS 337 survey. Data were secured from representative stations in practically all the important cream-producing sections of the state. Fifty- two counties were included (Fig. 1). The acidity and grade of the cream of each individual producer were determined during July and August, 1930, and during January, February, and March, 1931. There were about 1,600 farmers in the summer survey and 1,900 in the winter survey. All tests were made at or near delivery time so as to determine the producer's responsibility for quality. Summer and winter tests were made largely at the same stations in order to measure seasonal influence upon quality. In order to obtain standard data the University representative per- sonally instructed those conducting the testing and grading, prepared the standard alkali solution and phenolphthalein indicator, and pro- vided uniform acidity testing apparatus. Each producer whose cream was tested during the summer was interviewed to obtain a knowledge of his production facilities and methods. Questionnaires requesting information upon station practices and equipment which affect quality were mailed to practically every station within the state. Replies were received from about 1,000 stations, which handle considerably more than 50 percent of the state's total volume. Information regarding cream and butter quality and experiences with grading plans and other improvement methods was obtained thru correspondence from responsible persons in other states and certain Canadian provinces. MARKETING SYSTEMS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON MARKETING COSTS AND CREAM QUALITY Over the country as a whole, cream-marketing facilities are gen- erally adequate to enable producers to market cream either directly or indirectly. Direct Marketing There are three methods of marketing cream directly ; namely, the direct shipment, the direct delivery, and the cream route methods. Direct Shipment. Producers located great distances from cream- eries sometimes market cream by direct shipment, usually at the shipper's expense. A few creameries secure their entire supply this way, but centralkers generally do not stress this method. For the large producer direct shipment is relatively inexpensive and especially adapted to the maintenance of quality. It not only reduces handling and exposure but makes it possible for his cream to be graded by an expert. Leading dairy provinces in Canada use the direct- shipping method exclusively (since stations have been abolished by law) except for cream produced near creameries. It has minimized 338 BULLETIN 3% [January, grading costs and to a large extent simplified compulsory grading. In this country, however, the limited train service, particularly in the smaller towns, and the downward trend in station costs, have retarded the expansion of direct-shipment practices. Direct Delivery. Farmers near creameries may deliver their cream directly to the creameries. Cream so delivered is generally weighed and tested at once so that immediate payment can be made. Direct delivery usually subjects cream to less exposure than other marketing methods, for soon after leaving the farm it is made into butter. If this cream has been handled properly at the farm, it will produce high- quality butter. Large creameries, especially those located in districts of only average cream output, however, can obtain but a small part of their volume by this method. When whole-milk creameries were manufacturing all the factory butter, most milk was delivered directly. High delivery, manufactur- ing, and distribution costs inherent in small-plant operation now make it impractical to operate whole-milk creameries except in intensive dairy districts. Cream Routes. Most route cream is of good quality, provided it is gathered as often as twice a week. Efficient operation of routes depends largely upon the intensity of production, the amount of com- petition, and the type of roads. Distances between route patrons must not be unduly large, otherwise marketing by means of routes is more expensive than other marketing methods. Even in districts of large volume, competition may make frequent gathering too expensive. Bad roads have been one of the principal factors restricting the use of routes, but this handicap has now been overcome in many sections. During the past decade many routes have been established, some of which have replaced stations. Indirect Marketing Thru Cream Stations Cream marketed directly is superior to station cream. For example, records for the year ended February 28, 1931, on approximately 1.5 million pounds of butterfat, secured largely from northern and central Illinois, show that 96.1 percent of the cream shipped direct, but only 89.9 percent of the station cream, made butter scoring 89 or above (Table 1). Both the station and direct-shipment cream were best dur- ing March. Undergrade cream was largest in volume during July to October inclusive. The larger proportion of undergrade station cream is caused mostly by the failure of operators to keep cream separated according to grade, by the greater age of station cream, and by the greater exposure of station cream to adverse temperatures. The quality of both the directly marketed cream and the station cream was adversely affected by the method of paying for butterfat, as will be shown later. 1934] QUALITY OF MARKET CREAM IN ILLINOIS 339 TABLE 1. COMPARISON OF QUALITY OF DIRECT-SHIPMENT CREAM AND STATION CREAM IN ILLINOIS' FOR THE YEAR ENDED FEBRUARY 28, 1931 Month Percentage of cream which made butter scoring 88 or less Direct shipment Station* March perct. 1.1 2.6 3.9 3.1 7.1 7.9 5.9 4.8 2.4 1.9 1.8 3.5 3.9 perct. 2.8 6.5 4.9 8.6 16.1 15.4 20.0 12.6 8.6 6.1 7.5 6.8 10.1 April June July .... August October December January Total pounds of butterfat on which percentages are based.. . 340,887 1,170,741 J Largely in northern and central Illinois. Calculated on a can basis. Farmers in the corn belt market most of their cream at local sta- tions. This preference, in spite of the fact that stations usually pay lower prices than other outlets, is the result of several factors, some of the more important being too small outputs for frequent shipments, convenience of marketing, the satisfaction of seeing the cream weighed and tested, and payment upon delivery. Formerly the station system was much more expensive than other marketing systems. Within the past decade, however, station costs have been reduced about 5 cents a pound of butterfat. Costs are now 2 cents or less a pound at many Illinois stations, and the state average is less than 2.5 cents. Certain progressive procurement managers think they can ultimately reduce the cost to one cent a pound at their larger stations. The shifting of operators from a salary to a commission basis and the linking of cream buying with other business pursuits largely ac- count for these reductions. When operators were paid salaries, over- head costs at small stations occasionally exceeded 8 to 10 cents a pound of butterfat. With the present system of paying for handling cream by commission, the returns from the small volume handled at most stations are inadequate for a livelihood, but operators meet this situa- tion by conducting other businesses in connection with cream buying. If a plant has a large number of stations scattered over a great extent of territory, local and temporary factors, such as weather con- ditions and production trends, will have little effect upon the total volume of cream received. Stations are operated by independent buyers and cooperative 340 BULLETIN 396 [January, cream-buying organizations, as well as by centralized creameries. Inde- pendent buyers generally contract to creameries. The large volume handled by them usually commands higher than average prices. Some independent buyers operate central stations which are supplied by feeder stations. Since cream is either their sole or major product, cooperative cream stations must handle a larger volume than privately owned stations to compete with them. Cream is purchased from both signers and non- signers of the cooperative agreement. It is generally contracted to commercial creameries. These cooperatives have a great opportunity to control cream quality. Owing to the smallness of the local units and the frequency of contact, local managers can be very influential with the membership. With but little effort members can learn how to produce good cream. Very few cooperative pools, however, avail themselves of their oppor- tunities in this respect. Probably little will be accomplished until pro- ducers are paid on the basis of quality. METHODS OF PAYING FOR BUTTERFAT AND THEIR EFFECTS ON CREAM QUALITY Butter and butterfat prices and the amount of butter overrun con- sisting of water, salt, and milk solids not fat, determine the margins of creameries out of which costs and profits are paid. The federal law requires a minimum of 80 percent butterfat in butter, which is equiv- alent to permitting an overrun of 25 percent. The average plant over- run, however, usually has not exceeded 23.5 percent, since it is im- practical to attain the legal maximum. The following price formula expresses the combined influences of the factors affecting margins, and hence may be used as a basis for determining what can profitably be paid for butterfat when the butter manufactured from it can be sold at a given price: Prospective selling price of butter X (overrun + 100%) total costs (including profits) = butterfat price If 7.05 cents a pound will cover all costs, and butter can be sold at 30 cents a pound, the manufacturer can also pay 30 cents a pound for butterfat on the basis of a plant overrun of 23.5 percent. Applying these figures to the formula, we obtain: 30 X 1.235 7.05 = 30 From Fig. 2 may be determined what prices can be paid for butter- fat on the basis of the prospective price of butter and any of three specific amounts budgeted for expenses and profits. For convenience in calculating, the maximum overrun was used. If a manufacturer's costs are only 5 cents a pound (line A) and butter sells for 20 cents a pound, the overrun will pay the costs when butter is 20 cents a pound. QUALITY OF MARKET CREAM IN ILLINOIS 341 If costs are 7.5 cents (line B), the value of the overrun in 30-cent butter will just equal them. If costs are 10 cents a pound (line C), butter must be 40 cents a pound before the overrun will defray costs. When butter is 50 cents a pound, the manufacturer with the lowest costs could afford to pay 57.5 cents a pound for butterfat, the one with the highest, 52.5 cents, and the other 55.0 cents ; that is, premiums for butterfat above butter could range from 2.5 to 7.5 cents a pound. 65 X,' x ^n x; & y - X-- ^ / 4-0 /x ^ 35 S ix; ' ,'V y 30 .X %> y ?^ X '? / LINE A ASS JMES 5 .0FOR EXPEN SESiP ROFIT 20 ? r LINE C 1 10 .0* " " & n 1 1 1 ' 1 20 25 30 35 40 45 5O 55 60 65 70 CENTS PER POUND BUTTERFAT FIG. 2. PRICES THAT CAN PROFITABLY BE PAID FOR BUTTERFAT ON THE BASIS OF PROSPECTIVE BUTTER PRICES AND THREE EXPENSE LEVELS On the basis of a 25-percent overrun, the butterfat prices that will permit a profit at three different cost levels may be ascertained from lines A, B, and C. For example, when handling costs (including profits) are 5 cents a pound (line A) and prospective butter prices are 30, 35, and 40 cents, creameries can afford to pay 32.5, 38.75, and 45.0 cents a pound respectively for butterfat. When costs are 7.5 cents a pound (line B), they can pay 30.0, 36.25, and 42.5 cents respectively. When costs are 10 cents a pound (line C), they can pay 27.5, 33.75, and 40.0 cents a pound. (See page 340 for basis of calculation.) Paying One Price Irrespective of Grade The one-price system for buying cream is used in most states, even tho it does not recognize quality except in a general manner. It is simple and inexpensive to use. There are three leading methods by which cream is purchased on a single-price basis. Sliding-Scale Method. This flexible method of establishing butter- fat prices closely reflects changes in the amounts realized from over- 342 BULLETIN 3% [January, run in butter. If the overrun is disregarded, changes in butter and butterfat prices will be exactly the same. The sliding-scale method provides that the price change of butterfat on a percentage basis be as much greater than the price change of butter as the percentage of overrun. For example, a variation of 5 cents a pound in the price of butter realizing a 25-percent overrun will produce a change of 614 cents a pound in the price of butterfat. Hence, if a creamery can pay 30 cents a pound for butterfat at a given butter price, it can pay 36}4 cents when the price of butter increases 5 cents and 23^4 cents when it declines 5 cents. This method is used quite extensively in the purchase of contract cream. It can be used in connection with a grading system. The method, however, is rather complicated for determining daily butterfat prices at stations. Prices Based on U. S. Department of Agriculture Daily Quota- tions. Another method provides for the maintenance of a fixed ratio, over rather long periods, between butterfat prices and butter quota- tions of the day previous. The ratio may vary with local conditions. For example, conditions in certain districts might be such that butter- fat prices would be the same as butter quotations, while in other dis- tricts conditions might warrant a differential of 1 cent or more. What ratio is fixed is largely determined by such factors as the position of the butter price-level, the nature of competition, the quality of product for the district as a whole, and the geographical location. The influence of the position of the butter price-level upon butter- fat prices has been shown. Competition may vary in the different dis- tricts. Where buyers purchase cream for special butter outlets, the differential, or the percentage by which price changes for the butterfat exceed those for the butter, will generally be higher. Districts which are unfavorably located or produce cream below average quality usually receive less than average prices. In Illinois, for example, butterfat prices average lowest in the southern section, owing to greater distances from the large butter markets and the inferior qual- ity of cream. The plan is rather simple and inexpensive. It requires very little administration as it is self-adjusting after the proper differentials have been established. Telephone, telegraph, and field expenses can be kept relatively low. It reduces much of the risk in manufacturers' future transactions. Practically all Illinois cream is now purchased by this method. The method is satisfactory to many producers. They consider gov- ernment quotations to be impartial and closely representative of market conditions. They appreciate having a definite standard for determining the value of their butterfat. Prices Based on Prospective Averages of Butter Prices. In some 1934] QUALITY OF MARKET CREAM IN ILLINOIS 343 states butterfat prices are based upon the average prospective butter prices for short periods of time, usually not more than one week. If some factor, however, materially affects the market, an adjustment in price is usually made. Such prices are merely rough approximations of actual butterfat values. The plan lacks system and organization and tends to develop chaotic marketing conditions. Much effort is required to adjust prices to the satisfaction of all buyers. Expenses for communication and field service are unduly large. Producers dis- like its inflexibility and its lack of a definite standard of value. Payment on Basis of Quality Butter is sold on the basis of grade, which is determined by five factors. These, together with their ratings, are: flavor, 45 ; body, 25 ; color, 15; salt, 10; and package, 5. Butter, however, cannot score 100, since flavor is never given a full score. Most butter produced in this country will score from 86 to 93. Altho the quality of the cream largely determines the quality of the butter, only within the past two decades has cream been bought by grade to a significant extent. In most large cream-producing states quality is now used as a price factor in the purchase of all or a part of the cream. Several different quality standards are used. The three most popular ones are: flavor, acidity, and age of cream as determined by frequency of delivery. Flavor. Flavor is the most accurate of all standards. To purchase cream on the basis of flavor only, however, is not always practical because it requires much skill and training to grade accurately. Even experienced graders will not be absolutely uniform. Creameries can grade by flavor, since they employ experienced graders. Operators undoubtedly could be trained at their stations to- distinguish and keep separate sweet cream, very low-grade cream, and the general run of cream. Paying for cream according to these classifications would materially encourage the production of high-quality cream. Mainly owing to producers' distrust of graders' ability and to manufacturers' desire for volume, payment on the basis of grades de- termined by flavor only has never been very popular. Flavor, never- theless, may be used advantageously in connection with other standards for field grading, altho it is usually necessary to subordinate it to the other standards. Amount of Acid. Under average farm conditions acid develop- ment in cream is approximately proportional to deterioration in qual- ity. Fresh cream is sweet to the taste and contains less than .2 percent acid. At ordinary temperatures acidity in cream develops rapidly for a day or two and undesirable flavors usually follow. Cream, however, may be low in acid and still be undergrade if it has absorbed objection- 344 BULLETIN 396 [January, able flavors. Because of such exceptions, it is best to combine the acidity test with some other test. In sections where cream is purchased by grade as determined wholly or partly by acidity, the number of grades and the divisions between them are usually determined by local marketing conditions. Three grade specifications for edible cream with divisions at .3 percent and .6 percent acid are extensively used. Cream free from undesirable flavors and containing not more than .3 percent acid will make butter that will score around 92; butter made from cream containing more than .3 percent acid but not more than .6 percent will score about 90. The usual run of farm-separated cream having more than .6 percent acid produces butter scoring approximately 88. Cream containing more than 1 percent acid is very undesirable for butter manufacture. For convenience, the alkaline solution (with phenolphthalein added), used for acid determination should be standardized so that a given amount will just neutralize .3 percent acid in the same amount of cream. If the mixture of equal parts of the solution and cream is pink, the cream contains less than .3 percent acid, and if the color dis- appears, the cream contains more than .3 percent. Should the pink color prevail after the amount of alkaline solution has been doubled, the cream contains less than .6 percent acid, and if it disappears, more than .6 percent. By using two small glass dippers of equal volume, one for the alkaline solution, the other for cream, grades can be determined much more conveniently and with less demand for skill than by titration. In fact, this method is so simple that the average station operator can use it without difficulty. The time required for the test is practically negligible. Producers eventually react rather favorably to the acidity test since most of them can be 'convinced that a definite color reaction indicates quality. This test, especially when used in connection with the test for flavor, closely indicates the amount of care and the methods used in handling cream at the farm. Age of Cream. Age of cream, as indicated by the interval between deliveries, may be used as a basis for payment by grade. It is simple to use and increases frequency of delivery, which is one of the principal factors affecting quality. It is particularly effective in the warmer sections of the country, where the rate of decomposition is high, The 4-day plan provides that a price differential be established be- tween cream not over 4 days old and cream older than 4 days. The plan obviously is based upon the assumption that under average con- ditions, cream not over 4 days old is better than older cream. The chief objection to using age as the sole standard of quality is that it recognizes only one of the important factors affecting quality and ignores care in production. A premium is paid for any poor 1934] QUALITY OF MARKET CREAM IN ILLINOIS 345 cream not over 4 days old, while the small percentage of good cream which is older is penalized. As a consequence, careful handling at the farm is not encouraged. Incentive for careful handling, however, may be provided by the use of a supplementary standard of quality such as flavor. The 4-day plan as used in Indiana, Kentucky, and Tennessee does not provide premiums for cream less than 4 days old if it has objectionable flavors. Establishing Price Differentials Between Cream Grades. Price differentials between butterfat grades can be only approximately rep- resentative of actual differences in values. They could be made more accurate if all butter manufacturers received the same prices for the same grades of butter as manufactured. However, various factors which influence the selling price of butter irrespective of the quality of the butter as manufactured, such as amounts of advertising, pro- portions of retail sales, and the intervals between purchase of cream and sales of butter, vary among the manufacturers. Obviously to determine the average difference in price between manufacturers' sales would be impractical. Since retail prices are based upon wholesale prices, differentials between the yearly weighted average 1 of wholesale prices of the various grades of butter at the nearest market are ac- cepted as the most practical basis for determining differentials between cream grades. For example, during 1926-1930 on the Chicago whole- sale market average differentials between 92- and 90-score butter and between 90- and 88-score were respectively .86 and 3.15 cents a pound (Table 3). On the basis of a 25-percent overrun in butter the cor- responding butterfat differentials are respectively 1.08 and 3.94 cents (.86x1-25 = 1.075). In actual buying practice the differentials would be 1 and 4 cents respectively. PRICE SPREADS BETWEEN BUTTER GRADES In the United States the proportion of butter used for commercial manufacture has materially declined since the beginning of the century. Vegetable oils have largely supplanted butter for commercial cooking and baking, two of the larger commercial outlets. Formerly consider- able undergrade butter was used in margarine manufacture. Since the World War, however, the use of butter has been largely restricted to homes, hotels, and restaurants. The preference for quality from these sources enables good butter to command a substantial premium. Premiums on the London Market Good butter commands a premium irrespective of its market outlet, altho some markets are less discriminating. Certain foreign markets are more particular than the United States. 1 Weighted according to seasonal variation and trade output. 346 BULLETIN 396 [January, London is the largest of the world butter markets. The major por- tion of its butter is supplied by Denmark, New Zealand, and Australia. The range in the prices of the butter from these countries is consider- able (Table 2). During the years 1928 to 1932 the maximum price spread between Danish and New Zealand butter was 4.18 cents a pound, the minumum 1.94 cents, and the average 2.96 cents. New TABLE 2. COMPARISONS OF AVERAGE YEARLY PRICES OF BUTTER ON THE LONDON MARKET, 1 1928-1932 (Cents per pound) 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 Average 1928-1932 Average yearly prices 40.67 39.33 32.44 26.08 18.44 31.39 New Zealand 37.73 37.39 28.26 22.83 15.95 28.43 35.87 36.56 27.64 22.18 15.43 27.54 Spread between average yearly prices 2 94 1.94 4 18 3.25 2.49 2.96 4.80 2.77 4 80 3.90 3.01 3.85 New Zealand and Australian 1.86 .83 .62 .65 .52 .89 'Figures obtained by averaging weekly figures given in Foreign Crops and Markets, Bureau of Agricultural Economics, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Zealand butter sold higher than Australian, the maximum spread be- tween the two being 1.86 cents, the minimum .52 cents, and the average .89 cents. These spreads are attributed largely to differences in quality. The "Lur" brand of Denmark has a world-wide reputation for quality. Only Danish butter of high quality can use this trade brand. Wholesale Price Spreads on the Chicago Market Average wholesale price spreads between different grades on the four largest butter markets of the United States are closely representa- tive of the country as a whole. Chicago is most representative since it is centrally located and is the largest wholesale market. For the years 1926-1930, inclusive, on this market, yearly weighted average price spreads in cents per pound between the consecutive grades of creamery butter from 93- to 86-score were as follows: .748, .894, .748, 1.149, 1.175, .943, and 1.010 (Table 3). Between consecu- tive centralized grades from 90- to 88-score the spreads in cents per pound were 1.494 and 1.651 respectively. Complete price data were not available for 87- and 86-score centralized butter, but their prices correspond closely to the same grades of creamery butter. The 6.667- cent spread between 93- and 86-score butter, which corresponds to 8.334 cents in terms of butterfat, undoubtedly is substantially greater than the difference in the cost of producing the two corresponding grades of cream. Altho spreads averaged smaller in 1931 than in the period 1926- 1934] QUALITY OF MARKET CREAM IN ILLINOIS 347 i I {jr* u ait HO" S C/5 |j|l a^-Sl Ssn* I T3 *" a; N ^ e 0^3 -n C S-o ~) oo ** fOtOt^'l'lOOOTfOO*3'O'fOVO -H \O to O B S W* "_rt >,j 2 g S ^^^ " I'o' 2 oo ^M a ) tOO 90 CN1OO>OOOOO I Tf 00 -TfO'-- 1 ^O'-tTh O *O so ** ^^iSP 1 1000 oof- - - 10 oo _ x> o >- - 1 c* ^. to to to 10 rt3" rt "8 rt^ ^ . . "SS5'S IV M ^3 O ^ >'. ^-.-oS ?.-oS ^^5^ ^i^53|^|.. BULLETIN 396 [January, 1930, their purchasing power was substantially larger. The spread in 1931 between 93- and 86-score creamery was 5.681 cents; between 92 creamery and 90 centralized, .550 cents ; and between 90 and 88 cen- tralized, 2.672 cents. On the basis of average purchasing power from 1926 to 1930, the corresponding spreads were 7.338 cents, .710 cents, and 3.451 cents. Consumer purchasing power in 1932 was abnormally low and con- sequently a marked reduction in spreads occurred, except in the spread between 92- and 93-score. The latter grade of butter is sold largely to the wealthier class. Average weighted spreads in cents per pound between the consecutive grades of creamery butter from 93- to 89- score were .973, .469, .451, and .561. Between consecutive grades of centralized butter from 90- to 88-score the spreads were 1.008 and .855 cents. With the exception of the spread between 93- and 92-score and that between 86- and 87-score, the purchasing power of the 1932 spreads was less than that of the spreads for the period 1926 to 1930. (See Tables 29 and 31, Appendix, for prices used in calculating spreads.) Seasonal Variation in Price Spreads. During 1926-1930 the sea- sonal variation in price spreads between the better and the poorer grades of butter was somewhat irregular (Fig. 3 and Table 32). There was, however, very little variation among three of the poor grades, namely, 88-score centralized, and 87- and 86-score creamery. Pre- miums for 92-score creamery and 90-score centralized were below the K 92 -SCORE CREAMERY 90- CENTRALIZED 88- " 87- CREAMERY AVERAGE MONTH I926-3O-IOO JAN. FEB. MAK APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC FIG. 3. SEASONAL VARIATION IN PRICES OF FIVE DIFFERENT GRADES OF BUTTER ON THE CHICAGO WHOLESALE MARKET, 1926-1930 During the season of highest production, butter prices averaged lowest. Prices of all grades averaged lowest in June, and, with the exception of 92- score creamery, highest in March. One 92-score creamery grade was highest in December. There was greater seasonal variation in prices of the three lower grades (88-score centralized, and 87- and 86-score creamery) than in the prices of the two better grades (92-score creamery and 90-score central- ized). Price spreads were smaller among the three lower grades. QUALITY OF MARKET CREAM IN ILLINOIS 349 average during the warm weather from April to September, when pro- duction of good butter was relatively larger than the demand at higher premiums. They were respectively 9.0 percent and 7.9 percent above 88-score prices. More of all butter was produced and consumed dur- ing this time than during the other half of the year (Fig. 4 and Tables 30 and 33, Appendix). A production peak of 146.2 percent of the average month of the five-year period was reached in June, and a consumption peak of 122.8 percent in May. IbO 140 130 120 100 90 80 70 / S PROC UCTIO SUMPTI N / N V -. -CON! ON I \ j \ \ ^ f \ t \- '" S V y '/ x. >'' \ V N \ '/ VERM E MOr Trl 19 26 -3C 100 \ ""^ r \ *** : i JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC. FIG. 4. SEASONAL VARIATION IN PRODUCTION AND APPARENT CONSUMPTION OF MANUFACTURED BUTTER, 1926-1930 There was less irregularity in consumption than in production of manu- factured butter. Peaks for both consumption and production occurred during the surplus season. The months of lowest butter production and consumption were, respectively, November and February. ("Apparent consumption" includes production, changes in stocks, and net imports or exports.) During the other six months of the year premiums were above the average because the demand for good butter is relatively greater than the amount produced. The average premiums above 88-score for 92- and 90-score were 11.4 and 9.2 percent respectively. Seasonal variation in price spreads between the various grades of butter is an important factor affecting price differentials between grades of cream. PRESENT STATUS OF CREAM QUALITY Cream quality varies materially among states. Some are par- ticularly in need of cream improvement. As stated earlier (page 338), 350 BULLETIN 3% [January, cream quality has been poorest in those states where butter manufac- turers obtain their cream largely thru cream stations. Quality in the Country as a Whole Cream and butter marketing is not sufficiently organized in the United States to secure a reliable estimate upon its quality. Opinions of well-informed dairymen obtained thru correspondence during 1930 regarding their respective states, however, indicate that approximately 34 percent of the total creamery-butter output of the country will score less than 90. More than 40 percent of all creamery butter produced in the country is produced in the states of Minnesota, Iowa, and Wis- consin, where quality is much above the average. Effect of Temperature Differences. Differences in temperature between one section and another cause cream to vary in quality. There is a difference of approximately 35 F. between the normal 1 annual temperatures at the extreme north-central and extreme south-central boundaries of the United States. The normal annual temperature at the northern extremity is 35 F. and that at the southern extremity approximately 70 F. Most of the dairy output of the country is pro- duced above the 50 normal-temperature line. As temperatures grow higher, more care is required to produce good cream. Good cream, however, may be produced as far south as the 60 normal-temperature line at a cost only slightly greater than in the northern sections of the country. The amount produced south of this line is relatively small. Conditions in Three Largest Butter States. By virtue of climatic conditions, legume adaptation, nearness to market, and other related conditions, dairying is one of the principal types of farming in Min- nesota, Iowa, and Wisconsin. Competent leadership has stimulated cream improvement. Farmers are more familiar with the funda- mentals of dairy production and marketing than in those states where dairying is only a minor enterprise. Land O'Lakes Creameries In- corporated, whose creameries are located largely in Minnesota and Wisconsin, have encouraged the production of better cream and estab- lished a nation-wide market for sweet-cream butter. There are still a few whole-milk creameries, many small creameries, and relatively few stations in these three butter states. Conditions Where Cream Production Is a Minor Enterprise. Most butter scoring less than 90 is produced in states where cream and milk production is a minor type of farming. Small herds pro- duce most of the cream. As a general rule, improvement is left en- tirely to the individual. Competition for volume and producers' indif- ference make it difficult to establish an organized improvement Average of all U. S. Department of Agriculture Weather Bureau records previous to 1931. 1934~\ QUALITY OF MARKET CREAM IN ILLINOIS 351 program. A few of these states, however, are gradually overcoming these handicaps. Trend in Quality Improvement. Cream undoubtedly is better now than it was before the automobile. The automobile and good roads have increased the frequency of delivery. The growing demand for good butter and the keenness of competition stimulate better produc- tion and marketing methods. Trucking routes are established as roads are improved. Most station operators are using better methods. In- creasing cooperation among producers and butter manufacturers en- ables the industry to use organized methods. Many buyers now con- cede that improvement in cream quality is essential for the progress of their business. Quality of Illinois Cream Cream production in Illinois is a minor type of farming. The herds are small, averaging about five cows. The northern section of the state produces less cream for butter manufacture than either the central or southern section, since it markets its milk largely thru fluid- milk outlets. Most of the butter is made by large centralizers, there being very few small creameries. Approximately two-thirds of the cream is gathered at stations. The quality of the cream found in this survey indicates need for improvement. Standards for Acidity and Grade Classifications. The cream which was surveyed was classified according to acidity and flavor. On the basis of acidity it was classified as follows: 1. Less than .3 percent acid. 2. Between .3 and .6 percent acid. 3. More than .6 percent acid. Grade classifications on the basis of acidity and flavor combined were: 1. Special. Cream which was smooth, free from undesirable flavors, and contained less than .3 percent acid. 2. First grade. Cream that was smooth, free from objectionable flavors, and with an acidity range of .3 to .6 percent. 3. Second grade. Cream that contained more than .6 percent acid, or pos- sessed objectionable flavors. Distribution of Cream on Basis of Acidity. The effect of season or temperature upon acidity in cream is significant (Table 4). Of the cream surveyed in winter 9.5 percent had less than .2 percent acid, 71.7 percent less than .5 percent and 96.1 percent less than .8 percent. In contrast only .4 percent of the cream surveyed in summer had less than .2 percent acid, 27.5 percent less than .5 percent acid and 76.9 percent less than .8 percent acid. In winter 1.1 percent of the cream contained 1 percent or more acid, whereas in summer 10.4 percent contained 1 percent or more of acid. Determining the exact acidity at stations is generally impractical. Three classifications with divisions at .3 and .6 percent acid are suffi- 352 BULLETIN 3% [January, TABLE 4. VARIATIONS IN PERCENTAGE OF ACIDITY IN ILLINOIS CREAM Percentage acidity Summer deliveries Winter deliveries Pounds of butterfat Percent- age of total volume Cumula- tive per- centage Pounds of butterfat Percent- age of total volume Cumula- tive per- centage . 19 or less 62 440 1 159 2 700 3 788 2 318 1 726 1 140 879 444 524 344 120 220 15 864 .4 2.8 7.3 17.0 23.9 14.6 10.9 7.2 5.5 2.8 3.3 2.2 .7 1.4 100.0 .4 3.2 10.5 27.5 51.4 66.0 76.9 84.1 89.6 92.4 95.7 97.9 98.6 100.0 2 119 3 851 4 868 5 150 3 130 1 619 699 409 216 198 32 2 18 22 311 9.5 17.3 21.8 23.1 14.0 7.3 3.1 1.8 1.0 .9 .1 .1 100.0 9.5 26.8 48.6 71.7 85.7 93.0 96.1 97.9 98.9 99.8 99.9 l66!6 .20- .29 .30- .39 . 40- .49 .50- .59 .60- .69 .70- .79 .80- .89 .90- .99 1.00-1.09 1.10-1.19 1.20-1.29 1.30-1.39 Total Based on deliveries of 1,581 patrons 1,990 patrons ciently accurate for field grading. Mainly for practical purposes, acidities have been grouped accordingly. In the summer survey 96.8 percent of the cream contained more than .3 percent acid, 50.2 percent had an acidity range between .3 and .6 percent, and 46.6 percent contained more than .6 percent acid (Table 5 ) . In winter cream was marketed with a lower average acidity. Almost 27 percent contained less than .3 percent acid and only 11.6 percent more than .6 percent. TABLE 5. COMPARISON OF CREAM ACIDITIES AND GRADES DURING SUMMER AND WINTER, ILLINOIS SURVEY (State as a whole) Acidity and grade Summer Winter Patrons Pounds of butterfat Patrons Pounds of butterfat Acidity only Less than .3 percent. .3 to .6 percent Over .6 percent Total number 47 757 777 1 581 29 455 697 1 181 percl. 3.0 47.9 49.1 100.0 2.5 38.5 59.0 100.0 number 501 7 970 7 393 15 864 302 4 582 6 766 11 650 perct. 3.2 50.2 46.6 100.0 2.6 39.3 58.1 100.0 number 448 1 188 354 1 990 412 971 607 1 990 perct. 22.5 59.7 17.8 100.0 20.7 48.8 30.5 100.0 number 5 969 13 758 2 584 22 311 5 476 11 485 5 350 22 311 perct. 26.8 61.6 11.6 100.0 24.5 51.5 24.0 100.0 Acidity and flavor First-grade 2 Total 'Special = cream containing less than .3 percent acidity and free from objectionable flavors. 'First-grade = cream containing .3 to .6 percent acidity and free from objectionable flavors. 'Second - grade = cream containing over .6 percent acidity or had objectionable flavors. 1934] QUALITY OF MARKET CREAM IN ILLINOIS 353 Distribution of Cream on Basis of Grades. In summer, 2.6 per- cent of the cream was graded special, 39.3 percent first-grade, and 58.1 percent second-grade. In winter, 24.5 percent was graded special, 51.5 percent first-grade, and 24.0 percent second-grade. If the summer and winter grades shown by the survey are each representative of half of the total annual production of the state, then Illinois produced during the year ended July 1, 1931, 13.6 percent of special cream, 45.4 percent of first-grade cream, and 41.0 percent of second-grade cream. During the summer the percentages of patrons delivering cream of each grade and the percentages of the total volume which the respec- tive grades constituted corresponded closely. In winter there was con- siderable discrepancy, 30.5 percent of the patrons bringing in second- grade cream, which constituted only 24.0 percent of the winter's total. It is evident that a larger percentage of the cream of the smaller pro- ducers is inferior in quality both in summer and in winter. FARM FACTORS AFFECTING CREAM QUALITY IN ILLINOIS The principal factors affecting cream quality on the farm in the order of their importance are temperature, frequency of delivery, and contact or storage with undesirable materials and flavors. Consider- able effort has been made to determine approximately their individual effects. Effect of Temperatures The difference in normal annual temperatures between the northern and southern boundaries of Illinois is approximately 11 F. 1 This is large enough to influence quality unless some variations are made in the care given cream at the farm. In order to compare the influence of sectional temperatures, the state was divided into three areas (Fig. 5). The normal annual temperatures of these sections were: northern, 49.6 F. ; central, 52.8 F. ; and southern, 56.1 F. The normal temperature of the central section was only .4 of a degree higher than that of the state as a whole. Acidity in Northern, Central, and Southern Illinois. Sixty-one and two-tenths percent of the summer cream of the southern section contained more than .6 percent acid, in comparison with 42.4 percent of the central and 47.0 percent of the northern summer cream (Table 6). The lower percentage of the central section as compared with that of the northern is inconsistent with the fact that the normal tem- perature of the central section is 3.2 higher than that of the northern section. The influence of one or both of the other principal factors 'Records of the Weather Bureau, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 354 BULLETIN 396 [January, affecting cream quality namely, frequency of delivery, and contact with foreign materials and flavors might account for this condition. It was most likely caused, however, by the smallness of the sample, since in winter the average acidity of the northern section was lowest ; FIG. 5. NORMAL MONTHLY AND MEAN YEARLY TEMPERATURES FOR THE NORTHERN, CENTRAL, AND SOUTHERN SECTIONS OF ILLINOIS The spread in the normal temperatures between the northern and southern extremities of the state is approximately 11 F. The lowest normal annual temperature is recorded for Marengo in the northern part of Illinois, 46.3 F., and the highest for Cairo in the southern part, 58.2 F. (not shown in graph). (From "Climatological Data: Illinois Section," published by U. S. Department of Agriculture). only 1 percent exceeded .6 percent acid and 41.7 percent contained less than .3 percent acid. In winter the cream of the central section was slightly better than that of the southern; 1.8 percent more cream in the southern section having less than .3 percent acid, and 4.1 percent less containing more than .6 percent acid. 1934] QUALITY OF MARKET CREAM IN ILLINOIS 355 TABLE 6. COMPARISON OF CREAM ACIDITIES AND GRADES DURING SUMMER AND WINTER IN ILLINOIS BY SECTIONS Summer Winter Patrons Pounds of butterfat Patrons Pounds of butterfat Northern section Acidity only Less than .3 percent .3 to .6 percent. . . . Over .6 percent . . . Total number 2 77 68 147 1 55 63 119 41 557 470 1 068 25 341 452 818 4 123 239 366 3 59 182 244 perct. 1.3 52.4 46.3 100.0 .9 46.2 52.9 100.0 3.8 52.2 44.0 100.0 3.1 41.7 55.2 100.0 1.1 33.6 65.3 100.0 1.2 24.2 74.6 100.0 number 12 901 810 1 723 5 616 643 1 264 470 5 872 4 662 11 004 283 3 537 4 688 8 508 20 1 198 1 920 3 138 14 427 1 435 1 878 perct. .7 52.3 47.0 100.0 .4 48.8 50.8 100.0 4.3 53.3 42.4 100.0 3.3 41.6 55.1 100.0 .6 38.2 61.2 100.0 .8 22.8 76.4 100.0 number 52 112 4 168 51 93 24 168 319 814 222 1 355 310 662 383 1 355 77 262 128 467 51 216 200 467 perct. 30.9 66.7 2.4 100.0 30.3 55.4 14.3 100.0 23.5 60.1 16.4 100.0 22.9 48.8 28.3 100.0 16.5 56.1 27.4 100.0 10.9 46.3 42.8 100.0 number 1 112 1 529 26 2 667 1 030 1 367 270 2 667 3 921 9 799 1 899 15 619 3 813 8 065 3 741 15 619 937 2 429 659 4 025 633 2 053 1 339 4 025 perct. 41.7 57.3 1.0 100.0 38.6 51.3 10.1 100.0 25.1 62.7 12.2 100.0 24.4 51.6 24.0 100.0 23.3 60.4 16.3 100.0 15.7 51.0 33.3 100.0 Acidity and flavor First-grade Second-grade Total Central section Acidity only Less than .3 percent .3 to .6 percent. . . . Over .6 percent. . . Total . . . Acidity and flavor Second-grade Total Southern section Acidity only Less than .3 percent .3 to .6 percent.. . . Over .6 percent . . . Total Acidity and flavor Special Second-grade Total Grades in Northern, Central, and Southern Illinois. The best cream was produced in the northern division of Illinois and the poorest in the southern. In summer relatively little special cream was pro- duced in the state. As in the case of acidity, the percentage of special cream shown for the northern section very likely is not a true index of the amount of special cream produced in this section, owing to the smallness of the sample. The proportion of first-grade cream in this section was 7.2 percent greater than in the central section and more than double that in the southern section. There was 25.6 percent less second-grade cream in the northern section than in the southern section. In winter the cream was by far the best in the northern section; 38.6 percent was special cream, which was more than double the per- centage in the southern section. In the central section 25.1 percent was special grade. Approximately one-third of the cream was second grade in the southern division, one- fourth in the central division, and one-tenth in the northern division. The percentages of different grades 356 BULLETIN 396 [January, produced in the central section were practically the same as in the state as a whole. Fourteen and three-tenths percent of the patrons brought in the second-grade cream in the northern division, 28.3 percent in the central division, and 42.8 percent in the southern division. Summer Temperatures Most Damaging to Quality. Protecting milk and cream from adverse temperatures in winter is generally not difficult for dairymen. A slight precaution will prevent freezing. The difficulty of minimizing the effect of summer temperatures, however, increases as temperatures rise. Unless cream is held at 60 F. or less at the farm, its quality is greatly impaired. Bacterial growth, which usually accelerates deterioration, is especially rapid in cream above 60 F. Normal monthly temperatures for the northern, central, and southern sections of Illinois range from 60.0 to 78.2 F. from May to September (Table 7). Monthly temperatures for the state during this period are: May, 62.6; September, 67.4; June, 71.9; August, 74.2; and July, 76.0 degrees. Hence, when cream is left exposed to the usual temperatures from May to September, rapid deterioration in quality results. TABLE 7. NORMAL MONTHLY AND MEAN YEARLY TEMPERATURES 1 FOR SECTIONS OF ILLINOIS AND THE STATE AS A WHOLE Month Northern Central Southern State F. 22 4 F. 27 3 F. 32 7 F. 26 8 February 24.2 29.0 34 1 28 5 March 36.6 41.2 45.5 40.6 April ... 49 3 52 9 56 52 4 May 60.0 63.1 65.6 62.6 June 69.6 72.4 74.5 71.9 July 74.2 76.4 78.2 76.0 August 72.1 74.5 76.8 74.2 September 64.9 67.7 70.4 67.4 October 52.7 55.5 58.4 55.2 November 39.1 42.4 46.0 42.1 December 26.6 30.9 35.4 30.5 Yearly normal 49.6 52.8 56.1 52.4 l Data secured from the "Climatological Data: Illinois Section," published by the Weather Bureau, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Temperature Control on Farms. Relatively few cream producers use any cooling medium more efficient than the ordinary atmosphere (Table 8). Seventy-six percent of the patrons in this survey, produc- ing 74.3 percent of the cream, reported that they used air exclusively as a cooling medium. Approximately 90 percent of the air-cooled cream was kept in the basement and most of the remainder elsewhere in the house. Eight and eight-tenths percent of patrons reported the use of tanks of water for cooling purposes. Temperatures in these tanks, however, were about the same as of the atmosphere, judging 1934] QUALITY OF MARKET CREAM IN ILLINOIS 357 from the quality of the cream. Nine and one-tenth percent of the patrons stored their cream in ice boxes and 4.8 percent in tubs 1 of water. Only 1.3 percent cooled their cream in running water, which is the most efficient cooling medium available on the farm. TABLE 8.- -TEMPERATURE CONTROL OF CREAM DURING SUMMER ON ILLINOIS FARMS Cooling medium Patrons Pounds of butterfat Running water number 21 74 140 136 1 173 1 544 243 1 301 1 544 perct. 1.3 4.8 9.1 8.8 76.0 100.0 15.7 84.3 100.0 number 252.3 818.6 1 500.8 1 441.1 11 579.5 15 592.3 2 632.5 12 959.8 15 592.3 Perct. 1.6 5.3 9.6 9.2 74.3 100.0 16.9 83.1 100.0 Ice box Tank of water 1 . Air Total Cooled before pouring into storage can Not cooled before pouring into storage can. . Total 'Temperatures of the air and the water in tanks apparently were about the same, judging from their effect upon cream grades. Eighty- four and three-tenths percent of the producers did not cool the fresh cream previous to pouring it into the storage can. Failure to precool fresh cream raises the temperature of the entire batch and thereby increases decomposition. Frequency of Delivery The quality of cream tends to decline rapidly as the cream increases in age, especially \vhen the cream is held at high temperatures. Hence there is great need for frequent deliveries and quick handling of cream between station and creamery, particularly in summer. Percentages of Cream Delivered at Different Intervals. In the summer survey 51.4 percent of the cream was delivered once a week, 40.7 percent twice weekly, and 7.1 percent three times a week, accord- ing to reports from producers (Table 9). The remainder, .8 percent, was divided equally between every-day and every-two-weeks deliveries. In summer, cream is delivered most frequently in the northern sec- tion and least frequently in the southern. Twenty and three-tenths percent of the cream of the northern section was delivered three times a week, 42.0 percent twice weekly, and 37.7 percent weekly. In the central section 6.0 percent was delivered three times a week, 41.4 per- cent twice a week, and 51.6 percent weekly. Distribution of deliveries in the central section was practically the same as for the state as a whole. In the southern section the distribution was: three times a 'The fact that the cream held in tubs was better than that held in tanks indicates that the water in tubs was changed more frequently. 358 BULLETIN 3% [January, TABLE 9. VOLUME OF BUTTERFAT IN CREAM DELIVERED AT DIFFERENT INTERVALS, ILLINOIS SUMMER SURVEY Aver- Frequency of delivery Northern Illinois Central Illinois Southern Illinois State age de- livery per person Ibs. Perct. Ibs. perct. Ibs. perct. Ibs. perct. Ibs. 68 6 68 .4 11 4 Three times a week .... 350 20.3 647 6.0 102 3.3 1 101 7.1 12.7 Twice a week 724 42.0 4 472 41.4 1 147 37.5 6 342 40.7 10.2 649 37.7 5 576 51 6 1 796 58.6 8 020 51.4 9.8 Every 2 weeks 43 .4 17 .6 61 .4 6.1 All deliveries 1 723 100.0 10 808 100.0 3 062 100.0 15 592 100.0 10.1 Based on deliveries of . . 147 patrons 1,038 patrons 359 patrons 1,544 patrons 3,088 patrons week, 3.3 percent; twice weekly, 37.5 percent; and weekly, 58.6 per- cent. Size of Deliveries in Relation to Frequency and Acidity. The amount of cream produced usually influences the frequency of de- livery, since large deliveries are less expensive per unit. Frequently, however, farmers go to town for other purposes and deliver cream with little or no additional expense or effort. Butterfat deliveries made weekly averaged 9.8 pounds ; those made twice a week, 10.2 pounds; and those made three times a week, 12.7 pounds. The average delivery in summer for all frequencies was 10.1 pounds. Fifty-six and nine-tenths percent of the summer patrons averaged less than 10 pounds per delivery, 81.1 percent less than 15 pounds, 94.4 percent less than 20 pounds, and 97.0 percent less than 25 pounds (Table 10). Size of deliveries varied slightly among the acidity classifications. The average summer delivery was 10.2 pounds of butterfat for cream containing less than .3 percent acid, 10.5 pounds for that ranging be- tween .3 and .6 percent acid, and 9.7 pounds for cream exceeding .6 percent acid. Winter deliveries averaged 1.1 pounds of butterfat more than sum- mer deliveries. Fifty and three-tenths percent of the winter patrons averaged less than 10 pounds per delivery, 73.8 percent less than 15 pounds, 91.6 percent less than 20 pounds, and 95.7 percent less than 25 pounds (Table 11). In winter as well as in summer the smaller deliveries averaged highest in acidity. The average winter delivery in the lowest-acid group was 13.3 pounds of butterfat; in the middle-acid group, 11.6 pounds ; and in the highest-acid group, 7.3 pounds. Thirty-nine and two-tenths percent of the w r inter deliveries in the lowest-acid group contained less than 10 pounds of butterfat, in contrast to 74.8 percent 1934} QUALITY OF MARKET CREAM IN ILLINOIS 359 fe >0<5iO>0<0<'50>NtS f~0^-* & X O O O 3 *" S-S c c 2 S^ ^ aa *" CS ' S2 | ** S -ovov crvioc xt^t^i/5oevo!/i35~-. ""S" 50 , '"" ^S S s -* r. ~ 5>. 1 ', -" ] - P 8 "" 5-S '. - I s ~ io^C t-<-)f~ONOOv ^^XXO^TC^^.^ VfTt 3 3 o o aa - J ^ o ; i li ,d : r. - i> o (2 ^ | N ,n ,,. ,0 ,*,* ., ^ . o S - > I ^ d ^ 000 000 TJ. o ^ - : II 3 3 c c ^ . * .5 aa a : : |a T3 "^ O |2 u j < : Patrons .3 to ^^- -*VO^.0 O.0*-** --,^ N - ^ <5 13 10 * O 10 10 *O * t*> r) PO -C X O - < J u S-S z ?. * Mg - o-'S-NON-tN--. - 00 3 3 O O a a i ^ C S2 - - 2 * H I- 2 S n> s 1 y each group patron nq jo spunc * ::::::::::::::::::::::::> wrought in b delivery per 0. iAJ>4.j,^A 360 BULLETIN 396 [January, K 1 11 O S 73 CSOO^to f ~CSNOOOO^CCSONtr>.ONOi/>t-l-00^.cs-NCWr< 5 o o aa cs Si 8 "I * romcs^oOt^cSONVO^NO^Tf.oO^O-.OrO^-OONOO^OOCSNONO O cs s --"- | ~--"- 1 ""- 1 ^ 2 f) H S* 5 4 H S'g rt ol w S **2 OT3 C C 5 H Cfc "C a ~ cs t- -H QO vo oo * oo * cs 10 cs t- TJ< t- n oo <> vo - .\ornn -w*> o O O aa i A o ?J e, ,-,22*^ '"f^ 11 o 00 ) 4 i Patrons more tr 8 CS 1/5 * * CS CS TH rt ( rtTHrt ... 1/5 2 d > '1 j d 5 W d-o C S < a H .S c . o o aa 5 H > - 8ft ^ -H ' ' 'NO 'NOI^NO "r^-*NO ' ' '^CS-HT*' rt O vS. rt ' O 00 H H 1 ^5 "S IO t^ ** ON -H CS 00 * CS ~* -H NO ID X >D t~ * 00 O 00 -< Nfl t^. 00 ro 1O *- 'J 1 00 2 4 5 C3 S 5 H 5 5^ S rONOOOOt / 3NO^r > CSOOOf)*-i'-'iONO' l ^ONONOt > *^HioON'- | OOt^ONO H H 5 g 01 . *-lcsNOON^ONOcsON')OOf'^ONt/5O^-cslo^ > *ON'-^' icscscsPOPOTfTfO ft H CS CS fO ro -^ -^ 10 lO NO t^ t^ 00 00 00 00 ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON O OT3 C C < < > la - fo^^ooin^oocoioooooioooo^^iDNOcso-H^Tj.^-^.cst-ONCSN-H o O O aa H ^ m o S ^vHi (f5f)^vOiO'O v OiOf / )^ < iO s Oi')t** > '^ f/ 5CSCST-( IO O * O ON f> ON El ) H Patrons less th S -r-t TH CS CS CS CS CS CS *-H CS CS CS CS **5 CS I-H ^H CS ** 1 y each group pat ron Dunds of but SB .S a fX, ^at><>OvOvOvovCNaosa<>ovONa<>aovo^ONC>ON<>osaov<>a ** M VH H ^ TH <-4 r-i ^H *H -H ^H CS CS CS fS CS CS CS CS CS CS ^ & ,_, ^, ^H i-( f-t i-l *-t H ^H -H ^H CS CS CS CS CS CS CS CS CS CS fO H E n! "3 > 1934~\ QUALITY OF MARKET CREAM IN ILLINOIS 361 in the highest-acid group and 47.3 percent in the middle-acid group. In summer the percentages of deliveries weighing less than 10 pounds ranged from 55.2 to 58.5 in the three acidity groups. There was no material difference between the butterfat contents of the cream delivered in summer and that delivered in winter (Table 12). Five and three-tenths percent of the summer cream, and 8.0 per- cent of the winter cream contained less than 30 percent butterfat; 45.6 and 47.7 percent respectively less than 40 percent ; and 88.5 and 91.8 percent respectively less than 50 percent. Cream is in relatively better condition to transport and its shipment is less expensive when it contains 35 percent or more of butterfat. Losses during separation, however, are greater with the average farm separator when the butterfat content of the cream exceeds approxi- mately 45 percent. More Frequent Deliveries From Larger Herds. Producers with the larger herds made the more frequent deliveries (Table 15). The average number of cows per herd for each frequency was reported as follows: delivery every two weeks, 2.9; once a week, 4.6; twice weekly, 6.0; three times a week, 8.4; daily, 11.3. The average size TABLE 12. PROPORTIONS OF CREAM TESTING VARIOUS PERCENTAGES OF BUTTERFAT IN SUMMER AND WINTER DELIVERIES, ILLINOIS SURVEY Butterfat tests Volume of summer deliveries testing as indicated Volume of winter deliveries testing as indicated perct. Less than 25 perct. 1.1 .6 1.1 .4 1.1 1.0 3.9 1.9 3.6 2.8 5.1 4.5 4.0 3." .2 5.3 5.1 3.5 3.8 3.4 3.2 3.7 1.6 3.9 7.6 100.0 cum. perct. 1.1 1.7 2.8 3.2 4.3 5.3 9.2 11.1 14.7 17.5 22.6 27.1 31.1 34.9 41.6 45.6 53.7 58.9 64.2 69.3 72.8 76.6 80.0 83.2 86.9 88.5 92.4 100.0 perct. 2.1 1.0 1.2 .9 1.5 1.3 2.7 1.5 2.9 2.4 2.7 5.8 5.4 4.4 6.8 5.1 7.9 5.7 7.6 4.2 4.0 4.9 3.4 2.4 2.2 1.8 2.8 5.4 100.0 cum. perct. 2.1 3.1 4.3 5.2 6.7 8.0 10.7 12.2 15.1 17.5 20.2 26.0 31.4 35.8 42.6 47.7 55.6 61.3 68.9 73.1 77.1 82.0 85.4 87.8 90.0 91.8 94.6 100.0 25-25.9 26-26 9 27-27 .9 28-28 9 29-29.9 30-30 9 31-31.9 32-32 9 33-33.9 34-34.9 . . ... 35-35.9 36-36 9 ... 37-37.9 38-38.9 . . . . 39-39 .9 40-40 9 ... 41-41.9 42-42 9 . . . 43-43 .9 44-44.9 .... 45-45 .9 46-46.9 47-47 .9 48-48 .9 49-49 .9 50-50.9 Over 51 Total Percentages are based on 15,986 pounds of butterfat 1,592 patrons 22,311 pounds of butterfat. 1,990 patrons Delivered by 362 BULLETIN 396 [January, of herd for all these producers was 5.4 cows. Forty-eight percent re- ported herds with 4 cows or fewer, and 52.0 percent herds with 5 cows or more. Distance to Market and Kind of Road Affect Frequency of De- livery. The average distance to market for all deliveries was 6.2 miles (Table 13). Forty-four and four-tenths percent of the distance traveled in making all these deliveries was over improved roads ; 39.8 percent was over plain dirt roads, and 15.8 percent over oiled roads. The three-times-a-week deliveries were taken an average of 4.1 miles to market, and 61.3 percent of the distance was over improved roads. Twice-weekly deliveries averaged 5.7 miles, and 48.7 percent of the distance was over improved roads. Weekly deliveries averaged 6.8 miles, and 39.8 percent of the distance was over improved roads. TABLE 13.- -EFFECT OF DISTANCE TO MARKET AND KIND OF ROAD ON FREQUENCY OF CREAM DELIVERIES, ILLINOIS SURVEY Frequency of delivery Total dis- tance to market, all patrons Average distance to market Distance over Improved roads 1 Plain dirt roads Oiled dirt roads Once a week miles 5 534 3 503 357 9 489 miles 6.8 5.7 4.1 6.2 perct. 39.8 48.7 61.3 44.4 perct. 43.8 35.1 30.3 39.8 perct. 16.4 16.2 8.4 15.8 Three times a week All deliveries 'Includes all roads except oiled dirt roads and plain dirt roads. Oiled roads, as specified in the table, were classified separately from other improved roads such as concrete, brick, gravel, and ma- cadam, since they are not so serviceable at all times. Approximately 16 percent of the roads over which the weekly and twice- weekly de- liveries were made were oiled. Frequent Deliveries Have Lower Acidities. The approximate effect of frequency of delivery on quality in summer was ascertained by comparing the acidities of different lots of cream of different ages but held at about the same temperatures at the farm (Table 14). With few exceptions the cream delivered more frequently had the lower acidity irrespective of the holding temperatures. Of the cream stored in ice boxes before delivery, 32 percent of that delivered three times a week, 11.3 percent of that delivered twice a week, and 3.3 percent of that delivered weekly contained less than .3 acid. The corresponding percentages for air-cooled 1 cream were 5.0, 1.2, and .4. In both cases the proportion of low-acid cream delivered three times weekly was approximately ten times as large as that delivered weekly. *Air of such inclosures as basements, houses, and smokehouses. 1934] QUALITY OF MARKET CREAM IN ILLINOIS 363 The percentages of cream that had acid contents exceeding .6 per- cent when stored in ice boxes before delivery were, for the thrice- weekly, twice-weekly, and weekly deliveries respectively: 9.0, 32.2, and 31.8. For storage in tubs of water the corresponding percentages were 29.8, 44.5, and 48.7; for storage in tanks of water 32.1, 39.4, and 75.0; and for air storage, 23.0, 39.1, and 58.5. TABLE 14. EFFECT OF FREQUENCY OF DELIVERY ON CREAM ACIDITY IN SUMMER, ILLINOIS SURVEY Place of storage and frequency of delivery Volume of butter- fat in cream with less than .3 percent acidity Volume of butter- fat in cream with .3 to .6 percent acidity Volume of butter- fat in cream with more than .6 percent acidity Total volume Cream stored in running water Three-times-a-week deliveries.. pounds ii'.s 18.6 60.4 3 pat 32.8 73.3 24.4 130.5 10 pa percl. 25!i 25.6 23.9 rons 32.0 11.3 3.3 8.7 :rons Pounds 13.9 103.4 43.8 161.1 12 pa 60.5 366.4 485.1 912.0 89 pa 53.8 194.1 182.7 430.6 36 pa 133.6 276.3 134.1 544.0 53 pa 450.9 2 627.5 2 479.1 5 557.5 525 pa perct. 100.0 62.4 60.2 63.9 Irons 59.0 56.5 64.9 60.9 trons 70.2 55.5 51.3 55.0 Irons 56.7 49.0 25.0 40.7 Irons 72.0 59.7 41.1 50.2 trons pounds perct. Pounds 13.9 165.7 72.7 252.3 21 patrons 102.6 648.5 747.7 1 498.8 139 patrons 76.6 349.9 355.8 782.3 70 patrons 235.6 563.9 537.2 1 336.7 124 patrons 626.6 4 402.3 6 033.8 11 062.7 1,128 patrons 20.5 10.3 30.8 6 pat 9.3 208.8 238.2 456.3 40 pa 22.8 155.8 173.1 351.7 34 pa 75.6 222.0 403.1 700.7 61 pa 144.3 1 720.3 3 532.4 5 397.0 589 pa 12.4 14.2 12.2 rons 9.0 32.2 31.8 30.4 Irons 29.8 44.5 48.7 45.0 Irons 32.1 39.4 75.0 52.4 Irons 23.0 39.1 58.5 48.8 trons Total Based on deliveries of Cream stored in ice boxes Three-times-a-week deliveries.. Twice-a-week deliveries Once-a-week deliveries Total. Based on deliveries of .... Cream stored in tubs of water Three-times-a-week deliveries. . Twice-a-week deliveries Total Based on deliveries of Cream stored in tanks of water Three-times-a-week deliveries. . Twice-a-week deliveries 26.4 65.6 11.2 11.6 Total 92.0 10 pa 31.4 54.5 22.3 108.2 14 pa 6.9 ;rons 5.0 1.2 .4 1.0 .rons Based on deliveries of Cream stored in air 1 Three-times-a-week deliveries.. Twice-a-week deliveries Total Based on deliveries of 'Air of such inclosures as basements, houses, and smokehouses. The marked effect of frequency of delivery on the acidity of cream stored in air is particularly significant since more cream was stored in this manner. The results indicate beyond doubt that frequent deliver- ies will materially improve cream quality. Had it been possible to eliminate the effects of foreign materials and flavors, especially those resulting from milking and handling, the effect of frequency of delivery could have been more accurately de- 364 BULLETIN 396 [January, termined. Most of the cream, however, was handled in about the same manner and consequently differences in effects produced by foreign substances probably were not significant. Foreign Materials and Flavors Contamination of milk and cream by such foreign materials as dirt and dust introduce certain bacteria which develop high acidity and ob- jectionable flavors. Objectionable flavors may also be absorbed by milk and cream when stored with aromatic materials, or these flavors may be absorbed thru improper feeding. The first source is by far the most objectionable and most frequently encountered. Quality Varies With Kind and Amount of Foreign Materials. Part of the cream surveyed was high in acid and off-flavor in spite of the fact that it was held at low temperatures and delivered frequently. Nine percent of the cream stored in ice boxes and delivered three times weekly contained more than .6 percent acid. Of the remainder, 32.0 percent contained less than .3 percent acid and 59.0 percent was in the middle-acid group. It is very probable that differences in the kind and amount of foreign materials in the milk or cream caused most of the variation in acidity. Several other examples of acidity variations probably caused by the same differences in foreign-matter content are manifest in Table 14. Experiments 1 have shown that contact of milk and cream with unclean utensils is the most damaging of all sources of contamination. Hence buckets, strainers, cream separators, and all other dairy utensils should be thoroly cleaned and sterilized. Reports from 520 Illinois cream producers show that only about half of them washed their cream separators twice daily. Absorption of Foreign Flavors. Many foreign flavors are ab- sorbed by milk and cream when these are stored with fruits, vege- tables, or other aromatic materials. About one-third of 1,500 pro- ducers reported that they stored cream with such materials. Certain feeds, such as wild onion, garlic, and rape, when eaten by cows, impart undesirable flavors to milk. Approximately 5 percent of the producers surveyed stated that their pastures contained wild onions. No measure of the influence of these flavors could be made, since they were not classified separately from the general group of ob- jectionable flavors. 1 M. J. PRUCHA, H. M. WEETER, and W. H. CHAMBERS. Germ content of milk as influenced by the utensils. 111. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 204. 1918. 1934] QUALITY OF MARKET CREAM IN ILLINOIS 365 Ownership and Tenancy as Related to Cream Quality Besides the factors already mentioned as directly affecting cream quality on the farm, certain others may have an indirect bearing upon it. For example, conditions of production and marketing differ for tenants and owner-operators. In this survey it has been possible to examine a few of these differences (Table 15). Percentage of Tenants. According to preliminary 1930 Census re- ports, 43.3 percent of Illinois farms are operated by tenants. In the TABLE 15. POSSIBLE FACTORS INDIRECTLY AFFECTING CREAM QUALITY AS THEY OCCURRED ON OWNER 1 AND TENANT 2 FARMS, ILLINOIS SUMMER SURVEY Owner Tenant Owner and tenant Percentages of tenants and owners In Illinois 3 56 7 43 3 100 54 8 45 2 100 Among producers included in survey 52.4 47.6 100 Size of family Average number of persons per family making Every-day deliveries 6.3 4.0 5 5 Three-times-a-week deliveries 4.3 4.4 4.3 3.9 4.3 4 1 Once-a-week deliveries 3.8 4.1 3.9 3.0 5 2 4 3 All deliveries 3.9 4.2 4.0 Percentage of families with 4 persons or fewer Percentage of families with 5 persons or more 70.1 29.9 64.2 35.8 67.3 32.7 (Based on deliveries of 1,466 producers totaling 14,793 pounds of butterfat) Size of herd Average number of cows per herd on farms making 12.8 8.5 11.3 Three-times-a-week deliveries 9.3 7.4 8.4 6.0 6.0 6.0 Once-a-week deliveries 4.8 4.4 4.6 2 2 3.6 2.9 All deliveries 5.6 5.2 5.4 Percentage having herds of 4 cows or fewer Percentage having herds of 5 cows or more (Based on deliveries of 1,464 patrons totaling 14,818 pounds of butterfat) Quality of herd Percentage using 46.5 53.5 53.8 49.8 50.2 54.2 48.0 52.0 54.0 Grade sires 46.2 45.8 46.0 (Based on deliveries of 1,314 patrons totaling 13,344 pounds of butterfat) ^Owners are farmers who own all or part of the land they operate. ^Tenants are farmers who operate hired land only. The classification includes managers. Approximately 1 percent of Illinois farms are supervised by managers. 'Figures obtained from 1930 U. S. Census for Illinois. 44 counties included in the summer survey, 45.2 percent of the pro- ducers were tenants. Of those who provided the data for the summer survey, 47.6 percent were tenants. The slight variation between the Census and the survey figures would seem to indicate that representa- tive producers were included in the survey. 366 BULLETIN 396 [January, Size of Family. Tenants had the larger families. Their average was 4.2 persons in comparison with 3.9 for the owners. Four was the average for both groups. Twenty-nine and nine-tenths percent of the owner families and 35.8 percent of the tenant families averaged 5 or more persons. The larger families (omitting consideration of those making deliveries every two weeks) made more frequent deliveries than the smaller ones. Semimonthly and every-day deliveries by ten- ants constitute the exception. Size of family is particularly important when children are attending schools located in the market place. In such cases frequent deliveries of cream can generally be made at little or no cost. Size of Herd. It has been shown that producers with the larger herds delivered cream more frequently. The average size of herds for owners and for tenants delivering every two weeks was 2.2 and 3.6 cows respectively. In contrast, herds of owners who delivered cream daily except Sunday averaged 12.8 cows and herds of tenants 8.5 cows. Owners had an average herd of 5.6 cows, tenants 5.2 cows. The average of both owners and tenants was 5.4 cows. Fifty-three and five-tenths percent of owners' herds consisted of 5 cows or more, in comparison with 50.2 percent of tenants' herds. Percentage of Purebred Sires. Dairymen using purebred sires are, as a rule, more familiar with the fundamentals of dairy produc- tion and marketing, and consequently use better methods. Fifty-four percent of all patrons used purebred sires. There was little difference in this respect between owners and tenants, 53.8 percent of the owners and 54.2 percent of the tenants using purebred sires in their herds. Contrary to opinions often held, these data indicate that there is no significant correlation between tenancy and cream quality. STATION FACTORS AFFECTING CREAM QUALITY IN ILLINOIS The amount of exposure incurred and the time spent in handling cream after it reaches the station have been considered unduly large. A brief examination of station practices verifies this observation. Station Volume Cream buying may be the sole, the major, or the minor business of a station operator. Compensation for buying cream is so small that un- less the operator has a large volume his income is inadequate. On this account most operators combine cream buying with other business pur- suits. The volume of cream and the relative amount of income from other sources largely determine the amount of care that cream receives. Data on station volumes were procured only for September, 1930. 1934] QUALITY OF MARKET CREAM IN ILLINOIS 367 TABLE 16. VARIATIONS IN SEPTEMBER, 1930, BUTTERFAT RECEIPTS OF CREAM STATIONS INCLUDED IN ILLINOIS SURVEY Pounds of butterfat Number of stations Percent of stations in each group Cumulative percent of stations Percent of pounds received Cumulative percent of pounds received Less than 200 49 5.2 5.2 4 4 200- 400 113 12.0 17.2 2.5 2 9 401- 600 110 11 7 28 9 4 6 9 601- 800 100 10.6 39.5 5.1 12 801-1,000 82 8.7 48.2 5.4 17 4 1,001-1,200 71 7.5 55.7 5 6 23 1,201-1,400 58 6.1 61.8 5.4 28 4 1,401-1,600 46 4.9 66.7 5 33 4 1,601-1,800 42 4.5 71.2 5 1 38 5 1 801-2 000 . 43 4 6 75 8 6 44 5 2,001-2,200 30 3.2 79.0 4.6 49 1 2 201-2 400 36 3 8 82 8 6 55 1 2,401-2,600 33 3.5 86.3 5.9 61 2,601-2,800 15 1.6 87.9 2.9 63.9 2,801-3,000 14 1.5 89 4 2 9 66 8 3,001-3,200 5 .5 89.9 1.1 67.9 3,201-3,400 10 1 1 91 2 4 70 3 3,401-3,600 14 1.5 92.5 3.5 73 8 3 601-3,800 8 9 93 4 2 1 75 9 3,801-4,000 8 .9 94.3 2.3 78 2 4,001-4 200 4 4 94 7 1 2 79 4 4,201-4,400 7 .7 95.4 2.2 81 6 4 401-4 600 8 9 96 3 2 6 84 2 4,601-4,800 4 .4 96.7 1.4 85 6 4,801-5,000 5 .5 97.2 1.8 87.4 5,001-6,000 11 1.2 98 4 4 4 91 8 Over 6,000 15 1.6 100.0 8.2 100.0 Total 941 100.0 100.0 Average volume per station. Total volume. . . . . . .1,475 pounds .1,388,376 pounds All Stations. The average amount of butterfat handled in Septem- ber, 1930, by the 941 stations reporting was 1,475 pounds (Table 16). Five and two-tenths percent of the stations handled less than 200 pounds each. Their output was only .4 percent of the total. Twelve percent of the stations had volumes ranging between 200 and 400 pounds to a station. Stations with outputs of 2,000 pounds or less handled 44.5 percent of the total. Seventy-five and nine-tenths per- cent of all cream was purchased by stations with volumes averaging less than 3,800 pounds. Only 15 of the stations exceeded an average of 6,000 pounds. Their volume amounted to 8.2 percent of the total handled by all stations. Certain Types of Stations. The average butterfat receipts of stations buying cream only was 1,608 pounds, or 459 pounds less than the average receipts of those stations buying cream as the major busi- ness (Table 17). Of the stations buying only cream, 51.0 percent did not have volumes exceeding 1,200 pounds, in comparison with 31.4 per- cent of the other group. The average output of those stations buying cream as a minor business was 1,306.8 pounds. 368 BULLETIN 396 [January, TABLE 17. VARIATIONS IN SEPTEMBER, 1930, BUTTERFAT RECEIPTS OF STATIONS BUYING CREAM ONLY AND BUYING CREAM AS MAJOR BUSINESS, ILLINOIS SURVEY Pounds of butterfat Buying cream only Cream buying is principal business Number of stations Percent of total stations Percent of total pounds Cumula- tive per- cent of total pounds Number of stations Percent of total stations Percent of total pounds Cumula- tive per- cent of total pounds Less than 200 3 14 14 12 13 16 15 3 8 7 5 4 6 5 3 3 4 3 3 141 2.1 9.9 9.9 8.5 9.2 11.4 10.7 2.1 5.7 5.0 3.6 2.8 4.3 3.6 2.1 2.1 2.8 2.1 2.1 100.0 .2 1.9 3.1 3.8 5.1 7.7 8.6 1.9 5.9 6.0 4.6 4.0 6.6 6.3 4.4 4.8 7.7 7.3 10.1 100.0 .2 2.1 5.2 9.0 14.1 21.8 30.4 32.3 38.2 44.2 48.8 52.8 59.4 65.7 70.1 74.9 82.6 89.9 100.0 2 3 10 14 9 10 8 12 6 12 6 11 9 11 5 13 7 2 3 153 1.3 2.0 6.5 9.2 5.9 6.5 5.2 7.8 3.9 7.8 3.9 7.2 5.9 7.2 3.3 8.5 4.6 1.3 2.0 100.0 .1 .3 1.6 3.1 2.6 3.4 3.2 5.7 3.2 7.2 4.0 8.0 7.1 9.6 5.2 14.9 10.3 3.5 7.0 100.0 .1 .4 2.0 5.1 7.7 11.1 14.3 20.0 23.2 30.4 34.4 42.4 49.5 59.1 64.3 79.2 89.5 93.0 100.0 201- 400 401- 600 601- 800 .... 801-1,000 1,001-1,200 1,201-1,400 1,401-1,600 1,601-1,800 1,801-2,000 2,001-2,200 2,201-2,400 2,401-2,600 2 601-3 000 3,001-3,400 3,401-4,000 4.001-5,000 5,001-6,000 Over 6,000 Total Average volume per 1,608 pounds 226,767 pounds 2,067 pounds 316,176 pounds Total volume Major Business of Establishments Buying Cream Fifteen percent of the stations surveyed handled cream only, 16.3 percent handled it as the major business, and 68.7 percent as a minor line (Table 18). Most establishments buying cream as a minor busi- ness were primarily produce, general, grocery, or feed stores. Estab- lishments of these types buying cream constituted, respectively, 26.3, 23.6, 7.8, and 2.9 percent of all stations. Hatcheries and meat markets together made up 2 percent. A variety of other businesses also handled cream as a minor line, but each constituted less than 1 percent of all stations. Sixteen and three-tenths percent of all cream was purchased by stations buying cream only, 22.8 percent by stations buying cream as their major business, and 60.9 percent by business establishments oper- ating cream stations as a minor enterprise. Cream buying as a minor business often results in the neglect of the cream, since operators are generally more interested in their major lines. Furthermore the space and equipment for handling the cream often are inadequate for preserving its quality. 1934] QUALITY OF MARKET CREAM IN ILLINOIS 369 TABLE 18. MAJOR TYPES OF BUSINESS CARRIED ON BY 941 ILLINOIS ESTABLISH- MENTS HANDLING CREAM, SEPTEMBER, 1930 Business Number of stations Percent of stations Percent of total butterfat handled Cream handling only 141 153 247 222 73 27 9 9 7 7 6 5 5 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 11 941 15.0 16.3 26 -.3 23.6 7.8 2.9 1.0 1.0 .7 .7 .6 .5 .5 .4 .3 .3 .3 .2 .2 .2 1.2 100.0 16 22 60 100 3 8 9 .0 Cream handling major business Cream handling secondary to other business Produce Grocery store Feed Hatchery Meat Garage Hardware Shoe repair . . Cafe Farming Post office Elevator Mill Carpentering Housekeeping Harness shop Trucking Miscellaneous 1 Total Total volume of butterfat represented 1,388,376 pounds ^Miscellaneous includes one each of establishments whose proprietors were respectively a barber, laborer, schoolteacher, plumber, drayman, operator of a storage plant, manufacturer of dairy products, dealer in coal and ice, manager of ice and transfer business, radio dealer, proprietor of cleaning and pressing shop. Week-Day Distribution of Volume One hundred thirty-six stations, handling 6.0 percent of the total volume, reported that they did not buy every week day. Of the 805 stations buying daily, 43.8 percent reported Wednesday and Saturday as the two largest days; 12.3 percent, Monday and Saturday; 11.9 percent, Friday and Saturday; and 8.9 percent, Tuesday and Saturday (Table 19). Of 136 stations not buying daily, 36.8 percent reported Wednesday and Saturday as their two biggest days ; 8.8 percent, Tues- day and Saturday; 8.1 percent, Friday and Saturday; and 5.9 percent, Monday and Saturday. In answer to the question regarding the two days having largest receipts some stations reported only one day. Ten and seven-tenths percent of the stations buying daily and 16.9 per- cent of those buying less frequently, reported Saturday only. The data indicate that the two biggest buying days in order of importance are Saturday and Wednesday. The general custom of going to market on Saturday largely accounts for the large receipts on this day. Less irregularity in daily cream receipts would materially increase the efficiency of labor and equipment in manufacturing and marketing. 370 BULLETIN 396 [January, TABLE 19.- -DAYS OF LARGEST CREAM RECEIPTS AT STATIONS INCLUDED IN JANUARY, 1931, ILLINOIS SURVEY Days Stations buying cream daily 1 Stations not buying cream daily number 99 72 353 47 96 86 4 7 3 2 2 2 1 perct. 12.3 8.9 43.8 5.8 11.9 10.7 .5 .9 .4 .3 .3 .3 .1 ".I .1 3.6 100.0 number 8 12 50 5 11 23 2 10 "2 1 i 3 1 3 3 1 136 perct. 5.9 8.8 36.8 3.7 8.1 16.9 1.5 7.4 'i'.s .7 '!? 2.2 .7 2.2 2.2 .7 100.0 Tuesday and Saturday Monday and Thursday Monday and Wednesday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday 1 1 29 805 Friday Total !Daily except Sunday, as cream stations do not buy cream on Sunday. Care of Cream by Station Operator Changes in the quality of station cream after it leaves the farm are due largely to the kind of care given it by the station operator. Much cream that was good when delivered is undergrade when it reaches the creamery, owing to lack of care at the station. Keeping Undergrade Cream Separate. The mixing of undergrade with good cream causes more damage to cream than all other types of station carelessness. Data previously discussed show that the pro- portion of undergrade cream is largest for the small producer. De- liveries of approximately one-third of the patrons will average less than 2 gallons. The mixing of 2 gallons of undergrade cream with 8 gallons of good cream in a 10-gallon shipping can usually lowers ma- terially the quality of the entire batch before it reaches the churn. Forty-five percent of 954 stations reported that they kept the un- dergrade cream separate (Table 20). Creameries, however, consider this estimate too high. It is thought that the operators referred only to cream that was exceptionally poor. But regardless of the accuracy of the estimate it is clear that segregation of undergrade station cream could be carried much further, thereby reducing to a great extent the present production of low-grade butter. Hot-Water Rinsing and Steaming of Cans. Ninety-three and six- tenths percent of 986 operators reported that they used either hot water or steam or both for rinsing and steaming cans. Unless hot water and steam are available, much deterioration in quality will result from the use of unclean and unsterilized equipment, particularly cans. 1934] QUALITY OF MARKET CREAM IN ILLINOIS 371 TABLE 20. STATION PRACTICES AFFECTING CREAM QUALITY, ILLINOIS SURVEY, JANUARY, 1931 Station practice Number of stations Percentage of stations Total stations reporting Bad cream kept separate 429 45 954 Cream stored in temperature below that of open air Cans steamed or rinsed by hot water 136 923 15.6 93 6 870 986 Length of time 1 cream was at railroad station before shipment 2 420 Half hour or less 290 69 Half to 1 hour 44 10 5 One to 4 hours 68 16 2 Over 4 hours 18 4 3 'The maximum time limit is included in each time interval. For example, 1 to 2 hours includes cream in transit from 1 hour 1 minute to 2 hours inclusive. Includes only stations that ship cream by rail or rail and truck. Many operators, however, do not use either hot water or steam ef- ficiently and effectively. Length of Exposure at Railroad Station. Generally facilities are inadequate at railroad stations for storing cream at low temperatures. Hence the length of time that cream is held at these stations is im- portant. Sixty-nine percent of 420 cream stations reported that the holding time did not exceed half an hour. Ten and one-half percent reported that cream was held from one-half to one hour, 16.2 percent from one to 4 hours, and 4.3 percent more than 4 hours. Exposure During Shipment Exposure during shipment depends largely upon the method of shipment, the number of transfers, and the time in transit. Method of Shipment. During September, 1930, stations shipping exclusively by truck, constituting 54.8 percent of the total, shipped 64.4 percent of the total volume (Table 21). Thirty-eight and three-tenths percent of the stations shipped exclusively by rail. Their shipments TABLE 21. METHODS USED TO SHIP CREAM DURING SEPTEMBER, 1930, ILLINOIS SURVEY Method of shipment Number of stations Percentage of stations Percentage of total butterfat shipped Rail 359 38.3 29.5 Truck 513 54.8 64.4 65 6.9 6.1 All methods 937 100.0 100.0 Total volume of butterfat represented 1,385,721 pounds 372 BULLETIN 396 [January, were only 29.5 percent of the total volume. Six and nine-tenths per- cent of the stations shipped by truck and rail. Unless the creamery is on a direct rail line with the station, cream may be unduly exposed during transfer. When shipped by rail, cream is not generally protected from the heat, except from the direct rays of the sun. Sometimes not even this protection is provided cream transported by truck. However, it is generally possible to give cream transported by truck a larger amount of care in transit. Number of Transfers. Forty-eight and eight-tenths percent of 621 stations handling 61.2 percent of the total volume shipped cream with- out transfer and 41.4 percent handling 30.2 percent of the total volume shipped cream with only one transfer (Table 22). Two transfers were made by 8.8 percent of the stations which handled 7.1 percent of the total volume. One percent of the stations shipped with three transfers. The amount of exposure at transfer points depends largely upon TABLE 22. NUMBER OF TRANSFERS AND TIME IN TRANSIT FROM CREAM STATION TO CREAMERY, ILLINOIS SURVEY, SEPTEMBER, 1930 Stations Amount of butterfat Number of transfers Three number 6 55 257 303 621 perct. 1.0 8.8 41.4 48.8 100.0 perct. 1.5 7.1 30.2 61.2 100.0 cum. perct. Two One Total Total volume of butterfat represented 944,073 pounds Time in transit 1 % hour or less 30 3.8 4.9 4.9 J^ 1 hour 80 10 2 12.5 17 4 11}^ hours 36 4.6 5.7 23.1 1 H~2 hours 102 13 13.6 36 7 2- 3 hours 124 15.9 15.8 52.5 3 4 hours 84 10 7 12.1 64 6 4 5 hours 49 6.3 5.8 70.4 5 6 hours 54 6 9 6.4 76 8 6 7 hours 37 4.7 4.4 81.2 7- 8 hours 44 5 6 4.2 85 4 8- 9 hours 16 2.1 1.4 86.8 9- 10 hours 19 2 4 2.0 88 8 10- 11 hours 15 1.9 2.6 91.4 11- 12 hours 39 5 4.0 95.4 12- 13 hours 5 .6 .6 96.0 13 14 hours 11 1 4 1.1 97.1 14 15 hours 4 .5 .3 97.4 15 16 hours 4 5 .2 97.6 16- 17 hours 9 1 2 .5 98 1 17- 18 hours 9 1.2 .8 98.9 18- 20 hours 4 .5 .6 99.5 Over 20 hours 8 1.0 .5 100.0 Total 783 100.0 100.0 Total volume of butterfat represented 1,144,427 pounds 1- The maximum time limit is included in each time interval; for example, 1 to 2 hours includes cream in transit from 1 hour 1 minute to 2 hours inclusive. 1934] QUALITY OF MARKET CREAM IN ILLINOIS 373 the season of the year, the time of day, and the length of time the cream is held. Exposure to heat in summer may be reduced if ship- ment is made during the night. In winter the cream should be well covered to avoid freezing. Time in Transit. Seven hundred eighty-three Illinois stations, part of which ship by rail and the remainder by truck, reported that 17.4 percent of the cream they shipped was not in transit more than 1 hour, 52.5 percent not more than 3 hours, 76.8 percent not more than 6 hours, and 95.4 not over 12 hours. Quality may be preserved during long shipment periods in summer by icing the cans. PROFITABLENESS OF CREAM IMPROVEMENT A comparison of the cost of improving cream and the resultant increase in gross returns determines whether improvement is profit- able. If the costs of improvement are larger than the increase in re- turns, dairymen and butter manufacturers will not be interested in improvement projects. If improvement can be shown to be economi- cally desirable, they will be interested. Cost of Improvement at the Farm The cost of improving cream at the farm may be estimated by studying the influence of each main factor in production. Storage Temperatures of 60 F. Inexpensive on Most Farms. In summer, storage temperatures not exceeding 60 F. may be had by the use of ice or artificial refrigeration. These, however, are expen- sive and are not available on all farms. Running water is an inexpen- sive means of securing and maintaining temperatures around 60 F. in summer. It may be used also to prevent freezing of cream in winter. An overflow tank for storage of cream may be supplied with run- ning water direct from the well and made to overflow into the stock watering tank. Temperature changes in the cooling tank caused by radiation may be materially reduced by installing the tank in a milk house instead of in the open air. Running water may be used for precooling of warm cream before mixing it with previous separations as well as for storage. By agi- tating it in the can set in the running water, the cream soon is lowered to the temperature of the water. Water with a temperature of 60 F. or less can be had thruout the year from wells 30 to 60 feet deep in most of the cream-produc- tion territory of the country (for Illinois and contiguous areas, see Fig. 6). In the eastern section of the country these temperatures are available as far south as the northern extremities of South Caro- lina, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, and almost to the Mexican 374 BULLETIN 3% [January, border in most of the western section. In most of the state of Cali- fornia, however, the average is between 60 and 65 F. At the north- ern extremity of Illinois the temperature of the water from wells 30 to 60 feet deep is about 50 and at the southern extremity about 60 F. FIG. 6. APPROXIMATE TEMPERATURE OF WATER FROM NONTHERMAL WELLS AT DEPTHS OF 30 TO 60 FEET The temperature of water near the surface follows closely the changes in air temperature. There is, however, a rapid decrease in the temperature of the water for the first few feet. At a depth of 30 to 60 feet the temperature will generally exceed the mean annual air temperature only 2 or 3 degrees. Non- thermal wells 30 to 60 feet deep are ordinary wells similar to those found on practically all Illinois farms. (Above map is a portion of a map of the United States published by the U.S. Geological Survey, Water Supply Paper 520.) The shallower the wells the closer the temperature of the water approximates that of the atmosphere. Data by Tamura of Japan and Spence of North Dakota 1 show that the annual range in tempera- ture of the ground decreases rapidly the first few feet below the surface. Spence's work discloses that in North Dakota, where an extreme variation of approximately 133 occurs, the range in the temperature of the ground was 80 at a depth of 1.2 feet, 42 at 3.7 feet, 25 at 6.6 feet, and 18 at 9 feet. A curve plotted from the data indicates that at about 30 feet the annual temperature range does not exceed 1 F. After studying more than 3,000 temperature records of 'TAMURA, S. T. U. S. Mo. Weather Rev. 296, 1905. SPENCE, B. J. Quart. Jour. N. Dak. Univ. 8, 233-238. 1918. Cited by COLLINS, W. D., in Water Supply Paper 520F, U. S. Geological Survey, 1925. 1934] QUALITY OF MARKET CREAM IN ILLINOIS 375 ground water from depths of 30 to 60 feet, C. E. Van Orstrand 1 con- cluded that the temperatures at these depths generally exceed the mean annual air temperature by two or three degrees. Frequent Deliveries Are Not Expensive. Previous to the automo- bile and improved roads, frequent deliveries of cream were more ex- pensive. During the cropping season frequent deliveries often meant taking a horse from the plow or other service in the field. Roads were bad and the rate of travel slow. Half a day for marketing was not unusual. Present conditions, however, are very different. Most farm- ers have automobiles available and a trip to market requires but little time. Since most adult members of the farm family drive a car, fre- quent deliveries generally need not interfere with work in the field. The prevalent opinion that most cream producers in the corn belt, par- ticularly in Illinois, can deliver cream at least twice weekly at negligible cost seems logical. If all cream were delivered as frequently as that, the amount of low-grade butter produced would be materially less than at present. Foreign Materials and Flavors Easily Eliminated. Ordinary pre- caution generally will keep the amount of foreign materials and the taint of foreign flavors in milk and cream at a desirable minimum. A clean barn and clean cows, careful feeding, clean untensils, a milk pail with a small opening, dry milking, and proper storage conditions are important requirements. Most objectionable flavors imparted to milk thru certain feeds may be avoided by feeding such feeds four hours previous to milking. Objectionable flavors that are absorbed by milk and cream in storage can be avoided by not storing the milk with products which impart flavors. The additional costs which correct practices entail obviously are not large. Protecting public health alone is ample cause for producing wholesome milk and cream. Preserving Quality After Delivery Is Inexpensive Better station methods and equipment for handling the cream usu- ally need not increase costs. Often an increase in general station ef- ficiency resulting from increased attention to cream quality is sufficient to compensate for any added expenditures. If not, volume sometimes can be increased. If an increase in volume is impractical, one or more other businesses may be conducted in connection with cream buying. The industry would be greatly benefited if those stations which can- not handle cream properly without a loss were abolished. Adequate Station Equipment Pays for Itself. Adequate equipment at stations for handling cream generally pays for itself by increasing labor efficiency, eliminating waste, and improving quality. Equipment 'Cited by Collins, W. D., in Water Supply Paper 520F, supra. 376 BULLETIN 3% [January, for supplying hot water and steam saves labor and eliminates all need for the use of chemical sterilizers. Racks for draining and airing cans reduce bacterial contamination and are not costly. Cream may be kept cool in summer by storing in inexpensive water tanks. Usually the cost of ample space for efficient operation is small in proportion to the saving in labor costs. Improving Station Methods Is Not Costly. One of the most ef- fective methods of improving station practices is for creameries to charge operators with unreasonable depreciation in quality between the time it is delivered to them and the time it is received at the creamery. Most improper practices and carelessness at stations can be eliminated at a small expense. Within a short time a field man can teach an oper- ator how to distinguish the best, the general run, and the worst cream and the importance of keeping them separate. It should not require more than 30 seconds to separate and store each patron's cream on the basis of these grades. In summer, cream may be kept cool by placing the cans in shallow water and wrapping each one with a wet burlap sack, part of which is in contact with the water; If the air is allowed to circulate freely over the cans, evaporation of the water will keep the cream consider- ably cooler than the atmosphere. Cream can also, in many cases, be shipped more frequently and the time in transit reduced without additional cost by changing the method of transportation. Many creameries use the truck, especially where rail service is poor. During transit such inexpensive practices as shielding cream from the direct rays of the sun with a canvas cover- ing, or using wet sacks around cans for lowering temperatures, often prevent material depreciation in quality. Costs of Improvement Less Than Gross Returns Altho no records are available showing the exact difference in the cost of producing good and poor cream, the data collected indicate that it is not large. The annual wholesale price spread between good and poor butter, however, averaged several cents a pound from 1926 to 1930. Hence it is obvious that a buying plan which would pay pro- ducers the maximum price differential between good and poor grades of cream would net them good profits for careful handling. CREAM IMPROVEMENT POLICIES Several plans for assuring more care in the production and market- ing of cream have been adopted. None is equally effective in all localities. The greatest progress can generally be made by the adoption of a program which combines various policies. 1934~\ QUALITY OF MARKET CREAM IN ILLINOIS 377 Interesting the Producers Support for an improvement program depends largely upon a prac- tical understanding of its benefits. Cream buyers are more familiar with market demands than producers and hence have more initial in- terest in the improvement of cream quality. Producers must be edu- cated in market demands in order that they may understand the eco- nomic advantages of cream improvement. Realization of the increase in price resulting from general improvement undoubtedly would dis- pense with much producer indifference to quality. Many, however, would have to be shown how to produce good cream. When most producers acquire a working knowledge of improvement practices, the difficult problem of cream improvement will be largely solved. Education, however, is slow and gradual in effect. It becomes much more quickly effective when producers are paid for their cream on the basis of grade. Producers then seek information upon market demands and cream production methods. The dissemination of in- formation upon production and marketing is generally essential to the success of any improvement plan. Supplanting Station Marketing Station marketing makes the problem of securing high-grade cream more difficult than when other methods of marketing are employed. As already stated, station marketing necessitates more handling than the other methods and lengthens the time of transit. It also makes more difficult the problem of grading. Proper administration and in- spection essential to a plan of payment by grade is more difficult and, as previously stated, the station operator cannot grade so accurately as the expert at the creamery. Mainly for dispensing with such diffi- culties certain Canadian provinces also abolished stations by law when they passed legislation for payment of cream by grade. Such legal action would, however, be impractical in Illinois, where stations are used so extensively. During 1929, 65 percent of the butter- fat of the state was sold thru cream stations. 1 If stations were abolished, cream would have tp be marketed largely by direct shipment or by routes, since there are relatively few local creameries. Operation of routes would be limited largely to the summer and fall seasons in many sections on account of bad roads. Direct shipment would greatly increase transportation costs from farm to market for small producers. Hence if an improvement plan is to be practical generally in Illinois, it must be applicable to the station system. 'U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census. 378 BULLETIN 396 [January, Exchanging Stations Considerable overlapping of territory occurs with the use of sta- tions. Much cream, purchased by competitive stations near large creameries, is shipped by these stations distances of 150 to 200 miles. The average distance between station and creamery can be greatly reduced by a general exchange of stations on the basis of proximity to creamery. Not only would transportation costs be reduced, but also the age of cream and exposure to adverse conditions. In the event that station exchanges were made to such an extent that only one station buyer operated within a district, abuses from monopoly might develop. Confining the territory of procurement close to a creamery might also reduce the stability of volume and thereby increase overhead costs. The extent to which such adverse develop- ments could be prevented or controlled would determine the advantages to be gained from a systematic exchange of stations. Penalizing Station Buyers for Low-Grade Cream The two following plans are effective in the elimination of station carelessness. Elimination or Reduction of Commissions. Some creameries with- draw all or a part of the station operators' commissions on low-grade cream. This causes operators to separate cream by grade, handle it carefully, and often to instruct patrons in the care of cream. If operators followed these practices carefully, a large part of the under- grade cream would be eliminated. The plan, however, usually does not exert sufficient economic pressure upon station buyers to force them to go further and pay producers by grade and thereby get at the first source of poor quality. Paying Original Buyers on a Grade Basis. Certain creameries are now paying operators according to grade. Some pay on the basis of grade at the station, others on the basis of grade at the creamery. This plan exerts considerable pressure upon operators to pay pro- ducers by grade, to segregate cream on a quality basis, and to handle and transport it carefully. Theoretically it should increase station income. Many of the large buyers in Illinois have used the plan fairly successfully during the past two years. Competition for volume is the chief reason why it is not used more extensively. Unless most of the larger buyers follow the plan, the usual allocation of cream will be disturbed, as dissatisfied operators will sell to creameries who do not penalize them for low-grade cream. Paying Producers According to Grades Paying producers by grade is the most effective method for im- proving cream. It not only reduces the production of undergrade 1934] QUALITY OF MARKET CREAM IN ILLINOIS 379 cream on the farm, but improves station methods. Plans for paying by grade have been applied in certain Canadian provinces and in certain states in this country (Table 23). Cream Grading in Canada. Paying by grade was made compul- sory in the provinces of Alberta and Manitoba in May, 1922, and May, 1923, respectively. Also the station system was abolished by law. By being shipped directly, the cream could be graded with fewer and better qualified men. Graders supervised by the Provincial Govern- ment and financed by the creameries grade at the competitive markets. Not all plants have sufficient grading to fully occupy all of the grader's time. For economy's sake, an arrangement is generally made for grad- ers to perform creamery work during their spare time and receive part of their salaries from creameries. In the noncompetitive markets a private employe having a grader's license may grade. In Manitoba the net cost for grading service in 1923 was approxi- mately 27 cents per 100 pounds of butterfat. In 1929 the cost was ap- proximately 22 cents. All samples of milk and cream purchases taken at the creameries must be protected from extreme temperatures and retained for a period of not less than 48 hours. A complete record of all purchases of cream must be kept at the creamery subject to inspection for at least three months. Five grades of cream with the following specifications are used in the provinces of Alberta and Manitoba. 1. Table. Cream containing not more than .2 percent acid and suitable for household use. 2. Special. Cream containing not more than .3 percent acid, smooth, clean in flavor, and suitable for special-grade butter. 3. First grade. Cream containing not more than .6 percent acid, smooth, reasonably clean in flavor, and suitable for first-grade butter. 4. Second grade. Cream that fails to meet the requirements for first grade and is stale, bitter, musty, metallic, or otherwise unclean in flavor. 5. Off-grade. Cream that is unfit for second-grade butter. It has objection- able flavors such as those of stinkweed, kerosene, gasoline, onion, or garlic. A legal minimum price differential of 2 cents a pound of butter- fat was established between special-grade and first-grade cream, 3 cents between first- and second-grade, and 5 cents between second- and off-grade. In Alberta production of special-grade cream increased from 32.4 percent of the total volume during the last eight months of 1922 to 39.1 percent of the total volume during 1923 (Table 24). Second-grade cream declined in volume from 27.2 of the total to 16.1 percent, and off-grade from .8 to .2 percent. A small allowance, however, need be made for seasonal effect since the figures for 1922 do not cover the months from January to April. Since Alberta does not make a spe- cialty of table-grade cream, the percentages for it are not significant in a quality survey. 380 BULLETIN 396 [January, ft 6 , U^H M * O I g S U ^ ^ m DS 11 C C aS "2.S u.sji E o 81 II io* f >JS 3 M I* 2 It 8.1 3 41 . ^ ^ rt lib* o c o *- S i o 'a C ^3 . 2 cd 2 ^ M "3 % S ge -o o n O a General description of gra For household use. Smooth, clean in flavor, suitable for special Reasonably clean in flavor, of uniform com making first-grade butter. Does not meet requirements of next higher ( musty, metallic, or otherwise unclean in I Contains objectionable flavors such as kero weed, onions, and is unfit for making No Smooth, sweet, clean to the taste, and free flavors. Smooth, clean to the taste, and free from al Contains such undesirable flavors as foami or stale in moderate degree but is edible. Old, musty, rancid, dirty, or with markedlj Suitable for the manufacture of 92-score but flavor, at least 30% butterfat. Suitable for the manufacture of 90-91>^-sci tain some undesirable flavors. Suitable for the manufacture of 88-89J^-s foamy or slightly curdy, may contain di Unfit for human consumption. Sold at intervals of not more than 4 days, f flavors at t.ime of delivery. Older than 4 days and all cream containin! not of such quality to be rejected or class Cream containing onion or garlic flavor. Rancid, moldy, dirty, oily, or otherwise un' Grades V 1 ! "g 2 C6 & JS Vi 83 H c/2 fe M O 3 -g 1 III! (/} [in C/) P o 1 C T3 t! M >- 4) . S3 2 '5? E 03 (- K 1 a S 1 1 1 I K S 5 '17 O, tt! O (^ i a T3 a'-s . s C S c 3 *. w C c 2^0 cd 1 SO XOT3 **> o-5 >> o "n C g g a . > c .ti > cd 3 2 a? 2 5^2 S fc o 2 2 ^j 5 BO O c a o a 1 .s 8 cd E 1 cd cd <3 S 3 3 c 1934] QUALITY OF MARKET CREAM IN ILLINOIS 381 TABLE 24. IMPROVEMENT IN QUALITY OF CREAM UNDER GRADING 1 SYSTEM USED IN PROVINCES OF ALBERTA AND MANITOBA, CANADA Table cream Special grade First grade Second grade Off-grade Alberta 2 1922 3 percl. 2.3 percl. 32 4 perct. 37 3 perct. 27 2 perct. g 1923 4.1 39.1 40.5 16.1 2 1924. . 3 3 42 3 43 2 11 2 1925 1.7 39.0 47 1 12 2 1926 1.0 37.3 49.2 12.1 .4 1927 1 . 1 34 6 52 2 11 8 3 1928 2.7 39.3 50.6 7.2 .2 1929 3.1 43.8 47.5 5.4 .2 Manitoba 4 1923 5 15.1 7.4 55.1 21.8 .6 1924 25.1 8.3 53.1 13.0 .5 1925 25.8 7 9 49.8 16.0 .5 1926 29.5 8.2 47.8 14.1 .4 1927. . . 29 2 8 47 2 15 3 .3 1928 32.3 8.0 47.1 12.4 .2 1929 37.1 8.7 43.5 10.5 .2 May 1 to October 31, 1923 13.1 6.7 56.5 23.1 .6 May 1 to October 31, 1929 . 29.6 7.2 50.3 12.7 .2 'Cream is graded by licensed graders. J Data obtained from "Reports of the Dairy Commission," by C. P. Marker. 'Law became effective in May, 1922. 4 Data obtained from "Report on Cream Grad- ing," by D. E. MacKenzie. 5 Law became effective in May, 1923. A corresponding improvement in butter quality occurred in this province (Table 25). Production of special-grade butter for the first six months of compulsory grading (May to October, 1922) reached 26.8 percent of the total. During the corresponding period in 1921, previous to compulsory grading, only 8 percent of the butter was special grade, according to a representative sample of approximately 6 million pounds. First-grade butter, with a flavor score of 40, in- creased from 30.1 to 35.0 percent. First-grade, with a flavor score of 39, decreased from 35.8 to 19.0. The proportion of second-grade butter also decreased significantly. TABLE 25. IMPROVEMENT IN QUALITY OF BUTTER IN PROVINCE OF ALBERTA, CANADA* Grades of butter May to October, 192 1 2 May 3 to October, 1922* perct. 8.0 perct. 26 8 30.1 35.0 35 8 19 19.1 13.7 Second grade, flavor score 37 points 6.0 4.2 Off-grade . . 1.0 1.3 Total 100.0 100.0 5,680,015 pounds 6,204,573 pounds 'Issued by authority of Honorable George Hoadley, Minister of Agriculture, Edmonton. Total creamery butter manufactured during 1921 was 13,048,493 pounds. 'Grading began in May, 1922. 4 Total creamery butter manufactured during 1922 was 15,417,070 pounds. 382 BULLETIN 3% [January, Similar progress was made in Manitoba. A comparison of the first eight months of grading with the corresponding period six years later shows that table cream increased in volume from 13.1 of the total to 29.6 percent, and special from 6.7 percent to 7.2 percent. First-grade cream decreased in volume from 56.5 to 50.3 percent, second-grade from 23.1 to 12.7 percent, and off-grade from .6 to .2 percent. In both provinces improvement was largest the first year. At least one other province has adopted compulsory payment by grade. Reports indicate substantial improvement. Cream Grading in Washington. On June 10, 1927, the state of Washington began compulsory grading of all milk and cream by licensed graders under the supervision of the State Department of Agriculture. The Division of Dairy and Livestock has direct control. The graders, like the weighers, samplers, and testers, are paid by the cream buyers. Persons wishing to take the examinations for licenses as grader, weigher, sampler, or tester, must make application to the Washington State Department of Agriculture thru the Division of Dairy and Livestock. Dairy inspectors of the Department give the ex- amination and supervise the enforcement of regulations governing the production, transportation, buying, selling, testing, weighing, grading, and sampling of milk and cream and the manufacture of same into dairy food products. For a period of four months a sample and a complete record with one or more legible carbon copies of every test, weight, and grade must be kept in a locked container subject to inspection by a representative of the State Department of Agriculture. The sampler, tester, weigher or grader must make and keep these records. Graders must tag all station shipments of cream according to grade. The alkaline test, with phenolphthalein as an indicator, must be used to determine cream acidity. Cream buyers must see that cream is properly cared for be- fore and after shipment. It is unlawful to mix first- and second- grade cream for a first-grade churning. Failure to comply with the established regulations is sufficient cause for revocation of license. The State Department of Agriculture is permitted to make and en- force the rules and regulations that it deems necessary to carry out the provisions of the grading system. This flexibility makes the sys- tem more practical under changing conditions. Following are the specified grades, briefly described: 1. Special grade. Cream that is smooth, free from undesirable flavors, and does not contain over .2 percent acid. 2. First grade. Cream that is smooth, free from undesirable flavors, of good physical condition, and does not contain more than .6 percent acid. 3. Second grade. Cream that contains more than .6 percent acid, has foreign flavors in a moderate degree or otherwise fails to meet the require- ments of first-grade cream. Cream which falls below the level set for second-grade cream is 1934] QUALITY OF MARKET CREAM IN ILLINOIS 383 condemned as unlawful. This cream is old, musty, rancid, dirty, or has other pronounced objectionable characteristics. Here again data for the first year of grading, as indicated in Table 26, are not based upon a 12-month period. After discounting the effect of season, however, a significant improvement is shown. Special cream increased from 20 percent of the total production during the last half of 1927, to an average of 40 percent for the whole of the following year; second-grade decreased from 25 to 8 percent and unlawful cream from 5 to 2 percent. No significant changes occurred from 1928 to 1930. TABLE 26.- -I.MPROVEMKNT IN QUALITY OF CREAM UNDER GRADING SYSTEM USED IN STATE OF WASHINGTON 1 Grades of cream 19272 1928 1929 1930 Special perct. 20 perct. 40 perct. 42 perct. 43 50 50 38 40 Second grade 25 8 17 16 5 2 3 1 Total 100 100 100 100 'Data obtained by letter from Dr. Robert Prior, Supervisor of Dairy and Livestock, Washington State Department of Agriculture. 2 June 10 (date grading began) to December 31 inclusive. Cream Grading in California. Cream grading in California is voluntary. Its application, however, now extends over most of the state. The Bureau of Dairy Control of the State Department of Agri- culture administers the grading projects. The plan used in projects cited below provided that all cream buyers of a district sign an agree- ment to finance the grading service, the cost of which ranged from about one-fifth to one-twenty-fifth of a cent per pound of butterfat. Graders at the receiving platform grade as much of the cream as pos- sible. They also visit those producers having inferior cream and in- struct them in proper methods. Buyers do not follow uniform prac- tices as to payment and size of price differentials. The law prohibits the addition of any chemical or substance to cream offered for sale which will interfere with souring. Neutralizing cream to obscure cream acidity has not been practiced by producers, according to reports. Following are the grade classifications used by the state graders, briefly described: 1. First grade. Cream that is clean, smooth, free from undesirable flavors, contains at least 30 percent of butterfat, and will make butter of 92-score or better. 2. Second grade. Cream that will make butter scoring from 90 to 91 Vi, contains some undesirable flavors and less than .6 percent acid. 3. Third grade. Cream that can be made into butter scoring from 88 to 384 BULLETIN 396 [January, 891/2 ; it may be slightly foamy or curdy, have distinct off-flavors, be known to be produced under insanitary conditions, or contain more than .6 percent acid. Cream which falls below the standards set for third grade is re- jected. This cream is very strong, tainted, rancid, moldy, dirty, or very curdy, or has been produced under very insanitary conditions or is otherwise unwholesome. Data from grading projects beginning in May, 1927, in the San Joaquin and Imperial Valleys and in Siskiyou county indicate much improvement from grading. In the southern part of the San Joaquin Valley 45 percent of the patrons were delivering first-grade cream in May, 1927, and 60 percent in July of the same year (Table 27). The percentage of patrons delivering third-grade cream decreased from 30 to 4. From May to August in the Imperial Valley, the patrons delivering first-grade cream increased from 26 to 49 percent. In May, 7 percent delivered third-grade cream and in August this grade was entirely eliminated. In Siskiyou county first-grade deliveries increased from 44 percent in May to 71 percent in October. Sixteen percent delivered third- grade cream in May and in October only 5 percent. TABLE 27. RESULTS OBTAINED FROM CREAM GRADING IN CALIFORNIA Location and date of test Producers delivering First-grade cream Second-grade cream Third-grade cream Southern part of San Joaquin Valley 1 May, 1927 (test began) perct. 45 60 26 49 44 71 perct. 25 36 67 51 40 24 perct. 30 4 7 16 5 July, 1927 Imperial Valley 1 May, 1927 (test began) August, 1927 Siskiyou county* May, 1927 (test began) October, 1927 Location and date of test Dairies delivering First-grade cream Second-grade cream Third-grade cream South San Joaquin grading project 3 May, 1929 (test began) perct. 17 49 perct. 44 42 perct. 39 9 May, 1930 'Grading came under the regulation of the State Department of Agriculture on June 10, 1927, but it is not compulsory. 2 Data obtained from Annual Report of California Department of Agriculture, December, 1927, in section by Frank H. Campbell, entitled "The Grading of Milk and Cream for Manufacturing Purposes." 3 Data obtained by letter from M. E. McDonald, Bureau of Dairy Control, California State Department of Agriculture. 1934] QUALITY OF MARKET CREAM IN ILLINOIS 385 Improvement was even greater in another project in the San Joaquin Valley begun two years later, in 1929. In May only 17 per- cent of the dairies delivered first-grade cream and 39 percent third- grade. One year later 49 percent delivered first-grade cream and only 9 percent third-grade. Cream Grading in Indiana. Since April, 1927, voluntary grading, largely on the basis of age, has been practiced rather extensively in southern Indiana. The plan is known as the 4-day plan. Administra- tion and inspection is supervised by the Purdue University Dairy Department, altho dealers, who grade, finance most of the work. Even tho the administration and inspection is devoid of police power, it is very effective. Costs are relatively small in proportion to improvement in cream, according to reports. Violations of the plan are reported to the fieldman or inspector, who is supervised by the Purdue University Dairy Department. Station records must be kept available for a spe- cified period of time for inspection. A grading system with the following four grades is used in this plan: 1. Premium cream. Cream sold at intervals of not more than 4 days and free from undesirable flavors at time of delivery. 2. Regular cream. Cream older than 4 days or possessing undesirable flavors (excepting onion and garlic) yet not sufficiently undesirable to be re- jected. 3. Onion cream. Cream that contains onion or garlic flavors. 4. Rejected cream. Cream that is unwholesome, such as rancid, moldy, dirty, or oily cream. The price differential between premium and regular cream is 3 cents a pound of butter fat. Onion cream not over 4 days old is 5 cents a pound of butterfat under premium, and if over 4 days old, 5 cents under regular, provided, of course, it meets all other respective requirements of premium and regular cream. Blue tags are placed on cans containing premium cream and red ones on cans of regular cream. This practice keeps the grades sepa- rate and enables the creamery to check the extent to which flavor has been used as a supplementary standard of grading. When a station charges the creamery with more premium cream than that received at the creamery, it usually indicates that the operator is using fre- quency of delivery as the only grade standard. Unless flavor is used as a standard with age, care of cream at the farm ceases to be a factor in the price of cream. A tag is attached to cream patrons' cans showing date of delivery, so that any buyer can tell the age of the cream at next delivery. Un- less cream has a tag showing date of delivery, no premium is paid. Premium cream has been gradually increasing since the adoption of the 4-day plan (Table 28). Weighted average percentages for the years ended April 30, from 1928 to 1933 inclusive, were respectively 386 BULLETIN 396 [January, TABLE 28. PERCENTAGE OF CREAM PURCHASED AS PREMIUM CREAM IN INDIANA FOUR-DAY GRADING TERRITORY,! 1927-1933 Month 1927-28 1928-29 1929-30 1930-31 1931-32 1932-33 perct. 53.6 perct. 54.7 perct. 57.0 perct. 62.1 perct. 67.0 perct. 75.6 June 6C.3 59.7 59.8 65.2 70.1 81.8 July 58.1 58.4 61.2 64.4 70.7 79.5 August 59.3 59.3 63.3 65.2 70.9 81.0 September 55.2 58.6 59.8 65.0 70.6 81.5 46 8 53 4 57.8 64.7 70.0 79 3 45.4 49.7 56.6 61.5 65.9 79.9 49 3 49 9 59 1 59 6 66.5 78 4 48 6 51.0 55.6 60.7 68.3 74.3 February 49.9 52.3 '57.9 63.6 70.6 75.3 51 5 53.3 60.4 64. 1 72.2 75.9 April 50.0 52.0 57.8 64.3 69.7 76.3 Weighted average 53.3 54.9 59.1 63.5 69.4 78.7 J Data obtained from monthly cream grading reports of Purdue University, Agricultural Experi- ment Station. 53.3, 54.9, 59.1, 63.5, 69.4, and 78.7. It is significant that the increase was greatest the last year. The application of the 4-day plan in Kentucky and Tennessee is practically the same as in Indiana. In Tennessee the State Department of Agriculture supervises the plan, and a 5-cent differential is paid between premium and regular cream. ESSENTIALS OF A CREAM GRADING PROGRAM Despite many attempts to establish the practice, cream is not ex- tensively purchased by grade in Illinois. Producers' lack of support and intense competition for volume among buyers have been largely responsible. Many producers, when penalized for poor quality, seek a buyer who does not inflict the penalty. On this account, loss in volume by dealers who grade may be large enough to reduce profits ma- terially, particularly during the summer season, when there is a large amount of undergrade cream. Opposition to grading by certain independent buyers is especially difficult to overcome since many of them handle cream largely to en- hance sales of other products. If necessary, some can pay premium prices for all cream and still make profits. Largely on account of their desire for volume and their minor interest in the dairy industry, they usually are reluctant to cooperate in an improvement program. Altho most buyers, especially the creameries, realize that purchas- ing cream by grade would greatly advance the dairy industry, possible loss in volume on account of violation of the agreement by some makes them reluctant to cooperate. Cooperation among trie leading buyers, however, would probably enable them to control the market, so that 1934] QUALITY OF MARKET CREAM IN ILLINOIS 387 interference with a grading program would be largely eliminated, as the experience of certain states indicates. Should the leading buyers within a state desire to purchase cream by grade and be unable to interest a large enough number of other buyers in the support of an effective program, their only alternative would be to obtain, if possible, compulsory grading thru legislative en- actment. However, if compulsory grading is resorted to before volun- tary grading has been shown to be impractical, dissatisfaction is likely to develop. Compulsory grading implies universal grading, while voluntary grading is generally confined to localities. Under compulsory grading most buyers grade willingly because of their confidence that the allo- cation of cream will not be disturbed. Measures designed to impose the provisions of the act are generally applied only to a few dissenting buyers. It is essential, however, that compulsory grading be ably and impartially administered, otherwise confidence is lost and complete enforcement is almost an impossibility. The following principles, based largely upon a survey of many successful and unsuccessful attempts to purchase by grade, should, if followed, lessen the difficulty of starting a program and help to make it serviceable. Program Should Be Economically Sound. A grading program must be based on fundamental economic principles to be serviceable and permanent. Its costs must not exceed the increase in the value of the cream that would result from the greater attention to cream quality. If the program is a voluntary one, the creameries, whenever practical, should put pressure upon buyers in the locality who do not grade, by regulating payment of competitive prices. Whether the pro- gram is voluntary or compulsory, it should provide for modifying the standards of quality and the amount of differentials between grades to correspond with changes in economic conditions. In fact, sufficient discretion should be delegated to the administrative agent or body to make all such changes when needed. Administrative Body Should Be Impartial. It is difficult not only to enforce payment by grade according to the provisions of a grading act or of a voluntary agreement, but also to convince buyers that en- forcement is being consistently carried out. Hence the administra- tive body not only should be impartial but should be generally re- garded as such. Federal-state and state agencies most frequently ad- minister grading programs. A commission of buyers, producers, and a disinterested agent or agency also could do the administrative work. Where there is a state act the state agricultural department usually administers the compulsory grading indirectly thru the dairy bureau. The Indiana 4-day plan is supervised by the Dairy Department of Purdue University. 388 BULLETIN 396 [January, Inspectors Should Be Capable and Independent. Those who super- vise and inspect the work of the graders in the field for the administra- tive body should have sufficient training and experience in dairying to render efficient service and gain the confidence of the industry. They should be sufficiently independent of political forces to enforce the provisions of the grading program without fear of losing their jobs. If in the employ of the state, they should be protected by civil service. In the state of Washington inspectors examine the applicants for licenses as well as supervise grading thruout the state. Cream Graders Should Be Licensed. An equitable distribution of the proceeds for cream depends partly upon the ability and integrity of graders. Experience teaches that the state can best control such positions of trust. By licensing cream graders, uniform standards of training, experience, and integrity can be used in selection. It would be practical to issue a combined license for both graders and testers. Standard Grade Classifications Should Be Established. Grade standards should be simple and uniform. Complicated standards are impractical for use in the field. Nonuniformity increases the diffi- culty of administration and inspection in grading. Furthermore arbi- trary classifications can be made so lenient that most cream can be purchased at the same price. A grading program that does not pre- scribe uniform standards will fail to produce maximum improvement and will eventually disturb the allocation of cream. An equitable dis- tribution of returns to producers depends largely upon uniform grades. Nonuniformity also restricts commerce in cream largely to localities, for distant buyers are generally reluctant to buy cream that is not standardized according to grade. Additional advantages would result if several neighboring states would use the same grade classifications. Provisions for Protecting Cream in Transit Are Essential. Station cream must not be unduly exposed after delivery. To permit it to be is unfair to careful producers. The individual manufacturer or cream buyer too often regards the waste that such a practice entails as of no concern to anyone but himself, overlooking the fact that any in- efficiency in marketing affects producer prices. Competition often is sufficiently keen to keep wasteful practices from becoming general. If, however, natural restraints prove inadequate, legal restrictions should be applied. Many states have established regulations for diminishing waste and inefficiency in the marketing of dairy products. Cooperation Between Administrative Body and State Agricultural College. The success of a grading program is greatly enhanced by cooperation of the administrative body with the state college of agri- culture. By close cooperation the college can more readily meet the demand for men trained for administration, inspection, and grading. Such cooperation establishes confidence and increases support for 1934~\ QUALITY OF MARKET CREAM IN ILLINOIS 389 grading. Educational work among producers and buyers, by which the economic advantages of payment by grade and quality are made clear, is practically indispensable to the greatest success. Such work is often carried on by the extension service of the state college of agriculture. The ascertaining of the basic facts underlying a success- ful grading program is a field of research in which the agricultural experiment stations can render valuable service. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Progress in cream improvement has been slow in Illinois and in certain other states in which the station system of marketing is used extensively. It is estimated, on the basis of the present survey, that during the year ended July 1, 1931, something less than half the cream produced in Illinois was first grade, about two-fifths was second grade, and about one-eighth was good enough to grade special. These three grade classifications cor- respond approximately to a good grade of sour cream, poor cream, and sweet cream. The present study was undertaken in order to obtain facts essential to a constructive program of cream improvement for Illinois. It includes a survey of the production methods and facilities of about 2,000 Illinois farmers, of the practices of about a thousand representative cream-buying stations handling more than 50 percent of the total volume of cream marketed in the state, and of the experiences of other states and some of the provinces of Canada with improvement plans. The survey indicates that improvement is more urgent in the case of station cream than in the case of cream delivered direct to the creamery by the producer, because as a rule station cream is subjected to more handling and to greater delays than is directly marketed cream. Altho grading is more difficult to apply to the station method of buying than to other methods, the study indicates that many of these difficulties can be eliminated by practical methods of grading and by strict enforcement of a sound grading plan. Variations in Quality With Season of Year. The quality of market cream in Illinois varies greatly with the season of year. In midsummer of 1930, 2.6 percent of the cream surveyed graded special, 39.3 percent first grade, and 58.1 percent second grade. During the winter of 1931 (January to March) 24.5 percent graded special, 51.5 percent first grade, and 24.0 percent second grade. (Table 5.) Quality in Different Sections of Illinois. Quality proved best in the northern third of the state and poorest in the southern third. In summer the percentages of special and second-grade cream were .4* and 50.8 per- cent respectively in the northern third of the state; 3.3 and 55.1 percent in the central section; and .8 and 76.4 in the southern section. In winter they were 38.6 and 10.1 in northern Illinois; 24.4 and 24.0 in central Illi- nois, and 15.7 and 33.3 in southern Illinois. (Table 6.) These differences J This small amount of special grade is attributed to the smallness of the sample. 390 BULLETIN 3% [January, were due largely to differences in temperature without compensating differ- ences in cooling facilities and care. Price Differential Between Grades. In so far as cream is purchased by grade in the United States differentials are usually based on spreads between wholesale butter prices. For the five years 1926-1930 on the Chi- cago market weighted price spreads, in cents per pound, between consecu- tive grades of creamery butter from 93- to 86-score were .748, .894, .748, 1.149, 1.175, .943, and 1.010. The corresponding differentials for butterfat on the basis of 25-percent overrun were respectively; .935, 1.118, .935, 1.436, 1.469, 1.179, and 1.263. Differentials measured in cents were slightly smaller for 1931, but measured in purchasing power they were substantially larger. The abnormally low consumer purchasing power of 1932 was ac- companied by a significant reduction in the differentials of that year. (Table 3.) Storage of Cream at the Farm. Only one-fourth of the producers sur- veyed reported using any special storage medium for cooling cream. Less than 2 percent (1.6) of the cream was placed in the most efficient cooling medium running water. Only one producer in six cooled the cream pre- vious to pouring it with cream already in the storage can. (Table 8.) Frequency of Delivery. Frequency of delivery is an important factor affecting cream quality, especially in summer if no special precautions are taken to keep the cream cool. In this survey 51.4 percent of the summer cream was delivered weekly, 40.7 percent twice a week, and 7.1 percent three times a week. Of the rest (.8 percent) half was delivered daily and half every two weeks. Deliveries were most frequent in the northern sec- tion and least frequent in the southern. (Table 9.) Size of Delivery. The average size of cream delivery was somewhat less in summer than in winter 10.1 pounds of butterfat in the summer and 11.2 pounds the following winter. Of the summer patrons 57 percent de- livered less than 10 pounds of butterfat per delivery. Of the winter patrons, 50 percent delivered less than 10 pounds per delivery. Both in summer and in winter the smaller deliveries averaged highest in acid. (Tables 10 and 11.) Butterfat Content. There was no material difference in butterfat con- tent between summer cream and winter cream. Of the summer cream 5.3 percent tested less than 30 percent butterfat, 40.3 percent tested 30 to 39.9 percent, 27.2 percent tested 45 percent or more. For the winter cream the percentages were 8.0, 39.7 and 22.9 respectively. (Table 12.) Size of Herd and Frequency of Delivery. Producers with the larger herds delivered cream most frequently. Producers delivering once a week averaged 4.6 cows a herd; those delivering twice a week averaged 6 cows; those delivering three times a week, 8.4 cows. The average size of herd for all producers was 5.4 cows. Forty-eight percent of these producers had herds of 4 cows or fewer. (Table 15.) Distances to Market, Roads, and Frequency of Delivery. Producers nearest to market and on the better roads made the most frequent deliv- eries. The average distance to market for all deliveries was 6.2 miles. \Yhere deliveries were made three times a week the distance to market 1934~\ QUALITY OF MARKET CREAM IN ILLINOIS 391 averaged 4.1 miles and three-fifths of the total distance traveled in making these deliveries was over improved roads. Producers delivering twice weekly averaged 5.7 miles to market, and almost half of the total distance traveled was over improved roads. Producers delivering weekly averaged 6.8 miles to market, and only 40 percent of the distance was over improved roads. (Table 13.) Acidity as Related to Frequency of Delivery. High correlation exists between frequency of delivery and cream acidity. Of the cream delivered three times a week after having been held in an ice box at the farm, 32 percent had less than .3 percent acidity, while of that delivered once a week only 3.3 percent had this low an acid content. Of the cream stored in air temperature and delivered three times a week 23 percent tested .6 percent acid; while of that delivered only once a week 58.5 percent had this acidity. (Table 14.) Major Business of Cream Stations and Volumes of Cream Handled. According to reports for the month of September, 1930, about two-thirds of 941 stations surveyed handled cream as a minor business and purchased 61 percent of the total output. Most of these establishments were produce, general, grocery, or feed stores. Such establishments do not as a rule give as much care to the cream they handle as do those in which cream buying is the exclusive or the major business. Of the remainder of the stations approximately half handled cream as the major business and the other half handled it exclusively. The monthly average for the stations handling cream as a minor business was 1,307 pounds in contrast to 2,067 pounds for those that handled cream as a major business. The stations that dealt exclusively in cream buying averaged 1,608 pounds of cream monthly. The average for all stations was 1,475 pounds of cream monthly. (Tables 16, 17, 18.) Manner of Shipment. Of the cream shipped during September, 1930, by 937 stations, 64.4 percent was shipped by truck, 29.5 percent by rail, and 6.1 percent by truck and rail. Seven hundred eighty- three stations reported that 17.4 percent of the cream handled by them was in transit not more than an hour, 52.5 percent not more than 3 hours, 76.8 percent not more than 6 hours, and 95.4 percent not over 12 hours. (Tables 21 and 22.) Profit From Improvement. Altho the exact difference between the cost of producing good cream and the cost of producing undergrade cream is not available, it is generally conceded that the extra cost is substantially less than the increase in the value of the cream. On the basis of 1931 butter prices this increase in cream value was approximately 3.33 cents a pound of butterfat. Improvement Policies. Of the various measures employed in attempts to improve cream quality, that of paying producers according to grade has proved the most effective. Results in the state of Washington from purchasing cream on a grade basis are typical of progress made by this means. For the first eight months in which the plan was in operation (May to December, 1927) 20 percent of the cream graded special, 50 per- cent first-grade, 25 percent second-grade, and 5 percent unlawful. Three years later (1930) the volume of special cream had doubled (43 percent), 392 BULLETIN 3% [January, and the volumes of the other grades were 40, 16, and 1 percent respectively. (Table 26.) Need for Improvement Plan in Illinois. The low butterfat prices of 1931 and 1932 have increased the indifference of cream producers to quality production. Buyers in general in Illinois state that in 1932 and 1933 the quality of cream was poorer than it had been for ten years. The resultant losses to the industry in current income have been great, and the indication is that future losses will be even greater unless remedial measures are taken. Unfortunately experience has shown that flat price increases have very little influence in improving quality once indifference to quality had de- veloped, so that the possibility of the quality of cream improving as cream prices rise from their present low level is not at all promising. What the industry needs is a plan that will largely eliminate second-grade cream, and this can be done only by placing a premium on high-quality cream. The butter industry in Illinois would make much progress if a cream- improvement program that provided for the payment of cream by grade were generally adopted by all dairy interests. Such a program should be supplemented by the minimum of legal regulation necessary to effect the desired improvement. APPENDIX TABLE 29. AVERAGE MONTHLY WHOLESALE PRICES OF DIFFERENT GRADES OF BUTTER, NEW YORK, 1926-1932 1 (Cents per pound) 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 93-score creamery January 45.9 50.1 49.7 48.8 37.4 29.5 24.6 45.9 52.5 47.6 50.7 36.4 29.4 23.3 March 43.8 51.2 50.4 49.1 38.0 29.9 23.5 April 40.3 51.4 46.5 45.9 39.4 27.1 21.0 May 41.8 44.4 45.9 44.3 35.6 24.7 19.8 42.2 43.5 45.1 44.3 33.7 24.3 18.0 July 41.5 42.7 45.9 43.3 36.0 26.0 19.2 August 42.8 42.9 47.9 44.3 39.9 29.1 21.3 September 45.6 47.5 49.7 47.1 40.7 33.5 21.8 October 47.9 49.4 48.8 46.4 41.0 34.7 21.7 November 51.6 50.8 51.6 43.5 37.1 31.9 24.4 December 55.7 52.9 51.4 42.1 33.2 31.5 25.1 Extras (92-score creamery) January 44.9 49.2 48.8 47.9 36.6 28.5 23.6 February 44.9 51.5 46.6 49.9 35.7 28.4 22.5 March 42.8 50.2 49.4 48.5 37.3 28.9 22.6 April 39.4 50.4 45.5 45.4 38.5 26.1 20.1 May 40.8 43.5 44.9 43.5 34.9 23.7 18.8 June 41.2 42.5 44.2 43.6 32.9 23.3 17.0 July 40.5 41.7 44.9 42.4 35.2 25.0 18.2 41 8 41.9 46.9 43.5 38.9 28.1 20.3 September 44.6 46.5 48.8 46.2 39.8 32.5 20.8 October 46.9 48.4 47.8 45.6 40.0 33.8 20.7 November 50.6 49.8 50.6 42.7 36.1 30.9 23.4 December 54.7 51.9 50.5 41.1 32.2 30.5 24.1 'Data from the butter market reviews issued monthly by the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1934] QUALITY OF MARKET CREAM IN ILLINOIS 393 ^__ o ___ 1! If "C** Ok ^SSS2^3SSS: N at . 3 3 33 o <5 ^ON ooo oo -*^< i> in S, S b < : . e .ooo sS 0-ONOO C3 JS 3 1 c-2 3 a "3 o ssas^gasssas a 00 ^ i e N 'u Z 0. P U "a DO s^s^^jq-assss 11 E 1 .2 J2 o U s ^^..-.xooojoojO-lsiq 11 ob -O O> S S5S5 - aS8a5a -| "3 3 c . onsumptio arm buttei Month u ti ^ 'Apparent c utput less ! noved. i|||iiilllll v * 9 01 394 BULLETIN 3% [January, TABLE 31. AVERAGE MONTHLY WHOLESALE PRICES OF DIFFERENT GRADES OF BUTTER, CHICAGO, 1926- 1932 1 (Cents per pound) 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 93-score creamery January 47.6 35.8 28.1 23 8 49 9 36 1 27 9 22 4 March 48.1 38.0 29 4 22 8 44 6 38 25 1 19 7 42.8 34.5 23 1 17 8 43 9 43 1 32 8 23 17 July 44.8 42.1 35.3 24 6 18 5 August 46.7 43.2 38.7 27.9 20 2 48.0 45.7 38 9 31 20 8 October 47.5 44.7 38.5 32.9 20 5 49.8 42. 1 34 5 30 5 22 9 December 50.1 40.1 31.3 30 23 4 Extras (92-score creamery) 43.0 48.1 46.9 46.6 35.1 27.4 23.0 43.1 50.4 45.6 49.2 35 3 27 2 21 6 41.5 49.4 48.1 47.6 37.2 28.7 22 April 38.3 48.1 43.9 44.1 37.2 24.4 19.0 39.4 41.5 43.4 42.1 33.5 22.4 17 1 June 39.1 40.4 43.0 42.4 32.1 22.3 16.3 July 38.5 40.0 43.8 41.3 34 4 23 9 17 7 August 40.1 41.5 45.8 42.5 38.0 27.2 19.4 43.1 45.0 47.1 44 9 38 1 30 3 20 October 45.9 46.2 46.5 44.0 37.6 32.2 19.8 48 9 48 2 48 9 41 3 33 8 29 7 22 1 December 52.5 50.5 49. 1 39.3 30 5 29.2 22.7 91 -score creamery 42.4 47.3 45.9 45.9 34.4 26.6 22.4 February 42.4 49.6 44.9 48.4 34.7 26.5 21.3 41.1 48.9 47.4 47.1 36 7 28 1 21.6 April 37.8 47.6 43.5 43.7 36.8 24.1 18.7 May 38.9 40.7 42.9 41.5 32.8 21.8 16.8 38.4 39.6 42.2 41.8 30.8 21.6 15.9 July 37 9 39 43 1 40 6 33 3 23 1 17.1 39.3 40.1 45.0 41.7 37 26.3 18.8 42 2 43 5 46 4 43 9 37 3 29 1 19 4 44 8 44 6 45 7 42 9 36 7 31 19.2 November 47.6 45.9 47.5 40.5 32.8 28.8 21.6 50 6 48 5 48 3 38 2 29 6 27 8 22.3 90-score creamery 41.9 46 7 45 45 5 33 8 26 22.1 41.9 49.0 44.4 47 8 34.1 26.0 21.0 40 7 48 4 46 9 46 7 36 2 27 7 21.3 37.4 47.0 43 1 43 3 36 2 23.8 18.5 May 38.3 40.1 42.5 41.0 32.1 21.4 16.4 37.6 39 1 41 4 40.9 30 21.1 15.5 July 37.4 38.2 42 6 40.0 32.5 22.6 16.5 38 8 39 2 44 5 40 9 36 5 25 5 18.3 September 41.2 42 6 45 6 42 9 36 7 28.0 18.7 October 43.1 43.7 45.0 41.8 35.6 29.8 18.7 45 4 45 46 6 39 5 31.6 28.1 20.8 December 48.8 47.1 47.7 37.2 28.9 26.8 21.9 89-score creamery January 41.3 45.7 43.1 44.9 33.1 25.5 21.7 41 3 48 1 43 3 46 9 33 5 25 4 20.6 March 40.2 48.0 46.1 46 2 35.2 26.9 21.0 36 9 46 1 42 8 42 9 35 4 23 4 18.2 37 5 38 6 42 40.5 31.3 20.9 16.0 June 36.7 37.7 40.8 40.3 29.1 20.5 15.1 July 36.3 37 1 42 1 39 4 31.5 21.9 15.8 August 37.4 37.7 43.7 40.4 35.6 24.4 17.6 September .... 39 6 39 3 44 5 41 6 35 9 26.5 17.7 October 41.1 41.2 44.2 40.3 33.4 28.3 17.9 November 43 3 42 4 45 6 38 2 30 3 27.1 20.1 December 45.3 43.7 46 7 36.1 27.9 25.2 21.6 1 Data from monthly reports of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. QUALITY OF MARKET CREAM IN ILLINOIS TABLE 31. Continued 395 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 88-score creamery 40.8 44.8 41.3 44.4 31.9 25 21 2 40.5 47.2 42.1 46 32 6 24 8 20 1 March 39.5 47.5 45.0 45.8 33 26 3 20 5 April 36.3 45.4 42.5 42.4 34.1 23 17 7 May 36.6 36.9 41.5 39.9 29 9 20 3 15 5 35.7 36 4 40 1 39 5 28 3 19 9 14 6 July 35.3 36.6 41.4 38.6 30 6 21 14 9 36 2 36 9 43 39 1 34 5 23 2 17 37.3 38.2 43.5 40 34 4 25 5 16 9 October 38.7 39.6 43.2 38.8 31 7 26 7 17 1 40.5 40.3 44.1 37 29 26 1 19 2 December 42.9 41.5 45.4 34.3 26 9 24 3 21 87-score creamery 40.3 43.7 40.3 43.8 30 6 24.3 20 8 39 6 46 2 41 1 45 1 31 7 24 1 19 6 38.6 46.7 44.1 45 4 31.6 25 2 20 April 35.5 44.2 42.1 41.9 32.9 22.5 17.4 35.6 35.9 40.9 39 4 29 19 4 14 8 June 34.7 35.5 39.5 38.9 27.4 18.9 13.7 July. 34 2 35 6 40 7 38 1 29 5 20 1 13 9 34.9 35.9 42.2 38.6 33.7 22.3 16 36 37 2 42 7 39 1 33 7 24 5 15 9 37 6 38.5 42.3 38 1 30 4 25 7 16 1 November 39.3 38.7 43.2 36.0 27.9 25.1 18.2 41 3 39 8 44 5 33 26 23 6 20 3 86-score creamery 39 6 41 7 38 5 43 30 23 8 20.2 38.3 45.2 39.0 44.3 31.2 23.6 19.1 March 37.3 46.2 42.7 45.0 30.7 24.7 19.5 April 34 5 43 3- 41.9 41.0 31.5 21.8 16.9 34.5 34.9 39.8 38.9 28.2 18.9 14.3 33 7 34 7 38 7 38 4 26 7 18.4 13.2 July 33 2 34 5 39 3 37.5 29.0 19.3 13.4 August 33.5 35.1 41.5 37.6 32.7 21.6 15.5 September 33.9 36.1 42.1 38.2 32.9 24.0 15.3 October 35.4 37.4 41.8 37.2 29.5 25.0 15.6 November 37.2 37.2 42.5 35.5 27.4 24.5 17.6 38 9 38 4 43 6 32.3 25.4 22.9 19.6 Standards (90-score centralized carlots) 42.9 47.4 45.6 46.3 35.0 27.2 22.8 43 49 9 45 2 48.8 35.3 26.9 21.6 41.3 49.2 48.1 47.3 37.2 28.6 22.0 April 38.4 47.8 43.9 44.1 37.3 24.5 19.0 39 6 40 8 43 3 42.0 33.7 22.5 17.1 June 39.4 40.0 42.6 42.3 32.1 22.5 16.3 July 38.8 39.4 43.6 41.2 34.3 24.0 17.6 40 39.0 45.0 42.1 38.0 26.9 19.6 September 41.4 42.1 46.3 43.8 37.8 29.0 19.8 October 42 5 43 5 45 7 42.8 35.4 31.2 19.3 November 44.1 45.0 47.5 39.5 31.6 28.2 21.4 December 48.6 47.2 48.2 38.2 29.5 26.4 22.3 89-score centralized carlots January 41.8 46.0 43.1 45.5 33.6 26.0 21.9 41.8 48.4 43.4 47.7 34.3 25.9 20.9 March 40.4 48.5 46.8 46.5 36.1 27.7 21.4 April 37.6 46.6 43.2 43.4 36.4 23.6 18.4 May 38.2 39.1 42.4 40.9 32.2 21.3 16.3 June 37.8 38.4 41.4 41.1 30.6 21.2 15.3 July 37.2 37.8 42.5 39.9 33.0 22.7 16.5 August 38.4 37.5 43.9 40.8 36.8 25.1 18.2 39 7 39.7 44.8 42.4 36.1 26.7 17.8 October 40.5 41.3 44.2 40.7 33.3 28.1 18.0 November 42.5 41.6 46.3 38.1 29.9 26.9 20.4 45.8 44.0 46.9 36.8 27.6 24.7 21.6 396 BULLETIN 396 TABLE 31. Concluded 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 88-score centralized carlots 40 6 44 9 41 3 44 5 31 6 25 21 4 February 40.1 47.4 42.3 46.4 32.6 24 7 20 1 39 47 7 44 9 45 9 32 9 26 3 20 8 April 36.2 45.2 42.5 42.4 34 22 8 17 8 May 36.4 37.1 41.4 39.8 30.0 20.3 15 5 35.8 36.8 40.2 38.7 28 4 20 14 5 July 35.6 36.9 41.5 38.7 31.3 21 .2 15.2 36.0 36.6 42.9 39.4 34 8 23 5 17 September 36.6 38.1 43.5 40.2 34.2 25.4 16 9 October. . . 38.3 39.8 43.1 38.7 31 7 26 8 17 November 39.9 39.7 44.6 36.4 28.6 26 2 19 2 42 8 41.4 45.7 34 4 26 6 24 1 21 TABLE 32. SEASONAL VARIATION 1 IN PRICES OF FIVE GRADES OF BUTTER ON THE CHICAGO WHOLESALE MARKET, 2 1926-1930 Month - Extra (92-score creamery) Standard (90-score centralized) 88-score centralized 87-score creamery 3 86-score creamery January perct. 101.0 perct. 102.1 perct. 103.1 perct. 103.4 perct. 103.2 103.2 104.8 106.3 106.3 106 3 March 103.6 105.5 107.6 108.0 108.7 April 98.3 100.3 102.6 103.1 103.7 May 93.2 94.8 94.9 95.1 95 2 June 92.1 93.7 92.8 92.9 93.4 July 92.9 94.4 95.1 94.3 94.3 August 97.8 97.9 98.4 98.4 98.4 103.0 101.8 100.1 100.0 100 2 October 104.3 101.4 100.0 99.9 99.4 November 104.9 100.6 99.0 99.3 98.8 December 105.7 102.7 100.1 99.3 98.4 1 Figures represent percentage of average month for the five-year period. 2 Prices were obtained from the daily reports issued by the Bureau of Agricultural Economics, U. S. Department of Agri- culture. 'Below 87-score, prices of creamery and centralized butter are approximately the same. TABLE 33. PRODUCTION AND SEASONAL VARIATION IN PRODUCTION OF CREAMERY BUTTER, UNITED STATES, 1926-1930 1 Month Production in millions of pounds Index of seasonal variation 2 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 Ibs. 98 94 112 121 156 178 160 133 117 103 88 91 Ibs. 98 96 111 126 169 189 170 147 114 102 86 88 Ibs. 101 99 112 119 156 181 168 145 119 106 88 92 Ibs. 104 100 114 134 174 193 185 152 124 118 97 102 Ibs. 106 100 114 126 176 182 163 134 119 117 98 106 perct. 79.4 76.7 88.8 98.9 131.4 146.2 134.2 112.9 94.3 87.2 73.2 76.8 February April June July August September October November December J Figures from The Agricultural Situation, Bureau of Agricultural Economics, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 2 Figures represent percentage of average month for the five-year period. UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS-URBANA